*^ J ""p^. rl M Y Ui RIDPATH'S History of the World BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ETHNIC ORIGIN, PRIMITIVE ESTATE, EARLY MIGRATIONS, SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND PRESENT PROMISE OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF MEN TOGETHER WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME, PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING COMPRISING THE evolution OF MANKIND AND THE STORY OF ALL RACES COMPLETE IN FOUR VOLUMES By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. Author of a "Cyclopedia of Universal History." Etc. VOLUME I PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH COLORED PLATES, RACE MAPS AND CHARTS, TYPE PICTURES, SKETCHES AND DIAGRAMS CINCINNATI The Jones Brothers Publishing Company NEW YORK Merrill & Baker Copjrigbt 189i Copsrigfjt 1895 CopjiisM 1897 Copjrialit 1899 E!)t 3ones BrotbtrH putlisfjing Companj. ^11 iLaria ok Cos —European Type.- Drawn by E. Ron- jat, from a photograph 117 Ethnic Differentiation. — The "Black Flags " of Southern China— Asiatic Types. — Drawn by Barbotin, from n photo- graph iiS Ethnic Differentiation. — Chief Ya- BANDA and Family, of the Congo — African Types. — Drawn by Madame Paule Crampel, after a sketch of Nebout . 119 Valley of the Euphrates — One of the Primitive Seats of Mankind. —Drawn by Taylor, from a photograph by Madame Dieubifoy 121 Progress of Pkimj.val M \n by Water. . 123 rAi;i! The Age of Boats.— Earliest Naviga- tors, of Neolithic Epoch 124 Differentiation of Languages Illus- trated IN Ancient Styles of Writ- ings 125 Thoth and Safekh (Goddess of History) Writing the Deeds of Ramses H. — Drawn by B. Strassberger 129 Egyptian Priest Teaching a Neophyte IN the Temple. — Drawn by Weiden- bach 133 View of Mount Othrys from Trikhali. — Drawn by Dosso, after Stackelberg . . 135 Prometheus Vinctus. — After the painting by F. Simm 137 Phenomena of Day and Night and Season (Foundation of All Calen- dars) 139 Time Instrument — Ancient Sundial . . 142 Time Instrument— Hourglass 142 Modern Time Instrument— Sundial . . 142 Stone Masonry on the Summits of the Andes 145 Extreme of Ethnic Divergence— High- est Type.- (i) Eros of Praxiteles. — Drawn by C. Colb 148 Extreme of Ethnic Divergence— Lowest Type —(2) Australian of the Towns- VILLE Coast. — After a Danish drawing . 149 To People THE Earth,— Drawn by Riou. . 151 Highlands ok Armenia.— Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Carla Serena. 152 TheBiblical Paradise. — Drawn by Gustave Dore 153 The Ceylonese Eden 155 An Ethiopian Eden — One of the Sup- posed Places of the Beginning. — Drawn byG. VuiUier 157 Westward Progress OF THE Semites . , 159 Section of European River Cavern, Suitable for Deposition of Human Remains 160 West Asian Landscape.— Source of the Aryan Migrations into Europe. — Drawn by Paul Langlois after a photo- graph by Madame Carla Serena .... 161 Off the Coast of Eastern Asia— Origin of Polynesian Dispersion.— Drawn by Taylor, after a sketch of Berttolty. . . . 164 Evidence of Prehistoric Races in Amer- ica— (i) Building of the Pueblos, Restored 165 Evidence of Prehistoric Races in Amer- ica— (2) Pyramidal Mound in Mexico. 166 Evidence of Prehistoric Races — (3) Ruins ok Temple, in Titicaca in America '07 ILLUSTRATION'S IX VOLUME I. XXIX PAGE Landscape of Ethnic Watershed. — Mountains of Jobla.— Drawn l)y G. Viiillier i68 Line of the Aryan Watershed.— Region North of the Caspian. —Drawn by Moynet 169 Line of Division between Ruddy and Brown Races. — Coast of Arabian Sea. — Drawn by G. Vuillier 171 Ideal Landscape of Lemuria. — Drawn by Riou 173 Landscape in Beluchistan.— Deparfure of the Brown Races 174 Hoffman's Sloths. — After a drawing from life 175 Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroos .... 176 American Monkey with PrehensileTail. 179 Group OF Lemurs 180 Family OF Gorillas 181 Tailpiece for the Time and Place of the Beginning 182 Headpiece for the Manner of the Be- ginning .183 Manner of Man's Appearance. — Drawn by Riou 184 The Traditional Eden 186 Age of Fishes, OR the " Fourth Day.". . 189 The Eden of Poetry.^ Milton's Vision OF THE First Pair and Raphael. — Drawn by Gustave Dore 192 One of the Primordial Conditions of THE Globe 193 Charles Robert Darwin. — From the medal by Alphonse Legros, Royal Academy, 1882. 198 Orange-Colored Monero^. — Showing the seemingly Auto.matic Processes of Germ Life 200 Manner of Germ Development dy Fis- sion (Successive Stages Marked a, b, c, d.) 207 Lower Limbs of Ungulate Animals — Showing the Progressive Develop- ment (Marked a, b, c, d, e) of Organs. 209 The Spectroscope 210 Solar Spectrum 210 Spectrum of Iodine Vapor 210 Variation of Animal Forms.— (i) Under Nature— Common Wolf 213 Variation of Animal Forms.— (2) Under Domestication— Italian Greyhound 214 Gorilla Taking Hold with Forefoot. . 215 Example of Rapid Multiplication. — Burrow of Rap,bits.— Drawn by Giaco- melli 218 Struggle of Life— The Strong Takes his Prey.— Drawn by Stanley Berkeley . 220 Stunted Vegetation of Kamchatka . . 222 page Man-life Limited by Battle with Ani- mals 223 Northern Li.mit of Man-life. — King William Land 224 British Isles and Surrounding Sea — Showing how a Rise of Six Hundred Feet would make Great Britain Continental 225 Deer Head with Antlers in the " Vel- vet." 227 Deer Head with Mature Antlers . . . 228 Diagram Showing the Manner of the Production of Species. — From Dar- win's Origin of Species 230 Progressive Development of Man.— (i) Evolution Illustrated with Six Skulls in Ascending Order .... 232 Progressive Development of Man. — (2) Evolution Illustrated with the Six Corresponding Living Forms . . 233 Jaw Bone of Cave Man, Found at Mou- lin BY Boucher de Perthes, 1863.— From the original in Paris museum . . . 235 Germinal Government Illustrated.— Headmen of Tribe in Consultation. — Drawn by Riou, from a photograph . . 239 Germinal Society. — Home of African Chief Be.mbe. — Drawn by Madame Paule Crampel 241 Evolution of Writing. — Hieroglyphics Found in Cavern of Rocky Dell . . 244 The First Historians. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 245 Progress from Instinct to Reason.^The First Potters. — Drawn by Emile Bayard. 247 Beginning of Barbaric Religion. — The T.4M-TAM. — Drawn by Riou, from a photo- graph 250 FcETi OF Different Animals — Showing THE Common Plan of Nature . . . 256 Vision of the Golden Age 260 Tailpiece for the Manner of the Be- ginning 264 Headpiece for Primeval Man 265 Man in the Age of the Cave Bear. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 266 Aspects of Barbaric Life.— Hut of Osti- AKS. — Drawn by Durand Brager .... 267 Aspects of Barbaric Life. — Search for the Skulls.— Drawn by Riou .... 268 Aspects of Barbaric Life. — Patagonians Fishing.— Draw-n by Riou 269 Variability Illustrated in Multiple Young of Same Mother. — Guinea Pigs 271 Migratory Barbarism. — Camp of the Kirgheez. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . 272 XXX ILLUSTRATIONS IlSf VOLUME T. PAGE Sedentary Barbarism.— House of Green- land Esquimau 273 Ideal Landscape of the Age of Reptiles. — Drawn by Riou 275 Diagram of the Tertiary and Post- Tertiary Periods, Showing the Geo- logical Place of the Cave Dwellers. 276 Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous Period. — Drawn by Riou 277 Ideal Landscape of the Pleistocene Period (Age of Man).— Drawn by Riou. 278 Implements and Ornaments Used by Primeval Man, in the Order of the Materials Employed 279 Manufacture of Flint Implements by Prehistoric Man. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 280 Pal.'eolithic Flint Implements, from HoxNE 281 Primeval Man— Chase in the Reindeer Period. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 2S2 Examples of Neolithic Workmanship. . 283 Primeval Man — Founders of the Age of Bronze. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 284 Manners OF Prehistoric Peoples.— Feast IN the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard 285 Examples OF Bronze Workmanship. . .287 Examples OF Iron Workmanship. . . .288 Man Cavern in Galeinreuth, Bavaria . 289 Grotto and Rock Shelter of Bruniquel — An Abodeof Primeval Man. — Drawn by Riou 292 The Engis Skull 293 The Neanderthal Skull 294 Head of Cave Bear 295 Sketch of Cave Bear, Drawn on a Stone Found IN the Cave of Masset . . .296 Mammoth, Restored 297 Feast During the Epoch of the Rein- deer. — Drawn by Emile Bayard .... 298 The Irish Elk (Megaceros Hibernicus). 299 Part of the Vertebra of a Cow . . . .301 Corresponding Part of Vertebra of the Bison 301 Hunt of the Wild Boar.— Drawn by Emile Bayard 302 Paleolithic Daggers 303 pali€olithic axes from the shell Mounds 304 Flint Arrowpoints from the Bone Cav- erns 305 Fine PaL;€olithic Arrowpoints . . . .305 Prehistoric Man of the Neolithic Age. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 306 Modern Lake Village, at Sowek. — Drawn by E. Mesples 310 pags Swiss Lake Village, Restored.— Drawn by Riou 311 Axes of PrehistiTric Man, Showing Stages of I.mprovement from Stone TO Bronze 313 StoneHatchet WITH Socket and Handle 315 Chipped Flint Arrowhead 315 Flint Hatchet Fitted with Stag's Horn Handle 315 Pickax of Stag's Horn 315 Extinct Manufactory OF Pottery, in the Glacier Garden, at Lucerne . . . 316 Swiss Lake Village of the Age of Bronze. — Drawn by Riou 318 Specimens of Fine Workmanship in Bronze 319 Kitchen MiddenersandtheirDwellings 321 WoRKMANSHiPOF THE Kitchen MiDDENERs 322 Danish Shell-Mound Axes 324 Finds from the Kitchen Middens . . . 325 Paleolithic River-drift Spearheads. . 327 Paleolithic River-drift Lanceheads and Ax of Archa'i'c Patterns . . . 329 Menhir, at Croisie, France 332 Danish Dolmen 332 Cromlech of Halskov, Denmark. . . . 333 Danish Tumulus 333 Prehistoric Graveyard of Quaternary Period, near Littai, in Carniola, Austria 334 Burial Urns (Enlarged from Preceding Cut) 335 View of Stonehenge 335 Ground Plan of Danish Cromlech. . . 336 Ground Plan of Danish Dolmen. . . . 336 Sepulchral Stone Circle 336 Position of Skeletons in a Tomb of the Stone Age 336 Funeral in the Paleolithic Age. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 337 Funeral in the Neolithic Age.— Drawn by Emile Bayard 338 Funeral Feast in the Age of Bronze. — Drawn by Emile Bayard 339 Funeral of a Chieftain in the Age of Iron. — From the Magazine of Art . . . 341 Tumulus with Stone Entrance, near Ubi, Denmark 342 Ruins of Carnac, Bretagne 343 Broken Sepulchral Urn, Showing Incin- erated Remains 344 Incineration of the Dead, in the Age OF THE Tumuli.— Drawn by Emile Bay- ard 345 Great Mound near Miamisburg, Ohio. . 347 Earthworks at Cedar Bank, Ohio . . . 348 Plan of Square Mound, near Marietta. 349 ILLUSTRATION'S IN VOLUME I. XXXI PAGE Earthworks at Hopeton, Ohio .... 349 Great Serpent Mound, IN AdamsCountv, Ohio 350 Fort Hill, Butler County, Ohio. . . .351 Vases from Mounds 352 Military Works on Paint Creek, Ohio . 353 Pottery of the Mound Builders. — From Magazine 0/ Art 354 Aztec Ruins at Palenque, in Chiapas, Mexico 356 Aztec Structure— Arch of Las Monjas. 358 Central American Antiquities — Double-headed Figure of the Casa DEL Gobernador 359 Sculpture of the Toltecs — From the Ruins of COPAN 360 Central American Structure — Cir- cular Edifice at Mayapan . . . .361 Quichuan Architecture — Remains of Fortress Walls, at Cuzco 362 Pueblo Structure.— Ruins in the Val- ley of the Gila 363 Old Peruvian Structure. — Ruins of Fortress. ON Titicaca Island . . . 364 Man and Woman of the Reindeer Epoch. — Drawn by Eniile Bayard 366 Beginningsof Metallurgy.— A Primitive Smithy. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 367 Persistency of Ethnic Features. — (i) Ancient Hebrew Shepherd with Sling.— Drawn by H. A. Harper. . . . 370 Persistency of Ethnic Features.— (2) Modern Arab Wearing the Aba. — Drawn by Paul Hardy 371 Persistency of Customs — Mourning Women of Old Egypt. — From the en- tablature found in the tomb of Ptah-Hotep, at Thebes 373 Barbarism Illustrated— Ancient Fish- ing Scene. — Drawn by Riou 375 Example of Race Deterioration — Rub- bish-Bearer OF Egypt. — Drawn by Gus- tave Richter 377 Example of Race Deterioration — Ro- man Beggars 378 Barbarian Life Illustrated.— Chase in the Age of Bronze. — Drawn by Riou . 380 Three Stages of Civilization Illus- trated — Sketch from Fort Laramie. 382 Native Australian from the Darling River (Headdress OF Feathers) . . 385 Types of Savagery — Bushman Woman and Children. . . 385 Barbarism Illustrated — The South African Manner. — Bushmen Making Poison for their Arrows. — Drawn by Y. Pranishnil r character. "\Ve speak not of the fine arts in particular, but of the industrial and commercial arts. To these even the barbarian begins to turn his atten- tion. All accomplishment in this direc- tion arises out of that semi-ideal faculty which enables the possessor to adopt means to ends. It is from this source that man derives his disposition to work in the metals, in wood, in stone, and in that large class of materials that are used in the production of fabrics. Ethnic his- tory considers mankind in such activities as are requisite to the industrial pursuits. It regards the human being as a maker — a maker of houses first, and of all things afterwards. It considers him as a builder of structures, a miner, a metal- lurgist, a planter, a weaver, a tanner of skins, a fashioner of weapons and imple- ments, an engraver of gems. At length ethnic history views man as he emerges into the domain of the higher arts. Here he becomes tnily ideal. Here he adorns as well as constructs. H^re by the use of color and form he gives out- line and substance to the things per- ceived in vision and dream. It should here be noted that the art products of mankind, whether industrial or ideal, may be viewed from two points of observation. The first considers them in themselves as things Artsmaybecon- of importance without re- te^lf^^'^^T spect to the instincts and dicative of man. genius that produced them. The other view considers them as illustrative of the desires and ambitions of the makers. In this sense they cast a strong light on the character and dispositions of the peoples and races by whom they have been produced. It is this consideration that gives them value in ethnic history. They show ichat kind of being it is whose ingenuity and industry are capable of effecting such results. It is for this reason that ethnic history, as well as the general history of nations, takes into account the arts and industries whereby life is so greatly bettered and amplified. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. XLV General history regards architecture, metallurgy, all manner of construction and fabrication, as facts in themselves useful and important, contributing to the strength of nations ; but a true study of the human race regards all art products as but an evidence and illustration of the character, the skill and purpose of those by whom they were designed. In like manner goz'criiiiunt and laws are human institutions that may be con- Governments sidered in themselves. As Sempu^tu. such they are objective man genius. products of the genius of man. But they are also ilhistrations of the character, sentiment, hope, and ambi- tions of the race. The existence of gov- ernment and laws among all the peoples of the world is of itself sufficient proof that such facts are native to the instincts, desires, and capabilities of mankind. It is because they are so that the ethnic his- torian, as well as his competitor, devotes his thought and space to the considera- tion of the governmental and constitu- tional aspects of human society. The story of the races of mankind could by no means be complete without introducing therein careful accounts of the laws and organized governments which the vari- ous peoples have adopted. But it must be borne in mind that such consideration of civil and legal institutions is given because they illustrate the genius and political skill of mankind. Still another topic to be considered as a part of the revelation of race character Religion in like IS religion. The religious rhrc"ha7acteTof i^^stiuct is found to have peoples. been deeply implanted in nearly or quite all the peoples of the world. This was true in the dawn and morning of histor)-, and it is still true at the high noon of natioaalit}', power, and greatness. Here, again, we do not con- sider religion and religious institutions as objective entities bearing their inter- est in themselves, but as facts tending to illustrate the totality of human nature. In ethnic history religion, whether it presents itself in the form of gross su- perstition or as a more enlightened con- cept of the supernal powers, or in the shape of institutions having for their ob- ject the systematic and visible adminis- tration of rites and the teaching of the doctrines of a given faith, must needs occupy a considerable space, inasmuch as it illustrates some of the most univer- sal and constant features of man-life on the earth. In the present treatise care is taken, in the consideration of every division of mankind, to note its reli- gious instincts and practices, as well as to delineate those institutions which are founded on the universal sentiment of religion among the various peoples. Finally, we shall consider what maybe called the proper ethnic characteristics of the human race. These Kthnic traits relateto those specialized ^ratf^om and distinguishing traits in '^^'=®' the physical, mental, and moral consti- tution of mankind, whereby one people is discriminated from another. We have seen how it is that bodily features, such as color, peculiarities of anatomical struc- ture, the hair of the head, the facial an- gle, the cranial capacity, and many other visible facts in man-life, have been taken as a basis in classifying the human spe- cies into kindreds, peoples, and races. The identity of feature is thus used as the principle by which the classification is determined. Like distinguishing fea- tures or traits appear in the mind and in personal activities. Another class of similar facts maybe found in the deeper spiritual parts of human nature. Upon all of these the ethnic historian will dwell with interest, as they are of the essence of the inquiry. XLVI GENERAL INTRODUCriON. It is in this order that a history of the races of mankind may be best constructed. In the present work such order has been followed throughout, with only slight de- viations in this part or in that, as the same have seemed to be demanded by the nature of the subject-matter. While absolute uniformity in all parts of the treatise has not been desired or sought after, the general plan has been faith- fully pursued as the same is outlined in this introduction. From the various topics herein pre- sented — arising out of the nature of the subject and constituting Summary of sub- , , , . ^ . ^. dii-isions of the the body of our study — the present work. f,jiiowing synopsis of the whole may be deduced : Book I. — A Preliminary Inquiry into the Time and Place of the Beginning of Man-life on the Earth. Book II. — An account of the Manner and Conditions of the Appearance of Mankind. Book III. — An account of the Primi- tive Estate of the Human Race. Book IV. — An account of the Early ^ligrations and Dispersions of the Dif- ferent Divisions of Mankind over the Earth. Book V. — An account of the Iranian Division of the Human Family. Book VI. — An account of the Aryan Races of India. Book VII.— An account of the West- ern Aryans, including the Races of Asia Minor and the Greeks. Book VIII. — An account of the Primi- tive Italicans and the Romans. Book IX. — An account of the Latin Races. Book X. — An account of the Celtic Races. Book XI. — An account of the Teu- tonic Races. Book XII. — An account of the Norse, or Scandinavian, Races. Book XIII. — An account of the Slavic Races. Book XIV. — An account of the Ara- maean Semites. Book XV. — An account of the Hebrew Race. Book XVI. — An account of the Ca- naanites and Syrians. Book XVII. — An account of the Arabs. Book XVIII. — An account of the Hamitic Races. Book XIX. — An accountof the Malayo- Mongoloids, beginning with the Thibe- tans and Burmese. Book XX. — An account of the Indo- Chinese Races. Book XXI. — An account of the Malays Proper. Book XXII. — An account of the Asiatic Mongoloids, beginning with the Chinese. Book XXIII. — An account of the Japanese. Book XXIV. — An accountof the Mon- gols Proper. Book XXV. — An account of the Northern Asiatic Races. Book XXVI. — An account of the Polynesian Mongoloids, in their two divi- sions of Sawaioris and Tarapons. Book XXVII. — An account of the American Mongoloids, beginning- with the Northern Aborigines. Book XXVIII. — An account of the Central and vSouth American Races. Book XXIX. — An account of the Black Races, beginning- with the African Nigritians. Book XXX. — An account of the Aus- tralians and Papuans. In this order the themes of the follow- ing volumes will be presented PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES STUDIED OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK. Agassiz, Louis. — Studies of the Glaciers. I Vol. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. 4 Vols. Andersox, Rasmos B. — The Norsemen in Amer- ica. I Vol. Argyle, Duke of. — The Reign of Law. i Vol. Primeval Man. i Vol. Baker, James. — Turkey, i Vol. Baldwin, John Denison. — Prehistoric Nations. I Vol. Ancient America, i Vol. Baucroft, Hubert Howe. — Native Races of America. 15 Vols. Barante, M. De. — History of the Dukes of Burgundy, i Vol. Bastian, Adolf. — Man in History, i Vol. Bickmore, Albert S. — Travels in the East Indian Archipelago, i Vol. Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel. — Hand-book of African, Australian, and Polynesian Philology. 3 Vols. Brace, Charles Loring. — Norse Folk, i Vol. Races of the Old World, i Vol. Bray, A. E. — Jlanual of Anthropology, i Vol. Brown, Robert. — The Races of Mankind. 3 Vols. Buckle, Henry Thomas. — History of Civili- zation in England. 2 Vols. BuFFON, George Louis Leclerc. — History of Domestic Animals, i Vol. History of Birds. 2 Vols. History of Minerals, i Vol. Epochs of Nature, i Vol. Theory of the Earth, i Vol. Ancient America, i Vol. Campbell, Dudley. — Turks and Greeks, i Vol. Carey, Henry C. — Manual of Social wScience. I Vol. C-iCSAR, Julius. — De Belle Gallico. i Vol. Catlin, George. — Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American In- dians. I Vol. O-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony and Other Customs of the Mandans. i Vol. Charpentier, Fr.^ncois. — Essay on the Gla- ciers. I Vol. CoLLiGNON, M.^xiME. — A ISIanual of Greek Archaeolog3'. i Vol. Cox, George W. — A Manual of Mythology. I Vol. Croll, James. — Climate and Time, i Vol. Discussions on Climate and Cosmology. I Vol. CuRTius, Ernest. — History of Greece. 5 Vols. History and Topography of Asia Minor. I Vol. Dana, James D. — A jNIanual of Geology, i Vol. Darwin, Charles Robert. — Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, i Vol. Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication, i Vol. The Descent of Man and Selection in Re- lation to Sex. 2 Vols. On the Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals, i Vol. Descartes, Rene. — Discourse on IMethod. i Vol. Principles of Philosophy, i Vol. Essay on Man, etc. i Vol. Complete Works, Edited by Victor Cousin. I I Vols. Draper, John William. — History of the Intel- lectual Development of Europe, i Vol. History of the Conflict between Science and Religion, i Vol. Drummond, Henry. — Natural Law in the Spiritual World, i Vol. The Ascent of Man. i Vol. Du Chaillu, Paul B. — Stories of the Goiilla Country, i Vol. Wild Life tinder the Equator, i Vol. Mv Apingi Kingdom, i Vol. The Country of the Dwarfs, i Vol. The Land of the Midnight Sun. i Vol. The Viking Age. i Vol. Duncker, Max. — Historj' of Antiquit}'. Trans- lated by Evelyn Abbott. 3 Vols. Duruy, Victor. — Historj- of the Romans. 5 Vols. Ebers, Georg jNIoritz. — Works on Egj-ptol- ogy- 5 Vols. Novels Relating to Same. 2 Vols. Edinburgh Review, Complete.— All Articles on Ethnology and the Natural Historj' of INIan. Ellis, Edward S. — Indian Wars of the United States. I Vol. Encyclopaedia Britannica. — New Ninth Edi- tion of A. and C. Black. 24 Vols. Eyre, E. J. — Discoveries in Central Australia. 2 Vols. Falke, Jakob von. — Hellas and Rome, their Life and .\rt. Translated by William Hand Browne., i Vol. Quarto. .XLVII XLVIII PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. FiGUiER, GuiLLAVME Loiis. — The World before the Deluge, i Vol. The Vegetable World, i \'ol. The Ocean World, i \'ol. Primitive Man. i Vol. The Human Race. l Vol. Fourier, Je.vx B.\i>tiste Jo.seimi. — Analytical Theory of Heat, i Vol. Freemax, Kdw.ard a. — Historj' and Con- quest of the Saracens, i Vol. Historj' of the Xorman Conquest. 5 Vols. Old English Historj-. i \'o\. Comparative Politics, i Vol. Friese, PlliLir C. — Semitic Philosophj-. i Vol. Gest.\ Romanoru.m. 2 Vols. GoBiNEAU, A. De. — Moral and Intellectual Di- versitj- of Races, i Vol. GuizoT, Francois. — The Historj- of Civiliza- tion from the Fall of the Roman Em])ire to the French Revolution. 4 \"ols. Hallam, Henry. — View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. 2 Vols. Constitutional Historj- of England from the Accession of Henry VH to the Death of George II. 2 Vols. Hamlin, Cyrus. — Among the Turks, i Vol. He.\RX, William Edward. — The Arj-an House- hold, its Structure and Development. I Vol. , Plutologj', or the Theory of the Efforts to Satisfj' Human Wants, i Vol. Herndon, William Lewis. — Explorations of the V'alley of the River Amazon. 1 Vol. Critiques and Addresses, i Vol. History (General), of the English-speaking Races, their Institutions, Laws, Gov- ernment, etc. Of the German Races and their Institu- tions. Of the French Races and tliCir Institu- tions. Of the Greeks and Romans and their Insti- tutions. ■ Of the Semitic and othar Oriental Races and their Institutions. Of the Ilamitic Races and their Institu- tions. Of the Malays and Polj-nesians and their Institutions. Horner, Leonard. — Report of Royal Society for 1S51. I Vol. Hue, EVARISTE R.— Travels in Tartarj-, Thibet, and China. 2 Vols. Humboldt, Ale.x.^nder von. — Kosmos. s \'ols. Travels. 2 Vols. Views of Nature. 2 Vols. HuxLEV, Thomas Henry.— Man's Place in Nature, i \o\. On the Physical Basis of Life, i Vol. An Introduction to the Classification of Animals, i \o\. Laj' Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews. 2 \'ols. Kampfer, Engelbrecht. — Historj' of Japan. 2 \'ols. Kane, Elisha Kent. — Arctic Explorations in the Years 1853, '54, '55. 2 Vols. Lapham, Increase Allen. — Antiquities of Wisconsin (in Smithsonian Contribu- tions, Vol. VII). I Vol. Laplace, Pierre Simon. — Parts of the M^can- iciue Celeste, and Somerville's Abridg- ment. Latham, Robert Gordon. — Natural Historj- of the Varieties of Mankind, i Vol. INIan and his Migrations, i Vol. Descriptive Ethnologj-. 2 Vols. Lavisse, Ernest. — General View of the Polit- ical Historj- of Europe. I Vol. L.vvARD, Austi.n- Henry. — Nineveh and its Remains. I Vol. Legge, James. — The Chinese Classics, i Vol. Lewes, George II. — Problems of Life and Mind. I Vol. Literature (General), of the English-speak- ing Races. Of the Teutonic Races. Of the Greek Races. Of the Latin Races. Of the Chinese, Japanese, and other Ori- ental Races, .so far as Translated. Of the Barbarian Races — such as the Goths, the Anglo-Saxons, the Norse, etc. Livingstone, David. — Missionarj- Travels. I \o\. Ln-Y', TiTus.— The Annals, i Vol. Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times as Il- lustrated bj' Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Sav- ages. I \'ol. The Origin of Civilization, and the Primi- tive Condition of Man. i Vol. The Origin and Metamorphosis of Insects. I Vol. Lyell, Sir Charles. — Principles of Geology. 1 Vol. Manual of Elementary Geology, i Vol. Travels in North America in the Years 1 84 1 -2. 2 Vols. A Second Visit to the United States. 2 \"ols. Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of I\Ian. I Vol. March, 1'rancis Andrew. — .\ Method of the Philological vStudy of the luiglish Lan- guage. I \'ol. An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon, i Vol. Marsh, George Perkins. — Origin and His- torj- of the English Language. i \-ol. The Earth as Modified bj- Human Action. I Vol. Menzel, Wolfgang. — The History of Germany. 3 Vols. MiVART, St. George. — The Genesis of Species. I Vol. Mommsen, Theodor. — The History of Rome. 4 Vols. PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. XLIX Morgan, Lewis H. — Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, i Vol. Quarto. (In Smithsonian Con- tributions.) Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines, i Vol. MiJLLER, il.\x. — Chips from a German Work- shop. 3 \'ols. Science of Language. 2 Vols. Science of Religion, with Papers on Bud- dhism. I Vol. Edition of the Vedas. 6 Vols. India : What can it Teach Us ? i Vol. MuRR.\Y, D.wiD. — Story of Japan, i Vol. P.-VLGR,\VE, Sir Fr.ajscis. — History of the An- glo-Saxons. I \o\. PiCEiERiNG, Ch.arles. — The Races of Mankind and their Geographical Distribution. I \'ol. Geographical Distribution of Animals and Man. I Vol. Geographical Distribution of Plants. I Vol. Plongeon, Alice D. Le. — Here and There in Yucatan, i Vol. Plixy the Elder. — Historia Xaturalis. 37 Books. Prichard, J.\mes Cowles. — Researches into the Physical History' of ]\Ian. 5 Vols. Natural Historj- of Man. 2 Vols. The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. I Vol. Proctor, Rich.^rd Anthoxy. — Other Worlds than Ours, i Vol. Saturn arid its System, i Vol. Half-hours with the Stars, i Vol. Elementary Astronom3'. i Vol. Borderland of Science, i Vol. Old and New Astronomy, i Vol. Quarterly Review Co.mplete. — .\11 Articles Relating to the Races of Mankind, their Institutions and Development. Rambaud, Alfred. — A Popular Historv- of Russia from the Earliest Times to 1S80. 3 Vols. Raxke, Leopold Vox. — The Popes of Rome, their Church and State. 3 Vols. Historj' of Germany in the Time of the Reformation. 6 Vols. Rawlinsox, George. — The Five Great Mon- archies of the Eastern World. 4 Vols. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchv. i Vol. Rawlixsox, Sir Henry Creswicke. — Edition of Herodotus. 4 Vols. Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia. 3 Vols. Rexax, Joseph ERNEST.^-Studies in Religious History-. I Vol. Concerning the Part of the Semitic Peo- ples in Civilization, i Vol. Comparative History of the Semitic Lan- gruages. I \o\. RiDPATH, George. — Border History of Scot- land. I Vol. Russell, William. — History of Modern Eu- rope. 7 ^'ols. Sacred Writings : Of the Hebrews and Other Semitic Peoples. Of the Egj-ptians. Of the Iranian Races, with Translation of the Zendavesta, bv Dermester and Mills. 3 Vols. Of the Hindus, with Edition and Transla- tion of \'edas, by Max Miiller. 6 Vols. Of the Oriental Races. ScHiEFFELiN, S.^ML'EL B. — The Foundations of Historv: A Series of First Things. I Vol.' ScHLiEMAXx, Hexry. — Troj-. i Vol. Mycense. i Vol. Schoolcraft, Hexry Rowe. — Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the Histor}', Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States. 5 Vols. The Indian Fairy Book, from Original Leg- ends. I Vol. Plan for Investigating American Ethnol- og\-. I \'ol. Notices of Antique Earthen \'essels from Florida, i Vol. The Mvth of Hiawatha and Other Oral Legends, i Vol. Sinding, P.\<:l C. — The Northmen ; the Sea- kings and Vikings, their Manners and Customs, Discoveries, etc. Spexcer, Herbert. — Social Statics, or the Conditions to Human Happiness Speci- fied. I Vol. Principles of Psychology. 2 Vols. Essaj-s, Scientific and Speculative, i Vol. Essaj-s, iSIoral, Political, and ^Esthetic. I \o\. First Principles of a System of Philosophy. I \'ol. Principles of Biologj'. 2 Vols. Spontaneous Generation and the H^-pothe- sis of Physiological Units, i Vol. Descriptive Sociology- : Facts Classified and Arranged. 3 Vols. Folio. The Principles of Sociologj-. In 38 numbers. St.\xley, Henry' M. — How I Found Living- stone. I ^'ol. Through the Dark Continent. 2 Vols. Tacitus, Caius Corxelius. — The Germania. I Vol. The Histon,-. i Vol. The .\nnales. i Vol. T.\IXE, HiPPOLYTE A. — Historj- of English Lit- erature. 2 \'ols. The Ancient Regime, i Vol. Tegxer's Frithiof's S.\g.\. — Translated by Bayard Ta\-lor. i \'ol. Thompson, SirCii.^rles Wy\-ille. — Report of Sea \'03-ages and Dredgings. 2 \'ols. Thorpe's Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, i Vol. Tour du Monde. — 52 Vols. Quarto. Turner, Sharox. — Historj' of the Anglo-Sax- ons. I Vol. PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Tyi-KU, Edward R. — Researches into the Early Histon,- of Mankind and Devel- opment of Civilization, i Vol. Primitive Culture : Researches into the Development of Mythology, I'hilos- ophv, Religion, Art, and Custom. 2 Vols. Vamberv, Arminivs.— Travels in Central Asia. I \'ol. \Vall.\cf., Alfred Russel.— On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type, i Vol. The Malay Archipelago : The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. I Vol. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. 1 Vol. On the Geographical Distribution of Ani- mals. 2 Vols. Wall.'vce, D. Mackenzie. — Russia, i Vol. Whitney, William Dwight. — Language and the Study of Language, i Vol. Wilkinson, Sir John G.vrdner. — Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 5 Vols. Modern Eg\pt and Thebes. 2 Vols. Architecture of Ancient Egj'pt. i Vol. The Egyptians under the Pharaohs, i Vol. WiNCHELL, Alexander. — vSparks from a Geol- ogist's Hammer, i \o\. Preadamites, or a Demonstration of the Existence of Men before .Adam, i Vol. Wood, J. G. — The Natural History of Man. I VoL Copyri^hteil tf JhtJonts Brothers Pub Ca IS^ Plate I. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MAN Kl ND. (After Huxley) I. HiimIiiiiuii : I HushKKin Idrnwn XyvFrilxfA ), - 2, Woman nt" Namaqua Idi'Ainiln'/'ifJn. Irom npliolnilrajih) ll.NijfriUaii : :) Wuman of (hi; t.nango Idrawii liy Falkrii^etn t, - t , Mail of llie IHNugi'ito: 5. Mnn of NcwHt-bndes Idrawi, h>- fijf/r/7n5- 1.-6. Woman of To5mama|ara«ii hylbnAi^v. from aphuli)j}r«p)i). IV.ItalitTttn: 7. ItalumWaiHfljiUflDradrBwing fromlifc), — fl Italian Man lEtftcr a ilravnns V. AuHlffiliaii: y Moiiof Soath-vesI AunliolialJr-jiTn l)>-!;mflu7im-. from apholotiraplil.- 10 Siibian Woman (lirawn b>-J(^i«j4rt'A.fromaphotoSrjphl, 'VI.Scand!Ma>'ian: 11. Swedish Woman Ifroni •Peoples of Russinl, -12. Greal Rus3lni>lfto" Tro- pics or Bussiu-). \lU.Mu: A Prixcilnraltkij I. - futBWj/l. — B.i7 13 Taiansha-Moiiftalldraivnlij- 16. Kallni-Mungol |drawnljy/*ifjrf- 'hlnesefiiAer porU-ait. Muaeum or KihnograpIiT.BHi'linl --l8.YakuiWoinn>i of *■■ C\\Kla\iravin\iyitlddnilirf\.~C\'i Xurlh Anioricon Inclmn ffroin a pTioloHraphl -20 South AmLTicaii. Inrtinii NVonumlilrajmln' flrfult). K.Csquimau: ZLKoriOkWoiiiniiKhjm'Pcopli-sorituuJaX ^^.taqimuiiaf GrvenlamlldratrribrA^Vifart.frfunaplulojlniphi. o • c fnri 1[ii|sL Preliminary Inquiries. . BOOK I -TIME AND PLACE OF THE BEGINNING. CHAPTER I.— Sources oe Ixforxiation. N entering upon the history of mankind, considered as a race, certain questions fundamental to the subject naturall}^ sug- gest themselves to the inquirer. They obtrude upon his atten- tion. If neglected or put aside they recur from time to time, as if to ar- rest the narrative, until fitting answers are given. They haunt the mind and shadow the scholar's study. They flutter about the poet's dream, and cross on rapid wing the philosopher's lahd- si.ape. They fly abroad, and come un- bidden into the thoughts of the great people. Even in the most practical of all ages and the least speculative of all nations these questions are heard and repeated in many accents and by many tongues. He, indeed, is of The three funda- dull apprehension and lit- l^^^^^S;,^. tie curious to know the cal inquiry. cogitations and dreams of his fellow-men who has not discerned their anxiety to find a solid basis of fact and reason in what may be called the principia of human history. The principal of the questions to which we here refer are three in number: 1 . At what Time in the past — exact or approximate — did the human race begin its career on the earth ? 2. In what Place — that is, in what region or regions of the earth — did man- kind first appear? 37 J^58670 38 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 3. What was the Method — the man- ner, the process, or processes — by which man came into conscious being on our planet, rising into rationalitj-, asserting his sway as the principal inhabitant of the earth, and discovering in himself the ability to consider his own thoughts and actions as a study in natural histor}^? These questions, we repeat, may not exhibit in his feeble intellectual activi- ties at least the premonitions of curiosity about the genesis of his tribe — the origin of his kindred and himself. As for him whose thought and imagination under the inspiring influences of the civilized life have taken wing across all floods and continents, how keenly, how eagerly does he in his flight glance eagle-wise to LANDSCAPE OF THK PLIOCKNE PK KIUD.— SHOwiNCi Environment at the Time of Man's Appearance.— Drawn by Kiou. be easily put aside. It is in the ver\- Eagerness of nature of man to inquire dil- ScwSs'"^ igently and persistently °"s'"- into the time, the place, and the circumstances of his own origin. The disposition to search all the fields of knowledge in quest of light on these inquiries is as universal as the human race. In some the impulse is stronger; in others, weaker; but in all it exists. It might be difficult to find in any quar- ter of the earth a barbarian so low in the scale of mental development as not to right and left in the hope of discovering the true beginning and fountain of things ! In what spirit, then, should these great and vital questions be approached? Certainly in the spirit of hu- True spirit in mility. The honest inquirer ^^'^ty'^wd must recognize from the be approached, first hour of his research the nature and limitations of his own powers and the uncertainty of all the sources of informa- tion from which he must draw his materials. Honesty, also, and freedom TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 39 from prejudice must be his. Sincerity of purpose must guide him on the way. Singleness of aim must light his course. Fidelity must steady his thought and hand. Simple love of changeless truth must be his inspiration. His great ob- ject and passion must be to enlarge somewhat, if he may, for the benefit of his fellow-men the existing treasure of human knowledge ; to widen and clear the landscape toward which so many earnest eyes are directed. Not, indeed, to establish some foregone conclusion ; not to verify some little prejudice ; not to shore up some tottering fiction which the ignorance of men has reared — is the aim and end of the questioner, the real student, the faithful delineator of the concepts and judgments which he has formed of the truth. Not, on the other hand, is it part or purpose of his work to assail, to destroy, to obliterate the existingf forms of knowledgfe and be- lief, or to disturb with wanton hand any of the oldtime concepts which the mind of his ancestors has evolved as the best expression of its hopes and fears. But rather must the true inquirer hold all things in equal and steady balance. With dispassionate purpose he must consider and weigh every existing fact — every form of human thought and belief, every tangible institution and practice of mankind. But in what attitude does man stand with respect to the time and place of the Individual life beginning? What is his ^?t:^::^^Z^ condition of mind relative the race-life. to the problem of the meth- od and circumstances whereby man- kind began to be on the earth. Perhaps the best of all analogies bearing on these great questions are drawn from the individual life and experience, from the recollection which each member of the race has of his own origin and of the conditions under which his existence was begun. This is a consideration which has been astonishingly neglected. The experiences of the individual man with respect to himself are so obvious that he has failed to note their signifi- cance with respect to the larger prob- lems of his tribe and race. If we take our stand, as it were, inside of ourself, and look backward along the lines which we have traversed from our individual beginning in the world, we shall find those lines converging in the distance, first into youth ; then still more narrow- ly into childhood ; and finally to a point in infancy. As we look steadily, patiently, in the direction from which we have come, we see that the nearer land- what may be scape of our life is flooded ^^^^ in every part by the broad i°°^- light of consciousness. Further down the converging lines the light is less abundant, the objects less distinct. Here and there already in the second dec- ade of our life memory begins to fail; the clue is lost, and we discover many patches of obscuration, man}^ parts in which the light rests only on the rim of the hills or on one side of the forest. The valleys and depths and remoter fields fade into twilight, indistinctness, and thick mist. Further on, and near the beginning of the first decade, only a few luminous points are discoverable. The father's face, the brother's pudgy hand, the mother's blessed bosom are still seen ; but beyond that the obscura- tion is complete. We know, indeed, from testimony aliunde that we had an existence beyond the point to which the utmost stretch of memory can reach. We also know from observing the in- fancy of others that our own state for the first two years or more of our being was one of utter unconsciousness. It 40 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. was a state of mere potentiality and growth. No genius, not even the pow- erful soul of Plato or Shakespeare or Goethe, has been able by the backward look to pierce the impenetrable shadows of his own infancy; to know by experi- ence what manner of creature he was at the beginning; to declare by direct knowledge through what stages and moods of evolution and tentative flight his own infant spirit first raised the wing and sought to journey through the boundless air. But, as we have said, we are able to discover much of interest with respect Methods of to the epoch of unconscious- t^.TnV'?h!M^''" ness in the beginning of tory 01 the un- o & conscious epoch, our own individual lives. We were observed in that stage of our existence by our parents and kinsfolk. The nurse was busy with her eyes and her garrulous tongue. Tradition was rife in the family and neighborhood relative to ourselves. The first motions of intelligence were noted by those w-ho were keenly anxious for our welfare and promise. Tales were told about us, having their origin in truth and their ornaments in loving fiction. Presently, with the dawn of consciousness, this nursery history of our lives was recited in our hearing, and we imbibed it as the true narrative of our previous career — - but by no means sufficiently wonderful to meet the demands of fancy. There- fore must we ourselves expand and exaggerate the story. We became in- terested in our past, and carefully stored the vivid memory of childhood with the poetic and half-fanciful stories of our former state. Thus around the life of every youth are thrown the traditions and legends of his own unconscious ex- istence in infancy; and these forms of half-knowledge he is constrained in after years to accept and to use as the best attainable evidences of his progress by growth and evolution through the first epoch of his being. From all this we are able to draw some useful analogies with respect to the infancy of the kindred to useful anaio- which we belong, the ^;!" ;[!;^ '""^i' t> ' vidual an epit- people of which we are omeofrace. the individual parts, and finally the race of mankind within which we are in- cluded. It is only in recent times that these analogies have come to be regarded at their true valuation. More and more it has come to be accepted as true that the individual is the epitome of the species to which he belongs. More and more the reasonableness of that hypoth- esis has become apparent which places the life of the race in analogy with the life of the individual. More and more we have been able to detect in the various stages of our individual lives the like- ness and miniature forms of the corre- sponding stages in the history of the human race. Some of the ablest and most satisfactory expositions of the great fact called civilization — of its origin, its materials, its conditions, its growth, and tendencies toward maturity — have been produced by the process of comparisons instituted between the life of the individual, the life of the species, and the history of the race to which he belongs.' With these facts, however, we are not at the present im- mediately concerned. If, then, the human race may be looked upon as an individual entity or being, having an uncon- sources of Ught scious infancy, a half-con- ttx^i^^^::. scious childhood, a wholly inquiry- conscious but erratic and visionary youth, and a rational and reflective maturity. ' Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe is the finest of the treatises in this department of modern inquiry. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 41 what facts or circumstances, what condi- tions of knowledge may be said to exist from which evidence and information may be drawn concerning the earliest stages of human existence — that u n c o n - scious and infan- tile condition be- yond the reach of all ethnic mem- ory — beyond the horizon of light and vision? Are there any sources of thought and reflection, suffi- ciently matured to take the name o f knowledge, from which, as if by a mirror, light and intelligence may be thrown into that remote region below the dawn of our race- consciousness? Fortunately — most fortunately — such sources of knowledge d o actually exist. Most of them have been dis- covered in com- paratively recent times. Several fields of investi- g a t i o n have opened their treasures to the human mind, and with every stage of the exploration new and valuable evidence has been gained rela- tive to the great questions which we M.— Vol. 1—4 have placed at the head of this chapter. A whole group of sciences, growing ever more luminous with each additional io»iy. — By this science we un- derstand that branch of human knowl- Astronomy, has concerned itself particu- larly with the ultimate constitution and philosophy of our own solar group, and, indeed, of the whole sidereal heavens. One of the branches of this great theme has been a specific inquiry into what mav be called the Or- order of vital derof Cr'eation. The sub- ''^^^^ItT ject embraces, in the half- world history. poetical language which it has adopted,, such topics as the birth, the youth, the TIME OF THE BEGINNING. —SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 43 ■maturity, the old age, and the death of worlds. The stages through which plan- ets — all planets — pass in their evolution from a primordial condition into world- hood have been determined with such an approximation to certainty as to fur- nish a clear concept of planet history. The inquiry has entered still more pro- foundly into the subject, showing that world-growth is correlated in all of its stages with certain possibilities of life. More precisely it has been shown and determined that the great fact called life is related with a certain stao-e or stagfes of planet growth, and that the former does not and can not exist except under the conditions which are present at those stages of world development. This signifies in exact language that the infancy of a planet can not bear life. ilany of the conditions then present are utterly incompatible with the existence of vital phenomena in any form. It is doubtless true that every planet passes through a series of primary evolutions, tending ever to worldhood proper, be- fore any forms of life can exist therein. At a later stage certain forms of vital existence appear, and still further on higher orders, until at length animated existence, properly so called, is seen in the new Avorld, inhabiting its surface, teeming in the waters, or traversing the air. We are thus introduced in planet history to what may be called the Epoch of Life. In the latter part of this epoch intel- ligences such as ourselves, a race like TheEpochof mankind, may appear and ^'cenSlgts fi^^d the means of continu- of worldhood. ity. For a period of variable but great duration this high form of animated being, intelligent, conscious, rational, becomes the principal inhabit- ant of the planet under consideration. Speculative astronomy does not hesitate to go beyond the limits of this period, and to point out the old age of worldhood, the disappearance of life from the planet, and, in a word, the death of the ex- hausted sphere. In so far as investiga- tion, the principles of right reason, de- ductions warranted from existing data, and conclusions reached by scientific methods may go toward determining the past and present condition of our own planet with respect to the Epoch of Life, — to that extent is the science of astron- omy available as one of the sources of information relative to the age of the human race, the date of the infancy of man, the time of the beginning. 2. Geology. — Close after this astro- nomical view of world-life and man-life comes the science of geol- Geology indi- ogy, with its vast treasures ^^^/^^l^/e o°f t-"ai of information and sug- phenomena, gestion. Geology takes up the investi- gation of planet life where astronomy leaves off. The latter deals with worlds in their relation to each other, and in- cidentally with world constitution. The former investigates the history of our own earth in particular. The object of this field of inquiry is to trace the prog- ress and development of our planet from the date of its separation from the primordial mass of matter through all its stages of evolution down to its present condition. Such a field of inquiry in- volves the consideration of the physical bases of all forms of earth-life. It is out of geological relations and conditions that all vital phenomena arise. Given a thorough establishment of geological knowledge — a complete determination of the succession of events in our world history — and the true place of vital phe- nomena therein can be determined with approximate certainty. The successive stages in the history of our planet are correlated in every part 44 GREAT RACES OF MANKfXD. with the successive stages in the history of life. The position of our own race in The earth pre- the general scheme is de- tTeTa^VvAr" terminable by a careful ob- phenomena. servation of the succession of facts and events in the physical order of the planet. The earth has received the markings and the vestigia of all the orders of life, each in its turn, and has fortunately preserved, as if for the wis- dom of after ages, very intelligible frag- ments of testimony respecting the time and circumstances at which each new order of living beings began to exist, and the successive stages through which the same passed in its differentiation, growth, distribution, and maturity. 3. Arcliceology. — Just as geology lies back upon astronomy for its foundation, „ taking up the history of life Place of archae- ox- .' oiogy, and its whcrc the latter leaves off, subject-matter. , , , . so archaeology rests m turn on geology. Whatever evidences of the existence and sequence of vital phenomena have been left in the astro- nomical and geological records of the universe have been in the nature of tracks, traces, impressions, which, while they are sufficiently distinct and unmis- takable in character, are not in the nature of remains left behind by the living beings that have inhabited the earth. They are thus considered by the two sciences referred to as the testimony of the former presence of things unseen. Besides such markings and indentations, so to speak, which the creatures endowed with life have left in the organic struc- ture of nature, there are many direct remains of the living beings that have flourished in the different epochs of world histor3\ Our own race has done its part in this respect. The earth is full of rcliqucB hmnana:. This is to say that the race of man has left its debris behind in every part of the world where human beings have existed. It has been in the nature of the ingenious Reiiqua^hu- and highly intellectual be- ^rreU^^"of ings of whom we are our- man-iife. selves the living exemplification, from whom we are descended, with whose methods of life we are so intimately acquainted by experience and observa- tion, to handle the materials of nature, to modify them, to adapt them to vari- ous uses, and tJien, witli death or removal, to cast them aside. Human relics are thus scattered far and wide on the surface and under the surface of the earth. Many of them are of imperish- able materials. They survive, not only for years and for centuries, but for immeasurable eons of time. Nor is it possible that the existing race of men should be mistaken as to the origin and character of this large detritus of the human race. It bears in all its parts the marks of an unmistakable intelli- gence which divides the relics of man from the remains of all other creatures. Within the present century the scien- tific consideration of the reliquae humanse has been under- Historic and pre- taken. That vast and im- '^^'^^ portant domain of knowl- oiogy- edge called archaeology is the result. In its application it is partly prehistoric and partly historic ; that is, one branch of the inquiry reaches far back into the geological history of our planet, cover- ing the period anterior to the first ex- pressions of human consciousness in the form of traditions or written records. The other branch relates to the conscious period of our existence as a race ; that is, to the epoch which has been covered more or less perfectly by those annals and monuments which men have in- vented as the means of expressing and preserving the story of themselves. TIME OF THE BEGINNING>-SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 45 Eiders the ordo of facts in the history of life. In its methods and principles, the science of archaeology confines itself The science con- Strictly to the works of man . These are considered with respect to their geologi- cal surroundings. The scheme of geology being understood, the relics of the human race are estimated by their juxtaposition and character. The flora and fauna of past ages, the order of have been exercised. It thus happens that archaeology furnishes to the inquirer much valuable and almost direct evi- dence as to the time when mankind, as a race, began upon the earth. 4. Palceontology. — Closely related with archaeology is the next branch of inquiry, palaeontology, which treats of the struc- ture, aiBnities, classification, and distri- bution of the prehistoric plants and ani- ^^ CI^ , 43 <**® ^ § 6 «»^ ^ \ ^^ y s^ ti^^iir, ^^ R « a ® % •i'^— i» ,® # ^ ^ ^ ^6,®© ® ^ n C D ARCH.EOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF MAN'S EXISTENCE. A, megalithic covered structure ; B, stone circle— horizontal and vertical views ; C, mound with stone entrances ; D, megalithic ruins of causeway. which has been already geologically determined, holding the remains of man's work and workmanship in a matrix, furnish therefore an ordo which can not well be misapprehended. The bottom principle of the science is that there is a definite correlation betw^een all the arts in the varioiis periods of human development and the world his- tory in which and on which those arts mals which have existed on the earth. These are classified and arranged accord- ing to the natural order in „ , , . °_ Scope and liml- which thev have succeeded tations of pa- . ,1' ■ e laeontology. one another as species of living organisms. The relations between plant-life and animal life are established, and the dependencies of animate upon inanimate forms of existence scientific- ally determined. Not only the surface 46 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. of the eartn, but the crust of the earth to a considerable depth has been ex- plored in the investigation ; so that pa- laeontology, like archaeology, of which it is properly a branch, may be said to rest firmly on a geological basis. In its after developments it yields the two sciences of botany and zoolog}% each of which has its roots and historical antecedents in the prehistoric and extinct flora and fauna of the earth. At many points pa- Iseontological research touches the exist- ence and conditions of man in the geological and archaeological ages. It considers him, indeed, as the culmina- tion of the animal races whose antiquity is in the rocks and whose present activi- ties are displayed on the dry land and in the waters of our globe. The science thus furnishes another of the collateral and contemporaneous evidences of the primi- tive state of man, and incidentally of the epoch at which our race appeared on the earth. 5. Anthropology. — vStill a fifth science has recently been developed which in Anthropology sonie of its subject-mattcr r/wttirub^'^r touches the great question matter. of the antiquity of man. This is anthropology. The nature and limitations of this important branch of inquiry have scarcely yet been clearly defined. It considers the race of man as a fact in natural history. It looks at the race, first of all, from the physical, or material, point of view. It considers the form and structure, the adaptations and relations of the beings called men, as though they were a genus of animals. Anatomy and physiology thus become subordinate branches of a higher anthro- pological study. But the new science also brings into view the intellectual and moral nature of mankind. It con- siders the evolution of mind and all of those important facts and principles which in their scientific expression go by the name of psychology. The inquir}^ also extends backwards along the lines of human development, and becomes historical in its And divides character. It investigates :Se''reiicsof°'°^ the \-arious stages through mankind, which the race of man has passed. It follows the clue in the direction from which that race has emerged until it en- ters the domain of archaeology, and with that science divides the prehistoric relics of mankind. The line of division is made on the principle that the remains of W'hat man has done shall fall to archae- olog}', and the remains of what man was to anthropology. The two sciences are thus allied, the one rising out of the other in the same manner in which ar- chaeological investigation springs from a geological basis. It has long been known that the re- mains of men have survived from the prehistoric ages. Such re- Two classes of mains are. for the most ^™,\°LT"'' part, osseous in character, activity. It will be seen at a glance that such relics are strongly discriminated in their na- ture from those which consist of the fragments of man's Avorkmanship, as, for instance, his implements, utensils, ap- parel, etc. While it is true that, for prac- tical purposes, the skull or other part of a prehistoric human being and the hatch- et of stone or bronze which the prehis- toric man was wont to Avield in his bat- tles for existence may be considered together as common evidences of his existence, and, in a certain degree, of the time at which he flourished, yet the two relics, as will be seen at a glance, belong really to wide apart branches of investigation. The one is a part of the organic stinicture of the man of the ar- chaeological period, and the other is a part of what may be called his civilization TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 47 The significance of the one is anthropo- logical, while the other is a part of the subject-matter of that prehistoric history called archaeology. It will be seen in the following pages to what extent an- thropology, the study of man as man, has thrown light upon the date of his origin — the time of his apjjearance on the earth. 6. Etitnology. — Springing out of the last-named department of investigation, and constituting in some sense a subor- of men. It deals with the physical con- ditions under which mankind have ex- isted ; the stages of culture through which they have passed ; the various aspects of social life which have presented them- selves in different ages; and with the universal laws of progress in accordance with which our species has moved for- ward from the most primitive to the mogt recent stage of the human evolution. Beginning with the most rudimentary arts which were invented and practiced ^^5a.N:^'-^"^<^^-*s^«^~ - REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAX. dinate division thereof, next follows eth- nology. This includes a specific depart- Ethnoiogy ment of studv, the sub- S'opX; ject-matter of which is the its materials. different tribes, kindreds, and races of men that have inhabited the earth, considered in their relations, affinities, derivation, descent, and gen- eral characteristics. Ethnolog\' is a truly philosophical inqiiiry into the origin, differentiation, development, and distri- bution of the different families consti- tuting the originals of the present races by men, and with the coarsest needs by which the primeval race was pressed and held in thrall, ethnology Deals with evo- proceeds confidentlv by l^tT.fnl-r^t" ■T - ./ nomena oi race- comparison, by hypothesis, Ufe on earth, by analogy, along the lines of growth and expansion until it reaches the grand discoveries and noble impulses which constitute the ripe fruit of the most re- cent epochs. The science is patient and laborious in its methods. It stoops to consider the food-supply whereby human life, in common with all other animal 48 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. life on our planet, has been supported and perpetuated; the sexual relation, being the general term to express the methods and practices of the various tribes and peoples as it respects the union of the man and the woman for the in- crease of the race — the laws and the sen- timents under which the sexual alliance has been sanctioned and encouraged by eral rules of conduct which men by ex. pcrience and right reason have invented in different ages for the subordination of themselves in communities and states ; and finally, the religious systems which have appeared in many forms, but with many common features, as the expres- sion of the hopes, the fears, the beliefs, and yearnings of the human spirit in its rROUUCTIUX Ul' FIRE— THE IIRST ART I'KACIICKIl 1!V MAX.— Ur.iwn by Emile Bayard. mankind on the way from rude savagery to a highly civilized condition ; the phe- nomena of language, including a study of the affinities and connections of the different tongues in which the families and kindreds of men have endeavored to give a rational embodiment to their thoughts, beliefs, and visions; tjie tech- nology, or art interpretation of the va- rious peoples ; the government, civil and social, and the laws constituting the gen- discontent with the things seen and its aspirations for the things eternal. Fol- lowing the clues furnished by ethnolog- ical research, the inquirer is enabled to make his way along the course from which men have descended, and to learn much of the time and circumstances un- der which the race began its_ existence on the earth. 7. Etlinograpliy. — It has been proposed by modern scholars to separate that part TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 49 of ethnology Avhich describes the cus- toms, laws, and habits of nations from Narrower and the principal Science, and reMcTvTredby to name the new divi- ethnography. ^ion ethnography. Oi this branch of inquiry it is the proper func- tion to describe the phenomena of race rather than to explain the same in terms of the known. The office of the one is delineative ; of the other, expository. To the one belongs the descriptive and pictorial part of race inquiry, and to the other the philosophical interpretation of the things described. The relation of the two sciences is analogous to that existing between geography and geology, though the difference between the latter is more pronounced and conspicuous than that between the former. The ethnographic inquiry is much more easy and superficial than ethnology, inas- much as the latter looks more profound- ly into the subject-matter of the investi- gation, and must proceed by wider and more difficult generalizations. The data of man-life obtained by mere observation and description are easily Kase of ciassifi- classified and arranged ac- ^^Cnntef ■ cording to the nature of preting. the subjects to which they refer. But the interpretation of the great facts in which the origin, the character, and, in a word, the history of the different races of men are embodied, requires a breadth of research and a scope of vision worthy the name of genius. In so far as ethnography preserves by careful delineations the characteristics of primitive peoples, in so far as the science notes the rate of departure and the extent of the divergencies among | the ancient races of mankind, to that , extent it affords valuable suggestions ; relative to the time of the beginning. 8. Tradition and History. — We have now followed the lines of scientific evo- lution from a high view of world history downwards to man hi.story proper. As in the case of the individual, In -what manner there comes to pass a time tradition begins ,1 J. 1 . T 1 to be evolved. in the progress of kindred and tribe and race when consciousness appears. When this happens in the in- dividual, he at once begins, as we have seen, to consider himself, to remember with more or less distinctness the prin- cipal events in his past career, to speak of them as matters of importance to him- self and others. In like manner the rise of ethnic consciousness leads at once to that peculiar, reflective, and communi- cative form of mental activity which we call tradition and history. When the proper stage has been reached, the tribe that was, becoming a people, begins to consider itself. The wisest members of the ethnic family, the most vigorous in tliought and imagination, frame from the vague legends that have drifted downwards — assisted in rare instances by the monumental evidences which their race ha." left behind — at first an incoherent, and afterwards a coherent, account of the past. Tradition and histoiy thus become the first formal expression of national con- sciousness. Such expres- Blendingsof sion is older than any other S^t^ryTnTht form of literary product, dawn. It may be indeed that the earliest story- teller of mankind takes for his legend the vehicle of metrical language, but the subject-matter is essentially historical. The man-life thus begins to be delineated. Of a ceilainty everything is at the first local and peculiar. The myth-making power is busy in the production of the narrative. Fact and fiction are equally present in the concept and the work. The historian of the dawn is at once a sage and a bard, an annalist and a rhap- sodist, a storv-teller and a singer. What 60 GREAT RACES OF J/AXA'/XP. he produces blends henceforth with the memory of his race. It is imbibed as a verity, and is used by future chroniclers and poets as the subject-matter of their work. The volume of tradition expands rapidly, and is to a certain extent rec- tified by the improving judgment and critical skill of after times. But ages go history of mankind continues to flow in the mighty stream of history and to color all its waters. But what is the difference between history and tradition ? Is not the one the other, and the other that? Is it possible to discriminate with exactitude between that form of intellectual product A CHALDEE RHAI'SnDIST RECITING (MODERN).— Drawn by Barbanl. by ere the elements of myth and tradi- tion are eliminated from the narrative. Mankind advance to the possession and civilization of the great conti- nents. Other branches of knowledge spring from the mental fecundity of the race. Nations react upon nations. A vast civil and political life appears. The mind improves by culture and discipline ; and yet the fictitious part of the early which goes by the name of tradition and that other form which is called history.' May these two parts of the Distinctions to intellectual work of our ^^^^^radftion race — its history and its and history, tradition — be separated the one from the other and be considered apart? Cer- tainly the two facts to which these terms refer are not the same fact ; and yet the blending of the one with the other is so TIME OF THE BEGLVNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 51 intimate and universal as almost to pre- clude the division of the one from the other. Tradition is a general term, signifying any form of story relative to past events which has been transmitted from generation to generation simply by the vehicle of human memory and oral utterance. Tradition depends for its existence upon the two faculties of memory and speech. It is perpetuated by repetition. True, a tradition may be written, and may in this manner come at length to masquerade in the form of history ; but the fact that it is written does not alter its essential na- ture. If the subject-matter have been handed down by memory and oral nar- ration, repeated from one age to the next, the character of tradition in the thing narrated is ever aftenvards pres- ent, though it be written. From this consideration it Avill at once appear how variable is the value of Variations in the traditions as measured by v^iue^of trrdr."^' the length of time between tiois. the date of the thing con- stituting the subject-matter of the story and the date of the record in which it is contained. If a great period of time have elapsed between the one and the other — if the tradition have thus been subjected to the modifications, exagger- ations, and reflections to which all stories are subject so long as they dwell on the tongues of men, then, indeed, is the tradition of small importance considered as a material of history. But if, on the other hand, only a single generation or a fraction of a generation have inter- vened between the date of the event and the record which preser\-ed the story, then we may allow to the tradition a weight almost equal to that of true his- torical narrative. The question will at once arise. Is not all history dependent upon or rather derived from a traditional origin? Of a certainty every narrative, however immediate and exact, must How history have passed through the ^li^^^^^rre'r medium of consciousness in t^e definition, the author, and to that extent it is tinged with the quality of tradition. But if the author, while the event is still immedi- ately present to his memory, makes record of the fact which he has seen and known, if he follows the criterion to which ^neas so confidently refers, and speaks only of the things ' ' of which he has been a part," then, indeed, is the traditional element so slight that it may be well neglected. Caesar in his tent by night recording the incidents and results of the day's conflicts, thus be- comes the exemplar and type of the historian and his work pure and simple. But of a certainty many other quali- ties besides this of the contemporaneity of the witness and the event must enter in before the work can be called true history. The definition of this great and important form of human knowl- edge and achievement narrows from age to age and becomes ever more exact. At the present day it is limited to that species of authentic narrative of human events which is arranged on the lines of the forces which produced them ; that is, on the lines of universal sequence and causation. Chronicles and annals, merely such, are no longer considered as history proper. Neither is that form of dissertation which embodies the speculations of a writer with regard to the facts and tendencies of human society to be reckoned as true history. The latter implies that the personal element in the narrative shall be as little discoverable as possible. The historian in the ideal history is as little seen as Shakespeare is seen in the tragedy of Hamlet. 52 GREAT RACES OF .V.LYAVXn. The historian is an interpreter of events ; but the interpretation is not Impersonality of COlorcd — doCS not SUffer the historian ; diffraction— bv the medium sources of his materials. through which it passes. The camera is essential to the photo- graph. The easel, the palette, and the brush, aye, the arm and hand and eye of the master are essential in the pro- duction of a painting. But the camera is not seen in the sun picture ; neither are the easel, the brush, the hand, and the eye of the artist seen on his canvas. So also of the historian. Beginning where tradition leaves off, freely em- ploying every form and product of human knowledge, gathering in mate- rials, especially from contemporaneous annals, chronicles, dramas, and fictions, he discovers wherever he may the threads of causation, of antecedence and consequence, and along these fine nerves of the man-life he builds his narrative on the principle of the photograph or the reproduction of a landscape. But the thing which we are here to consider is not so much the essential Tradition deals nature of tradition and Snel"of ^^i^tory, not so much ibeir mankind. differences and depend- encies, but rather the testimony Avhich these two forms of human knowledge may bear with respect to the time of the appearance of our race on the earth, the date of the beginning. It is in the nature of tradition, then, to deal directly with these great questions. The brain of the primitive man was rife with con- jectures and dim memories of his former state. Doubtless his recollection of the past had much of the nature of a dream. Doubtless the former experiences of the half-conscious race were transmitted to him with his blood. Doubtless the vicissitudes and the vivid impressions which time and circumstance had made on his unthinking but highly sensitive ancestry recurred in his own thought, and constituted a sort of basis ou which all of his theories respecting his past history were built. As for the sub- stance of these theories, that was gathered from the folklore of his tribe. Not deficient or inactive was the talk passion among primeval men. In this respect the various peo- work of the talk pies differed greatly, some ?,\^~,':e'^^ being comparatively taci- races, turn, little disposed to communicate with their fellows, and others having a nat- ural enthusiasm and gift in the com- merce of speech. Some of the most intellectual and vigorous of the ancient races were loquacious to a degree that can not now be well appreciated. In such cases much of the reflective talk of the tribe took the form of traditional lore. The origin of man was the key- note of the ukltime story. The primi- tive peoples, especially those gifted with imagination and a highly developed language, were ever busy with the theory of the genesis of the race. At the same time they took up the problem of nature outside of man. The forms, aspects, and phenomena of the material world demanded ^, Nature, also, de- an explanation as well as manded an in- , . . , -, r i 1 1 terpretation. man himself. ^Mythology, leeend, and tradition were soon rife, and were infinitely inflected according to the fancy and fragments of information which the various tribes possessed. All agreed that so//n- explanation must be given of the time, the place, and the circumstances of man's appearance on the earth. All were agreed that in some way he had come. None conjectured that his past existence was an eternity. Each had the concept of a previous con- dition in earth and heaven wherein man had no part or lot. TIME OF THE BEG INNING. —SO URGES OF INFORMATION. 53 It thus happened that each race, accord- ing to its light, according to what it had Primitive con- received from older mem- SJSnuoT- bers of the tribe, accord- philosophy. jj^g to its Concepts of the methods and possibilities of the case, produced the story of man-life in the earth. The story was from one point of view as variable as the fancies of the with respect to the remote past. It might be said, even at this late day, that' the whole intellectual structure of the world rests on the concrete Beliefs of man- of tradition. He who there- rarg^/^"™" fore would investigate for from tradition, himself and for others the primitive state of man — would in particular inquire into the probable time and conditions under LANDSCAPE OF THE DEGlNNIXG.— Drawn by Riou. race were vague and their creative powers capricious. But from another point of view there were common fea- tures in the traditions which now gained currency, and these common features at length constituted a sort of body of philosophy which was accepted with more or less reservation by the great minds of antiquity. From all this it must readily appear how great a part tradition has performed in establishing the beliefs of mankind which men began to be among the living creatures of our globe — must carefully consider the traditions which the races of men have formed with respect to themselves. Here, then, true history begins. As it was the first, so also it seems to be the last and greatest of the ^ Office of history- products of the human to solve all prob- 1 A • . ,1 T . lems of man-life. mind. As it was the earliest endeavor of the conscious race to express its concepts of itself, so also is it the 54 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. latest endeavor of that same race to ex- plain, interpret, and elucidate the true course and character of human affairs in the earth. It goes with the saying that it is sooner or later the function of his- tory to answer in a satisfactory manner the all-important questions which stand at the beginning of the present inquiry. In doing so the science — if science it may be called — draws within its compass all the results which have been reached in all the fields of human inquiry. Above all other branches of knowl- edge, history sits and broods, with Supreme place wings outspread as though °eat*o7h™ the universe of things were inquiry. pregnant and must bring forth under the shadow and power of thought. It may be truthfully said that every other form of learning tends to this. True history is the generalized result of all things that have been thought and done by men. When com- plete, it must of course take cognizance not only of the genesis, but also of the , final destiny of man. For the present it may be freely confessed that true his- torical inquiry has not extended very far into the past,- and that it has still more feebly divined the future. Nor may the historian of this age with right reason hope greatly to extend the domain of this science of the sciences in either direction. He may, however, properly aspire to place in better light that part of human history which relates to the primal appearance of mankind on the earth, and to throw some pencils of re- flected light on the time and circum- stances of the beginning. 9. Chronology. — Out of history, and as a department thereof, has arisen chro- nology as a special branch of inquiry. It vs\3.y be said to be at once a factor and a result of all historical investigation. With the ancients it meant properly the computation of time. With the general analysis and classification of the sciences it has come to be a consider- chronology a ation of the time-order of "^,2^%°^^}^-^^ tory ; its proper the successive events which function, have occurred in the history of the world. It is the function of chronology to de termine, not only the particular dates at which the events of the past have hap- pened, but the order of their succession and the intervals of time between them. It thus furnishes the framework of all things soever that have occurred in the human universe. There is a sense in which the whole structure of tradition and history rests upon the chronological foundation. Even the ancients who gave, sometimes in charming manner, the narrative of events, paying attention to the dramatic order — which is only the natural order of all things soever — and who were as a rule given to the neglect of dates, nevertheless showed consider- able appreciation of the importance of chronology. The true .science, however, is of modern origin ; its exact phases belong to the last quarter of the eight- eenth century, and more particularly to the clo-ser investigations of the present age. Chronology finds its possibility in the movements of the heavenly bodies. The primarv facts are the ro- Foundation of tation 'of the earth on its t:::^ZT,i axis and its revolutions the planets, around the sun. The abstract concept of time is more difficult to grasp than might at first thought be easily appre- hended. This is to say that in the ab- sence of tangible phenomena, such as those produced by the movements of the spheres, it might be difficult to form a true notion of that abstract continuance or duration to which we give the name of time. But the revolution of our globe, and the resulting aspects of the heavenly TIME OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—ASTROXOMICAL ARGUMEXT. 55 Dodies as viewed therefrom, divides dura- tion into parts, and furnishes an easy calculus for time measurement. Out of nature a scale may thus be constructed to which human affairs are Historical per- adjustable, and in the spectivede- Y\ J oiogicai order, ruost easily Comprehended. ChronologfV furnishes a sort of time locus for everything, and it is by the employ- ment of such a scheme that the vast and orderly progress of human events is first discovered. All historical perspective depends upon the chronological relations of the objects of the human landscape. There is, first of all, a horizon. The remoter facts stand far back against the dim line which divides the known from the unknown. The size, appearance, and relative importance of such facts must be estimated by their distance from the observer. The objects of the nearer landscape, as judged by the senses, seem vast and tall. Without the aid of the chronological perspective the concept of the past would be utterly distorted aud ludicrous. We have here reached one of the par- ticular grounds of the inquiry constitut- ing the theme of the if knowledge ° ■were complete present book, namel}', the chronology . , , . . T /• wovild end the time of the beginning. Ir inquiry, the scheme of human knowledge -^ere perfected the inquiry would be simply chronological and nothing more. But the reader must bear in mind that the thing attempted is to extend the chrono- logical lines into that obscure domain under whose mists and shadows the un- conscious part of human history was transacted. For this rea.son all the pre- ceding sciences to which we have referred are called into requisition, in this part or in that, in the hope of extending the scheme of chronolog}', not indeed with exactitude, but with some approximate certainty to the infancy and childhood of the human race. CHAPTER II.— A.SXROXO>.IICAIv ^RGU^vIEXT RESF'ECX= IXG THE ^XTIQUITY OE ^.IAX. I ROM what has been presented in the first chapter we may dis- cover the general sources from which in- formation and sugges- tion may be derived with respect to the antiquity of man. The various branches of science to which we have referred in the preceding pages are the witnesses which may be sum- moned to give testimony on the great question involved in this inquiry. It will be seen at a glance that, for the most part, such testimony is not direct. In some instances, particularly in archasol- og\- and geology, the evidence may be considered immediate and indubitable. But in most respects the science testifies scientific knowledge which itfani'order''" Ave possess relative to the of lift, time, the place, and the circumstances under which the human race made its appearance on the Earth is indirect and only by reflection. It is as though a mirror were held aloft in the surface of which we may see the objects and move- ments below the horizon. He who studies the prehistoric career of man- kind by the aid of the sciences to which we have referred, is as the observer who, sitting by the window of the fljang car. 56 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. may see the moving spectra of distant landscapes appearing and disappearing among the shadows of tlie otlier side. On the whole, those forms of human knowledge which we now possess, bearing Authenticity of on the question of the rela- ti^llSl.^ tions of world-life and man- race compared, life, are in analogy with the witne.sses who observed our indi- CO.MPARATIVE SIZE OF THE PIANEIARY WORLDS. vidual development through the uncon- scious stages of infancy. In some respects the evidence which we possess with regard to our own growth and conduct during the unconscious stage — with respect to the date and circum- stances of our birth and the events with which the first years of our individual life were associated — is superior in quality, more satisfactory to the condi- tions of right reason, more conclusive as to the things in question, than is the evidence derived from the branches of knowledge referred to with respect to the time and conditions of the infancy and childhood of mankind. But in other respects the latter evidence is the better of the two. It is, on the whole, less colored, less perverted by the im- perfections of merely human testimony, less affected with errors arising from what is called the personal equation, than is the purely oral tradition handed down by our fathers and ancestors with respect to the un- conscious epoch in our individual lives or in the lives of themselves. We may, therefore, in a general way take our stand among the sciences above deline- ated, and interrogate them with some ante- cedent expectation of pi'ofit with regard to the place of the appear- ance of primeval man. If we take a critical survey of our solar system, occupying the astronomer's point of that system to be in of development as it Probability of the diffusion of life through- out our system. view, we find various stages respects the great fact called life. We here plant ourselves upon the assump- tion that the phenomena of life are generally distributed through the vis- ible universe. The discovery in our own age of the fundamental identity of the stellar and planetary materials furnishes TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 57 a solid basis for the inference of the accompanying distribution of life. It is clearly demonstrable that the small group of worlds with which our own globe is associated are fundamentally identical in structure. From the sun outward to the lone satellite of Neptune no consider- able variation has been discovered from the established material unity of the whole group. There is, therefore, in the first place, no perceptible physical barrier to the dissemination of the com- mon forms of life throughout our neigh- boring worlds. But a stronger ground even than this for the hypothesis of life in the planets is found in the conditions of right reason. That indeed must be a strangely constituted intelligence which can accept the theory of the limitation of life to our own earth. Such a supposi- tion must rather provoke a smile on the countenance of every intelligent being who has risen to anything like an ade- quate conception of the scale and char- acter of the material universe. To suppose that a single insignificant orb like our own, scarcely discoverable in the multitude of worlds and systems, should be the favored spot in which life and intelligence are manifested, while all the rest of the stupendous universe round about is, as it were, a mere waste of material structure, is to entertain a concept of nature utterly absurd. Such a view is the very essence of that natural, but irrational, anthropomorphic notion of the universe, the existence of which in the mind of antiquity we can well under- stand, but the perpetuation of which in the era of light and knowledge seems at once unaccountable and preposterous. The fact of life constitutes, then, the only rational explanation of the exist- ence of the material universe. On any hypothesis material nature can hardly be said to exist for itself. A system of M.— Vol. 1—5 worlds like our own has no rational ex- planation except that which is found in the suggestion of an arena Life and intern- of life, and finally of in- ^.^^^^^ telligent activity. Let him material nature. who will attempt to frame any other ex- planation of the existence of worlds, any other intelligent or even conceivable purpose for which things are designed or for which they merely exist, and he shall soon find the futility of the effort. Material nature has its tatio ultima in the basis which it furnishes for the dis- play of vital phenomena, including in- telligence as the highest expression of living force. It is freely admitted that direct scien- tific demonstration of the existence of life and intelligence in any Reason must aid world other than our own The ^^^'^"i is not possible in the pres- the universe, ent condition of human knowledge. It may not be possible for ages to come, or ever possible to the end of our own world-life and the final scene of the pres- ent state. One of the elements, how- ever, of all our best attainment is the use of right reason and the ready accept- ance of the results to which it leads. We may not admit that the universe is an absurdity. We may not any longer suppose that our own small earth with its burden of interests, to us so over- whelming, is of any superior conse- quence in the universal scheme beyond what the size, place, and physical im- portance of our little globe may reason- ably imply. We are thus to consider the system of worlds with which our own is associated as a common system, hav- General view of ing common features, obey- ^i^ its coT-- ing common laws, subject mon features. to common vicissitudes, and determined by a common destiny. The planets that traverse the adjacent spaces are even as The dots round the orbits sho~.v tkt position of the planets at 'ntef^ai^ oj" a thousand days. The symbois \\ indicate in. greatest distance o/ an o^bt'. north and south 0/ the />ian^ cf the Ecii/'tic XqbJ^ of huniiredj of milhanj of mUe^ 6 1 ' ; i i 1 It. WOO mtUu>n mUes — 1 i/uK Orbits 0/ Neptune {^ ), Uranus (JJ^), Saturn ( ^ )^ and Jupiter ( 2^ ). nurcuij Viuiu* Eaitb Jupiter The arroiv-head on each orbit shoiu* the direction 0/ rezioiution^ also eUf place 0/ each planet on Jan, ist, t iVs. at noon. {Zone oJ" Asteroids^ and o*l-its 1^ ), Nodes Q P9, Near-fv Apses N. U, S, 7. Uranus Nepiune Scale 0/ Planets lO^ooQ times that of Orbits. t^fupiter and Saturn are shown iniheir true axial position. Uranus and Neptune in the axial positions in/erredjrom the ^notions 0/ their Satellites. \ Scale 2fioo times that 0/ the Orbits. Urtmaj's batctm^ SOLAR SYSTEM— SHOWING RELATION'S OF ORBITS, COMPARISIONS OF PLANETS. AND PLACE OF THE EARTH. Drawn by Richard A. Proctor. F. R, A. S TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 59 our own. Some are smaller and some are almost infinitely greater, but all are virtually identical in structure, character- istics, and final purpose. But the worlds above and around us are, nevertheless, greatly discriminated from our own with respect to the stage of development in which they are respectively found. Some are old and some are young as compared with our planet. vSome are, doubtless, at the present time in a process of evo- lution and development almost iden- tical with that through which our own globe passed in geological ages far agone. Others have gone for- ward more rapidly than the earth, and have reached the condition to- ward which our planet is slowly, steadily, but surely tending, and at which it must at length arrive under the force of universal laws. Not only do the worlds differ among themselves with respect to their age, considered as planetary Relations of . ^ world age to the bodics, but they also epoch of life. t - rr • 1 1 diner m another ratio with respect to their age relative to the epoch of life. The antiquity of a planet, considered as a planet, does not determine its relation to life and its conditions. This is to say that the process of evolution may go on so '''^' slowly in some of the older w^orlds that they reach the epoch of life at a period much later in world history than do some other planets in which the proc- ess of world formation goes on more rapidly. In a general way it may be scientifically alleged that the smaller globes, having once assumed the plan- etary form and condition, sweep on more rajiidly toward the epoch of life than do the larger, in which the development in the planetary sense is slow and long- postponed. The New Astronomy has now assigned to each of the worlds of our system its approximate place in the scheme of development. It would ap- ' science deter- pear that as to mere plan- ^i;^^^ etary genesis the great planets, worlds Jupiter and Saturn are the eldest- born of the system ; but so far as the epoch of life is concerned, those mighty worlds are the youngest of all. The planets most advanced in age as it respects the correlated phenomena of life, are the ITION OF IHt 1'l.ANETS INKEKIuK lO JUHltK — SHOWING THE ZONE OF THE ASTEROIDS. earth and Mars, between which many analogies are discoverable. Of the two the earth is, doubtless, considerably older than the other, as world-age is measured by the manifestations of life thereon. This is to say that the earth and I^Iars gave off their excessive heat and were cooled sufficiently to admit of vegetable and animal life at an age far earlier than in the case of any of the other planets. Drawing our analogies from the forms of life wdth which we are familiar, it is quite certain that- Jiipiter 60 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. and Saturn have not yet reached the life- bearing epoch. That they will at length reach a stage of worldhood at which ani- mate beings can exist upon their surface and in their waters can not be doubted. As little can it be doubted that in course of time the earth and Mars will lose the conditions under which life can be per- petuated. In that event we may be sure that the epoch of life will cease in our own planet, though the earth, as such, JUrntK — A I'LANEr NOr vet arrived at the ErOUH OF LIFE. may continue to occupy its place indefi- nitely in the solar system. The thing to be granted from the con- sideration of these facts is that all worlds Epoch of Life is have a planet life, and that, adjusted to cer- jj^ connection with this tain stages of planet life. planet life, at a certain stage thereof life proper becomes toler- able in the given sphere. With this event the Epoch of Life begins and runs parallel with the history of the given world until the conditions of the latier are so changed as to prevent the furthei propagation or existence of life upon it. After that, as in the probable case of our secondary, the Moon, the given orb be- comes a dead world, though still obeying the physical laws under which its place and motions have been hitherto deter- mined. Let us, then, briefly consider what we may call the astronomical preparation of the earth for the appearance of man-life upon it. By what process of world-evo- lution was it brought into the state of hab- itability? For we may be certain that the fact of habita- bility and the first appearance of man were coincident cir- cumstances. The preparation of our globe for the human race had respect pri- marily to the condi- tion of heat. This is to say that a heat equation had to be established on an as- tronomical basis; and by considering the astronomical con- ditions antecedent to the appearance of man-life, preparation of and by knowing the rate of ^^.^.T/bX^i,, change which the world has i^eat equation, undergone in its planetary relations, we may arrive at an approximate date for the beginning of the human race. The equation of heat to which we have just referred has for its principal, though not its only, element a certain vibration, or oscillation, which has been going on in the orbit of the earth from the time when that bodv, loosened from TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 61 earth's orbit as affecting distri- bution of heat. the common nebulous mass, began to be evolved into worldhood, and which will Vibrations of the continue to the end of our planetary career. We must here refer to many astronomical facts which are familiar as facts, but of which the significance has in some measure been overlooked. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, having the Sun in one of the foci ; but the ele- ments of the ellipse are not constant. On the contrary, the two axes of our orbit lying at right angles to each other approached, but never quite attained. The elongation of the minor axis, with the consequent expansion of the orbit, ceases, and the major axis once more begins to project like a lengthening arrow into space. These changes in the two axes of the orbit, with the consequent fluctuation toward and away from the circle, con- tinue at immense intervals, and will continue as long as the present sj'stem of world order endures. Under the force of the precession of the equinoxes, the SATURN-A KING PLANET. are inconstant or variable quantities. A change is ever going on by which the ratio between the major axis and the minor axis is affected. The character of the earth's orbit is thereby constantly modified. At first it approximates the circle, and then recedes from the circle until it Nature of the fluctuation in rcaclics a maximum elonga- our orbital axes. ,. rr'-i- i <.- „ tion. This elongation, or departure from the circle, is called the eccentricity of the orbit. Having reached the maximum of this eccentricity, the major axis begins to contract and the orbit to expand laterally, until after a great lapse of time the circle is again I position of the two axes, always at right angles to each other, constantly changes. They point to different parts of the sur- rounding heavens, each of them con- tracting and expanding within fixed limits which are determinative of the character and stability of our orbit. It is assumed that the reader is famil- iar with such terms as aphelion and perihelion, that he has a Assumption of clear concept of our planet- ^"rr^Tc^' ary orbit, of the plane of phenomena, the ecliptic, of the equator of the earth and the heavens, of the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane in which our globe makes its journey around the sun, 62 GREAT RACES OE JirAXk'fXP. and of the circumstance of a summer and winter solstice, a vernal and autum- nal equinox, and of the precession of the equinoxes. It is also assumed that he apprehends the nature of the solar illu- mination of an ever-changing hemisphere of the earth's surface, of the altered and altering position of the sun as viewed from any given point on our planet, and Present phase of the planetary oscillation. ] HE MOON — A.N EXPIRED PLANET of the attendant phenomena of the sea- sons. Presumably he is able to appre- hend that these phenomena go back for their causes to the inclination of the axis of the earth to the plane of its orbit, and to the eccentricity of that orbit ; that is, its deviation from the circle. It may not be known, however, that the phase of our orbital career through which we are now passing is that of con- traction, or approach to the circle. The major axis of the earth's orbit is diminish- ing, and the minor axis in- creasing in measurement. The eccentricity of the orbit is slowly but surely diminishing toward zero. This signifies that the difference between the perihelion, or nearest approach of the earth to the sun, and its aphelion, or greatest distance, is becoming less and less with each revo- lution. The proc- ess will continue until the difference shall be reduced to a minimum ; but immediately there- after the reversal of conditions cause the major axis to elon- gate and the minor to shorten, and will throw the aphelion and perihelion of the orbit into posi- tions different from those which they now occupy in space. Modern astrono- my has made very careful and critical estimates of all these variations, and more recently has ventured to apply to them the measurement of time. The eccentricity of the earth's . . ■^ Limits of eccen- orbit was determined with tricityinthe , 1 , , , earth's orbit. tolerable accuracy as early as the time of Leverrier; but since the days of that astronomer the calculations have been perfected, and the elements of our orbit more accurately determined. According to these tables, the highest TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 63 eccentricity ever attained by our orbit was, decimally expressed, 0.0747. The minimum eccentricity is about 0.0102. Between these two extremes the orbit oscillates with ever-changing conditions of climatic phenomena. We may here discover the fundamen- tals of that equation of heat to which we have referred. It is well Perihelion and aphelion deter- known that in the present minativeof heat. t.- r i •. condition or our orbit, the earth, in its annual revolution, ajo- proaches and recedes from the sun, thus fixing a point of nearest approach called the perihelion, and another point of great- est distance called the aphelion. At the present time the difference in the dis- tances of the earth from the sun at these two crises in the annual revolution is, in round numbers, three million miles — a distance sufficient, as we shall see, to make a very perceptible difference in the heat conditions of the earth. It must be noted with care that our perihelion lies near to the winter solstice, and that our aphelion approximates the summer sol- stice. This is to say that when, owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic, the sun has receded far to the south in midwinter — when the daj-s thereby have been reduced to a min- imum for the northern hemisj^hcre and the nights lengthened to a maximum — we are about three million miles nearer to the sun than we are in midsummer, when he has come by gradual approaches northward across the tropic and looks down almost vertically upon the temper- ate zone. The amount of sun heat received on the surface of our earth depends upon Conditions on two Simple conditions : the ThelunTeTrl!' angularity of the rays as ceived depends, they enter our atmosphere ; and, secondly, the distance from the solar luminarv. The more directlv the rays fall upon the earth, the greater the heat ; the more obliquely, the less the heat. The nearer the approach of the earth to the sun, thp greater the heat; this, being in a ratio inversely as the square of the distance between the two globes. We are thus in the northern hemisphere (fortunately we may say) brought into perceptible nearness to the solar luminary in midwinter, while in summer we are remote. This is to say that in all our parts of the earth the cold of winter is abated, as is also the heat of the summer, by the circumstance that the perihelion and aphelion of our globe >lean Velncity. -■^fean Velocity. VAKYl.SG \ tLOCITY OF PLANETARY MOTION. fall respectively in the seasons mentioned. If the conditions were reversed, so that our aphelion should fall in midwinter and our perihelion in midsummer, it is easy to see how greatly the seasons would be intensified. Instead of being tempered, as they are at present, by the relations of the earth and sun, the cold of winter would be aggravated by the removal of that luminary to a greater distance in space, and on the other hand the heat conditions of summer would be intensified. Astronomers have estimated with care the variation in climate produced by the circumstances here referred to. It has been demonstrated that the cold of winter in the northern hemisphere is Orbits of Mars ( % \ tkj Earth ( ® 1, l^enus { ? ), and Mercury ( C ). Nodes ft ?5. Nearer Apses M. E. F. i«. 7%tf rfio/j round the orhtts show 'hepositii>n o/thepla nets at inter~>als of ten days. The symbols i | indicate the greatest dis tance 0/ an orbit north and south it/" the plane 0/ the Ecliptic. head on each orbit sh(ym$ •oiution, aiso the piace 'a?i. 1st, /iS/j, at nootu Qtifotl^ The Sun Z^-' Scaie /iTe tJiousand times that oj" Orbits, {The Earthy Mars^ and the Sun are shown in their true axial position^ Scale Ji/ty times that 0/ Orbzls. THE SOLAR SYSTEM DISPLAS'ED— SHOWING ECCENTRICITY OF ORBITS INSIDE OF MARS. Drawn by Richard A. Proctor, F. R. A. S. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 65 less severe by about one fifteenth than it would be if the relations of perihelion Favorable re- and aphelion were inter- sulta of present position of peri- changed. In like manner hellon and , , . aphelion. the heats or our summer time are less torrid by one fifteenth than they would be if the earth were at its nearest approach to the sun at that season of the year. Or to take the problem altogether, the distribution of heat has been tempered and moderated in the northern hemisphere by an aggregate of about two fifteenths of the whole in- crement. As has been said, there was a time in the astronomical past when, by the flue- Former unfavor- tuations of the earth's orbit cKmon S*" above described, our planet our planet. ^^^^ actually thrown into the unfavorable relation of a perihelion in summer and an aphelion in winter It must be borne in mind, moreover that the present eccentricity of the earth's orbit is greatly less than it was at the period of greatest elongation. At that date in the remote past the earth in perihelion approached within eighty-five million miles of the sun, and at its aphel- ion receded to a distance of more than ninety-nine million miles. This variation amounting to more than fourteen million miles, between the nearest approach and the farthest remove of our planet from the sun, would necessarily produce a corresponding difference in the amount of heat and light received in the two positions. This difference has been cal- culated to be for the period of greatest elongation about one fifth of the whole, or, to be more exact, as nineteen is to twenty-six. Since, at the present time, by the reduced eccentricity of our orbit, the difference in the sun's influence upon us by his approach and recession from the earth has been reduced to one fif- teenth, we are able by comparison to appreciate the vast difference between our present climatic fluctuations and those which prevailed at the period of greatest eccentricity. We are here noting the condition of affairs in the northern hemisphere. It is from this point of view that all the nhenomena of man-life on the globe are COMPAR.-iTIVE SIZE OF EARTH AND SUN. to be considered. At that period in the remote past when our orbit was extended to its greatest elongation. Antecedent con- the earth being in alphel- ^^^^^"nl.rtiif' ion at the winter solstice, em hemisphere, the cold was increased to a very marked degree over that which now prevails at the corresponding season of the year. It was a time when the conditions of all kinds of life in our hemisphere were very unfavorable. At that time in the history of our globe the major axis of the earth's orbit was greatly extended ; and the minor was correspondingly shortened. This would throw the elongation of the orbit in the opposite direction to that which it now occupies. The result would be that during that period of our planetary- career the earth would suffer a great depression of temperature while passing through its 66 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. annual aphelion. Thus the cold through- out the northern hemisphere, which is still sufficient to produce and maintain great areas of ice, would be much inten- sified, and although the heat of the shortened summer would for the time be greater than at present, it could not prevail against the glacial condition which would obtain in all the northern parts of the earth.' In the southern hemisphere the case would be different. There the short and intense winter could not prevail against the long- continued high heats of summer, and the ice world would melt down and flow into the sea. We are able in a measure to judge of what has been in the past, under these Thetwohemi- general laws, by a present spheres with re- j^^rvev of the condition of spect to develop- ment of man -life, our climate. The northern hemisphere is the principal abode of man. It is tempered and modified as if in adaptation to man-life and the varied activities in which that life expresses itself on the surface of the earth. But in the southern hemisphere the case is 'During the perihelion of a planet, its motion in the orbit is greatly accelerated, and as a result the season of perihelion, whatever that ma\' be, is short- ened. Oh the contrary, the motion of a planet in aphelion is retarded, and the season lengthened in proportion. When the perihelion falls in winter, as it does in the case of our world at the present time, the season of rigor is abbreviated by the increased velocity of the planet. On the other hand, our sum- mer is protracted by the slow movement of our globe during the period of aphelion in June and July. With the reversal of these conditions the winter would be not only intensified by the greater distance of the sun, but also prolonged by the re- tarded movement of the earth, and vice versa the summer, though intensified by the nearer approach of the sun, would be quickly over by the rapid motion of the planet in that part of its orbit. The aggregate effect would be to give us in the northern hemisphere a climate more severe as to the phenom- ena of cold by an increment of about two fifths — a change sufficient to produce the north polar ice-cap of the glacial period.— See diagram, p. 63. reversed. There the ice mountain around the pole spreads far and wide as an everlasting desolation. Life is kept at bay not only by the absence of land in the antarctic continent, but rather by the excessive rigors of perpetual winter The favorable one fifteenth of moderat- ing heat which we receive in winter works in the southern hemisphere by contraries. So that, on the whole, the conditions of life — the astronomical con- ditions — in the north temperate zone are at present more favorable by two fif- teenths than they are in the antarctic continents — if such there were. The reader may now retrace the course of our globe to the time when the greatest elongation of the -winter aphelion earth's orbit was coincident -;,?„rp'r'^,tcts with winter; when the polar ice caps, ice mountain surrounded the northern instead of the southern pole of the earth ; when the vast fields of ice extending from the north pole southward in all directions covered the earth as if with a shining husk far down into what is now the temperate zone. At the same time he will perceive at that remote period the freedom and openness of the south polar region ; because at that epoch the earth was in perihelion in summer and aphelion in winter; that is, as measured by an imaginary calendar for the north- ern hemisphere. Possibly at that epoch the antarctic continents were exposed, while many parts of the islands and shores of the northern hemisphere would be submerged under the overwhelming, waters. It is easy, in a word, to recog-i nize, in the conditions here established from the standpoint of astronomy, the existence and the causes of that wonderful epoch in world history to which geology gives the name of the Glacial Period. That period had its origin in the axial fluctuations of the earth's orbit. The TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 67 northern hemisphere became the hemi- sphere of ice at the epoch when the major axis of the earth's orbit lay transversely to the position -which it now occupies, ■and at the time when the greatest elongation of the orbit was attained. The result was that our globe, our northern globe, would be in aphelion in winter and perihelion in summer, and the effect of this would be the intensi- fication of the seasons, resulting in the heaping up around the north pole of a prodigious ice mountain, extending down in all directions like a cap over the northern hemisphere, until its south- em edges would be melted away by the solar heat. We have thus established the primor- dial conditions of the glacial period in geolog\'. We are able to Fixing the place of our planetary See clearly how it was that January. r .' ■ ^ from astronomical causes the larger part of the northern hemi- sphere was formerly enveloped with heavy masses of ice and snow. We may also perceive with equal distinctness the operation of the causes which would bring this period of desolation — certainly anterior to the appearance of man-life on the earth — to an end. These causes existed fundamentall)- in the fluctuations of the earth's orbit. The climax of the glacial period would be theoretically co- incident with the greatest elongation of | the earth's orbit at a time when, owing to the relative position of the major and minor axes, the aphelion of the planet would fall in winter. This is the key to the whole argument. This astronom- ical condition was the efficient cause of the creation of the ice mountain and envelop extending from the north pole far southward in all directions toward the equator. Practically, however, the crisis of this era of maximum rigor in our world history would fall sonu-what beyond the time when the greatest elon- gation of the orbit was attained coin- cidently with the falling of the aphelion in midwinter. Just as the crisis of our present winter is carried by climatic con- ditions considerably beyond the winter solstice and thrown perhaps to the mid- dle of January, so the crisis of the glacial period was carried by the astronomical conditions above described considerably beyond what may be called the mid- winter of our world-life and thrown into our planetary January. None the less, for practical purposes, we may consider the glacial period, or our world winter, to have been coincident with the time when the Epoch of moder- earth was in aphelion at the t^^^^S^ winter solstice and when glacial rivers, the orbit had attained its greatest trans- verse elongation. From that time forth the epoch of moderation began to ensue. The major axis of the orbit began to contract, the minor to expand. The aphelion began to depart from the winter solstice, and as a consequence the sun with each cycle occupied a more favor- able and favoring position with respect to the ice cap which covered the north- ern hemisphere. Gradually and with long lapses of time the lower parts, that is, the southern parts, or spurSj of the ice mountain began to melt away. Some- times great masses, inconceivably huge in dimensions, were broken off, as we now see in smaller example in the break- ing away of the feet of the Alpine ava- lanches. More and more the favoring conditions came into existence, and more and more the sun's heat carried away and poured down intd ever-swelling rivers the southern edges of the glacial deposits. We have here the beginnings of our present world order. It was at this time that the general form and physical fea- tures of the different countries of the 68 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. northern hemisphere were determined. Now it was, as time rolled on and as the glacial period came to a close, that the great valleys were formed and defined in the bottoms of which to the present day the descendent streams of the ancient flood-rivers creep along on their way to the seas. In all the continents and countries of the northern hemisphere it is notable that the river valleys are out of all p'-<«!TVt'"n larg'cr than the streams the earth's surface by the crushing and plunging plow.shares of the glaciers. The circumstances and conditions hero referred to are a part of geological in- quiry; but the reader will Man-ufe begins have obser\-ed that the line "he'glacH* °*^ of definition between astro- floods, nomical antecedents and geological ef- fects is quite difficult to draw. What we are here to consider is this, that the appearance of man on the earth is a fact iKMATHjN 'iF I.I \LIAI. KIVEK.- llr.,un ly k of water which they have respectively borne at any time within the historical period. An examination of these valleys will show, moreover, unmistakabh' that they were once occupied with vast rolling rivers, extending from hill to hill, many times miles in width, and bearing down- ward under pressure of the prodigious floods all manner of flotsam and jetsam from the previous geological age, mixed with the detritus rubbed or scoured from lying tliis side of the glacial epoch. Tha present state of inquiry points distinctly to the era of the subsidence of the gla- cial rivers — that is, the great volumes of water produced by the melting away of the ice cap of the northern hemisphere — into the channels, still large and swol- len, but approximately the same which are now occupied by the great streams of our continents, as the time when man- life began on the surface of our planet. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.—ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 69 It is not needed, in this connection, to enumerate the evidences by which the appearance of the human race on the earth is associated with the period of the subsidence of the glacial floods. These evidences will hereafter be presented when we come to consider the geological testimony bearing on the question of the antiquity of man. The particular inquiry with which we are here concerned is to find, if we may, a measurement of years, and adjust the scale to the changing planetary conditions which we have above described, determining thereby, with some fair approximation, the date of that epoch which may be taken as the maximum for the appearance of man on the earth. It were unreasonable in the last de- gree to expect exactitude in such an Allowance to be inquirj'. In considering "tftldJl^ra-st astronomical epochs and calculations. geological agcs the small calendars devised by man for days and seasons are lost in the vastness. We must content ourselves to consider large numbers as units. In attempting to measure planetary changes the thou- sand or the million must be taken for one. Employing such large measure- ment, much incidental and minor in- accuracy must fall in the result, to be eliminated by the further application of science to the problems of nature. Fortunately, physical science is now in such a stage of proficiency and ad- Attempts to fix vancement as to enable us :rpea™;f^' to complete the study with ™^°- a tolerable approach to ac- curacy. Since the times of the younger Herschel inquirj- has been steadily pro- gressing with respect to the fluctuations of the earth's orbit and the changing climatic conditions dependent thereon. After Herschel the study was taken up by Arago, Humboldt, and other geolo- gists belonging to the first half of the present century. More recently, and within the eighth decade, the distin- guished Dr. James Croll has carried for- ward the investigation with greater suc- cess than any or all of his predecessors. In the following table, prepared by Dr. Croll, we have a calendar of more than a million of years arranged in periods of ten thousand years each, from the max- imum of 1,100,000 B. C. down to the middle of the present century. This part of the table occupies the first col- umn ; the second column is made up of the decimals expressing the eccen« tricity of the earth's orbit for each cor- responding period in column one ; the third column contains, in degrees and minutes, the longitude of perihelion for the successive periods; the fourth gives the difference of distance of the earth in perihelion and aphelion measured in millions of miles ; and the fifth the ex- cess of winter days over summer days for the corresponding periods. It will be noted that from several circumstances with which the astronomer is familiar the decimals Maxima and expressing the eccentricity ^™,°„^,\1 do not increase and our orbit, diminish with perfect regularity, and the same is true of the degree marks expressing the longitude of perihelion. But the reader will not fail to note that in a general ivay the figures in all the columns rise and fall according to a definite law. He will note, for instance, that the lowest decimal of eccentricity given anywhere is 0.0102, and that the highest of all is 0.0747. He will also observe that the lowest measurement of the longitude of perihelion is 4° 8', the highest being 358° 2'. In the third place, it will be noted that a relation, not perfectly con- stant, but nevertheless clear and unmis- 70 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. takable, exists between the maxima and the minima in the several cohimns under consideration. The table is as follows, the periods of greatest elongation being set in antique figures : From the accompanying table we may note with ease the periods when the earth's orbit in the past has attained its greatest elongations. The first of these corresponds in round numbers with the CROLL'S tables of rLANET.VRV FLUCTUATIONS. Year B. C. Eccentritily of earth's orbit. Longitude of Perihelion. Difference of distance in millions of miles. Number of winter days in excess. Year B. C. Eccentricity of earth's orbit. Longitude of Perihelion. Difference of distance in millions of miles. Number of winter days in excess. Deg. Min. Deg. MIn. 1,100.000 0.0303 54 12 550,000 0166 251 50 3 8 1,050,000 0.0326 4 8 500,000 0.0388 192 56 7 18.8 1,000,000 O.OI5I 248 22 2-75 7^3 450,000 0.0308 35b 52 5-5 15 990,000 0.0224 313 50 400,000 0170 290 7 3 8.2 980,000 0.0329 358 2 .... i 350,000 0.0195 182 50 3-5 9-1 970,000 0.0441 32 40 300,000 0.0424 23 29 7-75 20.6 960,000 0.0491 66 49 250,000 0.0258 59 39 4-5 12.5 950,000 0.0517 97 51 925 25.1 240,000 0.0374 74 58 .... 940,000 0.0495 127 42 230,000 0.0477 102 49 930,000 0.0423 156 II 220,000 0.0497 ■24 33 .... 920,000 0.0305 181 40 210,000 00575 144 55 10. 5 27.8 910,000 0.0156 '94 «5 .... 200,000 0.0569 168 18 10.25 27.7 900.000 0.0102 "35 2 4.9 190,000 0.0532 190 4 890,000 0.0285 127 1 180,000 0476 209 22 .... .... 880,000 0.0456 "52 33 .... 170,000 0.0437 228 7 .... 870,000 0.0607 180 23 .... 160,000 . 0364 236 38 860,000 0.0708 209 41 .... 1 50,000 0.0332 242 56 6 16. 1 850,000 0.0747 239 28 13.2 36.4 140,000 0.0346 246 29 840,000 o.o6y8 269 14 130,000 0.0384 259 34 .... 830,000 0.0623 298 28 .... 120,000 0.0431 274 47 .... 820,000 0.0476 326 4 .... 1 10,000 0.0460 29548 810,000 0.0296 348 30 100,000 0.0473 316 18 s-s' 23 800,000 0.0132 343 49 2.2s '6:4 90.000 0.0452 340 2 .... 790,000 0.0171 293 '9 80,000 0398 4 13 .... 780,01)0 0.0325 303 37 .... 70,000 0.0316 27 22 .... 770,000 0.0455 32838 60.000 0218 48 8 760,000 0.0540 357 12 50,000 0.0131 So 3 2.25 6.3 750,000 00575 27 18 10.5 27:8 40,000 0.0109 28 36 740.000 0.0561 58 30 30,000 O.OI5I 5 50 .... 730,000 0.0507 90 55 20,000 0.0188 44 .... 720.000 0.0422 125 14 10,000 0.0187 78 28 .... .... 710.000 0.0307 177 26 0.0168 99 30 3 8.1 700,000 0220 208 13 4 10.2 Year A. D. 650,000 0.0226 141 29 4 II 600,000 0.0417 32 34 75 20.3 1850 0.0168 100 22 .... .... To these we may append CroH's spe- cial calculation for the maximum ec- centricity between 851,000 B. C. and 849,000 B. C. Year B. C. Eccentncity of earth's orbit. Longitude of Penhelion. Difference of distance in millions of miles. Number of winter days in e.\ccss. 851,000 850,000 849,500 849,000 0.07454 . 074664 0.07466 0.07456 .... .... year 950,000 B. C. ; the next, with 850,000 B. C. : the third, with 750,000 B. C; the fourth reaches periods of great- forward a little from the Z.tZf::TL^ century mark thus far crou's tables, maintained to about 600,000 B. C. The next epoch is 500,000 B. C. It is clear from the table that the next lies between 350,000 and 300,000. The .sixth corre- sponds with the year 210,000 B. C. The seventh and last falls approximately on TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 71 the year 100,000 B. C. Or to general- ize, we see that during the last million of years the fluctuations of our orbit from one period of greatest elongation to the next occupy approximately a span of a thousand centuries each. The move- ment is sufficiently regular to warrant us in accepting this period as the ap- proximate unit of the oscillation. Neglecting all the preceding epochs of greatest elongation down to the last, we note that the same Fixing of date ofour last plan- corresponds approximately etary winter. -.. ,-, -n /-^ With the year 100,000 B. C. This may be taken as our critical date for the present inquiry. This epoch corresponds not only with the last period of our orbit's greatest elongation, but also with the time when the earth was in aphelion in winter. The date, there- fore, marks the last crisis when our globe passed through what we have called above our planetary winter ; that is, the crisis of greatest cold — the time when the conditions were all favorable for the production of the ice mountain around the north pole, and its extension in a glaring cap far down in all directions toward the equator. In was, in other words, the glacial period of geology. As we have intimated, it is doubtless true that the crisis of the epoch of rigor Crisis of rigor on lay further ou somewhat; pinod'of ^ °^ that is, this side of the date elongation. of 100,000 B. C. We might in a rough and conjectural way deduct five thousand or ten thousand years from the date of the crisis as an approximation to the date of greatest rigor. From that time onward there would begin to be an abatement of those conditions antecedent to the glacial ac- cumulations; that is, the planet would begin to come into more favorable and favoring relations with the sun, and at length the preponderance of cosmic forces would balance the other way, and the glacial mass would begin, on its south- ern edges, to melt down into our north- em oceans. We thus arrive at length to the same condition which we have formerly de- scribed, namely, a condition of flood and river deluge in the northern Epoch of the hemisphere. In the present ^^^^^^^ instance, however, we are hemisphere working not abstractly, but with a scale of years determined by astronomical cal- culations. In other words, we see that somewhat less than a hundred thousand years ago the crisis of our glacial period was reached, and that subsequently, at a considerable span from that crisis, the ice mountains of the northern hemi- sphere began to give away under the re- turning conditions of heat. How long a period was required for these changed conditions to become operative in the liquefaction of the lower parts of the glaciers we are left somewhat to con- jecture, but no doubt it required a con- siderable period for the returning ap- proximation of the sun to begin to affect materially the glacial cap of the north- ern continents. It may be assumed as a fact scientific- ally determined that the whole of man- life lies this side of the gla- Era of man-life cial period. Indeed, from on this side of 1 . , r ii the diluvial age. what we know of the con- ditions present in the northern hemi- sphere during that period it would be impossible for the human race to main- tain an existence upon the earth, even il the race had existed before. We are, therefore, to conclude that the being called Man made his appearance at a subsequent date, when the globe had been made habitable by the melting away of the glaciers, the subsidence of the rivers, and the definition of the con- tinents in the forms which they now hold. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 73 It would appear, therefore, that we might pass over at once from the work of astronomical laws to the geological conditions which ensued in and after the diluvian period, with a view to ascertain- ing more definitely at what time man and his works are first discoverable on the earth. This we shall presently at- tempt to do ; but before passing to the geological inquiry respecting the an- tiquity of our race, it will be well to revert to one or two additional facts deducible from the laws of astronomy. One of these is that next to the last period of greatest elongation ii) the earth's orbit, falling as it Place of the last ° thermal epoch did about a thousand cen- for the earth. , . i /■ ii.ii. tunes before the last, oc- curred under such conditions as to pro- duce an epoch of heat in the northern hemisphere. That is, about the year 210,000 B. C, when the greatest elonga- tion just referred to was attained, the sun was at or near perihelion in winter, the result being a great increment of heat in the northern hemisphere, with corresponding climatic and vital phe- nomena. This supposition we find to be confirmed by geological inquirj'. It is evident, indeed well known, that a period of heat preceded the glacial epoch. There was a time anterior to the great accumulation of ice and snow in the northern hemisphere when almost tropical conditions prevailed throughout what is now our temperate zone and far up toward the polar regions. A thing of great importance to be observed in connection with this warm ReUcs of ther- epoch is that the remains of ^^hTos^^f-'^ animal and vegetable life ciai remains. which have survived there- from, passing, so to speak, under the glacial epoch and reappearing in the diluvian period, are so mixed and blend- ed with the remains of animal and vege- M.— Vol. 1—6 table life belonging to the period subse- quent to the prevalence of the glacial age, that the casual observer and student is likely to confound the two classes of relics as belonging to the same epoch. For instance, the specimens of woolly elephant which were caught, so to speak, by the glacial age, frozen up far to the north, and thus preserved to the diluvian period, may easily be referred by the uncritical inquirer to the same geological period which produced the mammoth, the reindeer, and the cave bear. The significance of this circumstance is the great depth of the perspective, and the large allowance of time which must be made from the close of Depth of time the diluvian period to the PemTelkTe o?" present. If the span be- ^^'^ tween the preceding age of heat and the succeeding age of cold is, as it ap- pears to be, measured by a thousand cen- turies — if the distance from the woolly elephant to the mammoth is so great — we may be sure that under the slow and regular processes of the natural world the distance from the close of the glacial epoch to the present time is almost equally immense. Without the ability to lay a measuring rod upon these vast spaces of time, and limited as we are to estimates, the mind is necessarily embar- rassed with uncertainty; but the condi- tions of the inquiry, its metes and bounds being determined from scientific data, Ave are enabled to rest securely upon the general knowledge of the great duration of the astronomical and geolog- ical epochs which we are considering, and to accept with confidence a belief in the remote date of man's appearance on the globe. A summary of the leading facts gath- ered in this inquiry may^serve to bring before the reader with conciseness the data from which the deduction of the CONniTION OF EXTREME COLD, ILLUSTRATED KKO.M ARCTIC LANDSCAPE.— Drawn by Kioii TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. Ih high antiquity of man is made. These Summary of de- data, reduced to their fsTronomlcr briefest expression, are .aws and data. aboUt aS follows : 1. The last period of greatest elonga- tion of the earth's orbit fell about a thou- sand centuries before the Christian era. 2. This epoch of greatest eccentricity- was coincident with the aphelion of the earth in winter. 3. These two conditions acting togeth- er produced, so far as the climate of the northern hemisphere was concerned, an epoch of extreme cold, corresponding with that period in geology known as the glacial age. 4. The crisis of the glacial period lay somewhat this side in time of the coinci- dence defined in paragraphs first and second of this summary. 5. Our planet ever since the crisis of the glacial age has, by favoring astro- nomical changes, been coming more and more into an epoch of climatic modera- tion suitable for the exis?tence and activ- ities of the human race. 6. The time at which the conditions in the northern hemisphere became suffi- ciently amended to admit and favor the appearance of man was coincident with the epoch of the subsidence into their beds and proper channels of the glacial floods, produced by the melting down of the accumulations of the age of ice, as above described. 7. As an approximation to a measure- ment by time, it is safe to allow one fourth of the whole period, or two hun- dred and fifty centuries, for the period extending from the crisis of the glacial epoch to the time of the subsidence of the floods produced by the melting away of the mountains of accumulated ice and snow. 8. This would give us by approxima- tion a maximum of seventy-five thousand years as the date at which the habitabil- ity of the northern hemisphere was suf- ficiently established to admit of the com- ing and preservation of man-life in our continents ; but 9. The estimate just given must be taken as a superior limit beyond which astronomical, geological, archaeological, and ethnical inquiry need not reach in expectation of finding the evidences or remains of human activity on our globe. 10. In cases where a maximum and minimum date are established as the lim- its within which an event has occurred, the principle of averages points to the middle part of the whole period consid- ered as the .safest and most certain ap- proximation to the time sought for. 1 1. This would indicate that, from as- tronomical considerations and conditions determinative of the character and fluc- tuations of the earth's orbit, the probable epoch of the appearance of man on the globe was from thirtv thousand to fortv thousand years before the beginning of our era. 12. Such approximations and proba- bilities are, in the nature of the ca.se, tentative, and are subject to modification and displacement by the result of inqui- ries bearing on the same subject, but conducted from the standpoint of other sciences. If the foregoing study has clearly im- pressed the mind of the reader with any one fact, it is the slow rate of ehange by which our earth has pas.sed, siow progress oi and is still passing, from Z?^''^:^::, stage to .stage in its his- concept, tory. This is said not only of the planet considered as an orb in space, but of all its attendant phenomena and attributes of life and organization. Great, almost inconceivable, lapses of time are neces- .sary to any appreciable change in the constitution, aspects, and vital conditions 76 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. of the world. The concept of this slow and orderly progress of planetary growth and development is as sublime as that which contemplates the magnitude and endlessness of the material universe. Certain it is that nature hurries not. Certain it is that her progress does not consist of catastrophes, phenomenal cat- aclysms, and astounding revivals. The rate of formation for our world, for all worlds, has been so gradual as almost to preclude the record of its growth by other than immortal or infinite beings. It is easy to refer the successive cycles of world history to the measurement of time by hundreds or thousands or mil- lions of years ; but a clear apprehension of the immense periods of duration nec- essary to the fact of worldhood is unat- tainable by the human mind with its present capacities and powers. The slow progress of world history and life history is, therefore, a fundamental con- cept in the work of determining the ap- proximate time at which a rational form of being began its manifestations on our globe. Still another consideration here sug- gested is the date — again approximate — at which we have now ar- Question of our present place ill rived in the epoch of life tlie epoch of life. . •■ j •. i . , considered with respect to our Avorld history. Are we but entering that epoch? Are we journeying on to- ward its middle? Are we in the after part of the stately progress? Or are we nearing its close? In what part of the History of Life, considered as a whole, do we find ourselves as a race of intel- ligent beings? It may be assumed that our race ca- reer on the earth is a long one. It stands to neither fact nor reason that the be- ginning and the end of human life on our globe lie near together. Everything that we know and observe points clearly to an extended, long-continued epoch for our race. As we have said, the scale of man -life is not as great as Reasons for as- that of the planet-life. ^^^^^ But so far as our globe has career. a purpose, that purpose has respect un- doubtedly to the human beings that in- habit it ; and we are at liberty to presup- pose that the time during which our race holds and dominates the planet is far- reaching, both in the past and in the future. The conditions of reason are such as to lead us to believe that the period of our ethnic career extends al- most infinitely in both directions. The particular point which we are here to consider is the place of the shorter scale of man-life on conditions on the longer scale of planet ^.^utty' cl S!!;- life, and the approximate ufe depends, position now occupied by our race in the shorter scale of existence. In determin- ing the answer to this question, we have again to consider that fundamental con- dition upon which man-life on our globe depends, namely, heat. The existence and perpetuation of human beings upon our globe has from the first and will to the last depend upon the vitalizing power of heat on the surface of the earth. There was a time when this heat was in excess of the demands of life, and there will be a time when the deficiency of heat will lead to the certain extinction of all vital phenomena on our planet. Our globe, once superheated and afterward, as we have seen, subjected to the rigors of the glacial period, has by its endless elliptical journey through space parted with a great portion of its residual heat ; and the process is still going on. As the earth speeds on in its orbit, its heat, like that of a vital body passing through a region colder than itself, streams off behind it ; so that there is a constant loss of the vitalizing power of the globe. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 77 This loss, however, is in great measure resupplied from two sources. That is, the superficial heat of the earth's surface is replenished from two fountains : first, the interior caldron, or reservoir, oc- cupying the larger part of the planet and held in place by the outer crust of rock ; and secondly, the constant contribution of the sun. The human race continues its exist- ence on the planet by economizing the vital energies of heat from the two Most favorable sources just named. The ^^nfi"Tt''n^ .f best condition of all for the conservation of vital energy. existence and power of man-life on the earth is that planetary stage at which the loss and the gain of heat on the surface are equal. The middle, and we may say the maximum, epoch of man-life is coincident with that time in planet history when the wasting expenditure of heat into the surround- ing spaces of our orbit is exactly counter- balanced by the radiation to the surface from the internal fires of the globe, plus the constant gift of the sun. "When this condition is present, the state of the globe is most favorable for the propaga- tion, the maintenance, and the longevity of human life. It is at this stage that the epoch of life-equilibrium is at- tained; and if the equipoise could be preserved there is no discoverable rea- son why the human race might not con- tinue forever. Before this condition of highest equilibrium is reached all the warm-blooded animals, including man, are at a disadvantage with respect to their environment, because of the su- perfluity of heat at the surface of the earth, with the thousand concomitant circumstances of that superfluity, tending as they do to hasty growth, premature development, overexcitability of the ner- vous system, enervation, and all the physical vices which we observe to the present time in the tropical and semi tropical parts of the globe. After the favorable condition has been passed — as it will be in the history of our planet the struggle Nature of the of life and for life takes Sf and^^er another form. The incre- the crisis, ment of heat constantly received at the surface becoming less than the expendi- ture leaves man and his fellow-animals at a disadvantage of a different kind. The struggle to exist takes the form of an effort to maintain the vital fire against the draught of nature. A large part of human exertion must needs be wasted in such a state in trying to pre- serve the proper envelop of heat, wast- ing ever and but feebly resupplied. The after history of the human race must in- deed take this form of contention wnth the efflux of the natural world, and must recount the struggle of man, becoming ever more arduous, to maintain himself and his kind upon the surface of a globe sinking into the rigors of an endless winter. From the middle epoch, most favorable to the production and longev- ity of man as an animal to the end of his career, he will be put at a disadvan- tage, and will cease to develop under the laws of his environment. Up to that time — the crisis — when the accretion and the expenditure of heat are equal, our race development will continue. The physical, intellectual, and let us hope the moral, powers of man will continue to expand and develop. But after the crisis we may expect to wane — slowly we may believe ; but the cosmic law must doubtless be obeyed. Philosophy and astronomy have com- bined their resources in the attempt to determine the present condition of our heat equation and the relations of man- life thereto. The best scientific opinion has been brought to bear on the ques- CIJXUITION' OF EXTREME HEAT, ILLUSTRATED FROM AFRICAN' FOREST.— Drawn by Alexamlre dc Bar. TIME OF THE BEGIXXING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGi'MEXT. 79 tion, and the decision is that our planet has not readied, by a considerable span, Condition of the maximum of its vital- withtespeTto ity, considered as the arena man-hfe. of our race activities. This is to say that the world is still receiving at the surface an increment of heat more than equal to the constant waste in its progress through space. The excess is not by any ineans so great as it was in the previous history of the planet ; but as we approach the ci'isis — our epoch of equi- librium between the heat given and re- ceived — the approach thereto is retarded by many favoring circumstances, thus prolonging the period of human develop- ment. While the amount of heat re- ceived from the sun may be regarded as nearly constant, the quantity given off from the earth into .space diminishes by an ever-decreasing ratio. The earth as a reservoir of heat is at present better fitted than ever before to preserve it. The adamantine walls round about our vast store of internal caloric are thicker and more substantial with each succeed- ing geologic age, and the loss of our liv- ing energy is less and less rapid as we journey on. We are thus on the favorable and fa- voring side of our cosmic life. It is easy The human race to demonstrate with proofs fendinS'of "^her than those here sug- vitality. gested that the epoch most favorable for the production and maintenance of man-life on the earth has not yet been attained. Whatever con- clusions we may reach b)- following the astronomical suggestions above given, there is a substantial agreement among the most competent and scholarly think- ers of our times that we still have on the surface of our earth an annual gift of heat from internal and external stores in excess of our waste into space. It follows that the conditions for the further development of man-life on our globe are still present, and that we may comfort ourselves with the our rate ot prog belief and knowledge that crisis crn"'^ *"* we have not as yet by a con- sidered. siderable stage in our ethnic life reached the highest or middle point in our race career — the period of greatest longevity and intellectual and bodily power. Our rate of progress toward that approaching crisis we are able to judge b}- the brief knowledge which we possess historically of the previous histor}' of mankind. That is, we are able to estimate our rate of progress toward that epoch which shall be most favorable for the mainte- nance and duration of human life in the earth. We know from historical data that our march toward the crisis in our ethnic life is extremely slow — so slow indeed as to have left much confusion in the human mind respecting its own direction and tendencies. There have been historical periods within the limits of recorded annals in which man-life seemed to move not at all, but rather to remain stationary, or at best to move only on a level. At other times progress has seemed to be actually retrogres.sive. This is said of the physical life of man, of his intellectual life, and of his moral capacities and characteristics. From a wider point of observation, however, we can but perceive the slow but unmistakable progress siow movement of mankind from lower to ^o'^^dt^^her higher forms of activity, development, to greater length of life, to superior wis- dom — particularly in the knowledge of nature and of the means of subduing and utilizing her magnificent energies — to nobler aspirations and worthier achieve- ments, to higher purposes and to grand- er concepts of the universe. Here again the slow rate of progress which the human race has made in its 80 GREAT RACES OF JlfAXKLXn. of our present stage in race career. course during the brief period of recorded history gives us a distinct hint of the long prehistoric extent of man-life on the earth. It is easy for the geometri- cian from a small arc to determine the extent and character of the whole circle. The indications to which we have just referred may serve a like purpose to the ethnologist and philosopher in estimating the extent and variety of our race career before our coming into the epoch of con- scious history. We have a traditional and historical knowledge of mankind extending over several thousand years. The knowledge Historical hints thus derived is sufficient- ly clear and authentic as to the character, activities, and duration of human life in remote antiquity. In some particulars the prog- ress since the earliest date of recorded annals has not been great. In intellect, pure and simple, the races of to-day hardly surpass, if indeed they equal, some of the favored peoples of the ancient world ; but in most respects progress can be discovered in every particular of the life and career of man. One of the most marked of these improvements is the matter of longevity. Notwithstanding the temporary wreck and devastation of the Middle Ages, it can not be doubted that human life is on the average more stable and enduring than it was four thousand years ago. The average period of human existence is greater than it was at the Renaissance ; greater than in the age of the Antonines ; greater than at the date of the Trojan War; greater than when the Vedic hymns were sung by the Brahmanic shepherds. More remarkable by far has been the gain in the means of subsistence — the methods of taking from earth and sea the materials on which the support of human life is founded. The capacities of the earth have been discovered and utilized. The mother of all has beeiv made to bring forth her Gains of man- gifts in their season, and f^^^^^^^H the ability of maintaining ment,. life has been given to a greater number and in larger measure than ever before. As to the increase and accumulatiojj of knowledge, the gain has been most marked of all. The race has been made acquainted with the laws and phenomena of its environment, and nature has been converted from a foe into a friend and servant of man. The elements so long considered hostile have become propi- tious under the dominion of scientific knowledge, and the miaintenance of life has become easy and universal. All of these facts, merely touched upon in this connection, agree substan- tially with the theory of the Facts indicating impro^•ing habitability of lra?m?lftfe' the earth. The scientific earth. concept that the planet is still improving as a world suitable for the habitation of rational intelligences is borne out by the facts of the improved and ever improv- ing conditions of human life. The great cosmic law is exemplified in that small segment of human experience which goes by the name of history ; but the whole significance of the argument lies in this, that the rate of improvement in the human race, the increase in lon- gevity, the multiplication of the means of subsistence, and the permanent incre- ment of knowledge, have been so slow in movement and so small in the aggre- gate since the beginnings of recorded time as to convince us that the whole circle of man-life is a circumference of vast extent. Every fact and circum- stance within the range of our informa- tion points clearly to the long-extended duration of the human period, and every condition under which we live on the TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 81 earth, and have lived in the past, opposes itself with persistency to the supposition that we are at the present time near either the beginning- or the end of our race career. The phenomena of life, that is, of human life, are all so intimately related and correlated with the phenom- ena of planet life as to convince us that, though the planet life has a wider sweep of duration than the race-life of mankind — though there were antecedent ages of preparation for the appearance of man, as there will doubtless be succeeding ages to his disappearance from the sur- face of the globe — the date of the be- ginning of rational being on the planet was remote from the present by multi- plied thousands of years, as the date of the disappearance will be remote by multiplied thousands to come. We may here with propriety add a few paragrajDhs drawn from the concep- tion of design in the universe. It is not Concept of de- intended in this connec- IxTe^ded rac?" tion to place SO great stress career. upon a plan and purpose in universal nature as was done by the natural theologians of the last century. Much less is it intended to intimate the absence of purpose and design in that vast and magnificent system of worlds of which our own is but an insignificant example. That the universe is orderly can no more be denied than that it is grand and magnificent in extent and variety. If the thing for which the old mythologists invented the name of Chaos ever existed, it exists no longer, at least not in those tremendous fields of space which have been penetrated by the great telescopes of modern times. So far as our solar system is concerned, the chaotic element, if ever present, has wholly disappeared. The belt of the asteroids may, indeed, represent the path and the fragments of a former world ; but even in this region of space the reign of law holds all things in its beneficent grasp. In all other parts of our system regularity in worldhood ap- pears to right and left. Adaptation is discoverable. Reason seems to prevail. The universe appears to be the habitation of intelligence and purpose. Without following, beyond the sugges- tion of a just rationalism, the hints of design, of regularity and Long duration plan, in the universe, and ^^t^VpCof in our own world in par- •worldhood. ticular, we may well accept the belief of an adaptation of the planetary spheres to the abode of rational intelligences like ourselves. Thus much being grant- ed, it is but a step to the conclusion that the principle of duration might be ex- pected as a part of the plan of world- hood. Given the habitability of a planet as a part of its purpose and plan, and the concept of permanence, or at least great duration, follows as a necessary infer- ence. Why, indeed, should a world be habitable for the highest order of beings only for a brief season ? What possible reason could be assigned for the late ap- pearance and early extinction of the highest and best form of intelligent ex- istence? If our own earth, for instance, had in it from the first the condition and prophecy of habitability, as it un- doubtedly did have, and as we are at lib- erty to infer all other planets have, then why should there be a period of prepa- ration almost infinite in extent to be fol- lowed only by a brief and quickly van- ishing residence of the noblest of all the creatures? Every condition of right thinking leads to the belief that the ap- pearance of man on the planet would occur at the earliest practicable moment (so to speak), and that mankind would continue to flourish to the latest practi- cable date. It is one of the novel con- 82 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. tradictions in the philosophy of a certain school of thinkers that they would have us believe that the earth, fitted up as it were for the dwelling place of man, lay green and virgin, waiting for his ap- pearance through eons of useless time — all this for no better reason than to sat- isfy the preconceptions of some impossi- ble system of chronology. Such short-sighted views of nature i consistent with the astronomical and geological preparation of the globe. Reason and fact alike require us to ac- cept as early a date for the appearance of man as the design of the world and its conditions of habitability will admit. The results of reason must be accepted in a world governed by law. That the date of man's appearance was coinci- dent, or nearly coincident, with the LANDSCAPE OF THE LOWER OOLITE (BEFORE THE AGE OF MAX).— Drawn by Riou. and of man Ave may at once dismiss as belonging to the ignorance and blindness Right reason de- of a former age. While ?,?AL^^^^^I'7v the demands of right reason aate lor appear- t> anceofman. (Jq not call for a limltlcss extension of inan-life into the past, and while such a view is contradicted by sci- entific data which may not be doubted, a rational concept of the liLiman race in relation with the planetary life upon which it is maintained does call for as wide and far-reaching an arena as is astronomical changes in the charactei of the earth!s orbit heretofore described, can not well be doubted by any one whose mind has been freed from nar- row preconceptions on the subject. That our race career, measuring back- ward through the brief historical and traditional periods of our ethnic life, has extended far enough into the past to cover a considerable part of the planet life with which it is associated, is a con- clusion warranted by every condition of TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 83 right thinking. That the design of the world and of our solar system points to a long-continued career for the highest form of living intelligences on its surface can hardly be doubted by him ■\vho be- lieves the universe to be underlaid with ' plan and purpose. Finally, that our own race, by its slow rate of progress, has not yet attained the maximum of its power, longevity, and rational activities, is a fact which we may accept at the hands of sci- ence as demonstrable from exi.sting data. Chapter III.— Argujviexx from Geology. URNIXG then from the astronomical to the geological argument respecting the antiq- uity of man, we shall reach the same general views, the same con- clusions as above. We are not to enter here into the broader discussion of the able for the human race. The science of geology belongs virtually to the present century. Hitherto any truly scientific concept of the formation Geoicicai sci- and character of our globe ^rth:Vr°ese"nt was wanting. All the for- century, merachievements of mankind in geologi- cal inquiry were not equal in extent and variety to those which have been made PALitOZOlC .AGE OF THE EARTH.— Laxdscape of the Eocen-e. -Drawn by Riou. geological age of our planet, but only to i by the geologists of the nineteenth cen- note the epoch in whicli it became habit- I tury. The result has been a tolerably 84 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. complete investigation of the clianicter of the earth's crust and of the order of world formation. A summar}^ of these results may here be presented with a view to showing the epoch of man. In the bottom of the world we have the azoic, or lifeless, age. Above this, and next in order of succes- Outline of the order of the sion, we have the palaeozoic geological ages. ^^^ . ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^nc^^tnt life period of world formation. Above this the Carboniferous, and the Pemian .strata of the earth's crust. The secondary rocks of the neozoic age include the Triassic, the Juras.sic, and the Cretaceous, or chalk, formations. The tertiary, or caenozo'ic, rocks are divided into whaf. are called the eocene, the miocene, and the pliocene, and above these we have the superficial formations known as the post-tertiary, quaternary, pleistocene, or inost recent deposits of all. This .sketch PAL,tljZ<.)ic AGE OF THE EARTH.— Cambro-Silukia.n I.ANDbCAPE.— Drawn by Rluu. and succeeding it we have the neozoic, or new-life, age, reaching to the surface and including the present life-forms of the world. For convenience, the neozoic age has been divided into a lower, called the secondary, or mesozoic, period ; and an upper, called the tertiary epoch. The palaeozoic age, if we begin at the bottom, next to the azoic rocks, includes the Cambrian, the vSilurian, the Devonian, includes what are known as the fossil- iferous strata of the world, reaching downward from the present fauna and flora of the surface to the lifeless bed of the azoic rocks. It is needless to urge upon the atten- tion of any intelligent reader the great periods of time which are indicated in the geological formation of the earth. How great these periods are has never TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 85 been determined, and it is possible that their duration may remain indeterminate Exact time to the end of time. But noTr: to another. When these favorable con- ditions do exist, as we shall see here- after, the actual relics of our species are preserved from age to age with scarcely a perceptible mark of change. The analogy between animal and .vegetable bodies is in this respect com- plete. With exposure grains of wheat and seeds of various plants and grasses are quickly resolved into their constitu- ents ; but wheat grains, still preserving their vital germs and capable of growth 90 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. and reproduction, have been taken in recent times from the Egyptian sar- Possibiiity of cophagi where they were long preserva- deposited as much as three tion of organic -r remains. thousand ycars ago. A single find and demonstration of this kind is sufficient to establisli tlie law of vegetable and animal preservation under favorable conditions. The absence of such discoveries does not positively dis- prove the existence of given forms of SKETCH MAP SHOWING (iN DARK LINES) THE PART OF EUROPE UNDER ICE COVER IN GLACIAL PERIOD.' life in past geological ages ; but the fact that no single example of human re- mains belonging to the pre-glacial period in geology has been found, while not conclusive of the nonexistence of our race in a period so remote, is sufficient to destroy the probability. It is, then, in the post-glacial, or dilu- vian, age, and in the earlier parts there- 'The darkest portions of the map show the pres- ent areas of the ice fields. of, that we are warranted by geological evidence in placing the apparition of man on the earth. In order to make clear the conditions under which such remains have been discovered, it is nec- essary to revert again to several situa- tions which are peculiar to the recent period in geological history. One of the places or conditions most favorable for the deposit and preser- vation of the relics of man-life is the loam in the bottom of caverns ; that is, in caverns having a certain relation to rivers. A second favorable position is that of river alluvia prop- er, namely, the masses of accumu- lated gravel and detritus borne along by running streams and de- posited in the bends or eddies, or more particularly spread out in broad, deep layers near the debou- chure of the rivers with the larger bodies of water into which they fall. A third place favorable for the preservation of animal and vegetable remains is the bottom of situations lakes. A fourth is the col- lection of peat mosses in the countries where such formations ex- ist. A fifth is the sand dunes heaped up in certain localities by the action of the winds or thrown into place by the joint action of the winds and sea. Of all these situations, perhaps the most favorable for preserving human relics. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 91 first is most favorable for the prolonged preservation of human relics. The great Formation and majority of Subterranean peculiarities of ^averns have been formed man-caverns and grottoes. by the action of water. Underground streams frequently carry away the softer parts of the rock or for- n,.iiiu„jiiJi,(,,D|||,i,utu- SECTION OF CHALK CAVERN WITH HUMAN REMAINS mation through which they pass, leaving chambers and cavities of large extent. After these nether vaults have once been formed the streams may disappear or dwindle to a trickling branch in the bot- tom. Frequently the caverns so formed are left entirely dr}-. In many parts of the European countries the rivers flow through districts where the chalk forma- tions are abundant and are favorably situated for the production of caverns and grottoes. In former ages, while the glacial rivers were still of great width and vol- ume, the beds lay at a much higher level than at the pres- ent time. In such countries the formation of underground tunnels by the action and pressure of the waters was a common phenomenon along the river shores. In course of time the rivers of the diluvian period, as we have said above, receded and sank with diminished volume into the lower parts of the val- leys. The beds were cut to greater and still greater depths, until at the present day it is a common circumstance, both in Europe and America, to find the water surface of running streams as much as a hundred feet or more below the level formerly occupied by the river. Almost every considerable stream presents on either side a secondary terrace of drift which, at a former age, marked the level of the bed. With the reces- sion of the waters to the present channels, the caverns formed in the old diluvial banks, especially those in calcareous regions, have been left dr}'. The mouths of such alluvial grottoes open on the hillsides, facing the rivers, and it was into these caverns that the animals, including primeval man, made their way as places of natural resort in the earlier ages of the postglacial epoch. In the bottoms of nearly all of the caverns are found a certain residual of loam, or cave-earth, swept '• Date of remains in as sediment by the de- indicated from 1 geological data, parting waters; and over this loam there is usually a solid layer of lOKMAl ION. Whatever organic remains stalagmite, were left in the caverns in the age ot the deposit were, as a rule, mixed with the loam, and afterwards covered and, as we 92 GREAT RACES OF AF AN KIND. might say, hermetically sealed, with stal- agmitic material. It is easy to perceive that a study of the rate of diminution and sinking away of the rivers from their former elevation into their present beds would furnish a measuremenf of time for estimating the date of the deposit of the human relics referred to. In so far, therefore, as geology is able to de- termine the time at which the alluvial caverns were formed and at which the receding waters left them subject to hab- itation, she is able to suggest an ap- proximate date for the appearance of man-life on the earth. The facts here referred to, which in EXAMPLE OF STALACTITE. the nature of the inquiry must be men- tioned in many parts hereafter, are now Slow process of brought forward solely to [uvTafriv"ef ""■ illustrate the possibility of ijeds. time measurement in the prehistoric ages. This fact must be borne in mind by the reader. The same should be said respecting the alluvial de- posits of gravel and other detritus contain- ing the relics of animals and men. The gravel beds at the mouths of rivers have been gradually formed through immense periods of duration. The slow rate of such accumulations is a fact noted and emphasized by all candid and capable observers. The course of rivers on their way to the sea is, as a rule, not rapid, and in those portions where rapids exist we find almost invariably that the waters are supported by the hardest and most enduring ledges of rock. The action of water courses is therefore slow. To erode such channels as we find to have been formed for the passage of rivers must have required almost immeasurable peri- ods of time — periods in which centuries rather than months and years miist be the units of measurement. It is by the erosion of their beds that rivers gain the material in the forms of sand and gravel which they deliver in certain parts of their course and more particularly at their mouths. One must needs note the vast accumulation of gravel and other detritus brought down from distant regions and spread out in beds of miles in extent, if he would gain an adequate idea of the length of time which has been re- quired to furnish such accu- mulations of matter. The most eminent geologists have given close study to the sub- ject of the rate of formation for the alluvial deposits, and though they have not agreed with any near approximations in the re- vast reach of suits at which they have ^rpLTsrot*" arrived, in one thing there formations, has been concurrence among them all, and that is the vast lapse of time req- uisite to produce the given results, and the consequent remote date which must be assigned to the remains found in the alluvial sti;ata at the mouths of rivers. An examination of the sediment ac- cumulated in the beds of lakes has led to the discovery of many traces of organic life belonging to the prehistoric age. In such situations the remains of human TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 93 beings have been found, as we shall hereafter note with more particularity, Less certain re- associated with the bones fnauonrra^r- ^^ animals long extinct, bottoms. In. this case, however, the attempt to detemiine the time of the deposits has been less successful from the peculiar character of the data than in the case of caverns and river beds. The rate at which the sediment has been deposited in the bottoms of lakes is a very uncertain factor, and though the position and depth, below the surface, vegetation prevalent at the time when the peat mosses were laid, and when they received their relics of human life, may be easily referred to certain geo- logical periods, the date of which may be approximately known. Certain kinds of forests, long since extinct and sup- planted by other kinds belonging to a later cycle, are thus known to have pre- vailed at a time when primeval man was in the earth ; and by estimates made on scientific grounds for the date of the given forest, an approximation may be LANDSCAPE OF THE PEAT UDGS. of the sediment led to the conclusion of a great antiquity, geologists have not succeeded in measuring the intervening time between the deposition of the lake fos.sils and the present. In the case of the peat mosses better success has been attained, and the same result reach-ed as from other sources of Peat bogs fur- iuquirv. The peat bogs blSfti^^e '-ire found in peculiar local- estimates. ities, and the superincum- bent earth has accumulated by regular accretions of growth and decay which may well furnish the proper data of time measurement. The character of the reached for the time of the appearance of the human race. Of the sand dunes which are found in certain localities, holding the relics of primitive men, the same may be said as of the lake bottoms, name- uncertainty of ly, that the measurement Tedfto^m'sanJ of time applied thereto is dunes. difficult, if not impossible. The forces which produce the sand dunes, whether terraqueous or acqueous, are compara- tively irregular. It is easj' to under- stand how a sudden cyclone might by torsion heap up the sand of seashores or desert places into the forms which we 94 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. now discover, though in other instances it might require ages for such accumula- tions to be made. In some instances, however, the dunes are clearly the result of human agency, being composed of the debris of primi- tive dwelling places scattered about the homes of the first men until heaps amounting to considerable mounds were found. In such cases we may well allow long periods of time for the formation of the dunes. It is a fact of observation that it requires many centuries in thickly populated localities to raise the surface instructive results. Sir Charles Lyell, one of the greatest of geologists and conservative thinkers, has Time required in his work. Travels in for deposition of the Mississippi North America, undertaken delta. to estimate the rate of formation in the delta of the Mississippi river. That low-lying terrace of alluvium has an area of about thirteen thousand six hundred square miles. Sir Charles by, investi- gation discovered that the thickness of the deposit is of an average of about five hundred and twenty-eight feet. From these data he was able to compute SA^D DUNES OF EL-FKVANE, ARABIA.— Drawn by D. Grunet. but a few feet above its former level ; this, too, where the agencies of civiliza- tion have been actively operative in leaving a residue. The Appian Way of Rome, after more than two thousand years, is no more than two or three feet below the level of the surrounding coun- try. It is, therefore, safe to conclude that the primitive dunes left around the dwelling places of the first men were slowly formed through many centuries of time. If we take up the actual estimates which the best geologists have given for some of the dates suggested in this in- quiry, we have the same tangible and approximately the whole quantity of matter brought down by the Mississippi since the establishment of the river in his present bed. The next class of ex- periments related to the amount of solid matter in each cubical foot of the Missis- sippi waters. It was found that about one three-thousandth part in volume of the water discharged into the gulf is composed of mud, sand, and other detritus. The percentage in weight of solid material is about one part in twelve hundred and forty-five. Pursuing the line of reasoning and computation here suggested, and assuming the law of uni- formity. Sir Charles Lyell came to the TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 95 conclusion that at the rate of three thou- sand seven hundred and two millions of cubic feet annually it would require sixty-seven thousand years for the build- ing up of the Mississippi delta in the form in which we now find it. In this computation there are one or two serious questions to be raised. In the first place, it is undoubtedly true Allowance made that in the earlier periods cf S^cmS?/ thediluvian age, when such problem. rivers as the Mississippi were greatly swollen and much more perturbed than at present, the quantity of solid matter annually brought down by the floods was much greater than at the present time. It is easy to con- ceive of a condi- tion in which the percentage of mud and gravel in river water should be many times greater than at the pres- ent. W e need go no further than the spring rains of each year in our present climatic condition to note quantities of solid matter that are carried down into our river currents. Doubtless, in the times of the formation of river beds, when the overwhelming waters, new melted from the glacial spurs, were rushing along the surface of valley lands to seek a permanent channel, the amount of solid material cut away, mixed with the waters and borne onward in a volume of slush to the sea, was vastly in excess of anything of like kind which now falls under our observation. Even to the present day there are large rivers whose sloppy floods bear down a quantity of solid matter so great as to build up large sand bars and gravel banks in a comparatively short space of time. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose that in the early age of the ^lississippi the annual deposits at the influence of the delta were much more ex- Srv^r^"' tensive than they have rivers, been Avithin the historical period. On the other hand, however, a counter- DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI. the large vailing circumstance must be noted which has tended strongly to prolong the period of formation in alluvial deposits. This is the fact that when the primitive rivers were still swollen and much mixed with solid materials the current was so heavy as to bear those materials far out to sea. The strong probability is that in the case of the Mississippi the earlier and heavier masses of solid matter were borne out by the immense floods and deposited in 96 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. the bottom of the gulf, so that it may well be doubted whether the larger con- tribution of solids in the earlier ages was not actually unfavorable rather than favorable to the rapid building up of the delta. Two additional facts should be noted in connection with this particular sub- other estimates ject. The first is that "ZlZ^sT"' investigations subsequent Lyeii. to those made by Sir Charles Lyell and by geologists of the highest reputation have in general terms cor- roborated his estimates. Sir John Lub- bock, traversing the same ground, has arrived at virtually the same conclusions with Sir Charles Lyell, and the latter at a later period of his life, reviewing the whole subject in his work on the An- tiquity of Man, is more disposed to in- crease than diminish his estimates for the lapse of time requisite in the forma- tion of alluvial deposits. The second fact referred to is the ap- proximately coincident results reached by Sir Charles Lyell and those deducible from the astronomical tables of Croll re- specting the date of the formation of the post-glacial rivers with the attend- ant phenomena. It will be remembered that the last epoch of planetary winter, coinciding doubtless with the glacial age, was about a thousand centuries ago. Making allowance for a considerable period thereafter to cover the time when under more favorable conditions the ice cupola of the northern hemi- sphere should melt away with suf- ficient rapidity to feed the glacial rivers, we arrive at a date comparatively the same as that which geology assigns for the beginning of the delta of the Mis- sissippi. We have referred on a preceding page to the deposits of the Nile valley as a time measurement for geological and human history. To this subject much patient effort has been given. Professor Leonard Horner, of Edin- inquiries into burgh, a noted geologist of L\\LTo"/the" the first half of the present NUe vaiiey. century, was sent out in 1851 by the Jloyal Society of Great Britain to inves- tigate the antiquity of Egypt as deter- mined by the rate of alluvial deposit. In the time of Herodotus it was believed and taught by the Egyptian priests that their country of Lower Egypt had in former ages been an arm of the Medi- terranean, reaching far up toward the site of Thebes. It was from this con- sideration and the belief that the sea had been driven out by the impact of the river and the deposition of sediment that the priests Avere wont to declare that their country was the gift of Father Nile — a form of speech which, though mythological in appearance, is scientific in its subject-matter. For it can hardly be doubted that that Egypt, which was perhaps the first abode and arena of a civilized life of man, was literally the gift, that is, the product, of the Nile. Before the visit of Horner to Egypt the savants who accompanied Napoleon on his Egyptian campaign Deductions of had undertaken the like ^^^^.^ff^er-s problem of determining investigations, the geological age of the country by es- timating the rate of annual deposit from the inundation of the Nile. The esti- mate made by these philosophers was five inches of elevation in a century. It w«is found, however, that the rate of ac- cumulation was more pronounced in some parts of the valley than in others; and Professor Horner determined to conduct his experiments on the sites of two ancient cities, Heliopolis and Mem- phis. In the first of these stood the fa- mous obelisk, and in the other the statue of Ramses II. The date of the building TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 97 of these two celebrated monuments is known with approximate certainty. The obelisk was erected about two thousand three hundred years B. C, and the reign of Ramses, according to the chro- nology of Lepsius, occupied the larger part of the fourteenth century B. C. It was the theory of Homer that, hav- ing laid bare the foundations of these Principal data mouumcnts and discovered cuiaf^^stfHt- the level of the plateaus ner were made, on wliicli they Were built, he might easily compute the rate of ac- cretion from the overflow of the Nile. The explorer found that there had been deposited around the obeli.sk during the four thousand one hundred and fifty years of its existence eleven feet of sedi- ment, which by an easy calcula- tion gave the result of three and eighteen hundredths inches to the century. In the case of the statue of Ramses it was found that the surface had risen by a little more than ten and a half feet above the platform on which the statue rested. But he was led to believe that this platform was fourteen or fifteen inches below the .sur- face at the time of the building of the colossus. Making the proper reduction and accepting the antiquity of three thou.sand two hundred and fifteen years for the statue, it was found that the rate of accretion has been at Memphis about three and a half inches to the century. These data furnished Professor Hor- ner the scale of measurement by which Resulting esti- various cxcavations were «°/of'^ran made in different parts In Egypt. of the valley, in some places to the bottom of the alluvial for- mation. In one instance a piece of pot- tery was found, near the base of a statue, at the depth of about thirty-nine feet, which according to the established scale would prove the existence of man and his workmanship in that locality at a date remote from the present by the span of thirteen thousand years. Even this long period does not exhaust the possible habitability of the valley; for the depth at which the relics were found was greatly above the beginning of the alluvial deposits ! In other parts of the world besides the deltas of the two great rivers to which we have referred above, similar investi- JinJos DELTA OF THE NILE. gations have been carried forward with almost identical results. Sir Charles Lyell transferred his obser- LyeU's investi- vations to the river Somme, f^ie^^j^the^ in France, and, after ex- Somme. amining the valley and debouchure of that river, came to the conclusion that in that part of the world akso the hu- man period extends into the prehistoric ages many thousands of years. The argument with respect to the age of the caverns, in the bottoms of which the relics of man-life have been found, is perfectly correlative with that which we have followed respecting the time required to erode the river valleys and 98 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. form their deltas and gravel banks. It was only when the rivers began their Approximate Subsidence from the gla- c^StaLrg'^hu. cial epoch that the definite man remains. arrangement Or plan of the present alluvial deposits along their banks and at their mouths was deter- mined ; and it was at this very time that the caverns of the calcareous regions were by the recession of the waters left first open and then dry for the occu- pancy of men and animals. It should be borne in mind, however, that the conclusion of a deposit of human re- mains in such situations inmicdiatcly after the river floods had ceased to flow in would be unwarranted by the facts, and there is, therefore, a likelihood from this point of view of attributing an exag- gerated antiquity to the relics of life discoverable in the caverns. In other respects the argument in favor of the antiquity, that is, of a coincident antiq- uity, between the human relics found in the caverns and those discovered in the alluvial deposits of rivers, holds good. Attempts have been made in accord- ance with geological science to discover the approximate age of the Estimates of the ^^ , , , , age of the Swiss relics found m the lake bot- lake villages. . r t:- toms or burope, particu- larly those of Switzerland. Careful in- vestigations have been made at the Pont de Thiele between the lakes of Neuf- chatel and Bienne. These two bodies of water are connected by a stream which was formerly an arm reaching from the one lake to the other. The whole valley between the Neufchatel and the Bienne has been gradually filled and choked up with mud and other deposits under the action of forces which are still at work. The di.scovery of the remains of so-called lake dwellings in this region and the knowledge of the rate of deposi- tion by which they have been buried away furnish acceptable data for an esti- mate, not indeed of the first appearance of men in this region, but of the time when the lake dwellers were prevalent. It has been found that the old Abbey of St. Jean, built at the close of the eleventh century, has by Data from which the filling up around the f„t,TonwaT'- margin of the lake receded, made, as it were, from its original situation at the edge of the water by the space of four hundred and six yards. Professor Gillieron, of the College of Neuveville, has applied the ratio thus established to the larger question of the date of the lake dwellings which at this point have receded from the shore a distance of three thousand two hundred and fifty yards, and has thereby determined the minimum antiquity of the ancient lake- shore establishments to be about six thousand seven hundred and fifty years. The reader in considering this calcula- tion must bear in mind the peculiar character of life in the lake dwellings under consideration, and remember that the lake habitations, while they were of a prehistorical character, should not be regarded as the work of the primitive inhabitants of Europe. Another example of geographical evi- dence may be taken from a similar situ- ation to that last described. Evidence gath- Where the small and rapid 'X^':,Z:^l, river Tinniere falls into theTinniere. lake Geneva, a large accumulation of .sand and gravel has been made, extend- ing back to prehistoric ages. The de- posit is in the form of a cone, which has been opened with a railroad cut and ex- posed for examination for a distance of about a thousand feet and of more than thirty feet in depth. The rate of forma- tion in this remarkable body of materials has been determined with what is be- lieved to be tolerable accuracy. The Illlllll 100 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. remains of man and his workmanship have been found at a depth of as much as nineteen feet from the surface, and careful calculations conducted by the French geologist, M. Morlot, have shown that the period required for the forma- tion of the whole bed has been between seven thousand four hundred and eleven thousand years. The facts and the argu- ment have been reviewed by Sir John Lubbock, who agrees in general with the deductions of M. Morlot. Another fact which already comes to view in considering these subjects, and which will persist in obtruding itself in Deduction from many parts of the present ^^ttnToT/rt- ^vork, is the wide-apart sit- itive races. uations which have been submitted to geological science, and the consequent wide diffusion of the human race in remote prehistoric limes. We are here only concerned directly with the geological evidences of the antiquity of man ; but among these evidences we may not forget or neglect the tmques- tionable indications of the wide distri- bution of man in the epochs soon succeeding the glacial age. This wide distribution is itself one of the conclusive evidences of great antiquity, and though it does not properly belong to geologi- cal testimony, it is .so closely connected therewith as to justify a reference to it in this connection. On any theory of a common local origin for mankind the immense periods of time necessary for the Great period re- - multiplication and diffusion ^"ffutfo^"'^^^ of the race into continents mankind, far distant from one another, and in some instances separated by wide oceans, must be granted at the very beginning. When we see the evidences of common forms of life, including the life of man in common stages of development, in regions remote from each other by the breadth of continents and seas, and al- most inaccessible on account of physical barriers interposing themselves to the movements of the first tribes of men, we must be profoundly impressed with the great depth of the chronological per- spective, and might well conclude that the lapse of time requisite for the distri- bution of the first men, whoever they were, from any common point of origin to the respective localities where we find the first evidences of man-life in the matrix of geology, would be as great as all that vast geological period which lies between such earliest evidences of human activity and the present time. Chapter IV.— Archaeological and F»alv5EOnto= LOGICA.L Argument. HE relations of a r- chasology to geology have already been in- dicated in the first chapter of this work. It remains for us in this connection to point out with more care and elaboration the bearings of archaeological science on the question of the date of the appearance of mankind on the earth. Archaeology may be properly defined — though with seeming paradox of language — as pre- historic history. At first glance the in- ference might well be drawn that the study of archaeology, leading us back- ward as it does along the positive traces of the human race, would furnish more TIME OF THE BEGINNING— ARCH^OLOGICAL PROOFS. 101 satisfactory data relative to the Age of Man than might possibly be derived from Nature of the the astronomical or geolog- deril™d"ftom^*' ical side of the question, archaeology. Such, however, is not the fact. While it is true that much more satisfactory and direct evidence may be gained from archaeolog- ical sources with respect to the mode and limitations of the primitive life of man than can be deduced from geological, or indeed from any other form of inquiry, it is also true that the chronological value of archccology rests upon the geological data with which it is associated. As it respects the question of time, therefore, archaeology helps and corroborates the estimates and time measiirements of the pre- historic ages without furnishing much original and independent testimony thereto. These observations, however, should not lead to the conclusion Proofs from this that archaeology — r«h7h/frn^ though long im- hsh the prog- & & ress of the race, peded in its prog- ress by preconceived opinions — is less scientific in its methods and results than is geology. An examination of the traces and remains of the human race in the long ages before the be- ginnings of national conscious- ness furnish excellent materials in proof of the progress, and to some extent the rate of the progress, by which the human race has advanced from its primeval to its present condition ; but the proper time measurement comes from the connection which the facts of this science bear to the facts of geology. We shall here refer at once and in an introductory way to the material and subject-matter of archaeological inquiry. In the upper parts of the earth's surface the remains of primitive '■ . Subject-matter men are found associated of archeeoiogicaJ with the products of the ""i^"^^- post-diluvian age in geology. Human bones, especially the harder portions, such as the skulls and teeth, have been laid away by accident or design in localities especially favorable to Primitive commin of the Stone Age. ARCH,«OLOGICAL PROOFS OF THE EXISTENCE OF PREHISTORIC MAN. their preservation. Such remains are associated with roclcs and other geolog- ical products of known epochs, and are also mixed with the bones of extinct animals, the place of which is known in prehistoric zoology. Not only this, but the works of the first men and the sec- ondary races, namely, their implements and utensils, made in many instances of imperishable materials, are plentifully 102 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. found in association witli the bony re- mains of the people by whom such im- plements and tools were devised and used. The materials which primitive men first employed in their rude way in the fabrication of such utensils as their low existence and manner of life called for have remained in the forms origi- nally devised, and indicate most clearly the customs and inartistic methods of the age. Nature led the way as to the substance and design of primeval implements. Materials em- Stone was clioscu first, with ?L7manY/:r.r Httlc modification in the ing implements, natural or accidental form. At length the evidences of selection of materials appear. The better qualities of stone are chosen. Obsidian and fiint become favorable articles of primeval factory. Bone also is used, and the horns of animals in the making of uten- sils and weapons. At length, with the increase of intelligence and the gift of experience, the metals begin to be taken and employed in the primitive arts. Copper and bi-onze more and more take the place of the stone utensils and tools which had hitherto been employed. Bronze is succeeded b}' iron, and the age of war and nationality — the daydawn of the historical epoch — is ushered in. It is thus comparatively easy to deter- mine the sequence of races and times in the prehistoric ages ; but this establish- Time order es- mciit of an Order docs not tfve but not tb- ^^y 'iny means give us an ab- solute dates. solute date for the various periods of early man history on the earth. The stages through which the race has passed in the evolution of the civilized life from the very lowest and most ancient epoch to times within the limits of authentic history are easily dis- covered and established by quite indubi- table testimou}-. But at this stage of the inquiry the chronological scale falls into confusion and doubt. The great patent fact is that some races have out- stripped others in their rate of progress, so that even to the present day a section of world history presents contemporane- ously all stages of development. There are still existent in the world many tribes similar in nearly all respects, ex- cept with respect to strength and aggressiveness, to those primeval races which passed away during the formation of the tertiary deposits of the earth's crust. We have only to look abroad into different parts of the Avorld to dis- cover the first men still Existing sav- pursuing methods of life ^fr/^eSrt^^ that were prevalent in the state of man. times almost immediately succeeding the glacial age. The native inhabitants of Australia, the Maoris of New Zealand, the aboriginal races of other Polynesian islands, the natives of the Greater and Lesser Antilles — such as they were at the time of the discovery of America — and the Red races distributed through the New World from Patagonia to the lands of the Esquimaux, were all, at least until a recent date — as many of them still are — unacquainted with the use of metals in any form. They therefore belong to the age of stone as much as did the barbarians of prehistoric times. It thus becomes impossible, without collateral evidence, to fix the dates of archaeological phenomena other than relatively. The relation of such facts may be fixed, but not the time. It is easy to say that certain facts precede others, and to prove that the rate of progress from one stage of development to the next is slow; but it is difficult, if not impracticable, to prove from the ex- isting materials of archaeological inquiry Junv ancient or lioiv modern they may be. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCH JiOLOGICAL PROOFS. 103 BIGHT PROGRESSIVK STAGES OF HUMAN' nr.VEI.OPMENT, ILLUSTRATED IN FABRICATION AND MATERIAI-3 Of IMPLEMENTS. (l) Pala:ulitliic awL To this rule, however, there are certain excep- tions, principally among the osseous remains of an- cient peoples. There are certain types of structure unmistakably belonging to remote antiquity. The surviving barbarous races do not possess those strong- ly marked animal char- acteristics by which the aggressive barbarians of Differences be- remote antiquit V were char- T.T:J^T'^^ acteri^ed. It would appear barbarians. t;hat the more peaceable, less warlike, less ad venturous, less progressive tribes and races of the ancient world have in one sense outlived the stronger and more ferocious of the primitive peoples. The latter seem to have survived in a civ- ilized posterity, while the fcnnner have preserved their ancient proclivities with little evolution or change. It is for these reasons that certain kinds of human re- mains may be judged from their own na- ture to have be- longed to far-re- mote primitive races; but the general fact re- mains that those implements and weapons, b}- which the Age of Stone is easily discriminated from the Age of Bronze, and the latter from (.7) Bronze-handled iron dagger. (S) Iron sword. 104 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the Age of Iron, are comparatively use- less in determining the absolute dates of prehistoric times. Another flaw — but of opposite import — in the argument for the antiquity of SKULL OF CAVli 1 man from archaeological remains is found Mistaken de- in the reliance, sometimes sp^e'^c'ting ::;oci- too implicitly placed, on the ation of remains, association of humau bones and implements with the remains of ex- tinct animals. It should be remembered that the present distribution of animals over the earth, particularly of the car- nivora, has been largely effected and limited by the agency of man himself. The lion, the tiger, the hyena, ct id oiiine genus, can not coexist in the same country with civilization. Xot indeed, as is generally supposed, on account of the climate, but specifically because when the man and the tiger are in the same arena the one or the other must go to the wall. It has been generally assumed that the great extinct cave bear, the cave lion, and the cave hyena, whose remains are foi:nd asso- ciated with those of primitive men, must have belonged to a period very remote from the glacial age in Europe — either before or after — since the climate of that epoch, when the ice- cover of the European countries generally abutted southward against the Alps and the Pyrenees, would be too rigorous for the existence of animals now confined to Africa and the Asiatic jungles. This conclusion, however, is to forget that the tiger, the bear, the hyena, and even the lion are, to the Ferocious beasts present time, fully capable notwhoUyof r . • ■ T J- tropical habitat. or sustaining a degree of cold approaching that of the arctic circle, and that these crea- tures have receded into their pres- ent habitat, not because of its tropical character, but for the reason that civilization has driven them back into those fastnesses where an abundance of vegetable- eating animals furnish subsistence for the carnivora. In prehistoric Europe, therefore, there was no reason for the nonexistence of these savage beasts close along the line of the re- ceding glaciers. At the present time the Indian tiger, where the wall of civil- ization is not around him, breaks freely from his jungle, pursuing the antelope and the deer up the slopes of the Him- alayas to the line of perpetual snow ; while the leopard, the panther, and the cheetah stop not even for the snow, but follow their prey into the fastnesses of Siberia. For these reasons we may perceive clearly the fallacy in the argument of SKDLL OF CAVE HYENA. those who would reduce the date of the first men by claiming that the associa- tion of their bones, even in the most primitive localities, is with the relics of animals which, though extinct, must TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROOFS. 105 have existed at a period long subsequent to the glacial age. There are, however, some direct evi- dences of the antiquity of archaeological remains; that is, evidences in the re- Direct evidence mains themselves. Bycom- arl'a^o^^gf^r mon consent the stone age data. marks the first stage in the human evolution. Now stone, when it is worked by the human hand, or when broken or abraded by accident, presents a new surface to the action of the elements, and this surface bears wit- ness ever afterwards to the antiquity or the recency of the fracture. All kinds of stone, even the hardest and most carefully polished, show after the lapse of years that the surface so exposed is growing old. The granite shafts pre- served from ancient Egypt proclaim even to the unscholarly observer their manifest and indubitable antiquity. The glint of all varieties of broken or pol- ished stonework disappears at length, and is replaced with a dulled and hoary surface, the difference between which and any recently polished or broken ex- posure is intensified by a microscopic examination. These facts hold whether the specimen or monument in question has been exposed only to the aerial ele- ments or whether it has been buried in the earth. To all persons the difference between an ancient and recently fabricated stone Stone impie- implement is apparent, ThT^etfS" but most apparent to the production. archasologist. To his prac- ticed eye every stony surface tells the story of its antiquity — not, indeed, with absolute certainty as to date, but ap- pro.ximately as to epoch. It is easy to arrange and classify the palaeolithic speci- mens of a collection by the degree of the secular erosion of their surfaces, to ar- range the most ancient in a group by M.— Vol. 1—8 themselves, and to fix with some approx- imation to accuracy the age of each. It is by the means here suggested that archaeologists have determined with tol- erable certainty what are piace and char- the most ancient remains ^""f*^'^®,v most ancient hu- of human industry yet man remains. discovered in Europe. In a deposit near Thenay, in Central France, certain im- plements of flint have been recovered which are regarded as the workmanship of the first men. The specimens in question are rather larger than the majority of .such finds, and were pro- duced by primar}' and secondary' chip- pings. Competent geologists have as- signed to these rough relics of primitive handicraft a date coincident with the middle of the tertiary period. Of equal age are some relics which have been taken from the old bed of the river Ta- gus, near Lisbon. The French archaeol- ogists, and in particular M. Ribeiro, who made the discover^', are strongly of the opinion that the relics in question are of the middle tertiary, and that noth- ing more ancient of the workmanship of man has been found anywhere in the earth's crust. Even in this case, how- ever, science is constrained to fall back upon the situation and surroundings in making an estimate of the true date of the implements referred to. Archaeol- ogy, pure and simple, is able to say no more than this, that the articles in ques- tion were made by a tool-using animal acquainted with the use of fire; that they are, by the evidence of their own surfaces, of a very remote period in the prehistoric ages, and that the coincident geological proof points to the borders of the miocene epoch as the date of their production. It should be understood by the reader in his effort to gra.sp the remoteness of the probable period at which these most 106 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. aboriginal implements were jiroduced that the gap in time and skill and prog- immense time- ress between such finds and fefsi::rchr°- the next in order is very oiogicai ages. great. It would seem in- deed that the period reaching from the age of these most archaic relics to the age of the finely executed flint arrowheads and spearheads which we may see in almost any museum of natural history, was fully anthropoid apes. Tlie latter have been known to break a club from the branch of a tree and to set the weapon in a place where it might be found again ; then to use it a second time — all this, hoM^ever, without direct adaptation of the weapon to the object of its use. In the case of the stone implements of the earliest age, we find them, as a rule, prepared on one side only. The first men seemed to LANDSCAPE OF THE MIOCENE— BORDERLAND OF MAN.— Drawn by Rioii. as extensive as that reaching from the age of the arrowpoints to the age of iron. This consideration, indeed, brings lis again to the use and application of right Intelligence of rcason to the problem be- fore us. The ancient im- plements which we are here considering mark the first deisarture of human intelligence from that of the lower animals. The rude artisanship of the articles in question advances but a stage above the skill and ciinnino- of the the first men compared -with that of animals. have sought such fragments of stone as had been partly shaped by the accident of nature. This fact would reduce the amount of labor and skill which the aborigines must employ in preparing the other side of the block. Perhaps a majority of the most ancient forms are characterized by human workmanship on one side only, the other remaining as it was produced in the more ancient shop of nature. The span from such art as this to that TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCHyEOLOGICAL PROOFS. 107 of asymmetrical arrowpoint is very great. It is not, however, such a stage of prog- Stride from low- ress as might not be rap- :Sgr:ra"t1r" ^^ly passed in an age of sanship. progress and amelioration. Modern society very frequently sees such transitions accomplished in a few dec- ades; but not so in the primitive world. In that it would appear that the aborig- inal savages were imable to lift them- selves to new methods of life except after great travail and eons of time. "We have only to glance at a few facts in or- der to find indubi- table proofs of the truth of this hypoth- esis. One of the most significant of these facts is the wide dis- tribution of imple- ments of the kind referred to above. It is definitely known that the race of be- ings by which the>" Avere used was not at all restricted to France and England — in which countries archaeological in- quiry has been prosecuted with greatest •Wide distribu- success. On the Contrary, iit°hicimpi?-°' such archaic implements ™®"*^- have been found in regions of the world widely separated by moun- tains, rivers, and seas. Relics of like character have been discovered in the Rhone gravel near Aries, and in the Po and Vibrata, and as far south as Rome. Others of identical character have been recovered on the banks of the Meuse and the Scheldt, and still others in Central GeiTuany. Farther abroad, even in the sands of the African rivers, and more frequently in the river-beds of North America, such relics have been discov- ered. Professor Henry W. Haynes, of Boston, has taken implements of like sort out of the sands of the Nile. Such specimens have been found forty feet below the surface in the diamond fields of the Cape of Good Hope, and still others in a deposit near Madras, India, and still others in Japan. We thus see the unmistakably wide dis- tribution of primitive men established b}- archaeological evidences. But if we look closely at the situation in which the most ancient stone relics of human EXAMPLES OF OLD STONE WORKMANSHIP — ADZES OF NEW ZEALAND. workmanship have been found, we shall see that everA-where the situation is alike. The rivers were cho- common suua- sen as the nesting places ^^.r^^etris; of the aborigines; and deductions, there they clung. No specimens of ancient stone weapons or implements of the most archaic type have been found in Switzerland, or any other countries greatly elevated, or in regions far re- moved from river banks. This would seem to establish several facts : First, that the date at which the primeval races here under consideration flourished was as far back as the time when the mountains and highlands were still covered with the glacial deposits. 108 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Secondly, \vc note that the geological condition was such everywhere as to in- vite the gathering of the primitive sav- ages in the warmer spots near the estu- aries of rivers, on those grounds where the ice had melted away and from which the waters had receded. Thirdly, we infer that these first races of human be- EXA.MPLES OF NEW STONE WORKMANSHIP — HATCHETS OK V Drawn by Eugene Meunier. ings were sedentary ; that is, that they were locally fixed to their places of habitation, from which they wandered forth for no purpose but to procure the means of subsistence. Fourthly, we may justly deduce the conclusion of the exceedingly unprogressive character of the tribes referred to. They were virtu- ally without ideas or thought. In such an age and from such a beginning the human evolution proceeds most slowly, and it is probable — almost certain — that many thousands of years were consumed in this winter of the human race before it began to grow, to break the soil of environment, to rise into the air and light of intelligence and progress. Still another consideration may here be properly adduced, and that is the negative Negative proofe argument as to the "J^ '^ri'irttl*'"" & oi man m the condition and conse- ow Stone Age. quent remote date of the Old Stone Age. We may learn from the things not found that the epoch in question was almost inconceiv- ably remote from the present. None of the implements belong- ing thereto seem to have been devised for the purpose of skin- ning beasts, preparing hides, or manufacturing clothing ; from which it is probable that the arti- ficial protection of the body by means of garments had not yet been discovered. It is claimed that no evidences of burial or other reverential or superstitious care of the dead bodies of the people have been found among the relics of this age. Nor has any trace of religious ceremony, as evidenced by charm or amulet, been discovered in association with the rude weaponry of this most ancient period of human exist- It is claimed, however, that cer- tain shells prepared for personal adorn- ment have been found associated with implements of the earliest age ; from which the inference is drawn that the earliest aesthetic ideas of mankind were those relating to the decoration and adornment of the body — a hopeful sign, and most hopeful in the savages. ence. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL PROOFS. 109 After the Old Stone age a change ap- pears not only in the implements and Evidences of de- weapons of the ancestors veiopment fur- £ mankind, but, Avhat is nistied by archae- ' ' oiogicai reucs. far more significant, in the makers also. Ideas and thought appear. Talent begins to be. There are evi- lences of reflection, studied purpose, and design. Already in the Xew Stone epoch we discover the begin- nings of progress and taste. The implements of this age are polished, fashioned, iin- ished. They have, at least by suggestion, the rudiments of artistic form. The men who made them could con- ceive a pattern and follow it, and — if that — could imagine. Further on, in the age of bronze, the mental faculties are displayed in still higher activity. Some of the relics of this age are positively ele- gant. Design reaches as far as ornamentation and real art. Actual genius is displayed, even though it be in the carv- ing of a knife-blade or the decoration of a razor. It is not needed in this con- nection to follow the lines of progress downward from the most primitive ages, since our only purpose in these chap- ters is to approximate the date of the beginning of the career of man. The testimony of archaeolog}* Arch^oiogicai taken altogether is entirely r^bor^eTtr;' corroborative of that drawn other sciences, from astronomical sources and of the evidences gained by geolog- ical study. Indeed, the whole web of proof holds together, and presents a unity of structure which could hardly have been expected considering the recent date of the physical sciences and the still imperfect knowledge which men have gained respecting the former con- ditions of the earth and its inhabitants. If we turn, in the next place, to pa- laeontology-, we shall find the same cor- Razors from Denmark. EXAMPLES Small knives from Denmark. OF PREHISTORIC WORKMANSHIP, FROM BRONZE AGE. roboration in proof, and virtualh' the same examples in illustration. It is the peculiarity of the study be- palaeontology a fore us that, beginning eh^otgfctl'in. from an astronomical basis v^^- and working our way downward through many branches of investigation to com- mon tradition and history, the successive subjects seem to anticipate one another 110 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. in their results. Geological inquiry in- cludes as one of its departments archaeol- HUSE ANIMALS PRECEDING THE AGE OF 0) Megatherium, restored. ogy, and archaeology in like manner embraces palaeontology. We can not in- vestigate the evidences of man-life in the earth by an examination of the implements, weapons, utensils, adornments, primitive architecture, etc., with- out finding constantly in the path of the in- quiry the subject-matter of palaeontology. But without pursuing these reflections, let us look at once at the testimony afforded in the fossilif- erous history of the earth relative to the date of man's appearance. A glance at the present aspect of the world shows us as the two most con- spicuous facts of the landscape the vege- table and animal forms of life prevalent on the surface or in the air and waters. A very ca,sual examina- tion of these flora and fauna reveals to us the fact that Transformation thpv'Prpin the law of vege- ine> are m ^^^.^^ ^„^ a state of animal forms. transformation. T h e changes going on in the forms of life, whether vegetable or animal, are slow and orderly; but the fact of change is as certain as the fact of existence. There is not a vital phenomenon of any kind on the face of the earth which does not reveal under scrutiny this law of transforma- tion. The individuals of a given species come and go by the processes growth, maturity, de- cline, and death ; and the species them- selves, to which these individuals be- of procreation, ANIMALS PRECEDING THE AGE OF MAN. (2) Dinotherium. long, though of far greater duration, are in a process of change exactly analo- gous to that of the individual parts. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL PROOFS. Ill the residue of extinct types of being. Some species of vegetable and animal life are already old ; others are young ; Existing orders Some are middle-aged. If Ave begin an examination of the most recent superfi- cial deposits of the earth, we find there- in what may be called the back history of many existing orders of life. But we do not pursue the investigation far until we arrive at unmistakable evidences of other forms of preexisting life that are now extinct. Following these preexist- ing forms through their fossiliferous his- tory downward, we are able witlj care to discover in the correlations of geology the whole career of these extinct orders — to find their beginnings, their middles, and their ends. But meanwhile, as we continue our exploration of the crust of the earth, we Older forms give come to Still Other and older fiL'edoXTf^ varieties of life which are l'*'*^- no longer to be found in existing species, or even in the more su- pei-ficial parts of the earth's crust. Still onward and downward we make our way, with results always analogous to those discovered at the first. We are soon able to generalize and to say that the whole liistory of life is a histor}- of cycles, succeeding each other from the azoic ages of our planetary history to the present day. An Order of Life is thus established, consisting of many varieties and forms through rising scales of de- velopment, the older ever dying away, the newer ever surviving, through the w'hole extent of world duration. This order of life, with its great cycles and successions, when once it has been established, is as invariable as the ge- ological epochs and transformations with which it is so intimately associated. The life histoiy of the globe comes at length to be as well fixed and as invariable as the geological annals of the globe. It is from this point of view that we are able to discover the superior value of palaeontological inquiry as Motions of the it bears on the question !,!°''i"°"rJ J- process among of the antiquity of man. living forms. We have seen, in a former part, that archaic implements and other relics of human workmanship surviving from pre- historic times do not easily establish the antiquity of the races by which they were produced — this, for the reason that we have at the present time the age of stone coexisting with the age of iron. But the e.xtinct forms of life never co- exist with the current forms. The order of living being, whether in the vege- table or the animal kingdom, is absolute. The newer race, the higher type, suc- ceeds the older — the lower ; from which it happens that the age of a given fos- sil, having been once determined by its correlation with some geological epoch, becomes ever afterwards a means and measure by which the antiquity of asso- ciated facts may be determined. Thus we have in prehistoric chro- nology the Age of the Great Cave Bear succeeding the Age of the order of animal Mammoth, the Age of -'^f-^-^^. the ^Mammoth that of the icai order. Reindeer, and the Age of the Reindeer that of Domestic Animals. This order holding good in Central Europe, where it was first discovered as a law of zoolog- ical succession, may be depended upon with almost as much certainty as the order of the geological formations of the earth's crust. We should as little ex- pect to find the remains of a mammoth succeeding the remains of a reindeer in a given country as we should expect to find a pliocene stratum under a chalk bed — unless, indeed, there had been in the latter case a physical cataclysm to produce the inversion. This established order in the animal 112 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. world has been of vast use in determin- ing the date of human phenomena in Man-life closely the prehistoric ages. ]Man hllforofani-"' l^as always been closely mai species. associated Willi the other forms of animal existence. Being to some extent carnivorous in his habits — and much more so in the barbarous than in the civilized condition — he has from we have many additional facts that are of great value and essential interest drawn from the history of Wild animals di- the fauna of the world, mlmsh in size in Or .1 • .1 1 /■ successive eras, ne or these is the law oi diminishing size and power which holds generally of the different species of wild animals and inversely of the dome.stic animals. Many of the beasts which in- Elephas p (■,ly,.t ANIMALS ASSOCIATED WITH his most primitive condition relied to a very great degree upon the associated orders of life for his means of subsist- ence. We are not here to dwell upon these facts save sufficiently to show the usefulness of animal remains in deter- mining the unknown dates of human historj'. Besides the established order of ani- mated nature, from the first appearance of life on the earth to the present day, PRIMEVAL MAN— Drawn by Rion. habited the earth coTncidently with the first men were of prodigious size. We have already referred by name to several of the huge carnivora at one time pre- vailing in Europe and America. One of these was the tremendous cave bear, an- other the cave lion, another the cave hyena. In general, these creatures were of the genus Felis. Besides these there were vegetable-eating animals, also huge and powerful. To this order belonged TIME OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—PAL^OXTOLOGICAL PROOFS. 113 versed in the case of domesti- cated animals. the gigantic Megaceros Hibernicus, or Irish Elk. There was also the Rhinoce- rus tichorinus, or Wall-nosed rhinoceros, with his two horns and woolly body; likewise the Hippopotamus major, vastly greater in bulk and more savage in hab- its than the descendent variet)- still wal- lowing in the mud of the Nile. All of these animals, carnivora and other, were greatly larger and stronger than any living representatives of their respective kinds. The great pachyderms. The law re- most prodigious of all the warm-blooded animals that have inhabited the earth, declined in proportion as they tended toward extinction, and the same process continues to the present day, except in those species which have been reduced to domestication by man. Wherever the last-named process has been effected the law of bulk and power has been reversed. The tremendous horses which we now find patiently serving man in all the civilized countries are the descendants of the prehistoric hiparion elcgans of pa- laeontology. There are to-day larger dogs, larger sheep, and larger swine in the world than ever before ; and if the cattle do not surpass in size the prime- val ox, they do exceed in weight and strength any of the varieties from which they are nearly or even mediately de- scended. These two laws, the one expressing the rate of decline in the size and capaci- ties of the wild animals of the earth', and the other the inverted law of increased bulk and power of animals under domes- tication, become the data Antiquity of which the inquirer may ?,rby"e"uenc: use in generalizing with ofspecies. respect to the antiquity of man. The coexistence of the human race with the animals mentioned by name in the above paragraphs is now a fact so well estab- lished that it is no longer in controver- sy, at least among scientific men. The question, therefore, as to the antiquity of man resolves itself into the question of the antiquity of the prehistoric ani- mals that were his coinhabitants of the earth in prehistoric ages. The question of the antiquity of these animals resolves itself, in turn, into the question of the age of the world when they were the prevailing forms ; that is, the latter ques- tion is partly so resolved. For, as we have seen above, there are some princi- ples by which the age of a given form of animal life may be approximately de- termined even without reference to the geological conditions under which the remains of such animals are discovered. But for the most part the decision of the question goes back, as before, to the date of that post-glacial epoch in geology at which the extinct animals referred to and primeval man existed together. In a word, the geological date is the deter- minative factor in the greater part of the inquiry, while the corroborative elements of the argument are derived from ar- chaeology' and palaeontology. 114 GREAT RACES OF JIFAXKLVD. Chapter v.— Xhe Ethnoi.ooicai^ ^^rgunient. E have thus by progres- sive stages ah-eady im- pinged on the domain of that recent branch of science called an- thropology. The scope and limitations of this department of inquiry have already been defined in the iirst chapter of this work. The science in question has one division, namely, the human division, of palaeon- tology as its first part, while in its after development it divides naturally into ethnology and ethnography. For our present purpose it is sufficient to say that Anthropology authropology throws at thTan«yo° ^''^^^ some reflected light ">an. on the question of the antiq- uity of man. Take, for example, the lon- gevity of the individual of our species as a hint on the longevity of the race of beings to which we belong. There is undoubted- ly a correlation between the brief life of ephemeral and transient living forms and the rapid transformation of that variety of life to which they belong. Man is without question one of the most long-lived animals inhabiting the earth ; and the supposition of great duration, past, present, and future, for the human race, is in accordance with right reason and scientiiic deductions. In the anatomical structure, in the physiological offices of man there are evidences of the profound Existence of . , atrophied or- antiquity of the race. In gansinthebody. . /• .1 1 many parts of the human body there remain from the prehistoric state the rudimentary forms and indica- tions of organs which, as organs, no longer exist in our species. These ru- dimentary parts in every case stand for actual organs in some other varieties of animal life, thus indicating most posi- tively, as the evolutionist believes, the ultimate kinship and succes.sive differen- tiation of all forms of living beings on the earth. It is by no means our purpose in this part of the inquiry to consider the validity of the hypothesis of evolu- tion ; but it may well be urged in this connection that, from whatever point of view we consider the descent of man, the existence in the human body of rudi- mentary parts points, as we think un- mistakably, to a very high antiquity for the human species. Consider for a moment the existence and significance of rudimentary organs in the body. Under the eyelids of every human being are found the outlines, and indeed the fact, of a semi- Such organs sig. lunar fold corresponding uify a preexist- 1 , ,1 • i.-i i." ing mode of life. precisely to the nictitating membrane in the eyes of the domestic fowl or the goose. Here in the human anatomy is the potential representation and simulacrum of an organ which must, in the nature of the case, answer to some function or use in the present, the future, or the past. The semilunar fold in the eyelid has no use in the present. It is against the laws of right reason to sup- pose that it will ever have a use in the future, since the means of protection to the eye will increase rather than dimin- ish with the further evolution of human life ; and at the same time the dangers to which the organ is subject wall be correspondingly diminished. We must therefore conclude that the rudimentary part represents an organ which once had an office to perform for the benefit of the organism as a whole. With the TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 115 gradual amelioration of conditions and with the physiological improvement of the eyelids proper, the necessity for such an organ as the nictitating membrane gradually ceased, and with disuse came feebleness of func- tion, reduction of size, and final atrophy. This would appear to be the only pos- sible explanation of the presence of such a rudimen- tary part as the semilunar fold in an animal such as man. The very same thing may be said of those other structural ele- ments in the hu- man body which no longer serve a purpose. What that purpose would be under certain conditions we are able to see by a glance at the anat- omy and physi- ology of other ani- mals. It is no longer useful to human beings, having as they do the free use of the arm and hand, to possess a muscle for moving the ears instances the possessor is still able by the will to move the ear in a manner which must have been common and convenient for the species in some remote prehistoric epoch. The same thing may be said of EXAMI'IE OK EXIKKME LONGEVITY — AN EASTERN SORCERESS. Dr.iwn by G. Vuillier. Atrophied ear- muscles and ex- though such a mus- cle in the lower animals is tinct mammae in highly important and bene- °'^"- ficial. But the muscle, though in an atrophied or semiatrophied condition, still exists in man, and in st)me the appendix vermiformis and of several other parts of the human body for which no plausible explanation has ever been offered except that they stand for organs and offices that were once in full exercise and development by the ancestors of our 116 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. race, but have fallen into desuetude through ages of changing conditions and dog's head, showing muscles for moving the ear which have become atrophied, through disuse, IN MAN. the altered necessities of life. Aye, more than this, we have in the human anatomv certain parts, such as the rudi- BODILY FORMS OF THF, rVRAMU) KUILDLKS, FORIV- THREE CENTURIES FROM THE PRESENT. Drawn by B. Slrassberger, from door of tomb at Gizeh. mentarj' breasts of the male, which seem to point to a condition still more primi- tive in the development of our race — to a time when even the sexes had not been differentiated the one from the other ! As we said above, these facts, and the conclusions toward which they tend in support of the hypothesis of evolution, are not adduced in this connection as an evidence of the truth of that theory, but TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 117 simply to illustrate the testimony which anthropology is able to give respecting Vast reach of the antiquity of man. For ^v'!^.1,^^P^n','tnm ^ow vast must have been produce anatom- ical changes, the time requisite for producing si:ch astounding changes as have manifestly taken place in the organs and functions of the human body ! Consider for a moment the backward look which Ave are able to give to the condition of man- kind by the single light of history. It is hardly an exaggeration to re- fer to consecutive facts in the an- nals of Egypt as far away as three thousand years before the Christian era; yet among the most ancient works of that primitive seat of civil- ization we are able to discover un- mistakably the presence of the man-form already differentiated into ethnic varieties and present aspects of activity. We have no reason to suppose that the rudi- mentary organs of the pyramid builders were any larger, more vital, more active, than they are in the race to-day. This is to say that the work of evolution — or whatever it was — by which the at- I'ophied condition of certain organs which had fallen into disuse had already been completed five thou- sand years ago ! What, therefore, shall we say of the lapse of time necessary to have effected the trans- formation ? What shall 'we say of the almost inconceivable period in human development requisite for the differentiation of the sexes in all hot-blooded animals, the evi- dence of which has been transmit- ted in rudimentary organs still ex- isting in the males in a condition of atrophy after at least five thousand years? Anthropology parts into at least two kinds of inquiry of the greatest impor- tance. These are eth- Relations of eth. nography and ethnology. ^^^^l^XT^' According to Jean RecluS other sciences. these two departments of human knowl- Mi^"' /^ojijAT- ETHNIC DIFFERENIIATION.— ^1) MARIA OK COS — EUROPEAN TYPE. Drawn by E. Ronjat« from a photograph. edge "run up into anthropology, as anthropology does into zoolog}^ and zoology into biology." It is true, how- 118 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTXD. ever, that the line of demarkation be- tween ethnographic and ethnological in- vestigation is difficult to draw, just as the division between geography and ETHNIC Dll 1 Ll.LMlAiluN.— (2) TH1-; "BLACK t'LAGb ' SOUTHERN CHINA — ASIATIC TYPES. Drawn by Barbotin, from a photograph. geology is faint and in some parts un- discoverable. In fact, ethnography, eth- nology, and anthropology hold fast in their subject-matter and methods to philology, jurisprudence, archaeology, geography, and even to tradition and history. The present work, devoted to a his^- tory of the great races of mankind, must, in the nature of Ethnology here the case, be essen- "^^^^^ tially ethnographic tiquity of man. and ethnological in its subjects and manner of treatment; but we are not by any means at this juncture to branch out into the treatise at large. Our present purpose is no more than to note in a general way the light and testimony of eth- nology and ethnography respecting the question of the antiquity of man. Let us mark then, first of all, the dispersion of the human race into tribes and kindreds. The traveler abroad, going from coun- try to country, visiting one people after another, is perhaps more im- pressed with their differences in ethnic characteristics, in manners and customs and language and law, than he is with their identities. The distribution of mankind is literall}- from the rivers to the ends of the earth, and their differences range through a wide scale of de- parture covering almost all possible \-ariations in physical, intellectual, aid moral character. When — at what time in the past — did these ethnic peculiarities ap- pear? As a prelinii- Ethnic differ- ^ nary to answering this ^^l^^^lt^^^ .,F question we may con- in the dawn. fidently as.sert that they did not ap- pear all at onee; that is, the eth- nic marks and peculiarities by which the various tribes and kindreds of man- kind are so strongly discriminated, did not appear jDlienomenally ; but only TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 119 mediately, and by imperceptible degrees. Of one thing- we are historically certain, and that is that the distinguishing traits of the different peoples of the earth were already strongly and deeply drawn in the daydawn of human an- nals, and that since the remotest epoch of tra- dition they have scarcely been so much as empha- sized by increasing dif- ferentiation. Indeed, it is unmistakably true that in modern times at least the strong, deep-cutlines of demarkation by which races and peoples were aforetime distinguished the one from the other are, to a considerable degree, effaced and ob- literated by the ebb and flow of civilization ; so that on the whole the tribes and nations of antiquity — the most re- mote antiquity — were, by much, more clearly discriminated than they are at the present time. It is trite to refer to the historical evidence which abounds respect- ing the truth of these statements. The monu- ments of ancient Egypt and Assyria, if none other existed, would of themselves sufhce to es- tablish the earlydiff eren- Evidencesofthe tiation of mankind. mer sculptures we find positively delineated at least four lead- ing types of men as they exist to-day ; and the lines are drawn with as much distinctness as though they had been executed by an ethnographer in the last decade of the nineteenth century ! Thus l;lFFERliMIAriON. — (3) CHIKI kn. ..,:.!.„ ...... -. CONOO — AFRICAN TYPES. Dr;iwn by Nt;idame Paule Crampel, .after a sketch of Xeboiil. early evolution of race distinc- tions. Among the for- at the epoch of the pyramid builders the races of Europe, Asia, and Africa had already been confirmed for all time in their ethnical characteristics.- 120 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. These facts established, as they are, right reason demands the acceptance of Several theories One of Several possible in- rhedr«-r„u;- ferences. The first of tion of the races, these is that the races of men, as they come into view in the early dawn of history, had descended through a remote prehistoric past from a com- mon origin, and that in the long proc- esses of that descent the ethnic charac- teristics of each race and people had been developed and established. Another sup- position possible in the case is that men began from various parts of the earth, un- der various conditions, and from different originals. From these the descending lines of ethnic life were drawn under the influences of environment, until at length, in the morning of tradition, the various peoples emerged into view with their respective characteristics fixed as we find them at the present day. A third view is that which presupposes phenomenal departures from a common type at some period in the prehistoric ages. This hypothesis includes a sup- posed anomalous divergence ; as, for in- stance, in a common family in which the sons, though born of one father and one mother, should come into the world with different ethnic traits upon them, thus es- tablishing, or rather opening, the foun- tain heads of races and peoples. The suppositions may be multiplied, but the foregoing are sufficient to indicate the possibilities of the case. It is almost needless for a writer of the present day — strongly indoctrinated Acceptance of as the age is with the prin- Zr^:^l.oi ciples of science, a knowl- environment. edge of causation and uni- versal sequence — to assert that only one, namely, the first, of the above supposi- tions is tenable. It is not our purpose in this place to discuss the monogenetic and polygenetic theories of the origin of the human race. From what we know, however, of the orderly evolution of life, there is only one rational and thoroughly consistent view of the history of the ethnic distinctions existing among mankind, and that is that in a period far remote, beyond the beginning of hu- man annals and extending to a great depth in the prehistoric ages, mankind, of a given type, appeared on the earth, and that in the vicissitudes of the ages following, far below the remotest rim of historical knowledge, the tribes of primi- tive men gradually, almost impercepti- bly, diverged from the common type, taking new features and new dispositions under the conditions in which they found themselves by migration, dispersion, and the contingency of climate. How slowly these forces operate in producing the changes which have manifestly been ef- fected among the peoples of the earth is well known to all who have investigated the subject, and those who have never done so may easily apprehend the almost inconceivable lapses of time necessary to effect such changes. The problem has in it a sort of math- ematical basis — an ethnic calctilus — suggestive at least of the Deduction of immense distance at which, To^^:^"^^, from the ethnological point departures, of view, the origin of the human race must be placed. As was intimated in a foregoing paragraph, we have what are no doubt exact representations of the different race-types at a period nearly five thousand years ago. From these, and by comparison with descendent forms, we may, as it were, compute the rate of ethnic change in the human species. It is noticeable in doing so that the rate is more rapid under civili- zation than in barbaristn— a fact the reverse of what might have been antic- ipated. The Negro physiognomy as TIME OF THE BEG IXXIXG. —ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMEXT. 121 depicted in the Egyptian sculptures is almost identical with that of to-day ; but thaCopt of modern Egypt, affected as he has been by so many historical in- fluences, has diverged not a little from the parent Egyptian type. The modern Greek and the modern Italian are dis- criminable by many ethnic marks from the great Greek of the ancient world and the Roman original ; but the wild men of the Asiatic steppes, and no doubt the aborigines of the American continent, kind had been evolved and established as they have ever since remained, how far off must have been the probabie esti- beginnings of the process! ratLl/p^e-"" If we should say that a historic ages, lapse of time equal to five times the whole distance from the beginning: of human annals to the present day should be allowed for the ethnic divergence of the prehistoric races, we should certainly not exaggerate the probabilities of the case. That many thousands of years VALLEY OF THE EUPHRATES-ONE OF Drawn by Taylor, from a photi have changed but little in form and fea- ture during several milleniums. This law of the more rapid change of ethnic characteristics under the civilized life tends to lengthen, rather than abbreviate, the duration of that prehistoric period in which the ethnic peculiarities of the vari- ous peoples were evolved and fixed. If, therefore, as much as five thousand ■years ago, when the civilized life had •certainly and strongly asserted itself in the valley of the Nile and had probably appeared in the valleys of the Indus and the Euphrates, the ethnic traits of man- M. — Vol. I — 9 THE PRIMITIVE SEATS OF MANKIND, ograph by Madame Dieulafoy, were required for such a transformation of peoples and kindreds as had already taken place before tradition and history began to record the words and deeds of men, can hardly be doubted by any one who has taken an enlarged view of the subject. Not only has the prehistoric divergence in ethnic traits established the great an- tiquity of man, but the testimony derived from this source has been corroborated by the fact of the wide distribution of the primitive peoples of the earth. Within the historical period only a few 122 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. places, and these for the most part islands, have been found which were not already- Time required occupied bv human beings ^°;r'iwa"esthe ^^ the tim'c of discovery. estimate. Some of the West India islands were uninhabited at the close of the fifteenth century. The same cir- cumstance has been noted in Polynesia. But as a general fact the world has all been inhabited, even from antiquity. More than this: the first comers, even thousands of years ago, invariably found the countries into which they made their eruptions already peopled by an earlier race. It may readily be granted that the old Aryans themselves, before the dawn of histor}', making their way Avest- ward, found no uninhabited regions. As far back as we are able to reach by historical record and tradition, we note the same condition — the same invariable circumstance of the universal occupancy of the world by men. The fact of this early diffusion of the human race 6ver the earth tends strongly Subjective and to establish the great an- drfnceslo'^Sf- tiquity of the race. This fusion of races, view of the situation in pre- historic times is intensified when we take into consideration the difficulties which confronted the first men in making their way from place to place. Great were the barriers and obstacles which con- stantly interposed themselves to the movements of primitive mankind. The common idea of tribal migration is al- most wholly erroneous. True, there were times and peculiar conditions under which primitive peoples moved out from their old seats and in a phenomenal man- ner made their way across the prehis- toric landscape into new countries, new islands, and even new continents. But, on the whole, the distribution of mankind over the earth has not been effected by Migration, but by diffusion. The race has diffused itself, like the slow growth of a vine creeping over the surface at a rate so small that it can not be detected by the senses. Only after a lapse of time are we able to see that the vine has taken a new and advanced position. In like manner the first men spread over the surface of the earth by gradual dif- fusion. Whenever a really favorable situation was reached by the outlying members of the tribe, then there would be a movement somewhat more rapid in that direction, until the better place so discovered was peopled and dispossessed of its native treasures. By right reason we are able to see the spreading volume of the human race in the prehistoric ages. The siowmovement advance of the frontier line Sl^^^^r^L in every given direction tribution. would be like the current of Caesar's river, ' ' so .slow that by the natural eye the direction of the current could not be determined." What we are here con- cerned to note is the great period of time requisite for the distribution of the prim- itive peoples over the earth and the consequent high antiquit}^ of the race. The process or processes, for instance, by which a population was finally con- tributed to the i.slands of the Pacific and to the American continents must have been so tedious, so much retarded by the opposing conditions of the natural world, so greatly heightened by the bar- baric .state of the primitive tribes by which the work was accomplished, so long held back by pau.ses and retrogres- sions as to demand for the accomplish- ment what may well be estimated not at a hundred or a thousand years, but at an eon of time. Certain facts must constantly be borne in mind which by their nature must have long retarded the distribution of the original races over the earth. TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 123 The work was effected in some way be- fore the dawn of civilization. This sig- Particuiarob- nifies that men in a state staciestobesur- q£ nature inhabited a nat- mounted in mi- gration of races, ural world, little modified as yet by the influence of its inhabitants. It is almost impossible for men under the civilized life to realize the difficulty Vvhicli a primeval people, a real aborigi- nal tribe, would experience in attempt- ing so simple a feat as crossing a river. We may suppose that the aboriginal man "Dould swim; but the transportation of children across a broad and rapid stream must have been to the men of the first epoch an almost impossible task. No doubt the introduction of boats and rafts was an event belong- ing to a very early age in the human evolution. Nevertheless, there was a time when primeval savages worked their way up slowly, cautiously, dis- trustfully to the concept of a canoe with as much difficulty, aye, much greater difficulty, than the modern man has experienced in the idea and construction of the ocean steamer. Indeed, every advance which marked the slow progress of mankind in the prehistoric ages was attended with such labor and doubt and tedious ap- proaches of attempt and failure as must have retarded for almost immemorial ages the coming of primitive civiliza- tion. All calculations respecting the an- tiquity of man, which do not include among the prominent elements of the problem these facts respecting the dif- ficulties interposed by nature to the dif- fusion of the first races over the earth, are inadequate and erroneous in their bottom principles. In all the primeval world there was not a single highway. Nature builds no roads, constructs no bridges. We must remember in this connection that in all that vast and warlike world re- vealed to us in the history of Egypt and India and Greece and Car- Absence of thage and Rome there Z^.ll^ was not a single tunnel, primeval ages. The aqueduct, the viaduct, the sewer, even the Cloaca Maxima, were known at a very early age; and the building abilities of the people were able to have produced a tunnel in the proper sense; but it remained not for the age of Alex- ander or Caesar or the Antonies, not for PROGRESS OK IKIMEVAL MAN BY WATER. the epoch of Justinian or the era of Charlemagne, not for the Renaissance or the times of Napoleon, but for the nine- teenth century to construct the first under- ground passageway for the movements of civilization — the quick transit of men and merchandise. We have already referred more than once to the tremendous obstacle of the seas and oceans. With what a sense of impotency must the primitive man have come to the sea.shore ! Even after the age of boats and ships, how did he cling to the shores and inlets of the seemingly infinite deep ! It must be remembered 124 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Check offered to ethnic progress by seas and oceans. that the concept nf the impassibility of the sea and even of lakes and rivers was one of those ideas which in the early ages of the world became fixed by the law of heredity — transmitted from gen- eration to generation, until it was a part of the intellectual and even the reli- gious belief of the primitive peoples. No science but history — and history not well — is able to estimate at its full value the rate of diffusion by which the earth was peopled with the aboriginal races; the slowness of the prog- Rate of race dif- ress by which from valley L^teSfro':: rb"' to valley, from river to stacies thereto, river, through untrodden forests, from shore to shore, and finally from conti- nent to continent, the aborigines of the world at last made their way into its more favorable and favoring parts; the vast, almost immeasurable, periods of duration THE AGE OF bOATS.— Eakliks N Hic Epoch. the retarding and paralyzing effect of hereditary beliefs upon even the physi- cal, to say nothing of the intellectual and moral, progress of mankind. Not infrequently we find the forward march utterly impeded and a given people held absolutely to their last camping ground for a thousand years by a single hereditary thought driven down like their tent pins through the belief and practice of that kindred. The significance of these facts and principles is their powerful bearing on that must have elapsed between the beginning and the end of the distribu- tion of the human race, and the con- sequent remoteness of the date which must be assigned for the appearance of man on the earth. Every part of the problem tends to establish the same conclusion. Perhaps the most striking attribute Division and de- of man is his faculty of TangS^gTsVe' speech. Language' is his. quire great time. Philology as a science has risen, as a branch of anthropological study, to TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 125 explain and interpret the significance of ' among the varieties of human speech, linguistic phenomena. It is not our We desire to refer to the subject only in purpose in this connection to review the i corroboration of the conclusions whicli npoc Oec C A \on 3^ OT/T\AYTA6 nA'eeTCK VlYMeJG K /^e UJ C KM ^V XO I f^^^if^ ^T^^^rm: ^^ W^: Sanskrit u i Egyptian Hieratic ^eleventh dynasty). * I i^U Egyptian Hieiaiii; (Grarco-Riinian I'enod). * * i »— '^7 — ^ At i^ ^ Arabic. .^ i «ii^a =niHa=^i1„ 7/ Tiif ^ni Qh?. i^ Sr ^nfliiKi-lK a jJl 5.114 ©OQ. "Hln- .■\ram.V,c Parsee, •V' DIFFERENTIATION OF LANGU.\GES ILLUSTRATED IN ANXIENT STYLES OF WRITINGS. history of language, or to discuss the have been already deduced from other varieties of form in which it has ap- kinds of knowledge. peared, and the correlations existing Each ethnic branch of the human race 126 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. has its own form of language. Among the peoples who compose a given family Time a condition of mankind there is gen- ofltTiectsanS orally a common speech languages. with dialectical differences. These differences sometimes become so well marked and firmly fixed as to con- stitute independent languages. This process of linguistic differentiation re- quires time as one of the conditions of its accomplishment. As a rule, the rate of change, even in the alteration of an accent, is slow, and the larger transfor- mations are even more difficult to be accomplished. Human language passes through changes and modifications under the law of evolution just as the mind does, which requires speech as one of its functions. In the case of peoples intellectually active, and as yet not re- stricted by the set forms of literary ex- pression, linguistic mutation is more rapid ; but among barbarians and con- servative races marked with little activity of thought speech continues in set forms for long periods of duration. The division of mankind into families and races has been largely determined Linguistic dif- by means of language. ?nd?n:ra& Some of the differences by 1516. which one family of lan- guages is discriminated from another are very deep and ineradicable. The forms of speech by which the Semitic peoples are distinguished are fundamen- tally different from the forms employed by the Aryan races, and these in their turn are radically of another type from those employed by the Turanians. The very root-forms of the vSemitic languages, so called, are imknown in the Indo-Eu- ropic tongues. It has been claimed by philologists that not more than ten com- mon radicals exist in the Aryan and Semitic vocabularies. Even the few cases of identity may doubtless be ex- plained by reasons other than linguistic affinity. The same utter dissimilarity exists in the grammar of the two families of speech referred to. utter dissimilar- There are no common ^^^Vlf^r^rn^s features in the sentential of speech, structure and composition of the two types of language. The development of the speech-forms of the two seems to have been by the law of contraries ; in- somuch that the student of a Semitic language must transpose his very meth- ods of thought and abandon all of his preconceptions and principles of analogy before he can enter the spirit of the strange linguistic structure before him. The student who has mastered Latin and French may take up Spanish and find so much that is common to what he has already learned, so much that is in analogy with all his preconceptions and knowledge, that his task is as easy as to go to the same city by a slightly diver- gent route ; but not .so in the acquirement of Hebrew or Arabic. What we are here concerned to note, however, is that the profound structural differences between the such structural great divisions of human ^I.T^rg" eat peri- speech must have required odsoftime. long periods of time for their production. How long these periods have been to ef- fect the given result it were but conjec- ture to estimate. The problem is exactly analogous to that presented by the dis- persion of races. There has been a dispersion of speech. Whether it is possible, indeed, to refer all languages to a common point of departure is matter of dispute among linguists of the highest authority. The attempt to de- rive Hebrew and German from a single original is, to say the least, beset with as many difficulties as confronts the eth- nologist in his effiMl to trace an Anglo- TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 127 of common ori- gin time must be greater. American to the same stock with an aboriginal Australian. All that we are at liberty, in face of the facts, to say is that it may be done ; and in such a hy- pothesis, whether for the different races themselves or for the languages which they speak, we are encouraged by the results thus far attained in philology and ethnology, nearly all of which tend to support the belief in the monogenetic origin of mankind and a common orig- inal for all human speech. The great significance, therefore, of all that we have been able to learn with If languages be respect to the languages of the world is that if they are of a common derivation, then the lapse of time required for the production of their several forms must have been very great. At the daydawn of history human speech had already been deflected into forms even more variant than those at the present exist- ing. At that epoch the inflectional languages were in full efflorescence. The Sanskrit and the Greek presented examples of completeness in structural development for which the student of language must search in vain among the current tongues. Already at that most remote date, on the easternmost shores of the Mediterranean, a Semitic lan- guage had perfected itself into that per- fect triliteral rigidity which we see in the sacred books of the Hebrews. In a word, the linguistic types were as far apart and as well established in that remote morning of civilized life as they are to-day. The whole divergence be- tween them had been effected before the Hebrew as a Hebrew and the Greek as a Greek had made their appearance in the remotest dawn of tradition and story. This period of divergence must have been of great duration indeed. The conditions of the case are Ages demanded for production such as to force us to be- of Hebrew and lieve that the prehistoric common°st'em. age or ages in which the Greek and the Hebrew — as examples for all others — were parted from a common linguistic original must have been so great as to place the date of the origin far be- yond the puny calculations which were accepted aforetime as not only probable but authentic. Even beyond this im- aginary point of departure for the two languages from a common linguistic original we are obliged to look still further and take into account the vast structure and derivation of the Oriental tongues. In doing so, geographical difficulties have to be overcome. The high mountains of Asia must be sur- passed and vast ethnical obstacles re- moved before we can combine the line of the Mongolian languages with that of the races of Western Asia and Europe. In other words, the same profound per- spective is here required as in the case of the dispersion of races and of the geolog- ical history of primeval man. It is as difficult to reach a common original for all existing linguistic forms as it is to find a common ancestry for the cave dwellers of Western Europe, the native Australians, the blubber-eating Esqui- maux, and the flint-chipping barbarians of Polynesia. 128 GREAT RACr.S OF MAXKIXD. Chaptkr VI.— History ani3 Tka.ditiox. S Nve approach the pres- ent, through the vari- ous branches of inquiry which have occupied our attention, we come at length to History and Tradition. If the first of these were complete, or the other trustworthy, we might walk with more confidence through the shadowland of the past. We are constrained, however, to take history as it is, with all its in- completeness and tradition, with all its crudity, contradictions, and inflections, and to gain therefrom whatever we may respecting the date of the appearance of man on the earth. In the first place, his- why history torv as an oracle is silent on recuVofthe this subject; but this is UO beginning. more than what we should e.xpect. Indeed, if the historian, with- out the light reflected from other fields of inquiry, should attempt to fix a cal- endar for the prehistoric ages, he would at once denounce himself to the thinkers of all posterit}'. History is a product of the conscious and reflective life of man — of that civilized life upon which the race enters after it has reached the stage of a high human evolution. "What, therefore, shall history be able to record about the unconscious life of the race extending Below the horizon of the past, and impo.ssible of approach by any back- ward exploration ? In the first chapter of this work we have attempted to define what history is, and to show its limitations. Two distinct types ofhistori- There have been two clear- cal composition. i •, • ^ • . • ■• ly distmct views and prac- tices in the composition of historical narrative. There was an ancient type, and there is a new type. The first was pictorial, descriptive; the other is ex- pository and sociological. The first pro- ceeded no further than men and the deeds of men ; the second reaches through all the individual aspects of human life, and through the deeds which men have seemed to accomplish, to the event, to the cause of the event, and to the great social evolution of which the event is but the temporary expression. The ancient history aimed at a perfect .style and form of narrative, at dignity of language and eloquent " ^ ^ . Spirit and aim o* deductions from the lives the old history T , . J. Ti and the new. and actions of men. It was far more concerned about the turn- ing of a period than about the accuracy of the research and the authenticity of the data which it employed. In the new history we might .say that there is little concern about the form and expression, but an infinity of painstaking with re- spect to the materials of the narrative and an ever-increasing interest in those lines of causation by which all events are held together in a single great event consti- tuting the totality of human life. It is almost needless to add that the new his- tory is a creation of the present century, and that by its method and spirit and the significance of its results it is destined to relegate all the previous historical la- bors of mankind to the place of the iiiatc^ rials of history rather than history itself. We must, however, in an inquiry like the present, freely and gladly accept all historical productions as The present in- of value and importance, ^'^''-y "^^^es " tree use of all This is particularly true of materials, the products of the early ages, as they lie so much nearer than the present to TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 129 the beginnings of civilization and the first conscious life of the race. They express at least the concepts, beliefs, and philosophy of the greatest minds of an- tiquity. They reveal to us, without in- tentional effort to do so, many aspects of the societies which rose and flourished around the Medi- terranean. I n some there is an attempt to revive in the historical garb the myth and tradition of the prehistoric ages, and thus to acquaint the read- er with the move- ments of mankind before the dawn. History, as a species of compo- sition, was invent- ed by the Greeks in the fifth century before the Chris- tian era. To that age belong He- rodotus, Thucydi- des, and Xeno- phon. Ctesias, Philistus, Theo- pompu s, and Ephorus came afterwards, each with his particular merits and blem- ishes, and with an the Greek masters. From the Graeco- Italic fountains literature, including history as one of its branches, flowed down and mingled with the intellectual life of all the peoples of Western Europe, and finally with that of the New World. It is only within the eighteenth and nine- THOTH AND SAFEKH (GODDESS OF HISTORY) WRITING THE DEEDS OF KAMSES 11. Drawn by B. Strassberger. evident decline from their greater pred- ecessors. With the spread of Roman Rise and dissem- power and the conversion of Hellas into a province, the seat of culture was transplanted to the Tiber ; but the prod- ucts of the Roman muses were never equal in spirit and art to the works of ination of his tory in Europe and America. teenth centuries that the models of the classical ages have been to a certain ex- tent put aside and the scientific type of composition substituted in their stead. It is possible, even probable, that a better acquaintance with Chinese liter- ature and with that of India will put us into possession of historical works of a ISO GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. more ancient date than those of Greece ; but the question is still an open one in the hands of explorers and Oriental scholars. Not so, however, with the Possible open- sacred books of the East, ingofnewhis- 'p^gj^g have in man}' parts torical vistas ni •' ^ _ the East. at least a semihistoncal character. Perhaps none of them were produced with the true historical intent. The annals and chronicles which we find among- tlic literary remains of the East Indian races, the Mesopotamian nations, the Egyptians, and the Hebrews in par- ticular, were not formulated by the an- cient seers and scribes with a view to the preservation of an authentic narra- tive of events, but with the ulterior pur- pose of furnishing a mold and matrix in which the religious history and polity of the respective peoples should be ex- pressed, established, and perpetuated. Nevertheless, historical narratives of this secondary kind have a great value as a source of information respecting the early progress of the race. The oldest works of the kind referred to, belonging to the literature of the Arvan race, are the sacred Old historical ' /• i -n i documents of books of the Brahmaus, the Aryan races. . , . . , . i • i the principal of which are known collectively by the name of the Vedas, This work, like the Hebrew Bible, is made up of parts which were produced at successive intervals of time, extending in the aggregate over a great period of duration. The oldest of the Vedas has been assigned to the era be- tween the twenty-first and the nineteenth century B. C. While the work in ques- tion is by no means historical in its de- sign, it contains not a little historical matter, and may thus be accepted as the earliest existent hint of the condition of society among the Aryan peoples at a distance of twenty centuries beyond the Christian era. Among the Hamitic races still more ancient records have been preserved. The condition of literature Karaites pre- (even historical literature) r^tntrapo^a^ at the time of the visit of documents. Herodotus to Egypt was of a kind to im- press that forerunner of European his- tory with a sense of remote antiquity such as the modern inquirer experiences in examining the oldest Greek manu- scripts in existence. The records of ancient Egypt, whether engraved on granite shafts and the walls of palaces and tombs, or written on sheets of pa- pyrus, are undoubtedly the oldest con- temporary documents in the possession of mankind — unless future researches into the literature of China should bring to light others still more ancient. The antiquity of the writings com- posing the Scriptures of the Hebrews has never been definitelv „ , , ' Time and place determined ; but they are of the Hebrew , , , 1 , " ji historical books. known to antedate the writings of Herodotus, if not the poems of Homer. It Avas about the eighth century B. C. that the prophets and scribes of Israel began to reduce tlicii oral utterances to the fixed form of man- uscript. Writing, however, already existed among the Hebrews and other Semitic peoples long before this date. In the time of Josiah, reigning at the middle of the seventh century B. C, a Book of the Law was discovered, contain- ing, as is believed, Deuteronomy and some other fragments of more ancient composition, and these were used by the king and the hierarchy in a religious ref- ormation of the people. It was not, how- ever, until after the times of the Babylo- nian captivity of the Jews that most of the sacred books of Israel were composed, approximately in their present forms. Behind all the writings, historical and semihistorical, poetical, mvthical. and TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 131 prophetic, to which reference has been made in the preceding pages, lies the Tradition pre- age of tradition. Certain gte'^^nh^b'^S- it ''^ that human thought nings of history, jmd Speech long precede the fact of Avritten records. There Avas a period in the history of mankind when the imagination of the more highly developed peoples ran riot through all the forms of fiction and mythology-. The beliefs, hopes, longings, purposes, and doubtless the dreams of the primitive races issued from a thousand fountains and combined their products in a volume of oral tradition. The lore of one age "was handed down to the next, sometimes in its integrity, and sometimes greatly modified and inflected by the additions made thereto by subsequent myth- makers and story-tellers. We must remember constantly the dif- ference between history and tradition. Difference be- The first rests, however re- ^ore^rdtr mote the subject-matter tory. may be, on the testimony of witnesses contemporary with the facts de- scribed ; the latter reposes on the testi- mony of those who were removed in time or place, or both, from the circumstances and events constituting the subject- matter of the stor}'. History' transcribes directly from the eyewitness, the ear- witness, of the event, or from the manu- scripts and sculptures made by them; while tradition repeats a narrative which has been transmitted from tongue to tongue, transformed through all the un- certainties of memory and speech, and de- livered to the fixedness of literary form only after the lapse of generations." It will be seen at a glance that history, ' A good example of the historical tradition is fur- nished in the storj- of Atlantis as given by Plato. When Solon was a traveler in Egypt, near the be- ginning of the sixth century B. C the priest of Sa'is, pretending to a prnfonnder lore of the past than was as determinative of the dates of past events, has in it two elements of value. The first and greatest of whatconsti- these is present in those his- '^"^^^ Wghest ^ and secondary torical writings or sculp- authenticity. tures which record the contemporary event at the time and under the conditions of its occurrence. Of this kind are such writ- ings as the Covimentarics of Julius Caesar, who used neither tradition nor docu- ments, but recorded only the facts of his own observation and experience in the Gallic War. To the same class belong a part of the writings of Josephus. Many European warriors and diplomats have recorded the history of their epochs in books of memoirs, most instructive to after times. The last half of the nine- teenth century has witnessed the com- position of much historical narrative by the participants in such great events as the Civil War in the United States, It is needless to emphasize the superiority of historical narrative composed on this plan to every other form of recorded an- nals. The second element of value and authenticity is found in those writings which, though not written by participants in the events described, are based ex- clusively upon documents and evidences which were contemporaneous with the possessed by any other cult, told him that in former ages the Athenians had been great in war. In that remote time the men of the great kingdom Atlantis, beyond the pillars of Hercules, had made war on Europe and had finally been driven back by the Hellenes. Solon, on his return to Greece, told the story to his friend Criiias, and the latter, in his old age, recited it to his grandson, also named Critias. The grandson became a member, in his mature life, about a hundred years after the times of Solon, of the Socratic group, and to tlie members of that un- equalcd club he told one day what his grandfather had heard from Solon. Plato afterwards took the story up, and in the dialogue oiTimceus reduced it to literarj' form. The world is much concerned to know how much credence may be given to the tradition of Atlantis and other such famous narratives handed down from the primitive ages. 132 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. event and as far as practicable a part thereof.' We may now attempt to apply certain principles and deductions to the question Nocontempora- of the antiquity of man as neous history of determined bv historical the time of the ■' beginning. and traditional evidence. In the first place, history in the primary intent is, out of the nature of the case, wholly silent. Nobody saiv the advent of mankind on the earth. The first men did not themselves record that event on stone or parchment. Xo memorial or monument exists which bears remotely on the apparition of mankind on the earth. No diligence of antiquarian re- search has ever been rewarded, or can ever be, with the faintest trace of an original authority, that is, of contempo- rary evidence, respecting the rise of the human race. The case stands precisely as might be anticipated by the light of right reason. No man remembers his own origin. Xo child notes its coming into the world by making a reCord of the event for posterity. To suppose as much is to suppose the impossible. For how could the unconscious being make & record of its own advent? How could primitive man, unacquainted with the arts, a stranger to the desire of historical fame, wholly concerned with the mate- rial wants of life and the instinct of re- production, be expected to create memo- rials of his coming in a record which would presuppose reflection, ambition, forethought, and the desire of renown with posterity? We must not, therefore, expect to find any satisfactory evidence in history at 'The tirst great example of a history conforming throughout to this lofty standard of authenticity was Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, which, according to the author's own testimony, was deduced throughout from documents contem- porary with the events; nothing was taken at second hand. first hand relative to the date of man's appearance. This is equivalent to say- ing, also, that history in its History from second form, that is, that ^rcT-rJsofi. kind of historical narrative possible, which is derived from original contem- poraneous documents, inscriptions, and monumental remains, is likewise silent about the time of the beginning. The first men were, as we have said above, involved in labors far different from that of producing monuments and preparing parchments for the interest and instruc- tion of after ages. The very same rea- son which precludes the possibility of the first man's having recorded for him- self the time of his coming, by monu- ment or tablet, precludes also the possi- bility of the discovery of contemporary evidences by the story-teller or historian of after times. Why should an antiqua- rian search for that which is not? Why should the archaeologist hope to find an inscription which, should he find it, would be the best possible proof that it did not bear witness to the beginning? Why hope that some contemporaneous monument will be found with a record of an age which neither built monu- ments nor desired to be remembered? While it is true that history in its first and second forms and also in its primi- tive elements, in poem and important de- sacred book and rhapsody frriil^thf^w and prophetic oracle, can cai records, bear no direct evidence respecting the antiquity of man, there is a collateral inference drawn therefrom of consider- able importance. This is found in the fadt that the first writings in narrative form, or tending to that form, are found at very early stages in the histories of great peoples widely separated in place and already developed into different as- pects of ethnic life. We ma}' accept it as true that writings of this kind existed TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 133 among the Chinese as much as fifteen centuries before our era. We have al- ready discovered the beginnings of such a literature among our Aryan ancestors, in the valley of the In- dus, as far back as about two thousand years B. C. The his- torical remains of the valley of the Eu- phrates and the Ti- gris reach back per- haps to the twenty- first centur}-. The monuments of Egypt bear unquestionable evidence of the exist- ence of historical thought and expres- sion in that country about twenty-four centuries before the current era. As early as the eighth century the bards and proph- ets of Israel were wont to reduce their utterances to poetical and semihistorical forms. We find the Greeks, in the person of Herodotus, invent- ing historical narra- tive proper at the be- ginning of the sixth century B. C, and afterwards, by the art of Thucydides, bring- ing that species of composition to a per- fection which, so far as structure is concerned, has never been surpassed. We thus see that in regions far remote from each other, among peoples as di- verse in ethnic life as any that are !&. 'm^S) 3 !^ D '0)|,, § ^1 r^g D D 3i MP^ t^ c< ^t^kt DFI^^^^li \n ^^^^, V 1> i D O g^FR))Vi t^ found on the earth at the present time, in forms of speech as widely differentiated as any dialects known t6 philology, there 134 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. were at least the rudiments of historical lore at a date ranging from six to twen- ■WTiat the wide- ty-four centiirles before the apart writings Christian era. This fact of many races signify. of itself Constitutes a pow- erful argument for the antiquity of the human race. Letters and the art of writing are among the later products of primeval man. Even when these have been invented, it requires another long period of development to bring the re- flective powers and the art of composi- tion to the level of historical narrative. We speak here not of philosophical his- tory, but of the first rude attempts of the human mind to make record of the events of the past. To these considera- tions we must in the next place add a third period of great duration to cover the time required in the development of the mind to this grade of activity in wide-apart localities. If it be true that there were men of letters engaged in the historical art in China at an epoch beyond the age of Homer and David ; if it be true that at a still earlier period the sages of the Indus valley had begun to produce narrative, as well as song ; if it be true, as it certainly is, that the Greeks as a nation had, at the beginning of the sixth century B. C, reached a stage of intellectual progress at which the story of Herodotus might be received with national applause ; if, more than all this, in the valley of the Nile the priests and seers of the age of the pyra- mids devoted them.selves in large meas- ure to the composition of sacred history and philosophy, then, indeed, how great must have been the niitcccdoit lapse of time requisite for the evolution of these various forms of ethnic life and achieve- ment] We thus reach the subject of Tradi- tion proper. While history in the true intent does not presume to fix the time and place of the beginning, tradition has ever been busy with these themes. In almost every nation. Tradition be- among almost every people, ^ra arouSd"t\T a body of traditional lore conscious life, has been produced in the earlier and half-conscious epoch, and handed down to subsequent times, including the belief of that particular branch of mankind with respect to its own origin. vSuch traditions in the prehistoric ages became a part of the national faith, was inter- woven with the folklore of the people, and afterwards with the whole system of philosophical belief. The myth reached forward out of the past and grasped the present. The poetical fiction mingled with the rudimentary forms of history, and became a wellnigh inseparable part thereof. The dream of the prirnitive man became a penunibra around the life of the conscious man, and thus the ear- lier ages of reflection and truth were shadowed and haunted with the fancies and fictions which had arisen in the childhood of the race. Many are the forms and applications of tradition. Generally the body of primitive belief contained Essential arti- one or two essential arti- t^,^^^^^::^ cles. The first of these, as race. a rule, declared the high antiquity of the given tribe or people. It was a point of honor among the primitive races to assert priority. The Egyptians, for instance, scorning the narrow limits of earth-made calendars, declared that they, as a race, were Proscloioi ; that is. Before the Moon ! Almost every tribe and in- cipient people urged some extravagant claim to a prior possession of the countr}^ or place which they occupied. There seems to have been in primitive men, even in the remotest ages of violence and barbarism, some notion that priority gave right and advantage to him who TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM TRADITION. 135 could -issert it This principle in human nature acted powerfully against the pres- ervation of a belief in recent migration, and in favor of the assertion of long oc- cupancy. Though we are convinced that the world was peopled by the diffusion of races, nearly all the early peoples dis- claimed this method of possession, and asserted immemorial residence in their respective countries. These conditions may serve to explain the general prevalence of the belief in an autochthonous origin among the primitive peoples of the world. There invasions of others more warlike and adventurous. But the belief among the ancient peo- ples that they were autochthones did not imply simply an origin from Autochthony the earth. Vegetable life ^Ztt^..^. springs from . the soil, etable world. The growth of plants must have been one of the first and most tangible phe- nomena recognized by the senses and con- sidered by the reason of primitive men. The idea that they themselves might have originated in like manner would have been natural enough to the situa- VIEW OF MOUNT OTHRYS FROM TRIKHALI.— Drawn by Dosso, after Stackelberg. \vas scarcely an extant tradition of human genesis which did not associate the beginning of man-life and tribe-life Universality of with the earth. It pleased toththonour the fancy of the first men *>"£''!• to declare that they Avere earthborn, or at least that the power Avhich called them into existence used the earth as the vehicle and substance of creation. There was thus established, as it would appear, among each people a sort of claim to the earth by the right of an indisputable priority — a claim which the reader may well perceive to be of great use to sedentary tribes in main- taining themselves against the migratory tion ; but the myth took always another form. There was in the thought of an- tiquity a conception of evolution and a conception of creation. The two were blended. Man was made The ancient out of clay ; but a supernat- ^C^x^^^l ural being was the maker, creation. Among the Greeks one myth ran to this effect, that the first men were plasvtata pclou, that is, effigies of baked clay from the hand of Prometheus. And for this deed the jealous deities chained him to the rocks of Caucasus. The more fa- mous belief was that which assigned the origin of mankind to the act of Deucalion 136 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and his wife Pyrrha. These twain, saved from a deluge of waters, reached Mount Othrys, where, upon landing, they were commanded by Zeus to cast behind them the bones of their mother. Albeit the bones of the mother meant the stones of the earth. The.se Deucalion and his wife threw down the hillside, and forthwith sprang up both men and women, who were the Stone race, the Laoi of Greek mythology. The Indian myth rims to the effect that Prajapati, the creator, after many tentative experi- ments, .succeeded in producing from the earth a race of beings in harmony with their environment, and therefore capable of surviving. In India, however, the fundamental concept of the genesis of man was inflected into many forms, in- cluding beliefs in his origin from the lower animals, rather than immediately from the earth. The legends of Greece, and more anciently those of Egypt and Libya, generally assigned the Cephissian marsh as the scene of man's creation — this if we may accept a fragment of Pindar as authority. It is not our purpose, however, to pur- sue the forms of ancient myths, but only Myths of the to sketch their general char- acter and to deduce there- from such value as they may hold respecting the antiquity of man. It is clear, in the first place, that the above views relative to the begin- ning of human life belong to the adoles- cent period of the mind. A little reflec- tion will show us the stage in the life and development of the individual to which the legendary period in the his- tory of the race corresponds. That stage is childhood ; in the one case the childhood of the individual, and in the other the childhood of the race. The period in either instance is that in which the fancy and the senses are wholly pre- origin of man belong to race childhood. dominant over reason and the reflective powers of the mind. At the time when the tradition of the kind above described was produced, the mind of the race was not as The question yet haunted with the ques- lX?do°esf tion. Why? nor were the cence. insuperable difficulties which rose in the way of such myths regarded as of the slightest value. For instance, the ques- tion might well have arisen among the Greeks how it was that the clay-baked beginnings who aro.se into consciousness under the touch of Prometheus could have known ought of their origin. How could an autochthonous people have had the slightest memory of the process by which they came into being? How did the Laoi of Deucalion understand that they had been produced by the flinging behind of stones? Yet these very ob- vious forms of rationalism seem never to have occurred to the wise Greeks, even of the classical ages. All this is in e.xact analogy with the life of the individual. The child-mind is not at all concerned about . ... Child-mind of the inconsistencies of a individual and , (Ti ii i 1 r of race alike. story. io that grade of intelligence the more marvelous the story the more acceptable it is. The legend of childhood impresses itself in- delibly upon the memory, and passes down with the current of understanding, mingling therewith and combining with the beliefs and concepts of a later pe- riod of development. So with the oral traditions of the primitive world. They were manifestly produced in what may be called the childhood of the race, and were delivered by oral transmission to the conscious race which came after- wards. The present significance of these facts is that they tend to confirm the belief in the remote origin of the human race, and PKuMEllIliUi VIXCTUS.— Afiur tlit p^^.li.i ^y 1. 10 138 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. to familiarize our thought with the con- cept of a long period for the adoles- Traditionsof ccHce of mankind. Beyond man-birth con- ^|j j^ -^ ^,gj.g J^^rd tO SaV that firm belief in re- • • v mote race origin, the traditions with which the early life of every people abounds have any value relative to the date of the beginning. It must be constantly borne in mind that chronology and ge- ography are precisely the circumstances which tradition and the traditional age of human history are most likely to neg- lect. Very little are the primitive races concerned about accuracy as to time and place. Such facts as time and place require investigation, laborious study, travel, mathematical knowledge, and many other conditions which the adoles- cence of mankind could in no wise sup- ply. Whatever the mind could invent for itself by dream and reverie and fan- ciful excursion, that was abundantly produced ; but the sober and solid ma- terials and structure of real history were too heavy and exact and buixlensome to be supplied or borne by the early races of men. The great deduction, therefore, from the traditional lore of mankind with re- spect to the time of the beginning of man-life on the earth must be drawn from the subject-matter of chud-mind the traditions themselves ^Lt^'.Urrnan- and from the unmistakable mind history, evidence which they present that they were the products of the child-mind of the world. History, on the contrary, is the product of the man-mind. It comes only with the adult age of reason and reflection. We have seen how far back in the past, however, lie the rudiments of historical composition. The argument is that greatly beyond this date of the earliest formal efforts of mankind to ex- press its knowledge of itself lay the mi.sty and inchoate realm of tradition and fable. The time relation of such an age is deduced from the character of its prod- iicts. If the beginnings of hi.story are to be found in wide-apart regions of the earth at a date as remote as twenty cen- turies before the common era, how great must be the distance of that childhood of the race and that early youth when the mind, still surrounded with all vis- ions and dreams, looked forth into a landscape and beheld on every side men as trees walking I Chapter VII.— Chronological Inquiry. E may next note with interest the results which have been reached in chronology proper. This science is, as we have said, a part of history. Every historic event must, in the nature of the case, have a time locus, and its signifi- cance will depend upon its temporal rela- tions. No satisfactory interpretation can be made of the affairs of men without considering them in their relations and dependencies of time. So important has been this element in the annals of man- kind that a distinct Science of Time has been developed, and to this is given the name of chronology. !Many ages ago the thinkers of the world began to see the importance of an accurate system of time measure- ment applied to the affairs of peoples and nations. It is not known, indeed, at how early a date attempts were made to in- TIME OF THE BEGIXXLXG.—CHROXOLOGICAL L\0i7Ry. 139 invent a system of time measure ment. vent from astronomical data a system of years and eras. Perhaps every people AU races seek to in the world on arriving at the conscious and rational stage of development busied itself with the problems of a calendar. The rotation of the earth and the posi- tion and aspect of the spheres furnished the data of the first rude calculations, as they have continued to furnish the foundation of the highly refined system of to-day. As a rule, in these tentative efforts at time computation, some prominent event in the tribal or national life was taken as Great eras es- tablished ; He- brews had no date. chronology have been produced. Al- most every nation of ancient times had its own date from which all others were measured by years or cycles. There ap- pears to have been a special activity among the great peoples who flourished in the eighth century B. C. in the work of establishing eras as starting points for chronological measurement. The an- cient Hebrews seem to have had in their earlier history no era from which they reckoned the dates of their national life. Such facts in their tradition and annals as the call of Abraham out of Ur, or the PHENOiMENA OK DAY AND NIGHT AND .SEASON (FOUNDATION Or ALL CALENDARS). the Starting point for all dates. The primitive organization of the state, the In what manner founding of the citv, the l^lT^'nhi^-^ni accession of some heroic eras in chronol- ogy arose. king, deliverance from some impending disaster, or triumph in some civic or warlike contest, would furnish, each in its kind, a crisis from which all other events would be reckoned. There is an instinctive disposition among peoples to refer all common affairs to the great event gone by, and to measure its distance therefrom, as if a proper es- timate of the current fact might best be made by holding it in contrast with an established .standard set up at a distance. It is thus that the so-called eras of exodus of Israel from Egypt, might well have furnished a historical era for the Jewish race. But that people seems never to have adopted any such crisis, but rather to have used the reckonings of other nations. Not so, however, the Babylonians. By them the accession to the throne of the great king Nabonassar, Fixing of Baby- in the year 747 B. C. taken as the national era, and was long used by the people of the Lower Empire. A .short time before this, namely, in the year 776 B. C, the Greeks had established the Olympiad, dating from the victorious contest of Coroebus, in the Olympic games, in the loniEUi, Greek, "''^ and Roman eras. 140 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. year referred to. Each Olympiad in- cluded four calendar years. According to Varro, the city of Rome was founded in the year 753 B. C, and this era was chosen by the Roman race as the origin of dates. It thus happened that the three great eras of antiquity — Babylonian, Grecian, Roman — were established so near to the middle of the eighth century B. C. that a period of twcnt^v-nine years covered them all ! It is true, however, that though the events constituting the starting points of the three eras thus lay so near together, the eras themselves were established by the respective na- tions at subsequent dates much further apart. The three eras referred to continued to be used until the Christian religion Era of the Christ had risen to such impor- Teltl'th: ju! tance in the Roman empire lian period. ^^ to be able at length to substitute the birth of the Christ for the founding of the city. The new era gained the day among the Western na- tions, and is at the j^resent time more extensively used than any other epoch of computation. The substitution of the new for the old led to much confu- sion in fixing the dates of historical events, and it was to remedy this diffi- culty that Joseph Scaliger, in 1582, in- vented what is called the Julian period. This, indeed, is not an era, since it does not begin with any particular date in the past. It uses as its units the years as they were lixed by the calendar of Julius CcEsar, and the Christian era is made to correspond with the year 4714 from the beginning of the period. A scale is thus furnished by which any year of the era of Nabonassar, of a given Olympiad, or from the founding of Rome, may easily be reduced to terms of the Christian calendar ; that is, to the corresponding year B. C. In the early centuries of our era the Christians in many parts were scandal- ized with the observance of Hebrews choose pagan festivals according ^:^^ to dates and anniversaries of the world, which had been perpetuated from the classical ages. In order to free them- selves from these heathen rites the ad- herents of the new faith began to imi- tate a usage which had now grown up among the Jews of reckoning from the creation of the world. Israel had by this time become sufficiently scholastic to produce a calendar which in its terms reached back to the beginning of things. The Christians deemed it wise to imi- tate the Hebrew method, and to employ the supposed date of the creation as an era from which to reckon all subsequent events. In doing so, however, there was much confusion. It was found that the Old Testament narratives presented the elements of at least three distinct computations. There were three texts of equal authority, and neither agreed with the others in the matter of dates. There was a vSamaritan, a Hebrew, and a Greek text of the Scriptures, contain- ing irreconcilable accounts so far as time was concerned. Nor was there any other calendar with which the three might be compared and thcjebi' coi rected. It thus happened that among the Christian nations of the West the era of the creation came to be Attempts to fix referred to as the primary ^:^Z'^XT^ epoch to which all other Scriptures. events must be referred. In the later Middle Ages, and down to the beginning of critical scholarship in our own cen- tury, the effort was many times renewed by the unlearned dogmatists of the time to fix the date for the creation of the world and whatever therein is. For it must be imderstood once for all that TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY 141 the era of creation which crediilous scholastics have so niiich busied them- selves to find was always, in the estima- tion of those who sought it, the era not only of the physical world, but also of the human race. The theory of coinci- dent origin for the world and its inhab- itants was held implicitly by the early chronologists, and was incorporated by them in their systems of reckoning. In the absence of facts, hypotheses, un- warranted assumptions, and vague appli- cations of the three different texts of the sacred writings of the Hebrews led to an endless variety of results. Desvig- noles has collected more than two hun- dred sets of calculations, the authors of which have attempted to determine the era of creation from the Scriptures. Nor is it possible for the modern in- quirer, with these computations before him, to extract therefrom any one sys- tem, or to form a new one out of the given materials more satisfactory than the rest.' Among the calculations to which refer- ence has just been made, the briefest of all is that by the Rabbi Lipmann, which iThe fundamental difficulty in making out a biblical chronology for antiquity lies in the irrecon- cilable differences of statement as to the ages of the first ten patriarchs as given in the Hebrew and Septuagint texts. The following table may interest the reader as illustrative of the many disagreements between the two principal texts of the Scriptures upon which modern times have placed reliance as authentic records : RIARCHS. Age at BIr h of Heir. Pat Hebrew T :xt. Septuagint. 130 105 90 70 6S 162 65 187 182 600 230 205 190 170 16; Seth Cainan Mahalalecl Tared 162 .65 .87 188 Lamech Noah (at flood) foo flood Time of the J. 656 2,262 assigns the year 3483 B. C. as the era of the creation. The longest of all is that by Regiomontanus, which contradictory sets the date of 6984 B.C. as ''^:^:i^' the beginning of the world, system. ; We have thus the scholars and chronol- ogists of the fifteenth, si.xteenth, and seventeenth centui^es — though they em- ployed the same data, namely, the three texts of the Scriptures — differing among themselves by as much as thirty-five cen- turies ! It could hardly be supposed that oiit of such diverse materials and such contradictory results any conclu- sion of importance could be deduced by modern scholarship as to the era of the world. It was, however, from these data that Archbishop James Usher undertook, at the middle of the seventeenth century, to prepare a system of sacred chronology. The result, strangely enough, was the production of a work which gained and held an ascendency among the writers of the Western nations for more than a century. It is only in recent times that scholarship has succeeded in unseat- ing the Usherian system from the places of learning, and even to the present day it continues to exercise a remarkable influence over the common mind, espe- cially among the English-speaking peo- ples. The reason of the ascendency of this system of dates in the literature of Eu- rope and America is to be Literature and found in the fact that the t^Z7^,:La Usherian scheme secured thereby, for itself, without warrant of fact, the claim of being a biblical chronology. By some unknown authority the dates prepared by Usher were inserted in the margin of authorized editions of the Scriptures of the Old Testament, and having once gained a place therein, the uncritical and unscholarly opinion of the 142 GREAT RACrS OF MANKfXD. age permitted their retention. From this source the system diffused itself into general litera- ture. The histor- ical writers of the last century and of the first half of the present century, for the most part, continued to accept and to employ the U.sherian dates for all the events in the ancient history of mankind. To the present day the authorized editions of the Bible are sent forth with the Usherian chronology in the margin, and in the popular belief that system is referred to the same source and authority as that by which the sacred canon was produced ! TIME INSTRUMENT — ANCIENT SUNDIAL. TIME INSTRUMENT — HOURGLASS. It was thus that in modern times a supposed date has been established for Astonishing de- the era of the creation of the earth and man. Usher fixed upon the year 4004 B. C. and the autumnal equinox of that year, namely October 23, as the pre- tails of the Usherian scheme. cise date of the apparition of the world ! The creation of man he placed with equal exactitude five days later, that is, on October 28th!' The remainder of b nadows we are an d" like /sF) ado wsdebartr 1 1 riiiii "wi> I n i l i7 ; ;rr ii a illi[mii iT ..i 7 . . .. .m .... iii . ui i M *i » MODERN TIME INSTRUMENT — SUNDIAL. 'It is matter of profound astonishment that such a system of chronology as that devised — utterly without warrant of fact — by Archbishop Usher, should have been received and adopted by the best scholarship of England as late as 1825: this, too, without the slightest apparent distrust ! The new Ediiihurgh Encyclopadia of the date just named, conducted by Sir David Brewster, with the assist- ance of more than a hundred European scholars most eminent in science and literature, incorporates without the slightest note of dissent the Usherian system. The readerof the present day, and still more the readerof the future, will almost doubt his senses when he finds the chronological table in the great encyclopaedia just referred to beginning as follows • "4004 B. C. The world created at the autumnal equinox, on Sunday, October 23. » » # » * " Adam and Eve created on Friday, October 28." History is not the place for satire or humor; but the comment is pardonable, and the inference might well be drawn from these astounding particulars of the creation that Archbishop Usher had been a schoolmate and playfellow of the progenitor of the human race ! TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY. 143 the primitive scheme was arranged with like precision and confidence ; nor may we well be offended at so monstrous a chronological system when we remem- ber that its author was born only thirty- four years after the death of Luther. Our astonishment must be abated when we remember that the Usherian chrono- logical tables were prepared before Louis XIV was twenty years of age and within less than a half century of the planting of the first English colonies in the New World. That a trust- worthy system of chronology could be produced in such an age and from such materials as were then extant, un- der the scholastic methods which then prevailed in the English and Irish uni- versities, is a supposition beyond the limits not only of reason, but of possi- bility. The Usherian system of dates, however, though originated in absurd Large place of assumptions and pressed ?et!f^V/er-n ^^to form by the hand of writings. dogmatism, has played a large part in the historical writings of Europe and America. Beyond these and through them it has reached the popular belief, becoming as it were an article of faith, and intimately associated with orthodoxy in religious belief. The system has thus performed a most dele- terious office, particularly since the be- ginnings of scientific scholarship within the current century. Almost every branch of historical inquiry has been checked and impeded by the precon- ceived opinion that there exists a sys- tem of biblical chronology for antiquity to which all events, since the appearance of man, must be conformed. As a matter of fact, the so-called bibli- cal chronology, with its supposititious era of creation, was invented by an Irish prelate born in the sixteenth century; was imposed on the sacred books in some unknown manner and without the sanc- tion of any ecclesiastical The system an authority; was foisted, as it '^^^^f'^^l^" were, upon the books of knowledge, the Old Testament, and forced into union with them ; and was henceforth made to supply the place of investigation and forestall the advance of knowledge. It is only within the last half of the present century that the system of dates invent- ed by Usher as a sort of compromise and average among others that were ir- reconcilable has been challenged, de- throned, and put aside from all the high places of scholarship, holding its place only by usurpation and folly in the authorized editions of the Bible. It may suffice to refer briefly to some of the other eras which have been em- ployed in the attempted measurement of time and the emplacement . . The other prin- of the dates of antiquity, cipaierasof A r, i-L J ■ ■ j^ ii time reckoning. Alter the dispersion of the Jews, and up to the fifteenth century, that people employed in their business affairs and secular records what is called the era of the Seleucidas, that is, the year B. C. 311; but since the fifteenth century the Israelites have fallen back upon their interpretation of the Hebrew text for the era of the world, fixing that event at the year 3760 B. C. Mean- while, the Greek Christians of Russia and the East adopted for themselves what is known as the era of Constanti- nople, which places the creation of the world in the year 5509 B. C, and makes the Christian era coincident with the fourth of the one hundred and ninety- fourth Olympiad. There is also what is known as the era of Alexandria, which placed the creation in the year 5500 B. C. It were better, however, to satisfy the reader's curiosity in these particulars by a tabulated statement showing the rela- 144 GREAT RACES OE MAXK'fXP. tions of the principal eras which, iintil a comparatively recent date, have been Synoptical view employed in fixing the time and comparison j-eLitions of cvcnts in tlic of the leading eras. ancient history of the world. The table is inserted, not be- cause of any value in its fundamental assumption of the era of creation, but only as a convenient reference to ex- hibit the relations of the more important eras: geological and archaeological research the discrepancy between the facts of the prehistoric world and the scientific spirit current system of dates be- Z°t^lm^^° came apparent. One or the dates, other had to yield. Either scholars and travelers must disbelieve the testimony of their senses or reject the narrow and dogmatic system which the old chronol- ogists had fixed up as the framework of ancient history. The era of creation corresponds to. The first Olympiad corresponds to. The founding of Rome corresponds to. The common, or Christian, era corresponds to The Hegira corresponds to. The era of the French republic corresponds lo The year 4004 B. C. The year 710 of the Julian period. The year 3251 before the founding of Rome. The year 5996 of the French era. The year 776 B. C. The year 322S of the era of creation. The year 23 before the founding of Rome. The year 3938 of the Julian period. The year 2568 before the French era. The year 753 B. C. The year 3251 of the era of creation. The year 4 of the sixth Olympiad. The year 3961 of the Julian period. The ye.ir 2545 before the p'rench era. The year 4004 of the era of creation. The year i of the I95tli Olympiad. The year 753 of the founding of Rome. The year 4714 of the Julian period. The year 1792 of the French era. The year 622 of the Christian era. The year 4626 of the era of creation. The year 3 of the 348th Olympiad. The year 1375 of the founding of Rome. The year 5336 of the Julian period. The year 1206 before the French era. The year 1792 of the Christian era. The year 5796 of the era of cre.ition. The year i of the 643d Olympiad. I The year 2545 of the founding of Rome. The year 1206 of the Hegira. The year 6506 of the Julian period. In no department of human knowl- edge has the scientific spirit wrought greater changes during the last half century than in the previously accepted chronology. With the beginning of Philology, the .science of human lan- guage, added its testimony. The ruins of Nineveh and Babylon were exhumed from the oblivion of centuries, and the cylinder-tablets of the library of TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INOUIRY 145 torical research among several races. Asshur-Bani-Pal were recovered for the instruction of mankind. The cuneiform inscriptions were translated. The hiero- glyphics of Egypt opened their long- sealed treasures. The vision of men began to clear, and the narrowness and incapacity of the old system of chro- nology were seen in ridiculous outline against the almost limitless background of the past. The chronological researches of schol- ars in recent times have been directed Results of his- to Special fields of inquiry rather than to the establish- ment of a general sj'stem for the whole ancient history of mankind. The result has been that the annals of China and India have been traced back by means of native records and monuments of a fairly creditable char- acter to about 2 200 B. C. .Sir John Gardner Wil- kinson has f-xed with ap- proximate certainty the beginning of the fourth dynasty of Egypt at the year 2450 B. C. — to which must be added at least the uncertain period covered by the preced- ing dynasties. Karl Richard Lepsius, labor- ing in the same field of inquiry, has extended the period of Egyptian his- tory back to the begin- ning of the first dy- nasty, to which he assigns the date of 3892 B. C. The French Egy^ptologist, Mariette, one of the most expert and skillful scholars of the century, by a cross- examination of the history of Menetho and the Egyptian sculptures has shown many reasons for fixing the date of Menes as far back as 5004 B. C. The Chaldaean records, according to Berosus, extend to a much higher antiquity than that as- signed for the beginning of Egyptian history, and the careful Rawlinson fixes upon the year 2286 B. C. as the ap- proximate date for the accession of the first dynasty of Old Babylonian kings. On every hand the scheme of dates has been widened out by the most competent scholars of the age, in so much that all rational belief in the chronological tables which were accepted at the beginning of the century has passed away. What then does chronology as a de- partment of historical investigation prove or tend to prove with respect to the an- tiquity of man? It shows General deduc- that many great nations of ^LTanS^ the ancient world, widely of man. separated, in some instances by high STONE MASONRY ON THR Sl'MMITS OF THE ANDES. mountains and almost impassable seas, were already developed into fi.xed forms of society and government, already in possession of institutions and laws and literary forms of record, at dates ranging from twenty to fifty centuries before the common era. To this we must add the monumental evidence already obtained relative to the ancient peoples of the 146 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. American continent. Such facts as the ruins which have been discovered in Central America and the stone-hewn foundations of temples and palaces in the tops of the Andes must tend strongly in every thoughtful mind to increase rather than diminish the chronological estimates of the antiquity of the ancient European, African, and Asiatic nations. AVe may now proceed to sunnnarizc in a few paragraphs the various evidences which may be gathered from scientific Summary of the and Other sources of in- alt "on:mfcki 4"^^' respecting the age of Indication. vci^n on the earth. In the first place, the astronomical conditions and laws under which our planet came into the habitable state furnish us with a tolerably accurate estimate of the time when with the subsidence of our last planetary winter the earth, by the favoring conditions which were then in- troduced, presented itself as a fit abode for the human race. With due allow- ance for the prolongation of the epoch of rigor and for the melting away of the ice cap in the northern hemisphere, and with certain other allowances which are suggested by science and right reason, and with the application of the law of averages between the maximum and minimum dates which may reasonably be assigned for the appearance of man, we may fix the time of his coming ap- proximately at tldrty thousajid or tJiiriy- five tkoitsaHd years before the Christian era. With this conclusion the important, almost irrefragable, evidence of geology Geology coiTob- fuUy corresponds. The orates the re- *„ .• ,• ^^i .-i* suits arrived at investigation of the earth s ftom astronomy, ^.j^ust has not vet positive- ly demonstrated the remains of man and of his works belonging to a period quite as remote as that indicated by the astro- nomical antecedents as the approximate time of the habitability of the globe. But the geological evidence has stretched out far toward the same remote date for the origin of our species. If we trust to geological evidence and indications oii/y, we shall have to reduce the astronomi- cal indications respecting the date of the appearance of man by perhaps a hun- dred centuries. It is clear, however, that after making all proper allowances for error of computation, mistakes of judgment, and partiality of the inquirer for one form and result of conclusion in- stead of another, and after estimating as well as may be done the irregularities in the rate of change in the formation of the earth's crust at different geological periods, we must still assign a date of not less than from livciity tJiousand to tzvciity-Jivc thousand years B. C. as the time of those geological formations with which the remains of man and the traces of his activity are indubitably associated. To this conclusion should be added the consideration that the lesser estimate for the antiquity of man, gathered from geo- logical evidences as compared with the estimate from astronomical conditions, furnishes against the latter only a nega- tive fonn of proof. All that may be said is that geology lias not fnrnis/icd as high an estimate for the date of the ap- pearance of man as is indicated by the astronomical conditions which perfected the habitability of the planet at a period somewhat more remote. The great foundations of the inquiry lie in the solid structure of geology, in- cluding the astronomical Geological re- antecedents by which the l^J^^^^l. globe was prepared for the of the inquiry, maintenance of man-life upon it. About these conditions all other forms of proof are related and made thereto dependent. The archaeological evidence respecting the antiquity of man has its principal sig- TIME OF THE BEGINNIXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY. 147 nificance from the geological basis on which the whole science reposes. The evidence afforded by the remains of man and the fragments of his industrial arts transmitted from the prehistoric ages depends constantly for its value upon the geological correlation and de- pendency. From this origin of calcula- tion and estimate the archaeologist pro- ceeds with much the larger part of his investigations. But while it is true that the significance of his results depends upon those already reached in geo- logical science, it is also true that those results fully hamtonizc with the deduc- tions of geology, and corroborate and sustain them without break or discrep- ancy, in so much that the evidences af- forded by the two branches of inquiry become common and consistent as a whole. We may therefore repeat as a concliision drawn from archaeological re- search the same approximate date de- duced from the records and inferences of geology, namely, a period of twenty thousand years or more before the comirion era as the epoch of man. With this latter estimate coincides also the deduction from palaeontological Deduction from inquiry. Here again we fall Ci^onizl^^ith back upon geology, not other results. indeed for the order of the facts considered, but for the approximate dates to which the facts must be as- signed. Those forms of animal and vegetable life with which the remains of man are associated in the geological matrix of the earth are referable to the same kinds of proof as to their antiquity as are the other materials of archaeology. To a certain extent the antiquity of the prehistoric flora and fauna may be de- termined independently of the age of the geological epochs to which the same belonged. But, on the whole, the argu- ment from palaeontology has the very same basis, so far as. the antiquity of man is concerned, as that from archaeol- ogy; and each alike corroborates the geological record with respect to the age of man. Negatively it may be said that palaeontological research has in no case tended to reduce the high estimate for the antiquity of man which has been made from the basis of geology. The same results are reached from the anthropological point of view. Every branch of man-study Anthropological to deductions are points unmistakably ... essentially the an origin for the human same, race remote from the present by not less than a hundred centuries. The evi- dences found in the human body of or- gans and offices which had already be- come rudimentary before the beginning of historical records ; the like indications of the prehistoric differentiation of the sexes, by which the traces of a common physical life were left in each ; the es- tablished slowness of the intellectual evolution of the race, whereby the in- crement of mental power and the aver- age capacity of the faculties of the mind have hardly been perceptibly augmented in the space of three thousand years, and many other facts and laws of human development which have been scientif- ically determined, all tend to establish beyond doubt an antiquity for the race approximately as high as that indicated in the deductions of geolog}\ So also of ethnological and ethno- graphical inquiry. The period requisite for the ethnical dispersion Ethnology and of the race must have '^^^Z^alti. been as great as that fur- cai conclusions, nished by the indications of geology, archaeology, and anthropology. We may mark with certainty not only the presence but the historical development of the different races of Asia, Africa, and Europe at a time so far remote from 143 GREAT RACES OF JLAXKLXD. the present as to warrant, and, indeed, compel, the conclusion that the length of time required for the differentiation of the various peoples from some common stock was fully as great as that indicated by the rude implements and other re- mains of primitive mankind and the emplacement of the same with the later, if not the middle, deposits of the Drift. Xo scholar can reflect with earnestness and dispassion upon the phenornena of tribal and race development among the Ar\-an families of men only without per- ceiving the stretch of immeasurable time requisite for the whole distri- bution — for the departure, migra- tions, settlement, and evolution of the Indie peoples, for the like diver- gence, organiza- tion, and develop- ment of the Iran- ic nations, for tlie far-off and vine- like progress of the fathers of the GrjECO-Italic tribes, and older than they the Celts, and perhaps the Teutonic barba- rians of the northern forests, all gradu- ally rising through slow and painful processes to the plane of permanency and conscious life — without perceiving the necessity for a span of at least a hundred centuries to accomplish the given results apparent at the beginnings of recorded annals. Bagk of all this a still profounder vista must be opened of at least equal extent, in order to provide the time and con- ditions of ethnic change, such as were EXTREME OF ETHNIC DIVERGENCE — HIGHEST TVIE. — (l) EROS OK PRAXITELES. Drawn by C. Colb. necessary for the division of the Aryan races from the Semitic and Hamitic fam- ilies, from that ancient Large allowance Cushite stock seen with r/peHo7o;'°' difficulty on the horizon of race dispersion. Egypt and Arabia and the Lower Eu- phrates, from the original Black races of Africa and Australia, and finally from the ancestors of those Asiatic and Poly- nesian ^Mongoloid varieties of mankind which to-day are represented by at least one half of the inhabitants of the earth. The demands of ethnology can hardly be satisfied with a period for the whole distribu- tion of mankind, and for the de- velopment of the ethnic varieties already present in the dawn of his- tory and tradi- tion, of less than a hundred and fifty centuries. An ample esti- mate for the re- quired time, not unreasonable in view of the de- monstrable condi- tions that have surrounded the progress and differentia- tion of the race, may be set at twenty tho usa nd j 'ca rs . With such conclusions history and tra- dition — including the special department of chronologV are in full History sub- and harmonious accord. f^^Slnf^ttthe. History does not say or inti- other sciences, mate that the world of man-life extends. only six thousand years into the past. As we have shown in the foregoing pages, the testimony of history is negative rather than positive with respect to the date of TIME OF THE BEGINNLXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL IXQUIRY. 149 because she can go there- tlie beginning'. Nothing more can be expected of historical research proper than to record such dates and epochs of the past as are deducible from contem- poraneous documents, industrial remains, and monumental inscriptions. But it does not follow that no further than this there was, fore, no previous career for mankind on the earth On the contrary, his- tory clearly infers that there was a childhood, an adolescence, and at last a ma- turity into con- sciousness of the primitive races. With this view the historical rec- ord, as far as it extends, is in entire ac- cord. Histor- i c a 1 inquiry looks already with clear vision across those nar- row and factitious eras of time which the ignorance of a former age succeeded in imposing upon manKinu as a extreme of ethnic mvERCExcE — lowest type. dead wall and bound- (2) Australian of the townsville coast. ary to the ancient world. History sees beyond these limi- tations the shadows and outlines of the real facts of the early inorning of the race ; but she does not presume to say ihiis-and-so of events and movements con- cerning which she has not, and in all probability can never have, the testi- mony of contemporary records. History accepts at their proper valua- After a Danish drawing, tion the traditions and legends of antiq- uity. She gives to them such credence as the master gives to the orai story may stories of the nursery and "lo* contradict thepla3-ground. She gladly "ght reason, admits what truth soever may have been transmitted from the most ancient times to the epoch of records and monuments b" the oral utterance and repe- n of the primitive peo- ples but she disallows the right of oral story thus handetl down from age to age to contradict the exact and indis- putable e V i - dence of sci- ence and to set tradition on the throne in the place of truth. W e have seen in the f o r e o- o i n 0; pages to what depth into the past the actual records of our race xtend. Perhaps the historical horizon human life, as deter- mined by contemporaneous _ evidence, lies not far from the line of forty centuries be- fore the Christian era. But this signi- fies no more than that the record is there broken bv the limita- Historical hori- ti.ms of human knowledge. Ta^f thlfoni- Beyond that border line, eth century B.C. which for the present divides the historic from the prehistoric life of man, extend those vast unrecorded epochs of human existence concernino- which our informa- 150 GREAT RACf.S OF MANKIND. tio;. must be derived from those branches ot science which have extended their investigations beyond the historical horizon. We have endeavored in the pre- ceding pages to gather and summar- ize the evidences which Final estimate , , , e ^ i of the date of the present state oi knowl- the beginning. ^^^^ ^^^ furnished with respect to the extent of man-life back- wards through the prehistoric shadows. While much remains as yet indetermi- nate, while the evidence in many parts is indecisive, while the application of the law of averages and probabilities may mislead somewhat the most skillful research respecting the vestigia of human life in the prehistoric ages, we are never- theless fully warranted, by the juxta- position of all the proofs, in accepting it as an established fact that the appear- ance of the human race belongs to a date not less than tivo hundred centuries from the present time. It only remains to remind the reader that "human race " in this assignment of an approxi- mate date for its apparition signifies that species of beings the traces of whose primitive life are found close down to the miocene era in geology, a species having the rudiments of reason, the up- right form, and the potency of the civil- ized life, but otherwise not strongly dis- criminated from the higher primates except in the ability to fashion an im- plement and to kindle a fire. Chapter VIII.— The Quest oe Eden. AA'ING traversed the field of inquiry respect- ing the probable date of man's appearance on the earth, we come, in the next place, to con- sider the flacc of his origin. Since there was a time in the his- tory of our globe when men did not exist upon its surface, and since there was a date at which human beings in some manner made their appearance and became the progenitors of the race, there must have „ . . , been a place of apparition. Origin of man- _ ^ ^^ life necessarily a point or points from in some locality. i • i . , ^ , , which the first men and their descendants took their departure to people the earth. Science, conjec- ture, and blank dogmatism have all in turn sought to solve this problem. Nor can it well be said that even at the pres- ent advanced stage of inquiry the ques- tion has been satisfactorily settled. It will be seen at a glance that the subject before us, namely, the place of the beginning of man-life on the earth, is involved with another one place or question which we are to ^r/i.^n ^f t\e consider hereafter. That problem, other question relates to the unity or multiplicity of the origin of mankind. If the monogenetic theory be true, then only one place is to be sought as the point of original departure for all the races of men ; but if Ihe polygenetic theory should be established, then several, perhaps many, points of origin must be ascertained — at least as many as may correspond to the leading ethnic varieties of human kind. There have not been wanting scholars and thinkers of the current century who, after an extensive survey of the field of inquiry, have adopted the theory of polygenesis ; that is, the doctrine of the multiple origin of mankind. According PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 151 multiple origin of mankind prO' pounded. to this belief, ttie race has sprung- from several fountains wide apart in place Theory of the and time. There has been one fountain for the Black races of Africa and Aus- tralia, another for the Asiatic Mongo- loids, another for the Polynesians, an- other for the nomadic races of Northern Asia, another for the Indo-European, or Aryan, family, and still another, or perhaps more than one, for the aborigi- the inquiry as to the geographical locus of the first men is in great measure taken away. Should it be shown that the human race has had more than one point of original departure, then it may have had ten places of beginning- or a hundred. Indeed, if we adopt the poly- genetic theory, we put the inquir\' upon another foundation — that of supposing- that when the earth was in a certain cosmical stage of development and TO PEOPLE THE EARTH.— Drawn by Riou. nal races of the American continents. From these several points of departure the vines of diverse human life have sprung and extended themselves by devious growth over the .surface of the earth. We may not here pause to consider the merits of the two opposing theories Poiygenesis, if of the single and multiple sfr^^'s'ntefe;* origin of mankind. It is in the inquiry, sufficient to note the fact that if the hypothesis of poiygenesis be admitted as true, then the interest in preparation the conditions antecedent to man-life were present and prevalent over a large part of the globe, from which conditions human existence was as likely to take its origin in this place as in that. Hereafter we shall consider the value of such a theory as explanatory of the manner and means by opposite view which the appearance of man on the earth is to be ac- counted for. But for the present we shall take up the opposite view as more more accordant ■with facts and reason. 152 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. nearly in accord with the facts, shall adopt the theory of the unity in place as well as in time of the origin of all mankind. With the acceptance of this view, our interest in the attempted dis- covery of the point of departure from which all the kindreds and families of men have derived their ultimate de- scent is greatly heightened. given in Genesis not only of the man- ner, but of the place of the origin ot mankind, has formed a part of the foun- dation of those great systems of religious thought and powerful ecclesiastical or- ganizations which have constituted so strong an element in the civilized life of the nations of the West. The account given of the creation and emplacement HIGHLANDS OF ARMENIA.— Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Carla Serena. The general belief among the nations of the West on this subject has been de- The" garden rived from the Hebrew Eden," with its ^^<--riptures, constitutmg the four rivers. h:s.%\?, as they do of the religious faith and practice of the Israel- itish race and. in later development, of the faith and practice of all the Christian nations of the earth. The account of man need not here be repeated. It is sufficient to .say that the scene of this beginning of human life is fixed by the record as in "a garden eastward in Eden." It is said that "a river went out of Eden to water the garden ; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. The name of the first [that is the fir.st head or river] is Pison : THE r.llll.lCAL PARADISE.— Drawn by Guslave Dore. M.— Vol. I — IT 154 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold ; and the gold of that land is good : there is bdellium and onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon : the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. And the name of the third river is Hiddekcl : that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates." Here we have the geographical definition, so to speak, of that place which is described in Genesis as the scene of the creation of man. But where was the garden of Eden ? Is it possible to lay this ancient sketch Difficulty of fix- of the Scriptures practicallv thl^^bifc'aT"' on a map or globe and de- Eden. fmc its position? jMany have been the efforts of scholars and visionaries to accomplish this task of identifving the ancient Eden with some ■J o place or places now known to men. In the first place, it may be observed that only one of the four rivers which are said to have taken their rise from Eden is known or has been known to the ge- ography of modern times. The others are lost, either in mythology or in changes which have supervened in the character and distribution of ancient rivers. As to the Euphrates, the stream has been explored through its whole course. Its head-waters lie in the high- lands of Armenia. But from that situa- tion there is no Pison to compass the land of Havilah, nor is there any Havi- lah which may be discovered, except by the fancy of him who searches for it. Neither is there any second river called Gihon, rising from Armenia to encircle Ethiopia. And if the name Ethiopia have been used in the ancient record as equivalent' for the countries possessed by the primitive Cushites, then no river proceeding from Armenia other than the Euphrates itself could be said to approach, much less to encompass, Ethiopia. As to the third river, Hid- dekel, that likewise is impossible of identification, unless indeed we suppose the Tigris to be meant; and certainly that stream does not flow toward the east of Assyria. In other words, if we accept the identity of the Euphrates mentioned in the second chapter ol Genesis with the river of that name which flows from the mountains of Ar- menia to the Persian gulf, we find it impossible to identify the other three with any existing streams without sup- posing that the geographical landscape has been transformed by some revolu- tion of nature. We may here pause to note that the narrative of Eden as given in the Book of Genesis is common in its Hebrew sw narra- leading features with tra- ^JX'iuTel:^. ditions which still exist, or "ic traditions, which have existed, among the collateral branches of the Semitic race. The an- cient Aramaic peoples, the Chaldseans, perhaps the Old Arabians, the Ishmael- ites and their descendent nations of the Arabian peninsula, no less than the He- brews themselves, had the same tradi- tion, though much inflected in its parts and circumstances, as did the family of Abraham. It is evident, therefore, that a belief in an Eden, with its four emer- gent rivers and for its occupants the an- cestors of the human race, Avas preva- lent among the Semites at a date long before the Babylonians were Babyloni- ans, or the Hebrews were Hebrews. Reviewing the subject in the light of actual geography, we may best of all conclude that the river The Euphrates Euphrates referred to in .te^'Eu^hra'^^s the ancient tradition, of of geography, which the account given in Genesis is the most authoritative, if not the oldest, PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 155 form, Avas some other than the stream now known by that name. We should thus be driven to reject altogether the emplacem.ent of Eden in the Armenian highlands, and to seek for it at the source of some other system of streams corresponding with those mentioned in the Book of Genesis. But in so doing into criticism and general literature re- specting the place called Eden. Some of the older writers were inclined to lift it from the surface of the earth, and to assign it a position in the third or fourth heaven. Others, less mythological, but hardly less extravagant in their credulity, have assigned to Eden a place within THE CEVLONESE EDEN. we at once enter and are soon lost in the region of conjecture. It may well surprise the reader who may not have given special attention to Visionary and the subject, to note the vari- ous conflicting and vision- ary views which have not only been entertained, but have been put by their authors — scholarly men even, accordi':>g to the standard of their age — absurd vie"ws of tlie place of Kden. the orbit of the moon, while still others have contended that it lay in the moon itself! Some have tried to locate the terrestrial paradise in the upper air, but beyond the attraction of the earth. From these celestial emplacements the less fanciful searchers for the original seat have given it a place under the earth, far within our sphere, or some unknown situation on the surface. Still another 156 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. class would have us accept the north pole as the place of Eden, while others go into the equatorial regions in the search. Tartary and China have both been selected as the countries within whose borders Paradise was established. The banks of the Ganges and the island of Ceylon have in turn been chosen as the site of Eden. The more rational have generally attempted to fix the place in Armenia; but others rejecting the suggestion furnished by the mention of the Euphrates, have fixed the situation in Equatorial Africa. Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Arabia, Babylonia, As- syria, and Palestine itself have all had their advocates as the honored land in which lay the ancient Eden. More re- cently the claims of Europe to the dis- tinction have been advanced and strenu- ously defended ; and in this particular the advocates of a European Paradise have had the advantage of some strong scientific indications ; for it is now agreed that the most ancient relics of mankind as yet discovered in the crust of the earth are those which the archaeologists of recent times have found in Central and Western Europe. The modern scholar is obliged to abandon the pursuit. True, he may Modern scholar- very properly and anxiously idlnttfy the ^^ek to discover the point Paradise. of origin from which the human race has proceeded ; but the loca- tion of the particular Eden, or Paradise, described in the second chapter of Gen- esis may well be given over as a hope- less task. The geographical concomitants do not consist with the present char- acter of any of the countries to which the place has been assigned. In order to identify the spot called Eden, we are obliged to concede to him who is leading the discovery so many things as to make the whole argument incongruous, if not absurd. The identity of Eden, for in- stance, with the region about the north pole, can be shown, no doubt, to the sat- isfaction of one who begins with the conclusion which he is trying to estab- lish, and whose credulity has been stimu- lated with the indulgence of the fallacious hope of demonstrating a preconceived opinion ; but to the inquirer who takes up the subject without preconceptions and prejudices no single proof will appeal which may properly be regarded as valid- In pursuing the inquiry, it is well to adopt the argument b}^ exclusion. Neg- atively, the traditional garden of Eden may not be found in this The places sug- place or in that. We mav gestedmaybe ^ ■ excluded by showb}' almost irrefragable negation, proofs that many of the assumptions which have been made about the lo- cation of Eden are untenable. If, for instance, the favored hypothesis of the Armenian highlands can not be enter- tained without supposing that a river descending from that locality can make its way into Equatorial Africa, we may properly reject the supposition as im- possible. Or, if we must suppose a river flowing over the crest of the Caucasus in order to make its way into the Black sea or the Caspian, we may reject that hy- pothesis also. So in any other case, if insuperable barriers interpose, instead of trying to reason them away with pre- conceptions and syllogistic leverage, we should at once reject the proposed theory as contradictory of the facts, and there- fore impossible. But if, on the other hand, a hypothesis can be formed against which no inexplicable facts may be op- posed, and with which all the discoveries made by scientific investigation fairly harmonize, then we may at least tenta- tively accept such a supposition as the basis of a true theory of the primitive origin of the human species. PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 157 yield to reason ■with respect to Eden. Let US therefore look attentively at some of the views which have been en- Mythoiogy must tertained about the location of the first seat of the an- cestors of mankind. Cer- tainly we need not adopt any of those mythological and transcendental notions which the credulity of even re- cent centuries adopted and foisted upon posterity as a solution of the question. What shall we say of the idea that man- kind originated somewhere in the celes- tial sphere round about ? Shall we indeed be terri- fied by sheer dog- matism from re- jecting such an opinion as be- longing to the su- perstitious era in the evolution of human intelli- gence ? Such a notion fairly be- comes the child- hood of the race. It is fitting that children should be satisfied with the notion of a Paradise fixed afar somewhere moon, or on the human beings? Why should they be thrust in and blended with the scientific concept of our earth and its inhabitants? Is it indeed possible that any intelligent human being will accept it as true that the Eden of our origin lay beyond the sphere of earth — was not a part of the plain, substantial, unmetaphorical sur- face of the ground, such as we see it and know it with our clear senses and perceptions at the present day ? The conviction is thus easily fixed in AN ETHIOPIAN EDEN — ONE OF THE SUPPOSED PLACES OF THE BEGINNING. Drawn by G. Vuillier. in the orbit of the on tue face of that bright globe, and that the ancient Eden thus hung up in the skyland should dip down into touch with the earth, and at length, after the rebellion and expulsion of its inhabitants, be drawn back from contact with this low and degraded sphere where the great act of life must henceforth be performed. But why should such opinions be obtruded upon the adult age of the world? Why should they be thought to hold some iiuportant relation to the happiness and condiict of the mind that right reason and the in- vestigations of science must guide us through the maze qf manv scientific in- .suppositions about the local ShTptce^of origin of our species, the beginning. Looking attentively at the geographical land.scape of antiquity we see that many jDarts of the earth could not have been the place of the beginning. The high regions of the north mu.st all be rejected as unfavorable, not only as the starting point, biit also for the development and maintenance of the race-life of mankind. At the time \vhcn men began to leave 158 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. the traces of their activity in the river 1 gravels and caverns of the Old World j and the New, our hemisphere was just recovering from the rigors of the glacial epoch. This is to say that then, much more than now, the ice cap around the north pole would keep at bay the begin- nings of human plantation and distribu- tion. It is fair to assume that at this time all the continental parts of the northern hemisphere north of the fif- tieth parallel of latitude were still under cover of the glaciers. We must there- fore look to the more favoring regfions of the south, to those parts of the earth which, under the cheering influence of the sun, had more fully recovered from the effects of the long-continued planet- ary winter, as a suitable scene for the appearance of the first human inhabit- ants of the earth. A few general laws and facts of the kind just referred to may serve a good Large area in purpose in narrowing to reasonable bounds the field of the inquiry ; but within those reasonable limitations there will be found a vast geographical area running through the major continents of the earth in which human life might well which mankind might have orig inated. have had its origin. If we were left with no better indications than those af- forded by geology and geography, we should, perhaps, remain, as we have so long been, blind leaders of the blind in our search for the probable locality of the beginning of man-life on the earth. But we are not thus left without sup- port and guidance. Ethnography, eth- nology, linguistic science, Recent sci- histor>', and tradition here ^^^^^^ become our best and most place of origin, profound sources of evidence. The dis- persion of mankind into races and kin- dreds furnishes, in a word, a clue for tracing backwards the course of ethnic descent, and with the aid of geography and other branches of science to indicate the original point of departure. Nega- tively, the very same evidence goes to show from what regions the different families of men have not proceeded. We are thus enabled to get upon the track of the inquiry, and to follow it, first his- torically, afterwards traditionally, and finally by the lamp of right reason to approach, at least, that part of the earth's surface from which only the progressive distribution of the race could have begun. Chapter IX.— True Place ok the Beginnino. T is not our purpose to anticipate any part of what must more prop- erly be said, in a sub- sequent division of this work, on the primitive migrations of man- kind ; but it is well in this connection to indicate in a general way the proofs fur- nished by ethnography respecting the place cf th*^ beginning. Take, for in- stance, the Semitic family of mankind. The Hebrews inhabiting Palestine had been a migrant race. More immediately they had come into the country of their choice from Egypt, but more remotely their ancestral tribe had Migration points removed from, the Lower ^^^.^i^^a^nd Euphrates westward into proceeded. Canaan. This migration, well preserved in the history and tradition of the Israel- ites, furnishes an indication of the place. PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATIOX 159 or at least the direction, from which the Semitic division of mankind was de- rived. In North America, within the historical period, we have an example of the migration of the Tuscaroras from south to north — from the Carolinas to the regdon of the New York lakes. The ancient world is full of the traces of such migratory movements among, the primi- of the ethnic fluctuations by which the earth has been populated. We must not suppose that the first men, '^ '■ The movementa the first tribes of men, drift- of races are gov. -I it. i- i J emed by law. ed over the contments under lawless impulses, blown hither and thith- er like mists before the capricious winds, but that all the transmigrations by which tribes and peoples were carried into new WESTWARD PROGRESS OF THE SEMITES tive peoples. That the Greeks came out of Asia can not be doubted any more than that the Vandals, who conquered Spain and Africa in the fifth century, came out of the North. The inquirer will not have pursued the subject far until he perceives that the migrations of antiquity, and, indeed, of all time , are governed by general laws, showing the direction and ultimate origin reeions of the earth were under tha reign of law. In some instances the motive or im- pulse of the primitive ethnic distribu- tion may be discovered. Not whim and -f . J -I „ i- caprice but mo- and m other cases not ^ive decides rac« so easily. But aboriginal conduct, tribes, as well as enlightened people, act by motive and inducement, and not b}- whim and caprice. "We may not 160 GREAT RACES OE .^FANKIND. suppose, for instance, that the original Aryan population of India made its way from the head-waters of the Indus down the river toward the sea, instead of in the inverse direction, by accident or without a motive. Those migrating tribes had a reason and an end, and it was in pursuance of these that they con- tinued to distribute themselves in the country which they and their descend- ants were to possess for at least four thousand years. The impact of the White race upon the shores of the New World from the side of the Atlantic rather than from the Pacific coast was not by accident, but imder the reign of law ; not, indeed, that men are mere automa- tons, but they are creatures of reason and motive; and reason and motive are, as a rule, derived from *hat general causation and sequence under which the world and its inhabitants exist and go forward to their destiny. We have been able by ethnological research and historical tradition to dis- indications of covcr, we might sav, a thou- ruiaSr.- sand threads in the com- *'°°- plicated processes by which the early races of men were distributed in Western Asia, along the African shore of the Mediterranean, and throughout Europe. By following these threads as a clue, we are able to reason both by inclusion and exclu- sion'to tolerably .satisfactory theories re- specting the starting point of the human distribution. Take, for example, the re- cently originated theory of a European beginning for the human race. As we have said on a former page, the indica- tions of archaeology look rather to Eu- rope than to Asia or Africa as the start- ing point of mankind. It may be accepted as true that the oldest existing remains of man have been found in the valley of the Somme. But that fact is by no means conclusive on the general question of the local origin of our species. Indeed, the indication is but slight. It signifies no more than this, that no example of the rcliqua; /iiiiiiaiice older than those of Europe has been discovered in Asia or Africa. But it SECTION i>V M KiPlTAN KIVKR CAVERN, SUITABLE FOR IIEI'OSITION OF HUMAN REMAINS. should be remembered that antiquarian research has had its development in Eu- rope, and that Asia and Africa have in all probability not yet yielded up their most ancient archaeological treasures. However this may be, the theory of a European origin for the race is eon- fronted and opposed bv Hypothesis of almo.st every historical, tra- ^^"^^^^1-"^ ditional, and ethnological jected. fact with Avhich we are acquainted. All the races of Europe .since the beginnings of history ha^•e regarded themselves either as autochthonous or immigrants from the East. The early movements of the European races were all from the line of the Ca.spian and the Ural in the direction of the Dnieper, the Danube, and the Rhine. We know how power- ful within the historical period has been the ethnic pre.ssure from the East in all parts of Europe, and how .seldom the ethnic lines have curved backwards from the Atlantic and Mediterranean borders in the direction of their origin. The emplacement of primitive cities and states was nearly always in the western parts of the respective countries la PLACE OF THE BEGLXXIXG.—ARGUMEXT FROM MIGRATION. 161 which certain peoples had at length passed from the migrant to the seden- tary plipse of life. We know that the whole p )wer and contrivance of civiliza- tion wi hin the historical period has scarcely been able to withstand the eth- nic and josmic impact of the westward tendency of mankind in Europe. point unmistakably to an Asiatic origin for the ancestors of the great peoples of Europe and the West. On the other hand, there is not the slightest evidence, from an ethnological point of view, among the peoples of Western Asia that they or any of them, with the sin- gle exception of the Galatians, have WEbl A-1 \N l.ANUiCAl'h.— ~t ■^K'„E UF THE Arva-." M '^ w : - : ■ I' 1 ' i:i by Madame Carla Serena. These remarks apply with unusual fitness to the movements of the Aryan nations. The Indo-Euro- peans seem to have obeyed the cosmic law — to have felt its force and mandate more univer- sally and profoimdly than any other family of men. The whole Aryan tra- dition and all the testimonv of historv Indo-Europeans move westward under cosmic law^s. come, either mediately or remoteh', out of the West. Tradition and history in- dicate immistakably that the inhabitants of Western Asia, such as the Turco- mans, have themselves, like the inhabit- ants of Europe, migrated from coun- tries further to the Ea.st. In short, every fact deducible from ethnographic and ethnological inquiry confirms the 162 GREAT KACF.S OF MANKIND. ence proves Eastern origin of Europeans. belief that all the peoples inhabiting the occidental parts of the Eastern hemi- sphere are the descendants and repre- sentatives of migrant races which were distributed from an Oriental origin at a period far below the dawn of human tradition. In this connection the histor\' of lan- guage may be cited as one of the strong- Linguistic sci- est proofs of an Eastern or- igin for the races of the West. The discovery of the radical identity of Greek and San- skrit made by scholars in the first half of the present century is, of itself, a fact sufificient to establish the Eastern origin of the European Aryans. On no other grounds or hypothesis can we account for the fact that the Iliad, the ^iieid, the Jcrusalcut Delivered, and the Paradise Lost are written in the same tongue as the Ve- das. Either the great Epics, and indeed all literature, mythology, and history of the Western nations have been produced by peoples who had the same ultimate derivation with the inhabitants of an- cient India, or else the Hindus them- selves have derived their culture, as well as their blood, from some fountain in Europe. The latter supposition can hardly be entertained, and certainly not entertained at all by any one who has acquainted himself with the subject- matter and deductions of ethnology. Indeed, it is certain that the ancestors of the European-Aryan peoples came out of Western Asia, and after long ages of wanderings and wars fixed themselves, by discovery, occupation, and conquest, in the respective coun- tries where their descendants, within the historical period, have grown into great and famous nations. It is certain also that in their westward course in the prehistoric epoch they brought with them the language, laws, institutions. manners and cu.stoms, ambitions and mental habitudes which the ancestral tribes had pos.sessed before the begin- ning of the migratory era. By a method of investigation and rea.soning precisely analogous to the foregoing, we are able to Ethnic distribu- prove that there never ^^--.ttl^ was any general migration "«"^^*- of primitive peoples out of Africa into Western Asia. It might be sufficient to .say that here ahso the ethnic lines, in so far as they have been preserved by his- tory, tradition, and language, run in the opposite direction. The westernmost parts of the continent of Africa have, as a general fact, been peopled with migratory tribes from the eastern parts. In ancient times the states and cities which abounded and flourished on the southern shores of the Mediterranean were planted progressively from east to west. Egypt was the oldest of all. Carthage was one of the younger plan- tations of that region of the earth. In the westernmost parts of Africa the ethnic lines have been sometimes doubled back by the barriers of moun- tain and sea, just as in Europe the Celtic race, having explored and to a cer- tain extent peopled the soiithwestern peninsulas of that continent, doubled back and proceeded far to the east be- fore the close of the age of migrations. But it is clear to the student of these exceptional movements that they were made against, and as it were in the face of, the cosmic and ethnic law by which the primitive tribes had been carried from their Asiatic origin into the West. If the study of peoples of Western Asia in ancient and modern times should bring us into contact with Ethiopian and Nigritian tribes — if we should find in certain places the distribution of Black men of the ethnic type peculiar to Equa- PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG. — IRGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 163 No Blacks in Western Asia; Egyptians from the East. torial Africa, speaking the languages of that region and having their manners and customs — we might well suspect that there had been at some time in the past a race movement from tlie direction of the Red sea backwards toward the Cas- pian, the Persian gulf, and the borders of India. But no such evidences have been discovered. On the contrary, the impingement of Asiatic races upon the African coast as far south as the equato- rial region is a fact everywhere attested. The movement of mankind in this region has been from the Persian gulf toward the Red sea and Abyssinia. Indeed, we can see dimly through the prehistoric shadows to the time when, probably six thousand or eight thousand years before the Christian era, the ancestors of the Egyptians themselves made their way into the valley of the Nile, out of Asia, became sedentary in that favorable situ- ation, and planted there, after a long period of development, those first famous dynasties which mark, like far-off moun- tain peaks, the extreme verge of the historical horizon. Again, should we begin an inquiry in regard to the Mongoloid races, we should Mongolians find them pressing from the interior of Central Asia eastward toward the Pacific. The older divisions of this race are in- land peoples rather than maritime. The maritime and insular families are more recent. The Japanese are younger than the Chinese, and the Polynesian island- ers are of later date than the continental Mongoloids, from whom they are de- scended. We must therefore accept the conclusion that the general diffusion of the eastern Asiatics has been from the direction of Central Asia toward the Pacific, and that the ethnic movement has been strong enough to carry the van- move east-ward from Central Asia. guard into peninsular and insular situa- tions far removed from the original seats of the race. The principles of ethnology and lin- guistic inquiry applied to the Black races give similar results. These Nigritian dis- races are found only P-f---" in Central and Southern European origin. Africa, in ^Melanesia, and Australia. As to Africa, the ethnic distribution, as far as it has been discovered and traced, is from the eastern coast into the interior, and as far west as to where the continent becomes almost peninsular in the direc- tion of the Cape Verde islands. The theory of a European origin for the race of man is scientifically contradicted by the present distribution of the Nigritian peoples, and by the direction from which the diffusion has been effected. In like manner it would be impossible to find any European stem to which the native Australians and Melanesian islanders can be referred — this for the reason that there are neither ethnographical nor linguistic traces of such peoples between the countries which they now occupy and the borders of Europe. The same may be said also of Asia — unless, indeed, we should except the ex- treme southern parts of No continental Hindustan. There, indeed, P°Son°;/^Sc"k are found the Veddahs races, and other descendants of a race belong- ing, ethnologically, to the same branch with the Negroes and the Melanesians. There is, in a word, ho continental or' igin which can well be assigned for the Black races, unless we should fix the same within the equatorial belt on the eastern coast of Africa. From that point, indeed, the Nigritian peoples may all be derived with a fair conform- ity to science and right reason. At the same time, however, there would appear to be insuperable objections to this lo- PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 165 cality as the original nidus of the Black races. For in order to deduce from such a situation the natives of Australia and Melanesia, the original stock must have crossed the Indian ocean through several thousand miles — a hypothesis hardly tenable under the law of probabilities. If, moreover, we allow a great an- tiquity for the Black races, and fix some spot in Eastern Africa as the point of their departure, we are at a total loss in so-called Caucasian, or White, variety of the human species from an original seat in Africa — this whether we call that original seat by the name of Eden and surround it with the circumstances of the terrestrial Paradise, or view it merely as the locality from which the tool-mak- ing, fire-kindling, anthropoid ancestors of mankind arose and took their depar- tttre to people the world. Analagous reasoning may be applied EVIDENCE OF PREHISTORIC RACES IN AMERICA.— (i) Building of the Pueblos, Restored. attempting to derive therefrom the great Brown peoples of Eastern Asia or the Ruddy races of Western Bro-sni Asiatics . ^ can not have an Asia and Europc. If we rioan origin. gj^Quld establish the origin of the Black race in the continent, where it now displays itself in great diversity and power, then we should be obliged to abandon the monogeffetic theory of the origin of mankind and agree that the Black races are of one ultimate stock and the Ruddy races of another. Of a cer- tainty it is not possible to derive the with the same results to the supposition that the American continents may have been the original home of man. To this hypothesis the deductions of almost every branch of science are opposed. As to the White race and the Black American conti- race we know the dates of "^^^^^^^ their arrival on the shores ""an. of the New World . While there are evi- dences in all the three Americas of the great antiquity of the aboriginal peoples who occupied and, to a certain extent, civilized the milder and more favorable 166 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. regions of the western hemisphere, there are no other than the most visionary rea- sons for supposing that the great histori- cal peoples of Asia, Africa, and Europe were derived therefrom. The habits, manners, customs, arts, and physical characteristics of the original Americans — by whatever names we may define them — ally them with the Mongoloid divi- sions of mankind, and suggest with great emphasis a derivation by way of the northwest out of Asia, or by the Polyne- sian islands to South America. But to EVIDKNCK i-il 1 Ul.illalORlC RACtS IN A.MLRICA — (2) I'VK IDAL MOUND IN MEXICO. draw outward across the oceans from any part of our three continents the lines of ethnic distribution, and to carry them to Europe, Africa, or Asia, is to contradict every principle of eth- nography, and to run amuck with all the facts which science has discovered rela- tive to the earliest inhabitants of the continents round about our own. Upon the known direction of primi- tive migrations we may plant ourselves firmly in this inquiry. When a given race of the prehistoric times has come by long descent and removal from a given point of the horizon, wc may look confi- dently in that direction in Direction of mU the hope of discovering a f^^rtoV^"' region of general ethnic o"gin. dispersion — this always upon the hy- pothesis that all the races of men are of one common iiltinialc derivation. But the inquirer, in following backwards as far as he can with fact and theory the lines of ethnic distribution, is likely to come upon many confusing and some seemingly contradictory evidence. Noth- ing in which man has been con- cerned is regular or mathematical. Life has its order and its law; but it is the order of freedom and the law of variation. The calculus by which the movements of all living organisms, particularly those which are rational, are governed, is vastly more intricate than that in which are expressed the mathematical laws and principia governing material nature. The inquirer, however, in consider- ing the movements of the primitive races of men, is as likely to be aided as he is to be confounded Avith the irregularities and ostensible lawless- ness which appear in certain parts of the problem. ■^'" In no other part of the question is this fact more noticeable than in that relating to the general directions of the movements of mankind from Orient to Occident. At first glance General move- we should easily conclude ^aces ftom'east that the proper course of to west, the human race had always been, as indi- cated above, from east to west. This is, indeed, one of the most tangible circum- stances that presents itself to the ethnolo- gist. We should say at the fir.st that all men and tribes and peoples naturally fol- low in the course of the .sun from his rise to his .setting. Undoubtedly the PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 167 tvhole of Europe, and, indeed, all of the Mediterranean countries have been pop- ulated in accordance with this cosmic law. So, also, in America, leaving- out of view the aborigines, we note the tre- mendous pressure of the White races from the eastern to the central and west- ern parts of the continents. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that all ethnic movements have Exceptional been in like direction. In- S:ranrn:tnre animate nature shows many against the sun. exceptions to the gen- eral disposition of vines and tendrils to adjust them- selves from left to right around the objects to which they cling. Some vines and ten- drils turn the other way. The ethnog- rapher, follow- ing his clues eastward across Europe and Western Asia, comes at length to a reofion If the observer take his position on the northern shore of the gulf of Oman and look straight across watershed be- Asia in the direction of tweenwest- bound and east- Nova Zembla, he will have bound races, before him a continental line which will approximately coincide with a sort of ethnic watershed in the histor}- of mankind from which the races have flowed to right and left in the original distribution. Of a certaint)^ this state- ment is not scientifically exact. There will be found much twisting and turn- ing after the manner of streams that take SACKS — (3) laiNS ( where the lines seemingly enter the earth, and where others springing up depart in an easterly direction. By careful study from north to south through this region of the earth he finds the recur- rence of the same phenomena. In a word, he is unable to trace further the footmarks of the Aryan races. It is nat- ural, and, indeed, necessary, to the prose- cution of the inquiry that this particular belt from which the lines of ethnic transmission seem to depart to right and left, that is, to east and west alike, should be examined with great care. their rise, flowing in their upper courses in many directions rather than in one, until a heavy volume has been acquired and a definite course determined. But, on the whole, that belt of Asia lying be- tween the fiftieth and sixtieth parallels of longitude east from Greenwich will be found to contain the fountain heads, as far as the same have been discovered, not only of the Europic- Aryan races, but also of the vast Indie and Iranic-Aryan families, as well as the still more widely distributed Mongolian families by which the larger part of Asia, Polynesia, and the aboriginal Americas have been peopled. 168 GREAT RACES OF MANKTXD. The geographical belt in question co- incides roughly with the line of the river Primitive races Ural, the Caspian, the divi- depart right and ..j^^^ of modem Persia cen- leit irom a com- mon belt, trally from north to sotith, the Persian gulf and its outlet into the Arabian sea. So far as ethnological re- search has extended, it may be averred that all the primitive races departed from this belt in their primal distribu- ceptional deviations and reflections as may be accounted for by geographical contingencies and the vicissitudes of dis- covery and war. So also were the Semitic and the Hamitic families dispersed from the same belt of the earth's surface. If we press the inquiry further we shall find the first appearance of the Black races on the eastern coast of Africa, in the LANDSCAPE OF ETHNIC WATERSHED —Mountains of Jobla.— Drawn by G. Vuillier. tion in an easterly or westerly direc- tion. It was only after the migrations of the Mongoloid races had carried them to the eastern borders of the continent against the Yellow sea, the sea of Japan, and the sea of Okhotsk that the lines of ethnic diffusion were bent backwards in a westerly -direction across the north- ern and northwestern parts of Asia. In like manner from the same meridian the migrations of the European Aryans were always to the west, with only such ex- southern part of Hindustan — the former moving in a western direction and the latter in an eastern — show- au non-Aryans ing conclusively that the ^.^rofdeP-' Black division or divi- ture. sions of mankind also departed to right and left from a meridian almost identi- cal with the watershed of the White and Brown races across Asia. It is hardly pressing the hypothesis beyond the war- rant of established facts to say that with- in the belt of land and sea bounded by X C 170 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the fiftieth and sixty-fifth meridians of lon""£• animal. The very least that can be said is that he is by his na- ture semitropical in constitution and habits. We are obliged to select for him an original habitat corresponding with these conditions. Let us remark, once for all, that where these conditions have been maintained, there the race has invariably made least progress from its original state. The lowest forms of man-life are tropical. The most original types are found in those regions where the environment has prevented the evo- lution of the higher human varieties. In a word, the life of man seems in the tropical situation to have continued on the original plane, with little variation un- der the influences of physical nature. Not so, however, with those peoples who have departed from the original en- Deveiopmentco- vironment. As soon as the t^:ltol unclothed primitive man, point of origin, covered witli his delicate skin, -made his way from his warm and equable climatic surroundings and be- gan to be exposed, first to the vicis- situdes, and further on to the rigors of higher latitudes, he began to acquire the discipline of nature, to be specialized in his faculties, quickened in his energies, and strengthened for battle with the op. posing forces of the material world. With this he began to rise in the scale of existence. The extreme distance of his departure is now measured by the span between the Papuan and the German. The significance of these facts is that human life began from some region where tropical or semitropical conditions prevailed, and that its progress has been coincident with its departure into re- gions where the warfare of nature and the struggle for existence have developed and symmetrized the body, awakened the mind, and produced by Conditions '■ , ^ favorable to complexity, reaction, re- beginning un- ri , • 1.1 1 , . favorable to de- flection, and the evolution veiopment. of conscience the higher phenomena of the moral life. Limiting our inquiry to the period of geological time this side of the last glacial epoch, the conditions favorable for the beginnings of our race life can be found only within the tropics, or at least close to the Tropic of Cancer ; not above that line. The distinction between a situation favorable for the un- aided beginnijig of the first men and the situation most favorable to the develop- ment of the race into hardihood, activity, and greatness, must be constantly borne in mind. We are thus led by many lines of sug- gestion and argument to select as the probable home of the an- •^ Conclusion of a CestorS of the human species Lemurian origin , , , . not final. the countries now over- washed by the comparatively shoal waters of the Indian ocean. It is proper to say that such a conclusion is not absolute and final. Further investigation may pos- sibly show us another way ; but it is not probable that the conclusion will ever be displaced by a different hypothesis or seriously modified by subsequent inves- tigation. It is a principle of science that that hypothesis which explains a given group of phenomena, which contradicts none of the facts and is consistent with all, passes, at least tentatively, into the theoretical phase of knowledge ; and this is at the present day the condition of the inquiry with respect to the primal seat of mankind in the Lemurian continent. We ma}' not, however, pass from the proofs which are adducible in favor of this conclusion without citing the strong argument drawn from the distribution of the primate animals. If we strike a cir- 178 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKIM). Gradation of animal life up ■ward toward Lemuria. cle around the shores of those waters which now cover the Lemurian conti- nent, we shall find strong evidences of what may be called a zoological climax in the area covered by the Indian ocean. The view here taken includes the whole earth. There is in general a gradation of animal life npivard from the horizon iozL'ard this region. If we approach the so-called Lemuria from any point of the compass, west, north, east, or southeast, we shall find the animals graded up to- ward man, as though somewhere in this region he stood on the apex of all life. The zoological conditions of the primi- tive world seem to have been such as to make the appearance of man in any other quarter than in the tropical Orient im- possible — unless, indeed, we suppose the uniform gradations of animal life to have been suddenly broken and reversed in the case of man by his displacement in time and locality from that region of the earth where the other forms of animate existence had been most highly devel- oped. A glance at a few facts and principles of zo6log\- may serve to show the force Illustrations of of the.se deductious. Aus- t^tltT^^ tralia is the native home center. Qf \^q marsupial animals. These are the lowest in the scale of the hot-blooded creatures with which the human species is particularly associated. True, the marsupials are widely distrib- uted in other quarters of the globe ; but it is evident that their presence in for- eign parts is, as it were, at the extreme of zoological lines which are central in Australia. In the next place, the South American continent is the primal seat of the edentates, or toothless animals, which are next in order of development above the marsupials. Primitive North Amer- ica was the home of the herbivorous ani- mals, which are third from the lowest in the evolution. The tropical Orient is clearly the native seat of the great car- nivora, which are one stage higher than the herbivora in the scale of develop- ment. As in the case of the marsupials, so also the edentates, the herbivora, and the carnivora are of world-wide distri- bution ; but the density of the several orders, as well as their multiplicity and high development in the respective situ- ations indicated, points to those regions as the zoological centers of these differ- ent orders of life. In a word, Australia is on the lowest zoological plane, South America next, North America third, and the Oriental countries within the tropics fourth in the ascending scale. The argfument is strengthened in an especial manner when we come to con- sider the distribution of the Primate animals primates, or of those forms j^^r.^^^^J.^t of animal life next to Lemuria. man. This subject has been investigated with great care by the English naturalist, Wallace, and the American palaeontolo- gist, Winchell — by the former, in his work on the Geographical Distribution of Animals, and by the latter in the prepara- tion of the materials for his Preadaniites. For the purpose of making clear their reasoning, the earth has been divided into several regions to which specific names are given as an aid to understand- ing the distribution of the primates throughout the world. The first division, including Eiirope and Asia, except the Malay peninsula, Hindustan, Southern Arabia, and Africa north of the Tropic of Cancer, is designated as the Palasarc- tic region. The remainder of Africa, including Madagascar and the adja- cent islands, is called the Ethiopian region. The Oriental region includes the Malay peninsula and islands, Hin- dustan, and Southern Arabia, Aus- PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG—LEMURIA. 179 tralia, Poh-nesia, and Xew Zealand are defined as the Australian region. South America, the West Indies, and Mexico as far north as the tropic, con- stitute the Neotropical region, while the remainder of North America is defined as the Nearctic region. The problem is with the map thus adjusted, to deter- mine by orders, suborders, and families the distribution of the primate animals. which we have fixed upon as the prob- able home of the first men, was held in between the two approxi- Raceofsup- '■ '■ posed continent mate parts defined in the between Ethio- 1 1 1,1 ..-i, r^ii- • • pian and Orien- above table as the Ethiopian tai regions, and Oriental regions. A glance at the synopsis will show the astonishing pre- ponderance of the primate animals in those countries. True, the largest sin- gle distribution is that of one hundred AMKRICAX MOXKEY W The following table prepared by Win- chell contains an abstract of the results : DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMATE AND CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. No. OF FaM[LIES. 2 » c ~.2 .1 = < u . 1.1 ■" O^VoVld Monkeys WWW Baboons and Macaques... American Monkeys I 4 5 5 65 70 2 II 42 10 28 =3 2 2 I X 3 3 si 33 114 162 '. ' Total Anthropoids Lemurs Tassiers .... 55 49 61 4 Aye-ayes Total Lemuroids. Total Primates Carnivora .... Total Primates and Carnivora I 50 90 195 5 66 95 161 43 43 It will be remembered by the reader that the supposed continent of Lemuria, and fourteen species in South America : but it has been noted that the South American primates are much lower in order of development than are those of Southern Asia and Eastern Africa. No apes or any of the higher primates have been found native in any pail of the New "World. Leaving out, therefore, from the count the vSouth American monkeys and marmosets, which are the very lowest of the anthropoids, Ave have the primates virtually limited to the southern parts of Asia and the tropical parts of Africa. The same is true of the lemuroids, which are found only in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, with the single exception of one species of Tarsiers for 180 GREAT RACES OF jrAXA'/XD. Australia. In the case of the carnivora there is, in the regions just named, an Lemurs and Car- eXCeSS of fullv fifty per nivora increase ^ ^^.^.j. ^]-,^, „^„nber of tovrard luaian ocean. species found in any other great division of the earth. From all of which we note conclusively and em- phatically the climacteric tendency of all the higher forms of life, most particu- larly of the primate animals toward the basin of the Indian ocean. On the hy- pothesis that the bottom of this com- paratively shallow sea constituted in GROUP OF LEMURS. prehistoric ages a low-lying, tropical continent — reaching on the one hand to the Asiatic peninsulas, and on the other to the coast of Africa — we are able to see with strong probability in this re- gion an apex of the animal evolution, and near that culmination the ancestors of the human species. The argument is intensified when we estimate the character of the human species round about the seeming cul- mination of the lower orders of life in the Lemurian region. While these orders, as we have seen, rise to an apex in the direction of the Indian ocean, the human species _/v?// nj^ inversely in the same di- reetion. This is said of Mankind falls ofl the general character of inversely in the ., T«. . same direction. the different races as meas- ured by the extent of their departure from Lemuria. Instead of finding the highest type of men heading in the di- rection of the hypothetical continent referred to, thus following the trend inanifested by all the lower orders of an- imals, the law in the case of man is totally reversed. If we seek for the very lowest types of human beings, we must do so among the Papu- ans and natives of Australia. After these, we must look to Africa for the next in order of ascent. Thence we should have to consider the native races of South America, and from these might proceed to the aborigines of our own continent ; thence to the Poly- nesian islands, and to the races of Eastern and Northern Asia ; finally to the Aryan division of mankind, with its magnificent development in such groups as the English-speaking, French- speaking, and German-speaking families. The course of this excursion is mani- festly outward from the region of Lemuria. Certainly the Lowest dip of diagram is far from perfect ^^^e^^h or exact ; but in general of animaUty. the rise of human life, as estimated by its elevation and proficiency, seems to have been from that precise quarter of the world toward which the lower orders of animated nature ascend to a climax I PLACE OF THE BEGINNING—LEMURIA. 181 This is to say that at the lowest geograph- , beginning, so in that for the place of the leal dip of the human species it seems to ' beginning there must be, in the present touch the highest lift of the subordinate state of human knowledge, piaceofc orders of living beings! Where the highest of the lower primates reach their culmination, there the lowest of mankind ongin a considerable margin left ''Ofjecturai *=> rather than ex- f or uncertainty. The reader act. in pursuing such inquiries must remem. FA^tILY OF GORILLAS. take their rise. It is as though the noblest of the anthropoids should from the sunken continent hold out his right hand to touch the left hand of the most ignoble of human kind. As in the search for the time of the ber that all sciences are divided into the exact and the inexact. Knowledge on the one hand is absolute and demon- strable, and on the other probable and approximate. Nearly all deductions rel- ative to the movements, character, and 182 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. circumstances of the human race in the prehistoric ages have in them consider- able elements of doubt and perhaps of positive error; but we are not by any means to place less value on that kind of knowledge which we are able to gain concerning the first estate of mankind — its time, its place, its circumstances — than if we might apply thereto the for- mukc of exact science. Perhaps the human mind would rest in a state of greater satisfaction to know Phuosophicai more precisely the date, advantages of ^j localitv, and all the con- uncertain * ' knowledge. comitants and conditions under which our ethnic career began. Nevertheless, exact knowledge has its discounts and defects in the treasure- total of our mental wealth. It may be obseri'ed that the exact sciences, while they have a vast and salutary effect upon the mind in con-ecting the judgments and decisions of the intellect, nevertheless tend to reduce all mentality to a formula and mathematical equation. At the same time they tend to weaken by disuse the ideal faculties, to benumb if not de- stroy the fancy and tlic imagination, ^nd thereby diminish that excursive power of the mind tipon which the discovery of truth and beauty has so greatly de- pended. It is not desirable that con- jecture, uncertainty, and doiibt should be removed from the concepts which we form of ourselves and of universal nature, else the dream of the artist and vision of the poet might cease to add their gifts to the treasures of humanitv. BOOK II -MANNER OF THE BEGINNING. Chapter X.— Kiax axd Evolutiox. E have now looked with some attention at the great questions of the approximate date and probable place of the first appearance of man-life on the earth. It remains to consider the still more in- teresting problem of the mode of man's appearance — of the process, or processes, the manner, if we may so say, of his coming. Here at the outsei; we are con- inabiiity of man- fronted with the Same dif- ficulty which arose in the previous investigation rel- ative to the time and place of the birth of mankind, namely, the inability of men themselves to testify respecting the circumstances and conditions precedent to the unfolding of consciousness. This is true in the individual life, in the life of the tribe, in the life of the people, in the life of the human race. Conscious- ness began ; but neither perception nor memorj^ is able to pierce the oblivious conditions which preceded the conscious kind to testify of the uncon- scious life. state, or to give more than imaginary testimony with respect thereto. A still more formidable difficulty arises from the preconceptions and deep-set opinions which preconceptions men of every age and race ijnpede the free- i-Liv-jj. v^o. v^«v,i_y "^^ c*xxvj. i«^-^ dom of mvesti- have formed with regard gation. to the circumstances of their origin. Among almost everj^ people there has been a sort of national faith, involving, first of all, the circumstances of the genesis not only of that people, but of mankind. The belief in some particular manner of the appearance of the race has been interwoven with the philosophical, social, and religious systems of the vari- ous peoples, sometimes forming a part of the political constitution, and always op- posing itself with persistent conservatism to such investigations and excursions of thought as might seem to disturb the existing order. To the present time it has continued to appear to the great majority of the most enlightened peoples that a certain interpretation — accepted from the wisdom of the fathers — respect- 183 184 GREAT RACES OE MAXKfXD. ing the nature and circumstances of the origin of mankind is essential to the steadiness, welfare, and spiritual eleva- tion of the civilized life. Without pausing to discuss the valid- ity of such opinions, we may proceed at Statement of the oucc to an analysis of the two divergent (jiverg-ent views which have views; phenom- o enai creation. been held with respect to the manner of the beginning. There are two general beliefs on this subject : fected form and stature as new existences without ancestry, strangers, so to speak, to the planet upon which their activities were to be displayed and their descend- ants multiplied and disseminated. 2. That the world and all its forms of life are the result of the process called evolution, or growth ; that Evolution the different species of --'^---*, animals and plants now bygrowth. aboundinof on the surface of the elr>be MANNER OF .MAX'S Al'PEAKANCE.— Drawn by Riou. I. That the world, with all forms of life existing thereon, was created by the fiat of the Almighty ; that the different species of vegetable and animal existence were produced at once and phenomenally by the agency of an intelligent power over and above the world and apart from it; that the work of creation oc- cupied but a brief interval of time ; and that the various kinds of living creatures appeared under the creative act in per- and in its waters and atmosphere sprang from a few primordial germs, or possi- bly a single seed of life, endowed with the power of development, differentia- tion, and adaptation to environment; that the germs of life from which all living forms are descended were exist- ent in the Avorld at a period almost infi- nitel}" removed from the present; that the processes of evolution by which the existing forms of organism have MANNER OF THE BEG/XX/XG.—F/A T AND ErOLCTIOX. 185 been produced have extended over an "incalculable lapse of time, working out their results slowly, tortuously, and pain- fully, but preserving- by survival of the fittest the best forms froin age to age, thus vielding at last bv the struggle of life and by natural selection the approx- imately perfect species of the present age. Concerning these two widely diver- gent views several important observa- Paramountin- tions mav be made. In rrItfe:den^cT;f the first place, they have the question. interested and divided the great thinkers of the after-half of the nineteenth century more profoundly than any other question whatsoever. Second- •ly, it may be remarked that in general the scholastic, conservative, and religious elements among the civilized peoples have mostly espoused and held to the doctrine of phenomenal creation, while scientists and progressive thinkers have adopted the theory of evolution. Third- ly, and very importantly, it should be obser\'ed that the fundamental difference between the two opinions is simply one of modus operandi. The evolution hy- pothesis does not account for, and has never undertaken to explain, the origin of life, but has limited the investigation to the vtaitner by which from certain primordial germs the existing races of plants and animals may be accounted for. There is thus a common ground which has been greatly overlooked be- common ground tween the creatiouists and ™^'rn°/,t': the evolutionists— for both vergence of the two opinions. begin with the hypothesis of life. The difference, therefore, takes the following form : That the doctrine of immediate creation lays great stress upon the phenomenal uutliod by which the species or specific prototypes of the various orders of living beings were pro- M. — Vol. I — 13 duced ; while the doctrine of evolution, without attempting to explain the origin of life, proceeds scientifically to consider the long intermediate processes by which primordial organisms were raised by dif- ferentiation and development to the present perfected forms of life. Fourthly, there seems to be a grave mistake in the nomenclature by which the two views of the origin Grave mlstalie of nature and of man are t^^l^:^:^^t distinguished. One is called hypotheses, the Hypothesis of Creation. The other is known as the Hypothesis of Evolution. From this distinction it might well be inferred that those who hold the doctrine of immediate creation reject evolution altogether in the consideration of nat- ural and living phenomena. On the other hand, also, it is plainly inferential from the terms employed that the hy- pothesis of evolution has been made to exclude the notion of creation. As a matter of fact, neither of these infer- ences is correctly drawn, if we are to judge by the state of opinion in the present age. The creationists have not excluded, and do not exclude, evolution as partly explanatory of the facts and conditions of life. They admit that evo- lution has performed a certain subordi- nate and limited office in the production of the living forms now inhabiting the earth ; but they lay great stress upon the phenomenal aspects of the beginning. On the other hand, the evolutionists do not exclude creation from the scheme of universal nature. As Neither theory we have said, they begin is exclusive of the inquir}- with the fact of life. The theory runs thus : Given life — that is, i.ae primordial germs of life — and evolution will account for the rest. But this theory clearly does not preclude creation as a part — that is, the primal part — of the scheme of life. 186 CRRAT RACnS. OF .IfAXK/XD. From which, as indicated above, the true division of opinion relates to the mode of operation — the processes and methods by which the present organic dowed with life, and having in them the possibilities of all the descendent species of living beings which now appear on the earth. THE TRAnniONAI. EDEN. forms have come to pass — whether from perfected ancestral pairs for each species, created by a fiat immediately, and, so to speak, full-grown in power and capacity, m whether from potential germs en- Still another observation should be made at the outset with respect to the contention of the two opinions or views of the origin of living species. This is that, on the whole, the belief in evo- MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 187 lution as explanatory of the modus oper- andi of universal nature has steadily Belief in evoiu- gained grouud in the high- g^rgr^r" est opinion of the age. Its among thinkers, first conquest was that of the earth itself. The hypothesis of cre- ation, that is, of immediate and phe- nomenal creation, formerly included the earth as one of the products of a creative fiat. For a long time the conservative beliefs of the past held their grounds steadily against the encroachments of geology. That science was resisted in its progress by misconception and preju- dice as persistently as was the heliocen- tric theory of our planetary system. Inch by inch the geologist — even as Galileo, his prototype — was obliged to fight his Avay to a truer concept of the modes and processes by which the crust of the earth has been gradually formed through im- measurable ages of time. Step by step he was obliged to struggle with his demonstration that the fossiliferous his- tory of the globe, as well as the history of the globe itself, extended backwards through eons of time and indescribable vicissitudes of transformation. But the evidence was at length sufficient to con- vince, and the ancient concept of the earth retreated before the new. This conquest, however, was only the preliminary swirl of another more im- oid opinions poftant. Zoology and bot- ^^trzoViogy^" any, taking up the work and botany. already accomplished by geology, began to demonstrate that the plants and animals now inhabiting the earth are but the descendants and vari- ant forms of others more simple which preceded them in prehistoric time, and these in their turn but the descendants of the fossiliferous species brought to light in the explorations of geology. Against these discoveries the creative hypothesis opposed itself with great force and tenacity of purpose. The old opinion had been that the existing plants and lower animals are but the living representatives of others like them- selves, created in perfection and full form only a few thousand years ago — created without an ancestry or previous life of any kind on the earth. To yield this long-accepted opinion seemed as if pulling up the sheet anchor of the whole system of thought which, as a ship, had borne the civ- investigation ilized life of man for cen- "^'^^T^'T^^ belief as to the turies. Nevertheless, the lower orders, evidences in favor of the new theory accumulated. Every excursion into the natural world added its proof in behalf of the belief that the animal and vegeta- ble forms now prevailing over the earth are but the living representatives of more primitive forms preceding them, and they of others back to the geologi- cal era, and thence downward through the measureless ages of time required to build up the crust of the globe from the azoic bed to the present surface. At length the evidence prevailed. Again the advocates of immediate and phenomenal creation as applied to the plants and lower animals must recede before the facts and demonstrations of science. The field was yielded with re- luctance, and the scattered squadrons of the ancient theory of the method of the beginning of plant-life and animal life are still seen in various parts, holding the ground against the prevalent opin- ions that have occupied all the heights and vantages of the htmian understand- ing. But the advocates of immediate speci- fic creations did not yield ismanexcep- all in conceding that plants '^^^l^fl,. and the lower animals, t"re? such as we now find them in living ex- ample on the earth, were the results of 188 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. an evolutionary process extending back- wards indefinitely into the past. Man was still held to be exceptional. To him the hypothesis of phenomenal crea- tion was now applied with redoubled energy. The advocates of the long- accepted belief respecting the mode of the beginning of man-life on the earth, yielding up with reluctance the rest of the field of universal nature, still held with the utmost tenacity to the belief that the human species had had a be- ginning different in form and manner and circumstance from all the other in- habitants of the earth. Man was set apart and considered in another cate- gory of life from all the remaining forms of existence. Here the current view, strongly intrenched in old belief, strong- ly conservative lest the disturbance of the establi.shed opinion might in some way work harm to the existing social and m(»al order of the world, made its stand, not only for the maintenance of the long-accepted hypothesis, but per- haps ^for the recovery and reestablish- ment of the former systems of belief. Such was the state of opinion as be- tween the two hypotheses of life history at the middle of the nineteenth century. Lamarck fore- Already before this time llZ^yl^Z an occasional thinker had, mode of life. on a more daring excursion than the rest, suggested the application of the known laws of the natural world, universally, to the human species in common with the other forms of ani- mated existence. Foremost among those may be mentioned Lamarck, who, before the beginning of the century, and more fully in the first quarter of our cen- tennium, set forth in his wonderful speculations, with a cogency and clear- ness almost unsurpassed, the rudimen- tary principles of that vast system of thought which now goes by the name of evolution. As must needs happen, how- ever, in the case of a great mind fore- running the camp of progress in strange regions, and not sufficiently acquainted by fact, observation, and experiment with the new realm into which he has entered, Lamarck produced a visionary rather than a substantial scheme of na- ture ; and while the lines which he drew around the unexplored region of the New Biology that was to follow in the hands of another were sufficiently ample, and ran in many parts surprisingly near to the accurate surveying of recent science, he nevertheless included in his excursions and trial maps of nature a vast amount of crude and erroneous de- duction for which the more accurate knowledge of the- present finds no place. It remained for a subsequent genera- tion and the more careful mind of an- other naturalist to reconsid- The work taken er the general aspects of l^^^^tZ^^^^'.^ the natural world and to uraiists. deduce therefrom that hypothesis of evolution which is now accepted by science as explanatory of the modus operandi of all living organisms, includ- ing man. It is not our purpose in this connection to enter full}- into the ex- plication of the principles upon which the evolutionist relies to explain the existence of the various forms of organic life, and in particular the descent of man. It is our purpose rather to point out in an introductory way the leading grounds of divergence between the two opinions respecting the life history of the world, and to show the general trend of opinion and the gain of one theory over the other. It will be desirable, in follow- ing the inquiry, to state more fully the substance of the two beliefs respecting the origin of man, embracing in the exposition of each theory some of the particulars of its application to the MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 189 world history and life history of our planet. The hypothesis of creation is generally understood to signify the production of General explica- the WOrld OUt of naught. poThelifof c?;a- Perhaps the beliefs of those tioii- who hold the theory of phenomenal creation are not altogether uniform and consistent on this point. In general, however, the belief is that the matter of the earth was brought into existence by the fiat of the Almighty. the universe was spoken phenomenally into existence out of nothing, and this view is still maintained by the great majority of those who hold to the hypothesis of immediate creation. As we have said on a former page, the belief in a creative fiat as the producing agency of the world and its Literal aocept- inhabitants, has included ^"r.^1.t?P"" ' cation of the as one of its features the Book of Genesis. notion that our globe was produced im- mediately, and not through intermediate ac;k ok fishes, ok thE "fourth day." Some hold that the creative act, as it relates to the earth, was only formative — that the matter of our globe existed already in space, and that the act of creation had respect to the production of our sphere and its fitting for the abode and life arena of plants and animals and man. This view is to a certain extent a concession to scientific discovery in recent times. Up to the close of the last century the popular and scholastic belief was that the matter of our world and of stages. The statements contained in the first chapters of Genesis were ac- cepted literally throughout the Christian and Mohammedan nations. According to the account referred to, the space of six days was assigned for the creative work. The account in Genesis is seem- ingly succinct. Each of the days is oc- cupied with a certain part of creation, and is defined as beginning with the evening and ending with the morning — • according to the phraseology of the an- 190 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. cient Oriental peoples. By implication this period seems to include the creation of the planetary and sidereal heavens ; for ' ' God made two great lights ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night ; he made the stars also." The progress of the creative work through the six days of creation is de- Order of crea- lineated in the first chapter tioninthe''six f Qenesis. The arrange- days "of the => first chapter. ment is climacteric, and ends on the sixth day with the creation of man, and the words are added, " Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them." It would thus appear that according to the ac- count preserved and transmitted by the Hebrews of the beginning of things the work of producing the material universe, of creating our world in particular, with its inhabitants, including man as the paragon of animals and favorite of the Almighty, occupied but six days of time. The Hebrew word is yoin, and is the term which is universally employed in that language to express a natural day as measured by a revolution of the earth on its axis. In this sense the account of the crea- tion given in Genesis was universally Meaning of the Understood until a compar- 2To:::uI:^'^ atively recent date, when reasons. the rise of geology and the correlated branches of natural science made the position no longer tenable. At this juncture the upholders of the hypothesis of creation were obliged to take a new position, and that was that the six days, or yoins, of the scriptural narrative did not signify six literal days but six indefinite periods of time, corre- sponding, if rightly understood, to six geological eras, or ages, during which the world had been fashioned for its later inhabitants. Examples were found in Hebrew literature where the word yom had been used in a figurative sense, meaning "a period of duration" quite different from a natural day. There was thus a rationalizing process applied to the account of the creation in Genesis, and its meaning was modified and interpreted anew ac- Rationalizing cording to the demands of atThTbor^d^r-^ scientific discovery. It is imeofiife. no longer believed by the advocates of the hypothesis of phenomenal creation that the world and its original inhabit- ants were created in six literal days — such an opinion being altogether unten- able in the light and diffusion of knowl- edge Avhich the nineteenth century has brought to the understandings of men. It was still held, however, by the be- lievers in the creative fiat that t/u- plants and auiiiials were phenomenally created — that the Almighty by his will and edict brought forth without germ or seed the various species of vegetable and ani- mal life which we see in their descend- ants at the present time. It was at this point that the real divergence between the two theories began. The hypothesis of creation seems to have yielded material and inanimate na- ture to the dominion of those known laws under which the world is governed, but to have refused to admit the exten- sion of those laws over the organic forms of which life, whether vegetable or animal, constitutes the essential prin- ciple. The theory of creation rejects the notion of a development of the veg- etable and animal forms of the natural world from germs remotely planted in the past, and to hold firmly to the im- mediate production by almighty power of the mature and full-grown originals of the various species of living things. This is particularly true in the case of man. The doctrine of creation as enter- MAXXER OF THE BEGLXXIXG.—FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 191 tained by the enlightened peoples of Eu- rope and America includes as its leading Creation hy- article the belief in tlie im- mands'™ ''^'dicxtc and phenomenal pro- cestor. duct ion of tlie ancestor of the human species. In this particular, also, the opinion which has long prevailed with regard to the progenitor of mankind has been based immediately on the narrative of creation as given in the first two chapters of the Book of Genesis. The account, or rather the accounts, there given of the formation of the first pair of human beings are world-wide in their dissemination, and have found a pro- found lodgment in the convictions of all those peoples whose religious institutions are based upon the sacred writings of the Hebrews. The two forms of narrative in Genesis are, first, that the Almighty in the sixth Svunmary of the da}" or epoch of creation LThe^Sir designed the production of Genesis. ^ being superior to the other orders of animate nature ; that the being thus purposed as the climax of organic life was to have ' ' dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth." So the Elohim created man in his own image, in the image of the Elohim created he him; male and female created he them. In the second chapter the variant form of the narrative is given. There is a reference to the atmosplieric and meteor- ological condition of the world. For as yet there had been no rain, nor was man found to till the ground. But there went up a mist from the earth and watered it. Then the Lord Elohim formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and he became a living soul. This first man was placed in the garden of Eden, said to have been "planted east- ward." But the man was alone, and the Lord Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the Adam — for such was the name given him — and he took one of his ribs and made thereof a woman, that is Ishah, ox female man, and brought her to Ish, the man, as his companion. The name of the Adam which was given to the man signified Earth, or Red Earth, and to the woman the Lord Elohim gave the name of Life — for she was the mother of all living. Such according to the common under- standing of the narrative in Genesis was the origin of the first pair ° . ^ Outlines of a of human beings, and from bibUcaieth- them the races of man- "°^^p '^• kind have descended. Further on in the Book of Genesis we have sketches and outlines of the immediate and more remote offspring of the parents of the race. In the tenth chapter there is an account of tribal and ethnic dispersions sufficiently ample to explain the presence of the primitive peoples in the western- most parts of Asia, Southeastern Africa, and Eastern Europe. With this summarj-, however, the subject of ethnography is dropped from . the Scriptures, though certain important lines of descent were recorded until long after the destruction of the Israelitish nation. The account of the origin of things given in the first chapter of Genesis is a part of a lore which was Account of ere- common to all the Semitic ^o^^^C^T peoples of antiquity. All of the Semites. these held traditions in which the critical reader is able to discover at least the outlines of a common belief with regard to the modus operandi of creation. One of the particulars which always reap- pears in these accounts of the beginning is that flood, or great deep, or primeval chaos upon which the wind or breath of THE EDEN OF POETRY.— Milton's Vision of the First Pair and Raphael.— Drawn by Gustave Dorc. MANXER OF THE BEGINNIXG.— FIAT AND EVOLUTIOX. 193 the Elohim is said to have blown as the first movement of order.' This notion is strongly imbedded in the cosmogony of the Chaldees, though Variations in Avith them the primeval stor^oftt\e. flood is spoken of as fani- ginning. niuc, instead of the mascu- line form used in Genesis. The universal chaos is, in the oldest Babylonian ac- counts, regarded as containing the crea- the primeval flood, but as apart there- from, and brooding over it, and sending thereon the primal winds of order. In other respects the ancient Semitic accounts of the creation preserved in the fragments of Berosus, and General agree- better still in those inscrip- ^^""^ ^° "f^ *''° c visions of crea- tions and tablets which the tio"- learned George Smith has interpreted to the understamling of our age, corre- ONE OF THE PRIMORDIAL CONDITIONS OF THE GLOBE. tive beings or forces by whose agency the world was to become organic and man be produced. From this concept there was a departure in the Hebrew narrative. In the latter the Demiurge is not represented as coming up out of ' The language of Genesis seems in thie original to bear this sense : " Now the earth was involved in chaos, and darkness was upon the face of iehom (that is, the flood), and the wind of the Elohim was hovering upon the face of the waters. Then the Elohim said, Let light be. And light was." spond with the majestic imagery out- lined in the Book of Genesis. There is the same general arrangement of the materials of nature and the same agents of order and intelligence ; the same in- troduction of a Demiurge, or Creator, speaking a fiat ; the same eulogy pro- nounced after each creative effort upon the thing created as ' ' good " or " beauti- ful " or " delightful; " the same suboi- dination of the stars and greater lumina- ries as determining days and seasons. 194 GRF.AT RACES OF MAXKIXP. vergence of the Hebrew narra- tive. In one respect, however, there is, or has been believed to be, a striking differ- Monotheistic di- cnce between the narrative in Genesis and the an- cient forms of the creative story as the same are preserved in the ruins of the Babylonian plain on the tablet cylinders of Asshur-Bani-Pal's library chamber, and in the fragmentary remnants of Berosus. This is the poly- theism of the creative work in all the Babylonian accounts of the beginning of things, and the monotheism of the an- cient Hebrew narrative. Even in this respect there is a hint of the original common derivation of all the accounts in the word Elohivt used by the primitive Hebrew seer in expressing his vision of creation. This word is plural, though it is believed by critics to be an instance of what is known in the Hebrew idiom as the " plural of majesty or strength." Literally, the polytheistic idea is carried forward into Genesis, where it is said that the Elohim (literally, the El-gods) created the heavens and the earth and all the host of them. In still another particular a divergence may be noticed in the earliest Semitic Hebrew Demi- accounts of the Creative mf«r:'d "r ^^ork. in the Hebrew nar- atesit. rative the Demiurge, or Creator, works upon matter. It seems to be plastic under his hands. Aye, more than this, according to a long-ac- cepted construction of the account in Genesis, he makes the matter out of which he makes the form. His work is not only formative, and as it were plastic and constructive, but creative, in the prime intent, of something out of naught. In the Chaldee traditions and kindred forms of Semitic lore the creation, on the other hand, is rather evolutionary. The crea- tures by whom the later work is done are themselves evolved out of the chaotic floods. There is no hint of the produc- tion of matter out of nothing, but only a secondary process of demiurgic work- manship and power upon the materials of nature. On the whole, it is .sufficient to note the .substantial identity of the cosmogo- nies of all the Semitic peo- Egyptian tradi- ples and the transmission g"g'^;'''" of the outlines of the same things. in the sacred writings of the Hebrews to the nations of modern times. Among other ancient peoples the Egyptian sys- tem may be mentioned as an example of one of the oldest forms of belief in phe- nomenal creation. In that system the Demiurge is named Thoth. He it w,' ganiciife. evolution hypothesis. That hypothesis does not presume, and has not presumed, to explain the origin of life, but beginning with the fact of life, it has aimed to explain the processes, laws, and modes by which the many varieties of organic being have been brought, by natural selection and adapta- tion to environment, up to their present perfected forms. And in the second place, the doctrine of evolution has not taught, but has or the other hand dis- tinctl}'- denied, the cross-descent of man from the higher primates, or of these from lower existing orders of animated nature different in kind. After removing from the mind of the reader the foregoing misconceptions with Circumstances regard to the theory of ev- TuntS-of ol^ition, we might at once the new theory, proceed to explain and elucidate affirmatively what that theory really is; but before doing so we may well pause to note historically the cir- cumstances which preceded the an- nouncement of the new doctrine of organic life. As has been said above, the hypothesis of evolution is itself an evolu- tion out of antecedent conditions long operative in the minds of men, bringing them gradually to the formation of a new concept of universal nature, of our earth in particular, and of its inhabitants. The great promoters of the new theory of the viodus operandi of life were them- selves prepared for their Teachers of evo- office and work by forces i:fr3lnTv"o- which were actively at lotion, work before their birth. In short, under the operation of those general laws by which the intellectual as well as the material life of man is conditioned, the time had arrived when the old anthro- pomorphic concept of nature was des- tined to be displaced by another and more rational explanation of the existing aspects of organic life, and in particular of the methods by which the specific germs of all things living had been developed into their present forms and powers. It can but prove of interest to sketch the intellectual preparation which preceded the announcement of the hypothesis of evolution. In the first place, Descartes had formed and promulgated the conception that the material universe is Descartes is foi- divided into living and non- ^rob^L'L'n"' living matter, and that it and experiment, has the nature of a mechanism. From these postulates he held that the universe is susceptible of interpretation in accord- ance with physical laws. In the second place, the age of observation and experi- ment had .supervened in place of the age of dogmatism and authority. The in- troduction of the microscope and the profounder researches of chemistry had led to a knowledge of tissue and of structural forms which had never before been attained. Consequent upon these new excursions of science, the discovery was made that structure has a history reaching from a simple origin in germ life to the vast complexity of organic life, i This history was found to be repeated in every form of vegetable and animal ex- istence, thus furnishing the hints of larger laws than had ever been known hitherto. MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 205 With the progress of observation, analogies were discovered between the Discovery of individuals constituting va- reeffnd^::d- ^i^tics and species and uais and species, between the species of cor- related groups constituting the suborders and orders of creation ; in every part there was the hint of law. The next stage in the coming scientific concept of nature Avas the observation that all species, even they of habits widely different, have a common fundamental structure or plan of organization, with only such departures therefrom as the particular environment and habit of the animal or plant may have suggested. This was followed with the discovery of certain parts in the structure of living beings for which the animal possessing them had, under its changed conditions and habits, cast off or lost the use, and which had shrunk from disuse into a rudimentary form merely suggestive of the lost functions — thus indicating the course of life which the given animal had pursued in its development. Still further, the observation was made and recorded that all living beings are sub- ject to variation under changed condi- tions of environment and habit. Finally, while these various branches of investigation were in progress, geol- Geoiogy deter- ogy Completed its work by ^f'^ftil'^ct^^t!' classifying and arranging cies. the extinct forms found in the crust of the earth, so that their succession from the lower to the higher orders was scientifically determined — thus establishing the fact that the pre- historic history of life in our planet was a history of progress, metamorphosis under changing conditions, and evolu- tion. All of these forms and principles of knowledge, none of which antedate the seventeenth century, were modified and extended slowly and irregularly dur- ing the eighteenth, but were not brought to a condition from which generaliza- tions relative to the universal laws of life might be formed until about the middle of the current centennium. It does not require prescience, or even the greatest acumen to discover in the con- ditions here present — in the stage of dis- covery and observation respecting vital phenomena — the probability and neces- sity of the promulgation of a new con- cept of universal nature and of man. Still another fact w^hich strongly pre- vailed to substitute for anthropomor- phism the new doctrine a knowledge of of evolution under law t^^rtterndt"* was the enlarged and cor- viduai. rected knowledge which had been gained in recent times of the life of the indi- vidual. It is here, indeed, that the the- ory of evolution really begins. The hint of the general law is furnished by the individual organism, by the method of its beginning, by the process of its development, and the conditions under which it reaches maturity and perfec- tion. We have only to study with par- ticularity the progress of the individual in order to gain an epitomized knowl- edge of the history of the species or va- riety of which the individual is the con- stituent unit. The ignorance of antiquity with re- spect to anatomical and physiological laws and phenomena, is a ignorance of an- fact that may well surprise "^^^^^^^ the understanding. When caiiaws. we consider, for instance, that the hu- man body is to the faculties of the mind and to the consciousness the most imme- diate and tangible of all the facts of na- ture, we may well be surprised at the profound ignorance of even the greatest minds of antiquity with regard thereto. The scholars, statesmen, warriors, and poets of the Graeco-Italic races, as well 206 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. as the old bards who sang the Vedas, the priests who formulated the cult of Osiris and Isis, the Chaldee sages who studied by night the planets and stars, and the venerable seers of Israel, were all alike ignorant of the simplest processes of or- ganic life. The functions of bodily or- gans were unknown, or at least not un- derstood. The body throughout was a mystery. Its structure had never been investigated. The relations and offices of its parts were totally misapprehended. The beginning of life was misconceived in its nature ; and though the body seemed ever to invite to anatomical and physiological study, the notions of even the wisest on these subjects were crude in all particulars and preposterous in most. It were hard to account for what seems to have been the indifference of the great thinkers of the ancient world to Indifference of the practical questions of :h:pr:crsses°of organic life. It would seem organic life. that the mere accidents to which living beings have been subject in all time would have taught the scholars of the classical ages much more than they ever knew about the anatomy and physiology of living bodies. It is an amazing fact that all the learning of an- tiquity failed to note so simple a thing as the digestion of food or the circulation of the blood. The offices of the organs were as little known as though the body did not contain a brain, a heart, a spinal cord, an alimentary canal. Nor did this ignorance give place to light under the scholasticism of the Middle Ages. On the contrary, in the mediaeval times superstition raised its hand against all that kind of investigation which now goes under the name of natural science, and the absurd beliefs of antiquity re- specting the methods and phenomena of life were intensified by the general gloom which overhung the human mind. It is to the present century that the great scientific discoveries must be referred by which the modus Opcr- Knowledge pro- audi of organic being has LlfvMuaTto^le been revealed. We here species, speak of life in the individual, and refer thereto in order to show the tremendous influence which a knowledge of the laws of individual growth has exerted in the larger theory which explains varieties and species and orders and, indeed, uni- versal nature, by the same principle which brings a single organic being from the germ to its perfected form. What, then, is the outline of evolution as de- duced from the individual organism? Each living thing has been evolved from a minute particle of matter in which the most critical tests of science are unable to discover the aii organic life slightest resemblance, out- ^^^clustav- line, or suggestion of the ingiife. adult form which is to arise therefrom. This living particle, from which the complex organism is to proceed, is called a germ. It is simply, in its primordial state, a cell of living matter, endowed potentially with a principle of growth, expansion, and final maturity of organic structure ; but no trace of such organic structure is discoverable in the germ it- self. Indeed, it is not certainly known that a germ is actually alive. Perhaps it were better to define it in the first in- tent as potentially alive. In any event, neither the microscope nor chemical analysis is able to indicate the existence in a germ proper of any fact or quality by which it may be discriminated from other cells which have no power of growth or development. The better view is that every germ capable of becoming an organic body is itself a detached portion of the substance of some living organism already exist- ing. For a long time Harvey's biologi- MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 207 cal aphorism, " Omne vivuin ex ovo" or *' Every living thing from an egg" was Scientific aphor- accepted as the correct ex- T^I^^torV Pi-ession for the beginning ganism. of the individual life, and the maxim has been but slightly modi- fied by the more recent biology into the form of ' ' Every living thing from some- thing alive " — the distinction being that a cell may have all the qualities of a germ except the touch of life and yet remain incapable as any other not-living matter of becoming an organic body. Scientific tests have been carefully ap- plied to germs of many kinds, and their qualitv clearly determined. Nature and ' . . . movements of The livmg cell IS found to germ e. ^^ filled with the chem- ical compound called proteine, consisting under analysis of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitro- gen, with traces of sulphur and phosphoi'us swimming in much water. It should be observed that proteine is not a natural product ; that is, it is always, so far as known, a constituent of living organ- isms or a product thereof — a conclusion which strengthens the belief that with- out life life can not begin. Such, then, is the germ from which every organic body takes its rise. From History of the this the living individual ^orroftTans'ort begins to be. Henceforth mations. the history of the individual life is a history of processes, changes, adaptations, and, in a word, evolution. The first of these changes and transfor- mations is simple growth. The germ, or living cell, begins to increase in size. This is the first manifestation, indeed, that the particle of matter in question is a true germ. It expands by a force seemingly within itself ; but at first with- out other modification in character. It remains under the first expansion simple and homogeneous. The second stage of the evolution is marked by the appearance of a stricture corresponding to the equator of the eel' by which a division begins in what manner to be effected, and two tt^^^Z'lT' ' izes by process cells produced instead of offission. one. Each of the two parts assumes, in turn, the form and character of the original; but the division is not com- plete, the substance of the two cells con- tinuing to flow in common under the line of stricture. Around each of the two lobes lines of division appear, and four parts are produced instead of two, and these four, by division, become eiglit, each of which retains the exact charac- teristics of the original germ. Thus is MANNER OF GERM DEVELOPMENT BY FISSION (SUCCESSIVE STAGES MARKED A, B, C, D). produced what is known as a cell aggre- gate, which is the first stage in the ad- vance from the germ toward complete organic being. The question at once arises by what means this first enlargement of germ life is effected. Whence comes How the mate- the material which the cell ^^^^^^^^ar" uses in its own enlarge- gathered, ment? Certainly not out of nothing. The cell has the power of appropriation. It has this in virtue of the life-principle within. It draws to itself and absorbs the aliment whereby the increase in size and the other phenomena of division and multiplication are produced. The materials so gathered are not mechan- ically distributed as if they were packed 208 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. between the parts of the living cells, but are absorbed and assimilated with the substance thereof, or, in a word, digested. The next stage in the evolution is the formation of what is called the gastrula out of the cell aggregate. Formation of the . . , . , , , gastrula and ar- T his IS accomplished by chenterom. ^ ^^^j^^ ^^ transforma- tions .such as the production of the ar- chentirom and its transformation into an embryonic stomach. The cells compos- ing the first aggregate take the form called Xheplanula, which is next doubled in on one side, as if by external pressure. The processes are somewhat occult, and may be traced by the curious reader in the pages of any modern work on physi- ology. It is sufficient to say that with the formation of the gastrula the rudi- ments begin to appear of the different parts of the organism that is to be, namely, the epidermis, or outer .skin, the intermediate tissue, the alimentary canal, and a system of nerves. The process of organic life — the prep- aration for a complete individual — is now 'fully under way. Assimi- Further evolu- tion of organs lation coutmues, the matter and parts. , • j • • 1 being drawn primarily from the body of the mother and ulti- mately from the nutritive substances of the proximate environment. Growth also continues, and the embryonic organ- ism begins to manifest that distinction of parts and outline of organs which in the aggregate are to constitute the living being that is to be. At length, after successive stages of growth and development, the new crea- Manner of de- turc is ready for deliverance This process is ettected by several methods. Some animals are oviparous, or egg-bearing; that is, the ova within the body of the mother are cr;'a"rt''^i"s" to the outer world. environment. nrnfPQQ iq effected developed to completeness, ustially in- closed in a chalky shell, and deposited in a suitable situation for the secondary process of fecundation. This consists in subjecting the eggs to heat — generally derived from the mother's body — and to other favoring conditions during which the processes above described, reaching from germ life to organic life, are com- pleted, the shell broken, and the new organism liberated into the same condi- tions as the adult parent. In the case of the viviparous animals, the whole process of embryonic development takes place in the body of the mother, until the offspring reaches the limit of its first stage of being, when it is delivered to the new arena of life independent of the mother's body. It is not needed to dwell in extenso upon facts and modes of life which in the case of the indi- Fundamental vidual are well understood. l^rjl^^K,,, The whole course of or- Uving forms, ganic development, as the same is illus- trated in the individual being, is Avell apprehended, and has been demonstrated by ob.servation and made of record until hardly any feature of the process is any longer obscure. But it is only in recent times that the discovery has been made of the fundamental identity of the meth- ods of development in the embryonic life of the different orders of animals. There has been found to be no discover- able difference in the process by which the germ expands into organism in the several species an d orders of living beings. The process is the same in the sponge as in the coelentera ; in the worm as in the echinoderm ; in the tunicates as in the anthropods; in the mollusks as in the vertebrata. Indeed, in all the forms of life, above the protozoans, the modes of development from the germ to the organism are fundamentally identical. MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 209 This fact is the first stage in the exten- sion of the law of evolution from the in- dividual to the other orders of beinof, and finally to universal nature. The next stage is like unto the first. This is reached in the discovery that not only are the processes of germinal and embryonic life identical in the indi- viduals of the various species and orders of animate existence, but that the funda- mental structure of the various kinds of animals is essentiallv the same throueh- out, with only such variations and modi- fications of the common pattern as have been produced by adaptation to certain c o n d i - tions of life by the exigency of environment. In the concept of general na- ture, the differ- ences in the structure of the various orders of being were aforetime great- ly exaggerated. Mere sense of sight and touch were used as the basis of judgment respecting the degree of diver- The natural gence between one kind of animal and another kind, m recent times no scientific tests were applied to measure by a truer standard the existing differ- ences in the bottom plan of universal nattire. To the eye the bird was suffi- ciently unlike the fish, and the fish unlike the mammal. What similarity might the unaided sight of an untaught man discover between a frog and a squirrel, between a lizard and a hawk ? By the scientific method of observa- tion, however, the likenesses in the frame- work and general structure Fundamental of all the orders of living sf^cturai iden- tity of all living forms. beings begin to appear, and the unlikenesses to disappear. It is found by the tests of science that the differences between animals are .super- ficial, and it might almost be said fal- lacious, whereas the likenesses are fun- damental and real. We here speak of the likenesses existing among the mature animals of different species and orders &'B. senses exagger- ate differences ofstructure. Until in recent times LOWER LIMBS OF L'NT.ULATE ANIMALS — SHOWING THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT (marked a, b, c, I), e) of organs. in the essentials of their structure and form. One not familiar with the fact mu.st needs be a.stonished to note how, under the investigations of comparative anatomy, the fundamental parts of all living creatures more and more approx- imate a common type, from which the several species and varieties have been inflected to a certain limit only by the conditions of environment, including the operation of natural selection, or strug- gle for life, and the survival of the best. The skeletons of all vertebrates approx- imate a single pattern. This pattern in 210 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. turn approximates the basal structure of the invertebrata ; and so on with the en- largement of the investigation all animate beings are seen to approach to one com- mon rudimentary form, insomuch that the inquirer might be induced to believe THE SPECTROSCOPE. that nature has had but a single pattern in her laboratory of possibilities I The effect of these discoveries in biol- ogy must needs be great in leading the mind toward a wider con- cept of uniformity. First, we have the actual demon- stration of the modes and processes by which mature organism is reached in the The mind dis- covers the law of uniformity. SOLAR SPECTRUM. case of the individttal. In the next place, we discover that the same processes and methods of expansion and development take place in the individuals of all the or- ders of life. The modus operattdi cover- ing the progress of life and of living ^ grade of the protozoa. In the third place, a .scientific examination and clas.sification of the completed stnictural parts of all animals shows an astonishing likeness amounting to virtual identity for every kind of organism, whether mammal, bird, or reptile, whether vertebrate or in- vertebrate, or mollusk, whether of the highest or lowest grade of animated existence. Everything approximates a common type, and indicates in terms not to be mistaken the fundamental unity of the plan on which all varieties of animal life have been produced. It is doubtless tnie that certain other discoveries made in the domain of natural science have tended in re- cent times to promote and suggest one general law of uniformity for all the processes of nature. The tendency of science in the nineteenth century has been toward what may be integration of called the integration of universal nature, of the spectroscope a knowledge has been acquired of the constitution and character not only of the planetary worlds, but of the sidereal heavens. Reviewing the nature of these discov- eries, it appears that the human mind was in ex- pectancy of a different kind of knowledge from that which came by the revelations of spectroscopic anal- ysis. Instead of expecting to find the universe a unit in its fundamental char- acteristics, it would appear that expecta. tion reached rather toward diversity, all nature es- tablished by Bv means science. ■nui SPECTRUM OF IODINE VAPOR. forms from the germ through certain in- termediate stages to complete organic structure is identical in all orders, species, and varieties of living being above the novelty, incongruity, and in short a dif- ferent order for the upper worlds from that established in our own. All such anticipation was disappointed. MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 211 Instead of unlikeness, likeness was dis- covered ; instead of heterogeneity, Scientific prog- identity; instead of con- tWnUyTfrhe tradiction and novelty, one universe. ia.\v and substance for the whole. Hydrogen and carbon and cal- cium and sodium were found above as well as beneath, in the distant stars as well as in our solar group of worlds. The phenomena of combustion, of trans- formation, the suggestions of growth, of life, of mutation, of maturity, and death were found everj'where, indicative of the substantial imity in character, as- pects, and offices of all worlds with our own and the system to which it belongs. In like manner chemical progress has tended to one thing out of many. The Chemistry old chemistrv has passed ne°roV^:t°eria-i ^way, the new has taken nature. its place. Oneofthemost .striking aspects in this transformation has been the discovery that the many elements formerly supposed to constitute the materials of nature are probably reducible to a few, and possibly to one. Of the sixty or seventy elementary sub- stances which were accepted as such by the chemists at the beginning of the pres- ent century, all have been reduced to four or five principal modes of motion and sensation with the strong probabil- ity that the further reduction of these- to a single one will be effected. This dis- covery that the substance of all nature is really but one substance, or at most but a few constituting those ' ' permanent possibilities of sensation " ' which we call matter, has conduced powerfully to bring in the concept of unity, not only in ' Matter may be defined as a permanent possibil- ity of sensation. — John Stuart Mill. material nature, but also in the realm of organic life under law. Such in general were the scientific antecedents of the new doctrine of the origin of species by natural selection. The theory of evolution, however, came by obser\^ation and experi- Evolution the ment. Darwin was a trav- P'-° ' choose m a state In some cases the choice is of nature, determined by size and strength or fleet- ness; sometimes by color or form, and MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 227 sometimes by occult dispositions which it has been hard to discover. Among the birds, color and plumage have per- formed a large part in the work of sexual selection. Sometimes it is the male and sometimes the female — generally the for- mer — which is the most highly adorned and developed in variety and extent of plumage and brilliancy of hues. But until the present age it was never sus- pected that these strong marks of peculiar- ity and attractiveness had themselves been produced through hundreds of generations by the preference of the females for the most beau- tiful among the males. Every- where, from the hugest forms of life now existing on the earth down to the glowworm in the grass, the same principle of sex- ual selection exists and works out, slowly but surely, its cu- mulative results in the differ- entiation, establishment, and perpetuation of the varieties of animal life. Still another circumstance should be noted as bearing a Occasional sud- part in the produc- uL^l^ll:::x tion of species, types. This is the occa- sionally sudden, or at least rapid, departure of offspring from the parental type. It sometimes happens (and by happening we do not mean a work of chance, but only that the causes of the phenomenon are imknown) that a newborn animal exhibits qualities, features, instincts, and modes of activ- ity so widely divergent from not only the immediate parents, but from the whole ancestry as far as known, that it might well appear that a new species or variety had been produced per salt inn. It is not clearly known what the ulti- mate effects of these sudden departures may be in the general economy of ani- mal life. Some observers have concluded that such phenomena are , 111 Question of the anomalous, and that the pe- results of this culiar progeny born in un- p^^"°™«"°''- likeness to the parental stock tends in succeeding generations to sink back to the type from which it is derived. Others are of opinion that, in some cases at least, the abnormal form perpetuates and fixes itself as a new variety, or at least tends to do so until it is counter- (r) DEER HEAD WITH ANTLERS IN THE " VELVET." acted and obliterated b}- the countervail- inof forces of breedino: and environment. Several other elements besides those enumerated in the preceding pages enter into the struggle for life, and help to constitute the general doctrine known as the survival of the fittest. This doctrine is the key of the theory of evolution. That theory we are now ready to apply to the general scheme of animated na- ture, and to show to what extent and in what way it explains the phenomena of ora:anic life. 228 GREAT RACES OF JU.VAV.Vn. In the first place, the nomenclature of science should be noted as precedent to Nomenclature of a clcar apprehension of frtr^g^om tS the subject. Nature is di- the individual, vidcd first of all into great groups of .sensible facts called Kingdoms. There is a Mineral Kingdom, constituting the great mass of visible nature ; a Veg- etable Kingdom, rising therefrom and (2) UKER HEAD WITH MATURE ANTLERS fixed as we have .seen to the earth as its basis of growth ; an Animal King- dom, including all those organic forms of being which rise above the somewhat indefinite horizon of plant-life. Kingdoms are divided into Orders, or great groups of facts discriminated from each other by a few leading and general lines of demarkation. Orders are di- vided into Suborders; these into Gen- era: these into Species; Species into Varieties, and Varieties into Individuals. Besides this right line we have such words as Classes and Families to desig- nate certain groups in the order of de- scent; but in general the analysis runs down in the order given above from Kingdoms, the highest, to Individuals, the lowest and last results in the clas- sification of the forms of nature. In the foreeoinof examination we have seen in general how the law of evolution Law of the indi- WOrkS m the pro- vidualis the law 1 ,. e ,-, . of the species, duction of the in- dividual life. This part of the modus operandi has been deter- mined and established by obser- vation and experiment, and is, indeed, so amenable to the com- mon experience of mankind as to admit no element of doubt or uncertainty. The history of every organic life in the world is common to the whole domain of nature. From the germ to the embryo, from the embryo to the living organism, from that to maturity — such is the one history which runs uniformly through the whole realm of organic being ; that is, it is the one history of the individual life. The question, then, is to what extent the prin- ciples which govern the evolution of the individual life are ap- plicable in the case of vai"ieties, species, genera, orders, kingdoms, and finally of universal nature. Have or have not the various differentiations from common types upwards from individual to specific and then to generic life been produced by the operation of the same laws which have developed the individual from its germinal to the perfected form? In the preceding discussion we have seen the hints and outlines of the widen- MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 229 ing of the law of evolution from the in- dividual to the variety. We have seen Varieties pro- hoAV Variation is produced SisbT^;^'- in organic form, instinct, of variation. ^nd mode of activity by the agency of natural and sexual selec- tion. "We have noted the manifest and indisputable evidences of the results of natural selection in domestic animals, and further on in the free arena of ani- mated nature beyond the limits of man's agency. Science has recorded the re- sults of the law in thousands of in- stances, showing unmistakably that the variations from individual types into va- rieties have been produced by the forces which are common to the whole natural world in the struggle for existence. The question arises whether the law extends still further and is sufficient to account for the difference b}' which species is dis- criminated from species and genus from genus. It has been the particular excellencb of biological inquiry in our age to an- AJi animate na- swer this question with ture a variation &om a common type. some degree of confidence. The work was begun with an examination into the relations which one species of living organisms bears to another. It was noted by Darwin, and had indeed been known to his predeces- sors, that some of the so-called species of animals and plants lie much nearer together than others which seem to be separated by a wide chasm. Closer scru- tiny showed that in many cases it was doubtful whether a certain species so de- fined should be classified by itself as such, or should rather be regarded as a variety of an approximate species. Again it was found that some of the so-called varieties had departed so widely the one from the other that they might, without straining the scheme of nature, or more properly violating the diagrams of sci- ence, be classified as distinct species. Still further the inquiry was pressed, until the principle was revealed that in all probability the whole scheme of ani- mated nature is only one vast variation from a common type. This discovery was the flash of ra- diance that brought in the new concept of universal nature. Un- obliteration of der its light species passed ^^eutro^s d1-'" away ; genera fled ; or- visions, ders and suborders disappeared, and nature was seen to be one vast and uni- versal scheme, evolved from a few germs or one single germ, spreading out tlfere- from like a tremendous fan with widen- ing radii, influenced in their course by the same laws and principles of develop- ment which govern the evolution of the individual from the life-cell of its origin. The development of this new concept of organic life considered as a whole was largelv the work of Dar- philosophy win. inthehandsofothers, ^^Itr^ttnd of a more philosophical the inquiry. turn of mind, notably in the alembic of Herbert Spencer, the doctrine of evolu- tion has been widened and applied to nature as a whole — has been systema- tized, illustrated, and confirmed by spec- ulative thinking, until it has become the accepted theory not only underlying the modern science of biology, but sup- porting as it were the system of the universe. In Darwin's hands, however, evolu- tion was held with scientific fidelity to the facts of organic life. Darwin's meth- He produced and gave to .^"u^i^^f:^;^ the world, in his Origin of rai selection. Species, a scheme of the evolutions and movements of life showing the tendency to variation and specialization of func- tion upward from the generic pattern to complete individuality. As a matter of interest to the general reader, his > =: ,_ ^ ^ ^ m ». M 1— ■ K. > ^ a ^. M ^- i« K, k. m XXXXXC:>>>>C=:-^ 2 Ti *^^^^ ""'•-^^ 2 "■*•- o "»i %, O '. to ^ - — — __. * _,. "*-/* v.n 1^ 5! >..,»( ^ t'' .V-V- *t «" ,^ -'' -.'•<'* -•^^ --^^ o v. • ■■-■:] ^-v '^"^^ » 1 ____„-- a ■;;::j /'' '''' "■■-"'.* * S CO ■""'i *■''" CT -~ff>> * o 5 U. ^ ^ """"■-■-, -^^ o s ^ ~~ ~- o a CO "* ^ — --S ____-? ,.'-> CD ^^ '' ,-'/ ,''" '* -^ lO * "© ,-'-' ,..--'■ * "'**'* _---".' n n , - ' /' --■---.y S ■^ / — v="* * ■^ ~--- "■"^-^ o ■. a ....°r^- _._!;> ,^''''"' »< n •!?* ■■:--ra — vyj. * '^■-S CO to 5 ---''« t a. '^-^. "■^■N.^ ---■-:>. 6 t ■* "*-. o ^'m fe» •' e — .. 5 ___ ^ — " t _^^ -' « -•^'' -J-^ • ^V ^-~ . "^■-. r/? "~~""~~~- W u I O y. _ _ o O-"" u Q O % OS 0. ^ I ^ U- H u- M C o UJ ^"' y z s «f « s u w S; Q~~. b ■^^ c g 5 O o ^ S CQ— " < ^ o < <-'''' Q MANXER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 231 diagram is here repeated, together with a summary of the accompanying expla- nation. The letters A, B, C, D, E, etc., to L, represent the species arising from a single genus of living organisms. Some of these, as for instance A, rep- resent a widely diffused and varying species. The dotted lines arising from A represent the varieties of offspring produced by the laws of natural selec- tion. Some of these are preserved as a' and m', in the struggle of life, while others perish. When the variations have risen as far as the horizontal line I, they have become sufficiently marked and permanent to produce what is defined as a variety. These two varieties, a' and m', are now exposed to the same conditions and vi- cissitudes as was the common type from which they sprang, and they in turn be- gin to vary upward in the direction of the dotted lines. Some of these tenta- tive efforts perish and some survive, un- til another horizontal line, marked II, is reached, by which time the departure between them has been greatly aug- mented. So oh upwards and upwards until at last, after thousands of genera- tions, the horizon of X is reached, when the forins a'°, f'°, and m'° have become so widely differentiated as to constitute pre- cisely identical facts in nature with those represented by A, B, C, etc., from which, under the name of species, the inquiry began; that is, varieties have become species. It is not needed to enter here into the elucidation of the whole scheme, show- ing how in the struggle for life the evo- lution of varieties and species is now going on in the world of animated nature under the operation of laws which by fair inference are identical with those where- by the first species of living beings came into existence. The first great principle, therefore, of the hypothesis of evolution, is that the life of any given species of Life of the spe- living beings is epitomized ^S'thiTn^ in the life of the individual dividual, composing the constituent unit in that species or variety. The sketch of the life of the individual from its germinal state to complete development has alreadybeen given and need not here be repeated. The principle is that the same scheme of life is applicable to the species. The doctrine includes the hypothesis of a specific germ from which a given va- riety of animated beings has proceeded. Whether these germs of species were already variations from other antecedent forms which were ultimately derivable from one point of origin, or from several points, is a question too difficult and ob- scure for the science of the present cen- tury. But the theory is that the lines of all life whatsoever converge back- wards toward a common point of de- parture from which all varieties and species have sprung by differentiation under the laws of natural selection and the conditions of environment. These deductions of biological inquiry include the human race in the common scheme with the rest of ani- The human race mated nature. It is for this TuStn^LV reason that we have to so rai history, considerable an extent enlarged upon the doctrine of evolution as explanatory of the beginning and development of man-life on the earth. The theme is so vast and furnishes so many suggestions of interesting inquiry that we may for a moment follow it to some of its most manifest conclusions and results. The life of man is at the very least ijitimately associated with the other forms of organic existence. The thread of humanity is interwoven — albeit a thread of gold — with the vast skein of animated nature. 232 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and the human miud is so framed, and especially so disciplined in our age, as to find perpetual interest, if not delight, in the application of those general laws by which the race is bound in common destinies with the correlated forms of life. In the first place, then, the theory of evolution teaches that man himself is the descendant, so far as his bodily organism is concerned, of a lower order of along their own lines of evolution. The departure, therefore, between any exist- ing species of the anthropoid apes and the human species is great ; not indeed so great as the fancies of many contro- versialists and some alleged biologists have depicted, but yet great. The chasm between the two, or the full measure of departure, has been produced by the divergence of each from the common type of an unknown ancestry. PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MAX.— (i) Evulition Illustkated with Six Skills in Ascending Order. being. This ancestral form from which the human kind arose is not to be con- what evolution ceived of as an ape or any h>rtt"e'sTent" Other existing creature, but of man. Q^jy -jg man, with lower capacities and manner of life than are now possessed by the race. It must be remembered that the higher primates next to man are themselves as mtich the work of evolution as man himself. They, too, have been developed and specialized In the case of man the divergence from the common ancestral form has been ever in the manward Every species is direction, and in the case of evolved from its ' own proper the simian the divergence original, has with equal constancy been apeward in its course. Since the divergence of these two forms of life from the common type, there never could have been pro- duced the one from the other. The ancestral form merely contained the po- MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—THE TRUE EVOLUTIOX. 233 tency of each. In like manner \ve may follow backward the ancestral line of the anthropoids until we find it converging with the line representing the lemuroids or the carnivores, or both. "We thus see the lines of the higher animal life com- ing together at some point in the remote past, at which time the ancestry of all these forms existed in a common t3'pe from which divergence, first into varie- and unmistakable indications of science the whole vertebrate kingdom of organic forms approximating at the last to a common type. This is to say that a single ancestry of a given but unknown form at one time contained the potency and elements of all the multifarious de- velopments which have since taken place in the widely distributed and greatly divergent vertebrate animals of the earth PROGKEsSlNK DEVELc>Pi\IEXr OF MAN.— (2) Evon rioN Illustrated with the Six Cokke!-po.\ding Luixg Forms. ties, then into species, and finally into genera, occurred under the long-contin- ued influence of natural selection and its correlated differentiating forces. The scheme of life ma}-, under the deductions and principles of the general Widening of the law of cvolution, be fol- raS^vitri- lowed still further into the phenomena. illimitable depths of the past. "We see not only by the light of con- jecture and hvpothesis, but bv the actual M.— Vol.'i— 16 and the waters. From this common form, through immeasurable lapses of time, the different varieties began to arise and to adjust themselves to their various environments in earth and air and sea. Aye, more, the vertebrata and the in- vertebrata in the ultimate biological analysis approximate. The hint and suggestion are to the efliect that these also arose from a common type ; that the molusk, too, was included in a common 234 GREAT RACES OF JlfA^VA'/Xn. ancestry with the rest. But -whether this latter deduction is warranted by the facts — whether all the genera and finally the orders of animated nature may be deduced from one common ancestral tvpe — is still a hypothetical question, as is also the still larger and more remote problem of the derivation of all animal and vegetable life from a common stem. It may be, or it ma}' not be, that the spe- cific beginnings of the various kinds of organic life in the world were derived from indej^endent originals, each en- dowed with its own inherent powers of evolutionary development; or, on the other hand, it may be that that converging tendency which is so plainly discover- able and demonstrable in the nearer field of view is universal and final, bringing at the last to one common original n// forms whatsoever of living organism be- longing to the present and past history of our globe ! The problem in this particular is again in close analogy with that of the history Living species of language. We know, ri:il7L^t f'"- instance, that six of the languages. great modern languages, inclusive of their slight dialectical devel- opments, have all been derived from a common original under the influence of linguistic differentiation and adaptation to the thought, purpose, and vocal organs of the various peoples by whom these tongues are spoken. Time was when the potency of Italian, French, Proven- gal, Wallachian, .Spanish, and Portuguese was all bound up in the Latin tongue of the classical ages. Thus much is his- torically and linguistically demonstrable beyond the adventure of denial or skepti- cism. Again it may be i-easonably said that our knowledge is complete of the ultimate common derivation of all the Aryan tongues. It can not be doubted that Teutonic, Celtic, the Gra;co-Italic languages, the Iranic tongues, and San- skrit are ultimately derivable from some common ancestral speech lost below the horizon of tradition and history. So also we know that Hebrew, Arabic, and the Aramaic languages are the descendants of a common original. At this point of the inquiry, however, we stand before the general problem just as the biologist does in his Best scientific study of the origin of spe- ^:^Tl^:^ cies and genera. Thus far f°'' ^"• the inquiries of each have led to the be- lief in a common origin for all the diver- gent forms which are the subjects of the investigation ; but the lingiiist has not as yet been able to discover by philolog- ical inquiry a point of common depar- ture for the Semitic and the Aryan lan- guages. The tendency of the inquiry is wholly in the direction of a common linguistic original. But the student of language is obliged to supply by hypoth- esis the materials and laws of a study which he is able to pursue no further by the light of ascertained fact. So also the biologist, though he find all .species of a given order of animals approaching a common Probabie deriva- type in some prehistoric ^Z^™!'"^ genus from which they all few germs. probably arose, is obliged to follow oth- erwise untraceable lines by analogy and hypothesis. Still more fully is he imder the dominion of these conditions when he attempts the ultimate derivation of all living things from one common orig- inal germ and type of life. The tend- ency of inquiry is to that conclusion ; but the biologist does not presume to say, as of definite knowledge, that all living forms whatsoever are from one original ancestral form. He proceeds no further than to .say that the indica- tions of the whole visible field of inquiry are in that direction, and that the scien- MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 235 tific deductions which he is able to frame as if by parallax respecting- the tenden- cies of life beyond the visible horizon lend to the same conclusion of a common original for all forms of organic being. Further than this, the applications of right reason to the ultimate problem are by hypothesis and conjecture ; not, in- deed, visionary and unreasoning conjec- ture, but such dim conjecture as a knowledge of the present . and past his- tory' of life is able to afford. We may thus in accordance with the theorv' of evolution contemplate a lowly ancestry for the human race. Exactly what kind of creature that may have been from which our species erria- nated on the organic side we may not know. At least in the present state of knowl- edge the an- cestral type of our great and widely distributed humanity remains in the obscurity of dim con- jecture. The hypothesis, however, is strictly agree- able to what we know from scientific data of the ven,' first conditions and as- pects of man -life on the earth. We are able to see by the light of scientific truth an ancestral type of mankind which, so far as we are able to discover, differed from the other higher primates in this, that the human creature was able to fashion a tool and to kindle a fire. These are the very first scientific indications of the presence of man-life on the earth, and they are strictly con- firmatory of the belief of the emergence of the human kind from some lower form of ancestr}' approximate to the as- sociated orders of the higher mammalia. What is here said of the origin and descent of the human species may be re- peated of all the other or- Present inquiry ders and varieties. The 1°°^^ to man and ms evo- present work is not a biolo- iit'on- g}'. It is not the purpose in this connection to dwell unnecessarily upon the history and descent of the vari- ous kinds of animal and plant-life on the globe. Our work is essentially hu- man, and only incidentally concerned Theory indi- cates a low^Iy ancestry for mankind. JAW BONE OF CAVE MAX, FOUND AT MOULIN BY BUICHER DE PERTHES, 1S63. — FROM THE ORIGINAL IN PARIS MUSEUM. about the correlated varieties of life. But so much of the question as possess- es a human interest we are at liberty to follow. The particular study before us is the manner of the beginning of man-life on the earth, and the aim is to set forth without prejudice or unwar- ranted advocacy of either the two gen- eral and hitherto conflicting opinions with regard to the genesis of man. The one opinion is, as we have shown in a former part, the belief in an imme- diate and phenomenal ere- Restatement of ation of the specific origi- tJ'e two views of human de- scent. nals of the various kinds of organic living beings on the earth. The other is the belief that the present as- 236 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. pects and forms of all things living have been produced by the operation of sec- ondary laws, such as we now find efficient in the determination of other phenomena; that the several varieties and species of living organisms, including the human kind, have been evolved through great lapses of time from common ancestral types of a lower and simpler kind than those now existing in the descendent species; and that these lower and sim- pler forms were in turn derived from a few living cells, or possibly a single ger- minal origin in which were bound itp all the possibilities and potencies of our liv- ing universe. The question, as we have said and re- peated and emphasized, is one of modus operandi. It is an issue relating wholly to the iitciiincr of creative processes Time was when living beings did not exist in our sphere. Time The question is when they do exist. Thr^rdufil"- Therefore time was when andiofUfe. they began to exist. The whole question is Iioiv and /;/ ivJiat manner the living be- ings inhabiting the globe began their career and have been brought to their present aspects. The difference between the two opinions is one of time and con- dition and circumstance rather than a dif- ference of fact. These unmistakable and unquestionable principles relative to the great inquiry before ns can not be too clearly stated or too much dwelt upon it we would form an intelligent and dis- passionate view of the history of life and of the diverse opinions regarding it. CHAPTER XIII. -Applicaxiox ok the Doctrixe to Max axd Nature. XDER the law of evo- hition we may proceed, in the next place, to account for the forma- tion of the world. The Larth is the habitat of man. Doubtless the other worlds are in like manner the are- nas and vast fields of conscious and intel- ligent activity. The laws and processes by which a world — our own world in particular — is formed and brought to the stage of habitability must ever be a mat- ter of prime interest to every reflective mind. The world gren'. It did not spring Our world the into existence at once, but came to be through a long series of intermediate stages and gradual development. There was a time when the space now occupied product of evo lutionary proc- esses. by our solar system was doubtlessly filled b\- the sun and his concomitant gases. Such was the dift'usion of matter, prin- cipally through the agency of high heat, that all was dispersed in a form of at- tenuated matter round and about the center of what was to constitute the sun of .our sj'stem. From this point two great facts are to be considered, namely, cooling and condensation. With these two processes nuclei began to be formed in rings of matter at various distances from the center of the inchoate system of worlds. The position of our own orb was indi- cated in the first place by one of these semigaseous, semifluid Primeval condi- rmgs of matter. In course of tion and growth .. • 1 1 -LI i- of the earth. time — mcalculable time — the ring condensed in one part and be- came attenuated in another. It then J/AXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 237 broke and began to assume the globular form under the general laws which de- termine the shape of free matter in a fluid condition. Thus the process went on until the incipient globe became a plastic sphere, having a determinate or- bit and drawing to itself the surround- ing matter — a process Avhich has not yet wholly ceased. Through long cycles of duration the formative work continued until the primeval world was fixed at last in its earliest geological conditions. What those conditions were the reader may discover by special study in that field of inquiry which relates to the for- mation of the earth's crust, the first ap- pearance of life, and the orderly progress from the priinordial to the present cos- mic condition. All this has been a process of evolu- tion. The planet has been formed by Prevalence of progressive intermediate fn planetfry "' stages, by the aCtioH of SCC- formation. ondary laws whereby the former nebulous matter coinposing the earth was gradually transformed into that fixed, and we may say organic, con- dition in which we now find it. The long-accepted opinion about the phe- nomenal creation of our globe within a limited period of time has given place to that vast and orderly concept which contemplates the growth of all worlds from primordial matter up to a completed stage of development. We thus see that not only the animals and plants which, as it were, possess the Animals ana Surface of the earth, the t:T^f^:iT 'lir, and the waters, but the the same laws, globe itself has come into its present form out of the past eter- nity by the action of those forces which go under the general name of natural law. Or, if we turn in the other direc- tion and begin to consider the results of intelligence in our sphere, we shall find that they also have followed analogous lines of development from a germinal to a completed and, as it were, organic being. We have already seen how language, the product of reason, arising from the necessity of intercourse Linguistic among intelligent beings, fj^l^^^^^rof has presented in its history race evolution, a complete evolutionary diagram. The history of human speech has been a his- tory of ramifications and divergences. It is an astonishing fact that the biolog- ical diagram prepared by Darwin as the epitome and brief chronicle of all his study may be taken by the philologist and used to illustrate the spread and de- velopment of human speech without the alteration of a line ! In it we have pre- cisely the same phenomena which are everywhere repeated in the history of language. There is the same divergence from a simple radical into such varieties as in the case of language are called dia- lects; the same survival of some of these, that is, the stronger and better; the same extinction of other varieties ; the same fixing of the better forms, and their development into special tongues. Even among the existing languages of the world we find precisely the same struggle for life, the same Languages natural selection on the lines of fitness and adapta- tion. The history of the English lan- guage from the times of King Alfred, a thousand years ago, to the present time presents a diagram precisely anal- ogous in its relations to the other ex- isting forms of speech as may be seen in any properly constructed scheme of biology. The same is true of all those institu- tions of the human race which have rea- son, convenience, and interest as their original motives. One of the most strik- struggle for life, and the best sur^-ive. 238 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. tions arise in like order of growth. ing and conspicuous of these is the in- stitution of government. Who can fail Human institu- to discover in the history of the governmental forms adopted by the liuman race the outlines of an evolutionary process? Of a certainty there was a time in the history of mankind when no govern- ment existed. Equally certain is it that at the present time one of the most con- spicuous facts in the history of the race is the governmental form of society. There was, therefore, a time between these two extremes when government began to be. It was not created phenom- enally and at a stroke out of nothing, but rather arose from an almost undis- coverable origin. There was a seed of government — a genn ; then an embryo, and at length a birth. Then there was an infancy, a childhood, an adolescence, a tentative and adventurous youth ; at last a maturity — if indeed the mature form of this institution has as yet been reached or even approximated. In any event, the progress and viodtts operandi of governmental evolution ai^e „ , facts clearlv discernible True nature of ' the evolution among the elements of hu- of government. , . , ^rr man history. i rue, it re- quires a high grade of intelligence and no mean measure of information to en- able the possessor to analyze and follow the process by which the governmental institutions of mankind have been evolved. We must, in the first place, discover the origin and point of depar- ture — the time and the conditions — from which the institution of government has sprung. We must note some primitive tribe rising gradually into the conscious state and discovering the advantages which might be gained from such rudi- mentary civil organization as the leaders of the tribe were able to effect. The work would begin with tentative expe- dients. There would be in it an element of force, an element of reason, and an element of authority. The last named would doubtless arise from the fact of fatherhood. The fatherhood of the fam- ily, a purely natural fact, would extend to the fatherhood of the tribe, or clan, a partly artificial fact. Force would arise from the mere material consideration of strength. The strongest would begin to rule. The strongest man would in the first place compel the weaker to bear his burden, to draw his cart, to do service at the door of his hut. The strongest of the strong men would do the same for the whole village. The elenient of rea- son would dovibtless spring froin the action of several minds in conspirac}- against the strongest. The strongest would have force on his side. The weaker would countervail by reason. It may not be far from the truth to suggest that the first check and counterpoise in rudimentary government is the balance of reason and force. After government had once been in- stituted, ill however crude a form, it would begin to adapt itself Governmental toconditions. Therewould '^^l^^lU, be an adjustment of the environment, governing fact with the fact governed, similar in all particulars to the adjust- ment of a living organism to its environ- ment. Many tentative efforts would perish. A few would survive. Those surviving would constitute varieties. In Egypt one of the varieties will become a hierarchy. In the valleys of the Eu- phrates and Tigris another variety will become a colossal personal despotism. In one part of Greece a third will be- come an oligarchy, and in another part a fourth will take the form of a democ- racy. There will be a struggle for ex- istence, a survival of the fittest. Some- times the fittest will appear in the form s 3 > C c < •z n 2 c ?3 > t=1 t3 240 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. of a military empire. This will break ■up in catastrophe, and a new order, half- chaotic, will supervene, in which the seeds of many things are present. From this state ecclesiasticism will issue as one form, feudalism as another form, monarchy as a third. These in turn will struggle and be differentiated. Stages and as- Some elements will perish pectsinthe wholly. Others will perish development of - -^ government. in part. Others will sur- vive and flourish and bear unexpected results. The great fact called the People will appear as an intelligent force under the law of evolution. The people will itself endeavor to become governmental. It Avill struggle as a liv- ing force with monarchy and the expir- ing parts of feudalism. Out of the side of the people will spring by diiferentia- tion many distinct forces. One of them will be internationality ; one will be communism. So the struggle will go on, some for and some against the prevailing form. Government in The prevailing form will Lbeys^fhellw ^^^ promoted by some con- of variation. ditions and antagonized by others. It will shift and adapt it- self somewhat to the forces which play upon it. It will, in a word, vary and take new forms and exercise new or- gans just as the individual varies, as the variety shifts, as the species as- sumes altered jjowers and fixes itself by adaptation and adjustment. The insti- tution of government confonns, as lan- guage conforms, and as every kind of biological phenomenon conforms, to the one great law of evolution . Take the case of that large fact called Law. We here refer to that aggregate of rules and principles which right reason discovers for the conduct of society. This also is what Lord Bacon might have called ' ' a forthshowing instance " of the evolutionary process. Law is nut made. This is to say that it is not produced by the wit and reflection of Law also an men. Rather is it a pro- X'^Vthe ductive force bringing the Roman statutes, intellects and reasons of men into such activity as may improve and formulate the best of the existing codes of conduct into still higher expressions of authority. Take for instance the law of Rome. Who shall declare its generation? Who shall find its germs? Certainly they existed before Rome was Rome. The makers of the Ten Tables did not pro- duce the Roman law. The}" wrote on tablets what already existed. They would fix it in a form for posterity ; but the transcript would not hold. The Ten Tables became Twelve. The code of the primitive republic would not suffice for the great republic, nor the code of the latter for the empire. Behold Jus- tinian's lawyers working at the problem. They were only interpreters, not makers. They were striving not indeed to inake new rules for human conduct, but to re- state and summarize those which were still vital and operative. It was a part of their Avork to distinguish between the rules which still existed and those which had petished ; between those forms, those varieties which had survived, and the others which had become extinct. Law as well as government, of which it con- stitutes one of the elementary forces, is itself an evolution — the residue of a con- flict between the different principles of civil action, embodying the survival of whatever has been found best adapted to the exigencies of human society. This society is itself, with all of its powers and capacities, an society, uke the evolutionary product. t^^^^^H'Zc. Who created society? Cer- adapts itself, tainly not man. It has grown with hia growth, strengthened with his strength, MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.^EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 241 and improved with his improvement. That society exists as a sort of frame- work and continent for the life of man and his activities is beyond denial. That there was a time in the past when it did not exist is certain. That there was therefore a time when the social germ appeared and began to present phenom- ena analogous to those of embryonic the species. Like the latter, the pri- mordial form of society put out many branches. Some of these displayed su- perior vitality and power of adaptation. Others, being weaker and ill-adapted to conditions, perished. The better form.s survived and took specific features which were perpetuated with accumulating forces to succeeding times. There was gtrminaL =ocii;t\ life can not be doubted. Henceforth the social evolution was in the likeness of growth as it is exhibited in the vege- table and animal worlds. However intangible the general fact called society may be, it nevertheless has passed through successive stages of evolution identical with those which mark the progress of the individual and — r'r.i.Mi by Madame Paule Crampe!. an evolution in the true sense of the word in every part of the problem, a natural selection, a survival of the fittest. Perhaps the fundamental fact in the organization of society '\Z Marriage the the method by which the rJs°ui't^o°f°soTiai sexes are joined for the in- instincts, crease and preservation of the race. Marriage is one of the most primitive 24S GREAT RACES OF 2rAXKrXD. and occult forms with which the historian and ethnologist has to deal. At the present time marriage is a vast funda- mental institution upon which society is in a considerable measure founded. But this element of the social structure is it- self an evolution. The law of its pro- duction is not well understood. The line in general appears to have proceeded, in remote prehistoric times, from the miscellaneous mating of the sexes to the present form of monogamy prevailing among the most enlightened peoples. The intermediate stages seem to have been first polyandry, and afterwards polygamy. This is to say that the social instinct first attempted an organic devel- opment by the line of the female. She was made the central fact, and the ethnic descent was drawn by way of her for the whole tribe. Around the woman and on either hand w^re arranged the men of the tribe. Either of these might be the father of her offspring. The oft'spring thus had the tribe for its father and the woman for its mother. Nearly all the races have passed through this stage of evolution. A rude code of marital principles was formulated at a very early- stage in the history of every inchoate nation. As late as the times of the Hebrew patriarchs the remnants of this code were still oper- ative, for it was not only the privilege but the duty of the brothers to take the widow of one of their number deceased and to raise up children by her line. With the mutation of things another principle of sexual union appeared and encroached on the first. This was polyg- Successive amv, or an attempt to es- Sment^'f'" tablish the line of descent sexual union. wholly by the male. Here the man was made the central figure, and many women were associated with him for the multiplication of the tribe. The man was married to them all, or rathel they to him. Their identity was lost in a single family stem having for its cen- tral principle the law of male descent. Thus the evolution proceeded to the es- tablishment of monogamy, or single marriage. The affinity, or rather deri- vation, of the latter institution from polygani}- is indicated by a certain pre- dominance which the male still maintains in the organization of the family and the laws of descent. He it is who in general owns and controls the property. He it is who gives his name to the offspring. He it is who still constitutes the single line of descent from ancestor to posterity. The tendency in the present age to per- petuate the name of the woman in the offspring, and to establish in her line equal rights of inheritance and descent, are evidences that the law of variation and adaptation is still operative in deter- mining the methods by wTiich the family shall be constituted and its benefits con- served. The law of evolution works also effec- tively in determining the products of the human mind. All of Artistic prod- the arts have proceeded rseb;"-"" from this common source. ^^°^- Observe with care the exact correlation existing between the development of the plastic art and the general evolution of the civilized life of man. The growth of this species of artistic achievement may be completely illustrated in the his- tory of a single human life. Note with care the fir.st attempts of the child, close to the borders of infancy, to create the representative forms of animals and birds. The instinct is as natural as the bodilv functions, such as breathing and the use of the senses. The child repro- duces in clay or dough the form of his dog or cat. It is the infancy of art. We may see it far away among the MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 243 broken potter}- of Cush, or among the nibbish of the silver-bright halls of the Peruvian Incas. Note well the charac- ter of those rude figures on earthen ves- sels, those half-formed effigies of reptiles and birds and beasts and men and dei- ties Avhich the primitive races, in far apart quarters of the world, produced in the prehistoric ages. What are they but the works of the infancy of the race? What are they but the ancient ethnical prototypes of what is every day repeated by the children of the civilized life as with laughter and quaint conceit they build up in mud or dough the images of their fancy and set them in array in the goodly child-museum of the world ? But children soon arise from this level of infancy. They in whom the artistic instincts are strongest continue in more skillful ways to reproduce with model and plaster the objects of the ideal sense. There is thus in the individual life a A'outh of art, and after that an early manhood. Still later there is maturity, and at length the silent and august chambers of some great collection speak and coruscate with the splendors of achievement. Precisely so in the progress of the race. There too was there a youth of Childhood of art artistic development rising youtrand ^^ slowly f rom the quaintness , maturity. absurdity, and grotesque outlines of the works of childhood. There too was there an evolution into the higher form. There too at last the survival of the fittest gave to the world an artistic age and an artistic people. What is true of plastic art is true also of the art of the brush and of all other arts soever. They have grown from germinal conditions. They have sprung not at once and phenomenally into full- blown proportions of truth and beauty, but have come to such state through long intermediate stages and the tortur- ous processes of natural selection. So also of the correlated forms of lit- erature. This, even as art, has a line- age as remote, an ancestry Literature, also, as olden, as the beginnings gfo^X^^/d 3^,. of human consciousness. Tiiral of the best. The first slight excursion of human thought and its corresponding expres- sion in some rude and half-ejaculatory form of speech marked the origin of all things possible in the subsequent ages of literary development. It is only in the present time that a true concept has been gained of the far-reaching lines of force which precede the delivery of every single literarj- product. A great poem or a great history has gathered up in it much of the vitality and reproduc- tive energies of the preceding ages. In a larger sense, each literary epoch is the product of an intellectual evolu- tion which has been going on through centuries of time. The men of letters in a given age are only the abstracts and summaries of mental forces which were operative long before their birth. More- over, the actual literature of any given epoch is but the better residue of a vast mental waste which has perished in ob- livion. Could all the efforts of the mind to perpetuate its acti\'ities in the form of letters be recorded in a diagram, the student of that mental picture would be confounded with an alternate rush of admiration and of tears — admiration for the infinite outreachings of human thought, its upward struggle for expres- sion in the realm of song and story, and tears for the incalculable waste and de- cay and death of intellectual endeavor. Each national literature is in like man- ner the product of an evolutionary process. It does not appear at once and phenomenally as a dream-born blossom on a dream-planted tree. It comes rather 244 GREAT RACES OF .VAXAVXP. after long ages of intellectual growth and adaptation. Tnte it is that history Literary prod- has left but little record uctoieach ^ j j ^ f ^j^g ccnturies race has its own evolution which precede the coming of letters . for history is dependent on lit- erary expression for all or nearly all that she has been able to save from the wreck and desolation of time. But we know tion of traits and transmission of qualities from age to age as are discovered in the history of organic life. Lawoeciis of Englishmen. Specialization has done its -work until the original British type is with difficulty discovered in the lumberman of Ontario, the miner of the Colorado caiion, the ranchman of the Llano Estacado, the sheep-raiser of New South Wales, and the opium mer- chant of Allahabad. In all parts the law of differentiation and growth, with the survival of the best forms and the ex- tinction of the weaker, has prevailed, until the races of mankind have become specialized at the extremes of the human distribution, even as the organs of a liv- ing body have been brought into exist- ence and efficiency by their uses and adaptations. Chapter XIV.— Objections Considered. E have thus pursued the theory of evolution to the full limits of fitness in a work such as the present. We have viewed it as the viodiis operandi of universal nature and of man. We have seen it ex- emplified, first of all, in the laws and processes of individual growth, whereby each living organisna in the great king- dom of life has been brought by strug- gle, fitness, and survival, by differenti- ation, growth, and exercise into the mature and perfected form. From this starting point in the career of the indi- vidual Ave have extended the study to varieties and species of living beings. Summary of de- We liave obscrved among presenrsta°g':f these the Same principle the inquiry. of divergence, develop- ment, and adaptation as were found to govern the course of the individual or- ganism from the germ to the perfection of its powers. We have considered the same law as illustrated in the growth of the world and our associated planets from a common solar mass of attenuated matter. Further on we have applied the theory to the products of human intelli- gence, such as language, institutions, and laws. We have seen that these also spring out of primordial conditions ; that they diverge and struggle, survive by fitness or perish by incongruity with conditions and circumstances. We have noted, in the next place, how the law holds also in a wider and higher sense of the human mind itself and of the moral nature of man ; and, last of all, we have observed the appli- cation of evolution to man himself. We have considered him as a living entity working his way through a thousand tentative efforts to the maturity of his powers. We have seen that in general the different forms of human life, as ex- hibited in races and kindreds — spring- ing, as they did spring, from a common human type — have conformed in their movements and methods of development to the same principles which seem to prevail throughout the whole world of organic life, and indeed in universal na- ture. It now remains to note some of the objections which have been suggest- MAXXER OF THE BEGLYXIXG.—OBJECTIOXS COXSIDEKED. 255 ed, some of the reasons which have been urged, for the rejection of the theory of evolution considered as an explanation of the phenomena of life. In the first place, it is said as a ground of disbelief in the hypothesis of evolu- Objected that tion that it assigns to the linsatowiy tumau spccies a degraded origin to man. origin. The doctrine places man in his genesis and development on a level, so to speak, with the beasts which nature has made prone and obe- dient to their appetites. Man, so far as the testimony of his consciousness is con- cerned, holds himself strorfgly aloof from the rest of animated nature. He is able to discover in himself certain mental and spiritual qualities which do not affiliate with any coixesponding traits in the animals below him. He has hopes and fears, aspirations and ambi- tions, musings and speculative reveries, excursive fancy and the multiplication of knowledge, for none of which can he find a parallel in the mental habits of the living beings around him? Man feels instinctively that his nobil- ity as a conscious creature lies in the Instinctive sen- measure of his departure timentofmen £ ^| habitudcS and respecting tneir origin. nature of the beasts. Any approach to them in his thoughts and manners and instincts is recognized at once by himself as a degradation of his nature and the stultification of all his better parts. The assignment, therefore, of a common origin for his own species and the higher orders of lower animals appears revolting to his nobler senti- ments. He feels that his race is scandal- ized by attributing thereto such a gen- esis. For this reason the theory of evolution has been strongly resisted as inconsistent with the high estimate which man discovers in his own consciousness of himself, of his origin, and his destiny. Such a feeling in human nature is not to be put lightly aside. Observe with care that a sentiment of suchbeUefit- thiskindmustitself.accord- iZl^^^^^' ing to the hypothesis of processes, evolution, have been produced in man from an instinctive germ of belief devel- oped through ages of growth and varia- tion, and fixed at last by certain con- ditions as an immutable part of human nature. The existence of such a senti- ment and belief must be overcome by right reason and irrefragable proofs be- fore it can be given up and replaced with a totally different concept of the origin and primeval state of human kind. Let us approach this problem with equanimity. What has history to do with the small prejudices and fluctuating opinions of the current age ? She neither courts them nor rejects them. She views them simply as a part of that vast sub- ject-matter with which her volumes of majestic lore are afterwhiles to be filled. History will not espouse a party or range her forces with any of the divi- sions of human society. Rather must she hold all things in even balance if thereby her own sublime purpose may be fulfilled ; for she knows nothing but right and truth. The antipathy of man to a lowly orig- inal for his kind is natural. We must examine the sentiment, istherepug- however, and discover, if ™i°S we may, whether such an or habitual? opinion is really rational or only habit- ual. In pursuing such an inquir}- we may find the best materials of the argu- ment in the history of the individual life of man. This is, without doubt, suf- ficiently lowly. The beginning of an individual life is obscurely hid among the actions ancj coactions of matter and force. In what sense can it be said that the individual man is created ? Certainly 256 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. not in the sense that he has been pro- duced in an adult form and a phenom- enal manner. On the contrary, every human life begins in obscurity, deep in the inscrutable recesses of a microscopic germ. Thus much is not theory, but demonstrable fact indubitably estab- lished by universal experience and at- tested by all the criteria of science. Moreover, the first stages in the evolu- tion of the individual life of man are in like manner obscure and obedient to FCETI OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS — SHOWING THE COMMON' PLAN OF NATURE. (A, A', of tortoise, at four and six weeks ; B, B', of the chick, at four and eight days ; C, C of the dog, at four and six weeks; D, D', of the human being, at four and eight weeks.) merely physical law. The pattern of the human creature that is to be is the . , , same as that employed by Obscurity of the . . first stages ia all nature in producing all the animal life. i • i r /• • , i higher forms of animated being. The living creature tha't is to be is not discriminable by any test from the correlated orders of life, and is depend- ent for its future distinction wholly tipon a differentiation which is not ap- parent at the beginning of existence. The physical life of man is thus at the first a series of phenomena identical, so far as science has been able to discover. with the life of other living beings of a lower order. Nor do the evidences of difference rapidly and marvelously appear and multiply; but only slowly. Difference of hu- tediously, and without man- r^ai^^^p^t^ if est emphasis of purpose, butsiowiy. The embryonic human being gradually dej^arts somewhat from the common type, just as in the case of the unborn progeny of one of the lower animals. In the one case the development begins to be manward ; and in other instances horse- ward, kineward, dog- ward. It is only in the latter stages of prenatal existence that the crea- ture containing within itself the possibility of man begins to show a marked difference from the unborn young of other species of animals. Even at birth and after birth the immatur- ity and imperfection of the human creature are most conspicuous. His organs are, as it were, but potential suggestions of what they are to be- come by growth and development. As to intelligence, the new-born -weakness and being has none whatever, f.^nSlE; with the exception of those cwid. animal instincts which are necessary for the preservation of its life. Even these are by no means highly developed. Many of the lower animals come into the world with capacities and instincts of preservative activity far superior to any exhibited by the newborn of human kind. As to physical action, a like infe- riority is observable. The infant of the human species can neither rise nor sit, MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIOXS CONSIDERED. 257 neither stand nor walk. Perhaps of all things living the young of the human race are the most absolutely helpless and dependent. Nor may the initial evidences of ac- tivity in infancy be regarded as indica- tive of a higher order of life. The infant irrationauty of left to itself sprawls in utter Srinn." helplessness, moving its f^^^^- limbs in a lawless manner, showing no evidences of adaptation to the necessities of its being. The com- ing of intelligence, meanwhile, is exceed- ingly slow. How feeble are the first movements of brain-power and intellec- tion ! For many months language con- sists only of ejaculatory cries, in no manner differently vocalized or more significant than the cries of birds and beasts. Observe the beginnings of speech. First, the organs instinctively produce monosyllabic forms without significance — mere babbling repetitions of meaningless sound. Finally, there is the faint light of imitation. At last the utterance of one word is effected, and after a month of effort another ! What a beginning for the rushing vocabularies of Shakespeare, Goethe, and Hugo ! Meanwhile' the bodily functions re- main under the dominion of instinct and Evolution of the animal law. The Avonder p^ow^r^ircU- of ^^^alking upright is at iioo'i- length accomplished. The child laughs and speaks, and (mar\-el of marvels ! ) loves ! It begins to be ration- al; that is, human. Hitherto it ha~ been irrational ; that is, animal. Here- after reason shall more and more arise and assert its sway. There will be the waywardness of childhood, the efferves- cence and folly of youth, the passion and power of coming manhood, and final- ly the maturity of power. But how few of human creatures ever reach complete- ness of individuality and the perfection of reason ! How many complete theii career on a plane but one degree above that on which the higher orders of ani- mals perform their instinctive and irra- tional parts in the drama of life : What we are here to consider is this : The true estimate which every mature human being is obliged to Estimate that form of his own individual "/'^.'^"stfo'™ of his own Indi- an tecedents and history, vldual history. Man is constrained to accept for himself as a person the lowliest of lowly begin- nings. He is obliged to recognize the fact that his own genesis as a living creature has been not only in close anal- ogy with the history of animal life in general, but absolutely identical there- with. Ever)^ thoughtful man is con- strained to consider himself as once exist- ing potentially in a mass of half-organic protoplasmic cells. He is obliged to reflect upon his embryonic life, upon the fact of his birth into the world, and the insensate animal life which he must needs live during the first year or years of his existence in this strange arena. He must remember himself as prone and under the dominion of animal instincts - — living only by the aid of the life and love of others. He must see himself in that far estate abased to a condition of intelligence not comparable for intelli- gence with that which characterizes the young of the beasts and birds. But with what sentiment should he regard this antecedent and irrational por- tion of his career? Certain- with -what sen- ly not with shame or with '^^.T:^^ a sense of humiliation, "self. On the other hand, there are reasons which a reflective mind may discover in all this for a justifiable pride in the de- gree of departure and elevation which the mature and intelligent being has reached from the lowly and unconscious state of infancy. No man can be reason- 258 GREAT RACES OF 2LANKIND. ably scandalized with the thought that he was once a babe and once an embryo. Rather may he comfort and respect him- self with the reflection that by the law of evolution, the beautiful processes of unfolding and growth, he has risen to his present sublime stature from so ob- scure an origin. Man at his best estate walks abroad and surveys all nature. He knows the Great capacity world and its mysteries, of the human rpj^^ outline of scas and con- mind to think and know. tinents is before his vision. The deeps are his. His are the clouds, the panoply of starry sky, the infinitude of systems and worlds beyond. Better than the material landscape is the world within him. Thought is his, and vision and will and purpose. Imagination, eagle-like, sits poised on the vast prec- ipice overlooking the chasm of the universe, and with one bound springs forth on unfaltering wing, circling the profound abyss from shore to shore, from the boundless past to the endless future. But in the midst of this exaltation, this swift review of himself and his powers, he is constrained evermore — but without humiliation — to remember that his or- ganic life began low down in the obscur- ity of an almost unknown world, amid the occult actions and coactions of mat- ter and force, even as all other organic life begins from a mere material cell. If such be the backward look of the individual life and consciousness, re- No rational viewing itself in the light tt^iltir oT* of fact and discovering no a lowly origin. shame or degradation in the low estate from which it sprang, what shall we say of that retrospect which surveys, the life of the species? Shall any man feel shame on account of the origin of his species? Do scandal and humiliation hold of a remote and undiscoverable ancestry while they do not hold of the origin of the individual ? Shall any intelligent being feel himself degraded by the communal divergence of his kind from the great stem of life far away among the mysteries of the prehistoric world, and yet feel no degra- dation in the fact that he himself, during the first weeks of his organic life, was indiscriminable from the young of an alligator? If the puppy, the calf,' and the kid have larger intelligence and freer use of faculties at a corresponding stage of development than have the children of men, shall he who, in full maturity of powers, reflects upon the fact feel a sense of disgrace and abase- ment imder the belief that by remote ancestral descent, extending thousands of years before the dappled dawn of re- corded history, the species to which he belongs came by differentiation out of the side of that great stem of life which contained the possibilities of all ani- mated nature ? On the contrary, it is far more reason- able that man should disregard the re- moter conditions of ethnic More reasonablo descent, and feel the deeper t^ZlS^tf""^ interest in his individual our species, history and the history of his immediate ancestry. It is of more concern to man that his personal genesis should be a pleasing fact, as reviewed in conscious- ness under the light of memory and re- flection, than that his ancestors, even within the limits of a few generations, should have been possessed of certain undesirable characteristics of body and mind. The nearer the fact, the greater its interest and importance. All things sink away and fade into shadow and cloud in the far horizon. But that which touches the present life hath more of vital interest. The one great history to every human being is the history of himself. Next MAXNER OF THE BEGLVNINC—OB/ECnOXS CONSIDERED. 259 to this is the history of that immediate past wtich he may still see in retrospect Greater impor- or by parallax reflected in t^^df^du^^ the pages of common in- lif*^- formation. Further on, and of less concern, is that remote past which must be recreated by the skill of the historian and the antiquar}'. Least of all in interest and attractiveness is that group of facts that lie far off, dis- coverable only with the glass and from the mountaintop, dimly defined in the morning of days and seasons. It is of less disgrace and harm to a man — a thousand times less shameful to him — that his prehistoric ancestor should have been one of the pithecanthropoids than that his grandfather should have been a robber or himself a villain ! It would appear, therefore, that the repugnance of enlightened and intelli- Repugnanceto gent peoples to the notion of an ancestral descent of the human race common with that of the other orders of animated nature is habitual rather than rational. It is a matter of education and sentiment rather than a judgment or a valid deduc- tion. Not to be scorned or contemned is this sentiment, so jealous of the honor and character of that primal stock from which our species is descended. Never- theless, the suggestion that our origin was the common origin of all organic life is not good ground for the repug- nance and disdain which many have shown for such a lowly genesis. The beginning of the human kind may have been as obscure and far removed among the hidden forces of physical nature as is the manifest beginning of all the in- dividual forms of life. But for that rea- son such origin in neither case is just reason for disdain or for the sense of shame. So far as these sentiments exist respecting the descent of our species derivation from lew orders not rational. from a lower and simpler order of ani- mals than man, they are the result of views and beliefs which can not well en- dure critical analysis or the higher de- cisions of reason. In the formation of the opinions which the men of the nineteenth century still hold, or hold in part, rela- BeUefinaGoid- five to the beginning and f^^^geasaf- t> & fecting our opin- first estate of man , the tra- ^°^^- dition widely disseminated among many peoples of a Golden Age has largely con- tributed, ilost of the civilized or half- civilized nations of antiquity entertained such a view with respect to the prehis- toric epoch. It pleased the fancy of the pagan peoples of the Mediterranean to reconstruct a former condition of man- kind more elevated and glorious than the current age of semibarbarism and unending war. This dream was one of the prevailing poetic visions with the bards of the Grasco-Italic races. They depicted a primitive estate in which mankind were almost as the gods. The first men were taller and stronger than their degenerate descendants. The first men lived the life of peace and happi- ness. The first men were wise in their kind and virtuous in their lives. The first men tilled the earth and walked abroad as philosophers, gathering the fruits that ripened perennially and sit- ting at evening in the shade of cool ar- bors where they discoursed of the gods and instructed each other in the princi- ples of dut}' and the obligations of fra- ternit3\ Such a dream hovered about the imagination of Greece, and even the heavier mind of Rome was invaded at intervals with the presence of this de- lightful vision of an immemorial past. Doubtless such an opinion came to the Western peoples with their migrating ancestry out of the East. The Orien- tal nations also possessed traditions and \"NHi.\ I 11 THI-. (,liI.Di:.\ Al.E. MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. 261 fables of the golden age. With the ascendency of Rome such a notion in varying degrees of inten- Genesisofthe . . beiiefinapast sity was widely dissemina- age o go . ^^^ ^y ^^^ pagan conquests. With the incoming of Christianity — with its acceptance as the religion of the state and the consequent incorporation of Hebrew story as a part, even the foun- dation, of the new theology — the belief in the antecedent greatness and perfec- tion of mankind was still further ex- tended and confirmed. As far as the new faith extended, so far was the cur- rent interpretation of the significance of the terrestrial paradise and its two per- fect and exalted beings accepted as the condition from which the human race had descended. The belief in question was further strengthened and confirmed by that un- fortunate epoch in human Effects of fhebe- ^ lief in the de- history known as the Dark cadence of man. , » i. xi i. i- n Ages. At that time all things seemed returning to the primitive chaos. The Roman empire broke and fell. Barbarism came in. vSociety was disorganized and went to ruins. Dark- ness supervened over the face of Europe. A belief well calculated to destroy the remainder of hope arose and spread and took possession of all minds. This was the belief in the decadence of man. It became the prevalent opinion that all things were falling away, and that not only civilization but the world itself was doomed to perish. For several centuries, as the first mil- lenium of the Christian era drew to its Mediaevais af- close, this foreboding and hens^no/f^'^' gloomy Spirit hovered over catastrophe. the human mind. Under its influence men looked back afar to the primitive estate of the race as to a vision of glory and exaltation. The present woe was contrasted in the senses and apprehensions of the people with that far-off and beautiful Eden from which the ancestor of mankind had been driven forth in exile to his death. All these circumstances tended most strongly to fix in the mind a deep-seated conviction of the early excellence and later deca- dence of the human race — to extend and perpetuate the pagan traditions which have prevailed in many parts of the world respecting a primitive golden age. As the nightmare of the Middle Ages passed away, when it was seen that the world and the race of man Dogmatic inter- had not perished, but that P^rSm^ on the other hand there progress, were evidences of revival and restora- tion, the new and hopeful sentiments of mankind with respect to the present and the future came into contact with the old beliefs respecting the methods of creation and the primeval state of the human species. Meanwhile the creeds of the Church had taken a dogmatic and inflexible form. The interpretations which had been placed on the ancient oracles were held in all things to be literal and exact. When the new as- tronomy appeared it was confronted with a construction of the Scriptures which forbade its acceptance. The reading which had been adopted of the Book of Genesis made the world the center of our system and the sun and moon and stars its attendant satellites. To disturb this construction seemed to the men of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries like a destruction of the moral order of the world. Every branch of natural science was met with like antagonism and resisted by the adherents of the ancient system. Geology in particular was assailed as un- mistakably contradictory of the oracles of tnith. The notion of an extended 262 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. natural science have been an tagonized. duration for the world — of the vast eons of time which had been required for the Au branches of Orderly production of our globe — was denounced as a horrible assault upon the divine revelation and an attempt to sub- stitute a bible of atheism for the true wisdom of the Almighty. For espousing and upholding the new belief many suf- fered and died. From the date of the first dawn of the revival of learning each new stage in the progress of scien- tific discovery, each new concept which man has gained of the order of the world, and in particular of the history of life, has been resisted and resented as an of- fense and an indignity done to those sublime standards which were established aforetime out of the literal construction of the ancient records of both the chosen people and the pagan nations of an- tiquity. All of these circumstances must be weighed and estimated in making up a Current opin- Current judgment with re- f?o°:timatic spect to the value and ac- antecedents. ceptabiUty of the theory of evolution. That this theory has been repugnant to many cherished sentiments and beliefs can not be denied, and ought not to be neglected in considering the general question at issue. On the other hand, the existence of such opinions, in so far as they are merely habitual and not the products of right reason, ought not by any means to prevail against the acceptance of a larger and more compre- hensive concept of the history of life. Just as dogma should not have prevailed against the mathematics of Copernicus and the telescope of Galileo, just as the narrow, foolish, but long-established the- ory of the phenomenal creation of the earth in six days ought not to have pre- vailed against the new geology which fought its way through every kind of opposition to final acceptance as the rational explanation of the order and development of the world, so a possibly mistaken notion about the existence of a golden age, in which the first of human kind walked and communed as the gods, ought not to prevail against the evi- dences of science, pointing as they do with unerring finger to the low estate and primitive savagery of the earliest creatures of the world worthy to take the name of man. On the Avhole, the issue between those who hold the theory of phenomenal cre- ation and those who accept Real issue a evolution as the law of uni- ^^IT:!^ versal nature and of man not of fact, is a question of vuthod rather than a question of fact. Life has appeared on the earth at some iiine and some place and in some manner. Life did not al- ways exist on the earth. It began tc be, and it now is, in full aspect of de- velopment. The question, therefore, can be no more than this : Hnv did life appear? Hoiv did it begin.' Hoiv did it proceed from stage to stage? Was the apparition immediate and phenome- nal, or was it by slow degrees and evo- lutionary processes? It is not the fact of creation but the inanncr of it that is involved in the whole controversy which has occupied at least three decades of the last half of the nineteenth century. All must concede that organic being has come to pass in some way. The diver- gence of opinion relates only to the man- ner and not to the essential fact of a beginning of something which before had no existence. From these considerations it would ap- pear that the controversy in some expiana- question has been unduly ^^p^e^c^e's^rt be exaggerated and fanned accepted, to an unwarrantable excess of heat. It is only a question as to how the term MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. 263 creation, or the primary production of life, is to be understood. Men are con- strained, in virtue of the cause-seeking instinct within them, to form some con- cept of the manner of the beginning. The mind demands an explanation. There is no satisfaction or mental rest without some reasonable apprehension of the methods and circumstances of the origin of life. More particularly the whole question seems to hang about the beginning of species. For some reason the obvious origin of the individual life has been overlooked, and the attention of the disputants in this great contro- versy fixed on the occult question of the beginning of species. Why it is that the manner of the origin of a specific variety of life, belonging as it must do to a remote epoch in the past, should be considered of greater importance in forming a correct theory of the world and of organic being than is the nearby and apprehensible origin of the individ- ual life, is one of the strange circum- stances in the intellectual history of our century. As to the adequacy of the theory of evolution to account for the formation of the world and for the Adequacy of the theory of evoiu- mcthods by wliicli the in- tiou considered, j • • i i • -u i ^ ^ dividual IS brought to ma- turity there can be no doubt. Between these two extremes of cosmogony, in a general sense on the one hand and the individual life on the other hand, lies the intermediate question of the genesis of species, and in particular the origin of human kind. The general tendency of scientific investigation has been to extend further and still further the law of evolution as the method and explana- tion of the phenomena of all living forms. To affirm that the inquiry is complete, and that evolution is the one sole explanation of all the varieties of life, and of the stages and vicissitudes through which they have passed, is to affirm more than the present state of human knowledge would warrant or sustain. To affirm, on the other hand, that the law of evolution applies to .so wide a cycle of phenomena as is mani- festly the case — that in general it suf- fices to explain the modus operandi of creation respecting the manifold species of animals and plants which hold to the earth as the source of their vitality ; but that the law breaks when it comes to the human .species, and leaves the great fact of man-life as something unaccounted for and exceptional to an otherwise universal mode of action — is to affirm less than the present condi- tion of human knowledge will attest and justify. Thus much is certain, that the battle of dogmatic and scientific opinion re- specting the manner of the The conflict of beginning of life subsides scientific and & o dogmatic opin- into silence. It has already ion subsides, lost its clangor and .sharpness. It sinks into a mild and conciliatory debate. The alarm which prevailed for a season among the timid folk of the ancient camping ground al.so subsides and is suc- ceeded by returning confidence. It is seen that the world stands fast and that the moral order of the world is not disturbed. Perhaps the acerbity, the violence, of them who attack the existing interpretations of man and nature cools into a rational .satisfaction over the chang- ing concept of the beginning and devel- opment of organic life. The glowing coals of anger, fanned not a little by the aeitation, cover themselves with the white a.shes of peace. It has always been so in the intellectual warfare of mankind. It is not true, as many sup- pose, that the moral deeps are broken up by these disturbances of the Intel- 264 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. lectital world. After the conflict is over there is always the return of har- mony, the blessings of sunshine, the betterment of mankind. There is a re- newal of the hand-clasp of fidelity, and mutual congratulations of the contend- ing parties that the inscriptions on the obelisks of truth and right are still clear and .sharp as on the morning of the first day. This better condition of the mind in our age comes of the gradual acceptation of the new truth and the gradual aban- donment of the old error. It comes, in large measure, also, of concession and of the willingness of the human mind to be taught in things not known before. It comes of the necessary approxi- mation of views to that common ground which, while it is not the ground occu- pied by mediaeval scholasticism and mod- ern dogma, is, on the other hand, not the ground of an atheistic materialism. It is rather that point of , . Approximation View which accepts an orig- of the opposing inal creative power as the °p'"'°"^- productive energy whereby the begin- nings of all life are to be accounted for and explained, but at the same time recognizes the evolutionary processes which are manifestly at work among all existing forms as the explanation and method of growth whereby the living species of organisms have been brought from their germinal to their perfected state. Under these two general con- cepts the life of man may be assigned to its true place as the supreme fact connected with our sphere. For the present it suffices to say that creation is a fact, and evolution its universal method. in ■--! T3 d n3 N i en ^ ■?^ CO < < CO PECI< OF BARBARIC LIKE. -Search for the Pk, ll>.--I ira',Mi 1 v Rio thus differen- tiate in manner OfUfe? nection to discuss briefly the question ivh}' it is that such radical differences "Why do savages existed among the primi- tive tribes of men in their methods of organizing themselves into societies. What were the causes of so great divergences in the earl}' life of man ? It would be in- ferred, a priori, that all semibarbarous peoples in their emergence from savagery diverse methods, the opposing manners and customs, and the contradictory in- stitutions of primitive mankind, were the work of caprice rather than of rea- son and order. A closer study of the problem, however, will doubtless show that in this also, as well as in all other elements of human history, law has been the dominant principle and reason the guiding light. 270 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKLYD. Doubtless the first great cause of the divergences noticeable in the begin- nings of civilization between the meth- ods of one tribe or family of men and those of another, is the varying influences First cause the of nature reacting upon reactions of na- ^j^^ human frame and fac- ture on humau faculties. ulties. The aspects and conditions of the external world are far removed from regularity. Every region has its own climate, its own aspect of earth and sky. As to the earth itself, its surface is variable in the last degree. The soil has different potencies. The water distribution passes through all grades from scarcity to abundance, from the blistering desert to the dripping humidity of rainy islands. The surface in some parts spreads out on a dead level of valley or plain, and anon rises into hill and cliiT and mountain. The running streams are eqi:ally irregular in their disposal. Some regions have the rivers as the basal fact in their consti- tution, while in others the range of highlands, the rocky ridge or snow peaks scattered at intervals, are the fundamen- tal condition of geography. Greater still is the variation of heat and cold, from the rigor of the hyperborean regions to the furnace of the tropics ; and, if possible, the differences in the electrical and magnetic forces that girdle the earth and impart a certain nervous tension to all animal existence are even more pronounced and remarkable. Under these varying circumstances of the external world the plants on its sur- ManespeciaUy facc and the living crea- rXS^flhe tures that subsist thereby natural world, fluctuate and change in their instincts and manner of life. Par- ticularly does that supreme animal called man fit by multifarious adjust- ments into his changeful environment. From his superior and more refined or- ganization he is especially susceptible to the influences of the external world. More than any beast of the field does he sway and bend and conform to the cli- matic exigencies under which he is placed. In him the sap of the world circulates almost as palpably and po- tently as in the plant that fixes its roots in the soil. In him every varying con- dition of the outer world is reflected; and in him the very tone and rhythm and pulsebeat of universal nature find a perpetual echo and response. These considerations are fully borne out by an actual examination of the prim- itive life of man in proc- au parts of civil- ess of development under ^^^^^^^ the varying conditions of conditions, nature. Indeed, no stage of human growth is exempt from the domination of the natural world. Every part and filament of the garb which civiliza- tion wears has taken its form and color and substance in large measure from the material elements and condi- tions under which it is woven. It can not be doubted that all the aspects of the life and endeavor of man have in them, when closely scrutinized, the out- line and semblance of physical condi- tions caught by reflection from the external forms and circumstances of his environment and home. So palpable and powerful have been these influences of the external world on the development and char- Theory of en-sri- acter of the human race that ^erstretcted many authors have been too far. disposed to make them the be-all and the end-all of the civilization of man. By such writers the theory of a physical basis for all things has been confldently adopted ; and it is urged, without doubt or hesitation, that even the highest and most spiritual faculties and moods of the human mind are resolvable by easy PRIMEVAL MAX.— DIVERS ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 271 process into elemental parts derivable from nature. Under this hj-pothesis man is regarded simply as a plant with powers of lo- comotion and consciousness. True, his feet do not strike into the soil. He has no local attachment to the ground out of which he has sprung; but like those vegetable anomalies which grow freely in the open air or water without the for- mality of roots and tendrils, so man, in to which it is applied. Nature has, in- deed, done much to give form and fashion to the various and divergent as- pects of human life ; but there are many differences existing in the methods em- ployed by primitive, and even by civilized, peoples which can not be so resolved and explained. Another general cause comes into the field of vision, and that is the influence of innate instincts and dispo- sitions in mankind, working in some in- VARIABILITY ILLUSTRATED IN MULTIPLE YOUNG OF SAME MOTHER.-Glinea Pigs this view of his genesis and nature, grows and develops into conscious life and powerful activity by the mere ab- sorption, from his free surroundings, of all his elemental juices, his fibers, and his faculties. But this view of the case is inadequate to the solution of the problem. The Ethnic instincts theory of a physical basis of also prevalent in „• ,;i: ,- ■ i forming man- Civilization IS by no means '^^^- to be rejected as a chi- mera. It is simply insufficient of itself to explain and elucidate the phenomena stances toward one end and in others to an opposite or diverse result. That such native and inherent differences do exist in human kind can not be doubted, and that the influence of the same has been largely potential in producing the va- rious aspects of early civilization is, it is believed, susceptible of the clearest proof. If we descend into the germinal con- ditions of the vegetable world we find that even the plants are, in virtue of their own nature, impressed with great 272 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. variations. The seeds taken from the same pod and planted in the same bed tinct and unmistakable evidences of di- vergence and individuality. If we go MIGRATORV BARBARISM— Camp of the Kergheez.— Drawn by Emile Bayaid. and nurtured under identical conditions exhibit in growth and development dis- forward one stage and begin an exami- nation of the phenomena of animal life, PRIMEVAL MAN— DIVERS ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 273 we find, the divergent principle still more active and emphatic. In the mul- Theia-wofvaria- tiple voung of the Same enTof'^n^ron- mother we have the varia- ™^''*- bility of nature illustrated in every element of organization. The color is different. Some are black, some are parti-colored, and some are white. procreative act, developed in the same matrix, and thrust into the world under identical conditions, are more than ap- proximately alike. Take, for instance, the pointers and setters in which the hunter finds so great delight. Never yet, perhaps, have two of these animals, under the strictest dis- ^i;:M^MMMl SEDENTARV BARBARISM.— House of Greenland E-iqiimai'. Similar variations, though perhaps less pronounced, will 'be discovered in form and function. One outgrows the other. One is of superior activity; one is hardier, and another has by nature a greater longevity. If we proceed to scrutinize the instincts and dispositions of the group the differences ai-e still more marked. In fact, no two of these living creatures, produced by the same cipline of the same master, been devel- oped into identity of method and char- acter. The law of animal Animal Ufenn- life in this respect is sus- .^^fshrs'"' ceptible of infinite illustra- divergences, tion. Every species of living creatures is still in a state and process of differen- tiation imder that primal law of evolu- tion which tends to individualize all forms of life ; and as we ascend in the 274 GREAT RACES OF JLIXA'/XD. scale of being the action of this law is constantly increased in vigor and inten- sity. In man the presence of the divergent and individualizing tendencv has been In man and cspeciallv powerful from XeTat^Tmvtr! the beginning. The primi- sity prevails. tivc raccs had each its spe- cial instinct and individual character. No two of them were moved by the same innate impulses or the same conscious purposes. The ends of tribal endeavor were as diverse as the methods employed to reach them. And it is the existence, radically, in the human family of this difference of instinct and motive that, combined with the powerful influence of the natural world reacting upon the sensitive faculties of man, has produced the striking and peculiar differences, oppositions, even antagonisms, which we discover in the primitive history of mankind. As an illustration of the working of these innate divergent tendencies in the Migratory habit human race, take the great ^I^'^r. fact of tribal migration. In s"'=^s- the primitive history of the world no other fact, perhaps, has so great prominence as has the migratory disposition exhibited by the early races ; • but the working of this instinct was exhibited by them only in part. That is, there were conservative tribes and radical tribes in the primeval world, the former of which gave no sign of the migratory impulse, while the latter were swayed thereby to the extent of having no other history than that of removal. A closer analysis will show that in the same tribe the migratory disposition would appear, seizing like an insupport- able passion upon some members of the clan and household, while others would be exempt from its influence. A division of sentiment would appear Themovingpas- among these unconscious t^^!:^, folk leading to a radical munity. difference of tribal action and policy. A break-i:p among the family would ensue, a part drifting away under the action of an instinct as natural and inevitable as that which drives the bee swarm from the parent colony to the distant forest. That is, in a given household some members, born under identical condi- tions with the rest, would feel the mov- ing passion and go, while the rest, un- swayed by any such instinctive motive, would remain in their native seats, unable even to appreciate the impulse and disposition which had separated their kinsmen from them. The Orient is to-da}', in some sense, a residuum of those peoples over whom the migratory passion was never dominant, while all Europe and America, even to the shore line of the Pacific, is, in a like sense, the result of a certain innate radicalism which has forced the moving races further and further onward, until at last it threatens to leap the greatest of the oceans and precipitate itself again upon the East. This division of mankind into a migratory and nonmigratory part must have been based, in its ultimate analysis, upon innate differences and unconscious, unreasoning impulses in those original tribes from which Asia and Europe have alike been peopled. Nor can it well be understood how the influence of the external world can adequately ac- count for the true genesis and primal workings of this migratory habit. PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 275 Chapter xvi.— The Cave Dwellers ok Europe. lONG before the incom- ing of the first Aryan peoples into Europe tribes and races of men were already diffused over the country. Nor is it possible for us, in the present state of knowledge, to pierce the bottom of these human strata and For the present, archaeological and ethnical inquiry has reached down only to this epoch when the aborigines of Western Europe were contemporaneous with certain extinct species of animals. It is here that we must begin our inquiry relative to the primitive life of man in those parts of the world with which we are most familiar. It is well to repeat IDEAL LAXriSCAlE OF THE AGE OE REPTILES —Drawn by Rioii find the actual beginnings of the life of man on the European continent. It is now clear that the first men roaming Contempo- about in a state of savagery raneityofman through the forCStS of and certain ex- » tinct animals. Denmark, of Germany, of France, and of Britain were contempo- raneous with several races of animals that were extinct before the beginnings of authentic history. that the period here referred to is an- terior to the time when the first Aryans the Celts, the Italic tribes, and the Teutones — made their first inroads into the West. It is only within the present century that our knowledge relative to primeval, man in Western Europe has taken a somewhat definite form. Such inquiry has been impeded by many prejudices 276 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and prepossessions of tlie human mind — many beliefs which arc no longer tenable tinder the lijjht of increas- Modern leaders . ° o^i i 1 of archaeological ing knowledge, i lie labors nquiry. ^^ several eminent archaeol- ogists and ethnologists, such as Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock in England, Messieurs Tournal and Christol in France, Dr. P. C. Schmerling in Ger- many, and Professors Steenstrup and Nilsson of Sweden, have brought the resources of their genius to bear upon the problem of the antiquity and prim- itive life of man, and have succeeded in reconstructing the primeval conditions of civilization. the cave dwellers of Western Europe flourished. If we examine the crust of the earth alwve those strata which con- stitute the so-called age of reptiles, we shall find the same to be divided into two great layers, the lower of which is called the Tertiary and the upper the Post-Tertiary Period. The post-tertiary period is itself composed of two strata, the lower of which is called the Post- Pliocene and the upper the Recent, which latter embraces, in general terms, what is popularly called the surface of the earth. These two periods, the tertiary and post-tertiary, cover the geologic age of mammals. The mammalia are Post-Tertiary . Tertiary Period. Recent Post-Pliocene [Epoch of the Cave Men] Newer Pliocene Older Pliocene Upper Miocene Lower Miocene Pliocene Miocene. Eocene { Upper Eocene \ Middle Eocene Cenozoic Time — Age of Mammals. I Lower Eocene DIAGRAM OF THE TERTIARY AND POST-TERTIARY PERIODS, SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL PLACE OF THE CAVE DWELLERS. In the present chapter it will be the aim to present the leading features of Place of the cave tribal life as the Same are mTnedbfg'er iUustrated in the story of logical data. t^e Cave Dwellers of West- ern Europe. There was, in prehistoric ages, in many parts of the western European states a race of men of a low grade of culture who chose the caverns which nature had hollowed out as their abodes, and within these dreary domiciles enacted the domestic drama of their lives. It is desirable to note the geological epoch, now well determined, in which conterminous with it, having first made their appearance in what is called the Lower Eocene and having a continu- ous existence through all the upper strata. Chronologically speaking, the period here referred to, beginning with the bottom of the tertiary and reach- ing to the present, is called Cenozoic time. The above diagram, drawn ac- cording to Sir Charles Lyell, will show the various relations of these strata and the place of the cave dwellers. It must be understood Avith reference to the above diagram that all existing species of mammals and man himself PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 277 belong to what is called the recent, or quaternary, epoch. There were, how- Man belongs to ever, several species of quaternary," g^cat animals formerly well epoch. known in Europe, whose existence as distinct varieties reached up from the pliocene period of the tertiary epoch into the post-pliocene era, and in that era ceased to exist. It appears that certain climatic changes took place in the extinct mammals above referred to that the demonstration of this early foiTn of existence on the earth has been made. The jaroof that man was con- temporaneous with several varieties of animal life no longer present in the countries where it formerly flourished, is clear and irrefragable, and it only re- mains in the following pages to deter- mine as much as we may of the primi- lUEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.— Drawn by Riou. Europe, rendering the country untenable to these forms of life. Now it is in this post-pliocene epoch that the cave dwellers had their career. It was at the time when Extinct mam- mals coVnhabil ants with man in mais coVnhabit- the species of animals just Europe. mentioned were still prev- alent in the west of Europe that the cave man had his abode there. He was their companion and fellow of the woods and caverns ; and it is by the commin- gling of the debris and ruins of his sav- age life with the relics and vestiges of [ five condition in which the cave man held his barbarous fortunes. The savage races of men, on their way from the low condition in which they are still found in absolute savages pass barbarity to civilized peo- :^:2:fl:<,ttT' pies, pass through four civiuzation. epochs of development. These are de- termined by archaeologists chiefly by the character of the implements and utensils which are fabricated by primi- tive peoples in the different stages of their progress. It had been found that 278 GREAT RACES OF 3IAXKLXD. this progress is uniform in all parts of the world, and that when barbarians are discovered in a given stage of growth the next stage may always be inferred b}'^ the general law which governs the evolution. This movement forward proceeds from a grade of life but little above mere animality, and ends with the emergence of the tribe into full his- torical activity. The various materials which the races certain varieties of rock formation, and by simple modifications, or even, at the first, by no modification at all, converts them into implements. The materials first chosen are gener- ally flint and obsidian, and the primitive stage of workmanship consists in merely breaking the substance into shape. It is this fact of breakage into form, as dis- tinguished from other methods of fabri- cation, that marks the very first stage of IDEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD (AGE OF MAN).— Drawn by Riou. of men have employed in the fabrication of tools and utensils are principally stone, Materials em- WOod, boue, hom, COppCr, E'stmak- bronze, and iron-in the ing implements, order named. Among civ- ilized peoples the latter metal is refined into different forms of wrought iron, cast iron, and finally the various grades of steel. The primitive man, however, begins with stone. He takes from the ground, by a sort of natural selection. man's development as a tool-making animal. Perhaps in no quarter of the world has a .savage tribe emerged from barbarism wnthout employing this very obvious method of producing imple- ments. It is claimed by the most em- inent naturalists that man, even in the most rudimentary stages of his ev- olution, has been a tool-making and tool-using animal, and that he is dis- criminated by this fact — strongly dis- '^ ■■" '' ■■' ' " ' ' '— y ^ fT s- L IMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS USED BY PRIMEVAL MAN, IN THE ORDER OF THE MATERIALS EMPLOYEI>. I, 2, Stone and wooden weapons of New Caledonians ; 3, bone skewers ; 4, harpoon of slag's horn ; 5. copper celt ; 6, carpen. ter's bronze chisel ; 7, bronze dagger with iron handle ; 8, iron ornaments of Africans. 280 GREAT RACES OF JLIXKLXD. criminated — from the highest grades of living beings below him. No animal except man has been known to make or to use a tool. That is, the conscious design of doing so has never been ob- served in the most supe- rior specimens of the lower grades of animal intelligence The monkey, the Man the tool- making and club-thro^iring animal. this accidental and instinctive employ- ment of clubs and missiles and the con- scious fabrication of a tool lies a great gap in intelligence — the gap between the instinct of the inferior and the con- scious reason of the superior creature. Man, then, begins his career as an artisan by the making of tools and im- plements from the flinty forms of rock. MANUFACTURE OF FLINT IMPLEMENTS BY PREHISTORIC MAX.— Drawn by F.mile Bayard. ape, the ourang, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee are all in some sense club- using and club-throwing animals. They grip and swing missiles with obvious design to a certain end ; but in doing so they merely seize what accident has placed within their reach, and there is no single instance recorded in which an animal has been known to adapt a stick or stone to any intended use. Between He soon discovers that this substance, by a little skill, may be broken into forms approximatelyadapt- Artisanship be- ed to his wants. Prog- ei»J with the & making of tools ress begins — progress in and weapons, the selection of materials and progress in the methods of forming his utensils. But for a long period breakage is the general method which he employs, and this fact of fracture in the fabrication of PRIMEVAL MAN— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 281 tools is the essential feature by which the first stage of human development is characterized. This first epoch is called the old Old stone age stone age, or, if we em- marks first stage j ^j^ scientific term m human devel- r J opment. given thereto by natural- ists, the palaeolithic age — a term derived from the Greek roots sig- nifying the same thing. It is impossible to determine for how long a period a savage tribe will remain in this primitive stage of ev- olution. Doubtless the palaeolithic era of devel- opment is never precisely the same in time in the case of any two barbarous tribes, but the process is the same. The time re- mains indeterminate. Another fact of great im- portance to be noted is that this primeval epoch of human growth has ap- peared at different times, in different quarters of the earth, as already said. It is highly likelj' — almost certain — that all existing peoples have, in their rudi- mentary condition, passed through the old stone age as the first phase of their growth into a national life ; but at what era this oc- curred in the case of any given family of men it is impossible to determine. The chronology of such a development Chronology of Can uot be ascertained or ^po'Sdeter. adjusted. In One quarter of minabie. the earth a savage tribe will be found at the present day in the palaeolithic state of growth. In another M. — Vol. I — [9 quarter this epoch of emergence from barbarism has been passed a century, even several centuries ago, and in others we must look back through many ages if we would discover even the hint of such a stage of evolution. This is to say that the development of savage life is never synchronous among the different PAL.EoLUHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS, FROM HOXNE. races, but that such development is as various in time as it is in place. The process has been going on for many thousands of years and is still going on, under our own authentic observation, in many parts of the unreclaimed conti- nents and barbarous islands of the seas. While this want of contemporaneity is 282 GREAT RACES OF JElXAVXn. an embarrassment in the construction of I forward from one stage of his develop, tribal history, it is a great advantage in ment to another. In the South Sea the actual comprehension of the methods I islands the natives have been watched in the act of con- st r u c t i n g old stone imple- ments, and the process, withal, is very different from what might have been sup- posed. The savage takes a small block of flint between his naked feet and, pressing it into a certain position w i t h his toes, drops upon i t endwise a long pestle of wood in such way as to spall off a splinter from the side. The stroke is re- peated, and another spall, or " flake ," s o called, is thrown off; and so on until, by careful chipping, the arrowhead or spearpoint or whatever it is is broken into shape. Doubt- less this simple process has been practiced, w i t h slight modifica- tions of method, by all the Habits of pHme- . •, c 4.1 11 val man discov- Savage tribes of the WOlld, erable in his ma- PRIMEVAL MAN — CHASE IN THE REINDEER PERIOD. Drawn by Emile Bayard. of the primitive man. We are able to- day to scrutinize these methods and to observe and note the actual processes by which the tool-making animal goes terials and art3. and douljtless the same manner of fabrication will continue until. PRIMEVAL MAN—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 283 by the spread of civilization, this primi- tive stage of humanity shall disappear from the earth. The palseolithie, or old stone, age at length gives place to a higher form of manufacture — a more elegant and useful Neolithic work- method of makirig utensils r/conSge^of and weapons. The primi- the evolution. ^iyg man, in course of time, discovers that by attrition or rubbing he can reduce his tools to a more elegant and satisfactory pattern. The forms which he has hitherto attained by the proc- ess of breakage and chip- ping have been only approx- imate to the ideal forms which he has had in mind. In the second stage of his development he labors to reach a correct outline by reducing the substance on which he is working into proper form by rubbing or grinding against some other material. The time rela- tions of this discovery also are unknown ; but that such a transformation from the rough or broken stone im- plements of primeval man to the smooth tools and uten- sils of his secondary stage of development does exist — has existed in the case of every tribe — is clearly demonstrable. Every museum, or even small private collection, of ancient stone workmanship gathered from the valleys of the European rivers, from the peat bogs of Denmark, or turned up by the plow in the open fields of North America, will show unmistakable evidences of the change which has everywhere taken place from the age of broken or chipped- off fabrication to the age of smoothed or polished manufacture. To this second epoch of implement- making archaeologists have given the name of the new stone, ,.^, . _,, Relation of the or neolithic, age. That stone epochs to it follows the older and "=^^ ^ geology. ruder era is clearly proved, but its dura- tion, as in the case of the preceding epoch of broken stonework, can never be more than approximately determined. The relative place of the neolithic era in the evolution of the civilized forms of life is as well known as that the age of mammals succeeds the age of reptiles in the geological his- tory of the earth. Indeed, all of the stages of human evolution which we are here considering have a striking likeness and anal- ogy to the successive eras in the Stone axes, Ireland. Stone celt with handle. EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC WORKMANSHIP. geological formation of our globe. The one is as fixed and certain in its laws of succession as the other, and we should no more expect to find a deviation from the orderly progress by which the savage man proceeded from the old stone to the new stone and from the new stone to the subsequent ages of his develop- ment than we should expect to find the coal measures of the carboniferous age on top of the chalk beds of the age of reptiles. There are many extraneous proofs, 284 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. moreover, that the half-barbaroiis peo- ples of the world, after passing into Complex devei- the neolithic age, have, in de^t witwt other respects than that of stone age. implement-making, entered into a wider and more complex develop- ment. It is not only in the making of tools that the savage man on his way to larger and more rational activities dis- Since most of the metals of the earth exist in the form of ores, which hide their actual contents from Great span be- the unskilled eye of barba- ^ro^aXge rism,ithashappenedamong ofmetais. all the primitive races that the discovery and manufacture of stone implements has preceded by many long stages the production of metallic forms. In the PRIMEVAL MAN. — Founders of the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. plays his increasing skill. All the ele- ments of his progress are correlated and, in some sense, kept even with his rate of growth in the mere matter of manufac- turing his wares and weapons. His ex- pansion is in all directions, and it is easy to discover by evidences deduced from other sources the general course which he is pursuing toward the civilized con- ditions of life. cases of silver and gold, which exist na- tive in the earth — or at least the gold — they have never been found in sufficient quantities to justify the primitive man in the attempt to make implements therefrom. These, from the rarity of their distribution, have been precious metals from the first. They were so to all the savage races who first posses.sed the earth, and have continued so, even PRIMEVAL MAX.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 285 in the powerful civilization and activities of the present. Among' other metals copper, and even tin, also existed in the native form, and it is to these substances that the faculties and interest of the primeval man were directed when he came to the point of emergence from the neolithic age. He had now wrought, as much as might well be done, from the faculties might find a freer exercise. This other substance, as the primitive historj- of man has now demonstrated, was copper — copper first, and then tin, or, more particularly, a mixture of the two, called bronze. Nothing is known of the original dis- covery which seems to have been made in many quarters of the earth, of the -MANNER- OK PREHISTORIC PEORLES.— Feast in the Age of Bkonze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. stone materials under his hand by the processes of breakage and polishing. It is evident on reflection that mere stone, such as flint or sandstone, will only bear a certain amount of artisanship. Whoever would attempt to go beyond the natural limits existing in the nature of these materials would come to an im- passable barrier. He must turn, per- force, to some other substance upon which, in virtue of its own nature, his great advantage to be gained by com- mingling a certain percentage (about one tenths of tin with na- Art of com- five copper. Such a dis- |°rcSof' covery, however, is very the bronze age. certain as a fact and very remote in its date. It is now known that the material of the weaponry of the Trojan warriors, called chalchys in the Homeric poems and tradition, was bronze and not iron, and the old word as of the primitive 286 GREAT RACES OE JELVA'LVD. Latin race signified the same thing. At any rate, the succession of an age of bronze to the neolithic age is a fact well established in archaeology. The barbarous and now warlike peoples of the prehistoric world made the great dis- covery of a hard and tenacious metallic compound, out of which they could manu- facture at will substantial, effective, and even beautiful implements so greatly superior to those which they had hith- erto employed as to constitute an epoch in their civilization. This discovery of bronze was accompanied with many advances in the life and manners of the people. New customs were intro- duced ; the family was better organized, and we contemplate the beginnings of a rude society. So the third stage of the human evolution which we are here considering Avas that in which the half- barbarous peoples of the primitive world passed out of the new stone age into the age of bronze. The inquiry naturally arises in this connection why it is that in nearly all parts of the earth the barbarous peoples seem to have passed direct- No intervening .... ages of copper ly from the neolithic into the bronze-making age of development. Why was it — why is it — that the primitive peoples did not pass through a clearly defined age of copper or an age of tin? Why should the great leap have been made from so primitive form of life as that exhibited in the new stone age into the com- paratively complex and highly devel- oped activities of the age of bronze? Bronze is a composite metal. We see from the perfect composition which we find in the implements which have come to us from the age of its early manufac- ture that the ancients understood per- fectly the percentage of the different metals, and this knowledge would pre- suppose a long series of trials and ex- periments. True it is that in some quarters of the world, particularly in the peat measures of Denmark and along the shores of the great lakes in North America, many copper implements have been discovered. But these finds have been so irregular as rather to disprove than to establish the existence of an age of copper. It would seem that the primitive man has only produced tools and utensils of copper when he could not procure the necessar}^ tin to make the compound. In general, the fact re- mains, archseologically and historically, that in nearly all parts of the habitable globe the various races have leaped at one stride from the making of smooth stone implements to the manufacture and use of bronze. What theory may be advanced to account for this remark- able fact in the prehistoric development of mankind ? It has been suggested in answer, and with much show of probability, that the introduction of metals for Reasons why tools and weapons is co- '^i:i:°:^^r' incident in tribal develop- age of stone, ment with the beginning of the age of aggression and conquest. This is to say that when men have once discov- ered and used the metals they are at that stage of tribal life in which the lust of war and conquest begins to be felt as a dominant passion. As a result of this, when the discovery of bronze has once been made, and a knowledge diffused of its great superiority over either of the component metals of which it is consti- tuted, a bronze-bearing soldiery would at once spring into existence. Owing to the higher development and aggres- sive instincts of this soldiery, conquest in foreign parts would very soon ensue, and with this conquest would be carried into distant regions a knowledge of PRIMEVAL MAX.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 287 bronze and of the method of its manu- facture. This rational, even probable, explanation has been offered for the im- mediate succession of the bronze age to the age of stone. Tribes and races still engaged in the fabrication and use of flint implements and weapons would be at so great disadvantage in compari- glimpses of the actual historical move- ments of men. The heroic conflicts which we see in the far Historical con- horizon, the sack and pil- sc'o^sness be- ■r gins -with the lage of Troy, the early and ^e of bronze, shadowy movements of mankind in Asia Minor, in Hellas, and in Italy, bring us, at least in tradition, into the Egj'ptian knife. Bracelets, Switzerland. Bronze hairpins, Switzerland. EXAMPLES OF BRONZE WORKMANSHIP. \ \ Copper spearhead. Son with a bronze-bearing nation as to be easily overrun, and with this conquest the knowledge and practice of bronze manufacture would immediately follow. However this may be, the age of bronze has everywhere succeeded the neolithic age in the development of civilization. It is in this age that we generally catch the first authentic age of bronze, and it is safe to regard this epoch in the evolution of man as the substratum of authentic history. After a long period in bronze-making and bronze-using, the pre- „, ^ ^ The age of iron historic tribes, or perhaps succeeds the , , -, .. epoch of bronze. we should now say nations, pass into the age of iron. Iron, except in the fomi of meteorites, does not exist 288 GREAT RACES OE .-\rAXKTXD. in the native state. For this reason its discovery as a metal happens late in the history of man. The extraction of iron from the ore is, moreover, exceedingly difficult even \vith the powerful appli- Sweden, EXAMPLES OF IRON WORKMANSHIP. ances of modern metallurgy\ The man of antiquity was unable to produce the requisite heat, and even had he been master of an adequate temperature he could not have conjectured by a priori reasoning that such a substance as metallic iron might be expected to issue from the rust-colored stone constituting the ore. Doubtless the discovery was accidental. Indeed, traditions exist to this effect. It has been handed down that a European Evolution of discovery of ironwork in pri- 1 ., meval Europe. iron by smelt- ing occurred in Bohemia within the historical period. However this ma}^ be, we have unmistakable proofs that somewhere in the early dawn of the Grseco- Italic development in Southern Europe the discovery of the process of extracting iron was made and the fab- rication of implements therefrom begun. The Greeks, at least of the post- Homeric epoch, had a soldiery bearing iron weap- ons, and it appears that the Romans from the first faint limnings of tradition armed themselves, for both offense and defense, with the same heavy and enduring metal. In short, the age of iron is, roughly speaking, the age of authentic history. Though the ancient Egj'p tians were unacquainted with iron, and thoug-h the extent of its use among the Assyrians and Babylonians has not been clearly deter- mined, the fact remains that in general terms the manufacture of iron implements has been a circumstance co- incident with the historic development of our race. We are now and have been for some three thousand years in the age of iron, and it would seem that we are PRIMEVAL MAN— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 289 destined to continue in the same epoch until by a new evolution we shall pass into the age of aluminum. This somewhat extended digressive study of, the four principal erasof devel- CavedweUers opment through which the «ve^fthe^Snro- ^aces of men have passed pean races. J] j^g been made necessar}' in order to a clear understanding of the true place of the cave dwellers of West- em Europe. They were men of the old stone age. Their implements were all palaeolithic. They flourished, or at least lived, in an age before the art of grinding and polishing utensils of stone had been discovered. This is to say that they present the most primitive type of mankind with which we are acquainted. Xor is it likely that ethnologists and an- tiquarians will ever be able to deduce from the prehis- toric shadows a form of human life more nearly allied to the life of the lower animals than is that which we are now to ex- amine. The story of the investi- gation of the cave dwell- ings in Europe is full of interest. The Interest of the Care and zeal with which ^irifcaer' the work has been carried ^™^- forward will always elicit praise from those who are concerned to know the true story of the human race on the earth. As early as 1825 the at- tention of antiquaries began to be called to the fact of the mixed remains of men and animals in various caverns which had been explored for other than scientific purposes. It was not, however, until 1833 that the distinguished antiquary, upon the consideration of scholars the unmistakable lessons which the caves had revealed to him and his colaborers. The caverns in question exist in many parts of the Continent and of England. They abound in Southern France and along the borders of Belgium. They are dark grottoes in limestone rock, and seem in nearly all cases to have been selected by the cave men because of the narrowness and defensibility of the openings. In many instances the mouths Character of the caves inhabited by primeval man. Dr. P. C. Schmerling, of Belgium, forced MAN CAVERN IN" GALEINREUTH, BAVARIA. of the caverns have been found closed by the very stones which the rough inhab- itants rolled and pushed into place as a barrier against their enemies. The floors are generally on a lower level than the openings, which fact has led to the accumulation of thick layers of mud and debris on the bottom. Over this collec- tion of earth}'' materials, mixed as they are with the relics of the human and non- human occupants in former ages, is nearly always spread a layer of that calcareous substance called stalagmite, deposited there in the course of centuries 290 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. by the lime-saturated exudations from the roof of the cavern. This stalagmitic floor, holding- its secrets underneath, is generally quite hard, and is in many cases two or three feet in thickness. The cavern here described is typical, but is subject in different localities to con- siderable modifications in its character and details. It was such a cave dwelling as this, called the Cavern of Engis, that Dr. Schmerling entered and explored in 1 8 32 . Exploration of It was situated near Liege, the Engis cavern ^^ ^j^g junction of the by Dr. Scnraer- ." liig- ^leuse and the Ourthe, in Belgium. The story of the exploration is as heroic as the results were novel and instructive. vSchmerling had to be let down into the cavern by a rope tied to a tree outside. He was obliged to slide in order to gain an entrance. Within it was as dark as night. The explorer had to creep from one apartment to an- other through contracted and dangerous passages. Into these spectral vaults he introduced his workmen. Some held torches while the others worked. The floor of stalagmite was as hard as marble. The philosopher was obliged to stand hour after hour with his feet in the mud while the cold exudations from the roof of the cavern dripped on his head. Finally the stalagmitic crust Avas broken up and the materials underneath brought to exposure. Everything was done un- der Schmerling's personal direction, so that no false statement or unfact of any kind should mix with the results. The results were marvelous. Human skulls and indeed Avhole skeletons were Carefulness of found ill the clay and muck Iwfduc- under the floor of stalag- mite. And to make the discovery more astounding, the bones of several species of extinct animals were found intermingled with those of men ! the investiga- tion tions. It was noted, moreover, and established to a demonstration that the human parts and the animal parts were in such jux- taposition and relation as to prove the coincident lodgment and preserv'ation of the remains. Every fact tending to throw light on the discovery was care- fully recorded by vSchmerling, and in the following year he piiblished a trea- tise announcing as a scientific truth the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth in Western Europe. A second digression is here desirable, relating in this instance to some changes which have taken place in significance of the fauna of the continent '■^::::r^::T^,. since the close of the plio- an climate. cene era of geology. It appears that certain transformations have occurred in the climate of Europe which have made the country untenable to several species of animals formerly prevalent therein. About seventeen varieties of mammals have disappeared since the old stone age. These embrace several species of heavy pachyderms and quite a number of smaller animals, nearly all of which have their habitat either in the tropics or in regions much more tropical than any part of Europe. That these species for- merly abounded on the continent is clearly demonstrable. That they could not possibly exist under present climatic conditions is also tnie ; from which it seems clearly established that a great change toward frigid conditions has taken place in the European countries. This change, doubtless, is the very fact Avhich has caused the extinction of the animals referred to and the perpetuation of the varieties now existing.' 'The theory of the existence of a tropical condi- tion in the northern hemisphere in the age preced- ing the last glacial epoch of our planet may now be considered as a demonstrated scientific truth. See the discussion of the subject, p. ante 57. PRIMEVAL MAX.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 291 Tlie seventeen species of mammalia which have thus been extinguished by the \'icissitude of cHmate are as follows : Species of ex- The cave bear; a second as'^olfa't^^^th '^■ariety called I 'rsiis prisms, ^^'°- or the ancient bear; the cave hyena ; the cave lion ; the mam- moth ; another species of the genus Elcphas, called the old elephant; the haiiy rhinoceros; two other species of rhinoceros ; the hippopotamus ; the musk ox; the Irish elk; the wild horse; the g-lutton; the reindeer; the aurochs, or European bison ; and the urus, or primi- tive ox. It is thought by naturalists that some of the species hei^e enumer- ated have perpetuated themselves in de- flected varieties of the original until the present, but the rest are manifestly and indubitably extinct. Yet all of these ani- mals were prevalent in the old stone age, and it is the testimony of the cave dwell- ing' that man was their contemporary and competitor for occupancy. Dr. vSchmerling continued his investi- gations in other limestone caverns and Evidence cumu- "with the .Same general re- \^::^::r^^lf s^lts. in at least four or , primeval man. fi^g of the cavcs near Liege he found unmistakable proofs that they had been used for dwellings in the pre- historic ages. Evidences of the manner of life of the primitive barbarians of "Western Europe accumulated, and fact was added to fact in illustration of the conditions under which man contended with the laws of his environment before the iirst peoples of the Aryan race had found a footing in the countries this side of the Danube and the Rhine. Before proceeding to note the partic- ular contents of the various European cave dwellings, and to elucidate their significance, it will be proper to enu- merate some of the principal caverns which have been explored. The Bel- gian government finally undertook the work begun by Schmerling, and in 1867 sent out a party of scien- sketch of the lists under direction of the ™ost important cave dwellings naturalist, Dupont, to car- of Europe. ry forward the investigation. Several other caves like that of Engis were ex- amined in the same region and the con- tents transmitted to museums. The cavern of Chaleux yielded in addition to its animal relics a vast number of imple- ments, all belonging to the old stone age. That of Furfooz was almost equally rich in prehistoric materials. The cave called Frou du Frontal con- tained parts of thirteen skeletons. The opening of this vault was still closed with the block of sfone which the cave men had used to barricade the entrance. The grotto of Aurignac, in the south of France, yielded seventeen prehistoric skeletons, but these were unfortunately lost through the ignorance of the mayor of the city. In the department of Dor- dogne, in Southwestern France, a number of cave dwellings have been explored with results confirmator}- of those attained elsewhere ; and in con- nection with these caverns the addi- tional interesting fact was noted that artificial chambers connected with the natural vaults in the limestone had been excavated and used by the primitive oc- cupants. In 1858 the philosopher, Schaaf- hausen, gave to the public an account of the discoveries recently made in the limestone cavern of Neanderthal, be- tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, includ- ing a description of one of the most re- markable prehistoi'ic skulls which schol- ars have had the fortune to examine. Turning to England, one of the most important of the caverns Exploration of formerly inhabited by men the man caverns T^ . , of England. as Kent s is that known Hole, near Torqua}-, in Devonshire. 292 GREAT RACFS OF .UAXKLYD. This was first explored by the scholar, MacEnery, in the year 1825. No publislied account of the resiilts, how- (.Kull" AMj KUCK shelter of BRUNIQUEI. — AN Al Drawn by Riou. ever, was made until 1859, when the relics were classified by Mr. Vivian. In 1862, a remarkable hyena den called Wokey Hole, near Wells, was explored and described by William Boyd Dawkins. Meanwhile the naturalist, Goodwin- Austen, had reexamined the cav'ern of ^ Kent's Hole, and ■_;iven the results in a memoir to t he Geological So- ■ iuty. In 1858 I )r. Falconer in- I'lirmed the saiue learned body of t h e intere.sting iliscoveries made : )}■ himself in a ;ive dwelling at lirixham, also in Devonshire ; and afterward a Pro- f e s s o r Ramsay explored the grotto and veri- fied the former ' 1 inclusions r e - s[iecting its con- tents. Explorations \ere next carried into distant parts. In the grotto of Maccagnone, in Sicily, Dr. Fal- coner made dis- coveries in the s;ime general line with those already recorded. .The jieculiarity in this instance was that many of the relics of men and animals were found aggluti- nated to the top, or roof. Peculiar finds in of the cavern, where they the grotto of 1 J . 1 - 111 Maccagnone. had seemingly been held in place by the action of water tintil HE OV I'KIMIA'AI. MAS. PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 293 cave life drawn, from three sources. the precipitation of lime had cemented them to the ceiling ! .Some interesting- caves have been explored at Gibraltar with results similar to those enumerated above. It is thus that antiquaries and scholars have become acquainted with the condi- niustrations of tions Under which the cave dwellers of the prehistoric age passed their existence. It will be seen at a glance that the illus- trations of the life of these primitive barbarians are drawn first from the char- acter of the human remains themselves ; secondly, from our knowledge of the animals with the bones of which the human relics are found interminorjed : and thirdly, from the character of the implements and utensils which the cave men left with their own skeletons in the clay beds of the caverns. — Let us look then, first, at the remains of the cave men themselves and compare these human relics of a prehistoric epoch and people with the like parts of existing races. One of the most interesting skulls which has come to us from the time of Characteristics the cave dwellers is that :?theTng:s°"' fo^^d b)" Dr. Schmerling ^^^'^- in the limestone cavern of Engis. A cast of this skull has been made and duplicates distributed to the leading museums of the world, and the most skillful naturalists have passed upon its character. On the whole, it is of smaller capacity and less symmetrical development than the average cranium of the civilized man of to-day. It is narrower in the forehead, and gives evi- dent indications of weakness in other respects. But still it is of better capacity and much less forbidding than might be expected in a case of a prehistoric inhab- itant of a cavern. The skull plate is not especially thick, and that part which is supposed to indicate animality is not more protuberant than in the case of many skulls of existing races. Professor Huxley has candidly remarked that ' ' It is a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher. '^'' " ■ ■■ ''^'■■^'■■j^-:Sz i'"i.il. tiir '■^■-'^''/■^.•.-'-■■?^fe THE EN'GIS SKILU or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage." Very different from this, however, is the skull described b}- Schaafhausen, which was taken from the cave of Nean- derthal, near Diisseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia. The latter is so exceedingly 294 GREAT RACES OF MAXKrXD. gross in its form and structure as to suggest, almost with the force of demon- stration, a type of life but little above ity indicated by the Neanderthal skull. barons, has a skull at all comparable with the Neanderthal in its small ca- pacity, outward-slopingocciput, and great thickness peculiar animal- o f bone The a c companying cut of an authentic cast will suf- ficiently illustrate the character of the skull under consideration. It is not needed in this connection to enter into details respecting the character of the other parts of the hu- man skeletons which have been found in the cave dwellings of Eu- rope. It is sufficient to note the fact that in general these remains depart somewhat from the highly developed and symmetri- other features c'al forms f. 'J!! !^!'r°"' 01 the cave O f living d-weUers. types of men, and verge off unmistakably in some particulars toward the forms of the lower ani- mals. The ai-ms, for instance, of the cave men were longer than tho.se of existing races. The hands also shared the elongation of the humerus and ulna, and appear to have had less of that lateral flexibility which distinguishes the human hand from the that of the beasts of the field. The i fore paw of the chimpanzee. The animal THE NEANDERTIIAI, SKULL. skull is almost as flat and thick and re- ceeding as that of a gorilla. No man of any existing race, even the most bar- quality is again illustrated in the size and shape of the under jaws of the cave men. There is in this respect a con.sid- PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 296 erable departure from the square, light, and symmetrical lower jaw of existing 1 races. The teeth also of the cave dweller were, as a rule, larger and more , canine than the human teeth of the pres- ent. The shape and armature of the mouth were more distinctly carnivorous than could be found in the case of any living species of men, and the bones of the body were, as a rule, stronger and redder and armed with higher processes for the attachment of muscles than we find in skeletons of the historical period. On the whole, the indications derived from the bones of the cave dwellers point convincingly to a type and man- ner of life considerabh' more approx- imated to the mere animal existence of the creatures with which these prim- itive savages contended than to the highly organized bodies and refined characteristics of living men. Something has already been said of the character and place of the animals Extinct animals with which the prehistoric associated with ^^.^g associated in man ; the cave bear. Western Europe. It is now no longer doubted that he was a com- panion of the mammoth and the hairy rhinoceros at a time when these huge pachyderms still prevailed in the coun- try. Of all the animal remains with which the bones and implements of man are associated in the cave dwellings the most numerous are those of the cave bear. Perhaps not a single cavern in which the relics of human life have been found has been explored without the discovery of the bones of this extinct animal. He seems to have roamed ev- erywhere in the west of Europe, and to have had a special liking for those lime- stone vaults which the cave men chose for their dwellings. The bones of this Ursus spclceus, or cave bear, indicate that the possessor was sometimes killed and eaten by the cave men, who dropped the inedible parts on the cavern floor. But in other instances the bear seems to have died a natural death in the cavern which had been inhabited in the same period by men.' The second of the extinct animals with which the cave man was most as- sociated was the cave hyena. Cave hyena and The bones of this crea- cave uon; their T -.1 ^1 e distribution. ture, mixed with those or man and with palaeolithic implements, are plentifully distributed in the caverns which have been above described. The animal in question did not differ very greatly from the spotted hyena of Africa and Asia, and his habits, doubtless, were of the same kind as those of his prototypes. HEAD OF CAVE BEAK. The cave lion, scientifically called Fclis spclaa, is the third of the animals which were associated with the prehis- toric man. This beast was much larger and stronger than modern lions, if we I except the great beasts of Africa. The i ancient animal was even more strongly ' discriminated from the tiger than is any existing variety of lion. The primitive bea.st roamed freely in France, in Ger- ' It is almost certain that the cave hear of the old stone age was the progenitor of the common brown bear of Europe and .America. The skeleton of Ursus spelaus is somewhat larger and stronger than the bone-frame of his descendants, and his jaws and teeth had specific characteristics marking him as a different, or at least more primitive, type of animal ; but in other respects the naturalist finds little to dis- criminate the ursus of the cavern from his modem representatives — little except the size. 296 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. many, in Italy, and in vSicily, and his re- mains have been known and classified since the seventeenth century. It is thought that the bones of the same ani- mal have been found at Natchez, on the Mississippi, a fact which would seem to indicate a very wide distribution of this creature. Other varieties of the genus Felis also existed in the epoch of the cave dwellers, and their remains are found associated with those of men. Reference has already been made to the contemporaneous existence of man Great pachy- and the mammoth. Tliis derms; restora- creature sccms to have been tion of Elephas primigenius. distributed over the whole of North America and the continent of Europe from Land's End to Siberia. SKETCH OF CAVE BEAR, DRAWN ON A STONE FOUND IN XHli CAVE OF MASSET. From the north the mammoth crossed the Alps, and his remains are found as far south as Rome. But no traces of this pachyderm have been found south of the Pyrenees or in the Mediterranean islands. As a rule, and for very obvious reasons, the bones of the mammoth are infrequently found in the cave dwellings of Western Europe. As already noted, the entrance to these abodes were gen- erally too narrow to admit so huge a beast; but there are instances in which the bones of man and the relics of the mammoth have been washed by water into a contemporaneous deposit in the bottom of caverns. In other localities the skeletons of the mammoth or parts thereof have been found in close and frequent association with the skeletons of prehistoric men, and in such localities the age of the deposit can nearly always be determined by the presence of old stone implements. No fact in natural history seems to be better established than the coexistence of man and this so-called Elcplias priuiigeniiis in most of the Eurojiean countries. The story of the discovery of the hairy mammoth im- bedded in a mass of frozen soil in Siberia is well known. At the beginning of the century this remarkable find was brouQ-ht to the knowledge of scientific men, and a portion of the animal re* covered from the dogs and wild beasts to which it had been abandoned. The mammoth was a huge pachyderm of the elephant order, with a dark colored skin, covered with reddish wool, mixed with long black bristles stronger and coarser than horsehair. A restoration, from strictly scientific data, of this great beast of primeval Europe has been effected by Professor Henry A. Ward, of the United States, and doubtless the monstrous effigy thus produced fitly represents the animal as he Avas in the days of the cave men of Western Europe. The bones of the hairy rhinoceros are fotind in the caverns in juxtaposition with those of men. But other animal like those of the mammoth, Zt^^^t the locality best suited ^^'^• to such association of human and non- human relics are the drift formations and gravel beds of the open country. The remains of the musk ox, or more properly the musk sheep, now limited in its habitat to arctic America and Si- beria, are also found in union with the relics of the prehistoric inhabitants of the Continent, and even of England. Bones of this animal have been discovered PRIMEVAL MAN.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 297 In Kent, on the banks of the Severn, and in the gravel beds of Avon. The hippopotamus also, that is, an extinct variety of the species, prevails within the human epoch, and the relics of this animal are associated with those of the cave dwellers. In at least four caverns in England bones of the ancient hippopotamus have been found. The caves of Durdham Down, Kirkdale, Kent's Hole, and Raven's Clifif, in Gower, have all yielded specimens of this ex- tinct beast of the post-pliocene era. The reindeer was also contemporary with the jjrehistoric tribes in the west of The reindeer a Europe. He former inhabit- bglono-pd to ant of Central uciuugeu LU Europe. the age of bronze. At the present this animal ranges far to the north, being wellnigh limited in his habitat to Siberia and Lapland. In America also he beats far up to the arctic regions, but in the central parts of our continent the caribou is thought to be an in- flected variety of this same species of rangerine stag that has left his remains with those of primeval man in France and England. In the cav- erns of Wales more than a thousand horns of the reindeer have been discov- ered, and traces of his existence are everywhere abundant as far south as the Alps and the Pyrenees. Of the extinct animals that have flourished since the ap- pearance of 7nan only the mammoth and the hairy rhinoceros seem to have been older species than the reindeer. The latter appears to have had great endur- ance, and as late as the time of the com- position of Caesar's Gallic TFirr the animal still roamed in the Hercynian forest — at M. — Vol. I — 20 least such was the information brought to Caesar. The primitive man captured the reindeer, feasted on his flesh, took his horns for implements, and his hide for a cloak ; but the animal was not domesti- cated in prehistoric times. More noted still as a contemporary of the cave dwellers was the great stag called the Irish elk. This Size and charac- was, perhaps, the most mag- teristics of the nificent animal of all that we are here considering. He grew to a stature of more than ten feet, and an existing pair of his antlers measures eleven feet from point to point! These MAMMOTH, RESTORED. tremendous horns were palmated like those of the American moose, and the huge creature dashing about the Irish peat bogs or through the oak woods of Britain must have been terrible, even sublime, in aspect. His remains are frequently found in the peat measures of Ireland and on the Continent, but still more abundantly in the lacustrine shell marl underlying the bog earth of the marsh lands. Next in order of these prehistoric animals is the glutton, called in Amer- ica the wolverene. He appears to have been a contemporary of the creatures 298 GREAT RACES OF MAXKFXD. aDove enumerated, and in many places to have had a particular association with man. But more impor- The prehistoric ... bison of Europe tant by far in such associ- and America. ^^^.^^^ ^^^ ^^^ aurOChs, or European bison. This animal has been long extinct in France and England, and yet we have the remarkable fact of his survival in a cognate species in gravel yields some relic of this heavy prehistoric animal. Oddly enough, his name is omitted from the interesting list which Caesar has enumerated as inhabit- ing the Hercynian wood in the time of his invasion. But the tradition of the aurochs is given in the Niebelungen Lied and other ancient documents. It seems that the extinction of this an* FEAST IJL'RING 1 H K b-IMLH OF 'I'HK KK INDhliR.— Drawn by Emile Bayaid. America. The bison prisons, or old buffalo of America, is now known to be a more ancient variety than the aurochs of Europe, and yet the latter was con- temporary with man along with the mammoth and the reindeer. The aurochs was widely distributed. His remains are found in Scotland, England, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Italy, and Russia. Nearly every bone cave and bed of river-drift imal is traceable wholly to the aggressions of civilization and not to any vicissitude of climate. The European Late extinction bison IS said to have been of the European T.T .1 T> • buffalo, .seen m JNorthern Prussia as late as the latter part of the eighteenth century, and it is believed that a pre- carious existence is still maintained by the species in some uninhabited parts of Western Asia. An interesting episode is furnished in the fact that in PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE, 299 the Polish revolution of 183 1 a herd of more than seven hundred bisons which had been preserved by the Emperor of Russia in the great forest of Lithuania was attacked by a body of the insur- gents, and a hundred and fifteen of them slaughtered. A remnant of this herd exists to the present day in the same forest. The urus, or primitive ox, seems to have been limited in his ranee to the „ . . . European conti- Primitive ox of '■ Europe; Caesar's nent. No traCeS of description. , . . , , his existence have been found in America and none in Asia, but remains of the animal are plentifully dis- tributed in England, Scotland, Denmark, France, Germany, and Sweden. Bones of this species have been discovered in North- ern Africa. In the museum of Lund a skeleton is preserved, in one of the vertebrae of which a wound, made, as is believed by Professor Nilsson, by a flint weapon, is plainly traceable. Csesar, in the sixth book of the Gallic War, gives a full account of the urus as follows : " Of these animals, there is a third species which are called uri. They are in size only a little inferior to the elephants ; in color and ap- pearance and form they are bulls. Great is their strength and great their velocity. Nor do they stand in dread of either man or beast. The inhabit- ants take and slay them by skillful contrivance and pitfalls." The tradi- tion of the urus is also preserved in the Niebelungen. The species has been like the aurochs, especially persistent, and has only given way before the in- vincible pressure of civilization. It is said that wandering groups of uri were known in Germany as late as the six- teenth century, and there is little doubt that the wild bulls which ran at large in the neighborhood of London as late as the twelfth century were identical, at least in descent, with the uri of the Con- tinent. Nor would it be possible to say to what extent the blood of the extinct animal courses in the various breeds of cattle at the present time. Thus we see that while some of the IHE IRISH tLK (.MEGACEROS HIEERNICl^S). prehistoric animals above enumerated are indubitably extinct, others have in some sense transmitted someprehis- themselves into the historic "^^^^^^^ era. The mammoth and species, the hairy rhinoceros long since ceased to exist in the countries which we are now considering. But the cave bear, not unlike the grizzly of the Yuba mountains, has doubtless left reduced varieties of himself to the present time. So also the reindeer, and, as we have 300 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. just seen, the aurochs and the primitive ox. This is to say that if we look at the current of prehistoric animal life in Western Europe, and consider it as a river flowing over a plain and dividing into multifarious streams as it flows, we shall see some of these streams sinking anon into the sand and disappearing forever, while others maintain for a while a straggling and reduced volume until they in turn disappear. A few currents flow still further and are found precariously wandering on the surface even to the present day. The main point to be borne constantly in mind in this connection is that far back in the midst of these branching currents of animal life primeval man held his career as contemporary even with the oldest divisions of the stream. From the earliest appearance of man on the earth, he seems to have had a Disposition of disposition to Subordinate man to domesti. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ various animals cate wild ani- niais. with which he has been associated. According to the sacred writers, he was to have " dominion over the beasts of the field and every creep- ing thing." Certainly he has shown a disposition to subdue and possess a great number of the wild creatures of his habitat. His success, however, has been but partial. Some of the animals have spurned his control and escaped from him. The struggle for masteiy has gone on tintil an epoch in civilization has been reached in which man has given his energies to the subordination of the forces of nature rather than the forces of animal life. The disposition to tame the wild crea- tures has been deflected into another form of activity. The present conflict of man with the animals tends to destroy rather than to domesticate. From the earli- est ages of history and tradition, however. some of the living creatures with which man has been associated have been tamed and Crought under ^ , ^ ^ Early date of the his control. Even the ar- practice of do- , , . . 1 ■ !• J • 1 mastication. chasological and inferential sort of history which we have been developing in the preceding pages shows conclusively that in the most primitive condition of human life sev- eral of the animals were domesticated and used by primeval man at his will. It is interesting in this connection to note Avhat these domesticated animals were under the dominion of the cave dwellers of Western Europe. First of all, the men of the caverns had tamed the dog and associated him closely with their abodes.' It appears that wild dogs, to say nothing of wol- verenes, abounded in some The dog the first localities, but as a rule the of the domesti- . 1 • 1 cated animals. canine bones which are found associated with those of men are of domesticated animals, and their abodes seem to indicate that the cave man Avas accompanied by large packs of ' U will interest the reader and strengthen his confidence as well to know hmv it is that the nat- uralist is able to distinguish the bones of a wild animal from those of one domesticated. To the man of science the case is perfectly clear. The characteristics of the wild and the tame skeletons are so well marked as to leave no doubt whatever relative to their respective antecedents. The bone of the animal under domestication becomes smooth, and the channels on the surface through which the veins and arteries and nerves are distributed become so shallow as to be no longer traceable. The proc- esses and spines which nature has provided for muscular attachments are at the same time reduced in height and size, and the whole appearance of the bone surface becomes as distinctly unlike that of the corresponding species of the wild animal as the liv- ing aspect of the domesticated variety is unlike the ferocity and vigor of his untamed kinsman. The accompanying cut of the vertebrje of a cow and of the corresponding part from the back of a buffalo will sufficiently illustrate the marked difference in the bone structure of wild and domesticated ani- mals. PRIMEVAL ^^AN.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 301 dogs. He used them not only in his contests with wild animals but also for food. The canine bones which are found in the caverns show conclusively that they were broken and sawed open for the marrow in the same manner with the bones of other species. The goat also was almost universally domesti- cated, but, contrary to what might have been expected, the sheep in many parts was still abroad with the wild animals. It is doubtful whether any inclosures, properly so called, were used by the cave dwellers, and it appears that sheep, by their native instincts, Disposition of certain animals are less disposcd than to domesticate. . . . , i , i goats to accept the control and protection of man — more disposed to straggle off and revert to the original type. The same remark may be applied to the cat in contradistinction to the dog. The former, though regarded as a special pet of the human family, seems, after all, to form only a strong local attachment for a given place, but very little attachment to human beings. The dog, on the contrary, attaches himself to his master, and not to any partic- ular place. He follows his master to the end of the earth, and cares but little for his own kennel as compared with his master's com- pany. It seems that the goat has much of this same instinct; and for this reason, doubtless, the prehistoric barbarians of Western Europe held the goat almost always in domestication. Though sheep were domesticated and used for both their flesh and their fleeces, they were nevertheless Avild animals rather than tame. The same classification must be ap- plied to the primitive cattle. It appears that in some places kine were at least partly domesticated, but, as a rule, they ran wild. This may be said also of the swine of the prehistoric Many beasts age. It is in evidence that ''^::^^^f ^^ droves of domestic pigs races, were owned and driven from place to place by the barbarians ; but for the most part the hog had his native lair in PART OF THE VERTEBRA OF A COW. CORRESPONDING PART OF VERTEBRA OF THE BISON. the forest, and was very little subject to domestication. These wild swine were frequently pursued and captured and used for food by the cave men, as is at- tested by the broken and sawed bones which are left in the caverns and gravel beds. As for the horse, he also ran wild, and it does not appear that in any part of Western Europe, at least in the 302 GREAT RACES OE MA.VAVXn. old stone age, this noble animal had been reduced to domestication. But his flesh was eaten in common with that of many other animals. As a general fact the cave dwellers were exceedingly carnivorous in their Eating habits of habits. This is the One char- the aborigines of acteristic of their method Western Eu- rope, of life which discriminates them so strongly from the Aryan house- folk described in the preceding chapter. already remarked, the marrow of the bones was sought with avidity, and scarcely a single fragment was left un- explored for this delicacy. In the rude life of the cavern the bones were simply broken or crushed by some of the heav- ier stone implements employed by the cave dwellers. But the more approved method was to cut the bone longitudi- nally with a stone saw. Specimens of this work are plentifully preserved in HUNT OF THE WILD BUAR.— ilrawn by Kmile Bayard. It is doubtful whether by the ruder type of the cave men the soil was culti- vated at all. They availed themselves of many vegetable growths, ate masts and roots and wild fruits of the woods, and even devoured the barks of trees; but it does not appear that the rational cultivation of the soil was practiced or even known by these rude barbarians. They lived for the most part on the flesh of animals, and this was generally torn from the skeleton and eaten raw. As nearly all the principal museums of the world. The bones of the ox, the sheep, the goat, the reindeer, the fox,, the wolf, and especially of the dog, are found treated in this manner in the debris of the caverns. Nor is there any mis- taking the purpose and intent of the bar- barians in this work. We have now, in our consideration of this archaic type of man in Western Europe, arrived at the point where the implements and i:tensils of his household PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 303 may be appropriately considered. The one thing to be remembered and repeated ■with emphasis in this con- Place of the cave men zoologically nection is that the cave an geo ogica y. jj^,gijgj.g flourished in the old stone age. Only in few instances and in peculiar localities does this primeval form of human life seem to have ex- tended upward from the palaeolithic into the new stone epoch, and still less frequently into the age of bronze. It must be constantly borne in mind that, on the zoological side of this inquiry, the primitive man of the western parts of Europe was allied with the extinct species of animals described in the preceding ^^ 3 'S<3 pages ; that in his geological relations he held his career in what is called the post- pliocene, or quaternary period, and that in his archaeological relations he was associated with the old stone era. We come, then, to consider some of the details of his implements and household apparatus. The utensils and weapons of the cave men were made from flint and analogous varieties of stone. They were broken and chipped into form after the rude manner described on a former page. Extent and vari- Those who have givcu lit- ety of prehistor- ^| attention to the subject ic implements in J museums. and have seldom visited our museums of archaeology can but be astonished at the great abundance of old stone implements which have been recovered from the age which we are here considering. In the museum of Copenhagen, for instance, there were, ;1 ^1 !D( in the year 1864, one thousand and seventy flint axes aad wedges, two hun- dred and eighty-five broad chisels, two hundred and seventy hollow chisels, three hundred and sixty-five narrow chisels, thirty-three hollow narrow chis- els, two hundred and fifty poniards, six hundred and fifty-six lanceheads, one hundred and seventy-one arrowheada^ A^>!^ ;l^ ■ '■^ xr i'A PAL/EOLITHIC DAGGERS. two hundred and five half-moon shaped implements, seven hundred and forty- six pierced axes and ax hammers, three hundred flint flakes, four hundred ! and eighty-nine sundries, three thou- I sand six hundred and seventy-eight rough stone implements from the shell I mounds of Denmark, one hundred and seventy-one bone implements, one hun- I dred and nine other bone articles from 304 GREAT RACES OE jrAXKLYD. the shell mounds, making in a single museum a total of eight thousand seven hundred and ninety-eight specimens illustrative of the age of stone. The Danish museums contain an aggregate of about thirty thousand stone implements, and these are but a fragment of the great collections of other countries. The museum of the Royal Irish Academy contains seven hundred flint flakes, five hundred and twelve so-called "celts," or axes, more than four hundred arrowheads, fifty spearheads, seventy-five scrapers and ""■^-sMKajjai PAI..1.11I.1 run: AXES FROM THE SHKII. M'M NIis. many sling- stones, hammers, whetstones, grain-crushers, etc. The great museum of Stockholm contains upward of fifteen thousand specimens illustrative of the weaponry and utensils of the age of stone. Indeed, in all parts of the civil- ized world, in public and in private collections, vast numbers of a still vaster aggregate remaining in the earth of these stone-made relics of the prehistoric times have been gathered, and it is not to be doubted that other museums still more capacious could easily be filled with like materials. Perhaps the most important single implement used by the primitive in- habitants of Europe was the stone ax. This tool, even from the stone axes, and palaeolithic era, had a cer- ^ZT^^"^' tain rude approximation in tiiem. shape and character to the modern ax of steel. But the stone implement was generally fastened to the helve by a much more primitive method than that employed in the case of metallic axes. The stone ax, after having been chipped into proper form from a block of flint, was generally inserted in the limb of a tree, broken or cut off to the proper length. The blade was fastened in the opening by the binding around of strips of rawhide or the tendons of some strong animal. There was great variety in the size and shape of the implement and equally multifarious uses. The barbarian seems to have employed his ax for everything. When we consider the rudeness of the tool and the manner of its mounting, it seems almost incredible that it could have been so effective in the hands of those who used it. It is well known that these prehistoric people cut down large trees, sharpened heavy piles, and accomplished other astonishing feats with their rude stone axes. Doubtless the time required to do such work was considerable, and it is known that in many cases fire was employed to assist the process. The barbarian used his ax, as already in- dicated, to split or burst the bones of the animals whose flesh he devoured and whose marrow was regarded as a morsel. The cave dwellers and their contem- poraries also manufactured Funt knives, and used a great variety a^f the manner » J of their pro- of knives. The patterns Auction. of these were almost as variable as in the case of modern cutlery. Sometimes PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 305 FLINT ARROWrOINTS FROM THE BONE CAVERNS, the knife was double, having a blade fixed in either end of the handle. Gen- erally it was single bladed, and in a great many cases had no handle at all. The blade was produced from a flake of flint or obsidian, and was chipped into form after the manner already described. It must ever be a matter of astonish- ment that the sav- age man of the prehistoric ages was able to produce such fine effects by the mere breakage and chipping of such material as flint. Next among his implements may be mentioned the chisels which he used and which are also of vari- ous patterns — some narrow, some broad, some hollowed along the center of the shaft, and others convex. It was a gen- eral peculiarity of these stone implements that the cutting edge was curvilin- ear, either gibbous or semilunar in shape. This is true of the edges of the axes and chisels and adzes and knives, and indeed nearly all lithic implements and weapons. Pei^iaps no complete enumeration can be made of the tools and utensils in use among the prehistoric Great variety of o i prehistoric tools peoplcs whosc manner of weapons. Hfe is here delineated. The variety was weilnigh as great as that in the shop of a modern artisan. There were sledges and hammers and saws, wedges and celts, spearheads, arrow- heads, javelinpoints, daggers, poniards, many varieties of cutting instruments after the general pattern of the knife, scrapers, picks, many kinds of hatchets, sling-stones, weight-stones for nets and fishing lines, harpoons, awls, lapstones, and an infinity of the so-called flakes. Nearly all the varieties here enumerated can be seen in any ordinary museum of antiquities, and the beholder, by their inspection, can but feel himself drawn near to the prehistoric race of men by whose hands these implements were wielded. It is not intended in the present work to enter into the details of archaeology. It is not even the purpose Manner of life to give any elaborate ac- ^t^rnthTman count of the slow transfor- cavems. mation by which the tribes of the old stone age passed by evolution into the new stone age and thence into the age of bronze. It is sufficient to note that the general manner of life of the cave men and their contemporaries was that of hunters and fishermen, men of FIXE PAL,«OLITHIC ARROWPOINTS. the woods and stream. Doubtless it would be improper to speak of the ' ' social sys- tem " of a people that had no society at all. The cave dwelling would seem to indicate an exceedingly solitarj^ life. It appears that in the case of the larger caverns quite a band of the barbarians 306 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. lived together. The abundance of bones and relics is much greater than we should expect in the case of a single family or i can be immediately replaced. The care tool was of so great importance than in a modern household where an implement PREHISTORIC MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC AGK. Drawn by Etnile Kayard. even five families in the same abode. Nor should we forget that what we may ■call the waste of implements would be much less among a people where a single which these people be- stowed upon their utensils is well illustrated in the distance to which they were carried in the case of migration. Nothing is more common than to tind flint imple- ments and weap- ons at a distance I if hundreds of miles from the quarry whence the material was taken. The man o f antiquity sought assiduously for the best quarries and ledges from which to take the ma- terials of his man- ufacture, and the old pits which the prehistoric folk dug in the chalk beds, in order to get at the layers of flint under- neath, are plen- tifully distributed in parts of Eng- land and France. There appear, moreover, to have been seats of man- ufacture, sometimes in connection with the quarries and sometimes in other places. This fact would indicate a rude sort of commerce in implements. But PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 307 over and above this circumstance the fact remains that the barbarians them- selves clunor to their tools Care taken of " utensUs; places and weapons with great of manufacture. ^ ., . . - tenacity, carried them to great distances, and only parted -with them by the necessities of accident or death. "We are thus enabled to form a true concept of the prehistoric man of West- ern Europe. In stature, he is believed to have been considerabl}- larger than the average man of to-day. His bones have greater length and strength, and his proportions indicate a rather gigan- tic form. Doubtless he was brutal in appearance, with hair growing low upon his forehead and an animal leer on his features. Whether the day- stature and per- dawn of the higher senti- sonai character- * isticsof the cava ments, the nobler aspira- "'a'l- tions, had as yet arisen in his spirit we can not know. But that he had in him the potency and germ of human great- ness, the possibility of light and free- dom and knowledge, can not be doubted or denied. He was the gross substratum of that human life which even in the present day is but half-refined from bar- barism and half-redeemed from the heavy weight of brute passion and ani- mality. Chapter XVII.— Lakk Dwellers oe Switzerland. HE delineation of prim- itive life given in the preceding chapter rep- resents but one of several types of hu- man existence in the prehistoric ages. The men of the caverns were a single branch of the barbarians who inhabited West- em Europe in the old stone age. It is not intended in the present work to de- scribe all the aspects of half-savage life which present themselves to the anti- quarian and ethnologist, but to discuss only a sufficient number of the primeval tribes and their methods of development to enable the reader to form an adequate idea of the whole. In the current chap- ter we shall turn to two or three other forms of aboriginal European life, and present them in the light of what is known or reasonably inferred concern- ing their career. First of all, attention will be called to the lake dwellers of Switzerland and other similar situations. It must be known that the bodies of fresh water on the European conti- nent have considerably di- General contrac- minished in area and vol- rate^/artf^^ ume since the age of the Europe, mammoth and the reindeer. The cir- cumference of all the lakes has con- tracted, and the surface has sunk to a lower level. The extent of this dimi- nution has been much greater in some localities than in others. The fall of a few feet in the level of a lake will some- times, owing to the flatness of the shore, expose a considerable area of land that was hitherto submerged, Avhereas if the shores be precipitous, a fall even of many feet will make no per- ceptible difference in the position of the water line. Both of these conditions have occurred in different localities. In character of the some places around the ^f^^l.'^^^a""''* margin of lakes acres and lakes, even square miles of territorj" are now dr\- land that were formerly underwater. 808 GREAT RACES OF .)rAXKfXD. More frequently this recently exposed strip exists in the form of marshland or bog, but half reclaimed from its ancient submergence. Wherever the lake is situated in a flat, open region, this con- dition of a fenland border exists to a greater or less extent. Lagoons and marshes, sometimes grown up with trees and sometimes covered with the reeds and grasses peculiar to the region of the bog, will be noted in close proximity to the lake itself, and the observer will readily note that the addition of a few feet to the water level would restore the lake to its primitive borders covering the low- lands. In other places, particularly in the mountainous regions, the water line of the lakes has had less fluctuation. Here the waters are contained as in a cup of stone, and the rising and sinking of the lake surface has widened and contracted the border line but little. In almost every situation, however, some fluctua- tion has occurred, and even a single un- usual season, whether it be of rain or aridity, will be clearly perceived in the narrower or wider limit of the lake. This is to say that around all of the fresh- water bodies is a debatable shore, of greater or less extent, which has been in turn submerged and uncovered ac- cording to the humidity or the dryness of the epoch. More particularly has the gradual recession of all superficial waters into the inner parts of the earth told upon the lakes, especially those of small extent, in reducing their area and depth. The primitive European tribes, at least that portion of them which we are now to consider, were by instinct and prefer- certain primi- ence led to establish them- tLriSerhSreT ^^Ives in proximity with for residence. great Collections of water. The advantages of such situations are obvious. If the water be fresh it fur- nishes to man one of the prime essentials of his existence and many conveniences. It gives him, inoreover, from the depths a multitude of fishes, easy of capture and good for food. If the water be salt, though its direct use by man is impracti- cable, it nevertheless yields him a great store of shellfish and many valuables besides. We are here to note what was done on the margin of the lakes. The winter of 1853-54 was one of ex- cessive rigor in Europe, but of small precipitation of rain or snow. This was followed the next summer by a season of unusual drought. Since Great subsi- the year 1674 no parallel f^^tie^in had been furnished to the 1853-54. draft which was thus made upon the volume of the lakes and the paucity of the return which nature made thereto. As a result, the level of the mountain lakes in Switzerland fell off many feet, and quite an area of the bottom was ex- posed as terra firma. It was here that the discoveries were made by the anti- quary, Dr. Keller, and other explorers which led to the reconstruction of that type of prehistoric communities called the Lake Dwellings and Villages. In different ages and in different quar- ters of the world men have frequently adopted the plan of con- situation of the structingtheirabodesabove LtounTS: the surface of the water rodotus. near the shore. The plan is to build a platform, supported by different meth- ods, and on these to rear the huts in which the people lived. Between the platform and the shore communication is easily effected by some narrow struc- ture which is defensible. In the fifth chapter of the book called Terpsich- ore, in Herodotus, we have the fol- lowing paragraph descriptive of such dwelling places. The author is describ- ing the manners and customs of the PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 809 ancient Paeonians : ' ' Their dwellings are contrived after this manner: planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in the middle of the lake, with a narrow en- trance from the main land b}^ a single bridge. These piles that support the planks all the citizens anciently placed there at the public charge ; but after- ward they established a law to the fol- lowing effect : whenever a man marries, for each wife he sinks three piles, bring- ing wood from a mountain called Orbe- lus : but every man has several wives. They live in the following manner: every man has a hut on the planks, in which he dwells, with a trapdoor closely fitted in the planks and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a cord round the foot, fearing lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder ; of which there is such an abundance that Avhen a man has opened his trapdoor he lets down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a short time, draws it up full of fish." ' But we have no occasion to seek for evidence in the ancient world of the ex- t.ake dweUings istence of sucli structurgs of various coun- j^ ascribed to tries m the pres- entage. the Paeoniaus. Dwellings over the water are constructed and in- habited by existing tribes of men. The fishermen on lake Prasias, in European Turkey, build their cottages over the water, and the town of Tcherkask is constructed above the current of the Don. In analogy with such structures we might cite the buildings of the peo- ple of India, which, though not over the water, are set on piles several feet above the earth. The same kind of abodes are found in South America and in the East Indian islands. The city of Borneo is so founded and built. The Dyaks have their houses on an elevated plat- form twenty or thirty feet high, in a long row above the edge of the river, and the floors are so constructed that all refuse and waste materials fall through into the water. Switzerland is a locality specially fitted in its geographical structure for the du- plication of the dwellings Switzerland fa- described above by the rJ'''"rii"tl!^'^ J for such settle- Father of History. The ments. lakes in this mountainous region have fluctuated in the manner already de- scribed, and it was on the borders of the lake of Zurich that the first impor- tant discoveries were made. But at a later date explorations around the marshes of lakes Constance, Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, and others have led to like results. A very ample dem- onstration has thus been obtained of the manner of life of the primitive lake people. The sites of more tliait tzvo hundred settlements constructed as above over the water have been deter- mined and described. No fewer than twenty prehistoric villages have been found on the shores of lake Bienne ; twenty-four along the margin of lake Geneva; thirty-two on lake Constance; and forty-nine on lake Neufchatel. It was between Ober-Meilen and Dollikon, on the banks of lake Zurich, that the inhabitants, taking Discoveries on advantage of the low water lf/,^,\toges o. following the dry sea- Ireland, son of 1854, extended their gardens down to the margin along the new water line. They built a wall and then filled the space to landward by dredging up mud out of the bottom of the lake on the water side. While doing so they were surprised to draw up vast numbers of piles, or at least the lower ends of the same, which had in some prehistoric PRIMEVAL MAX.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 311 epoch been driven down through the water. Along with these sharpened points of trees came iijj a large variety of deer horn and stone im plements of primitive work- manship. The fact that some aboriginal people had inhabited this shore was thus made clear, and scientific explora- tions, under the direction of Dr. Keller and other antiquaries, soon extended and verified the dis- coveries. Before proceed- ing to describe the utensils and weapons revealed in the lake bot- toms of Switzer- land, it is proper to note the anal- ogous results attained in Ire- land. The man- ner of over-water building is here somewhat differ- ent from that practiced by the prehistoric moun- taineers. Among the primitive peo- ple inhabiting the Irish lake coun- try the plan was to construct a pkit- form on the water, and on this platform to create a sort of artificial island upon which houses and defenses were erected. The name given to this floating residence was Crauiiog,, aiui ihe rcmnaius ul such structures are easily discoverable to the present time 312 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. The crannoges were the strongholds of the primitive Irish chiefs, to which Likeness to they betook themselves in Highland refu- ^^.^^ ^^^ Highlanders gees ; the cran- ' ^ noge findings. of a later day to their castles. These prehistoric seats are very rich in implements and weapons and other works of the clans by which they were inhabited. But it is in evidence from the discoveries made in the cran- noges that they are of a much later date than the cave dwellings of the Continent or even the lake dwellings of Switzer- land. There are instances in which the contents of the Irish crannoge, as for in- stance that of Dunshaughlin, have been digged up by the wagon load and dis- tributed on the shore to enrich the soil. In the support of the platform above the water on which the habitations of the Swiss lake people were built, two Methods of sup. methods were employed. P°"'^s the ^1 ^^g^ ^^,^^ tQ ^^^ ^ bw^ss viUage platforms. trees, lop the branches from the trunks, sharpen one end of the same, and drive them, with many others of like sort, into the water after the manner of a modern pile work. On the upper end of these, above the surface of the lake, the platform was laid and extended according to the demands of the village. The other method was to heap up from the bottom of the lake a sort of rude stone walls, running here and there, rising to the surface, and furnishing support for the platform. But this method was only employed in the more sequestered waters, for the exposure to storms rendered this variety of building precarious. There is little doubt that the bottom Fearof-«Tid motive in selecting such a «inedthe\Toice ^ite and in building a vil- of such sites. j^gc or evcii a single house above the water and at a distance from the bank was the prospect of gaining a vantage against ravenous beasts. In the primeval world this was always a serious question. For long ages the beast had the advantage of the man in the struggle for existence. Heroes whose fame is coextensive with the traditions of man- kind became such by their successful warfare with wild beasts. Such was Nimrod and such was Hercules. After the hero, the next best thing was an artifice. Building over the water was an artifice. A single flattened trunk reaching from the platform to the shore^ or at most a narrow causeway, was easily defended, and bears and wolves would hardly swim to the attack of men. It appears that the lake villages were numerous and extensive. An estimate has been made by the antiquary, Troyon, as to the extent and popula- Number and ex- tions of these settlements, tent of the Swiss The largest village on lake ^ ® '" ^^'^^' Geneva appears to have been twelve hundred feet in length and a hundred and fifty feet in breadth. Giving to each hut a diameter of fifteen feet and allow- ing one half the space to be covered, the village would contain three hundred and eleven houses, and with an estimate of four persons to the cabin, we should have a population in this settlement of twelve hundred and forty-four. The same calculations give for the village on lake Neufchatel a population of nearly five thousand. Carrying out the same estimates, M. Troyon thinks that the lake population in this region was more than thirty thousand at the time when the villages flourished in the age of stone. - By the backward look we may still, in the mind's eye, observe the process of constructing these lake habitations. The first thing would be, of course, the selec- tion of a suitable site on the water's edffe. The shore must be accessible PRIMEVAL MAX.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAXD. 313 from the lake and the lake from the shore. A forest must stand near by, Materials em- from which the trees are "^Zt^^eT^s fe"^^' ^^-ith almost infinite the builders. labor, by the strokes of stone axes and the assistance of fire. It appears that these primeval men woiild attack the tree at the base and cut it It should be remarked in this con- nection that the stroke of a stone ax in wood is easily distinguishable from that of the metallic blade. Distinction in The modern steel ax l'i.T.°""^T by stone and struck against the side of metallic axes. an angle, makes a That is, the bottom of the cut is rectilin- ear. In the case of the stone ax, the wound is always curvilinear in the bottom. The effect of the blow is rather in the nature of a a tree, even at straight wound. AXES OF PREHISTORIC MAX, SHOWING STAGES OF IMPROVEMENT FROM STONE TO BRONZE. 1, Swiss stone ax with handle ; 2, copper celt, from Waterford ; 3, winged celt, fr<.>m Ireland ; 4, socketed celt, from 1 reland ; 5, 6, 7, celts with handles of different patterns ; 8, bronze ax, from Naples ; 9, bronze ax, from Le Puy. around as much as possible, and then burn the wounded part down to the solid body. Scraj^ing away the charred por- tions, they would then cut again, until finally the tree came down. Similar methods were employed in sharpening the trunk. Here also the axes were employed and fire by turns until a rude point was obtained suitable for driving in the mud. M. — Vol. I — 21 bruise, the wood where the ax falls being scooped out in a furrow, deeper in the bottom than at the edges of the cut.' In nearly all cases the piles supporting the platforms of the S^v^ss ' It is claimed that no measure of sharpness which may be imparted to a stone blade will secure a rec- tilinear cut — like that so e.isily produced with metal- lic axes — in the wood struck with such blade at an angle ; but the reason for such difference is not clear. 314 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. lake dwellings bear the marks of stone and not metallic axes, and in nearly all cases the process of sharpening the trunks has been assisted by the applica- tion of fire. How it was that the primitive ti'ibes adopting- this kind of structure suc- Qnestionofset- ceeded in raising their ^*oUhf piles on end and driving houses. them into the lake has not been ascertained. But the unmistakable evidence furnished by the stumps of the piles themselves shows that they were raised in some way and driven down. The work appears not to have been truly done, as many of the piles stand in the mud at an angle and others appear to have been bent somewhat from their original position by the weight of the superstructure. As to the jjlatform, it was made of split timbers, rudely framed together on the top of the piles, and no doubt tolerably firm for the reception of houses. The latter appear to have been circular in form, made somewhat after the manner of Celtic huts.' They were chinked between the cracks with small branches of trees and moss, and were pointed within with mud. As compared with the cave dwellings described in the preceding chapter, it can not be doubted that the lake houses were a great ad- vance, superior in comfort and safety, and not wanting in a certain picturesque- ness of situation and aspect. We come now to consider the evidences of ancient life which have been discovered General charao- in the lake bottoms and ^o'lfectroni^th peat beds over which the lake villages. villages were erected. In general, these settlements belong to the old stone age. This is clearly shown by the preponderance of rough stone im- plements which are found under them. ' See the colored Plate at the beginning of the present bgok. It appears, however, that the lake dwell- ei-s continued to hold to their position until progress was made into the new stone age, and even into the age of bronze. In several places it has been demonstrated by the plentiful discovery of utensils and weapons of bronze that the lake villagers had advanced to the manufacture and use of this metal. In any event, all of these stages of develojj- ment were anterior to the epoch of the Romans, and therefore to the daydawn of history. If we glance at the old stone imple- ments found in the margin of the Swiss lakes and in the peat bogs variety of the where the over-water vil- '^^^r^l^' lages were built, we find ployed, them to be of the same general pattern as those already described in connection with the cave dwellings. It has been noted that the Swiss prehistoric imple- ments, as a general rule, are smaller than those used by the cave men. This is true of the arrowheads, the spearpoints, and the axes. The material employed in the manufacture of these tools and weapons was, for the most part, flint, but in some cases rock crystal. It has been noted that spindle-whirls of earth- enware coexist in the same layer with the rough stone implements. Other ev- idences of spinning and weaving have been discovered in the same situation, and to this should be added the presence of stone mortars and balls for crushing corn. Sir John Lubbock has recapitu- lated the articles found under a lake village in the peat measure of Wauwyl as follows : Stone axes, forty-three ; flint arrowheads, thirty-six ; flakes, two hun- dred; corn crushers, sixteen ; hammer.?, twenty; whetstones, twenty-six; sling- stones, eighty-five ; making a total of four hundred and twenty-six articles oi stone recovered from a single bed. PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 315 ings of inter- change and com merce. In examining these relics we are again impressed with the fact that rude commei"cial relations, at least the begin- nings of traffic, existed in the age of Signs in the find- which we speak. Many of the implements found around the vSwiss lakes were brought, at least as to their mate- rial, from distant localities. Many of the flint implements are known to have been taken from the quarries of France! Some are found that were imported from the shores of the Mediter- ranean. It is impossi- ble to tell, however, whether these weapons and utensils were carried by trade or by the mi- gration of tribes to the mountain lakes of Swit- zerland. By examination of the stone hatchet with animal remains found under the lake dwell- ings, the inquirer discovers again the re- lations which the primitive people here held to the lower orders of life. As a rule, the prehistoric men ate nearly all kinds of animals with which they were asso- ciated. The skins of beasts were the principal articles of clothing, and the flesh was invariably stripped away for food. We note in the case of the lake dwellers the same appetite for marrow which we have already noted in the men of the caverns. They picked out of the hol- low bones every particle of the con- tents, and evidently regarded the mar- row as the principal delicacy. The harder and better bones were made into SOCKET AND HANDLE. CHIPPED FLINT AR. ROWHEAD. implements, but the horns of the deer were the principal resource in this line. From these were made the handles of a great number of other implements, and also picks and awls and scrapers. In some cases the attempt was made to produce a cutting edge from bone. But from the na- ture of the sub- stance this could not succeed. Chis- els were also at- tempted, but the material lacked strength and solid- ity, and the tool so formed could only be applied to the softer substances bon e scraper was much used Use of bone in ,1 J • j: 1 • 1 • the fabrication mthedressmg of hides, m of tools and which it appears that all of weapons, the primitive Europeans had consider- able skill. If the lake dwellers attempt- ed the manu- facture of wood, it does in the relics left behind, however, the of wood liber FLINT HATCHET FITTED WITH stag's horn HANDLE. The not appear which they Doubtless, eas}' decay would in part account for the absence of utensils made therefrom. But it appears, on the whole, that the lake men preferred the use of flint and bone and horn. It has been noted that tinder was employed by the lake villagers in the production of fire. The appearance of broken fragment? of pottery in the lake margins and peat beds shows conclusively that the people of the age which we are here consid- PICKAX OF stag's HiiKN. 816 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. ering understood at least the rudiments of that kind of manufacture. Very few Pottery of the vessels have been discov- iutneTs^the '^^^^ ^^^hole, but many in relics. pieces. These all indicate the rudest kind of work. The vessels were evidently misshapen and un.symmetrical in design. It is thought that the pot- ter's wheel was unknown. Nor has any evidence of furnace heat been discov- ered in the imperfect burning to which the fragments seem to have been sub- jected. Perhaps an open fire produced the highest heat with which these peo- hXllNCi' MANUIAc iiiKV pie were acquainted. The forms of a few vases have been determined which, viewed from an artistic point, are clumsy in the last degree. It is noticeable that the earthenware of these villagers is without feet or other support than the unfinished bottom of the vessel. It ap- pears that the utensils were set upon the floor or on the soft earth where there was little danger of breakage. Of human remains, strictly so called. Scarcity of hu- Only a few have been dis- covered under the lake vil- lages. Nor might it be reasonably expected that many would be found. It will be seen at a glance that man remains in the lake mar- gins. the situation has been much less favor, able for the preservation of human skel- etons, in whole or in part, than the mud beds under the stalagmite in the cave dwellings. The free action of water, the access of fishes to any bodies that may have dropped into the lake, the movement which would take place under the wave, and the change of tempera- ture, very great as it is in the situation, would account for the destruction and decay of any bodies that might have gone to the bottom through the village platforms. It is likely, moreover, that the lake dwell- ers had regular methods of sep- ulture. As has been already seen, they were considerably more advanced in the human evolution than the cave men, and care for the bodies of the dead is one of the symptoms which marks the progressive people from the barbarians. Some remains of men, however, have been found in the mud of the lake mar- gin in such relation with Bodily forms of prehistoric relics as to iden- Ifetfmined'om tify them with the age skeletons. of stone. Perhaps a half dozen skele- tons, including the skulls, have been re- covered, and from these a fair idea of the stature, form, and characteristics of the lake people have been determined. On the whole, they were not as tall as the Europeans of to-day, but the skel- eton does not indicate that strong ani- mal affiliation which we have noted in the men of the cavern. The proportions I'OTTERY, IN THE GLACIEK l.AKUEN, AT LUCERNE. PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 317 of the lake dwellers were fairly good, and the skull shows a medium capacity. Nor is the configuration specially differ- ent from that of the mountaineers of the present time. As to the personal as- pect of these people there is nothing better than conjecture to guide us. AVe know by their manner of life that their intellectual horizon was exceedingly lim- ited ; that they had the carnivorous hab- it, though not in that intense degree peculiar to the cave dwellers; that the social instinct was in some measure de- veloped, as is shown in their aggrega- tion in village communities, and that the beginnings of agriculture among them were sufficient to show the upward tend- ency toward a higher level of existence. As in the case of the cave men, much light may be thrown on the life and Animals with manners of the people of which lake vii- ^j_^g i^i.g villages bv noting lagers were as- & - & Bociated. the animals with which they were associated and some produc- tions of the soil which are known to have been economized. A large list of the beasts and birds and fishes peculiar to the era which we are here discussing has been determined by naturalists, and much valuable information therefrom deduced. The prevalent wild animals were the brown bear, the badger, the marten, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, the beaver, the elk, the urus, the aurochs, the European bison, the stag, the deer, the wild boar, the marsh boar, the pole- cat. The domestic animals were the horse, the ox, the goat, the sheep, the dog, and the common swine. In the case of the horse, his domestication was but partial, and the demonstration of the existence of tame swine is not complete. It will be noticed at a glance that the wild animals here enumerated are of a .somewhat later epoch than those asso- ciated with the cave dwellers. The mammoth, the cave bear, the cave hyena seem to have disappeared. Perhaps the Irish elk and the reindeer at no time held this region as a habitat. jMuch ma}' be inferred by a little clear thought relative to the condition of the villagers from the consider- Manner of lake ation of their domestic ani- h!;!?^!^.,!!^ mals. Such creatures must manifest data. be cared for, especially in winter. They must be fed, not to say housed against the rigors of the season. Provisions and shelter would, therefore, be neces- sary, and people who make such provi- sion and provide such shelter could not be wholly barbarous. Closely allied with this consideration is another drawn from the discovery of various grains that were used by the villagers. Many speci- mens of charred cereals have been found with other relics of this ancient life. Grains of wheat have been recovered from the finds at !Meilan, Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the last named place the antiquary had the good fortune to discover several bushels of wheat pressed together in a lump, the grains adhering in a mass. The appearance of the wheat is almost identical with that of modern varieties of the same grain. Many specimens of what is known as six-rowed barley have been recovered from like situations, and it will interest the reader to be informed that this variety of cereal was still under cultivation in the primi- tive days of Greece and Rome. Alto- gether, three kinds of wheat have been found under the lake dwellings, two va- rieties of barley, and two of millet. It appears that rye and oats were as yet unknown . Reverting to the animals of the lake regions in prehistoric times we note two species of wild cattle, namely, the urus and the bison. The former seems to have been reduced to partial domestica- 318 CRP.AT RACliS OF MAXKIND. tion as early as the neolithic period, but no indication of such a fact has been Deductions from fouud in the old stonc age. th:;Tkr.dwel°' The largest of the ani- ingage. mals prevalent around the Swiss lakes were these two varieties of wild oxen, the elk and the stag. The rhinoceros had disappeared and the urus had been much reduced from the served in the forests of Germany. It is noticeable that the list of domestic ani- mals has been extended and confirmed. The horse has certainly become, in some measure, the servant of man, and sheep have been more positively reclaimed from the wild condition. It is thus evident that the mere barbarous life of hunters and flesh-eaters was giving way SWISS LAK.L VILLAGE UF lH L AUL UF LRUN/L great proportions which he bore in the times of the cave men. Looking back from our own point of view we note that elks have not existed in .Switzerland dur- ing the historical period, though they still maintained an existence in the low- land forests as late as the Roman period. The ibex has also disappeared. The smaller of the wild animals enumerated above still prevail in their ancient habi- tat, and even the wild boar has been pre- to a higher and more rational mode of existence among these villagers of the Swi.ss lakes. It will be of interest to add a few words relative to the birds which came by water or bv air to the . . ^ Species of birds habitations of the lake men . belonging to the ,„, IT 1 . , T same epoch. 1 he golden eagle circled above them. The bones of at least four varieties of hawk have been discovered. Two kinds of owl were known, and two PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 319 traces of tlie prehistoric agri. cultural Ufe. varieties of crow. The common starling was present, and the wood pigeon. There were two kinds of heath cock, also the white stork, the ashy heron, the dun grouse, the black coot, two varieties of meu, one kind of swan, one species of goose, two kinds of duck, one kind of diver. Of fishes and reptiles, the remains of as many as ten species have been recovered and identified. Mention has been made of the finding: of the cereals under the lake dwellings. Significant It appears from the discov- eries that the grains were roasted for food. Beyond this primitive method of preparing kernels, it is known that the lake dwell- ers used bread. Cakes, hard, flat, cir- cular, unleavened, have been found just as they were prepared for the board at a date more remote than the founding of Rome ! Of the methods of cultivation employed in this far time nothing is known. No agricultural implements or apparatus have been recovered, but tools for the preparation of grain, such as mortars and stones for gfrindinof the kernels, are plentiful. Specimens of dried fruit, such as carbonized apples cut into halves or quarters, have been found at both AVangen and on lake Neuf- chatel. Such fruits appear to have been of wild varieties, resembling the crab apple of modern times. The vine had not yet made its appearance. The wal- nut, the cherr}', and the damson plum were unknown, but seeds of the wild plum have been discovered. Shells of the hazelnut and beechnut are fre- quently found in the mud, and some- times the seeds of the raspberry and blackberry. Beans have been discovered, but only in the later relics of the age of bronze, while peas are found farther back, among the remains of the new stone age. From a consideration of all these elements we are able to make out a tolerably fair schedule of the daily subsistence, the means of supply, and the method of preparation peculiar to the prehistoric villagers of the Swiss lakes. Bronze hairpin found la Swiss lake. Bronze pin from a Scotch shell mound. SPECIMENS OF FINE WORKMANSHIP IX BRONZE. Mention has already been made of the fact that the lake dwellers continued to hold their situation until . ^ Lake dwellings their implements oi stone extend into the J J , ,, age of bronze. were succeeded by the manufacture and use of bronze. The villages belonging to the age of bronze are not so widely distributed as those of the stone period. The former were built, for the most part, on the lakes of Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, and Sam- pach. In Eastern Su-itzerland very few 320 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. evidences of the age of bronze have been discovered. It appears that for some reason a kind of jirimitive conserva- tism prevailed on lake Constance -which led to the continuance of stone manu- facture long- after the inti-oduction of bronze in the western settlements. It is in evidence that other improvements besides the introduction of metal in workmanship appeared in the bronze- making villages. The platforms -were more substantially constructed and the houses larger and of a moi-e permanent character. It seems, moreover, that the villagfts of the age of bronze were built farther from the shore than those of the age of stone. At least the bronze relics are nearly always taken out from a greater dej^th of water and farther out than the stone implements peculiar to the older age. By examining the bronze implements their superiority in design and workman- Evidences of the ship to those of the peri- T:i:Zlt'y' «ds preceding are quickly barism. noted. The swords, dag- gers, axes, spearheads, knives, sickles. fishhooks, and articles of personal adorn, ment are all of a pattern which may be called well formed, if not artistic. Brace- lets, brooches, and finger rings are found which, though they may hardly be de- scribed as beautiful, are not devoid of tastefulness in design and elegance in execution. It is noticeable, moreover, that the supply of implements, weapons, and personal decorations is far more abundant in the case of the bronze-bear- ing villages than under those of the stone epoch. Many museums have been re- plenished from the resources here re- ferred to, and a single collection cited by Sir John Lubbock contains four thousand three hundred and forty-six specimens; and it is an evidence of what may be called the personal pride of the villagers of the bronze age that of the list of articles here enumerated more than two thousand are hairpins and rings. In the age of bronze the human race en- tered upon its career of strength and variety, but did not yet enter -upon the career of ambition and vain delusion which it was to pursue in the age of iron. Chapter XVIII.— coast People oe the Nortih. E now turn to another aspect of primitive life quite different from those discussed in the preceding chapters. We have reconstructed as far as practicable the conditions of the old Ar_\-an house- folk of India; of the cave dwellers of Western Europe, and of the lake dwell- ers who took advantage of the water surface as a means of protection and convenience. We now come to consider a mode of prehistoric existence which was developed along the seacoast, espe- cially in the northern and northwestern parts of Europe. Of the forms of primeval life already presented, the most barbarous was that of the cave men ; the most Relative sav- elevated, the house people ^f:Jl3torT~ of the East; and the most ditions. progressive, the lake dwellers of Switzer- land and other like localities. In enter- ing upon a review of the people of the seashore, we shall again be carried back to an exceedingly rude and aboriginal type of hiiman existence, perhaps not PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 321 quite so gross, but equally primitive with that of the cave dwellers. About the time that the really scien- tific investigation of archaeological re- Discovery of the mains began in the second the"o^a"t of°'' quarter of this century, it Denmark. -was noticed that on the coast of Denmark and in other similar situations long, low dunes were thrown up. Sometimes the elevations were were too far from the surge to have been thrown up by the action of the water first drew the attention of archaeol- ogists and naturalists to Mound con- their peculiarities. It was "^^T found that those of the Streenstrup. mounds which lay within reach of the tide were made up in part of sand, but the larger portion of the material was shells. In the case of those dunes that KITCHEN MIDDEXER^ ANH IHI IK iiWEILIXGS. nearly circular, sometimes they were ring-shaped, having a crater-like depres- sion in the center. But more frequently they were elongated elevations, from one hundred to three hundred 3-ards in length, perhaps two hundred feet in breadth, and from two to ten feet in heigfht. The situation was along the surf line of the sea, but generally outside of the reach of the tide. The fact that these dunes and mounds were in the higher situations, beyond the reach of the water, they were com- posed almost entirely of shells, and a very casual examination showed that the mollusks inhabiting them had be- longed to another age. Such was the beginning of the discoveries. The Danish naturalists led the way in examining these strange formations; and it was at once observed that the shells were intermixed with the debris 322 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. of human life. Here, then, was a new class of relics of prehistoric existence, and a new field of inquiry opened before the antiquary. Professor Steenstrup was again in the van in the exploration of the shell mounds. He gave them, in the first place, the name which they have ever since borne, of Kitchen middens. In his own language the Flint core or n WORKMANSHIP OF THK KITCHEN MIDDENERS. word is Kjdkkcnmdddings, which signifies "kitchen refuse heaps." The idea of the learned Dane was that these mounds were the refuse of the food and waste material of a people who had built their huts on the seashore, and had manifestly subsisted for the most part on shellfish. This primary hypothesis of the naturalist Avas borne out by all subsequent investigations, and it was soon established beyond doubt that a prehistoric people had chosen the shore of this northern sea as the best vantage ground which they could procure in their struggle to preserve life and per- petuate their tribes. The shell mounds are by no means isolated phenomena. They are rarely found singly, but in groups, covering a considerable extent of coast. This is to say that the primitive people dwelling here lived in ag- gregations, or The kitchen villages of huts ^.tllmUp'^i^n, o cate village com- on the beach, ^unities. Sometimes a principal mound will appear, and around this others of smaller proportions. The contents are abundant, and the vast heap of shells is in many cases carted -away by the inhabitants and used to replenish the soil. What strikes the beholder in opening one of these mounds is the fact that the 7i.'/iolc colli cnis, or The heaps made the materials of up of the debris .1 1 ,. of human life. the elevation, are the debris of human life. Hardly any merely natural substance is found inter- mixed with the shells and other refuse of the kitchen and the hut. Doubtless the kitchen was the hut and the hut was the kitchen. In a few in- stances some gravel and other unmodi- fied natural products are found in thin layers or scattered among the Avaste of the hovel. But for the most part every- thing has had its use in the hands and mouths of the primitive tribes inhabit- ing this coast. The people appear to have subsisted almost exclusively upon oysters and mussels, and to have flung the .shells out of the hut until they ac- PRIMEVAL MAX.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 323 cumulated to a depth of several feet. It would seem that in many instances the hut itself would be half buried by the accumulation around, and doubtless the site of the dwelling is the crater which is noticed in a dune here and there. If we examine the implements and weapons which the coast people lost or Character of the broke or cast aside with the t^ooifancTn^et: Other debris of their vil- ®'^^- lages, we shall find them to be of the most primitive pattern and rudest workmanship. They are nearly or quite all of the old stone age, and the method of fracture employed in making them seems to have been less skillful than that of the oldest lake villagers, and fully as rude as the workmanship of the cave men. Great quantities of flint flakes, rough axes, lanceheads, arrow- points, weights for fishing nets, sling- stones, and awls have been recovered from the ^mounds, and they are, without exception, of the primitive pattern and finish above described. From the shell mound of Meilgaard, which was visited and examined by Sir John Lubbock in person, nineteen axes, a hundred and thirty-nine flint flakes, six bone pins, six horns, four pieces of rude pottery, one stone hammer, and twenty .sling- stones were recovered. This mound is merely specimental of scores of others that existed and still exist along the coast of Denmark. These, like the lake villages and the cave dwellings, have contributed thousands of specimens to the European museums, and these have been arranged and classified with re- spect to their antiquity, so that he that rans may read the story of a prehistoric age. The extreme simplicity, not to say barbarity, of the method of life of the shell-mound people has already been in- dicated. As compared with the lake villagers of Switzerland, even of the old stone age, they were far behind. The lake men were acquainted with wheat and barley, and low grade of even ^\ath the manufac- ^^'''^^^''^^' ture of bread. But in the shell mounds no traces of grain have been discovered, nor have any relics of vegetables such as men would use for food been found in the debris around the huts. The people seem to have subsisted altogether upon the shellfish which they gathered along the shore, either by digging in the sand with the recession of the tide, or by rude nets which they dragged in shoal water. These moUusks, together with certain birds and wild animals which they were able to capture, constituted the only food of the hut dwellers. The four principal varieties of sea mollusks which the mound builders ate, and which indeed constitut- Nature of the ed their chief supply, were ^f^^°^ the oyster, the cockle, the i^eaps. mussel, and the periwinkle. All of these, as is indicated by the shells, were of larger size than those now found on the same coasts. The oyster has wholly disappeared from these waters, and doubtless the other species were of different varieties from those now exist- ing. It must not be understood, how- ever, that the bones of birds and mam- mals are wanting in the mounds. On the contrary, these are rather plentiful. Professor vSteenstrup has estimated that each cubic foot of the shell material con- tains on the average ten or twelve bones. The mound at Havelse has yielded about three thousand five hundred speci- mens of the bones of mammals, and more than two hundred of birds. Fish bones other than those of the sea mol- lusks are also found intermixed in the mounds. The remains of the herring, the dorse, the dab, and the eel have 824 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. been plentifully recovered in several localities. Of the relics of mammalia, the most common are of the stag, the roedeer, and wud beasts the wild boar. In addi- wtcrn°r.:id! tion to these, bones of the deuers. urus, the bear, the dog, the fox, the wolf, the marten, the otter, the porpoise, the seal, the water rat, the beaver, the lynx, the wild cat, the hedge- hog, and the mouse have been found in the shell mounds, but sparsely distrib- uted. It will be at once observed from these facts that the animals which the DANISH SHF.I.L-MO0N-I) AXES. coast people were able to take and kill were generally of the smaller species. The extreme scarcity of the bones of the heavier and fiercer beasts might well beget a doubt as to whether the pre- historic man of this coast dared to meet them in combat at all. Another striking feature revealed by the exploration of the shell mound is that all of the animals here eni:merated were wild. It appears very doubtful whether even the dog had become the friend of the dwellers in these seashore huts. At any rate, his bones have the same aspect as those of the creatures of the woods. The fact of the complete destruction or corfsumption of the animals with which the shore people came in contact is illustrated by the absence inferences as to of entire skeletons and fXttl^fof the miscellaneous distri- the race, bution of the bones. It is generally the long bones that are found scattered among the shells. The heads of these have been broken off and reduced to edible conditions, or else have decayed in the course of ages. In all cases the bone shaft has been opened for the mar- row ; from which it appears that the coast people had the same appetite for this delicacy as did the cave dwellers. From the absence of skeletons, or even large parts thereof, it has been more dif- ficult for naturalists to reconstruct the ani- mals of the Dani.sh coast than of any other situations ; but enough has been gathered to justify the foregoing statement relative to the wild creatures with which the shell- mound people were familiar. An interesting illustration of the skill of antiquaries in looking into the past is furnished in their meth- Methods of de- od of determining the ^.X^tfU^/ habits of the prehistoric sheu mounders. tribes of Denmark. It is known, for in- stance, that they were not migratory, Init that they held their abode in the same huts the year around. This fact was ascertained from an examination of the bones of the birds upon which these people in part subsisted. Some of these birds, as for instance the singing swan, visit this coast only in the winter. In the month of March they leave for the PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 325 Fuegians ; de- scription by Dar'win. South, and return late in November, but the distribution of wild swan bones is frequent in the shell mounds. It ap- pears certain, therefore, that they were taken in winter. Therefore the coast people had their residence here in win- ter. Again, the horns of stags are cast at certain seasons of the year, and one or two other animal phenomena of like sort have a periodical significance. From the collation of these facts it is proved that the hut dwellers in the lo- calities here described remained in their place throughout the year, and were not merely fishermen of the summer season. We thus see on the Danish coast an- other type of primitive life quite distinct Analogue of the from those which Ave have hitherto considered. It is likely, withal, that their manner of existence was not very dif- ferent from that of certain tribes still living in the exti^eme of South America. The Terra del Fuegians subsist in a manner very analogous to that ascribed above to the prehistoric tribes of Den- mark. They have no domestic animals except the dog. They live almost ex- clusively on shellfish, and their huts along the coast, if continuing undis- turbed for a sufficient period, would doubtless be surrounded by a collection of waste materials almost identical with those of the remote age of the shell- mound people of the North. The great naturalist, Charles Darwin, says of these tribes: " The inhabitants, living chiefly itpon shellfish, are obliged constantly to change their place of residence; but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the pile of old shells, which must often amount to some tons in weight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright green color of certain plants which invariably grow on them. . . . The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, a haycock. It merely con- sists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground, and very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. , . . Viewing such men, one can hardly make oneself be- lieve they are fellow-creatures and in- habitants of the same world. ... At night five or six human beings, naked and scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals. Whenever it is low water they Booe harpoon of the Stone Age of Denmark. Arrouhead of reindeet honi. FINDS FROM THE KITCHEN MIDDENS. must rise to pick shellfish from the rocks ; and the women, winter and summer, either dive to collect sea eggs or sit pa- tiently in their canoes, and, with a baited hair line, jerk out small fish. If a seal is killed, or the floating carcass of a pu- trid whale discovered, it is a feast; such miserable food is assisted by a few taste- less berries and fungi." All attempts to construct an authentic chronology for the age of the coast people whose rude life is here depicted are futile. The fact that such modes of 326 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. tribal evolution exist in different ages has already been dwelt upon. We have Not possible to jiist seen that the Fuegian thelXxiS' tribes in the extreme of tribes. South America are still in this aboriginal state of development ; and we know that in the north of Denmark the shell-mound people had passed away before the beginnings of history. The evidence of this is complete and irre- fragable. It is known, moreover, that not only were these tribes prehistoric, but tliat they held their rude career at a very remote period, even archaeologically considered. We are able in part to measure the distance of the epoch of the coast men Botanical indi- by Certain transformations 'T^^^.llVi}^"'' which we know to have Temote antiq- »i'ty- taken place in the vegetable kingdom. Since the earliest references in the works of the Roman naturalists the countries of Northern Europe have been heavily covered with a forest of beech. This has been the prevailing growth of these regions since about the time when iron began to be used for implements and weapons. It is well known in the botanical history of the world that the forest of beech is preceded in the plant- cycle of nature by a forest of oak, Avhich in its turn has a long period of duration as the prevalent growth. That is, be- fore the beginnings of the present beech forest of Northern Europe an oak for- est prevailed in the same countries for indefinite ages. It is also known that in like manner the pine precedes the oak. That is, the order of nature is, first, so far as we are able to discover, a forest of pine, which at length falls into decrepi- tude and is succeeded by a forest of oak. This, in its turn, and after a long cycle, grows old, maintains for a while a pre- carious existence, then gives place to a forest of beech. At the present time the beech forest is growing old, and will at length give place to some other. But we know that the present prevailing woods in Denmark and other regions of the North have existed there since a time long before the age of Pliny — even, before the founding of Rome. Now an examination of the bones of the birds which Avere taken and eaten by the coast people and shell-mound era shows conclusively that some of the birds in question were of spe- Bird-ufe bears cies which are known to r^r^on^iu*^' feed upon the berries of sion. the pine tree ! So slight a fact is one of many sufficient indications that point un- mistakably to the conclusion of the ex- treme antiquity of the age which we are here considering. It is by this kind of patient reseaixh that our knowledge of prehistoric peoples has been widened and developed into its present amplitude ; and though it is by no means complete and satisfactory, it is nevertheless suffi- cient to enlighten the present races in- habiting the earth with respect to the manners and customs of those who slumber in its bosom. Coincident with the discoveries which have led to the reconstruction of primi- tive life in the manner over-water hab- hitherto described, have '^^:^;^^ been others quite analo- banks also. gous. Not only did primeval tribes inhabit the shores of the sea and build thereon their rude huts, scattering around the waste and refuse of their daily life, but others like them in habit and character chose the river banks. It is well known that the currents of rivers var}- somewhat in their place and direc- tion. The bed of a running stream is by no means a constant feature in geog- raph}'. Though in general it traverses a valley, it will be found in one age against the hills on one side, and in the PRIMEVAL MAX.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 327 next age on the other. Moreover, the volume of water is much greater in some epochs than in others. As a gen- eral fact, the streams and rivers of the early ages of the world were much fuller and stronger than they are to-day. As a world grows older its streams grow weaker, until they finally disappear, and the epoch of life is at an end. The primeval age was one of humidity and plentiful rainfall and full vol- ume in the rivers. One of the principal con- comitant circumstances of the river flow is the formation of sand and gravel. Ledges of Physical condi- rock are broken roratTon'or Off and the frag, gravel beds. m e n t s divided into smaller parts. These are rolled over and over by the stream until they are worn into pebbles and gravel and sand. Vast accumulations of these materials are deposited here and there in the river elbows and bends and curves, in the valley to the right hand and into the left, and especially about the debouchure of the stream near the mouth. While this process is going on the bank.3 of the river on this side and on that are worn away and carried along with the current. Sometimes a whole valley, by a change in the course of the stream, is swept oi:t and deposited somewhere below. These circumstances must be borne in mind if we would apprehend clearly the nature of the discoveries to which attention will now be called. As early as the beginning of this century implements and weapons were known to have been gathered from river-drift gravel beds, but the signifi- cance of such discoveries was unnoticed or ignored. There has been a strange disposition, even on the part of scholars, to maintain old traditionary views about the age of man on the earth. Every new fact tending to show the antiquity of the human race has been resisted and resented as a sort of intrigue against the integrity of existing beliefs. In geological science this tendencv has been especially noticeable. Geolo- ^4 It was from this ?°^l'^t°i°=J.r respecting nver- SalutarV con- drift findings. PAL.'EOLITHIC RIVER-DRIFT SPEARHEADS. gists themselves have for a long time shut their eyes to the most palpable facts, patent to their own Dogmatism con- senses, supposable salutary con- servatism that the first discoveries of prehistoric relics in the gjavel beds, as well as in other situations, were ignored and denied. Those who were deter- mined to maintain the old views respect- ing the chronology of the earth and its inhabitants put forward all sorts of ridic- ulous hypotheses to account for that which was unaccountable under their own theory. They even published 328 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. treatises in which it was boldly alleged that the old stone implements which had been found in prehistoric situations were forgeries which had been jserpe- trated against authentic science — that those who were trying to disturb the current beliefs of mankind had invented the alleged discoveries to produce a new hypothesis respecting the antiquity of the human race ! Gradually, however, light dawned and the truth was acknowledged. One nat- uralist after another became convinced that the weapons and uten- C.ireful exami- aation of the flu- sils found m the gravel vial deposits. i -. . i. i ^ • beds were m such relation with geological facts as to compel a be- lief in their remote antiquity. Many of the men most eminent for learning in Europe visited distant localities and con- ducted personal exj^lorations in order to establish the truth or falsity of the new view of the antiquity of man. The re- sult has been corroborative of that de- duced from other fields of inquiry; and it is now as well known that prehistoric races dwelt in Europe in the time of the mammoth, and wrought rough imple- ments of flint in the post-pliocene era of geology, as it is known that the Assyri- ans flourished on the Tigris and that Caesar led Roman legions across the Rhine. The evidences of the existence of primitive tribes along the river valleys of Western Europe have been discovered more abundantly in France Buch findings •' extend to the than in any other country ; British Isles. i ^ ^i • 11 i- but the river banks of England have also yielded their testi- mony. Before the beginning of the eighteenth century a British weapon had been found in a gravel bed in con- nection with an elephant's tooth, in a situation described as being " opposite to Black Mary's, near Graye's Inn Lane." This weapon is described as a large black flint, shaped into the figure of a spearpoint. It is known to have been engraved as early as 17 15, and a print of it has been preserved in Leland's Collectanea. Since the science of antiq- uities has been developed in our own day, this ancient implement has been shown to be of the same pattern, work- manship, and quality with those found in like situations on the Continent. Several of the rivers of France have been specially rich in their yield of pre- historic relics. The princi- Rjver valleys of pal of these are the Somme, ^^^:^^^ the Seine, and the Oise. reiios. In the valley of the first of these streams the explorations have been conducted with scientific skill, and the discoveries made have been fortified as to their verity with all the care and penetration which the best scholars of Europe have been able to bring to the question. It will be of interest in this connection, therefore, to look briefly at the geologi- cal character of the vSomme valley, and the position in which human relics have been found therein, to the end that the reader may have before him a clear statement of the situation and proof of the results. The discoveries on the Somme have been made for the most part in the neighborhood of Amiens and Abbeville. At these places the valley, character of the from hill to hill, is about "'^^l^^t^lt a mile in breadth. The Somme. main geological formation of the country is chalk. Through this, in the glacial period, the valley of the river was plowed out, and in this wide, low trough the stream still makes its way to the sea. But in the course of ages many second- ary formations have taken place in con- nection with the river. What is properly called the river bottom is filled up in PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 329 a broad, deep in some places this neighborhood Avith bed of peat. This is thirty feet in depth and more than a third of a mile in breadth. In this peat bed, Avhich has been slowly forming for many centuries, at a great depth therein, stone implements and other relics of a pre- historic people have been found. The bones of extinct mammalia are here associated with the works of man in such relation as to estab- lish their contem- poraneity. The peat forma- tion in the Somnie valley, however, is one of the newer ac- cretions peculiar to the situation. If the observer take his stand on the low peat bog near the margin of the stream and look to the hills on either side he shall find, at two or three levels in the chalk formation which rises to the height of two or three hundred feet, beds of gravel crop- ping out of the banks. Through these beds, which were mani- festly formed by the river in the older Time relations agcs of the tertiary epoch, the stream has gradually worked its Avay down, by attrition, to lower and lower levels, leav- ing the gravel beds far above the present position of the stream. Above the out- croppings of these beds the old chalky walls which constitute the barriers of the valley are seen rising to the general level of the country above, which is a M. Vol. I 72 plateau spreading off in slight undula- tions. Even the novice in geology is able to perceive that the peat bogs in the bottom of the valley are of recent origin as compared with the old gravel beds lying far above the present level of the river. Yet it is in these gravel beds that the discoveries of some of the most ancient specimens of human workman- ship in the world have been made : and of the peat beds to the chalk formations. PAL.EOLITHIC RIVER-DRIFT LANCF.HEADS AND AX OF ARCHAIC PATTERNS. the situation in which thev have been found has been scanned with so much care, and the explorations conducted with such scientific accuracy, as to preclude all doubt relative to the verity and signifi- cance of the facts in question. .Sir Charles Lyell estimates that more than a thousand implements have been taken from the gravel beds in the neigh- borhood of Amiens. They are all of a common type, and belong to the oldest 830 GREAT RACES OE MAXKTKD. epoch known to archaeology. They have been classified under three heads, the Character of the first of which includes the i:^tnsd':p'o:. spearpoints; the second, a "■s- sort of almond-shaped im- plements which appear to have been used as axes for general purposes, such as breaking bones and cracking holes in the ice ; and thirdly, flint flakes and ar- rowheads. All of these are produced by mere fracture, not a single specimen bearing the marks of grinding or polish- ing. The forms are rude, but the work- manship immistakably human. In many instances the prehistoric artisan has taken advantage of the natural form of the flint, and merely modified it by breaking one J>i7rt into a cutting form. It has been noted that between the spearheads and the almond-shaj^ed axes several in- termediate grades of implements exist, which would seem to show that the end in view was not clearly defined in the minds of the makers. Yet in the midst of the manifest barbarity of the epoch in which these implements were created there has been found a single evidence of taste in certain small globular bodies, with a tubular cavity in the center, which appear to have been used for ornamen- tation. Notwithstanding the abundant proof that the weapons and tools above de- Beasons for Scribed are the relics of hu- maTremafn^s"; "^'1" activity in a prehistoric the river-drift, ^^ge, Very few human re- mains, properly so called, have been found in the river-drift gravel beds. Only an occasional tmderjaw, or some other of the harder parts of the frame of man have been recovered in these sit- uations. The bones of animals are much more frequent, and are easily defined ; but a moment's reflection will show that these facts would be indicated by right reason. As for the animal remains found in the gravel, they are evidently the fragments of mammals that Avere drowned by ordinary accident or in times of flood. In such emergencies man is more expert and cautious than the lower orders. Even in his lowest estate he has some measure of foresight, and es- capes from a dangerous situation. The gravel pits were not the places of burial. They do not mark the exact sites of hu- man dwellings. They represent mate- rials that were carried to their present place by the action of water. In many cases these materials have been brought from considerable distances. Even an occasional human skeleton given to the river would be tossed and broken and worn, in its course onward, being ground against stones and pebbles into elemen- tary fragments. Moreover, decay does its work. The hardest bone will not survive forever, even under conditions favorable to its preservation. The paucity of human remains in the gravel beds is in close analogy with the like fact in the shell mounds sheu mounds of Denmark. They, ?i;°X?r?- too, have yielded in but mains of men. rarest instances any actual fragments of the human frame, and it is easy to see that more might be expected from the kitchen middens, with their abundant detritus of man's habitation and localized association with his life, than in the case of river-drift heaped up at long dis- tances from the place where he had his abode. Not only in the gravel pits of the val- ley of the Somme, not only in like situa- tions along the banks of Extent of the the Seine and the Oise, have ^j^.^^^f^i^'ol these relics of the prehis- England, toric life of man been discovered. Like revelations have been made in the river bottoms and sandpits of Great Britain. In a gravel bed at Hoxne, in Suffolk, PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI 1. 1. 331 specimens of human workmanship hke those above described were found as early as the beginning of this century. In similar formations between Guildford and Godalming, flint implements of the old stone age have been foimd and pre- served. It must be borne in mind that the special significance of such discov- eries lies in the fact of the association in the gravel beds of these human remains with the bones of the mammoth and other extinct species belonging to the post-tertiary period of geology. In vari- ous other localities like revelations have been made by explorations of gravel beds, such, for instance, as those at Ickling- ham, at Heme Bay, at Abbot's-Langley, and at Green Street Green, in Kent. In a layer of river-drift, near Bedford, bones of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the primitive ox, the horse, and the deer have been found in prehistoric relations with flint imple- ments belonging to the old stone age. In short, the discoveries made in the gravel beds of Great Britain have fully corroborated and verified those made in the valley of the Somme and on other parts of the Continent. We thus see that along the river ^■al- leys of Europe, at a tinie before the in- coming of the first Aryan tribes, prime- val races had possession Deductions re- of the country in various T^lf^^:^,.. parts, and had begun those er-drift epoch, rude activities out of which the civilized condition was ultimately to spring. The relics described in these last paragraphs are of the most primitive pattern and Avorkmanship. They indicate, indeed, the very first emergence of men from the state of absolute nature and barbarity. The tool-making and tool-using instinct marks, perhaps, the very earliest stages of human development. Whatever may have been the origin of man in these western parts of Europe, we see him, in these far prehistoric times, either an ab- solute savage or a barbarian, but slightly elevated above the savage state. Per- haps if our knowledge were more com- plete we should be able to delineate many other circumstances relative to these hard beginnings of civilized life in Europe. The future may still contrib- ute something to our further enlighten- ment relative to the habits and manners of prehistoric peoples, but for the pres- ent Ave must remain satisfied with an approximate view of their condition. CHAPTER XIX.— rvlKX OK THE TUMULI. F> F O R E d ism i ssi n g th e subject of the prehis- toric life of man on the I continent of EurojDe, still another field of inquiry remains to be considered. In all parts of the European countries, from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and from the Brit- ish Isles to the Ural mountains, another class of facts, bearing unmistakable evi- dence of the ancient activities of men, are plentifully distributed. These are the mounds which the tribes builded, in burial and for other TumuU and oth- _ 11 11 „ 1 er memorials of purposes, generally called pHmevaimaniu Tumuli: standing stone Europe, structures of several A-arieties, knoAvn as Menhirs, Cromlechs, and Dol- mens; barroAvs, camps, fortifications, dykes, and perhaps altars of sacrifice, besides manv other kinds of rude 332 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. architecture and memorials. Such re- mains, hardly of sufficient dij^^nity to be known as' ruins, are found not only in Europe but everywhere in the world. Abundance of such remains throughout the world. MENHIK, AT CROISIK, FRANX'E. Perhaps no country, great or small, is ■without such manifest evidences and il- lustrations of the long dead activities of races and tribes unknown to history. EveryA\'ere this substratum of human life, more aboriginal than the aborigines, existed. Traces of it are found on every hand. America, as well as the older lands, abounds in astonishing proofs of nations that existed here, even in strength, between whom and the Indian races that held the continent on its open- ing to civilization as wide a space of time and character exists as that between the rudest of the Red men and their .Saxon conquerors. The mound builders have been abroad ; and the long, serpentine mole of earth, or conical hill, of artificial con- struction, standing here and there in the civilized coun- tries of to-day, bear mute, but everlasting testimony of the ancient and un discoverable peoples who have gone down to dust. It is said by Sir John Lubbock that in the Orkney islands more than a thousand of these tumuli and stone heaps are found. In the Danish Meaning of the peninsula the number is tumuu and stone , .-, , T ., . T monuments. still greater, and it would be safe to say that in America more than ten thousand such monuments of pre- historic times exist. The variety ex- hibited in these relics of a past age is almost as great as their number. Per- haps a majority of all were intended as monument.s to the dead, but the details are different, and many volumes could not contain an elaborate description of all. We know from history that even from the daydawn of authentic story men were disposed to mark the resting place of the dead with a trophy. Pillars were set up as the tangible evidence of important transactions. In general, every crisis in life, as well as its termi- nation, demanded a testimonial. It is said in the Assyrian annals that Semir- amis buried her husband under a mound of earth. A stone heajj was made over the tomb of the father of CEdipus. In the heroic age the building of mounds over the dead was the custom of the time. Patroclus, friend of the crested Achilles, was buried under a tumulus a DANlbH iJOLMt.N. hundred feet in height ; and it has been reported in tradition that Alyattes, father of Croesus, had a stone-and-earthen tomb more than a mile in circumference. PRIMEVAL MAN. —MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 333 The mounds of which we are here to speak belong to a remoter and ruder age The mounds than that of the Trojan War f:?wrof "^^ o'- the conquest of Canaan bronze. by the Hebrews. And yet they are not of so great antiquity as those prehistoric memorials which we situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England. It is the most striking relic of its kind in the world, RuinofStone- and has been many times ^^^^ii'^.^adi- described by travelers and tio"^. antiquaries. It consists of two great circles of upright stones, one exterior to CROMLECH OF HALSKOV, DENMARK. have examined in the preceding chapter. In general, the tumuli of Europe were built in the age of bronze, and therefore are posterior by a long epoch to the times of the cave dwellers and coast people. This is plainly evidenced in the utensils and weaiDons which are recovered from the mounds, and which are almost invariably of bronze material. The workmanship, more- over, is of that half- elegant desiarn and exe- cution which belong to an age subsequent, by many centuries, even to the neolithic, or new stone, epoch. It now remains foriis to exam- ine, at least casually, some of the existing monuments belonging to the age of the mound builders in Western Europe. One of the most striking of these memorials is the great megalithic ruin known by the name of Stonehenge, the other. The outer circle is about three hundred feet in circumference, and the stones in this row are as much as sixteen feet in height and six feet in diameter. On the tops of the rude pil- lars are laid other stones, horizontally. DANISH TUMULUS. The inner circle is nine feet distant from the outer. The stones composing it are of smaller dimensions than the others, and are in the native condition. while those of the outer circle have been 334 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. roughly liewn. The capstones also bear the marks of having been rudely cut into their present shape. Originally the outer colonnade con- tained thirty of these great pillars, with their capstones, or imposts. Only sev- enteen of them now remain in posi- tion. The inner circle consisted at first of forty pillars, only a part of approach to the structure. Traces of smaller avenues are also to be found, and in the vicinity of the ruin are vari- ous stones which seem to have consti- tuted originally a part of the general design. The whole aspect of the ruin as seen to-day is weird and spectral in the last degree, and the beholder can but be impressed with the strangeness. rKi:Hl>rc)KI( (^R.WEVARD ok quaternary period, near LITTAI, IN" CARNIOLA, AUSTRIA. which are now standing. Within the inner circle another series of pillars, oval in character, and originally nineteen in number, are found, which rise in height toward the center. Around the outside rim was drawn a moat and a rampart about three hundred and sev- enty yards in circumference. On the northeast of the great circle and run- ning out for a distance of about six hundred }-ards, there are evidences of as well as the antiquity of the monu- ment before him. Stonehenore has long been a fertile topic in tradition. The oldest story of all is that griven by Nennius, *= -' Stories of Nen- in the ninth century. He mus and cam- declares that the structure was erected by Aurelianus Ambrosius, m memory of four hundred British chief- tains who were slain there by Hengist and his Saxon barbarians, in 472. At PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 335 the close of the twelfth century, Giral- dus Cambrensis, another annalist, tells a long story of a great pile of stones called the Giant's Dance, anciently found BURIAL UR.Ns (ENLARGED IROM li;l.i;ir,: 1 Ni i CUT). in Ireland. He narrates that the stones in question were brought to Ireland by a company of Titans out of Africa, who Britons, procured Merlin, by supernat- ural means, to bring from Ireland into Britain. And that he might leave some famous monument of so great a treason to future ages, in the same order and art as they stood formerly, set them up where the flower of the British nation fell by the cutthroat practice of the Saxons, and where, under the pretence of peace, the ill-secured 3-outh of the kingdom, by murderous designs, were slain." This story happily illustrates the com- pass and authenticity of mediaeval his- torv. It is well known that Authenticity of the pillars composing the ^o^ySI^r^;.! ruin of Stonehenge were hereby, taken from stone quarries in the neigh- borhood, so that no African giants were needed to bring them across the sea. It is also well established by an exami- nation of the mounds in the vicinity that the structure belongs to a period not only earlier than the invasion of Hengist and his Saxon marauders, but long anterior to the conquest by the Romans at the beginning of our era. It is true that no mention is made \ltW Ot bTONEHENGE. set then:^ up on the plains of Kildare, not far from the castle of Naas. ' ' These stones," continues the story-teller, ■"Aurelianus Ambrosius, King of the of Stonehenge, by name, in the Latin authors, but Hecatseus, a Greek histo- rian, who flourished at Miletus about 550 B. C, describes a magnificent cir- 336 GREAT RACES OF MANKIhW. cular temple, situated in what he calls " The island of the Hyperboreans, over against Celtica," and the description is of a kind to warrant the conclusion that the edifice in question was no other than Stonehenge. Clustered around this great ruin of prehistoric times are many tumuli, con- Extent of burial taining the dead and the mounds in con- jj which Were buried nection -with Stonehenge. with them. No fewer than three hundred burial mounds are foimd within a radius of three miles from the stone pillars marking the site of what was doubtless a primitive temple. From this it would appear that the whole area round about ««*®o. o*" o 9 %K 9 e ¥\ C Q ^^ « GROUND PI-A^^ OF DANISH CROMLECH. was an ancient cemetery, with some sort of barbaric temple in the center. The tumuli are manifestly tombs. In every case, on opening one of these mounds, the remains of the dead are found. In the great majority of cases the interment has been by cremation, and the evidences show that the manner of sepulture was identical with that gen- erally employed in the age of bronze. If we open one of the tumuli — and hundreds of them have been explored — we shall find invariablv Positions of the primeval dead the remains of one or more in sepulture. , , . tt human beings. Here again we discover that difference of instinct in method which has al- ways characterized the The dead two pos- tures, one sitting and the other prone, after the manner employed in modern burial. There seem to have been pains taken in the adjustment of the body in a posture befitting repose ; and in determining what this should be, doings of men, are placed in GROUND PLAN OF DANISH DOLMEN. some of the prehistoric tribes chose one position and some another. The same variety has been noticed in the case of our Indian aborigines in America, many of whom arrange the bodies of the dead in a sitting posture. In the prehistoric burial mounds which we are now con- sidering, utensils and food were placed SEl'L'LCHKAL MUNE CIRCLE. about the body as if to serve the dead in the land of the hereafter. It is here that tire best revelation of the manner of life peculiar to these people has been made, and the best evidence afforded of the epoch to which they belonged. As already said, the implements ex- humed from the tumuli are almost inva- riably of bronze. In a The mounds be- few instances iron weapons '°^}:^:''^'^''^'' have been discovered, but bronze, it has been invariably found on closer scrutiny that the same have resulted from a subsequent burial in an old grave. Not a single instance is known of the re- POSITION OF SKELETONS IN A TOMB OF THE STONE AGE. covery from a tumulus, either in Western France or Great Britian, of implements or other relics belonging to the period PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TUMULI.. 337 of the Roman ascendency, and in only a few cases have the discoveries carried the antiquary back to a period more re- mote than that of the age of bronze. We may for a moment consider the facts before us from a higher point of view. The tumuli of the British Isles are only one of several kinds of receptacle for the prehistoric dead. The palseolithic and neolithic ages, as well as the age of Diverse meth- ods of races re- specting death and burial. life the fact of death impressed the living more seriously than any other phenome- non whatsoever. This led, even in the lowest stages of bai'barism, to the insti- tution of rites and ceremonies connected with the final putting away of the body. It was one of the points at which the primitive tribes easily diverged in their customs and methods. There was from the first a contest of belief as to the best manner of disposing of the dead. One FUNERAL IN THE PAL.t;0LITHIC AGE.^Drawnby Emile Bayard. bronze, had their burial places, funerals, and rude theories of death. Barbarism developed into several forms of burial method according to the locality and the situation. The manner of disposing of the dead was, indeed, one of the most striking features of the barbaric life. It would appear that from the earliest emergence of man into the conscious plan was to reduce the body to ashes, and another was to preserve it in some situation where it might be protected from disturbance and, we might say, sacrilege ; for we may well believe that among the primal instincts of .'ravages one of the first of those sentiments which tend to the elevation of mankind was respect for the body. 338 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Throughout primitive Europe the evi- dences of aboriginal burial are discover- able in hundreds of localities. These have been studied with dil- igence by antiquaries, and the results of the inquiry We are able to distinguish the older places of sepulture from the newer — the palaeolithic cavern from the Burial grounds of different ages may be distin- guished. ofeneralized. pare for the funeral. Generally, after rude pagan ceremonies, a procession was formed and the body was borne away to be either burned with loud lamentation or deposited in some tomb which nature had prepared in the rocks. Could the observer from a distant and civilized age have been lifted up over Western Eu- rope in the epochs of aboriginal barba- KUNERAI. IN THE NEOLITHIC AGE. -Drawn by Emile Bayard. more recent neolithic burial place, and still more distinctly from the burial places of the age of bronze. The con- ditions of savage life in the respective periods are sufficiently well known to furnish the materials for the reconstruc- tion of that primeval half-savage society which prevailed for many ages. It was the custom of the tribesmen when one of their number died to as- semble at the scene of death and pre- rism he might have seen, winding here and there in solemn manner, the funeral processions on their way to the burial places of the tribe. The scene was as picturesque as instructive. The place chosen for burial or incineration was generally a solitude of cliff and wild There, about the entrance of the cavern, might be seen the gathered friends of the dead lamentino- with wild g-esticula- tions that eoinsr forth of man-life which PRIMEVAL MAX.—JIEX OF THE TUMULI. 339 they — though barbarians — had already discovered to be without return. The next point of interest to be noted in our examination of the Funeral proces- . sions and rites prehistoric burial places is of sepulture. . i i_ ^ /• ii_ the character oi the remains in such situations. As in the case of the cave dwellers, we may here learn much about the stature, form, and general character of the aborigines of Europe. type between the two extremes, called orthocephalic, or medium-headed. The orthocephalic skull is most nearly like the skull of civilized peoples, whereas the other two types depart very much from the common standard. As far as we are able to discover, the two extreme varieties of crania belonged to very- primitive peoples, while the interme- diate form is of more recent develop- KL'NERAL I EAST IX THK AGE OF RRONZE.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. of skulls discoV' ered in the tombs. The most striking fact in connection with the skeletons of the people buried The three types in the tumuH of the Brit- ish Isles is the variation pre- sented in the skulls. There seem to be three distinct types of skull revealed by an examination of the tombs. These are what are called long skulls, or dolichocephalic crania; short skulls, or those defined as brachycephalic ; and a ment as well as more symmetrical char- acter. The long skull, such as has been found in many of the tumuli of Great Britain, has almost as great character of a measurement as that ^db'rrchy^e-" of the Neanderthal head phaiic crania, described in a previous chapter. Xot that the long and narrow skulls of the tumuli are so distinctly animal as the 340 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. shape of skulls and burial mounds. one to -svliich reference has just been made, but their striking feature is the long suture and great measurement from front to rear. The brachycephalic crania discovered in the mounds are ex- actly the opposite of this. They are peculiarly short from front to back, and in many cases suggest to the antiquar}' that they have been squeezed up into un- natural dimensions. It seems, however, that no marks of artificial pressure have been di.scovered, and doubtless the short skulls are just as nature produced them. Another circumstance well calculated to excite the keenest interest is now to Coincidence in be noted. There IS a constant and ciiriojts relation between t/ic shape of the skulls and the shape of the tumuli in wliieh they are buried. There are two kinds of mounds : a circular tumulus and an elongated barrow ; and it is found on examina- tion that the dolichocephalic heads are invariably in the long barrows, while the short heads are in the circular mounds ! The evidence is conclusive that this ar- rangement could not have been acciden- tal, and it is almost equally clear that two races, belonging perhaps to dif- ferent prehistoric epochs, are repre- sented in these tombs. Very careful explorations have been made by skillful antiquaries. Dr. Thurnam, of England, has made accurate measurements of a hundred and thirty-seven skulls just as they were taken from the British mounds. Of these, sixty-seven were exhumed from long barrows and sev- enty from circular tumuli. Not a single long skull was found in a round tumi:- lus, or a single short .skull in an elon- gated barrow ; from which it appears conclusive that the long-headed tribes buried their dead in the elongated tu- niuli, while the circular mounds were used for the burial of the short-headed people. It would be pressing the argu- ment too far to say that these prehistoric inhabitants of Great Britian made the long barrows which they raised over their dead in imitation of the shape of their heads, but the fact remains that such queer analogy does exist and re- mains to be .accounted for. The tumuli contain almost invariably a sort of stone sarcophagus in which the human remains are depos- sarcophagi and ited. In the cases Avhere """^^^fJ^r; visions tor the cremation has been em- dead, ployed, the ashes of the dead are put into a rude urn and the latter buried in the place of the body. In the stone box are found the implements and utensils which were left with the dead, and this fact, as already indicated, points to a belief in a hereafter. It is perceived that these rude people had hopes of a continuous existence or a re- vival of existence beyond the event of death. This does not, however, imply any belief in what is called the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The evidences about the dead in these mounds all point to the confidence which the living then had of the con- tinued material existence of the person buried. Ever}' article found in connec- tion with the body is clearly related to the ordinary daily wants and con- veniences of the deceased, and the significance of such association of his implements, and even of food, with the person deceased, points only to the be- lief that the dead would continue as he had been, or at least revive at some time, in his former state of being. It must not be supposed that all of the facts here referred to are General distri- deduced from the mounds rrdst'wil locally associated with the em Europe. old ruin of Stonehenge. They have been gathered rather from many sources. 342 GREAT RACES OE JEiXAVXE. and are typical of all. This species of burial under mounds was practiced in all parts of Great Britain and nearly every- where on the Continent. The peninsula of Denmark is almost picturesque with tumuli, and under them all are the re- mains of a prehistoric people. Perhaps not a single county in England is with- out its monuments of this kind. Not only in Wiltshire, but in Gloucestershire and Berkshire, and, indeed, everywhere on the island such evidences of a prim- itive people are discovered. In Ireland, also, and in Scotland, the tumuli are plentifully scattered over the country, and are indeed in some places so abun- TUMULUS WITH STONE ENTRAN'CE, NEAR UBI, DENMARK. dant as to suggest the frequent burial grounds of modern nations. The suggestion has been made above that two or three races contributed to Evidence that people thcsc aucieut scpul- chers. This belief has well- several races were concerned in the tumuli. nigh passed from theory into fact. It has been noticed that all the stone implements discoverable in the burial mounds have been as.sociated with the long heads, whereas no weapon or utensil of stone has been found in any .sarcophagus where the short-headed tribes put away their dead. In the vaults of the latter, on the contrary, the imple- ments are all of bronze, and the work- manship indicates a very great advance toward civilization as compared with that of the utensils found in the long- head tombs. It should be said, more- over, that the stone tools and weapons in connection with dolichocephalic skel- etons are not by any means of so prim- itive a pattern as those found in the shell mounds or the cave dwellings of the Con- tinent. They are, on the contrary, neolithic, or new stone, implem^ents, which shows that the long-headed tribes flourished in the epoch before, but ap- proximate to, the age of bronze. It might not be hazardous to infer that the round heads came into the island as a bronze-bearing soldiery, overcame the long heads, or amalgamated with them, and then adopted like methods of bur- ial. It has been re- marked that the Lapps and Finns and several other existing races in the north of Europe are brachycephalic, and the hypothesis of an invasion from this region and a conquest of the pre- historic Britons is b)- no means beyond the limits of right reason. After Stonehenge, perhaps one of the most interesting monuments in the west of Europe is that of Carnac, Megalithic ruin It consists of of Carnac in Bre- tagne. in Bretagne. eleven rows of unhewn stones, set up after the manner already described, but not in circles. Some of the pillars ai'e as much as twenty-two feet in height. But in their present state they differ greatly in dimensions, some being scarcely discoverable above the level of the plain. As far as the an- tiquary has been able to trace a design for the ruin, it appears to have been a series of avenues several miles in length. At the present time, however, it is diffi- cult to make out the entire area or the PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMILI. 343 complete idea of the builders. The ad- jacent farms have encroached upon what was doubtless sacred ground, and many of the stones, even whole sections of the avenues, have been cleared away. In other parts it is still easy to note the direction and course of the roAvs of col- umns, the width and character of the in- ten-ening spaces, and something of the general design. It is believed by scholars best informed on the subject that this ruin of Carnac has an origin somewhat more remote than that of Stonehenge. Around the latter the tumuli belong, for the most part, to the age of bronze. But the mounds of Bretagne, and it is thought Carnac itself, are rel- ics and monuments of the neo- ,.= lithic age of an earlier date. The fact has been men- tioned that in many of the tu- muli more bodies than one have been de- posited. It ap- pears, however, that in most cases these multi- ple bur\'ings in the same vault took place at different times. The pri- mary burial, perhaps, included but a sin- gle person, but at a subsequent time another body would be deposited in the same rude sarcophagus which held the first. This would involve the opening of the mound. The stone box in the bottom was generally large enough to contain the remains of several persons, especial- ly when the sitting posture had been adopted in sepulture. The prehistoric people had the same respect for the bodies of the dead that modern races have cherished. It appears that only in rare instances were the original remains displaced from the sarcophagus to make room for a new occupant. In case of second burial, there was merely a re- arrangement of the old skeleton to make room for the new. It has already been mentioned that cremation was practiced at the same time with the common mode of burial. The coexistence of these two methods of disposing of the bodies of coincident the dead has been noted in T^Z^Ltl"^ Dunal and cre- the case of manj- peoples, mation. ancient and modern. The Eastern na- tions employed both. The Greeks some- times buried their dead and sometimes burned them to ashes. So also the Romans, and even at the present time we note the reappearance of cremation and its contest for the masterv as a Practice of suc- cessive buryings iu the same mound. RUINS OF CARNAC, BRETAGNE. scientific method opposed to the un- scientific, and even superstitious, dis- position of dead bodies in the earth. In the case of the tumuli we know, from the examination of the other relics left in connection with the , , . . Imperfect incin- burial urns, that the latter eration of pre- , , -I . ,1 1 historic remains. belonged to the .same epoch as the commoner method of sepulture. It mu.st be noted in this connection that incineration of the dead was by no means so complete in the times of which we speak as by the superior proc- esses of modern times. The ancients, especially the barbarian ancients, were unable to produce a high degree of arti- ficial heat. The bodies of the dead were simply exposed to the action of an open 344 GREAT K AC lis OF MAXKIXD. fire, and there was a larger residuum to be put into the urn than the mere hand- ful of ashes left from the cremation furnace of the present time. In general, the larofer and heavier bones were inere- ly charred, and these, together with the ashes, were put into the rude urn and set in the stone box in the bottom of the tumulus. Another fact of much interest is that the relics of human life and human Deposition of need, so many times re- giftsandproji- furred to in the preceding sions for deaa -t fc» not universal. pages as accompanying the remains of the dead, are bv no means buried them. Doubtless it is improper to use the words rich and poor in this connection ; but even in the reduced stages of human evolution distinctions in property and respect begin to ap- pear, and it was no doubt on this basis that the distribution of relics in pre- historic graves was made. The wealthy, if we may use the term, had more re- spect and more emblems of that respect in the day of burial. The poor, as in all ages, went down to the potter's field without such tokens of esteem. It is to be presumed that the articles deposited generally belonged aforetime to the per- BROKEN SEPl'l (UK M URN, bllnWING INCI^iERATED REMAINS. always found in the tumuli. In very many, even a majority of cases, nothing at all is found except the skeleton or skeletons of them that were buried. A gradation is noticed in the number and character of the weapons, utensils, and articles of food deposited with the body. Sometimes they are plentiful and some- times scarce. This indicates a differ- ence in rank and station among those deceased and among their friends who son buried, and inasmuch as one would have many things and his less enter- prising fellow have nothing but a spear or an ax, the first would be buried with many relics and the other with few or none. The two English naturalists, Bateman and Green well, have given classification of us the results of their obser- ,^^tw^^f"f„ implements in vations in about four hun- the mounds. dred tombs belonging to the prehistoric age. Of the two hundred and ninety- PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 345 seven examined by Mr. Bateman fully one hundred had no relics of any sort other than the bare skeletons of the per- sons buried. In forty of the tumuli he found drinking vessels and food vases. A hundred and five had imple- ments and weap- ons in connec- tion with the skeletons, and in thirty-five i n - stances articles of pottery were found. Of the one htindred and two mounds opened by Mr. Greenwell only thirty contained implements or weapons, and the other seventy- two were devoid of relics. In all the tombs which this naturalist examined the skeletons were found in a sit- ting posture; never recum- bent. In some of the mounds there are evidences of what may be called the begin- nings of ideal- ity. Instead of actual weapons and im- Deposition of plements, models of the same are sometimes bur- ied with the dead. It has been noticed in modern times, particularly among the Esquimaux, that this usage prevails. A mock M.— Vol. 1—23 weapon is put in the place of the real one in the tomb. Another fact must be borne in mind in this connection, and that is that the presence of implements and weapons in the graves of these an- models; ■what the findings sig' nify. INCINERATION OF THE DEAD, IN THE ACE OF THE TL.Ml'LI. Drawn by Ernile Bayard. cient peoples does not indicate positively their belief that the dead would revive to need and use their weapons again. The symbolical idea, the idea of com- memoration, and the influence of tradi- tion may all combine to give another significance to the presence of these 346 GREAT RACES OE MAX/kIXD. relics in the grave. Doubtless at the first they must have been buried with the dead in the belief that they would be useful to iheni in another life analo- gous to the present. Custom in this re- spect would soon grow into habit, and habit would presently have the force of law. The usage would perpetuate itself after the belief had perished. To the present day, and even among the most civilized peoples of the world, many usages obtain with respect to the dead, the significance of which could not be deduced from the literal facts present in the inquiry. Nothing is more com- mon than to deposit with the dead va- rious articles which have simply an affectional and commemorative signifi- cation. The marriage ring remains upon the finger. Favorite ornaments are care- fully adjusted as the owner was wont to wear them. Particularly are the regalia and insignia of rank put into the tomb with the departed. The priest is buried with his cross, the sailor with his com- pass, and the warrior with his sword. None of these things signify an existing belief in the further usefulness of these articles to the dead. They are com- memorative merely, conventional marks of rank, of association, and affection on the part of the living. To a certain extent these principles no doubt operated with the prehistoric peoples; and all inferences Meaning of ar- relative to the meaning ^^.^/.f/-^^ of the articles found in the human nature. barbaric tombs of extinct races must be checked and corrected by what we know to be the general laws and tendencies of human nature. Opinions and beliefs pass through many mutations, and cus- tom is known to be more persistent than either. Long after the fervid convic- tion of the truth of a certain doctrine and theory of human life and death has passed away or given place to a mild and inoperative assent of the mind, the ancient usages which were based on that belief in the epoch of its pristine vigor continue to be observed, and these might well convey to distant ages an erroneous impression of the current opinions of the people. Chapter XX.— Prehistoric Kaces ok Aivierica. ^^ ESTIGES of prehistoric races of men are by no means limited to Eu- rope and the countries of the East. In the three Americas akso such traces of peoples unknown to history are abundantly dis- tributed. It remains to note in the present chapter at least the prominent features of the ancient monuments of our own country and of the continent south of the isthmus of Panama. It is the intention merely to sketch the out- line of our primitive monuments, and to deduce therefrom a few general conclu- sions relative to the peoples by whom they were built and the ages in which they flourished. In all parts of North America, from the Alleghanies to the far West, and from the great lakes to the gulf of Mexico, a class mounds in the f „ ,1 . three Americas. ot monumental remains may be observed by the traveler and antiquary sufficiently impressive in their extent and variety, and strikingly sug^gestive of a remote antiquity. Even PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 347 in the countries east of the Appala- chians many such monuments are found. They were noted on the first arrival of the civilized races on this continent, but their significance was long ignored. It was supposed at the first that they were the works of the then existing tribes inhabiting the New World. In fact, many of the remains which are now the subjects of antiquarian research were the products of the barbarous peoples of North America and the semicivilized races of Mexico, the Central Isthmus, and Peru. It re- quires some de- ^^ ^* gree of acumen ^^r^ at the present day to distin- guish, between those monu- mental remains which are refer- able to the peo- p 1 e s possessing this continent in the times of the discovery of America and sub- sequent, and those other more monumental tro- phies of the ages long before. Modern inquiry, however, has easily sifted this question to the bottom, and the scholar of to-day is no longer perplexed by the confusion of the later with the earlier monuments. Perhaps at the beginning of the in- quiry it may be well to note the extreme Antiquity of the antiquity of the tumuli and earthworks of America as indicated by their geo- logical relations. On this continent, as well as in Europe, the great rivers were aforetime much vaster in breadth and volume than at the present day. They filled the valleys from hill to hill with great floods, sweeping on to the sea. In the long course of ages the rivers shrank to comparatively their present dimen- sions, and in doing so withdrew their waters from the hills which constituted their barrier on either side, and sought a narrower valley and a lower level. There have thus been formed what may be called the first or lower river bottom and the second plateau above. It is, perhaps, impossible to determine at what remote period this retreat from mounds indica- ted by their sit- uation. GREAT MdUND NEAK MiAMISBLKG, OHId. the higher to the lower level and from the broad floods of the earlier prehistoric geologic epoch to the mod- ^^^^^^rwr* ern streams which trav- "ver levels, erse the continent at the present time occurred ; but such is the history of the change which has taken place. In no single instance has one of the prehistoric mounds of our country been discovered on the lower terraces formed by the river. The}^ are found in many places on the higher plateaus and on uplands round about, but never on the present or recent levels of an existing stream. From this it has been clearlv inferred that the men- 348 GREAT RACES OF JfAXA'/Xn. uments in question were built before the recession of the rivers into their present channels; and it can hardly be doubted that the races who flourished in that primeval age looked down from a hu- mid atmosphere on a world abounding in turbid waters. The frequency of the American tu- muli has already been remarked. They General mystery abound. In all partS of ciitLE aOQ tl.loXht Inch k ily see, in these considerations at least, the outline of great nations con- tending for the mastery of the Mississippi valley. No other hypoth- esis will ex- plain the facts. There must have been in these regions, in an epoch long antedat- ing the era of the Red men, great agricultural peoples, with institu- tions of religion and war. There must Great peoples have been intercourse and ^oTnTfof^eT-- relations with other peo- ican antiquities, pigs like themselves, and these must sometimes have been rela- tions of hostility. Indeed, it would ap- pear from the strong military character of the greatest and most important of the monuments that war was, even in these prehistoric times, the most marked and vehement activity of the human race. A comparison of the skeletons found MILITAkV WOKKS ON I'Al.NT CREEK, OHIO. .seems to have been untouched by any nat- ural force for ages. And yet the skeletons in the American tumuli are nearly always far gone in decay. It is difficult to preserve them after their exposure to the air. They generally crumble as soon as they are taken from their long resting place. Even the .skull bones generally turn to a white powder with a few days ex- posure to the atmosphere. In the British mounds the human remains are gen- erally well preserved. Notwithstanding the moisture to which they have been 354 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. exposed in the earth and the humidity of the air of England, the skeletons stand ■well on being exhumed, and are safely transferred to their places in museums. In some instances this may be done with the mound builders of America, but not often. The naturalist will not fail to discover in the conditions and common type, but those taken from re mote tumuli show strong marks of eth- nic divergence and peculiarity. As a rule, the crania and arm bones are strict- ly human in their development. They conform to the ordinary standards of measurement and proportion, but the skulls are foreign, not to say aboriginal, POTTERY OF THE MOUND V.XJVLDV.^-i.—Viotn Magazine oj Arl. facts before him the evidences of a great- er antiquity in the case of the American remains. Considerable variety of race has been Indications of remarked among the skel- etons exhumed from the American mounds. They differ much in form and stature. Those in a given locality generally belong to a race variety; character of pre historic crania. in their form and structure. They do not correspond with the crania of any existing race of people. • On the whole, they are more in analogy with the skulls of those Oriental peoples who inhabit the eastern shores of the Pacific and the outlying islands. Some well-preserved skulls, taken from prehistoric mounds in Indiana and preserved in the museum of PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 355 that vState, have a striking likeness to the heads of the Japanese, but are smaller in capacity than the crania of that people On the whole, the prehistoric races of North America were rather under the The Little Men average stature of the Red lid L'kTet" men or the civilized peoples nessee valleys, of our continent. Some- times remains are found which are reall}- diminutive. Nor are the cases of this kind isolated or peculiar. On the Cum- berland river, in Tennessee, several pre- historic cemeteries have been examined, in which the remains are uniformly of a small race. So marked is this pecul- iarity that some have supposed that the skeletons in question are those of infants and children. But a closer examination has proved them to be adult. The re- gion in which these pygmy cemeteries are located is very favorable for the pres- ervation of the dead. The soil is dry and sandy. The remains are invariably found in small stone boxes, and the ob- server can hardly believe that they are the skeletons of a full-grown, adult people. On thrusting down from the surface a sharp iron rod the stone lid of one of Character of the these small crypts may be graves ; the sar- fQ^^^d, and ou excavating cophagi, and the ' o remains therein, the earth the box Can be ex- amined in its undisturbed condition. The graves have been constructed orig- inally by excavating small, oblong vaults and placing thin, undressed slabs of sandstone at the bottom, sides, and ends. After the burial a flat capstone was placed on top, thus completing the box. The inside of one of these minia- ture sarcophagi measures from ten to fourteen inches in width, ten to twelve inches in depth, and from fourteen inches to two feet in length. The space is so small that no well-grown person of an existing race, unless it should be a native Australian, could be buried in it, even in a contracted position. But the prehistoric skeleton which is found in- closed has, generally, room enough, though the parts are frequently flexed and sometimes doubled back. The mounds covering the prehistoric pygmies are thickly strewn in favorable positions along the banks of the Cumberland. The manner and epoch of the disap- pearance of the mound builders from North America remains Manner of the conjectural. Nor is it like- ^^^S^^oric"' ly that the ingenuity and races unknown, adroitness of human scholarship will ever be able to exhume from the past the manner and time of their disappear- ance. On the whole, they would seem to have been a people worthy of a his- tory ; but their extinction was so com- plete that whatever may have been the extent and variety of their national life, all has gone out together. Philosophers have devoted volumes to the causes of national decline, and the question is still open for rational solution. It ma}- be truthftilly urged that the seeds of ethnic decay exist in certain peoples in virtue of their own constitutions and the nature of their activities. Whether races grow old and die as the individual ; whether different families of men are de- flected by evolutionary processes from one phase of existence to another ; wheth- er sudden metamorphoses take place, in obedience to natural laws, such as are alleged to occur at rare intervals in the animal kingdom, are philosophical ques- tions which the inquirer of the future must solve, if indeed they are soluble at all. Certain circumstances, however, may be cited which are at least effective as assisting forces in the extinction of races. The prevalence of vicious and 356 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. luxurious habits, gradually supplanting the early and robust virtues of a people, tend unmistakably to na- Forces that tend . to the extermi- tlonal Overthrow. i he ex- nation of races. ^^^.^^^^ f^j.^gg ^f ^^.^j. ^j^^^ the great cataclysms of nature may also account for the destruction and disap- pearance of peoples. It is doubtless true that in prehistoric ages great submer- gences of peopled islands and continents been threatened by the rage of epidemics. Among uncivilized peoples the accumu- lation of stores for the future is but little attended to. That prudence and fore- sight which keeps up the resources of life against the day of calamity are but little practiced by barbarians, or even by races half emerged from barbarism. For these reasons prehistoric peoples have been greatly exposed to the ravages of AZTEC RUINS AT PALENyUE, IN CHIAPAS, MEXICcJ. have taken place, while others have risen, dripping, from the deep. Earthquakes and volcanic disturbances of the great crust of the globe have terrified and driven awav what thevhave not engulfed. Finally, famine and pestilence have done their work on prehistoric as well as his- toric races. There are times within the recorded story of national life when not only the depopulation of great districts, but the extinction of whole nations has famine. At intervals the earth has unaccountably withheld her gifts. A few seasons of want in succession would be sufficient to exterminate an isolated and uncommercial nation, and that such calamities have actually fallen upon peoples like the mound builders of Amer- ica can not be doubted. Beyond the limits of the United States the tumuli and other evidences of by- gone races are generally secondary. Iq PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 357 one sense they are prehistoric, but in another they fall, for the most part, Extinct peoples within the activities of peo- ?c?nTa"rfoX plcs who have been known present. within the historical epoch. The Mexican races that flourished in the days of the Spanish invasions, at the beginning- of the sixteenth century, may well be considered as the remote extreme of the people by whom the monuments of Mexico Avere erected. The same is true of the peoples of Central America and of the Peruvians. The Aztecs, the Coztecs, the Guatemalian tribes, and the Peruvians, though much more advanced than the Red men of Xorth America, are collateral with them in time and national development. In the case of our North American Indians, we know that they belonged to a different race from the mound builders, and that they flourished in an age long subsequent to the prevalence of the former on this con- tinent. We have not the same clear evidence of the existence of a people back of the Mexicans, the Central Americans, and the Peruvians. Such a people may have existed, and there are evidences here and there of a truly pre- historic basis for that type of national life which was encountered by the Spanish invaders under Cortez and Pizarro. The ancient monuments of ilexico are among the most imposing of primi- Mexicanmonu- tive ruins. They have a Sr^iSouT' solidity and grandeur sug- purpose. gestive of the vast struc- tures which the antiquarian encounters in the valleys of the Xile and the Eu- phrates. They differ fundamentally in their character from the mounds and fortifications of Central North America in this, that the latter were military structures in their first intent, while those of Mexico are based upon religion and its ceremonials. In the case of the North American tumuli, the long moles and circumvallations were created under the warlike purpose of the race that reared them, and the religious part of the monuments are only secondary to the dominant ideas of warfare. In the Mexican tumuli and pyramids the exact reverse is true. Evidence is not wanting that they at times subserved a military purpose — that within their ramparts the nation retreated and defended itself against the foe. But the general idea of all the monumental remains in the region under consideration is that of religion and priestly ceremonial. A general sketch of the character and pur- pose of the ilexican monuments can not fail to prove of interest. The structures in question have all, with very few exceptions, a common plan. A g-reat square is ^ ° ^ Plan and mate- laid off on the earth, with its rials of the pyra- r -1 i j.1. J • 1 midal temples. four sides to the cardinal points of the compass. This square is surrounded with walls strong and high. The structure of the same is sun-dried bricks, or even in some cases stone. Centrally located within the great rec- tangle thus inclosed is the ^ite of the temple. A square foundation of solid masonry is laid, extending to t\\ hun- dred, three hundred, or even five hun- dred feet on each side. From this foundation a great structure like a pyra- mid is carried up in a succession of terraces. The design is almost Identical with some of the oldest monuments of the human race found in the valley of the lower Euphrates and attributed to the ancient Chaldaeans. In both instances the successive platforms of masonry grow smaller toward the top, and in both there is generally a deflection of the work toward one side, so that the pyra- mid does not stand centrally over the 358 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. foundation, but nearer, as a rule, to the western edge. The eastern side of the pyramid, facing the morning sun, is ascended by a flight of steps to the upper square. The structure is trun- cated ; that is, cut off above without be- ing carried to an apex. On the upper platform is biiilt the temple proper, AZTEC STRUCTURE — ARCH OF LAS MONJAS. which also faces the east. Sometimes on the terrace more temples than one are reared. It is in evidence that several deities were worshiped from the same platform. Each had his own fane and ceremonial. Temples of the kind here described were plentiful at the time of the Spanish invasion of Mexico. Cortez declares that he found fully four hundred of them in the state of Cholula. Doubtless the num- ber within the more im- plentiful distru portant state of Anahuac, ^.'^^j^r/elm'' embracing the plateau of choiuia. the Mexican capital, was still greater. Torquemada estimates the number in the empire of Montezuma at forty thousand ! Bernal Diaz, the old Span- ish historian of the times, and Cortez himself in his letters to Charles V, have given us full descriptions of the striking religious edifices and ceremonials with which they came into contact. Perhaps the most elab- orate structure in all Mex- ico at the beginning of the sixteenth century was that which Cortez describes from tlie capital. It was in the center of the an- cient city. The inclosure of the outer walls was so great that Cortez esti- mates the interior capacity as sufficient for five hun- dred houses. Another es- timate made by Solis is that the space inside of the walls and between them and the pyramidal foundation in the center was sufficient to accom- modate ten thousand dan- cers on days of solemn cere- monies. was paved with dressed Mexico, stone, and so smooth was the work that as Bernal Diaz declares, "the horses of the Spaniards could not walk upon it for slip- ping." All the area within was sacred territory. It was the central institution of the state, religiously, educationally, Particular fea- T^v,;,, ,„^,^1« .,»,„„^ tures of the Az- This whole space tec temples of PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 359 Central Amer- ican ruins ; like- ness to those of the Kast. and politically. Here the priests had their abode. Here the soothsayers and scribes of the ancient epoch congre- gated ; and here the emperor himself was admitted only with a ceremonial. The terraces constituting the pyramid were five in number. The broadest platform was three hundred feet square, and the height of the whole to the upper terrace was a hundred and twenty feet. On the top were two shrines, or towers, which were dedicated to the gods of preservation and de- struction. Central America, as well as Mexico and the countries of the North, abounds in ruins and monumental evidences of primitive peoples. The style of building was here the same as on the Mexican plateau, but there is a greater display of art. The Central American pyramids are gen- erally smaller than the Mex- ican structures, but the tem- ples on the upper terraces were larger in proportion. Great massiveness and strength are the char- acteristics of the masonry. The exterior of the temples were stuccoed and covered with carved figures and or- naments. It appears that the symbol- ical imagination ran rampant among the priests and architects. Within the tem- ples were corridors and chambers with arched roofs of stone. The antiquary in examining these ruins can but be impressed with their striking analogy to the earliest monu- ments of the human race in the valleys of Western Asia. The corridors and walls of the inner chambers are covered with sculptures and hieroglyphics. It is not impossible that a truer understand- ing of the significance of these inscrip- tions may make the world better acquaint- ed with the character and activities of the aboriginal races of our continent. #/ , .yim '^t-^-m^Mtm^^Bi^z CENTRAL AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES — DOUBLE-HEADED FIGURE OF THE CASA DEL GOBERNADOR. In Honduras, also, many monuments of the same nature have been discov- ered and described. Here, too, the carving is elaborate and Monumental re- elegant. At Copan one rr^s^nT""" of the most striking mono- Colombia, lithic effigies ever recovered from the ancient world has been found and pre- served. Around the shores of lake 360 GREAT RACES OF JElXK'LyD. Nicaragua abundant evidences of ex- tinct peoples are scattered, and wher- ever these occur they are found to be covered with inscriptions. It is be- SCULPTURE OF THE TOLTECS — FROM THE RUINS OF COPAN. lieved that those in the vicinity of Copan are the oldest monuments that have yet been found south of the Rio Grande del Norte. In Colombia, also, the traveler ever and anon stumbles upon some relic of human workmanship of unknown origin. The ruins of a few edifices and monuments have also been examined in this land, but have not added materially to our knowledge of their builders. Passing southward into the highlands of Peru, we come upon additional evi- dences of the activity and Temples of Cuz. genius of an extinct peo- ^^ ;,TprehSo?. pie. Perhaps the city of ic races. Cuzco affords one of the best fields for antiquarian research that may be found in the world. Hererra declares that there were aforetime in this city as many as three hundred temples, and from the nature and extent of the ruins the asser- tion seems to be well grounded. As a general fact, it appears that the religious ceremonies of the peoples whom we are here considering — Mexi- can, Central American, Peruvian — were a form of that sun worship which has constituted the most rational idolatry of the human race. Nearly all the tem- ples seem to have been built with respect to the sunrise ; and in so far as the cere- monial of these ancient peoples has been recovered, it reveals the same features which belonged originally to the wor- ship of the Chaldaeans and Assyrians, primarily to the Zoroastrians of the Ira- nian plateau, and in a considerable de- gree to the primitive peoples of India. There can be no doubt that the rising sun, coming up majestically after the red dawn of day and ascending the east- ern arch of heaven, triumphing over mist and shadow, and fleecy cloud and rainstorm, constituted the one tremen- dous object of adoration which im- pressed itself upon the imagination of the early races of men. It must not be understood that the ruined monuments which we are here considering are the only memorials left PRIMEVAL MAX.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 361 by the Southern races of the New World. The outUnes of great cities are discover- able here and there. Some of these have survived to within the historical period. Others have gone down to in- discriminate dust. In connection with these ruins the outlines of public works are found in many parts. Not infrequently the antiquary is able to trace the course of a great aqueduct or of some other evidence of the labor and skill of a prehistoric people endeav- oring to supply its common "wants. It appears clear from an ex- ,^ amination of all that we are able to discover in the regions here named, that man Sad estate of the people in prehis- himSclf in his toric America. . , , . , , prmiitive estate was as much subordinated to ecclesiastical domination and political despotism as in the better-known countries of the East. It appears that the com- mon lot was as hard and ig- noble in ^Mexico and Central America, in Colombia and Peru, as on the Babylonian plain or in the stone quarries of Egypt. Even as late as the times of the Spanish invasion the condition of the common people was piti- able in the last degree. The life of the individual man had no splendor or renown. Cortez and the Spanish story-tellers who panied him on his expedition speak of the miserable houses in which the people lived. They were mere huts built of bamboo and covered with thatch, temporary protections against a climate never severe and always inviting to out- door methods of life. All vestiges of such lowly abodes have long since passed M. — Vol. I — 24 away. Nor are there other means of discovering the daily life of the common people whom the merciless and bloody waves of Spanish conquest totally en- gulfed. If we again turn our attention to the regions north of the Rio Grande, we CENTRAL AMF.RICAN STRUCTURE — CIRCULAR EDIFICE AT MAYAI'AN. accom- shall find in Arizona one of the best fields of exploration for the relics ^ . ^ Extinct cities of a prehistoric people, of the Colorado This is not said of the p^*^"' ruins which the Spaniards and their descendants left in this region after the beginning of the sixteenth centurv, but or prehistoric memorials found in several localities. On the Colorado plateau 362 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. there are traces of extinct cities, reser- voirs, terraces, and aqueducts. Still more notable, in the valley of the Gila are scattered the monumental vestiges of a vanished race. Along the river banks are the outlines and actual debris of stone houses and military fortifications ■which belonged to a people long anterior to the European conquerors who came with Cortez and his successors. There are in many places, in a sort of fast- nesses which seem to have been selected with not a little care, the remains of human habitations in great numbers cut from the native ledges, and constituting a species of abodes which are in good measure without an analogue among the habitations built by men. lu other QUICHIAN ARIU, places walls of solid masonry, generally rectangular in form, may be traced ; and the foundations of buildings which are thought to have been two or three stories in height are plainly discernible in many localities. It can not be doubted, indeed, chat along the river Gila in past ages, as well as in many other parts of the territory of the United States, of Mexico, and of South America, a great and even flourishing prehistoric population ex- isted, of which the only record is in the crumbling monumental remains which are left behind. If we attempt to discriminate among the ruins of Southwestern North America, of Central America, and of Peru, and to decide what proportion of them are refei able to the activities of the races inhab- iting the Western conti- chronological nents since the New World '^:t^:^ was revealed to the Euro- Southwest, pean nations, and what part are the work of the prehistoric races which preceded them, we shall be likely, from the im- perfect data in our possession, to fall into error and misinterpretation. Enough is known, however, to deter- mine the general proposition that some of the monuments in question are the work of primitive peoples long anterior to the epoch of Spanish conquest. It is probable that Peru, or what was anciently Upper Peru, but is now in- cluded in the state of Bolivia, furnishes the best basis for the study of the truly pre- historic m e - morials in the regions which we have been considering. Since 1S64, when the mon- uments of this country were explored and described by the American archaeologist Ephraira George Squier, it has been settled that the relics of man's work in the high places of Upper Peru are traceable in their origin to a race that flourished in the country long before the era of the Incas. The monuments in question are situ- ated on the Andean plateau, high up in Bolivia, on the shore of lake Titicaca. The early Spanish invaders Remains on were greatly surprised at i^arJcteroT^he the character and extent of region, these remains. At the time of the in- vasion of Pizarro, they diiifered little from their aspect at the present time. -REMAINS OF FilRFRKSS WALLS, AT ■ 1 /L PRIMEVAL MAN—PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. JtJ3 The region is a broad, open, arid plain. During the wet season the weather is cold, and becomes still more so as the dry season of the year approaches. Xo fruits or grain will grow in this vicinity. It is said that nothing edible has been produced in the region except a small variety of bitter potato. It is, perhaps, the only region in the world where great monumental remains are found in a situation Avholly unproductive, and many conjectures have been advanced to explain the anomaly. It has been The monuments in question consist of stonework and moles of earth. The stones are either rudely hewn into shape or selected and set up with- stone and eanh- out dressing. The inquirer ^41^^^^^"" can not long have ex- "ways, amined what is before him without dis- covering the analogy of the ruins to the great Druidical remains of England, and notably to Stonehenge. The stones are set erect in many places on the great terrace, but others are built into walls with the most exact workmanship. One PUKBLO STRUCTURE.— Runs in the Valley of the Gila. thought that perhaps the great people by whom the monuments which we are now to examine were created had pro- found superstitions or religious ceremo- nials which they celebrated on this almost desert plateau. It has even been sugfcrested that the site of these monu- mental remains may have been deter- mined by augury — as the site of Rome was fixed — and that superstition thus determined the place where vast struc- tures were created against the laws and suggestions of the natural world. of the most peculiar of the discoveries is that of heavy monolithic doorway.s. That is, large slabs of stone have been taken, and through these the temple en- trances have been cut, Avith an arch above, while on the front, and even re- verse, of the block are carved a multi- tude of .svmbolical characters. All over the plain are scattered, even for miles around, the relics of vast structures .",nd battlements, the position of which can be plainly traced on the earth. Among the monuments on this high 364 GREAT RACf.S OF JFAXKlXn. Astonishing character of the ruin called the Fortress. plain of the Andes four principal struc- tures, or at least the foundations of them, have been developed from the ground. They are known to antiqua- ries by the names of the Fortress, the Temple, the Palace, and the Hall of Justice — from the purposes which con- jecture has assigned to them respec- tively. The greatest of the ruins is the Fortress. It rises in the center of the substantial as that in the faces of the terrace. If the traveler takes his stand on the summit of this tremendous monument and looks to the north, he Features of the finds at a short distance an- ^Taidthe^H^u other rectangular mound, of Justice, measuring at the base four hundred and forty-five by three hundred and eighty- eight feet. The outline of the structure is marked by rows of stones set erect in OLD PERUVIAN STRUCTURE.— Ruins of Fortress, on Titicac.\ I^l.wu plain, terrace on terrace, to the height of fifty feet. The mound is rectangu- lar, having a base measurement of six hundred and fifty feet in length and four hundred and fifty feet in width. The faces of the terraces are laid with massive stones, which are carefully and skillfully cut and dovetailed the one into the other in such a way as to make them immovable for ages and ages. On each side, running out from the ba.se, is a va.st stone platform, known in architecture as an " apron," in which the masonry is as the earth, some of them as rude as those of Stonehenge, and others carved with skill. These are the outer supports of the structures which were reared within. Some of the monoliths are as much as fourteen feet above the earth, and are something more than two by four feet in their other dimensions. This is the structure to which antiquaries have given the name of the Temple. The Palace next attracts the attention, and is specially noted for the excellence of the stone cutting which is observed in its PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 365 foundations. No masons of ancient or of modem times have, perhaps, excelled ^vhat was done on this arid plateau be- fore the dawn of history, and is still preserv^ed in the foundations of the monument under consideration. It is not far from the outer limits of the Palace, so called, that the Hall of Justice is situated. It also is rectangu- lar in its ground plan, being four hun- dred and twenty feet by three hundred and seventy feet in dimensions. With- in this inclosure has been developed the foundation of still another structure, called the Sanctum vSanctorum, one hundred and thirty-one by twenty-three feet in measurement, which presents the finest stonework of all. For the excel- lence of the cutting and fitting it may well be compared with the ruins of Baal- bec. Some of the stones are twenty-five and a half feet long, fourteen feet broad, and six and a half feet in thickness. They are fitted by the best rules of geometric art, and are held in place by bronze clamps that may well be compared with the like devices found in the ruins of ancient Egypt. In the current chapter we have done no more than glance at the monumental remains of the three Americas. It is believed, however, that the fragmentary sketches of these memorials will be suffi- cient to convey to the read- Purpose of this er a fair apprehension of ^^et^etchto"' the times and the people in foUow. which and by whom they were created. The present volume is by no means a work devoted to antiquarian research. It is merely intended in the present book to present so much of the primitive his- tory of mankind as shall furnish a satis- factory basis for the consideration of the great tribal migrations which are to oc- cupy our attention hereafter. We have in the preceding chapters reviewed the conditions of aboriginal life as they have presented themselves in the caverns and wilds of Western Europe, along the shores of the Baltic, in the tumuli of Great Britain, and in the mounds and among the monuments of the New World. We shall now conclude this book with a brief sketch of the general conditions of savagery as the same are presented among the barbarous and half-barbarous races of the present time. It is believed that the prehistoric man will thus be bet- ter realised in his far-off career by being seen in a reflected form of activity among the savage tribes and nations of the mod- ern world. Chapter XXI.— Gexeral Coimditions oe Savage Life. TRUE understanding of the prehistoric con- dition of mankind de- pends in good measure upon a knowledge of the manners and cus- toms of the e.xisting savage nations. These nations are to be looked upon as the remnants and repre- sentatives of an ancestry like themselves. Doubtless the existing tribes have been much deflected in the course of ages from the original types to which they be- longed. But it is also true that they have preserved many of the leading features of the original barbarism which has pre- vailed in all parts of the earth. Viewed from the animal side of exist- 366 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ence, the barbarians of to-day hold ex- actly the same relation to the dead races that have preceded them as do many of MAN AND WOMAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. Drawn by Emile Bayard. the living species of animals to the extinct varieties from which they are de- scended. The mammoth and the mas- todon and the hairy rhinoceros have their living representatives in the ele- phant, the Asiatic rhinoceros, and even the common wine. There has oeen an evolution- ary descent by which the tides of life have been turned a.side into new channels. The living crea- tures are not the -ame in stature, in habit, in as- pect or mode of life as the extinct types from which they have been derived. But the essential nature of the original spe- cies has been, in large measure, preserved. So also of the dif- ferent varieties of men, aboriginal, intermediate, and modern. Sir John Lubbock has de- clared with great force that the in- habitants of Van Diemen's Land and Terra del Fuego are to the prehistoric races of the age of stone what the opossum and the sloth and the kangaroo are to the extinct mar- supials, known only to the geologist. The flint weapon in the hands of a liv- ing savage is to an antiquary precisely PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 367 what the horn-crowned nose of a rhinoc- eros or the projecting tusks of a boar Relations of ex- are to a naturalist. The chS^wfau first carries the mind back ancestry. (;q prehistoric implements found in the peat bogs of Denmark, and the other reminds the inquirer of the hairy rhinoceros and the tremendous tusks of Elephas primigcnius. ducible to two general considerations which are easily apprehended. The first of these is what may be called the appearance of national consciousness among a people. Whenever this hap- pens — whenever a given tribe begins to be conscious of itself — the national tongue will for the first time find utter- ance, and this utterance will take the EF.GIN'NINGS OF METALLURGY— A Primitive Smithy,— Dra^vn by Emile B.iyard. tween prehistor Ic and liistoric races. One of the first inquiries with which we have here to deal is the fixing of a Demarkationbe- line between the prehistor- ic and the historic races of men. What is it to have been a truly prehistoric people ? and what is it to lie distinctly within the historic era? The answers to these questions involve several matters of much impor- tance and interest, but they are all re- foi-m of narrative. The narrative may be in the form of epic poetry. It may be a half- formed anthropology or cos- molog}-, or it may be rude annals, reciting fragments of tradition and filling up the spaces from imaginary materials. At any rate, it is History. It is the earli- est development in the form of language of a nation's concept of itself and of its own past 368 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. History may thus be regarded as the first rational transcript of the national The conscious consciousness of a people, man requires an There is that in the mind, explanation of the past. whether of the individual or of the tribe, which on coming into the conscious state immediately demands some kind of narrative of its own origin and previous development. When this stage in the human evolution is reached, written records appear as a concomitant and inseparable incident of that particular epoch of growth. Henceforth we have the beginnings, at least, of those annals and early chronicles and traditional forms of literature which constitute the funda- mentals of formal history. This circum- stance may be taken as the first great point of division between civilization and its antecedent barbarism. The second point has already been alluded to in the preceding chapters. It Use of metals is the itsc of jiictah. .So ^^S^^:^ much stress would not be sc-.ousness. laid upou this fact in the progress and development of mankind were it not for the coincidence of the use of metals in the practical arts with the beginnings of history referred to above. It is a part of the general scheme of the civilization of mankind that this fact of the appearance and first expres- sion of a national consciousness in the form of annals and recorded traditions shall be associated under law with the earliest discovery and application of the metals to the purposes of human life. The metallic age, if we may so express it, is coincident with the dawn of epic poetry and the first records of legend and tradition. When the primeval man emerges from the shadows of barbarism he begins to sing and to carry a me- tallic battle-ax. Thus it appears that the manufacture of the metals by ration- al or empirical processes, and their use instead of the ruder materials employed in the age of savagery, is the second cir- cumstance which determines the line of demarkation between the civilized forms of life and the preceding barbaric ages. In other words, the line which is drawn between the savage and unconscious state of the human race and its conscious and enlightened activities has history as one of its points of departure and the use of the metals for the other. The question will at once arise whether savage nations have no traditional forms of expression. Undoubted- Evanescent ly they have. All tribes ^SS-'^" of men, in however low a tions. condition of development, cultivate leg- end and tradition. They are fond of reciting stories about themselves and the other races with whom they have come in contact. They are even as chil- dren telling unthinkable things about wolves and bears and giants. But the point to be observed is the ivipcrmancncc of the traditions of barbarism. Contrary to the popular apprehension, the legends and stories of really prehistoric peoples are exceedingly evanescent. They gen- erally pass away with the current gener- ation, or at least take a new form with the .succeeding one. The absence of a record to preserve and crystallize the myths and imaginations of primeval man is the circumstance which prevents their perpetuity. Each age among bar- barians has its own cycle of traditions, but they have no continuance or fixed form. All the legends of savagery com- bined would be no other than the bab- blings of the living generation, or at most the transmitted form of the babblings of their fathers and grandfathers. It is now a well-ascertained fact that the most apocryphal .stories told by .savages pretending to give an account of past events in which their own people have PRIMEVAL MAX.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 369 borne a part, are only the current ex- pression in a magnified and distorted form of things that have happened within easy reach of the memories of men. Many instructive and even amusing illustrations may be given from the an- Instances of nals of Current savagery of ^ero^ylnTav- the Valueless and short- ^s^s. lived character of barbarian traditions. In November of 1642 Abel Janssen Tasman discovered the island which now bears the name of Tasmania, .southeast of Australia. The people passed under the dominion of the Dutch, and the vicissitude Avas as great as could possibly happen to a barbarian race. In 1770, a hundred and twenty-eight years after the discovery of the island, the great navigator James Cook visited the Tas- manians and acquainted himself with their traditional knowledge. He found nowhere in the island the slightest evi- dence of a recollection of Tasman's visit. Every trace of that great event had lapsed into oblivion. Another instance of like sort is furnished in the great in- land voyage and exploration of De Soto through the gulf region of the United States. Long before the Revolution all remembrance and tradition of this event had passed from the minds of the Red men. On being questioned, the most intelligent chiefs in the region through which De Soto had passed were found to be totallv ignorant of the romantic expedition which had laid their own country open to the aggressions of an- other race. ' ' The impermanence of the traditions of savages is strongly contrasted with the persistency of tradi- tion a/ler a race has once entered the conscious stage of development. When a tribe has reached the epoch of race consciousness and has begun to employ the metals in manufacture and art, then its traditions become permanent and of high historical interest. It is clear that three or four genera- tions constitute the limit to which a knowledge of even great Transformation national catastrophes is ^ron^lta^bario" transmitted among savage legends, peoples. Even during the continuance of a tradition in barbarism it takes on constantly new and exaggerated forms, rendering it totally unfit for historical purposes. The imagination of the abo- rigines adds to and modifies the narra- tive until it is distorted out of all sem- blance to the original. It is narrated by Sir Alexander Mackenzie that during his travels among the Esquimaux they were wont to describe the English to him as giants with wings. They said that the English soldiers could kill men by looking at them, and that one of them could swallow a whole beaver at a mouthful ! The traveler Mansfield Parkyns, in his account of the traditions of the Abyssinians, relates one of their stories to the effect that some German missionaries had in the course of a few days made a tunnel from Adowa to Massowah, on the Red sea, a distance of more than a hundred and fifty miles! In fact, all of the traditions and myths of savage tribes are apocryphal in the last degree; and this fact, taken in con- nection with their impermanence, de- stroys all value that they might other- wise possess for the antiquary and historian. While it is true that barbarous tradi- tions are thus useless for purposes of history, and misleading if depended on to throw light upon the general conditions of savage races, it is also true that the manners and customs of these same races are among the most persistent facts which the student of human life will ever encounter. A tradition or legend will change its form like the figments of the kaleidoscope. It will vanish with a 370 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. brief lapse of time and never reappear. But the manners of even wild and rov- ing tribes hold their form through every vicissitude and long generations. Nothing is better calculated to aston- ish the inquirer than the persistency and integrity of customs. They Persistency and ^ 1,1 i ^ j integrity of cus- Can hardly be destroyed. toms and habits, rj.^^^ ^^^^ through the severest crises, and come up after great catastrophes in all their pristine vigor shocks and revolutions, through migra- tion and famine, through the ravages of pestilence and the horrors of war, and is indeed coexistent with the race of which it is a part. A trivial custom easily out- lasts the life of man. It survives the mountain oak which has braved the storms of a millennium. It outlasts the granite obelisk which the conceit of a mistaken people has reared as the most permanent memorial of its greatne.ss. #^' PERSISTENCY OF ETHNIC FEATURES.— (t) Ancient Hebrew Shephkru with Sling.— Drawn by H, A. Harper. and definiteness of outline. Even the trivial circumstance of a peculiarity of tribal speech will be perpetuated from generation to generation, and the more substantial elements of custom seem to endure forever. Habit is, if possible, more unchangeable with a tribe or people than with the individual. It seems to be a part of the blood and nerve of national existence. It goes through There are still present in human society forms and customs and peculiarities- modes of action and ceremonial habit.s — that have been transmitted to the modern world from the shadow and ob- scurity of the unknowable ages that lie below the daydawn of civilization ; and in like manner the present will contrib- ute to the coming ages its customs, ita methods, and its ceremonials. PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 371 preservation of Semitic man- iiers. If we would see a striking illustration of the persistency of manners and cus- toms, we have only to glance at some of Examples of the the modem descendants of ancient nations. The Semitic race, for instance, presents us in modern times with two striking race developments. The Jews and the Arabs still stand as the typical representatives of a family of men already old at the birth of most of the ancient kingdoms. In the case of the Jews, their dispersion among other peoples has to a considerable extent conformed them in the practical affairs of life to the methods and manners of those among whom they drift, but with whom they are by no means amalgamated. So we may look to the Arabs of the present time as the living expression of those ethnic forces which were dominant in the seed of Abraham. No one who acquaints himself with Arabian manners and customs, and is at the same time conver- sant with the manners and cus- toms of the Israelitish nation of antiquity, can fail to notice that the forms of life among the Arabians of to-day are iden- tical with those of the Hebrews fifteen centuries before the Christian era. The very gar- ments which the Arabs wear might have been stripped from the bodies of the patriarchs. Their fashion is the same, and the material and its method of manufacture are to all in- tents and purposes identical. The ceremonial of the house and the tent are just as they were in Canaan before the Egyptian bondage. An Arab sheik meeting another clad and mounted like himself and each followed by his retinue across the deserts and valleys of Arabia, might be photographed and the matter and the manner of the inter\-iew re- peated, and both would be a faithful transcript of the meeting and compact between Lot and Abraham. If we descend into the particulars of speech and the manners of daily life PERSISTENCY OF ETHNIC FEATURES — (2) MODERN ARAB WEARING THE ABA. Drawn by Paul Hatdy. among the Arabs we shall find the an- cient ceremonial faithfull}' DaUyUfeofthe duplicated. The forms of ^eHpt^Ttra; of salutation and of farewell the Hebrews, have persisted in their integrity for more than three thousand years. The same views of life — of its origin, its na- ture, and its destiny — the same ideas of dutv and obligation, of the nature and 372 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. immediate presence of a personal deity interfering- with the affairs of the com- mon lot and directing even the details of all events, are to-day in the Arabian mind and on his tongue and in his ac- tions with all the realism and vitality and distinctness which those same ideas possessed in the minds of the great military leaders and prophets of primi- tive Israel. The Elohim of the Hebrew is the Allah of the Arab. The appeal to the one for the protection of his tribe and victory over the enemy is as con- stant and confident in the camp of the Arabian chieftain as was the appeal to the other in the tent of Joshua or Saul. To the ancient Hebrew and to the mod- ern Arab alike this Allah, this almighty Common reii- personal God, directs every- modernlndan- thing. He brings pesti- cient Semites. lence, and is the giver of health. He blesses and curses accord- ing to the righteousness or the wicked- ness of his people. He speaks to the sleeper in dreams. The dream is only the voice of God in the darkness. Years of plenty and years of drought are both from his hand. He ripens the grain to a perfect harvest or blasts the fields with mildew. He sends the early and the latter rain when the people have been obedient, or the murrain and the locusts when they have disobeyed. All this and ten thousand other things which, taken in their entirety, constitute the tangible outer garment of Arabian life, are in manner and substance virtu- ally the same at the present day as they were among the captives who sat down and wept by the rivers of Babylon, or among the strong soldiery who followed the banners of the Maccabees in their last struggle for independence through the wilderness of Judaea. Were we equally well acquainted with the tribal history of other races the same phenomena — the same repetition in modern life of the manners and cus- toms of remote antiquity Primitive Teu- could be discovered and rvesurvTed pointed out. Had we at to present day. the present a record of the boisterous manners and hilarious barbarism of the Teutones who hovered darkly in the forests beyond the Danube and the Rhine in the days of the early republic of Rome, we should be able to note the repetition and persistence of these cus- toms among the Ostrogothic and Visi- gothic invaders who, many centuries later, devastated the empire. And were we well acquainted, as we are ac- quainted in part, with the primitive barbarians Avho inliabited the lowlands of Holland in the north, we should find their manners and customs preserved, not only in outline, but in detail and cir- cumstance, among the broad-shouldered and florid Saxons who followed Egbert and Alfred in their battles with the Danes, and upon whose rugged nature still rests the superstructure of British greatness. The clatter of their ale- horns, the ring of their battle-axes, their barbarian laughter, and their snatches of savage song would be heard repeated in the jocular hilarity and boisterous mirth of Chaucer's bantering pilgrims, in the wild uproar and vulgar- ity of Shakespeare's taverns and battle- fields, and even faintly echoed through the mist and gauze of the refined and beautiful epics of the late Laureate of England. By carefully weighing the foregoing' considerations we are able to see the means by which the Monumental re- ■^ mains the cer- character and methods of tain evidence of .. . r 1 • i • 1 prehistoric con- life of prehistoric peoples ditions. may be in some measure comprehended. The inquirer will, of course, in the first place examine all the existing remains PRIMEVAL MAX—CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 373 which the peoples of antiquity have left behind. A monument, unless misjudged as to its design and character, consti- tutes the fundamental evidence with re- gard to the men who reared it. It gives the only primary testimony, and may be relied upon with absolute faith as to its verity and significance. Monumental remains are even more certain in their testimony, more absolute in their fidelity to the facts which they represent, than are the best historical indubitable as in the testimony deduced from monumental remains. But man- ners and customs are, nevertheless, trustworthy indications of the past con- dition of the human race. Mere tradi- tion may not be trusted. We have seen the absurdity and brevity of the legend- ary part of barbarian history. Traditional forms of thought, as they are passed from tongue to tongue among the bar- barous tribes of men, have an independ- ent interest of their own, just as the PERSISTENCY OF CUSTOMS — MOURNING WOMEN OF OLI> EGYPT. From the entablature found in the tomb of Plah-Hotep, at Thebes. writings produced by man. The latter I fictions and extravagant imaginations of are always in some sense warped from the image of truth. They bear the impress of the annalist or historian from whose brain they were evolved. They are tinged with a thousand prejudices of the passing age. But the monu- ment is unconscious. It has no prejudices or passions. It belongs to no sect or party, and is unbiased in its evidence by any personal equation. No conscious force of human caprice has been impressed upon it. It stands in naked austerity a solemn witness of the purposes and genius of the people who reared it. In the second place the inquirer may, as we have seen, depend in large meas- Deductions ure upon the fidelity of man- These have been perpetuated from age to age, and there is no doubt that the earliest, even the unconscious, move- ments of mankind on the earth are to a considerable extent reflected and por- trayed in the existing habits of barbari- ans. Allowance must be made for the deflection of human nature under the in- fluences of time and circumstance. It must always be remembered that the u;r™e'f '■ ners and customs and customs. evidence in this case is not absolute and children may prove of interest to the metaphysician and philosopher. But the story told by the child must not be ac- cepted in the court of higher reason as an evidence of its own origin or the methods of its previous life. We are thus virtually limited in our inquiry concerning the prehistoric condition of men to the two general conditions here indicated, namely, the monumental re- mains which are preserved on the sur- face of the earth as evidences of the men who produced them, and the persistency of manners and customs among the peo- ples now inhabiting the world. Another consideration here presents itself and demands a brief inquiry. It is the source or primary origin of bar- barit)^ There is no doubt that in the remotest antiquity which we are able to 374 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. discover by means of ethnic, linguistic, and archaeological study, tribes of men struggled for a precarious Inquiry into the . . primary origin existcncc ou the earth in a o bar arism. condition of the profound- est savagery. Nor is there any doubt that similar races still possess a consider- able portion of the surface of our planet, living thereon in a condition of animal- ity which must be seen in order to be realized in its profound abasement and savage degradation. But Avhat is the origin of this degradation ? How has it happened that men have come into such relations of depravity and gloom? In what way may the degrading barbarism of the ancient world or the equally low condition of the outlying savage races of the present time be rationally accounted for and explained? Two principal theories have been ad- vanced in answer to these questions. Two expiana- They are diametrically op- \Z':^T:,°L posed in the views which barbaric state, they present of the history of the human race. The first is the theory of the descent of mankind from a primitive high estate to the fenlands of barbarism. In this view of the case the first condition of the human family was one of elevation, of refinement, of knowledge, of power. But from this high plane of primitive purity, excellence, and greatness mankind has descended to lower and lower grades of being until, in remote antiquity where the ethnolo- gist first discovers the primeval peoples, they wallowed in savagery and degrada- tion. The first age was the age of gold. Then came the lapse from the noble estate with which the race was started, the swift decline of the dispersed and broken fugitives, the loss of former reason and spirituality, until the gloom of bar- barism settled around all the horizon of human life, and naked savages were seen by the river banks and in the shadows of the forest. All the evidences of barbarism — so the hypothesis continues — which the his- torian and archaeologist discover in exist- ing and extinct races are Hypothesis of but the results of this lapse '^l^^^^i^'J and ruin of the human an age of gold, family. All the efforts which have been put forth for the elevation of mankind are only the broken and half-hopeless struggle to restore the human race to its pristine glory; and the heavy forces which impede the progress and t^ie high- er development of men are but the re- sidual poison and malevolent habits which they have acquired, as they would ac- quire the infection of disease, in the course of their descent and the groveling of their low estate. Such in brief is the general view which has long prevailed relative to the origin of savagery in the human family. Directly opposed to this hypothesis is the theory that the true original condi- tion of men in the world Belief that the was one of a low grade of Sr^asin animality, and that all sub- savagery, sequent movements of mankind have been along the lines of an evolution which is gradually lifting the human race through hard and tortuous proc- esses to a higher plane. In some favored situations this evolutionary force has al- ready, in different ages, brought certain peoples out of barbarism into the light of reason and at least the beginnings of civilization. In other places and under less favorable conditions the primitive state still abounds, and men have grown but little from the merely animal life with which they were projected into the world. All the movements of history, according to this hypothesis, have a common trend toward the production of a complete man and a perfect society. PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 375 In the struggle to reach this end some peoples go to the front, others lag, and still others drop into nonentity. vSome become self-conscious and display those high and generous activities which in the aggregate go by the name of civili- zation, and others remain on lower levels, or even in the original sloughs of bar- barism. The civilized forms of life, ac- stone, or half-naked fishermen dragging their nets and boats to shore on solitary coasts. The further the lines of human life are traced backward the more pro- foundly do they penetrate a world where reason is absent and bestiality prevails. Out of this primitive state the more vigorous of the savage peoples, by toil- some ascent and painful struggles, BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— ANXIENT FISHING SCENE.— Drawn by Riou. cording to this view of human history, are merely the survival and develop- ment of those better activities which have been found to be of benefit to the race. It thtis happens that when the eth- nologist and the historian begin an Elaboration of examination of the past this view -arga- ^^ ^^ Savagery as ments m its sup- -' b j pi'rt- the bottom fact. The first discoverable men are rude hunters smiting wild beasts with weapons of gradually emerge into conscious exist- ence. They expand in their intellectual powers, invent superior forms of utter- ance and a pictorial representation of thought, write their words by means of symbols, record the story of their own deeds, mass themselves into strong com- munities, begin to reason about the origin of the world and the course of nature, and finally take up the chant of epic poetry. Which, then, of these two contradictorv theories will better ex- 376 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. plain the existence and origin of bar- barism ? Many arguments may be sincerely advanced in favor of each hypothesis. It is the duty of history to deal candidly with all questions, to have no prejudice and no fear. The time has arrived in the course of human events when the great problems of the past may be con- sidered with calmness and courage. No blind fanaticism for one or the other of antagonistic theories should any longer sway the decision of an inquiry which is of so great an interest, and the solution of which in one way or the other can hardly change the great movement of mankind toward the higher develop- ments and grander activities of the future. In behalf of the hypothesis of the descent of mankind from an original high estate into conditions of savagery, several facts and arguments may be truthfully advanced: I . In the first place, the traditions of nations, especially in that part of their career when they have themselves just emerged from the barbarous condition, generally recount an original age of gold „ which their fathers enioved Race traditions . . ■' •" generally point and in which they Were the to an age of gold. . ... , tvt i great participants. Nearly all the vigorous races of antiquity that played important parts in the ancient world had traditional beliefs of this kind. They looked back through the mists and obscurities of their own age and the ages immediately preceding to an epoch of splendor and renown in which their heroic fathers were seen afar as tall trees walking. All the early theogony and cosmogony of the ancients as depicted in their philosophical sj's- tems, their myths, their epic and dra- matic poetry, were touched and flecked in every part with the traces of this belief. It can not be well explained why the greatest peoples of the ancient world should have held and propagated such opinions respecting their Difficulty of ac- ancestry and the state of ^^n^f/rof^' society out of which they such a belief: were descended, unless there had been some ground for such belief. Looked at as an abstract question, it appears more rational that the bards and myth- makers of the primitive world should have chosen to glorify themselves and the passing age by representing their descent as issuing from darkness and barbarism, rather than to picture them- selves as degraded from a godlike an- cestry. It is not certain in which way the half-conscious intellect of the primi- tive man would work or by what laws it would be guided in the development of traditional beliefs. But the fact remains that the greater part of the best teach- ers of antiq'aity believed themselves the offspring of a great paternity, and that back of the barbarities of their own age and the immediate ages of their fathers lay a resplendent age of gold, from whose heights and heroic activities men had descended by gradations into a low estate. 2. In the next place, it may be well urged that many nations within the his- torical era have actually Actual examples declined from higher into ^^Itunt^^ lower conditions. In fact, of races, all the great nations once in possession of the better parts of the world, once organized into tremendous communities, once filling the streets of magnificent cities, once directing the commerce, cultivating the arts and controlling the energies of mankind, once gathering into vast treasure-houses the resources of the world and sending forth invinci- ble armies for the conquest of Gentiles and barbarians, have now disappeared from among the powers, and are known PRIMEVAL MAN—CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 377 only by annals and memorials. It is also true that these great nations have, as a rule, not gone out by sudden eclipse and extinction, but they have rather fallen away by degrees, re- laxed, insensibly at first and sensibly af- terwards, their hold of power, and crumbled away until attack from without and feeble- ness from within have joined their forces to complete an inevitable downfall. It is hardly needed to recite examples of national decay. It is almost superfluous to recount the tremen- dous domination once established in the val- ley of the Nile, now represented by Arab sheiks, miserable col- lections of degenerate Copts in squalid vil- lages, and a few de- graded fellahs plow- ing with oxen in the glebe by the river banks. The early Chaldsean empire at the mouth of the Eu- phrates has left only scattered monumental traces. The glory of the Assyrians and of the later Babylonians has passed forever from the valley of the two great rivers. The tremendous Turcomans, iron for- gers at the first from the mines of the Altais, who came as conquerors M. — Vol. I — 25 into Western Asia, surrounded the city of Con.stantine and made it their capital, are now degenerated into the opium E.\A.\irLE OF RACE DEI EKIOKAllO.N — KUBlllSil-BEAKEK UF EGYPT. Drawn by Gustavc Richter. smokers and harem builders of the Bos- phorus. The splendor of Athens and the glory of the Athenian intellect have 378 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. given way, through long ages, to for- eign domination, and the traveler stands sad-hearted among the ruins of the Acropolis, or marks with astonishment l.XAMILE OF RACE DETEKIOKATION — KOMAN BEGGARS. the miserable goat houses built over the oracle of Delphi. The Rome of an- tiquity, whose solid walls of stone and tremendous legions clanking their armor on the stone slabs of the Appian Way have become onlv a tradition and a name, has shrunk from her ancient cir- cuit of the hills to a commonplace city, the throne of superstition and conserva- tism, and haunt of beggary. 3. The care- ful reader of the preceding pages will not have failed to note that many of the monu- mental re- mains of an- tiquitybetoken unmistakably the energies and genius of a superior peo- ple. Some of the most prim- itive memori- als of the hu- man race are . L m o n g the most convinc- ing and sub- stantial evi- d e n c e s of power and grandeur. The granite obe- lisks and pyra- mids of Egypt, the so-called Cyclopean ruins in Greece, the old Etruscan aque- ducts, such as the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, the great military mounds and fortifications Monumental re- mains indicate in North America, and SiJ greatness of particularly the Peruvian ancient peoples, ruins on the plateau of the Andes, mark and emphasize the activities of races of PRL]rE]\4L MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE IJl-R. 379 men hardly inferior to the strongest and most skillful known in history. It will be remembered that in many of these localities barbarism long- flourished and ran rampant after the tremendous monuments reared by preceding civil- ized peoples had gone down to ruins. The Peruvian monuments were in their origin as far anterior to the domination of the Incas as the Incas are remote from the Peruvians of to-da}-. The earthworks and mounds of North Amer- ica antedate the epoch of the Red men by a span of ages. The massive foun- dations laid by the Etniscans in their own district and in Latium are far more ancient than even the traditions of the primitive Latin race. So also are the Cyclopean remains of Greece far more remote than even the age of the heroes ; and as to the monuments of Egypt, it is sufficient to say that the oldest of them are the grandest and most enduring. 4. In the fourth place, the evidence of language points to a primitive condi- tion of mankind in which Language seems to have begun in the intelligence and an age of reason. , . reason were the supreme characteristics. Whatever may have been the origin of human speech, it is clearly a rational product. The oldest languages with which we are acquainted are the most perfect in their kind. If we consider that great group which we call the Aryan, or the Indo-European, languages, we find them to improve as we trace up their descent toward their origin. This is to say that, as a rule, the older dialectical form is fuller, more complete, and more rational than its descendent derivative. The modern languages of Western Europe are, as a rule, devoid of grammatical structure, and are in reality rather the detritus of a perfect speech than the speech itself. The Anglo-Saxon tongue had a more extensive grammar, if not a fuller vo- cabulary, than the English of to-day. Moesogothic was richer in inflections and rational forms than its descendent Ger- man. Latin was more inflected and developed than Gothic, and Greek pre- served many of the forms which had already decayed and fallen out of Latin. Sanskrit was far more nearly perfect in its structure and inflections than anv later Aryan tongue. With its eight cases and three numbers for nouns, with its full verbal development and its in- flected adjectives, it stands to-day as perhaps the most complete .structural ex- pression of human thought. Thus we see that the higher we trace the streams of the Indo-European languages, the broader and fuller are the forms which we encounter. Xot a trace of evidence is discoverable that any one of the multi- farious languages descended from this common source had an origin in bar- barian ejaculations, or in any form of irrational utterance. And if we look still more closely into some .standard form of this speech we shall find that it has been evolved by the logical proc- esses of abstraction and generalization, the noun being derived from the verb and the adjective from the noun, by an evident effort to abstract a substance or thing from an action and a qualit}'^ from a substance. It will thiis be seen that many rea.sons may be assigned for accepting and per- petuating the old-time be- Arguments may liefs of the human race in HHl^^lf,^, the splendor of its own posmg theory, ancestry and the reality of the age of gold. But, on the other hand, many reasons may be given for rejecting such belief and putting in its place the hy- pothesis of an ascent from barbarism instead of a descent from heroes. Titans, and gods. The principal arguments in 380 GREAT RACES OF MANKLXD. favor of the theory of savagery as the original condition (jf mankind ma}' be stated as follows : I. Our first actual historical knowl- edge reaching into the past touches only Backward look conditions of barbarism, of history reach- n^ ^j^^ historian or ethnol- es barbaric be- ginnings, ogist the primeval state of man, as seen from his point of view, ap- of progress and development have, mani- festly, been borne forward by evolution- ary forces out of barbarian conditions only a little more remote than the peo- ples themselves. Such nations as the primitive Greeks were evidently result- ant from an ag^g-lomeration of semicivil- ized tribes who, settling down from migratory habits, entered into union BARUARIAX LIFE ILLUSTRATED— Chase in the Ace of Bkunze— Drawn by Ru pears to be one of savagery. It is true that many nations are discovered in the far horizon of antiquity that on our ear- liest acquaintance with them appear al- read}^ in a state of intellectual activity and swift progress toward the civilized forms of life. But close scrutiny will discover just behind thciii a lower tribal condition, and behind that a still lower. In other words, the peoples Avho on our first ac- quaintance with them appear in a state with each other and began to develop into rational activities. So also of the Roman gens in Latium and other parts of the Italic peninsula. All this is a .statement of the case as it stands in the backward vision of the his- torian or ethnologist. His actual ac- quaintance with the races of men can not well penetrate beyond the conditions of savagery 7uhich he sees, and ascend to a primeval of intellectual elevation and PRIMEVAL MAX.—COXDiriOXS OF SArAGE LIFE. 381 social happiness which /u- docs not scr. He need not deny the existence of such a primitive state, but his discernment can not reach it throua^h the intervenino" darkness. 2 . Not only is the first discernible con- dition of mankind one of barbarism, but Races are dis- the evidence of an emer- ^cruXoces?' gence therefrom is abun- of evolution. jant. This is to say that under the eye of history early peoples, savage or half-savage in their manners, are in many instances sciit in the actual process of evolution toward the higher form of rational existence. No condition in the primitive annals of mankind is more certainly established than the fact that peoples do improve. They are seen to do it. If we measure the condition of a barbarous tribe and compare it with the condition of the same people after a cen- tury or two centuries of growth, we can easily discover the process of evolution and its results. It must be confessed that the improve- ment of barbarian races is in many cases sio-w rate of race slow-paced. Scarcely notice- 7^^T^r ^-ible after the lapse of a long agery. period. It may even be admitted that many barbarous peoples have not improved at all. It is probably true that the original forces with which some tribes are impressed are not suffi- cient to bring them out of the savage state. They continue as they were from age to age. They become as iixed in their habits and methods of life as are the birds and beasts. They build as the beaver builds, and the concept of a high- er state is totally wanting in their under- standing. But in most instances there is a forward march — slow it may be, but still a movement that may be seen and measured. History is filled with illustrations of human development. Tribes become peoples. Peoples become states and kingdoms and nations. The expansive force of the social and civil History replete instinct in man is seen '"^'tii examples of human devel- working powerfully in the opment. evolution of higher forms of activity and better expressions of right reason. The whole story of the human career is in good part a story of progress, ameliora- tion, development. It is the law of life. The hitman race shares it in common with all other forms and modes of exist- ence. Aye, it is most manifest in man. In him the evolution is strongest, and the tendency toward a higher state — the dream of something beyond and above — is always discernible in his actions and language. The roving tribes in ancient Hellas became the bronze-clad warriors of the heroic age. The returning war- riors became the rhapsodists and orators of the age of patriotism ; and the rhapso- dists and oi^ators became the philosophers and poets of the most intellectual epoch of the human race. The robbers gath- ered on the Capitoline Hill plant a city and organize a state. Their wolfish manners give way to the culture of the market place and the early forum. An- other evolution, and we see the senate- house, the tribune, and the temple. Still another, and the marble-built city, with its marching armies and citizens in toga, its columns, its busts, its trophies, its roaring circus with its multitudes are seen — finally the domination of the world. In subject Gaul the half-savage and wholly barbarous Franks hoist their chief- tain on their shields, and Clovis appears as the primitive king of a The Greek evo- primitive people. Further ^"rthaTofth^ on are Charlemagne and Gauis. his school of the palace. Already they are reading the annals of the past, send- ing polite messages to Haroun-al-Rashid, 382 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. and studying the stars. Still further on, Godfrey and Raymond and vSaint Louis gather their helmeted warriors and, un- der an ideal enthusiasm, would rescue the tomb of the Christ from barbarians and infidels. Further on stands forth the French nation, breaking the fetters of feudalism, rising through the bloodiest of revolutions into a splendor and free- dom hitherto unknown among the peo- ples of the earth — Napoleon the Great, splendor of the Plantagenets ; the greater glory of Shakespeare and the bards ; the establishment of liberty by war; over- throw and rebuilding ; emergence ; Eng- lish liberty ; . the colonization of the world ; the triumph of letters and art. Everywhere the story is the same. Progress and development, the first law. Foundations are laid; then comes con- quest, first of savagery and then of the forces of nature — the bending down of THREE STAGES OF CIVILIZATION ILLUSTRATED-SKETCH FROM FORT LARAMIE. his conquering armies, victory, renown, the republic. In the oak woods of primeval Britain are the barbarian Saxons gathered around Rise of the Sax- their chiefs. They have b^A^t^Tre^V filled themselves with raw ''^ss. meats, coarse cheese, and fiery drinks, but they found their petty states — a heptarchy of possibilities. Then come Egbert and Alfred and the foundations of the immovable kingdom ; the Conqueror; Chaucer; the mediaeval the tremendous energies of the material world to the purposes of human will and endeavor — the mastery of the earth and its fullness. All these are the very law, the fundamental method of human existence on the earth. These facts are palpable. The}^ are seen and touched. They are known and manifest ; and in so far as they are the demonstrable rule by which mankind are guided, it appears undeniable that the history of humanity is the history of a development from a PRIMEVAL MAX.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 383 lower into a higher form of life — from barbarism to civilization. 3. In the third place it must be acknowl- edged that the condition into which many civilized nations have fallen and The faUen estate relapsed is a condition very of races differs t-rr 4 r ji j ^ ^ ■ ■ whoUyfromsav- 'i'prcHt from that of prim i- ^^^' tivc savagery. It would seem that nations iiaving once occupied a high plane of political and intellectual power do indeed lapse into effeminacy, vice, slavery, and moral degradation; but they do not become barbarous or savage. We should look in vain for a single instance in which a civilized peo- ple, Avhetherof ancient or modern times, has fallen back into an aspect of life at all analogous to that of the cave dwell- ers of Europe or the Red men of North America. They do indeed relapse. The heroic Greeks of the fourth century B. C. have become the degenerate weak- lings of modern Greece. The Romans of the sturdy republic have left as their descendants the mendicant mi:sicians of Florence, the dirt}' boatmen of the Venetian canals, and the lazzaroni of Naples. The Spanish warriors and navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries who found a new world and took it for their sovereign, have as their living representatives the mandolin players of Cadiz and the brandishers of stilettos in the half-lighted streets of Madrid. The evidence cf retrogression and decay is sufficiently striking to the philosopher and painful to the philan- thropist. But the modern Greeks, the Italians, and the degenerate Spaniards of to-day have no likeness or kinship with the savage races whom we discover on the fiirther confines of history. This is to say that the ascending and descend- ing phases of national life present whol- ly diverse aspects; insomuch that one can scarcely be compared with the other. The true savage appears to have in him the potency of the time to come, while the effeminated and degraded de- scendant of a great ancestry has in him only the potency of death. In so far as this dissimilarity between the barbarian, under the influence of forces that may bring him into the civilized state, and the depraved posterity of great ancestry does exist as a fact, it seems to be an evidence of the original barbarity of all peoples and the evolution of a few into the higher forms of life, rather than an evidence of the relapse of races into original savagery. 4. The believer in the hypothesis of an ascending movement of human nature from a primitive savage Monuments and condition into light and Sd'tww freedom and greatness, conditions, may well urge that the great monumental remains of the remotest antiquity and the perfected languages which we find at the daydawn of civilization are the work of races which had already /assed through the stages of thve/opiiient from original barbarism to the higher condi- tions of life. In our present state of knowledge it would be rash to allege that the striking memorials of civiliza- tion belonging to the remotest antiquity are certainly the work of peoples who had been developed from savagery through preceding ages of discipline and endeavor ; but it would be ^qualh rash to allege that such memorials of pri- meval greatness are the work of nations who began their career in civilization and enlightenment. vSo also of human speech. It is true that such languages as the Sanskrit appear as the highest grammatical and logical formulae which have ever been invented for the expres- sion of human thought, and that sub- sequent linguistic developments have been, so far as the structural forms of 384 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. speech are concerned, retrogressive rather than progressive. But no one can say that the apparition of Sanskrit was not itself the result of preceding ages of progress and development. On the whole, it appears rather against right reason than in conformity Not reasonable '^vith what WC knOW of the JliSesb^gan ^i^man mind and its princi- atonce. pies of growth to suppose that a vast structure of speech like the Sanskrit should come forth at one effort from the brain and tongue of a perfect race. It would seem too much a marvel that the Aryan house-folk of the primi- tive Indian valle3'S should have begun to speak with the perfected formulae of language. It is not alleged that such a phenomenon is impossible, but the development of a language from small beginnings and in constant correlation with the opening powers of the mind seems to conform more nearly with the progressive order of human nature and of univer.sal nature than the sudden phenomenal efflorescence and fruitage of a full-grown language. Such, then, are the principal argu- ments for and against the theories which have been advanced to explain the fact of barbarism. Both views of the begin- nings of the barbaric life have been sus- tained with such hot contentions as are born of preconception. The historian may frankly admit that the arguments on either side are weighty and important, and if for the present he suspends a judg- ment, it will not be thought to proceed from a reluctance to decide according to the evidence before him, but rather from the incompleteness of the data thus far attainable. Meanwhile the argument strongly preponderates toward that the- ory which makes barbarism and savagery to have been the primitive condition of mankind, and civilization to be the result- ant of the slow processes of ethnic evolu- tion. The statement of the various reasons for and against such a vieAv pre- sented in the current chapter has been given as a digressive study, preparatory to a notice of some of the general and ac- tual conditions of barbarism, and to that great topic we now turn our attention. Chapter XXII. — barbarisxi Illustrated. T is painful to reflect how great a portion of the earth is still under the dominion of savage races. Europe, the smallest of the continents, has long emerged from her primitive condition. Large tracts of Asia have been occupied by civilized nations from a remote an- tiquity. A new world has within the last three centuries been reclaimed. A powerful race has planted itself in place of the scattered aborigines. South America has, within the current century at least, presented the redeeming aspect of Latin civilization. But Large areas of the rest of the world is still f^^°']tt^ dominatea by dominated by races of men barbarism, whose manners and customs lie close to original barbarity. The islands of the sea present some of the most striking aspects of this current savagery of mankind. Africa throughout nearlv its whole extent is untouched with the sun- shine of the higher life. The boreal regions, whether in the Old World or the New, are still occupied by races on a PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 385 very low plane of development. It is among- such peoples that we must now seek and find our examples of existing •iv r ■!ni. NATIVE AUSTRALIAN FROM JHE DARLING RIVER (headdress of FEATHERS). forms of barbarity in illustration of the prehistoric life of man. One of the most striking facts in con- nection Avith the savagely of the human FUthiuessof race is filth. There is example of Hot- perhaps no single example tentots. among aboriginal tribes of anything like cleanliness. Those dispositions which we observe in man}' birds and animals to plume and cleanse themselves and to protect their nests and lairs from the grosser forms of filth are strangely absent among the ruder savages. The historian Kolben has re- marked of the Hottentots that they maj' be regarded as the filthiest animals in the world! Not content with the ofiien- sive accumulations of nature and con- stant contact with the dirt, they actually cultivate gross forms of defilement, ren- dering them in their personal habits re- pulsive and disgusting to the last degree. In his description of these heathen the author says: "Their bodies were cov- ered with grease, their clothes were never washed, and their hair was loaded from day to day with such a quantity of soot and fat, and it gathers so much dust and other filth, which they leave to clot and harden in it, for they never cleanse it, that it looks like a crust or cap of black mortar. They wore a skin over the back, fastened in front. They carried this as long as thej- lived, and were buried in it when they died. Their only other garment Avas a square piece of skin, tied around the waist by a string, and left to hang down in front. In winter, however, they sometimes used a cap. For ornaments they wore rings of iron, copper, ivory, or leather. The latter had the advantage of sendng for food in bad times." TYPES OF SAVAGERY — BUSHMAN WOMAN AND CHILDREN. The bath has been practiced by nearly all peoples, whether savage or civilized. But among heathen tribes the act is PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 387 performed with little respect to personal purification. The sensuous change of Savages bathe temperature, from cold to mhtTanpuri- ^^-arm or from warm to cold, fication. with the mere pleasure of splashing like a porpoise in the surf, seems to constitute the barbarous idea of the bath. Instead of desiring to purify themselves from all animal taint, from defilement, from those offensive odors which are peculiar to tribes in low condition, such peoples seem to take pleasure in intensifying the disgusting peculiarities of the beast-life which they live. It requires many ages of develop- ment, as a rule, to change this horrid instinct and to substitute therefor the instinct of personal purity. It is in proof that as low in race development as the beginnings of barbarous song savages are accustomed to refer, in their rude rhapsodies, to the offensiveness of their bodies, and to rejoice in it as an element of merit and preeminence ! The Hottentots are also a good ex- ample of other debasing usages. The Filth in food gathering, preparation, fiSpeTsonal ^^d taking of food may be ^^"bit. cited as a second strongly discriminating feature of human life. One must needs reflect upon the vast difference in the method of refined eat- ing and that of barbarism. The savage man eats very much after the manner of brutes. As to materials, he selects first of all native roots and wild fruits, such as yield themselves readily to his appetite, without cultivation or much search. The proportion of animal food in tropical countries is always consider- ably less than in higher latitudes, but the Hottentots are none the less great eaters of meat. As a rule, they take their flesh food raw. If they cook it at all they prefer a kind of broil in the blood of the animal, the whole being mixed with milk. Xo pains whatever are taken for cleanliness, either of the meat itself or of the utensils. Unless the meat is thus taken fresh in the blood they prefer to let it remain until it is half-putrid, regarding the odor and taste of decaying flesh as delicious. Such other victuals as they possess are boiled in leathern sacks, among heated stones. Sometimes earthen pots are used. The materials of the larder are kept in leathern bags, in the bladders of animals, or in baskets rudely constructed of rushes. Tobacco is in common use by the people, and is carried in pouches made of the skins of animals. The pipe is of stone or wood. The whole stock of provisions is borne fromi hut to hut, or from one camping place to another. Australia, on the whole, furnishes one of the most interesting and satisfactory fields in which to study Australians an the native aspects of hu- ^^aTedta^v-''^' man life. The barbarians agery. inhabiting this island-continent when it became known to the European nations were as truly aboriginal in their charac- ter as any people with whom scientific observation has had to deal. Nor can it be .said that the lapse of time since the coast regions of Australia fell under the dominion of civilization has materially changed the native inhabitants. They are to-day virtually as they were when they were first made known to the West- ern nations. And. it is still possible to study their manners and customs with- out having to make allowance for the influence of other peoples upon them. The Australian houses are perhaps the smallest and most insignificant which have- ever been used as human abodes. They are scarcely large enough to con- tain a single person. They are shaped much like an inverted oven. The frame- work consists of a series of reeds, not p I ^r>s:^^^#Bir^-t-rfe'^4>^ jg-MI .^^-^,f13.»^-?iH:T^g3 ;)f^'t^;/^HFf|,Fif-rfii-^ 5:E»^^!!aM7 ^rrr ^w^w^;:u ^^^Ms^.^:ii ^st^A?:^i.\rr\i'!'%iu\ mHHLa^jaj^ B&f '^^^..^s^ ^■'V^t'^f^ I^ta.HtlL.'^^S"'?^ ART WORK OF BARBARIANS. to watch carefully for the reappearance of the harpooned animal and to strike it instantly on its emergence at the surface. The Esquimaux are not without skill in pursuing the dry land animals. They stalk the reindeer with considerable suc- cess, and are able to deceive many ani- mals by imitating their cry or call. It may be noted that the Esquimaux Songs and mu- have in their character and customs the rudiments of This is man- ifest in at least two particulars. In the first place, they have some apprecia- eical instru ments; amuse- ment the motive, an ideal life. I category with the music of civilized peo- j pies. But a still more remarkable evidence of ideality among the Esquimaux is ; found in their disposition Taste of the 1 to draw and sketch. The LTanYma'^'" taste for this kind of work making, among them amounts almost to a pas- sion. They have a real talent for de- picting the outlines of natural objects. This extends to a considerable degree of skill in the production of maps. The people have a fairly accurate knowledge of the topography of the , neighborhood PRIMEl'AL JfAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 401' bone and ivory; subjects of art "work. and country in ^vhicll they dwell. Travelers in the arctic regions have frequently drawn upon the natives in the work of sketchingf the coasts and physical features of the countrv. In many instances the natives have pro- duced maps for their visitors Avliich have proved in application to be more accurate than could have been expected at the hands of barbarians. Still more striking is their skill in the •work of drawing proper. Nearly all the Drawing on Esquimau ornaments and utensils are decorated with the outlines of men and birds and beasts. The tusks of walruses and the fossil ivory, Avhich is frequently obtained, are covered with such sketch- ing, and no little degree of skill is dis- played in the work. The Esquimau's fancy takes up the scenes and incidents of daily life, the little dramas of the hut and seashore, the hazards of the chase or of fishing, and even the farcical happenings of their barbarous society, and depicts the same, with no little humor, on the surface of their drawing materials. It is probably true that no other people, ancient or modern, with whom the ethnologist and historian have acquaintance have exhibited in a corre- sponding stage of development so much aptitude and skill in the pictorial repre- sentation of natural objects. Otherwise the Esquimaux have little intellectual force and no attainments. Weakness of the It is Surprising to the trav- eler to observe their labored efforts in attempting to grasp general ideas. They have no mathematical ability whatever. Their minds in respect to number and permu- tation are as weak ac those of children. They are rarely able to count as much as ten, and beyond this they are unable to go. They have large families, which Esquimaux in abstraction; in- ability to count, in the northern regions are a blessing rather than a discomfort. It has been observed that the man of the hut can rarely tell the number of his children. He will attempt to enumerate them on his fingers, will fail, and the matter will result in an animated dispute between himself and his wife ! The perceptions properly so called are in a better state of development than the judgment. Tho.se faculties which have been brought into exercise by the conditions of the E.squi- mau environment have been quickened into tolerable activity. But the rest of the mind lies dormant, as in a state of absolute savagery. The .social .system of these people is miserable in the last degree. They practice polvgamv. The Degradations chief men particularly ^^--^^^y^rnT encumber themselves with polyandry. multiple wives, and the usage attracts no comment. Polyandry is akso in vogue, but is not so common as polyg- amy. A woman of unusual attractive- ness will frequently have two or three husbands, but the common lot are con- tent with one. The sanctity of the relation of the man and the woman is not regarded. The cu.stom which has been noted among many savage nations of loaning to a visiting stranger the wife of the man who is visited prevails among the Esquimaux. The act is regarded as a social compliment, and any refusal to accept the same on the part of the visitor would be a gross violation of etiquette. As to moral qualities, the Esquimaux have very little appreciation of duty, obligation, or dependence ^^^^^^^^, on a higher power. Their moral nature; a , rude humanity. promise or pledge, how- ever solemnly made, is generally worth- less. It does not appear that they will- fully deceive or purposely break their 402 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. word. But the changing conditions of to-morrow making it of advantage to violate a pledge of to-day furnish an easy reason to the barbarian for doing so. Of religious duty and ceremony they know but little or nothing. In their relations with one another, however, they are generally kind, humane, accom- modating. The neighborly feeling pre- vails in the Esquimau settlements. There is much of common interest among them. The people support each other in their rude enterprises, and Drawing of an ibex. Group of figures. ART WORK OF THIS ESQUIMAUX — DRAWIXG OK BONE AND IVORY generosity is by no means unknown. The poorer members of the tribe are supplied in times of want. The hunter ■divides the results of his successful pur- suit with his less successful companion. Two or three fishermen who have had the good fortune to take a walrus are by no means niggardly in distributing to others a portion of their fortune. In one striking particular the Esqui- maux rise above their contemj^oraries of the American forest. They are never willfully and maliciously cruel. There is, perhaps, no authentic instance on record of vindictive and preconcerted cruelty toward their fellows. The absence of this disposition Absence of cru- among them, however, is :il^„rirmff^r."' rather in the nature of ^nce. apathy than of a positive virtue. They are simply indifferent, and are incapable of cruelty or revenge because of their passionless character. They are cold in life and manners, and, though little dis- posed to do actual harm or to inflict pain upon their fellows, they are equally indisposed to do them positive good. Such, in brief, is the manner of life, the habit, the taste, the intellectual capacity, and general disposition of these widely disseminated barbarians of the North. The foregoing account of the general condition of several barbarian races is little more than a sketch of present disser- superficial aspects. There ^.^.^o^or:"" is no pretense in this than a sketch. connection of making a complete picture of savage life as it exists at present in various quarters of the world. That work is re- served for another part of this treatise on the Great Races. What is here pre- sented is merely illustra- tive of savage manners and customs as they now prevail, and the meaning of the illustration is simply to throw light, by reflection, upon the condition of man- kind in prehistoric ages. In every epoch since the appearance of human beings on the globe men have been men. Their essential characters, dispositions, and tendencies have always been the same, or at least in close analogy. The human animal has always had his own habits, peculiarities, and possibilities of development. The present state of the barbarous races, therefore, is of much value to the historian and ethnologist in PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 403 determining the primitive condition of mankind, and it is for this purpose that the foregoing imperfect sketches of several savage peoples have been pre- sented. The current savagery of the world is exponential of that prehistoric barbarism \vhich prevailed before the beginnings of authentic history; and, although much allowance must be made for the varying conditions of environ- ment and instinct in the prehistoric ages and at the present time, it can not be doubted that the current aspect of bar- barous life is in most respects a faithful picture of that which prevailed before the Vedas were chanted in the valley of the Indus, before Abraham took his journey from Ur of the Chaldees, before the sea-beaten ^^neas and his Trojan companions had found a footing on the western coasts of Latium. Besides the condition of absolute sav- agery described in the preceding para- piace of semi- graphs, Certain secondary th^ltcendiiTg Stages of barbarism may scale of races. well be noticed. We may not say with certainty that the semi- barbarity of the world is the resultant of such antecedent savagerj' as Ave have de- scribed ; but no doubt such is the fact. Neither may we affirm certainly that the semibarbarous peoples are to be the progenitors of highly civilized races. It is probable that the analogy of the tree should here again be applied to the human race as a whole. Branches put out and are developed to a certain stage. Be- yond this they do not expand. Pres- ently they decay and die. Then they fall away from the vital trunk which supports the more vigorous and ex- pansive branches above. It will not do to say that all branches of a vital organism are equally potent in development. It is only the more cen- tral and stronger that shoot up and spread and flourish. This is probably true of the evolution of mankind con- sidered as one orgfanic, -uT 41 Philosophy of living thing. Possibly the the semibarbar- . -11 ic estate of man. present residual savagery of the world will never reach much be- yond its present stage of evolution. This may be " true also of the semibar- barous peoples. For the present it suf- fices that such peoples exist and occupy a considerable part of the earth's surface. Their manners, customs, and modes of existence differ much from those of the savages whom we have described above. They also differ much from the usages of the civilized races — most of all from the refined and cultivated peoples of Europe and America. Such types as we here contemplate may be found widely distributed throughout Northern Asia. The TuiK^uses They are of vast terri- ^.thTs'^atfc torial expansion and of a barbanty. comparatively low manner of life. As an example of the whole class the Tun- g^ses of North-Central Asia may be cited. Their customs are above the horizon of savagery, but greatly below the line of civilization. What is said of their customs may be repeated of their intellectual and moral qualities. We note among them a considerable devel- opment of the mental faculties and a measure of moral obligation and duty. But these terms must be defined, not according to the standards with which we are familiar, but by a criterion fixed for the particular thing to be defined. The Tungusic barbarians live the wild life of hunters and fishermen. They tame the reindeer, using that ani- mal for both food and draught. In like manner they train their dogs to draw their sledges. They live a half-seden- tary life, having a rude society and the beginnings of usages that in higher 404 GREAT RACES OF J\LL\A7X/). progress would be defined as civil. The domestic estate is in a corresponding stage of development. The religious life has been vaguely determined by a native faith which is called Shamanism, and by the vague outreaching influences of Lamaism from the side of the Mon- golian countries, and the touch of Greek and others in the other; that is, one as- pect of the Moorish life seems to ap- proximate the conditions present in Eu- rope and the Americas, while another aspect is distinctly barbarous. In their commercial transactions, and indeed in all of those parts of their pub- lic life in which they are brought into SF.MlliARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— THE NORTH ASIATIC MANNER. -Tingusic Sukleki Drawn by Victor Adam, after a sketch of the Cnunt de Rcchhcrg. Catholicism out of .Siberia and the West. We may note also a grade of semi- barbarity peculiar to North Africa and to some portions of Eastern Semibarbarism ^ of the Moors and and Southeastern Asia. Perhaps the s e m i b a r- barous life of the Moors is the high- est estate of mankind below the level of civilization. Some of the usages of the Moors and Berbers look in one direction contact with foreign nations, the Moors have the manners peculiar to the ruder forms of civilization. But in their race customs — those which they have de- rived from the past — they arc distinctly barbaric. Their personal manners among themselves have the sense and flavor of a remote and barbaric past. Their wild dances and crude religious ceremonies all}- the race with the barba- rians, leaving only a small reason for 406 GREAT RACES OE JfAXA'LVD. classifying them with the civilized peo- ples of the world. Several important inferences are now to be drawn from the subject-matter of the present chapter. It remains to sum- marize the results and to state their meaning. The reader will, doubtless, already have deduced several conclusions from his study of the preceding chap- ters; but it will be of additional interest to state in a few paragraphs the leading truths which follow as a logical conclu- sion from premises furnished by the study and comparison of prehistoric and modern barbarism. repulsive features. What the cave men of Western Europe and the shell-mound people of the shores of the Baltic were in the post-pliocene era — when the mammoth was still a denizen of West- ern Europe and America, when the hairy rhinoceros and the reindeer were in the valleys of the Seine and the Loire, when the cave bear and the cave hyena and the Bos primigciiiiis still maintained their existence from the northern ocean to the Pyrenees — that the native Austra- lians, theVeddahsof Ceylon, the savages of the Andaman islands, and the Fue- gians of South America are' to the pres- PICIORIAI, WORK OF THE ESQUIMAUX. I. In the first place, it will be noted that the prehistoric age and the current AU ages furnish epoch of human history "^tZ:'^Z- alike furnish examples of the dition. lozvest stages of human devel- opment. This is to say that at the two extremes of human history, the one ly- ing below the daydawn of authentic annals and the other reaching to the very feet of the present, tribes of men are found in similar stages of degradation and savagery. This signifies that the whole of human history has not been sufficient to extinguish barbarism from the earth, or even to obliterate its most ent day. Some variations and departures of tribal character doubtless exist be- tween the prehistoric barbarians and their fellows of the modern world. No doubt there are conditions prevalent, forces operative in the processes of our planet life which have effected changes and diversities of character between the ancient and the modern savages ; but the fact remains of their characteristic and es- sential identity. In food and clothing, in weapons and utensils, in hut building and the rude beginnings of artisanship, in coarseness of manners and brutality of life, the two extremes of the ethnic PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 407 history of man may be brought together, and the difference might be hard to seek. 2. The life of man in the prehistoric ages and in the modern barbarian ^i^® ^^,^''®"^^ world presents similar cx- of developmeut •■ present in an- treDies of development . This cient and mod- . , . . . em times. IS to Say that in the primi- tive -world great variety is discovered in the life of tribes and peoples, and in the degree of development. In some, the evolutionary forces had already worked a considerable result at our earliest ac- expansion and possibility. In general, the aboriginal inhabitants of Western Europe were as low in development as may well be conceived. The cave men and the coast people were in the extreme of savagery, and it is difficult to point to a single evidence among the relics and memorials which they have left to ar- chaeolog}^ and historj' of even a tendency to reach a higher stage of life. This same contrariety between the higher and lower aspects of human existence in the prehistoric world finds NONPROGRESSIVE STATE OF BARBARISM.— Chippewas of Sai lt SArNte Makik. quaintance with a given people, while in others the grossness of savagery was unabated. If we scrutinize the old house-folk of Arya or study the characteristics of some of the better peoples of Asia Minor and the West, such as the Pelasgians of Greece, or the Etiiiscans of Italy, we shall find them to have been vigorous and growing races, great builders of stone, makers of towns and treasure-houses and fortifica- tions and aqueducts. But if we glance at other aspects of prehistoric humanity we find no such promising symptoms of an exact analogy among modem barba- rians. Here, also, we have Existing barba- mixed evidences of the ^Z^^^^t progressive and nonpro- nonprogressiTe. gressive disposition. Many of the exist- ing barbarous races are as absolute in their savagery as were any of the pre- historic tribes, while others give proof of a forward movement and of actual at- tainment, which may well elicit hopeful- ness and even challenge admiration. The general principle is that the same diversity which we find evidenced among the races of the primitive world 408 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. exist among the barbarous peoples of tlie present time; from which it would ap- pear that beyond the pale and influence of the civilized nations a state of human society still exists which is little dissimi- lar to that which the ethnolotjist discov- I'litioH of inaiikiiid. In contemplating the barbai'ous races now inhabiting the outskirts of the world, we The barbaric Ufe discover little or nothing f.^rrongTor to inform the judgment as spread. to //('Ti' savagery begins or ends, or as to PROGRESSIVE ELEMENT IN BARB ARISM— ILLUS I'RATED IN WEAPONS OF NEW ZEALANDERb. I, saw ; a, chisel ; 3, knife ; 4, nx of chipped flint ; 5, spe.-ir of ground stone ; 6, ax of polished stone. ers on the remotest horizon of his in- ! the ethnic soi/nr from which such peo quiry. 3. The study of the existing forms of barbarism throws very little light on fundamental questions relative to f//c ori- gin of savagery and tlic prifuitivc distri- ples have descended. Their traditions, as already remarked are valueless, and their monuments and arts serve only to illustrate the passing phases of their social condition. It is possible for the PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 409 historian to see in the actions of existing barbarians those unconscious movements of man which, in some instances at least, precede the birth and early struggles of civilization. Savage tribes in such a state of development — if, indeed, they are developing at all — arc in close anal- ogy with the unconscious period in hu- man life. There is a sense in which the species is always epitomized and ex- pressed in the individual. What the child does without consciousness of its own actions or tendencies, that the species does in an analogous stage of de- velopment. But the evidence of the child with respect to its own past, or even with respect to its own purposes, would be little regarded by any candid inquirer. It is a period in individual or tribal life characterized by dreams and vagaries of the fancy ; and it must not be forgotten that the fancy is frequently distorted by abnormal conditions and even by disease and delirium. On the whole, the impartial student of the primitive condition of mankind is able to discover as much evidence out of the memorials of the prehistoric ages rela- tive to the origin and essential charac- ter of barbarism and the beginnings of tribal life in different quarters of the world, as he is able to discover from the closest scrutiny of the actions and man- ner of life of the existing barbarous peoples. 4. The chief difference between the aspect of modern barbarism and that of Ancient and the primitive world is in current barba- y cranrniphical distribution. Tism differently {^ t> i distributed. The disposition of modern savagery is very different as it respects the habitable surface of the globe from that of the ancient world. In the earli- est epochs accessible to our information savagery was distributed into all parts and places. It had possession of the M.— Vol. 1—27 choicest regions of the globe. There was a time Avhen it was the central fact in Asia, in Europe, and in the two Ameri- cas. Until the present century it was still the central fact in Australia, but the growth and spread of civilization has displaced its barbaric competitor. At the first the savage state gave away in the river valleys of the East and in those choice peninsulas which drop down from the northern continents into the southern waters. In a later stage barbari.sm receded from the re- \ UM'ROGRESSIVE CONDITION — MINCOPA 5IAN. FROM THB ANDAMAN ISLANDS. gions north of the great mountain chains. The central portions of the continents were reclaimed, and there was a recession, a retreat, of savagery toward the borders of the world. The general result has been the ex- tirpation of the barbarous condition in all the central and better civilization has crowded sav- parts of the habitable globe, agery out of the ^ . . , . , better parts of It is in these best re- the world, gions of the world that the great powers are planted. Here they flourish, and in proportion as they are vigorous and possess the elements of perpetuity, they extend themselves, by varying con- quests, toward the horizon. Savagery 410 GREAT RACKS OF JfAXKlXD. has fallen back before this movement and is now compelled to occupy the fur- ther coasts of the planet. In the far regions of the north it is still able to maintain itself, at least for a season. In parts of .South America and in nearly the whole of Africa it still prevails, flourishing- as it were under the :egis of a climate which seems to forbid the de- velopment of a higher civilization. As for the rest, barbarism plants itself in what will perhaps prove its last .strong- hold, the remote islands of the great oceans. It is easy to discover how vastly the position and relative importance of civilization and the barbaric life have been changed in their geographical place, with a constant advantage in fa- vor of the civilized condition. 5. The principal lesson deducible from the present aspect of savagery is the emphasis which it places on the dif- Difference be- fcrclliC bct'd'CCIl tllC pros^rcssivc tween progress- -^ . ive and nonpro- and tlw iioiiprogrfssive parts gressive parts of ^ , , . ..-,^ human life. "f t'^'^ liunian spccies. We have seen above that many forms of ex- isting savagery are as low and unprom- ising as any which prevailed in the pre- historic era. The flint implement of to-day is in no %\-ise superior to that which the cave dweller used in his bat- tle with the extinct mammalia of West- ern Europe. The manners and cusloni.s of the Andamaners and the Veddahs, and the method of life of the Digger Indians in Western America are in every wise as gross and degrading as any which are suggested by the memo- rials and relics of the primitive world. It appears c()nclusi\-e that a considera- ble part of the human race is at the present time in a condition Lowest savage- as degraded and unpro- ^J^^^^^ gressive as any which is the globe, suggested by our knowledge of the pre- historic races of the Old World. On the other hand, we have the fact of evolu- tionary progress splendidly illustrated in the history, tendencies, and prospects of the civilized races. It is apart from the present purpose to speak of the in- dustry, the enterprise, the letters, the art, the triumph over the obdurate forces of the natural Avorld, which have been practiced and achieved by the great peo- ples now holding dominion in the earth. It is sufficient to note and to emphasize the contrast which is afforded by the de- graded and the elevated a.spects of hu- man life, and this contrast is brought most vividly to the mind of the inquirer as he considers the aspect of barbari.sm set darkly against the blazing disk of civilization. (^ • ^) RACE CriART No. 1. EXPLANATION. It is the purpose of this Chart to show THE Distribution of the Races of Mankind, on the theory that they have all proceeded from a common source. That source is indicated by the heavy black line at the left, marked " Orig^-inal Stock of Mankind." From this original slock several great divisions branch off, the first of which is the stem of the prehistoric Black races; the second, the stem of the prehistoric Brown, or Mongoloid, races: and the third, the stem of the prehistoric Ruddv, or While, races. Each of these stems divides into many branches. In general, the latitude of the given race is indicated in the Chart as on an ordinarj^ map; that is, those races having the most northernly distribu- tion are above ; those in the temperate zones come next, as nearly as prac- ticable ; and those in the tropical regions fall in the center or lower part of the Chart. Wherever the red lines extend, there the White, or Ruddy, races are distributed ; wherever the brown lines reach, there the Brown, or Mongoloid, races are found; while the black lines indicate the distribution of the Black races. Nearly one-fourth of the Chart at the left indicates the prehistoric, or unknown, period of race distribution. Out of this prehistoric period the various races emerge. There is an Aryan, or Indo-European, familj- ; a Semitic family; a Hamitic family; a Mongoloid familj- ; and .sundry Black races, little known to the present day. ' In the greater part of the center of the Chart, and to the right, wherever the names of races or stocks are printed in black letters, those races, or stocks, are extinct ; that is, they have either ceased to exist, or are repre- sented only in their descendants. Examples of such are the Visigoths, the Carthaginians, the Etruscans, etc. All the names of races, families, and stocks, printed in red letters, are existing, or living, peoples. These are found, for the most part, distributed to the right at the end of race-stems. Thus we have, as examples of living races, beginning above, the Welsh, the Icelanders, the Red Russians, the Montenegrins, the English-speaking races, the High Germans, the Swiss, the Brazilians, the Esquimaux, the Magyars, the Osmanlis, etc. The Chart enables the reader, in particular, to trace the race descent of any living variety of mankind. Thus, the English-speaking races are de- rived (read back from right to left) from Anglo-Saxons, Saxons, Ingavo- nians, Moeso-Goths, out of the German stem, of the Teuto-Slavic division, of the West Aryan branch, of the Indo-European family, of the prehistoric Ruddy, or White, races. So, in all the cases of race-histon', the Chart is intended to show, at a single survey, all of the leading developments of mankind. Many minor varieties are necessarity omitted ; but all of the principal stocks of the human race are here displayed in their proper ethnical and historical development. (For the geographical distribution of the various races, see Race Charts Nos. 2 to 9, inclusive. ) %^MS^^^^^^^^^^^^'y-- -'ft^fe&«*^telfe^ BOOK IV.-DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. Chapter XXIII.— Classification ok the Human Species. T has already been re- marked that migration constitutes one of the leading facts in the history of the primitive world. Movement was the mood of the first men who possessed the earth. It was by means of tribal and national migra- tions that mankind were distributed into the various regions where they subse- quently established themselves in com- munities and states. From certain cen- ters the human streams arose and flowed in different directions, bearing afar the fecund waters of future national life. Nearly all of these movements are hidden under the obscurity that clouds Obscurity of the the beginnings of history. mJ^sTfm'an- The very best penetration «^°ef of mstoncal eth- . mation has been gathered noiogy. relative to the first races of men and their movements across the ancient land- INDO-EUROPEAN TYPE — THE SULTAN MACOUD MIRZA. Drawn by H, Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Diculafoy. scape, that a system of ethnic classifica- tion has been adA-anced from a purely historical basis. It was known, or sus- pected, by the Romans and Greeks two thousand years ago that they were re- lated in their descent. Later on it be- came known that such peoples as the Medes and Persians were of the same race-origin with the Macedonians and 416 GREAT RACES OE JELVAV.VD. the Hellenes. In still more recent times it was discovered that the Teutonic races had an ethnic affinity with the Graeco- Italic family and with the Celts of West- em Europe. Still more recently it be- came known that the Hindu races were descended, in all probability, from a common origin with the Greeks, the Ro- mans, and the Teutonic branches of man- kind. A still higher view Glimpses of a 1-1 11 • 1 wide appUcation of the whole question has »>f this method. ii,.i.-ui-i- r^i 1 led to the belief of the ul- timate affinity of the Semitic nations with the great peoples mentioned above, and SEMITIC TYPE— THR ARAB BENI LAAM. Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, of the Hamites with all the rest. As the historical horizon has widened and the vision of the observer has become clearer with the increase of knowledge, the true relations of the various families of men have been discovered to the ex- tent of warranting a classification on the basis of actual history; and many at- tempts have been made to produce on this basis a scheme of ethnic dispersion as broad and comprehensive as the far- reaching facts which it is intended to explain. As a result of this method, several races of men have been distinguished from each other and classified according to their ethnic descent and affinities. 1. T/ie Indo-European Race. — It has been definitely ascertained that two of the great Asiatic families Meaning and and at least four of the prev- terr' °i"do- alent peoples of Europe European race." have had a common descent from a com- mon ancient origin. To this community of nations the name Indo-European, or Indo-Germanic, has been applied by his- torical writers. The term signifies the two extremes in place and time of the nation- al dispersion from the common origin referred to. It signifies that an Indie branch of the human family, including with this term the Iranic, or Persic, di- vision of mankind, has been derived primarily from the same fountain with the Grasco-Italic race and with the Celtic and Teutonic divisions of mankind in Europe. From the common fountain, two Asiatic streams flowing to the south and the east are known to have arisen in common with the four westward flow- ing streams that were destined to bear into Europe and through all the west the primitive waters of Hellenic, Italic, Teutonic, and Celtic nationality. The term Indo-European is thus devised to cover the wide extremes of human de- velopment which span the world from the valley of the Indus to California. 2 . The Semitic Race. — Under this head the historians have developed a classifi- cation very nearly analogous to that em- braced under the same clas- Races included sification in biblical ethnol- Tt^^'f^^^^' mtion 01 bem- ogy. There is, historically Mis- speaking, some indistinctness on the further borders of Semitic development. Whether, for instance, the ancient Chal- dees were to be included under this designation may be regarded as doubt- ful. It is sufficient to note that the He- DISTRIBUTIOX OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 417 brew race, in its several divisions, ancient and modern, is included under the Semitic division of mankind, and consti- tutes, indeed, its most striking repre- sentatives. So also the more recent Arabs are included as a cognate branch of the same great family; and the an- cient Aramaeans prevalent in Syria, Mesopotamia, and other western dis- tricts of Asia must in like manner be classified with the Semitic division of mankind. The reader will not fail to observe that history, considered as a sci- ence, and the scriptural account of the dispersion of the human race are very nearly in accord as it respects the divi- sions, migrations, and historical devel- opment of the Semitic family of men. 3 . The Hamitic Race. — This division of mankind is known to history chiefly by its greatest representatives, the ancient •WTio the Ham- Egyptians. As planters d^Xtfas'to °f the strongest and most certain races. enduring civilization of re- mote antiquity, these people could but make a strong impression on the earliest historical developments of the world. Cognate with the Egyptian race were several other branches of Hamites, but nearly all of them are obscured with doubt as to their origin and classi- fication. Such are the old Chaldasans, who planted their empire on the Lower Euphrates as much as two thousand years before our era ; and such are the Joktanian Arabs of the south, bordering on the ocean, and such are several of the Canaanitish rations, with whom the greater historical peoples came into con- tact from the seventh to the third cen- tury B. C. Many historians have re- garded the Phoenicians, the Sidonians, and the Carthaginians as of Hamitic descent, and it is highly probable that some of these peoples were at least com- posite in their ethnic origin. As a gen- eral fact, it appears that the Semitic and Hamitic peoples of antiquity were less completely separated from each other's influence, less perfectly differentiated HAMITIC TYPE — THE EGYPTIAN SAIS. Drawn by A. de liar. > into diverse types of race development, than any other two branches of the primitive family of men. 4. Tlie Altaian Races. — The great no- madic peoples having- the highlands of 418 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. the Altais as their original habitat have been designated by many terms, and The Altaian there is yet mucli confusion ZZnt^ZT' in their attempted classifi- Tartars. cation. Evcn the major divisions of these races are not well made out. One of the broadest divisions is the Tartar family, spreading to the north and east over a great part of Asia. It is still in di.spute whether v^ can > « •» SI B « .'p^^/lT. ALTAIAN TYPE — OLD TARANTCHI. Dr.iwn by R. Ronj.'it, from a plintograph. the Tartars and Mongolians should be considered as primary ethnic divisions of mankind, or whether the Llongolian branch of the south has been deflected from the Tartar group of the nortli. As we shall presently see, this great assem- blage of semicivilized races, nomadic over the vast steppes of the north and in a low grade of development in the wuth, is defined by the term Turanian in the linguistic division of men. But for historical purposes the whole group may best be classified and named from its geographical center on the northern slopes of the Altais. The White Tar- tars, or Turcomans, as the westernmost division of the great Altaian group, have, by their aggressions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Eastern Europe, brought the family of nations to which they belong into historical relationship with the Indo- European race, and have thus preserved unto the present time at least the rem- iniscence of the prowess for which they were characterized in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 5. Western Aborigines. — Besides the greater peoples with whom history has had to deal in Western Asia and Aboriginal races Europe, the progress of na- of the western , . . , 1 , . hemisphere. tions westward has brought them into contact with new varieties of the human family, unknown in ancient times. The limited geographical knowl- edge of the ancient peoples shut them out from an acquaintance with the wide- ly spread barbarian races occupying the New World, the continent of Australia, and the islands of the sea. It is not meant that the inhabitants of the vast regions here referred to are of a common ethnic descent. On the contrary, as we shall see hereafter, many original stocks of mankind are represented in the exist- ing savagery of the world. But for his- torical purposes the aborigines of the West and of the ocean lands of the South and west may, for convenience, be grouped together and considered as an unclassified mass of peoples, in varying stages of evolution. It will be remembered that what is here attempted is merely to indicate such results in the way of classification as are afforded from a purely historical point of view ; and for this purpose all DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 419 the outlj'ing barbarous peoples that have been revealed since the beginning of Results of the geographical discovery at ftol^on's'inX" the close of the fifteenth scheme. century may be grouped as one, and considered as a single fact in the analysis of the human race. If, then, we collect the results derivable from this historical view of the disper- sion of mankind, we shall find the fore- going five groups of peoples, the first three of which, the Indo-European, the Semitic, and the Hamitic branches, are tolerably clearly defined and separated by ethnic lines, while the remaining two, the Altaian group of nations and the Western aborigines, are banked to- gether rather for convenience of consid- eration than by exact principles of clas- sification. III. LiXGUiSTic Ethnology. — Within the present century the study of lan- guage has thrown new light on all the In what manner disputed questions relative 'come abasfs^o^/' to the dispcrsion and race classification. developments of mankind. The scientific investigation of speech has made clear man}- vexed questions in the primitive history of men that to all seeming could have found no other so- lution. The general effect has been to confirm and establish many of the views already received from tradition and his- torical inquiry, and to disprove and ren- der untenable many other opinions con- cerning the movements and affinities of the early races. Much that was conjec- tural has become known as fact. The- ories have been demonstrated or de- stroyed, and new views of the extent, variety, and true character of tribal and national evolution have been projected. In some departments of inquiry the new knowledge has amounted to a revolu- tion. On the whole, it is almost impos- sible to overestimate the value of lin- guistic science in the exposition of all questions relative to the prehistoric con- ditions and movements ot mankind. If we take up the results of this study of human speech as it respects the eth- nic classification of the race, we find a certain general parallelism to what has been presented above as proceeding from biblical and historical investiga- tion. To begin with, the science of WEST AUVAN IVrii — ALLllilAUtS. language declares with emphasis and demonstrates the existence of — I. Tlie Aryan Race. — This term, as elucidated in the preceding book, relates primarily to a primitive nobility claimed and maintained by the peo- The Aryan race pies called Aryan, which ^^^^:^ nobility was based upon esses, the agricultural life as distinguished from nomadic and pastoral pursuits. It is not needed to illustrate further in this connection the meaning and application of the term. It suffices to note the fact 420 GREAT RACES OE }rAXKIXD. that the study of language has defined and proved beyond a doubt the funda- mental affinity and kinship of the Aryan folk of Asia — that is, the great Hindu family of Arj'ans in the valleys of India and the Iranian, or Persic, division of mankind — with the Grasco-Italic race and the Teutones and Celts of Europe. The community of the original speech of all these jjeoples, spreading in its wid- est development from the base of the Himalayas westwai'd over the table-lands of Iran, through the southern peninsulas Racemove- ^mcl the transmontane for- byThenorefa' estsof Europe to the Atlan- of language. tic, and through the New World to the Pacific coast, has been es- tablished by proofs irrefragable as those which determine the truths of geology or the laws of the physical world. The course of the tribal movements by which from the countries east of the Caspian these great and progressive streams of human life pursued their way to their destination can be traced by the linguis- tic phenomena which they left in their track, and the elimination of the great family of men to which scholars have in recent times given the name Aryan from the remaining races has been com- pletely effected. It can but be of interest at this point to state the linguistic facts upon which "WTiat facts in the classification of man- ianfTtrnilaT" ^iud has bccu attempted, conclusions. jt is found that certain peo- ples, like the Aryan family above defined, speak dialects of a common language. In general, they havQ a vocabulary and a grammar in common. When we find two peoples living in different and dis- tant parts of the earth naming the objects of sense and reflection with the same words, and combining those words in sentences under the same laws of gram- matical and logical structure, we are com- pelled to conclude that the two languages have had a common origin somewhere in the past ; and if the languages have thus arisen from a common source, the two peoples who spoke them had also an original tribal identity. This is exactly the case with the great nations called Aryan. The six branches of this vast family of mankind, namely, the Indie, the Iranic, the Hellenic, the Italic, the Teutonic (including the Slavonic), and the Celtic, are not only identified by the laws of history, but also by the laws of speech. The vSanskrit, spoken in ancient India, the Persic dialects of the plateau of Iran, the different varieties of Greek peculiar to Hellas and the ^gean islands, the Latin tongue of the West, the various Teutonic languages, and the Celtic, with its two or three derivatives, have all a fundamental linguistic iden- tity. Their vocabulary as it respects the primary objects of sense and the common actions of life is virtually the same in all. More striking still are the fundamen- tal peculiarities of their respective grammars. The great fea- inflection the ture of all these tongues YZT^rlt^ is inflection. The varia- speech. tions of thought as, for instance, nurn- ber, gender, and case in nouns, mood and tense in verbs, comparison in adjec- tives and adverbs, are indicated by terminational changes in the words of the language, and these changes obey the same laws and present the same phenomena in all the speeches above referred to. Only the student of lan- guage can fully appreciate the striking similarities which present themselves in all branches of the Indo-European, or Aryan, tongues. It is as though we should study a single language with dialectical variations. And so indeed it is. The original speech of all these peo- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 421 pies was one. Somewhere in the past and somewhere on the surface of the earth, before the era of tribal migration, a famih' of men had, by reason and experience, developed a language of the inflectional variety, had given names to the objects of nature and the concepts of the mind, had defined by certain words the actions and thoughts peculiar to their volitions and imaginations. The general result of this evolution was the production of a great typical speech, which was spoken How languages '■ ^ are modified by by all the members of environment. ,/ ^ m ■ -^ ± ^ the tribe m its ancestral home. From this region the migrations began, and each band of emigrants carried with them the ancestral speech. As they entered into new relations with nature and new experiences in life, passing through belts of different cli- mate, encountering new landscapes and familiarizing themselves Avith new con- ditions and environments, their tongues began to modify the original language, and to adapt it to the changing panorama of nature and the varying concepts of the mind. Generations went by. Differ- ent regions of the earth were reached. National developments ensued. But still the fundamental identity of the speech of all these peoples was main- tained. So that in India, in Persia, in Macedonia and Greece, in Italy, in the forests of Northern Europe, and .in the outlying portions of Spain and Gaul and Britain, the scholar of after times discovers the broken, but clearly identi- cal, fragments of a common language once spoken by the ancestors of all these peoples. Thus it is that the stud}- of language has furnished one of the surest criteria by which to determine the ethnic classification of mankind. 2. The Semitic Race. — Following this same clue, we discover by means of lan- guage another family of men, to which is given the name of Semitic. Here we no- tice the recurrence of the Semitic races same term which was given ^ay be classified t> by means of US in the biblical ethnol- ti»eir languages, ogy and repeated in the historical divi- sion of the races. The linguistic inquirer finds in the East a group of nations speaking languages totally different in structure and vocabulary from the Aryan tongues above defined. The speech of the Hebrews, the old Aramaeans, and the Arabs is as distinct in its essential char- acter from vSanskrit and Greek and Latin as though it belonged to a wholly differ- ent class of phenomena. The words of the Semitic languages, instead of being of all lengths as to syllables and letters, consisted fundamentally of triliteral sym- bols. Every word is essentially a word of three letters and three only. These constitute the skeleton, so to speak, of the vocal symbol, and around this skele- ton the vocalic elements are arranged. Inflection is almost unknown to the Semitic languages. The grammar of these tongues is construct- contrast be- ed upon a totally different ^rAryaTmeth- principle from that of the ods of speech. Aryan languages. Even the superficial student of human speech must be struck and astonished from the ver}' first with the essential difference and contrast be- tween the Semitic method of expressing thought and the method of the Aryan peoples. It is from this distinction that the linguistic inquirer has constructed the classification of the Semitic races. The Hebrews, the Aramaeans, and the Arabs, with their derivatives in ancient and modern times, are grouped by them- selves, and are as certainly defined by means of the languages which they speak or have spoken as they are clearly divid- ed from the other nations in historic de- velopment. 422 GREAT RACES OF JfA-VA'/XD. 3. T//C Turanian Races. — The progress of linguistic science has revealed another Peculiarities of great group of languages, Tu/anrafran- differing entirely in struc- guages- tural character from the two varieties above described. It is found that in general the languages of lURANlAN TYPK — KIRGHKKZ KAI.CONER. Drawn by Delort, from a photograph and de^cripiion. the nomadic nations of Northern Asia are monosyllabic. They consisted origi- nally of words of a single syllable, and are never inflected. In order, however, to express the necessary inflection of ideas and to effect the construction of the sentence, they adopted ^^■hat is called the agglutinative method of combina- tion. That is, several mono.syllables are put in juxtaposition to express the com- plex or compound notion which in the Aryan languages would be denoted bj- means of inflectional terminations. This feature of combin- ing monosyllables in long, compound expres- sions, partly resembling words and partl}^ sen- tences, is common to the languages of nearly all the nomadic nations of the eai'th. It is believed by schol- ars that such languages have not yet reached the inflectional Features of ag- stage of de- f "ti"<-^"^« & tongues; mean- Velopmen t, mg of " tura." and that, in obedience to natural laws, they will ultimately pass into a form of structure similar to that of the Aryan vo- cabulary and grammar. No example of .such trans- mutation, however, has been noted in any quar- ter of the world. The agglutinative languages hold fast to their original character, and the peo- ples who speak them prefer to retain their te- dious, periphra.stic meth- ods of expression to the adoption of the briefer and more elegant inflectional forms of .speech. Ba.sed on these agglutinative dialects, the ethnic classification of races has been extended to W''% DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 42.3- include the great group called Turanian. The word is derived from turn, "a horseman," and has respect to the nation- al habit of life peculiar to the semibar- barous races of Northern Asia. In general, the Turanian fam- il)% as deter- mined by the peculiarities of language, con- forms with tol- erable identity to the Altaian group of na- tions as deter- mined by his- torical relation- .ships. 4. The Gan- oivanian Races. — In addition to the three major divisions of mankind thus determined by the evidence of language, a fourth division has been sug- gested to in- clude the bar- barian races of the New Wo rid; and for this branch of man- kind the name ( ianowanian has been proposed as indicating the most universal charac- teristic of the Indian races. They are, and have always been, the wearers of the bow. Just as the root ar has fur- by Pro f e ssor Lewis H. Mor- gan, of the United States. In the Seneca- Iroquois dialects the wavdi. gano-xuano sig- nifies " bow-and-arrow," and Professor Morgan has seized upon this expression GANOWANI.W TYPES — rCAYI.t INDIANS. Drawn by P. Fritel. nished to ^la.x iliiller and other Euro- pean scholars the hint for the ethnic name Arj-an, meaning the races of the plow, just as tura, meaning a horseman. 424 GREAT RACES OE JELVAVXP. has furnished the root of the word Tu- ranian, descriptive of the nomadic races of Asia, so the word Gan- The Ganowan- . ian, or t)ow-and- owaniau may properly be arrow, races. employed to designate the races of the bow and arrow. Linguis- SF.A NEGRO TYPES — NATIVES OK DOREV. Drawn by P. Sellier, .ifter a sketch of Dumont d'Urville. tically considered, the various tongues of the Indian family of men belong by analogy to the same group with the Turanian languages of Asia. They have the same peculiarities. They are monosyllabic, and all complex and com- pound ideas arc expressed by the agglu- tinative process ; that is, the mere jux- taposition of one monosyllable with another, until the mind of the speaker is satisfied with the modification. IV. Geographical Ethnology. — We have thus considered three of the general methods which have been adopted for classifying ^ . General theory the human race into of geographical , ... ethnology. species and varieties. Still another plan has been proposed by a certain class of writers with a view to the ethnic division of man- kind. This we will now consider as the fourth attempt to group the different families of men according to their origin and race descent. It has appeared more feasible to many inquirers to use geography as the basis of a classification rather than alleged affinities of blood or actual identities of language. It has been thought that for practical results the arrangement of the human race ac- cording to its continental distribu- tion and its local developments would be of greater value than the somewhat theoretical analysis of mankind according to linguistic distinctions. The result has been a more elaborate but less valuable classification than by any of the other methods. The plan in ques- tion begins with a hypothetical cen- ter for the human race, located in the Indian ocean, west of Hindu. Stan. From this supposed origin of mankind streams of ethnic de- scent are carried shorewards from Lemuria until, touching the various continents, they are deflected and dis- tributed into all parts of the earth. According to this scheme we have the following results : I. The Papna)is, with their derivative DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATION. 425 families of Negritos, Papuans proper, Melanese, and Tasmanians. These Summary of re- peoples, as their names gripS^''^^"' indicate, are distributed method. jn IMalacca, the Philippine islands, Papua, ]\Ielanesia, and Tas- mania. 2. The Hottentots, with their two lead- ing branches, the Hottentots proper and the Bushmen, both inhabiting Cape- land. 3. The Kaffirs, with their three divi- sions, the Zulu-Kaffirs, the Bechuanas, and the Congo Kaffirs, inhabiting re- spectively the eastern, the central, and the western districts of South Africa. 4. The Negroes, with their four principal divisions of Tibbu Negroes, Stidan Negroes, Seneganibians, and Nigritians, inhabiting the re- gions indicated by their respective names. 5. The Austra- lians, with the two geographical branches of North Australians and South Australians. 6. The Malayans, with their three divi- sions of Sundanese, Polynesians, and Madagascans, the first two inhabiting the Sunda archipelago and the Pacific is- lands, and the latter the island of Mad- agascar. 7. The Mongolians, with their three va- rieties of Indo-Chinese, Coreo- Japanese, Altaians, and Uralians, the first belong- ing to Thibet and China, the second to Corea and Japan, the third to Central and Northern Asia, and the fourth to Northwestern Asia and Hungary in Europe. M.— Vol. 1—28 8. The Arctics, with the two principal divisions of Hyperboreans and Esqui- maux, belonging respectively to North- eastern Asia and Northeastern America. 9. The Americans , with four leading divisions, the North Americans (In- dians), Central Americans, South Amer» icans, and Patagonians, distributed ac- cording to their several ethnic names. 10. The Dravidians, with two race de- velopments, the Deccanese of India and the Singalese of Ceylon. 1 1 . The Nubians, with their three va- rieties, the Shangallas and Dongolese of Nubia, and the Fulahs of Fulah. 12. The Mediterraneans, divided ac- ESQUIMAU TYPES. cording to this scheme into Caucasians, Basques, Semites, and Indo-Europeans; the first of these four being named from the range of the Caucasus, the .second belonging to the northeastern portion of Spain, the third being limited to Eastern Europe and portions of Northern Africa, and the Indo-European branch being nearly coincident with the European division of the Aryan race as defined in the linguistic scheme above. We thus have, according to the geo- graphical scheme, no fewer than twelve major divisions of human kind, repre- sented by thirty-seven different races. 426 GREAT RACES OF JLIXKLYD. many of which are in turn divided and subdivided into various peoples and tribes, according- to their localities, lan- guages, and ethnic peculiarities. On the \vhole, this method of classifica- tion according to the geographical basis is Unsatisfactory leSS Satisfactor}^ in its re- character of geo- n.g ^-^^^ an^'of the others g-apmcal classi- •' Bcation. presented. It assumes that tribes of a given stock will, as a rule, mi- associated. A classification like the above, which places so old and radical a stock as that of the Semites in the same group with the Indo-European races, lacks every element of accuracy, and tends to perpetuate the worst vices of the old system of ethnology. None the less, such a division of mankind as that pre- sented in the geographical scheme above has its value when set in comparison and NUBIAN BOY— TYPE. -Dra«n by Ishrnael Geiil7. grate in +he same direction and occupy the same territories. It is based upon the hypothesis that an aggregation of peo- ples in any given part of the world is of itself s. proof of a common race descent. On the contrary, it is well known that in many parts of the world races and tribes of men, as wide apart as the poles in their ethnic aiUnities, are geographically parallelism with other and more rational ethnic classifications. V. Scientific Ethnology. — In the schemes of race descent thus far pre- sented the lingi:istic plan Klements of un- of division most nearly ^^^^^j^^j^^ approaches a scientific ba- of race division, sis. There are in the same, however, certain unscientific conditions that must DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATIOX. 427 be eliminated before the division of the human race by language only could be accepted as a finality. One of these con- ditions is the patent fact that a people of a given ethnic origin may, in the vicissi- tudes of history, adopt a speech other than its own, and thus be thrown in a classification very different from that to which it really belongs. Several instances might be cited in which this phenomenon has actually and probability of error in classifying by means of language only. But there are other means of a more strictly scientific character which may be employed in classifying the possibuity of divisions of the human classifying on variations in race. Differences or identi- fo"°- ties in anatomical structure, persistently transmitted from generation to genera- tion, constitute a valid evidence of eth- nic divergence or relationship. The stature of a given people is generally uniform. The men are of a uniform height, and so are the women. In this respect the different families of man- kind have presented remarkable varia- Dolicocephalic skulL Brachycephalic skuU. CRANIAL CONFIGURATION, SHOWING VARIATIONS IN HUMAN FORM. presented itself. At times the conquer- ing race absorbs the language of the conquered people, and, in such a case, subsequent investigation would be put at fault if the linguistic affinity of the people were accepted as the sole criterion of its race relationship. The conspicu- ous modern example of the Normans, who abandoned their own Teutonic speech and adopted French as their ver- nacular, carrying the same with them into England, and effecting in the Eng- lish language a permanent modification by the infusion therein of linguistic ele- ments which they had borrowed from another people, is sufficiently well known, and completely establishes the possibility tions. Some approximate the stature of giants, and others of p\-gmies. The pro- portions of the skeletons likewise con- stitute a fair basis of distinction between people of one race and those of another. The character of the hands and the feet, the length and proportion of the arm bones and the legs, the particular figure of the chest, and especially the facial angle, are peculiarities which may well be employed in a scientific way in dis- tinguishing people of one race descent from those of another. More especially the figure and capac- ity of the skull are typical, each family of men having a cranial configuration and development peculiar to itself. 428 GREAT RACES OF 2LlNKIiYD. Careful investigations have shown the limits of these variations, and have de- Crania and termincd those features of Of dete^^.:^^ the Skull and brain Avliich race. are distinctive of several races of men. The hair of the head, likewise, has furnished a distinguishing mark in different peoples. It is found that the hair in different races ranges all the way from a woolly fiber, present- ing a triangular section and having its vital channel on the exterior surface, to the straight, tubular filament which constitutes the head covering of some of the superior races. Between these ex- tremes are all varieties of capillary for- mation. These varieties are found to granite crypts of Egypt, where they were laid more than two thousand years before our era, exhibit the same pecul- PAPUAN TYPE, SHOVVl.NO CKISP HAIK. be persistent from generation to genera- tion and from century to century. Spec- imens of human hair recovered from the C, >■,. f AMEKICAN INDIAN TYPE, SHOWING STRAIGHI' HAIR. Drawn by Riou, iarities and diversities of structure as are found on the heads of living races. Such specific differences in the external cov. ering of the skull may well be used in a scientific way as ^ mark or criterion by which the different families of mankind may be discriminated the one from the other. The human skin also has its particu- lar features and peculiarities, unlike in the different types of man- . . . T Color of the skin kmd. This is said more a true test of particularly of the color. Of ^ "'° ^ "' ^' all the features with respect to which men differ in physiological constitution the pigmentary character of the cuticle is perhaps the most marked, invariable, and persistent. This fact has been se- lected by many ethnographers as the best consideration from which to frame ;i scheme of division for the human species. It is found that the different races have different colored skins; that a given race is sufficiently uniform in its hue ; that the color once determined, is persistent, reproducing itself from age to age, and being recognizable even after thousands of years as belonging to a cer- tain species. Why not, therefore, adopt the color of the body as the most marked DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 429 Scientific classi- fication may be made from color. and invariable characteristic by which to distinguish the ethnic classi£cation of the various peoples? Such a principle of division appears to be in every v.'ise scientific. The color of the skin is a physical fact in nature, and its invaria- bility in a given species assures the constancy of the fact and furnishes a guarantee against error. Xo anomalous depar- tures from the given standard of color need be ex- pected except in the case of indi- viduals, and such exceptions would in no wise disturb the regularity of the law. More- over, the other sources of infor- mation, the other bases of division of the human fam ily, may well be used as auxiliary to the truly scien- tific classification of mankind by means of color. All that is known historically of the different races, all that is known of the various branches of the human family as determined by mean? of the languages which they speak, may be brought to bear upon the problem to rectify and amend whatever may be suspected of error in the classi- fication by means of color. Such a method of division has been many times attempted by scholars, but until recently the results have been variable and uncertain. The reason of this is found in the imperfect observa- tion which has first been given to the question. What are the different colors presented on the covering sources of for- of the bodies of men ;, mer error in this method of clas- What primary or secondary siiying. hues are really characteristic of the hu- man skin in different races and coun- tries? Error in deciding these questions has been at the bottom of all diversity in results. NIGRIIIAN TYPES, SHOWINC, WOOLLY HAll Drawn by Madame Paule Crampel. It appears strange to the thoughtful inquirer of the present day that so little accuracy has been displayed by those who have attempted to note and de- scribe the different natural colors of the human skin. It will readily be allowed that an examination of the whole race now occupying the earth will discover nearly all colors and shades of color, from one extreme of the spectrum to another; but a very casual examina- tion will show that these various tints are reducible to a few, and these to 430 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. still fewer primary pigmentary distinc- tions. The great error made by those eth- nographers who have attempted to use color of the skin as a basis Only three pri- . ^ , . i , mary colors of of classihcation has been the human skin. ■ 1 1 ■ . j ■ 111 allowing too many dis- tinctions of tint. Inability on their part to generalize the facts, and to reduce the ENGLISH TYPE (MRS. SIDDONS), SHOWING WAVY HAIR. different hues to a few radical distinc- tions, has been the fruitful source of all inaccuracy and confusion. The first classifications attempted on this basis of color resulted in multiplying- rather than in simplifying the classification of the human race. According to these first efforts there were white men, yel- low men, olive-colored men, red men, orange-colored men, copper-colored men, brown men, black men, and many other slighter distinctions which tended to confuse rather than to establish a scien- tific division. All this turned upon in- accuracy of perception. It is the feature of modern inquiry that the sense-percep- tion with which it begins has become constantly more accurate and penetrating in recent times. It is now clearly perceived that there are by no means so many fundamental colors to be recognized as the distin- guishing characteristics of the different races. On the contrary, there are but few. Without passing through all stages of the inquiry, it is sufficient to say that the very best scrutiny of the actual facts shows that there are only tJircc primary colors peculiar to tlic hiiinan body ; and that these colors are ruddy, black, and brown. From these fundamental and characteristic tints of the human skin all the other varieties are easily derived, and to them all minor distinctions are read- ily referred. What, then, is the true nature of these three fun- damental colors peculiar to thei-aces.of mankind? It will be noted that the term zvhite is rejected. This is done The term ruddy for the sufficient reason ;\^fe"ntws'°' that there are not now treatise, and never were any tribes of people on the earth to whom the term white could properly be applied. The fairest- skinned specimens of the human race are very far from white. He who has DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 431 not himself looked candidly and care- fully at the fact here referred to must needs be surprised to note how great the error is in describing the color of any people as white. The races that have been recognized as white are in reality ruddy in color, and approach much more nearly to the standard of red than the Indian peoples, who have been erroneously defined as red men. The so-called Cauca- sians, for instance, who perhaps present the skin in its fairest tint, are truly a ruddy people. The peculiarity of the skin is its transparency and the consequent rev- elation of the blood in the capillaries. The red tinge of the blood is thus discernible through the cuticle, and the flush of color, slight- er or more emphatic, is always ruddy in its char- acter. The peoples hav- ing this quality of skin are the blushing races. "With every varying de- gree of excitement the blood appears or re- cedes in the skin at the surface, giving a deeper or paler tinge to the body. But under no conditions can the skin be said to be ^ white. The fairest in- No races may be properly defined fant ever born into the world, even when bloodless and cold in death, is so far from being white that a really white object placed alongside of the skin furnishes a con- trast so striking as at once and forever to disabuse the judgment of the be- holder. The term white, therefore, as one of the definitive epithets descriptive of the color of the human race, must be rejected, and its place be taken with the more accurate term rudd}-. We thus have in a scientific classification of man* THE RUDDY TYPE — PAUL CRAMPEL. Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. kind based on the distinction of color, first of all : I. The Ruddv Races. — It is found when this distinction of color is applied to the great facts under consideration that the larger part of ilie historical nations of the earth come under the classification of ruddy. The great races who first 432 GREAT RACES OE JLLVKEVn. redeemed the world from barbarism were of this color. It is quite certain that those strong and heroic peoples who Mniat races may appear in the remote hori- be correctly ^f ^^^^ primitive world Classinea as ^ ruddy. were ruddy in their complexions. vSpeaking- from a biblical point of view, all three of the Noachite THE BROWN TYPE — MISTRESS SENKI. Drawn by E. Ronjat. races, with their several divisions, had complexions of this hue. This is true alike of Hamites, Semites, and Japheth- ites. The long prevalent notion that the Hamites were a black race, corre- sponding roughly to what we call African, in modern history, is utterly untenable. They had, on the contrary, the same general complexion — some- what intensified by the scorching sun of the climates in which they were for the most part developed — with the cognate races of Shem and Japheth. Or, if we speak from the historical point of view, we shall find the same indications of the fundamental identity in color of the early races who developed civilization in the earth. The Indo-Europeans were all ruddy in complexion. From the foothills of the Him- alayas across the table-lands of Per- sia into Ionia and Macedonia and Greece and Italy and the " isles of the gentiles " the same fundamen- tal race complexion is discover- able. Likewise, the Semites and the Hamitic races, noted from the historical point of view, are found to be of the same bodily color. Language contributes its evidence also to establish the same general fact as to the complexion of the Indo-European and other Noachite families of men. They were all ruddy, and the hint in Genesis of the rcd-cartli color of the Adamite would seem to be justified by the facts observable in several of the principal divisions of the human family. II. The Brown Races. —The second fundamental division of mankind determined on the line of color is by the browti complexion, which characterizes many of the leading races. It will be observed from the selection of this hue that many varieties of color may be referred there- to. Several shades of yel- •^ General analysis low and of red may be cor- of the Brown rectly carried back into a fundamental brown, which is the com- posite of black with one of the two tints referred to. Careful observation will show that this is the actual color of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATION. 433 great races of Northern and Eastern Asia, as well as of all the aborigines of the two Americas and Polynesia. As the major division of these races we may cite : 1. T\\.Q Asiatic Mongoloids, correspond- ing in general terms with the Mon- golian race indicated by historical in- quiry, or witli the two divisions of the Turanians according to the linguistic division. 2. The Polynesian Mongoloids, or the peoples scattered through the islands of the South Pacific, with the exception of the Melanesians and the Australians. 3. The Dravidians, or the Deccanese and the people of the Micronesian is- lands north and east of Australia. III. The Black Races. — It is clear, on an examination of the facts, that „^ , many of the peoples, The four groups . . of the Black even the primitive races distributed in portions of the world lying in the equatorial re- gions, are properly defined as Black. The pigmentary deposit under the cuti- cle is of such a character as to absorb all or the greater portion of the rays of light, and to return to the eye only that negative sensation which we define as blackness. The line of chromatic division between these races of Black men and those who were defined as Brown, is that under the cuticle of the skin of the latter peoples a certain percentage of coloring matter is combined with the black pig- ment, producing the various shades of color known as brown. This characteristic difference between the two colors is constant, and tends to perpetuate itself by the physiological law called ' ' reversion to the original type." This is to say that in a contact of the various races. Black and Brown and Ruddy, and in their intermingling of blood, there is a tendency for one or the other of the elements of ethnic constitu- tion to declare itself and become domi- nant over the rest. Given a sufficient lapse of time, and these intermediate varieties return to the one or the other of the original types from which they are derived. Geographically speaking, the Black races are distributed throughout the larger part of Africa and through the whole of Australia and that portion of the Pacific archipelago called Melane- sia. These are the limits of the natural dispersion of the Black races. The eth- nic divisions of this third primary family of men are : 1 . The Negroes, who occupy the larger band of Central Africa from east to west, and are also distributed through a great portion of the southern division of the continent. 2. The Australians, occupying all of Central and Southern Australia, except the coast region on the east and north. 3. "YY^Q Hottentots, distributed through, the larger part of the southern extrem- ity of Africa. 4. The Papuans, occupying the island of New Guinea, the northern and eastern maritime districts of Australia, the is- land of Tasmania, and, in general, the Melanesian archipelago. The foregoing classification of the hu- man race on the scientific method and by the distinction of color is, perhaps, as nearly a satisfactory solution of the prob- lem as can be given in the other plans of present state of knowledge. ^^^^^ The three distinctions of with this. Ruddy, Brown, and Black races are fundamental. They are broad enough to include the whole race of man, with its multiform developments in ancient and modern times. The classification is sufficiently ample to embrace in its major and minor divisions all the races and peoples which have been distinguished 434 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXJh from each other by means of historical and linguistic inquiry. It is easy to con- form to this plan of division all the others that have been suggested, and to make them consistent with the wider and more scientific scheme. Thus, for instance, the biblical race of Japheth, the histori- cal divisions of mankind called Indo- THE BLACK TYPE — NEGRO MAKUTULU. Drawn by Riou. European, the ethnic branches of men called Aryan in the linguistic classifica- tion, all fall under the common designa- tion of Ruddy races. "With these are grouped by means of the same color distinction the Semitic families of men, and also the Hamitic divisions. These ten races taken together constitute the whole group, which may be defined by the term Ruddy and considered as of a primary, common descent. In the second place, the widely dis- seminated Brown races, covering nearly the whole of Asia, the General distri- two great continents of the button of the TTT i J ii i <- Brown races. West, and the greater part of Polynesia, may be grouped together on the line of color and considered as a common family in its origin and race descent. It will be the purpose in the following pages of the present book to trace out the lines of the great tribal and race divergencies and migrations which in the lapse of ages have carried these Brown peoples over by far the largest dis- tricts of the earth. It will be un- derstood, of course, that the race classification of the peoples of the two Americas as here presented re- lates to the original peoples of these continents, and not to the Indo- European nations that have taken possession of them in recent times by migration and conquest. The third general division as indi- cated in this analysis on the basis of color has already been pointed out in its ethnic and geographical dis- tribution. No branch of the Black races has of its own motion crossed the equator of the earth to a point higher than the twentieth degree of north latitude. It will be found in the subsequent chapters of this book that the dispersion of this divi- sion of mankind was by means of a west- ward stream flowing in from Eastern Africa and spread- ing in many branches through all those parts of the continent between the equatorial region and the Cape of Good Hope, while the eastern stream bore off by way of Southern Hin- dustan into the great, closely distributed islands lying to the south of Asia. It is be- lieved that sufficient is now known of the Outline of the dispersion of the Blacks. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 435 movements of the Black races to delin- eate their tribal divergencies and mi- grations with tolerable certainty, and although much will remain to be rectified and amended by subsequent investiga- tions, something may be at present ad- vanced to enlarge the borders of com- mon knowledge relative to this the least known and least progressive of the great divisions of mankind. From these considerations and others that may be readily deduced therefrom, Mankind to be it has been determined to divided into Ruddy races, employ in the present work Brown races, ... . .^ . - . and Black races, the Scientific method in classifying the different races of men, and to use the color of the body as the fundamental fact in considering the scheme of division. In all the sub- sequent parts of the present work, in the description of the migrations of the primitive tribes and families of men, in the delineation of manners and customs, and the peculiarities of national develop- ment which will in great measure fill up the body of the work, it is purposed to keep always in mind this fundamental division of mankind into, I. RUDDY Races; II. Browx Races; III. Black Races; with their manifest divisions into the three branches, Hamite, Semite, and Aryan in the first; three divi- sions of Asiatic Mongoloids, Polynesian Mongoloids, and Dravidians, in the second; and four branches, Negroes, Australians, Hottentots, and Papuans, in the third. These ten race classes of man- kind will constitute the basis of much of the discussion in the present and the succeeding volumes. CHAPXER XXIV.— NOACHITE DISPERSION CONSID= ERED. O far as the present re- sources of human knowledge have indi- cated the primary seat and early movements of the Ruddy races of mankind, the same be- gan on the north shores of the western gulf of the Indian ocean. The scene of this important primitive aspect of the race Avas probably in the southern part of Beluchistan, eastward from the Per- sian gulf. When these statements are made the whole of our knowledge on the subject may be said to have been delivered. His- tory knows little besides of the time or the advent of this primary stream of human existence; but it can hardlv be doubted that this is the real Primitive seats of the Adamites. seat of the Adamite and his descendants. Ethnologists ha\'tr generally been dis- posed to go further, to trace backwards the stream of this division of the race to the shores of ocean, and thence to carry it by hypothesis far out into the so-called Lemuria, a supposed submerged region in the bed of the Indian ocean. On the theor}' that the Black, the Brown, and the Ruddy races of man- kind have all had a single . , ^ ° . Apparent point ancestral origin, there is of origin for au If. ■, the races. some ground for such a hypothesis. The first tribes of Black men appear to have struck the continent of Africa from the east. In like manner the Brown races seem to have touched the continent on the coast line eastward of the Persian gulf ; while the ancestors of the Australians and Papuans appear 436 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. to have reached their destination from the northwest. Thus the observer, stand- ing on the western shore of India, the eastern shore of Africa, or the southern shore of Baluchistan, would seem to see the three major divisions of mankind ap- proaching from the deep, as if from some common origin under the sea. Nor has tradition been wholly silent in witnessing to such a primeval movement Berosusre- of the race landwards from counts the myth ^j^ Qne of the cldcst of the sea god Oan. traditions on record is pre- served in a fragment of Berosus, and indicates the ocean origin, not only of the day with men. But he took no nour- ishment, and at sunset went again into the sea, and there remained for the night. This animal taught men lan- guage and science, the harvesting of seeds and fruits, the rules for the bound- aries of land, the modes of building cities and temples, arts, and writing, and all that pertains to civilization." In the fifth chapter of the book of Genesis we have an account of the Adamic race from the beginning down to the Deluge. This space is occupied with ten successive patriarchs and their ex- panding families. To these great LANDSCAPi; OF THE NOACHITE DISPERSION.— Bender-Dilem.— Drawn by Taylor, afl<.-r a skitcl, o( Huu^^ay. the arts, but of man himself. A portion of the story is as follows : "Then there appeared to them from the sea, on the shore of Babylonia, a fear- ful animal of the name of Oan. His body was that of a fish, but under the fish's head another head was attached, and on the fins were feet like those of a man, and he had a man's voice. The image of the creature is still preserved. The animal came at morning, and passed longevity is attributed, and the nar- rative indicates in various „ Outline in Gen- ways the rapid tribal de- esisofthe 1 i /• ji Ti Adaimic races. velopment of the race. It will be noted also by a comparison of the fifth chapter with the fourth that two parallel lines of descent are recorded, the one through Cain, and the other through Seth. "For," said Eve, " God hath appointed me another seed instead of Abel, whom Cain slew." DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACHITE BISPERSIOX. 437 The Adamic descendants are traced in the fourth chapter down to the children of Adah and Zillah, the two wives of Lamech; that is, to Jabal, "the father of such as dwell in tents and such as have cattle;" to Jubal, "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ;" and to Tubal-cain, "an instructor of ev- ery artificer in brass and iron." Here the narrative ends, and the other branch of the Adamites, that is, the descendants of Seth, are taken up, down to Noah, the son of Lamech. The recurrence of common names in both lines of descent introduces a good deal of confusion, but the line of Seth, considered by itself, is straight through ten generations. The Hebrew narrative of the Adamite and his posterity to the Deluge is here Value of the cited in part because of its founfo'X Striking parallelism with Chaidaeans. the secular tradition handed down by Berosus. This cele- brated ancient author was a priest of Bel, at Babylon, and flourished there in the first half of the third century before our era. He was a native of the coun- try and well acquainted with its earlier and later history. He knew as well as one might know in an uncritical and credi;lous age the annals not only of the later Babylonian empire, but also of the older Chaldaean dominion which had been established on the lower Euphrates in the very earliest stages of human history. In that part of his work devoted to the chronology of the Chaldsean king- Ten Chaidee dom, Berosus describes the mythical kings ; conformity to epoch bcfore the flood ; for, scheme. like the Hebrew author of Genesis, he has an account of a uni- versal deluge of waters, through which a single great captain named Xisi:thrus, with his family, came safely in a ship and descended from a mountain, to re- people the earth. To the antedeluvian era Berosus also assigns a dynasty of ten kings. To these reigns of fabulous duration are given the ten eons of their dominion, being as follows: Years. 1. .\lorus, a Chalclsan, who reigned 36,000 2. Aloparus, son of Alorus, who reigned. . . 10,800 3. Almelon, a native of Sippara, who reigned. 46,800 4. Ammenon, a Chaldsan, who reigned. .. . 43,200 5. Amegalarus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 6. Daonus, of Sippara, who reigned 36,000 7. Edoranlchus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 8. Amempsinus, a Chaldaean, who reigned. 36,000 9. Otiartes, a Chaldjean, who reigned 28,000 10. Xisuthrus, the Chaldsean Noah, who reigned 64,800 A total of ten kings, reigning 431,200 The general conformity of these two schemes of ethnic descent must be pat- ent at a glance. The Chaldaean and the Hebrew accounts of this dim age of an ancestral race agree in the important consideration of ten successive patri- archical kingships. It is easy to observe the more moderate conception and out- line of the Hebrew scheme of descent and longevity, and the wild extravagance of the Chaldaean tradition. But the pattern and outline of the progress of the race are alike in both, and in either case this line of long-lived mj'thical rulers ends with a righteous captain, whose virtue and wisdom, in the wickedness of his surroundings, enable him to go safely through the waters of a deluge and re- people a new world on the hither side of the catastrophe. The identity of the two narratives in their essential spirit and leading features can hardly be doubted. "We „, ^ ^ ■^ The neaomen thus see in the maritime of the Adamite parts of Beluchistan, at a time almost imimaginably remote, even from the standpoint of the oldest histo- rians who have attempted to trace the course and development of mankind, 438 GREAT RACES OF jrANKlXD. the apparition of a ruddy race of men expanding through a mythical age of unknown duration, and entering at least three stages of civilizing activity. Jabal was the "father of such as dwell in tents and of such as have cattle." This is manifestly an outline of the begin- ning of the pastoral life which occupied so large a part in the subsequent his- tory of the races of Western Asia. Ju- instruments as have pleased the senses of men in all subsequent ages with the concord of sweet sounds. To the same epoch, or a little later, in the tribal evolution, is assigned Tubal- cain. He is represented as Question of the a worker in brass and iron. f^^J^o^ti,'^''^' Very notable is the fact Semites, that the composite metal brass is here mentioned as the material of the earliest THE FATHERS OF "SUCH AS DWELL IN TENTS"— OLD SEMITIC TYPES. bal, the brother of Jabal, is represented as being the ' ' father of all such as handle the harp and the organ." From this we are to infer that at least the musical branches of art made their ap- pearance in the East contemporaneously with the development of the pastoral life. The makers of tents and the keepers of flocks and herds discovered harmonv, and became the makers of such metal work of the Adamites. Iron also is named as the other substance in which Tubal-cain and his successors became proficient as workmen. It would ajjpear in accord with right reason that both of these names of the metals are errone- ously deduced from some original which has been misunderstood in translation. The primitive men could hardly have begun as workers in brass, since the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACHITE DISPERSIOX. 139 copper and zinc of which it is composed must first have been employed and the ratio of their combination discovered before brass could have an existence. Moreover, the extraction of iron from the matrix is a process so difficult and so late in the order of metallic discovery that, as we have already seen in another part of this ^^•ork, it follows and does not precede the discovery of copper, of tin, of the precious metals, and, indeed, of nearly all the other metallic ele- ments common to the surface of the earth. At the close of this Adamite period in the history of the Ruddy race we come to that o-reat catastrophe. Dissemination ^ of traditions of the Dclugc of watcrs. In e uge. respect to this event tradi- tion was busy throughout the primitive world. Among almost every people there was a mythical reminiscence of a flood by which their ancestors were destroyed from the earth. The diluvian legend generally assigned the wickedness of the race as a cause of its overthrow. The tradition of such a visitation always presented itself most emphatically in countries so situated as to be subject to inundations. Perhaps the greatest seat of such a belief was in the valleys of the Lower Euphrates and Tigris. It was from this region that the Hebrew account of the Deluge was transmitted by Abraham and his posterity to the west, and there recorded in the annals of that people. At the same time a like tradi- tion was handed down among the Chaldseans, and at a later epoch in history was repeated and modified by the Assyrian seers, on the Upper Tigris. The story of Deucalion and his survival of the Deluge was rife among the primi- tive Greeks, and other primeval nations had like accounts of a like disaster. To this general dissemination of the tian race pos- sessed no such tradition. belief in a deluge of waters by which the race of man was swept away, the ancient Egyptians furnish -miytheEgyp- a remarkable exception. Their legends and mythol- ogy furnish no account of any such event, either in the primitive or later ages of their country. It is easy to see in this fact the action and reaction of natural and supernatural elements in the primitive history of a people. The Nile is, perhaps, the only river in the world whose swellings and fallings obey a certain law, the knowledge of which secures the inhabitants of the valley from disastrous consequences. The regularity of the coming and the reces- sion of the waters furnishes a guarantee against all harm. A curse is thus con- verted into a blessing; and the river becomes, instead of an object of dread and superstition, an obje'ct of reverence and worship ! The uniformity of nature stood guard over the welfare of the people Avho built the pyramids, and even if a prehistoric deluge had occurred be- fore the civilized development of the Egyptian race, the tradition of it would have perished in the presence of the future beneficent conduct of the great river. In other valleys of the East irregularity rather than uniform flood and subsidence was the law, and where- ever, as a result, disaster on many oc- casions and from natural causes must necessarily have ensued to the people living on the river banks, the tradition of a great catastrophe overwhelming all would be perpetuated and handed down as a distinct and memorable crisis in the past history of the world. However this may be, we find a remarkable conformity between the Chaldaean and the Hebrew account of the disaster by which the race of man was swept away at the close of the Adamite 440 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. era. The well-known narrative of the Deluge given in the seventh chapter of the Book of Genesis need not be here General har- repeated. Nor is it desir- dseanandHe- able to rccount m full the Of trflo'or' story of the flood asrecorded by the ancient Chaldasans and Assyr- ians. The principal features of the destroy the world by a flood. The great captain \Vas ordered to bury the records of his country in Sippara and to embark in a ship, Avith his kindred and friends. He was also directed to take into the ark with him all manner of living creatures. When everything was completed and the ship, nine thousand feet in length, was MESOPOTAMIAN LANDSCAPE.— View of Jto'ssuL.— Drawn by E. Flandin. latter, however, will serve to show the fundamental identity of the three prin- cipal narratives of the Deluge. The Chalda;an and Assyrian accounts differ in this, that the latter assigns as a cause for the destruction of the human race by a flood the wickedness of mankind in the earth, whereas the older, or Chal- dsean, account simply recites that the god { Bel revealed to Xisuthrus his purpose to \ closed, the Deluge came. In course of time Xisuthrus sent oiit birds, which at first came back without evidence of rest- ing, but afterwards with mud on their feet. At length the ship rested on the Gordyaean mountain, and the inhabitants came forth to repeople the earth. In the Assyrian account the divinity who revealed the flood is Hea, and the Assyrian Noah is named Sisit. He, as DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—NOACHITE DISPERSION. 441 in the case of his Chaldsean protot}'pe, gathered all manner of living creatures The Assyrian and seeds of the Vegetable p".S^':;e world into his ship. Then older forms. Samas, the sun god, sent the flood. There was a great storm that went over the nations, and the waters reached up to heaven. Even the gods had to ascend to their highest thrones and sit there tin til the subsid- ence. All living things outside were drowned. At last the Avaters abated; the ark rested on ]Mount Xizir, and Bel led forth Sisit by the hand to repopulate the countr)'. It is sufficient to note that the narrative given of the great catas- trophe in the seventh chapter of Genesis is much more serious and elevated than the two forms of tradition which were preserved to after times in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Apart from these traditional accounts of the manner in which the Adamite Early division of Tsce Came to its termiua- int^o'thr ™"^^ tion , we turn to a more scien- branches. tific aspect of t^jp question. It appears that before the destruction of this people, before they had reached the scene — at least the central scene — of their disaster, they had already begun to part into the three branches of ethnic life already mentioned as the major divisions of the Ruddy family of man- kind. It is in evidence that the Noa- chite race, from its old maritime dtfboii- chiire on the shores of Gedrosia, the modern Beluchistan, made its way first to the north, in the direction of the Car- manian desert, and was thence deflected to the west. It was here, on the table- land of ancient Iran, in the district of country east of Yezd, that the ancestors of the Ruddy races of mankind seem to have felt for the first time the impulse of westward migration. Here, at any rate, they were deflected toward the M. — Vol. I — 29 setting sun. Here, too, they appear to have begun that threefold ethnic separa- tion which was destined, in far ages and countries, to give to history some of its most vigorous and highly developed peoples. If we fall back again for a moment upon the classification the nomenclature of which is derived from uncertain eth- the three sons of Noah, etriyMe's°opo^' we find here the begin- tamians. nings of the division. So that if we re- gard the valley of the Euphrates and the Tigris as the center, or seat, of the great diluvian disaster which subsequently oc- curred, we must conclude that the Ruddy peoples who made their way into these valleys from the east had already sepa- rated, or at least begun to separate, into Hamites, Semites, and possibly Japheth- ites. The adoption of such a hypothe- sis would tend to explain or remove the difiiculty which historians, ethnologists, and linguists alike have experienced in the attempted classification of the most ancient peoples of the Tigrine and Eu- phratine valleys. This work has never been satisfactorily and conclusively ac- complished. In a general way it has been decided that the oldChaldaeans wereHam- itic in their origin and development. In like manner the preponderance of evi- dence has tended to show that the Assyri- ans were Semitic in their race descent and character. But the evidences also indi- cate much mixture and confusion in the primitive history of these regions. It is extremely difiicult, either by means of historical traditions, ethnic traces, or linguistic proofs, point of disper- to determine satisfactorily t^^^^^ to which branch of the orig- ^^ Chaidaea. inal threefold division the Assyrians and the Chaldasans respectively belong. Moreover, at later periods, when the Hamitic race has well emerged from this 442 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. region, and is discovered witli all its pecul- iar traits in Southeastern and Southern Arabia and in Egypt, and when the Sem- ites have likewise appeared, with their distinctive peculiarities well developed, in the West, the course from which the two races have manifestly come into subse- quent fields of activity, when traced back- the center, and the Japhethites close iip to the Caspian. From these evidences and by this just train of reasoning, it would appear con- clusive that the primary division of the Noachite family took place in the up- lands of ancient Iran, at a point more than ten degrees of latitude eastward IN KUivDlbi'AN. — Vitw OF Little Ararat, with Group of Kurds in Foreground.— Drawn by Alfred Paris. wards, shows a conjuncture viitch to the east of the Mesopotamian region and not in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. This is to say that at the time when the Hamite, the .Semite, and the Japhethite races made their way through Mesopotamia to the West, they were already separated geographically, the Hamites being on the south, pressing close to the Persian gulf, the Semites in from the ilesopotamian region, which may be regarded as the center of the tra- ditions of the Deluge. It is safe, there- fore, in the ethnic scheme, to mark th& division of the Xoachites far beyond and to the eastward of the low-lying alluvial plains of Mesopotamia. If, then, the observer should take his stand in the Arabian desert west of Mesopotamia and look thitherward in DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 443 the earliest epoch of human develop- ment, he might see emerging from the shadows the vanguard of Issuance of the Noachites to the two races, With possibly a ^^^ ' third on the north. The Hamitic division of mankind would be seen making its way to the westward, close to the head-waters of the Persian gulf and bending, as- if by preference, to the south into Old Arabia, next to the sea. The central phalanx would be the descendants of Shem, heading for the west, and, perhaps, deflected somewhat to the north, on its way from Ur of the Chaldees into Canaan. The Japhetic division, if seen at all, would be well to the north, close to the southern shores of the Caspian, and bending in a north- westerly direction toward the eastern limits of the Black sea. This may be called the Noachite dispersion of the human race. The lines of its progress westward lie between the southern ex- tremity of the Caspian and the northern limits of the Persian gulf. This region is to Eui'ope and Southwestern Asia what the wrist is to the extended palm. Mesopotamia, considered longitudinally from east to west and in connection with Kurdistan, is a strait, and through this strait the streams of the Ruddy races of men flowed out toward the open regions in the prehistoric ages. It is from this point of view that we may, in part at least, apprehend the Probable direc- cthnic characteristics of the nr.tld'it primitive peoples of Elam persion. and Chaldsea. Through these most ancient countries the Ham- itic division of men made their way in their earliest departure and migra- tion from the parent stock. It is, per- haps, safe to say that the Elamites were the first development of a Hamitic na- tionality in the world. This earliest lodgment of the oldest branch of the Noachites was in the country afterwards called Susiana by the Greeks, and the dominion established here remained for many ages a seat and stronghold of the primitive race. Historical traditions in- dicate that the Hamites came into this region by invasion, and that they dis- placed, by conquest, the original Semitic and possibly Turanian peoples who were there before them. This view, however, is a doubtful hypothesis. As already stated, it is likely that the disentangle- Traces of ethnic ment of the Semitic and ^^vTEran.- Hamitic tribes had not yet "es. been comiDletely effected when the Elam- ite nationality was founded; and it may well be confessed that Semitic influences were afterwards discoverable in the development of what was traly a Hamitic dominion. Geographically considered, the country here referred to was bounded on the north by the river Diyalah, on the east by the Kebir Kuh mountains, on the west by the Tigris, and on the south by the Persian gulf. It was a low-lying countr}% fertile and inviting, identical almost in character with those other regions of the world — Chaldaea, Southeastern Arabia, the val- ley of the Nile — where the Hamites es- tablished in subsequent ages the seats of their dominion. Primitive Assyria may be assigned to the Semites. Asshur was the son of Shem. The position of First distribu- Assyria, east of the Tigris '^ :llf,^::t- rather than in ]\Iesopotamia tJ"tes. Proper, would indicate its planting by early tribes of the vSemitic race coming from the east. There are evidences that such a dominion, north of the Greater Zab and east of the Tigris, was planted as early as the fourteenth cen- tury before our era. The Japhetic branch is generally re- 444 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. garded as the oldest division of the No- achite family. The movements of this race have been by far the most compli- cated and difficult to trace. The first deflection from the jjarent stem was doubtless to the north or northwest of the common stream flowing- westward. The point of departure of the Japheth- ites has already been indicated. It is more than likely that their first course after separation from the ancestral tribes was so well to the north as to bring them into contact with the lower extremity of the Caspian, in which event they would be turned back or de- flected more directly toward Northern Asia. It may be fairly conjectured that this geographical circumstance lies at the bottom of the formation of that great ethnic whirl, or center, from which the Aryan races of subsequent times were all descended. It is not pur- posed in this connection to trace out the after ramifications of the Japhethites, or, indeed, of the cognate races of the south. It is sufficient to note that from the Japhetic center the subsequent migra- tions took place in both directions, east and west, Avhile the Semitic and Hamitic movements followed a more orderly progress, the one toward Canaan and the other into Southeastern Arabia. It has been intimated above that the Old Chaldsean dominion on the Lower Indications that Euphrates was Hamitic in d'L'a™™'' its origin. Several circum- Hamitic. stances besides the mere course which the tribal migrations were then pursuing may be cited for assign- ing Chaldiea to the Hamites. Historical evidence shows almost conclusively that there were race prejudices and frettings between the Chaldaeans and the Assyri- ans on the north. The two peoples were hardly ever at peace. There was a di- vergence of language, of tradition, and of religious ceremonials, but at the same time such striking analogies in all as to indicate close affinities of race. It was the preponderance and pressure of the stronger Assyrian nationality on the north that, at the close Race troubles of the fourteenth century ^.^^^^S^h^ B. C, finally overpowered em Semites, the Chaldasan dominion and replaced it with Semitic influence in the south. By careful observation we are able to see, long anterior to this period, the race troubles between the northern and the southern people. There are indications of invasion and oppression on the part of the Assyrians respecting their south- ern kinsmen. It is not improbable that these difficulties Avere at the bottom of some of the earliest migrations to the west. Perhaps Eber, the father of Abraham, had drifted from beyond the Tigris into the low-lying country of the south. His name is said to signify "from beyond;" that is, from beyond the rivers. Doubtless he was either an immigrant into the low country or an invader. A family so situated, expand- ing into a patriarchical tribe, would soon find itself with unpleasant surroundings, and a cure for local troubles might be sought and found in a further migration into the freer west. Hence the Abra- hamic exodus from Ur of the Chaldees. Another proof of the race diversity already existing between the Old Chal- daeans and the people of As- Differences in shur is found in the monu- rat^LlAsf^- mental remains of the two Syrians, countries. There is already a clear de- parture in the typical physiognomy of the Chaldaeans and the Assyrians. The former are like the Elamites in personal characteristics, while the latter are of the well-known Semitic type, with hints of Medo-Persian modifications. It is easy for the ethnographer to see in the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 445 features and person of the ancient Chal- daean the antitype of the Cushite, the Old Arabians, the Hamitic Canaanites, and even the Ethiopians and Egyptians. It will be readily agreed that the Semitic peoples became, in the course of time, predominant throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely that the Hamitic race, by pres- sure from the north, became attenuated even to actual separation around the head of the Persian gulf, and that the Elamite dominion on the east preserved the prin- cipal, if not the only, remnants of that race beyond the meridian of Chaldasa and Assyria. Several facts of some interest come to light on an examination of the ethnic names of the three branches of the No- achite family. The word Significance of theNoacMte Shcm means a " name, or patronymics. i < < c more properly, " sons or a name." The sense is, that this division of the Noachites was an aristocracy having a name, that is, a lineal descent from reputable fathers, as distinguished from the no-name, or base-born, descend- ants of other stocks. The early Sem- ites evidently regarded themselves as peculiarly the representatives of the Noachite race, and perpetuated the be- lief in the nameless, that is, the gentile, character of the cognate families of their own descent. The innuendo was direct- ed against both the Japhethites and the Hamites, particularly against the de- scendants of Canaan in the west, whom the sons of" Shem afterwards overcame and expelled from their territories. The evidence of this race contention and feud is plentifully scattered in the Contention for Hebrew writings. The old precedence ^ among Shem, prejudice lies at the bot- Ham, and Ja- , j. . , , ,. ... pheth. tom of the relative priority of the sons of Noah. As a matter of fact, the Japhethites were the eldest, the Hamites second, and the Semites the youngest division of the Noachite family. But there was a constant effort, extending through many centuries, on the part of the Hebrew scribes and cbroniclers to change this order and to give to Shem the rank peculiar to the eldest son. In the biblical ethnography the order of the three descendants is always given thus: Shem, Ham, Ja- pheth. But it will be observed that even in the tenth chapter of Genesis, while the first verse preserves this order, giv- ing priority to Shem, the analysis of tribes Avhich immediately follows places Japheth in his true position, and assigns the place of youngest son to Shem. Sucli primitive quarrels as to the senior* ity of descendants were very common among the early families of men, and are of little value to modern scholarship except as illustrative of a striking and persistent feature of organization and belief existing in the earliest ages of human development. All the ancient nations strenuously insisted that they were respectively the most ancient of all. Pri- strife of th» ority seems to have been ^^of prio? an idea which sufficed to "?• establish right, and make all things legitimate in primeval society. "We were here first, and therefore possess this region, and are greater than you," was the language of every primitive people to its neighbors. As a result of this disposition, claims to extravagant antiquity were advanced by all, and were attested by long lines of successive monarchs, in successive dynasties, ex- tending through fabulous ages. One of the principal devices to rnake good such claims was to extend the lives of their rulers to hundreds and thousands of A-ears. The Berosian scheme presented above of the Noachite dynasty in Chaldaea down to the epoch of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 447 Deluge is a sample of the plan which the ancients adopted to make good their claim of primogeniture and proscriptive right. The Egyptians, not satisfied with even the fanciful expansion of their dynasty, were wont to abandon terres- trial criteria and appeal to the planets for their antiquity. It was a common boast among' the Egyptian priests that their people Avere Prosclcnoi, that is, pre- Moonites, older than the moon in their occupancy and possession of Mizraim. In the discussion of the Mesopotamian development of the different branches of Chronology at the Noachitc races, no at- [re NoaThTtf= tempt has been made toes- races. tablish the chronological relations of the several ethnic divisions in the dispersion, or even to date the general epoch to which they all be- longed. In fact, chronology is wholly at fault in considering such primitive movements of the race. As to the time when the Noachites may be said to have been deflected to the west, and to have begun their separation into dift'erent peoples, nothing can be alleged with even approximate certainty. The whole tendency of recent inquiry has been to extend the time relations of these early events. It is clearly perceived that the notions formerly prevalent about the lime required for the peopling of differ- ent and distant regions of the earth, and the development therein of distinct na- tionalities, must be abandoned as totally inadequate for the ethnic evolutions to which they refer. It is known that the first progress of men gathering into tribes and nations is exceeding slow as com- pared w'ith subsequent stages of human development. There is an accelerating tendency in the progress of mankind, and this manifest fact emphasizes the necessity of widening and enlarging the whole scheme of ancient chronology. As it respects the Semitic and Hamitic peoples who created the earliest civil so- cieties in Elam, Chaldasa, and Assyria, a few suggestions may be of- Evidence of fered as to the time when ^Z%\^^^T^ of Egyptian the same occurred. If we Hamites. look at the rise of the Hamitic race in the valley of the Nile we discover the most emphatic evidence of a very remote antiquity. It is safe to affirm that almost as early as four thousand years before the common era the primitive Eg^'p- tians, who themselves seem to have taken possession of the valley by conquest, were already a strong and progressive people. They had civil organizations and many well-developed institutions of religion and secular society. The}- were magnificent builders in stone, and appear to have been, from the earliest date of their ddboucJiure into Northeastern Africa, in possession of considerable sci- entific knowledge. These Egyptians were descendants of the older Hamites in Asia. They came by migration and invasion into the country of their sub- sequent development. For this move- ment out of Asia much time must be allowed. A greatly extended period must have elapsed between the founding of the first Hamitic societies in Lower ^lesopotamia and that subsequent time Probable derira- when the Hamitic tribes, ^j^fromS' making their way westward ^aea. through Syria, established themselves in Eg}-pt. It is true that the formal chro- nology, so. far as it has been recovered and reconstructed for the Chaldasan as- cendency, does not by any means reach a period so remote as that of Egypt. But the movement of the race to the west- ward points unmistakably to the fact that the Chaldasan ascendency and the dominion of Elam were long anterior to the creation of political power in the val- 448 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ley of the Nile. This indicates for the primitive peoples of Mesopotamia an an- tiquity far greater than history, or even ethnology in its current phases, has been accustomed to assign or accept. The country lying between Arme- nia and the head of the Persian gulf Effects of envi- fumishes a good example ronmentonthe £ ^j-^^ influence of phys- jnigrant Noa- '^ •> chites. ical environment on the movements and development of the early races. Mesopotamia constituted a its way, while through the gaps of the Zagros the Semites would precipitate themselves into Upper ]\Iesopotamia. Before the immigrants would spread an open country, traversed by two great streams of living water, fertile in natu- ral products, and inviting to settlement. The alluvial plain in Lower jMesopotamia would in a special manner provoke to permanent residence from the ease with which multiplying tribes could here sup- port themselves by the resources of the PASS IN THE ZAGROS MOUNTAINS.— Dr.uv a pliol'jgriiph. natural, perhaps an inevitable, stopping- place in the westward movement of the Noachites. Such was the situation as to make it necessary for them to pause, and to paiise meant the growth of fixed societies. On the east of this region the country is defended by the bulwark of the Zagros and Kebir Kuh mountains. It is easy to see how the already half- separated races, drifting from the east, would be impeded for a time by the in- terposition of the mountain range. Pres- ently, however, through the southern passes, the Hamitic division would make earth. Adventure would soon carry the still half-nomadic peoples across the country to the western borders. Here, however, there would be a pause. Even the civilized man hesitates long, and the compulsion must be extreme ere he throws himself into the desert. Perhaps of all the natural landscapes presented on the surface of the globe the most for- bidding and repellant is the desert. West and southwest of Mesopotamia is a wide stretch of desert country. It fatigues the eye and scorches the feet. On the north is the Assvrian desert, and DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 449 to the south and west stretches aAvay the seemingly infinite waste of Arabia. Here CJhaidaeaand are the fundamental con- t^l\M:rJ^ ditions which made Chal- peoples. dgea and Assyria a sort of necessity in the progress of the early race. It is not needed in this connection to enter elaborately into the geography of the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris and the adjacent upland coun- tries. On the north, from the Caspian to the Black sea, stretch the Armenian mountains ; on the south, is the sea ; on the east, the Zagros range, and beyond, the great plateau of Iran ; on the west, the boundary line is the long stretch of the Syrian desert. At the time of the development of the early empires in these valleys and for The Ruddy ages afterwards the two twstt m great rivers still discharged Mesopotamia, their Waters by separate channels into the Persian gulf. Meso- potamia reached to the sea, and the mouths of the rivers were fully a hun- dred miles south of the present shore line. Along the banks of these streams, high up to the foothills out of which their upper waters are drawn, especially on the east by a multitude of smaller streams, the earliest, or at least one of the earliest, civilizations was developed in the w^orld. It was the work of the Ruddy races coming from the east. Here they planted themselves at the north and the sotith, according to their race descent, and became in course of time much more strongly marked by ethnic differences than they were on their first arrival in the country. It is from this region that the different races belonging to the Hamitic and Semitic families of mankind made their way at length into the western foreground of history, where we shall discover them in a somew^hat clearer light than that in which they have thus far been revealed. Here, then, is the end of what may be appropriately called the Noachite dis- persion of mankind. Chapter XXV.— The Haviixic Mioraxions. N the current chapter the attempt will be made to trace out geographically the va- rious lines by which the Hamitic race was distribi:ted, first into Southwestern Asia, and thence through a large part of Northern Africa, to the borders of the Western ocean. The Hamitic races lie inquiry will begin with the nearest the movements of the Hamitic Blacks m race distribution. division of mankind, not from any preference for that race as a dominant people of antiquity, not be- cause their civilization reached a higher stage than that of the cognate races, but rather for geographical reasons. The Hamites were distributed to the south and west, and are thus the southernmost branch of the Ruddy races. It will, therefore, be convenient to begin on that side of the ethnic distribution which lies nearest to the lines marking the disper- sion of the Black races, and thence to pursue the inquiry northward imtil the Hamitic movements have been ex- hausted. In the next place, the various branches of the Semitic family may be taken iip and considered in- like order, leaving the Aryan, or Indo-European, divisions of mankind, most important of 450 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. all, historically considered, for the con- cluding chapters on distribution. The historical circumstances which gave rise to the first departure of the Historical rea- Hamitic emigrants from sons for the mi- Lower Mesopotamia for the grations of the '^ Hamitea. southwest are not known. It is not unlikely, however, that the pressure of the stronger Assyrians on the north, who by repeated invasions and conquests reduced the old Chalda;an empire to a condition first of dependency and then of actual subversion, may have been the occasion, if not the real cause, of the first migratory movements of the Hamites in the direction of Arabia. It is not known whether this primitive impulse was coincident with the Chal- d;ean ascendency in Lower Mesopotamia or subsequent thereto, but the former supposition is more in accord with right reason and with such other facts as bear upon the question. At any rate, the first dispersive migration of the Hamitic family was from the primitive seat of the Chal- daians toward the south and into the maritime parts of Arabia. It is likely that the first progressive people in the Arabian peninsula were Primitive Ara- the descendants of the mi- bianpopiuation gratory movement here de- of Hamitio de- • » ^ "- scent. scribed, and that they be- longed to the maritime parts adjacent to the Persian gulf. The primitive Arabians of the eastern parts next to the sea were of Semito-Hamitic origin, and that they antedated the Central and West- ern Arabians may be safely inferred from the ethnic movements then prevailing in the world, and also from an old prefer- ence of the early races for the seashore and the regions adjacent. A glance at the geography of the peninsula will show a range of mountains between the modern Arab state of Hasa and the great desert. It was through the strip of territory lying between these mountains and the Persian gulf that the earliest tribes of the Hamitic family made their way to the southwest. In the lower part of the peninsula the migration divided, throwing off one branch into the modern province of Oman, while the major di- vision was deflected somewhat in conform- ity with the coast line to the southwest, toward the modern state of Yemen, adja- cent to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Such in general was the direction of the oldest ethnic line in the Arabian peninsula, and it was from this primitive migration that the Old Arabs, as contradistinguished from the more recent Ishmaelites, were derived. The former were, in general terms, a maritime people, and to the present day the distinctions between their descendants and the Arabians of the re- gions bordering on the Red sea are suffi- ciently marked. Throughout the whole of Southern Arabia, especially toward the south- western termination of the Himyaritic writ- peninsula, are found lin- "gsshow traces '■ of Hamitic pro- guistic traces of this ancient auction, people. A class of primitive writings, called Himyaritic Inscriptions, testify un- mistakably of the presence of a peculiar people in th.e regions where they are found. These writings, generally en- graved on stone, have been one of the most interesting and puzzling studies pre- sented to modern students of language, and there has been great diversity of views in regard to classifying the origi- nal speech to which these writings belong. Man)' most eminent linguists have re- garded them as of a Semitic origin. An- other plausible view is that of Renan, who holds that the inscriptions in ques- tion differ too widely from Arabic and cognate varieties of Semitic speech to be classified therewith. These facts open a question of much ;i»iUiiiiiiiiNi.i;:iiiJiiiiiitei««.!«u>iii.iiiiiii:iiUjii 452 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. importance respecting the aflinilies of the Hamitic and Semitic languages. It appears that the linguistic separation of Affinities and thesc two raccs was never connection of ... Hamitic and SO complete as the division guages. " of either of them from the Aryan families of the north. It is likely that in manners, institutions, language, and laws tlic primitive Hamitic tribes held togctlicr with their vSemitic kins- men until common linguistic forms had been in a considerable measure fixed in each, from which circumstance consider- able similarity would appear in the sub- .sequent development of the respective languages. • On the whole, it is safer to classify the Himyaritic inscriptions with the other vSemitic dialects, and to admit the influence of the Hamitic Arabs in giving particular features to tlie writings of Southern Arabia. Wherever the inscriptions in question may be placed in linguistic classification, it is certain that their origin is extremely ■Wide distribu- ancient, and that thcv were ^arUicSp"- deduced geographically *'°"s- from Lower Mesopotamia. The line of these writings has been traced from about the junction of the Euphrates and the Tigris all the way around through Southeastern and South- ern Arabia to Yemen, and even across into Africa. The explorer Loftus found a sandstone slab covered with Himyaritic inscriptions in one of the mounds of Warka, in ancient ChakL-ea. Two speci- mens of gems covered with like charac- ters are preserved in the British Museum. Coghlan and Playfair made similar dis- coveries at Amran, near Sana. In short, the identity of the writings along the line of the extreme southern dispersion of the Hamites is clearly esta"bli.shed . The Himyarites, as a people, occupied the southwestern extremity of the Ara- bian peninsula. They are nearly iden- tified geographically with the inhabit- ants of the modern Yemen, though the Himvarites were fur- Geographical ther south and more mar- '^^:::^^^ itinic than the modern "tes. Arabic state. It will thus be seen that the Hamitic branch of mankind which we have been tracing was brought, in its southwestern migration, to the southern neck of the Red sea. It was not likely that .so narrow a strait of water would prevent the further dispersion of the ancient stock. The opposite African shore is embraced in the small maritime districts called Samara. More generally, it is Abyssinia to the north and .Somali- land to the south. The fact has long been recognized that there was an ancient race identity be- tween the peoples inhabit- Race kinship of ing the countries on the ^^rEa^^tenr''' two sides of the strait of Africans. Bab-el-Mandeb. The belief that the Old Abyssinians were of Semitic deri- vation, and the knowledge that they were of the same race with the people of the Himyaritic district in Arabia, has led to the conclusion that the lat- ter were Semites, and this belief has been perpetuated by the discovery of strong Semitic traces in the Himyaritic writings. The Abyssinians and other ancient Ruddy races of this region of Africa were clearly in .some sort of race afifinity with the Egyptians, the Canaan- ites, and the Old Arabians, as well as with the Semites proper. The whole question clears up on the hypothesis that this most southerly division of the Noa- chite descendants was Semito-Hamitic, and that the Semites proper were dis- persed toward the south about to the cen- ter of the Arabian peninsula. It is true that some ethnographers have carried the Lshmaelite migration southward along the eastern shores of the Red sea to the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 453 strait, and thence into Africa, which would bring the Semitic tribes into the same country with the cognate Ha:nites, but it may be doubted whether the true line of Ishmael was ever carried so far in that direction. If we attempt to trace the Hamitic dis- persion beyond the crossing into Africa, Distribution of we shall find the migration pursuing the same general course to the southwest which it had taken while in Southern Arabia. It appears that the peoples of this stock were thinly distributed from the Hamitio blood in Eastern Africa. bearing divisions of the Black races. The ancestors of the Hottentots and the Ne- groes made their way from the east through this same region of Gallaland, and their migratory intersection with the south-bearing progress of the Hamitic family must have constituted one of the earliest, if not, indeed, the very first, contact of the Ruddy with the Black races of antiquity. Meanwhile Syria, almost directly west from Chaldaea, had also been pre- occupied by Hamitic tribes. While the movement into the maritime parts of DESERT COUNTRY OF THE SYRIAN BORDERS.-The Plain of Tobtose.— Drawn by A. de Bar, from a photograph by Lockioy. strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in the general direction of the Victoria Nyanza, and that the westward progress of the Ham- itic race was finally checked in this re- gion. The Somalian peoples of the extreme eastern portion of Africa were doubtless derived from a deflected branch of this Semito-Hamitic migration ; and, in general, the Noachite races of Galla- land had the same origin. One peculiar feature of this African distribution of the Ruddv Crossing of the _ ' ethnic lines in peoples from Arabia wasthe fact that the lines of their progress to the southwest into the con- tinent must have crossed the westward- Arabia had been going on, another di- vision of the Hamitic stock had made its way out of Mesopotamia to syriaispre- the west. It appears that '^^^^ this migration divided in grants, the desert country on the Syrian borders, one branch being deflected into Western Arabia, and the other pursuing its direct course toward the sea at Suez. If we take up the first division, we shall find the line of its dispersion drawn through Southeastern Syria and thence in the direction of iledina and !Mecca. There can be no doubt about the race descent of the original peoples of this region. They were prior to the first Semitic mi- 454 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. grations or invasions of the west ; and the aboriginal substratum of the more recent Ishmaelites and Joktanians was undoubtedly of llamitic origin. It was the peculiarity of the westward course of the Ilamites from Central Divisions and re- Mesopotamia that they di- f„"'l''."A^'r^\' vided north and south in ings of the mi- gration, their progress. At first, the volume of national life which flowed off toward Syria contained the potency of the Western Arabs, the Canaanites, and the Egyptians. The Canaanitish deflection from the main migratory line was northward, and occurred in the re- gion of Central Syria. The northward- bearing branch from this point entered Canaan Proper and Phoenicia ; and here began the development of one of the most prominent divisions of the Hamitic family. Traditional Canaan takes its name from the son of Ham. In the chronicles Ham founds ca- of the Hebrew race this ^;Lf:elt7^ division of the Hamites is kinsmen. most prominent. They were greatly disparaged by the early an- nalists of the Hebrew race, and through all subsequent ages were despised and con- temned by them as gentiles and servants of servants. It was against these de- scendants of Canaan in their tribes and generations that the wrath of invading Israel was turned, after the Egyptian exodus. The progress of the Hamitic migra- tions to the northwest, around the east- ,„ em extremity of the Med- Extent of Ham- / itic migrations itcrraneau, introduces the Into Asia Minor. ... - ,, mquirer to one of the most diSicult passages in the ethnic distribu- tion of mankind . The problem is the ex- tent of the migration in the direction of Asia Minor. Ethnographers are not agreed as to how far the Hamitic move- ment in this direction continued. One class of writers are of the opinion that the traces of this branch of the human family extend no further than the south- ern regions of Asia Elinor, or, at most, the eastern borders of the JEgean sea. Some are of opinion that the line wa» deflected into the island of Cyprus, and there terminated so far as its west- ward progress was concerned. Still an- other class of inquirers hold that the Hamitic progress extended westward through the .^-Egean archipelago and into Southern Greece. This view of the case makes the Pelasgians, to whom consid- erable space was devoted in a chapter of the preceding book, to be the descend- ants of the Hamitic stock. It will be remembered that the view of a northern, that is, a Thes.salian, origin for the Pe- lasgic race was advanced in the former account of that people. This view of the case is not fully established. Nor can it well be said that the opposite opinion, namely, that the Pelasgians came from the archipelago into Argolis, and thence continued their progress to the West, is more than tentative. Winchell, in his Chart of the Pro- gressk'e Dispersion of Mankind, holds to the view that the Hamitic migration was carried through the south- ^incheU's ° views regarding ern parts of Asia Minor, the European T ^, 1 ji /-I 1 1 dispersion of the and thence by the Cyclades Hamites. into Peloponnesus. From Southern Hellas this distinguished ethnographer extends the Hamitic line first into Northwestern Greece, where, in Epirus, as we have seen, one of the principal Pelasgie developments occurred. But the main line is carried across the Southern Adriatic into Italy, whence one branch is turned to the left, to fur- nish an aboriginal stock for the island of Sicily, while the other line bifurcates on the twosidesof the Apennines, giving in Central Italy an origin for the prob- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 455 lematical Etruscans and their primitive development. It may be possible, even probable, that this scheme furnishes the best solution as to the race-origin of the first peoples of the Ruddy race in South- ern Greece and Central Italy. If so, we may regard the valley of the Po, the in- land region of Etruria, and the remote parts of vSicily as the westernmost limits Egypt. But a better view of the whole subject shows that if any such race movement occurred it was of a later, and perhaps a Semitic, origin, from Arabia into North Central Africa. The original occupancy, then, of the Nile valley by the Ruddy races was certainly by the incoming of the Ham- ites, first into the eastern delta, and ROUTE OF THE HAMITE MIGRATION', NEAR SUEZ.— Lake Timsah.— Drawn by Dom Grenet. of the European excursion of the Ham- itic race. We now turn to the central progress of the same race to the west. From Syria, the Hamitic movement continued directly through the isthmus of Suez into the valley of the Nile. The race enters ^ _ and occupies the It has bccn believed by ey. some historians that the invasion by which the aboriginal Egi'p- tians were expelled from their country was carried, in part at least, across the Red sea into Central, or even Upper thence southward along both banks of the river to Upper Egypt. The progress of Hamitic civilization from the vicinity of jMemphis and Cairo southward to its extreme limit at Elephantis has been traced by ethnographers and historians until its course and character are no longer doubtful. The oldest occupation was in that part of the delta l_ving next to the isthmus, and from hence the prog- ress of the race was constant until the whole valley was populated by tribes of a common descent. 456 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. The account of the original dispersion of mankind may well pause at this point, that the attention of the reader may be Extreme antiq- once morc callcd to the cx- movelrntstere "■^■""■' antiquity of the move- described. mcntshere described. It is worthy of special note that the civiliza- tion of Egypt tended, in virtue of its own character, to transmit better evi- dences of time-relations and the succes- sion of events than that of any other country. One of the fundamental ideas of the civilization created in the Nile valley was architectural grandeur, and closely connected with this was the no- tion of perpetuating the records of hu- man life by means of colossal tombs and imj^erishable inscriptions. Fortunate- ly the granite quarries of the country, especially in Centi-al Egypt, gave oppor- tunity to gratif}- this disposition, if indeed the presence of such materials did not first provoke the habit. The peculiar priestly organization of the race, in close union as it was with the secular d3-nast3-, also tended to the crea- tion and preservation of records. From these circumstances the great antiquity of Egypt became a marvel to the earliest historians and Old travelers marvel at the travelers of other races, age Of Egypt. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Egyptian scribes profited by the credulity of the age in which they flourished, and en- larged as much as possible the ancient records which they possessed. When Herodotus came into the country, about the middle of the fifth century B. C, he was shown the records of the old dy- nasties, from the founding of the first by Menes down to the reign of Seti. From this scheme he made up his estimate of the antiquity of the nation, producing as a result something over 12000 B. C. as the epoch of Menes. Four centuries atterwards, when Diodorus traveled in Egypt, he also studied the records of the countr}', and made out the found- ing of the first dynasty to have been more than twelve thousand years before the common era. According to IManetho, a native historian, the span between Menes and our era is reduced about one half, the accession of the first dynasty being fixed at about 5706 B. C. The mediaeval historians did nothing with the question, but in recent times many learned inquirers have taken up the subject, and the result Modeminquiry has been the almost concur- ^^trdTefor rent agreement of modern Menes. scholars that the epoch of Menes, founder of the oldest dynasty, goes back to the year 3892 B. C. This date is now ac- cepted as approximately correct. Indeed, it appears to be rather within than be- yond the true limits. Jleanwhile a fact in astronomy has thrown perhaps the strongest light on the true era of the founding of Egyptian nationality. By the rate of the great movement called the precession of the equinoxes, it is now known that the equator of the heavens accomplished on the ecliptic a complete circuit in about twenty-five thousand years. It is also known that a certain star, which was polar at the time of the building of the oldest pyramids in Lower Egypt, has been, at the present time, turned by torsion just about one fourth of the way around the circuit of the heavens. This would imply the lapse of a little over six thousand years since the construction of the first pyra- mids ; and the date indicated would be somewhat more than four thousand years before the common era. It is safe to fix upon this date as a fair approximation for the time of the in- coming of the tribes and the beginning of the great architectural era of the Hamitic race in Egypt. And it will be DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 4.37 remembered that the ethnic movements which have furnished the subject-matter of the preceding paragraphs belonged to a still earlier period in the historj- of the race ; all of which facts tend most strongly to emphasize the necessity of a great extension and widening out of the whole scheme of ancient chronologj'. It is difficult for one removed to mod- em times and distant countries to realize the nature and method True nature of primitive tribal of the ethnic migrations of migrations. antiquity. It is not pur- posed in this connection to attempt to hard to obtain. But ever and anon this rapid volume of the moving race, most rapid in the vanguard, would flow into a region which, from its geographical situation and its fertility, would invite to settlement. Here there would be a pause. The tribe would spread over the surface of the country' like a lake of water running into an inclosed lowland. For a long time the incoming tribes would pour along and discharge their volume into the reservoir. If the situa- tion were sufficiently auspicious, there would be, in a short time, the begin- VERTICAL SECTION OF THE GREAT PVKAMm FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. A, debris ; B, vault ; C, passage of entrj' ; U. abutments ; E, chamber of the queen ; F, chamber of the king ; G, ancient entrance ; H, primitive facing of granite ; 1, K, ventilators. ^ depict the actual manner of tribal removal from place to place to final settlement. One great feature, how- ever, of the migrator^' progress of ancient peoples was the alternate speed and cessation of the movement. vSometimes the migrating horde would pour along like a swift stream, traversing in a short time va.st stretches of country-. Such was the rate of progress in desert regions and in mountainous districts where the means of subsistence were scattered and M. — Vol. I — 30 nings of a national development. The more conservative elements of the tribes would establish themselves in what manner on the soil. Hunting would S:comep;p- give place to the pastoral elated, pursuit, and the pastoral pursuit to agri- culture. Permanence would assert it- self, and vacillation cease. Institutions would soon be planted. Architecture and the other practical arts would arise, and society would emerge from the tribal chaos which had preceded it. 458 GREAT RACES OE ^r AN KIND. Into such situations, however, a rest- less element is always poured, along- •with the calmer varieties of humanity. The radical eie- This radicalism would first ment breaks flow to the furthest— gen- away irom the *^ conservative. erally the western — limit of the locality. Ere long, dissatisfied with the situation and longing for the old tribal freedom, these elements would burst away from the restraints of the civilizing- communities and resume the migratory habits of antiquity. They would draw after them all adventurers, all the unprosperous parts of the half- formed societies behind them. They would strike out into new regions, driven by an impulse which they had no dis- position to understand or check. We may conceive that ancient Egypt furnished one of the most striking ex- amples of this di'boiicJmre Egypt a striking . ^ ^ ., , ^ ^^ example of the of tribal watcrs. Here ethnic sack. ,-, ii j j they were gathered, and here, out of the fecund soil, the ele- ments of primitive life drew at first the means of subsistence and afterwards of development. How long the general progress of the Hamitic race to the west was checked and hindered by the out- spread of the incoming volume in the valley of the Nile, it were, perhaps, vain to conjecture. For many centuries, no doubt, the outline was sufficient, and the auspicious character of the valley for succeeding ages appeased and satisfied the cupidity and restlessness of the im- migrants. In course of time, however, the more nomadic elements of Egyptian life Migration at climbed the western slope iSghNonh' of the valley, and found em Africa. the sand waste of Africa before them. Iiligration was resumed, and the first line of the new movement was stretched along the Mediterranean in the direction of Barca. It may be safely affirmed that the first tribes which Avere dropped into permanence in the country west of Lower Egypt were the ancient Marmaricans. It is well known that in after times Cyrenaica was col- onized by the Greeks, but the primitive people whom they expelled from the coast and forced back into the interior were the descendants of the ancient Hamitic exodus from Egypt. The main line of migration continued to the west, branching into the interior south of the modern Greek Branchings and colony, and also turning re^SSnam! into the peninsula toward itic dispersion. •Ptolemais. When we consider the ge- ography of Northern Africa we shall find the country well adapted to the maintenance and perpetuation of such a movement. Throughout the whole ex- tent of the region, from Eg\'pt to the At- lantic, a mountain range of greater or less elevation defines the coast region from the desert to the south. Toward the eastern terminus this range is of slight elevation, being in the plain of Barca no more than a thousand feet in height. Toward the western exireme the peaks of the Atlas rise to a much greater elevation, reaching the line of perpetual snow. Throughout the whole extent the range approximates the sea, and the country between the mountains and the Mediterranean slopes down rap- idly to the level of the ocean. It was through this region that the African Hamites made their way to the west, through Barca and Tripoli, into the an- cient state of Africa Proper, and thence into ^Mauritania, and finally to the ex- treme west. This region, thus peopled in the pre- historic ages, became one of the most important of the subsequent historical countries. The ancient states along the southern shores of the Mediterranean DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 459 never attained — with tlie exception of Egypt — tlie power and importance of tliose situated on the nortli- ern coasts, but they reached a considerable degree of development, and were able to compete with the Mediterranean peninsular pow- ers for the mastery of the west. Funda- Rank and char' acter of North African states and peoples. stream flowed still further to the south. It may also be noted that the seafaring Semitic Phoenicians who passed west- ward through the Southern ]\Iediterra- nean skirted the coast of Africa, and touched the islands rather than estab- lished colonies or built states on the mainland. TUNISIAN COAST.— GlLF of Hammamet.— Drawn by Eugene Girardet, after a sketch of Saladin. mentally, the people of the North Afri- can provinces were Hamitic in their origin. It is true, as we shall see here- after, that parallel streams of a diflferent race descent were at a subsequent time led westward through the ,same region. But the Brown race division of mankind carried its migration toward the Atlantic on the sout/icni slope of the North African mountains, while the Semitic The main stream of Hamitic migration may be said to have reached its terminus with the Atlantic, or at TheHamites least with the islands west 7^"*"^''?^' . . land, but avoid of ^Morocco. It is believed the sea. that the original tribes inhabiting the Canary islands were the westernmost dis- persion of the human race, so far as the Hamitic migration from the east was concerned. As a rule, the Hamites no- 460 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. where took to the sea. They were a land people, and while preferring the coast regions of the ancient world, they avoided the open ocean and formed very few insular settlements. They had far less dread of the perils of the desert than of those peculiar to the deep. An exam- ination of the movement of the race west- ward through Northern Africa will show a much greater number of tribal de- partures toward the south than toward the north. The inviting character of the Mediterranean islands seems to have appealed less strongly to the people of this descent than did even the desert wastes of Sahara. It is possible that the Hamitic move- ment, considered as a whole, Avas some- what determined by latitude and tem- perature. The race appears Hamitic prefer- ences for the to have had a preference equatorial trend, r ,i ,-, i- . for the southern climates. If we consider the central line of migra- tion from the original seat of the race to its extreme Avestern limit in the Canaries, we shall find only one or two considerable developments toward the north. The whole expansion of the Hamites was in the direction of the equatorial regions. If we allow the Pelasgians and the Etiniscans to have been of this descent, we shall find this single stream to have attained a north- ern limit of a little more than forty-five degrees, in the valley of the Po. Other- wise, the northernmost deflections were scarcely above thirty-five degrees north. The main line of westward population was about the parallel of thirty degrees, and from this line nearly all the depar- tures, both in Asia and Africa, were to the south and southwest. From the main course, the various tribal migra- tions into the regions of the equator and their ramifications filled a considerable portion of the old countries from the Persian gulf to the Atlantic south of the thirtieth parallel and north of the equa- tor. None of the Hamites crossed the equatorial line southward in their origi- nal dispersion, the nearest approach thereto being made by the Galla tribes of Eastern Africa. Among these various lines of southern deflection, the two principal were, first, the great Cushite departure The Berber into Southeastern Arabia ToT^T^,.^ and Eastern Africa; and movements. secondly, the West African division, which left the parent stem on the bor- ders of the Lib3-an desert, in the modern state of Algeria. From this point the secondary current turned to the south- west into the Moorish states and again divided in the Sahara, one stream con- tinuing the original course and the other bending back toward the east, forming a loop Avhose southern line reached nearly to the parallel of twenty degrees north. It w'as thus that the aboriginal population of the Moorish and Berber states was supplied. Here sprang the desert people of the African waste, and from this source have been derived at least a majority of all the Berber, Tuareg, and Imoshag nations. In following the course of the Ham- itic progress toward the Atlantic, the ethnopfrapher meets some ° -"^ . Kthnic place of peculiar difficulties. The the carthagin- .1 . 1 ■ £1 i^- c i.^ ians considered. ethnic classification of the Carthaginians has been the source of much perplexity ; and there are even yet unsolved elements in the problem. By language and many of their institutions the ancient Carthaginians seem to have been closely allied with the Semitic races of the Orient. Tradition has dis- tinctly and emphatically assigned to them a Phoenician origin. Many ripe scholars have not hesitated to classify them as Semitic. DISTRTBrTIOy OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 461 In the first place, it must be remem- bered that the institutions and languages Institutional of the Hamitic race were and linguistic intimacy of by no iTieans clearly sepa- Semites and i i j- ^i /• ji Hamites. rated from those of the Semites. Linguistically and institution- ally, as well as ethnically, these two branches of the human family appear to have hung together until the forms and characteristics of each had to a consider- able degree become fixed by develop- ment. The selvages, so to speak, of the various Hamitic and Semitic migra- tions lay together and overlapped each other in a measure that could not be ex- pected in the case of the Aryan nations. For these reasons, identities and analo- gies of language and of institutional forms of both public and private life are abundant between the earliest Hamitic and Semitic nations. The Phoenicians were doubtless in the first place Hamitic in their origin. With the Semitic con- quest of Canaan, that race became domi- nant to the sea. To what extent they were modified in their Phoenician de- velopment by Hamitic Canaanites it were impossible to tell, but doubtless the more recent Phoenician character was in its ethnic origin the product of both elements-. Moreover, in this region, the common forms of the two races were especially Semitic influ- abundant. So if we con- sider the Phoenicians in the act of colonization in the west, as at Carthage, we shall find them planting on that shore a mixed race in which the oldest blood was Hamitic, and the more recent vSemitic, in its deriva- tion. Again, the later commercial relations of the Phoenicians brought many of their merchants and not a few Eastern institutions into the mart of Carthage. If, then, we look at the Car- thaginian state, particularly at the city, ence prevails over the Hamit- ic at Carthage. in the time of its ascendency, we shall find a people marked in all of their civic and private life with the unmistakable traces of Shem. But it need not be HAMITIC TYPE OF THE UPPER NIGER — BAMBARRA. Drawn by Rioii, after a sketch of Valliere. forgotten, at the same time, that the westward progress of the Hamites along this coast must, almost of necessity, have furnished the aboriginal element and germs of all the states primarily 462 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. created between Egyj^t and the Pillars of Hercules. Continuing the course of Hamitic migration in the west of Africa, we find the main line of progress passing to the south from the Moorish states across the Extreme limits twentieth parallel and into of Hamitic dis- ^-^ habitable coun- tnbution in the west. tries of the Upper Niger. Here there was another bifurcation, the western branch reaching out to the coast and furnishing the original elements of the Fulah tribes ' of Western Guinea. This was the second extreme limit in westward extent of the Hamitic migra- tions, being almost as far in that direc- tion as the Canary islands. The other branch of the race appears to have turned eastward in the lake region of the Upper Niger, and to have thence de- scended the valley of that river into the Sudan and as far east as the country drained by the streams which flow into lake Chad. It is likely that the Baghirmi nations, lying southeast of the lake just named, mark the remotest point to which the original impulse carried the race of Ham into Central Africa. The whole course of the migration, considered from the standpoint of Lower Egj'pt, resembles a fishhook bending southward around the largf- Nature of the *^ dispersion in cr part of the dcsert region African interior. <• ^i \ r • , ■ or the Airican continent and presenting an interior and an ex- terior line, the latter of which reaches back toward the country of the original exodus, about one half way from the western coast of the continent to the Red sea. The final distribution of tribes, by means of this great migration in the prehistoric ages, was in a region of Africa into which the Black races, coming from the east, had already been poured, and with which the Hamitic peoples have in all subsequent ages been intermingled, until it were difficult, if not impossible, in modern times to discriminate the diverse race elements in the peoples of this region. This, then, concludes the summary of Hamitic migrations in Southwestern Arabia and Northern Africa. No doubt all such movements are Ethnic move- more clearly drawn,_ more ^xTcTandrog- definitely indicated, in dis- 'cai. cussions of the kind here presented than they were in fact. In the physical world nature abhors a line, and the same may be affirmed with emphasis of the movements and phenomena of the world of life. Of a certainty, tribes migrate from place to place. The}' flow here and there into favorable localities, and there possibly develop into nations. But the movement is not so exact find log- ical as it appears to be when viewed through the medium of description. There is, on the contrary, much that is desultory and irregular in the course of migration from one country to another. Much allowance must be made for de- lays and deflections, and still more for the intermingling of one tribe with an- other on the way. The incoming peo- ple frequently disperse themselves among the original inhabitants, and are mixed with them in the race develop- ment of the future. In some cases the migration is more exact and definite, and in such instances the facts correspond more General sum- nearly to the concept of the ^Z^:^^,. movement as it is trans- tions. mitted by description. In the case of the Hamitic dispersion over the coun- tries to which we have referred in the current chapter, it must be constantly remembered that these people were not so different typically from their Semitic kinsmen as the latter were from the Indo-European races. From this source DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 463 also much confiision has necessarily arisen in the attempted classification of these people by their ethnic affinities. But it is believed that, on the Avhole, the Hamitic race took in prehistoric times the general lines of distribution which are here indicated ; that it was distribu-, ted first into Southeastern and Southern Arabia, then into the western portions of the same peninsula, and then into Canaan. From this position the lines of migration part around the ilediter- ranean north and south, the lower de- parture being into Egypt, and after- wards into Northern Africa. In the course of ages the movement continued to the west, along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, to the Atlantic, and was thence deflected to the south into the equatorial regions, and finally turned back into the desert wastes covering the central and north-central parts of the continent. It is not intended in this connec- tion to trace further the historical de- velopment of the various peoples who sprang up on the line of these migra- tions. That part of the work will be at- tempted in another book. For the present, we turn from this cursory out- line of the Hamitic distribution of man- kind to consider another of the great primitive races in its similar dispersion, first through a great part of the Orient, and afterwards into different parts of the Western continents. Chapter XXVI.— aiigrations ok the Semites. OUGHLY considered, the great monarchies in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Ti- gris were planted and developed by people of the Semitic race. It was in Mesopotamia that the first striking evolution of this branch of man- kind was manifested. This is said of civil and political expansion, and of the establishment of social and linguistic forms. It is here that ancient histor}- Mesopotamia finds its first great buttress against the unknown. If we look at the upper part of the valley, below the Armenian mountains on the north and the range of the Zagros on the east, we find a region in which Semitic elements followed their natural course of evolution and were un- adulterated by foreign nations. In the south of Mesopotamia, as we have seen. essentially a land of the Semites. there was a mixture with the Hamitic stock. But in the later Babylonian as- pect of these nations the influence of the Hamites had waned to such an extent as to leave the Semitic races dominant throughout the whole region drained by the great rivers. We have already noticed the fact of the prevalence of this division of the race in the Tigrine and Euphratine val- leys. It remains in the present chapter to take up the course of Semitic life and follow it on its migration central position into western lands. For a ^"^^^Td = ^^^ long time after their de- movement, parture from the Mesopotamian regions the different branches of the traditional Noachite descent Avere held well together by the geographical environment. On the whole, the Semitic stock was cen- tral in its movement to the west. The Syrian desert was entered from about the middle of the valley of the Euphrates, 464 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and was traversed by the migrating fam- ily directly into Canaan. It is here, moreover, that the eth- nographer, in his attempted delineation of the prehistoric move- Tradition of the -^ .... outgoing of the mcnts of mankind, IS rem- Abrahamites. forced by tradition. One of the oldest and most authentic of these is the story of the migration of Abraham el-Hie. The place is called Mugheir, meaning " supplied with bitumen." The outline of a most ancient . . . Place and char- temple is still discoverable acterofUrof .I 1 1 ii 1 the Chaldees. m the place ; and the plan of the foundations, and indeed of the whole structure, has been made out by Rawlinson and other Oriental scholars. It was from this vicinity that the Abra- RUINS AND PLAIN OF MUGHEIR.— Drawn by W. H. Boot. from Ur of the Chaldees into Canaan. This, viewed from the Semitic stand- point, is one of the most famous move- ments of the early world. The tradition of it exists among all the cognate races of the Hebrews, and with themselves it is the virtual founding of their race. The position of Ur in Mesopotamia is well known. It is identical, in site at least, with the extensive ruins about six miles to the west of the Euphrates and nearly opposite its junction with the Shat- hamic tribe took its way, first ascending the valley of the Euphrates for a consid- erable distance, and thence traversing the country into Canaan. All, or nearly all, the names that have been preserved to us of this period are significant of tribal move- special signifi- ments. Eber, the ancestor ~,r/p\tr„. from whom the name of "ymics. Hebrew is taken, means "from be- yond," that is, he was an emigrant from beyond the Euphrates, perhaps the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIOXS. 465 Tigris. The name of his elder son, Pe- leg, signifies "division," "because in his time the earth was divided." The name of Salah, the father of Eber, sig- nifies "departure," and evidently refers to a title which that patriarch received in departing, or setting out, with his tribe for a new home. Everything per- tains to migration. If the meaning of the name Arphaxad has not been ascer- tained, the position of his tribe at least is known. Arphaxad is a mountain district of Southern Armenia, between lakes finally of his really serious battle with Chedorlaomer, or according to the As- syrian spelling, Kudur-Lagamer, is suffi- ciently striking and impressive. Kudur- Lagamer was king of Elam, or rather the Elamite king of Chaldsea, and had followed the Abrahamic tribe out of the East, with the hope of falling upon it and gathering great spoil. There is little doubt that this Elamite dynasty in Chal- dsea was of Hamitic origin ; and the de- parting Abraham was thus the object of race antipathy, as well as the possessor of LAKD OF THE ARPHAXAD.— View op Kopans Kale.— Drawn by T. Deyrolle, from nature. Van and Urumiah ; and there is no doubt that the primitive clan of this ancient Semite had its original locus at this place. Nahor, the son of Serug, means "the river," that is, the Euphrates — and so of scores of other proper names referring to Mesopotamian localities or to family or tribal movements in that region. The pastoral picture which is drawn Contact of the in Gcnesis of Abraham on his way to the Promised Land, and of the troubles which beset him on his journey, of his contention with his kinsman Lot, and Abrahamites with the races of Canaan. flocks and herds. According to the He- brew account of this migration, which was the origin of Israelitish greatness in Palestine, there Avas a division of the family which appears to have been on the borders of Canaan, about the time of the invasion. Ishmael, the oldest son of the patriarch, had married an Eg}-ptian bondwoman and had become the head of a tribe. The troubles arising out of this heathen alliance led to a separation of the families, and Ishmael was carried off into the south, into Arabia. 466 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Several generations before this time, however, another branch of the Eberites Outgoing and had already made a de- piantings of parture into Arabia. This Joktan in ^ Arabia. movement was made by laktan, or Joktan, his elder brother being that Peleg who was the ancestor of the Abrahamites. Joktan was thus five generations before the patriarch of Israel. A large list of twelve sons and a daughter are assigned to Joktan as the heads of the tribes which he led off into Northern and Western Arabia. The movement was at a very early date. Joktan w^as the great grandson of Arphaxad, and the latter, as is Avell known, belonged to the extreme north ■of ^Mesopotamia, in the mountainous re- gion of Armenia. So the Joktanites must have been strongly in the migra- tory spirit. Eber, the father, had come "from beyond." Salah, the grandfather, was the "departer." It is thus evident that the whole race of Arphaxad was in process of removal and migration. Ethnographers, ancient and modern, have made out and identified several of the tribes having their or- Modern traces .... . of the ancient igiu in the Joktanian de- Joktanians. ., , t~>^ i scendants. rtolemy men- tions the Almodoeci dwelling in the cen- tral portions of Arabia Felix, and it can hardly be doubted that the name is de- rived from Almodad, the oldest son or tribe of Joktan. Another people called the Salapcni by the same geographer, are thought to have been derived from Sheleph, the second son of the same patriarch. This branch of the race was set down by Ptolemy as having its abode near the modern Mecca. A third divi- sion called the Cathramitse Avere pre.sum- ably the descendants of the third son of Joktan, named Hazarmaveth. It is like- ly that the modern provincial name of Hadramaut preserves the reminiscence of the original Semitic tribe by whom this region was peopled. There is also a modern tribe called Yarab, having its territories on the Arabian -gulf border and thought to have been descended from Jerah, the fourth division of the Joktanian progeny. The Semitic inhabitants of Yemen are believed to have descended from Uzal, sixth son of Joktan. The The joktanidse Himyaritic tribe, called the ^^^eVn^e's Dulkhelitas, are believed and races, to be the descendants of Diklah, the sev- enth branch of the original family. The tribe called Mali by Theophrastus, the Malichae of Ptolemy, stand for the de- scendants of Abimael, the ninth Joktan- ian. The name of the modern town Malai, in the vicinity of jMedina, pre- serves the same word. The tenth issue of Joktan was that Sheba, wdiich is men- tioned in the Hebrew writings and still more frequently among the local names of Southwestern Arabia. The eleventh Joktanian branch was called Ophir, and preserves another name famous in the Hebrew writings of the time of the king- dom of David and Solomon. It is be- lieved that Havilah, a name common to one of the descendants of Ham, is represented by the modern Semitic peo- ple at Chaulan, in Arabia Felix. The tribe of the lobaritas, mentioned by Ptolemy, have their ancestral represent- ative in lobab, or Jobab, the thirteenth member of the Joktanian tribe. We thus see, w-ith more than usual certainty, considering the extreme re- moteness of the time, the , , Relations of the outlines of a distribution Joktamans and of Eberites into Northern and Western Arabia. If we accept the- extreme longevity assigned by the sacred writings to the patriarchs of this era, we shall find that the six generations be- tween Joktan and Ishmael would cover a DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 467 period of thousands of years. However this may be, it can not be doubted that the Joktanians departed from the parent stem at a date much more re- mote than the more recent Abraham- ites, and that when Ishmael, with the descendants of the Egyptian bond- woman, turned off into the "wilder- ness," he found already in Arabia Felix the half-nomadic and half-set- tled descendants of the older branch of the Eberite race. It will be borne in mind, however, that the progeny of Jok- tan, the younger brother of Peleg, would be displaced in rights and prerogatives by the descendants of the senior branch of the family ; so that the Ishmaelites would have precedence in these regions as the representatives of the common father Arphaxad. The accompanying diagram will illustrate the tribal rela- tionships of the descendants of the Joktan and the Ishmaelites : Ishmaelitic migration was from the bor- ders of Syria to the .southwest and thence to the south, until the coast of the Red sea was reached, and skirted southward to the extreme limit of that body of water. If, as some ethnographers main- tain, the Semitic race crossed at Bab-el- Mandeb into Africa, it was an Ishmael- ite removal, and whatever elements there may be of Semitic descent among the Galla races of Eastern Africa, the same must be traced to Ishmael rather than to the Joktanian branch of the original Semitic family. In the course of their progress through the peninsula, the Ishmaelites appear to have divided east and west The western about the eastern border ^^ilshagu of Hejaz, and to have Africa, thrown off one branch toward the cen- tral desert and another across the Red sea into Africa. This latter movement of the race must not be confounded with Aram I Hul Elam Gether Asshur Mash Arphaxad Salah Eber Lud Joktan I Peleg Reu Serug Almodad Sheleph Hazarmaveth Jcrah Hadoram Uzal Diklah Obal Abimael Sheba Ophir Nahor Terah I Havilab Jobab 5—Abraham=Hagar Isaac Ishmael Nahor Ha ran I Lot DIAGRAM SHOWING TRIBAL RELATIONSHIPS OF JOKTAN AND ISHMAEL. The career of the Ishmaelites in Arabia was one of aggression. They encroached, especially in Spread of the ^ ■' Ishmaehtes the northern part of the through Arabia. . , ^111 peninsula, upon the older Joktanians and also upon the original Hamitie Arabians, who were anterior to both branches of the Semitic immigrants. In general terms, the course of the the supposed one at the southwest angle of the peninsula. The real Semitic line was carried into the continent about the parallel of twenty-four degrees north, across Middle Egypt, and almost directly west into the Great Desert. The migra- tion of the Ishmaelites in this direction appears to have extended as far as the Imoshag races, to the southwest of 468 GREAT RACES OF 3TANKIND. Fezzan ; and this point may be regarded as the extreme landward progress of the Semitic race south of the I\Iediterra- nean. In general, the modern Arabs are regarded as the lineal descendants of the Ishmaelitic branch of the Semitic family. In the main, this opinion is verified by extent the Joktanian influence of latei ages. Finally, in the north and west of Arabia, the immigrant Ishmaelites over- came and subordinated all the peoples that had previously occupied the country. The antipath}'' between Shem and Ham, however, was never great — except in matters of religious dogma and cere- ARAFAT DUklNT, A riLc.iUMAGE (LAXD OF OPHIR).— Drawn by D. Lancelot, frnm a i.hntn^r.n.li. character of the modern Ara- bians. the facts in possession of the ethnogra- pher and historian. But the Arab char- Composite race acter is, to a Considerable extent, composite. Several ethnic elements have con- tributed to its formation. The Ham- itic race, especially in the southern part of the peninsula, underlay the national development of subsequent times. With this oldest stock was blended to some monial. For this reason the original in- habitants, already a composite people in Arabia Felix, may be supposed to have contributed not a little to the ultimate formation of that type known in modern times as Arabian. But the dominant stock, at least in the important regions bordering the Red sea from Suez to Yemen, was Ishmaelitic in its origin and development. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 469 We have thus considered the south- ernmost migratory movements of the Vicissitudes of Semitic race. The Abra- theAbrahamites j^ -^^ ^^.-^^g entered and m possessing Canaan. posscsscd Canaan. This movement of the principal stock, repre- sentative of the family of Eber, is better understood in its character and re- sults than any other sin- gle migration at a time equally remote from the present. The story is elaborately expanded in the Book of Genesis. All the principal episodes in the career of the Abra- hamic tribe are narrated, even to details. The pa- triarch became the pro- genitor of a famous race which he planted in Ca- naan. The extent and variety of his tribe are indicated by the conduct toward him of Melchize- dek, King of Salem, and by many other incidents and events. A great de- velopment of the immi- grant race took place in the time of Israel, grand- son of Abraham, whose twelve sons became the progenitors of the twelve tribes and the origin of the twelve geographical divisions of the rising race. It is not needed to recount the epi- sode of the sojourn in Egj'pt and of the rapid multiplication of the foreigners about Pelusium. The return out of bondage and the repossession of Canaan by conquest furnished the material for the heroic aspect and story of the Israel- itish nation, which became dominant from the borders of the Syrian desert to the Mediterranean. It is worthy to be noted in this connec- tion that the Hebrews were never a seafar- ing people. It was against the economy of the state, and regarded perhaps as in- "^ ■*■ . LIFE OF THE ABRAHAMITES — SHEPHERD WITH LAMBS. Drawn by Paul Hardy. jurious to the theocratic principle upon which the government was founded, to make commercial excur- Noncommercial sionsand contract relations pSi'v^He^* with foreign powers. A brews, student of history will not forget that the narrow strip of coast called Phoeni- cia, with its great seaports, lay between 470 GREAT RACES OF JLLYA'/XD. bre'w influence on the Mediter- ranean. Israel and the Western ocean. This fact has an ethnic signification also ; for the Tyrians and Sidonians and other old stocks of mankind, hanging in their rookeries along the eastern end of the Mediterranean, represented races long anterior in their western distribution and development to the immigration and conquest of Canaan by the Eberites. In course of time the Semitic stock became dominant to the sea. But the spirit of navigation which prevailed in Extent of He- the ports of Tvre and Sidon must be attributed to a race impulse other than that of the Hebrews. To the extent that the Phoenicians had accepted the in- stitutions and blood of the invaders who conquered Canaan, we may regard the outgoing fleets from these shores as car- rying Semitic influences through the Mediterranean. But it is doubtful if these fleets of outbound merchants car- ried to the western parts anything dis- tiiiciivcly Hebrew. All the traces of the Semitic race which have been found in the Mediterranean islands, on the shores of Spain, and beyond the straits of Gib- raltar, in Wales, and in the littoral islands of Western Africa, must be at- tributed to that community of language and institutions which the Phoenicians, particularly the Sidonians, possessed in common with the race of Abraham. Time and again we have shown that the Hamites had common forms of laneuaee The Azores and a common institutional mark the Atlan- tic limit of He- development with the cog- brew depar- . ,. r^, ture. nate nations of Shem, and the original Canaanites could thus carry into western waters evidences of a race affinity with the dominant Semitic .stock. However this may be, ethnographers have agreed in extending the Semitic line of dispersion through the Phoenician coast and around the northern shores of Africa by water. As just indicated, this line extends beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and is deflected northward to Britain and southward to the twentieth degree of latitude. The western limit of this maritime migration is thought to have been in the Azores ; and this group of islands may be said to mark the ex- treme Atlantic progress in the natural dispersion of the Semitic famih-. It must be noted in connection with the foregoing schemes of dispersion that most of the names employed appear as the names of individuals — use and signif- as the sons of a household. ^^TtHbfr This fact gives to the dis- names, cussion a ?>\x\QWy family aspect which is too exact and too narrow for the facts which it represents. Many of the names in the above classifications are known to be the names of tribes and of whole divisions, or even of whole peoples. It is impos- sible from a study of primitive Semitic records to make out precisely which of the ancestral names employed in geneo- logical tables are intended to represent single ancestors, and which are designed to specify households, tribes, andpeojjles. It is the custom in the Semitic languages to prefix to many personal names, espe- cially such as have a descriptive significa- tion, the definite article, thereby giving to the word an ethnic turn of sense dif- ferent from what would be expressed in the Aryan languages. Such names, moreover, are frequently in tlic plural ; and the Hebrew vScriptures, taken as an example of all such records, have, in many instances, intermixed these tribal or ethnic epithets with individual names until even the closest criticism is put at fault in determining precisely what is meant. On the whole, it is safe to make considerable allowance for this circumstance in estimating the value of the names, apparently individual, given DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 471 to the ancestors of the Semitic and Ham- itic races. This fact must always be taken into account in attempting to esti- mate the time and the extent of a given migratory movement. If we look to the north of the central line of the Semitic dispersion into Ca- and it has already been suggested that in Cyprus itself the aboriginal develop, ment was of Hamitic origin. The primi- tive history of the island is exceedingly obscure, but all that is known with reference thereto points to an early colonization by the Phoenicians from the ' LAND OF THE SCORCHED FACES." -Abu Senoum, on Frontier of Kordofan, toward Darfur. — Drawn by Karl Oirardet, after a sketch of Lejean. naan and the west, we shall find only a single significant departure. This leaves The Hebrew the main stem on the north ^rttnr-^^ in the Syrian desert, and itio in Cyprus, bears off in the direction of the northeastern extremity of the ]\Iedi- terranean, where it touches the coast, and is thence carried over to the island of Cypriis. It is hardly to be doubted that along the line of this migration other peoples had preceded the Semites, neighboring coast. The ancient wor- ship of Ashtaroth in Cyprus seems to be identical with the corresponding cult in Phoenicia, and it may be concluded that the first race, by which is meant the first progressive race, in the island was of the old Canaanitish stock which fixed itself in the earliest ages along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Such, then, is the general view of the dispersion of the Semitic nations- 472 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Geographically considered, the race was narrow and intense. Its migra- Summaryand tory excursions did not HebrakTdil'!^ Tcach out SO extensivcly tribution. as tliose of other peo- ples. The extreme western continental limit was, as we have seen, in North Central Africa. The southern departure dropped down as far as the limits of Arabia. The northern limit was the island of Cypn:s; and the maritime expeditions — if we regard the Phoeni- cians as representatives of this race — extended through the Mediterranean and to a certain distance around the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Taken altogether, the dispersion is the smallest, that is, the most limited in geographical extent, of all the great ethnic departures. The dispersion of Japlieth in compari- son with that of vShem was, as we shall presently sec, world-wide in its extent. But within the limited territories oc- cupied by the Semitic race a very intense form of religious and civil develoj^ment ensued, making the Semites conspicuous among ancient peoples for their pecul- iarities and persistence and force of character. In the course of the current chapter little has been intimated relative to the Question of the primitive populations of rrTheEtWopi" Ethiopia. This name was *"*• given by the Greeks to the region lying immediately south of Egypt. The word means " the land of the scorched faces," and was doubtless applied by the Hellenic ethnographers to the Ethiopians on account of their swarthy hue. This, however, by no means implies tliat they were a branch of the Black races of mankind. It is well known, on the contrary, that this people were allied with the Hamitic and Semitic families of men, and not with the Negroes or Hottentots. The early history of Egypt indicates close relationship between that couniry and Ethiopia. At one epoch an Ethi- opian dynasty is found in western ish- the ascendant in the Nile ^:^^l^ valley. There was mitch Hamites. community of religions and of civil in- stitutions between the two peoples, who, however, frequently went to war. To what extent, in the prehistoric ages, the Hamitic race had made its way up the valley beyond the falls of the Nile and contributed a first population to Ethi- opia can not be well ascertained. But that the original race of this region was at least to some extent Hamitic in its origin can hardly be doubted. We may, nevertheless, accept the current view of ethnographers that the western division of the Ishmaelites crossed tlie Red sea and gave a Semitic character to the first Ethiopian tribes. It is possible, more- over, that the same race, after making its way to the southern extremity of the Red sea and passing thence into Africa, doubled back into Ethiopia and dis- seminated certain tribal elements in this obscure but important region of the earth . We thus note three great divisions of the Semitic stock. The primary depar- ture .sent off the Aramaic Aram the seat branch of the race. In gen- remmfrfr eral terms the people of opment. Aram, known ethnically as Aramaeans, were distributed from the Zagros and Kcbir Kuh on the east, to the borders of Canaan on the west. Aram embraced all of Mesopotamia except Chaldsea, sul)sequently known as Babylonia, and all of Syria in the west except Palestine and Phoenicia. The .seat of Aramaic cul- ture was Mesopotamia. Here was ex- hibited the strongest development of the race. Geographically, Aram was the northern division of the Semitic family, DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 473 as the Hebraic stock was the central and the Arabic division the southern evolu- tion of Shem. In considering the race characteristics and historical progress of these peoples, we shall have occasion to revert to this division of the Semitic family, and to make the same the basis of a discussion of the national life of the Mesopotamian nations, the Hebrews and the Arabs. We turn, then, in the next place, to a discussion of the far wider, and in many senses more important, development of the oldest branch of the Noachite family of mankind — the Aryans, or Japhethites. CHAPTER XXVII,— The East Aryan Departure. Determination of the origin of the Aryan mi- grations. HE dispersion of the Japhetic, Aryan, or Indo-European race — for the three ethnic names are virtually synonymous — consti- tutes the most pictur- esque chapter in the prehistoric annals of the world. We are brought in the investigation to what appears to have been an inexhaustible fountain of hu- man life, and are led to view the issu- ance from this common .source of at least six of the great races which became in their de- velopment the principal his- torical forces in the ancient world. It will be of primar}'- interest in this in- quiry to note, first of all, the geograph- ical location of this common fountain wherefrom issued the best, or at least the strongest, peoples who have, by their energy and genius, transformed the primeval world into its present civil- ized and auspicious condition. With the map of Asia before him the student need not be long in fixinof the great ethnic center which we are about to consider. Regarding the ancient countr}- of Carmania as the seat of the Noachite division of peoples, and fixing the line of Japheth on the north, it may be easily perceived that its westward- M. — Vol. I — 3t bearing course would come against the Hyrcanian mountains and the Lower Caspian, and be deflected or doubled back toward the Upper Oxus into Mar- giana and Bactria. It was in this region that the great ethnic whirl was estab- lished, where the Aryan race seems to have found itself turned by torsion for a .season under the dominion of cosmic forces, which it were, perhaps, vain to attempt to analyze and define. Ethnographers have differed some- what as to the true seat of the great races which we are now to Region of the con.sider. The better opin- ,^,7;;,^'^- ion places the center of parture. the distribution about the Lower Cas- pian, or eastward toward the borders of Bactria. It is likely that the rapidlv multiplying race covered geographically the larger part of the country between the Bactrian borders and the Lower Cas- pian. At least this is the general local- ity from which the most powerful ethnic forces have ever proceeded. In viewing the situation, we may discover once more how the laws of physical environnient cooperated with the laws of instinct in producing such marvelous results. There is little doubt, in the first place, that evenness of surface and approxima- tion to sea level have a marked influence in preserving the aggregationor compact- 474 GREAT RACES OF JfANKLYD. ness of tribes in the formative state, and in conducing to certain religious and po- litical types of development. In the next place latitude, with its invariable concomitant of temperature, contributes much to modify the peoples who are subject to given Bamites are eth- nically modified degrees of heat and cold. by environment, ^j^.^ .^ ^^^^ -^ particular of tribes who are still in the plastic state. There can be no doubt that there is a childhood and a vouth to mankind — an men. They also grew sedate and aus- tere, less disposed to highly developed forms of society, and, in brief, more like the de.sert and rainless countries in- to which they penetrated than were the races which distributed themselves fur- ther northward. Among the oldest monuments of the Egyptians there are pictorial repre.ser\- tations of the differences w-hich had al- ready been produced among the Noa- chite descendants by the influences of LANDSCAPE OF OLD AKVA.— Ruins of Tous.— Drawn by A. de Bar, from a photograph. impressionable stage of evolution in which the influences of the external world are more potent in their reaction upon the mental and phy.sical constitu- tion than they are in later .stages of de- velopment. In these early stages of so- ciety there are infantine susceptibilities and diseases from which the race re- covers at a stage of fuller maturity. For this reason the early peoples in their migratory epochs have developed a con- stitution peculiarly significant of the climate and region of their tribal so- journ. The races of Ham became much darker in color than their Semitic kins- environment. The sculptors, in these representations, have unwittingly borne evidence of the tendency of Egyptian sculp- tures evidence races in the plastic stage of the early dlffer- ,i_ ■ 1 ,• . entiationof their evolution to con- races, form to climatic conditions. The Egyptians defined themselves as Roth, meaning red, or ruddy, as to complexion. They pictured the cognate Semites as Nainahii, meaning yellow; and the Japhethites, or North Mediterranean peoples, as Tamaliu, or white. Yet it is now well knowm that these three types of color and the associated form, feature, and stature of the three peoples to DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 475 which they belong, were all of a com- mon ethnic descent. The race of Japheth on the north and east of ^Mesopotamia was, in its earliest stages of development, thrown into a Primitive ja- region where nature had phethites affect- '^ ed by climate greater variety than in any and surround- i- .1 . • 1. ^.-u ings of the countries where the Semitic and Hamitic families were dis- persed. It was a region of uplands, ris- mer, the quick oncoming of the storm, the biting frost of a comparatively early autumn, the high winds, the blasts of snow and sleet peculiar to the winter months. It is in .some sense a climatic maelstrom, and the Japhetic race was whirled and beaten in its childhood by the wild elements that dashed and turned from alternate calm to tempest, and from warm airs to biting blasts and hM^^^W^^^^'^'' ^^"' PASS OF THE ARAXES. ing easily into mountain ranges of con- .siderable elevation. It was a country of snows, and particularly of storms in winter. There are few parts of the earth in which vicissitude in temperature and the whole external mood of nature are more pronounced than in the region .south and east of the Caspian. The primitive Japhethites were ex- posed from the beginning to the full force of these climatic changes — to the flush of early spring, the heat of sum- freezing sleets. For the.se reasons the early Japhethites would, by the turbu- lence of nature, be impres.sed with great- er restlessness, hardihood, and adven- ture than might be expected in the case of any other primitive people. How great must have been the influ- ence of such an environment upon sen- sitive peoples recently liberated from a parent stock in a more genial latitude! We have already seen that the Adamite seems to have come up from the low- 476 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. lying seashore, where the Ichthyoi^hagi afterwards roamed, half-naked in the seashore sunshine, gathering shellfish from the brine. Many of these moder- ating influences had been carried by the Noachites into the Carmanian uplands ; and it was from thence that the Japheth- ites were deflected to the northwest into the region of snow and mountains. Before beginning a review of the wider aspects of the Japhetic dispersion Indefiniteness jn^o remote Continents, it of biblical refer- ences to the can but prove of interest to Japhetic disper- . i i j Bion. note, as we have already done in the case of the Joktanian migra- tions, the narrower biblical plan of dis- tribution presented in the tenth chapter of Genesis. Japheth signifies, etymo- logically, " widespreading," from which meaning of the word the inference is drawn that the name was applied to the Northern Aryans afdr they had shown the migrator}' disposition. Far back in the Noachitic era there was a prophecy that Japheth should be odargcd. Every- thing from the biblical point of view points to the expansion of this branch of the Noachite family. The close relation of the western division of the face with European tribes is shown in the fact that the Greeks had a myth of their own ancestor under the name of lapetus, which is clearly the same as Japheth. In general terms, the countries assigned to the descendants of this branch of mankind are called the "isles of the gentiles." Doubtless the expres- sion is poetical. The Oriental imagi- nation substituted " isles " for countries in general, no doubt from the remote and seagirt meaning suggested by the word. If we scrutinize carefully the Japhetic family as recorded in Genesis, we shall find seven sons, or founders of tribes, assigned to the head of the race. These are, first of all, Gomer. Among the de- scendants of this ancestor many names are found, even in Europe, seven tribes of which preserve the ety- i^:^,^^:!^"^^^ mology of the ancestral Gomer. title. Rawlinson has noted the presence of the Gimirians among the cuneiform inscriptions, belonging to the age of Darius Hystaspes. The Cimmerians, dwelling on the northern shores of the Black sea, are believed to have their name fi'om Gomer. The word Cymri (Kymri), one of the Celtic names of Western Eu- rope, is thought to have the same origin ; and the words Cambria, in England, and Cambrai, in France, preserve, perhaps, an etymological tradition of the oldest branch of the Japhethites. The first son of Gomer was Ashkenez, from whom, no doubt, the ancient tribe of Ascanians, dwelling to the south of the Black sea, were descended. These are believed to have been the ancestors of the Phrygians, and were therefore closely related with the Hellenic emigrants who subsequently peopled Greece. The cotmtry of Ascania extended over the land of Troy, from which circumstance we may deduce something of the ethnic relations existing between the Trojans and the Hellenes. It is worthy of note that "the boy Ascanius," the son of .(Eneas, founder of mythical Rome, per- petuated the ancestral name of Ashkenez. It is not impossible that the classical name Euxine, formerly spelled Axenus, is also derived from the ethnic designa- tion of the early race dwelling on the southern borders of this sea. The second branch of the Gomerites was, according to Genesis, deduced from the tribal ancestor Riphath. ^ Place of the Ri- From him are thought phacesinthe ,1 J J J ii ethnic scheme. to have descended the ancient Paphlagonians, whom Josephus designates as Riphaces. This people, DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 477 like the Ashkenites, dwelt on the south- ern borders of the Black sea, though the location has not been so definitely deter- mined as that of the first Gomeritic division. On the whole, it is likely that the Riphaces had their dwelling place somewhat toward the east, in a district which was properly included in Arme- nia. The third son of Gomer was To- garmah, who is be- lie V e d to have founded an Arme- nian tribe which may be identified with the modem Thorgonites inhab- iting the same re- gion. The next branch of the Japhethites was deduced from the second son, called Magog. But it is difiScult to de- termine into which nation spread southward over the Irani- an plateau, and passed by conquest into Assyria, and even to Babylonia. But the prehistoric tribes descended from Madai were limited to the northern prov- inces east of the mountains. The fourth son of Japheth was Javan, easily identified with the Greek ancestral A^yy^/S^^ of the Black provinces this sea di- vision was led and distributed. There is general consent that the famous savage race of vScythians were the Distribution of . „ the Magog and oiispring oi Magog. bome the Madai. ethnographers have re- Ol.n MEDIAN TYPES — THE SASSANIAN PRINCES (oF THE SCULPTURES). Drawn by H. Chapuis. from a photograph by Madame Dieiilafoy. ferred the Turanians in general to this origin, and others have derived the Circassians, inhabiting the mountainous district between the Caspian and the Black sea, from the Magogian stock. Concerning the Madai, who are record- ed as the third tribe of Japheth, there can be little doubt that these were the ances- tors of the great race of Medes, whose country spread from the Upper Zagros toward the east, as far as Hyrcania and the desert of Aria. Subsequently, in the development of the Median race, the name laones, from whom, according to the Hellenic tradition, the lonians of Asia Minor and the .<^gean _ ° Traces of the islands were descended, dispersion of the Traces of the Javanites ^^^" ^^' have been discovered among the inscrip- tions of Egypt ; and the Greeks as a race were called Javanas among the ancient Hindus. The Arabic word for Greeks is Yunan, which is evidently of the same etymology with Javan. In later times the Hellenic ethnographers were dis- posed to accept laones as the ancestor of their whole race, and to make Ionian and Greek equivalent terms. From the J^'^'^n, several ancestral stocks are said to have been derived. The first son bore the name of Elishah, and it is 478 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. possible that the Greek state of Elis, in the eastern part of Peloponnesus, perpet- uated this name. Some have suggested that Hellas itself is a derivative from Elishah. Tarsus, on the Cilician coast, has been derived from the word Tarshish, assigned as tlie name of a second son of Javan. A third tribe was called Kittim, which is believed to have been distrib- uted near Paphlj-gonia, or possibly into the island of Cyprus. A fourth division of Javanites were the Dodanim, which we may possibly identify with the Do- donians of Macedonia. The tribal name GALEWAV OK 1 HE KAST ARYANS INK) INIJIA — IHE UOLAN is sometimes spelled Rodaniin, which would point to the island of Rhodes as the locality of this branch of Javan. The race of Tibareni, mentioned by the Greek historians, have generally Probable identi- been referred to the Tubal, G?orgranswrth ^^th tribe of Japheth. the Tubaiites. They have been identified with the original Georgians, but the name in itself does not indicate the descent. In the Iberians we may dis- cover traces of the original name. The latter had their habitation bordering on the Black sea and reaching out on the southern .slope of the Caucasus. The sixth .son of Japheth is called Meshech, whose descendants were doubt- less the ancient Mosclii. The territory of this tribe lay next to that of the Tibareni. The Moschian range of mountains preserves the word in the north of Armenia to the present time. According to a conjecture of Rawlinson, the modern national name of Muscovite is derived, through Moschi, from the Japhetic Meshech. It is believed that the great Thracian stock of mankind ma}^ be traced up to Tiras, the seventh and last of the Japhetic progeny. It is thought that the country into which this branch of tlie race was distrib- uted was on the north of the Black .sea, on the banks of the Dniester, the name of which river is believed to preserve the etymology of Tiras. After- wards the same geographical name was carried into Eu- rope. The Thracians were Possible deriva- originally distributed over %Z^'£lfr... a wide range of country, Tiras. extending from the Black sea as far as the borders of the Cimmerians. It will be .seen that according to this genealogical scheme, deduced from the Book of Genesis, the dis- Bibiicai scheme represents the persion of the Japhethites Japhethites as , ,, , , developed west- was wholly to the xvcstivard ward. from the point of departure. This in- dicates that the ea.stward migrations of the race, .so important in the subsequent development of the Medo-Persian up- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 479 lands and India, were unknown to the Hebrews, or at least omitted from the ethnic tables which they preserved. As a general fact, the Hebrew accounts of peoples other than themselves were lim- ited to the necessity of the case, while the movements of the Abrahamites were expanded and developed in full propor- tions. A second observation relative to the Japhetic dispersion is that according- to this sevenfold tribal scheme all, or near- ly all, the races of Indo-European origin How far the He- are located in Armenia and brew outline of ^round the shores of the Japheth ex- tended. Black sea. The territory contemplated by the Hebrew author ex- tended westward into Phrygia and at least as far as the ^gean islands. It is safe to mark out the wilds of Thrace and the island of Rhodes as the western- most boundaries of the Japhetic disper- sion as deduced from the tribal refer- ences in Genesis. But if we examine the geographical knowledge which was possessed in the times of the composi- tion of the earlier Hebrew books, and join to this the comparative indifference of the race to the movements and distri- bution of the Japhethites, we can dis- cover sufficient reasons for the imperfec- tion or inadequacy of the ethnic scheme. It now remains to look at the question in the broader light of historical and linguistic indications. It has already been indicated in the first chapter of the preceding book that Great contribu- the study of language has ^ci^ntt'et-"'' led to many rectifications nography. in the general scheme of knowledge. In no other department of science has this correction and emenda- tion of previous opinion been more manifest than in ethnography. One of the most striking examples of the im- provement of the old scheme of learning by the new linguistic contribution is found in the discovery that the Indie peoples of Hindustan have certainly been derived from the same origin with the great nations of Europe and Amer- ica. The bringing to light of the iden- tity of Sanskrit in its elements as a lan- guage with the Greek and Latin opened up a totally different view of the move- ments and distribution of the Indo-Eu- ropean family of men. The slightly subsequent demonstration of the iden- tity of the language in which are re- corded the sacred writings of the Iranic or Persic race, added proof to proof of the great community of the six or seven branches which are now known to com- pose the Aryan family of nations. Ethnographers were quick to seize upon these additions to their previous knowledge ; and one of their first works was to trace backward the Discovery of Indie streams of mankind ^iTe'sTymttns through the passes of the of Sanskrit. Hindu-Kush to its confluence with the Iranic stream, and then to follow up the Old Indo-Persic family in its descent from an ancestral home common to themselves and the Grseco- Italic stock in Europe. These ancient and shadowy movements, most important in the dis- semination of the strongest peoples in the world, have now been sufficiently delineated, and the scholar of to-day may trace with comparative certainty the ethnic lines which mark the course of primitive peoples from the great cen- ter which they had in common, east- ward of the Lower Caspian, to their sev- eral destinations in distant continents. The primary movement of the Old Ar- yans in the geographical First move- vortex just referred to ap- ZTx^l'j^'L pears to have been a sort of nidus, spiral, throwing off streams east and west from its circumference. The oldest 480 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. of these departures was that toward the southeast. It contained the potency of two principal developments, an older and a younger; the former finding its geographical area of expansion on the table-lands of Iran, and the latter con- tinuing in migratory movements to the east, until it descended from the moun- tain gaps into the Punjab, and thence down the Indian valleys to the sea. The first peculiarity of this remarka- ble departure is the fact that it stands alone of all the Aryan migrations in having a general direction /otonrd the cast. All the other dispersive move- ments of this race were to tlic west, the tendency being in common with that of the vSemitic and Hamitic families on the south. The Eastern Aryans, how- ever, made their departure against the course of nature, and followed it per- sistently across nearly a third of Asia to their final lodgment and distribution in the East. The reason for this reversal of the general migratory movement to the Hints of physic- West, and of the departure fnlTh^rvT" oi the Eastern Aryans jnents of races, from what appears to be a common ethnic law, is diiificult to deter- mine. The earth is held in equipoise by the electric currents with which it is girdled and by which all its magnetic elements are polarized. These encircling influences, which are doubtless deter- mined in their fundamental direction by the diurnal course of the sun, extend into and control all the vegetable and animal life on the surface of the planet. Every vine and tendril that springs from the earth and seeks a support twines around the object to which it fastens in obedi- ence to a common law which determines the met hod and direction of the growth. No mechanical means or contrivance can prevail against this obvious and invinci- ble tendency of a vine to turn in its own direction about the object on which it seizes. In general, the tendrils of the vegetable kingdom follow the course of the Sim, from left to right in a circle. In the animal kingdom the same phenom- ena recur. Bees departing from the parent colony follow, in every country, a given line of migration. Birds and quadrupeds also obey these cosmic in- fluences, bi:t are somewhat more variable in the directions of their tribal move- ments. As we shall see further on, the Brown races of mankind have in general carried the lines of their migration to the east instead of the ziwst ; and the same is true of the Australian and Papuan streams of dispersion among the Blacks. But the Aryans have shown almost a passion for the westward course. All the original ethnic move- possible reason ments of this great division ^TA'd^'peT^" of mankind were toward migration, the setting sun, with the single except tion of that which we are now consider- ing. Why should the Indo-Persian mi- gration have disobeyed the general law? Why should the Ruddy race have con- tributed to populate the valleys of India at a distance so great from the original tribal departure ? It may be said in answer, that the vegetable kingdom is not quite uniform in the directions of its growth. There are a few exceptional instances in which vines and tendrils are specifically opposed in their method of growth to the action of the common law, and when such reversal of the usual order is discovered in a given plant, it is found to be as obsti- nate in its manifestation as are those which conform to the usual methods of development. It is possible that some- thing analogous to this may have pre- vailed among the Eastern Aryans to the extent of a prevalent instinct contrary DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 481 in its action to the usual desires and dis- positions of the race. At any rate, the first great migration of this family of mankind was toward the rising sun. The epoch in time in Light derived from Iranio and Vedio literature, which the movement began can not be ascertained, but the condition of the migrating nation has fortunately been, to some extent, preserved in the language. The old books of the Iranic and Indie races have been to the ethnographer what the stone-leaves of the earth are to the geologist. There are even to "be dis- covered in these works some hints of chronology. It is now conceded that the Rig-Ved;i is the oldest book in the possession of the human race. It may be that in- vestigations here- after among Ori- entals, particularly the Chinese, may substitute some other work for the Hindu Bible. It is now generally ad- mitted that the earliest hymns of the Vedic collection go back to wellnigh three thousand years before our era. The sacred books of Zoroastrianism were compiled at a later date. The evidence of lan- guage is sufficient to show that the Iranic speech and religious institutions were developed at a period considerably subsequent to that from which the Rig- Veda proceeded. It is possible that the hymns and ceremonials composing this most ancient book were sung or chanted by the Aryan tribes long before they descended into the valleys of India. It is certain at least that the language was well forward in evolution of structure and determination of vocabulary while IHE ANCIENT BRAHM — LEPER KING OF ANGCOR WAT. Drawn by E. Tournois, after a sketch of Delapoiti. the Iranians and Indicans still drifted in a common migration toward the south and east. The distribution of the Indie peoples, first into the Punjab and afterwards into the lower valleys, thence into the uplands, and finally eastward to the foothills of the Himalayas, has already 482 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. been described. It was here that the great race of Brahm expanded through centuries of progress into Expansion of ,- t . ■ ^ c the race of that hxed national lorm Brahm in India, ^^.j^j^^j^ ^^.^ disCOVCr in the earlier epochs of authentic history. Here the Brahmanic form of worship prevailed. Here the Indian castes were established in society. Here those peculiar philosophical theories of life and duty and destiny wei-e evolved which seemed to be an exact reversal of the beliefs and dogmas of the Western nations. It will be the work of a sub- sequent chapter to trace out this eastei'n- most development of the Aryan peoples, to note its peculiarities and tendencies, and to contrast the life of the Hindu peoples with the more aggressive and active social phenomena exhibited by the primitive races of Europe. In the case of this migration we have another example of the disposition of Primitive tribes primitive tribes to hang the"LlSry " together and maintain their movement. .Solidarity for a consider- able distance toward their unknown destination, and then to depart into two or more courses of independent develop- ment. While the Indie branch of the eastward-bearing Aryans had been mak- ing its way farther and farther toward the Indian valleys, the Iranic division gradually spread from the common movement and turned into the half- desert plateaus on the south. The move- ment was first into Media Proper, and then into Persia. The course of this branch of the race, which may be defined as Indo-Iranian, appears to have been almost exactly the reverse of that of the original Ruddy stock making its way north and westward from the shores of the Indian ocean. It is not the purpose at the present time to note in extenso the establish- ment of the Median tribes The Medes pre- and their organization ^ratin'^MsYJric- first into a political com- al development. munity and then into a kingdom. It is well known that the Medes preceded the Persians in the formation of a body pol- itic and in the development of the arts. We are here, however, on the borders of history, and pass, for the present, from the eastward dispersion of the Aryans, to note the still wider and more significant distribution of the race into the westernmost parts of Asia and thence into Europe. Chapter XXVIII.— The west Aryan Migrations, T is clear from the evi- dence in possession of modern scholars that there was an attempt on the part of the original Aryans to make their way around the eastern shores of the Caspian and thence westward across the Ural river ; and it is also clear that this movement did not succeed. The migrations in this direction reached no further to the north than the sea of Aral, where the course of the tribes was permanently checked. It is more than likely that the climate in this region was so severe as to i^revent further progress in that direction. The country between the Lower Ural and the Aral sea is one of the bleakest and most forbidding in the world, and Arj-an adventure was stayed in this direction. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 483 In these facts we discover another ex- ample of the peculiarities of migratory Sense in which tribal movements. Eth- " migration" is ^ profifress is bv no means to be under- r & J stood. so rapid and exact as the word migration would imply. These north-bound Aryans, if they had been " emigrants " in the modern sense of that word , would have continued their course around the Caspian to the north, and would have found an ample vent for westward expansion afterwards. But the movement of primi- tive tribes is a prog- ress rather than a mi- gration. The removal from place to place is slow. It involves camping, temporary settlement, and a test of the locality as to its resources and suit- ableness for perma- nent abode. The ethnic movement is thus tentative in its whole course. It puts out in this direction and in that, testing the climate and the resources of the re- gion, and spreading into different tracts adjacent until the course of further migration is determined by the inviting or uninviting character of the borders beyond. There is a sense in which the migrating tribe is always tempted to proceed on its way in a given direction. The imagination is allured to the extent of inciting a new depar- ture. While the natural instinct of the race, in the form of cupidity or the spirit of adventure, furnishes the bottom impulse of the progress, the suggestions of the natural world determine its course and the rapidity and oscillations of the forward movement. The north-bound migration which we have here described, and which ended with the Aral sea, contributed an abo- KARAKAI.PACK TYPES— TWO USBEKS. Drawn by A. Ferdinandus. of Aryan disper- sion in Asia. riginal race between the Oxus and the Caspian. Here a single Indo-European family is represented which ^^ ^ ^ '^ Northern hmits its origin primitive described. The Kara- kalpacks, whose territory lies immedi- ately north of the Atrek river, which empties into the Lower Caspian from the east, are probably of Aryan descent, doubtless owes to the very movement just 484 GREAT RACES OE MAXk'LYD. as are also a second tribe, called the Us- beks, who have their habitat further to the north ; also the Tadshiks, holding the country immediately south of the sea of Aral, at the dcboiuliurc of the Oxus, are Indo-Europeans, and are the ni)rthern- most of the Aryan peoples of Asia east- ward of the Caspian sea. the Caucasi:s. Defined in terms of an- cient geography, the course was across !Media, through Atropatene and Ar- menia Major. In all this region — such was its geographical constitution — the migratory race appears to have held to- gether. Indeed, it was not possible that there should be dispersion in a country CAUCASIAN TYPES.— Georgian Women. — Drawn by Eugene Burnand, from a photograph. In the meantime a still .stronger mi- gratory movement of the Aryans had Sources of the taken place directly to the race movement wcst. The Stream of de- into Europe. . ... parture m this case carried in its current the potency of all the Eu- ropean nations. It extended primarily south of the Caspian along the upper parts of Mesopotamia, and was held from northern deflection by the spurs of .so confined. All of the ancient states which we have just mentioned were strongly Aryan in their original popula- tion, from which circumstance it is easy to discern how Aryan influences would press upon ancient Assyria from the east and modify that nationality by the , infusion of manj^ foreign elements. The I modern countries of Mazanderan, Arda- lan, and Adarbijan hold a .similar rela- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 485 planted on the lines of the out- going. tion to the Mesopotamian regions, and the pressure of the Kurds upon the peo- ples between the Tigris and the Euphra- tes has in progress of ages amounted to a conquest. After reaching the more open region midway between the Caspian and the Black sea, the Ar3-ans divided into two major streams, one continuing the west- ward course, and the other passing through the Caucasus mountains into Armenia. It is at this point that the line of departure to the right enters the Russian empire of modern times. The first peoples of Aryan stock de- posited in the region of this divergence First races Were the Armenians and Georgians. Here is the seat of that great division of mankind to which the ethnographers of the last century gave the name of Caucasian. Until the more compre- hensive scholarship of recent times had thrown a stronger light on the question, it was supposed that the White, or Ruddy, races had all issued from this source, the southern branch passing into Asia Minor, and the north- ern being carried around the Black sea into Europe. It is now seen, however, that the real origin of the Aryans lay further to the east, and that the starting point of dispersion in the Caucasian re- gion was only secondary to an older de- parture beyond the Caspian. It will be desirable in following out the great migrations which we are now Origin of the to Consider to take up first the western branch of de- parture and follow the same into Asia Minor, and thence into penin- sular Europe. If from the eastern ex- tremity of the Black sea to the north- eastern limit of the Mediterranean a line be drawn, we shall find that all of the original peoples of peninsular Asia lying Minor Asians ; Hamitic influ- ences. west of the line and east of the Black sea were contributed by the principal stream of Aryan migration to the west. This movement entered the peninsula centrally from the east and was distrib- uted into all parts, especially around the southern shores of the Black sea. The only exception to the ethnic distribution here stated is the possible Pelasgic line of the Hamites, carried around from Syria into the archipelago. Otherwise, all of the prominent nations who, out of prehistoric shadows, came into view with the beginning of authentic history in Asia Elinor were of a common Arj-an descent, and this descent was immedi- ately from the point in the Caucasus where the primitive races of Northern Europe took their departure into Great Russia and the West. The Aryans, once in Asia Minor, found themselves in a region inviting to development. The result MadtipUcity of was that in the earliest t^^^^^tlf^' ages of histor}- many states -^sia. were created within a comparatively limited territory. Kingdoms and em- pires that even contended with the great powers of ^Mesopotamia arose in several parts of this Lesser Asia ; and if the countrj- had been as fortunate in the preservation, by literature and monu- ments, of the story of its past as were the states of Assyria, Egypt, and Greece, we might expect some of the most strik- ing contributions to the ethnography and annals of primitive times. It will be fitting in this connection to notice a few of the leading peoples who were developed from the Aryan stem in the countrj- between the Black sea and the Mediterranean. If any of the nations within the limits here defined belonged, in whole or in part, to other than an Aryan stock, it was the Cilicians, lying at the extreme 486 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. east of the peninsula and along the Mediterranean border. The physical features of this country are Place and race . , composition of the Taurus mountains and theCilicians. ^,^^ ^.j^.^^. CydnUS, both famous from the remotest ages for their historical associations. The belief is prevalent that the Phoenicians were first to colonize these regions, and it is quite likely that their adventurers and seamen passed around the coast and established settlements as far west as Lycia. To the extent that the Phoenicians had as the basal element in their race character an element of Hamitic descent, it will be proper to regard the Cilician race, espe- cially of the seacoast provinces, as de- scended from the southern branch of the Noachites. But subsequently the in- coming Aryans gave another complexion to the people. Cilicia was Aryanized, and remained ever afterwards virtually an Indo-European state. In the times of Hellenic colonization the Greeks sent around maritime bands, who settled along the Cilician coasts, and thus com- pleted the race revolution which their ancestors had begun in prehistoric ages. North of Cilicia lay the still greater country of Cappadocia. The primitive Beginnings of racc inhabiting this region ^'IpapMlTo- ^^-^s contributed directly nian races. from the Aryan migration westward. Indeed, the region lay im- mediately in the path of the great move- ment, and the people sprang up from the elements which were dropped by the race on its progress toward the Black sea. The same may be said of Paphlagonia, Ij-ing in the inner curve of that sea on the south. We have already seen that these countries were assigned by the Hebrew account to the sons of Japheth. Paphlagonia is believed to have belonged to the Kittim of the Japhetic dispersion, while the same country is by other writers assigned to the Riphaces, descendants of Riphath, the second tribal head of the Gomerites. Immediately west of Cappadocia lay the still more important country of Phryg- ia, with its northern penin- Kiseof the sula next to the Propontis. ^Sp wilh^h^ This region also lay imme- Armenians, diately under the center of the migratory line, and the primitive population was distributed in the manner already de- scribed for Cappadocia. The political power subsequently developed in this part of Asia Minor was of great impor- tance in the earlier historical times. The state was touched on its various borders by Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, L3-conia, Pisidia, Lycia, Caria, Lydia, and Mysia. It was the center of the Lesser Asia. The country of which we here speak was called Greater Phrygia, to distinguish it from the extension of the same region along the Propontis, which was known as Lesser Phrygia. According to the traditions of the various races of the peninsula, the Phryg- ians were the most ancient nation of Asia Minor. They were thought by the Greeks to be in close race affinity with the Thraciaus. There are also hints of their relationship with the Armenians on the east. Both of these conjectures of the ancients were correct. The Phrvafians were the result of a migratory move- ment out of Armenia into the countries of the West, and the people were accord- ingly allied, by race descent, on the east with the Armenians, and on the west with the Thracians. It is not the place to review the important historical bear- ings of Phrygia in the earlier ages of Grecian history, or to repeat the tradi- tions and legends which have been pre- serv'ed of the nation. South of Phrygia lay the smaller states of Caria, Lycia, and Pisidia ; and to the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 487 north, on the shores of the Black sea and reaching to the Bosphorus, was the coun- other Minor try of Bithynia. All of these Asians ; Lydi- districts were peopled by aus in particular. ^ ., , ,7 tribes who were dispersed right and left from the original Aryan migration which brought the ancestors the ^gean were from the earliest ages intimate. The Lydians were to the ^gean sea what the Phoenicians were to the Eastern Mediterranean. In the arts and sciences they antedated the Greeks, and their history is only second in im- portance to that of the Hellenic states. ROUTE OF \VE>1 ARYANS THRDUGH ASIA .M 1N( jR.-Pass Drawn by Grandsire. afler Langlois. OK HaDJIN. in CAPrADOCIA. of the Europeans to the eastern bor- ders of the .'Egean sea. Immediately west of Phrygia, next the archipelago, was the important state of Lydia. The history of the people who were here de- veloped is better known than those who grew into importance further east. The Lydians were nearly allied to the Greeks. The Ionian cities were on the Lydian coast, and the commercial relations be- tween the peoples on the two sides of We have thus noted the westward progress of the Aryans through the whole country from Upper ^Mesopotamia to the ^gean sea. This Minor Asians region of Lesser Asia pre- ^"th'SfiraS- sented one of the earliest ansandindicans. fields of Aryan development. While the ;Medes and Persians on the east of the Zagros, and the Indie Aryans in the Punjab, were laying the foundations of their respective nationalities, the 488 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. various peoples of Asia Minor, all closely allied by race descent and com- mon institutions, Avere settling from the nomadic stale into permanent residence, discovering the native resources which were richl)- distributed in their country, and creating those institutional forms out of which great monarchies, rivaling those of the valley of the Euphrates and the Nile, were to spring and flourish. It is probable that the westward prog- ress of the Aryan race was considerably Reasons for the dclavcd bv its course stf^rs'ofHei- through Asia Minor. The lenic migration, richness of the Country in resources, the fertility of the soil, the abundance of the forests which prevailed in prehistoric times, the acceptability of the climate, and the general beauty of the landscape invited to residence; and here the migratory and adventurous spirit would be checked. It was only after the penin.sula began to be well filled with the immigrant race, when the nations began to contend and displace each other by conquest, that the old migratory impulse revived and progress toward the west was continued. These circumstances may accoimt for the fact of t/w different streams of migration which appear to have discharged their volume into the Hellenic peninsula. With the resumption of the movement to the west from the shores of Lydia we Race progress have the picturcsque epi- c^Tiades*toto sode of a race crossing the HeUas. M^&^xi by means of the archipelago. The Cyclades are gener- ally within easy sail the one of the other, and the pas.sage of a primitive people would be easy. The gradual spread of Phrygian and Lydian adven- turers into these waters presents an aspect of dispersion quite as unique as it is poetical. Some ethnographers main- tain that the incoming of the Hellenic race into Hellas Proper was by means of this island progress across the .^gean, while others hold that the true Hellenes dropped into Greece from the north, out of Thrace, whither they had drifted out of Lesser Phrygia, across the Helles- pont. Perhaps the truer view would be to ascribe the Hellenic peoples to both of these origins. Several principal migra- kinds of evidence V^^^^ "ZYyT^^l. unmistakably to the con- and Thessaiy. elusion that the Hellenes were out of Phrygia. The Greeks themselves, though many of them held to the m3-th- ological opinion of an earth-born, or autochthonic, origin, recited the legend of a northern descent, and it is almost certain that a majority of the incoming tribes descended out of Thrace through Thessaiy, where they had found a foot- ing and partial development, after their migration from Asia. But that the general progress of the Aryan peoples was continued out of Asia Minor acro.ss the iEgean archipelago into the main- land, thus making the two streams con- fluent in the Hellenic peninsula, can hardly be doubted. Great was the restlessness of the early races in Greece. They were, perhaps, the mo.st turbulent tribes of Ethnic restless- whom history has made ^^X^^^an- a record. Ages elapsed ing of the name, before permanence of settlement was at- tained. They were ages of myth and adventure. The gods were mixed with the men, and the Titans stood between. It now appears that the older name of the i^eople was in their own language Graikoi, a term which the immigrants had evidently applied to themselves with a view to distinction from more barbarous peoples. The word Graikoi, which subsequently, in the Latin form of Graeci, became the designative of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 489 Hellenic race among all peoples, signi- fied old, or honorable. It was thus very nearly equivalent to the Latin senator. Aristotle declares that ancient Hellas was the country about Dodona and Achelous. "Here," he adds, "lived the Selloi and the people then called the Graikoi, afterwards the Hellenes." Thus itself the elements which were after- wards to be distributed in Italy and to become the germs of the The Greek mu gration con- Italic, or Latin, race. The tainedthepo- . , r ii • tencyofthe exact shape oi the mi- naiican. gration in this respect is, of course, un- known. It is sufficient to allege that the migratory wave out of Asia carried m^W"""^ ROUTE OF THE GREEK ARYANS INTO HELLAS.— Pass of Kalabaka, Thessaly. -Drawn by Taylor, from a photograph. m^^^pa^«ii^iiiffi it appears that the Greeks, in course of time, rejected the older national name and substituted Hellenes as the title by which they would be known among the nations. We may here pause to anticipate what will appear in a subsequent part of the present chapter ; that is, that this Greek, or Hellenic, volume of tribal life flow- ing into Hellas contained along with M.— Vol. 1—32 the potency of both the Greek and Latin peoples. The uncertaint}^ is as to which foreran the other. It is possible that tho.se tribes which were destined to plant themselves in Italy were the van- guard of the whole movement. Again, it is possible that the Celts of the ex- treme west went before the Latins, but the likelihood is that the Celtic stem was bent ai'ound from the north of Eu- 490 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. rope and did not cross by way of the peninsulas. It is possible also that the prehistoric Greek and Latin stocks held together as far west as the Hellenic peninsula, from which point the Latin branch continued its course to the west. It is sufficient to know that the name Graeco-Italic, designating the whole stock, is appropriate as descriptive of its ethnic character, until the two peoples were differentiated and distributed into their respective countries. Students of language have been curi- ous to inquire into the relative antiquity of the two races as determined by their Linguistic hints respective dialects. It is Grleks'orRo"*^ » remarkable fact that the mans. evidence points both zcaj's. There are parts of the Greek grammar and vocabulary which are manifestly older than the corresponding parts in Latin, and*, on the other hand, there are Latin constructions and words which are just as clearly of a higher antiquity than those of Greek. Thus the preservation of the ablative case in Latin points to the retention of a form of grammar which had died out of the more recent grammar of the Greeks. Siimiis, the first person, plural, of the verb to be, is much more nearly identical with the Sanskrit asamas than is the correspond- ing csinbn of Greek ; that is, csiitbn is the more recent grammatical inflection. On the other hand, the retention in Greek of the dual number in nouns and of the middle voice in verbs indicates an older grammatical structure than that exhib- ited in Latin grammar, where no such nominal and verbal inflections exist. Likewise, the much more complete evo- lution of the Greek verb, considered in its entirety, and of the adjective, with its one hundred and thirty-five inflec- tional blossoms, shows a closer alliance with the full tables of the older Sanskrit than the narrower and later forms of Latin. There is, however, nothing really paradoxical in thisseeminglj' con- tradictory testimony of language as to the relative age of the two races ; for it is easy to perceive that in some respects the Greek tongue might preserve the older forms, while in other peculiarities Latin would retain the ancient stntcture and vocabulary less impaired by time and migration than in the corresponding linguistic development of the Hellenes. Early in the mythical age, the incom- ing tribes superimposing themselves upon the Pelasgian peoples already in the peninsula, tem of ancestral ceased to designate their ^^ ° °^^' race as Graik, and took up a sort of ancestral mythology, which they ever afterwards zealously disseminated. The story ran thus: The ancestor of their race was the immigrant hero Hellen. He was the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. He led his tribe into Hellas after the Deluge. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, ^olus, and Xuthus. Dorus became the founder of one race and xEolus of another, while the two sons of Xuthus, Ion and Achaeus — like Ephraim and Manassah, sons of Joseph, in the Hebrew scheme — rose to equal rank with their uncles, Dorus and ^olus, and became the heads of the lonians and Achseans. It will be noticed in this table of family dispersion that the name Ion reappears, recalling the Hebrew Javan and also the Hindu name Javanas, which occurs in the Lazvs of Menu, and is thought to designate the lonians. This legendary account of the origin of the principal Greek races was accepted by the credulous Hellenes as an ample and final ex- planation of their origin and diversities of national development. Historically considered, the Hellenes present two great branches of race DISTRIBUTIOX OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 491 evolution : the one Dorian, and tlie other Ionian. These two are separated from each other b}' such marked Place and char- acteristics of characteristics as to distm- the Cohans. • i ii. • n i guish them m all epochs of Greek history. The -i^olian tribes do not appear to have diverged greatly from the common ancestral type. The term ^^solian may well be regarded as discriminative of a number of partly developed Greek peoples dwelling in the northern part of Hellas, particularly in the plains of Thessaly. With the jostling of the other races from their original seats, however, the ^^^^olians became more distinct as a people. When the Dorians possessed themselves of the Peloponnesus, the >45olians passed over to the northwest coast of Asia Elinor and established there a confederation of cities under the name of ^^olis. They also populated the Lslands of Lesbos and Tenedos, from which insular .seats the ^olic dialect of Greek spread into other regions, and left beh,ind some scanty specimens in Hellenic literature. The ^olian was the least important development of the Hellenic race. The Dorians were far more powerful and famous. Their native seats Evolution and race character in the peninsula appear of the Dorians. . , , , , . , to have been between the ranges of Olympus and Ossa. At one period they invaded ilacedonia and took possession of a part of the country, but were afterwards expelled. They established themselves in the island of Crete, and made the little state of Doris the .seat of their power until the so- called " return of the Heraclidae " carried them into Peloponnesus. Here thev became predominant, and were the virtuaJt founders of the powerful states of Sparta, Argos, and Messenia. It was from this epoch in their de- velopment that the Dorians became so strongly discriminated in their character from the other Hellenes. They became austere, rough in manners, and laconic in speech, to the extent of transmitting their name to all after times as a synonym for the peculiarly selfish, stoical, and in- different character which they presented in their own age. Even the architecture which they cultivated retained unmis- \0t^jA MODERN' ACH.IiAN TYPE — ODYSSE. Drawn by E. Ronjat, from a photograph, takable traces of the simplicity and severity of the Doric race, and the same may be said of that variety of Greek which they spoke, and out of which the dramatists, especially the tragedians, of the literary age were prone to draw those archaic and rude forms of versi- fication peculiar to the Greek tragical chorus. Ancient Ionia was on the coa-st of Asia Minor, between the rivers Hermus and 492 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Mseander. Chios and Situation of Ionia; the Do- decapolis. The adjacent islands of Samos were inckidod with this dependency, llow far the lonians, or Javanites, had been distributed along this shore before their migration into European Greece can not be stated with certainty. The country above defined was determined in its limit after the return of the lonians, in later times, and their resettlement in the region of their ancient home. Here it was that they founded the Ionian confederacy of twelve states or cities called the Dodecapolis. tions of the Achaeans among the Greeks. It remains to note the geographical situation of the Achseans. It is believed that in the heroic age ^MyceUcX', Argos, and Sparta were peopled Rank and reia- by tribes of Achaean de- scent. This race also ex- tended into Thessaly. Indeed, the latter country is thought by ethnog- raphers to have been their original seat, whence they migrated into Pelo- ponnesus. The importance of this branch of the Greek race was greatly lessened in the time of the Hellenic ascendency. In the Homeric age the UOUTE OF THE GR.KCO-ITALICANS.— Sebemco, ox the Dalmatian CoAsr.-Drawn by Charles W. Wyllic Many of the most important maritime towns of the fifth, fourth, and third centuries B. C. were included in the list. Here were Miletus and Ephesus, Clazom- enae and Phocsea. The city of Smyrna was transplanted, about 700 B. C., from the ^olic to the Ionian confederation. In course of time this assemblage of important communities became subject to Lydia, and after the overthrow of Croesus they were annexed to the Per- sian empire by Cyrus. Ionia furnished the field of broken faith and conflicting interests from which began the great struggle for the subjugation of Greece by the Persian kings. leadership of the Achaean s was con- stantly recognized, and in the Iliad their name is many times employed as a synonym for the whole Greek host engaged in the Trojan War. They appear, however, to have been lacking in the elements of intellectual greatness. In the later epochs of Greek history the term Achaean sank from its old heroic sense into a name of contempt. But it is of interest to note that, geographically at least, the relative importance of the race was acknowledged by the Romans, who, on their conquest of Greece, gave the name of Acliaia to the whole prov- ince. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 493 Such is the outline of the distribution of the early Aryan tribes in Hellas. The eeopfraphical relations be- Easy ethnic re- '^ ° -^ . lations of Greece tween that peninsula and and Italy. j^.^^^ ^^^^^^ always easy. The Adriatic is, even in its widest part, a narrow body, easily crossed from shore to shore. The course out of Epirus around the coast into Upper Italy is crossed with no barriers and attended with no dififictilty. It can not be known bv which of these routes the primitive peoples of Italy were distributed to their several tribal localities in the West, prob- ably by both. It is safe to assume that a race which had made its way from beyond the Caspian, passing centuries en route in a contest with the forces of nature and crossing from island to island in more remote ages, would easily navi- gate the Adriatic. And this is the more likely highway of the prehistoric Ital- icans. According to our best information there were four principal groups of peo- ples in primitive Italy. On the south w^e find the lapygians, or Q^notrians, with their several branching tribes, occupying first the peninsular projection next to Greece, and afterwards the Place of the lapygians ; races whole COUntty acroSS tO the of the north. ,^ , . r^ iyrrhenian sea. home ethnographers have concluded that these southern peoples were not of Aryan de- scent, and it is possible that the Hamitic lines which we have agreed to carry into Italy distributed .some branches in the southern parts as well as in Etruria. Upper Italy was occupied on the east by Gaulish, that is, Celtic, tribes, of which the Lingones and Insubres constituted the chief. On the west, as we have al- ready seen, were the Etruscans, who were clearly a foreign' race, differing radically in language and development from the other Italic peoples. The greatest group of primitive tribes belonged to Central Italy and were nearly allied in ethnic descent. Distribution of Of these peoples there the umtro-sa- c J ■ . • . ^1 belliau tribes. were five distinct stocks, namely, the Umbrians, the Sabines, the Latins, the Volscians, and the Sabellians, commonly called Oscans, with their two branches 'of Samnites and Campanians. This scheme covers in general the popu- lations which were distributed in the country stretching across from the Cen- tral Adriatic to the western shores of Italy. The first of these nations, called Um- brians, had their original seats on the Adriatic, between the Rubicon and the ^sis. The western boundary was the Apennine range and the Tiber. It is likely that in early times their territories were still more extensive. But before the rise of the Roman gens the Umbri- ans had already declined, and were easily subordinated by the dominant people. The territory of the Sabines lay close to Latium, and they and the Latins had in- timate relations from the earliest times. The Sabine district was rugged in physi- cal features and inclement in climate, and the opportunities of development w^ere much less favorable than those of the people on the west. The origin of the Latins is involved in inextricable myths. Poets and fable- makers of republican and , , , ,, ^ Myth and tradi- imperial Rome elaborated tion of the prim- and inflected the legendary lore which they had received from antiq- uity until it resembled the Greek fables in complexity and contradiction. One myth assigned to the Latins a Pela.sgic origin, in common with the Pelopon- nesian Greeks and the Etruscans. More famous was the tradition of a descent from the heroic families of Troy. A more obscure legend assigned the moun- I-AND OF THE ANCIENT LIGURIANS -Massa. near Carrara -Drawn by J. Fulleylove DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—IVEST ARYAN MIGRA TIONS. 495 tainous parts of Central Italy as the native seat from which the founders of Latium had descended into the low countries of the west. There was an attempt in all this to bring in, after the Greek fashion, the agency of the gods, and to make it appear that the Latins were of divine origin and fatherhood. It is sufficient to recognize the kinship of these peoples with the other races associated with them in historical development in Cen- tral Italy. The Volscians were prominent among the prehistoric peoples of the peninsula. They had for their neighbors the Sabel- Scantyknowi- lians, or Oscans. Their tZfX^°'' ^o«^« ^^-^s i° the forbid- situation. ding mountain district with which their name is geographically asso- ciated. At the beginning of authentic history they had ceased to be a separate people, and the remains of the race are scanty and imperfect. It may be said, however, that their isolated situation in the mountains tended to preserve their dialect from the mutations to which the languages of the neighboring tribes were subjected. In the earliest times the Oscans pos- sessed the largest territory in Central Predominance Italy. Their couutry ex- tended well to the south, and this wide region they continued to dominate until Rome be- gan by conquest to become mistress of Italy. Of the various Oscan peoples, the Samnites were the most powerful tribe, though the Campanians, Luca- nians, and Bruttians were all impor- tant peoples before the' ascendency of Rome. If we glance to Northern Italy, we find three peoples of different ethnic de- scent in that region. The Gauls proper occupied the great plains in the valley of ^he Po and its tributaries. Their coun- of the Oscans ; the Italian Gauls. try extended from the Alps to the Apen- nines and the Adriatic. It was com- monly conceded that their immigration into Italy had been of a later date than that which must be assigned for the coming of the central nations. The principal divisions of the Gaulish race were the Insubres and the Senomani on the north of the Po, and the Boii and the Lingones on the south of that river. The second general division of the peoples of Upper Italy were the Veneti, whose countr}' covered the whole head of the Adriatic vationof the from Istria on the east to the valley of the Po in the west. Cor- responding with what is now the south- em part of Piedmont lay the territory of the Ligurians, of whose origin not much is known. They came into the country, however, before the Gauls, and were doiibtlcss allied in their race descent with the peoples of Cen- tral Italy. Such in general was the tribal distribution of those primitive races which in process of time were consoli- dated under the leadership of the Latins, and ultimately forged into the most pow- erful nationality of the ancient world. It appears tolerably conclusive that the Graeco-Italic migration reached its limit with the Alps on the north Limits of the and Liguria on the west. Graeco-itauo Other Aryan tribes in ™'^'"^ '°'^' course of time found their way through the Alpine passes, and penetrated the civilizations established by their kins- men in the south of Europe. But the Italic race proper was stayed with Italy. We therefore return to the East and again take our stand in the region of the transcaucasus. Here, on the northern slopes of the Armenian mountains, we find the Aryan dispersion pressing bold- ly to the north. In the country between the Caspian 496 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and the eastern shore of the Black sea at least two ethnic departures were made from the main branch of migration. The Origin and first of these was to the right North Aryan "^ '^^^^ ^'"^ o^ progress, and distribution. contributed thfe Ossetes and perhaps one or two other stocks of Indo- Europeans on the western borders of the Caspian. The other division seems to have been maritime in its plan, to have entered the Black sea, and to have car- ried itself in the direction of the Bos- phorus. It is not unlikely that the ancient Phrj-gians, especially that part of the race inhabiting the Black sea coast, were contributed by this deflected move- ment out of Upper Armenia. By the course of the line we are now pursuing we are unexpectedly bi'ought into proximity with that country in Asia Ethnic move- Minor which received the rS""''' final migratory impulse of reached Gaiatia. the Celtic race. Though we have not yet reached the point in ethnic dispersion from which that race took its departure from the main northwestern stem of Aryan progression, we may well anticipate sufficiently to account for the presence in Asia Minor, on the southern borders of Bithynia and Paphlygonia, of a country peopled by Celts. This is the province of Gaiatia. The population of this country was contributed by the bend- ing back of the Celtic race from its Avest- ern limits of migration in the remote parts of Europe. The movement in question presents one of the strangest aspects of race progress. It is that of an ethnic line carried backward from the lower parts of Spain, in the old country of the Iberians, around the northern coasts of the Mediterranean, across Upper Italy, and down through the valley of the Dan- ube to the Bosphorus. The latter part of this movement took place in the his- torical era. In the third century B. C. the Gallic people crossed over into Asia Minor and conquered the province to which they gave their own name. This invading migration was carried forward by three principal tribes and twelve tetrarchies, each directed by a chief, after the Celtic manner of warfare. It is instructive to reflect, while we here have our stand on the highlands of Phrygia or Pontus, that we are able to observe, as with a field glass, the north- ward movement of the old Aryan stock on the eastern borders of the Black sea, while, on the other hand, we can look down into Gaiatia, which was the ter- minus, after perhaps two thousand years, of one branch of the great migra- tion. If then, for a moment, we anticipate the departure of the Celts from the main Aryan stem, which we are now tracing, to the north, we shall find the point of depar- same to have occurred about ^"eitiStrsion the valley of the Upper in Europe. Dnieper. From this point the migra- tory impulse bore off alinost due west, across the larger part of Europe. It traversed Germany, and crossed the Rhine in general conformity with the coast line of the Baltic. It is probable that by this first movement to the west no races were deposited in anything like permanence until the stream was dis- persed in Gaul. If we seek for time rela- tions in this great movement we are at fault, but the period of the Celtic migra- tion could hardly have been less than two thousand years B. C. It would appear from the invasion of Gaul and Britain by the Romans, in the first century B. C, that the complete derei- Celtic race had already °P---ltnd been long established in Britain, those regions, and that it had matured its institutional forms without disturb- ance. This is especially true of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 497 western parts of Gaul and of Britain, where the completeness of the druidical ceremonial and perfect condition of tribal government indicated a long- oc- cupation of the country. Ethnographers have not attempted to decide with cer- tainty the priority of the respective movements by %_ which the British Isles received their primitive Celtic population and Central Italy passed under the dominion of Grasco - Italic im- migrants. In the begin- nings of authentic history the Celts had already trav- ersed Northern Europe, and had left traces of their progress in the east and actual tribes in the west. It was from this source that the Gauls (C e 1 1 ae) , whom Caesar de- clares to have been divided into three races of Galli, Aqiritani, and Belgas, were dis- tributed. In all of Europe west of the Rhine the Celtic Wide distribu- race became predominant, almost to the exclusion of other people. If we ex- cept the Basques and Iberians, it may be said that the whole country between the Rhine and the Atlantic was Celtic as to its primitive population. In the preceding book we have already pointed out the fact that prehistoric races occupied this part of The Celtic races Europe before the Aryan on^aborigi°n^'^ migration. What the con- barbarians, dition of the aborigines was at the time tion of the Celts throughout the West. THE CELTIC VANGUARD, OF THE AGE OF BRONZE. Drawn by Emile Hayard. of the incoming of the Celts we are left to determine by conjecture. We have seen the extreme barbarity which character- ized the aboriginal life of the cave dwellers and other savages to whom primeval Europe seems to have belonged. Upon these rude races the Celtic tribes were superimposed, and the foundations 498 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. were laid of that condition which we perceive when the expanding power of Rome brought her legions into Gaulish territory. As the Celtic race continued its way to the south, several streams of migration put off laterally to the coast. The most Ramifications of important of these crossed the Celtic stock ^j channel into Britain, in the British ' Isles. where it again divided, one branch being carried over into Ireland, and the other penetrating the Highlands of Scotland. An examination of the Celtic languages has enabled the modern ethnographer to determine with toler- OI.nF.ST CELTIC TYPES. From the Gaulish bas-reliefs found at Entremont, ne.ir Aix. able certainty the original distribution of the race in the British islands. There were two general Celtic stocks. The first of these was the Gadhelic, or Gaelic, branch, which was divided into three departures : the Irish stem proper, called the Erse, the Scottish Gael, and the Manx. These linguistic divisions point unmistakably to the tribal separation of the Gael of the Highlands, the Irish folk, and the inhabitants of the Isle of Man. The second stem presents the British division proper of Celtic. This also parted into three : the first of which was the Kymrasg, softened into Cymric, meaning the original speech of the Welsh ; the second was the Cornish ; and the third the Armorican, being the language of Bretagne. We thus note the dispersion of the Celts in our ancestral islands, and dis- cover the parts of the COUn- Bending back of try appropriated by the ^^ifeXc^lr several tribes. Meanwhile, beginning. far down in Spain the main continental stream of Celtic migration was bent backwards, as we have seen above, through the greater part of Southern Europe, making its way finally to the valley of the Danube and thence to the Bosphorus. From this point migration and warfare carried the race, as has been said, into Galatia, thus bringing it in its final distribution to a point so near to the original Aryan movement east of the Black sea that the old departure of the race to the northwest and its last distribu- tion in Galatia after thousands of years of wandering might almost be seen with a field glass in the hands of the observer from the highlands of Eastern Pontus! In resuming the consideration of the movement of the great northwestern branch of the Aryan race, Question of the •' race connection making its way between of Teutons and the Black .sea and the Cas- ered. pian, from the tran.scaucasus toward the Don, we are confronted by another of the disputed questions in ethnogra- phy. This relates to the independent or dependent origin of the Slavic peo- ples in their relations with the great Teutonic family. Were the Slavs and Germans involved originally in a com- mon movement out of Asia? Were they still a common people in their progress from their Asiatic origin to their European dominions ? If so, where and when did they part com- pany in linguistic and institutional de- velopment ? Which is the older of the two races ? Which, if either, is derived DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRA TIONS. 499 from the other ? Was the migration common to both, or were there iivo mi- grations, one Slavonic and the other Teutonic ? These problems have been variously solved by different ethnogra- phers, and the whole ground has been hotly contested since the question of race distribution assumed its present scientific aspect. On the whole, it appears that the movement was common which carried Branches and these twO raCCS OUt of rlT^^lfol" Asia into Europe. It may stem. be safely alleged that the Teutonic and Slavonic peoples held to- gether on their way to the north and far into the heart of Great Russia. It would be proper to call the whole line of prog- ress from the Caucasus to the north, well itp to the northern borders of the Russian empire, thence westward and southward to the borders of Poland, the Slavo- Teutonic stem. It certainly carried the volume of both races, both languages, both varieties of institutional forms. Above the sea of Azof, on the left as the migratory progress continued, a branch was thrown off into Sarmatia, from which that division of the modern Slavs, called Little Russians, have sprung. But the main line continued northward in the direction of the sub- sequent site of Moscow, and afterwards toward the gulf of Riga, on the Baltic. It was, however, to the south of the gulf of Finland, and perhaps nearly midway between that water and the northern bend of the Black sea that the final separation took place between the Germanic and the Slavonic races. In the meantime, a branch had been thrown off northward toward that collection of inland waters extending from the White sea to lake Ladoga, and another divi- sion to the west, into the country of the Letts. If, then, we take our stand on the head -waters of the Dnieper, we shall not be far from the ethnic division on which was based the subse- point of division quent separation of the ofthf two races; T- -^ the Russian Slavonic and Teutonic peo- family. pies. The two stocks were both char- acterized for extreme fecunditj' and' power of development. There are at the present time within the limits of European Russia and Poland about sev- enty-five million of people of Aryan descent. These may be divided into Russians proper, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs, and Serbs, all of which are Slavonic in their ethnic origin. The Russians are subdivided into Great Russians, Little Russians, and White Russians. The Letto-Lithua- nian peoples are divided into Lithua- nians proper, Zhmuds, and Letts, with a total of over three million. This is the summary of populations which have sprung in modern times from the sin- gle ethnic stem called Letto-Slavonic. The Great Russians themselves number forty-two million, and the Little Rus- sians more than seventeen million. Besides the above peoples, the Grseco- Roman population in Russia numbers considerably over a million, Avhile the Germans, in admixture with the Arme- nians, Georgians, and Tsigans are repre- sented by considerable communities. Geographically, the Great Russians are grouped in the states and provinces around Moscow, extending Distribution of northward to Novgorod and "^l f^fwhite Vologda, southward to Russians. Kiev, eastward to Penza and ^'yatka, westward to the Baltic provinces and the borders of Poland. The Little Rus- sians are distributed chiefly in Galicia and Bukovina. In general, they belong to the southern parts of Russia, next to the Caucasus. The White Russians are 500 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. distributed throughout the western gov- ernments of the empire. The Bulgari- ans inhabit Bulgaria Proper, Eastern Roumelia, and Roumania, and are scat- tered into Austria, Russia, and Mace- donia. The other ethnic divisions are dispersed into the countries to which they have given their respective names — Servia, Lithuania, Croatia, etc. Second only in importance as to num- bers and first in importance in civiliz- Dispersion of ing energy are the Teutonic the Germans; races which issued in com- three branches of the race. mon with the peoples de- scribed above from the Slavo-Germanic stem. A glance at the map will .show that Europe is divided from southeast to northwest by the two great rivers Dan- ube and Rhine, whose waters issue from the same upland region, in the central part of the continent. It was on the right bank of the Rhine, extending down to the Baltic from the great cen- tral region, that the Germanic nations were first distributed. As the left bank of that river and hitherward to the Avest- ern parts of Europe belonged roughly to the Celtic race, so the right bank east- ward to the Vistula was Germania. Into this great region was extended and dispersed the Teutonic stream of immigration. Roughly speaking, the whole Teutonic stock was parted into three divisions, which correspond rough- ly with the modern linguistic distinc- tions of High German, Lo\v German, and Scandinavian. In prehistoric times, however, one of the fir.st distinct de- partures of the primitive stock was that which carried down the great race of the Goths into the valley of the Danube. They issued from the southern portion of the Baltic region, and appeared on the scene of their sub.sequent activities during the fourth centurj^ B. C. The family known as Gothic has been somewhat unscientifically divided into the Vandals, the Heruli, the Rugii, the Gepidse, the Alani, the '■ . Analysis and Suevi, the Longobards, the distribution of T-, f 1 ii the Goths. Burgundians, and the Franks. On their arrival on the Lower Danube the Gothic race began to di- vide into the two major families of Os- trogoths and Visigoths, meaning the Eastern and Western Goths. The for- mer had a habitation originally in South- ern Russia, between the Dniester and the Don, while the latter held their terri- tories from the Lower Danube to the Carpathian mountains. In course of time the Goths were pressed on their eastern frontiers by various invasions, until they were aggregated and heaped up on the left bank of the Danube, whence they ultimately burst into the Roman empire. After this event, as is well known, the Ostrogoths found an ul- timate lodgment in Italy, while the Vis- igoths continued their progress into the vSpanish peninsula and became a sub- stratum of population in the modem ethnic development of that peninsula. The Franks appeared as an aggrega- tion of Teutonic tribes on the Lower Rhine as early as the middle of the third centurv B. C. At the first Franks people they were confined to the '^;^:r^^,, right bank of the river, distribution, but in course of time passed over and began their settlements in the northern part of Gaul. They were ultimately divided into two families, known as the Salian Franks and the Ripuarians. It was the former division of the race that was thrown by impact on Gaul, and that was established within the limits of that country as a barbarian empire under Clovis and his successors. The Ripua- rians spread southward and occupied first the right and afterwards the left bank of the Rhine, whence they carried their DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAX MIGRATIONS. 501 incursions on the west to the Meuse and on the east to the Main. It was from the Ripuarian Franks that the Teutonic state called Franconia took its name. The Salians constituted one of the ethnic elements in the -^^- ^^ -ir" "~ formation of the French people. It will prove of interest to note only the ultimate distribution of the other branches of the Teutonic stock. The Vandals were essentially of this race, but had taken into their constitu- tion Slavonic and Celtic elements. They belonged to the general divi- sion of Goths. One of their oldest seats was in the Riesen- Gebirge. After- wards they occu- pied Pannonia and Dacia. In the fifth century of our era they played an im- portant part in the overthrow of the Roman empire. In the Spanish penin- sula they founded the state of x\nda- lusia. Under Gen- seric they crossed into Africa, and there developed their gi-eatest .strength and nationalit}'. The Heruli were the earliest of the German races to make their way into Italy. There they established themselves under their great leader Odoacer, and the Herulian kingdom was the first bar- barian empire created within the limits of the home government of Rome. The Gepidas were likewise of Gothic extrac- tion. Historically, they are first known THE PRANKISH VANGVARD. Drawn by Emile Bayard. to US in the third century B. C, in their territories on the Baltic. They also came into Pannonia, and were interposed for a while between the O.strogothic and Visigothic divisions of the race. They 502 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. were joined to the armies of Attila, and were subsequently successful in gaining a province for themselves, Movements of . , theHeruiiand on the Lower 1 hciss ana theGepid». Danube. Here they were finally overrun by the Longobards and the Avars, with whom the remnants of the race were amalgamated. One of the most powerful of the Ger- man migratory tribes was the Siicvi. Their territories lay between the Rhine and the Weser. In their Progress of the Suevi ; the Lon- progress and development gobards in Italy. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ southward aS far as the Upper Danube. On the north they reached the coasts of the Baltic. It was with the Suevians that Ctesar had one of his hardest contests in his struggle for dominion north of the Alps. The Longobards, commonly called Lom- bards, were nearly related to the Suevic branch of the German race. From their seats in the valley of the Elbe they made their way into Italy, within the historical period, overthrew the Heru- lian monarchy, and established one of their own on the ruins of the empire. In later times they contributed their name to the modern state of Lombardy in Italy, and it is likely that their ethnic influence entered more largely into the formation of the northern Italian race than did the qualities of any other bar- barian people. The Burgundians were a branch of the Gothic family, and first established Ethnic place and themselves in Europe, in vicissitudes of .1 , -i. .1 theBurgun- ^hc couutry between the dians. • Oder and the Vistula. The Gepidse drove them from their seats, and they sought refuge in the territory lying between the Main and Neckar. Here they were combined in common enter- prises with the .Suevi and Alani and the yandals in their wars with the remain- ing powers of Rome. Afterwards they struggled with the Franks, by whom they were restricted to the province bearing their name. Such, in brief, was the European distribution of the prin- cipal barbarian nations of the Gothic stock. Meanwhile, another division of the Teutonic race had made its way along the shores of the Baltic, outspread of and in Jutland, Friesland, ^^^^^^.^he Angleland, and in Hollow- Norse. land had possessed themselves of the country and begun the formation of in- stitutions. This is the so-called Low Germanic branch of the Aryan family. The tribal ramiiication in these lowlands was extraordinary. It Avas from this re- gion that the Angles and Saxons and Jutes took their rise, and, in the fifth century, carried their battle-axes and spears into the forests of Britain. From the southern coast line of the North sea the race next made its way into Scandinavia. Two branches of mi- gration sprang from this region, one penetrating the great peninsula of Nor- way and Sweden, and the other making its way by water to Iceland. It was in the latter island that the Norse, or Scan- dinavian, race presented, and does until the present exhibit, the purest aspect of Scandinavian life and manners. There have always been such intimate race re- lations between the southern and north- ern shores of the Baltic that the Low Germans inhabiting the two countries have intermingled almost to the extinc- tion of ethnic differences. But in Ice- land the old Norse, or Scandinavian, stock has been allowed to develop accord- ing to its own laws into an independent race character. Such, then, was the distribution of the great Teutonic and .Slavonic races in the northern parts of Europe. It will be of interest to note the extent of the complete DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 503 dispersion of the Aryan family of men. On the east the Indie branch of the race reached the meridian of Extent of the dispersion of the nmety degrees east from Aryan famny. Q^eenwich. On the west the extreme limit of the primary Indo- European development was in Iceland and Ireland, under the meridian of ten tively. In the latter country the race was dispersed as far south as Beluchistan, and in the former to the bay of Bengal, in latitude twenty degrees north. But turning to the westward branches of the Indo-Europeans, we find them invaria- bly bending to the north. Perhaps the only exception to this general law was NORTHERN' LIMIT OF THE ARYAN' UlSrERSION.— View in Uiper NoRWAV.-Drawn by .Mirbach, from .1 photograph. degrees west, making a complete diver- gence east and west of one hundred de- grees of longitude. It was a peculiarity of the Aryan race General and ex- never to be deflected to the ceptional move- ^j^ ^|^^ j^. -j^ -^j. ^.gg^. ments 01 the ' ' Aryans. ward movements. The In- dican and Iranian branches of the famil}- dropped into India and Per.sia re.spec- in the ca.se of the Celts, who, from their somewhat northern range in Germany, turned to the southwest across the Rhine into Gaul, and thence continued their course in the same direction as far as the country of the Basques and Iberians in Spain. The northernmost limit of the whole movement was reached in the upper parts 504 GREAT RACES OF ^fAXKlXn. of Norway and Sweden, about the parallel of seventy degrees north. The migra- tion thus, in its entirety, Extent and , , , boundaries of presents a band very nearly the Aryan belt, ^.^j^cident with the north temperate zone. The belt is forty-five degrees in width, reaching a little above and extending a little below the limits of the zone referred to. The next conspicu- ous feature of this great distribution is the fact that it is essentially European. The exceptions within the borders of that continent of peoples derived from any other than x\ryan stock are so few and insignificant as to be neglected with- out hurt to the general scheme. Europe is An,-an, and the Western Aryans are Europeans. It is, of course, not the purpose to extend the lines of race movement by Only conscious tracing out the continental be^LTstdlredin colonization and develop- migration. meut of the two Americas by people of Indo-European blood, or to note the world-wide colonization which has been effected within the last two or three centuries by people of the same race. These secondary movements, if developed in this connection, would con- fuse the concept of the original or natural distribution of mankind in the prehistoric ages. There is a sense in which men have moved from place to place on the surface of the earth uncon- sciously. That is, the movement has been accomplished while the race was still in the unconsciousness of childhood. There is another sense in which civiliza- tion has consciously carried forward the .work of peopling the earth. All the latter movements are of record in the open annals of authentic history, and with such development and expansion the ethnographer has not much to do. His work is primarily with those prehistoric movements in which the races of men were distributed, under the influence of in.stinct and environment, to their destination in different quarters of the earth. At this point, then, we touch the limit of the primeval excursions and settlements of the Ruddy races of man- kind. To these races we General view of have given the general eth- J^^ ^y '- °* nic name of Noachites, but races. have chosen to define them more scien- tifically by the term Ruddy, as indica- tive of their color. We have now traced out the dispersion of the three families to which ethnography has assigned the popular and traditional names of Ham- ites, Semites, and Japhethites. We have seen the first dropping southward into a form of geographical development very similar to that which the Japheth- ites, or Aryans, have exhibited in the north. The whole scheme of migratory dispersion resembles the two sides of a leaf, having its stem between the Cas- pian and the Persian gulf, its point in the Atlantic west of the Pillars of Hercules, its left-hand side in Arabia and Africa, and its right division in Europe. The central lines of this leaf correspond in general with the move- ments of the Semitic races to the west. The right-hand lines are those of the Aryans, and the left-hand departures those of the Hamites. The limits of the present chapter are reached when we have marked out the migratory movements by which they were distributed into their re- spective countries. It now remains to take up another general division of mankind, and to note in like manner the course which the Brown races have pursued on their way to their destina- tion in the great arena of Asia, in the islands of the Pacific, and ultimately in the two Americas. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 505 Chapter XXIX.— Dispersion oe the Brown Races. F it were not for the Black races of man- kind distributed in Equatorial and South- ern Africa, in Aus- tralia, and Melanesia, the primitive seat of the human family might perhaps be dis- covered. If the observer should take his stand upon the mountains of West- ern Afghanistan, he would not be far from such a crossing and divergence of ethnic lines as might indicate the original center from which the human race was Common source distributed into all quarters of Ruddy and f ^j^ jrlobc. This is tO Brown races & may be found. gay that in the country be- tween the Afghan borders and Beluchis- tan the Brown races of men, as well as the Ruddy races, seem to take their rise. All the Mongoloid varieties of mankind can be traced back to this geographical center, and we have already seen that the Noachite, or Ruddy, race had its origin somewhere in the same region. It will not do, however, to press these indications too far. The Dravidian peo- Dravidians ap. ples, also brown as to their rs^ara^runr color, had a departure of departure. somewhat further south, on the coast, between the mouth of the Indus and the Persian gulf. In fact, the origin of this branch of the human fam- ily appears to have been nearly coinci- dent with what may be supposed to have been the seat of the pre-Noachites. But a greater obstacle in the way of deter- mining an ethnic center for all the divi- sions of mankind is encountered in the case of the Black races, who seem not to have originated from this region at all. M. — Vol. I — 33 Some ethnographers, going beyond the limits of determined fact, have at- tempted to find the origin Hypothesis of of the Brown races in the tT^iZ^e^'"" Indian ocean ; that is, in a mu"a. submerged continent formerly occupying the bottom of that sea. This theory has, no doubt, been put forth with a view to reconciling existing facts with the hy- pothesis of a single origin for the whole human race, and it maybe admitted that such a hypothesis would fairly explain the facts to which it is applied. In the present state of knowledge, however, the line of demarkation between ascertained truth and hypothetical explanation must be strictly observed ; not with a view to the denial of the possible truth in the supposition of a submarine continent un- der the Indian ocean, with its Lemuria, a thing indeed probable; not with a view to the positive assertion of such an opinion as the truth, but simply to main- tain a definite boundary between knowl- edge and conjecture. We must, therefore, content ourselves to note the issuance of the Brown races from Beluchistan, and to trace from that origin the course of the tribal migrations which ensued. It maybe criteria for de- inquired by what right or *^™on'o?' for what reason the eth- migrations, nographer fixes upon such a locality as the point of departure for great races in- habiting distant quarters of the earth, particularly since the movement which has distributed those races to their re- spective countries was prehistoric, and therefore not to be ascertained by the usual methods of proof. It may be well, at this point, to satisfy the reader as to the validity of that course of reasoning 506 GREAT RACES OF MAA'A'/Nn. which leads inevitably to the conclusion of certain race origins and divergencies beyond the borders of authentic history. In the first place, the testimony of language is nearly always available in In what manner carr\'ing the inquirer back- the language , • . i ■ i i, and institutions ward to a point whicii he ?est°r"d.'"'^''' could not Otherwise reach. Suppose, for instance, that all authentic from the minds of men. Would it be possible, under such circumstances, to revive, by means of existing languages, a knowledge of the Latin race, of its in- stitutions, its practices, and, in general, its history ? Undoubtedly such a revival could be easily produced. Take the six modern Roman languages, called Italian, French, ROUTE OF THF. DRAVIDIAN DISPERSION.— Gorge and Fortress of ARDEBnEND.— Drawn by A. de Bar, after a eltetch f>» Blocqueville, knowledge of the great political power called Rome was obliterated from the annals of mankind. Suppose that every book in which a trace of the Latin lan- giaage and literature is recorded were utterly destroyed. Suppose that the memory and tradition of the people t-alled Romans had passed completely Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and Proven9al, and examine their structure and peculiarities. It is found that they have been originally deduced /ro7U sonic coinmon speech having a grammar and vo- cabulary of a determinate form. Out of the study of these six languages that old grammar and vocabulary can be rccon- DISTRIBi'TIOX OF THE RACES.— THE BROIVX DISPERSION. 507 strucicd, and when reconstructed, they are Latin. If Latin, then there was a Latin race that spoke it. If a Latin race, it had its seat- and its institutions. The seat of the race can be discovered geo- graphically by tracing back the lines of departure by which the six nations re- ferred to have reached their respective countries ; and the institutions of Rome can be largely redeveloped by means of tions of a method which may be univer- sally pursued. Wherever two kindred tribes are found on the earth an ex- amination of their language and of their geographical environment will lead, if carefully carried out, to a dis- covery of their common origin, or of the divergence of the one from the other. By this and analogous processes, strictly scientific in their nature and peculiarly LAMi OF THE 1 JRA\ 1 Dl ANS.- the etymological hints and inherent reve- lations of the descendent languages. In like manner we may group togeth- er Latin and Greek and Old High Ger- man, Celtic, Slavic, Persic, and Sanskrit, The whole Ar- and, by means of a similar comparison of these great varieties of speech, can revive the grammar and vocabulary of- the primitive Aryan race lying, in all of its activities, completely below the day- dawn of histoiy. These are but illustra- yan group may be reconstruct- ed likewse. interesting as methods for the increase of human knowledge, the ethnic lines of the prehistoric nations may be traced over continents and across seas until, by their conjunctions, convergencies, and parallelisms, we are able to determine with approximate accuracy the earliest movements of the human race. We will begin the examination of the migrations of the Brown races of men by tracing out the course of the Dravidians, these being the southernmost of the 508 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ethnic divisions which we are to consider. Perhaps they were the oldest. At any Direction and rate, their origin appears character of the ^ ^^ ^^ ^ nearer tO DravidiEin dis- persion, the Indian ocean than was the line of the Asiatic Mongoloids. As already intimated, the point of de- parture between this branch of the hu- man family and the primary stem of the Ruddy races may be fixed in southern Beluchistan. From this region the Dra- vndian migratory movement was toward the east, into the valley of the Indus. It is probable that the place at which the Brown tribes first entered the country was near the junction of the several .streams which, converging from the north, inclo.se the Punjab. From this region the dispersion of the race began, eastward across the uplands of Northern Hindustan and southward into the penin- sula proper. It can not be doubted that from the region here described the great country between the bay of Bengal and the Ara- invading Aryans biau sca received its original TorigTeVo; populations. It will be re- i'"i''^- membered that in the pre- ceding book we had occasion, in speak- ing of the incoming of the Old Aryans into the Punjab and their dispersion hence through Hindustan, to refer to the preoccupation of the country by aborigi- nal tribes. These, then, are the peoples whom the Aryans found and overcame on their entrance into India. It was, perhaps, the first contact of the Ruddy races of the northwest with the Brown peoples of the southeast, since the orig- inal dispersion — if such there were — of the race. No historical record has been preserved of the conquests or other measures by which the Aryans became dominant in India. But there are the best of reasons for believing that the original population was spared by the stronger people, and was absorbed or amalgamated into the Hindu races of after times. Theconquerors One of the principal evi- ?rerb%'cf' ^ deuces of such amalgama- races, tion is found in the color which people of this region of the earth subsequently as- sumed. The modern Hindu is a living witness of some prehistoric change in complexion, in all probability the direct result of the admixture of the primitive Brown races of the peninsula with the dominant Aryan conquerors from the north and west. The fact to which we have just re- ferred of a permanent modification in the color of the skin by the probability that admixture of races, and '^^^H^^,^. the establishment thereby io'is- of a typical complexion different some- what from that of either of the original peoples from which it is derived, are general phenomena which recur, under like circitmstances, in different parts of the world. In all probability every race now existing on the face of the earth has been somewhat modified in its complexion by the absorption of foreign elements, and it is only by a recognition of this fact and a reference of it to its true causes that the ethnograjDher has been able to discover that underlying all the shades of complexion in the world are only a -few fundamental colors from which every intermediate hue has been obtained by admixture and amal- gamation. For a long time after the attempt was first made to classify the human race on some rational plan, the color of the dif- ferent families of men was coiorof thehu- regarded as an incident of ^^^.t ftomcur climate. It was believed mate, that races transferred from one region to another suffered a change of complex- ion under the influence of sun and air. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 509 Beginning with the general fact that the darker races are, for the most part, equa- torial in their distribution, it was con- cluded that the Black races had become so from the high heat, the scorching sunlight, and the arid atmosphere to which they were exposed. It was as- sumed that the White races belonged to the higher latitudes and that the Yellow and Brown peoples have been made so by their respective geographical, or rather climatic, environment. It has remained for more careful investiga- tions to show that these opinions have but little foundation in fact. It appears, then, that instead of the colors of the different races being de- Variations of pendent upon the latitude ?oprrar;tth. ^ud Other Conditions of nic conditions, the couutry into which the tribes were dispersed, the different complexions of the primitive peoples were almost independent of their posi- tion with respect to the equator. The relation, or correlation, between color and climate is neither constant nor ex- act in any particular. It has been found that some of the Indians of Upper Cal- ifornia, rmder the latitude of forty-two decrees north, are as black as the Ne- groes of Guinea; and it is also noted that those Negroes who are at a de- parture of as much as fifteen degrees from the equator are much more nearly absolutely black than those who dwell along the equatorial line ; that is, in this region the race seems to grozu ■whiter with its approach to the center of solar influence. In the southernmost parts of North America, namely, in the extremes of Evidence of the Mexico lying between the insufficiency of latitudes of fifteen degrees climate to make *=> complexion. and tweuty-three degrees north, many of the aboriginal peoples ■were of a reddish or olive complexion. almost as light as that of the Ruddy races. The Esquimaux of the extreme north of Europe and America are very dark as to their complexion, Avhile the Finns, who are almost as near the polar reeions as it is possible for men to live, are comparatively white. The concom- itant facts of light hair and blue eyes, along with the lightness of skin color, belong to many tribes that are dispersed well toward the tropical regions. The Afghans of India and the Taureg tribes of the .Sahara desert and the Amazonian nations of South America are of this character. Humboldt has pointed out the fact that the South American In- dians inhabiting the plateau of the Cor- dilleras, clearly within the torrid zone, are identical in color with others whom he had observed as far down as the forty- fifth degree of south latitude. We are thus constrained by undeniable facts to refer the extremes of complexion in the human race to an origin other than cli- matic environment. In fact, the races of men differ in color absolutely, and have done so independently of their geograph- ical position from the earliest ages in which human phenomena began to be observed and recorded. Returning from this digression, we find the lines of distribution for the Dra vidians to be drawn course of the around by the valley of the StlTnd"'' Ganges, skirting the south- Ceyion. eastern coast of the Indian peninsula to its southern extremity. Thence the race passed, by easy migration, into the island of Ceylon, where it received per- haps its most characteristic development. It is here that the modern Veddahs, of whom mention has been previously made, display the old race character in its recent aspects. In the island, as well as on the continent, however, the dominant Aryan peoples have pressed 510 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. upon the natives, until the latter now represent only about thirty per cent of the whole population. In the prehistoric ao-e all the aborijjincs of Ccvlon were of the same Brown family witli the people of Southern India and Eastern Bcluchis- tan. At the present time the Dravid- ian population is compacted in the east- ern and southern parts of the island, where the condition and character of the race are still subject to the study of travelers and scholars. nese departure; Lohitos and Burmese. MODERN DRAVIDIANS — KOTA TYPES, Dr.lwn by P. FVitel. from a photograph. Returning to what may be called the intersection of the original Brown and The Maiayo-Chi- Ruddy races of mankind in Afghanistan, we find that the first principal Asi- atic stream of the former family was the !Malayo-Chinese departure. This took its course in the direction of the Upper Punjat, and crossed directly to the east into Thibet. There appears, how- ever, to have been thrown off to the southeast, into the Himalayas, a branch of this family, which is at the present time represented by the Lohito tribes, between the Ganges and the Himalayas. These are evidently Jlongoloids, and must thus be in race alliance with the Thibetans north of the mountains. A second stream carried down the Bunnese to their destination on the east coa.st of the bay of Bengal. From this line there appears to have been deflected, somewhat above its intersection with the Lan-Tlisang river, a secondary move- ment, tending almost directly to the southeast and termi- nating in two branches, the one in Southern Annam and the other on the gulf of Tonquin. By this latter movement the An- namese peninsula, between the Cam- bodia and the South China sea, was pop- ulated. It appears, however, that the Siamese peninsula, west of the Cambo- dia, received its eth- nic stream from a departure which was made high up in Thibet, and that this latter migratory line crossed the Annam- ese dispersion on its way to the south. Another peculiarity of the Doubts respect- ethnic di.stribution of Siam '^J^ir^^:^: is found in the fact that suiarAsia. the populations south of latitude fif- teen degrees north all partake of the character of the Polynesian Mongo- loids, as distinguished from the Asi- atics. Ethnogi"aphers have therefore agreed to regard the extreme of the penin,sula and the adjacent i-slands of Sumatra and Borneo as having re- 512 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. ceived a Polynesian stream either turned back by reversal from the Micro- nesian archipelago, or else deduced by a change of ethnic character from the Malayo-Chinese stem. The Polynesian line which we are here considering may be traced through Sumatra and North- ern Borneo, from which the migration appears to have turned northward into the Philippine islands, and thence to the east into Micronesia. Here it is that we begin to consider the more VIEW IN EASTER ISLAND — IMAGES AT RONOBORAK Drawn by E. Meunier. great problem of the original peopling of the islands of the South Pacific. Ex- cept in Melanesia, all of the great group lying between the coast of China and South America are inhabited by people of the Brown race. They are manifestly allied with the Asiatic Mongoloids and the Dravidians in their ultimate origin and descent. No meth- od more rational, more consistent with the facts can be devised than to sup- pose their distribution into the great archipelago from the smaller group of Problem of the peopling of Polynesia. islands directly east of the Philippines. This group is generally known as the Caroline islands, or Micronesia. From this point the archipelago eastward is exceedingly dispersed through a distance of more than twenty-five degrees of longitude. Yet the progress northward into the Ladrones could have been easily made. From the Caroline group eastward to the Marshall and Gilbert islands was a extended and difficult voyage. Thence the line contin- ued to the southeast, through the Ellice group to Samoa, where there was an evi- dent bifurca- tion into two great lines of progress. Meanwhile, from the El- lice a stream of island mi- gration ap- pears to have been carried out to the Phoenix islands, where we may suppose the movement in tliis direction to have ceased. From Sa- outreaching moa one line of departure St^a^d'""" was to the west of south into Gilbert islands. the Friendly islands, then southwest to Norfolk, and then southeast to New Zealand. Here, in the North island and the South island, were distributed the ocean tribes from which has sprung the remarkable race of Maoris, of whose char- acter and peculiarities a sketch will be presented in a subsequent book. Eastward from Samoa the line of ^-^^^^^^ DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 513 migration was carried to the Society islands, whence it again divided north Dispersion from and south for two great *rou ^Tnd'the departures toward the con- Marquesas, tinents of America. The southern line passed down to the Austral islands, and then southeastward to the Oparo group, one hundred and forty-five degrees west from Greenwich. From this point, about latitude twenty-eight degrees south, the line of departure, through seventy-five degrees of longi- tude, appears to have been almost di- rectly to the east, through the Elizabeth islands, the Easter group. Saint Am- brose, and finally to the coast of South America, about the center of Chili. The other branch of Polynesian dis- persion from the Society islands was borne to the northeast, to the Mar- quesas group. On this line there was a departure to the right, from which the Low Archipelago may be supposed to have been peopled. From the Marque- sas the island migrations bore backward to the northwest, through more than twenty degrees of latitude, passing, by way of Maldon and Fanning, to Carson. Here the course was again changed to the east of north, to the Sandwich islands. From this noted ocean group the migration continued islandwise to the northeast, passing through the sparsely scattered points for a distance of twenty degrees of longitude, to the Pasaries. From this group the line was carried away through Henderson on a long curve a little to the south of east, until it entered the gulf of California and touched the coast of Mexico. These migratory movements which ethnogi'aphers have attempted to trace through the South Pacific represent, of course, only tlic major lines of dispersion along which the Polynesian Mongoloids were carried to their almost infinite dis- tribution in these limitless waters. It was essentially a progress from island to island. The stages were Easiness and *= difficulty of sometimes easy and the the progress , 1 . through Poly- movement by no means m- nesia. credible. In other parts of the migra- tions the distance was great from point to 23oint of departure and lodgment. Nor may it be easily conceived how the prog- ress was continued by races whose skill in navigation must have been limited by the conditions of savagery. It must be borne in mind, however, that for weeks and months together the waters of the South Pacific are as placid as an unruffled lake.. The trade winds are equable and of constant direction. The climate is mild in the last degree. Under such conditions even savages, in open boats, with a modicum of sail, would drift, as in a dream, for hundreds, perhaps thou- sands, of miles. These are the circum- stances which make it possible for the eth- nic distribution through the islands of Polynesia to have been effected in the manner above described. It is not the purpose, at this point, to develop the dispersion of the Polynesian races through the two con- Probable deriva- tinents of America. The ^^^VeNew^"^^ distribution of the vari- "World. ous branches of the human family in these continents will be considered when the Asiatic Mongoloids have also been traced to the western shores of North America. Grave questions arise in the mind of the inquirer relative to the cer- tainty or uncertainty of the movements by which the first men were distributed on our continent. In the present state of knowledge the bottom problems aris- ing in this connection must be passed by as unsolved. The best that ethnography can do in the premises is to trace out the possible, even probable, approximation of the Polynesian and Asiatic Mongoloids 514 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. to the westerr. parts of the two Ameri- cas. It is certainly not impossible that the race of man may have thus made its ap- pearance in the New World, and may have been disseminated from ethnic stocks which were derived from the northeasternmost parts of Asia and the islands of the South Pacific. The im- mediate task before us is to resume the consideration of the migratory lines by which the Brown races were dispersed through the larger parts of Asia. dispersed, and where they have since developed into the type of Chinese prop- er. All the races south of the Hoang-Ho and north of the Yang-tse-Kiang are of this common stock, which is one of the most distinct and persistent types of mankind. The East Mongols, as distinguished from the Chinese and the Malayo-Chi- nese, flowed from a branch of the Asiatic Mongoloid family known as the North- east division. Its course from Afghan- -•^^jfe«a=!^' lU*-^* w fc ROUTE OF THE IKJXGOLIAN IMSl'KIIlU rioN— Thian-,>h.>:, MuwM ,,i.N.,.-Ui.iiMi by Ki. We have now followed the lines of distribution from Thibet, in the south- r, ,, ^. eastward direction, to the Outbranching of the Asiatic Anuamese and the Siamese Mongoloids. . , _ penmsulas. Returnmg to the point of departure we find from the valley of the Lan-Thsang a full stream of migration, tending directly toward the east and into the heart of the Chinese empire. From the head-waters of the Lan-Thsang to those of the Yang-tse the migratory movement carried the true ^Mongolians into the valley of the great central river of China, where they were istan was through Eastern Turkistan and into that part of China which is known geographically as Mongolia. This coun- try occupies the great re- J ^ *' Distribution of gion between the Amoor the Northeast- , . 1 TT TT .,, ,, ern Asiatics. and the Hoang-Ho, With the exception of the eastern part, next to Corea and the sea of Japan, which is called Manchuria. The people known as Manchus are also descendants of the northeast stream of Asiatic Mongoloids. It is in this region, near the mouth of the Amoor, that the great movement of the Brown races of men in their progress DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 515 eastward was checked and turned back into the almost limitless regions of North- Dispersionof em Asia. First of all the d'eflfct:iintr/ Mongolian stream, after Amoor valley. crossing to the nortli of the Amoor, was reflected into a loop, and the migratory movement was resumed to- ward the head-waters of the Hoane-Ho. appears that the reverse line represent- ing the departure of this race reaches throughoiit the entire breadth of Asia, having its origin as a separate ethnic division in the Russian province of Amoor, north of the river of that name, and extending westward through Mon- golia into Turkistan. The main migra- iK-HCElrm CHUTE OF TCHrMBdULAC— Drawn by D. Lancelot, after Atklii^r,,,. In the upper valley of this great river the Calmuck Tartars were deposited, as the result of the backward migration just described. A second stream was deflect- ed from the main line of this movement and contributed the Buriats, holding the country south of lake Baikal. More ex- traordinary still was the departure from the backward curve of the Mongoloids of the Turkish division of mankind. It tory line seems to have passed south of lake Balkash, and to have thence contin- ued its western progress across the Ural and the Volga to the northern shores of the Black .sea. On the whole, this progress of the Turcomans is one of the most re- markable among the ethnic movements of mankind. The principal families de- posited at the extreme of the migration on the line we are now considering were 516 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the Nogaians, whose territory reached from the Volga to the Caucasus and the Black sea. Before attempting to define all the dispersions of the Turks in their back- ward movement into West- Bace lines of .....,, Samoyedsand crn Asia, it IS desirable to Ural-Altaics. , r it. 1.1. note some of the other re- turning ethnic curves of the Brown gration from the departure of these two peoples was, for the Samoyeds, some- what south, through the region between lake Baikal and the desert of Gobi ; thence the line extended westward until it crossed the river Obi, near its junction with the Tobol. West of this great stream began the dispersion of the so-called Turanian, or Ural-Altaic, na- OKF THE COAST OF COREA.— Drawn by Theodure Weber, after Zuber. races to the north of the Turkish line. From the same origin with the Turks themselves, in the country north of the principal bend of the Amoor, extended westward another grejit stream of mi- gration, which bore at first the com- bined volume of the Samoyed and Ural- Altaic nations. The course of the mi- tions, whose development covers, in general terms, the whole region be- tween the Baltic and the Obi. From the central line of migration westward, having its termini among the Finns and Lapps in the extreme north of Europe, many subordinate migrations turned to the left and right, the principal of which DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 517 were the streams which' contributed cer- tain Mongoloid families in the valleys of the Ural and the Volga, and the de- parture on the south which ended with the Esths, on the eastern coast of the Baltic. Returning to the point of division be- tween the Ural-Altaic and the Samoyed families east of lake Baikal, Distribution of theTwagiand we find the latter stream the Juraks. • -. . j pursuing its way westward, dropping one branch of the family in the valley of the Upper Angora, and carry- ing its volume thence northward to the Twagi tribes, east of the gulf of Obi, un- der latitude seventy degrees north. The main stream continued westward to about the meridian of eighty degrees east from Greenwich, where another branch was thrown off northward, contributing the Juraks to the peninsula west of the Yenisei river. Still a third departure entered the Yalmal peninsula, where the Juraks also bear witness of the Mongo- loid origin. The westward course of the Samoyed dispersion ended between the meridians of forty degrees and fifty de- grees east, with the tribes of Vanuta and Laghe. If then once more we take our stand in Manchuria, we shall find still an- other great curve, to which Outline of the , , . c rr^ Tungusian dis- the ethnic name of iun- persion. ■ i -u gusian has been given, bending in like manner close along the sea of Japan, and thence turning to the west and north. It was from a branch of this Tungusian stem bearing off to the south through Manchuria that the Coreans were deduced, and an extension of the same migration carried into Nip- pon the primitive Japanese. The Ainos, also of Yezo, on the north, may be a derivative of the same branch which here perhaps reaches its limit ocean- ward. The main line also divides in high latitudes, throwing out branches, especially on the right, which find the limits of their departure among the Ya- taks, the Tunguses, and other arctic tribes, in the extreme limits of North- eastern Asia. From this same origin, moreover, the eastern movement was continued through the great Asiatic peninsula which stretches out between the Arctic ocean and the North Pacific toward Behring strait. There can be little doubt that the Mongoloid tribes inhabiting this region, such as the La- muts, the Itelmes, the Koriaks, and oth- ers, are of the same Alongoloid origin with the Tungusians, the ]Manchurians, the East Mongolians, the Ural-Altaics, and the Samoyeds, the difference being chiefly in modifications of development effected by the peculiar geographical environment into which the eastern di- vision of the race was thrown on its progress to the northwestern extremity of North America. Such, in brief, is a sketch in outline of the distribution of the Brown races through the continent of Asia. We have now traced the Polynesian lines to the western coasts of South outer circuit of America and Mexico, and '■^t't^l^ the Asiatic Mongoloid lines races, through the eastern extension of North- ern Asia and the Aleutian islands, to the northwestern shores of North Amer- ica. Before beginning an account of the distribution of the.se various ilongo- loid races in the New World, it will be desirable to notice some exceptional lines which they seem to have followed, even to the extreme west of Europe. It is claimed by ethnographers that the Basques and Iberians, Question of the the ancient nations of the t^^^^^T^A Spanish peninsula, were of n>erians. Mongoloid extraction. The question has been much debated and the argu- 518 GREAT RACES OF MAXk'IXD. ments fortified with every variety of proof. On the whole, it may be conceded that these primitive peoples of Spain were allied in their race descent with the Mongolians of the Asiatic continent. Between the straits of Gibraltar, how- ever, and the main line of the original Mongoloid dispersion where it passes northward through Beluchistan, there have been found no ilongoloid tribes, or indeed any distinct traces of their pres- ence. In some manner, then, we may assume that the Basques and Iberians reached their destination in the extreme west. By what route they did so must remain conjectural. It may have been by transnavigation of the IMediterranean. But the greater likelihood seems to be that in very primitive times a branch put off to the west from the pre-Mongo- loid stem, passing through the countries of the Hamites about the head of the Persian gulf, across Upper Arabia, and through the whole extent of North Afri- ca to the straits, and thence into South- ern Spain. Such a line may, at any rate, without undue .straining of the hypothesis, account for the presence in the west of Europe of nations evidently allied in their ethnic descent with the Thibetans and Malayo-Chinese. The presence of the Esths between the Letts and Finns on the eastern shores of the Baltic has Place of the Esths in the al.so constituted a problem scheme of races, j. i • i , ■ , tor which a solution has already been found in the deflection of a southern line from the Ural-Altaic migration in Northern Europe. Some ethnographers have not hesitated to mark out a route of migration from the country of the Basques in a north- eastern direction, across Gaul and Ger- many, into Esthonia ! But, considering the general course and character of the movements by which Central Europe was peopled, the latter supposition ap- pears to be altogether unwarranted. A general comment or two will be appropriate as to the character of the dispersion of the Brown races in the countries which we have Ethnic connec- thus far considered. In tionsofthe the first place, it is remark- ^ ^e^^y- able, in view of the earl}- preferences which the Mongoloids showed for warm climates, that Africa has been untouched by their migrations. The nearest ap- proach to this continent which the Brown races has made is that of the Polynesian Mongoloids in Madagascar. It is in evidence that from the island of Java a branch of this race made its way through the Indian ocean, touching perhaps at the southern point of Ceylon, and thence passing in a southerly dii-ection from island group to island group to its destination and development in the natives races of Madagascar. To these peoples ethnography has assigned the ethnic name of Malagasy. In the second place, it may be noted that the Brown races, in the primary stages of their distribution, appear to have been drawn by cosmic General and ■' special direc- forces toivard tlic cast. In tions ofthe , ^ , , . Brown disper- general, Southern Asia re- sion. ceived its populatioi> from movements in this direction. These movements con- tinued until the Pacific was reached, and was even carried forward through the Polynesian archipelagoes until, as we have seen, the race lines probably touched the western shores of the New World. But on the continent the eastern migra- tions of the Mongoloids seem to have fallen into a whirl in Manchuria, and to have been bent backwards, as above de- scribed, through the whole extent of Northern Asia and even far into Eu- rope. The world-wide extent of these movements can with difficulty be appre- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWX DISPERSIOX. 519 ciated or understood even by the student of history, to whom great continental stretches and far-reaching developments are familiar. As compared with the limited dispersion of the Hamitic and Semitic nations, or even with the greater and more populous distribution of the Aryans in the small continent of Eu- rope, the Asiatic and Oceanic disper- sion of the Mongoloids appears to the scholar in ethnography and history as world-wide and limitless. We come, then, to look briefly at the primitive dis- tribution of man- kind in the two Americas. For many reasons the ethnology of these continents is be- set with special difficulties. The aboriginal peoples inhabiting them were uncivilized races in the prelit- erary stages of de- velopment. Their monuments had already fallen into the domain of archasolog)- before the coming of the White races. The peculiar family rela- tion existing among nearly all the tribes Difficult eth- of the New World tended to confuse the lines of race distinction and to blur the whole ethnographic outline. The house- hold was generally based upon a system of marriage differing but little from poly- andry, the result of which was to con- verge the lines of descent through the woman instead of the man. The tribes were largely nomadic in their disposi- tion. War and conquest were frequent, and one race, by means of aggression and victory, was many times super- imposed territorially on another. Behind all this confusion there ap- pears to the ethnographer the shadow of the bottom question rel- , . . . ultunate denva- ative to the primary origin tionofthein- ^ ., ^,. T dian races. of these races. \\ e nave agreed to regard the Polynesian islands and Northeastern Asia as the sources of the American aborigines, but it may be frankly confessed that so much has not COAST OF MADAGASCAR ANU nography of the American ab- origines. VIEW OF MAJONGA. — LIMIT OF THE BROWX DISPERSION". Drawn by De Berard. been established by irrefragable proofs. Nevertheless, the affinity and diversity of languages prevalent in the New World give many evidences, when compared with Polynesian and Asiatic tongues, of a common paternity; and ethnic and tribal lines have been in many parts sufficiently maintained to indi- cate Avith tolerable certainty the direc- tion of migrations and the ultimate derivation of these barbarous peoples. The physical peculiarities of the Red men, the primitive Mexicans, and the Es- quimaux have also been of advantage in 520 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. clearing up many questions relating to the first people of North America ; and the persistcncyof manners and customs — that great fact wliich has often come to the rescue of embarrassed scholarship — has thrown its constant light on many ob- scure parts of the questions here before us. We shall now attempt, following the hypothesis of an Asiatic and Polynesian origin, to delineate the course of dis- tribution of the primitive races through the two Americas, and their develop- the Koriaks and Chuk-chee tribes, that has warranted the conclusion of an Asi- atic derivation for the Orarians. The line, therefore, marking the dis- persion of the northeastern stream of Asiatic Mongoloids into Easy derivation these extreme parts of Asia t^^^^:^' may well be drawn across the Asiatics, the strait and distributed into the penin- sular region of Northwestern North America. In like manner, the clear relationship of the people inhabiting ROUTE OF THE ORARIAN DISPERSION.— Peril SxRAlTS.-Drawn by Theodore Weber. ment into distinct families of the hu- man species. In the extreme northwestern portion of North America we find a rather wide- _, ^ ^ ly dispersed race, to which Place and affin- ■' ^ ' itiesofthe ethnographers have given the name of Orarians. In general, they are distributed in that penin- sular part of the continent which extends from the meridian of about one hundred and twenty degrees west to Behring strait. It is the affinity, almost unmis- takable, of these people wath the Yakuts of Northeastern Asia, particularly with the southern part of the Alaskan penin- sula with the Pacific peoples of the Aleutian islands, gives warrant for the derivation of the former from the latter. It is in this Alaskan portion of the country that ethnographers have placed the Orarians proper, while to the north, in Upper Alaska, that is, between the Yukon and the Arctic ocean, we have a distribution of the Western Esquimaux. Further to the east and central to the peninsula are the Tinneh races, or at least a branch thereof, w-hile to the south of these and around the coar.t of DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 521 the Great archipelago are located the Tlinkets and Xasses. The outlying islands are inhabited by other branches of the same race called the Yakuts, the Sitkans, and the Hidahs. By the time that the ethnographer has advanced thus far to the east, in follow- ing the lines of the Asiatic Mongoloids the Polynesians who had come primarily to the shore of the continent in the re- gion of Old California. Advancing still further to the east, and following the same Asiatic Mongoloid line of disper- sion in the extreme north, the inquirer will make his way above the region of the Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, ROUTE OF THE CHONTAL DISPERSION SOLTHW ARD.-Coast of PANAMA.-Drawn by De Berard. continentward, he finds himself con- fronted with what appear to be return- Polynesian Mon- ing races of Polynesian ^thAs^to extraction. The Tinneh derivatives. family above referred to are a people different apparently in race characteristics from the other stocks of Alaska, and it is generally conceded that they have been carried into this re- mote position by a returning migration of M. — Vol. 1 — 34 in the country of the widely spread fam- ily called the Tinneh. The territory occupied by this division extends from about the meridian of one hundred and twenty-five degrees west, eastward to Hudson's bay and the gulf of Boothia. Its limits northward are the Arctic ocean and the countries of the Eastern Esquimaux, whose line of dispersion reaches the coast of Labrador. On the 522 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. south, the great river and lake system which discharges its waters through the Nelson into Hudson's bay mark the boundaries of the Tinneh. It is in the latter region that the re- turning lines of the Polynesian Mongo- General course of Polynesian and Esquimau migrations. loidsare again encountered. The whole movement of the latter races here ap- pears from the east to the west, while the Asiatics flow from the west to the TYPE OF AMERICAN MONGOLOIDS — THE INDIAN BARRE, Drawn by Riou. east. The main migration of the East- ern Esquimaux may be regarded as ex- tending through the j\.rctic archipelago, perhaps by way of North Devon island, or Ellesmere land, across Smith's sound into Greenland, where the final distribu- tion of this family has its limits. It will be seen by an examination of the map that this region is under the meridian of fifty degrees west from Greenwich, while the original source which we have assigned to the Brown races in Beluchistan is very near the meridian of sixty -five degrees east, from which it is manifest that the di- rect dispersion east and west of the Asiatic Mongoloids has covered a longi- tude of one Iiuudrcd and sixty- five degrees ; and if we take into account the multi- farious departures to the right and left — the endless curves and windings by which such a move- ment would be car- ried forward from its initial departure to its final destina- tion — we shall see that the Brown races of men have virtually encircled the earth in their wanderings 1 Meanwhile, the migration of this same family of Mongoloids had ex- tended down the Alaskan coast to Vancouver'sisland. Here, in the north- western part of what is now the United States, the great family of the Seli.sh was dis- tributed. By hy- pothesis, a deflected branch of this famil}- may be traced eastward and thence southward to about Distribution of the fortieth parallel of lat- the seiish; the .^ T 1 ji • i Mexican races. itude and the ninety- fourth west from Greenwich. From this center several lines of departure may be noted upon which, in the south- ern parts of the United States, the old nations of Choctaws, Creeks, and DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 523 persion of the Central Amer^ icans. Natchez Indians were developed. An- other line, perhaps, passed from the same origin to the west, thence southward into Mexico, and from the latter dispersion we gather the old races of the Toltecs, the Aztecs, andtheOttomies, who played so important a part in the quasi civili- zation which the .Spanish invaders dis- covered and destroyed. From another branch of the same dis- persion arose the Cholulans. Still south- Origin and dis- ward the course of migra- tion was continued into Central America, where the nations called the ^layas, the Nahoas, the Quiches, and the Chontals were dis- tributed north of the isthmus. We may even continue the same line of southern departure through the isthmus of Panama and down the whole coast of Western South America. The native races along this extended seashore, from Panama through Peru and Chili to Patagonia and finally to Terra del Fuego, have been found to be allied throughout with the Asiatic Mongoloids rather than with the Polynesians. The greatest of these families are perhaps the Aymaras, the Quichuas, the Araucanians, the Pampas, and the Patagonians, named in the order of the descent from the north. The Fuegians mark the extreme of this dis- persion. The lines indicating the prog- ress traverse the entire extent of the two continents, besides many meander- ings, the limits of which could hardly be determined in terms of current geog- raphy. At this point it may be well to note also some special developments north of Place of the Mexico. The Californians, fv'uonTfVhf" together with the Sho- Six Nations. shoues, the Mutsun, and Yuma nations, may be regarded as dis- persions from the north. It may be, however, in the case of the Shoshones, that they proceeded from an eastern migration, having its origin in the center of the United States. There appear to have been a good many inter- changes of character in the central nations of Nortli America, the Asiatic Mongoloids taking on the character of Polynesians, and vice versa. The great nations of the Eastern United States, TVPE OF AMERICAN MONGOLOIDS INDIAN WOMAN. -MONDURNCA the Onondagas, the Oneidas, the Sen- ecas, the ^Mohicans, may be referred ultimately to the same stock with the Cherokees, the Muskogees, and other families of the Southeastern United States, and these in turn seem to have originated in the Antilles, and to have arisen ultimately from a Polynesian source. It will be well, therefore, at this point to take up the course of dispersion of the Polynesian races from the center of the west coast of South America and follow the same in its divisions through that 524 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. continent. Perhaps the first deflection from the main line of eastern departure was to the right, into the The Polynesian . • i •. Mongoioidsin countries now occupied by South America. ^,^^ Argentine Republic. The native races of this region are known by the name of Guaycurus. They be- long in general to the cotintry between the mouths of tlie La Plata and the Rio Negro. The coast nation of this part of the continent arc known as the Puclches. A second migratory stream put off about the head-waters of the La Plata, taking its course eastward, and was thence deflected to the coast, in Uruguay, where the people called Charraks bear evidence of the dispersion. Higher up, the Guarani were distributed, and from this region the main line extended in a course nearly parallel with the sea, into the heart of Brazil. The mountain races to the left of this line are known by the name of the Parexis, while the still greater family of nations between the river Amazon and the San Francisco are called Tupis. The latter are sub- divided into the Crans, the Crens, and the Gucks, with many subordinate tribes and ramifications. One branch of this same Polynesian migration turned from this country up Origin of tne the Valley of the Amazon Shelemr- ^nd was distributed among *'°i^S' the initial streams of that great river, while another branch crossed the Amazon to the north and contributed the Caribbean nations in their various families and tribes. It ap- pears that from the coast at the mouth of the Orinoco, almost directly north- ward, and thence westward through the islands to Hayti, and thence by way of the Greater Antilles to the southern extremity of Florida, the line of migra- tion was carried, depositing the Sem- inoles in the latter country, and thence bending eastward through the coast re- gions of the United States. It is proba- bly true that the kinship and affinity of so great numbers of the Indian tribes of North America with the Polynesians of the South Pacific must be referred to this almost infinite line of departure which we have been following from Sumatra and Siam across the South Pacific to the western coast of South America. Hereafter, in noticing the peculiarities of the Indian races of the New World, we may have occasion to speak again of their geographical positions universality of and mutations. It is be- ^S^n^thr lieved that this cursory out- Americas. line of the general movements by which the New World was probably peopled with inhabitants belonging to the Brown races of mankind, will be sufficient to give an adequate idea of the development of these races. The great peculiarity which impresses itself most upon the mind of the ethnographer and historian is that all the aboriginal families of these con- tinents belonged to the Brown family of mankind. In those primary movements which may be called natural, as contra- distinguished from the somewhat artifi- cial migrations and colonizations which are projected from civilized countries into the barbarous territories of the world, not a single Black or Ruddy tribe of men reached the shores of either America. It is, indeed, a reflection well calculat- ed to astonish the inquirer that the most progressive and energetic peoples of the world have not, until times most recent, carried the lines of their Astonishing ex- dispersion into the remoter ^::^,°/„f/fl'; parts of the habitable globe. Brown races. It is true that the Aryan races have at present extended their languages and institutions — even their blood progeny — into the uttermost parts of the earth, but DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 525 these movements do not belong to the same class of phenomena by which the primitive, unconscious peoples were dis- tributed, to their several destinations. If we look at these primary movements only, our surprise may w^ell be great at the indescribable extent of the wander- ings and ethnic dispersions of the Brown taces of mankind and the comparatively small areas in which the progressive and civilizing peoples have borne them- selves and their institutions. With a map of the world drawn on Mercator's projection before the student who de- sires to inform himself of the prehistoric movements of mankind, the great, well- nigh universal, diffusion of the Brown races throughout all Asia, several parts of Europe, and the whole of Polynesia and the two American continents must iinpress his mind with the striking char- acter and singularit}- of these human phe- nomena. Before dismissing the subject of the distribution of the Brown races, we will point once more to the outer geograph- ical limits of the dispersion in different parts of the world. The migratory lines in South America drop to the extremity of the continent in latitude fifty-five de- grees. The FuegianS rep- outer periphery resent the nearest approach t^e Brown°dis. of the Brown races to persion. the south pole. The next limit in the same direction may be found in the Chatham islands and the southern parts of New Zealand, extending from lati- tude forty-five degrees to fifty degrees south. As already noted, the western stream of this family terminates in Spain, at about ten degrees west from Greenwich. The eastern boundary of the Greenland Esquimaux may be given at about twenty degrees west. The northern excursions of this race have reached to at least the eightieth paral- lel north ; from which we may gather that through three hundred and fifty de- grees of longitude and « Inmdred mid tlnrty- five degrees of latitude the descendants of the Brown races of mankind have been dispersed by the natural forces to which barbarians in their migratory movements are subject! Chapter XXX.— Disxribuxiom of^ xhe Black Races. S compared with the complexity and extent of the dispersion of the Brown races of man- kind, the Black divi- sions and departures of the human family are simple and easy of apprehension. They are confined, in general terms, to that portion of the African continent ly- ing south of the twentieth parallel of north latitude, and to Australia and the Micronesian islands. The fact that the Indian ocean lies between these African and Australian dispersions of the race, and that the presence of General charac- Black peoples isnotdiscov- ^frdistrlb^'u-""* erable in any other of the ^^io''- great continents, except by reason of re- cent civilizing movements, introduces the one great difficulty in determining the origin whence both streams of the race have flowed. It is this circum- stance, moreover, which has in a great measure fortified the hypothesis that under the Indian ocean lies the sub- 526 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. merged continent of Lenmria, the an- cestral home of all the races of men. Granted the existence in prehistoric ages of such a continent, and the sub- Lemuria neces- Sequent dispcrsiou of man- BiackXper-'''* ^^^^ «" the monogenetic sion. hypothesis becomes not only plausible, but easy and natural. But the continent is a supposition so Africa seems to have been on the east- ern or jDcninsular coast where the conti- nent juts out into the In- origin of the eth- dian ocean, about the par- 'Z^:^lT"' allel of ten degrees north. African races. It has been stated above that most of the peoples of this coast region as far west as about the thirty-seventh degree of longitude are of Semitic origin, with MEURKA.— Drawn by Y. PranishnikoS. far as the present knowledge of man- kind is concerned, and we are obliged to consider the African and the Aus- tralian distribution of the Black races as .separate phenomena, one presenting it- self with a westward and the other with an eastward migratory tendency. As already remarked, the beginning of the Black populations of Southern perhaps a mixture of Hamitic stock. Such peoples are the Somali, the Dona- kil, the Galla tribes, and others, inhabit- ing this peninsular part of Africa. It is somewhat to the west of these, there- fore, that the actual dispersion of the Black peoples seems to have its center. This is to say that the lines indicative of the migration of the Black races from DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. b-11 the eastern coast of Africa are for a dis- tance of about ten degrees from the ocean hypothetical, the country through which they pass being now occupied by tribes of another race. It may be conceded that the oldest branch of the Xegro family, upon the Place and dis- consideration of which we are now to enter, are the Fundi-Sudanese, who oc- cupy the country between the Blue and the White Nile for some distance south of tribution of the Fundi-Sudan- ese. At this point it may be well to des- ignate the principal branches into which the Xegro race proper is divided. The northern stem, next to the Kinship of Fuiah Fundi just mentioned, car- ''^l^^Hr^' ried into Central Africa famiUes. the Negroes of the Sudan and perhaps the Fulah races lying to the north. Some trouble has arisen as to the classi- fication of the latter peoples, and there are traces in their color and other pecul- iarities indicative of an admixture of BAMliARRA TYPES.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. their intersection. It is likely that this was the first territorial dispersion of the family which afterwards spread through the larger part of the continent to the west and south. The Fundi seem never to have removed very far from their original seats. They founded here the kingdom of Sennaar. They have the same peculiarities of person and tribal character with the Negroes of Southern and Western Africa, and are certainly in affinity with them by race descent. Hamitic blood. By the Sudanese, how- ever, the Fulahs are regarded as of the same race with themselves, and, on the whole, the evidences of kinship with the Black peoples on the south are sufficient to warrant this classification. Several subordinate families were thrown off from this same northernmost stem of Black dispersion. Among these are the Haussa tribes, the Sonhrays in the valley of the Niger on the extreme west, the Jolofers between the Senegal 528 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. and the Gambia on the coast. There is no doubt that the Hamitic line of migra- tion, bending- to the south out of the Moorish states of Western Africa, pen- etrated the valley of the Niger, and that this stock has contributed somewhat to modify tlie Black peoples in the north of the S;idan. The Sudanese proper are likewise divided into many peoples, distributed from the Upper White Nile, across the Distribution of Continent to the westward, ^se'IdGur'-""' to the Mandingos and eans. other tribes of Guinea. Glancing over the whole field of Central Africa, between the twentieth parallel of north latitude and ten degrees .south, we may, on a geographical basis, note four principal ethnic divisions of peoples: I . West Sudan and Guinea. — In this re- gion there are beside the Fulahs six other groujDS, distinguishable by sufficient dif- ferences to warrant a classification . The Mandingos, with ten or twelve subordi- nate tribes, occujjy Ujipcr Guinea and vSouthern Senegambia. The Woloffs have .seven divisions, or tribes, which are dis- tributed inland between the vSenegal and Gambia rivers. The Felups are divided into twelve tribes, or nations, scattered over the territory between the Gambia and Sierra Leone. The Liberians have seventeen tribal divisions .scattered along the Grain coast and the Ivory coast. The Ewe group consi.sts of ten different nations, and are distributed along the Gold and vSlave coasts. The Ibo group also embraces ten subdivisions, having their territories in Benu6 and along the Lower Niger. The Sonhray family, with many subordinate tribes, occupy the country along the Middle Niger, from Timbuctu toGando. The Fulahs, already described, are divided into eight nations, inhabiting the eastern parts of Sene- gambia and distributed eastward to the Baghirmi country. All these peoples except the Sonhray and Fulah nalit)ns speak dialects of a common language, but the latter peoples appear to have each a distinct vernacular. 2. Central Sudan and tlie Chad Basin. — In this region there are five separate groups of peoples. The „ „ . ° ^ ^ ^ Central Sudan- first are the Adamawa ese and tribes of ... . . the Chad Basin. group, with some sixteen tribal branches, belonging to L'pper Benue and scattered thence eastward to Logo. The second division, called the Tubu nations, embraces twelve tribes, inhabiting Tibesti, Kanem, and the countries extending to the northern part of Darfur. The third, or Logon, group includes about fifteen branches, inhab- iting Bornu, Lower Shari, and the Chad islands. The fourth group, called the Baghirmi, is divided into fifteen nations, occupying the lower and middle parts of Shari and the territories eastward to Runga and Darbanda. The fourth, or Waday, group, including a vast number of tribes, occupy the country of Waday and the districts eastward to Darfur. 3. East Sudan and Upper Nile. — In this region there are four race families. The first, known as the Dar- Place of the banda group, has eleven East Sudanese ^ ., 1 , . . . . and the Nilotes. tribal divisions, occupying the country of Upper Shari and the ter- ritory eastward to Dar-Fertit. The sec- ond family of tribes, called the Eur group, have about seventeen nations oc- cupying the country of Darfur and Kor- dofan, between Waday and the White Nile. The third group, called Nilotes, are divided into more than twenty tribes, living along the White Nile and its trib- utaries, eastward to Kaffa and Gallaland, and southward to Uganda. The fourth group of tribes are known as the Zandey, and are better organized as a nation than any of tho.se above enumerated. They DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 529 live about the Welle, and extend south- ward to the Lualaba. The above three general divisions are all included under the general head of Ethnic traces Sudaucsc, and are all Ne- ^^nnl^C^r groes — though consider- among the Ni- c> & gritians. ably differentiated in ethnic character — except in so far as they have been modified alonsf the northern and BANTU TYPE — CHJKF N'dOUMBA. Drawn by Riou. western borders by Hamitic influences. It has already been noted that the Fulah nations, especially the West Fulahs, have been influenced not a little in their race development by the impact of the Hamitic migration, turning from the north into vSenegambia. We now come to the fourth general division of the Ne- gro race. 4. The Bantu Family. — This great race occupies South Central Africa, between the Sudanese on the north and the Kaf- firs and Hottentots on the south. The Bantus have been classified, . Classification according to such dlStmC- and subdivisions . • , -1 i. • i. of the Bantus. tions as they present, mto five ethnic groups. These are arranged principally on the lines of geographical locality: first, the Zulu-Kafhr group, embracing many tribes, are scattered through Zululand, Xatal-Kaflfraria, and in the region northward toward the great lakes of Eastern Africa; second, the Central group, divided into about sixteen nations, occupy the Upper Orange river, Transvaal, the shores of lake N'gami, and portions of the Zam- besi. The Eastern group, also includ- ing many subordinate tribes, fill the ter- ritories on the east coast from the equa- tor southward to the edge of Delagoa, and westward to lake Nyassa; fourth, the fequatorial group, including more than twenty nations, fill the regions of the great lakes, the upper part of Lua- laba, and the country southward to the Lokinga mountains; fifth, the Western group, including about forty nations, are distributed along the west coast of the continent, from Damaraland north- ward to the Cameroon mountains, and eastward to the twentieth meridian of longitude. Within these vast regions, almost in- comprehensible in their extent and char- acter bv people of the , „ '^ '^ Africa the Patria Western continents, there Dolorosa of the arc distributed about one hundred and thirty million of people of pure Negro origin, besides about twenty million who have received, from one circumstance or another, the traces of foreign blood. These are the parts of the earth out of which the conscience- less states of the Middle Ages, and the great nations of modern times as well, have gathered their cargoes of human 630 GREAT RACES OE JM.VAVXn. chattels for the slave markets of the world. It is the region of infinite sor- rows, to which the inhabitants of a bet- ter universe might point with shame, as to the Patria Dolorosa of all planets, upon which the stronger races of man- kind have preyed with the cruelty of tigers and the gluttony of wolves. If we resume the consideration of the migratory lines by which the widely dis- persed races of the Sudan and the Bantu countries were distributed, we shall find one great departure turning Limits of the , ' ° Zulu and Kaffir to the south , from the coun- dispersion. ^^^ included between the Blue and the White Nile, and bearing down the eastern coast of Africa the primitive races of that region as far as the Zulus and Coast Kaffirs of the south. It appears that this branch of the dis- persion was limited to the country be- tween lake Nyassa and the .sea, thus con- stituting a marked division between the coast Negroes of Eastern Africa and the Hottentots of the central and western parts of the continent. In the district immediately east of the Victoria Nyanza the migratory line Ethnic relations seems to have bifurcated, Kaffirs'indthe ^ ^vestern branch putting Bantus. off from the Coast Kaffir division and extending around lake Tan- ganyika and into the heart of the Bantu country. It was by the ramification, very extensive and multifarious, of this line that the Bantu nations and the great family of the West Kaffirs were distrib- uted. The dispersion continued to the western coast of the continent, the rami- fications in this region reaching from above the equator to the parallel of twen- ty degrees south. On the lower coast, however, the Bantu tribes were some- what restricted to the interior by a line of Hottentot migration from the south, which distributed the Obongas and other tribes between the Kaffirs and the sea. Such, then, in general terms, are the limits and extent of the Negro di.spersio.n of mankind. Geographically, its south- ernmost point is with the General bound- Zulus, under the parallel of ^^^"^^^^ thirty degrees south. Its tion. northernmost departure is with that eth- nic line which carried the Jolofers to their place on the south banks of the Senegal, in latitude twenty degrees north. The eastern divisions of the Negro family arc conterminous with the African coast adjacent to the Indian ocean, and the western distribution of the race is along the shores of the Atlantic. Measured by meridians of longitude, the dispersion reaches from fifty degrees east to twenty degrees west. The whole area, therefore, included by the dissemination of Negro races, extends through about fifty degrees of latitude and seventy degrees of longi- tude, being, in general terms, coexten- sive with Central and Southern Africa. We come, in the next place, to con- sider the dispersion of the Hottentots. These constitute the remaining major division of the Black race in Africa. Race origin of It is claimed by the Hottentots ethnographers that the line of migration which carried this people into the south extremity of the continent entered from the side of the Indian ocean at a point on the coast somewhat below the entrance of the Negroes. We have, however, in the case of the Hot- tentots the same uncertainty that con- fronted us in the case of the Negro race. This is to say that Hottentot tribes have not been found, within the historical era, in that part of the country where they arc supposed to have entered. The line from the coast, running in a southwest- erly direction between lakes Tangan- yika and Nyassa, is carried by hypothesis DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. — THE BLACKS. 531 through more than twenty degrees of latitude before the borders of the Hot- tentot dispersion are reached. Such is. the theory. All probabilities, however, point to the incoming of these tribes from the direction indicated, and their affinity with the Negroes fully warrants the assumption of a common origin with them. It is not until the inquirer reaches the valley of the Upper Zambesi in his jour- Where the Hot- ney across Southern Africa from the east that he comes upon the first tribes of Hottentots. They are virtually lim- ited in their actual distribution to the tentots and Bechuanas are distributed. BliCHUANA TYPE — A PAHOUIN. Drawn by Riou. country south of the Zambesi. The first nation of importance is the Makololo people, on the right bank of the river and in the central part of the country. They have the Negro Ovambos and Bun- das on the west and the Coast Kaffirs on the east. The Makololo may be regard- ed as the oldest existing branch of the Hottentot race, though it is in evidence that in former times they extended much further to the east, and that they occu- pied the country from which they were subsequently expelled by the Kaffirs and other Negro tribes. The next branch of the race is found on the head-waters of the Gariep, or Or- ange, river, and is known by the ethnic name of Bechuanas. Some ethnogra- phers have been disposed to make them a race of different origin from the Hotten- tots. It can not be denied that they are distinguished from the aborigines of Cape Colony by several important character- istics. The nation has been consider- ably compressed by wars with the peo- ple of the south and with the Kaffirs on the east ; and in recent times the Boers have established themselves within the Bechuana territory. The family of Hottentots are, like the Negroes further north, divided into many subordinate tribes, subordinate of which the Bassutos are r/th^eHrttlfn? the principal. They have ^;°ts- their territories to the west of the Ouath- lamba mountains. A second tribe is called the Batlapi, having their habitat on the borders of the Kalahari desert. A third family, known as the Barolong, dwell to the north of the last named people, but these have been nearly ex- terminated in warfare with the Kaffirs. Still north of the Barolong are the Bang- waketse, while the Bahurutse have their territories close alongside. The Badoana are scattered on the north coast of lake N'gami, and the Bakwains occupy the hill-country whence the rivers Notuani and Marqua descend to the coast. These are the principal tribal divisions of the Hottentot family. In the extreme south, however, the most characteristic of all these races, the Bushman and the Nam- aqua are foimd, whose names have been synonyms for one of the lowest types of aboriginal life known in the annals of existing races. 532 GREAT .RACES OE MANKIND. There are not wanting evidences, suffi- ciently conclusive to the ethnographer, Indications that that the peoplcs whom we H:?t'::?otfare 'ire here considcring-Ne- primitive races, groes and Hotteutots — are among the most ancient races on the face of the globe. A single fact maj' be cited, or rather repeated from a former chapter, of the monumental delineation of Xegroes among the captives of the primitive Egyptians. All the race char- acteristics of the two peoples were al- ready distinctly developed. The eth- nologist of to-day could not detect any radical mark of difference between the Negro as he is depicted among the sculptures of the Egyptians or unwrapped from the mummy cases of their tombs and the living specimen of the same race taken from the heart of Bantuland. But the Negro of the sculptures and he of the valley of the Livingstone are separated in time by a period of hardly less than six thousand years. Yet before Egypt -was Egypt the Black race was dis- seminated in Central Africa, and was in all probability at that remote prehistoric epoch not different in characteristics and tendencies from what it is to-day. Still further away from the historical era ai-e the primitive Hottentots. All Probability that the cthuic qualities of these ar:ieaTd"evei! P^^pl^ point to an extrava- oped of mankind, gant antiquity. An argu- ment would not be far to seek from these premises in favor of the evolution- ary hypothesis of the human race, and the assignment of a primitive, or in- digenous, race center to the southern parts of Africa. The cranial capacity of the Hottentot is considerably less than that of the Negro, as the Negro's bulk and weight of brain are less than those of the Turanians. Following the same line of development we note the still more extended brain evolution of the Indo-Europeans, reaching its maximum in Europe and North America. In what direction soever these hints, drawn from the natural history of man, may lead, we may safely conclude that the Hot- tentots are the oldest and least developed of all the races which we have thus far attempted to trace in their migratory movements. No sketch of their char- acteristics as a people is here attempted. It has been the purpose in the current chapter merely to mark out the cour.se of dispersion and distribution b}- which the Black races of Central and Southern Africa have reached their respective destination. It now remains to notice the migra- tory movements of the primitive Austra- lian branch of the human family. Viewed as a whole continent, Aus- Homogenity of tralia presents m its aborig- the Australian 1 ■ 1 i r aborigines. mes only a single type of people, to whom ethnographers have given the name Australians. If there be any trace at all of another race in the great i.sland continent, it is on the ex- treme eastern borders where the Papu- ans of Tasmania may have left some evidences of their presence or at least their transmigration. If the inquirer should begin his inves- tigations from the standpoint of Aus- tralia, he might well con- The Australians elude that the native races ^f.^dtuhthe' are indigenous to the coun- Nigritians. try, being apparently without derivation from any other race. In color, it is true that the primitive people are in affinity with the Negroes and Hottentots, but their general characteristics and person- ality would seem to set them apart from almost every other type of mankind. It has been agreed, however, that, pro- ceeding on the monogenetic hypothesis, that is, on the supposition of one com- mon origin for all the races of men, the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 533 Australians may best be classified with the Black races of Africa, and that their incoming into the island should be reck- oned from the northern coast. AUSTRALIAN TYPE — JOKKAI. Drawn by Tufani, Ethnography has not hesitated to trace backwards from this point, b}^ way of Java and thence across the Indian ocean to Southern Hindustan, the prehistoric line of Australian dispersion. This, of course, is done to carry out the ever- present supposition of a submerged con- tinent in the region between India and Africa. Thus much being Lemuria seems granted, it is easy to de- ^^^^/^^^^^J^^.^^^ velop the line of probability tribution. by which the primitive Black tribes of Australia may have made their way from Lemuria into the country of their present occupancy. We shall therefore follow the hypothesis to its legitimate conclusions, and regard the Australian branch of mankind as an eastern deflec- tion from a parent stream, which was common in its origin with the Xegritic and Hottentot divisions on the other side of the Indian ocean. It ajjpears, then, that from the north- west coast, near the gulf of Cambridge, or Arnhem's land, the primitive Australian migration was extended by . . -^ Lines of the divergencies through the Black dispersion • 1 J • .1 :i-££ i T in Australia. island m three different di- rections. The first extended laterally from north to south to the coast in the vicinity of .Spencer gulf and the gulf of St. \'incent. The second branch turned to the west coast, which it followed as far as the valle}' of Swan river, and was thence extended to King George sound. These divisions were subordinate, how- ever, to the third ethnic branch which turned to the east, near the head of thff gulf of Carpentaria, and was thence parted into several divisions, losing themselves in the modern Queensland. It appears that Xcav South Wales was populated by tribes from the Upper Darling, and that the whole of South- eastern Australia was filled from the sam.e general source. The inquiry will again suggest itself by zi'/iat mains these prehis- Valid grounds 01 tone movements have been ethnographic indicated to the ethnog- ^° rapher. What are the sources from which he has drawn his conjectures and 534 CRRAT RACES OF MANKIND. proofs? In the first place, a comparison of the different dialects spoken by the native Australians indicates sufficiently their affinity and common origin in some single parent linguistic stock. But sec- ondly, the general community of manners and customs, the identity of the barba- rous institutions, of -which at least the rudiments are discernible, lead to the same conclusion of a common origin for all the natives of the continent. In the third place, what may be called personal peculiarities, identical in different and VuK) of mankind has apparently taken its rise. In general, the Melanesian islands are peopled with races de- origin and rivedfromthissource. New ''^ZZ:'^^:,,. Guinea has drawn its pojj- bution. Illation from this Papuan stock, and has taken their name as the modern designa- tion of the island. Traces of the same race have been followed to the east and south as far as the Fiji islands, where the migratory movement seems to have terminated. In .short, through- out Melanesia the Papuan lines have S/1'Vr.r ^VMtfl PAITAN TVIM.S— MALE AND I-EMALE HEADS.-Drawn by E. M&plfa. widely spread tribes, point likewise to a common descent from a single ethnic branch of the human family. It will be the aim in a sub.sequcnt part of the pres- ent work to give an account of the man- ners and customs of these native races, and to outline the institutional forms of which their savage state has shown some traces and beginnings. From the main line of pre-Australian migration a .secondary ethnic develop- ment has apparently occurred in the archipelago lying north of Au.stralia. From this origin the Papuan division carried peoples of this stock north, south, east, and west, as far even as the coast of Japan, and westward to the Andamans. Southern Borneo and a great part ot Sumatra have felt the like influence among their aborigines, . Geographical and nearly all of the islands limitations of between Au.stralia and the coast of China are infected with the same blood and derivation. The south- ern limit of the dispersion is reached in Tasmania where the Papuans took one of their most characteristic and DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 535 undisturbed developments. The geo- graphical limits of the race are the great ocean region between the forty- second degree of south latitude and the thirty-fifth north. Eastward the Fiji islands, under the meridian of one hun- dred and eighty from Greenwich, and westward the Andaman islands under ninety-two degrees east, define the lat- eral distribution of the Papuan race. Its peculiarity is that it is wholly insular. The great country of Australia, though lying in what might be called the heart of this ethnic development, seems for .some reason to have shed the Papuans and to have taken a family of native peoples peculiar to itself. We have thus attempted to trace out the geographical distribution of man- kind according to their sev- Legitimate use , , . ^ of hypothesis in cral raccs and kmdreds. mc inquiry. ^^ parts of tlie globe have now been considered, including the re- mote islands of the South Pacific. It will readily be allowed that in many places the course of migrations, as indicated in the foregoing discussion, is hypothet- ical. It may be claimed in this partic- i:lar that in a scientific age, such as the present, all work by hypothesis and con- jecture ought to be eliminated from a discussion which pretends to partake of the nature of the exact sciences. This view of the case is too extreme and se- vere. The progress of knowledge de- pends not infrequently upon stepping from shore to shore by means of hy- pothesis and theory. This method of human investigation in many cases fore- runs the observed order of nature and indicates the place and limitations of law. It is only in this sense that Ave have here ventured to fill up certain gaps in the movements of mankind by theoretical lines. All .such work is, in the nature of the case, tentative, and sub- ject to revision and correction, as dis- covered and discoverable data may hereafter indicate the necessity of such modification. Before dismissing this part of the sub- ject, several topics present themselves for passing consideration. '■ ^ Question of In the first place, the long- time, place, and T T , , . manner recurs. standmg dispute about the place, the time, and the method of man's appearance on the earth obtrudes itself constantly into the inquiry. It is pressed upon the mind of the ethnog- rapher not only by the ever-recurring suggestions of traditional belief, but also by the very necessities of his theme. Almost in despite of those restraints and cautious methods which he imposes upon himself and upon every branch of the subject, he finds himself disposed to favor the one or the other of the several current theories respecting the original locus of mankind and the nature of the genesis of the race. The fundamental question is whether the facts of ethnology on the whole tend to strengthen or to weaken Theory of Mon- the monogenetic theory of "S^ei^^/^* the human family. Did fa°ts. the race of man arise from a single source and a single pair, at a single time and under simple conditions? or did the various branches of mankind have poly- centric origins and independent lines of development? In this fonn the ques- tion is simply anthropological. Carried into the domain of natural science, how- ever, the problem has become one of creation by evolution or immediate and phenomenal creation ; and the inquiry takes the same form which it has respect- ing all other animals and all plants on the face of the earth, namely, did they originate by evolutionary processes of growth and adjustment from a single genu or a few germs of life, scattered in 536 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the soil of possibility, or did the exist- ing forms of life appear phenomenally in time and place and in complete de- velopment? On the whole, it may be said that the theory of a monocentric origin for the human race gains under the addition of facts and the readjust- ments of right reason ; while on the other hand, it may well be allowed that the universality of the evolutionary process as applied to all other forms of life would seem to demand a like process of growth and development for man. It is also fitting in this connection to add a paragraph in the way of further True aspect and explanation of what jnay be t;™™o=:.ts C'-^lle*! the true aspect and considered. form of thoso migratory movements which have been delineated in the present book. In several places the reader has already been put on cau- tion against the too exact representation of these human phenomena by means of lines and the other physical terms made necessary by the nature of the discus- sion. Ethnic lines drawn on a map from place to place as indications of the movements of tribes of men in process of natural dispersion must not be understood as a narrow highway or as a river channel bearing a single definite volume of water from its source to its mouth — from its departure to its dcboucliurc. Human progress over the face of the earth has never been in this exact similitude. If any tangible symbol could be adopted to express to the senses and receptive faculties of man the exact nature of tribal diffusion, it would be that of a f I III spreading' over the faec of the earth. Xevertheless, this filmy and irregular dispersion of mankind does proceed from one place to another. It starts from a definite origin and rees- tablishes itself in another locus far re- moved. A line drawn from one of these places to another subserves an excellent purpose as indicating the direction which the movement, considered as a whole, has taken, and also as defining the points of departure and arrival. But in other respects the line is altogether mislead- ing, as being too iiiatheiiiatieal and precise for the fact whicli i-t is intended to repre- sent. If a map could be so constructed as to bear broad, thin bands of color, widening and contracting and bending in likeness to the expansion and narrow- ing and eddying of actual tribal move- ments, the representation would be more in conformity with the facts. The stu- dent of ethnography must, therefore, be on his guard lest the notion or concept which he receives of the migrations of mankind, deduced from the drawing of lines across the map through continents and over seas, be inadequate, and, in- deed, erroneous in its nature. Many familiar illustrations drawn at random from the movement of peoples within the historical era may be deduced in illustration of the misconceptions into which the inquirer is likely Familiar iiius- to fall. For instance, the t^:^:^,^^^ passage from the shores of races, the Old World, in ships, of the colonists who planted themselves in little rook- eries on the eastern seaboard of America might well be represented by lines drawn across the Atlantic from point of de- parture to point of settlement. But the diffusion of those peoples inland from the Atlantic shores, though it had a di- rection and a tendency, could hardly be given a linear representation. With the development of the Old Thirteen vStates, the overflow of their population by adventure came through the passes of the Alleghanies into the Ohio and Mississippi valleA^s; but such a move- ment would be very poorly represented by lines. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES—THE BLACKS. 537 Gradual diffu- sion of the Anglo-Ameri- cans westward. The peopling of the trans-Mississippi states and territories was in the nature of a gradual spreading of the American race toward the Rocky mountains. The colonization of Kansas and Ne- braska may in general be traced to an origin in New England. But a single line drawn from Western Massachusetts across New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa, and bifurcated at its passage of the Missouri river into East- ern Kansas and Nebraska, would be a very inadequate, not to say an errone- ous, representation of the actual facts. Yet the movements which we have here described were projected in the open daylight of history, under the conscious and rational forces of civilization. They were consequently much more exact than those natural expeditions and swarmings forth which characterized the barbarous epochs of human society. The progress by which the colonists have peopled the western portions of America by mi- gration from the east is much more susceptible of exact delineation than were those prehistoric movements which were directed by the blind forces of bar- barism. An attempt to point out with geometric curves the course taken by the Teutonic hordes who came into Britain in the fifth century, or by the Northmen into Neustria in the ninth, would be not only conjectural but exceedingly ineffi- cient as a pictorial method of symboliz- ing the things it is intended to express. The movements of human society on the surface of the earth are as multifari- Exactitude not ous as the swarming of bees inetw^moet f^n^ the parent colony, "le'^ts. It is easy to indicate the general direction of the swarm, to point out its origin and its ultimate destination in the distant forest ; but its exact course and the manner of its going are phe- M. — Vol. I — 35 nomena exceedingly difficult of definition and description. Human migrations are even more intangible and multifarious in their manifestations than are the blind- er circlings about and the final settlings of animals and birds, and the reader must be on his guard against the exact and mathematical delineation of such movements on maps and globes. They are, at best, the vague indications of the places from which and to which and the space over which the tribes of men have drifted and turned and whirled on their way to a final occupancy of a different and distant part of the earth's surface. Still another important consideration arises with respect to the classification and tribal dispersion of mankind. This relates to the precise separa- Separation of tion of tribe from tribe and tribes and races r 1 • -L Ai not complete. race from race which the ethnographers have employed in their schemes of division. These plans of distribution and of race partition are drawn up as if they were mathematical formulas. It is assumed that the Ruddy races are clearly defined from the Brown, and the Brown races from the Black ; that is, that the lines of demarkation be- tween these major divisions of mankind are clearly and definitely drawn. Such a supposition is as wide from the fact as is the use of a line to represent the pre- historic movements of a tribe. It is true that there are Ruddy races, that there are other races which are Black, and others Brown. But the lines of dix-ision which are supposed to separate the one from the other, that is, the ethnic dis- tinctions by which the one is separated from the other, would be difficult to discover. It is here, as in all natural anah'sis, that nature hangs together. The races of men grade off, the one into the other, by imperceptible degrees. This is true 538 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. of their physical characteristics, of their mental habitudes, of their morality, and )ff-gradmg of of their institutional forms of life. It would perhaps be impossible to find the exact points of division between the the human spe- cies ; no Unes in nature. TYPE OF RUDDY RACE APPROXIMATED TO BROWN — A NATIVE OF MADRAS. Drawn by Einile Bayard. Black peoples of the world and those ■who are classified as Brown. Xor could the Ruddy peoples be separated from either by a precise line of demarkation. Nature abhors a line! The physical world does not present a single instance of what may properly be called a line. Every phenomenon is .shaded off on all sides into the other facts with which it is associated. It is true that the dis- tinction between night and day is suffi- ciently striking; but all the scien- tific tests in the world could never define the limits of that dawn which separates the one from the other. The cloud is discriminated from the sky, and yet by what kind of test could the edge of a cloud be de- fined from its atmospheric envel- ope? It is not pos.sible to produce even on the edge of the finest cut- lery an actual line. Everywhere there is a blending of the phenom- ena that lie on the two sides of the demarkation. In the world of life this absence of exact outlines by def- inition is equally noticeable. The differences between races of men are among the most striking and inter- esting facts with which historical in- ; quiry has to do ; but these condi- tions are graded down until at the selvage they blend with one another into a common character. This, however, is not to assert that there is.no difference between one race of men and species a mis- another. It is only to "°;^"'^*^!,„ J economy oi na- deny the division of the t"re. one from the other by those exact lines of discrimination which ethnog- raphers are wont to employ. Those thinkers who have made the widest application of the hypothesis of evo- lution to the various forms of life on the globe have become satisfied that all varieties of living forms merge into each other, and that the method of clas- sifying by genera and species is in reality fictitious — a convenience of science per- haps, but having no corresponding fact DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 639 in nature. It is held that whereas there are almost infinite varieties among liv- ing creatures, there are no species in the sense in which that term has been hitherto understood by natural phi- losophers. In many places in the world of life great gaps and chasms are discovered which it is necessary to bridge over by supposing intermediate living forms which have disappeared. But it is believed that if all the phenom- enal exhibitions of life which have been seen on the earth could be restored, the artificial methods of classification now employed would disappear; in other words, that all life would become one, the various formal manifestations of the same being shaded off by such fine de- grees as not to warrant the fixing of the great classes and smaller divisions which furnish the nomenclature of biology. If this view of nature be accepted as applied to the human race, we should be Races of men led to regard the chasms must be regard- between the different divi- ed as varieties of acommoniife. sions of mankind as the re- sult of the perishing and dropping out of certain intermediate types that, on the whole, were less able to perpetuate them- selves than were those varieties of men who were differentiated under more fa- vorable conditions on either side of the departure. We should thus be led to regard a given "race," so called, as a certain form of humanity which nature had proved and ratified under the laws of environment and survival. A differ- ent family would present simply another aspect of the one common fact adjusted to new conditions and developed on new lines of activity. Intermediate between these two separate forms of human evo- lution we should find both branches grading toward each other and approxi- mating to a common type. The type itself would perhaps be absent, but the shades on either side of the line of de- markation would be so slightly different as to be hardly distinguishable the one from the other. Such conditions are discovered along the edges, or selvages, of race develop- ment. The Danube in Peoples approx- ancient times constituted i^^t'eS a kind of geographical bar- margins, rier between the Teutonic and the Grseco-Italic races. The Goth, consid- ered as a Goth, was sufficiently distinct from the Greek considered as a Greek, or the Roman as a Roman. But the two races at their margins approxi- mated a common ethnic form, and this Independently of the admixture of blood. All of these considerations are adduced and urged upon the attention of the in- quirer to the end that his concept of race divisions may be somewhat more in accordance with the facts, than would likely happen if he were trained to con- sider the different streams of mankind distinctly separated by the exact lines of ethnography. 540 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Chapter XXXI.— IVIixed Races oe NIankind. Existence of mixed or inter- mediate races. |E are thus led to the consideration of an- other fact of no little importance in the gen- eral apprehension of the movements and dispersion and devel- opment of mankind. This is the exist- ence and character of intermediate or mixed races. It has always happened that wherever two families of men have touched each other geographically, they have also touched by the more intimate admixture of blood. In the early ages of history, when race antipathy was stronger than it is under the light of civilization, the intermingling of differ ent branches of the race was less fre- quent and conspicuous than in modern times. But intermarriages were com- mon from the remotest epochs, and are mentioned as common circumstances in the most primitive traditions of the world. As a result of the cross-relation- ships thus established between fami- Race offspring Hes of different blood an takes character cc fi-om both an- offspnug, possessmg some- cestors. thing of the traits of both ancestors, would arise, intermediate be- tween the two ; and when the departure between the two stocks thus blended was strongly marked in color and other ethnic qualities, the result of the union would present a type sufficiently distinct to be classified by itself. An interme- diate group, or branch, of people would thus be established who, preferring as- sociations with their own kind, would become a tribe, and finally a nation. Such is the somewhat theoretical view of the genesis of a mixed race of people. Strangely enough, however, the facts do not seem to warrant the conclusion. This is to say that the But intermedl- tribal and race development pe'pe™a\t° "°* of the intermediate stock themselves. has never seemed to answer to the ex- pectation of the premises. That is, there is an apparent law in the natural world which forbids the propagation and expansion of these intermediate varieties of mankind. The law in question is common to man, to the lower animals, and to plants. The hybrid does not procreate its kind. It is incapable of doing so. This is to say that if the two animals which have been united in the production of a third be sufficiently dif- ferentiated from each other as to belong to what the naturalist calls diverse " spe- cies," then the offspring can not procre- ate its kind, and the movement in the direction of a new variety of animals ceases with the first stage. If, how- ever, the two animals are so near to- gether in structure and characteristics as to fall within the limits of what is called a "species," then, indeed, the off- spring of their union can procreate along the new line of life. But it has been universally observed that such propaga- tion is extremely feeble, and that it tends to weakness and early extinction. In cases where this does not actually happen, the offspring of the original union, after a few generations, reverts to the type of the one or the other of the ancestors from which it was descended. This reversion to the character of an ancestral stock appears to be the case with the union of the different branches DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— MIXED FORMS. 541 of mankind. That is, considered accord- ing to the biological classifications until recently acknowledged as the best APPROXIMATION OF BLACK AND BKOUN RACES — THE MOOR FAG HE. Drawn by E. Ronjat. expressions of the different orders of nature, all men fall within a single spe- cies, having its varieties All varieties of . ^ . men fall within a which may Unite despite single "species." <• .1 • . i- i- of their strong distinc- tions, and produce a progeny having the qualities of both parentages. It has been maintained by many naturalists, and until recently has been generally believed, that these hybrid forms of hu- man life have in them the elements of perpetuit}^ that the new variety of man- kind thus established is fecund in its kind, and as well qualified to maintain its independent characteristics as is either of the types from which it has been derived. A closer study of the situation, how- ever, has established the opposite view. It is now known, and wellnigh universal- ly recognized bv biologists, ■^ ^ . " o ' Short-Uved that the intermediate va- character of all • , ■ 111 -1 mixed varieties. rieties, or so-called mixed races of men, are, considered as distinct types, exceedingly short lived, unable as a rule to continue their existence or to maintain the distinct features which they present in the first generations after the original admixture. Such intermediate peoples, therefore, constitute, not, as was hitherto supposed, distinct races in the ethnography of mankind, but a kind of floating population interfused among the nations of the world, mixing and APPRO.KI.MATION OF THE RUDDY AND BROWN RACES- DON MARIANO TERAN, PRIEST OF COPORAQUE. Drawn by Riou, from a photograph. mingling dimly with the other human elements, but really effecting no changes in the general constitution of any type. 542 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. In all ages this impermanent compound of humanity has shown itself along the Results of inter- margins of race contact, mixture in the |^ ^ j ^,^^ exerted other case of the ludo-Aryans. than a modifying influence on the separate peoples from whom the mixed type has been deduced. We have already seen that the valleys of India were populated before the immigrant Aryans took possession of the country. In another chapter the presence of this aboriginal population has been accounted for by the hypothesis of a Dra vidian mi- gratory movement across the peninsula before the deflection of that race into the great archipelagoes of the East. The Aryan tribes were not severe with the aborigines, but absorbed them by blood union and amalgamation. The result was, not the establishment and perpetu- ity of an intermediate or mixed race, but merely a modification in the Indo- Aryan character. It is believed that the immi- grant and superior race took a consider- able percentage of the Brown color of the Dravidians, something of their tropical suppleness of body, and a certain mental quiescence favorable to the genesis and propagation of the dreamy philosophies and negative religions of India. These results have continued to the present time, and are quickly discernible by the ethnographer in the swarthy complexion, litheness, and subjective moods of the peoples of Hindustan. But the Hindus are not to be regarded in the light of a mixed race. They are essentially Ar- yan, not only in their genesis and evolu- tion, but in their present character as a race. The tint of the Old Dravidians is in their countenance, and their blood is tinged with the influences of aboriginal descent ; but the ethnic type is the same that it was beyond the Hindu-Kush and in the old Aryan nidus in Bactria. The same phenomenon has occurred and recurred in hundreds of instances in the history of mankind. In fact, it is ex- ceedingly exceptional to ^ Examples of like find a race of men who have ethnic phenom- . , 1 . ena elsewhere. not been more or less in- fected in blood and development by alien influences. But each race has continued its course of evolution under the domin- ion of the original ethnic impulse ; and while it has accepted modifications from foreign peoples, it has persisted in main- taining its own type. The attention of the reader has already been called to the fact that the Assyrians were a people who had been thus modified by two or three contacts with other races. The Hamites on the south had somewhat in- fected the ethnic character of the people in Upper Mesopotamia. Later on, the Aryan Medes penetrated the country on the east and gave another modification to the people. So great were the changes thus efl'ected in the Assyrian race char- acter that ethnographers have been con- fused in their classification. Even the language was so much infected as to mis- lead the inquirer in regard to the lin- guistic stock from which it was deduced. But all of these foreign influences were no more than modifications in the real .Semitic constitution of the Assyrians. The foreign admixture deflected some- what the course and character of the people of the Upper Tigris, but did not subvert their fundamental constitution or substitute one ethnic descent for an- other. The peoples of Western Asia Minor, especially on the south, were regarded as composite. This fact Further exam- has been pointed out in telt^^ZT- a former chapter. But acter. the persistency of the strongest stock, whatever that was in a given instance, preserved the original type, however modified and diverted from its earlier DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—MIXED FORMS. 543 standards. All the western nations of ■ primitive Europe might be cited as ex- amples of the absorption, to a greater or less degree, of preceding populations that were overcome by conquest and taken up by the pi^ocess of amalgama- tion. The Hamitic Basques and Ibe- rians of Spain were in this manner absorbed by the Aryan Spaniards of a later age, and the latter received from the former a darker tinge of color, and perhaps other physical and mental char- acteristics which they carry to the pres- ent day. The modern world presents still more strikingly the modifications resultant The Israelites from the intermixture of eT^io^irof distinct types of people, races. Perhaps no stock in the world can better exhibit the persistency of the original type under infinite modi- fications of environment and foreign im- pact than the Israelites, who are at present interfused among the Western nations. The " Abrahamic face " is seen in all the marts of the world. The original char- acter is strong upon him. He has inter- mingled with all the races. The Spanish Jew is very different in constitution and ethnic character from the German or Polish Jew ; but each and all have pre- served an original type under diverse and divergent aspects. Modern ethnography has taken note of an almost endless variety of mixed races which present the beginnings, but never the results, of new ethnic develop- „.^ ^-^ ■ ments. The distribution Wide diffusion ofmixed types; of the Black and Brown the Mulattoes. . . . ^ , races mto regions of the earth now occupied by the Ruddy fami- lies of men has given occasion for the production of these multiform cross- bloods whose interest as races lies not in their perpetuity, but merely in their present aspect. Wherever the Ruddy and the Black race have come into contact, that type known as Mulat- toes has appeared, and until recently it might have been thought that the Mu- latto was destined to permanence as an intermediate type of mankind. This, however, is the very thing which, under the law of nature, can not, or at least does not, occur. The Mulatto is fecund. It has been noticed by statisticians that the first generation of Mulatto children, that is, Cascos, or those who have Mu- lattoes for both parents, are unusually numerous; but it is also observed that the tendency to reversion immediately appears, some being blacker, like the ancestral mother, and others whiter, like the first father of the admixture. The latter type of Mulattoes, that is, those who gravitate toward the white parentage, are almost in- . Instability of variably weak and spirit- the Mulatto less. If they procreate at all, the offspring dies, and the reversion to- ward the white parentage soon ceases for want of material. The blackward tendency goes on for several genera- tions, when the distinction between the Mulatto progeny and the children of Blacks is no longer noticeable. The type has reverted on the side of the original mother. The same phenom- enon recurs with the Mestizo, or the half-breed of the Mexican and the Spanish-American states. As a rule, the father, in this case, is a white Spaniard and the mother an Indian woman. Here, again, in the first gener- ation a distinction appears among the children. The Mestizos fluctuate from the father's to the mother's side, and, though somewhat more persistent than the Mulattoes, they either revert or perish. That indefinable tj-pe, called Creole in those countries where the word is 644 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. Used to designate half-breeds, shows the same or analogous tendencies. The Zambo, or cross between Crosses of Amer- i i t t lean aborigines the Negro and the Indian, with Negroes. .^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ generations undiscoverable as a separate type. That is, the Zambo can only be perpetuated by the repetition of the original cross. l,iliti:;!!;:!11!iti1l!irtl1'rTT!ff™ffiri!!||l|lli or forces which occasion the departure of one type of people from another, and the development of each Ethnic instincts into diverse forms of ac- ^'^^^f^l'^i","'"' creation and tivity, we should, perhaps, birth, find the answer to our inquiry in the nature of procnatioii and birth. There is a human instinct which, in virtue of its MlXhli IVPhS-MEXICAN WOM F.N. -Drawn by Riou So, likewise, of the Cholo of .South America, the Pardo and the Mamaluco of Brazil, the Chino of Mexico and Spanish America, the Cafuso, or Negro- Indian cross, of Brazil, and in general of all varieties and .shades of the so-called mixed races of mankind. If we are dispo.sed to look into what may be called the origin of races, that is, the very primary circumstances own nature, hovers around the fact of maternity. Still deeper down than this somewhat generalized sentiment that covers the mother, there is an instinct of the mother herself for her oifspring. This is sufficiently strong even in ani- mals to .stimulate intelligence and fore- thought. The mother does not abandon her child. She protects it, nunses it. Otherwise, there were no perpetuity. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—MIXED FORMS. 545 This maternal impulse is the bottom fact in the ethnic dispersion of mankind. The mother is bound to her AU race disposi- , ., , , ... . , , tions arise from child by the law oi her be- the family. .^^^ Therefore she keeps it, first on her breast, afterwards at her side. She is the mother, not of one, but of many. She nurtures and gathers all of them about her, and puts herself between them and danger. This phe- nomenon is perfectly natural, and, like other elementary facts, is incapable of explanation. To the mother and her group the father is drawn. They con- stitute a complex fact, and he a simple fact. Even in savagery he is tied to this group, with one of whom he has the most intimate association, and of the rest of whom he recognizes himself as the creator. The ties which bind the father to the mother and to his offspring are Place of the not SO permanent and abso- lute as those between the mother and her children. But they are, nevertheless, sufficient to hold him, with tolerable singularity, to her and to them, and, indeed, to con- stitute him their head and defender. Doubtless the sentiment of fatherhood arises at a very early period in the breast of the savage, and, though it is not constant and dominating in the bar- barian, it nevertheless is sufficiently pronounced to complete the elementary conditions of the family. The family, then, begun on these simple and natural, we might say inevitable, conditions, is the beginning of race divergence. Out of the family springs the gens. The brothers of a given family, mayhap In what manner the sisters, become the ^vXd/r'om heads of other families, famiues. bearing an intimate rela- tionship the one to the other. They have a common blood. They dwell together father in the primary organ ization. or in proximity. Their interests are, in large measure, mutual. They help each other, prosper together, suffer together, and struggle in common causes. They call each other by the common ancestral name, and are thus all grouped as one, constituting that fact in the evolution of man called tlie gens, the clans, the sept, the totem, or some such name significant of a single blood origin and develop- ment. The gens, then, is the second stage of race evolution. Out of the gens arises the tribe. That strange fact which we call by the general name of nature does not „ The tribe m like freely permit the intermar- manner springs 1111 . r fromgentes. riage and blood union or intimate kinspeople. There is a revul- sion against it as a method of procreat- ing and extending the race. The natural affections of brotherhood and sisterhood, even in the most savage state, are totally different from those sexual affections upon which the multiplication of the race depends. It is thus found con- venient and desirable, in the very earli- est stages of society, that the members of a given gens do not intermarry with one another. It is found to be more fitting that the man of one gens take the woman of another to his wife, and vice versa. For convenience, we call the members of a given gens gentiles, and the rule of even the most profound bar- barism is that gentiles shall not inter- marry. "With the cross unions which take place under these natural laws, relations are at once established between two or more gentes. These cross relations bring the several orentes together in a common cause. The selvages of all are knit to- gether by the marriage unions among them, and the offsprings of such unions are allied to all in common. This union of several gentes constitutes the tribal or third staa-e in race evolution. 546 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. It must be borne in mind that the threefold process which we have here described occurs in the plastic stage of human development. It may be assumed that the primitive gentile The gentile life . '^ r i astateofsus- was m a State of youth as cept.bil.ty. .J. j.g^p^.^t^ y^^ fj^n,i]y ^.hiid- hood that had been and the race man- hood that was to be. It is well known that throughout all nature plants and animals pass through a state of suscepti- bility in which and out of which they may be deflected into almost any form of growth. There is a time in the his- tory of a tree when, as a mere withe, it can be tied into a knot without injury to the organism. There is a time when the husk of corn may be opened and a row of the grains cut out, and the wound will close and the completed ear give no hint of the process by which the number of rows thereon has been reduced from even to odd. Aye, more, in the early stages of life all animal forms are virtu- ally identical. But at a certain period they begin, in obedience to their own laws, to differentiate into the several types which tliey are ultimately to bear. The gentile age of man appears to be his "age of susceptibility," as it respects r .V . -^ y.c tl^6 form and character of In the tribal life ethnic features the race toward which are established. 1^1 ,, he tends. .Something of this susceptibility is carried forward into the tribe, which is the next higher form of human structure. It is likely that after the tribe has been well constituted, the features of the race are not only dis- coverable in the tribal lineaments, but are in a measure /.nv/ so as to be subjected to little additional modification . Thus, if we trace the barbarian unit of the primi- tive world toward the coming race of which his descendant is to be the epitome and brief abstract, we shall find that his actual differentiation into race form takes place while he is passing through the gentile and tribal stages of develop- ment. It happens — has happened — in a vast number of instances that the develop- ment of mankind has been arrested in the gentile stage. This is The horde arises to say that the or^anie tend- ^TJJZTC ency ceases at this low ment. point in the scale, and instead of reach- ing a tribe by the evolution of the gens, we come to that other remarkable fact in the prehistoric world called the horde. A horde is not a tribe. We have in the vegetable kingdom a phenomenon called blasting. The grain that is to be, in- stead of coming to development and maturity, suddenly passes, as in the ergot of rye, into a blasted and inorganic condition. The horde is a blasted tribe. It happened in the ancient world that the growing gens sometimes expanded sparsely into a vast and cheerless region, unfavorable for aggregation and, per- haps, already thinly populated by some aboriginal form of humanity. The dis- persing members of the gens that might have become a tribe under more favora- ble circumstances, inviting them to imite with some other gens into a more com- plex form of organization, merely diffuse and scatter among the barbarians already existing, intermingle with them, become a common mass, without discoverable features or form, and presently, after multiplication without development, roll away, under the influence of some blind force, into the form of a Iiorde. This phenomenon recurs and re-recurs beyond the horizon of history, and even on this side of the dawn. To the present day there are hordes drifting over the waste regions of the earth, without form and void. They are the miscarried aspects of tribal development, the ergot of races that have suffered abortion. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— MIXED FORMS. 547 The surviving tribe, however, situated under more favorable conditions and uro;ed b\' a more rational The race is the . . . result of tribal instlUCt, Iixes itSelf 111 the evolution. ■, i .1 1 •, SOU, and presently, by its growth, expansion, and maturity, pre- sents us with that aspect of humanity to the divisions thereof, and sometimes even to minor stocks. But, as we have said, the context generally shows in which sense the word has been em- ployed. Race, then, may be understood as an expression for a given type of mankind sufficiently differentiated from THK HOKUE.— Kntkance ok the Moors i.\to Alcazar. which we call a race. The word is very inexact. It has a wider and a narrower sense. Its merit is that it generally con- veys to the mind, in its relations with a given context, the true sense which it is intended to gfive. The term race is some- times applied to all mankind, sometimes all other tvpes to present and maintain certain characteristics easih- distin- ginshed from those of other branches of the human family. Such a differentiated form of mankind is the product of tribal evolution into permanency and persistency of structure. 548 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. The genesis begins with the instinctive preference and passion of the mother for The successive her own offspring", and the stages of devei- association and binding of opment summzi- ° tized. the father to the mother and child as the head of the family. The evolution passes easily into the gentile form, Avhich is the first stage above the family development. The gens unites with another gens, or with other gentes, to produce a tribe. This is the migra- tory, and also the differential, period of the human career. When the tribe has become fixed in a favorable locality it expands, under auspicious conditions, into the permanent form of a race, and the evolution is complete. The gradual and toilsome spreading of mankind over the surface of the globe has been a process both Slow and toil- /■ -, r ■, some progress of Striking and wondertul. the human race, -r .^ r ii. In the course of ages the planet came into the habitable condition — into the ej^och of life. Life appeared. The lower forms were succeeded by the higher. Man came as the master race of animals. He came with reason, at least potentially, and with possibilities of improvement, of adjustment and re- adjustment to his environment, of change and growth and high achievement. With the development of his tribes mi- gration became a necessity, not, indeed, a definite movement from one locality to another far distant, but a spreading first into adjacent regions, and afterwards to lands afar. With this outbranching from old eth- nic centers there came, in the plastic stage of mankind, the differentiation of tribe from tribe, of race from race. Possibly a diversity of individual in- stinct was the small source from which the differential tendency arose. Some cause there certainly was for the branch- ing forth into different forms of the common stock of humanity. Long, tedious, and variable have been the proc- esses of movement and evolution un- til, at last, all parts of the habitable globe have come under the dominion, or at least the occupancy, of the race. It has been the aim in the current book to give merely a cursory sketch of the principal movements ■^ .... Synoptical view by which this distribution of the dispersion . , . T . , ., ^ J. of mankind. of mankind into all parts oi the earth has been effected. In tracing out the.se migratory waves we have only incidentally touched upon the peculiari- ties and characteristics which were meanwhile manifesting themselves among the various races and nations. While the distribution has been in process of accomplishment, the distinct features by which race is distinguished from race have been evolved. The con- spicuous differences which discriminate one people from another have appeared, until the modern inquirer is more .sur- prised at the variable aspect of mankind than he is with those movements which have preceded the present conditions of the race. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 549 Chapter XXXII. -General View ok Ethnic Char= acteristics. Personal charac- teristics of races to be considered. EFORE passing to an- other general division of the subject, we pause to look somewhat more attentively at the gen- eral ethnic peculiarities by which the different races of mankind are discriminated the one from the other. The inquiry will include not only distinctions, but also analogies and identities among the dif- ferent branches of the hu- man race. It is intended to note the traits and quali- ties of life and manners among at least the principal divisions of mankind, to the end that the race characters of all may be clearly discerned. The study before us will include Avhat may be called the personal characteristics of the various races, together with their means of subsistence, their habits and manners, their primitive institutional forms, their intellectual appetencies, their arts^ where the same exist — and their influ- ence as a modifying force in the phys- ical world, or, in general, the traits of mankind and their relations with the laws and conditions of environment. It is purposed in the present chapter to glance briefly at these ethnic pecul- Racesofmen iarities from a general Z^^^^. point of view. There are ing features. a few leading features by which the races of men may be strongly discriminated, and it is perhaps along these primary lines that their differenti- ation has been chiefly accomplished. After noting these first principles of divergence, we may, in the following chapters of the present book, descend into the particulars of tribal life, devel- oping, according to the present resources of knowledge, the whole aspect of the race as the same is displayed in differ- ent parts of the world. In the first place, it may prove of in- terest to note, as we look down upon the whole scene of human AbiHtyofman- development, from the be- ^fp^;^°^ ginnings of race evolution environment. unto the present day, the extent to which the different kindreds of mankind have been able to modify the conditions of the physical world. The observer will be struck at the beginning with the fact that some peoples have effected a very considerable change in the surface of the earth, while others have in no wise modi- fied the primitive aspect of nature. There are parts of the earth in which the change effected by human agency has been very considerable, insomuch that if the earth were viewed, planet- like, as we view the moon, the modifica- tions effected by human agency would be easily discoverable. It has happened that all such changes have taken place in the north temperate zone, or possi- bly to a small extent within the tropics. Western Asia and Europe throughout have been, until the present century, the scene of the largest modifications produced by the agency of man. At the present time the most rapid change in the general aspect of the world is that which is taking place in the central zone of North America, under the impact of the English-speaking race. If we look at these changes from an ethnic point of view, we shall soon dis- cover that they have been effected most 550 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. largely by the agency of the Ruddy, or so-called White, races of mankind. In The Ruddy the coiuitries of the Brown races it is not in evidence that the surface of the earth has been transformed to any con- siderable degree, except in Eastern Asia, races have ef- fected greatest modifications. been changed by the massing of a great population and its neecs.sary subsistence from the soil. Native woodlands could not possibly coexist with so den.se a pop- ulation. Forests have entirely disap- peared, and the rivers have n(j doubt slirunk considerably in their volume. 1* I « *--T.^ ^ ^ -^1 MODIFICATION OF THE NATURAL WORLD BY MAN.— View of the Fortificatjons of Belfokt.— Drawn by Taylor, from a photograph. where the Chinese Mongolians, through long occupancy of a given country, have wrought a considerable change in its as- pect. The original physical condition of China is a matter of conjecture, but In most parts of the earth, however, the Brown races have little concerned themselves with the physic- ^rown races do ■' ■' not concern al conditions around them, themselves with ^lore particularly, they physical con- ditions. it is not unlikely that forests were prev- have made few efforts to transform the alent, and that much greater humidity prevailed in primitive ages than within the hi.storical era. As a matter of course, both of these former conditions have primeval state of the countries into which they have penetrated. A.sia north of the Altais remains virtually as it was before the race of man had taken possession — if DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 551 possession that may be called which con- sists in mere occupancy. Doubtless considerable cosmic modification has oc- curred since the coming of mankind, and those limitless steppes and cheerless mountain slopes have shared in common with the rest of the earth the slow proc- esses of climatic change ; but the actual agency of man in the Turanian countries has been but slight in so far as the conditions of physical nature are con- cerned. One of the first instances of the mas- tery of the earth's surface Avas in the Mesopotamian region, where the strong tide of the Noachite family flowed to the west. In Chaldaea, about the Modifications ef- . fectedbyraan he.:d of the Persian gulf, in Mesopotamia. , , , , /■ r ^i the whole surface or the low-lying plain has been raised to an elevation of many feet above its prehis- toric position. It has not been deter- mined by geologists and ethnographers by what process the surface of thickly inhabited countries is elevated to higher levels ; but that such is the actual fact the old Chaldsean burying grounds and the level of the whole region around Rome conclusively show. It is well known that the two great rivers, Eu- phrates and Tigris, were thrown to- gether either by the elevation of the country along their banks or by the cut- ting of canals through the alluvium. Another marked variation in the Chal- dsean landscape was the extension of the verdant region on the side next the Arabian desert. In this direction the waters of the Euphrates were carried off by the agency of man to a distance of a score of miles, by which agency the fertile extent of Lower Mesopotamia was perhaps doubled in area. In the north- ern region the native woods from the foot of the Armenian mountains down into Central Mesopotamia were removed. and the desert cha,racter of the country, such as it was in the days of Herodotus and afterwards in the timesof Xenophon, was the result. To what extent nature sympathized with these changes on the surface of the earth we may not well determine ; but there was doubtless a con- Nature changes siderable climatic modifica- th^fiSuen^or tion resultant from human "'=^'^- agenc)'. Through all of Asia Minor to the ^gean the same kind of modifica- tions were effected. On the whole, the country between the Black sea and the Eastern Mediterranean was greatly de- teriorated by the influence of the early peoples who planted themselves in this fertile region. It is here that we may consider for a moment the great injury done to the face of the world by the injury done to butchery of forests. It is ^^eltTut^n^of true that the relations of forests, man with the earth require the conver- sion of wild woods into fields and gar- dens, but the wise energies of the race should be directed to the redistribution of the tree-growths on the face of the earth rather than to their mere destruc- tion. Nothing is more certain than the desert tendency which immediately ap- pears in every country which is reck- lessly denuded of its trees. No country has suffered in this respect more than has Asia ^Minor. Its extreme fertility in ancient times can not be doubted. For a long time after the institution of civilized states in this peninsular portion of Asia the country was proverbial for its great vield of grains and fruits. Man has virtually exhausted the whole region by his careless administration. He has consumed the current resources of the country and provided nothing in their place. The result has been the creation of p-reat deserts on this area once cov- 652 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ered with grain-bearing fields and or- chards and vineyards. This was the work of the Aryan peo- ples who came into Lesser Asia and Asia Minor more there developed the early modified than ^ Easterner States which flourished iin- NorthernEu- ^-i ,. i j i rope. til they were crushed be- tween Persia and Europe. But if we follow the northwestern line of Aryan The migratory tribes generally effect- ed no change in the regions through which they passed. Their Variable power vocations of hunters and of races as mod- mast-eaters did not inter- '^"^2 agents. fere with the natural course of the phys- ical world. At the beginnings of au- thentic history Germany and Gaul and Britain were in the primeval condition. UNMODIFIED ENVIRONMENT OF MAN.— View of Sonmarg.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a phoiograph. migration into Northern Europe, we shall pursue our inquiry far before we come upon another countr}'- so greatly modified by the agency of man. The southern peninsulas of Europe were early transformed from their native state into habitable territories, but the vaster regions north of the Alps and the Carpathians remained in the wild. In general, the Celtic race accomplished but a slight transformation in the phys- ical landscape. The Grseco-Italic peo- ples wrought successfully in establish- ing themselves locally upon the soil and in changing the face of nature. Indeed, this is what is implied in civilization. Within certain limits, the transforma- tion of the surface of the earth is coin- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 553 cident and coextensive with the march of the general fact which we call the Modification of civilizcd Condition of man. the earth correi- n^^^ principle, however, ative with CIV- r I ' > uization. Jjas its limitations. It is only within certain bounds that man can effect any change in his environ- ment. It is probably true that in such a country as France, or Belgium, or Great Britain, the limit of man's agen- cy as a cosmic force has been reached. This is to say that nature will hardly feel any additional modification from the continuance of the established status in these countries. Of course, if civili- zation should decline, there Avould be a reversion to the primitive condition, as has actually occurred in other quarters of the globe. It is, then, the civilizing Ruddy races which have effected the largest modifica- tion in the surface of the earth, and by Europe more this means have given a cer- tain direction to the ebb and flow of nature. The changes effected primarily in the southern parts of Europe, and, in later times, throughout the whole continent, have been more conspicuous than those pre- sented in othet portions of the ancient world. Along the northern shores of Africa, except in the extreme northeast, only slight modifications were made by the races occupying these countries. It should be noted that the earth is much more refractoiy in .some parts, much less susceptible of receiving and express- ing the agency of man, than in other parts. There are three general features on the surface of the globe that strongly Man success- resist the influence of its thrSmsi^ inhabitants. These are the nature. mountains, the desert, and the sea. Perhaps a slight exception ought to be made in the case of the than Africa changed by hu man agency. M. -Vol. I- desert; but the mountains and the sea are absolute. It is possible, indeed, that all the deserts of the world may finally be reclaimed by the agency of man, but the mountains will hardly ever submit to his dominion. As to the ocean, its exemption from human authority has been happily discovered by the poets. Here the human race loses completely its power and ascendency. " Man marks the earth with ruin — his control Stops with the shore; upon the wateiy plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage, save his own. When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, He sinks into thy depths with bubbling- groan. Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and un- known." The narrow countries of Northern Africa were held between the mountain ranges and the Meditcrra- Great modifica- nean. These two facts de- r^:^^^ termined the climate and races, the aspect of nature. The Hamitic peo- ples who built the primitive states on these shores effected but a slight change in the physical environment. The Teutonic races in the north of Europe have accomplished a great work in the transformation of nature. This region was exceedingly obdurate as it stood in the primeval ages. But the race which was precipitated along the Baltic was as persistent as the physical world was for- bidding. In one part the primeval forest, dark and ominous, and the great shiggish rivers, rolling down their beds of ooze, were the enemies of progress and development. In another part it was the ocean, surging back and forth over the lowlands, alternately covering and uncovering the vast and coveted regions which were only exhibited for a few hours at a time. The Teuton made a league against the woods and the sea. The one he destroyed, and the other he 554 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. forced back and compelled to stand aloof. It Northern Europe could be viewed with a telescope from the inter- planetary spaces, a great change would be noticed in this region of our world- Semitic and Hamitic tribes we shall find but little modification in the track which they have pursued. This is part- ly attributable to the nature of the coun- tries into which they threw themselves INABIT.ITV OF BLACKS TO MODIFY ENVIRONMENT.— African Town on River. -Drawn by Kiou. disk from the dark and dolorous aspect which it presented in the prehistoric ages. We thus note that the conspicuous changes which have been effected on the The Aryan belt surfacc of the earth by the ^;\T"emlrLb.e ^g^ncv of man have been transformation, measurably limited to the great belt through which the Aryan races flowed to the we.st. If we take up the in their primitive migrations. The cir- cuit of Arabia furnishes little oppor- tunity for the agency of man as it re- spects the landscape. At the present time it may readily be ob.served how little, on the whole, the Arabs, from their manner of life, and particularly from the nature of the countries which they hold, have been able to transform the physical condition of the earth. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 555 But apart from the fact that nature in a treeless and riverless region Hamiticand does not invite the trans- urvoralTeto forming power of man to physical change, play upon her features, there has been much in the character and instincts of the Hamitic and Semitic peoples averse to that kind of exertion which modifies the surface of the earth. It is true that the Hamites and Semites, especially during" the ancient activities of these races, were great builders, and in some instances large producers from the soil. But the mere fact of building does not bring about the transformation of the landscape. In the lapse of time the structures which men rear go down to dust, and things are as they were be- fore, particularly in a country such as Egypt, rainless, cloudless, snowless, treeless. However greatly the building energies of the early race might display themselves, the country itself would be but little modified. It is doubtless true that the valley of the Nile has suf- fered as little change in its physical con- dition, under the dominion of the many races which have succeeded each other there, as has any other part of the globe. In general, the countries into which the Hamites and Semites were dispersed were less subject to the vicissitude of Countries of climate and more uniform Hamites and Semites not sus- in aspcct than the variable ceptible to mod- , . r i i i . ification. and changetul lands to which the Japhetic nations were as- signed by their destiny. It will be con- ceded that in Syria, notably in the Mediterranean states of Palestine and Phoenicia, the Semites accomplished a considerable change in the physical con- dition of the earth. If we may trust the ancient descriptions which tradition has handed down of the aspect of these lands, it will certainly appear that great modification has been produced by the agency of the peoples dwelling therein. If we turn to the Black races of man- kind, it will be perfectly reasonable to assert that they have effected, in the countries to which they were distributed, no perceptible changes in the conditions of their environment. The Negro races inhabiting the great central belt of Af- rica have never shown a disposition to struggle with the forces of the natural world and to subordinate them to the purposes of life. The same is true of the Hottentots. Along the great Afri- can rivers the forests stand as they were from the beginning. The towns are built in the forests by the river banks and nature is imchanged. Though the country is peopled and occupied, it is in no sense possessed to the extent of mas- tery and dominion. The same is true in Australia and Melanesia. We speak, of course, of the influence of the native races in these countries. It is a mere truism to assert that barbarians so low in the scale as the Australian and Papuan races neither would nor could modify the surface of the earth by their indus- tries and enterprises. The great differ- ence, . indeed, between the barbarian and the civilized states is that in the one the man is the master and in the other the slave of the natural world. On the whole, we see that the great modifying influence of man on his phys- ical environment has been Modiiying influ- exerted most largely by ^^^led w the Ruddy races, in their Ruddy to Black, progress to the West. The Brown races in Southern Asia have effected certain changes of like kind in the aspect and conditions of the outer world; but these results have been rather incidental to the massing of vast populations within small areas of territory than from any direct and enerofetic assault of man on the nat- 556 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. nral world. In other regions, the Brown races have in no wise modified the nature of the earth or directed the forces and conditions of their environment. The nomadic Turanians and the Polynesian islanders have submitted themselves to the laws of the material world, and turned their whole activities to other fields of exertion. The Black races, as we have seen, have in a still less degree influ- enced the physical surroundings where they have held their career. They have .simply yielded to the blind elements of the natural world, and have resisted the swirl of the forces to which they were exposed only .so far as to cling to the surface of the earth and maintain there- on a precarious existence. If wc seek for the reasons of this di- versity in the relations of the different races with the planet on which they hold The countries of their career, we shall find, "^:.TlTo::r ^^-^t of an, that the severer development. aspccts of naturc in those countries where the Aryan races have been dispersed have invited and pro- voked the energies of man to the con- flict. This is to .say that life — mere life ■—has a harder contest under the condi- tions which have been imposed on the Ruddy races than in other parts of the world. Wc have seen that the Black races have all been tropical in their nat- ural development. Under the influence of the blazing sun the earth brings forth in the tropics, and the eater eats. He has no need to subsist upon the heavy carbonaceous and nitrogenous foods which are a sine qua nqn amid the rigors of the north. There is much of the same condition in the Orient and in the islands of the Pacific. It still remains a disputed question whether the higher energies of civilization can be displayed under the effeminating influences of southern climates. However this may be, it is certain that the vigor and an- tagonistic spirit of man have been most highly provoked by the bhister and cold, not to say the fury, of northern climates. Thus far in the history of the world Egypt and Carthage furnish the only conspicuous examples of really vigorous peoples who have arisen without the spur of the frost and the sting of the snowflake. There are also certain subjective rea- sons for the preeminence of the Aryan race as a modifying force subjective rea- on the surface of the earth. ^o/^U'it.aion These peoples have an of the Aryans. instinctive curiosity to scrutinize and manage the elements of nature. The Aryan, from our first acquaintance with him in the shadows of prehistoric ages, has been curious to know, to the- orize, to experiment with the phenomena and laws of the material world. In the most primitive epoch of his activity he created a mythology in explanation of the aspects and conditions around him. From the time of the awakening of his tribal consciousness he was on the alert to note, and even to record, the move- ments and caprices of physical nature. He was quick to discover the identities and antagonisms of natural facts, and thus were laid the foundations of those classifications which, in the riper ages of the world, have become science. In this respect the Aryans have been strongly discriminated from the peoples of Brown descent, and still Natural science more strongly from the l^-J^nl^nd S: Black races of the tropics. Blacks. It is doubtful if any such thing as nat- ural science has ever suggested itself to the inquiry of thinkers among the Brown peoples of mankind. Doubtless the highest degree of knowledge possessed by any branch of this family is that to which the Chinese have attained, and it DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES—ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 551 IS certain that among thein the natural sciences are either utterly wanting or families of men the Aryan race is al- most equally distinguished by its scien- MOUIUCATION OK ENVIRONMENT BY APPLICATION OF NATURAL FORCES.-Hvdraulic Mining. else in so crude a condition as to merit no attention from the Western nations. Even from the Hamitic and Semitic tific tendency and attainments. The disposition of the Semitic peoples, and of the Hamites in their best estate, as 558 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. among the Egyptians, has been, from the first, to look at nature as a caused phenomenon, and pass immediately to reflection on the nature and character of the Caitsi- ; while the Aryan mimd has had almost a passion for scrutinizing the phenomena themselves, for determining the relations of physical facts, and dis- covering the laws by which they are governed. This subjective difference, as will readily be seen, has led to the scientific The Aryans have asccudency of the Aryan '::::it^:t^r ^^ces and to their domina- of phenomena, tiou ovcr the earth. That is, the Aryan peoples have mastered the laws of phenomena and subordinated the forces of nature so successfully as to turn them upon their environment, and to compel nature to operate against her- self for the benefit of her most intel- ligent creature. The modification which these peoples have effected in the general aspect of those parts of the world where they have held their career has been resultant from their instinctive curiosity to know and handle the forces of the natural world. If for a moment we contemplate the hydraulic miners at their gigantic task among the gorges of the Sierras, with the uplifted brazen nozzle of their hose throwing a volume of more than a hundred square inches of water, compressed into the destroy- ing impact of a solid column, against the granite mountain side, hurling and hurtling the bowlders and debris as mere sand flying before the blast, we shall see the Aryan mind displayed at its topmost bent and in its most charac- teristic activity. This intellect delights in attacking the environment and crush- ing it into subjection. And in this re- spect it is totally unlike the quiescent and adjustable intellect of the Brown or the Black races. vStill again we may note a second in- stinct, or at least a subjective quality, in the Aryan peoples which has given them their energy as a Extreme sensi- modifying force on the sur- TyZVolst face of the earth. This is want. their scnsitivciuss to want, and the power- ful reaction which such want produces in arousing them to exertion. The stomach was the prehistoric schoolmas- ter, and hunger was the first professor of natural science. Under the influence of these austere but capable instructors the Aryan responded more quickly than the other pupils of the universal school. The energy displayed by the Aryan races under the influence of hunger, of cold, of need in general, has been a matter of astonishment in all ages. Bodily and mental want has acted upon this race like a passion upon the indi- vidual man, and the trem.endous exer- tions growing out of this hunger of body and spirit have told like a storm on all the wild forests and hills and river banks where the Indo-European tribes have made their abodes. The inquiry will at once arise whether this curiosity to scrutinize the processes of nature and to direct her en- Are Aryan in- ergies, whether this keen ^^^^ hunger, this anxiety to feed or cause? and clothe and build against inclemency which the Aryan race has ever exhibit- ed, is not in the nature of an effect rather than a cause. Have we not here — thus may ask the reader — a substitution of a result for its antecedent force ? Has not such instinct in the Arj'an race been de- veloped by the very antagonisms with which it has had to contend ? Has not the hunger arisen from the very exposure and wasted energy which has come to the half-barbarian wanderer in the wilds of Northern Europe? Doubtless there are many reasons that may be assigned, DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 559 many arguments that may be construct- ed to answer these questions iu the af- firmative, thus making it appear that the subjective conditions among the Ar- yan peoples from which we have deduced their modifying energy in the physical world are not really subjective conditions at all, but merely superinduced modes of activity. But, on the contrary, if we look profoundly into the problem, we shall see still better grounds for admit- ting the subjective ethnic distinctions which we have here assigned to the peo- ple of the Indo-European race. For, in the first place, it was a matter of clioicc and preference on the part of the migrating tribes. In fact, all the peo- Ethnic prefer- plcS of the WOrld, if WC eX- rcMr^rS:! cept only the colonizations veiopment. of modern times, have been distributed to their respective quarters of the globe by the unreason- ing and but half-conscious choice and preference of the peoples themselves. Why, otherwise, should a tribe of pri- meval half-barbarians prefer to depart toward the north and enter the bleak regions of storm and snow and desola- tion ? Why should others prefer to trav- erse the desert? There was at the first no compulsion, no contrivance. There was preference only. The ethnic forces were working out their own results. Tlie long lines of tribal migration, as traced over the surface of the earth, were determined in their course and extent by the choice and instinctive dispositions of the moving masses. True it is that every race of living beings is acted upon by the conditions of the environment, and many second natures are produced by these external causes. But the prefer- ence which impels a given animal to adopt a given habitat as his home, is an in- stinctive choice, not determined, as a rule, bv the influences of the external world. So in a larger degree the rational ani- mal man. The Esquimaux cling to the ice floes, struggle with the Races choose walrus, live in their snow ^^IJI^-^^L, huts, and, indeed, suffer all onraces. the hardships of the polar circle because they choose to do it. And the huge Pata- gonians, bounding among the rocks at the extreme of the continent, are there from choice, and remain from a tribal preference, for which no explanation other than itself can be assigned. All the selections of the intermediate terri- tories of the world have been made originally by the same unreasoning preference of the original tribes that oc cupied them. We thus see, after allow- ing all due influence to the reactionary effects of nature upon man, that there were fundamental activities in himself which led him to choose his environ- ment and to fix himself in certain con- ditions and in certain relations with the physical world. There are not wanting in recent times a large class of profound thinkers who as- cribe the march of civiliza- Great part of human develop- tion to the disposition in ment based on 1 , J. the kno-wledge some advanced races of men of nature. to acquaint themselves with the laws of phenomena, and to make those laws available in the administration of life. It would be, doubtless, too much to grant the truth of this theory without restric- tions and limitations ; but that it ex- presses a great section of the whole truth can hardly be denied. The last two centuries have been conspicuous in the whole history of the race by the rapid development of scientific knowledge and the consequent subordination of the forces of the natural world to the will of man. It is one of the great secrets of progress, and it has belonged to the Ar- yan race. It is they who have entered into the arcana of the physical environ- 560 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ment and extracted its principles of ac- tion. They have preserved and record- ed the invariable sequence in which one natural fact succeeds another, and have given to this sequence the name of law. From this they have deduced the recur- rence and the expectation of recurrence among the phenomena of the outer It would be trite to enlarge upon the advantages which the highest races of men have derived from concomitancy their knowledge of physical °h|civ"uze^d"* nature and the laws by 'ife. which it is governed. As between this knowledge and the general fact called civilization, defined as it is in our mod- MASTl.kV 01' MAX BY NATURE— A Boat Wreck. world, and have availed themselves of all the advantages derivable from the knowledge of what is to be. The man ■who knows what will happen is wise and strong. He who does not know what •will happen is foolish and weak. This is said of man in his relations with the natural world. What he understands, he can control. What he can control, he can use. What he can use, is beneficial. Benefit is health and wealth and renown. ern languages, it were hard to determine which of the two more powerfully stim- ulates the other. A certain kind of civ- ilization may exist without the preva- lence of scientific knowledge, and a certain kind of scientific knowledge may prevail without inducing a high grade of civilization. But, on the whole, the two are concomitant. The more the man knows the more does he develop and direct the civilizing forces. The DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 561 more he uses the forces of civilization the more he knows of the principles by which universal nature is controlled and directed. As compared with the other races, the Aryan stock has been preeminent in Scientific pre- these rcspects. The dis- eminence of the ti^ction between them and Indo-European races. the Hamitic and Semitic families of men on the line of scientific achievement is sufficiently broad, and Indo-European, families of mankind on the other. It is believed that the differences in the intellectual habits and achievements of the several races as Knowledge of viewed from a general eonditionTf^ point of observation are perpetuity, most distinct and striking with respect to this great fact of natural law and the con- nection of man with the material world. In general, barbarians and half-civilized MASTERY OF NATURE BY MAN.— A Screw Steamer at Sea. when we look at the Brown races of Asia and Polynesia and at the Black races of Africa and Melanesia, we can but be struck with the strong contrast be- tween the indifference of the latter to natural law, their inability to control and direct for benefit the forces of the material world on the one hand, and the breadth and profundity of scientific knowledge and the astonishing benefits derived therefrom by the Aryan, or peoples are utterly subject to the forces of physical nature. It is not impossible that the weakness of the old forms of civilization, their want of perpetuit}-, was chiefly attributable to the prevailing ig- norance of the laws of phenomena ; and it is probable that the strength and per- manence of existing institutions are cor- related with the prevalence or the non- prevalence of scientific knowledge. This is to say that at least one of the conditions 562 GREAT RACIIS OF MANKfXD. of perpetuity among; the institutional foi-ms established b}' mankind is the knowledge of the physical laws by which the world is governed, and the sympathy and concord of man with those laws in the exercise of his activities. out of Mesopotamia directly to the west and were there developed into the He- brew and Arabian nations, seem to have dwelt in their mental activities upon the nature and character of the intelligence which preceded and formed and directed SEMITE CONTEMPLATING NATURE —Drawn l,y Paul Hardy. It was hinted on a preceding page that the Semitic mind had shown itself more concerned with what may be called the Cause of na- ture than with natural phe- nomena themselves. From the earliest ages of history the peoples who cnme The Semitic mind seeks per- sonality in na- ture. not only the isolated facts and processes of the material world, but the world it- self and universal nature. It appears to have been in the nature of the Semitic mind to ascribe personality and intelligence as the cause of phenomena and to pass over the phenomena themselves, their DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 563 relations and dependencies, to reflect upon the character and will and woi-k of the personal agent behind the aspects of the material world. Following out this fundamental con- cept, the Semitic seer of the primitive ; world would proceed to the And makes man i i • i to be related and immediate establishment bound thereto. c i !.• ^ ±. i • ot relations between him- self and the personal intelligence beyond the tangible forms of nature. That is, human relationship, according to his views, would spring up, not between man and physical laws and phenomena, but between man and that agent who stood above them. We can easily dis- cern the strong religious tendency which would at once arise from the existence of such a disposition of mind, and we may perceive with equal clearness the absence of scientific knowledge from a system of thought thus originated. In these facts may be readily discov- ered the bottom principles of what has been called, in the philosophical and re- Notion of spir- ligious discussions of the peTuUaHrsem- P^^sent century, Semitic 'ti=- monotheism. More prop- erly, however, we should say that the fact indicated is the theory of immaterial causation, without respect to its single- ness or multiplicity. If we examine the Semitic nations, at our first acquaintance with them, in Chaldasa and Assyria, we shall find that they were polytheistic in their religious development — not poly- theistic in the same sense with the Grasco- Italic peoples of Europe, but in the same sense with the Hamitic Egyptians. It was the peculiarity of both the Hamitic and Semitic races that they ascribed to the phenomena of the material world immaterial intelligent causes. This view of the universe and its ad- ministration is totally diflferent from polytheism as it was developed by the Aryan nations. In course of time the Aryan also arrived at the concept of im- material and intelligent cau- This notion dif- sation. But in the earlier 'Zyl^^^^^ ages of these peoples they ism. looked simply at phenomena and gave names thereto, and the names passed, according as the phenomena were vast and majestic, into the catalogue of dei- ties. Aryan polytheism was the result of the combined tendencies of primitive natural philosophy and linguistic growth and decay. It is not intended in this place to elaborate, but only to point out the difference between the fundamental ideas of the Semitic and the Indo-Euro- pean races. The former conceived of the cause apart from the phenomena and antecedent thereto. The system of religion, therefore, as developed in Meso- potamia, and even transmitted to the West, was an immaterial kathenothe- ism, as distinguished from the material polytheism of Europe. The primitive Hebrew fathers revolt- ed against this system because it was polvtheistic. Their revolu- Misconception ^ ^ _ , of modem phi- tion consisted in the substi- losophy respect- , .. c .X. ii • i- ing such differ- tution of the monotheistic gnce. idea as the bottom fact in the universe. The Hamites never proceeded thus far in the religious evolution. They there- fore remained identified in their beliefs with the Mesopotamian people ; and the Egyptian system of religion differed only from the Chaldaean in its more elaborate development and its finer philosophical expression. The attempt of certain modern scholars to make it appear that the Aryan Dyaus Pitar of India, the Zeus of the Greeks, and the Jove of Rome were fundamentally the same concept with the Elohira of the Hebrews, is to misconceive the whole question, to confound phenomenon with noumenon, and to obliterate the differ- 564 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ence between a material and an imma- terial causation of nature. If we look among the Brown races for the highest expression of their thought The Brown on the Subject we are here L'thoVoryo"" considering, we shall find religion. a totally different view of both premises and conclusions. The Chinese and Japanese as the oldest and most thoughtful of the early Brown peo- ples of Southern and Eastern Asia, gave little heed to the aspects of nature or to the interpretation of what we call natural phenomena. Neither did they concern them.selves to seek for causes behind these phenomena, either material or immaterial. As a result, the Chinese have never produced a highl}^ inflected mythology, or what we may properly call a religion. They have risen in their evolution as far as ethics and mo- rality, and on these lines of development have proceeded as far as any other people. From the first it appears that the Chinese mind has been mo.st concerned Philosophical not with the facts of na- I^sremo^f"""'" tare, but with the facts of thought. ]ife_ Their native religions have been simply elaborated systems of ethics. Confuciani-sm is not a religion in the sense in which that word is em- ployed by the Western nations. It is simply a code of human morality as de- duced from the life and teaching of the most illustrious sage of the people. The imported Buddhism has in great measure lost its spiritual and .subjective peculiar- ities. In the concept of the Chinese mind it has been transformed into harmony with the older .systems native to the na- tion. If the Chinese can be said to worship at all, it is the worship of life and duty and obligation rather than the adoration of any objective being, whether the same be the highest expression of some supreme thing, as the sky, or of a great Spirit behind and above all aspects of earth and heaven. It will readily be seen that such a view is radically differ- ent from the bottom notions upon which the great religious systems of Western Asia and Europe have been erected. In their concept of nature and of the author or authors of nature, the Black races have been lowest of all in the scale of rationality. In fact, it The Black races has been authentically dis- still lower in the puted that some of these ^^ ® ° ""^ igion. peoples have any concept of a moving power among the objects of their sense perceptions. As a general statement, the Blacks in their native condition have risen as high as fetichism and no higher in the religious evolution. Hereafter we shall note with more particularity the peculiarities of their superstitions, and mark out the divergence of their thought from that of the Brown and Ruddy races. Turning from the siibjective differ- ences of mind and thought among the races of antiquity to their Difference of objective aetivities,^^ find a re%S?oT""^ corresponding divergence adventure, and distinction of character. The di- versity of men of different races in their modes and purposes of action is among the most striking features by which they are discriminated. In what may be called the spirit of adi'cutiire, for in- stance, the various races have had each- its own distinctive character and method.. Some have taken to the water, chosea the maritime li.'e, sailed afar to distant coasts and islands, and made the sea a familiar spirit. To others, the oceart has been a terror, while the continental vastnesses have invited to exploration and even to peril. To other branches of the human family both sea and land have appalled and paralyzed the adventurous THE BLACKS FEAR NATURE.— Storm in African Forest.— Drawn by Rjoii . 50U GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. energies. Such peoples have shrank back from the enticements of explora- tion and the wild liberty which it af- fords. They have settled into the safest and most convenient nooks, and shielded themselves from the opposing forces of nature by what barriers soever they could discover in a given environment. In these respects, we find again that the Ruddy races have been superior to The Ruddy the Correlated branches of races strongest ^j^g human familv. It can in the adventur- .- ous disposition, not be said that their ad- venture has carried them as far as in the case of the nomadic peoples of Asia^ those great Turanians of the Brown race who have drifted through all parts of the greatest of the continents. But the ac- tivities of the Aryans have been char- acterized by greater energy and more rational method. Their migrations have been directed by a purpose, at least a half-formed purpo.se, to seek for better things and gain the ma.stery. The Ham- ites have given a few conspicuous exam- ples of adventure, as when, in times of Pharaoh Neku 11, they circumnavigated Africa twenty-one centuries in advance of Vasco da Gama. The negative side of adventure is timidity. Adventure is courage. It im- Courageofthe pHcs the facing of danger, voTc'Idw ra- the willing exposure of the tionai purpose, bodily life for the sake of advantage, or even for the mere sake of freedom from restraint. The latter qualities have belonged preeminently to the Ruddy races. It can not be said that the Brown peoples of Northern Asia are lacking in courage. On the contrary, they have contributed some of the most warlike and fiery spirits which the West- ern nations have had to meet in combat. But the bravery of the Brown races as it was manifested in the barbarian era was lacking in rationality and the conscious purpose to achieve advantage by victory. The conquests of the Turcomans, hur- tling down from the Altais upon the ter- rified and somewhat effeminated popula- tion in vSoiithwestern Asia and Eastern Europe, succeeding as conquests and then sinking into an inane and torpid condition from want of rational purpose and deliberation of method, are at once the striking example and the epitome of the spirit of courage as it has been man- ifested by the Brown races of mankind. A volume could not suffice to trace out all the diversities of action among the different families of men. undeniable and The present chapter is de- fJi^'^-f.^T'""^- voted merely to a general Aryans. view of the most conspicuous traits in which the people of one race have dif- fered from those of another. On the whole, the superiority of the Ruddy peoples over the other varieties of man- kind, in their masterful relations with the physical world, in their concept of nat- ural phenomena and the laws by which they are governed, in adaptation of means to ends in gaining and maintain- ing a dominion over the earth, and in the exercise of an adventurous and rational spirit, giving them preeminence and leadership, is undeniable and sufficient- ly striking. It may appear, at first glance, a long departure from the subjects which we are here considering to the . Ethnic diversity discussion of tlw bodily form in bodily form J.J ■ , y • ■, • r arid activity. ana physical activities oi the various peoples of earth. Men have differed according to race not only in their view of the world and in their attitude toward the laws of matter, not only in their concept of the primary principle from which all things have proceeded and by which all things are governed, not only in theirnotion relative to dut}', oblig-ation, and destiii)-, but also DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES— ETHXIC CHARACTERISTICS. 567 in the material organism in which for the period of life all thought is resident and from which all forms of activity proceed. In fact, the bodily form and features of the different races are the most con- spicuous single circumstance as well as the easiest criterion by which those races are distinguished the one from the other. We are not able to penetrate through the shadows of the prehistoric ages to a time when these Such diversity dates back to Very tangible evidences the earliest ages. r .1 ■ t t i of ethnic divergence did not exist as they exist to-day. Time and again we have repeated what is perfectly well known to historians and antiquaries, that the very oldest mon- uments which modern times have in- herited from antiquity bear mute but indubitable evidence to the fact that, in the earliest ages to which we can in any wise penetrate, the physical diver- gence of the different branches of man- kind was as conspicuously and deeply cut in determinate outlines as at the present time. It is worth while, then, to note with some care the general pe- culiarities in physical structure of man- kind, and to point out the features by which one race of men is most notably and permanently discriminated from the others. In the first place, as to the bulk and stature of the human body. It will be found on an examination Great diversity . . In the stature of the facts Within reach and bulk of men. r .i • • it. ^ of the inquirer that very great diversity exists among men of dif- ferent races in these respects. On the whole, it does not appear that the people of antiquity were specially different in stature and weight from the peoples of modern times. It might be difficult to determine whether the race, considered as a whole, tends, in its evolutionary processes, to the production of larger or smaller individual members of the species. Tradition has preserved the shadowy recollection of both giants and pygmies in the ancient world, and from the mon- umental delineation of figures we are able to determine that the average peo- ples were about of the same stature as those of to-da}-. Among the Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures this fact is abundantly illustrated. But while this is true, it is clear that, on the whole, the smaller peoples of antiq- uity, as well as in modern ages, were among the aborigines and barbarous tribes, while those of great stature and gigantic bulk were derived from the progressive and well-developed families of mankind. This will appear at first glance as an evidence of the truth of the evolution- ary process. Casually, it may be ob- served that the body of man has been developed from a comparatively insig- nificant race of ancestral „ , . Correlations of savages. It is known to mind and body the biologist that all exist- "'^'^ " ' ing species of horse have been derived from a single prehistoric typical animal known as Hipparion thoaiis ; and it is also known that this primitive animal was of very small stature, so small, in- deed, that it would seem impossible that the enormous Norman or Clydesdale stal- lion of our day could have been derived from so diminutive an ancestor. There is one circumstance, however, which breaks the analog}- so far as the devel- opment of the human body is concerned ; that is, that the most intellectual and powerful peoples, civilly, socially, and politically considered, have not been those of largest stature. This is to say- that if the evolutionary process is to be accepted as an explanation of 568 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. the large size of some races as com- pared with the diminutive stature of others, there is a clear break in the analogy of bodily and intellectual evo- lution — a thing that may be difficult of explanation. It is not intended in these pages to enter into the abstruse and difficult questions of biology. Such matters absolute proof exists of a smaller race of people than these. The native Australians and some of the inhab- itants of the Melanesian islands are no • more than four feet in stature, and are slender in prdportion. These examples may be taken as a minimum of size for prehistoric and existing race.* of men. THE TARrAN (FIRST REMOVE FROM THE PRIMITIVE HORSE). may be remanded to specialists and to the skill and scholarship of the future. _, , ,,. It is sufficient to note the The lowest lim- its of sire in the great diversity in the size humEui race. , . , , , , . ^ of the members of different races. In a preceding book it was noted that the prehistoric folk who were buried in the stone boxes along the banks of the Cumberland, in North America, were no more than three and a half feet in stature. It is doubtful whether any In considering the other extreme, we come to the half-mythical and half-his- torical giants of the heroic ages. Near- ly all races have transmitted to posterity some account of exceptionally enormous specimens of the race, and in some tra- ditions we have accounts of Maxima of whole tribes conforming to ^T^i^^' the gigantic pattern. It ^^^s^- is impossible to give an authentic aver- age for the stature of the so-called DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 569 Slants of antiquity. Goliath of Gath was reputed to be nine feet nine inches in height. We have hints in Homer of towering warriors who might well be called gigantic. Some of the largest specimens of the human i^ace have in modern times been brought out of Syria. The Teutones and Gauls were, among barbarians, notoriously huge ick William I. His regiment, known as the Potsdam Guards, was made up of men gathered from all parts of Europe, the smallest of whom was over seven feet in height. They reached a maximum of nine feet, and it is perhaps not bej'ond the truth to as- sign an average of eight feet for the whole regiment. We may accept this. AN ARAB STEED (GREATEST REMOVE FROM IRLMHIVE TYPE).— Drawn by T. F. Zimmennann. in body. The paragraph in Caesar's Gallic War, wherein he recites the ridicule which the Gaulish warriors of the Aduatuci bestowed on his Roman legionaries on account of their diminu- tive stature {brcviias nostra), will not be forgotten. The most conspicuous example of an assemblage, or collection, of giants within the historical era was that resulting from the caprice of Freder- M. — Vol. I — 37 then, as the inaxvnuiii stature of our race, though possibly exceptional in- stances may have shown greater height. Whether the Blacks have contributed any specimens worthy to be classified as giants can not be stated Largest exam- with certainty, Brown races, the most con- spicuous examples of greatness of size are given by the Asiatic Mongoloids in Patagonia, jMany of these exceed A ~, «„ ™ 4-t, ^ pies of human Among the beings among the Bro'WTis. 570 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. seven feet in stature, and it is known that among their far ethnic kinspeo- ple, the Chinese, equally exaggerated specimens of mankind have been found — this, too, among a people who are conspicuously below the average in stature. To generalize these results, we find very great departures from the common Standard of size among the ancient peo- ples. The same phenomenon recurs in Aryan peoples modcm times. This vari- reach the high- ^j extends not only to est average Stature. individual members of the human species, but to whole races. It appears that, considered as races, there were smaller peoples in the prehistoric than in the modern world. It would also seem that in ancient times the ex- aggeration of size above the average standard was as conspicuous as in recent ages. On the whole, the White races are larger in stature than any other people. Among these, the Aryans are conspicuously above the average; and of the Aryans, the largest are those who have been exposed to the rigors of northern climates, but not in the high latitudes. As between the barbarian and the civ- ilized state of man, there is not much Geographical difference as to size. On the whole, the bai'barian is larger, on the average, than his contemporary from the civilized states. Geographically, the distribution of the largest races has been in the tem- perate zones. Beyond a certain degree of cold the human family has been somewhat dwarfed, rather than stimu- lated into extraordinary growth. The polar people are small in stature. The insular populations of the world present the same variations as those of the con- tinents. The primitive Saxons of our ancestral islands were huge in body and situation and the size of the body. highly muscular. The Japanese, simi- larly situated, are small in stature and delicate in development. On the whole, there was not much difference in the stature and muscular power of the three great branches of the Ruddy race. The advantage was in favor of the Aryans, and the Hamites appear to have been somewhat weaker and smaller than the Semitic peoples; but the distinction was not great. The races of men have generally pre- served a given type and standard of form and stature from our Form and stat- earliest acquaintance lZ^^::.}::i therewith to the present from antiquity. time. The sarcophagi of Egypt, the dish-covered tombs of Assyria, and the burying grounds of Chaldsea have made us acquainted with the stature and pro- portions of at least three peoples of re- mote antiquity. The Assyrians were not taller than the average of modern peoples, but were exceedingly stout and muscular, like the Romans. The Chaldaeans were of the average height and form. The mummies of Egypt are below the average standard in height and in general proportions. If we descend from the general form and stature of the different peoples of ancient and modern times to consider some of the special features by which they have been characterized, the first to attract our attention is the size, shape, and capacity of the head. This organ, indeed, is about the only one with which the historian and ethnographer need to concern himself. The established fact that the intellect of man resides in his brain, and is correlated in its manifesta- tions with that organ, and the additional fact that the mind is the agent of all that has been accomplished by the hu- man race, may warrant us in looking at the cranial development of the different DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 571 peoples as an interesting study in ethnic history. There is a constant relation between the size and formation of the brain and Constant reia- ^q active energy of the tiou between °'' the size of the racc. The facts connect- brain and human , -.i ,i • • , . energy. sd With this important study have been gathered from many sources, and may now be studied on the scientific basis. It is found that there is an ascending ethnic scale of cranial development, beginning with the Aus- tralians and Papuans and proceeding upwards, through the Black races of Af- rica, to the Asiatic and Polynesian Mon- goloids, and thence to the Ruddy peoples of Europe and America. It will not be considered a materializing digression to note this fact, to dwell upon it, and to point out the perfect correlation existing between the average capacity of the brain and the grade of civilization to which the people of that average have attained. The law is: small brain, little achieve- ment; great brain, great achievement. It is not necessary to refer the progress of civilization to the mere physical fact of cranial growth. A more rational view is that the larger display of mental power is correlated with the size and activity of the organ by which that men- tal power is expressed. It has been found that a large varia- bleness exists among the races with re- spect to the volume and weight of that organ upon which all thought depends. The size and the capacity of the brain in the different races of men have been carefully examined, and the •Winchell's table "' of cranial capac- rcsults tabulated in a form Ity of races. ia l i. -1 that may be easily appre- hended. The following table, present- ing these results in a concise form, is from Winchell's Prcadamiics, and may be regarded as an accurate and indispu- table summary of the best that is known relative to the race gradation of men on the line of cranial capacity : TABLE OF CRANIAL CAPACITIES. No. of Speci- mens. 570 293 goi 7 6 lOI 126 61 .87 176 i8 15 33 Races. I. KLDDV FACES. Arj-ans of S. W. Europe . . Europeans Britons, Anglo-Sa.\ons, Swedes, Irish, Nether- landers Ruddy Races, mean ca- \ pac'ty f II. BROWN RACES. Chinese Chinese... -Mongols Esquimaux Asiatic Esquimaux N. W, American Esqui- maux Greenland Esquimaux. . . . Esquimaux, mean capacity Chinese and _MongoU, I. mean capacity S Mongoloids, mean ca- f pacity J nl. BLACK RACES. Negroes, W. Africa Negroes of .Africa Dahoman Negroes Negroes, mean capacity. -Australians Australians Austnilians, mean ca- i pacity Cubic Centi.meters. Men. Wom- •.576 1.518 1.539 1.383 1,428 l,iSi Aver- age. Autlum ity. Broca. Morton* Davis. 1,485 '.534 1,486 1,450 Broca. 1,452' L)avis, z,42i|Mortoa. l,488j Broca. 1,488: Dall. 1,270 Dall. 1,250 Bessels. .' J.372 I 1,286 \ 1.441 ( 1,442 ) 1.403 1 1.338 1,345 Broca. 1,364; Morton. 1,452 Davis. ( 1.360 i,264|Broca. 1,295 Davis. 1.279' 1,276, From the foregoing schedule it will be seen that the native Australians are the lowest type of men in Deductions from cranial capacity, being in- '^,\^r;^''^' ferior in this respect to the mau-ufe. Negroes by an average of eighty-four cubic centimeters. The table does not include the Hottentots as a separate study. These people, as a matter of fact, have a cranial development inter- mediate between the Australians and the Negroes. Again, it will be noted that the Mongoloids have an average capacity of eighty -two cubic centimeters in excess of the Negroes, while the average ca- pacity of the Aryans is forty-four cubic centimeters above the measure of the Mongoloids. It will also be observed that the preceding table does not exhibit the relative size of the brain of the Papa* 572 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ans, but from other sources this has been found to be above that of the Australi- ans, and nearly identical with that of the Hottentots. It may well be confessed that this physical index discovered in the capacity Relation of of the brain for the several toTh^^'physfcai races points distinctly to a features. certain grade of rational activity and progressive power in each people. Here, then, is the fundamental fact of a certain quantity of brain forces expended in the administration of life among the various peoples of the earth. The same is correlated with other pecul- iarities of anatomical structure. It is found that the cranial cavity is very vari- able in its shape, conforming in its pro- portions and relative distribution of parts to the general configuration of the skull. And this is typical in each of the primary races. It is not the place to enter into any elaborate illustration of the definite angles and peculiarities of the hiiman skull, or to describe by comparisons its various approximations to the crania of other animals. Such discussion belones to special scientific treatises, and the re- sults derivable therefrom could play but a small part in the ethnic history of mankind. The same is true of the other bodily organs. It is well known that the lower types of the human family Selvage of man- •' ^ . . , •' kind and the approximate in various de- lower animala. ^ ,-, t i grees to the form and or- ganism of certain quadrumana, and that these close analogies, even identities, have given rise to much speculation about the connection between the bot- tom selvage of the human race and the upper margin of the animal kingdom. How near together these two edges of life may approximate, or how far apart they may be found to lie, it is not the duty of the historian, or even the ethnog- rapher, to determine. Certain it is that the highest types of men have a very marked divergence from all species of quadrupeds, and it will certainly be ad- mitted that the lowest orders of man- kind have in them at least the potential- ity of a rational, and possibly an elevated, life. The nearest approach in anatomical structure in the human species to the lower orders of nature is Approximation found m the Bushmen of of certain Blacks o ii A r • ii i- to the simians. South Africa, the native Australians, and the Papuans of Mel- anesia. Specimens of men have been found among the native races of Central America and in South America almost equally near akin on the physical side with the simians and other superior or- ders of animals. The peculiarities which constitute this physical affinity of man with the brutes are well known. The arms of the lower orders of men are very long, reaching to the knees or be- low the knees when the person is erect. The hands also are spread out and set on the wrists after the manner of fore- feet in the quadrupeds. The feet are strikingly animal in their structure, having a long heel and so flat an instep that the whole bottom of the foot is pressed on the ground. Rising from these expressionless parts of the body to the features of the face, we find them also strongly marked with animal char- acteristics. The chin in many cases is scarcely better developed than in the chimpanzee, and the forehead slopes back from the brow with scarcely greater elevation than is found in the orang or ape. From these low grades of development in the human form, there is a gradual ascent from the level of the Hottentot and Australian, through the Negroes and the barbarous aborigines of South DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 573 The three prin. Cipal things, food, clothing, and shelter. America and the Pacific islands to the Esquimaux, thence to the nomadic races of Asia, and thence to the Eiuts in lo^w races of future nighly-developed physical development. j. r ii, t^ form of the Europeans. It should be noted, however, that occa- sionally among the natives of Polynesia and South America, and also among the native races of North America, an excep- tional example of high personal beauty of form and feature will be discovered. Such instances may be regarded as the premonitory outgoings of nature relative to what the race may become in its bet- ter stages of development. We have now arrived at that point in the inquiry w^here the general view which takes in the higher relations of the races de- scends into particulars and widens to infinity. Were we to pursue the subject further in the present chap- ter, it would be to consider what may be called the tangible parts or evidences of civilization as illustrative of race charac- ter in different ages and countries. As already said, the three great means of supporting and developing human life are food,clothing,and shelter. The man- ner of man's activities in procuring these essentials of his own existence and the perpetuity of his kind would demand in its exemplification a great amount of space and variety of inquiry. On the side of food, the problem would begin with the appropriation of the simplest vegetable products by the Range of ethnic primitive races, and would prorut^l ef,en- ^nd with the most highly tiaisofUfe. elaborated and carefully prepared tissues of animals. This is to say that food begins with the starchy elements in vegetation, just as they are distilled and manufactured by na- ture, in vegetable cells, and ends Avith the highest form of nitrogenous product in the animal kingdom. To procure the latter requires all the refinements of skill and contrivances of art. On the side of clothing, the question is first with the appropriation of the skins of beasts, the mere transfer of the natural covering of a dead animal to the body of a living one. It ends with the finest and most delicately wrought fabrics which the ingenuity and caprice of civil- ized races have been able to invent. On the side of shelter, it begins with a piece of bark set up at an angle between a witless savage and the rain. It ends with the villa and the palace, shining down with marble front over boughs of bending myrtle and avenues of ever- green and fountains of flashing w'ater. The activities of the different races of mankind have been exerted primarily in the three directions above indicated; but the methods of exer- Method of man tion have been as variable in adapting him- j i.-£ .-I , •I self to nature. and multiform as the tribes of the human race. In the first place, the earth herself has been capricious in the distribution and character of her natural gifts. Men have adapted them- selves to this whimsicality of the natural world. But with the progress and development of the race, they have first gone beyond and then ignored the hints of nature relative to subsistence, and have transplanted and wrought in a way suggested by their instinctive appe- tencies and ethnic preference. It is in this way that the human race has done so much in the way of diffusing the natural products of the Adjustment va- earth. In his adjustment t^^^^^^. with the means of siib- ^itions. sistence, natural and artificial, man has changed first himself and afterwards his surroundings. At the beginning he fitted and adjusted himself simply to natural conditions; but these he soon 574 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. outgrew and overpassed in development. It is in this respect again that the races have shown remarkable diversity. The life of some has become highly artifi- cial, while in others the natural life pre- dominates as from the first. The Hamitic race in all of its development remained close to the soil. The some- what complex life of the ancient Egyp- tians was, nevertheless, of the earth, earthy. No concept of Egyptian civiliza- tion is at all adequate which has not the mud of the Nile at the bottom. It was founded on the ground, and its high- est aspirations rose no higher than a basket of lotus on the head of a peasant. Among the Semites, the evolution of food took place more rapidly than that Evolution of oi either raiment or archi- food precedes tccture. For some reason building and clothing. these peoples bestowed especial attention upon the materials upon which they subsisted. Even on their first emergence from the pre- historic shadows we find them classify- ing and arranging their foods, especially those deduced from the animal kingdom, by the distinction of clean and imclean. In common with the Hamites, they refined upon this idea, and carried it into their religious system. But unlike the Hamites, they were not, especially in the first stages of their development, a people much interested in architecture. The pastoral life which they adopted was unfavorable to building, and even when they settled into fixed communi- ties and became husbandmen and keep- ers of vineyards, they were still indiffer- ent to building. The records of the Semitic race would be searched in vain for even the shadows of such architec- tural grandeur as was displayed in the valley of the Nile or in the opposite peninsula of Hellas. The Brown races, such as the Chinese Mongolians, have always led a simple and somewhat primitive The Chinese ex. life. Their means of sub- ^^rSa^Lnof a;. sistence have remained chitecture. primary. We may well be surprised, when we reflect upon the antiquity of the Chinese nation and upon the in- tellectual astuteness of the race, to note the really primitive condition of their industrial and social life. Their building is, at its best estate, a piece of Oriental elegance, never rising to the grand or sublime. Their raiment has perhaps never been changed in its character or material for a thousand years, and their food is as simple as it was in the days of Confucius. In the midst of much intellectual acumen and a certain kind of perpetual industry, they have signally failed to advance into the higher forms of physical culture and development. The Black races have scarcely at- tained, in their industrial and social state, to a higher level than The Blacks are that of aboriginal tribes. l^^Z%T:ir''' In respect of food, cloth- tionsofufe. ing, and shelter, they are savages, but the peaceful character of the race has forbidden the display on a large scale of either the savage instincts or the savage virtues. The Blacks have shown no skill in their native places in the adap- tation of means to ends, and have, there- fore, made no progress in those primary industries on which the civilized state of man is founded. It is the Aryan race again that has shown itself preeminent in its adaptations to the natural resources of The Aryans pre- the earth, and in improving ^f^nlw' upon the conditions and resources, methods suggested by nature. We have already seen that the face of the earth has, to a considerable degree, been transformed by the energy and force of DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 575 character of the Aryan peoples. In no respect has their departure from the primitive condition of mankind been more marked than with regard to the resources by which life is supported and made strong. The Aryan peoples, at least the Western Aryans, have all ad- vanced from the primitive foods to the these, great systems of industry and commerce have been instituted, devel- oping the energies and perfecting the skill of the most active communities in the world. The same refinement and advance may be observed in regard to the means by which the human body is defended from the vicissitudes and rigors LOW INDUSTRIAL ESTATE OF THE BROWN AKD BLACK RACES.— Post of the Gr.\nd Talibouche. Drawn by Y. Pranishnikoff. higher and more complex form of or- ganic tissue in which the elements of subsistence are most highly condensed. The race might be defined as ' ' the peo- ple who eat costly food." A second na- ture has been produced in all Indo-Euro- pean countries requiring sustenance from the most costly elements of nature ; and for the production and distribution of of climate. This is said of the materials which the civilized peoples of the West employ in clothing, rather than of'their skill in fabrication. As builders, the Aryans appear just at the present age to be entering into the era of splendid and substantial archi- tecture. Strangely enough the race, thoueh marked bv imusual skill and en- 576 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. ergy in the handling of materials, has not been conspicuous in recent ages for Place of the its ability to build. Among arolHelVr'ar ^hc ancients, the only Ar- evolution. yan peoples noted for their preeminence in architecture were the Greeks and Romans, and the latter were only imitators of the former. The belief that even the skillful and artistic Greeks derived their architectural forms and methods from the Hamitic Egyptians seems to be well supported by historical evidence. From which it would appear that the Hamites of the Nile valley were the first great original builders — the first of the human race to create archi- tectural monuments. As already intimated, however, the discussion of these topics leads us imme. diately into the subject-matter which has been reserved for the detailed account of the industrial and social life of the different races of mankind. We have now reached the threshold of that dis- cussion. In the former chapters we have endeavored to delineate the primi tive condition of the human race, and the tribal departures and migrations by which the race was originally distributed to the various quarters of the globe. In the current chapter we have endeavored to look down, as from a high point of view, upon the various families of men, and to note a few of the leading features by which they are distinguished. AVe shall now take u^d for consideration the de- tails of the methods and manner of life among the principal families of man- kind, and shall attempt to depict the es- sential facts and some of the peculiar incidents in the past and present condi- tion of the leadino- divisions of our race. r^ RACn CriART No. 2. EXPLANATION. This Chart shows the geographical spread of the East Arj-an family of mankind. (For the connection of this stock with the whole race of man- kind, see Race Chart No. i, at the proper point of departure, to the left, above.) The point of departure for this division is indicated by the heavy red line at the foot of the Caspian Sea, near Teheran. The East Aryans, from this region, departed to the right hand ; while m-ii West Aryans (see "Armenians," "Georgians," " Ossetes," etc.) departed to the left. The movement extended eastward until the stricture between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf was passed, when the race branched out in many directions. The northern division, now represented in Turkestan, was the Usbeks. To the south were the old races of the Medes and Persians. The ancient Persians, as will be seen, developed into several modern families. Out of this line sprang the Afghans, and further to the south the Beluchs. Far to the north, from the original Iranian stem, arise the Bactriaus, one of the oldest families of this division. The migrator}- stem of the East Indian races is indicated by the word Indicans. From this stem arise the Punjabese ; and from this stock, in turn, the old Brahmans, in the valley of the Indus; and the great Hindu family, farther to the East. From the Punjabese stem, we have the modern Nepa- lese. From the Hindu stem, we have the great races of the Mahrallas, the Bengalese, etc; From the Bengalese division, at its easternmost extreme, we have the Indo-Burmese family, which is tlie remotest Asiatic division of the East Aryan races. The Chart covers about fifty degrees of longitude, and twenty degrees of latitude. THE RUDDY RACES. I.-The East Aryans. BOOK V.-THE IRANIANS, Chapter XXXIII.— Elementary Character and Religion. jUR oldest kinspeople, reckoning by antiquity of descent, are discov- erable along the far- thest horizon of his- tory on the plateau of ancient Iran. The country corresponds in general with modern Persia. It must be borne in mind that the political boundaries of antiquity were not generally so defi- nitely drawn as in the modern world. The Semitic races in Western Asia and the Greeks in Eastern Europe were the first to set up termini, and thus to estab- lish definitely the metes and bounds of a political state. The impulse which carried the Old Iranians southward from the primitive Aryan nidus in the coun- „^ . •' The mqniry may try aboi:t the lower Cas- begin with tiie , ... , Irzmians. plan has already been de- scribed. We are now to look with some care at the people of the Iranic family, and to note their ethnic peculiar- ities. It will not be forgotten that at the time of their first dispersion in Iran they were still, as a race, fundamentally identical in character with the other eastern branch of our ancestral kindred, 577 J ■.■"'■■■ • i^ "^^ 4^- : v <^.- '//:i M' -^- # i±ii \ 1 THE IRANIANS.— ELEMENTARY CHARACTER. 679 which was carried into the Punjab and thence down the river valleys of India. Ancient Iran invited to the nomadic life. This was the first impress which the environment made upon the primi- piateauof Iran tive tribes of our race. At LtsMplnd"" the time of their coming outdoor Ufe. into these open highland regions they had already domesticated the horse and several other species of animals. But the horse was the special companion of the Iranian on his excursions, and it is worthy of note that through all ages of history the preemi- nence of the Persian steed has been main- ta i n e d . A household had been organized after the man- ner which has ever since pre- vailed among the Aryan races. The re- chase, and their use for food. The country of Iran was in its natural fea- tures and resources promotive of the chase. It was inhabited by all the com- mon varieties of wild beasts peculiar to the plains and mountains in the temper- ate zone. To the pursuit of these the Iranian tribes gave themselves with zest, and soon became proficient in the cap- ture of even lions and bears and tigers. Another method of life opened to the East- ANIMAL LIFE OF PERSIA. — MOUNTAIN SHEET OF KEROLT. Drawn by Tofani, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, lations of fa- therhood and motherhood, of sonship and daughtership, had been established, and the home of the group was a tent at first, and a more permanent abode afterwards. Not only were the common animals known to the primitive Iranians, but also the common cereals and vegetable products. One point of divergence be- The desert Ira- tween this branch of the nians become hunters: the human family and their in- Indicans agri- . a i ■ r '11 ii a cuiturist-i timate kinsfolk, the Aryans of India, was with respect to the wild animals, the capture of the same in the ern Aryans, who gave themselves up to the quiet of the agricultural and domes- tic life ; and it is from this point that one of the striking divergencies in the languages of Iran and India may be no- ticed. The domestic animals are named in common by the two peoples, while the wild beasts are generally designated by distinct terms invented after the sep- aration of the races. The Iranian life thus presented some diverse and peculiar aspects. It was in one respect the half -barbarous life of the chase, and in another respect the civil- 580 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. of life combine In the race char acter. izing life of the field and the garden. In proportion as the first prevailed, the Both methods old nomadic and migratory impulse of the race was stimulated into activity ; in proportion as the other became predom- inant, the people were aggregated into settled communities and began to build cities and states. It is worthy of note that the origin of several world-wide va- rieties of fruits, such as apples, peaches, and plums, has been assigned to Iran. r.'iir ANIMAL LIFE OF PERSIA. — AN OX OF THE BISHOPRIC. Drawn by A. L. Clement, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. It is quite likely that the primitive Medo- Persian peoples were the first to cultivate and improve these valuable products of the vegetable kingdom.' The social evolution among this an- ' The definition of "apple-eating animal" might be given to the Old Iranian and to all of his Asiatic and European descendants. The word apple, he- ginning with the Zend and Sanskrit ap p'/iala, meaning " fruit of the water," or "juicy fruit," is common in nearly every dialect of the Aryan lan- guages! It might be difficult to point out any other term of like universality among the names of the things eaten by men. cient race took the course of a subsid- ence from the nomadic into the agri- cultural and pastoral life. The sedentary The change was very grad- '^^^TAt" ual, and had been nearly nomadic, accomplished at our earliest historical acquaintance w'ith the Medes. A more permanent style of building had super- vened, and many other evidences of a rising nationality were seen as early as the eighth century before our era. Before proceeding to delineate the manners and customs, the re- ligious and so- cial state of the Old Iranians, it will be well to describe the per- sonal character of the race. Herodotus and Xenophon have given us full ac- counts of the ap. pearance of the Medes in their day, and we may conclude that the type was the same which had pre- vailed from the time of the original tribes. The sculp- tures of Persepolis also have preserved the person and features of . . Ethnic and per- the race, giving us perhaps sonai character ,1 i ii i- J of the Iranians. the most authentic and permanent representation of the ances- tors of the Indo-European family of men. The ancient Iranian was tall and well formed. In personal grace and phys- ical nobility he was almost the eqiial of his kinsmen, the Hellenes of the West. In strength and activity he was the peer Cle'ment. THE IRANIAXS.— ELEMENTARY CHARACTER. 581 not only of his contemporaries in Meso- potamia and Hellas, but of any rival in any age of tlie ^vorld. The features were dignified and finely drawn. The forehead was high and straight. The nose was developed on a line with the frontal bone, after the manner of the ]Macedonian face, and was prominent and well formed. Sometimes the organ had that imperious and hawklike shape which reappeared among the Romans of a later age. The beard was manly and stantly exposed to the reactions of na- ture than were these progenitors of great races. True, the climate was not au- spicious for an out-of-door life. Storms were frequent, and the winters of Par- thia, Margiana, and Bactria were toler- ably severe. But neither the rain blast of summer nor the rigors of the winter season were sufficient to extinguish or repress the nomadic freedom of the race. To scour the plains on horseback became a second nature to the Iranian, REMAINS OF IRANIAN BUILDING.— Ruins of the Palace op Darils, at PersepoUS.— Drawn by A. Deroy, after a photo- graph by Madame Dieulafoy. heavy, and the hair abundant to super- fluity. The Iranian women were ad- mired for their beauty and grace even by the critical Greeks. In dignity of personal carriage, they are represented to have borne themselves after the man- ner of the barbaric queens of the heroic ages of history. The environment of the early Iranian The race con- tribes brought them into ^htinflTnct co'istant contact with the of nature. open aspects of the natural world. Their life was outdoors. Per- haps no people have been more con- and his preference for chasing wild beasts took the form of a passion. As late as the beginnings of authentic histor}% not only the evidences, but the actual example of this kind of life was still to be observed. In Tribal divisions the times of Herodotus the "[.^r^fHe'ld- nations of Iran had not "t^^. yet settled into permanence or affixed themselves to given districts of terri- tory. They were divided into tribes, some of which had located their settle- ments and fixed their institutions within definite territories, while others roamed 582 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. at large. Among the Medes, the Father of History mentions six tribal division : the Busse, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arazanti, the Budii, and the Magi. The Persians were, in like manner, di- vided into the Pasargadae, the ilara- phians, the Maspians, the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Gerraanians, the Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians. The last four tribes were still nomadic in the times of Herodotus, while the others had set- tled on the soil and given themselves to husbandry. The tribes were subdivided into smaller clans, and these into gentes, or households. In this condition of af- fairs, which we may accept as correct for the middle of the fifth century B. C, we may readily recognize another ex- ample of that transforming process by which the family is succeeded in regular order by the gens, the tribe, and the race. At a very early period the intellect of the Iranian nations reacted under the Feebleness of influences of growth and oi^uorronr ^^^i^°°"i^°t, and began the Iranians. to display itself with con- siderable vigor. It is to this circum- stance, indeed, that the importance of the race in after ages is to be attributed. It was not, indeed, in the direction of architecture and art that this primitive race exhibited its best powers. On the contrary, it may be truthfully alleged that the ^ledes and Persians were ineffi- cient as builders and artists. It appears that the aesthetic sense was weak, and that even as late as the earlier stages of Medo-Persian nationality the evidences of architectural structure are few and meager. In all Persia the foundations of but two cities have remained to after times, in illustration of the building and decorative capacity of the people. In Media not a single structure has left a trace. It is true that this paucity of architectural monuments is to be ac- counted for in part by the use of wood rather than stone as the building ma- terial of the Iranians. It is believed that the ancient Medes employed neither stone nor brick in their edifices, relying wholly upon wood and the metals even for the palaces of their kings. It was on the side of the literary evokition that the Iranian mind first dis- played its energies. It fell Early motion of to chanting the aspects of ^"^.^i^^JtS ""* the natural world and to ""ace. inventing metrical expression* for the mysteries above the material aspects of nature. Already, before the partition of the Indie and Iranic nations, the lan- guage had been well developed. It had an extensive and flexible grammar and an abundant vocabulary. Its descriptive elements admitted of inflection, and its verbal structure indicated the niceties of action in time and manner. With this vehicle of language on his tongue and the vision of supernal nature above him, the Old Iranian began to elaborate that system of religion and philosophy which has transmitted to the modern world an intellectual interest in the peo- ple by whom the system was produced. The language of the Iranic branch of the human family, as preserved in its most ancient books, is known as Zend, and the great Bible of the Language and race, out of which its sub- ^„?^CzeTa?" sequent religious and liter- Avesta. ary development proceeded, is called the Zend-Avesta. It is in eight books, which embrace as their subject-matter the same general topics as are presented in the Old Testament. The themes are laws, covenants, prayers, songs, and cere- monials. The Avesta may be called the Iranian Bible. Its oldest portion is included in THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 583 the Gathas, or " Songs," many of which are very nearly identical with the hymns of the Indie Veda. This fact would in- dicate that the Gathas had been chanted by the primitive Aryan race before the separation of the Iranic and Indie families. If we 'ook into the spirit of the hymns, we shall find them to be the exuberant expression, the fervent utterances of the primitive worshipers, awe-struck under the mys- teries of nature, exclaiming in highly figurative language, and pouring out praise and prayer to the invisible powers of nature. It is as though the primeval singer had turned up his face in adora- tion to airland and skyland on high, praising the goodness and magnificence of the majesties above, and making petition for blessing and peace. The hymns of the Avesta are polythe- istic. The powers on high are many. The beneficent not One, and Seem to be de- t^::::^"^t: void of personality. These Gathas. powers were good, not bad — at least in the earliest concepts of the race. The divine attributes of the heavens — deities, if we may call them so — bent auspiciously over the worship- er, and he adored because of the benefits received and expected. The supernal powers were called Ahtiras, and were regarded as the life-giving influences of the world. It may be noted here as a fact beyond dispute that dualism, or the recognition- of evil powers in the uni- verse set over against the good, is a later concept of the human mind, and does not belong to the really primitive sys- tems of belief. Among no people of the world was dualism more fully developed or the evil powers raised to higher rank than among the Iranians. But the evo- lution of this system followed the real body of the national worship as ex- pressed in the earlier Gathas as the shadow follows the substance. The evil hierarchy was the invention of a later age, and was set over against the benefi- cent powers of earth and air and sky as if to oppose them and to thwart their benefits to men. The Gathas are gathered from that general division of the Avesta called the Yayna. The more important part of the sacred writings, however, T \. -,■-,-, Theme and is known as the v endidad, method of the 1 • 1 -, • Vendidad. which corresponds in gen- eral outline with the Pentateuch of the Hebrew Bible. It contains in general an account of the genesis of things and the laws for the ethical government of mankind. It embraces, besides, the ceremonial code, in which the rites and processes necessary for avoiding evil and expiating sin and impurity are pre- scribed. The whole is presented in the general form of dialogue, or colloquy, between the supreme Ahura, called Ahura-Mazdao, and his favorite servant, named Zarathustra, who is a prophet. In his Iranic name we recognize at once the Zoroaster of tradition. To him Ahura-Mazdao reveals his will in an- swer to questions and prayers; and by him the purposes and laws of the su- preme being are revealed to the people of Iran. The Yagna is of a widely different character. In this are included expres- sions of praise and adoration peculiar to the Iranian worship. It is TheYacna the devotional part of the ^^^Ztedftw Zoroastrian Bible. As al- relations, ready said, it contains the most ancient element of the whole Avesta. There can be no doubt that the primitive hymns included in this collection were sung by the Indian Aryans and the Ira- nians while they were still a common peo- ple. This aspect of the hymnody of Zoroastrianism raises again the disputed 584 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. question as to whether the Iranians went together with the Indie branch of the race into the Punjab, and then, from schism or other cause, parted company with their kinspeople and turned into Iran. This view has been stoutly main- tained even by Professor Max Miiller. But on the whole it appears more ration- al, considering the geographical situation and the much greater extent of the mi- gratory movement into India, that the two races divided on the plateau, leaving I'hUSlAN KING \VOKSHlriNG AHURA-MAZDAO. the Iranic division behind, while the In- die families made their way through the Hindu-Kush or the Himalayas to their destination. However this may be, the common element in the old songs of the Iranians and in the Veda can not be de- nied or ignored, and the fact points un- mistakably to a common religious cere- monial earlier in its origin than the division of the races. The hymns of the Ya9na are devo- tional. Sometimes the utterance of the worshiper is merely praiseful The attributes of goodness and love and beneficence are ascribed, in exclamatory language, to the powers on high. More frequently the subject-mat- i ■' •* _ _ Hymns of the ter of the Gathas is in Yacna; MuUer'a ..J. 1- r^c comments. the form of prayer. Of these, the great German Orientalist, Dr. Martin Haug, has made a translation into German, from which a rendering into English has been easily effected. The general integrity of the translation is attested by Miiller, who sums up the results as follows: "Many of the pas- sages as translated by him [Dr. Haug] are as clear as daylight, and carry conviction by their very clearness. Others, however, are obscure, hazy, mean- ingless. We feel that they must have been intended for some- thing else, something more definite and for- cible, though we can not tell what to do with the words as they stand. Sense, after all, is the great test of translation. We must feel con- vinced that there was good sense in these ancient poems, other- wise mankind would not have taken the trouble to preserve them ; and if we can not discover good sense in tliem, it must be either our fault, or the words as we read them were not the words now uttered by the ancient prophets of the world." It can but be of interest to the gen- eral reader to examine a „ . Specimen trans. few specimens of some of lationofthe these primitive prayers. representing as they cient invocations of do the most an- mankind. The THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 585 following four sections are from the Gathas : 1. "This thing will I ask Thee. Tell Thou it to me arijjht. Thou living God. How rose this world .' By what means are the present things sup- ported .' That spirit, the holy Vohu-Mano, O true, wise spirit, Guardian of the beings who ward off evil, He is the promoter of life." 2. " This thing will I ask Thee. Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. Who was in the beginning the father and creator of truth ? Who made the sun and stars ? Who causes the moon to increase and wane, if not Thou ? This would I know, besides what I know already." 3 "This thing will I ask Thee. Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. Who is holding the earth and the skies above it ? Who made the waters and the trees of the field ? Who is in the winds and storms that they so quickly run ? Who is the creator of the good-minded beings, O Thou wise .'" 4. " This thing will I ask Thee. Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. Will your friend Sraosha [Angel of Light] recite his hymn to my friend Vistaspa, O Thou Wise ? Will he come to us with the good mind. To perform for us true actions of friendship ? " It has been mentioned that a consider- able portion cf the Zend-Avesta is in the form of colloquy, or dialogue, in ^vhich Example of Zarathustra appeals to uo'n'of tlrzend- Ahura-Mazdao for wisdom Avesta. an(j benefits, and the latter replies with revelations of peace and beneficence. The following specimen from Dr. Haug's translation will suffi- ciently illustrate the form in which the subject is presented : "Zarathustra asked Ahura-Mazdao after the most effectual spell to guard against the influence of evil spirits. He was answered by the supreme spirit that M,— Vol. 1—38 the utterance of the different names of Ahura-Mazdao protects best from evil. Thereupon Zarathustra begged Ahura- Mazdao to reveal to him the.se names. Ahura-Mazdao then communicated to him twenty of his names, of which the following are examples : The first is Ahmi, meaning 'I am;' the fourth is Asha-Vahista, meaning ' the best puri- ty,' or, perhaps, 'purest and best;' the sixth signifies ' I am wisdom ;' the eighth, ' I am knowledge;' the twelfth, Ahura, meaning 'the living one;* the twentieth, ' I*am-who-I-am Mazdao.*" After this revelation, Ahura-Mazdao then continues: ' ' If you call me at day or at night by these names I shall come to assist and help you ; the angel Sraosha will then come, the genii of the waters and the trees." Mazdao then reveals to his serv- ant another series of names by which evil spirits, bad men, witches. Peris, and other enemies of the human race may be thwarted in their bad designs. Such titles as protector, guardian, spirit, the holy one, the best fire priest, etc., are communicated as the talismanic symbols by which men are to be saved from the influence of the evil powers. It is believed that at least all the ear- lier parts of the Avesta proceeded from Zoroaster himself ; that he _ Relation of Zo- was, in brief, the primitive roaster to ira- , . , 1 i f nian theology. lawgiver and prophet of the Iranian race. It is evident, more- over, that he held his career while the Indo-Iranic peoples were still a single division of mankind. So that the scheme of religious thought which we have here presented belongs rather to the Old Bac- trians than to either of the branches of Eastern Aryans that proceeded there- from. It will be of interest, therefore, to consider briefly what may be called the Bactrian deities, or those objects of 586 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. adoration which were deemed by the an- cient people of the highest order among the supernal powers. In so far as one supreme being was recognized above the rest, his name was Ahura-Mazdao. The name Place and of- ., • ^ j -ii ficesofAhura- Ahura IS associated witn Mazdao. jj^g ^^^ ljgj^^_ ^g tl^g sun is the supreme object of the visible uni- verse and illuminates the whole, so ^ ^i'^../ ^^^^ff"^ FIRE ALTARS OF THE OLD ZOROASTRIANS. From Magazine of Art, Ahura-Mazdao was the highest and brightest. The concept did not rise to the level of monotheism. Mazdao was the great god of the race, and was re- garded as the living creator of all. In general, he was the giver of blessings both temporal and eternal. Such bless' ings as earthly honor, preferment, and such subjective good as wisdom and in- telligence came from this immortal source. Health and virtue, wealth and good fortune were given by Ahura-Maz- dao. These good gifts were withheld from the evil-minded and the wicked. He was a spirit, and approximated in his attributes to the Hebrew Elohim, for which reason there was always a reli- gious affinity between the later Medes and the Hebrews. The careful reader of the Old Testament will note that the two races were in sympathy, even in matters where sympathy was generally impossible. Ahura-Mazdao had his ret- inue of ministering angels. They were about The retinue of him in a dwell- ^^g^^^ ing of light, and come personal. ^ carried out his will respecting ^ the race of men. One of ^ these hierarchs, greater and brighter than the rest, was called Sraosha. He was pre- r eminently the Angel of the ■^^;^J Light, and, since light re- veals all things, Sraosha was the revealer of the will of Mazdao. Primarily, he was merely an attribute of the Most High, one of his shin- ings forth. Another of these attributes was called Vohu- Mano, meaning "the good mind;" another was Mazda, meaning "the wise;" and the third was Asha, mean- ing "the true." It was as if the at- tributes of the primitive Godhead were detached into personalities, under the figure of angels, or messengers. After Sraosha, the next of the divine beings, as conceived by the primitive Iranian, was Armati, mean- ing " the earth," who was "^^TL^^i. the same as the Gaia, or Demeter, of the Greeks, and the Ceres of the Romans. The earth was con« THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 587 ceived to be a beneficent power. From the mere physical fact of giving food and yielding- increase, the mind of the the contest with physical nature man was helped by the invisible spirit of the earth. When the adverse forces of the i'AK>KE 1 I.MPLE FlkK A r A 1 I- CH-uA. — ll;.i...n Ly M. Moynet. Old Iranian passed to the general notion of a good being who befriended man and aided him in maintaining life. In material world gave back under the exertion of man, it was Armati that aided him to get the victory. Armati 588 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. gave the seed of the plant and the fruit of the orchard-bough. When the earth was covered with green grass and blossoms, Armati gave the blessing and clothed her habitation with verdure. jDroduced. It was a development rather. At the first there was a nature worship, pure and simple. It was The personal by refining upon this nat- deit.es arise out ural 1 ll;l. T'lWIiR i)f ATECH-GA, AT FIROUE-ABAD. Drawn by Taylor, after the restoration by Madame Uieulafoy Whatever good thing had its root in the bosom of the earth and yielded its bene- fit toman, was the gift of this generous, beautiful angel of the world. The. scheme of religious belief and service here outlined was not the most primitive form which the Iranian mind of nature ■wor- system of belief that ^wp. the hierarchy of Mazdao and his subordinates was developed. In the earlier ages, while the Iranians and the Aryans of India still so- journed together, the simple pow- ers of the natural world were adored and worshiped. These powers came to be regarded as living beings over and above the visible aspects of nature. The first was called Indra, meaning "the storm;" Mithra was "the sunlight;" Armati, as we have seen, was "the earth;" Vayu was " the wind ;" Agni, "the fire ;" and Soma, "intoxication." These forces or facts of the natural world were adored as the suitable objects of worship, and the deities thus cre- ated were common to the Hindus and the Iranians. In the beginning it was simply a nature worship, under the garb of polytheism. The separation of concepts of the su- t:^Z:i^^^^ perior beings arose duaUsm. gradually to higher levels. The materialistic element gave place to the spiritual. The separation between the visible aspect and the A invisible power became more dis- " tinct. At the same time dualism began to appear. It was dis- cerned that the powers of nature are both good and bad. Some are bene- ficial to men and others disastrous to his interests. The former attracted human aflfection, adoration, worship. The latter excited human fear, dread, aversion. To the beneficent powers the Iranians gave the name of Ahuras, and to the evil THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 589 spirits the name of Devas. Such was the genesis of the gods and demons of the primitive Aryan worid. Full of interest to every thoughtful mind are these toilsome processes by T\'hich our ancestral race, yields to adora- m the prehistoric ages, spin . gained at length a loftier view of themselves and of the universe in which they were appointed to live. The struggle upward of the Old Iranian mind in its endeavor to reach higher concepts of the natural world and of the powers by which it is governed may be noted with constant admiration. The ascent was spiritward. By degrees the worship of these primitive peoples was lifted from the contemplation of material forms to the adoration of spirit and duty. It was, in its very lowest aspect, an advance from the consideration of mat- ter to the consideration of force. The mind, in its search for truth and stability, ceased to dwell upon the visible form, and passed to the invisible essence. The form was wind, or thunder, or sun- light, or fire, but the essence was truth, or purit}% or wisdom, or life. Through all the emblems of this most ancient form of faith it is possible for the mod- ern student to discover a constant tend- ency to refinement and to the substitution of spirit for material form. Philosophically considered, the march of the human mind from matter to spirit SjTuboUsmin- passes through a stage of "ZlHt^..r.^ symbolism. It is doubtful spirit- -worship, whether any stage in the human evolution can be cited in which the concept of spirit has been substituted at ottcc for the concept of matter without the interposition of symbolical imager\\ There is always a period in the develop- ment of mankind, passing out of uncon- scious into conscious states, more par- ticularly in the progress from a merely material into the ideal life — a period in which emblem and allegory and myth are built into the bridge which spans the chasm between the things that are seen and the things that are eternal. In the instance before us we may se- lect the myth of the Earth as an illus- tration of the method by which the mind rises to higher views and . . . The Karth and fixes itself in contemplation the metaphor of r , 1 1 the cow. oi the supernal powers. Armati, "the Earth," was represented under the metaphor of a cou'. At first view such an image may appear gro- tesque. But the most life-giving of all substances with which the primitive man was acquainted — and, forsooth, the modern man has found none better — was drawn from the udder of the cow. Like her was the great earth. Out of it came the streams of life. All the life- producing elements were given from the ground. So Armati was a cow. But the cow was alive. .She had a breast, a spirit, a soul. Therefore the earth had a soul. Armati was pervaded by the directing principle of life — a form of be- lief which reappeared in after ages, in the anima viiindi of the Grasco - Italic philosophers. Now this soul of Armati was called Geus Urva, "soul of the cow." And here arises the mj'th of . . Elaboration of Geus L rva. ilan, inspired the myth of 1 T i J t, V 1. Geus XJrva. and directed by Ahura- ]\Iazdao, when he came to plant seed in the ground, cut the breast of Armati with a plowshare. Then the Geus Urva, or soul of the cow, cried out in anguish, and appealed to the angels on high to defend Armati against her brutal rav- ishers. But the mighty angels, under- standing the purpose and thought of Ahura-Mazdao, would not interfere to save Armati from the wound of the har- row and the plowshare. She was left to 590 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. suffer and to moan without alleviation of her anguish. But in recompense for her sorrow, she was given the flowers and fruits and waving harvests to hide the wounds in her bosom. Mention has already been made of the Devas. There was a hierarchy of the Bad as well as of the Ahriman and ^ , ^ • i a i. the hierarchy Good. Over agamst Ahura- of the Devas. jja^jao was placed Ahri- man, the Iranian Satan. He was the foe not only of the good powers on high, but also of man. The world was a bat- tlefield between the benevolent and malevolent spirits. Here again we may see the evolution of a concept, proceed- ing from material to immaterial images. At the first it was the physical world that was divided between the power of light and darkness. In the world of matter dualism is a fact, and perhaps a neces- sity. While there is day, there is night. While there is sunshine, there is storm. While there is a balm of summer, there is a blast of winter. While there is dew, there are hailstones. While there is blossoming mead, there is blasted har- vest. While there is plenty, there is starvation. While there is good, there is bad. While there is life, there is death. The ascent from the opposition and antagonism of material things to the antagonism of things ideal and spiritual is inevitable while the aspects of ph3's- ical nature are unchanged and the laws of human thought retain, their integrity. Out of these conditions the Old Aryan mind constructed its world of Devas, its hierarchy of malignant spirits. Ahri- man was at the head. The rest were graduated in descending orders of ma- lignity, to the small sprites that troubled the dreams of childhood. Ahriman was a demon. He was the Bad Mind of the universe. Indra and Siva, taken from the pantheon of the Brahmans, were his couhselors, who presided in the malign parliament whence the black armies- of earth and heaven were ordered forth to debase and destroy the children of men. No tribe of men on the face of the earth has been found without its intoxicant. Neither primitive barbarian nor modern savage has failed to find , . . ■^ Intoxication the substance and the proc- and the wor- , 1-1,1 ship of Soma. ess by which the nervous system may be artificially excited and the mind distraught with the flying fan- cies of stimulation. Some of the oldest hints of mortal tradition have transmit- ted the story of drunkenness and the knowledge of the means by which it was produced. Among the Old Iranians the plant of the East, called Asclcpias, was discovered, the juices of its pith ex- tracted, and turned by fermentation into wine. He who swallowed it was lifted with a sudden delight into the realm of delirium. His heart throbbed and his vision was exalted, while wild land- scapes of fairies and phantoms flitted before his eyes. Certainly, said he, this is the gift of a god. It is divine. It is the blessed secret of the immortals, and its name is Soma. Let us drink again and worship Soma. Of a cer- tainty the gods di-ink and are drunken. Soma is the only good thing which the gods have given us. — Such was the hi- larious dream which " Brought death into the world, and all our woe With loss of Eden." Under the influence of this system of religion the Old Iranians rose to a high level as it respects prac- „ , '■ '■ , High raorahty tical ethics and morality, of the primitive T, 11 1 1 1 , T Zoroastrians. It may well be doubted whether any other primitive race of men were superior to the Bactrian an- cestors of the Aryan peoples as it re- spects the common virtues of life. The THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 591 laws of Ahura-Mazdao, as revealed by Zarathustra to his people, demanded piety toward the gods and honest en- deavor among men. Truth and purity were regarded as the fountains of all good. A life without virtue was worth- less. True, the thing called virtue by the best pagans of the ancient world was very different in sense from the narrow and technical meaning of the word in modern times. It was the vir- tue of strength and courage, the virtue which defended the weak and shielded innocence. According to the Iranian system the actions of men were judged by their Motive made motives. Conduct was of^ethi^s^and"" praiscd or condemned ac- reUgion. cording to the intent from which it sprang. The simplest pursuits of life were infected with morality. To till the soil was a religious duty. The destruction of weeds and brambles was a thing pleasing to Ahura-ilazdao. The people of Iran were exhorted to turn from the barbarism of the nomadic life and to seek their subsistence from the bosom of the earth, the breast of that orenerous Armati, from which came the milk of life to her hungrj- children. Tillage was, therefore, a duty of reli- gion. Zarathustra enjoined it in his pre- cepts, and piety demanded that men should love and cultivate the earth. As in the case of all other religions, that of the ancient Iranians soon required a retinue of priests. Some Evolution of the order of the must be set apart to attend ^"' especially to the worship of the gods. In this system there were three divisions in the priesthood. First, the Kavi, or Prophets, were supposed, by their discipline and communion with the Ahuras, to be versed not only in the lore of the present, but in the things of the future. This ofl&ce was a part of that general scheme of benefit which underlay the whole fact of early wor- ship. The fundamental idea was that of advantage to men ; and secondly, the avoidance of evil. The primitive man worshiped because he conceived it to be of advantage to him to do so. He wished to stand well with the powers of earth and air, to be in alliance with them, to conciliate their favor. Afterwards he wished to avoid, even to propitiate, the evil forces of the world, and to thwart the malevolence of the bad-minded dei- ties. One may well be astonished to see how completely all ancient forms of religfion are permeated with , , . , ° ^ . . Imperfection of this narrow consideration primitive reu- • 1 1 i glous concepts. of personal advantage. Those high and unselfish considerations that are urged iipon the minds of modem peoples by religious teachers were un- known in the primitive world. There was, indeed, in the mind of antiquity no perception or sense to w^hich such ex- hortations and inducements would have appealed at all. The old tribes, still struggling with the rank conditions of unsubdued environment, thought only of advantage, how thej^ might for the present be benefited, how gain might be had and misfortune avoided. Even among the Semitic nations the same low concept of the relation of man to the power on high ex- KventheSem- isted. As late as the time 'l^^^t'Zrl^^ of the composition of the and duty. Pentateuch the Hebrew race had risen no higher than this earthly view of the profitableness of religion. In the twenty- eighth chapter of Deuteronomy the sum- mary of the whole argument in favor of the expediency and rightfulness of religious servace to Jehovah Elohim is set forth in an extended catalogue of benefits to be gained and evils to be 592 GREAT RACES OE .UAX/kEVE). avoided, not a single one of which rises above the level of mere temporal advan- tages on the one hand or physical afflic- tions on the other. This is all the more surprising when we reflect on the high concept which the Hebrew race had of the nature and attributes of Deity. added the natural curiosity of the human race to know mystery and to see the in- visible. The Kavi were supposed to be in communion, at least when exercising their priestly office, with the Ahuras, especially with Mazdao and Sraosha, and from such intercourse with the powers (",rKl;FR CKKEMONIES AT TEMPLE OF ATECII-OA, XEAR P.AKAM.— Drawn by M. Moynet. This notion of advantage underlay the prophetical office of the Iranian _ ^ , Kavi. It was beneficial Fundamental ideas of the to foreknow what was to office of Kavi. _,, ^ . , come. 1 he Iranic people, with such revelation of the hereafter, might better adjust themselves to the conditions of the physical world, and thereby more easily gain its benefits and avoid its evils. To this bottom motive in the institution of prophecy must be on high they gathered their revelations for men. The second class of Iranian priests were known as Karopani ; that is, " Sacrificers." The notion Sacrifice in- tended to supply of contributing something the deities with , - , . , , food and ral- to the gods from the ment. abundance of the earth is one of the most primitive of the religious concepts of mankind. It implies mutual advan- tage. Men, hoping to receive favors THE IRANIANS— RELIGION. 593 from the powers of earth and heaven, give something of their own goods in return. The fruits of the field are brought and laid upon the altar. Favor- ite animals are led forth and presented to the deities. There are two correlations here which may be noticed with interest. First, that the deities — in this case, the Ahuras — are supposed to require for food the same things that are agreeable to the appetites and wants of men. Very rarely do the things sacrificed represent any other element than that of food value. Among some primitive peoples articles of clothing, the hunter's gear and weaponry, were given in sacrifice. But generally there was a strict conformity of the things offered to the articles of food most desired by the sacrificers. With the growth of aesthetic tastes flowers were added, but generally those articles of the vegetable and animal kingdom which were used by the peo- ple to sustain life were given as an offering. Among the Old Iranians, such articles were fruits and grains and certain ani- mals, particularly the horse. The latter was a notable departure rificed ; gift of from the usual order. The t e orse. horse was sacrificed not as an article of food, but as the most valu- able of the possessions of the worshiper. Without the horse his journey from place to place could not be made. Without him the hunt would be reduced to a mere struggle of man with the wild beast, and without him war would be impossible. So the horse must be given to the Ahuras as the most acceptable gift. The second notion above referred to is that of the method of transferring the gifts from the visible hands of the givers to the invisible hands of the Ahuras. Fire has been a possession of all the races of men. Its general office is to make the visible forms of _ Fire employed things invisible by combus- as the agent of , . m 1 • i r • transformation. tion. Phis transforming force was therefore employed in all the sacrifices of the primitive world. The thing 2:iven was committed to the flames, and disappeared. By this process of divine commerce the fruit of the earth or the slaughtered animal was trans- ferred to the immortals. As a rule, however, not all of the thing sacrificed was committed to the flames. The shrewd wit of the primitive worshiper still dallied with the idea of advantage to himself. A part of the offering was reserved for the priest. As for him, he could readily make a tradition that by eating of the sacrificial offering he sat at a common table with the gods. This ingenious casuistry would be ac- cepted as a verity, and the giver of the sacrifice would be satisfied. The third group of Iranian priests were known as the Ricikhs, or the "Sages." They were the The primitive eariy philosophers of the ?,^^Sar°' race. In the religious race, evolution the Iranian mind conceived it wise to draw along with the develop- ment of ceremony the incipient learning of the age. A class of hierarchs, known as the Ricikhs, thus arose, as natural philosophers, interpreters of earth and air and heaven, not seers in the pro- phetical sense, for that was the office of the Kavi, but wise men in the inter- pretation of all things secular and material — teachers of the commonplace and natural. Nature worshipers in the primitive ages are little disposed to building tem- ples. It is only in subsequent stages of development that a system of religion, founded on natural concepts, requires 594 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the erection of houses for the deities. In the beginning all worship is conducted in the open spaces, under the arch of heaven. Among the Old Iranians, the hilltops were chosen as the most East Aryans preferred the open air for worship. PRESENT STATE OF FIRE-TOWERS AT ATECH-GA. Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. suitable places on which to build their altars and offer their sacrifices. It was on these high places, from which a view of a great horizon could be obtained, where sun and earth and air were revealed in all their grandeur and beauty, that the earliest priests of the Ar3-an race stood up and chanted their Gathas and offered prayer. It was a long time before the temple-building epoch arrived in the history of the two branches of the East Aryan race. It is perhaps impossible for the modern inquirer to transport him- self into the consciousness of this ancient people, and to feel t/ie rca- sous which were sufficient for per- forming the services of religion in the open air and which forbade the localization of worship in a temple. Even to comparatively late epochs in the history of this race the palace of the king always outshone the temple of the gods. To the present day the hilltops back of Bombay smoke with the fires of the Parsees, with no roof above save the Indian sky. Nature worship did not incul- cate immortality. The doctrine of the continuous ,^ . Notion of Im- existence of the soul mortauty of -. , , , 1 later date. after death rose slow- ly and through many tortuous proc- esses of thought from the primi- tive naturalism of the Iranian race. It is surprising to view the indif- ference of all the Aryan peoples of antiquity to the question of a life after death. When the pow- ers of the natural world had been separated from its physical aspects and elevated into the character of Ahuras, they were regarded as im- mortal. But even this aspect of the old natural theology was not dwelt upon before the classical ages. It came at length, however, to be per- ceived that the gods, in order to be of permanent benefit to their worshipers, must be immortal. Otherwise, death THE IRANIANS.— SEX AND MARRIAGE. 595 might inten-ene and all advantages cease forever. From the immortality of the gods, it was but a step to the concept of the im- At first worship mortality of the soul. In ho^^'^fldtSl ^^^ ^^^^^ development of tage. Zoroastrianism such belief became prevalent, and the teachings of the ^lagi were largely based upon the belief in an existence of the souls of men after death. But in the earlier ages duty and obligation were enforced by the Kavi and the Sages of Mazdao on the simple grounds of benefits to be gained and evils to be averted. The concept of an eternal existence had not entered in ; the horizon of re- ligion, as it was believed and practiced by the Old Iranians, was coincident with the horizon of life, and the reli- gious ceremonial was all prepared and performed with the expectation of earthly benefits. In the attempt to gather the outlines of the prehistoric life of a people, and to depict the same as one complete image to be looked upon by living races of men, the writer is many times embar- rassed in selecting those features which are most likely to make a Iraruan religion distinct and lasting image, foreran national T , . development. In the present case we have dwelt at some length upon that Old Iranian faith which had Ahura-ilazdao for its supreme spirit and the Zoroas- trian Bible for its apocalypse. We have done so for the reason that this system of belief and practice was a fundamental element, if not indeed the very life, of Iranic development and nationality. The rising institutions of the race took form and fashion from the religious system of Zarathustra. One of the strongest forces by which the impulses of the nomadic life were held back and finally bound down to the pastoral and agricultural career, by which the set- tled tribes gradually became predomi- nant over the hunters, and by which in- stitutional forms took the place of mere tribal chaos, was the unity of religious beliefs and practices common not only to the Iranians themselves, but also to their kinsmen in India. Chapter XXXIV.— Sex axd ]Marriaoe Axiong A.RVAXS. THE T will now be of inter- est to say something of the relations of man and woman among the forefathers of the In- do-European races. The perpetuity and, indeed, the very existence of the human family depends upon the fact of sex in the species. The complete mankind is divided into two parts, the man and the "f'oman. By a beautiful coordination, and perhaps what may be called a nat- ural division of labor, the procreation and the bearing of offspring are divided as might be a piece of work importance of in economics. The duty of ^^^Z^l^,, perpetuating the race is history. separated into parts and given to two in- stead of to one. In this respect man- kind share in the general analogies of nature. Nearly all animals and plants reproduce by sex. In some cases the whole procreative act is accomplished in a single individual of the species, but, as a rule, it is divided between two 596 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. The laws by which the two cooperate in this vital effort to maintain the species of which they are themselves the units are all-important, and must ever constitute one of the most interesting studies to which the reflective mind may be devoted. tain that no one of these has been used by all as the first, or primal, meth- od of maintaining human existence. The facts seem to warrant the belief that some of the primitive races have in- stinctively employed one plan for the union of the IRANIAN FAMILY TYPE. Drawn by Tofani, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. general In the human family four schemes of propagation have been em- „ ploved by various tribes Four methods ^ ^ -^ _ of sexual union of men while still under among races. ,, , . . r .1 the dominion of the un- conscious forces peculiar to the child- hood of the race. It is almost cer- sexes, and oth- ers another plan. The four meth- ods referred to differ among themselves ma- terially. They are unlike con- sidered as plans of procreation, and are diverse in the social re- sults to which they lead. The first is the scheme of sexual union in which men and women are miscellane- ously joined in the procreation of the race. It implies little more than the in- stinctive and temporary union of the male and the female in the other races of an- imals. It signi- fies that after this temporary relation, resultant in the birth of a new member of the species, the relation shall cease as it respects communal sys- the parents, and that each ^^-J^^^,™^' of them shall thereafter nence. enter into new unions with other members of the species, and so on THE IRAXIAXS.—SEX AND MARRIAGE. 597 throughout the productive period of life. Impennanence is the feature of such a connection of the sexes. It extends even to uncertainty as to the male pa- rentage of all offspring. It makes the woman the mother of many children by different men, and the man the father of many children by differ- ent women. The sy.stem is known as communal marriage, and it may well be regarded as the most barbarous, if not the most primitive, of all the forms of procreative union between the sexes. The second scheme is that in which one man selects two or more women as his wives and by them multiplies his kind. The relation once Nature of the polygamous established is supposed to schpjiie of union. , i j • ii. be permanent during the procreative period of life. This makes the man the central fact in the propaga- tion of the race. From him the lines of life diverge through several members of the opposite sex, and are spread wider and wider as the process goes on, to the second and third generation, until his blood is almost infinitely diffused. After some generations vast multitudes would trace backward, through different moth- ers, their descent from a common father. To this scheme of multiple marriage is given the name of polygamy — a word which the discerning tongue of the Greeks has contributed to the vocabulary of the world. The third plan of union between the sexes is like the last, except that the po- sition of the parties is reversed — exactly reversed as to parentage, but not as to Antecedents rcsults in offspring. In this ^^J^^^l^,,l^ tliird scheme several men polyandrous marriage. are married to one woman. She, and not the man, becomes the cen- tral fact in whom the lines of life con- verge. In all other schemes the lines are divergent toward posterity, but in this — such is the nature of the union — the course of all the forces of procreation is toward the woman. As to the off- spring, the mother, as in all cases, is known ; but the paternity is undiscover- able. Each child has a single unit for its mother and a multiple factor for its father. In some tribes all the brothers born of a single mother are married in common to one woman. But when it is said fhat all the brotlurs are so wedded to one, it must be remembered that the brothers in question have a multiple pa- ternity ; that is, they are not brothers in the sense that men are brothers in the monogamic relation, or even in polygamy. In other tribes not only the sons of a single mother are wedded to one woman as her husbands, but all of the members of the tribe are in like relation with her. Among many of the' North American aboriginal nations the woman is the wife of the tribe. This system is called poly- andry, a term which is self-definitive of the relation. The fourth plan of procreative union is called monogamy. It is the joining of one man to one woman Monogamy de- and of her to him. The ^^/^rnt- relation thus established is ^s®- distinct from any of the three preceding. It is especially different as it relates to offspring. It signifies an ascertained parentage in both maternity and paterni- ty. It signifies that all the children bom of one woman have a single father, and that all the children bom of one father have a common mother. The relation is so easily apprehensible that it need not be described, either in itself or its re- sults. It shjuld be remarked that the sexual usage in different nations adopting differ- ent schemes of procreative relationship is particularly tenacious, and is generally 698 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. maintained with scrupulous exactitude by the sentiment of the given people. Monogam\' is by no means All races have , , . , and maintain a regarded as more essential sexual code. ^^ ^^^ welfare of the race by those peoples who practice it than are OLDEST TYPE OF THE MARRIED WOMAN — A CHA!.D.«AN. Drawn by Mile, de Lancelot, after a sketch by Madame Dieiilafoy. the other schemes of union by the re- spective races among whom they pre- vail. There has never been found a tribe of savages so low in the human scale as not to have a certain sexual code, any departure from which by the mem- bers of the tribe would be regarded not only as scandalous, but as destructive of the welfare and happiness of all. We can not pass from this analytic view of the nature and methods employed by different peoples in perpetuating the race without notic- ing the bearings of the subject on cer- tain controverted questions. The principal of these is the historical prior- ity of the several plans of marriage enumerated above. The problem is not so important in it- self as in its rela- t i o n s to another question. It is easy to perceive that if monogamy be the first great method of mankind, then the family, which is the second unit in ethnic development, precedes the gens, the gens the tribe, and the tribe the race, in the order delineated in a for- mer chapter. But, on the other hand, if the system of polyandry should be the primitive method of union, then, undoubtedly, be the Historical prl- tribe would thp order of de- o"ty of marriago me oruer or ue- systems consid- the first in velopment, the gens sec- ^^^^' ond, and the family the last stage in the human evolution. If the ethnographer of to-day is com- THE IRANIANS.— SEX AND MARRIAGE. 599 pelled, with the data before him, to de- cide this important question, he will be Some tribes obliged, in view of all the od?ndTomTan; f'-^^ts, to express . the belief o^T^e^- that some of the primitive races of mankind have adopted one of these schemes, and others another. This is to say that in certain families of men the monogamic principle employed from the beginning has led from the family to the gens, from the gens to the tribe, and from the tribe to the race, while in other branches and under different con- ditions instinctive ethnic preferences have led to the adoption of communal marriage, or more particularly to poly- andry, by which the general course of the race development has been exactly reversed, beginning with the tribe and passing by way of the gens to the final establishment of the family. It has been the custom to say that monogamy originated, or was at least AUeged begin- given its first authoritative ^^M^g tl; expression, among the Ro- Romans. mans. It can not be de- nied that from a very early age the monogamic relation was formally recog- nized by the Latin race as the one valid law of sexual union. It is equally cer- tain that the extension of Roman power over all the countries around the Mediterranean and far into the East compelled the acceptance of this feature of social organization. Monogamy be- came thus intimately associated with the bottom principles of Christianity, and after the decline of the empire the law of single marriage, the union of one man and one woman for life, was carried throughout the world, wherever that system of religious belief found a foot- ing. But it is doubtful if such is — if such was — the actual beginning and es- tablishment of the monogamic relation among mankind. The Greeks were monogamists. In general, the Oriental nations were polyg- amists, but in the West the opposite prin- ciple prevailed. Among the other Indo-Eu- Gothic races, also, as far as ^"f/.T p''"''- ' ' ticed smgle mar- custom had been formu- "age. lated into law, it appears that the prin- ciple of single marriage was universally recognized. The primitive institutions of the Celtic tribes in Western Europe have not been well ascertained, but we have reason to believe that among them also the law was monogamic. The Greeks did not elevate woman to a high rank or make her, in any sense, the so- cial equal of man, but they were not polygamists. Neither were the primi- tive Aryans of India. We have already seen that the Old Aryan Housefolk of the Indian valleys were organized into families on the m.onogamic basis. The system of naming which they used to express the family relations precludes all idea of communal or polygamic prac- tices among them. The same is true in Iran. As far back toward the bottom of the Ar}^an nidus as we are able to Difficulty of penetrate the relation was IZ^^/ one man for one woman against ucense. and one womaa for one man. While men are in a tribal state, such a prin- ciple can never be carried into full effect. All modern nations have had cause to appreciate the extreme difficulty of main- taining in its integrity the system of monogamy as against the natural license and vagrant instincts of the race. If the system has thus had to contend with many diverse forces in the higher forms of society, how much more may we ex- pect it to have had an imperfect form among prehistoric nations! It is true, then, that the Romans were the great authoritative promoters of sin- gle marriage in the ancient world, and 600 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. that the Christian religion was at least the vehicle of the diffusion of that plan of union among the nations Single marriage n i -^ peculiar to the of the earth. But It may Aryan races. ^^ g^j^^^ asserted that the system is peculiar to the Aryan race. For some reason it accords with the in.stinc- tive sentiments of nearly all people of Indo-European descent. The attempt to introduce and to maintain some other law of sexual union among the Indo- European races has been always com- bated not only by the statutory princi- ples and positive laws prevalent among them, but also by the bottom instincts of the race. It remains, therefore, to look briefly at the reasons that may be assigned for the preference of one system of marriage Faotstending to over another. What are determine mar- ^^ cirCUmstanceS, the riage systems ' considered. facts, which induced some of the primitive tribes of mankind to adopt monogamy, others polygamy, and still others polyandry, or even communal marriage? It might well be thought that human beings in the unconscious state, placed under like conditions and confronted with a problem so natural and inevitable as that of procreation, would all alike solve the question in a given way, and adopt a common ethnic code governing the manner and even the details of this great central fact in the perpetuation of the race. Such, however, we shall not find to have been the natural and necessary order in the evolution of human society. A close study of the conditions under which the races of men were originally Conditions ante- placed will show great di- versity in their situations. It may be perceived that the motives which, unconsciously to them- selves, played upon the first men and women in different parts of the earth cedent to the monogamic method. were very diverse and even antagonis- tic. From the beginning the unconquer- able instinct of the mother was for the preservation of her child. The instinct of the father also tended to its preserva- tion, but not with so great force as on the mother's side. Under certain con- ditions the sustenance of the child was so easy as to be almost natural. Under other circumstances, it was a work of difficulty and labor. In the latter case, a repugnance to offspring would arise among primitive people, and would pres- ently become so strong as to suggest destruction. As soon as barbarian fa^ thers should adopt this method of les- sening the number of those whom they must support and with whom their households were encumbered, a natural selection would lead to the destructioa of the girls and to the preservation of the boys. By this means the tribal so- ciety would soon haye a preponderance of males and a paucity of females. This is a monogamic condition. vSuch a state is the antecedent of single marriage. Under such circumstances several men would compete for a single woman. The strongest would obtain her, Nature of the partly by his strength and ^^rogal";!:"^ partly by her preference confirmed, for him as the best. He who obtained could generally defend. The man thus married would become a party of the first part, and those whom he had sur- passed in competition a party of the sec- ond part, both obliged to the mainte- nance of the union thus established. Each of the party of the second part would hope in turn to obtain some other woman as his own, and thus to become a party of the first part, in a compact to which Ids coinpetitors were a party of the second part. Here are the founda- tions of a natural league on the part of all to support and maintain monogamy. FORM OF ROYAI, TOMl; IN POLYGAMOUS COUNTRY — Drawn by Taylor, from a pliotograph. 602 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Under other conditions a wholly dif- ferent state of circumstances might Certain other aHse. In a wami and fer- conditions tend ^|j igland or in a fecund to establish polygamy. Oriental valley — where na- ture brings forth in abundance all things soever which are desired by man, where her resources seem exhaustless and the eater has but to lift his hand to the bend- ing bough to gather what fruits he will, ■where the genial atmosphere and the equability of the seasons requires no clothing and suggests no permanent shelter, where even the infant, before it leaves its mother's breast, begins to gather from its environment all manner of natural foods adapted to its wants — the law of life and of the maintenance of life is almost reversed from what it is amid the hardships incident to adverse regions. In such circumstances the maintenance of offspring, however nu- merous, could not be regarded as a task. Neither father nor mother could be much embarrassed even by a multitude. The suggestion of reducing an overplus by destroying it would not arise. ■ The unrestrained impulses and the unlimited results of human instinct would take their natural cour.sc, and no one would feel the burden. In the choice of their sexual mates men would not be limited to one by a confederation against him of the parties of the second part. The fe- males of the tribe would be at least equal in number to the males. The stronger and more vigorous men would take two women or more to wife, and there would be no league against them b}' a disfran- chised minority. The strong man would thus originate two, three, or many branches to his family. The weak man would perhaps have none. In other words, here is the antecedent state and condition of polygamy; and, as a matter of fact, the t'nstitution .so called has gen- erally prevailed under the circumstances above enumerated. As to communal marriage, it ap- pears to be merely the sexual chaos of tribes in whom the human Communal mar- sentiments peculiar to this riage the result 1 ^ . , . . of sexual chaos. relation have not yet ap- peared. It wofild be difficult to point out any particular in which this s)'stem differs from the method of union in- stinctivel}' chosen by the lower animals. The existence of such a method, if method it may be called, implies the existence of tribes of men between whom and the animals there is only a small diversity of physical form and the pos- session by the one of larger capacities than by the other. It is a state of na- ture, pure and simple, and has only been found among peoples whose advance from absolute savagery has not pro- ceeded so far as the institution of any definite social forms. We shall here- after have occasion to speak further of this state in connection with some of the tribes by whom simple communal unions are the only custom and law of mar- riage. The natural antecedents of polyandry are hard to trace. This form^of union has prevailed in different paucity of fe- parts of the earth to an ^.tld^dpot" extent not understood or andry. appreciated until recent investigations have brought the matter to light. The majority of all the Indian races of North America employed polyandry as the bottom fact in their social structure. The same method of marriage prevails largely in the Polynesian islands and in other quarters of the globe populated by races of Mongoloid descent. Some suggestions may be offered, however, relative to the obscure origin of this, which to the enlightened understanding seems the most repulsive of all forms of THE IRAXIAXS.—SEX AND MARRIAGE. 603 union between the sexes. In the first place, there must have been antecedent to the origin of the custom a paucity of females, either from some perversion of the laws of birth, or from the destruc- tion of female infants. If the latter, it may have occurred either by the will of the parents or bj- natural cau.ses. Suffi- cient data are not accessible to indicate which of the.se circumstances has led among certain of the primitive tribes to the excess of males. Such an excess being granted, we can conceive that mcjther. Among Aryan nations, how- ever, the rivalry of brothers is not le.ss intense, even deadly, than between strangers. But for some reason among the polyandrous tribes, the riv^alry of the males has not taken the same course. Perhaps this may be accounted for on the ground of the smallness of the divisions into which the Polynesians and the American Indian tribes have generally been parted. Where a given totem has embraced but a few wigwams, a few warriors, and still fewer women, POLVOAMOUS FATHER AND HIS SONS.— Fattallv Chaii.— Draw,, by H. Ch.ipiii>, after a photograph by M.idame Dieulafoy. several males would compete for the pos.session of one woman, and to this extent the antecedent condition is identical with that among monogamous barbarians. But from this point the analogy breads. For in polyandry, instead of Smallness of the strongest competitor tribal division t„i * . i i • .1 favors poiyan- taking and keepmg the drous system. prize to the exclusion of the rest, the rivals make a league to have the woman in common. The facts show that the rivals are in the first place the brothers born of some common it might have been disadvantageous for the warriors to go into deadly rivalry over the question of marriage. It may have been found among tribes thus weak that it was advantageous to husband the meager resources of force and tribal vitality by assigning two or three war- riors to a given woman in the bond of a friendly hu.sbandry. Whatever truth there may be in the.se conjectures, which are put forth as tentative explana- tions of the institution in question, polyandry exists as a large fact in the primitive history of mankind. It has 604 GREAT RACES OF 31 AN KIND. doubtless been practiced by a greater number of aboriginal tribes and races than has polygamy or communal mar- riage itself. A question of great importance relat- ing to vital statistics and to a still deeper Bearing of mar- h'lw of biology has been riage systems on j-ais^d with rcspect to the proportion of ^ the sexes. tendency of these several forms of marriage on the proportion of male and female births under each. It is conceded that generally through the kingdom of life the ratio is equally main- tained, under equal conditions, between the male and female members of a race. There can be little doubt that mankind in the monogamic relation obeys the general law, and is perpetuated by near- ly equal increments of the two sexes. The same may be said of communal marriages. Among the tribes where this usage holds, infants are born in equal proportions in either sex. The great question is whether in the two in- termediate systems of polygamy and polyandry the opposing methods of tinion tend to perpetuate them.selves by producing in one an excess of female births and in the other an excess of males. That such is the result has been stoutly maintained. It has been averred, Do polygamy and many facts have been cited in substantiation of the principle, that in po- lygamy a tendency to an excess of fe- males is at once discoverable. This is to say that nature provides for the con- tinuance of the system by giving, as the fruit of the multiple marriages of one man, a considerable preponderance of fe- male children. It is also alleged that in polyandry the system perpetuates itself by the production of an excess of males. But both of these principles have been strongly controverted, and facts have and polyandry perpetuate themselves? been adduced which would seem in given cases to establish the law of equal birth under both the systems mentioned. There are some physiological reasons for believing that the first of the two ar- guments is better maintained, and, on the whole, the true one. But the ques tion is still ob.scured with much doubt, and must be remanded to future inves- tigation for a final decision. This digressive study relative to what may be called the primary or bottom or- ganization of society among the various tribes and races of mankind has been brought in in this connection once for all, that the reader, at the beginning of the delineation of tribal and national life may have, as in a chart before him, the diver.se plans or methods of sexual union, and the consequent perpetuation of the human family in the various quarters of the globe. The Old Iranians were monogamists, with only such de- partures from the law which instinct and custom had provided as are incident to the general lawlessness of mankind. With this monogamic principle the religious elements which were developed by Zarathustra and the Monogamy reVn- Kavi entered into combina- ^°I^,ta„''^ '*'" tion, and, as the nomadic prophets, life gave place to a settled state, the old provincial nationality of the Medes may be said to have begun. We are here ex- amining the very roots of human his- tory. The opinion is confidently ad- vanced that there was something in the instinct and something in the environ- ment of the primitive Aryan race, in'its old Bactrian nidus, before the Veda was the Veda, before the Avesta was the Avesta, which impelled to the union of man and woman in the procreative re- lation.ship on the monogamic, or single marriage, principle. And from this re- mote period, below the daydawn of hu- THE IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 605 man history, that principle has remained instinctive in the race and in all its branches. Doubtless, in some particu- lar instances the old bottom law of Ar- yan thought and preference on this sub- ject has been subverted by environment and association, and has been supplanted by one of the other principles of sexual relationship, but the exceptions will be found, on the whole, rather to verify and illustrate than to abrogate the gen- eral law. CHAPTER XXXV.— HISTORIC^VL DEVELOPMENT OF THE iRAXIA^iSS. HUvS far in the course of the present work little attention has been paid to chronolog>'. No effort has been made to fix, with even approximate certainty, the time relations of events. This course has been fully justified by the fact that the events referred to have been either absolutely prehistoric, or else located along the farthest horizon of formal history. Nothing Question of . , , dates in Old certain as to dates can be Iranian history, ^ggj-g^j fo^. g^ch shadowy parts of the annals of the human race. Chronology is one of the special devices of history. It is said to be one of the historical eyes through which all things are seen. Perhaps we are now, however, arrived at a point when something may well be said as to the approximate time when the Old Iranians merged into the dim morning light of antiquity. On this subject we are fortunately in possession of some distinct points of observation. It is conceded that the Medes were the oldest his- Probable place . . . , and epoch of torical expression for the Zoroaster ancient Iranian race. Con- cerning the antiquity of the Medes, we are able to draw at least a vague outline. According to Polyhistor, following and repeating Berosus, Zarathustra, or Zoro- aster, was the first of a dynasty of eight iledian kings ruling in Chaldaea in the very earliest ages of history. Indeed, with the exception of the Egyptian annals, this is the farthest point of light which the historian is now able to touch, as he looks into the mist-covered dawn of human affairs. The Chaldaean dy- nasty referred to was the second which had ruled in the old empire at the mouth of the two Mesopotamian rivers. It was composed of eight kings, Zoroaster be- ing the first ; and there are good reasons for fixing the limits of this dynasty be- tween the years 2286 and 2052 B. C. At the close of this period it appears that the foreign, that is the Median, domina- tion in Chaldjea was broken and the throne regained by native princes. It has been customary to make the date of Zoroaster about coincident with that of Abraham, but the current chronology would hardly admit of this construction. It maj^ be accepted as approximately correct that the founder of the Old Ira- nian faith flourished at about the time indicated above. One of the principal errors into which the occasional student is likely to fall relative to the relations of Historical stu- dents do not ancient events is to fix sufficiently con- „ sider perspec- them, as it were, on a flat tive. surface, without allowing for perspective. In the present case, it must be remem- THE IRA NIA NS.—HIS TO RICA I DE J 'EL OPMENT. 607 bered that there was necessarily a long Iranian history before the time of Zoro- aster. There was already an organized people, developed from the tribal state and sufficiently high in the scale of unity and self-con- sciousness to receive the reve- lations and accept the ideas which he brought. The mi gratory period of the Old Ai yan departure, of the joint and common progress of the Indie and Iranic races, of their grad- ual separation into two distinct families, and the development of institutio'nal forms in each, all preceded by ages of inde- terminate, or at least undeter- mined, duration the apparition of the great teacher and prophet of Ahura-Mazdao. It must be borne in mind that the Old Iranians, of whom we are .^^..^ ,,, here speaking, are L^J'of-' ''' a prehistoric peo- ple. That is to say that their life and history have been developed bv what may be called historical paralla.K. The data in pos- session of the eth- nographer and his- torian are sufficient to construct an ac- curate outline for the career of many peoples whose act- ual annals nowhere exist in the liter- reached by this method of investigation. The astronomer, acquainted with the laws of physics and with his calculus before him, feels into the depths of invisible OLD MEDIAN TYPE — CYRUS THE GREAl. Prawn liy Madame Dieiilafoy after the sculpture. ature or among the monu- ments of mankind. Nor is there any uncertainty about the process of the results which are Possibility of developing his- torical outlines by 'jarallax space and grasps the un.seen planet, de- termining its mass and velocity with an exactitude which in a less cultivated age would be set down as miraculous. To 608 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. the sight of the well-instructed ethnolo- gist, or even well-versed historian, the outline of prehistoric natiieiiIafoy. nian beliefs took this course, and the next descent brought in the element of fire. It was a symbol and analogue of the sun. It was the sun localized on the hearthstone and the altar. One 612 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. may easily perceive the whole course of degeneration from Sraosha to the flame of fire. By the time of the Medo-Persian as- cendency under the Achaemenian kings, •Wide preva- the transformation from lenceofthesun- oj-iginal Zoroastriauism to and fire-idol- » atry. fire worship was complete. The great Persian armies which were led by Darius and Xerxes to the West, except in so far as they had gathered out of the .satrapies on the hither side of Mesopotamia, were all worshipers of fire. The religious ceremonial of the Persians had taken that fixed form which it has maintained to the present day. The Par.see altars on the hilltops of Fars and Yezd, and the smoking summits seen here and there in Bombay, are at once the remnants and illu.strations of the striking but idolatrous ceremonial which was already establi.shed when the ^ledo- Persian race was dominant throughout Western Asia. It is the purpose of the present book, devoted to the subject of ethnic charac- ter, to note not only the peculiarities and race distinctions of the ancient peoples, but aLso to delineate the Ancient iraman character and peculiarities ^^^es^n^'e-"'" of their descendants. The scendent races. Old Iranians have their representatives in the races distributed between the Caspian and the Indus. If we glance over the whole field we shall find that the Western peoples of this group have best preserved the lineaments of the ancient stock, while those of the East, next to India, are graded off into the Oriental type. This is true not only of physical, but also of mental and moral characteristics. The Iranian peoples next to Hindustan pass almost imper- ceptibly into the character of the In- dian races. The religious propagand- ism of Islam has carried the faith of the Prophet and the institutions of his fol- lowers into these regions as well as into India, and the result is manifest in the establishment of common customs and in a modification of the old national character. Chapter XXXVI.— Ethnic Divisions and Charac= TERISTICS. F we enter the west of what was ancient Iran and begin an examina- tion of the present representatives of the primitive stock, we shall find first of all The central locus of this in Astrakhan, that the Armenians. race is now found The language portion of European Rus and literature known as Hai- kanic. sia next the Caspian . Even in this region the ancient Iranian blood has been considerably deteriorated with Semitic and Turani- an admixture. The language, called the Haikaiiic, from Haiks, the name of the Armenians in the vernacular, has been developed into an independent tongue, strictly Iranic in its origin and in most of its characteristics. A literature of some merit has sprung up, even in the absence of national unity. The ancient writings have been edited and translated into the vernacular, and a considerable intellectual activity is otherwise shown by the people. In their complexion and person the Armenians are not very different from THE IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 613 Ethnic features and off-grading of the Arme- nians. Persians, both men and women, and of nearly all the peoples as far east as India. The outer garments of both men and women are loosely worn, and de- scend below the knee. The men have trousers, and are belted at the waist. On the whole, the effect of the costume the peoples of Southern Europe. They have fair features, and arc regarded as a handsome race. Tlie hair is abundant in quantity, black in color, sometimes straight and sometimes curled. The forehead is low, but well shaped, the face oval, the eyes full of expres- sion and prominent, the lips thick, resembling those of Afghans. What is called the expression of the Armenian face is divided be- tween the features of Southern Europe and those of India. In stature, the people are rather above than below the average of mankind, are lithe in form and agile in action. The Armenians are taller than the Afghans and t*^ • Wp t^^^^P k^" H^" ^pftumn^ the Beluchs. Here we have again 'libwj fi^iiuini. . ^^^ ^/» ifuuitu^wifubir a grading down of the physical forces toward the east, the people of the Indian border being lower and less active than they of the west. The odd circumstance of large and clumsy feet must not be overlooked in noting the bodily peculiarities of the Armenians. This people are peculiarly te- nacious of ancient customs. They umhipUknn Ltuuiiuplilt^ 'nnuil;unft hn uijuiLkninn nuuhi : *\\nLU ohqfw ^luJutn nnn-ykini. ku , liiutT nUn^nLUhi^ II LutiT ^Q-ti . Liu J* |^M«i#7tfi/i" 'nhmnbiriL. bu , U- LiuiT uui^ tnuiUiuU : \\ uintu^bu nn litlPtj ItltPH- pninpnJpU utu anph ItU iniuu ^ U. uhi uif uiUt/h^uJtkiliU y nuiUnft iJujniinni_bn. P~l^ pltuiL 1^2'^^^pb^" futuniunnLp-bLt/- <^uflJi vjo' fiLU li. 'nLpiulunLfd~bi-U lubtnh jD. uibuUiuu y P^ "P m-lp" ^iiH Abn-pniln bplfltUpp pnJbbi'' Ll unijM AbrLonurL uM-yfiuuip^Dp : [^i/^"" pulu Aal^ y LnpuLantp ^nt. ubuthpn. np 'Unpl^ nutUuiu i (^^buni./i'U tul^u pu^ ^ *'. \\uiia bu rtL hiP uiulUu \f'^niJujU have preserved, even from remote mftrnfi uiui2tnb'l>^ • " X\u bfd^l^ tuu pU^ antiquity, a considerable part of ^„„^A^L'>^, „^/.„^ /bp^y/u opp n^ni^U the social and religious life of the i i' i , r ii i i n i Old Iranians. Their laws are like \-P'"lf' tk*r ^1^1, uif^u^l, pi^^u.*, , ^h the common law of the English- speaking race, derived from prec- edents of common life, reaching back to the times of tribal dispersion. The pop- Armenians pre- ular dresa preserves many of the features which were peculiar to the age of the Persian ascendency. As a general fact, the Iranians have always been dis- posed to wear a high dress for the head, a sort of tiara, of which illustrations may te seen in the everyday costume of the serve the sem blance of Old Iranian life. SPECIMEN PAGE FROM ARMENIAN BOOK. is rather Oriental than suggestive of the apparel of Western peoples. The Armenians are a shrewd and rather intellectual race. inteUectuai Were it not for the effects re'-.TpMtof' of old traditions, religious independence. and social, they would have the capacity of a good modern development. They are brave and adventurous, good soldiers, and especially noted for their ability in • ,1 II , 1 1 I THE IRAXIAXS.—ETHXrC DIVISIOXS. 615 the transaction of business. In general, | dividual in their character and as little they present what man)' ethnographers subject to restraint as were their pre- have chosen to call the Caucasian type of historic ancestors. mankind at its best estate. For this reason it is somewhat diffi- In common with the other peoples of cult to generalize on the subject of man- Western Iran, the Armenians exhibit a ners and customs where the same are .ARMENIAN A RCHBISHOP— TVPF.-Drawii by Y. Pr.iiU!.hinkoff. certain spirit of independence and love of liberty. They regard valor as the principal virtue of life. In the cities of Armenia society is well organized, but in the open regions, especially in those parts where the country becomes moun- tainous, the population con-sists of vigor- ous shepherd tribes, who are almost as in- sb variable in different districts. One thing maj' be noted with peculiar inter- est, and that is the complete change in the change in the method of ^^J^^^f^f.^f disposing of the dead. <*®»d. Zarathustra required that the bodies of the dead .should be expo.sed on high, in a kind of tower or building erected for 616 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. that purpose, so that birds of prey might gradually devour them. It was con- ceived that this, of all possible methods, was least likely to contaminate the ele- ments. It was held that earth burial would pollute the ground. To submerge the body in rivers would defile the water, and to consume them by fire ARMENIAN FAMILY — TYPES. Drawn by A. Sirouy, after a photograph by Madame Uieulafoy. would poi.son the air, and even heaven. The Zoroa.strian plan, finding as it does a strange reflection in the method adopt- ed by some of the American Indians, was thus produced as a means of pre- sendng the purity of the elements against the noxious influence of dead bodies. The modern Iranians have given up the old method as no longer practicable. If they are Mohammedans, they employ the plan in vogue among Mohammedan the followers of the Proph- ^^^.^^"fiuper. et ; if Christians, they adopt vened. the Christian manner. In either case the burial is in the earth. There is generally something of Oriental fantasy attending the circumstance of death, something of Semitic clamor, and also traces of abo- riginal superstitions. In October the Armenians have a festival, which they call the Feast of thr Dead. On such 'occasions the cem- etery is lighted with fires, kindled here and there. Tapers are set on the graves, and the women aban- don them.selves to weeping and wailing. Over the Armenian graves tomb- stones, on which are cut the effi. gies of rams, horses. Character and or lions, are set up, sense of grave- , . , stone etiigies. a custom as ancient in its origin as the tribal dispersion ^f the Iranian race. It is evident ihat such sepulchral imagery pre- serves the primitive belief in sa- cred animals and their guardianship over men. One of the earliest su- perstitions of the human race was that of the power of certain ani- mals to intercede with the gods. We shall see that in Egypt, and even among the Greeks and Ro- mans, there was a pi-evalent sus- picion that the ram was an efficacious me- diator between the deities and human kind. The ancient nomadic life of Iran is best preser\-ed by the Lures, Certain Persic another branch of the race, types represent h „.•„•, ill the ancient race. aving Its central locus in Luristan, but spreading therefrom northward and northeastward, through THE IRA XI A XS. —E THXIC DI I VSIOXS. 617 modern Persia as far as the Caspian, and into the province of Mazanderan. These people are in many respects like the rude classes of the Armenians, but are still more nearly allied with the inhabitants of Kurdi- stan on the west. With the latter people the Lures have many things in common, not the least of which is the thieving disposi- tion for which the Kurds are proverbial among all peoples. It is noticeable that among the Lures many ancient customs of the Iranians are preserved, and this in despite of their conversion to Mo- hammedanism. One tribe, called the Gu- ranes, are associated with the Dushik Kurds as a sort of peas- ant caste distributed among them. On the western coast of the Caspian sea another group of the same peo- ple, called the Tats, are found. Indeed, the Lures are scattered through the whole of Northwestern Persia, as that empire is now constituted , and far out into Kurdistan, to lake Van and the up- per valley of the Tigris. One might well suppose, glancing at the fruitful and luxurious valleys of Luristan, that any people long dwelling there would abandon the nomadic life M. — Vol. I — 40 and settle into fixed pursuits; but such is not the case. Wandering tribes still possess the country, dwelling in tents, owing allegiance only to their own „^ --- i.}i^4^r^ TOMB OX THE BORDER OF KAROUX. Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Pieulafoy. ' chiefs, and engaged in almost constant j warfare. Of these, the most conspicu- ous example is the ferocious Bakhti- }'ari, whose name is proverbial in West- 1 em Asia. The only town of any im- 618 GREAT RACES OE ^^ANKIND. portance within the limits of Luristan is Khorramabad, which is said to contain a thousand huts. The Prevalence of . -, ■, r .■ n i the wandering place IS ruuely lortinea, BfeinLuristan. .^^^^^ possesses the pakice of the chieftain of the Lures. The next great division of the Iranic sivan, or Persians. They are the most widely distributed of any of the existing Iranic families. They are even dis- persed into districts far beyond the lim- its of their own countries. Their lan- guage is Persic, and is the best repre- sentative, or rather lineal descendant, of MOURNERS Wait. INC.— Drawn by V. PranKhnikofT, after a sketch of Madame Carla Serena. acter of the Tajiks, or Par- elvan. race, distributed eastward of the Lures Place and char, and the Other western Persian tribes, includes the Tajiks. These people are spread from Kabul northward to Badakh- shan, to the table-land of Pameer, and into Bokhara, in Central Turkistan. On the east they lie against the Afghans and Bekichs. Westward, they spread into all Central Persia, and are called Par- the ancient Iranian speech. By them also was preserved, imtil the conquest of the country by the ISIohammedans, the deteriorated or fire-worship aspect of the old Zoroastrian faith. After the conquest they became Mohammedans, the old religion being preserved only by the Guebers. In .stature, person, and complexion the Tajiks are intermediate between the THE IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 619 Armenians and the Kurds un the one hand, and the Afghans on the other. Stature and eth- They are not so tall or nic characteris- •] ^j j ^^ tics of this peo- to ' pie. dark-skinned and (Oriental as the other. They are comparatively small in person, but heavy in build. The limbs, and especially the feet, are large, and the face broad. The features, rior in appearance to the intermediate race. But the Tajiks, perhaps best of all, preserve to modern times the general character of the ancient . rri \ ■ They present Iranic race. IheArmeni- strongly the oia , -,1.1 ■ Iranian traits. ans compete with them m this respect. The old customs and man- ners of Iran have come down by wav of BAKHTIYARl TYPES— Draw ln)\vever, are good, if we except the mouth, which is large and coarse. The type is not by any means so favorable in the judgment of Western peoples as that of the nations of the Caucasus. Even the Kurds are larger and handsomer than the Tajiks, and some ethnographers pro- nounce the Afghans, who are not in- frequently of good stature, to be supe- n by G. Viiillier, from a photo^i.iiih. the Taiiks and Kurds of Persia, and rep- resent to the modern inquirer a tolera- bly authentic transcript of antiquity. It is quite likely that many fcatui-es of the costume of the modern Persians, such as the old tiara, or high cap, which was worn by the subjects of Cyrus the Great, are more faithfully preserved in the cur- rent styles than is the Persian character 620 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. and person upon which they are exhib- ited. The cruelty and tyrannical disposition of the Medo-Persians in the times of the greatness of the race has Cruelty and , , , r i * fierceness of the alrcadv been reierred to. Persic stock. g^.^^^ \^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ suffered a terrible degeneration, and is more repulsive in the coarseness, to the trying exigencies through which the Iranian peoples have passed. The Mohammedan conquest was of itself a sufficient shock to destroy nationality; and the substitution of Islam for the Old Iranian faith aggravated the calamity. The modern Persians may be ranked among the principal races of Asia. In Western Asia they compete with the USBEK AND TAJIK. TVPF.S.-Draivn by A. Fcrdinandus, treachery, and immorality of the mod- ern Persian character than in its ancient aspect of fierce brutality. The race is avaricious and untruthful. There is little intellectual development; and if corruption of heart and life were the only term definitive of savagery, the whole race might well be dismissed as savages. Much of this degradation, however, must undoubtedly be attributed Turks and Russians for the first place in ethnic importance. The race, however, lacks homogeneity. It is , Race character more mixed than either of the modem the Turkish or the Russian stock. In Central Persia the ancient race of Iranians is represented in tolerable purity in the descendent people. But all around the borders this is not true. On the west, and particularly the south- rnil IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 621 west, there is a strong admixture of Ti:rkish blood. On the north and northeast the Mongol stock of man- kind has made itself felt and given a tinge to the race complexion ; while on the side of Afghanistan and Baluchis- tan, Indian or Hindu characteristics are plainly discoverable. The Persians at the present time num- nomadic in habit. These number hardly fewer than four million. They consti- tute the great intermediate body of Per- sians, and are the element upon whi(;h the Shah's government most relies in the matter of the Persian army. The national forces, however, are recruited to an ex- tent from the wilder tribesmen ; while the official classes, commanders and the KURD TYPES-— Drawn by F. Courboin, from a photograph. ditions of the Persian pop- ulation. ber approximately eight million. Of Classes and con- these nearly two million are townspeople. About an equal number are Iliyats, or nomads, of whom we shall presently speak. Between these two extremes of stationary citizens and wandering tribes- men there is a large intermediate class of villagers who are more sedentary than like, are derived from the townspeople or citizens who correspond to the aristoc- racy of Western Europe. No class of the Persian population is of greater interest to the Ethnic place traveler and ethnographer f^^o'^^he" °^ than the Iliyats, or wander- lUyats. ing herdsmen. Of these, the manner of life is pastoral rather than agricultural. .«S ■^.•^^ FALCONER OF THE SHEIK— Hindu-Pe';5iav T'Tes and Costvmes— Dra-.>n f>y A. Sirouy, from a pV.otojr.iph ' y Madame I)ic;:lafoy. THE IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 623 They are organized into tribes, of which the name is legion. Over each tribe is set a hereditary chieftain, who commands in war and peace. His authority is quite absolute. The manner of life has respect to a division of the country into pastoral districts. Each tribe has its own dis- trict, and the same may be said of the minor clans and families. Though all wander about with their flocks, obeying the suggestion of the season as to pas- turage, the wandering is within the lim- its of the clan lands. Each tribe has its own section in the hill-country, and to this region it betakes itself with the coming of spring, and there the tents are pitched until with the advance of the sea- son a removal to better grounds is neces- sary. But each tribe in its wanderings must confine itself to its own section. The .social and domestic life of the Per- sians has been derived from the institu- tional forms of ]\Iohammedanism. Soon Social and do- after the rise of Islam in Sfrf: M^- Arabia and its spread into hammedanism. Syria the Crescent was car- ried victoriously into Persia. A religious conquest of the race was soon effected, and the faith of the Prophet was substi- tuted for the former paganism. It was the incoming of a Semitic religion, and of the usages thereto belonging, into an Iranian, that is, and Aryan, country. The event was not unlike the previous conquest of Europe by Christianity. In either case we have an Aryan people ac- cepting from Semitic prophets and their followers a new religious system. Islam brought with it polygamy. We have hitherto remarked upon the fact Polygamy sub- that Persia is the line of fnctntm^Lt' ^^^^"'^ breakage between amy- the Orient and the West. By race the Persians were inclined to the usages of the Indo-European family of mankind. But by the religious con- test they were led to adopt the theory of Mohammedanism. This brought, with- in certain limits, the system of multiple marriage. Thei'e is thus a counter force playing upon the domestic life of the race. Polj-gamy, though prevalent, has not been so universal as in Arabia, Egypt, and Turke}'. The Persian fam- ily and household, however, are organ- ized on much the same basis as in the countries just named. The domestic usages are largely of the Arabian and Eg)-ptian type ; but are in part deter- mined b}- the ethnic instincts and Old Iranian biases of the race. The Persian family is better in most of its features than that of the Turks. With an equal degree of ^ Character of the culture and refinement the Persian family; 1 1 1 ,■■,-. the women. comparison would be still more favorable to the former people. In the homes of the better class of Persians there is elegance of manners, luxurious surroundings, and many forms of com- fort. The children are reared at first by nurses, and are afterwards committed to the schools under charge of iloham- medan instructors. The women are in great measure secluded, and are partially veiled in public. Notwithstanding the serious and rather sinister expression of the Persian face, the countenance of the woman is often regular and beautiful. The artist in search of fine types of beauty and elegance, even after he has studied the faces of the women of Cashmere and Georgia, may well pause to admire the sweetness and warm expression of the Persian Avomen. Just as the social system of the Per- sians has been derived from Islam, so also the architecture of the Architecture of country has been copied ^rM^iTr-" from the Mohammedan medan styles, countries. The original type of this manner of building was arabesque ; but :iv MUSSULMAN NUKSVS AND CHILD— TVPKS AND COSTUMES. Drawn by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. THE IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 625 this style has suffered considerable modi- fication in the hands of Persian archi- tects. In the building of mosques and tombs the Arabian manner has been well preserved. Indeed, the forms and cere- monial of Islam made this necessary. The minaret is everywhere a part of the Mohammedan church and religious establishment. If the cir- cular domes are not also a neces.sary part, they are at least a part estab- ^ " lished by the usage of eleven cen- turies. These features of building assert themselves strongly in the major architecture of the Persians. , Some of the finest edifices of this V style are the tombs of the Persian '> great, seen in many cities and sacred places. One of the most remarkable of these structures, typical of all, but preeminent bvits vast- Torab-building '^ ■' of the race ; the ness and elaboration, burial tower. • ^i i i jr t 'x IS the tomb of Iman Mousa at Kazhemeine. This re- markable edifice is surrounded with buildings of stone or marble, but rises above them with its four min- arets and two domes in a manner at once majestic and beautiful. Others of the Persian tombs, like that of Zobeide, are derived as to their style from the building of the ancient Iranians. That people, as the reader knows, invented the burial tower on the top of which r> the dead were exposed to be de- voured by birds. This pagan form of disposing of dead bodies was Zo- roastrian in its first intent, as it is Par- see in its last evolution. The form of the burial tower has been transmitted to Persian architecture, and though greatly modified in the hands of the builders of the last eight centuries, it still reappears in tombs. In .such struc- tures the ground plan is hexagonal. This form is carried i:p sloping slightly to a considerable height, and is then surmounted with a sharp pyramidal tower of stone shooting upwards much in the form of the ancient burial towers \ • ^1 YOUNG I.APY OF ISPAHAN — TYPE. iVii by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Uieulafoy. of the Zoroastrians. The materials of such building are cut stone and bricks. The smaller ai'chitecture of the Per- sians has but little interest to the traveler. The houses of the people Aspect of Per- 1 1 ^ sian houses and are square m ground plan ^owns; interior and have flat roofs. This decorations, gives to the structures the appearance of cubes. The materials are wood, brick, AKLlil 1 lie I LRIi UK THK PERSIANS.— Tomb of Ihan Molsa, at Kazhemeine.— Drawn by Barclay, from a photograph. THE IRA NIA NS.—A RCHI TEC Ti 'RE. 627 and stone. White is preferred as the color of the exterior. The plan is uni- formly followed, and the appearance of buildings is corresponding-ly monot- onous. The Per- sian town or city is unattractive in itself, though the surroundings are beautiful. It is the custom to plant gardens and orchards around the towns in close setting against them. The abun- dance of rose trees and other flowering shnibs in the gardens and yards make the towns to ap- pear embowered. Viewed from a distance the pic- ture thus afforded is sometimes ex- quisite. But with- in the cities the illusion is dis- pelled. The streets are never improved. They are merely nar- row roads of clay, and are always either dusty or muddy. They are too narrow as a rule to permit of the passage of wheeled vehicles, and are uneven for want of paving. The disposition and tastes of the Per- sians, however, have compensated for the lack of beauty without by elaborate and luxurious furnishings within. There is much that is Oriental in the interior decorations and arrangement of the houses. The tapestries are exquisite, PERSIAN STRUCTL'RE. — TOMB OF ZOBEinE. Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. with sofas and ottomans on every hand. Especially on the women's side of the court is such richness displayed. The arrangement of the apartments betokens 628 GREAT RACES OF .VANKIND. ease, indolence, leisure, pride, and in- dulgence. These arc the qualities of the race. The character of the Persian language has already been indicated in the account of the parent Iranian speech from which Aiy-V >; '>^ /' r i/ >; CJ.' / y V J^ J /■ W i I tf -* ' -=- SPtXIMKN PAGE OF PERSIAN BOOK. it is descended. The order of linguistic development has been from Sanskrit to Zend, from Zend to Old Liinguistic evo- lution ; influence Persian, from Old Persian to the current speech. The common features and peculiarities of the Aryan tongues are seen in the decay of the ancient grammar and the substitu- tion of prepositional forms. The new style of speech began with the national poet Firdusi, and has been perfected by the poets and romancers of the present century. The course of the language is in strict analogy with the move- ment by which Latin has become Portuguese and Anglo-Saxon been transformed into English. The Arabic literature has meanwhile performed for Persian almost the same office of refinement and for- eign ornamentation as that of Xorman French interfused with our own tongue. The governmental system of the Persians is the result of an evolution extending Governmental backwards to the ^-.--/-.t:! classical ages. Per- ai ages. sia has had a continuous civil his- tory for at least twenty-three cen- turies. The administration has been many times transformed with the successive revolutions and changes of race in the coun- try. Nearly always the govern- ment has been a despotism with few constitutional checks or limi- tations. This was true as far back as the ascendency of the Achaemenian kings. The modern system was virtually instituted with the Mohammedan conquest of Persia in the eighth century. At the head of the government stands the shah, who is at once emperor and vicegerent of the Prophet. He occupies much the same relation to the people as does the sultan of the Turks to his sub- Place of the jects, but is less restricted shah ; his ab- ,1 T J -i i • solutisra. by law and constitution. He exercises the right of absolute gov- ernment, and implicit obedience is ex- ^j^ W-^ u? THE IRA NT A NS.—GO I ^ERNMENT. 629 acted so long as his rule and mandates do not conflict with the Koran and its interpretation. CiviHzation has sufficiently advanced in Persia to compel some conformity of the political system to the usages of modern governments. This has resulted in a ministry as a means of executive administration. The ministry, however, is almost wholly dependent upon the will of the shah. He removes and appoints the members of his coun- cil in a manner arbitrary and capricious. Some min- isters easily obtain the royal favor and exercise great power in the state. Others have little influ- ence, and are used by the stronger in the promotion of their own ends. The departments of government have been organized with some show of regularity. There is a ministry of war, and others of in- teriorand finance, foreign affairs, justice, worship, and telegraphs. The ministers are nobles of high rank, and are set around the throne in a way to add to its reputa- tion and glory. Persia, however, has in her governmental system hardly entered into the family of civilized nations. The skill of the shah and his advisers in state- craft is very limited ; and ignorance and passrv.>n hold sway in high places. Under the imperial administration the army is organized and is fairly efficient. It is recruited by conscription and poorly paid. One of the means adopted by the shah to obtain continuous and faithful service is to withhold the pay of the sol- diers and to keep them long in arrears. The Persian army numbers over one Departments of administration ; organization of the army. NASR ED DIN SHAH — ROYAL TYPE AND COSTUME. Dr.i\vn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. hundred thousand men, of whom about a half are infantry, one third cavalry, and the remainder artillery, etc. The system of revenue is tolerably well or- ganized, and the credit of the govern- ment is sufficient to enable the shah and his ministers to make loans in the money markets of the world. TYPES AN-D COSTL MES OF THE ZiCROS HIGHLANDb -AI, tchpid cf T^ ^ d , i OFr.cERs.-Drawn hy Tofani THE IRANI AXS.— SOCIETY. 631 Derivation of manners and customs ; vary- ing character- istics. The manners and customs of the Per- sians have been derived in part from the ancient race character, and in part from the institutions and influences of Islam. From the latter source has been deduced the easy-going habit of the Persian in his intercourse and manner of life. In this respect he departs greatly from the habits of his kinsmen in Europe. Contrary to common report the Per- sians are affable and polite, at least ,.■■;:: such as are refined by the influ- ••':; ences of cities and the scholastic pur- suits. The different races inhabit- ing Persia present types quite di- verse as it respects manners and usages. Those of the northern prov- inces and in the northwest, where the race spreads out to the Arme- nian highlands, are rougher and more -uncouth in person and life, while they of the south and of the principal cities have been civilized into forms of ethnic life much more polite and attractive. Slavery is a common form of Per- sian society, though the institution Slavery and the is not strictly based on either color or race. The slaves vary great- ly in complexion and belong to sev- eral races. Those imported from Abyssinia are of greatest value. Somaliland has contributed to the slave population, as has also the interior of Africa. The slave mar- ket is always open and the institu- tion is quite univei-sal, but is less barbarous than the corresponding forms of servitude in other countries. The slaves are regarded as a kind of pro- tected class, and to this extent share the common treatment which is extended to children and domestic animals. The costumes of the Persians are slave market among the Persians. picturesque and not unattractive — ac- cording to Eastern standards. ^len wear a cotton garment fastened Materials and in front and falling below ^^^^^^ the heels. It fits loosely dicated thereby, about the person, having wide sleeves and no collar. Several colors are used in dyeing such garments. Trousers are worn by the higher classes, especially by FANATICAI, TYPE AND COSTU.MK. — UERVISII OF THE TIGER- SKIN. Drawn by A. Ferdinandus, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. the military orders, among whom West- ern fashions begin to prevail. The out- side garment is a shawl, generally of some fine material like .silk or satin. The length and quality of the garments, particularly of the cloak worn by nobles, indicates the rank of the wearer. Priests, 632 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. merchants, townspeople, storekeepers, and professional men are distinguished by the long cloak which generally falls to the heels. The costume of the shep- herds and country people is more simple in structure and of cheaper materials. The custom of shaving the hair at the crown is common though not universal. The face, except in the case of ultra fa.shionable men, is unshorn, the beard being one of the distinguishing features of the race. The costumes of the women are pretty, and are Oriental in their main features. The ladies of high rank wear shoes of Apparel of worn- colored leather, while the en;annsand ^gn, particularly the arm-bearing of ' i J the Persians. .soldiers, are booted in the manner of Ea.stern Europe. Arms are permitted to the greater part of the pop- ulation. The tribesman of the open country generally go armed. ]SIost of them carry what is called a kammah, or dirk, dangerous to the enemy. These knives the wearers are said to use in a hacking manner, not stabbing or thrust- ing as is the usage of those who kill in the West. Painting the face is customary only on important occasions or with fashionable ladies. The cheeks are painted and the _ . . ^ eyebrows improved accord- Painling the '■ face and the ing to the taste or whim type of beauty. f ^ i, • /t^v , c ot fashion. Ihe type of beauty most admii-ed is the circular countenance and complexion. The Per- sian women are much smaller than the men, and are noted for their tinv hands and feet. Directly between Persia and India lie the Afghans. They call themselves in _,,, . , the vernacular, Pukhtaneh, Ethnic place ' and character from Pukhtu, the native of the Afghans. , . , . . , designation of the lan- guage. It is here that the Iranian race is graded off into India. The most southern division of the Afghans included the Lo- hanis, who are distributed on the east of the Suleiman range, where they main- tain a nomadic life in tribal separation. The Eastern Afghans are known by the name of Berduranis. They also have tribal divisions, and approximate the In- dian character. Southward of Cabul live the West Afghans, divided into the two principal tribes of Ghilzais and Du- ranis, the latter occupying the south- western angle of Afghanistan. In person, the Afghans are described as being of medium stature. They have short necks, making the General fea- head appear to rest upon 'Z7-X^^^ the shoulders. Their com- admixture, plexion is dark, and the skin has that glossy, velvety character peculiar to the Black races. In the fiat nose there is another hint of southern admixture. The lips are thick, and the line of the eyes horizontal. Throughout the whole of Afghanistan there is a considerable element of for- eign population, and the intermixture of this with the native blood has greatly modified the per.sonal character of the race. The women have handsome fea- tures, suggesting the faces of Jewesses. The}- are much fairer than the men, sometimes rosy, though more usually pale. They wear the hair braided, plait- ed in two long tresses, with silken tassels at the ends. The influence of Moham- medanism has driven the women into .seclusion, but intrigue and violence fre- quently prevail over superstition, and in parts of the country there is much license between the sexes. The whole population of the country is divided into about a dozen tribal or- ganizations. These con- Tribal divisions form to the clan in charac- °V^^ZIZI^% their manner of ter. The Duranis and the i^fe. Ghilzais have already been mentioned. -^■J" ■ ii& T '^- ^r"i~"Sa HUZAREH TYPES.— Afridis Attacicing English Troops.— Drawn by Emilc Bayard. 634 GREAT RACES OE MAXKLXD. The Yiisufzais live in a hill tract north of Peshawer, where they maintain a semi-independence. They are regarded by the Afghan chiefs as among the most turbulent race with whom they have to deal. The Kakars, almoin Scinthe.T^tern 1 1 lv.>IAN SCHOLAR TYPE. llAjl MiK/.A-l l,li A/.ZI. Afghanistan, are comparatively inde- pendent. Their country is very difficult to explore, and but little is known of their manner of life. In several parts of Afghanistan wan- dering colonies of Persians known as Kizilbashis have settled. Distribution and 1 hey bear the character character of the of Persian ized Turks, and "^^"^^ ' speak the Persian language. They are found chiefly in the towns, where they maintain themselves as merchants, phy- sicians, and scribes. Many of them are en- rolled in the Af- ghan cavalry and in the Indian regiments of the English army. The Huzar eh dwell in the mountain coun- tr}-, in the north- west of Afghan- istan, among the spurs of Hindu- Kush. Their dwellings are frequently found as much as ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is evident that the tribe has been infected with Mongolian influ- e n c e . It is thought that Jilongoloid tribes came from the East with Gen- ghis Khan and settled in this region. The Huzareh are tributary to the Afghan princes, but they rarely pay their stipend except lander compulsion THE IRA XI A XS. —BEL UCITS. 635 of arms. They are an exceedingly im- moral people, having many of the vices of ancient paganism. They Their immoral- . i ity; other tribes are, however, gOOQ Sol- of East Iranians. -,■ , j i ^ j- diers when reduced to dis- cipline, exhibiting the proverbial cour- age of mountaineers. Many of their manners remind the traveler of the ruder class of Swiss peasants. There is a Huzareh yodel sung by them, after the manner of the Swiss. Other tribes are called the Eimauk and the Hindkis. In the latter term it is easy to see the word Hindu concealed under a vernacular form. They represent certain immi- grants from the East, who are scattered over Afghanistan, where they form in many villages and towns quite an im- portant element in the population. They are bankers and traders in lands. The language and literature of the Afghans have both been infected b}^ many foreign influences. The Moham- T-anguage of the medan conquest of the ^^''s^^fSry country greatly corrupted development. the tides of the old national life, turning them into new channels. The admixture of alien elements among the people and their institutions has in- duced much uncertainty even as to the etlinic classification of the race ; but the language is unmistakably Aryan, of the Indo-Persian branch. The vernacular speech, or Pukhtu, prevails everywhere except in Herat. There has been a con- siderable literary development in mod- ern times. A history was composed by Shaikh Mali as early as the first quarter of the fifteenth century. Poetry has been cultivated by the Afghans. Khush- al Khan, the chief of the Khattaks, was recognized as a bard as early as the reign of Arungzeebe. The foreign infection above referred to, and traced to the Mohammedans, is noticeable in the vernacular Afghan history, in which the people are said to be Bani-Israil, that is, children of Israel. The tradition is so elaborated as to give a race descent from the Hebrew patriarchs. This fiction is intertwined with the oldest books of the Afghans, as far back as the sixteenth century. In one of the histories Afghan- istan is said to have been settled by , King vSolomon himself, who gave his name to the Suleiman mountain ! The manners and customs of the Afghan race are in most respects in close analogy with those of Western Iran. They are the .same with the Tajik customs and traditions, with such excep- tions and modifications only as have been imported by foreign influence, par- ticularly by the conquest of Islam and the intercommunication with India. The next great branch of the modern Iranians includes the Beluchs, or native peoples of Beluchistan. Here again the language spoken, called in piaceofthe the vernacular Baluchckcc, f.tcuo'^jrtle indicates unmistakably side of India, the common ethnic descent of these people with the Persians. Indeed, the dialect is so much like New Persian as to point to the fact of a very late sep- aration of the Beluchs from the "West Iranians. Here, as in Afghanistan, the people have been infected to a great degree in language and institutions by contact with India. Indeed, there is a dialect spoken by the Brahoes which is manifestly derived from the languages of the Punjab, and not from an Iranian source. All along the border there is a great admixture of the two races, and the prevalence of a common ^Moham- medanism has tended to a community of institutions and ethnic character. In person, the Beluchs are of about the same stature with the Tajiks. Many of them are above the average height. The prevailing bodily form is lithe, and NORTHERN' BELUCHS— TYPES.— Mountaineers of tu« Western Himalayas.— Drawn by Emile Bayard, from a photograph. THE IRA NIA XS. —BEL I 'CHS. 637 not suggestive of great physical strength. The people are inured to great and rapid Personal fea- changes of season and cli- tures and race niate peculiar to the coun- traits of the ^ Beiaohs. try, and are exposed by their out-of-door life to many hardships. They bear fatigue, and are capable of long marches and endur- ance of hunger. They are a brave and pred- atory race, restless, and addicted to war. The physiognomy is strongly marked, the complexion is almost as dark as that of the Hindus, the nose is broad and flat, the forehead low. The hair and beard are abundant and coarse ; the hands and feet, large and heavv, in which feature they are strongly discrim- inated from the Ar- yans of India, whose extremities are fine, even to delicacy. The Beluchs have preserved in their character, and even cultivated, the ele- ment of cruelty and barbarous outrage which we have noted as peculiar to the Old Iranians. Their so- cial life is marked with many strange customs. They re- sociai customs; gard hospitality as the ^Ind'i^^^i- prime Virtue. A stranger pations. calling at their huts is sure to be entertained as a guest, fed and lodged with all the care which the family are able to afford ; but no sooner has he left the protection afforded by this tradi- tional fiction of the East than he is attacked and robbed, or even murdered. In all industrial pursuits the Beluchs are indolent and unenterprising, but no 'l^^ WOMEN OF CHIRAZ — TYPES AND COSTUMES. Drawn by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. sooner is war announced than all the latent energies of the race are excited to fierce action. In times of peace they are dissipated, giving their whole time to gambling, smoking tobacco or Indian hemp-seed, and chewing opium. The in.- 638 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. terdict of Islam keeps them from the use of spirituous liquors. They are voracious in appetite, dcTouring immense quanti- ties of flesh, half raw, and filling them- selves with other crude articles of food. They season their victuals with capsi- cum, onions, garlic, and other strong and stimulating flavors, until one unac- customed to such fiery condiments could in no wise swallow the burning mass. a method derived from the Levitical law, as modified by the practice of Islam. The old Hebrew usage which required the widow to be taken to wife by the surviving brother is repeated in the Beluch custom. The funeral ceremony demands a watch over the dead body for three successive nights, during which the kinsfolk and friends of the deceased spend their time in re\-el aiid feasting. DOMESTIC MANNKUS OF THE EELUCHS.— Interior of Tent.— Drawn by Emile Bayard, after Vambery. Llohammedanism has g-raduallv en- croached upon the old instincts of the Slavery and the Iranian race. Slavery is Stlril^elTnd Universal, each petty chief ceremonies. having as large a retinue as possible. Polygamy prevails. Even the hill peasant will have as many as eight or ten wives, and the number is in- creased with the ascending rank of the man. Young women are obtained by paying cattle or sheep or goats to the father. The marriage is performed after The dress of the Beluchs is similar to the Tajik co.stume already de.scribed. They wear for under-gar- •^ . • ^ Dress ot the ment a shirt, generally of Beiuchs; the blue or white calico, but- P^^'^^'^'^sar toned at the neck and reaching below the knee. They have wide trousers, which are open at the ankle. The head- dress consists of a turban, which is generally a high silk or cotton cap, quilted and fitted to the head. The chiefs and their relatives wear white THE IRANIANS.— MIXED PEOPLES. 639 tunics of chintz, which are lined and padded with cotton. The peasants de- pend for warmth upon a surtout, in which they envelop themselves. The cloth is manufacttired coarsely from a mixture of the hair of goats and the wool of sheep. The dress of women is little discriminated from that of men. The trousers of the former are very wide, almost like a skirt around each limb, and are made either of silk or of a mixture of that substance with cotton. The Brahoes, or Hindu Beluchs, have a costume very similar to that of the Bel- uchs, but of a poorer quality of material and simpler in fabrication. Within the broad region inhabited by the modern Iranians many subordinate races are found, each with its local peculiarities of character Character and ethnic place of and development. In the the Ossetes. j. ^ i • i ■ ,^ far west, high up m the passes of the Caucasus, are found the Ossetes, who call themselves Iron, that is, Iranians. They are so strongly dis- criminated in personal character from their neighbors and from all other of the peoples of the plateau as to suggest a foreign race descent; but their lan- guage is Iranian, and they are evidently of the same stock with the other Arme- niaps, the Tajiks, and the Kurds. In stature they are below the average, but are very thickset and strong. The hair is either blonde or red, and the com- plexion is as fair as that of the Germans. In religious faith and practice the Os- setes are associated with the Armenians, and their habits of life are similar to those of the peasant class of that people. They are mountaineers, and, like all races in such situations, have a less com- pact social development than do the races of the lowlands and plains. We may now glance for a moment at the geographical region over which the Iranic Arj-ans are distributed in their modern estate. A line drawn from the northwestern extremitv of Geographical the Persian gulf into Syr- ^If^^^^i™, ia, and thence to the Black Aryans, sea, would mark the western limits of the dispersion. On the north, the range of the Caucasus, the Caspian, the north, ern boundary' of Turkistan, and a line drawn from the ^Middle Oxus to lake Balkash, are the boundary. On the east, the general limit is the Indus, from its head-waters to the mouth ; and on the south, the Indian ocean and the Persian gulf. The great countries within these lim- its are Persia, Turkistan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan. The races inhabiting these are independent in Principal conn- development and political •X'e'n"e°of'^^ form, but are all primarily islam, peoples of a common origin. Around the borders, especially on the east, the admixture of foreign elements has been so considerable as to modify, and in some parts reverse, the original ethnic character. The largest foreign force which the Iranians of all these regions have suffered and the greatest modifica- tion in their national aspects have been produced b}- the impact of ]\Ioham- medanism. By this agency a great part of the original traditions and ceremo- nials of the Iranians, especially in Belu- chistan, have been supplanted with vSemitic institutional lorms of a totally different nature. Into some districts of ancient Iran the lines of the primitive migration have carried the Brown, even the Black and Black, races of antiquity, fj^e^.l^^" as in the case of the Brahoes Iranians, in Northeastern Beluchistan, around Kelat, who are a people of Dravidian descent. All of these elements have left an ethnic detritus in the countries 640 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. over which they have passed, and these elements have been absorbed by the Iranians, with a consequent change in personal character and tribal develop- ment. After the Tajiks, who are the most widely distributed of the modern Irani- ans, the Afghans are next in breadth of dispersion and in numbers. They are estimated at about four million nine hundred thousand souls. This includes the inhabitants of Turkistan and of sev- eral adjacent provinces, who have a com- mon ethnic character. The Beluchs number about half a million. They, most of all, have suffered from the in- termixture of foreign races, and are most conformed to the character of the peoples of Hindustan. Here, then, we shall conclude this cur- sory outline of the race which contends with the Indie Aryans for the rank of eldest among our ancestral Asiatic house- hold. We have endeavored in the cur- rent chapter to revive, as far as possible, an image of the Iranians in the garb of their ancient life and in process of pre- historic evolution. From this we have proceeded to the consideration of those modern peoples who best represent the primitive stock. We shall now pass to their kin.smen in the valley of the Indus. Plato n. EAST ARYAN ART WORK. Indican Designs. BOOK VI.-THE INDICANS. Chapter xxxvil.— Hotjsk Peopi^e ok ^rya. Indian civilization was planned and de- veloped. We must not depreciate the influence of phvsical nature '■ ^ ... Reactions of na- Upon man and his instl- tureonmanand , , . ,-> , 1 i his institutions. tutions. On the contrary, it is frankly conceded that the reaction- ary effect of universal nature on the senses and intellections, and even on the emotions and passions of mankind, is one of the o-reatest elements in determiningf the course and character of human de- velopment. The country in which the house build- ers of ancient Arya were destined, most of all, to display their native dispositions and acquired activities, may well serve as an illustration of the potency, not to say domination, of nature over man. The name India is of recent origin. If we consult the native tongues of the East, we shall find no sin iT is our purpose in the current chapter to pre- sent as much as may be gathered relative to one of the most inter- esting types in primi- tive civilization. This is the method of life, the structure of the household, the form of domestic and social economy adopted by the primitive Aryans of India. vSince Reason for the . caption "House the buildmg of a liou.se for eop e o rya. ^^ abode, and the dwelling together therein of one man and one woman with their children in the inethod of that persistent and glorious fact called the family, constitute the leading fea- ture, the form and substance, of the life of this far-off division of our own race, the caption employed for the present chapter will be the " House People of Arya." Before entering upon the formal elu- cidation of the social life of this people, it is desirable to note the features of the country in which the great structure of Derivation and gle word sufficiently com- sense of the , . , -I ^' ii name India. prehensive to define the country which we are now to consider. The name which in vSanskrit would most nearly describe the vast region whicb 641 642 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. the modern nations call India, would be Blidrata-varslia, signifying the land, or kingdom, of Bharata. The latter is the name of a legendary monarcli of the Lunar dynasty, whose dominion, ac- cording to the Indie mythology and tra- dition, was perhaps as wide as the aggre- of the Sanskrit Sindliu, or Hindu, mean- ing rivers; and this is the fundamental sense of the nomenclature. "Rivers" was the name which the primitive Ar- yan folk, coming into the upper valley from the table-lands of Iran and through the gateways of the Hindu-Kush, first VIF.W IX SAI-r \ SINDHU.-The Mounchi-Eagh.— Drawn by G. Vuillitr, f,. ..l..j,r.ii>h. gate of countries now called by the gen- eral name of India. The name Hindustan has been fre- quently used by geographers to desig- The sapta Sind- "''^^^ ^ '"^-^°'^ "^"^^^ broader hu of the Old than the limited country Indicans. . . . . ^, ,-,. 1 lying north of the \ md- hya mountains; but such usage is no longer warranted. The name India is the smoothed and melodized Greek form gave to the country now known by the designation of Punjab, or Five Rivers. It is thought, however, that the very oldest designation given by the immi- grating tribes to this region was Sapta vSindhu, or Seven Rivers, the two streams additional to the five of the Punjab being the Indus on the one side and the Saras- wati on the other. At any rate, it was into this country of many rivers — so THE INDICAXS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 643 many that they constituted the leading geographical feature, and impressed themselves first of all upon the imagi- nation of the new folk from the north- west — that the Old Aryans came from their native seats at a time far more re- mote than we are able to measure by any existing system of chronology. These tribal immigrants came ulti- mately, as we shall see in another part Origin and wan- of this work, out of ancicnt deringsofthe Bactria. For a long time Indican immi- <= grants. after their departure from their primitive seats they maintained a nomadic, or rather a sort of pastoral, life on the broad plateaus of Iran. Per- haps the extent of their wanderings in this region will never be ascertained ; but in process of time, as they made their way further and further to the east and south, they descended into the valley lands of the Upper Indus, and thence made their way down the Sapta Sindliu until the whole region between the Pun- jab and the sea was dominated by their influence. Great were the climatic and other changes which they experienced in this Aryan mythoi- migration ; and it is easy to ogy modified by discover, by an examination the new environ- ' -' ment. of the ancient Indie and Persic mythologies and by a comparison of the one with the other, to how great an extent the mythology and tradition of the migratory Aryans was modified by their debouclmrc into the valleys of the east. The somewhat austere and simple ideas of Zoroastrianism immedi- ately broke out into an inflected mythol- ogy, almost as variable in its forms and development as that of Greece ; and this, no doubt, is traceable to the multi- farious aspects and phenomena of nature as she exhibited herself in India, in contrast with her half-desert singularity on the Iranian table-lands and deserts. India is a country very variable in its climatic conditions. The sky is broad and open, flecked with „ . ^ , ^ . . Variability of clouds, and invaded at in- climatic condi- . 1 . rr:\ tions in India, tervals by storms. Ihe heavens by night are, at least in the up- lands, almost as blue and starrj^ as those of Mesopotamia. The rainfall varies with the season and the district, being less than thirty inches in some of the drier parts, and much more than sixty inches in the lowlands near the sea. But first of all, something should be said of the general relations and geographical fea- tures of the vast region stretching from the borders of Afghanistan to the de- pendent mountain spurs which divide Assam from Burmah. The extreme breadth of the country called India is about twelve hundred niiles, and its extent from north to south fully fifteen hundred miles. Extent and India is the central of the t^lsti'^^ three great peninsulas country, which -drop from the backbone of Asia into the southern ocean. It is the Italy of Asia, but an Italy on a vaster and grander scale than that which depends from the Central Alps into the IMediter- ranean. The general shape of the In- dian peninsula is a triangle, having its base set firmly against the tremendous buttresses of the Himalayas, and its apex extending far into the warm waters of the tropics. The southern point of the country reaches to the eighth parallel of north latitude; and its northern limit lies under parallel thirty-five. Within these vast boundaries there are three distinct geographical areas. First, the great uplifted mountain region, from the double ridges of the Himalayan summits to the hill-country at their foot. Second, the great river plains, embracing the larger part of the country, and bearing throuofh various channels the streams of 644 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. tending to iso- late the Indican race. the Punjab, of the Brahmaputra valley, and of the valley of the Ganges. Third, a peculiar, triangular table-land, called the Deccan, rising from the river plains just mentioned, and held in place between the Narbada and the Kistna rivers and the range of the Vindhya on the north. It is not needed in a history of man to enter into the minute details of geog- Circumstances raphy ; but the general fea- tures of the country are of prime importance to the understanding of human development. It is necessary here to note, first of all, the inaccessible barrier of the Himalayas, shutting off India from connection with the rest of Asia. The average height of these mountains is at least nineteen thousand feet, and they have few gate- ways by which the country lying to the south may be approached. It is believed that the Indie Aryans came, in part at least, through these mountain fastnesses ^vhen they first reached the region of their future abode and development. If so, however, the migration must have been one of excessive toil and danger, and, the river valleys having once been reached, the mountain gates behind would .seem to close, never to be re- opened. Thus we find that the Old Aryans of the Ea.st, having completed their migration, found themselves isolated from the rest of mankind and placed in a region well suited for race development. It is not needed, in this connection, to dwell upon the fact that these people were the last of the tribes to leave their old Bactrian abode, and that they had less of the migratory or roving disposition than any of their kinsfolk who removed from the same region, at earlier dates, into the plateau of Iran or the fa- European islands and peninsulas of the West. The instinct of remaining — what the philosophers would call the aiiiniKS man- endi — was thus stronger Thelndicans with the Indie Aryans than j^^iSh;; with any other branch of others, the great family to which they belonged. They were more localized in their dis- positions, and less adventurous than the kin.speople with whom they had been associated from the beginning. They now found themselves in beautiful river valleys and fertile viplands backed by mountains, well suited to promote the growth and expansion of those qualities which race instinct and innate prefer- ence had given them. They were alone among the peoples at a date much more than two thousand j-ears before the Christian era. All the circumstances of their situation tended powerfully to de- veloj? a type of life j^eculiar in every fea- ture. ^ It is not intended in this place to sketch the character of the Indie mind and philosophy, except in so far as the .same may have appeared in its most rudi- mentary stages. The present chapter is devoted to the ])riniitive condition of the race as it is revealed to us in its earliest aspects and conditions. Let us, then, proceed to note as much as may be authentically gathered of the primitive condition of these old peoples of the Indian valleys. On their reaching the regions which they were to inhabit, the Arj'an folk from the northwest found already in the countrv an aborig- The immigrant inal people which they f^f^f^^f^.^^ had to crowd out of their country, way. It is not known by how much ag- gression and force these aborigines were driven from their seats. Nor can it be well ascertained to what extent the fu- ture race was modified by the absorption of the primitive tribes of the country. 846 GREAT RACES OF .\L\XKIXD. Those who have investigated the sub- ject most closely differ in their estimates of the extent to which the future people of India were influenced in their blood and character by contact with the old tribes whom they overcame and dispos- sessed of their native seats. Perhaps the best judgment is that which assigns but a small modification on account of the absorption of characteristics from the primitive races. The situation, doubt- less, was not very different, in some re- spects, from that which another Aryan people, after nearly four thousand years, discovered by their impact on the abo- riginal races of the New World. The great adventurers from Western Europe, precipitating themselves upon the east- ern coasts of North America, settling there and planting a new civilization, were not greatly modified, either at the beginning or at any subsequent period, by their contact with the Red men whom they displaced from the country. In some other regions conquest has given a dif- ferent result. The Latin races, victori- ous over the provincial peoples Avho held Europe in the time of the Roman ascendency, assimilated freely with those whom they conquered and sub- dued. As already indicated, it is not now possible to determine with exacti- tude how much of the original human life of India w-as absorbed into the new Aryan life which came by migration and conquest. The caption of the present chapter has already hinted at what may be regarded „ as the primarv character- House-building . . ■' ^ instincts of the istic of the primitive Ar- East Aryans. ^ t i • /tm yans of India. ihej'' were the builders of houses, the makers of homes, the organizers of families. This is the distinctive feature of that primi- tive life which we see afar in the valleys of the East, and also of the semitribal life which we behold in process of evolu- tion among the early ]\Iedes and Per- sians, the Greeks, the Italic races, and even the Teutonic tribes of the north. They were all makers of hou.se.s — houses above ground, built from the material furnished by nature, and constructed with special reference to the permanent abode and comfort of a single house- hold. It may well surprise us to reflect that the primitive houses of the Indian valley, built by a branch of our an- sympathy of cestral' races long before f/eeTIJi'in '^^ Sanskrit was Sanskrit or ■■^°°^ structure. Greek was Greek, had the same general form and substance and design as the houses built by the wanderers and pio- neers of the New World in the seven- teenth century of our era. There has always been a close sympathy between the man of Arya and the tree. He has always looked upon the tree as his friend. He has seen in it the possibility of pro- tection and comfort and plenty. He has used it as the auxiliary of his develop- ment. Already, on his entrance into the Indian valleys, he knew how to create a house, to frame a structure out of the trunks of trees. The Old Medes had learned this . lesson on the great plateau, and it is not a little instructive to note the fact that antiquarian research has not until the present day discovered a single Median structure left to us in ruin or tradition which was not made of wood. Stone buildings and buildings of bricks were things somewhat repugnant to the first instincts of the East- Name of the ern Aryan races. These ^--;^-^ ^"^^^ forms of structure came therewith, only by development and discipline, and belong to the aesthetic periods of national life. To fell the tree, to cut and square the trunk, to put it in place in THE IXDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 647 four solid walls, and put a roof over the space for an abode, was the fundamental idea with the Aryan peoples. He called it his house, a word which is common to every branch of the great Aryan speech, from the oldest to the youngest. Nor are we able to discover a period of tribal life so remote that the house was not the tangible evidence and bottom fact. Of the exact forms which the structure assumed, we have no precise informa- tion ; but the general nature of the primitive abodes of our own race, as dis- tinguished from those of the Semites and Tu- ranians, was as defined above, and its purpose was to consti- tute a fixed home for a man and a woman, with their off- singular core of the household to which all the rest adheres and without which it falls instantly into disintegration and ruin. His life is the constant barrier be- tween it and all harm. His valor and strength are the safeguards and guaranty of his own place, which stands apart from the rest and holds his treasures. In all the tribes which have sprung from that original Bactrian fountain, bubbling up with human fecundity in remote pre- PRIMITIVE BUILDING OF Drawn The man was called pitar ; in Greek, pater ; in Anglo-Saxon, feeder; that is, father. ^ , The father was the funda- Nature of the household ; the mental fact of the house- paternal name. . . -. _., , hold. ihe word means the protector. And it is upon this idea that the whole structure of Aryan society, ancient and modern, is founded. The father protects his house and household. They are his. The idea is that of a nest. He is the roof above it. He defends it. His arm is bared for its protection, and his faculties are all vigilant lest harm come to his abode. He is the stem around which the whole structure is gathered and developed. He is the THE INDUS VALLEY. — HOUSE I.N THE KOULOU. by G. Vuillier, from a photograph. historic ages, fatJterltood and protection have been inseparable synonyms. As a necessary adjunct to this central fact called the father in the Arj'an household, was the institution of mo- nogamy. Single marriage ^ ^ » » The fact and was the rule from the be- sentiment of rr\^ ■ e single marriage. ginning. The union of one man with one woman, perpetually de- voted the one to the other, was the fun- damental concept of the creative relation and of the outward fact called the home. It appears, moreover, that this union among the Aryan peoples has always bpftn based on the sentiment of affectio". 648 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. A preference, loving and tender, has ahvays existed, at least a preferenee of the man for the woman. It is doubtful, indeed, if the preference of the woman for the man has ever been wholly ig-- nored in any Aryan tribe. It is true that the idea of ownership, the belief and practice that the man was not only strong- contradistinction to the polyga- mous practices of the Semitic races and the polyandry of many of the The Aryan barbarian families of man- 'Z^^''^::. kind, the single marriage ogamic. of the Aryan household stands preemi- nent. Further on we shall see that this principle of monogamy was so strong .MODERN HOUSES OF TDK SAl'TA SINUUU.— V ii.L.\(,ii IN THE KouLOU.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a pliotograph. the possessor but the ozvner of the woman, has prevailed among many of even the leading peoples of our race. But a close study of primitive conditions will show that even at the earliest emergence from barbarism some — even much — def- erence was given to the sentiments and instincts of the woman. However this may be, the monogamic relation is certain and definite. In am^ng the Greeks and Romans as to be by them communicated and forced upon the prevalent social, political, and reli- gious systems of the world. In the valle}' of the Indus the primitive Ar\'an household was or- Institution of ganized on these prmciples. the family; office A house was built. A fa- °f t^« «'°ti'e'^- ther declared himself. He took on woman in marriage. He became her THE INDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 649 protector and the defender of the house where she dwelt and where he dwelt with her. When the child was born, his fatherhood was emphasized. He was the protector also of the child — of the children. They grew around him. He was the center of the primitive home, its defender from harm, and the fundamental fact of its existence. And this brings tis to consider the mother in /^^/- office and character as she is revealed to us in the Aryan dawn. The mother in Arya was the pro- ducer, that is, the producer of life. She was the genetrix, the wellspring. When the name of mother (Sanskrit vidta) was first given her, she was thought of as the blessed origin of being, the bearer of the new living form which the father was to acknowledge and protect." As to her own being, it was wedded to that of the man. She lost her name and her family relationship by her union with the man. She was taken oiit of the household to which she belonged in girlhood and transferred to the man. To this extent she became his. At least, she was of Jiim, and her identity was henceforth merged with his in the household which they had founded. But the household took its origin in him, bore his name, and was under his pro- tection and sovereignty. We are able, by means of linguistic study, to penetrate the inner life of the The son and primitive house of Arya, sfgr^'canc'e 'oV ^"^^ to discover its methods, their names. The names given to the son and the daughter indicate, as clearly as can be, the offices which they held in ' The fundamenta! unity of the idea of mother among all the Aryan peoples is shown by the identity of the word in the different languages — thus : San- skrit, 7n&ia ; Old Persic, mata; Greek, initlr; Latin, mater; Old Slav, matt; O. H. Ger., jnuotar ; Gaelic, maihair, etc., etc. M.— Vol. I — 42 the family. The ideas upon which the organizations depended are clearly shown by the words employed to define the household relations. As for the son, he was called sunn, meaning the begotten, and the thought was that as the begotten of his father he was to be his successor and representative. He was named ac- cordingly ; and we are thus able to see at the very foundation of Aryan life the notion which the primitive father had of his male offspring. The daughter was named on a differ- ent principle. They called her at the first diiliitar, a term of endearment, sig- nificant in its first intent of the tender- ness with which the girl-child was re- garded. Her place in the household was affectional. She was the darling from her birth, and this relation of loving ten- derness she continued to bear in the family until her transplanting out of it to the side of her husband. But while she continued to be duhitar, the daughter, she also, in maidenhood, took on another name or names significant of her place and duty. Instead of being called duhi- tar, she was nicknamed milkmaid, and by this simple fact we ai-e let into a sec- tion of the daily life of the household. It was her duty, on arriving at mature maidenhood, to milk the cows and goats, and her duty in this respect was so clear- ly defined as to warrant her nickname milkmaid. By this title she was called without disparagement, and her original office has been carried with the frag- ments of speech into several modern languages. If we scrutinize more closely the method of life pursued _ ^ ^ Predominance 01 at the beginning by the the agricultural T -,. , 1 11 instinct. Indic Aryans, we shall find them to be a people of the soil. They lived from the resources of the earth produced by cultivation. In these 650 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. migrating tribes the agricultural impulse was dominant from the first. They were peculiarly a people of ground- HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARVA — THE DUHITAR. itive life of the Aryans is so strongly marked as to have left its own demon- stration and history in the languages spoken b}- the different races of this stock. Nor can it fail of in- terest, even to the unlearned reader, to note the proof and il- lustration of the agricultural as- pect of Arj^an life by an ex- amination of that group of words which ex- hibit the fact most strikingly. The word Ar- yan is from the Sanskrit Arja, meaning "no- ble." It signifies thenobilityof the agricultural caste in ancient India. The plowmen were the noble people, and were socalledby them- selves from the begfinning. The root AR means to plow, and this signification is traceable in nearly every dia- lect of Aryan speech. In Latin «r-are Avas to glebe. It julture. They plowed the was their vocation to plant seeds and de- velop the growing stalk to maturity and fruitage. This peculiarity of the prim- In Greek rt'r-oun had . Meaning and ap- Even plication of the Old Enoflish we have '^°^ plow the same meaning in the expression to car the ground, meaU' THE INDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 651 ing to plow. In the forty-fifth chapter of Genesis occurs the expression , ' ' There shall neither be ^vrring- nor harvest." This signifies, "There shall be neither ploiviiig nor harvest time." Ancient geographical names in all parts of the Aryan world have preserved the traces of this word. The old name of Thrace was Ar-xa.. The ancient name of the vocation of the Aryan race. The names of men in various parts of the world have carried forward the same noble tradition ; and that great German leader with whom Julius Caesar contended for the mastery of Europe was called Ar- iovistus. All these facts prove beyond doubt that the vocation of this great branch of the human family was agri- HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA— THE TILLERS OF THE SOIL. Median and Persian plateau was /r-an, meaning the land of the Aryans. The name of //-^--land, formerly written Eirc- land, preserves the same root, and the poetical name Er-\n, sometimes sup- posed to mean the land of the west, is only the same word, and signifies the land of the plow. Aye, the very word f^r-th is doubtless the same, preserving in its spelling and pronunciation the un- mistakable evidence of the primitive cultural, and this at a period before the breakup of the ancient tribes in the orig- inal seats of Bactria. Thej' were the people of the plow long before the Hel- lenes were known to history or the an- cient Medes had appeared as a power on the Iranian plains. The general character of the earl}' life of man is largely discoverable by his re- lations with the other animals. From his appearance on the earth, be the 652 GREAT RACES OE MANKINi. mode and the time of that appearance whatever it may, he has been in close Relations of the affiliation with the lower or- indicanswith | £ being. The dis- tame and -wild «> beasts. tinction between wild and domestic animals is doubtless fictitious. All animals at the first were wild. vSome species have, in process of time, been tamed by the superior wit and contriv- ance of man ; and the creatures thus do- mesticated have acquired the instinct of docility. The peculiarities of the Old Aryan life of India are again revealed in the character of the animals which they succeeded in subduing. They are those peculiar to the agricultural life. The horse was their servant long before their migration from the Bactrian uplands. Tradition has preserved even into the dawn of authentic historj' the story of the horses of the Medes and Persians. The Indie Aryans were equally the mas- ters of this noble animal, but with them he was bred and reared rather for the service of the field and the household than for swiftne.ss in flight or the charge of battle. The horse in the Indian val- le\'s partook in course of time of the mild and docile qualities of the people, and obeyed somewhat the influences of his environment. So also of the cattle and the sheep. Both were domesticated and drawn The agricultural around the Aryan house. th:dote\"can". F™"^ the earliest days imais. of the migration wild cat- tle still existed in the uplands of Persia and perhaps in the mountain countries of the north ; but the kine of the valle3^s were domesticated, and were used for food and service more than fifteen hun- dred years before the conquest of Alex- ander. Likewise, the goat was among the tamed animals of the primitive In- dians. He was eaten as to his flesh, and from the ewes was derived the principal supply of milk, with its secondary prod- ucts of butter and cheese. So also was the dog — but not the cat — the con'stant companion of these people. Indeed, the whole life of the Aryan household was of the strictly agricultural type ; and it may well surprise us to find repre- sented in the daily curriculum of the oldest tribes of our race so many of the features, the methods, and characteristics of the modern family. Strangely enough, it does not appear that the ancient Aryans of India were much acquainted with the Names of wild wild beasts of the woods. "^^^^^^^ At any rate, such acquaint- languages, ance as they had seems to have been gained after the departure -from their kinsfolk of the highlands and their com- ing into the Indian valleys. These facts we know again from the testimony of language. The names of the wild beasts are generally different in the different Aryan languages. If the bear, for in- stance, or the wolf had been familiar to the tribes before the migration from their original seats, they would have given him a name, and that name would have been common in the various dialects arising from the common source. So also of the other fierce beasts of the woods. But we find that the wild crea- tures have each a specific name in the different Aryan tongues, from which the nonacquaintance of the primitive folk with such beasts is clearly inferred. If we glance at the implements and utensils of the Old Aryan household, we shall find another illustra- Names of impie. tion of the peaceful agri- rhrmanteVo'J-"" cultural life which they led . life. The various implements of tillage are named in common by the different Aryan folk who used them. The plow, the rake, and the hoe, the iron ax and sickle, and many other of the imple- THE INDICANS— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 653 ments of husbandry were manifestly in use by the immigrants who peopled ancient India. But here again we find a different result when we look at the names of the implements of the chase and of war. The name of the bow and arrow, the spear, the lance, and the sword are different in the different dia- lects which sprang from the common source ; and we are able by such means to discover that hunting and the still at eventide. It is i:nmistakably true that the leading features of the primitive Aryan home of India had an outline of identity with those of Greece and Italy, and even of the Teutonic fastnesses of the north and the oak woods of Britain. Unto this day many words still live in India and in England that had a common birth and common meaning before the separation of the ancient tribes from the Bactrian homestead, and these words HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARVA— THE AGRICULTURAL LIFE. more exciting vocations of war were phases of life comparatively unknown to the primitive Aryans, and only super- imposed upon their ancient agricultural life at a later date and under foreign influences. War and the chase were not the native pursuits of these peaceable people ; and Indications of a the Very nomenclature of their household and garden utensils is sufficient of it- self to establish their character as men of the field by day and the hearthstone peaceable and domestic race character. and forms of speech bear unmistakable evidence of the common primitive life which all these tribes inherited from a common ancestry. The name for house is the same in all. So also the names for father and mother, for son and daughter, for dog and cow, for heart and tears, for ax and tree, for plow and doorway — all are common in their origin and meaning in the whole group of Indo-European languages. And thus are we able, by linguistic research and careful comparison, to draw from the 654 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. prehistoric shadows a tolerably accurate outline of that primitive life which was led by the Aryans of India before the Veda was sung, and even by their own ancestral tribes long before the Zend- Avesta had taken form in the minds of the Iranian bards and philosophers. Thus we see, in a very remote pre- historic age, certainly as much as two thousand vears before our Synopsis of the aspects of life era, the incoming of cer- In Old India. ^ • . . -i • .. tarn migratory tribes into the great country which we call India. We see them settling there and develop- ing according to the laws of their own instinct and the influences of their en- vironment. We see them building houses and organizing families on the basis of monogamy. We see them localized in their abodes and in close relation with the soil, from which they derived their subsistence by means of regular cultivation. We see them de- voting themselves to the pursuits of peace ; emplo3-ing the domestic animals and using the implements of husbandry, i driving the oxen to the plow and bearing the milk pail from the goatfold at even- I ing. We see them but little acquainted with the chase and little disposed to the dangers and excitements of war, a pecul- iar people, given to peace and dreading the hazards and alarms of conflict and battle. We see them following from generation to generation, even from century to century, the same primitive methods of life until, in the process of time and with the rise of more aggres- sive and adventurous peoples in other parts of Asia, their national life is at last thrust into the faint dawn of authentic history. Then it is that the priest is heard chanting the songs of the Veda, and the old philosopher of Arya begins to teach his mystic beliefs to dreaming followers in the valleys of the East. When we anive at this juncture in the history of the Indie races, it will be time for us to pass from the purely primitive aspect of Aryan life in India to consider its tribal and historical relations — as will be done in the following chapters. Chapter XXXVIII.— Relioion. N the entrance of the Old Aryans into the Indian valleys all the ethnic harmonies of the race were softened into a minor key. There was a loss of intellectual force, with a gain of imagi- nation ; a loss of bodily energy, with a General effect of gain of activitv ; a loss th:E;iXa:s of adventure, with a gain into India. of dreaming. Every ele- ment of the originally robust Aryan character, as it had shown itself through all the stage? r: drifting from the Bac- trian homestead through the mountaiti passes into the Punjab, was toned down and soon forced, by a new disci- pline, to vibrate to a softer chant. Every force of nature conspired by its reaction on the faculties of man to abridge freedom, cool passion, assuage tribal heat, and diffuse a calmer mood. We come now to consider the old life of India, always an obscure problem in the history of mankind. We have al- ready considered those ancient migra- tory movements which carried down the peoples of our ancestral race, by succes- sive waves into the Punjab, and thence 656 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. southward and eastward to the ocean and the mountains. We have even noted some of the original conditions which surrounded the immigrants and conduced to the formation of a new race character. The attentive reader is by this time tolerably informed with re- spect to the ethnic inheritance which the Aryans brought with them into India ; of their dispositions and peculiarities, and the beginnings of the institutional form which they carried along on their way from the highlands of Iran into the lowlands of Sapta vSindhu. It shall now be our object to take up the trans- planted life of the Old Aryans, and to note its evolution into new forms pecul- iar to the East. We are here on the threshold of Brali- manism. Perhaps it will be well first of indican religious all to notc the peculiarities Sed b/tl7'' "f tl."« ancient faith, and es- Brahmans. peciallv its divergence from the system of Zoroaster. The term is derived from the Brahmans, the sacer- dotal caste of the Hindu family, who have, from the most ancient times, been the custodians of the national faith, pre- serving its dogmas and directing its ceremonial. In their hands — such is their antiquity and such their influence over the destinies of Indian civilization — both the linguistic and the religious development of the Indian race have been determined, and it is interesting to note the almost perfect parallelism of the changes from the Old Aryan tongue to the modern languages of 'Hindustan, and the corresponding inflections of the old religious beliefs into the forms and ceremonials of the existing races of India. The doctrines of Brahmanism are summed up and contained in a body of sacred writings, under the collective name of the Veda. The word signifies "knowledge," or " revelation." Perhaps the older portions thereof are the oldest written compositions now '■ Nature and in possession of the hu- extent of the man race, unless we should except certain parts of the Chinese liter- ature, concerning the antiquity of which the Western peoples are not well in- formed. The Veda consists of four parts, or collections of sacred texts, called San- hitas, or IVIantras. The texts include not only expositions of doctrine and revelations of the gods, but also hymns and incantations and prayers and sacri- ficial forms peculiar to the national re- ligion. The first major division of the whole work is known as the ^/(7^-Veda, commonly written Rig- Veda ; the second is the Sainan-'W&AdL, or Sama-Veda ; the third is the Frt/>/j//-Veda, written Yajur- Veda; and the fourth, the AtJiarvan- Veda, or Atharva-Veda. Each of these greater parts has its i^eculiarities, and the whole covers a vast epoch as it re- lates to the time of composition. In addition to the sacred texts proper, there is a large mass of prose writings attached thereto called the Additional writ- Brahmanas. The subject- ^f^ThTsal^fd matter of these relates to text. the ceremonial application of the sacred texts, the proper method of conducting the rites, and other practical and exposi- tory matters. There' are two other kinds of commentaries or appendages to the Vedas, called the Aranyakas and the Upanishads, the former of which are analogous in subject to the Brahmanas, being in the nature of a comment and explanation upon the sense and proper usage of the sacred books. The Upani- shads, however, are more philosophical in their character. They contain the great body of speculations on the prob- lems of life and of destiny, particularly THE IN Die A NS. —RELIGION. 657 that part of philosophy which relates to the universe and its religion. These commentaries and expositional parts of the Hindic Bible come down to a com- paratively recent date, from which cir- cumstance the sacred language of India may be studied entirely from the reli- gious texts. Nearly every inflection and linguistic development which has taken place from the most ancient vSan- skrit to Hindustani niay be gathered and understood from an examination of the Vedas, with their accompanying gloss and commentaries. It is the Rig- Veda which constitutes the essence of the whole. It corresponds with the Gathas of the Avesta, contain- Essenceofthe ing the hvmns and other t^ineTin' the ly^^al cffusions of the carli- Rig-Veda. gst Aryan settlers in India. It is clear, however, that these most an- cient songs differ greatly among them- selves in date of composition. Some of them represent the language in its old- est aspect, and others are of a later date ; but all are ancient, and belong to that primitive period of religious and linguis- tic history in which the thought of the ancestral race was still in native efflo- rescence, freeing itself from the bosom of man in ejaculatory expressions, apostro- phes, and hymns of praise to the gods. Quite unlike the Rig- Veda are the three other divisions of the sacred books. The Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda are ritualistic in character. They either explain, illustrate, or apply the doctrines of the older hymns, or repeat them in more modern phraseology. Much has already been said relative to the bottom character of the Old Aryan worship. It was based upon Vedaism based , '■ on the adoration a reverential regard for na ure. ^^ powers of nature. The grand and striking phenomena of the physical universe struck upon the con- sciousness of this early race with peculiar power, and the heart of the people burst out m adoration and praise. Doubtless in its very earliest aspect the religious system thus produced was merely a na- ture worship, having for its objective re- alities the sublime aspects and processes of the material world. Generally, the vision of this early peo- ple was lifted to the air and sky. At- mospheric phenomena particularly af- fected the sen.ses and attracted the rev- erence of the Old Indians, Natural rever- Higher still were the heav- Zl^Zt:.^.. enly bodies. The efiful- ly bodies. gence of the sun poured down upon a sensitive race and warmed them into gratitude and devotion. There was in a very early age a division of the powers of the universe similar to that discerned and developed by the Greeks. There were powers of the earth, powers of the air, and powers of heaven. For a long time the polytheistic aspect of the sys- tem was maintained, and it is not until we reach the tenth book of the Rig- Veda that we find an effort on the part of the worshiper to elevate one particular deity to the rank of an omnipotent God. We have already called attention to the mode by which, in the worship of the powers of nature, the '- . The mind seeks mind, ever in process of ex- to separate mat- 1 , , . te'r from spirit. pansion, labors to separate the force behind the phenomenon from the phenomenon itself. This happened in the case of the Indians. Their sys- tem was elevated from the merely phys- ical aspects of the universe to the invis- ible powers which control and direct. These were henceforth worshiped. Names were given to them, and a hier- archy was established, having a supreme head in the sky god called Dyaus Pitar, or Heaven Father. We thus see in the extreme East a religious evolution which 658 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. The prayerful element in the Vedic worship. reached the same result as that which was subsequently attained, without his- torical contact, by the kindred Aryans of the Grseco- Italic race. Dyaus Pitar is the same as the Greek Zeus and the Ro- man Jove. The system of worship adopted by the Indie Aryans was noted for what may be called its praycrftil character. Its es- sence was invocation, and even the gloss and commen- tary, so abundantly elab- orated in the books accompanying the Veda, are nearly all devoted to the proper exposition and form of prayer. The whole system presents man in a reverential attitude toward the gods, pouring out his devotions, sometimes in praise and what may be narrowly defined as worship; but generally the substance of the devotional act was an appeal to the powers above, a prayer for benefit, for grace, for wisdom. The word Brah- ma is said to signify "devotion," or " prayer." It must not be understood that this simple and essential element in the the- T, , , Ology of India was not sub- Development of , ■worship and use ject to development, in the of sacrifices. , , /• . , hands of the priests, into a vast and incomprehensible formulary. On the contrary, the inflection of cere- mony was never carried to a higher de- gree than by the priests of the Old Indie faith. Not only was the form of the prayer, its subject, and its method to be carefully defined, but the philosophical concepts of the worshiper must be regu- lated and mingled with his devotion, in order that a true religion might be illus- trated in his life. The second idea was that of the effi- cacy of sacrifices. The earnest prayer properly expressed could hardly fail to bring to the worshiper an answer from the gods, but the pleasure of the latter was enhanced and their purposes toward men made more auspicious by the giving of gifts on the altar. Thus a sacrificial system was demanded to supplement the system of prayers ; and for the con- duct of the ceremonies and sacrifices orders of priests became necessary, who, by the multiplication of their own func- tions and dignities, increased tl\e num- ber and reputation of their caste. Pro- fessor Wax ^MLiller has enumerated four classes of priests required in the conduct of solemn sacrifices : 1. The officiating priests, manual la- borers, and acolytes, who have chiefly to prepare the sacrificial ground, to dress the altar, slay the victims, and pour oiit the libations. 2. The choristers, who chant the sa- cred hymns. 3. The reciters, or readers, who repeat certain hymns. 4. The overseers, or bishops, who watch and superintend the proceedings of the other priests, and ought to be fa- miliar with all the Vedas. It is the purpose in the present work to make as few excerpts as possible from existing writings. It has ^ ° Kxtracts from been the plan rather to sum- the veda; hymn marize and to place in the ° '^ ''^ best light the substance of such docu- ments as would most demand attention in the course of an ethnic history. At this point, however, it seems fitting to pre- sent some examples of the Vedic hymns in English. Only so much will be given as may familiarize the reader with the phraseology of these ancient songs and with the worshipful spirit in which they were chanted, in the faint dawn of his- tory, by the old bards of India. The selections are made from Miiller's trans- lation of the Vedas. The first is from the fifty-third chapter of the first book of the Rig- Veda. THE INDICANS.—RELIGIOX. 659 SAKYA MUM. I. Hymn to Indra. I. Keep silence well ! We offer praises to the great '.udra in the house of the sacrificer. Does he find treasure for those who are like sleepers? Mean praise is not valued among the munificent. 2. Thou art the giver of horses, Indra, thou art the giver of cows, the giver of corn, the strong lord of wealth; the old guide of man, disap- pointing no desires, a friend of friends ; to him we address this song. 3. O powerful In- dra, achiever of many works, most brilliant god — all this W'eallh around here is known to be thine alone : take from it conqueror, bring it hither! do not stint the desire of the wor- shiper who longs for thee ! 4. On these days thou art gracious, and on these nights, keepihg off the enemy from our cows and from our stud. Tearing the fiend night after night with the help of Indra, let us rejoice in food, freed from haters. 5. Let us rejoice, Indra, in treasure and food, in wealth of manifold delight and splendor. Let us rejoice in the blessingof the gods, which gives us the strength of offspring, gives us cows first, and horses. 6. These draughts inspired thee, O lord of the brave ! these were vigor, these libations in battles, when for the sake of the poet, the sacrificer, thou struckest down irresistibly ten thousands of enemies. In the following- hymn the invocation is to Ag-ni, the god of fire. As we have seen, this deity was perhaps ■VTorship of , 1 • 1 i j Agnijhymn the most lineal aescend- lahis praise. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ancient Aryan Mazdao, being the earthly representative of the sun, shining on the hearthstone and from the altar place. Agni was regarded as the guardian of the house and the messenger of intercourse be- tween gods and men, having thus the character of the Hermes of the Greeks. Since flame was the devouring element in the offering of sacrifices, Agni was regarded as the divinity of the altar. The following invocation is from the sixth chapter of the second book of the Rig- Veda. II. Hymn to .Vcxi. :. Agni, accept this log which I offer to thee, accept this my service ; listen well to these my songs. 2. With this log, O Agni, may we worship thee, thou son of strength, conqueror of horses ! and with this hymn, thou highborn ! 3. May we thy servants serve thee with songs, O granter of riches, thou who lovest songs and delight- est in riches. 4. Thou lord of wealth and giver of wealth, be thou wise and powerful; drive away from us the enemies! 5. He gives us rain from heaven, he gives us inviolable strength, he gives us food a thousand- fold. 6. Youngest of the gods, their messenger, their in- voker, most deserving of worship, come, at our praise, to him who worships thee and longs for thy help. 7. For thou, O sage, goest wisely between these two creations [heaven and earth, gods and men], like a friendly messenger between two hamlets. 8. Thou art wise, and thou hast been pleased ; perform thou, intelligent Agni, the sacrifice without interruption ; sit down on this sacred grass ! The worship of storm was a peculiar feature of the religion of Old Arya. It can not be said that this phase of the orig- inal cult re- appeared in the mythol- ogy of the Greeks and Romans, at least in a distinct form , but storm wor- ship was a conspicuoits element in the devotions of India, as it had been, to a certain extent, among the Iranians. The storm gods were GOD OF FIRE. 660 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. known as the Maruts, and the following- hymn, from the thirty-ninth chapter of the first book of the Cult of the .^ . _., -, .ii m • ii Btorra;hymn Rig-\ ecla, Will Sufficiently to the Maruts. in^strate the nature of the adoration which was paid to them : III. Hymn to the jMaruts. I. When you thus from afar cast forward your measure, Uke a blast of lire, through whose wisdom 5. They make the rocks to tremble, they tear asun- der the kings of the forest. Come on, Maruts ; like madmen, ye gods, with your whole tribe. 10. Bounteous givers, ye possess whole strength, whole power, ye shakers. Send, O Maruts, against the proud enemy of the poets, an enemy, like an arrow. One of the tenderest aspects of the natural world is the dawn of the day. This phenomenon appears to have im- SCUI.riURlS IROM A I'dRCH AT KARIT \'\ H. Catenacci, after r.ran.lsire. is it, through whose design? To whom do ye go, to whom, ye shakers? 2. May your weapons be firm to attack, strong also to withstand ! May yours be the more glorious strength, not that of the deceitful mortal I 3. When you overthrow what is firm, O ye men, and whirl about what is heavy, ye pass through the trees of the earth, through the clefts of the rocks. 4. No real foe of yours is know-n in heaven or in earth, ye devourer of enemies ! May strength be yours, to- gether with your race, O Rudras, to defy even now. Myth of the da'wn; hymn to Ushas. pressed itself upon the senses of all early races of men. In the Greek mythol- ogy Daphne, the "dawn," was chased a r o u n d the earth by her lover Apollo. In the Indian system the myth reappeared tinder the name of Ushas, first adored as a visible aspect of nature, and afterwards elevated into a THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 661 living being and impersonated as one of the gods. From the seventy-seventh chapter of the seventh book of the Rig- Veda the following hymn to Ushas is presented : IV. Hymn to Ushas. 1. She shines upon us, like a young wife, rousing every living being to go to his work. When the fire had to be kindled by men, she made the light by striking down darkness. 2. She rose up, spreading far and wide, and mov- ing everywhere. She grew in brightness, wearing her brilliant garment. The mother of the cows [the mornings], the leader of the days, she shone gold- colored, lovely to behold. 3. She, the fortunate, who brings the eye of the gods, who leads the white and lovely steed [of the sun], the dawn was seen revealed by her rays, wiih brilliant treasures, following everyone. 4. Thou art a blessing where thou art near; drive far away the unfriendly ; make the pasture wide, give us safety ! Scatter the enemy, bring riches ! Raise up wealth to the worshiper, thou mighty dawn. 5. Shine for us with thy best rays, thou bright dawn, thou who lengthenest our life, thou the love of all, who givest us food, who givest us wealth in cows, horses, and chariots. 6. Thou daughter of the sky, thou highborn dawn, whom the Vasishthas magnify with songs, give us riches high and wide : all ye gods protect us always with your blessing. We will conclude these extracts from the oldest division of the Indie scrip- tures by presenting two hymns to Va- runa, from the eie'hty-sixth Theory of Va- , . , ■ runa, andhis and eighty-nintli chapters ymns. ^^ ^^^ Seventh book of the Rig- Veda. This deity was the god of the waters, or of the "Western world, as it was understood in the Hindu myth. In the philosophical imagery of the Brahmans, Varuna was represented as a four-armed man, riding on a fabulous sea monster, bearing in his right, hand a rope and in his left a bludgeon : V. Hymn to V.\ru.\a. 1. Let me not yet, O Varuna, enter into the house of clay; have mercy, almighty, have mercy! 2. If I go along trembling, like a cloud driven by the wind ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy ! 3. Through want of strength, thou strong and bright god, have I gone wrong ; have mercy, al- mighty, have mercy ! 4. Thirst came upon the worshiper, though he stood in the midst of the waters ; have mercy, al- mighty, have mercy ! 5. Whenever we men, O Varuna, commit an of- fense before the heavenly host, whenever we break the law through thoughtlessness, punish us not, O god, for that offense. Second hymn : 1. Wise and mighty are the works of him who stemmed asunder the wide firmaments. He lifted on high the bright and glorious heaven ; he stretched out apart the starry sky and the earth. 2. Do I say this to my own self ? How can I get unto Varuna? Will he accept my offering without displeasure.' When shall I, with a quiet mind, see him propitiated ? 3. I ask, O Varuna, wisliing to know this my sin. I go to ask the wise. The sages all tell me the same : Varuna it is who is angry with thee. 4. Was it an old sin, O Varuna, that thou vvishest to destroy thy friend, who always praises thee? Tell me, thou unconquerable lord, and I will quickly turn to thee w'ith praise, freed from sin. 5. Absolve us from the sins of our fathers, and from those which we committed with our own bod- ies. Release \'asishiha, O king, like a thief who has feasted on stolen o.xen ; release him like a calf from the rope. 6. It was not our own doing, O Varuna, it was necessity, an iiito.\icating draught, passion, dice, thoughtlessness. The old is there to mislead the young; even sleep brings unrighteousness. 7. Let me without sin give satisfaction to the an- gry god, like a slave to his bounteous lord. Ths lord god enlightened the foolish ; he, the wisest, leads his worshiper to wealth. 8. O lord A'aruna, may this song go well lo thy heart ! May we prosper in keeping and acquiring ! Protect us, O gods, always with your blessings! The foregoing examples will be suflfi- cient to illustrate the spirit in which some of the earliest apostrophes of man- kind to the immortal gods Mutter's views were uttered. It is denied 'IZTXiZ^' by the translator that the vedic hymns, system of religion whose fundamental ideas are expressed in these prayers is polytheistic. He also wotild den}- that they are an expression of monotheism. d62 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. As a term definitive of their real nature, he suggests Kathcnotluisiii, which would imply that the deities of the Indie race were the personified attributes of a single godhead, that is, several under one. This, however, is to enter into the nice- ties and hair-splittings of that theological and philosophical controversy, the re- finements of which, even when most carefully expressed, have proved of but little advantage to the human race. It will, however, be a fitting conclusion to these extracts from the Indie Bible to repeat some verses from another part of the same translation. They correspond to the Hebrew Book of Genesis rather than to the Psalms, as do the Vedic hymns already quoted : Rig-Veda, Book X, Chapter 121. 1. In ihe beginning there arose the golden Child — be was the one born lord of all that is. He estal)- lished the earth and this sky. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 2. He who gives life, he who gives strength ; whose command all the bright gods revere ; whose shadow is immortality, whose shadow is death. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sac- rifice "> 3. He who through iiis power is the one king of the breathing and awakening world ; he who gov- erns all, man and heast. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 4. He whose greatness these snowy mountains, whose greatness the sea proclaims, with the distant river ; he whose these regions are, as it were, his two arms. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 5. He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm ; he through whom the heaven was estab- lished, nay, the highest heaven ; he who measured . out the light in the air. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice } 6. He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by his will, look up, trembling inwardly ; he over whom the rising sun shines forth. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 7. Wherever the mighty water clouds went, where they placed the seed, and lit the fire, thence arose he who is the sole life of the bright gods. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 8. He who by his might looked even over the water clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice ; he who alone is God above all gods. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sac- rifice ? 9. May he not destroy us. he the creator of the earth, or He, the righteous, who created the heavens ; he also created the bright and mighty waters. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our saci rifice ? vSjDace would fail to extend these quotations from the ancient religious writings of the Indie Ar- Brahmanism be- yans. It can not be known ""^^^ an incom- -* prehensible to what extent the same mythology. were originated after the incoming of the immigrant peoples into India, or to what extent they had already been formulated at an earlier period. As frequently happens in the case of reli- gions, the old system of nature worship, spiritualized and elevated in the hands of the primitive seers of the East, soon fell into degeneration in the hands of the Brahmans. A volume could not contain an account of the changed and changing aspects through which Brah- manism passed from its old form, as ex- pressed in the Vedic hymns, to its later inflections and incomprehensible refine- ments, as elaborated by the Brahmani- cal priesthood. It became a mythology rather than a religion. The old spiritual concepts gave place to vague and even ridiculous myths, irrational in their sub- ject-matter and preposterous in their application. The old religion grew into the most enormous body of ceremoni- als and formalities which were ever, perhaps, devised by the ingenuity of a priestly order. We have accepted Max Miiller's view that the original faith of India was Kath- enothei.sm,' that is, a system of many ' The word kathenotheism is derived from the Greek kata, "under," henos, "one," and iheos, " god; " that is, a pantheon of many gods under one supreme godhead. THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 663 deities tinder one, the latter being the supreme being of the universe, and the Meaning of former his impersonated at- Kathenotheism; ^j.-l3^j^^.^_ In the hands of nature of tne Trimurti. the Brahmans, this concept finally took the form of a godhead, com- posed of a triune person, or persons, called the Trimurti, the first of whom was Brahma, the creator ; the sec- ond, Vishnu, the preserver; and the third, Siva, the destro3'er of all things. This trinity was represented, not as a single person, as in the Christian theology but as three deities, in in- timate union of relationship. They presided gloomily and in a fatalistic sense over the destinies of human life. While the concept of Brahma as the supreme deity of the Indian pantheon was evolved, another no- tion, of a philosoph- Wliat brahma was and what ical rather than reli- it became. . ^ i i gious nature, had ap- peared. The word brahuia, as a neu- ter noun, became impersonal, and was used by the philosophers to de- note the sum of all nature, the germ of everything that is, the one thing that embraces everything. The idea is especially difficult to grasp. The incisive intellect of the _ Western nations, requiring clear definition in everything, does not readily apprehend the meaning of this brahma, and when we attempt to clear our understandings by an examination of the Vedic commentaries, such as the Upani- shads, we are generally confused rather than enlightened. The book known as the Kena-Upanishad says of this imper- sonal brahma: "Eye, tongue, mind can not reach it ; we comprehend it not, we can not teach it to anyone ; it is other than all that is known and all that is un- known." The speculations of the Brahmans rela- tive to the meaning of the term would, in their turn, demand volumes of expli- cation. They have a mys- speculations . • 11 ui„ •■ ,,.!-, ;«l, and refinements tenons .syllable, om, which respecting the contains a peculiar trinity °™- of sounds, and by this they symbolize the brahma. This inexplicable explana- KAMl-RATI. tion is in its turn made the subject of commentary, and the Mandukya-Upan- ishad is wholly devoted to explanations of the sense of om. As illustrative of the abstruse and involved ideas after which the authors .seem to .struggle, the following paragraph is quoted: " Om is immortal. Its unfolding is this universe ; is all that was, is, and .shall be. Indeed, all is the word om ; and if there is any- thing- outside of these three manifcsta- tions, it is also 6m. For this all is 664 GREAT RACES This Brahma; this soul is Brahma, soul has four existences." Having once developed the notion of this neuter brahma, as an expression for the sum of all nature, the concept soon became the end of the religious system. This is to say that while the original system was active in its character, the BRAHMA AS THE FOUR-FACED BUDDHA. Drawn by F.. Tournois, after a sketch of Delaporte. degenerate form was passive. The mind, instead of resting upon Brahma, as the creator of the imiverse, came to rest upon brahma as the end of the uni- verse, including man. The early Aryans of India, in common with all their related peoples in the West, gave themselves to speculations about the origin of things, how it was OF MANKIND. that nature came into her present forms, the agencies by which the world was made, and man, and ^ ^ ^ Later Brahman- everything that is. It was ism puts the end , , , r .■ for the cause. the problem or active creation, of the invisible effort by which universal nature was reared into its present form. But with the latter Brahmanism, this kind of speculation was supplanted by another directly the reverse. The ques- tion now became, not in what manner and by what agency nature was reared, but to what end the universe is tending, into what , state all the material aspects of animate and in- animate nature will fall at the conclu- sion of the universal career. This species of in- quiry at length pre- dominated over the other, and the Brah- mans began to teach the final condition of the universe, in- cluding man. They called it brahma, using the same term that they had em- ployed as the name of the creator of all things, but in another The believer sense. Henceforth the aim raL^wI.lh'is and endeavor of the wor- to receive him. shiper must be, not so much to acquaint himself with this creator and his will, as to know that other brahma which stands in shadowy outline at the further verge of nature, ready to receive and swallow up THE INDICAXS.— -RELIGION. 665 all forms and aspects of the visible uni- verse. No contrast can be stronger than that which is thus offered between the into moods of meditative gloom and sheer brooding over the desperation of human life. A sort of astrology' sprang up in place of the vivid concepts which CYCLE OF TRANSMIGRATIONS ACCORDING TO A THIBETAN IMAGE. bright and happy Vedic religion as it existed in the days of the Contrast of the old and the new- old pOCtS who Sang the er Brahmanism. ■ -i- i /■ \ primitive hymns of Arya, and that fatalistic spell which has fallen upon the mind of India, transforming it M. — Vol. I — 43 the old bards had had of the visible powers of nature. The whole spirit and genius of the Indie race were turned to the darkest problems and most inscru- table mysteries of destiny and fate. As a natui-al consequence of this 666 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. brooding over the transmutation of one form of visible nature into another, and Source of the SO on and on to the final f™Tgrtio: plunge into that brahma of souls. which they regarded as the end, even as the other Brahma was the beginning of all creation, there arose the notion of the transmigration of the human soul. The concept of a grada- tion up and down through all animate nature took firm hold of the mind, al- ready bound in fatalism. The human race was divided into castes, and these became a part of the system of the world. All living creatures were the progeny of Brahma, and they must pass through the intermediate forms of life in order to be resolved into brahma again. Brahma is the origin, and brahma is the destiny of all, but the stages through which each living crea- ture must pass are as various as the forms of life. Each living thing is born according to the deeds of that from which it is Theory of descended, and each living STd^autf thing fixes, by its deeds, of living forms, the State of that future liv- ing thing which is to be born therefrom. Animate nature has its orders through which the souls of men must pass in their ascending and descending stages of transformation. The lowest order of living things includes insects, fishes, serpents, tortoises, dogs, and asses. The next order has elephants, horses, lions, boars, Sudras, and other races not speaking the sacred language of India. The third grade of creatures in- cludes thieves, actors, Rakshasas and Pigachas. The fourth order comprises athletes, dancers, armorers, drunkards, and the Vaisyas. The fifth includes the Kshatriyas, kings, great soldiers, speak- ers, the Gandharvas and the Asparases. The sixth class has the Brahmans, dev- otees, gods, and the great Rishis. The seventh has only Brahma himself. Such are the several orders of living things. Brahmanism recognizes the sinfulness of man. For this sin there must be expiation. No such thing as redemp- tion is recognized. All sin is balanced against so andofexpfatlon. much punishment, and the expiation must be by the sinner himself. Man, however, may do something to free himself from the consequences and tendencies of his actions ; either put him- self in the ascending scale of transmi- gration, or in the descending scale which leads to the condemnation of his life to some of the lower orders of being in his next existence. Thus the soul may make its way upward until it is taken back into brahma, or may descend into insects, worms, and reptiles. The Brahmanical theory of sin is very different from that of the Western na- tions. It is essentially un- Notion that sin cleanness, as dlStmgUlshed and uncleanness J. 1 , . , . are one. irom cleanness, which is righteousness. Pollution is the funda- mental concept of offense against Brahma. Things are holy or unholy in proportion as they are clean and unclean, but the definitions of that which is clean or unclean sounds strangely to the understanding of the West. The high- est notion of defilement is that which comes from the touch of the dead, the excretions of the body, the circumstances of birth, and of everything relating to the sexual life. The cleanest of living creatures is the cow. She is not only clean, but holy, and is incapable of defilement. The remedy for sin is pen- itence, fasting, mortification of the body, prayer, and recitations of the Veda. One of the greatest pollutions is drunk- enness. He who so sins is compelled to drink boiling rice water unto death. THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 667 So far as earthly punishments are concerned, they are adjusted to the prev- Punishments alent false theories of sin. Offenses done against the holy things are pun- ished in the highest degree. The mur- der of a person belonging to a lower caste may pass with slight retribution, but the killing of a cow is a mortal adjusted to the false theory of sin. One of the concepts peculiar to Brah- manism is that of the incarnation of the deities. It is known by Doctrine of the the name or avatar. On incamation, or J 1 , the avatars. many occasions the great gods of the Indie pantheon have passed into the form of animals or men. Vishnu, the "preserver," has had ten avatars assigned to him, following each THE SACRED COW OF INDIA. -Drawn by A. de Neu crime. One who kills a Brahman with intent must thrust his own head three times into the fire, until he die. If the killing is unintentional, he shall build a hut in the woods and live alone for twelve years, carrying the skull of the slain man in his girdle. So throughout the whole list of human misdeeds the same irrational and ill-adju.sted methods of punishment are employed. other in an ascending scale. In the first three instances he was incarnated in the form of animals, namely, as a fish, as a tortoise, and as a boar. In the fourth earthly revelation he was the Manu lion. Then began the human avatars. In the fifth estate Vishnu was a dwarf; in the sixth, a hero; and in the seventh, a Ramchandra and a Krish- na. Buddha him.self was an incarna- 668 GREAT RACES OF MAXK/XD. tion. It is also believed that Vishnu will ultimately appear on earth in his own person. This will happen when the highest age of man has been re- duced to twenty-three years. When \'ishnu shall come he will be called Kalki.and will possess eight supernatural powers on the earth. This great avatar equal with Brahma and Vishnu. Siva was identified with Rudra, god of the storm, iust as Vishnu took -' Place of Siva the place of Indra in the in the Indian older mythology. The ^^" Brahmanic systein represents Siva as dwelling at times with the human race, but never as incorporated in earthly VISHNU IN THE FORM OF A BOAR, is to occur at the end of three hundred and sixty thousand years, as time is reckoned by men, or one thousand two hundred years as it is reckoned by the gods. It appears that Siva, the third person of the Brahmanical trinity, was an old god of the Dra vidian race before the in- coming of the Arj-ans. By them this divinity was raised to the rank of co- form. His place in the mythological system is that of destroyer, and hence his genesis from the storm god of the Old Dravidians. His power is symbol- ized by the trident, while in his hands he bears a lasso or sling, an antelope, and sometimes a ilame of fire. Ethnic history does not demand more than an outline of the religious beliefs which the ancient kindreds of mankind THE IXDICANS.— RELIGION. 669 adopted for themselves and their pos- terity. It is only while religions are ex- To what extent pressive of the subjective religions are states of the mind that they part of ethnic -' history. are really an ethnic con- dition. When they pass into objective ceremonies and institutional forms, they become a part of the subject-matter of general history. In this connection, as in the account of the Iranians, we offer no more than a sketch of that primal faith which was developed by the early bards and rhapsodists who, with up- turned faces, chanted the praises of the gods in the valleys of India. In course of time, both in Iran and in India, an age of commentators and mere gram- marians succeeded to the age of poets, and lifeless ceremony took the place of living inspiration. From this time forth the ethnologist has but little con- cern with the inflected forms, the mere outer garb which the Brahmans flung around the ancient religion of the East. One other topic remains to be consid- ered before the Vedic system of religious evolution is dismissed. The spirit of the old faith had died out many centuries before the Christian era. On the tongues of the priests even the Apparition of sakya Gautama apostrophcs of the old rhap- the Buddha. j . , , i. j -u .sodi-sts and seers had be- come an echo and a mockery. It was under such circumstances, in the latter part of the .sixth century B. C, that the great reform was instituted which was destined to carry on its tide more than thirty per cent of the human race. It originated with Sakya Gautama, com- monly called the Buddha, Prince of Kapilavastu, in Northern India. But the reform, like that of Luther in the West, was already prepared, in its ele- mentary' conditions, by a reaction in the mind of the upper clas.ses again.st the absolutism and uselessness of the Brah- manic order. The career of Gautama is now accessi- SIVA AS MAN AND WOMAN. ble in many forms to English readers, and need not be repeated, career and e van- It was. in general, that P^'^iTght^L'd of a sincere and elevated one." mind, highl\- sensitive in its organiza- tion and in.spired by philanthropy, re- 670 GREAT RACES OE MA.VAVXP. belling against the current religious sys- tem of his country and people. He re- tires, as if into the desert. He muses long on life and destiny. He communes with himself and with the invisible Spirit. He struggles and writhes in anguish and despair. Light breaks into his understanding. He becomes the Buddha, the •• I^nlightened One."' He NEPAL BVDDHA IN BRONZE. Drawn by P. Sellier, from the collection of Le Bon. takes that name and returns to his people as a teacher. He would substi- tute for the intolerable mass of formali- ties and philo.sophical dogmas of the Brahmans a new code of thought and morality. He would teach the living way. First a few, and then multitudes, follow him. He becomes, even in his life, a great leader. His work is well begun. The burden is upon him. He leaves to others what he could not him- self accompli.sh within the limits of a mortal life. He goes again alone to the woods and de.serts. He journeys on, and at last, wearied with the burden of thought and oppressed perhaps with the sorrows of the race, he sits down by the root of a tree, and there, alone, gives up his spirit and enters into Nirvana. — Such is the origin of that great system called Buddhism, which is now professed by 31.2 per cent of the human family. The reform thus instituted was almost identical in its nature with the Protes- tant revolt which roused Parallel of'Bud- Europe from her stupor ^llZTr^Trotes. in the sixteenth century, tantism. Buddhism is essentially the Protestant- ism of the East. It is to the older Brah- manism what Protestantism is to the Catholic Church in Europe and Amer- ica, If we look at India the parallel may be carried still ftirther. Buddhism did not achieve, or at least maintain, a great success in the country where the older system of faith prevailed. Brah- manism had taken too deep root in the .soil of India to be exterminated by a counter revolt. Just as in Italy the as- cendency of Rome has ever been main- tained, so in its central seat the power of Brahmanism remains to the present day. While Buddhism had temporary and local success in the land of its origin, its great triumph was achieved by its dissemination in foreign lands. It swept eastward and northward to the limits of the furthest oceans, carrying with it a great proportion of the Mongoloid races of mankind, but the elder faith held its own against the innovation in the valleys of India, and continued to bear up its vast system of inane speculation as the better theor}- of life and destiny. It is impossible to convey to one who has not personally acquainted himself THE IN Die A NS.—RELIGIOX. 671 with the degradation of the Brahmanical faith and practice an adequate idea Debasing char- of its debasing character. Brahj^anicai '^^^ ceremonies are not only ceremonies. offensive to the human understand- ing, irrational and foolish as expressions of religious faith, but they are dis- gusting to taste and indecent to the eyes of mo- rality. The de- generation of the system is com- plete, its ruin overwhelm- ing. Whatever potency it may have had in for- mer centuries to purify the theory and practice of human life, or even to control its violence or moderate its ex- cesses, has long since passed away, and inane ceremonies and ridiculous dog- mas are all that remain. These, however, are suf- ficient to uphold the Brahmanical ascendency in India, and until this is broken, neither Buddhism nor an}' other system of faith can penetrate the gloom and despair of the Indian mind. A few instances of the external, visi- ble aspect of Brahmanism may prove of interest. The usage until recently much in vogue was sutteeism, or the devotion to death of the widow of a dead husband on his funeral pyre. This was regarded and is still regarded, as an act of the INDICAN Fl'NF.RAI. PYRE AND SUTTEE. After a Persian miiiiiliire. highest merit. The woman was taught to believe that bv immolat- „ . , . Practice of sut- ing herself in this manner teeism; the rite , 1 u • ii • i not obligatory. she shoiild enjoy thirty- five million of years with her husband after thev had both gone to Brahma. 672 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. For the credit of humanity, the system was never obligatory. The sacrifice was voluntary; but the superstitious despot- ism over the mind of the victim was sufficient to enforce it with more energy than might have been expected even of civil authority. India is full of dev- otees. In every popu- lous district and even in waste places the tra\-- eler will find them. The from sin or impurity rests iipon the soul of India like a pall. The space of a chapter would not be .sufficient to enu- merate all the forms of bodily degrada- tion and mutilation which the depraved ingenuity of the devotees has invented wherewith to mortify themselves and prepare for happiness hereafter. One superstitious wretch will sit starv- ing in the dirt, or will take only so much food as barely to feed the fire of life. Such emaciation and wretchedness are not to be seen otherwhere in the world. Another .stands and repeats senseless mutterings out of the INDIAN DEVOTEES.— Jc.iGEES Wolnding Themselves. — Drawn by Emile B.^yard, from a photograph. idea is similar to that which in the Mid- dle Ages drove the monks isola- The notion that the mortification of the body is meritorious as a means of salvation Usages and self- inflicted torture and anchorites into of the devotees. .. , tion and poverty. .sacred books. A third goes about with a living .snake drawn through a slit in his tongue. Another hangs a weight to some bodily organ until it is drawn out of all semblance to nature. Another thrusts an arrow or a sword through his THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 673 limbs, and still another holds up his hands with nails and spikes driven through them. The distortion of the body into some Belief that bod- horrible and repulsive form iiy distortion j thousjht to be most effi- IS efficacious ^ against sin. cacious. Many devotees take a strange attitude and hold it by force of will until the freedom of the given organs is de- stroyed. vSome will hold up an arm straight above the head for days and weeks and months, until it becomes wasted away and rigid as bone. Others, by contortion, twist their mus- cles out of shape until they are no more able to re- turn to symme- try or perform their office. And so on and on through an end- less variety of tortures and tor- ments self - in- flicted by a su- perstition which admits of no limit or palliation. Not only has the Brahmanical system fallen into this degraded aspect ; it has sunk to absolute immorality and inde- cency. Perhaps no single ceremony bet- ter illustrates the debasing level to which the national religion has descended than does the ceremony of Juggernaut. This is primarily the name of a '■ City and annual town of Bengal, on the ceremonial of northwest coast of the bay "seemau . of that name. The true word, however, is Jagannatha, meaning " the lord of the CAK Oc JUGGERNAUT, by A. d • Neuville, from a photoj^raph. world," which was the descriptive epi- thet of Vishnu when he was incarnated as Krishna. This gave the name to the Brahmanical temple, and finally to the .town. 674 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Juggernaut became a city of temples. The principal street is for the most part filled on both sides with religious es- tablishments. At the further end of the main avenue, where it widens out to rather grand proportions, is situated the famous temple, most holy, perhaps, of all the shrines of Hindustan. More than a million of pilgrims come annually to say their prayers and make their offer- ings at this spot. Around the temple is a lofty inclosure of solid stone, six hun- dred and fifty feet square, covering an area of nearly ten acres. In the eastern wall is a great gate, through which the pilgrims ascend, by stone steps, to the terrace. The latter is four hundred and forty-five feet square, and on this the great pagoda rises. It is thirty feet square at the base, and the pinnacle is two hundred feet above the ground level. The structure tapers from bottom to top, and is rounded off on the summit after the Oriental manner. Siva and Subhadra are next in emi- nence among the deities who are wor- shiped in this city. Of these gods there are wooden images painted blue, which are regarded with extreme veneration. Each idol has a "chariot," so called, consisting of a lofty platform on wheels, upon which the effigies of the deities are mounted. The chariot of Juggernaut is thirty-four and a half feet square and forty-three and a half feet high. It is supported on sixteen wheels, which are six and a half feet in diameter. The great festival of the deity occurs in March of each j-ear, and is governed in the date of its return by the phase of the moon, like the Christian feast of Easter. At this time the city is thronged with pilgrims from all parts of India. The cars of the different idols are drawn by the multitude through the city and for a short distance into the country, where the idols have what may be called a sum- mer home. In the case of ^ Scenes at the Tusrsrernaut, a Ions: cable is procession of the , , 1 , tower chariot. attached to the car, and tens of thousands of pilgrims and wor- shipers take hold with their hands and draw the idol through the streets. On the platform about the effigy are the priests, who, while the procession is un- der way, perform with great activity the ceremony prescribed for the occasion. This consists of what may be called the abandonment of humanity. The priests go through with a series of bodily atti- tudes utterly disgusting and obscene, during the performance of which vulgar gymna.stics the multitude witnessing the same are in the highest glee of wor- .ship. This shameless exhibition of depravity is the essence of the ceremony, which is here cited in proof of the \ . Question of im- utter degradation to which moiation under Brahmanism has descend- ed. About the chariot the throng is so great and the enthusiasm so high that rarely does the procession reach its end without some of the multitude being crushed to death under the wheels of the car. It is said — though the evidence is not definite — that devotees sometimes throw themselves under the wheels and are purposely crushed to death. It is believed, however, that at the present time this does not occur. The popular belief that mothers are in the habit of throwing their children under Jugger- naut, that they may thus be sacrificed to the god, is proved to be entirely erro- neous. The ceremony above described is illustrative of many peculiar to modern Brahmanism. One of the mo.st wide- spread superstitions of the present day is that relating to the Ganges. This is SACRIFICE TO THE GANGES.— Drawn by Emile bavar, 676 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. regarded as the sacred river of the coun- try. The belief extends, indeed, to the whole system of streams, ■Worship of the Ganges and sac- nmetccn or twenty in num- rifice thereto. ^^^^ ^x\v\i:\^ descend from the spurs of the Himalayas and combine their waters in the principal river. Per- haps the superstition is very ancient. The Nile was worshiped in like manner. A great and tractable river in a primi- tive country thickly peopled must always have been regarded as an incalculable blessing. In an epoch of the nature worship it is natural that the adoring instincts of men .should turn to the visible source of their blessings. It may be thus that as early as the composition of the Veda the Ganges was looked upon and adored. At the present time, and for some cen- turies in the past, the waters of the great stream ai-e regarded as holy. They are dipped up and carried into all parts of India that they may contribute a purify- ing element in the sacrifices and ablu- tions of the altar. He who pos.ses.ses a bottle of the sacred water carries with him a talisman against impurity and sin. At many places the river is made accessible to pilgrims and other worship- ers by flights of stone steps going down to the water's edge, and on these the Brahmans and devotees, and often the common people, may be seen standing and worshiping the river as it flows. If the ceremonies stopped with the dipping up and bearing off of the waters for purposes of purification, or even with the idolatrous worship of the stream, there might be less cause for repugnance to the Brahmanical formula, but to be drowned in the holy river is in the nature of a blessing. From time immemorial .sacrifices of human life have thus been made, especially by mothers, who bring their children and commit them to the oblivion of the floods. Civilization stands against it, but the usage still exists. Chapter XXXIX.— Castes axd Kace Divisions. E come now to consider the greatest single fact which the Brahman- ical system has trans- mitted from ancient to modern times. It is the system of Caste. The fact expressed by this term is not well apprehended by the Western na- Origin and evo- tions. It .signifies the nat- ural and fixed classification into which the vast and growing populations of India fell, under the influences of the Aryan conquest, the Yedic institutions, and the administra- tion of the Brahmans. Caste as it ex- ists in India extends downwards through lution of caste among the Hindus. all Brahmanism into the Vedic epoch, and has its roots in the profoundest soil of the prehi-storic ages. Given the ex- isting conditions in the time when the Aryan race was flung upon the aborig- inal peoples of India and began by conquest to possess the land, and under the influences of the Vedic poets to organize their natiire worship into in- visible institutions, and the whole system of caste ensues. It is our pur- pose, then, at this point to trace the course of events by which the great fact of caste was built up into the social structure of India. In the first place, it must be remem- bered that when the nature worship THE INDICANS.— CASTES. 677 expressed in the Vedas was given forth , it was done in a preliterary age by a Division of the class of poets. It was the v^hTsht^rtrd language of rhapsody, visvamitra. poured forth in verse and committed to memory. The poem, or hymn, thus composed was taught by the rhapsodist to his son and to other bards. A body of Vedic psalms was thus produced and transmitted orally from generation to generation. There were great singers who knew many hymns and others who could chant but a few. It was in this sit- uation of affairs that the famous quarrel, the shadow of which is seen in the Vedic worship, arose between the two rival sages Vashishtha and Visvamitra. They disputed with each other the poetical and religious leadership of the Indie race. Around Vashishtha, the success- ful contestant, and his followers others who learned the hymns were gathered. A clan of singers Some hymns were po- tent to give victory in battle. The singers of these were specially hon- ored. The prevailing prayer, or hymn, was called braJniia, and the singer of it was a Braluuaii. ' ' Who- soever," says the Rig- Veda, " scoflts at the Brahma which we have made, may hot plagues come upon him; may the sky burn up the hater of Brahmas." Such was the origin of the Brahmanical caste, highest in rank of the four in which Indian society is divided. In the age of conquest, when the Aryan immigrants were making their way by war from the valley of the Indus to the valley of the Ganges, the success- ful chieftain was next in honor to him who chanted the praises of the gods and prayed for victory. Around each chief- tain would gather a certain number who devoted themselves espe- Development of cially to war. Such leaders the Kshatriyas, took the better portions of " a-JP'^t^. the land and soon established themselves apart from the body of the tribes as an independent class. They were known Rise and as- cendency of the Brahmanical caste. sprang up. the A SIVAITE BRAHMAN — TYPE. Drart'n by F. Regamey. as Kshatriyas,' or "companions of the king," and they presently constituted the second caste in the system of India. The weaker portions of the immigrant tribes settled on the soil and became hus- bandmen. They received vaisyas, or the name of Vaisyas, signi- ^Sti^eTtod fying simply ' Without the ' the people." adventurous caste. spirit requi- 'The modem name of the Kshatriyas is Rajputs. 678 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. site for war, 'they chose to arrange them- selves in secluded places and village communities, where safety was the chief consideration. Whnevcr in the chaos of a half-barbarous age chooses safety, chooses subordination. The class of husbandmen became subordinate to the Kshatriyas, as the latter were in some sense inferior to the Brahmans. Caste always implies a conquered as A SECOND CASTE PAN'DIT— lYPE. well as a conquering race. The abo- riginal peoples of India, especially the Thesudras; Dravidians, were brought possibility of into complete subjection. caste promotion, r^i , , i hey were reduced to .servitude. They were called " once- born " slaves, to distinguish them from the noble " twice -born " Aryan con- querors. These subjugated aborigines were known, and are .still known, by the name of .Sudras, between whom and the three superior classes of Aryan descend- ants there is nothing in common. Among the other three castes there is some degree of mutation. Sometimes the Kshatriyas, by learning the hymns and ceremonies of the national faith, may pass into the rank of Brahmans. An aspiring Vaisya, or husbandman, may throw off his peaceful dispositions, go to war, and possibly make his way to a place among the Kshatriyas, or warrior caste. But the Sudra is a Sudra, a slave of slaves, fixed by the fate of birth to unalterable .sub- jection and isolation. In the cour.se of this outline of the religious system which has con- stituted one of the essential ele- ments of the Indian Summary char- character from the i"e- acterof the , , 1 i ii present view. motest epoch to the present day, it has been necessary to neglect all time-relations and to bring together parts which are sep- arated by centuries. The aim has been to present distinct images by gathering certain leading features and setting them in relation the one with the other. It has been necessary, in so doing, to express important facts in a single word or reference, and to cover the chasm of ages with a clause. It will now be our purpose to look in upon the India of modern times and, as in the case of the Iranian nations, to de- lineate the character of the multifarious peoples classified as the descendants of those ancient Indie Aryans who drifted by migration through the passes of the Hindu-Ku.sh in an epoch below the morning twilight of history. Within the limits of India, as defined in a former book, dwell about one sixth of all the inhabitants of the globe. Un- til within the last quarter of a century THE INDICANS.—RACE DIl'ISIOXS. 673 but little was known of the multiplied millions populating these vast and un- Efforts of Great traversed regions. The Britain in the ascendencv of Great Britain census 01 ■' 1871-72. in the East suggested, and the facilities of her government in India encouraged, an effort to make an actual enumeration of the almost limitless na- tions under her sway. Not, however, until 1871-72 was an effort actualh^ made. It was attended with unusual success. The whole work was done in its principal parts concurrently in a single night. The ofhcers of the gov- ernment had arranged that every village and district in British India .should re- turn its own numbers to the registrars, and, with very few exceptions, this was Teutonic race had reached back mort than ten thousand miles into the East, had lifted up over one of the vastest ana THIRD CASTE TYPE — LANDOWNER OF KOUMAN. Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photograph. done. The spectacle itself was worthy of commemoration. Out of the British islands in the West the strong arm of a LOW CASTE TYPE — DANl. LVG WOMAN, OR BAYADERE. richest regions of the earth the rod of authority, and had now, by a single effort, accomplished what had never been accomplished before, an enumera- tion of the peoples under English do- minion. The result has been a better knowl- edge of the extent and variety of the Indian populations. The ^ _ '■ Aggregate re- enumeration showed that suits ; density _ . . , T 1 ■ 1 of population. British India alone con- tained a population of a little more than a hundred and ninetj^-one million, while the native states increased the ag- gregate to two hundred and forty million nine hundred and thirty-one thousand five hundred and twenty-one. This gives an average of one hundred and sixty- three to the square mile throughout India. The aggregate is twice as great as that which Gibbon gives for the pop- 680 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ulation of the Roman empire at its best estate, under the Antonines, in the second century of our era. Not only do we have thus an astound- ing total for the peoples of India. In SdXTAI.S OF BEHAR — TVPF.S. Drawn by Emile B.iyard, from a photograph. some districts the density of the popula- tion is almost inconceivable, reaching the limit of six hundred, or even more, to the square mile. It has generally been agreed among Western statis- ticians that any people who surpass two hundred to the square mile must sustain themselves by manufacturing interests, by mines, and by the com- mercial industries of great cities. In India, however, this rule is turned to naught by the existence of purely agricul- tural populations three t ivies as dense as the pre- scribed limit for ^ Western peoples. "L^ The province of .Saran, in North ^" Behar, has an area of two thou- .sand six hundred and fifty -four square miles, and no city with a population great- e r t h a n fifty thousand, and yet the average is seven hundred and seventy- eight people to the square mile, and in one place the maximum rises to nine hun- dred and eighty- four. A careful estimate places the average for the whole valley of the Ganges, from Saharunpur to Calcutta, at five hundred to the square mile, or nearly double the rate for the population of England, including her cities. The general feature of modern India, as it relates to population, is the absence of great cities. There are in the whole ^>^ THE INDICANS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 681 of the British Indian empire only eight- een cities of the first class, that is, Distribution of having over one hundred the people ; ab- thousand inhabitants each, sence of great ' cities. and of these only two, Bombay and Calcutta, exceed half a mil- lion respectively. This will appear an astonishing fact when we reflect that in the United States of America, after only a century of national development, there are twenty-six cities of the first class' in a popuation of only sixty million. tion of fifty thousand. Nowhere on the globe, with the possible exception of China and Japan, is there so vast and dense an agricultural, or country, people as in the provinces of India. If we look at the distribution of this great mass of human beings according to the religions which they proportion of profess, we shall find first ^^fthe of all the prevailing Hin- castes, duism, or Brahmanism, which has its basis ultimately in the Veda and in the VIEW IN THE PUNJAB, SHOWING THE HOVERNOR'S RESIDENCE AT SIMLA.— Drawn by G. Viiillier, fiom a phologiaph. The disproportion thus expressed be- tween the agricultural distribution of the ancient peoples of India and the city aggregations of Europe and America not only surprises the statistician, but affords the elements of a profound problem in the progress of civilization. The census of 1871-72 shows four hundred and ninety-three thousand four hundred and forty-four towns and villages in British India, bitt of this number there are only forty-four that have reached a popula- ' Census of 1880. M. — Vol. 1—44 bards of the Aryan immigration. Of these Hindus there are over one hun- dred and thirty -nine million. They are di.stributed in general throughout Southern India and in the upper valley of the Ganges. The student of history will revert readily to the many Mo- hammedan invasions and conquests that have been made in different parts of the countries now dominated by England in the East. Next after Hinduism is Islam, whose followers in Sindh, the Punjab, Eastern Bengal, and the Northwest provinces number over forty million. 682 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. In the Central provinces, in Bomba)% and sparsely scattered in other districts is a large element derived Ethnic and reli- " ^, i t^ • t gious elements from the Old Dravidian in the census. p^p.^lj^tion , which Still pro- fesses various forms of religion of the Mongoloid character quite unlike, in ceremonials and superstitions, to the other faiths of India. These aborigi- nals number about five and a half million. Fourthly, the Buddhists and Jains who are confined to British Bur- mah number over two million eight himdred thousand. The sect called the Sikhs are found only in the Punjab, and number a million one hundred and seventy-five thousand. The Christians, who are as yet confined to the coast cities and a few isolated spots in the in- terior, number eight hundred and ninety- seven thousand, while certain unclassi- fied clans, professing peculiar beliefs here and there, are registered at ov'er half a million. It will thus be seen that the Hindus proper, or Brahmans, if we use the religious term by whicti they are distinguished, are more than three times as numerous as all the other religious divisions of the Indian races. Before proceeding to the ethnic classi- fication of the peoples of modern India, , , it will be of interest to no- Excess of males in the Indian tice a peculiar general fea- ture relative to the propor- tion of the sexes. Of the hundred and ninety-one million of people in British India there is an excess of males over females of nearly .six million. The proportion is about one hundred to ninety-four. In the province of Oudh the males are seven per cent in excess of the females, and in Bombay eight per cent. In the Northwestern prov- inces the excess rises to twelve per cent, and in the Punjab as high as six- teen per cent. It has been currently believed that the practice of female in- fanticide so much in vogue among abo- rigines and in the Oriental countries has produced this result. There are places in India, .such as the Meerut district, in which there have been found as many as seven boys to one girl, and in other provinces the disproportion is almost as great. We pass on to consider the true eth- nical classification of the peoples of In- dia. The grouping of Five principal these races is most largely t^^!^^^^ effected on the basis of re- tions. ligion and caste. Of these there are five principal divisions, each of which is widely distributed and numerous. In noticing these, we will proceed accord- ing to antiquity of occupancy in the country ; that is, we will notice the old- est Indian races first and the more re- cent afterwards. There is, of course, some obscurity in determining the rela- tive antiquity of ancient peoples, but linguistic science is generally a sufficient evidence of priority and order of devel- opment. Glancing, then, at the ethnic divisions of the Indian stocks, we find : I. TIic Old Dravidians and tluir Dc- sccndaitls. — The derivation of these from the Mongoloid stem has Distribution already been noticed m a and tribes of the J. '-Li. T Old Dratidiaus. former chapter. In gener- al, the peoples of this stock are found in the southern part of the peninsula, but branches of the family extend as far north as Chuta-Nagpur. The}' are, doubtless, the oldest race in India. Most of the Dravidian tribes are associated in tolerably compact settlements, but in some parts of the countr}^ especially to- ward the north, they are sparsely scat- tered among the other races. Twelve distinct Dravidian languages have been examined and classified. These are the Tamil dialect, theMalayalim, theTelugu, THE JNDICAXS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 683 the Kanarese, the Tulu, the Kudugu, the Toda, the Kota, the Gond, the Khond, the Uraon, and the Rajmahal. Each of these tongues has its peculiar with the Bhils of Bombay on the west, and extending to the Sontals of Bengal in the east. The race characteristics of these peoples are thought by some eth- OLD DRAVIDIAN TYPES-KHOND CHIEFTAINS. vocabulary and grammatical structure, all different by a wide departure from the other languages of India. 2. The Hill Tribes of Central India. — These are the upland races, beginning nographers to be in affinity with the Negroid family of man- , . J - . Kolarians, or kind, but this is, perhaps, hiu populations incorrect. They, like the °f "'«'"*«"-• Dravidians, are of Mongolian extraction. 684 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and belong to an original stock derived from the same stem with the Dravidians themselves. All these hill tribes are as- sociated together by a linguistic classifi- cation, and are known by the name of Kolarians. They appear to have entered P and the Dravidians is the difference be- tween a more ancient and a less ancient stock of people migrating Difference be- . . • *• -.1 , „ fween the into regions of the same Koiarianand country by different routes. Dravidian races. In Central India the two families have — I had considerable contact and inter- CBCGtr LccBT^ LSsQi(^(2ffirLc>uec,rtiS!Tf,eSeBrp, fixture, and in these provinces the ^. ^^^&i sQ p ^ n: (^Q Siiem L^uj ^^i—lBsoSsoGiu. ^nesr eree'es'GfFiuiUeisiru:,! weaf me^i^&ujmje^siT isneer table-land of Central India, next to the valley of the Ganges. On the west, at a distance of four hundred miles, dwell the Kurkus, separated from their kinsmen by mountain ranges, great forests, and interven- descendants. In Northern India, Madras, and ^ene'SeriLjLa^.wQeGs'ffp^enieuds §^iliuL^ff i^g tribes of Dravidians and Aryan (i^eirserrsi?QjesLjLJL^L^(TF,iiQs<5'j}:)^ ^srosiuceo Orissa are found the remnants of the eieOirVu:>m(Tr^eei . LJsrirLjaGm) ^eu^cGst^Q^ir ewswjg, t^^^iSestGecul §)pp ^an s-^-MSGei Savars, a degenerate and „ , , ° Place of the mendicant people, re- Savars;Koia- T 1 , . ■! 1 r rian languages. duced to the rank of serv- ants, yet their name was known in the earliest ages of history, and is B£peu^£^ ^ui-iUiXeUJ ^u>u hl'KCIMEN PAGE OF TAMIL BOOK. India, especially Bengal, by the north- east passes of the mountains. Their habitation geographically is along the northern and eastern edges of the trian- gular table-land constituting the south- ern half of India. The difference between the Kolarians ! The Kolarian languages are divided into nine principal groups: the San- tali, the Mundari, the Ho, the Bhu- mij, the Korwa, the Kharria, the Juang, the Kurku, and the Savar. There is a marked difference between the vocabulary of the Kolarians and that of their race kinsfolk, the Dravidians on the south, and the grammars of the two peoples are as distinct as those of German and Greek. 3. T//r ludo-Cliincsc Races. — These be- bito/^f'i If 686 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. long geographical!)'' to the slopes of the Himalayas, to the valley of Assam, and Tribal and lin- to Burmah. The latter country is wholly occupied by people of this stock. In Northern Bengal there are certain low castes, half Hindu and half Kolarian in their characteristics, who are also thought to be Indo-Chinese. It is evident that this guistic divi- sions of the Indo-Chinese HIGH-CASTK HIXDU (aNANT RAM, PRIME MINISTER)- Drawn by E. Ronjat, from a photograph by Burke. race came into Burmah and Assam by the northeast passes of the Himalayas. They have clearly had an original common home with the Chinese and other Mon- golians of Central Asia. There is a similarity of dialect, in some instances so marked that particular expressions might be understood alike in Bengal and Can- ton. The linguistic designation of the Indo-Chinese group of nations is Thibeto- Burmese. Of this family of languages there are more than twenty dialects : the Cachari or Bodo, the Garo, the Tripuara Mrung, the Thibetan or Bhutan, the Gu- rung, the Murmi, the Newar, the Lepcha, the Meri, the Aka, the Mishmi, the Dhi- mal, the Kanawari, the Mikir, the Sing- pho, the Naga dialects, the Kuki, the Bur- mese, the Khyeng, and the Manipuri. These twenty dialects are allied in their _,„_, grammatical formation and vocab- ularj- like the Romance languages of Europe. The affinities of the Italian, French, Spanish, and the Portuguese may well illustrate the analogies of Thibetan, Dhimal, and liurmese. The names of numerals, of common objects of sense, the organs of the body, and common actions are usually expressed by root words which are essentially \ the same in all. No accurate enu- meration of the numbers speaking the Thibeto-Burmese languages has been made. It is estimated that fully forty million of people speak the Kolarian tongues in the several dialects, and doubtless the Indo-Chinese group is much in ex- cess of the Kolarian. The three principal Indian races which we have here mentioned, the Dravidians, the Kolarians, and the Indo-Chinese, may all be defined as non-Aryan peoples to distinguish them from the domi- race. They do not, therefore, come distinctly within the Dravidians, range of the present dis- f^^tSesf CUSSion, which is intended are non-Aryan. to cover the Aryan peoples of India. But the presence of the above races among the Hindus proper, and the large degree of ethnic admixture which has occurred along all the lines of contact, make it desirable to refer in this con- nection to the aboriginal races, although nant THE INDICANS.—RACE DIl'ISIONS. 687 they have been deduced from a Mongo- lian rather than an Aryan stock. 4. The High-Caste Hindus. — These are the dominant nations of India. In num- bers they probably surpass Dominant Indi- , , , , . , cans are wgh- all the rest Combined, caste Hindus. Li].g^.ise ^^ influence they are superior. Their intellectual, and perhaps we should say their moral, development greatly surpasses that of any other Indie people, unless we should except the Christian col- onies, and doubtfully the iMoham- medans. Generally speaking, the Hindus are the lineal descendants of the Old Aryans who came, in prehistoric times, into the Indian valleys and conquered and over- ran the aboriginal inhabitants. At what date this occurred it is not possible to determine. The Hin- dus themselves believe that the Vedic hymnal was composed at or before the beoinning of time. Some of their philosophers, more moder- ate in their estimates, place the date at 3001 years before our era. The best estimate which modern scholars have been able to make fixes the minimum of 1900 B. C. as the date for the composition of the older hymns of the Veda. It is not possible to make the ethnic line which defines or in- cludes the Hindus proper corre- spond with the caste lines which we have already drawn. Of course, the Brahmans are all included in the ethnic class of Hindus. Ethnic and t- i caste Unas do The Kshatriyas likewise not coincide. 11 x ii ■ 1 belong to this race; also the Vaisyas, or at least the greater por- tion of them. But at this point the in- termingling of races begins to show its effects, for the Vaisyas have in many parts of India absorbed a considerable amount of foreign blood from the Dra- vidians and Kolarians. In some parts the Kolarians have made their way into the Vaisyas caste, so that at this point the ethnic line can no longer be made coincident with the caste line between the Vaisyas and the Sudras. 5 . The Mohammedans. — These came by MUSSULMAN OF CASHMERE — TYPE. Drawn by E, Zier, from a photograph by Burke. conquest. They were originally Arabs, Afghans, Mughals, and piaceofthe Persians. In successive in- occurring at inter- Mohammedans among the Indian races. vasions, vals sometimes of centuries, the followers of the Prophet have thrown themselves from the west into Sindh, the Punjab, and all the Northwest provinces. On some occasions the impact has carried THE LYDICAXS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 689 bands of invaders as far east as Bengal. These conquests have always been ac- companied with religious propagandism. Islam has borne the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other. Indeed, the impulse which has carried the armies of the Prophet north, south, east, and west from the original seat in Arabia has always been rather the spread of Islam than the mere conquest of nations. On the whole, the }*Iohammedan in- vasions in India have by this criterion been attended with success, ilore than forty million of people have adopted the Arab faith, and we thus have an- other remarkable example of the inter- fusion of a Semitic religion among the Aryan races. Next to the Hindus them- selves the ^Mohammedans are the most populous division of the Indian nations. The difference in numbers, however, between them and the non-Aryan Kola- rians and Dravidians is not great, but in respect of spirit and power the !Moham- medans are infinitely above the aborigi- nal peoples of the south. Indeed, if we regard the Islamites as a caste in Indian society, it would hardly be an exagger- ation to say that in pride, arrogance, ex- clusiveness, and bigotry they are fairly the rivals of the Brahmans themselves. The great mass of Mohammedan popu- lation is distributed in Bengal, in West- em and Northwestern India, and along the borders of those Iranian countries where the faith of the Prophet has long been in the ascendant. - We must now, however, omit the non -Aryan populations of India as the same belong to other parts of this work. We shall attempt to fix our The Bralimans "■ . represent the attention more exclusively inteUectaai .1 J T ^ r forces cf the upon the descendants of Hindus, the dominant race known by the eth- nic name of Hindus, but classified reli- giously as adherents of Brahmanism. It is among the Hindus that the real power and intellectual forces of the native races of Hindustan are found. The Brah- mans have in their possession not only the sacred books in which the faith of the Indians is recorded, but also the philosophy, the science, and the juris- prudence of the Hindu race. In like manner they have been the creators and the custodians of the secular literature, such as it is, and of the educational forces existent in Indian society. Their exclusive claims in all of these partic- ulars amount to a monopoly of the real life of the Indian races. The Brahmans are close alongside the native Hindu princes, and are their counselors and teachers. Locally, they have the center of their power in the great middle region of India, just as the southern triangle has an excess of the Old Dravidian populations, and as the slopes of the Himalayas are occupied by the Indo-Burmese. The Brahmans, as the spokesmen of this dominant Hindu race, represent not only the mind, the will, the purpose, and the native power of modern India, but also the continuity of the Aryan race and the institutions of that race from the earliest epoch of human history to the present day. 690 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Chapter XL.- -Anuvtal and Vegetable Resources OE INDIA. HE Aryans began in In- dia as poets and war- riors, and have ended as priests and peasants. The primitive aspect was one of aggres- sion, conquest, ener- getic activity ; the present aspect is one of submission, quiescence, passivity. There is only one point of \-iew from which the energies of the race may be said to be unabated, and that is in the perpetual but timid industry of the people. It is now proper to review briefly the condi- tions of environment under which the transformation of the India of antiquity into the India of modern times has been effected. This vast region, a peninsula in its general form and relations to the sea, Slight changes has perhaps been less af- fected in its original condi- tions of climate and phys- ical character under the great and con- tinuous burden of population than has any other country of like extent on the globe. The traveler, the ethnographer, the historian, is to-day able, as in the times of Alexander or in the times of the Vedic bards, to scrutinize the move- ments and products of physical nature essentially unchanged and but slightly varying from what they Avere in the time of the prehistoric Mongolian abo- rigines. India has always been a land of vast .„, , . , and varied resources. In vast and varied resources of the the earlier ages of Aryan domination the conquer- ors were brought into relation rather with the animal life of the peninsula in the environ^ ment ol the In dicans. than with the products of the soil. In the beginning all people must be hunters, warriors, adventurers of the hill and jungle. Here in the valleys of the rivers, in the wooded uplands, and on the slopes of the Himalayas, steep-up to the clouds, they foiind a variety and abundance of animal life unequaled in any other part of the earth. It is now recognized as a fact by zoologists that a majority of all the animals, great and small, common to the north temper- ate belts of the earth have their origin, or at least a native place, in India. Nearly every species of creature, from the domestic fowl to the elephant, may be found, with its pristine habits and in its original abode in the vast wilds of the Indian jungles. To note particularl}' the principal ani- mals of this great region would require a separate treatise. Here Animal life of from the earliest ages the India; tigers and has flourished, and ®°p^^ ^* lion from hence the striped tiger has carried the name of Bengal to every spot on the planet where a collection of wild beasts has been established or a traveling men- agerie has pitched its tents. To the present day the people, even in thickly settled districts, are in mortal dread of this formidable beast, who from the days of the beginning has been known as a man-eater. Within the last quarter of a century a single tiger has killed hundreds of people before he could be de.stroyed. In one instance a country having an area of two hundred and fifty square miles and thirteen villages was thrown out of cultivation and abandoned from the ravages of one tiger! THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 691 Leopards also are found in all parts of India, and being much more numerous than tigers, are on the whole more destructive of life and property. One variety, known as the Cheetah leopard, has been domesticated and trained to hunt. In the chase of the antelope this creature is used, and by its speed and considerably troubled, with wolves. 01 old time the antelope, the wild goat, and the hare were their prey, country in- but with the increase of I'^^Jl^^ population and the spread jackals, of the pastoral life they turned to the sheepfold. Sometimes they attack man. As late as 1827 a single neighborhood VIEW IX THE HIMALAYAS.— A Mountajn Village.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photogr.iph by Baker. activity is a powerful auxiliary to the hunter. It is said to .surpass in swift- ness of flight any other wild beasts in India. Its peculiarity of habit is that if it misses its prey at the first bound, it will make no second attempt, but return ap- parentl}- mortified, to its master. All the open countrj' between the Indus and the Ganges was originalh- in- fested, and is to-day in wooded districts lost thirty children by the ravages of wolves. Next in order may be men- tioned the Indian fox and the jackal, whose hideous yell by night may be heard in most of the country districts of India. The latter animal is sought by the European huntsmen who are settled here and there in the country, for whom the jackal takes the place of the fox in the hunt of the "Western nations. 692 GREAT RACES OF MAXKfXD. Dogs, wild and tame, are numerous. The Cniiis dhola is an inhabitant of the wildest jungles. These, The Canis dhola, . . . , ■ the sloth and indeed, are his native laii, the snn bear. ^nd have been SO from the prehistoric ages. Of bears, there are many varieties throughout all India. The black, or sloth, bear is found in the forests and on the mountains. This is the other almost as large as the grizzly of the Sierras. The elephant is native to all parts of the country except the Northwest prov- inces. His native abode is ^^^^^^^^^^^ the hill-country rather than immemorial iu < -, , India. the plains. He does not much descend into the river valleys, but takes to the higher ridges. In the south- .ANl.MAL LIKE OF INUl.-^.— Siag Slai.-j uv a Tiger.— Dfawn by A. de XeuviUe, after Llelapurlc. the creature so strangely marked with a white horseshoe on his breast. The Thibetan sun bear is found along the mountain spurs, all the way from the Punjab to Assam, but never at a lower level than five thousand feet above the sea. The Malayan sun bear inhabits British Burmah, along with two other species, one of which is quite small and ern peninsula the elephant has been nearly exterminated, but a few are still found in the forests of Coorg and ]\Iy- sore, and in the states of Orissa. It was out of India that the elephants were drawn in the classical ages and trained for the shock of battle. From this source Hannibal drew his supply when Rome trembled under the march of his armies. THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 693 Four varieties of rhinoceros are found in India. Two of the species are uni- corns, and two have double horns. They most abound in the The principal pachyderms Valley of thc Brahmaputra and ruminants. j • , i o j i_ and m the bundarbans. Its habitat is mostly in swampy places, and its manner of life like that of swine, on the slopes of the Himalayas, where some of them range as high as twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea. Here also is found the ibex, even on the highest ranges of the mountains; also the chamois, in the Himalayas, from Assam to Burmah. It would be vain to enumerate the an- KHINOCEROS FIGH l' AT BAKOOA. -Drawn by E mile liayard. or even the hippopotamus. From the earliest times the wild hog has abounded in the Indian jungles. Its habit is to hover along the edges of settlements and to gratif}' its predatory habits by plunging into fields and villages. In the deserts of Sindh and Kachheh the wild ass still exists, as in the times of the Aryan migration. Many varieties of wild sheep and wild goats are found telope and the deer, with its many spe- cies, the bi.son, from the „ Habits and size gaur of the Western Ghats of the Indian to the gayal of the north- eastern frontier. In the latter region the bison has been domesticated, and is used by the aboriginal tribes in their sacrifices. In Burmah the buffalo is found, large and fierce. The heads of some bulls captured in modern times 694 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. have been as much as thirteen feet six inches in circumference and fully six feet and a half between the tips of the horns. The animal reaches a height of six feet, and compares favorably in mag- nitude with the tremendous creatures formerly inhabiting the great American plains of the West. Of birds, tlicrc arc an endless variet\-. generally innocuous. The inhabitant of the safe countries of Europe has little apprehension of the deadly work of those Indian serpents, of which the cobra de capello is the imperial and venomous king. The fatality from snake-biting is everywhere increased by the supersti- tion of the people, who generally re- gard the snake with veneration. The INDIAN l;UKFALOES.-Drawn by Mesvel, The reptiles of India have been known Prevalence of ^''^"^ ^^^ earliest ages for reptues; lossof their tremendous size and life thereby. . , . ,^ poisonous bite. The most deadly serpents to be found in any part of the world lurk in the dank jungles, along the river banks, and even in the uplands of the Deccan. It is said that all the salt water snakes of India are poi- sonous, while those of fresh waters are census of 1877 returned a total of six- teen thousand seven hundred and sev- enty-seven persons killed in a single year by the bites of serpents. It is against this great phalanx of an- imal life, fierce and malign, that the In- dian races have flung themselves for thousands of years. It has been a war at once offensive and defensive, and the battle has not infrequently gone against THE INDICANS.—AXIMAL LIFE. 695 the man. In no other quarter of the habitable globe does the wild animal life peculiar to the primeval world stand forth against the human race, even to the present day, in such fierce and de- fiant antagonism as in this thickly popu- lated India. It is a strange reflection that after fully four thousand years of conflict, during which the great peninsula reach- a stronger arm and better prospect of victory than does his timid, light-limbed, brown-bronze descendant. In course of time, no doubt, every species of savage creature will be exter- minated from the world, civilization ex- The multiplication and ex- ^^^:^::^^,, pansion of the human fam- ''fe- ily will carry the abodes of man into the reclaimed fenlands, to the river brink. DEADLY SERPENTS OF INDIA.— The Bunjaris Kasciatus.— Drawn by K. Kretstlmer. ing into the Indian ocean and embraced by the Indus and the Ganges has never wanted for multitudes of inhabitants, the The Indian man lias not on the whole surdu'^e7t\r held his own against the wild beasts. beast. It is likely that the primitive Aryan adventurer who pene- trated the jungles while the earliest poet of the Vedas was still chanting his hymns in Sindh and the Punjab, met the fierce creatures of the woods and marshes with through the wild morass and woodland, and up the mountain slopes beyond the line of snow. The spread of civilization, as exemplified in the cultivation of the soil, in the improved means of defense, in the scientific mastery over every ele- ment in the environment, will demand and accomplish the extinction of all the hurtful races of lower animals. In some parts of the earth poisonous reptiles and savage beasts have already disappeared. 696 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Even in the New World the rattlesnake, the viper, the panther, and the bear have either totally vanished or maintain maintain and perpetuate the wilder and more dangerous varieties of animal ex- istence, but this condition could soon be THK Th.ER HUNT.-Ur.iwn by T.uiley Berkeley, from nauire. a precarious existence among the moun- tains or inaccessible ledges of rock. The same thing will happen in India. Doubtless the countrv is well situated to changed by a larger expenditure of gim- powder and a less supply of Brahman- ism. Both of these modifications in the existing status of India will occur in THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 697 time, but perhaps the day will never come when the tradition, and even the historical record of the fierce conflict between human and mere animal life in this region of the world will pass away. There is no more spectacular display of man's activity than in the tiger and elephant hunts of Hindustan. For how many centuries such exhibitions of nat- ural combat have occurred Spectacular ... ., - character of the it IS impossible to say. in • ^\\Q defensive fight for life with the tremendous beasts of the Indian jungle must have begun with the appari- tion of the human race in the valley of the Indus. Not only the battle to the uttermost has been perpetually reneAved for thousands of years, but the fight for capture has brought out the ingenuity and daring of the native races, and even taxed the skill and courage of foreigners dwelling in the land. The census of 1877 showed the destruction of a thou- sand five hundred and seventy-nine tigers in a single year. The character of the tiger hunt has taxed the descriptive pen and the artist's Useoftheeie- brusli. The favorite mode gjrtil^t'lg^r-s is fi-om the back of the habits. elephant. The scene has been many times described. The hunt- ers fix themselves with their spears and javelins and guns on the back of the huge beast and enter the jungle. The tiger is roused from his lair, and the battle begins. The elephant is trained to perform his part of the con- flict. With his tusks and huge trunk made into a flail of destruction he lays about him in what is many times a vain endeavor to strike the terrible cat that springs about him. The weaponry of the Indian hunters is generally ineffi- cient. Many lives are lost in the con- flict, and the battle is usually long and M. — Vol. 1—45 evenly contested before the tiger is slain. Another method is the construction of elevated platforms, framed of the boughs of trees in a jungle, from which height " the hunters fight, as from the elephant's back. The tiger, until he is wounded or has had a taste of human blood, will escape from the presence of man ; but if he is hungered, or has sufi'ered pain at his enemy's hand, or particularly if he has wet his pink tongue with a drop of human blood, he will never desist until he has devoured his enemy, or is himself slain or captured. In Assam the tiger hunt is conducted in boats on the rivers. The spearmen thus gain a great advan- tage by being out of reach of the bound of their enemy and having his move- ments impeded in the water. In all parts of India, except in the Northwest provinces, the elephant either abounds or may be discov- Native land of ered for the seeking. That ^j^^h^P.^rni. part of India which fur- ™g- nishes the best suppty is the hill-country forming the northeastern boundary be- tween Hindustan and Assam and Bur- niah. Here the monster not infrequently reaches the height of twelve feet, and but for his clumsiness he would be the most formidable natural foe that man has found on the earth. The hunters must approach him on foot. Horses are generally an impediment. Several meth- ods have been adopted of taking the elephant alive. The hunt to the death is not only dangerous in the last degree, but difficult on account of the invulnera- bility of the animal. Nearly all parts of his anatomy are proof against the bullet of even improved firearms. In a few spots the well-directed ball may reach the seat of life. Generally the killing of an elephant is a tedious and barbarous work. This is now forbidden by the government of THE INDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 699 British India except in cases of neces- sity, but the capture alive of elephants is much practiced. The Capture alive ; . methods of tak- taking, however, IS under mgau aming. ^^^^^^ regulation of law. In 1887-88 two hundred and sixty-four elephants were captured in the province of Assam. The profit of this work amounted to three thousand six hundred pounds sterling. It is a government monopoly. In 1873-74 Mr. Sanderson, one of the officers of the government in Mysore, studied the habit of the elephant, and devised a plan by which he captured fifty-three animals in a single hunt. The former method of taking the crea- ture was by driving him into a pit. In this he was generally made to fall upon a sharpened stake, which worked its way into his vitals. The prevailing method is to find a company of elephants in the forest, to rouse them and drive them into a strong stockade, where they are shut up and reduced, by starvation and by the agency of tame elephants, to submission and docility. When tamed, the animals are used in the government transportation of timber and for other heavy draught and powerful exertions. They are also taught to fight, and their combats are perhaps the most spectacular and exciting contests to be witnessed in the world. Among the natives the princes and nabobs are, as they have always been, ambitious of the distinction of going about gorgeously mounted on tame elephants. It is not to be doubted that a good deal of the timidity and fearfulness dis- Race timidity plavcd bv the people of In- ooblast': In!'" dia' is attributable to the reptiles. dangers to which they are exposed on account of poisonous reptiles and other lurking foes. The methods which they have adopted to defend them- selves against such enemies are multi- Physical setting like India there of India; the na. tive land of rice. farious. In some districts where ven- omous serpents abound a plan of build- ing is common which is determined in its main feature by the consideration of safety from reptiles. The houses are put on piles or large stakes at consider- able elevation above the surface. By this means a space is left between the domicile and the earth, over which it is difficult for the fanged enemies of man to make their way. The edifice considered apart from its situation is perhaps almost identical in structure with the prehistoric lake dwellings of Switzerland. The maintenance of a food-supply is the prime consideration with every people of the world. In a country must needs be vast natural resources. The whole peninsula may be said to be inclined toward the sun. On the north the great wall of the Himalayas rises, and from the spurs of this immovable buttress the land slopes to the sea. In these majestic mountains are the treasures of the snow. Here scores of rivers take their rise, and south- ward tending combine their waters in the great streams which are one of the fundamental physical features of India. The Indian valleys are as rich as any on the globe. Great, however, is the difference between them and the low- lying alluvium of the Nile and the Lower Euphrates. The river banks in India are marsh and jungle. Nature is rank in the last degree. Among the sappy and dense-growing products of the valleys many grains and fruits grow wild, which under the improving direc- tion of man have become the great cereals in the markets of the world. As far back as the days of Pliny and the oldest naturalists of the Graeco-Italic peoples the grain known by the Greek name of oryza, the modern rice, sprang 700 GREAT RACr.S OF MAXK7XD. plentifully and wild in the lowlands of Southern India. Tlius it grows to the present day ; now the old native grain of the marshes is preferred by the na- tive nabobs and princes to any of the cultivated varieties. India has been regarded as par ex- cellence the native land of rice. The belief is not warranted by Extent of the . rice crop in dif- the facts. True, the rice ferent districts. ^^^,^^^p^ „£ gj-itish Bur- mah are among the most fruitful in the •world. In Rangpur eighty-eight per the average crop is as high as two thou, sand five hundred pounds per acre. In 1878 the exports of this cereal from Calcutta amounted to one billion six hundred million pounds. The rival grain of rice in India is wheat. Where the one prevails the other does not thrive. The center of the wheat-producing region ^ ^ . . Extent and is the Punjab, and it is character of the ,., 1 ii i 1 wheat product. not unlikely that here this principal food-grain of the human famiU" \\,is first brought out ef the I\ I IIK IMH \\ VALLEYS.— Vii.i.AKE 01 I'l Kia;.Mli,iKKK.s.-l > cent of the cultivable land is sown in this single crop. In Orissa also — as is indicated by the name of the province — and in the deltas of the Godavery, Kistna, and Kaveri, as well as in the lowlands of Malabar and Kanara, rice culture is the one predominant industry and means of support. In the Northwest provinces the grain is grown success- fully, but only in damp localities. But if we look at India as a whole, rice is not the prevailing crop. In the regions adapted to its cultivation, however, the yield is immense. In British Btirmah native state by cultivation to the per- fected form which it has had for more than three thousand years. The quality of Indian wheat is satisfactory in the best markets of the world. It is accept- ed in the great mills of England as the peer of the wheat imported from the Danubian provinces and other favorite localities. The yield, as far as the .same has been determined by census reports, is fairly good, averaging about thirteen bushels per acre for the whole area sown in India, as against fifteen and a half bushels for the whole of France. THE INDIC A NS.— RESOURCES. 701 Millet is next among the field crops of India. Viewed as a food of the people, it is more employed than Millet the re- . , "^ . source of the either rice or wheat. It is common peep e. ^^^aimed that millet is the most fruitful grain in the world as to abundance, and on the whole the best adapted to tropical climates. It is the most widely disseminated of any grain grown in the peninsula. Millet flourishes from Madras in the south, as far north as Rajputana. There are several varie- ties adapted to the different districts, but nearly all are known as " dry crops," or such as are dependent only on the natural rainfall, while rice and many other products depend upon irrigation. B}' one of the strange mutations of history and of language, that fruitful maize called Indian corn has become In- dian in reality. It is culti- Indian" corn, barley, and oth- vated in nearly all parts of er cereals. ii ^ i the country, and grows to perfection. Along the Upper Ganges barley is a standard crop. In the Hima- layan valleys and in the Punjab oats are grown, but as yet the cultivation of this grain is experimental in the hands of Europeans. Throughout all India the oil seeds are raised in abundance. The demand for vegetable oil in India is very great. It is used for anointing the per- son, for illumination, and for food. The discarding of animal fats by the people has increased the consumption of the oils produced from seeds. In recent years an export trade with Europe has sprung up, and since the oil .seeds can be produced as an after crop, when rice and other grains have been cut aw-ay, the production of the oils has become a source of great profit. There are four principal seeds from which oil is pro- duced: the rape seed, linseed, sesamum, and the castor bean. The regions in which these products are most abundant are the Northwest provinces, Bengal, and for sesamum the presidency of Ma- dras. No cunsory description could do jus- tice to the vast variety of vegetable products springing native Extent and va- or under cultivation in ^^t^^/p^.^L^c^'s* the different districts of In- of India, dia ; and the .same may be said of the fruits. Among the latter may be enu- merated the mango, the pineapple, the guava, the tamarind, the custard apple, the papaw% the shaddock, and an end- less variety of figs, melons, oranges, limes, and citrons. In nearly all of these fruits traces of the original native saps maybe discovered by the cultivated palate, and they are doubtless not com- parable for delicacy of flavor with the corresponding varieties produced by the skillful grafting and cultivation in vogue among the Western nations. Already, when the traveler enters In- dia, he finds himself in the land of spices. True, the air is Abundance and not yet burdened, as in distribution of Ceylon and the Celebes, ^^Pi<=®s- with the almost oppressive odors which spring from the groves and native woods of the tropical islands ; but the Indian spices are abundant and fragrant. The principal of these products are the chili, or cayenne pepper, the turmeric, ginger, coriander, aniseed, and black cumin. Pepper is mostly produced along the western shores of Southern India, in the region known as the Malabar Coast. The spice called cardamon belongs to the same locality, but is also produced in Nepal. Betel nuts are grown in the deltas of Lower Bengal and in other parts of Southern India. In all the more tropical parts of the countr}' the palm flourishes. Dates have been plentiful from time immemorial. Three varieties are found : the true date. 702 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. the palmyra, and the bastard. From the last named is manufactured the Jagjjery sugar of commerce; also an intoxicating COOLIES AT THE COTTON MARKET IN BOMBAY. liquor, which is doubtless identical with Varieties of that described by Xenophon in the Annbnsis. The true date flourishes in vSindh and the lower districts of the Punjab. Along the western coast of India the dates ; sugar and the sugar manufacture. cocoanut is not only plentiful, but abun- dant, ranking as a product next in value to rice. Sugar is produced not only from the bastard date palm, but also from sugar cane, which flour- is lies in the Northwest prov- inces. It requires irrigation, how- ever, and is other- wise expensive in production. The manufacture of sugar h a s r e - mained in the un- skillful hands of the natives until in recent times, when facilities for making it have been produced in the Madras presi- dency and in My- sore. The cotton plant is also a na- tive of India. It has been found from the earliest t i ni e s , a n d the product has sup- plied the local wants of the coun- try within the his- torical era. Until the last century cotton was not ex- ported as a prod- Here we touch upon circum- The Indian cot- uct from India. that remarkable stance in the history of modern times, ests. balancing and unbalancing the cotton trade of the world during the American commproifll to" crop and commercial -western inter- THE IK Die. 1 XS. —RE SO URGES. r03 Civil War. It will be remembered that in Lancashire, England, seat of the great cotton factories of the United Kingdom, a crisis was reached in 1 86 1 by the clos- ing of the ports of the confederated Southern States. The American market was thus hermetically sealed, and the portation of cotton had been less than three million of pounds a year, but the cotton industry suddenly sprang up un- der the tremendous stimulus, until 1866, when the exportation amounted to thirty- seven million. With this year, how- ever, the stress was removed b}- the ^ssp' ,^v INDlr.O FACTORV AT ALLAHABAD.— Drawn hy E. Therond. English factories suddenly stopped for want of raw material. At this juncture Great Britain turned eagerly to the cotton fields of India. Cotton produc- With an open market, the b'th^A^'en^au ^^^^^'^^Y "^ ^^'^'""1^ produced Civil War. j^ the East was not equal to tlie American product, and could not be, but in this time of extreme strin- gency it sufficed to supply the demand. Prior to iS6o the average Indian ex- opening of the American market, and the Indian exportation immediately fell off to eight million a year. Perhaps no other world market of a great product, balancing at its two poles eight thou- sand miles apart, has e\-er exhibited so remarkable a fluctuation. Next after cotton may be ranked the jute of India. It is virtually a hemp, though the fiber is .somewhat coarser. The region of its production is confined 704 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. to Bengal, on the north and east. The cliicf seat of the product is in the valley of the Brahmaputra, where The jute Indus- „ . , try: extent of the jute flourishes in the epro uc . highest degree. It is believed that no other product which has reached to the rank of an important e.xport has done so much in a reactionary way for the comfort of the producers as jute. It is one of those peculiar prod- Of the purely European products which have been introduced into In- dia, indigo is entitled to the ° . Large place df first rank ; but the interest indigo in Indian .. , 11- 1 ■ ii commerce. in It has declined in the last quarter of a century. In North Behar the industry is as important as ever, and from this single district about half the product of the entire country is derived. The exports of the dye from OPIUM MANUh AC rORY.— Drawn by A. Sirouy, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. ucts which does not perish when placed in depot from season to .season, and the supply, therefore, may be regulated by the producer according to the demands of the market. In 1872 a million a(?fes were planted in jute, and it is estimated that the area of country in which it may be profitably produced extends to over twenty million of acres. The export from Calcutta has amounted in a single year to more than four million pounds sterling. all India amounted in the years 1878-79 to nearly three million pounds sterling. But the most profitable of the East Indian industries, so far as exportation is concerned, is that of opium. The valley of the Ganges and the table-land of Central India are as much Extent, impor- a native place of the opium- Tolllt^^r" producing poppy as is Per- duction. sia herself. The production of opium in India is under the control of the govern- ment. In some districts the growth of THE IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 705 the drug is free, and the opium is sub- jected to a duty in passing through Bombay for exportation. In the valley of the Ganges the product is under su- pervision of government agencies estab- lished at Ghazeepur and Patna, and at these two places the opium is manufac- tured for exportation. In Rajputana and had risen to a value of nearly thirteen million pounds, and from this a net rev- enue was derived by the government of .seven million seven hundred pounds sterling. The tobacco plant grows everywhere in India. It may be said to ilourish ; all the natural conditions for the product TEA PLAN'T.\TIO.\ IN THK VALLEY OF K AX( ;RA.— Drawn by Paul Langlois, from a photograph. the Punjab the drug is al.so produced, but only for local consumption. In the other provinces under the dominion of Great Britain the production of opium is prohibited. The census of 1872 showed an area of five hundred and sixty thou- sand acres in poppy cultivation. The revenue derived by the government in this year was over four million pounds sterling. In 1878-79 the exportation Indian tobacco ; the markets of the inferiority of are favorable ; but the quality of the leaf has never found favor in world. Indian tobacco is ^^'^° unable to compete with the richly fla- I vored growth of the West Indies and the United States. Tobacco is grown, how- ever, in all parts of the country for native consumption. In the Coimbatore and Aladur? districts in iladras the variety 706 GREAT RACES OE JMAXKEXD. of the plant from which 7 rn/iiiio/^o/i clu- root is manufactured, flourishes, and this is the only tobacco product which com- petes with that of the West in the mar- kets of Europe. There is, however, an exportation of tobacco from Bengal into British Burmah, where the plant does not flourish. Notwithstanding the wide distribution of the growth of tobacco in India, the importation at Calcutta has amounted to forty million pounds in a single year. Neither coffee nor tea may be regard- ed as native products of India. The former has been introduced within the historical period bv the na- Coffee and tea not properly na- tivcs, and thelatter at a time tive to India. , . , , i. i t7 still more recent, by Eu- ropeans. The cultivation of coffee is limited to a portion of the Western Ghats and to certain districts in Mysore and Madras. The export of coffee in 1 878-79 was valued at a million and a half pounds sterling. The reports of early explorers that the tea plant grew wild in the south- ern valleys of the Himalayas were with- out foundation in fact. It is only in As.sam that the true Tlica viridis will flourish without cultivation. In this re- gion it attains the proportions of a real tree, and it is believed by botanists that here is the native place of the plant, and that it was carried hence in early times into China. Many other products of great impor- tance might be enumerated as belonging peculiarly to India, but the above are sufficient to in- dicate the general charac- ter of the grain and other animal and vegetable resources of the countrv. In general, everything is rank. The high heat and abundant moisture in the val- leys stimulate vegetation, and bring all manner of fruits and grains to early ma- turity. Three crops annually are not Indian vegeta- tion favored by stimulating con- ditions. unusual on the same fields. In the great- er part of the country the winter is not sufficiently rigorous seriously to impede the work in fields and gardens. The rainfall ranges from twenty-four inches in the drier districts to nearly one hundred and twenty-three inches in the rice regions of the south. The rains are periodic, being the re- precipitation suit of the monsoon, or sea totwei?h°"' wind, wliich blows steadily rate, at certain .seasons, bringing on and main- taining a steady and copious rainfall. It is from the occasional, though rare, fail- ure of this monsoon that famine has at intervals possessed the land. In the years 1876-78 nearh- the whole of In- dia was afflicted by the partial or total failure of crops. In 1877 the death rate rose, on account of the famine, from six hundred and eighty thousand to a million five hundred thousand. The most strenuous efforts of the gov- ernment were not sufficient to prevent widespread and dreadful starvation. For two years the monsoons failed to return at the appointed season, and the country was helpless in the grip of drought. We are now able, from a wide view of the re.sources of India, of the charac- ter of the race predominant therein, of the effects which climatic Physical degen- eration result- and other johysical condi- ant from condi- ., ... tions present in tions naturally entail on india. man, and of the contact and intermix- ture of diff'erent races, to estimate, though imperfectly, the nature and di- rection of the human evolution, and of ] the aspects which mankind would be likely to assume under such conditions and environment. On the whole, we should expect a certain degree of phys- ical degeneration. That the climate of India is effeminating in its effects on man has been plainly demonstrated by actual observation in modern times. It THE IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 707 Is a general law that the subsidence into agricultural life from the nomadic pur- suit, with its accompanying excitements of the chase and tribal warfare, exercises a deleterious effect on the physical con- stitution of man. It is a change from a wider and freer and less toilsome mode of activity, from a life of hazard and wild excitements, to the more localized and mure laborious methods of the hus- tending the activity of human life. What may be called the science of diet is still in its infancy. To importance of no class of students is the ^XtA'i''tofi.'l relation to race subject of greater inter- character, est than to those who are curious in his- torical and ethnic inquiry. What is the law of the maintenance of life by food? What shall be eaten as most conducive t(j strength, to longevity, to the support ASPECIS OF INDIAN LIFE.— Repose at NoONDAV.-Drann bv F. Reg.imey, from i bandman. It is not meant that the ag- ricultural life is without great value in maintaining the physical vigor of those who follow it, but the toil and tameness which are inseparable therefrom are not favorable to the highest development and greatest vigor of the human frame. We are here again on the ver}- border of that world-wide problem of the rela- tive effect and value of the different foods in su.staining the vigor an-^ «x- of all the virile energies of man ? What may be known scientifically on this sub- ject over and above that simple folklore which the untutored experience and tra- dition of human kind has transmitted to our age? Foods have been subjected to a .scien- tific classification. They are divided by physiologists into liydrocarboiis, carbohy- drates, and iiitrogcuous foods ; and it .is novv well ascertained that each of these 708 GREAT RACES OF J/A.V/k/.VD. classes of aliments has its particular value and relation to the physical consti- tution of man. The char- Classification of . . foods ; the hy- actcHstic of the hvurocar- drocarbonates. ,^^^^^ .^ ^^^^ presence and excess of oil. This generally exists in the form of animal fats, though oil is also a large product of the vegetable kingdom. But the most concentrated and characteristic development of this food substance is in the fatty tissue of animals. From the earliest ages men have used this substance for the support of life. It is, however, in the more rig- orous climates that the appetency of the human being for animal food of this de- scription is most intense. There is a law of natural selection which indicates a diminishing quantity of the hydrocar- bons as the human race spreads toward the tropics. There is little or no nat- ural appetite for animal oils in the warmer climates. The second class of foods are the car- bohydrates. In these there is an ex- The carbohy- ccss of starch or sugar, foodsc'o>7stf.* J"st as in the hydrocarbons tute this class, there is an excess of oil. The cereals and certain ground products, such as the potato, may be taken as the standard^examples of the carbohydrate foods. Rice is of this kind par excel- lence. It will be seen at a glance that the great products of the earth gener- ally yield a high per cent of starch, and in so far as the productive regions of the globe lie within the temperate zones and become more intense in productive energy in the tropics, to that extent the starch-bearing foods are prevalent in the same regions. In general, the line be- tween the hj^drocarbon and the carbo- hydrate aliments, upon which for the most part all animated forms of ex- istence are .sustained on tlie earth, is practically coincident with the line which divides the animal from the vegetable kingdom ; that is, the fat-bearing ani- mals from the field products and ground crops, which are starch-bearing. The third variety includes the ni- trogenous foods. All highly organized tissue, whether animal or The nitrogenous vegetable, contains a per- f:::^^^'Xos. centage of nitrogen. This phates. is generally the fourth element in the quadruple compounds which constitute so large a part of the organic substances of the material world. Nitrogen occurs in all leguminous plants and grains, and particularly in the muscular fibers of all animals. It is a principal constituent of " lean meat," its presence being as con- stant and conspicuous in such fiber as is carbon in the fats and oils. Among veg- etable products all pulse grains, siich as peas and beans, are rich in the same element. Besides the three general classes of foods here enumerated, there is a fourth class, though scarcelv distinct from the others, in which certain valuable salts are the meritorious element. These are principally the phosphates of lime, of potash, of soda, and of iron, without which as constituents of human food the rrervous energy of the body can not be long sustained. These salts are dis- tributed in both the animal and the veg- etable kingdoms, perhaps more plenti- fully in the latter (?), and it is now a well-known fact that the nervous vigor of animals turns largely upon the percent- age of the phosphates in the substances upon which they feed. Now it is the adjustment of the human race to these different classes of foods, as well as to the different Race character climates of the earth, that ^HCTt^e determines the race tend- kind of food, ency of every people. This is said, first of all, of the physical constitution which ^m^r.y^^ iii ■fc Vf", ' 710 GREAT RACES OE .UA.VAYXP. will be developed in a given environ- ment, and afterwards of the modes of activity and mental dispcfsitions which the given people will display. In a country where muscular exertion is es- sential to life and welfare, and t where man must brace himself stoutly against the opposition of the elements — must face angry vicissitudes of climate and season, the hardships of sterility, the obstacles of heavy forests and oozy rivers with un- determined channels — there must needs be a perpetual feeding upon those ele- ments of nature which furnish the es- sentials of human energy under such conditions. Here it is that man mu.st fill himself with an abundance of solid food. Under the action of an untutored instinct at first and the discipline of right reason afterwards, he slays the living creatures and eats their tissiies and the fat. It is in the nature of the hydrocarbon foods to supply him with heat. That is The office of the physiological office of S^ra'dn.- all the Oil-producing sub- trogenous foods, stances of the vegetable kingdom, and particularly of the fat of animals. By this means the superior races feed the fires of life amid the rigors of northern climates. There is an aspect in which man may be viewed as a living furnace. His stomach is a firebox; and nothing that he can cast therein flames like oil. Thus he warms himself, and goes abroad unharmed amid the terrors of the high latitudes, where all forms of life not supported like his own must inevitably perish. But he not only feeds himself with oil. If he is in a region where active exertion is demanded, where the excitements of the chase, the adventures of the Avide campaign, the struggle with the obdu- racy of physical nature, and particularly the flaming excitements of war call out his energies, he must support his mus- cular system with an abundant supply of nitrogenous foods. Hence he falls upon and devours the dry meats and the fresh tissues of slain animals, and from this source builds up anew the broken structure of his own muscles, exhausted by toil and strain. The kind of activity contemplated imder the stimulus of foods like those we have here described is in -what relation not the activity of mere f;j::'::^ll,. indu.stry. There may be "'•^"y ^^sed. long continued assiduity of application to industrial pursuits without that kind of muscular destruction, without that combustion of the hydrocarbons, which is here delineated. The agricultural life in its milder aspects does not demand the high feeding that is an essential in heroic endeavor. It requires rather a i certain steady force, such as is gener- I ated from the carbohydrate elements. All agricultural countries fall to the use of grains and vegetables, and to a cer- tain extent abandon animal food. In proportion as the country lies well to the south, the relinquishment of the hydro- carbons will be more complete, and food will be almost exclusively drawn from the field, the orchard, and the garden. These carboliAxlrates ai^e the producers of force. The starch foods taken inta the human constitution Effects of such pass by metamorphosis in- ^^^^eonsmu"^" to sugar and from sugar ^^°^- into oil. In the last named form they are consumed. He who demands simple working energy without regard to the waste of his muscular tissue will turn instinctively to the cereals and fruits. Ultimately this tendency lands on rice and potatoes. In countries where nature brings forth abundantly of the cereals, where all ground crops are plentiful and fruits abundant, there will be afi i/ievi- 712 GREAT RACES OF MAXA'EVD. table shrinkage of tlic muscular parts of ail anitiials. Man subsisting on such a food will become assiduous in his ap- plication, even persistent in his pursuits. He may be lithe and active, supple- jointed and quick in movement, but he will be essentially weak in his skeleton and muscular structure. Here we have the fundamental condi- tions which have divided the Aryan race The Hindu body iu India from the Iranians and from the great races of the West. The Hindu body is the result of a long discipline in the result of the long discipline ot nature. HINDU JEWELER AT WORK. Drawn by A. de Xeuville. the hands of nature. It has been con- stituted under the enervating infliiences of a semitropical or wholly tropical cli- mate, combined with the resttlts of the substitution of the carbohydrates for the hydrocarbons and nitrogenous foods of the great northern peoples. As the man is individually, so is his ^ ,j tribe, his nation, his race. Same laws hold of the race as of India is not wanting in the the mstn. i • i f , • ■, display of active and per- sistent industry, but the industry it- self is as feeble as it is persistent. The tremendous energies displayed by Some of the Western nations in their mas- terful struggle with an adverse envi- ronment in subordinating the forces of nature, in organizing the astounding ap- paratus of commerce, in planting political dominion even at the distance of thou- sands of miles from its central source, are set in vivid and exalted contrast with the timid> and effeminate exer- tions peculiar to the same stock of men as they have grown into mere suppleness under the influences of the Indian sun and the enfeebling tenden- cy of the starch- bearing foods. • .■.' .'. " One must needs .' ' • •" ..-V. / travel through the Indian kingdoms to be properly im- pressed with the physical character of the people. The high-caste Brah- mans, especially in the north, have preserved to some extent the fine stature and man- ly bearing of their A r }• a n f o r e - fathers ; but as a rule, the j)eople are not onl}- low, but slender. They are weak-muscled, and have weakness of the nothing left of that ag- grs^sTenincf gressive physical force andciim.ate. which the old stock possessed in its an- cestral home and Avhich has been so strongly developed in the Indo-Euro- peans of the West. It is claimed that Hindu laborers are as industrious as any in the world. Their assiduity can not be denied, but assiduity is not strength. The race is weak. It lacks in courage and audacity. It has fallen into a THE IXDICA XS. —RESOURCES. 713 Ethnic life the Joint product of subjective and objective condi- tions. passive condition which has in it neither i power nor progress. It is held by a certain class of think- ers that no people can ever be pow- | erful and progressive ' whose principal subsist- ence is on rice and other starch-bearing products. This is look- ' ing at the problem of life as merely a physical phenomenon. It does not take into consideration those other elements which we have previously discussed. It is sufficient to repeat that a race of men as it presents itself in modern times is the joint product of two principal forces, one of which is .subjective or instinctive in the race itself, and the other an objective, or reactionary physical force, including the elements of climate, food, and shel- ter. The Hindus have been thus evolved from the old prehistoric condition in which we beheld them in their Iranian homestead and in their migrations to the East. They have been carried for- ward on the line of race development by the force of instincts which have deter- mined in large measure their mental and moral characteristics, and by phys- ical agencies which have given to the race its visible aspect and character. Among the other physical conditions that have modified the race constitution of the Hindus mav be men- Precious stones . ' . . in relation to tioncd the peculiar min- race character. , /• ji , t erals of the countr}-. In ancient times, and to a limited extent at the present day, India is the country of precious stones. Besides the usual de- posits of the metals which provoked at a very early day a considerable degree of skill in metallurgy, the diamond mines and other deposits of tho.se rare stones which have been classified as precious have attracted the' cupidity and excited the pride of the Hindu race. Without diamonds and other gems of great value M — Vol. 1—46 such a thing as Oriental magnificence could hardly exist. Barbaric state, .such as Eastern monarchs in the iliddle Ages and even in modern times are wont to maintain and which constitutes so large an element in personal despotism, could hardly continue without the blaze of precious stones. Indeed, no civilized society in the world has as j-et freed it- self from the illusion of diamonds. The name of Golconda, the old capital of the Deccan, has passed into the literature of all nations as a synonym for that kind of splendor which blazes from precious stones. True it is that recent investiga- tions have destroyed a part of the tra- ditional gloiy possessed bv Golcondathe this city as the native place ^:^L°ringTn°d"'' of diamonds, but it was stone-cutting, nevertheless the greatest seat of gem- cutting and precious stone Avork known in the Middle Ages, and perhaps in the history of the human race. Xot without its effect upon the character of the Hin- dus as a people was the gathering, the wearing, the exhibition, and the com. merce in precious stones. All this im- parted much of the Oriental character to Indian civilization. The nabob of to- day has many traits which depend, if not for their existence, at least for their manifestation, on the presence in his country of precious mines, with the trea.sures of which he maintains his grandeur and pride. It was this form of barbaiic magnificence which contrib- uted to Milton's pictured page one of his " High on a thione of royal state whicli far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind." The attention of the reader has been called to the fact that iron is the last of the ofreat metals now in use to be discov- ered and extracted from the matrix. 714 GREAT RACES OF JlfANKlXD. The forbidding and refractory character of the ore impeded the manufacture of iron until Ion'"- after the other tnetals the most useful of the metals. Iron mines abound in all parts of India. There is scarcely a district between the DIAMOND .\UNE OF PUNNAH that exist in the native state had been brought out and employed -Drawn Ijy Kniilu B;i)aid. The working of iron originated in the arts. It was in this in India. . , . _ , . , land of India that the Ar- yan race first succeeded in mastering the difficulties in the way and brought forth mountains of Assam and the soutiiern parts of Madras in which mines arc not abundant. The ore is purer than that of almost any other region in the eai-th. It is this circumstance, together with the antiquity and ingenuity of the race, that THE INDICANS.— RESOURCES. 715 Method of smelting and excellence of product. has made India the first cotmtry of the world in which iron has been manufac- tured. The indigenous method of smelting the ore is still preserved. The very same processes which were employed at the beginning of the historical era are still in vogue. The great drawback upon the success of the method employed is the wasteful consumption of charcoal. Where iron is smelted in the open air there must be high heat, long preserved, with the consequent large consump- tion of fuel. From time im- memorial the native races of appear that this metal was in use before this time. From India the knowledge of the processes of smelting the ore, and the superiority of the metal thus ob- tained over every other employed in the arts, was in course of time recognized even to the extreme limits of Europe. Copper mines are also frequent in In- dia. The best of all are found in the skirts of the Himalayas, in the hill-coun- try lying eastward of Kumaon. The manu- facture of copper has remained to the pres- ent day in the hands of the natives. The region where the ore is abundant is almost COPPER VESSELS OF HINDU WORKMANSHIP.-Drawn by Schmidt, from the originals. India have succeeded in producing one of the purest and best articles of wrought iron known to men. Since the creation of the East Indian em- pire, much foreign capital has been expended in establishing works and col- lieries in the country; and modern sci- ence applied to the problem of extracting the ore has greatly increased the quan- tity, but not the quality, of the metal. It was after the incoming of the Aryan population into India that the manufac- ture of iron was discovered. It does not inaccessible, and the capital of the West has not \-et made its way Mining of cop- mtO the country. The per and method I .. ,11 of manufacture. deposits are worked b}- the miners of Nepal, according to the methods which have become tra- ditional through lapse of time. In many districts old abandoned copper mines are found, indicating the antiquity of the knowledge of copper in India. The process of working is primitive and simple. Holes are carried into the earthy following the vagaries of the deposit^ 716 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. until the region is burrowed as if gigan- tic conies or rabbits had selected the place for their cities. When the ore is taken out it is pounded up with an iron sledge and smelted on the spot of its delivery. It is not needed that the lead mines of the Himalayas and the Punjab should be described. Tin is found The Indian lead . ^ , , ^^ mines; antimony m Burmali, where the ore an petro eum. j.yjjg ,^g ^jgh as Seventy per cent of pure metal. The mines are worked by the Chinese, with whom all improvement is innovation. Antimony is found in the hill-countries of the Punjab, and also in Mysore. In Burmah rich deposits of petroleum have been discov- ered, and the annual yield in the hands of European enterprise has risen to eleven thousand tons. In the Punjab the petro- leum wells are managed as a branch of the public works. The river beds of India are generally laid with a nodular form of limestone. Distribution of This rock has subserved snit"ab\lfor"°' the usual purposes from pottery. the earliest ages. At the present time it is taken up and em- ployed in large quantities in macadamiz- . ing roadbeds. In the Khasia hills in Assam there are limestone quarries from which building material has been im- memorially taken. In Bankura, also, there are valuable ledges of the same stone. The lower valley of the Ganges has suffered the same inconvenience as did that of the Euphrates and Tigris after their descent to the alluvial plain. In the Ganges valley there is no lime- stone, nor indeed any adequate building materials. The soil, moreover, is not suitable for the manufacture of either bricks or pottery. Since the domination of Great Britain was establisiied in India, pottery works have been built in Bardwan, but these are devoted only to the manufacture of drainage pipes and the coarser form of stoneware. In all the vast upland region between the two principal rivers of India, build- ing stone is abundant. In Rajputana that pink marble out of which the old temple and palace of Agra were reared is found. In Godaverv ' Quarries of mar- aud JN'arbada sandstone bie, slate, and abounds, and Southern In- ™''^^' dia is i-ich in granite. vSince the incoming of European caj^ital the slate quarries have been opened, also mines of mica and talc. Finally, the hills of Oris.sa and Chuta-Nagpur abound in a variety of indurated potstone, out of which vessels of utility and others of ornament are manufactured with that skill for which the art of India is famous. CHAPTER XLI.— Ethnic Characteristics. HEN a race of men has long occupied a land so varied in its resources and physical character as India, it \ is natural, inevitable, that there shall be a diverse ethnic development. The peo- ple of one part of the country will be formed upon conditions different from those in another. In the Diverse develop. ment follows case of a stock .so conserva- long occupancy i.' ii i 1 • 1 11 in -wide coun- tive as that which peopled tries. India, tlie diversit}' of social forms and of ethnic character would be strongly marked. After the settled estate had once prevailed among the tribes, each would develop on its own lines and reach THE IN Die A NS. —E THNIC CHA RA C TERIS TICS. 717 Sanskrit the original of the Hindu lan- a different result. The absorption of the aboriginal population would greatly contribute also to the divergent tend- R:^a1 ^T( ^Ttrs^ afs flTa fsii ' ^=1^=^, c^ ^■^\^ 5tJ3I? Si5T ft^ ^ '^^.''R^ ^t^ ITS I SPECIMEN OF SANSKKli'. ency. In a preliterarj' age dialectic tendencies would shoot out over the sur- face like growing vines, and in course of time the inhabitants of one district would no longer understand the vernac- ular of another. In India these dialectic departures w^ere all made from the common linguis- tic form called Sanskrit. It was that sacred primitive guages. language which grew to maturity of grammatical form and into a fixed vocabulary on the tongues of the Vedic poets. The speech once established in structure and phraseology in the sacred hymns would no longer suffer inflection, no longer present the phe- nomena of growth. The Old Aryan tongue became crystalized in the Vedas. It was Sans kr at a, the " perfect speech." And to speak the truth, among languages developed into literary form by the genius of man, only the Greek is able to compete in the perfection of its structure and methods with the old Sanskrit as it was uttered two thousand years before our era by the Vedic bards. This old Sanskrit literature has dis- seminated through all the Aryan tongues of India a common element to which we may give the name of Hindi, the lan- guage of the Hindus. This Hindic element in the tongues of Hindustan is much like the Latin element in the Ro- mance languages of Western Europe and South America. As the scholar Hindi corre- sponds to the Latin stage in Western devel- opment. wanders through France and Italy, through Spain and Portugal, through Wallachia and Brazil, he sees and hears evermore the movement and rhythm of the old Latin tongue out of which the vernaculars of ail these people have grown into literary forms, diverse among themselves, but common in a single ori- gin. So also with the Hindic element in the languages of India. As are the languages, so are the peo- ples. Perhaps the first and most dis- tinct etlmic division of the Cashmerians Indie race is the Cashmeri- ^teX'^in-"* ans. They are the best dicans. representatives of the early Indicans, and through them the clearest retrospective glance may be had at the race character of the original Aryans who peopled the Punjab. Only in one respect do the Cashmerians fail best of all to represent and reflect the ancient and essential character of the Indie branch of the Ar- yan family of men. In religion they SACKED INSCRlrnON FROM THE VEDA. have largely apostatized from Brahman- ism and accepted the faith of the Arabian prophet. They have thus become in- 718 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. fected on the religious and linguistic side of their development by foreign in- fluences deduced from the Arabian des- ert, from Islam, from Shem. The Cashmerians are the most north- erly division of the Hindu race, being above the inhabitants of the Punjab. They have developed their own tongues, their own manners, their own institu- tions, having, of course, a common basis with the other Hindu races. Many of '^^qrf^ i^^^ IFTcT^T ^^T -^X f^ilT |m xn;^ ^^^ '^ft'^^ "^^ ' • VARIANT FORMS OK SANSKRIT. I. Hindi ; 2. Punjabi. them have retained the old faith of the Brahmans. Perhaps the climate of Cashmere has Climate and en- been more favorable to the ^lt:^:tltr maintenance of the original race integrity, character of the race than in any other district of India. The range of the thermometer does not reach above eighty-five degrees F, at noon in sum- mer time. The heat, however, is op- pressive, owing to the stillness of the summer air. In winter the temperature sinks miich below the freezing point, and snow is abundant. The conditions are such as to favor physical perfection. The Cashmerians are not only the handsom- est of the Indian races, but are fairly esteemed among the peoples of the West. The men are tall, sinewy, and robust. It is conceded that the complexion of the women is one of the best, if not the fair- est, in the world, and the female features possess many other elements of beauty. The people of Cashmere are noted for their gayety of demeanor. They are fond of pleasures. Music Intellectual and and dancing are the preva- sociaiufe of the 1 . i 1 i 1-i Cashmerians. lent amusements, but liter- ature, especially in the form of poetry, is cultivated. The Cashmerians have obtained, and perhaps retained, one of the worst reputations as it respects mor- al character that any modern people of like development has possessed withal. Not that they are sunk in debasing vices. Quite on the contrary, their manners and social criteria are so high as to be accepted even in the civilized countries of the West. In respect to manners, the Cashmerians may be properly styled the French of India; but they are the most cunning, and perhaps the most avari- cious of modern peoples, and their fame for lying is infamous. Cashmere has suffered to an unusual degree within the present century by natural disasters and the half-natural visitations of pestilence and famine. The country is visited with earthquakes; and it has been estimated that since the establishment of the Brit- ish East Indian empire the population of certain districts has been reduced to one fourth of the original number. The people of the Punjab lie in eth- nic character close to those of Cashmere. Indeed, there is no nat- points of di- ural line of demarkation JlX^.^^i^L between the two countries and Punjabese. either in geography or ethnic develop, ment. Mohammedanism, however, has not gained the ascendency in the one coun- try as it has in the other, and the dialec- tical difference between the language of the Punjab and that of the Cashmerians is sufficient to classify the peoples as dis- tinct. The population numbers nearly twenty million. The country is suffi- THE IXDICAXS.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 719 ciently irregular in outline to have pre- served, as in Cashmere, many of the ori«-inal features of the Arvan race. In both language and religion they lie nearer to the primitive type than do the Cashmerians. Not only have they re- sisted the propagandism of Islam, but they have a strong antipathy for the fol- Next in order of the Indian popula- tions may be mentioned the great race of the Mahrattas. They are so called from the Sanskrit name Maharashtra, the ancient S^^^^'St^a^f designation for the "Great Kingdom," or region. The country in- habited by them extends from the Ara- VIEW IX CASHMERE. — \'ALi ev of the Tirtan. — nr3\\n by G. \'iiil!ier, from a photograph by Bourne. lowers of the Prophet, whom they despise as aliens in faith and nationality. As the original seat of the earliest Aryan in- stitutions, the Punjab -will ever remain a field of interest for the ethnologist and historian. It is, geographically speak- ing, to the Aryan nations what Italy is to Southern Europe — the ancient seat whence conquest spread and institution- al forms were exported to foreign parts. bian sea on the west to the Satpura moun- tains in the north. It includes the larger part of Western and Central India. By this designation are covered the provinces of Comean, Kandashesh, Berar, the Briti.sh Deccan, half of the Nizam's Deccan, and a part of Nagpur. Within the limits here defined, the Mahratta population numbers about twelve million. Considered as an eth- ASPECTS OF CASHMERIAN LIFE.- Uavcinc Gi«l of Serinagur.— Drawn bv EmUt Bayard. THE INDiCA NS.—E THXIC CHA RA C TliRlS TIL S. 721 ratta popula- tion ; the lan- guage. nic term, Mahratta is not definitive. Neither is it the name for a particular Extent of Mah- social caste or a given re- ligion. It is rather one of those wide terms which history demands in the definition of a race somewhat composite in ethnic ele- ments, and even diverse in religious and social qualities. vStill the diversity is not sufficient to warrant a division into separate tribes. The common tie which binds the several peoples living within the regions defined above is language. They speak the }ilahratti, one of the most widespread of the modern Indian tongues. In common with the other Indie languages, it is a dialectical form of Hindi, difiiering only from Hindu- stani as French differs from Italian. Though the tribes of ]Mahrattas are somewhat distinct in the different prov- inces, they are all true Indicans. We have Mahratta Brahmans, Mahratta Rajputs, and Mahratta Kumbis for the names of the several castes, all Mah- rattas, but having nonintercourse with each other, from the same prejudices which prevail in other parts of India. In so far as the ^Mahratta race has fallen under the dominion of Great Brit- ain, as in the Deccan, it Variation in character from has preserved to a consider- foreign impact. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ features of the original stock from which it is descended; but in the Nizam's Deccan the people have yielded to the ]\Ioham- medan pressure, and to that extent have taken the character of the Islamites. In other districts the race is comparatively pure. Of these, Kolhpur, in the vSouth- ern Deccan, is perhaps the best e.xample. The states of Sinde, Indore, and a part of Gujerat are nominally native, but have been considerably subjected to foreign influences. The native Mahratta princes and the attaches of their barbaric T mans the high- est type of courts are ^lahrattas, but a large part of the people arc Hindus from other regions. The Mahratta Brahmans may be named as the best exemplars of the qualities and character of the Brahmanic Mahratta Brah- caste in all India. physical, intellectual, and Hindus, moral development they are Brahmans at the best estate. The traveler can but be impressed with the serene countenance, the majestic walk, the lithe, straight figure, the high forehead, and features regular — almost Gi'ecian in outlines — of these leading representatives of the an- ^TRTT^' '^ ^ %^t ^"Ri: f^'^m ?f^ ^^T ^"ST ft^ vjir, cK ^T^ Sl'ECIMli.N U1-' M.-\HKATT1. cient priestly order. The Briti.sh gov- ernment has found them the most able and energetic of all the natives of the empire ; and he who visits India curious for instruction relative to the language, literature, and tradition preserved in the Sanskrit books, will find the ]\Iahratta Brahmans to be the best of all his sources of information. All of the castes are represented among the ]\Iahrattas. The Kshatriyas, or the Rajputs, are not numer- ■'>■ ' The lowest ous, and seem to maintain a classes of lu- , . . , dican society. rather precarious existence between the two preponderating castes of Brahmans and Sudras. The latter, lowest of the four great strata in which Indian society is divided — lowest with the exception only of the Pariahs, or serf caste, whose business it is to handle the dead — have preserved so man}' features of the aborigines and of the Scythians, who on several occasions have invaded r9-T! GREAT RACES OF JLLVAV.VP. the country, as to constitute them ahnost a distinct race. Indeed, an ethnic analy- sis would show them to possess a com- paratively slight admixture of Ar\an blood. Hut the .Sudras of the Mahratta region, as in other parts of India, have conformed .so much to the structure of the dominant ca.stes as to be classified are said to be exceedingly boorish in manners, and to have the looks of clowns. As comjiared with the inhab- itants of the Punjab and the Cashmeri- ans, the Sudra class of ]\Iahrattas are physically weak and mentally inferior. They have vigor and tenacity without strength. They are essentially a race of GROUP OF WAHRATTAS— TYPES. with them as a branch of the common family. The contrast in features and per.son between the Sudras and the Mahratta Contrasts and Brahmaus is sufficiently comparisons of *„;i •„ mi r> i Sudras and strikmg. The vSudra couu- Mahrattas. tenance is wanting in all those features of elevation which are posses.sed by the superior caste. The}' are small in person, though in common with most Indian races they are lithe, active, wiry, and able to endure. They movmtaineers, and have in common with that cla.ss of people in every country of the world the qualities of courage and independence. They have but a slight social or political organization in their native places ; but they have submitted to the discipline of the empire, and under the command of English officers have become an excellent .soldiery. In the pursuits of life they are herdsmen, cattle raisers, drivers of stock and vehicles, rather than husbandmen or tillers of the THE IX Die A XS. —E THXIC CHA RA C TERIS TICS. 723 soil. They have some skill as weavers and manufacturers of armor, but have not otherwise distinguished themselves in the practical arts. Geographically speaking, India and Hindustan are coex- tensive, identical. In a certain popular sense Hindus and Indians are convert- ible terms; but if the meaning of Hindus be determined by linguistic evidence, we shall find that not all Indians are Hindus. Hindu- stani, or Urdu, is a dialect of that me- diaeval Hindi which is the term for the second origin of all the Indie languages, as Sanskrit was the original root. Hindi is to Hindustani as the old Langue d'Oil is to French . Again ,. Hindustani is only one of the seven Aryan languages spoken in Northern India. The other six are the Punjabi, the Sindhi, the Gu- jarati, the Mahratti, the Bangali, and the Oriya. So if we reck- on as Hindus only those whose vernacular is Hindustani, we Ethnic and lin- shall find them occupying a and from the Himalayas to the Vindhya range. It will alreadv have become clear to guistic relations of the Hindu peoples. territory of about two hun- dred and fifty thousand square miles, reaching from the Gandak on the east to the Sutlcj on the west, PEASANTS OF THE DOAB — TYPES. Drawn by Emile Bayard, from a photograph. the mind of the reader that generaliza tions with regard to peo- ples so widely dispersed and so differently developed popuiati as those of India are wellnigh impossible. Beginning with differences of person Difficulty of gen- eralizing ethnic traits of great ions. GREAT RACES OF JEIXK/XD. and running through the whole gamut of human attributes, there is so great diversity that only a few geneial out- lines of the Hindu eharacter can be pre- sented with anything like accuracy. In •%IT •^{■r\ ^\U ^T?:^ -^TT flfi^t ^ ^^ -^TT ^T ^^^ vr ^i 1 J i countenance. highlands. 1 he abundant beard is also well preserved in the de.scendants of the ancient .stock. The habit of the country is to shave, except as to the upper lip, and tonsure of the head is common with the men, only a few curls being preserved at the poll and on the temples. Classified by the shape of the skull, the Hindus are me.so- cephalic ; that is, the head is medium between the long-skull and the short- skull type of cranial development. The face is oval. The forehead is open, and indicative of good perceptions. It is rare to see in India a contracted and corrugated brow. Hindu eyes are large, dark colored, brown, or black. The eyebrows are curved into two arches. The nose is rather after the pattern called Roman, having not infrequently the aquiline contour which gives an im- perious expression to the countenance. But this haughty feature is developed principally among the Brahmans. Chapter XLII.— Architecture, ERNIVIENT. TvlANNERS, GOVa iF we look at the objec- tive forms which are the expression of the ideal life of the Hin- dus, we shall find much of interest — .some things to admire. Doubtless the most conspicuous fact in which the ideal life of man is expressed 1 i is architecture. It stands, as we have seen, in the triple category of necessities, the other two being food and clothing; but inasmuch as man is more than an animal, his shelter is more than a house. From the mere physical fact of shelter, the abode of the human race rises rap- idly into higher forms ; and elegance is added to necessary structure. THE INDICANS.—ARCHITECTURE. 727 The Hindus have been immemorially noted for the extreme elaboration and ex- travagant taste exhibited in their build- India. The style in general is Oriental. Flat roofs are the prevailing form, with projecting balconies and verandas. The IXUIA.X ARLHrlECTUKE— 1 1 W 1 ings ; and the same is true of their plastic arts. The traveler must needs feel him- self in the western twilight of the Orient as he begins to scan the architecture of name of the latter is from the Hindu vocabulary, and both the fact and the word have been carried into all Western nations. In connection with the Hindu 728 GREAT RACES OF MAXk'LXn. residence is nearly always found a gar- den, and in this is displayed the same kind Extreme eiabo- oi elaborate taste which ration of the ^ j j ^^^ permanent Hindu architec- '^ ture. architecture of the coun- try. The arbor, the trellis, the curious Lightness of structure relat- ed to climate and outdoor life. >N ARCHITECTURE — EI.ABORA lU.N uK okNAMKM- Drawn by F. Regamey, from the original. grotto, and many other parts of the gar- dener's art are only the details of the larger architectural art which has been developed by the Indian builders. It is in the nature of warm climates to put the people much out of doors. The same fact ofives licjhtness to all classes of structure ; but in a coun try subject to storms strength as well as light ness must be consulted. Of the common and low - caste Hindus, the houses are plain and siinple in design. In these the idea of shel- ter is predom- inant over what in the higher grades of soci- ety becomes or- na mentation and elegance. It should be said, howe\-er, that the style of liv- ing among the rich, even Brah- mans of the highest rank, is more simple than among Western peoples of like wealth and magnificent tastes. The ancient architecture and sculpture of In- dia may almost take rank with that of Eg}-pt, if not for abun- dance, at least for majesty.^ It oive an extended { is not the place to ^ account of the old temples '■ The isle and of the countr}-, but an il- cavemof \ 1 , ,• -, 1 Elephanta. lustration may be drawn, ! once for all, from the famous isle and THE INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 729 cavern of Elephanta. This island is situated about seven miles from Bom- bay. AVithin it are found the remains of those celebrated Hindu sculptures and excavations which have preserved to us the best notion of the ancient art of the race. Near the shore stands a colossal statue of the elephant from which the name Elephanta was given Unfortunately, many of the effigies of Elephanta have been mutilated or de- stroyed by the Portuguese vandals and the Mohammedan zealots of later times. Some of the statues, however, have been tolerably well pre.served. ■' , Effigies of the In the center of the cavern Hindu gods m is the colossal bust of the ecavem. Trimurti, or Hindu Trinity: Brahma, 11*11111 !!iii..i.;>>--- ^,..,.^ A ---^ iiiliiij- MARRIAGE OF SIVA AND PARVATI. -From the cave of Elephanta. to the island by the Portuguese navi- gators. A short distance from the huge effigy is the entrance to the cavern. The same is about sixty feet in width and eighteen feet high. The pillars of support are cut out of the native rock. In the sides of the cavern are hewn many compartments which were dedi- cated as shrines to the old Hindu gods. M. — Vol. I — 47 Vi-shnu, and Siva. Some .scholars, how- ever, have in recent times decided that the triune figure is not intended for Brahma and Vishnu at all, but only to express the threefold aspect of Siva, the ' ' Destroyer." The heads of the effigA-are six feet in height, and the features have much of the majesty and repose peculiar to the sphinxes of Egypt. Critics, how- Il I In' I THE INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 731 ever, have noted an unpleasing expres- sion of the underlip, which seems to be too animal or faun-like for the deity. Egyptian analogies are also discoverable in the headdresses, which are ornament- ed. In the hand of one of the gods is a cobra de capello, and on the cap are set a human skull and an infant. Doubt- less here we have an allegory of life and death in the infant and the skull and of the destroying agent by which the one becomes the other, in the serpent. Siva was the destroyer. Perhaps the cobra was his principal abettor. On either side of the Trimurti stands the figure of a man leaning on a dwarf. To the right is a cavity hollowed in the wall, in which are a great number of mythological figures, the principal one being a double image of Siva and Par- vati, an effigy half male and half female. To the right also is the four-faced statue of Brahma reclining on a lotus. It is one of the rare images of the supreme Hindu deity now preserved in India. Perhaps there is no space of like dimen- sions in the vaults, grottoes, or caverns of the world of so great interest to the antiquary as is the cave of Elephanta. As a field for the study of Indian archi- tecture in general, the district and city Agra the best of Agra, in the Northwest orindTanlfchi- PTOvinccs are, perhaps, teoture. the best of all in the coun- try. The remains of old-time splendor, however, are not so ancient as the sculp- tures just referred to. The city of Agra is on the Jumna river, in latitude 27° 11' north. It was the old native capital of the province. Until 1803 it Avas held by the Mahrattas, but at that time was taken by the British army, un- der Lord Lake. Three structures within the city of Agra are known for their architectural beauty and grandeur. The first of these is the old palace of the native princes. It has a great court within, five hundred feet by three hundred and . - . . The old palace seventy feet m dimensions, of the native The approaches to the ^"°'^'- court are by arcades and gateways of the greatest beauty and Oriental splendor. The hall of the palace is two hundred and eight feet by seventy-six feet in di- mensions, and to this are adjoined two smaller courts, one of which was former- ly the private audience chamber of the nabob and the other his harem. In Agra also is the celebrated pearl mosque, the most elegant specimen of Mohammedan architecture in all India. The dimen- sions of the ground plan are two hundred and thirty-five by one hundred and nine- ty feet. The court is a rectangle one hundred and fifty-five feet square. The courtyard is the center of interest. It is wholly of white marble, from the pave- ment to the dome. In design the pearl mosque is similar to the mosque of Dehli. The structure is noted for the absence of elaboration. A single inscription from the Koran, inlaid with black marble as a frieze, is the principal piece of sculpture in connection with the edifice. But the most remarkable example of the building skill of India is the great Taj built in Agra by the character of the Emperor Shah Jehan in ^aredTe^aj honor of his beautiful wife, Mahal. JMumtaza Mahal. Here the empress and himself are buried. The building is, like the mosque, of white marble. It is surmounted by four tall minarets. The ground plan is a terrace, also of marble. The whole parallelogram, including the gardens and court, are eighteen hundred and sixty feet by one thousand feet in di- mensions. The approaches are hx arcades and magnificent gateways, the principal of which measures one hundred and ten feet in width by one hundred and forty 732 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. feet in height. Through this the trav- eler passes from the court to the garden. The tomb proper stands on an elevated platform eighteen feet in height. It is faced in every part with white marble, and is three hundred and thirteen feet square. At each comer stands a mina- ret one hundred and thirty-three feet in height. The mausoleum is in the cen- DRESS OF THE HINDUS — PRINCESS OF AGRA. ter on a marble platform. It is one hun- dred and eighty-six feet square, but the corners are cut off by sections thirty- three feet in extent. Ch'er the mausoleum rises a dome fifty-eight feet in diameter and eighty feet in height. It is doubtful whether any other emperor and empress who have ruled barbaric millions liave had a more splendid tomb. The dress and personal ornaments of the Hindus are now well known to West- ern peoples. Story and pictorial art have conspired to make familiar the bodily vesture and decoration of the In- dian races. The materials _ Dress ana per- of fabrication for apparel sonal ornaments ,, .. ,, of the Hindus. are generally linen, cotton, silk. The style of garment is Oriental. The costume of the men and the women differs in degree rather than in kind. The High Brahmans wear drapery rather than clothes. The Kshatriyas gather their garments about them with a belt. Everything is loosely worn. The Su- dras, especially in the south, are but slightly clad, a large part of the person being exposed. In the schools and other assemblies the upper part of the body of the pupil is naked ; and in the house- hold and on the streets there is much exposure, but without vulgarit}'. The dyeing of the hair and the beard is a common adjunct to effect in dress. It is customary to color red the nails of the fingers and toes. The eyelashes and eyebrows are dyed black with anti- mony. The fan is much used by both men and women, but not so universally as in Japan. Ornaments are profuse. Necklaces, bracelets, and earrings are iiniversal. Flowers and pearls are worn in the hair. The ears and the septum of the nostrils are pierced to receive jewels and other pendant ornaments. Tattoo- ing is but slightly practiced, but the features are frequently painted with marks and stripes across the brows, between the eyes, and on the neck. These marks constitute a kind of totem, disting-uishinar one caste from another. In India there is great diversit)^ in the manner of marriage. Each religion or superstition gives its own ceremonies of inflection to the ceremony. In one respect the usage is common, and that is the early age at which the woman is marriageable. At twelve or thirteen she is regfarded as fit for marriage and estimate of the ■womaji. -^^C^^^'^' MANNERS or THE HINDUS.— Kiii.EiiiuN ax the Court of the Begum.— Drawn by A. de NeuvUle. 734 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the wedded relation and for maternity. The oldest ceremonial required that the man take the woman by the hand and walk around an altar with her. Perhaps this still remains the fundamental idea in the nuptial union. The woman after marriage remains as she was before, a dependent of man. There is here a con- flict between the Old Aryan recognition of the nobility, if not the equality, of woman and the Oriental view which holds her as a slave, a chattel. The Hindu woman has much more respect and honor than she of China, but is by no means the equal of the man . She is not wholly secluded in the house, but may go forth after marriage. In gen- eral, she is treated with respect. The almost universal aboriginal usage of giving presents to the bride's parents by the husband, as in purchase of her, is still maintained. It is in evidence that polyandry was much in vogue in ancient times, and polygamy is now frequent, particularly in those provinces where Islam is in the ascendant. The entrance of strangers into acquaintance and com- pany with Indian women is strictly in- hibited, and it has been with great difficulty that a knowledge of the manner of life of the Hindu household has been obtained by any alien. The reader will have already perceived the general di.stribution of the Hindus ^ , over the larger part of Extent of race . . . interfusion in India and their interfusion Hindustan. . , , With other peoples. The race has extended north, south, east, and we.st, to the limits of the mountains and the sea. In Nepal, in the very .shadow of the Himalayas, they are found associ- ated with the Gurungs, the Magars, the Murmis, and many other races. In this region, however, it is the low-caste Hindus rather than the Brahmans that are mixed among the Nepalese. Further on in Assam the census shows nearly two million of Hindus, but they are, as in Nepal, of the lower order. It appears that Hinduism in this region made its way first among the kings and nobility. That is, the higher Assamese cultivated Hinduism as a faith, but the great mass of Hindus in Assam have been imported as laborers, to work in the tea gardens and in other pursuits of serfdom. This peasant class has, nevertheless, attained to a fair degree of home life and competency. The Hindu popula- tion has improved under '- Particular fea- British rule, and the char- tures of certain acter of the people has been greatly elevated since the last century. The Assamese are not very much dis- tinguished from the Bengalese and Hindus in appearance. The person of the former is shorter and more robust, but the native is not so lithe and active as the Hindu. As already remarked, the Chinese type, that is the Thibeto- Chinese, has infected all the races of farther India, and the fiat face, high cheek bones, and general physiognomy of the Assamese tells unmistakably the story of an influence from beyond the Himalayas. ALso into Burmah the Hindus have made their way, but not in so great numbers as in Assarr^. Here the lan- guage and the general character of the people is properly Indo- Grading oir of Chinese; and the race der- ^^j: f j.^.'J^Lr ivation from beyond still nesetype. more strongly than in Assam discrimi- nates the ethnic type from that of Be_ngal. The census of 1872 gives a population for the whole of Burmah of two million seven hundred and forty thousand, or an average of thirty-one to the square mile. Of these, the vast preponderance are Buddhists. The Mohammedans num- ber about a hundred thousand, and the THE INDICA NS.—S UPERS TITIONS. 735 Hindus only thirty-six thousand. Of the whole number, one hundred and ten thousand are still classified as aborigines. It is probable that India jDresents a greater variety of superstitions in an in- tenser form than any other country of Extent and va- the world. Except in the lower districts of heathen- ism, such as South Africa furnishes, the general fact called super- stition has relaxed its hold somewhat Tiety of the Hindu snpeP' stitions. declining, losing its dominion and power over the mind of man. To this general fact India is somewhat exceptional. The peculiar tendencies of the Indian mind under the influence and discipline of Brahmanism have been unfavorable to the reception and dissemination of sci- entific knowledge. The Indian mind furnishes an example of a comparatively high development in abstract thought, in the ability to generalize and deduce conclusions from established concepts and premises. The inferential power of the human intellect as it is displayed in these countries is not to be despised, but the inductive method of inquiry has never found footing among them. The disposition to scrutinize and question the processes of the material world and to find out the laws which govern nature has not appeared, and the old supersti- tions of paganism continue to prevail. These are manifest in almost every department of life. There are a thou- sand superstitious beliefs Amulets and ^ charms; super- respecting food. Amulets stitious beliefs , , 1 , , • respecting the and charms and talismans dead. are worn to protect the person and life from harm. The image of an ances- SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HINDUS, -Amilets Taken from the Body of Tupit Said. upon the human mind. It is now clearly perceived that superstitious beliefs and practices can not coexist with scientific knowledge. We have already seen that the peculiarity of the recent ages is the rapid extension of the knowledge of the laws by which the phenomena of the material world are governed. This is equivalent to saying that superstition is tor is swung about the neck in confi- dent trust that the paternal spirit will follow his image and guard his descend- ant who wears it. One of the most strik- ing superstitions relates to the dead. There is an abhorrent fear of all places where dead bodies have been brought or deposited. Even where cremation is employed, the spot on which the cere- 736 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. mony is performed becomes a terror to all who approach it ; and the small build- iug-s in which the ashes are stored are avoided as children w'ould avoid an old ruin haunted by evil spirits. A like MINDL- FAKIR, CARRYING CIRCLEIS OF IRON ABOUT HIS NECK. Drawn by Emile Uayard, from a photograph. fear possesses the Indian mind with re- spect to darkness. The night is dreaded. They who are willing- to expose them- selves like good soldiers in the hazards of battle, and who stand up against the enemy with a fair degree of courage, tremble with the coming of night. Doubtless it is the association in their mind of the facts of darkness and death that have made both appalling. In common with the Oriental nations, the Hindus have a veneration tor the dead. If the}- do not positively worship their ancestors in the man- Shrines and ef- ner of the Egyptians, they figies to the de- at least erect small tem- ^^^ ^ pies to the fathers, and within these are placed pieces of wood on which are drawn images of the departed. The masses of the people have perhaps never been able to grasp the idea of the universal Brah- ma as the supreme God of the world, and as a result, the)' have fallen through the intermediate stages of polytheism into idolatry. The superstitions of India, in part religious and in part merely mytholog- ical, are strikingly mani- superstition the fested in all ranks of so- "^^^^ ciety. Beliefs and^a'^'^'s- practices, having their origin in super- stition have prevailed to the extent of creating whole classes of the Hindus sufficiently numerous to populate a king- dom. Thus, for example, the Moham- medan mendicants, widely distributed through all the Islamite countries, and known as Fakirs, have been recnaited not on the basis of race, but on the lines of their peculiar and degrading super- stitions. Of this great order of devotee vagabonds there are more than a mil- lion in India. They wander from place to place about the towns, villages, and countr}-side, constituting a pauper class, everywhere present and everywhere il- lustrating in their beggary and usages the combined results of race deteriora- tion and superstitious fanaticism. In some respects, however, the beliefs and practices of the Hindus are merito- rious. They believe in cleanliness, in THE INDICANS.—RISE OF ROYALTY. 737 washings of the body, in what may be called personal purity. The Brahmans Hinduism re- enjoin the conquest of sen- soTe'^b^eLT^^d sualityas a part of that vir- practices. tue by which the soul may find eternal rest. The devotee is en- couraged to master earthly thoughts and mere human affections as obstacles in the way of his perfection. All of this tends of course to asceticism, with its accompa- nying follies and vices ; but it is probably true that the sages of India have reached as high a degree of self-masterj' as any other devotees to the dogma of the mor- tification of the body as a means of eter- nal happiness. Chieftainship was a part of the original structure of the Arj'an race. It may not be known whether this fact in the or- oid Indian ganization of the primitive b^'omtmn^dn people was developed in petty royalty. the old household of the race, or whether it came forth as a concomitant circumstance of migration. Certain it is that migrating tribes must have their chiefs, their headmen, who lead and direct and take the responsibil- ity. This chieftainship would inevitably take on the character of a military cap- tainc)'. The migration would traverse hostile grounds. There would be the clash of moving people with the aborig- ines and the conflict with other tribes in motion. He who could best control the action of barbaric battle would have great reputation. He would be a hero while the migration continued, and a prince as soon as the tribe had settled into per- manent abodes. Such is the genesis of the half-militarj^ and half-royal petty kinglets whose figures are seen rising above the confusion and strife of the his- torical dawn. We have already seen that in the coun- tries possessed by the Indian races the Vedic bard, in the first place, and the Sjrmpathy of the Brahmans and the military caste. Brahman priest afterwards, accompanied the chieftain who led the tribe, and invoked the deities to his aid in battle and conquest. The spectacle in the In- dian valleys, as we discover it in the far twilight of history, is somewhat similar to that which reappeared in the feudal ages in Western Europe, when the priest of Rome kept himself at the side of the barbarian chieftain until the latter was transformed into a feudal baron. So in India ; with this difference, how- ever, that the Brahman and the military chief were in that country of the same race and kindred. The union, therefore, of religious dogma with barbarian state- craft would be more intimate and friend- ly in India than in the West. The as- cendency of the priest would also be more fatal to the natural evolution of political power and the establishment of secular forms of government in a coun- try where the chieftain sj-mpathized by kinship with the priest, than in lands where they two were in antagonism. This was one of the leading causes of the miserable condition into which the political institutions of India fell at an early age, and in which they have ever since continued. After the militar}' chieftain in a bar- barous age, leader and defender of a wandering tribe, has passed, by the set- tled residence of his people. Primogeniture into a prince, having a court ^'JS^^eS^r' and a retinue and even tainship. the beginnings of an administrative sys- tem, he must provide for the continu- ance of his rank, his reputation, his government. This is most easily and naturally done by transmitting it to his son. The priest would encourage this tendency ; for the counselor of the father would have a favorable situation for influence with the descendant. He- •.SDIAN PRIXCE— TYPE— The Maharajah of Gwalior.— Drawn by A. de NeuviUe. THE INDICANS.—GO VERNMENT. 739 redity would thus become a natural ele- ment in the system, and primogeniture ■would follow as a secondary suggestion. All of these facts have appeared in the political structure of India, and in the order named. The government of the Indian princes has been an absolutism from the earliest ages. Everything has conspired to make Absolutism of the native prince a des- ^f tL°rdrn"' pot, and to perpetuate the princes. dcspotism in his family. The right of the Indian nabob to tax his subjects for the support of the govern- ment and to supply the means of war rests with himself. Any part of the private property of the people, from one twelfth to one fourth of the same he may take as a revenue, without responsi- bility. In the same way he may enlist his subjects into the army. Custom has prescribed that those who serve in war shall be recompensed by a gift of land. In former times only the K.shatriyas were summoned for military duty. The other castes were permitted to pursue the vocations of peace without disturb- ance. As to the methods of warfare, they were rude and traditional. The Indian Rude methods Weaponry was the same as ofwareie'-'"'' that employed by all half- phants. barbarous peoples. Until modern times bows and arrows, clubs, discuses, spears, swords, shields, and war chariots were the armor, offensive and defensive, of the native soldiery. These were never entirely supplanted until the establishment of the British East Indian empire. From time im- memorial the elephant has been used in war. It may be frankly confessed that until the artillery of modern times was leveled against him he was one of the most formidable engines ever seen on a battlefield. From the days of Porus to the days of Nana Sahib the enemy had cause to look with dread on the huge monster as he raged in the conflict, bear- ing, as in a tower, his company of sol- diers, and bringing down his tremen- dous trunk, like the fall of a Norway pine, upon half a legion at a blow. All the conditions, social, civil, and re- ligious, in the Indian countries have con- spired to engender a su- superstitious perStitioUS veneration for reverence for ^ princes ana princes and rulers. As rulers, among other ancient Oriental peoples, the king, the nabob, is regarded as half- divine. He is the representative of the unseen powers, and is responsible to them for his conduct. He is their equal and companion, and his right to rule is ■from on high. Against a prince thus hedged about with that divinity which accompanies kings, insurrection is re- garded as most wicked and dangerous, and the puni-shment of disloyalty is al- ways to the uttermost. It were exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to present a satisfactory ex- hibit of the distribution of the various races in India. We have now given a sketch of some of the leading elements of the political, social, and religious structure of the country ; but much would remain if an accurate delineation should be attempted of the relations and tendencies of the various parts of Indian society. The Hindus, to whom the foregoing pages have been devoted, constitute the leading element, the most " . General view of widely distributed popula- race conditions tion of India. Perhaps a '" ^"^^ ' sketch of the condition of affairs in Ben- gal may serve as an illustration of the status existing in all the provinces and governments. Within this country there is an aggregation of peoples of diverse ethnic origin, speaking different Ian- -TYPES.— Diawn by Emlle bayard. THE IXDICAXS.—GO VERNMENT. 741 Aggregate of subjects under the provincial government. guages. They represent eras of devel- opment as far apart as the earliest ages of history and the present day. These diversities exist in religious thought and practices, in political ideas, in race pro- clivities, and in every aspect of na- tionality. According to the census of 1872 Ben- gal, which then in- cluded the province of As- s a m , had a population of sixty- six million eight hundred and fif- ty-six thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine, being fully equal to that of the entire United States at the present time. We thus have the remarkable spec- tacle of a lieutenant governor sent out from London, a dis- tance of six thou- sand miles, to pre- side over a conge- ries of nations far exceeding the entire population of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ! The ele- ments under this government — and Ben- gal was only one of many provinces un- der British dominion — were so diversified and contradictory as to make a govern- mental problem which no nation other than England would have had the polit- ical courage to undertake or the skill to solve. The people thus aggregated presented every type of the human evolution, from sheer barbarism and the grossest forms of supeTstition to a high degree of human enlightenment. Educated native noble- GROUP OF HINDU WEAPONS OF WAK. men from Bengal, full of the skeptical spirit of modern times, have The Hindus pre- come to London as dip- ^tLT^f^''"' lomats, have sat in the evolution, clubs of that metropolis, and delivered speeches at public dinners among law- yers, bishops, and statesmen as skillful at fence, as witty, and almost as schol- I THE INDICANS.— ISOLATED RACES. 743 ariy as they, while at the same time barbarous chieftains of their own race, in their own country, were sacrificing idiots and paupers on hilltops in order to make sure of the political advantages which the noblemen had gone to Lon- don to plead for ! So great is the diversity of development among the Hindus. These people, viewed as a whole, are most largely descended from the Aryan Linguistic affin- stock. Their languages flaturf/i^Sfe ^rc classical, and, strange British rule. to Say, are more nearly in analogy with the current English tongue than are the Highland dialects of Scot-- land or the broken speech of Wales! Of the sixty-.six million of Bengalese, forty-two and a half million are classi- fied as Hindus ; and of the remainder, about twenty and a half million are Alohammedans. The British lieuten- ant governor has thus under his sway in the single province of Bengal a larger Mohammedan population than that ruled by the Sultan of Turkey I Besides the two great peoples, the Hindus and the Islamites, a small percentage of other Indian races is diffused throughout the country, and to this must be added the Europeans, notably the English, who have sat down at Calcutta under a May and June temperature of one hundred and ten degrees F. to control and direct a mass of nations numerically in excess of all the other subjects of the queen. Chapter XLIII.— Isolated Aspects. Races— General T remains to notice briefly one or two addi- tional Indian families less widely known than the great races alreadj' described. In the west- ern part of the country, on the slopes of the Hindu-Kush,'are the Daradas, or Dards, and further to the west another people called the Sijah- Posh. The latter word signifies " black coats," because the men are mostly clad, as to their outer garments, in black hides. To these people the Moham- medans give the name of Kaffirs, or In- fidels. It is believed that they migrated into India from Kandahar in Afghan- istan. We have among these extreme races the same dialectical differences, the same peculiarities, which belong to the other branches of the Indie familv. These m.ountaineers are larger in person and of finer iDuild than are the people of the Punjab, or even their Distributionaad old kinsfolk the Afghans, character of rr^-i 1 1 • 1 . 1 • the Kaffirs. ihey have light skm, blue eyes, and blonde hair. They are more warlike than the people in the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. They have an extreme aversion to the Mohammedans ; and it is one of the tests of good citizenship to have slain one of the followers of the Prophet, Whenever this feat has been accom- plished the slayer henceforth wears a feather in commemoration of his deed, and allows his hair to grow long. In other respects the Kaffirs are like the Hindus. They offer sacrifices of cows and goats, and have ceremonies and feasts in honor of the gods, who are both male and female, according to the Indian theory. Like the greater races. \ 744 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. they venerate the souls of their ances- tors. Amiisements are popular, and music and dancing are cultivated to a high degree. Perhaps after dispersed Israel, the Gypsies are the most remarkable people Anomalous in the World in their dis- TnThVetw^'^^ tribution into foreign lands, scheme. Their name has been given to them by other peoples, who habit of life has carried them into all quarters of the globe. Their dispersion among the Western nations began with the fourteenth century, and has extended to the present time. It is believed that the Gypsies were originally of the Pariah, or Sudra, caste , that is, the lowest order of Indian soci- ety. Their dialects have certainly been derived from Hindustani, but each tribe AGRICULTURAL LIFK IN INDIA.— Ghaddis Cl-ltivators.— Drawn by E. Zier, from a photograph by E. Bo have supposed them to be of Egvptian origin. They do not call themselves Gypsies, but Rovi, or Romany. The ver- nacular Siutc is always employed by them as their own ethnic epithet, and in this it is easy to perceive the word Sindh. Doubtless the original seat of the Gypsies was in the valley of the Lower Indus, whence their migratory of Gypsies has adopted parts of the vo- cabulary and even of the grammatical structure of the languages The race orig- spoken in the countries of ^"^^it'oVsudra, their sojourn. Perhaps no class of Hindus. people in the world have to a like degree incorporated into their own speech so much of other languages ; and the incor- porated parts remain without assimila- THE INDICANS.— ISOLATED RACES. 745 tion. Leland, in his work on the Eng- lish Gypsies and Their Language, has given examples of the mongrel speech employed by these wanderers. The following two proverbs will suffice to illustrate the gross deterioration of the Gypsy tongue : " A cloudy sala often purabens to a fi)io " A cloudy morning often changes to a fine dhnncs." day." " It's sim lo a choomer, kiishti for kek till "It's like a kiss, good for nothing until it's pordired atwt't'ji diti." it is divided between two." By some Gypsy tribes their own lan- guage has been better preserved, and few traces of the speech of the country in which they chance to Features of the _ . ■^ Gypsy language be sojourning can be found illustrated. • ^i • m their current expres- sions. The following paragraph from a Welsh Gypsy story will illustrate the character of the speech when free from English admixture : '• Yeker a doi ses bearengaro ta vaver store " Once there were (a) sailor and other four mors/i ; yek ses peltanengaro, ta ow vm'er ses men; one was (a) blacksmith, and the other was kora»iangaro, ta sivamangaro, to pallano ses (a) soldier, and (a) tailor, and the last was kirchimackaro. Ow bearengaro potchedas e (an) innkeeper. The sailor asked the peltanengaro te vel apra ow doreav. Ow pelta- blacksmith to come on the sea. The black- 7iengaro pendas, ' Nan shorn ie fa te kerra boottee.' smith said, ' No (I) am to go to do work.' ' So se tero boottee ?' ' Te tasarra sastarn' ' What is thy work ? ' ' To heat iron,' chotchy ow peltanengaro, ' ta te kerravles utidra quoth the blacksmith, 'and to make it into chichaw grengey.' " shoes for horses.' " The ethnic classification of the Gypsies was long a puzzling question. The most skillful scholars were at fault in attempt- M.— Vol. 1—48 ing to fix their place. Here again, how- ever, language furnishes the clue. The course of the Gypsies on Language far- their way to Europe and t^Z^^l^lT the West can be accurately ^'o^i- traced b)' the admixture of foreign words which they have brought along with them. The oldest element thus incor- porated with the Gypsy language is Per- sian ; after that, Armenian, and so on to the West. Doubtless a few bands of this vagrant people have come into Europe from Egypt, but their sojourn in that country must have been brief, for no tribe has been found speaking a language in which there were traces of Arabic, as would have been the case if they had tarried long in Egypt or other parts of Xorthern Africa. Much investigation has been given to the Gypsies as a people. Traces of them have been found west of the Bosphorus as early as the ninth cen- Apparition of tury, but their presence in S^/llTr '" Europe is uncertain until America, the year 1346, when Catharine of Valois granted to the chiefs of Corfu the right to reduce to serfdom certain Homines Vageniti, or vagrants, who liad come into the country. This same people pitched its tents along the Danube as early as 1417. In 1422 it was estimated that four- teen thousand of them had reached Italy. In August, 1427, a band numbering a hundred and twenty came to Paris, representing themselves as fugitives from the Saracens in Eg}'pt. It is doubtless from this circumstance that the name Gypsy has been applied to the race. In 1530 they had become so numer- ous in England that Henry VIII issued a proclamation against them. In nearly every country of Western Europe stat- utes were enacted to prevent the incom- ing of Gypsies and to expel those who already arrived. 740 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. At the present time it is estimated that Europe contains about seven hun- Deveiopment of dred thousand of this race. Eufope'and"'" '^^'"^V ^^''^^'6 m^de their way America. into the two Americas, into the islands of the sea, into Au.stra- Ha. Everywhere their character is the thie'v'iiig char- acter of the race. Hindu. The complexion is tawny; eyes black, glancing quickly to right and left, black hair, cheek bones high and prominent, lower jaw slightly project- ing, mouth small, and teeth white and even. It is not uncommon to see among Gypsy women and girls figures and fea- tures that would be consid- ered beautiful by the most critical judgment of West- ern peoples. .The character of the Gypsy race is bad in the last degree. Mendicant and Both men and women are usually degraded. It is not, however, charged that they have licentious habits. They are addicted to every sharp practice by which rogues and thieves obtain property that is not their own. They are con- scienceless, and are un- acquainted with religious obligation. It has been de- clared by some scholars in language that there is no Gypsy word for soul or im- mortality or God. They pretend to the fortune tell- er's lore and to skill in palmistry, and to every other species of from card-playing black art of the magic, to the Middle BENJARI GYPSIES — TYPES. Drawn by A. de Neuville, from a photograph. same. The form, the features, the man- ner of life and character of the Gypsies are repeated in all places where their tents or huts are found. The physiog- nomy is plainly Asiatic. The Gypsy face is the best representation to be seen west of the Atlantic of the face of the Ages. Fixedness is the great cen- tral fact in the constitution of India. All of the races inhabiting that vast country or emanating therefrom be- ,.-,.. , Fixedness the tray in their beliefs and central fact in ,. ,1 ,. T Hindu life. practices the unaltered con- ditions of a former life. While the West- ern Aryans, as we shall see hereafter, 748 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. have been almost infinitely inflected in their development, the Indie branch of the race fell at an early age into estab- lished forms, to amend or alter which has been regarded as innovation and sacrilege. In this respect India may be ranked with the Egypt that was and the China that is. Doubtless the Hamites in an- Comparisons cicnt Egyptian society were with the Ham- ^j,.^j -^^ ^ given SO- Ites and the * Chinese. eiul Structure, less subject to fluctuation and evolution into new forms, than are the Indie races of to-day. The Chinese also, who change not at all from generation to generation, who re- gard all movement or progress from the old and approved constitution of things as a iiseless and dangerous departure from the best attainable standard, are doubtless an intenscr form of social com- pleteness and conservatism than are the Hindus. But as compared with the flexibility and progressive tendencies of all the Western peoples the nations of India are in the strongest contrast. It is impossible now to tell for how long a time even the details of every- Preservation day life, the circumstances dress'andrT-* ^^ manners and dress, the eaiia. rules of caste, and the laws of social propriety have remained unaltered. The styles of personal adorn- ment described in the oldest records of the race are still patterned and repeated by the Indian jewelers. The ornament has been immemorially regulated by rank. Even wealth and profusion have not been able to pass the prescribed lim- its of form. The law books of Manu fixed the limits and the details of caste and determined the paraphernalia of each. All descendants of Ar^'ans should wear the sacred cord around the person. The cord must pass over the left and under the right shoulder, and be placed there when the wearer was initiated into his caste. The cord of the Brahman should be composed of three cotton threads. The Kshatriyas, or warrior caste, had also a threefold cord, but the strands were of hemp ; and that of the Vaisyas was made of triple strands of wool . Custom having once determned the symbol, it must remain unaltered age after age. The Brahman's . Usage of f he belt must be made of sugar belt; clothing H, , ., of the Sudras. e must wear the .skin of the gazelle. His staff must be of bamboo and reach to the top of his- head from the ground. The .soldier's belt must be made of bowstrings. His garment must be a deenskin, and his bamboo staff must reach no higher than the forehead. The belt of the \'ais}-a must be made of hemp. His garment mu.st be a sheepskin, and his fig-tree staff, cut from an unpeeled branch, must reach only to his nose. Let none violate these things, for they are a part of the usage and the law of the land. Opin- ions must not change, neither must the outer forms of society. True enough, the Sudras may clothe themselves as they will, for they are no true caste, but only a residuum, a melange, left on the soil after the three major castes have been determined and defined. These things are necessary that the purity of the dominant races may be preserved. Change will lead to confusion, corrup- tion of blood, deterioration of manners, destruction of race character, national shame. Life is growth. It is as truly .so of the tribe as it is of the individual ; of the nation as of the tribe ; Race life, once of the race as of the nation. %7„","j '"^^ The part of the human atrophy. body which is not used, which does not expand and grow by the addition of new THE IND/CANS.— GENERAL ASPECTS. 749 elements, the substitution of living tis- sue for that which is broken down and expelled, will suffer atrophy. It will cease to act. It may not possibly decay. It may even retain a certain circulation of the blood and a sort of nervous vital- ity, but in other respects it is dead. The same is true of national life, and even of the institutional forms of so- ciety. They must progress or fall into a shriveled and useless condition, unfitted for the altered relations under which they pass by lapse of time and change of cir- cumstance. India thus presents to the modern in- quirer a fixed surface. There is less perspective in Indian society than in al- most any other of the world. This is to say that the existing form Lack of perspeo- tive in Hindu has the Same character that society. j^ j^^^ ages ago. In any Western state, if a cross section be made of society as it now exists, such section will present phenomena wholly different from what we would have discovered in the sixteenth century, and the latter in turn would be equally distinct from the aspects discovered in the sixth century. The art of China is said to have no per- spective. The Chinese drawings and paintings are all made as though the ob- jects delineated had been viewed from above instead of horizontally. The insti- tutions of India have this fixed expres- sion. They are as if sketched from above, and the forms of things have no converging lines behind them. Since the beginning of European ascendency in India, however, the im- pact of Western influence Western influ- . . ence begins to upou the crystalizcd m- pre vail In India. .-. .■ jr ii ^ stitutions of the country have scattered the germs of change. There is a slight relaxation even of caste. The Brahmans themselves have separated somewhat into higher and lower orders, and in some instances have engaged in secular employments. It is not unusual to find a Brahman in the military service of the empire, and THE I'ARIAH DJONGAL OF SARGUJA — TYPE. Drawn by Emile Bayard. in some parts of the country what arc known as " plow Brahmans," or agricul- turists, are found. Though engaged in the pursuits of the field and garden, these members of the Brahmanical order 750 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. toward the neglect of caste distinction. still hold fast to their old distinctions, wear the Brahman's thread, and claim and receive recognition as belonging to the highest caste. The subsidence of the Kshatriyas, or at least the subsiding tendency among them into industrial pursuits, is .still more Tendency marked. It can hardly be said that the Pariahs are now a caste separate from the vSudras. They are rather a lower class of Sudras than a distinct division. These changes, noticeable by the close observer in recent times, are exceedingly slow, and are made against the whole force of the existing order; but they foretoken an ultimate regeneration of the social order and institutions of the East. We have now completed the intended sketch of the Eastern divisions of the General view of Aryan racc. In a former p^:s?n''s\"ge°of ^ook we followed the the inquiry. migrations of these great and pojjulous nations from their old seats east of the Caspian into the regions of their subsequent occupancy and devel- opment. In the present book we have noted the past and current aspects which the various nations springing from the primitive stock have presented in ancient and modern times. The object has been to give to the reader an accurate general notion of the ethnic character of these peoples. Geograph- ically, we have found them distributed from the Iranian Ossetes along the northern spurs of the Caucasus, in lati- tude forty-five degrees north and longi- tude forty-five degrees east from Green- wich, to the inhabitants of British Bur mah, in latitude ten degrees north and longitude one hundred and two degrees east. Within the.se extremes are dis- tributed some of the most populous nations on the globe ; and if the civiliza- tions of these peoples do not present to the inquirer of to-day so promising and inspiring a view as the more vigorous and expanding developments in Western nations, there is, nevertheless, a per- petual fund of interest and a limitless revenue of information to be found among the races and institutions of the old Iranian plateau and the teeming valleys of India. ^ Jw-S Uowerslty o« Camom^a FACILITY SOUTHERN ^l^^ll^),^S^sC^ 90024-1388 405 Hllgard A^«""^-J;°,eriaHo the library nZwrhtwasborrowed^ Ridpath 2C Rid path's Rl3h history of the v.l world. 3 11 *D 20 Rli3h v.l i^V=^' SsT D 000 353 076 3 ■i-;...- r%i.'.: ,■ //i "■'.'.'i; i.s;is' :;,'.!:' \]-y\\ !.>M(>y- 'I'.'V Ji ' . •». ■ ) ,>\ 1 N '