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 RIDPATH'S 
 
 History of the World 
 
 BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ETHNIC ORIGIN, PRIMITIVE ESTATE, 
 
 EARLY MIGRATIONS, SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND PRESENT 
 
 PROMISE OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF MEN 
 
 TOGETHER WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME, PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THE evolution OF MANKIND 
 
 AND 
 
 THE STORY OF ALL RACES 
 
 COMPLETE IN FOUR VOLUMES 
 
 By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. 
 
 Author of a "Cyclopedia of Universal History." Etc. 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH COLORED PLATES, RACE MAPS AND CHARTS, 
 TYPE PICTURES, SKETCHES AND DIAGRAMS 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 The Jones Brothers Publishing Company 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Merrill & Baker 

 
 Copjrigbt 189i 
 Copsrigfjt 1895 
 CopjiisM 1897 
 Copjrialit 1899 
 E!)t 3ones BrotbtrH putlisfjing Companj. 
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 General Preface. 
 
 HE motives, as well as 
 the materials, of a 
 literary work are de- 
 rived from many 
 sources. The reasons 
 which the mind of the 
 writer may give to 
 itself for its activity and persistence in 
 a certain labor are complex in the 
 extreme, and often difficult to discover. 
 The real origin of a book is lost in the 
 obscurity of the unconscious' or half- 
 conscious provinces of the intellect and 
 the will. Now that the present work 
 has been completed and is ready for 
 delivery to the public, I search for its 
 genesis with the hope of making the 
 reasons of its existence clear, and with 
 the desire to furnish a measure of jus- 
 tification for the enterprise. 
 
 Through a period of more than a 
 quadrennium I have been steadily 
 engaged with the composition of these 
 volumes, the plan of which suggested 
 itself to my mind, though dimly, fully a 
 score of years before it began to be 
 executed. In youth, and while engaged 
 in giving historical instruction in an 
 institution of the higher learning, I dis- 
 covered in myself a deep and lasting 
 interest in all matters relating to the 
 origin and development of the different 
 races of mankind. The disposition to 
 learn as much as possible about ethnic 
 facts asserted and reasserted itself in 
 the greater part of my studies. Like 
 other inherent traits, this continued to 
 clamor for recognition and exercise 
 until it finally obtained the command of 
 the faculties in a campaign of special 
 
 study, the results of which are declared 
 in the following pages. 
 
 It is possible that the enterprise which 
 has culminated in the composition of 
 these volumes would never have been 
 undertaken had it not been for the prep- 
 aration by the author of another work 
 intimately connected in its subject- 
 matter with the present treatise. That 
 other work was a Cyclopedia of Universal 
 //«/(7;-j', published in 1885. The theme 
 was such as to suggest, and at length 
 demand, another, which is here devel- 
 oped as the complement of the first. All 
 historical composition is calculated to 
 bring to the attention of the writer sub- 
 jects and trains of thought which he 
 would doubtless have overlooked in 
 other fields of inquiry. My own experi- 
 ence in this particular may possess a 
 general, as well as a personal, interest. 
 
 While engaged in the preparation of 
 the work referred to, I was led to reflect 
 much and attentively upon the true 
 nature of history and historical com- 
 position. That which had existed 
 obscurely in the understanding hitherto 
 became at length more distinct, and I 
 began to discern certain features of the 
 subject which, if I mistake not, have 
 escaped general observation. The prin- 
 cipal of these was a clear recognition of 
 what I will call the objective nature of the 
 great fact which goes by the name of 
 History. More and more I came to see 
 that history, as it has been understood 
 and written by men, is in the nature ci 
 a product or result of human activities. 
 If we open the pages of any standard 
 historical work and begin to follow tlir
 
 VI 
 
 GENERAL PREFACE. 
 
 narrative, we shall find it to be an 
 account of the objectivities resulting 
 from the action of the wills and purposes 
 of men. It will be found to be a de- 
 lineation of the things done by niankmd, 
 of the achievements of the human race, 
 of the institutions founded, the resources 
 gathered, the campaigns made, the cities 
 builded, the governments created, the 
 methods employed, and indeed all the 
 visible results and products of the agency 
 and purposes of men in their associated 
 life. The more the inquirer studies for- 
 mal history the more he will discover its 
 resultant and objective character. 
 
 The fact that general history is of the 
 character here described entered strong- 
 ly into my convictions. I came to per- 
 ceive that the work in which I was 
 engaged was of the kind outlined above. 
 It dealt, as it were, with the residue of 
 man's activities on the earth. It con- 
 sidered results. It delineated events. It 
 followed the evolution of institutions 
 and described the tangibilities of human 
 action and achievement. Ever and anon, 
 however, the inquiry arose as to the 
 agency by which all this was effected. 
 The question of the peoples and races by 
 whose genius and spirit all the visible 
 facts of human history are produced 
 haunted the inquiry' more and more, to 
 the extent even of disturbing my studies 
 and confusing my materials. 
 
 At first the suggestion of the impor- 
 tance of the actors in the human drama, 
 as distinguished from the acts, came 
 dimly and obscurely to view. After- 
 wards it became distinct, persistent, and 
 imperative. I found myself stationed be- 
 tween the objective phenomena and the 
 subjective agencies of human story. 
 Glancing in one direction, I might see the 
 vast panorama of events, the architec- 
 tural remains, the monuments of passing 
 ages, the relics of human activity, the 
 
 institutional forms of society, the gov- 
 ernments and nationalities that have 
 paraded with so much pomp on our 
 vast stage of action, and in the other di- 
 rection I saw the races of mankind them- 
 selves. The difference between the one 
 class of facts and the other grew as dis- 
 tinct as that which discriminates a statue 
 from the sculptor, a written scroll from 
 its writer, a city from its builders. 
 
 Already before reaching a clear no- 
 tion of this double view of humaa 
 history I had unconsciously, or half- 
 consciously, adopted the method of in- 
 corporating with such historical narrative 
 as I had produced certain ethnic fea- 
 tures. It had seemed to me of impor- 
 tance that references be made to the race 
 character and affinities of the various 
 peoples, to their resources, environing 
 conditions, and manner of life, as well as 
 to the results and products of their ac- 
 tivity. I was still following this plan of 
 composition when the Cyclopadia of Unu 
 versa I History was prepared. 
 
 Whoever has given attention to the 
 method of that work may discover in the 
 same the evidences of that double view 
 of the subject to which I have just re- 
 ferred. Especially in those parts relat- 
 ing to the great nations of antiquity did 
 the author depart, by a considerable 
 stage, from the prevailing manner of 
 histor}-, and incorporate a measure of 
 ethnic materials with the general theme. 
 With the progress of the work and the 
 expansion of the subject such materials 
 were crowded out; but the conviction 
 settled on the writer's mind that the 
 whole story of man-life should be writ- 
 ten anew from the standpoint of eth- 
 nography, and that if this were faith- 
 ftiUy done the result might surpass in 
 interest and value any possible account 
 of those objective facts and phenomena 
 which have gone by the name of history.
 
 GENERAL PREFACE. 
 
 vu 
 
 Out of this the suggestion arose with 
 me and became fixed as a purpose to turn 
 squarely about in the inquiry and take 
 another view of the history of mankind ; 
 that is, a view of tlie Jniman race itself. 
 It seemed to suffice that that kind of 
 narrative which relates to the deeds, in- 
 stitutions, governments, and tangible 
 activities of mankind had fulfilled itself 
 by repetition and multiplicity. Some- 
 thing else seemed to be demanded — 
 something which should deal, not with 
 the temple of humanity, but with the 
 architect; not with the dead facts and 
 residue of the activities of men on the 
 earth, but with the agents by whose gen- 
 ius and purpose all this has been effected ; 
 not with nationalities and powers, insti- 
 tutions, achievements, wars and treaties, 
 senates, revolutions, but with that living 
 power whereby all this has been accom- 
 plished — with humanity itself. 
 
 Out of these conditions and anteced- 
 ents the present history of the Great 
 Races of Mankind has arisen. In the 
 preparation of the work the author has 
 reversed his position in the human land- 
 scape. He has ceased to look at the ac- 
 complishments of the human race, save 
 as those accomplishments serve to illus- 
 trate the character of the producing 
 force, and has turned to the race itself. 
 He has thus aimed to produce an etiinic 
 history of mankind, dealing not w^ith the 
 facts and achievements, but with the 
 substance of man-life itself. 
 
 It is believed that the more the 
 reader attentively considers the nature 
 of the subject the more clearly will he 
 discern the essential verity of this dis- 
 tinction between ethnic history and the 
 history of facts and events. An appre- 
 hension on his part of this difference is 
 necessary to his interest in these volumes 
 and to his understanding of what they 
 contain. The work, as tlie title implies. 
 
 is an account of the ethnic origin, the 
 primitive condition, the early migrations, 
 the historical development, and the pres- 
 ent state and prospects of the principle 
 families of men, together with a prelimi- 
 nary inquiry on the time, the place, 
 and the manner of the beginning of 
 man-life on the earth. It is in no re- 
 spect a narrative of the deeds and ac- 
 complishments of mankind; for that 
 would be a repetition of the author's 
 previous essays in historical literature ; 
 the present work is an account, not of 
 events and institutions, but of the hu- 
 man race itself. 
 
 A second motive for the production 
 of such a work may be mentioned. 
 This is the existence in our times of a 
 widespread interest in everything relat- 
 ing to ethnological subjects. There has 
 never been a time in the past when men 
 have been so much concerned to know 
 themselves and the sources from which 
 they have proceeded. This curiosity is 
 a part of the scientific spirit of the age. 
 The mind of man is no longer satisfied 
 with vag^e, traditional, and imaginary 
 views respecting the race to which he 
 belongs and the manner of its evolution. 
 The profound intellectual unrest which 
 so strongly characterizes the closing 
 years of our century, includes as one 
 of its leading features a curiosity to 
 know as much as possible about the 
 origin, development, and vicissitudes 
 of the various races of mankind. The 
 mind has wearied somewhat ^\'ith the con- 
 templation of those palpable facts and 
 events which have hitherto constituted 
 the subject-matter of history. It turns 
 in quest of a truer knowledge of the pro- 
 found and vital phenomena discussed in 
 ethnic history; the human race is sub- 
 stituted as a theme in place of what the 
 race has accomplished. 
 
 The existence of this deep interest in
 
 VIII 
 
 GENERAL PREFACE, 
 
 the races of men as a subject of inquiry 
 has not been answered as yet with any 
 adequate literature. Hitherto the top- 
 ics of ethnology have been handled in a 
 narrow and scholastic way quite remote 
 from public concern. Our books on the 
 races of mankind have been for the most 
 part small and fragmentary treatises em- 
 bracing the results of particular studies 
 in this field of investigation or in that. 
 More recently the attempt has been 
 made to present the subject from a 
 broader and more comprehensive point 
 of view. In this departure German eth- 
 nograpners and historians have led the 
 way. A like treatment of the subject 
 has appeared in the literatures of other 
 peoples. We are now at the beginning 
 of a vast and varied scholarship devoted 
 to an exposition of the human family, 
 and of the various parts into which our 
 race has differentiated. 
 
 A few words may properly be added 
 respecting the illustrative parts of this 
 treatise. It has been the author's aim 
 and purpose to make the illustrations in 
 all particulars conform to the subject- 
 matter of the work. Special pains have 
 been taken to secure a perfect harmony 
 between the text and the pictorial em- 
 bellishments. The colored plates and 
 charts have been drawn for the better 
 elucidation of those parts which seem 
 most to require the use of the eye as an 
 auxiliary to the understanding. Ethnic 
 history is especially rich in the sugges- 
 tions which it offers for illustration. It 
 seems to call loudly for drawings and 
 type-pictures and charts, to the end of a 
 clearer and more vivid apprehension of 
 the subject under consideration. In the 
 work of gathering and preparing much 
 more than two thousand illustrations 
 
 with which the following pages are 
 adorned the author has had the cordial 
 cooperation and support of the Publish- 
 ers, to whose liberality and good judg- 
 ment he is profoundly indebted. 
 
 We here heartily join in the intellec- 
 tual movement peculiar to our age, and 
 contribute our humble part to the expli- 
 cation of one of the greatest themes of 
 modern inquiry. The author, in this 
 day of the deliverance of his work to 
 the public, does not flatter himself that 
 he has greatly enlarged the boundaries 
 of human knowledge,. but claims rather 
 to have cleared somewhat the horizon in 
 this part and in that, to have visited in 
 thought and reflection some unfrequent- 
 ed parts of the temple of humanity, and 
 to have aided in his limited sphere to 
 put the house in order for his suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 It has been my hope and ambition in 
 the present work to cover, however im- 
 perfectly, the whole field of the inquiry, 
 and to mark the limits of current knowl- 
 edge respecting the races of mankind as 
 the same are known to i:s at the close of 
 our splendid century. How far short of 
 a perfect accomplishment the writer has 
 come, how many and serious are the im- 
 perfections of his work, he is painfully 
 aware ; but he presumes, as hitherto, 
 upon the good will and favor of the 
 public, to whom he now delivers the 
 results of his latest study in the spirit 
 and with the trust of one who, proud of 
 his age and country, would fain contrib- 
 ute something to the intellectual re- 
 sources, progress, and happiness of that 
 great and glorious people with whom he 
 is allied in race descent and destiny. 
 
 J. C. R. 
 Greencastle, 1893.
 
 GREAT RACES 
 
 OF 
 
 MANKIND 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 PRELIMINARY INQUIRIES 
 
 BOOK I — Time and Place of the Beginning BOOK 11 — Manner of the Beginning 
 
 PRIMITIVE ESTATE OF THE RACES 
 
 BOOK HI— Primeval Man BOOK IV — Distribution of the Species 
 
 THE EAST ARYANS 
 
 BOOK V--The Iranians BOOK Vl- The Indicans
 
 
 Contents of Volume I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE i . . v-viil 
 
 CONTENTS c . . , xi-xxvi 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxvil-xxxvi 
 
 INTRODUCTION xxxvii-xlvi 
 
 fart gixsi. 
 PRELIMINARY INQUIRIES. 
 
 Book I.— Time and Place of the Beginning. 
 
 Chapter L — Sources of Information. 
 The three fundamental questions of historical in- 
 quiry. — Eagerness of man to ascertain the facts of his 
 origin. — True spirit in which such an inquiry should 
 be approached. — Individual life furnishes a clue for 
 investigating the race-life. — What may be discovered 
 in the backward look. — Methods of knowing the 
 history of the unconscious epoch. — Useful analogies ; 
 the individual an epitome of race. — Sources of light 
 and information for the present inquiry. — Cycle of 
 sciences that may be made to testify. — Astronomy 
 contributes important data for history of life. — Order 
 of vital creation determmable from world history. — 
 The Epoch of Life is adjusted to certain stages of 
 worldhood. — Geology indicates the order and place 
 of vital phenomena. — The earth preserves the ves- 
 tigia of vital phenomena. — Place of archaeology, and 
 its subject-matter. — Reliquae humanas ; nature of 
 the relics of man-life. — Historic and prehistoric ap- 
 plications of archseology. — The science considers 
 the ordo of facts in the history of life. — Scope and 
 limitations of palasontology.— Anthropology makes 
 man himself its subject-matter. — And divides with 
 archaeology the relics of mankind. — Two classes of 
 remains of man's presence and acliviiy. — Ethnology 
 springs from anthropology ; Us materials. — Deals 
 with evolution and phenomena of race-life on earth. 
 — Narrower and more special field covered by eth- 
 nography. — Ease of classification and difficult" of in- 
 terpreting. — In what manner tradition begins to be 
 evolved. — Blendings of tradition and history in the 
 dawn. — Distinctions to be drawn between tradition 
 and history. — Varialionsin the authenticity and value 
 of traditions. — How historj' arises from traditional 
 lore; the definition. — Impersonnlitv of the historian; 
 sources of his materials. — Traililion deals directly with 
 the genesis of mankind. — Work of the talk passion 
 
 among the primitive races. — Nature, also, demanded 
 an interpretation. — Primitive concepts were general, 
 ized into a philosophy. — Beliefs of mankind derived 
 in large measure from tradition. — Office of history to 
 solve all problems of man-life. — Supreme place of 
 history in the realm of human inquiry. — Chronology 
 a branch of history ; its proper function. — Founda- 
 tion of chronology in the rotation of the planets. — 
 Historical perspective depends on chronological 
 order. — If knowledge were complete chronology 
 would end the inquirj- 37-5S 
 
 Chapter II.— Astronomical Argument Re- 
 specting THE Antiquity of Man. 
 Science testifies indirectly to the time and order 
 of life. — Authenticity of evidence for individual and 
 race compared. — Probability of the diffusion of life 
 throughout our system. — Life and intelligence the 
 explanation of material nature. — Reason must aid in 
 determining the purpose of the universe. — General 
 view of planetary system ; its common features. — 
 Relations of world age to the epoch of life. — Science 
 determines the relative ages of the planets. — Epoch 
 of Life is adjusted to certain stages of planet life. — 
 Preparation of the earth for habitabilily ; the heat 
 equation.— Vibrations of the earth's orbit as affecting 
 distribution of heat. — Nature of the fluctuation in our 
 orbital axes. — Assumption of knowledge of astro- 
 nomical phenomena. — Present phase of the planetary 
 oscillation. — Limits of eccentricity in the earth's 
 orbit. — Perihelion and aphelion determinative of heat. 
 — Conditions on which amount of the sun heat re- 
 ceived depends. — Favorable results of present posi- 
 tion of perihelion and aphelion. — Former unfavorable 
 astronomical position of our planet. — Antecedent 
 conditions of glacial epoch in northern hemisphere. 
 — The two hemispheres with respect to development 
 
 (XI)
 
 CONTENTS OF V0LU3IE I. 
 
 of man-life.— Winter aphelion with axial elongation 
 produces polar ice caps. — Fixing the place of our 
 planetary January. — Epoch of moderation begins ; 
 formation of glacial rivers. — Man-life begins on this 
 side of the glacial floods. — Allowance to be made 
 for inexactitude in vast calculations. — Attempts to tix 
 time data for the appearance of man. — Maxima and 
 minima of the fluctuations in our orbit. — Periods of 
 greatest elongation determined from Croll's tables. 
 — Fixing of date of our last planetary winter. — Crisis 
 of rigor on hither side of period of elongation. — Epoch 
 of the diluvial rivers in northern hemisphere. — Era 
 of man-life on this side of the diluvial age. — Place 
 of the last thermal epoch for the earth. — Relics of 
 thermal age mingled with post-glacial remains. — 
 Depth of time perspective and remote date of man. — 
 Summary of deductions from astronomical laws and 
 data. — Slow progress of world changes a fundamen- 
 tal concept. — Question of our present place in the 
 epoch of life — Reasons for assuming an extended race 
 career. — Conditions on which the perpetuity of man- 
 life depends. — Most favorable condition for conserva- 
 tion of vital energy. — Nature of the struggle for life 
 before and after the crisis. — Condition of heat equa- 
 tion with respect to man-life. — The human race still 
 on the ascending scale of vitality. — Our rate of prog- 
 ress toward the crisis considered. — Slow movement 
 of mankind toward higher development. — Historical 
 hints of our present stage in race career. — Gains 
 of mankind in mastery of the environment. — Facts in- 
 dicating improving habitability of the earth. — Con- 
 cept of design points to an extended race career. — 
 Long duration to be expected in the plan of worldhood. 
 — Right reason demands an early date for appear- 
 ance of man 55"^^ 
 
 Chapter III.— Argument fro.m Geology. 
 
 Geological science a product of the present cen- 
 tury. — Outline of the order of the geological ages. — 
 Exact time measurement not required in world his- 
 tory. — Principle of determining the rate of geological 
 changes. — Acceptance of the law of the uniformity 
 of nature. — Suggestion furnished by the recession of 
 Niagara Fall?. — Argument not destroyed by ele- 
 ments of uncertainty. — Approximate date at which 
 our earth took its present form. — Life began before 
 fixation of globe; Croll's estimates. — Rate of depo- 
 sition in the Nile valley furnishes a scale. — Spheroidal 
 form of the earth a datum for time measurement. — 
 Only a small part of the life epoch occupied by man. 
 — Possibility of long preservation of organic remains. 
 — Situations most favorable for preserving human 
 relics. — Formation and peculiarities of man-caverns 
 and grottoes. — Date of remains Indicated from geo- 
 logical data. — Slow process of formation of alluvial 
 river beds. — Vast reach of time required to complete 
 such formations. — Less certain results from exami- 
 
 nation of lake bottoms. — Peat bogs furnish a better 
 basis for time estimates. — Uncertainty of evidence 
 gathered from sand dunes. — Time required for depo- 
 sition of the Mississippi delta. — Allowance made for 
 elements of uncertainty in problem. — Influence of the 
 heavy volume of the diluvial rivers. — Other estimates 
 confirm the calculations of Lyell. — Inquiries into the 
 rate of formation of the Nile valley. — Deductions of 
 French savants; Horner's investigations. — Principal 
 data from which calculations of Horner were made. 
 — Resulting estimate of the antiquity of man in 
 Egypt. — Lyell's investigations in the valley of the 
 Somme. — Approximate age of caverns containing 
 human remains. — Estimates of the age of the 
 Swiss lake villages. — Data from which Gillie- 
 ron's calculation was made. — Evidence gathered 
 from the gravel cone of the Tinniere. — Deduction 
 from wide-apart situations of primitive races. — 
 Great period required for the diffusion of man- 
 kind 83-100 
 
 CH-^PTER IV. — ARCH^O LOGICAL AND PALiEON- 
 
 TOLOGiCAL Argument. 
 Nature of the testimony to be derived from archas- 
 ology. — Proofs from this source establish the prog- 
 ress of the race. — Subject-matter of archaeological 
 inquiry. — Materials employed by primeval man in 
 making implements. — Time order establishes relative 
 but not absolute dates. — Existing savagery illustrates 
 the prehistoric state of man.— Differences between 
 surviving and extinct barbarians. — Mistaken deduc- 
 tions respecting association of remains. — Ferocious 
 beasts not wholly of tropical habitat. — Direct evi- 
 dence deducible from archaeological data. — Stone im- 
 plements witness to the age of their production. — 
 Place and character of the most ancient human re- 
 mains. — Immense time-gap between successive ar- 
 chsological ages. — Intelligence of the first men com- 
 pared with that of animals. — Stride from lowest to 
 secondary stages of artisanship. — Wide distribution 
 of palseolithic implements. — Common situation of 
 the most primitive tribes ; deductions. — Negative 
 proofs of low condition of man in the Old Stone Age. 
 — Evidences of development furnished by archaeo- 
 logical relics. — Archsological testimony corroborates 
 the other sciences. — Palaeontology a branch of ar- 
 chaeological inquiry. — Transformation the law of 
 vegetable and animal forms. — Existing orders the 
 residue of extinct types of being. — Older forms give 
 place to new in a fixed order of life. — Motions of the 
 evolutionary process among living forms. — Order of 
 animal existence as fixed as geological order.— Man- 
 life closely linked with the history of animal species. 
 — Wild animals diminish in size in successive eras. 
 — The law reversed in the case of domesticated ani- 
 mals. — Antiquity of man determinable by sequence 
 of species 100-113
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 Chapter V. — The Ethnological Argu- 
 ment. 
 Anthropology bears witness to the antiquity of man. 
 — Existence of atrophied organs in tiie body. — Such 
 organs signify a preexisting mode of life. — Atrophied 
 ear-muscles and extinct mammae in man. — Vast 
 reach of time requisite to produce anatomical changes. 
 — Relations of ethnology and ethnography to other 
 sciences. — Ethnology here considered as indi- 
 cating the antiquity of man. — Ethnic differences al- 
 ready well developed in the dawn. — Evidences of the 
 early evolution of race distinctions. — Several theories 
 to account for the differentiation of the races. — Ac- 
 ceptance of monogenesis and influence of environ- 
 ment. — Deduction of great antiquity from early race 
 departures. — Probable estimate of the duration of 
 prehistoric ages. — Time required for distribution 
 corroborates the estimate. — Subjective and objective 
 hindrances to diffusion of races. — Slow movement of 
 the frontier line in race distribution. — Particular 
 obstacles to be surmounted in migration of races. — 
 Absence of means of communicat ion in primeval ages. 
 — Check offered to ethnic progress by seas and 
 oceans. — Rate of race diffusion to be estimated from 
 obstacles thereto. — Division and development of lan- 
 guages require great time. — Time a condition of the 
 creation of dialects and languages. — Linguistic differ- 
 ences deep and ineradicable. — Utter dissimilarity of 
 Semitic and Aryan forms of speech. — Such structural 
 differences require great periods of time. — If lan- 
 guages be of common origin time must be greater. — 
 Ages demanded for production of Hebrew and Greek 
 from a common stem 114-127 
 
 Chapter VI. — History and Tradition. 
 
 Why history can not testify directly of the begin- 
 ning. — Two distinct types of historical composition. 
 — Spirit and aim of the old history and the new. — 
 The present inquiry makes free use of all materials. 
 — Rise and dissemination of history in Europe and 
 America. — Possible opening of neW historical vistas 
 in the East. — Old historical documents of the Aryan 
 races. — Hamites precede all others in contemporary 
 documents. — Time and place of the Hebrew histori- 
 cal books. — Tradition precedes, but mingles with, 
 beginnings of history. — Difference between traditional 
 lore and history. — What constitutes highest and 
 secondary authenticity. — No contemporaneous his- 
 tory of the time of the beginning. — History from 
 contemporaneous data also impossible. — Important 
 deductions from earliest historical records. — ^What 
 the wide-apart writings of many races signify. — Tra- 
 dition becomes a penumbra around the conscious 
 life. — Essential articles in primeval traditions of our 
 race. — Universality of belief in an autochthonous 
 origin.- — Autochthony derived from analogies of 
 vegetable world. — The ancient myths mingled evo- 
 
 lution and creation. — Myths of the origin of man 
 belong to race childhood. — The question Why.* 
 belongs not to adolescence. — Child-mind of individ- 
 ual and of race alike. — Traditions of man-birth con- 
 firm belief in remote race origin. — Child-mind evolves 
 tradition, the man-mind history .... 128-138 
 
 Chapter VII. — Chronological Inquiry. 
 
 All races seek to invent a system of time measure- 
 ment. — In what manner the so-called eras in chro- 
 nology arose. — Great eras established ; Hebrews had 
 no date. — Fixing of Babylonian, Greek, and Roman 
 eras. — Era of the Christ prevails in the West ; the 
 Julian period. — Hebrews choose and Christians ac- 
 cept the era of the world. — Attempts to fix date of 
 creation out of Hebrew Scriptures. — Contradictory 
 results ; rise of the Usherian system. — Literature and 
 philosophy of Europe infected thereby. — Astonishing 
 details of the Usherian scheme. — Large place of 
 Usherian system in modern writings. — The system 
 an impediment to inquiry and knowledge. — The 
 other principal eras of time reckoning. — Synoptical 
 view and comparison of the leading eras. — Scientific 
 spirit works havoc with old dates. — Results of his- 
 torical research among several races. — General de- 
 duction respecting the antiquity of man. — Summary 
 of the arguments; astronomical indication. — Geology 
 corroborates the results arrived at from astronomy. 
 — Geological research lies at the foundation of the 
 inquir)'. — Deduction from pateontology harmo- 
 nizes with other results. — Anthropological deduc- 
 tions are essentially the same. — Ethnology and 
 ethnography point to identical conclusions. — Large 
 allowance must be made for the period of race dis- 
 persion. — History substantially accordant with the 
 other sciences. — Oral story may not contradict 
 science and right reason. — Historical horizon about 
 the line of the fortieth century B. C. — Final estimate 
 of the date of the beginning 138-150 
 
 Chapter VIII. — The Quest of Eden. 
 Origin of man-life necessarily in some locality. — One 
 place or many places a condition of the problem. — 
 Theor)' of the multiple origin of mankind propounded. 
 — Polygenesis, if admitted, destroys interest in the 
 mquiry. — Opposite view more accordant with facts 
 and reason. — The " garden eastward in Eden," with 
 its four rivers. — Difficulty of fixing the place of the 
 biblical Eden. — Hebrew narrative consistent with all 
 the Semitic traditions, — The Euphrates of Genesis 
 not the Euphrates of geography. — Visionary and 
 absurd views of the place of Eden. — Modern scholar- 
 ship fails to identify the paradise. — The places sug- 
 gested may be excluded by negation. — Mythology 
 must yield to reason with respect to Eden. — Scien- 
 tific inquiry must decide the place of the beginning. 
 — Large area in which mankind might have origi-
 
 XIV 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 nated. — Recent sciences aid in determining the 
 place of origin 1 50-1 58 
 
 Chapter IX. — True Place of the Begin- 
 ning. 
 Migration points to place from which mankind 
 proceeded. — The movements of races are governed 
 by law. — Not whim and caprice but motive decides 
 race conduct. — Indications of starling-point of human 
 distribution. — Hypothesis of European origin of man- 
 kind rejected. — Indo-Europeans move westward 
 under cosmic laws. — Linguistic science proves East- 
 ern origin of Europeans. — Ethnic distribution in 
 Africa from east to west. — Xo Blacks in Western 
 Asia; Egyptians from the East. — Mongolians move 
 eastward from Central Asia. — Nigritian dispersion 
 contradicts theory of European origin. — No conti- 
 nental point for distribution of Black races. — Brown 
 Asiatics can not have an African origin. — American 
 continents not the first home of man. — Direction of 
 migrations a clue to point of origin. — General move- 
 ment of the races from east to west. — Exceptional 
 movements of man and nature agamst the sun. — 
 Watershed between westbound and eastbound 
 races. — Primitive races depart right and left from a 
 common belt. — All non-Aryans have the same line 
 of departure. — Recent arrival of the supra-Caspian 
 
 races.— Primeval man illy adapted to northern rigors. 
 — Impossibility of deriving Black races from the 
 north. — Region between Caspian and Arabian seas 
 indicated. — Mongolians and Blacks not derivable 
 from this region.— No land surface answers the de- 
 mands of the problem. — Tenability of another hy- 
 pothesis. — Grounds for believing in a submerged 
 continent. — Shoal character of Arabian sea and In- 
 dian ocean. — Evidences of former existence of such 
 a continent. — Geological indications of the same 
 fact. — Place of man's origin must answer to some 
 hypothesis. — Ethnic outlook from the suppositious 
 continent. — The nature of man points to a tropical 
 beginning. — Development coTncident with progress 
 from point of origin. — Conditions favorable to begin- 
 ning unfavorable to development.— Conclusion of 
 a Lemurian origin not final. — Gradation of animal 
 life upward toward Lemuria. — Illustrations of the 
 rise of animal life toward this center. — Primate ani- 
 mals in particular culminate around Lemuria. — Place 
 of supposed continent between Ethiopian and Orien- 
 tal regions. — Lemurs and carnivora increase toward 
 Indian ocean. — Mankind falls off inversely in the 
 same direction. — Lowest dip of humanity and high- 
 est reach of animality. — Place of origin conjectural 
 rather than exact. — Philosophical advantages of un- 
 certain knowledge 158-182 
 
 Book II.— IVIanner ok xhe Beginning. 
 
 Chapter X. — Fiat and Evolution. 
 Inability of mankind to testify of tlie unconscious 
 life. — Preconceptions impede the freedom of investi- 
 gation. — Statement of the two diverging views ; phe- 
 nomenal creation. — Evolution would account for 
 living forms by growth. — Paramount interest and 
 general tendency of the question. ^Common ground 
 and point of divergence of the two opinions. — Grave 
 mistake in the nomenclature of the two hypotheses. 
 — Neither theory is exclusive of the other. — Belief in 
 evolution as a method gains ground among thinkers. 
 — Old opinions contest the field with zoology and 
 botany. — Investigation confirms new belief as to the 
 lower orders. — Is man exceptional in the scheme of 
 nature ? — Lamarck foreruns the new theory of the 
 mode of life. — The work taken up and rectified by 
 recent naturalists. — General explication of the hy- 
 pothesis of creation. — Literal acceptance and applica- 
 tion of the Book of Genesis. — Order of creation in 
 the " six days " of the first chapter. — Meaning of the 
 " yom " enlarged for scientific reasons. — Rational- 
 izing process checked at the border-line of life. — 
 Variations in the Chaldee story of the l)eginmng — 
 General agreement in the two visions of creation. — 
 Creation hypothesis demands an ancestor.— Sum- 
 
 mary of the two narratives in the Book of Genesis. 
 — Outlines of a biblical ethnography. — Account of 
 creation in Genesis common to all the Semites. — 
 Monotheistic divergence of the Hebrew narrative. — 
 Hebrew Demiurge works upon matter and creates 
 it. — Egyptian tradition of the beginning of things. — 
 Creative hypothesis of the ancient Iranians. — Poly- 
 theistic character of the Aryan myths of creation. — 
 Old Vedic hymn assigns the creation to Indra. — 
 Aryan seers more evolutionary than the Semitic.^ 
 Long-continued prevalence of belief m creation by 
 fiat.— Science discovers the uniformity of natural 
 processes, — The Lamarckian philosophy; the four 
 theorems of life order. — What the system does and 
 does not contain. — Lamarck missed the recent 
 theory of life in many essentials. — Historical develop- 
 ment of the evolution hypothesis.^ — Darwin and Wal- 
 lace lead the revolution in biology. — Controversial 
 literature and tendency of contest. . . . 183-198 
 
 Chapter XI.— Genesis of the New Doctrine. 
 The mind takes arms when old opinions are as- 
 sailed. — Evolution deals not with final causes or the 
 origin of life. — Results of the misconception of the 
 theory. — Originators of the hypothesis declare its true
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 XV 
 
 intent. — Antagonism has followed misconception of 
 the doctrine. — Reconciliation of theories follows 
 understanding them. — Mistaken belief that evolution 
 teaches cross-descent of species. — Distinction here 
 drawn fundamental to the question. — Analogy of 
 linguistic phenomena to living species. — Languages 
 not the result of cross-derivation. — Mistake of phi- 
 lologists as to laws of language descent. — True con- 
 cept of relation of languages to their originals. — 
 Erroneous opinions of scholars corrected in our day. 
 — Evolution seeks to explain the processes of organic 
 life. — Circumstances preceding announcement of the 
 new theory. — Teachers of evolution themselves an 
 evolution. — Descartes is followed by an age of ob- 
 servation and experiment. — Discovery of analogies 
 between individuals and species. — Geology deter- 
 mines the order of extinct species.— A knowledge of 
 evolution begins with the individual. — Ignorance of 
 antiquity respecting physiological laws. — Indifference 
 of the ancients to the processes of organic life. — 
 Knowledge proceeds from the individual to the spe- 
 cies. — All organic life proceeds from germ cells hav- 
 ing life. — Scientific aphorisms of the beginning of 
 organism. — Nature and movements of the germ life. 
 — History of the individual a history of transforma- 
 tions. — In what manner the cell organizes by process 
 of fission. — How the materials oi cell growth are 
 gathered. — Formation of the gastrula and archen- 
 teroin. — Further evolution of organs and parts. — 
 Manner of delivering the new creature to its environ- 
 ment. — Fundamental identity of method for all living 
 forms. — The natural senses exaggerate differences of 
 structure. — Fundamental structural identity of all 
 living forms. — The mind discovers the law of uni- 
 formity. — Integration of all nature established by 
 science. — Scientific progress discovers the unity of 
 the universe. — Chemistry shows the oneness of ma- 
 terial nature. — Evolution the product of observation 
 and experiment 198-21 1 
 
 Chapter XII. — The True Evolution. 
 Darwui's discovery of the law of natural selection. 
 — Survival of organic forms by natural selection. — 
 Darwin's explication of the law and its expression. 
 — The law proceeds by variation of form and func- 
 tion. — Variation intensified by growth and adapta- 
 tion. — Specific examples of the law of survival. — 
 Blossoming plants flourish by secreting nectar. — 
 Explication of Mahhusian theory of population. — In 
 what manner animals encroach on means of subsist- 
 ence. — The three forms of the struggle for existence. 
 — Exuberance of life restricted by opposing agencies. 
 — Curtailment of life begins from the germ and seed. 
 — Struggle of the individual with others of its spe- 
 cies. — Plants of one species contend for place with 
 those of another. — Battle for life between animals of 
 different species. — Illustration of the vicissitudes of 
 
 the contest. — Correlations of red clover with cats, 
 mice, and bumblebees. — Law of conflict extends to 
 the whole domain of life. — Environment offers resist- 
 ance to all living forms. — All living forms subject to 
 disease and death. — Secular changes produce catas- 
 trophe to living forms. — Natural selection adjusts 
 each living form to its environment. — Cosmical crises 
 are attended with destruction of species. — Struggle 
 for life on lines of sexual selection. — Domestic ani- 
 mals brought to present forms by sexual malings. — 
 Wide range of differences produced by domestication. 
 
 — Results of selection may be undone by reversal of 
 process. — Nature also selects ; late discovery of the 
 law. — E.xamples of sexual selection and results there- 
 from. — Both sexes and all species choose in a state 
 of nature. — Occasional sudden departures from an- 
 cestral types. — Question of the results of this phe- 
 nomenon. — Nomenclature of a science ; division from 
 kingdom to the individual. — Law of the individual is 
 the law of the species. — Varieties produced from 
 individuals by law of variation. — All animate nature 
 a variation from a common type. — Obliteration of 
 species and all fictitious divisions. — Philosophy would 
 supplement and extend the inquiry. — Darwin's 
 method of illustrating results of natural selection. — 
 Life of the species epitomized in life of the individual. 
 —The human race included as a subject in natural 
 history. — What evolution teaches respecting the de- 
 scent of man. — Every species is evolved from its 
 own proper original. — Widening of the inquir)- to 
 embrace all vital phenomena. — Living species in 
 analogy with the scheme of languages. — Best scien- 
 tific belief points to a unity of origin for all. — Prob- 
 able derivation of all living forms from a few germs. 
 — Theory indicates a lowly ancestry for mankind. — 
 Present inquiry looks to man and his evolution. — Re- 
 statement of the two views of human descent. — The 
 question reaches only to the modus operandi of 
 life 212-236 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Application of the Doctrine 
 TO Man and Nature. 
 Our world the ])roduct of evolutionary processes. 
 
 — Primeval condition and growth of the earth. — • 
 Prevalenceof secondary laws in planetary formation. 
 — Animals and plants appear to have arisen by the 
 same laws. — Linguistic growth the exact analogue 
 of race evolution. — Languages struggle for life, and 
 the best survive. — Human institutions arise in like 
 order of growth. — True nature of the evolution of 
 government. — Governmental facts adjust themselves 
 to environment. — Stages and aspects in the develop- 
 ment of government. — Government in its progress 
 obeys the law of variation. — Law also an evolution; 
 growth of the Roman statutes. — Society, like the 
 plants and animals, grows and adapts itself. — Mar- 
 ri^.gethe evolutionary result of social instincts. — Sue-
 
 COJSTTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 cessive stages in the development of sexual union. — 
 Artistic products of tlie mind arise by evolution.— 
 Childhood of art succeeded by youth and maturity. 
 — Literature, also, appears by growth and survival of 
 the best. — Literary product of each race has its own 
 evolution. — Law of divergence and survival holds in 
 letters as in life. — Two meanings of the term history. 
 • — Events in all their forms obey the evolutionary' law. 
 — Likeness of historical diagram to the biological 
 tree. — Particular aspects of the growth of history. — 
 Races and nations are the product of the human vine. 
 — Peninsula succeeds river valley as the habitat of 
 man. — Thought itself conforms to the evolutionary 
 process. — Reflection and reason spring by growth 
 from sense and instinct. — The present human mind 
 a survival of the ages. — Intellect varies according to 
 environment and habit. — Mind struggles with con- 
 flicting forces and is developed. — The moral nature 
 obeys the law of fitness and survival.— Religions are 
 evolved coincidently with the races. — Conscience and 
 virtue the residue of struggle and adaptation. — Man 
 himself a resultant ; anthropomorphism passes away. 
 — Relations of man the individual to progress and 
 civilization. — Spontaneity of man not denied in new 
 concept of his nature. — The individual bound from 
 birth with fixed limitations. — Genius is born, but 
 fashioned by environment. — As comes the man, so 
 also comes the species by growth. — Environment 
 not all in the production of human kind. — Man a 
 resultant of ethnic heredity and environment. — Races 
 differentiated by natural preference and appetency. — 
 Extent to which the various races are specialized. 
 — Differentiation of the English-speaking peoples 
 considered 236-254 
 
 Ch.\pter XIV. — Objections Consid- 
 ered. 
 Summary of deductions to the present stage of the 
 inquiry. — Objected that evolution assigns a lowly 
 origin to man. — Instinctive sentiment of men respect- 
 ing their origin. — Such belief itself a result of evolu- 
 tionary processes. — Is the repugnance to lowly 
 origin rational or habitual ? — Obscurity of the first 
 stages in all animal life. — Difference of human from 
 other animals appears but slowly. — Weakness and 
 absolute helplessness of the child. — Irrationality of 
 first stages in the Ufe of infants. — Evolution of the 
 intellectual powers in childhood. — Estimate that man 
 must form of his own individual history. — With what 
 sentiment mankind must consider itself. — Great 
 capacity of the human mind to think and know. — 
 No rational shame from contemplation of a lowly 
 origin. — More reasonable to disregard the low origin 
 of our species. — Greater importance attaching to 
 individual life. — Repugnance to derivation from low 
 orders not rational. — Belief in a Golden Age as affect- 
 ing our opinions. — Genesis of the belief in a past age 
 of gold. — Effects of the belief in the decadence of 
 man. — Mediaevals affected by apprehension of a 
 catastrophe. — Dogmatic interpretations impede 
 scientific progress. — All branches of natural science 
 have been antagonized. — Current opinions de- 
 rived from dogmatic antecedents. — Real issue a 
 question of method and not of fact. — Some ex- 
 planation of origin of species must be accepted. — 
 Adequacy of the theor)- of evolution considered. — 
 The conflict of scientific and dogmatic opinion 
 subsides. — Approximation of the opposing opin- 
 ions 254-264 
 
 ^lart ..Stfonb. 
 
 PRIMITIVE ESTATE OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 Book III.— F»rixieval IVIan. 
 
 Chapter XV. — Divers Aspects of Barbaric 
 Life. 
 
 Essential interest of inquiry into barbaric con- 
 ditions. — Diverse aspects of the begmning of the 
 conscious life of man. — Varying activities of man in 
 the struggle for existence. — Savages of the woods 
 and seashores. — Primeval man builds (or himself a 
 home over the water. — Barbarian abodes of clay or 
 sun-baked bricks. — Why do savages thus differentiate 
 in manner of life ? — First cause of the reactions of 
 nature on human faculties. — Man especially suscep- 
 tible to influences of the natural world. — All parts of 
 civilization tinged with environing conditions. — • 
 
 Theory of environment has been stretched too far. — 
 Ethnic instincts also prevalent in forming mankind. 
 — The law of variation independent of environment. 
 — Animal life under like conditions shows diver- 
 gences. — In man and among races the law of diversity 
 prevails. — Migrator)- habit of tribes based on innate 
 differences. — The moving passion varies in the same 
 community 265-274 
 
 Chapter XVI. — The Cave Dwellers of Eu- 
 rope. 
 Contemporaneity of man and certain extinct ani- 
 mals. — Modern leaders of archaeological inquiry. —
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 XVII 
 
 Place of the cave dwellers determined by geological 
 data. — Man belongs to the recent, or quaternary, 
 epoch. — Extinct mammals colnhabitants with man 
 in Europe. — Savages pass through definite stages 
 toward civilization. — Materials employed by barba- 
 rians in making implements. — Man the tool-making 
 and club-throwing animal. — Arlisanship begins with 
 the making of tools and weapons. — Old stone age 
 marks first stage in human development. — Chronol- 
 ogy of paljeolithic epoch not determinable. — Habits 
 of primeval man discoverable in his materials and 
 arts. — Neolithic workmanship marks second stage 
 of the evolution. — Relation of the stone epochs to 
 eras in geology. — Complex development coincident 
 with new stone age. — Great span between ages of 
 stone and age of metals. — Art of compounding met- 
 als ; coming of the bronze age. — No intervening ages 
 of copper or tin. — Reasons why the age of bronze 
 succeeds the age of stone. — Historical consciousness 
 begins with the age of bronze. — The age of iron suc- 
 ceeds the epoch of bronze. — Evolution of ironwork 
 in primeval Europe. — Cave dwellers the most primi- 
 tive of the European races. — Interest of the investi- 
 gation of the man caverns. — Character of the caves 
 inhabited by primeval man. — Exploration of the 
 Engis cavern by Dr. Schmerling. — Carefulness of 
 the investigation ; the deductions. — Signir'icance of 
 the transformations of European climate. — Species 
 of extmct animals associated with man. — Evidence 
 cumulative respecting the character of primeval man. 
 — Sketch of the most important cave dwellings of 
 Europe. — Exploration of the man caverns of England. 
 — Peculiar finds in the grotto of Maccagnone. — Illus- 
 trations of cave life drawn from three sources. — 
 Characteristics and suggestions of the Engis skull. 
 — Peculiar animality indicated by the Neanderthal 
 skull. — Other features of the skeletons of the cave 
 dwellers. — Extinct animals associated with man ; the 
 cave bear. — Cave hyena and cave lion ; their distri- 
 bution. — Great pachyderms ; restoration of Elephas 
 primigenius. — Other animal remains found with 
 those of man. — The reindeer a former inhabitant of 
 Central Europe. — Size and characteristics of the 
 Irish elk. — The prehistoric bison of Europe and 
 America. — Late extinction of the European buffalo. — 
 Primitive ox of Europe ; Cssar's description. — Some 
 prehistoric animals survive in living species. — Dis- 
 position of man to domesticate wild animals. — Early 
 date of the practice of domestication. — The dog the 
 first of the domesticated animals.^Disposition of 
 certain animals to domesticate. — Many beasts partly 
 tamed by prehistoric races. — Eating habits of the 
 aborigines of Western Europe. — Place of the cave 
 men zoologically and geologically. — Extent and va- 
 riety of prehistoric implements in museums. — Stone 
 axes, and the work accomplished with them. — Flint 
 knivs, and the R-,anner of their production. — Great 
 
 variety of prehistoric tools and weapons. — Manner 
 of life without and within the man caverns. — Care 
 taken of utensils ; places of manufacture. — Stature 
 and personal characteristics of the cave man. 275-307 
 
 Chapter XVH. — Lake Dwellers of Switzer- 
 land. 
 General contraction of the fresh-water areas of Eu- 
 rope. — Character of the debatable margin around 
 lakes. — Certain primitive tribes choose the lake 
 shores for residence. — Great subsidence of the Swiss 
 lakes in 1853-54. — Situation of the lake dw-eilings ; 
 account of Herodotus. — Lake dwellings of various 
 countries in the present age. — Switzerland favorably 
 situated for such settlements. — Discoveries on lake 
 Zurich; thecrannogesof Ireland. — Likeness to High- 
 land refugees ; the crannoge findings. — Methods of 
 supporting the Swiss village platforms. — Fear of 
 wild beasts determines the choice of such sites. — 
 Number and extent of the Swiss lake villages. — Ma- 
 terials employed in such structures by the builders. 
 — Distinction in the work done by stone and metallic 
 axes. — Question of setting the piles ; form of the 
 houses.— General character of the finds in connection 
 with lake villages. — Variety of the implements ; the 
 materials employed. — Signs in the findings of inter- 
 change and commerce. — Use of bone in the fabrica- 
 tion of tools and weapons. — Pottery of the lake 
 dwellers ; rudeness of the relics. — Scarcity of human 
 remains in the lake margins. — Bodily forms of lake 
 dwellers determined from skeletons. — Animals with 
 which lake villagers were associated. — Manner of 
 lake life may be drawn from manifest data. — Deduc- 
 tions from the animal life of the lake-dwelling age. 
 — Species of birds belonging to the same epoch. — 
 Significant traces of the prehistoric agricultural life. 
 — Lake dwellings extend into the age of bronze. — 
 Evidences of the emergence of the race from barba- 
 rism 307-320 
 
 Chapter XVIII. — Coast People of the 
 North. 
 Relative savagery of several prehistoric conditions. 
 — Discovery of the shell dunes on the coast of Den- 
 mark. — Mound contents ; investigations of Streen- 
 strup. — The kitchen middens indicate village com- 
 munities. — The heaps made up of the debris of human 
 life. — Character of the kitchen midden tools and 
 utensils. — Deduction of a low grade of barbaric life. 
 — Nature of the animal remains found in the heaps. 
 — Wild beasts known to the kitchen niiddeners. — 
 Inferences as to the eating habits and customs of the 
 race. — Methods of determining the habits of the 
 shell mounders. — Analogue of the Fuegians; de- 
 scription by Darwin. — Not possible to fix chronology 
 of the shell-mound tribes. — Botanical indications of 
 their remote antiquity.— Bird-life bears witness to
 
 XVTII 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 the same conclusion. — Over-water habitations estab- 
 lished on river banks also. — Physical conditions ante- 
 cedent to formation of gravel beds. — Dogmatism 
 confronts geology respecting river-drift findings. — 
 Careful examination of the fluvial deposits. — Such 
 findings extend to the British Isles. — River valleys 
 of France especially rich in human relics. — Character 
 of the valley and deposits of the Somme. — Time 
 relations of the peat beds to the chalk formations. — 
 Character of the findings in the Amiens deposits. — 
 Reasons for scarcity of human remains in the river- 
 drift. — Shell-mounds also have but few of the re- 
 mains of men. — E.\tent of the findings in the gravel 
 beds of England. — Deductions respecting the races 
 of the river-drift epoch 3-0-33I 
 
 Chapter XIX. — Men of the TuiMULi. 
 Tumuli and other memorials of primeval man in 
 Europe.— Abundance of such remains throughout 
 the world. — Meaning of the tumuli and stone monu- 
 ments. — The mounds generally belong to the age of 
 bronze. — Ruin of Stonehenge ; its aspect and tradi- 
 tions. — Stories of Nennius and Cambrensis. — 
 Authenticity of mediaeval history illustrated hereby. 
 — Extent of burial mounds in connection with Stone- 
 henge. — Positions of the primeval dead in sepulture. 
 — The mounds belong certainly to the age of bronze. 
 — Diverse methods of races respecting death and 
 burial. — Burial grounds of different ages maybe dis- 
 tinguished. — Funeral processions and rites of sepul- 
 ture. — The three types of skulls discovered in the 
 tombs. — Character of dolichocephalic and brachyce- 
 phalic crania. — Coincidence in shape of skulls and 
 burial mounds. — Sarcophagi and contents ; provi- 
 sions for the dead. — General distribution of burial 
 mounds in Western Europe. — Evidence that several 
 races were concerned in the tumuli. — Megalithic 
 ruin of Carnac in Bretagne. — Practice of successive 
 buryings in the same mound. — Coincident usage of 
 earth burial and cremation. — Imperfect incineration of 
 prehistoric remains. — Deposition of gifts and provi- 
 sions for dead not universal. — Classification of skele- 
 tons and implements in the mounds. — Deposition of 
 models; what the findings signify. — Meaning of arti- 
 cles must be inferred from human nature . 331-346 
 
 Chapter XX.— Prehistoric Races of Amer- 
 ica. 
 Abundance of mounds in the three Americas. — 
 Antiquity of the mounds indicated by their situation. 
 — Prehistoric earthworks not found on lowerriv^r 
 levels. — General mystery and interest excited by the 
 mounds. — Ohio valley a favorite seat of prehistoric 
 works. — Military design of the principal circles and 
 mounds. — Ohio fortifications; the mound of Cahokia. 
 — Earthworks in the form of beasts and serpents. — 
 The serpentine mound of Brush creek, Ohio. — Re- 
 
 ligious purpose manifested as well as the military. — 
 Forgery substituted for scientific investigation. — Far- 
 reaching intercourse ; the mound potteries. — Mate- 
 rials deposited have been brought from great dis- 
 tances. — The mounds constructed by populous races. 
 — Mound builders had passed the hunting stage in 
 development. — Deductions from the military charac- 
 ter of the works. — Great peoples demanded to ac- 
 count for American antiquities. — Evidences of greater 
 antiquity m American mounds. — Indications of race 
 variety ; character of prehistoric crania. — The Little 
 Men of the Cumberland and Tennessee valleys. — 
 Character of the graves; the sarcophagi, and the 
 remains therein. — Manner of the extinction of pre- 
 historic races unknown. — Forces that tend to the ex- 
 termination of races. — Extinct peoples of Central 
 America nearer to the present. — Mexican monuments 
 indicate the religious purpose. — Plan and materials 
 of the pyramidal temples. — Plentiful distribution of 
 such structures in Cholula. — Particular features 
 of the Aztec temples of Mexico. — Central Amer- 
 ican ruins ; likeness to those of the East. — 
 Monumental remains of Honduras and Colombia. — 
 Temples of Cuzco ; sun worship of the prehistoric 
 races. — Sad estate of the people in prehistoric 
 America. — Extinct cities of the Colorado plateau. — 
 Chronological relations of the ruins of the South- 
 west. — Remains on lake Titicaca ; character of the 
 region. — Stone and earthwork ; the monolithic door- 
 ways. — Astonishing character of the ruin called the 
 Fortress. — Features of the Temple, the Palace, and 
 the Hall of Justice. — Purpose of this treatise and of 
 the sketch to follow 346-365. 
 
 Chapter XXI. — General Conditions of Sav- 
 age Life. 
 Relations of existing races to their barbarian an- 
 cestry. — Demarkation between prehistoric and his- 
 toric races. — The conscious man requires an expla- 
 nation of the past. — Use of metals coincident with.' 
 historical consciousness. — Evanescent character of 
 barbarian traditions. — Instances of want of race 
 memory in savages. — Transformation and early ex- 
 tinction of barbaric legends. — Persistency and integ- 
 rity of customs and habits. — Examples of the preser- 
 vation of Semitic manners. — Daily life of the Arabs 
 a transcript of that of the Hebrews. — Common re- 
 ligious views of modern and ancient Semites. — Prim- 
 itive Teutonic manners have survi\ed to present 
 day. — Monumental remains the certain evidence of 
 prehistoric conditions. — Deductions drawn from 
 fidelity of manners and customs. — Inquiry into the 
 primary origin of barbarism. — Two explanatory- 
 theories of the source of the barbaric state. — Hy- 
 pothesis of the descent of mankind from an age of 
 gold. — Belief that the beginning of man-life was irr 
 savagery. — Elaboration of this view ; arguments in
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 its support. — Race traditions generally point to an 
 age of gold. — Difficulty of accounting for the prev- 
 alence of such a belief. — Actual examples of the de- 
 cline and extinction of races. — Monumental remains 
 indicate the greatness of ancient peoples. — Language 
 seems to have begun in an age of reason. — Argu- 
 ments may be advanced in support of opposing 
 theory. — Backward look of history reaches barbaric 
 beginnings. — Races are discoverable in the actual 
 process of evolution. — Slow rate of race emergence 
 from primitive savagery. — History replete with ex- 
 amples of human development. — The Greek evolu- 
 tion paralleled with that of the Gauls. — Rise of the 
 Saxon race from barbarism to greatness. — The 
 fallen estate of races differs wholly from savagery. — 
 Monuments and languages have behind them low 
 conditions. — Not reasonable that perfected languages 
 began at once 365-3S4 
 
 Chapter XXII. — B.arbarism Illustrated. 
 
 Large areas of the world still dominated by bar- 
 barism. — Fillhiness of barbaric life ; example of Hot- 
 tentots. — Savages bathe for pleasure rather than 
 purification. — Filth in food supplements filth in per- 
 sonal habit. — Australians an example of degraded 
 savagerv. — Feeding as the beasts ; the whale carni- 
 val. — The Veddahs also exemplify the grossness of 
 barbaric life. — Marriage customs and domestic code 
 of the Veddahs. — Debased condition of the Andaman 
 islanders. — Filthiness of personal habits; uses of 
 the dead. — Low estate of the Tasmanians ; use and 
 preservation of fire. — Moral ideas and religious obli- 
 gation among barbarians. — Character of the Pela- 
 
 gian Blacks or Sea Negroes. — Buildings and furnish- 
 ings of the Fijians. — Making and management of 
 boats; tools and potter)-. — Open and astounding 
 cannibalism of the Fijians. — Barbarism illustrated 
 from native races of America. — Race features of our 
 aborigines denote Asiatic origin. — Summer and win- 
 ter aspect of Esquimau barbarism. — Omnivorous 
 habit and gluttony of the Esquimaux. — Skill in the 
 manufacture of implements and utensils. — Manner of 
 harpooning the whale and the seal. — Songs and 
 musical instruments; amusement the motive. — Taste 
 of the race in sketching and map-making. — Drawing 
 on bone and ivory ; subjects of art work. — Weak- 
 ness of the Esquimaux in abstraction ; inability to 
 count. — Degradations attendant upon polygamy and 
 polyandry. — Weakness of moral nature ; a rude hu- 
 manity. — Absence of cruelty traceable to ethnic in- 
 difference. — Present dissertation on barbarism no 
 more than a sketch. — Place of semibarbarians in 
 the ascending scale of races. — Philosophy of the 
 semibarbaric estate of man. — The Tunguses an 
 example of North Asiatic barbarity. — Semibarba- 
 rism of the Moors and Berbers.^AU ages fur- 
 nish examples of lowest human condition. — Like 
 extremes of development present in ancient and 
 modern times. — Existing barbarism both progressive 
 and nonprogressive. — The barbaric life does not 
 reveal its own origin or spread. — Ancient and cur- 
 rent barbarism differently distributed. — Civilization 
 has crowded savagery out of the better parts of the 
 world. — Difference between progressive and nonpro- 
 gressive parts of human life. — Lowest savagery still 
 present in several parts of the globe . . . 384-410 
 
 Book IV.— Distrioutiox of the Races. 
 
 Chapter XXllI. — Classification of the 
 Hu.MAN Species. 
 Obscurity of the early movements of mankind. — 
 Why a classitication of the races is necessary. — No 
 adequate method of classifying yet discovered. — The 
 ancients believed in the diversity of the races. — 
 Scriptural opinions conduced to a belief in unity. — 
 The biblical ethnology; distribution of Shem and 
 Ham. — Japheth disseminated into the "isles of the 
 gentiles." — Summar)' of the biblical schedule of 
 primitive peoples. — Value of the ethnic scheme out- 
 lined in Genesis.— Points of inapplicability in the 
 Hebrew classification. — The scheme satisfactory 
 within narrow limits. — -Origin and development of 
 historical ethnology. — Glimpses of a wide application 
 of this method. — Meaning and scope of the term 
 " Indo-European race." — Races included under the 
 definition of Semitic. — Who the Hamiles were ; 
 2 
 
 doubts as to certain races. — The Altaian races ; dis- 
 semination of the Tartars. — Aboriginal races of the 
 western hemisphere. — Results of the method; imper- 
 fections in the scheme. — In what manner language 
 has become a basis of classification. — The Aryan 
 race established by linguistic processes. — Race 
 movements traceable by phenomena of language.— 
 What facts in language warrant ethnical conclusions. 
 — Inflection the prevailing feature of Aryan speech. 
 — How languages are modified by environment. — 
 Semitic races may be classified by means of their 
 languages. — Contrast between Semitic and Ar\an 
 methods of speech. — Peculiarities of the so-called 
 Turanian languages. — Features of agglutinative 
 tongues ; meaning of " tura." — The Ganowanian. or 
 bow-and-arrow, races. — General theory of geograph- 
 ical ethnology. — Summary of results by the geo- 
 graphical method. — Unsatisfactory character of geo-
 
 XX 
 
 COJVTEJSTTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 graphical classification. — Elements of uncertainty in 
 linguistic method of race division. — Possibility of 
 classifying on variations in form. — Crania and skulls 
 as a means of tlctermining race. — Color of the skin 
 a true test of ethnic affinity. — Scientific classification 
 may be made from color. — Sources of former error 
 in this method of classifying. — Only three primary 
 colors of the human skin. — The term ruddy sub- 
 stituted for white in this treatise. — No races may be 
 properly defined as white. — What races may be cor- 
 rectly classified as ruddy. — General analysis of the 
 Brown races. — The four groups of the Black races. — 
 Other plans of classifying may be harmonized with 
 this. — General distribution of the Brown races. — • 
 Outline of the dispersion of the Blacks. — Mankind to 
 be divided into Ruddy races. Brown races, and Black 
 races 411-435 
 
 Chapter XXIV.— Noachite Dispersion Con- 
 sidered. 
 Primitive seats of the Adamites. — Apparent point 
 of origin for all the races. — Berosus recounts the 
 myth of the sea god Oan. — Outline in Genesis of the 
 Adamic races. — Value of the Berosian account of 
 the Chakteans. — Ten Chaldee mythical kings ; con- 
 formity to the Hebrew scheme. — The headmen of 
 the Adamite clans. — Question of the primitive metal- 
 lurgy of the Semites. — Dissemination of traditions of 
 a deluge. — Why the Egyptian race possessed no 
 such tradition. — General harmony of Chaktean and 
 Hebrew accounts of the flood. — The Assyrian tradi- 
 tion departs from the older forms. — Early division of 
 the Adamites into three branches. — Uncertain ethnic 
 relations of early Mesopotamians. — Point of disper- 
 sion eastward from Assyria and Chaldasa. — Issuance 
 of the Noachites to the west. — Probable directions 
 of the Hamitic dispersion. — Traces of ethnic admix- 
 ture in primitive Elamites. — First distribution of the 
 Semites and Japhethites. — Indications that the Old 
 Chaldaeans were Hamitic. — Race troubles between 
 Northern and Southern Semites. — Dififerences m 
 remains of Chaldaeans and Assyrians. — Significance 
 of the Noachite patronymics. — Contention for prece- 
 dence among Shem, Ham, and Japheth. — Strife of 
 the ancients for the rights of priority. — Chronology 
 at fault respecting the Noachite races. — Evidence of 
 great antiquity of Egyptian Hamites. — Probable 
 derivation of the Egyptians from Chaldasa. — Effects 
 of environment on the migrant Noachites. — Chaldaea 
 and Assyria a necessity of the early peoples. — The 
 Ruddy races plant themselves in Mesopo- 
 tamia 435-449 
 
 Chapter XXV.— The Hamitic Migrations. 
 Hamitic races lie nearest the Blacks in race dis- 
 tribution. — Historical reasons for the migrations of 
 the Hamites. — Primitive Arabian population of Ham- 
 
 itic descent. — Himyaritic writings show traces of 
 Hamitic production. — Affinities and connection of 
 Hamitic and Semitic languages. — Wide distribution 
 of theHimyaritic inscriptions. — Geographical position 
 of the ancient Hiniyarites. — Race kinship of South- 
 ern Arabs and Eastern Africans. — Distribution of 
 Hamitic blood in Eastern Africa. — Crossing of the 
 ethnic lines in Gallaland. — Syria is preoccupied by 
 Hamitic immigrants. — Divisions and resultant 
 plantings of the migration. — Ham founds Canaan . 
 Hebrews disparage their kinsmen. — Extent of Ham- 
 itic migrations into Asia Minor. — Winchell's views 
 regarding the European dispersion of the Hamites. 
 — The race enters and occupies the Nile valley. — 
 E.xtreme antiquity of ethnic movements here de- 
 scribed. — Old travelers marvel at the age of Egypt. 
 — Modern inquiry fixes approximate date for Menes. 
 — True nature of primitive tribal migrations. — In 
 what manner favored localities become populated. — ■ 
 The radical element breaks away from the conserva- 
 tive. — Egypt a striking example of the ethnic sack. — 
 Migration at length resumed through Northern 
 Africa. — Branchings and turnings of the Western 
 Hamitic dispersion. — Rank and character of North 
 African stales and peoples. — The Hamites venture 
 by land, but avoid the sea. — Hamitic preferences for 
 the equatorial trend. — Tlie Berber races result from 
 deflected movements. — Ethnic place of the Cartha- 
 ginians considered. — Institutional and linguistic 
 intimacy of Semites and Hamites. — Semitic influence 
 prevails over the Hamitic at Carthage. — Extreme 
 limits of Hamitic distribution in the west. — Nature 
 of the dispersion in African interior. — Ethnic move- 
 ments are not exact and logical. — General summary 
 of the Hamitic migrations 449-463 
 
 Chapter XXVI. — Migrations of the Semites. 
 Mesopotamia essentially a land of the Semites. — 
 Central position of the race; the westward movement. 
 — Tradition of the outgoing of the Abrahamites. — 
 Place and character of Ur of the Chaldees. — Special 
 significance of the Semitic patronymics. — Contact 
 of the Abrahamites with the races of Canaan. — 
 Outgoing and plantings of Joktan in Arabia. — 
 Modern traces of the ancient Joktanians. — The 
 Joktanidas make themselves names and races. — 
 Relations of the Joktanians and the Eberites. — 
 Spread of the Ishmaelites through Arabia. — The 
 western branch reaches the Imoshagin Africa. — Com- 
 posite race character of the modern Arabians. — 
 Vicissitudes of the Abrahamites in possessing Ca- 
 naan. — Noncommercial character of the primitive 
 Hebrews. — Extent of Hebrew influence on the 
 Mediterranean. — The Azores mark the Atlantic 
 limit of Hebrew departure. — Use and significance of 
 Hebrew tribal names. — The Hebrew branch entwines 
 with the Hamitic in Cyprus. — Summary and outline
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 of the Hebraic distribution.— Question of the race 
 derivation of the Ethiopians. — Western Ishmael com- 
 bines therein with the Hamites. — Aram the seat of 
 the strongest Semitic development . . . 463-473 
 
 Chapter XXVII. — The East Aryan De- 
 parture. 
 Determination of the origin of the Arj-an migra- 
 tions. — Region of the Lower Caspian the point of 
 departure. — Hamites are ethnically modified by en- 
 vironment. — Egyptian sculptures evidence the early 
 differentiation of races. — Primitive Japhethites affect- 
 ed by climate and surroundings. — Indefiniteness of 
 biblical references to the Japhetic dispersion. — Seven 
 tribes of the Japhethites ; the race of Gomer. — Place 
 of the Riphaces in the ethnic scheme. — Distribution 
 of the Magog and the Madai. — Traces of the disper- 
 sion of the Javanites. — Probable identificalion of the 
 Georgians with the Tubalites. — Possible derivation 
 of the Thracians from Tiras. — Biblical scheme repre- 
 sents the Japhethites as developed westward. — How 
 far the Hebrew outline of Japheth extended. — Great 
 contribution of linguistic science to ethnography. — 
 Discovery of Indo-lranic affinities by means of San- 
 skrit. — First movement of races from the Aryan 
 nidus. — Hints of physical laws governing the move- 
 ments of races. — Possible reason for the direction of 
 Indo-Persian migration. — Light derived from Iranic 
 and 'Vedic literature. — Expansion of the race of 
 Brahm in India. — Primitive tribes hang together in 
 the migratory movement. — The Medes precede the 
 Persians in historical development. . . . 473-482 
 
 Chapter XXVIII. — The West Aryax Migra- 
 tions. 
 Sense in which "migration " is to be understood. 
 — Northern limits of Ar^'an dispersion in Asia. — 
 Sources of the race movement into Europe. — First 
 races planted on the lines of the outgoing. — Origin 
 of the Minor Asians; Hamitic influences. — Multi- 
 plicity of ethnic plantings in the Lesser Asia. — Place 
 and race composition of the Cilicians. — Beginnings 
 of Cappadocian and Paphlagonian races. — Rise of 
 the Phrygians ; their kinship with the Armenians. — 
 Other Minor Asians ; Lydians in particular. — Minor 
 Asians contemporary with the Iranians and Indicans. 
 — Reasons for the different streams of Hellenic mi- 
 gration. — Race progress through the Cyclades into 
 Hellas. — Principal migratory route by way of Thrace 
 and Thessaly. — Ethnic restlessness of the Graikoi ; 
 meanmg of the name. — The Greek migration con- 
 tained the potency of the Italican. — Lmguistic hints 
 as to priority of Greeks or Romans. — Rise of the 
 system of ancestral mythology. — Place and charac- 
 teristics of the .(Eolians. — Evolution and race char- 
 acter of the Dorians. — Situation of Ionia; the 
 Dodecapolis. — Rank and relations of the Achseans 
 
 among the Greeks. — Easy ethnic relations of Greece 
 and Italy. — Place of the lapygians ; races of the 
 north. — Distribution of the Umbro-Sabellian tribes. 
 — Myth and tradition of the primitive Latini. — Scanty 
 knowledge of the Volscians ; their situation. — Pre- 
 dominance of the Oscans ; the Italian Gauls. — Place 
 and derivation of the Veneti. — Limits of the Graeco- 
 Italic migrations. — Origin and course of the North 
 Aryan distribution. — Ethnic movements by which 
 the Celts reached Galatia. — Point of departure for 
 the Celtic dispersion in Europe.^Complete develop- 
 ment of the race in Gaul and Britain. — Wide distri- 
 bution of the Celts throughout the West. — The 
 Celtic races superimposed on aboriginal barbarians. 
 — Ramifications of the Celtic stock in the British 
 Isles. — Bending back of Celtic migrations to the 
 place of beginning. — Question of the race connection 
 of Teutons and Slavs considered. — Branches and 
 directions of the Teuto-Slavonic stem. — Point of di- 
 vision of the two races ; the Russian family. — Distri- 
 bution of the Great, Little, and White Russians. — Dis- 
 persion of the Germans ; three branches of the race. 
 • — Analysis and distribution of the Goths. — Franks 
 people the Rhine valley ; the Vandal distribution. — 
 Movements of the Heruli and the Gepidas. — Progress 
 of the Suevi ; the Longobards in Italy. — Ethnic place 
 and vicissitudes of the Burgundians. — Outspread of 
 the Low Germans and the Norse. — Extent of the 
 dispersion of the Aryan family. — General and excep. 
 tional movements of the Aryans. — Extent and bound- 
 aries of the Aryan belt. — Only conscious move- 
 ments to be considered in migration. — General view 
 of the dispersion of the Ruddy races . . . 482-504 
 
 Chapter XXIX. — Dispersion of the Brown 
 Races. 
 Common source of Ruddy and Brown races may 
 be found. — Dravidians appear to have had a separate 
 line of departure. — Hypothesis of common origin for 
 all in Lemuria. — Criteria for determining the direc- 
 tion of migrations. — In what manner the language 
 and institutions of Rome may be restored. — The 
 whole Ar)an group may be reconstructed likewise. — 
 Direction and character of the Dravidian dispersion. 
 — Invading Aryans overcome the aborigines of India. 
 — The conquerors are modified by the subject races. 
 — Probability that all races have mixed complex- 
 ions. — Color of the human skin not derivable from 
 climate. — Variations of color traceable to primary 
 ethnic conditions. — Evidence of the insufficiency of 
 climate to make complexion. — Course of the Dra- 
 vidian lines in India and Ceylon. — The Malayo-Chi- 
 nese departure; Lohitos and Burmese. — Doubts 
 respecting the populations of peninsular Asia. — 
 Problem of the peopling of Polynesia. — Outreaching 
 ethnic lines from Carohne and Gilbert islands. — Dis- 
 persion from the Samoan group and the Marquesas.
 
 XXII 
 
 CON'TEN'TS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 —Easiness and difficulty of the progress through 
 Polynesia. — Probable derivation of the races of the 
 New World. — Oiitbranching of the Asiatic Mongo- 
 loids. — Distribution of the Northeastern Asiatics. — 
 Dispersion of the Brown races deflected in the Amoor 
 valley. -Race lines of Sanioyeds and Ural-Altaics. — 
 Distribution of the Twagi and the Juraks. — Outline 
 of the Tungusian dispersion. — Outer circuit of the 
 dispersion of the Brown races. — Question of the 
 ethnic descent of Basques and Iberians. — Place of 
 the Esths in the scheme of races. — Ethnic connec- 
 tions of the Malagasy. — General and special direc- 
 tions of the Brown dispersion. — Difficult ethnography 
 of the American aborigines. — Ultimate derivation of 
 the Indian races. — Place and affinities oftheOrarians. 
 — Easy derivation of Alaskan aborigines from the 
 Asiatics. — Polynesian Mongoloids mix with Asiatic 
 derivatives. — General course of Polynesian and Es- 
 quimau migrations. — Distribution of the Selish ; the 
 Mexican races. — Origin and dispersion of the Central 
 Americans. — Place of the Shoshones ; derivation of 
 the Six Nations. — The Polynesian Mongoloids in 
 South America. — Origin of the West Indians and 
 the Seminoles. — Universality of the Brown dispersion 
 in the Americas. — Astonishing extent of the migra- 
 tions of the Brown races. — Outer periphery and limits 
 of the Brown dispersion S^SS-i 
 
 Chapter XXX. — Distribution of the Bl.\ck. 
 Races. 
 General character of the Nigritian distribution. — 
 Lemuria necessary to unify the Black dispersion. — 
 Origin of the ethnic dissemination of the African 
 races. — Place and distribution of theFundi-Sudanese. 
 — Kinship of Fulah and Fundi races; subordinate 
 families. — Distribution of the West Sudanese and 
 Guineans. — Central Sudanese and tribes of the Chad 
 Basin.— Place of the East Sudanese and the Nilotes. 
 — Ethnic traces of the Hamites among the Nigri- 
 tians. — Classification and subdivisions of the Bantus. 
 — Africa the Patria Dolorosa of the world. — Limits 
 of the Zulu and Kaffir dispersion. — Ethnic relations 
 of the Coast Kaffirs and the Bantus. — General 
 boundaries of the Nigritian distribution. — Race origin 
 of the Hottentots considered. — Where the Hot- 
 tentots and Bechuanas are distributed. — -Subordi- 
 nate tribal divisions of the Hottentots — Indications 
 that Negroes and Hottentots are primitive races. — 
 Probability that the Hottentots are least devel- 
 oped of mankind. — Homogenity of the Australian 
 aborigines. — The Australians should be classified 
 with the Nigricans. — Lemuria seems necessary 
 to the supposed distribution. — Lines of the Black 
 dispersion in Australia. — Valid grounds of eth- 
 nographic hypothesis. — Origin and course of the 
 Papuan distribution. — Geographical limitations of 
 the race. — Legitimate use of hypothesis in ethnic 
 
 inquiry. — Question of time, plactf, and manner 
 recurs. — Theory of monogenesis is best sustained 
 by facts.— True aspect and form of migratory 
 movements considered. — Familiar illustrations 
 of the movements of races. — Gradual diffusion 
 of the Anglo-Americans westward. — Exactitude 
 not to be expected in ethnic movements. — Separation 
 of tribes and races not complete. — Off-grading of 
 the human species ; no lines in nature. — Species a 
 misnomer in the economy of nature. — Races of men 
 must be regarded as varieties of a common life. 
 
 — Peoples approximate along their ethnic mar- 
 gins 525-539 
 
 Chapter XXXI.— Mixed Races of Man- 
 kind. 
 
 Existence of mixed or intermediate races. — Race 
 offspring takes character from both ancestors. — But 
 intermediate forms do not perpetuate themselves. — 
 All varieties of men fall withhi a distinct •' species." 
 
 — Short-lived character of all mixed varieties. — 
 Results of intermixture in the case of the Indo- 
 Aryans. — Examples of like ethnic phenomena else- 
 where. — Further examples of composite ethnic 
 character. — The Israelites modified by the environ- 
 ment of races. — Wide diffusion of mixed types ; the 
 Mulaltoes. — Instability of the Mulatto stock. — 
 Crosses of American aborigines with Negroes. — 
 Ethnic instincts traceable to procreation and birth. 
 — All race dispositions arise from the family. — Place 
 of the father in the primary organization. — In what 
 manner the gens is evolved from families. — The 
 tribe in like manner springs from gentes. — The gen- 
 tile life a state of susceptibility. — In the tribal life 
 ethnic features are established. — The horde arises 
 from arrestment of race dev'elopment. — The race is 
 the result of tribal evolution. — The successive stages 
 of development summarized. — Slow and toilsome 
 progress of the human tace. — Synoptical view of 
 the dispersion of mankind 540-548 
 
 Chapter XXXII.— General View of Ethnic 
 Characteristics. 
 Personal characteristics of races to be considered. 
 
 — Races of men distinguished by certain leading 
 features. — Ability of mankind to modify the physical 
 environment. — The Ruddy races have effected great- 
 est modifications. — Brown races do not concern 
 themselves with phj'sical conditions. — Modifications 
 effected by man in Mesopotamia. — Nature changes 
 somewhat under the influence of man. — Injury done 
 to the world by destruction of forests. — Asia Minor 
 more modified than Eastern or Northern Europe. — 
 Variable power of races as modifying agents. — 
 Modification of the earth correlative with civilization. 
 ^Europe more than Africa changed by human 
 agency. — Man successfully resisted by three forms
 
 COXTEXTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 XXIII 
 
 of nature. — Great modifications effected by llie Teu- 
 tonic races. — The Aryan belt presents the most 
 remarkable transformation. — Hamitic and Semitic 
 genius unfavorable to physical change. — Countries 
 of Hamites and Semites not susceptible to modifica- 
 tion. — Modifying influences of races graded from 
 Ruddy to Black. — The countries of the Aryan races 
 have favored development. — Subjective reasons for 
 the strong evolution of the Aryans. — Natural science 
 unknown to the Browns and the Blacks. — The 
 Aryans have learned and mastered the laws of phe- 
 nomena. — E.xtreme sensitiveness of the Aryan races 
 to want. — Are Aryan instincts and characteristics 
 effect or cause? — Ethnic preference determines 
 much in race development. — Races choose condi- 
 tions and conditions react on races. — Great part of 
 human development based on the knowledge of 
 nature. — Conconiitancy of science and the civilized 
 life. — Scientific preeminence of the Indo-European 
 races. — Knowledge of natural law a condition of 
 perpetuity. — The Semitic mind seeks personality in 
 nature. — And makes man to be related and bound 
 thereto. — Notion of spiritual causation peculiarly 
 Semitic. — This notion differs totally from Aryan 
 polytheism. — Misconception of modern philosophy 
 respecting such difference. — The Brown races have 
 little mythology or religion. — Philosophical view of 
 Chinese system of thought. — The Black races still 
 lower in the scale of religion. — Difference of races 
 respecting the spirit of adventure. — The Ruddy races 
 
 strongest in the adventurous disposition. — Courage 
 of the Browtis divorced from rational purpose. — 
 Undeniable and striking ascendency of the Aryans. 
 — Ethnic diversity in bodily form and activity. — Such 
 diversity dates back to the earliest ages. — Great 
 diversity in the stature and bulk of men. — Correla- 
 tions of mind and body in evolution. — The lowest 
 limits of size in the human race. — Maxima of stature; 
 giants and gigantic races. — Largest examples of 
 human beings among the Browns. — Aryan peoples 
 reach the highest average stature. — Geographical 
 situation and the size of the body. — Form and stature 
 of men have been preserved from antiquity. — Constant 
 relation between the size of the brain and human 
 energy. — Winchell's table of cranial capacity of races. 
 ■ — Deductions from the tables ; lowest forms of man- 
 life. — Relation of brain capacity to other physical 
 features. — Selvage of mankind and the lower animals. 
 — Approximation of certain Blacks to the simians. — 
 Hints in low races of future development. — The three 
 principal things, food, clothing, and shelter. — Range 
 of ethnic differences in procuring essentials of life. — 
 Method of man in adapting himself to nature. — Ad- 
 justment varies from natural to artificial conditions. 
 — Evolution of food precedes building and clothing. 
 — The Chmese exemplify the retardation of archi- 
 tecture. — The Blacks are unprogressive in all the 
 conditions of life. — The Aryans preeminent in mas- 
 tery of natural resources. — Place of the Arjans in the 
 architectural evolution 549-576 
 
 fart Cbirtt. 
 
 THE RUDDY RACES. 
 
 I. -THE EAST ARYANS. 
 
 Book v.— The Ir^xiaxs. 
 
 Ch.apter X.XXIII. — Elementary Character 
 
 AXD RELIG!0.\. 
 The inquiry may begin with the Iranians. — Plateau 
 of Iran invited to horsemanship and outdoor life. — 
 The desert Iranians become hunters ; the Indicans 
 agriculturists. — Both methods of life combine in the 
 race character. — The sedentary life takes the place of 
 the nomadic. — Ethnic and personal character of the 
 Iranians. — The race constantly exposed to the influ- 
 ences of nature. — Tribal divisions of Persians as 
 given by Herodotus. — Feebleness of architectural 
 evolution among the Iranians. — Early motion of the 
 literary impulse in the race. — Language and subject- 
 matter of the Zend-Avesta. — The beneficent Ahuras 
 are celebrated in the Gathas. — Theme and method 
 
 of the Vendidad.- — The Va^na throws light on 
 disputed ethnic relations. — Hymns of the Ya^na; 
 Miiller's comments. — Specimen translation of the 
 Gathas. — Example of Haug's translation of the Zend- 
 Avesta. — Relation of Zoroaster to Iranian theology. 
 — Place and offices of Ahura-Mazdao. — The retinue 
 of angels; divine attributes become personal. — Myth 
 and worship of Armati. — The personal deities arise 
 out of nature worship. — Separation of the powers 
 and beginning of dualism. — Materialism yields to 
 adoration of spirit. — Symbolism intervenes between 
 form- and spirit-worship. — The Earth and the meta- 
 phor of the cow. — Elaboration of the myth of Geus- 
 Lfrva. — Ahriman and the hierarchy of the Devas. — 
 Intoxication and the worship of Soma. — High moral-
 
 XXIV 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 ity of the primitive Zoroastrians. — Motive made the 
 foundation of ethics and religion. — Evolution of the 
 order of the Kavi. — I m perfection of primitive religious 
 concepts. — Even the Semites had low notions of 
 worship and duty. — Fundamental ideas of the office 
 of Kavi. — Sacrifice intended to supply the deities 
 with food and raiment. — The things sacrificed ; 
 gift of the horse. — Fire employed as the agent 
 of transformation. — The primitive philosophers 
 of the Iranian race. — East Aryans preferred the 
 open air for worship. — Notion of immortality of 
 later date. — At first worship was moved by hope 
 of advantage. — Iranian religion foreran national de- 
 velopment 577-595 
 
 Chapter XXXIV.— Sex and Marriage Among 
 THE Aryans. 
 
 Importance of sex and sex union in race history. — 
 Four methods of sexual union among races. — Com- 
 munal system of marriage ; its impermanence. — 
 Nature of the polygamous scheme of union. — Ante- 
 cedents and results of polyandrous marriage. — 
 Monogamy determines both lines of parentage. — 
 All races have and maintain a sexual code. — His- 
 torical priority of marriage systems considered. — 
 Some tribes adopt one method and some another. — 
 Alleged beginning of monogamy among the Romans. 
 — Other Indo-Europeans practiced single marriage. 
 — Difficulty of maintaining monogamy against license. 
 — Smgle marriage peculiar to the Aryan races. — 
 Facts tending to determine marriage systems con- 
 sidered. — Conditions antecedent to the monogamic 
 method. — Nature of the forces whereby monogamy 
 is confirmed. — Certain other conditions tend to 
 establish polygamy. — Communal marriage the 
 result of sexual chaos. — Paucity of females must 
 have preceded polyandry. — Smallness of tribal 
 division favors polyandrous system. — Bearing of 
 marriage systems on proportion of the sexes. — 
 Do polygamy and polyandry perpetuate them- 
 selves } — Monogamy reinforced by the Iranian 
 prophets 595-605 
 
 Chapter XXXV. — Historical Develop.ment 
 OF THE Iranians. 
 Question of dates in Old Iranian history. — Probable 
 place and epoch of Zoroaster. — Historical students do 
 not sufficiently consider perspective. — Possibility of 
 developing historical outlines by parallax. — The Old 
 Medes the first forms of the Iranian evolutions. — 
 Rise and progress of Iranian monarchy.— Order of 
 the Medo-Persian development. — Warlike form of 
 Iranian institutions. — War passion and cruelty the 
 attributes of the race. — Ferocity of the Medo-Persian 
 
 soldiery. — Deterioration of Zoroastrianism into fire 
 worship. — Wide prevalence of the sun- and fire-idol- 
 atry. — Ancient Iranian character survives in de- 
 scendent races 605-612 
 
 Chapter XX.XVI. — Ethnic Divisions and 
 
 Characteristics. 
 The language and literature known as Haikanic. — 
 Ethnic features and off-grading of the Armenians. — 
 Armenians preserve the semblance of Old Iranian 
 life. — Intellectual qualities of the race ; spirit of in- 
 dependence. — Change in the method of disposing of 
 the dead. — Mohammedan and Christian usage has 
 supervened. — Character and sense of grave-stone 
 effigies. — Certain Persic types represent the ancient 
 race. — Prevalence of the wandering life in Luristan. 
 — Place and character of the Tajiks, or Parsivan. — 
 Stature and ethnic characteristics of this people. 
 — They present strongly the Old Iranian traits. — 
 Cruelly and fierceness of the Persic stock. — Race 
 character of the modern Persians. — Classes and con- 
 ditions of the Persian population. — Ethnic place and 
 manner of life of the Iliyats. — Social and domestic 
 life derived from Mohammedanism. — Polygamy sub- 
 stituted for the ancient monogamy. — Character of 
 the Persian family; the women. — Architecture of 
 Persia derived from Mohammedan styles. — Tomb- 
 building of the race; the burial tower. — Aspect of 
 Persian houses and towns ; interior decorations. — 
 Linguistic evolution ; influence of Arabic. — Govern- 
 mental system reaches back to classical ages. — Place 
 of the shah ; his absolutism. — Departments of ad- 
 ministration ; organization of the army. — Derivation 
 of manners and customs ; varying characteristics. — 
 Slavery and the slave market among the Persians. — 
 Materials and styles of costume ; rank indicated 
 thereby. — Apparel of women ; arms and arm-bearmg 
 of the Persians. — Painting the face and the type of 
 beauty. — Ethnic place and character of the Afghans. 
 — General features of the race; foreign admixture. — 
 Tribal divisions of the race and their manner of life. 
 — Distribution and character of the Huzareh. — Their 
 immorality; other tribes of East Iranians. — Language 
 of the .Afghans ; beginnings of literary development. 
 — Place of the Beluchs ; race infection on the side of 
 India. — Slavery and the slave trade; marriage and 
 ceremonies. — Dress of the Beluchs; the peasant 
 garb. — Personal features and race traits of the 
 Beluchs. — Social customs ; industrial pursuits and 
 dissipations. — Character and ethnic place of the 
 Ossetes. — Geographical regions occupied by Iranic 
 Aryans. — Principal countries ; modifying influence 
 of Islam. — Black and Brown admixture with the 
 Iranians . 612-641
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 XXV 
 
 Book VI.— Xhe Indicant. 
 
 Chapter XXXyil. — House People of Arya. 
 Reason for the caption " House People of Arya." 
 — Reactions of nature on man and his institutions. — 
 Derivation and sense of the name India. — The Sapta 
 Sindhu of the Old Indicans. — Origin and wanderings 
 of the Indican immigrants. — Aryan mythology modi- 
 fied by the new environment. — Variability of climatic 
 conditions in India. — Extent and physical features of 
 the countr)-. — Circumstances tending to isolate the In- 
 dican race. — The Indicans becomemore localizedthan 
 others. — The immigrant .Aryans find aborigines in the 
 country. — House-building instincts of the East Ar- 
 yans. — Sympathy of Aryans with tlie tree; skill in wood 
 structure. — Name of the house, and ideas associated 
 therewith. — Nature of the household ; the paternal 
 name. — The fact and sentiment of single marriage. 
 — The Aryan household preeminently monogamic. 
 — Institution of the family; office of the mother. 
 — The son and the daughter ; significance of their 
 names. — Predominance of the agricultural instinct. — 
 Meaning and application of the word Arya. — Rela- 
 tions of the Indicans with tame and wild beasts. — The 
 agricultural life indicated by the domestic animals. — 
 Names of wild beasts different in various Aryan lan- 
 guages. — Names of implements also show the man- 
 ner of life. — Indications of a peaceable and domestic 
 race character. — Synopsis of the aspects of life in 
 Old India 641-654 
 
 Chapter .X'X.W'III.— Religiox. 
 General effect of the migration of the East Aryans 
 into India. — Indican religious s\stem developed by 
 the Brahmans. — Nature and extent of the Vedas. — 
 Additional writings connected with the sacred text. 
 — Essence of the system contained in the Rig- Veda. 
 — Vedaism "based on the adoration of nature. — 
 Natural reverence for the air and the heavenly bodies. 
 — The mind seeks to separate matter from spirit. — 
 The prayerful element in the Vedic worship. — De- 
 velopment of worship and use of sacrifices. — Extracts 
 from the Veda; hymn to Indra. — Worship of Agni; 
 hymn in his praise.— Cult of the storm ; hymn to the 
 Maruts. — Myth of the dawn ; hymn to Ushas. — 
 Theory of Varuna. and his hymns. — Muller's views 
 respecting \'edaism ; later Vedic hymns. — Brahman- 
 ism becomes an incomprehensible mythology. — 
 Meaning of Kathenotheism ; nature of the Trimurti. 
 — What brahma was and what it became. — Specu- 
 lations and refinements respecting the 6m. — Later 
 Brahmanism puts the end for the cause. — The be- 
 liever must know the brahma which is to receive 
 him. — Contrast of the old and the newer Brahman- 
 ism. — Source of the doctrine of the transmigration 
 of souls. — Theory of metempsychosis and gradations 
 of living forms.— Doctrine of sin and of expiation. — 
 
 Notion that sin and uncleanness are one. — Punish- 
 ments adjusted to the false theory of sin. — Doctrine of 
 the incarnation, or the avatars. — Place of Siva in the 
 Indian pantheon. — To what extent religions are part 
 of ethnic history. — Apparition of Sakya Gautama the 
 Buddha. — Career and evangelism of the "Enlightened 
 One." — Parallel of Buddhism with Western Protes- 
 tantism. — Debasing character of the Brahmanical 
 ceremonies. — Practice of sutteeism ; the rite not obli- 
 gatory. — Usages and self-inflicted torture of the devo- 
 tees. — Belief that bodilydistortion isefficaciousagainst 
 sin. — City and annual ceremonial of Juggernaut. — 
 Scenes at the procession of the tower chariot. — Ques- 
 tion of immolation under the car. — Worship of the 
 Ganges and sacrifice thereto 654-676 
 
 Chapter XXXIX. — C.\stes and Race Divi- 
 
 sio.xs. 
 Origin and evolution of caste among the Hindus. 
 — Division of the Indicans under Vashishtha and 
 Visvamitra. — Rise and ascendency of the Brahman- 
 ical caste. — Development of the Kshatriyas, or Raj- 
 puts. — Vaisyas, or "people," constitute the third 
 caste. — The Sudras ; possibility of caste promotion. 
 — Summary- character of the present view. — Efforts 
 of Great Britain in the census of 1871-72. — Aggre- 
 gate results ; density of population. — Distribution of 
 the people ; absence of great cities. — Proportion of 
 population among the castes. — Ethnic and religious 
 elements in the census. — Excess of males in the 
 Indian races. — Five principal divisions of the Indican 
 populations. — Distribution and tribes of the Old Dra- 
 vidians. — Kolarians, or hill populations of the interior. 
 — Difference between the Kolarian and Dravidian 
 races. — Place of the Savars ; Kolarian languages. — 
 Tribal and linguistic divisions of the Indo-Chinese. 
 — Dravidians, Kolarians, and Indo-Chinese are non- 
 Aryan. — Dominant Indicans are high-caste Hindus. 
 — Ethnic and caste lines do not coincide. — Place of 
 the Mohammedans among the Indian races. — The 
 Brahmans represent the intellectual forces of the 
 Hindus 676-689 
 
 Chapter XL. — .Animal and Vegetable Re- 
 sources OF India. 
 Slight changes in the environment of the Indicans. 
 — \'ast and varied resources of the country. — Animal 
 life of India; tigers and leopards. — Country infested 
 with wolves and jackals. — The Canis dhola. the 
 sloth, and the sun bear. — The elephant immemorial 
 in India. — The principal pachyderms and ruminants. 
 — Habits and size of the Indian buffalo. — Prevalence 
 of reptiles ; loss of life thereby.— The Indian races 
 have not subdued the wild beasts. — Civilization ex- 
 terminates all savage forms of life. — Spectacular
 
 XXVI 
 
 CfmrENTS OF VOLUME I. 
 
 character of the tiger hunt. — Use of the elephant in 
 hunting; the tiger's habits. — Native land of the 
 elephant; elephant hunting. — Capture alive; meth- 
 ods of taking and taming. — Race timidity traceable 
 to fear of beasts and reptiles. — Physical setting of 
 India ; the native land of rice. — Extent of the rice 
 crop in different districts.^E.xtent and character of 
 the wheat product. ^Millet the resource of the com- 
 mon people. — " Indian " corn, barley, and other 
 cereals.— Extent and variety of the vegetable prod- 
 ucts of India. — Abundance and distribution of the 
 spices. — Varieties of dates ; sugar and the sugar 
 manufacture. — The Indian cotton crop and Western 
 mterests. — Cotton production stimulated by the 
 American Civil War. — The jute industry ; extent of 
 the product. — Large place of indigo in Indian com- 
 merce. — Extent, importance, and places of opium 
 production. — Indian tobacco ; inferiority of the prod- 
 uct. — Coffee and tea not properly native to India. — 
 Indian vegetation favored by stimulating conditions. 
 — Precipitation and its relations to the death rate. — 
 Physical degeneration resultant from conditions 
 present in India. — Importance of food-supply in 
 relation to race character. — Classification of foods ; 
 the hydrocarbonates. — The carbohydrates ; what 
 foods constitute this class. — The nitrogenous class, 
 and foods containing phosphates. — Race character 
 dependent largely on the kind of food.— The office of 
 hydrocarbonaceous and nitrogenous foods. — In what 
 relation the carbohydrates are naturally used. — 
 Effects of such foods on the human constitution. — 
 The Hindu body the result of the long discipline of 
 nature. — Same laws hold of the race as of the man. 
 — Weakness of the Hindus resultant from sustenance 
 and climate. — Ethnic life the joint product of sub- 
 jective and objective conditions. — Precious stones 
 in relation to race character. — Golconda the seat of 
 diamond gathering and stone-cutting. — The work- 
 ing of iron originated in India. — Method of smelting 
 and excellence of product. — Mining of copper and 
 method of manufacture.— The Indian lead mines ; 
 antimony and petroleum. — Distribution of stone ; soil 
 not suitable for pottery. — Quarries of marble, slate, 
 and mica 690-716 
 
 Chapter XLL— Ethnic Ch.\racteristics. 
 
 Diverse development follows long occupancv in 
 wide countries. — Sanskrit the original of the Hindu 
 languages. — Hindi corresponds to the Latin stage in 
 Western development. — Cashmerians well represent 
 the early Indicans. — Climate and environment have 
 preserved the race integrity.— Intellectual and social 
 life of the Cashmerians. — Points of divergence of 
 Cashmerians and Punjabese.— Distribution of the 
 Mahrattas. — Extent of Mahratta population ; the 
 language — Variation in character from foreign im- 
 pact.— Mahratta Brahmans the highest type of Hin- 
 
 dus. — The lowest classes of Indican society. — Con- 
 trasts and comparisons of Sudras and Mahrattas. — 
 Ethnic and linguistic relations of the Hindu peoples. 
 
 — Difficulty of generalizing ethnic traits of great 
 populations. — Brahmans and Sudras represent ex- 
 tremes of Hindu development. — Bodily characteristics 
 of the Hindus; the color. — Special features of head 
 and countenance 716-726 
 
 Chapter XLII. — Architecture, Manners, 
 Government. 
 Extreme elaboration of the Hindu architecture. — 
 Lightness of structure related to climate and outdoor 
 life. — The isle and cavern of Elephanta. — Effigies of 
 the Hindu gods in the cavern. — Agra the best seat 
 for study of Indian architecture. — The old palace of 
 the native princes. — Character of the royal tomb 
 called the Taj Mahal. — Dress and personal orna- 
 ments of the Hindus. — Ceremonies of marriage and 
 estimate of the woman. — Extent of race interfusion 
 in Hindustan. — Particular features of certain races. 
 — Grading off of the Hindu into the Indo-Chinese 
 type. — Extent and variety of the Hindu superstitions, 
 — Amulets and charms ; superstitious beliefs respect 
 ing the dead. — Shrines and effigies to the departed 
 — Superstition the basis of social classes; the Fakirs, 
 — Hinduism relieved by wholesome beliefs and prac 
 tices. — Old Indian chieftainship becomes Hindu 
 petty royalty. — Sympathy of the Brahmans and the 
 military caste. — Primogeniture naturally follows mili- 
 tary chieftainship. — Absolutism of the government 
 of the Indian princes. — Rude methods of warfare ; 
 use of war elephants. — Superstitious reverence for 
 princes and rulers. — General view of race conditions 
 in Bengal.— Aggregate of subjects under the pro- 
 vincial government. — The Hindus present every 
 grade of the human evolution. — Linguistic affinities; 
 striking features of the British rule . . . 726-743 
 
 Chapter XLIIL— Isolated Races— General 
 Aspects. 
 Distribution and character of the Kaffirs. — Anoma- 
 lous place of Gypsies in the ethnic scheme. — The 
 race originated in the Pariah, or Sudra, class of 
 Hindus. — Features of the Gypsy language illustrated. 
 
 — Language furnishes the clue for classification. — 
 Apparition of Gypsy tribes in Europe and America. — 
 Development of Gypsy tribes in Europe and Amer- 
 ica. — Mendicant and thieving character of the race. — 
 Fixedness the central fact in Hindu life. — Compari- 
 sons with thellamites and the Chinese. — Preservation 
 of the ancient dress and regalia. — Usage of the belt ; 
 clothing of the Sudras. — Race life, once vigorous, may 
 pass into atrophy. — Lack of perspective in Hindu so- 
 ciety. — Western influence begins to prevail in India. — 
 Tendency toward the neglect of caste distinction. — 
 General view of the subject to present stage of the 
 inquiry 743-750
 
 Illustrations in Volume 1. 
 
 I. Colored Flutes 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate I. — Pri.nxipal Types of the Human 
 
 Race 37 
 
 Plate II. — West Aryan Barbarism. — 
 Swiss Lake Dwelling of the Age 
 OF Bronze 265 
 
 Race Chart I. — Showing the Distribu- 
 
 AXD Race Chart. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 tion of Mankind on the Hypothesis 
 
 of a Common Origin 411 
 
 Race Chart II. — Geographical Distri- 
 bution of the East Aryans. ... 577 
 
 Plate III. — East Ary-an Art Work. — In- 
 
 DicAN Design 641 
 
 II. EXGRAVIXGS OX WOOD. 
 
 Headpiece for the Ti.me and Place of 
 THE Beginning 37 
 
 Landscape of the Pliocene Period. — 
 Showing Environment at the Time 
 OF Man's Appearance. — Drawn by 
 Riou 38 
 
 Origin of Mankind — When and Where? 
 
 — Drawn by Emile Bayard 41 
 
 Beginning of the Conscious Life on the 
 
 Earth. — Drawn by Riou 42 
 
 Arch.€Ological Evidences of Man's Ex- 
 istence 45 
 
 Remains of Prehistoric Man 47 
 
 Production of Fire — The First Art 
 Practiced by Man. — Drawn by Emile 
 Bayard 48 
 
 A Chaldee Rhapsodist Reciting (Mod 
 
 ern). — Drawn by Barbant 50 
 
 Landscape of the Beginning. — Drawn by 
 Riou 53 
 
 Comparative Size of the Planetary 
 Worlds 56 
 
 Solar System — Showing Relations of 
 Orbits, Co.mparisons of Planets, and 
 Place of the Earth. — Drawn by Rich- 
 ard A. Proctor, F. R. A. S 58 
 
 Position of the Planets Inferior to 
 Jupiter — Showing the Zone of the 
 Asteroids 59 
 
 fuPiTER — A Planet not yet Arrived at 
 THE Epoch of Life 60 
 
 Saturn — A Ring Pl.^net 61 
 
 The Moon — An Expired Planet .... 62 
 
 Varying Velocity of Planetary Motion. 63 
 
 The Solar System Displayed — Showing 
 Eccentricity of Orbits Inside of 
 Mars 64 
 
 -Comparative Size of Earth and Sun . . 65 
 
 page 
 
 Formation of Glacial River. — Drawn by 
 Riou 68 
 
 Existing Alpine Glacier. — Summit of 
 Mont Blanc. — Drawn by Riou. ... 72 
 
 Condition of Extreme Cold, Illus- 
 trated from Arctic Landscape. — 
 Drawn by Riou 74 
 
 Condition of Extreme Heat, Illus- 
 trated from African Forest. — 
 Drawn by Alexandre de Bar 78 
 
 Landscape of the Lower Oolite (Before 
 
 the Age OF Man). — Drawn by Riou . . 82 
 
 Pal.cozo'i'c Age of the E.\rth. — Land- 
 scape OF the Eocene. — Drawn by Riou. 83 
 
 Palaeozoic Age of the Earth. — Cambro- 
 
 Silurian Landscape. — Drawn by Riou. 84 
 
 Paleozoic Age OF the Earth. — Devonian 
 
 Landscape. — Drawn by Riou 85 
 
 Landscape of the Carboniferous Pe- 
 riod 86 
 
 Diagram Showing Relative Thickness 
 OF Earth's Crust and Depth of In- 
 ternal Caldron 88 
 
 Forms OF Life in Cretaceous Period (Pre- 
 ceding THE .A.GE of Man).— Drawn by 
 Riou 8c 
 
 Sketch Map Show^ing (in Dark Lines) 
 THE Part of Europe Under Ice Cover 
 IN Glacial Period 90 
 
 Section of Chalk Cavern with Hu,m.\n 
 Remains 91 
 
 Example of Stalagmitic Formation . . 91 
 
 Example of Stalactite 92 
 
 Landscape of the Peat Bogs 93 
 
 Sand Dunes of El-Fevane, Arabia. — 
 
 Drawn by D. Grenet 94 
 
 Delta of the Mississippi 95 
 
 Delta of the Nile 97 
 
 (XXVII)
 
 XXVIII 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I. 
 
 1 ACK 
 
 Ruins of Lake Village of Morigen, 
 Switzerland— Laid Bare bv Shoal- 
 ing ok Lake BiENNE, October, 1874. — 
 From a photograph 99 
 
 Arch^ological Proofs of the Existence 
 OF Prehistoric Man loi 
 
 Eight Progressive Stages of Human 
 Development, Illustrated in Fabri- 
 cation AND Materials of Lmple- 
 ments 103 
 
 Skull of Cave Bear 104 
 
 Skull of Cave Hyena 104 
 
 Landscape of the Miocene— Borderland 
 
 OF Man. — Drawn by Riou 106 
 
 Examples of Old Stone Workmanship — 
 Adzes OF New Zealand 107 
 
 Examples of New Stone Workmanship — 
 Hatchets of Yucatan. — Drawn by Eu- 
 gene Meunier 108 
 
 Examples of Prehistoric Workmanship, 
 from Bronze Age 109 
 
 Huge Animals Preceding the Ace of 
 Man. — I, Megatherium, restored ; 2, Dino- 
 therium 1 10 
 
 Animals Associated with Primeval ^L\N. 
 
 — Drawn by Riou 1 1 2 
 
 Example of Extreme Longevity— An 
 Eastern Sorceress,— Drawn byG. Vuil- 
 lier 115 
 
 Dog's Head, Showing Muscles for Mov- 
 ing iHE Ear which have become 
 Atrophied, through Disuse, in Man. 116 
 
 Bodily Forms of the Pyramid Builders, 
 Forty-three Centuries from the 
 Present. — Drawn by B. Strassberger, 
 from door of tomb at Cizeli 116 
 
 Bodily Forms of the Pyramid Builders, 
 Thirty-four Centuries from the 
 Present. — Drawn by Wiedenbach, from 
 sculptures of prisoners of war, time of 
 Thothmes HI m6 
 
 Ethnic Differentiation.— >Laria ok Cos 
 —European Type.- Drawn by E. Ron- 
 jat, from a photograph 117 
 
 Ethnic Differentiation. — The "Black 
 Flags " of Southern China— Asiatic 
 Types. — Drawn by Barbotin, from n photo- 
 graph iiS 
 
 Ethnic Differentiation. — Chief Ya- 
 BANDA and Family, of the Congo — 
 African Types. — Drawn by Madame 
 Paule Crampel, after a sketch of Nebout . 119 
 
 Valley of the Euphrates — One of the 
 Primitive Seats of Mankind. —Drawn 
 by Taylor, from a photograph by Madame 
 Dieubifoy 121 
 
 Progress of Pkimj.val M \n by Water. . 123 
 
 rAi;i! 
 
 The Age of Boats.— Earliest Naviga- 
 tors, of Neolithic Epoch 124 
 
 Differentiation of Languages Illus- 
 trated IN Ancient Styles of Writ- 
 ings 125 
 
 Thoth and Safekh (Goddess of History) 
 Writing the Deeds of Ramses H. — 
 Drawn by B. Strassberger 129 
 
 Egyptian Priest Teaching a Neophyte 
 IN the Temple. — Drawn by Weiden- 
 bach 133 
 
 View of Mount Othrys from Trikhali. 
 
 — Drawn by Dosso, after Stackelberg . . 135 
 
 Prometheus Vinctus. — After the painting 
 
 by F. Simm 137 
 
 Phenomena of Day and Night and 
 Season (Foundation of All Calen- 
 dars) 139 
 
 Time Instrument — Ancient Sundial . . 142 
 
 Time Instrument— Hourglass 142 
 
 Modern Time Instrument— Sundial . . 142 
 
 Stone Masonry on the Summits of the 
 Andes 145 
 
 Extreme of Ethnic Divergence— High- 
 est Type.- (i) Eros of Praxiteles. — 
 Drawn by C. Colb 148 
 
 Extreme of Ethnic Divergence— Lowest 
 Type —(2) Australian of the Towns- 
 VILLE Coast. — After a Danish drawing . 149 
 
 To People THE Earth,— Drawn by Riou. . 151 
 
 Highlands ok Armenia.— Drawn by Taylor, 
 
 after a photograph by Madame Carla Serena. 152 
 
 TheBiblical Paradise. — Drawn by Gustave 
 
 Dore 153 
 
 The Ceylonese Eden 155 
 
 An Ethiopian Eden — One of the Sup- 
 posed Places of the Beginning. — 
 Drawn byG. VuiUier 157 
 
 Westward Progress OF THE Semites . , 159 
 
 Section of European River Cavern, 
 Suitable for Deposition of Human 
 Remains 160 
 
 West Asian Landscape.— Source of the 
 Aryan Migrations into Europe. — 
 Drawn by Paul Langlois after a photo- 
 graph by Madame Carla Serena .... 161 
 
 Off the Coast of Eastern Asia— Origin 
 of Polynesian Dispersion.— Drawn by 
 Taylor, after a sketch of Berttolty. . . . 164 
 
 Evidence of Prehistoric Races in Amer- 
 ica— (i) Building of the Pueblos, 
 Restored 165 
 
 Evidence of Prehistoric Races in Amer- 
 ica— (2) Pyramidal Mound in Mexico. 166 
 
 Evidence of Prehistoric Races — (3) 
 Ruins ok Temple, in Titicaca in 
 America '07
 
 ILLUSTRATION'S IX VOLUME I. 
 
 XXIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Landscape of Ethnic Watershed. — 
 Mountains of Jobla.— Drawn l)y G. 
 
 Viiillier i68 
 
 Line of the Aryan Watershed.— Region 
 North of the Caspian. —Drawn by 
 
 Moynet 169 
 
 Line of Division between Ruddy and 
 Brown Races. — Coast of Arabian 
 
 Sea. — Drawn by G. Vuillier 171 
 
 Ideal Landscape of Lemuria. — Drawn by 
 
 Riou 173 
 
 Landscape in Beluchistan.— Deparfure 
 
 of the Brown Races 174 
 
 Hoffman's Sloths. — After a drawing from 
 
 life 175 
 
 Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroos .... 176 
 American Monkey with PrehensileTail. 179 
 
 Group OF Lemurs 180 
 
 Family OF Gorillas 181 
 
 Tailpiece for the Time and Place of 
 
 the Beginning 182 
 
 Headpiece for the Manner of the Be- 
 ginning .183 
 
 Manner of Man's Appearance. — Drawn 
 
 by Riou 184 
 
 The Traditional Eden 186 
 
 Age of Fishes, OR the " Fourth Day.". . 189 
 The Eden of Poetry.^ Milton's Vision 
 OF THE First Pair and Raphael. — 
 
 Drawn by Gustave Dore 192 
 
 One of the Primordial Conditions of 
 
 THE Globe 193 
 
 Charles Robert Darwin. — From the medal 
 
 by Alphonse Legros, Royal Academy, 1882. 198 
 Orange-Colored Monero^. — Showing 
 the seemingly Auto.matic Processes 
 
 of Germ Life 200 
 
 Manner of Germ Development dy Fis- 
 sion (Successive Stages Marked a, b, 
 
 c, d.) 207 
 
 Lower Limbs of Ungulate Animals — 
 Showing the Progressive Develop- 
 ment (Marked a, b, c, d, e) of Organs. 209 
 
 The Spectroscope 210 
 
 Solar Spectrum 210 
 
 Spectrum of Iodine Vapor 210 
 
 Variation of Animal Forms.— (i) Under 
 
 Nature— Common Wolf 213 
 
 Variation of Animal Forms.— (2) Under 
 
 Domestication— Italian Greyhound 214 
 Gorilla Taking Hold with Forefoot. . 215 
 Example of Rapid Multiplication. — 
 Burrow of Rap,bits.— Drawn by Giaco- 
 
 melli 218 
 
 Struggle of Life— The Strong Takes 
 
 his Prey.— Drawn by Stanley Berkeley . 220 
 Stunted Vegetation of Kamchatka . . 222 
 
 page 
 
 Man-life Limited by Battle with Ani- 
 mals 223 
 
 Northern Li.mit of Man-life. — King 
 William Land 224 
 
 British Isles and Surrounding Sea — 
 Showing how a Rise of Six Hundred 
 Feet would make Great Britain 
 Continental 225 
 
 Deer Head with Antlers in the " Vel- 
 vet." 227 
 
 Deer Head with Mature Antlers . . . 228 
 
 Diagram Showing the Manner of the 
 Production of Species. — From Dar- 
 win's Origin of Species 230 
 
 Progressive Development of Man.— (i) 
 Evolution Illustrated with Six 
 Skulls in Ascending Order .... 232 
 
 Progressive Development of Man. — (2) 
 Evolution Illustrated with the 
 Six Corresponding Living Forms . . 233 
 
 Jaw Bone of Cave Man, Found at Mou- 
 lin BY Boucher de Perthes, 1863.— 
 From the original in Paris museum . . . 235 
 
 Germinal Government Illustrated.— 
 Headmen of Tribe in Consultation. 
 — Drawn by Riou, from a photograph . . 239 
 
 Germinal Society. — Home of African 
 Chief Be.mbe. — Drawn by Madame Paule 
 Crampel 241 
 
 Evolution of Writing. — Hieroglyphics 
 Found in Cavern of Rocky Dell . . 244 
 
 The First Historians. — Drawn by Emile 
 
 Bayard 245 
 
 Progress from Instinct to Reason.^The 
 First Potters. — Drawn by Emile Bayard. 247 
 
 Beginning of Barbaric Religion. — The 
 T.4M-TAM. — Drawn by Riou, from a photo- 
 graph 250 
 
 FcETi OF Different Animals — Showing 
 THE Common Plan of Nature . . . 256 
 
 Vision of the Golden Age 260 
 
 Tailpiece for the Manner of the Be- 
 ginning 264 
 
 Headpiece for Primeval Man 265 
 
 Man in the Age of the Cave Bear. — 
 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard 266 
 
 Aspects of Barbaric Life.— Hut of Osti- 
 
 AKS. — Drawn by Durand Brager .... 267 
 
 Aspects of Barbaric Life. — Search for 
 
 the Skulls.— Drawn by Riou .... 268 
 
 Aspects of Barbaric Life. — Patagonians 
 
 Fishing.— Draw-n by Riou 269 
 
 Variability Illustrated in Multiple 
 Young of Same Mother. — Guinea 
 Pigs 271 
 
 Migratory Barbarism. — Camp of the 
 
 Kirgheez. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . 272
 
 XXX 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IlSf VOLUME T. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sedentary Barbarism.— House of Green- 
 land Esquimau 273 
 
 Ideal Landscape of the Age of Reptiles. 
 
 — Drawn by Riou 275 
 
 Diagram of the Tertiary and Post- 
 Tertiary Periods, Showing the Geo- 
 logical Place of the Cave Dwellers. 276 
 Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous 
 
 Period. — Drawn by Riou 277 
 
 Ideal Landscape of the Pleistocene 
 
 Period (Age of Man).— Drawn by Riou. 278 
 Implements and Ornaments Used by 
 Primeval Man, in the Order of the 
 
 Materials Employed 279 
 
 Manufacture of Flint Implements by 
 Prehistoric Man. — Drawn by Emile 
 
 Bayard 280 
 
 Pal.'eolithic Flint Implements, from 
 
 HoxNE 281 
 
 Primeval Man— Chase in the Reindeer 
 
 Period. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 2S2 
 Examples of Neolithic Workmanship. . 283 
 Primeval Man — Founders of the Age of 
 
 Bronze. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 284 
 Manners OF Prehistoric Peoples.— Feast 
 IN the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by 
 
 Emile Bayard 285 
 
 Examples OF Bronze Workmanship. . .287 
 Examples OF Iron Workmanship. . . .288 
 Man Cavern in Galeinreuth, Bavaria . 289 
 Grotto and Rock Shelter of Bruniquel 
 — An Abodeof Primeval Man. — Drawn 
 
 by Riou 292 
 
 The Engis Skull 293 
 
 The Neanderthal Skull 294 
 
 Head of Cave Bear 295 
 
 Sketch of Cave Bear, Drawn on a Stone 
 Found IN the Cave of Masset . . .296 
 
 Mammoth, Restored 297 
 
 Feast During the Epoch of the Rein- 
 deer. — Drawn by Emile Bayard .... 298 
 The Irish Elk (Megaceros Hibernicus). 299 
 Part of the Vertebra of a Cow . . . .301 
 Corresponding Part of Vertebra of the 
 
 Bison 301 
 
 Hunt of the Wild Boar.— Drawn by Emile 
 
 Bayard 302 
 
 Paleolithic Daggers 303 
 
 pali€olithic axes from the shell 
 
 Mounds 304 
 
 Flint Arrowpoints from the Bone Cav- 
 erns 305 
 
 Fine PaL;€olithic Arrowpoints . . . .305 
 Prehistoric Man of the Neolithic Age. 
 
 — Drawn by Emile Bayard 306 
 
 Modern Lake Village, at Sowek. — Drawn 
 
 by E. Mesples 310 
 
 pags 
 Swiss Lake Village, Restored.— Drawn 
 
 by Riou 311 
 
 Axes of PrehistiTric Man, Showing 
 Stages of I.mprovement from Stone 
 
 TO Bronze 313 
 
 StoneHatchet WITH Socket and Handle 315 
 
 Chipped Flint Arrowhead 315 
 
 Flint Hatchet Fitted with Stag's Horn 
 
 Handle 315 
 
 Pickax of Stag's Horn 315 
 
 Extinct Manufactory OF Pottery, in the 
 
 Glacier Garden, at Lucerne . . . 316 
 Swiss Lake Village of the Age of 
 
 Bronze. — Drawn by Riou 318 
 
 Specimens of Fine Workmanship in 
 
 Bronze 319 
 
 Kitchen MiddenersandtheirDwellings 321 
 WoRKMANSHiPOF THE Kitchen MiDDENERs 322 
 
 Danish Shell-Mound Axes 324 
 
 Finds from the Kitchen Middens . . . 325 
 Paleolithic River-drift Spearheads. . 327 
 Paleolithic River-drift Lanceheads 
 and Ax of Archa'i'c Patterns . . . 329 
 
 Menhir, at Croisie, France 332 
 
 Danish Dolmen 332 
 
 Cromlech of Halskov, Denmark. . . . 333 
 
 Danish Tumulus 333 
 
 Prehistoric Graveyard of Quaternary 
 Period, near Littai, in Carniola, 
 
 Austria 334 
 
 Burial Urns (Enlarged from Preceding 
 
 Cut) 335 
 
 View of Stonehenge 335 
 
 Ground Plan of Danish Cromlech. . . 336 
 Ground Plan of Danish Dolmen. . . . 336 
 
 Sepulchral Stone Circle 336 
 
 Position of Skeletons in a Tomb of the 
 
 Stone Age 336 
 
 Funeral in the Paleolithic Age. — 
 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard 337 
 
 Funeral in the Neolithic Age.— Drawn 
 
 by Emile Bayard 338 
 
 Funeral Feast in the Age of Bronze. — 
 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard 339 
 
 Funeral of a Chieftain in the Age of 
 
 Iron. — From the Magazine of Art . . . 341 
 Tumulus with Stone Entrance, near 
 
 Ubi, Denmark 342 
 
 Ruins of Carnac, Bretagne 343 
 
 Broken Sepulchral Urn, Showing Incin- 
 erated Remains 344 
 
 Incineration of the Dead, in the Age 
 OF THE Tumuli.— Drawn by Emile Bay- 
 ard 345 
 
 Great Mound near Miamisburg, Ohio. . 347 
 Earthworks at Cedar Bank, Ohio . . . 348 
 Plan of Square Mound, near Marietta. 349
 
 ILLUSTRATION'S IN VOLUME I. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Earthworks at Hopeton, Ohio .... 349 
 
 Great Serpent Mound, IN AdamsCountv, 
 Ohio 350 
 
 Fort Hill, Butler County, Ohio. . . .351 
 
 Vases from Mounds 352 
 
 Military Works on Paint Creek, Ohio . 353 
 
 Pottery of the Mound Builders. — From 
 
 Magazine 0/ Art 354 
 
 Aztec Ruins at Palenque, in Chiapas, 
 Mexico 356 
 
 Aztec Structure— Arch of Las Monjas. 358 
 
 Central American Antiquities — 
 Double-headed Figure of the Casa 
 DEL Gobernador 359 
 
 Sculpture of the Toltecs — From the 
 Ruins of COPAN 360 
 
 Central American Structure — Cir- 
 cular Edifice at Mayapan . . . .361 
 
 Quichuan Architecture — Remains of 
 Fortress Walls, at Cuzco 362 
 
 Pueblo Structure.— Ruins in the Val- 
 ley of the Gila 363 
 
 Old Peruvian Structure. — Ruins of 
 Fortress. ON Titicaca Island . . . 364 
 
 Man and Woman of the Reindeer Epoch. 
 
 — Drawn by Eniile Bayard 366 
 
 Beginningsof Metallurgy.— A Primitive 
 Smithy. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 367 
 
 Persistency of Ethnic Features. — (i) 
 Ancient Hebrew Shepherd with 
 Sling.— Drawn by H. A. Harper. . . . 370 
 
 Persistency of Ethnic Features.— (2) 
 Modern Arab Wearing the Aba. — 
 Drawn by Paul Hardy 371 
 
 Persistency of Customs — Mourning 
 Women of Old Egypt. — From the en- 
 tablature found in the tomb of Ptah-Hotep, 
 at Thebes 373 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated— Ancient Fish- 
 ing Scene. — Drawn by Riou 375 
 
 Example of Race Deterioration — Rub- 
 bish-Bearer OF Egypt. — Drawn by Gus- 
 tave Richter 377 
 
 Example of Race Deterioration — Ro- 
 man Beggars 378 
 
 Barbarian Life Illustrated.— Chase in 
 the Age of Bronze. — Drawn by Riou . 380 
 
 Three Stages of Civilization Illus- 
 trated — Sketch from Fort Laramie. 382 
 
 Native Australian from the Darling 
 River (Headdress OF Feathers) . . 385 
 
 Types of Savagery — Bushman Woman 
 and Children. . . 385 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated — The South 
 African Manner. — Bushmen Making 
 Poison for their Arrows. — Drawn by 
 Y. Pranishnil<off. from a description . . . 386 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated — The Polyne- 
 sian Manner. — Drill of Arfak War- 
 riors. — Drawn by E. Mesples, from a de- 
 scription 391 
 
 Manner of Producing Fire 392 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated. — Fijian in a Ba- 
 nana Grove. — Drawn by Thiriat. from a 
 photograph 394 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated. — Esquimau 
 Huts at Etah. — Drawn by A. de 
 Neuville 395 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated — The North 
 American Manner. — The Ghost 
 Dance. — Drawn by J. Steeple Davis. . . 396 
 
 Barbarism Illustrated — The South 
 American Manner. — Extermination 
 OF THE Crevaux Mission. — Drawn by 
 Riou, from a description 398 
 
 Art Work of Barbarians 399 
 
 Art Work of the Esquimaux — Drawing 
 on Bone and Ivory 402 
 
 Semibarbarism Illustrated — North 
 African Manner. — Sword Dance of 
 THE Moors. — After the painting by P. 
 Ivanovitch, Paris, 1890 405 
 
 Pictorial Work of THE Esquimaux. . .406 
 
 Nonprogressive State of Barbarism. — 
 Chippewas OF Sault Sainte Marie. . 407 
 
 Progressive Element in- Barbarism — 
 Illustrated in Weapons of New 
 Zealanders 408 
 
 Unprogressive Condition — Mincopa 
 Man, from the Andaman Islands. 409 
 
 Tailpiece for Primeval Man 410 
 
 Headpiece for Distribution of the 
 Races 411 
 
 A Method of Migration. — Eastern Cara- 
 van. — Drawn by W. J. Morgan . . . .412 
 
 Cushite Type — Sheik of Chamars.— 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph 
 by Mougal -'413 
 
 Indo-European Type— The Sultan Ma- 
 COUD Mirza.— Drawn by H. Thiriat, from 
 a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy . . .415 
 
 Semitic Type— The Arab Beni Laam. — 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph 
 by Madame Dieulafoy 416 
 
 Hamitic Type — The Egyptian Sais.— 
 
 Drawn by A. de Bar 417 
 
 Altaian Type- Old Tarantchi. — Drawn 
 
 by E. Ronjat, from a photograph . . . .418 
 
 West Aryan Type— Alcibiades .... 419 
 
 Turanian Type— Kirgheez Falconer. — 
 Drawn by Delort, from a photograph and 
 description 422 
 
 Ganowanian Types — Ucayli Indians.— 
 
 Drawn by P. Fritel ......... 423
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I. 
 
 Sea Negro Types — Natives of Dorey. — 
 Drawn l)y P. Sellier, after a sketch of Du- 
 mont d' Urville 424 
 
 Esquimau Types 425 
 
 Nubian Boy — Type. — Drawn by Ishmacl 
 Gentz 426 
 
 Cranial Configuration, Showing \'akia- 
 TiONS IN Human Form 427 
 
 Papuan Type, Showing Crisp Hair . . . 428 
 
 American Indian Type, Showing 
 
 SlRAlCiHT Hair. — Drawn by Riou . . 428 
 
 Nigritian Types, Showing Woolly Haiu. 
 
 — Drawn by Madame Paule Cranipel . . 429 
 English Type (Mrs. Siddons), SHf)wiNG 
 
 Wavy Hair 430 
 
 The Ruddy Type — Paul Crampel. — 
 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph . 431 
 The Urown Type — Mistress Senki.— 
 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat 432 
 
 The IJlack Type— Negro Makatui.u. — 
 
 Drawn by Riou 434 
 
 Landscape OF the Noachite Dispersion. 
 
 — Benuer-DileM.— Drawn by Taylor, 
 after a sketch of Houssay 436 
 
 The Faihers of " Such as Dwell in 
 Tents "—Old Semitic Types. . . .438 
 
 Mesopotamian Landscape.— Viewof Mos- 
 
 SUL. — Drawn by E. Flandin 440 
 
 In Kurdistan.— View of Little Ararai, 
 with Group of Kurds in Foreground. 
 
 — Drawn by Alfred Paris 442 
 
 Hamitic Ruins at Djama Sidi Okha. — 
 
 Drawn by H. Saladin, from a photograph . 446 
 
 Pass in the Zagros Mountains.— Drawn 
 
 by D. Lancelot, from a photograph . . . 448 
 
 Land of ihe Joktanians. — Mountain 
 View in Hasa and Camp near Hail. — 
 Drawn by G. Vuilhcr 451 
 
 Desert Country of the Syrian Borders. 
 — The Plain of Tortose. — Drawn by 
 A. de Bar, from a photograph by Lockroy . 453 
 
 Route of the Hamite Migration, near 
 Suez.— Lake Timsah.— Drawn by Dom 
 Grenet 455 
 
 Vertical Section of the Great Pyramid 
 from South to North 457 
 
 Tunisian Coast.— Gulf of Hammamet.— 
 Drawn by Eugene Girardet, after a sketch 
 of Saladin 459 
 
 Hamitic Type of the Upper Niger— Bam- 
 Barra. — Drawn by Riou, after a sketch of 
 Valliere 461 
 
 Ruins and Plain of Mugheir, — Drawn by 
 W. H. Boot 464 
 
 Land of the Arphaxad.— View of Ko- 
 PANS Kale.— Drawn by T. Deyrolle, from 
 nature . 465 
 
 pac.f. 
 Diagram showing Tribal Relationships 
 
 OF JOKTAN and ISHMAEL 467 
 
 Arafat during a Pilgrimage (Land of 
 Ophir). — Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a 
 photograph 468 
 
 Life of the Abrahamites — Shepherd 
 
 with Lambs. — Drawn by Paul Hardy. . 469 
 
 "Land of the Scorched Faces." — Abu 
 Senoum, on Frontier of Kordofan, 
 toward Darfur.— Drawn by Karl Girar- 
 det, after a sketch of Lejean 471 
 
 Landscape of Old Arya. — Ruins of Tous. 
 
 — Drawn by A. de Bar, from a photograph. 474 
 
 Pass OF the Araxes 475 
 
 Old Median Types — The Sassanian 
 Princes (of the Sculptures). — Drawn 
 by H. Chapuis, from a photograph by Ma- 
 dame Dieulafoy 477 
 
 Gaieway of the East Aryans into India 
 — The Bolan Pass 478 
 
 Typeofthe Ancient Brahm — Leper King 
 OF Angcor Wat. — Drawn by E. Tour- 
 nois, after a sketch of Delaporte .... 481 
 
 Karakalpack Types — Two Usbeks. — 
 
 Drawn by A. Ferdinandus 483 
 
 Caucasian Types —Georgian Women.— 
 Drawn by Eugene Burnand, from a photo- 
 graph 484 
 
 Route of West Aryans through Asia 
 Minor. — Pass of Hadjin, in Cappa- 
 DOCIA. — Drawn I)y Grandsire, after Lang- 
 lois 487 
 
 Route of the Greek Aryans into Hel- 
 las. — Pass of Kalabaka, Thessaly. — 
 Drawn by Taylor, from a photograph . . 489 
 
 Modern Achaean Type — Odysse — Drawn 
 
 by E. Ronjat, from a photograph. . . . 491 
 
 Route of the Gr^^co-Italicans.— Seben- 
 ico, on the Dalmatian Coast. — 
 Drawn by Charles W. Wyllie 492 
 
 Land of the Ancient Ligurians— Massa, 
 
 near CaRRAR.\. — Drawn by J. Fulleylove. 494 
 
 The Celtic Vanguard, of the Age of 
 
 Bronze. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 497 
 
 Oldest Celtic Types.- From the Gaulish 
 
 bas-reliefs found at Entremont. near Aix . 498 
 
 The Frankish Vanguard. — Drawn by 
 
 Emile Bayard 501 
 
 Northern Limit of the Aryan Disper- 
 sion. — View in Upper Norway. — 
 Drawn by Myrbach. from a photograph . 503 
 
 Route of the Dravidian Dispersion — 
 Gorge and Fortress of Arderbend. 
 — Drawn by A. de Bar, after a sketch by 
 Blocqueville 506 
 
 Land of theDr AVI DiANS.— Cape CoMORiN, 
 India 507
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I. 
 
 XZXIII 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Modern Dravidians — Kota Types. — 
 
 Drawn by P. Fritel, from a photograph . 510 
 
 The Malayo-Chinese Dispersion. — Nom- 
 ads OF the Oasis of Merv. — Drawn by 
 Y. Pranishnikoff, from a photograph. . .511 
 
 View in Easter Island — Images at Rono- 
 
 BORAK. — Drawn by E. Meusier . . . .512 
 
 Route OF the Mongolian Distribution. 
 — Thian-Shan Mountains. — Dmwn by 
 Riou 514 
 
 Chute of TchimboulaC. — Drawn by D. 
 
 Lancelot, after Atkinson 515 
 
 Off the Coast of Corea.— Drawn by Theo- 
 dore Weber, after Zuber 516 
 
 Coast of Madagascar and View of Ma- 
 JONCA. — Limit of the Brown Disper 
 SION. — Drawn by De Berard 519 
 
 Route OF theOrari AN Dispersion. — Peril 
 
 Straits. — Drawn by Theodore Weber. . 520 
 
 Route OF THE Chontal Dispersion South- 
 ward. — Coast of Panama. — Drawn by 
 De Berard 521 
 
 Type of American Mongoloids — The 
 
 Indian Barre. — Drawn by Riou . . . 522 
 
 Type of A.merican Mongoloids— Mon- 
 durnca Indian Woman 523 
 
 Meurka.— Drawn by Y. Pranishnikoff . . . 526 
 
 Bambarra Types. — Drawn by Emile Bayard. 527 
 
 Bantu Type— Chief N'doumba. — Drawn by 
 Riou 529 
 
 Bechuana Type — A Pahouin.— Drawn by 
 
 Riou 5JI 
 
 Australian Type — Jokhai. — Drawn by To- 
 
 fani -33 
 
 Papuan Types— Male and Female Heads. 
 
 — Drawn by E. M^sples 534 
 
 Type of Ruddy Race Approximated to 
 Brown — A Native of Madras. — 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard 538 
 
 Approximation of Black and Brown 
 Races— The Moor Faghe.— Drawn by 
 E. Ronjat ..." 541 
 
 Approximation of the Ruddy and 
 Brown Races — Don Mariano Teran, 
 Priest of Coporaque. — Drawn by Riou. 
 from a photograph 541 
 
 Mixed Types— Mexican Women.— Drawn 
 
 by Riou 544 
 
 The Horde. — Entrance of the Moors 
 into Alcazar 547 
 
 Modification of the Natural World by 
 Man. — View of the Fortifications 
 of Belfort. — Drawn hv Taylor, from a 
 photograph 550 
 
 Unmodified Environment of Man. — 
 View of Sonmarc.— Drawn by G. Vuil- 
 lier, from a photograph 552 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Inability of Blacks to Modify Environ- 
 ment.— African Town on River. — 
 Drawn by Riou 554 
 
 Modification of Environment by Appli- 
 cation OF Natural Forces.— Hy- 
 draulic Mining 557 
 
 Mastery of Man by Nature.— A Boat 
 Wreck 560 
 
 Mastery of Nature by Man. — A Screw 
 Steamer at Sea 561 
 
 Semite Contemplating Nature.— Drawn 
 
 by Paul Hardy 563 
 
 The Blacks Fear Nature — Storm in 
 African Forest. — Drawn by Riou . . 565 
 
 The Tarpan (First Remove from the 
 . Primitive Horse) 568 
 
 An Arab Steed (Greatest Remove from 
 Pri.mitive Type). — Drawn by T. F. Zim- 
 mermann 569 
 
 LowIndustrialEstateofthe Brown and 
 Black Races. — Post of the Grand 
 TalibouCHE. — Drawn by Y. Pranishnikoff. 575 
 
 Tailpiece for Distribution of the 
 Races 576 
 
 Headpiece FOR THE Iranians 577 
 
 Iranian Landscape. — Plateau of Mali- 
 MIR. — Drawn by G. VuiUier, from a photo- 
 graph 578 
 
 Animal Life of Persia. — Mountain Sheep 
 OF Kerout. — Drawn by Tofani, after a 
 photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. . . . 579 
 
 Animal Life of Persia. — An Ox of the 
 Bishopric. — Drawn by A. L. Clement, 
 after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 580 
 
 Remains of Iranian Building.— Ruins of 
 the Palace of Darius, at Persepolis. 
 — Drawn by A. Deroy, after a photograph 
 by Madame Dieulafoy 581 
 
 Persian King Worshiping Ahura-Maz- 
 dAo 584 
 
 Fire Altars of the Old Zoroastrians. 
 
 — From Magazine of Art 586 
 
 Parsee Temple of Fire at Atech-Ga. — 
 
 Drawn by M. Moynet 587 
 
 Fire Tower of Atech-Ga, at Firouz- 
 Abad. — Drawn by Taylor, after the restora- 
 tion by Madame Dieulafoy 588 
 
 GuEBER Ceremonies at Temple of Atech- 
 Ga, near Bakan. — Drawn by M. Moynet. 592 
 
 Present State of Fire Towers at Atech- 
 Ga. — Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph 
 by Madame Dieulafoy 594 
 
 Iranian Family Type. — Drawn by Tofani, 
 
 after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 596 
 
 Oldest Type of the Married Woman — A 
 Chaldean. — Drawn by Mile, de Lancelot, 
 after a sketch by Madame Dieulafoy . . . 598
 
 XXXIV 
 
 ILLUKTRATroXS r.V VOLUME T. 
 
 Form of Royal Tomb in Polygamous 
 Country. — Drawn by Taylor, from a 
 photograph 6oi 
 
 Polygamous Father and his Sons. — 
 Fattally Chah.— Drawn by H. Chapuis, 
 after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy . 603 
 
 Plateau of Iran.— Threshing Wheat.— 
 
 Drawn by Laurent Desrousseaux .... 606 
 
 Old Median Type— Cyrus the Great.— 
 Drawn by Madame Dieulafoy after the 
 sculpture 607 
 
 Type of Ancient Iranian King— Darius 
 AND the Lion. — Heliogravure, altera 
 photograph from the sculptures, by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 60S 
 
 Court of Persian Monarch (Royal 
 Palace of Ispahan) 609 
 
 Median Soldiers.— Gravure by Bazin, after 
 
 a photograph of the bas-relief of Chapour. 610 
 
 Perso-Mohammedan Types— Arab Chief 
 in the House of a Sheik. — Drawn by 
 E. Ronjat, after a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy ... 611 
 
 Specimen Pace from Armenian Book . .613 
 
 Scene m Armenia. — Rock of Van. — Drawn 
 
 by Th. Deyrolle, from nature 614 
 
 Armenian Archbishop — Type. — Drawn by 
 
 Y. Pranishnik&ff 615 
 
 Armenian Family — Types. — Drawn by A. 
 Sirouy, after a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 616 
 
 Tomb on the Border of Karoun. — Drawn 
 by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 617 
 
 Mourners Wailing. — Drawn by Y. Pranish- 
 nikoff, after a sketch of Madame Carla 
 Serena 618 
 
 Bakhtiyari Types. — Drawn by C. Vuillier, 
 
 from a photograph 619 
 
 USBEK and Tajik Types. — Drawn by A. 
 
 Fetdinandus 620 
 
 Kurd Types. — Drawn by F. Courboin, from a 
 
 photograph 621 
 
 Falconer of the Sheik.— Hindu-Persian 
 Types and Costumes. — Drawn by A. 
 Sirouy, from a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 622 
 
 Mussulman Nurses and Child— Types 
 and Costumes. — Drawn by Adrien 
 Marie, from a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 624 
 
 Young Lady of Ispahan— Type. — Drawn 
 by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by 
 Madame Dieulafoy 625 
 
 Archit£cture of the Persians.— Tomb 
 OF Iman Mousa, at Kazhe.meine. — 
 Drawn by Barclay, from a photograph . . 626 
 
 page 
 
 Persian Structure.— Tomb of Zobeide.— 
 Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a photograph 
 by Madame Dieulafoy 627 
 
 Specimen Page of Persian Bocjk .... 628 
 
 Nasr ed din Shah— Royal Type and Cos- 
 tume. — Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photo- 
 graph 629 
 
 Types AND Costumes of the Zagros High- 
 lands.— Mutcheid of TaURIS AND his 
 Officers. — Drawn by Tofani 630 
 
 Fanatical Type and Costume.— Dervish 
 OF the Tiger-Skin. — Drawn by A. Ferdi- 
 nandus, from a photograph by Madame 
 Dieulafoy 631 
 
 HuzAREH Types. — Afkidis Attacking 
 English Troops.— Drawn by Emile Bay- 
 ard 633 
 
 Persian Scholar — Type. — Haji Mirza- 
 Ughazzi 634 
 
 Northern Beluchs— Types. — Mountain- 
 eers OF the W'estern Himalayas. — 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard, from a photo- 
 graph 636 
 
 Wo.MEN OF Chiraz— Types and Costumes. 
 — Drawn by Adrien Marie, from a photo- 
 graph by Madame Dieulafoy 637 
 
 Domestic Manners of the Beluchs. — In- 
 terior OF Tent. — Drawn by Emile Bay- 
 ard, after Vambery 638 
 
 Tailpiece for the Iranians 640 
 
 Headpiece for the Indicans 641 
 
 View in Sapta Sindhu.— The Mounchi- 
 Bagh. — Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a 
 photograph 642 
 
 In the Valley of the Ganges.— River 
 and Boat Scene. — Drawn by T. Gail- 
 drau, from nature 645 
 
 Primitive Building of the Indus Valley. 
 — House in the Koulou. — Drawn by G. 
 Vuillier, from a photograph 647 
 
 Modern Houses of the Sapta Sindhu. — 
 Village in the Koulou.— Drawn byG. 
 Vuillier, from a photograph 648 
 
 House People OF Arya— The Duhitar. . 650 
 
 House People of Arya— The Tillers of 
 THE Soil 651 
 
 House People of Arya— The Agricul- 
 tural Life 653 
 
 Boating by Moonlight on the Indus.— 
 Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photograph 
 by Burke 655 
 
 Sakya Muni 659 
 
 God of Fire 659 
 
 Sculptures from a Porch at Karll- 
 Drawn by H. Catenacci, after Grand- 
 sire 660 
 
 Kami-Rati 663
 
 ILLUSTEATIOXS IX VOLT WE I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Brahma as the Four-faced Buddha. — 
 Drawn by E. Tournois, after a sketcli of 
 Delaporte 664 
 
 Cycle of Transmigrations According to 
 A Thibetan Image 665 
 
 The Sacred Cow of India. — Drawn by A. 
 
 de Neuville 667 
 
 Vishnu in the Form of a Boar 668 
 
 Siva as Man and Woman 669 
 
 Nepal Buddha in Bronze. — Drawn by 
 P. 5e"ier, from the collection of Le 
 Bon 670 
 
 Indican Funeral Pyre and Suttee. — 
 
 After a Persian miniature 671 
 
 Indian Devotees. — Jogees Wounding 
 The.mselves. — Drawn by Emile Bayard, 
 from a photograph 672 
 
 Car of Juggernaut. — Drawn by A. de Neu- 
 ville, from a photograph 673 
 
 Sacrifice to the Ganges. — Drawn by Emile 
 
 Bayard 675 
 
 A SiVAiTE Brahman — Type. — Drawn by F. 
 
 Regamey 677 
 
 A Second Caste Pundit— Type 678 
 
 Third Caste Type— Landowner of Kou- 
 MAN. — Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photo- 
 graph 679 
 
 Low Caste Type — Dancing Woman, or 
 Bayadere 679 
 
 Sontals of Behar — Types. — Drawn by 
 
 Emile Bayard, from a photograph . . . 680 
 
 View in the Punjab, Showing the Gov- 
 ernor's Residence at Simla. — Drawn 
 by G. Vuillier, from a photograph. . . .681 
 
 Old Dravidian Types — Khond Chief- 
 tains 683 
 
 Specimen Page OF Tamil Book 6S4 
 
 Group of Landakis. or Hill Hindus — 
 Types. — Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a 
 photograph by De Frith 6S5 
 
 High-Caste Hindu (Anant Ram, Prime 
 Minister)— Type. — Drawn by E. Ronjat, 
 from a photograph by Burke 686 
 
 Mussulman of Cashmere— Type.— Drawn 
 
 hv E. Zier, from a photograph by Burke . 687 
 
 Hindu Princes — Types. — The Maharajah 
 and his Court. — Drawn by E. Ronj'at, 
 from a photograph by Burke 688 
 
 View in the Himalayas. — A Mountain 
 Village. — Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a 
 photograph by Baker 691 
 
 Animal Life of India. — Stag Slain by a 
 Tiger. — Drawn by A. de Neuville, after 
 Delaporte 692 
 
 Rhinoceros Fight at Baroda. — Drawn by 
 
 Emile Bayard 693 
 
 Indian Buffaloes. — Drawn by Mesvel. . .694 
 .S 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Deadly Serpents of India.- -The Bunja- 
 
 Ris Fasciatus. — Drawn by R. Kretschner 695 
 
 The Tiger Hunt. — Drawn by Tanley Berke- 
 ley, from nature 696 
 
 Elephant Fight at Baroda. — Drawn by 
 
 Emile Bayard 698 
 
 Scene in the Indian V.a.lleys. — Village 
 of Pertcembokern. — Drawn by Riou, 
 from a photograph 700 
 
 Coolies at the Cotton Market in Bo.m- 
 bay 702 
 
 Indigo Factory at Allahabad.— Drawn 
 
 by E. Therond 703 
 
 Opium Manufactory. — Drawn by A. Sirouy, 
 
 from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy . 704 
 
 Tea Plantation in the Valley of Kan- 
 GR.\. — Drawn by Paul Langlois, from a 
 photograph 705 
 
 Aspects of Indian Life. — Repose at 
 Noonday. — Drawn by F. Regamey, from 
 nature 707 
 
 Dyers of Lucknow. — Drawn by A. Duvivier. 709 
 
 Aspects of Indian Life. — Dance of the 
 Bayaderes. — Drawn by F. Regamey, 
 from the scene 711 
 
 Hindu Jeweler at Work. — Drawn by A. 
 de Neuville 712 
 
 Diamond Mine of Punnah. — Drawn by 
 ^EmiJe Bayard 714 
 
 Copper Vessels of Hindu Workmanship. 
 
 — Drawn by Schmidt, from the originals , 715 
 
 Specimen of Sanskrit 717 
 
 Sacred Inscription from the Veda . . 717 
 
 Variant Forms of Sa.vskrit — i, Hindi; 2, 
 
 Punjabi 718 
 
 View in Cashmere. — Valley of the Tir- 
 tan. — Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photo- 
 graph by Bourne 719 
 
 Aspects of Cashmerian Life. — Dancing 
 Girl of Serinagur. — Drawn by Emile 
 Bayard 72c 
 
 Specimen of Mahratti 721 
 
 Group of Mahrattas— Types 722 
 
 Peasants of the Doab — Types. — Drav^m by 
 
 Emile Bayard, from a photograph. . . . 723 
 
 Speci.men Page of Hindi Book 724 
 
 Attendants of the R.^jah and Guard of 
 Tanjore— Types. — Drawn by F. Rega- 
 mey, from the subjects 725 
 
 Indian Architecture — Flat-Roof Struc- 
 ture. — Bazaar of Khoja Svnd. — 
 Drawn by H. Clerget 727 
 
 Indian Architecture — Elaboration of 
 Ornament — Gopuram. — Drawn by F. 
 Regamey, from the original 728 
 
 Marriage of Siva and Parvati. — From 
 
 the cave of Elephanta 720
 
 FL LUSTRATION'S IHT VOLUME T. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Indian Architecture.— The Taj Mahal, 
 
 Agra. — Drawn by E. Therond .... 730 
 
 Dress of the Hindus — Princess of 
 Agra 73^ 
 
 Manners of the Hindus.— Reception at 
 THE Court of the Begum. — Drawn by 
 A. de Neuville 733 
 
 Superstitions of the Hindus. — Amulets 
 taken from the Body of Tippu 
 Saib 735 
 
 Hindu Fakir, Carrying Circlets of Iron 
 ABOUT his Neck. — Drawn by Emile Bay- 
 ard, from a photograph 736 
 
 Indian Prince— Type.— The Maharajah 
 OF GwALiOR. — Drawn by A. de Neuville. 738 
 
 tkea 
 
 Soldiers of the Rajah of Baroda— 
 
 Types. — Drawn by Emile Bayard . . . 740 
 
 Group of Hindu Weapons of War . . .741 
 
 View in Bengal. — Esplanade in Cal- 
 cutta. — Drawn by J. Gaildrau .... 742 
 
 Agricultural Life in India.— Ghaddis 
 Cultivators. — Drawn by E. Zier, from a 
 photograph by 5- Bourne 744 
 
 Benjari Gypsies — Types. — Drawn by A de 
 
 Neuville, from a photograph 746 
 
 Gypsy Tribe on the March. — Drawn by A. 
 
 de Neuville 747 
 
 The Pariah Djongal of Sarguja— Type. 
 
 — Drawn by Emile Bayard 749 
 
 Tailpiece for the Indicans 750
 
 General Introduction. 
 
 ANKIND is not an 
 
 event, but a producing 
 force. The history of 
 the human race, there- 
 fore, differs essentially 
 from the history of 
 events. The one is 
 the story of man-life as such, and the 
 other an account of the results and prod- 
 ucts of that life under the dominion of 
 instinct and reason. The first relates 
 to our race as a living entity, and the 
 Subjective and sccond to the works which 
 oSi:S?st"' men have accomplished, 
 tory. The one looks constantly 
 
 to the agent out of whose activities all 
 events have arisen, and the other to the 
 events themselves. The first may be 
 called the subjective, and the other the 
 objective phase of human story. These 
 distinctions are fundamental to an un- 
 derstanding of the inquiry upon which 
 we are here to enter. 
 
 In considering the subjects proper to 
 Ethnic History, the reader will not have 
 The objective proceeded far before he 
 ^^e^rvoiXn of Will discover that they dif- 
 events. f gr toto ccelo from the themes 
 
 of general history. The latter begins 
 with the movements and results of or- 
 ganized society. It relates to the cir- 
 cumstances of national life. It takes 
 into consideration the connections of 
 state with state, kingdom with kingdom, 
 power with power, and the phenomena 
 resulting from internal development and 
 foreign contact. It seizes the visible 
 aspects of human affairs, and deals with 
 them as the products of the wills and 
 purposes of peoples. It dwells upon the 
 v/orks of man associated, the conse- 
 
 quences of his exertion, the tangibili- 
 ties of his civil and political life, and in 
 particular the national features of his 
 communities and governments. It is 
 an account of the evolution of institu- 
 tions, the fruits of those institutions, the 
 manner in which those fruits are gather- 
 ed and consumed, and the successions 
 and cycles through which all organic 
 forms produced by the desires and 
 ambitions of mankind pass in the course 
 of their fulfillment. 
 
 It is not meant that general history is 
 limited to the consideration of the public 
 
 life of mankind. Thelim- General history 
 
 itation relates to the objec- obficurtuJ^ rf 
 ti vity of the facts and events society, 
 which constitute the subject-matter and 
 determine the character of such history. 
 Certain it is that the greater part of the 
 historical writings of the world have 
 been devoted to public affairs. They 
 have dealt with peoples as a whole, with 
 their organized activities, with their 
 forms of government and methods of 
 administration, with aspects and displays 
 of power well calculated to fix the atten- 
 tion and interest of the inquirer. General 
 history has been made to deal with 
 organizations as a fact, with civil and 
 military affairs, with those movements 
 and institutions which, on the one hand, 
 conduce to the power of nations, or, on 
 the other hand, sap and destroy them, 
 and with all the ostensible agencies of 
 peace and war. 
 
 Recent history, however, has not con- 
 tented itself with this cycle of discussion. 
 On the contrary, it has descended from 
 the story of affairs to the story of the 
 people, taking into consideration the
 
 XXXVIII 
 
 'GEXERAL LXTRODUCTION. 
 
 manners, customs, social institutions, 
 commerce, and intellectual progress of 
 Thenewmeth- the vadous nations. Nev- 
 "atru^'fbu^r ertheless. the narrative has 
 etm objective, still Continued to deal -with 
 objectivities, with products, and results. 
 This has been as true of our so-called 
 histories of the people as it is true of 
 the older histories which deal exclusivel)* 
 with public affairs to the neglect of 
 the common lot. The difference be- 
 tween the old and the new narrative has 
 been the difference between a public 
 history — an account of public affairs — 
 and a social and domestic history — an 
 account of the private, domestic, and 
 social affairs and institutions of the given 
 people. The change from the old to the 
 new has not been really a change of 
 method, but only of subject-matter. It 
 has not reversed the point of view, turn- 
 ing the attention of the inquirer from 
 the products of man's agency to the man 
 himself, but has been content with the 
 substitution of a new class of facts for 
 those formerly in vogue with historians. 
 
 From all this ethnic history departs 
 as if by a whole horizon. The story of 
 Ethnic history the human race — the true 
 esSSsof Story-has not to do with 
 face-life. the results of human activ- 
 
 ity on the earth, but rather with the 
 race itself. The race, and not the event, 
 is the subject-matter of the inquiry. 
 The attention is fixed not on the prod- 
 ucts of human will and activity, but on 
 mankind as such. 
 
 The river in its course from the hieh- 
 lands to the sea may accomplish Avon- 
 The river an an- ders. It traverses vallevs 
 S^defhni-c and Shapes them. It tries 
 history. one course through the 
 
 hills, and then another. It builds up em- 
 bankments. It creates a world of sand 
 and pebbles. It distributes its shells and 
 other relics of life in this part and in 
 
 that. It creates a landscape. It dic- 
 tates the distribution of forests. It 
 leaves the evidences of its work in every 
 part of its course. The ledge of rocks 
 is worn away, and the alluvium of one 
 region is deposited in another. The 
 river even divides into channels. It 
 eddies into bayous and lakes. It rushes 
 through narrow gorges, fills canals, and 
 springs over water wheels. It bears 
 ships and divides countries in its course. 
 It becomes an artery of commerce. 
 Cities are built hero and there in situa- 
 tions determined by its windings; na- 
 tions gather on its banks. 
 
 The evidences of this river-life, the 
 works which it effects, the traces of its 
 passage, may be said in one sense to 
 constitute a history of the river ; but the 
 essential river has not yet been touched , 
 What of the river itself? We speak no^ 
 of the work which it accomplishes in ita 
 passage through the lands, but of the 
 river as an independent entity. How 
 great is it? Fi'om what sources has it 
 been gathered? By what alchemy and 
 transformation of sun and wind has it 
 been beaten up from tropical seas, 
 blown away in clouds, and poured down 
 in mist or rain or snow on mountain 
 crest, highland, and hillside of the far 
 interior? What are its other foun- 
 tains? Deep out of mother earth they 
 come in many and widely separated re- 
 gions. They burst from under ledges 
 of stone. They pour from dark chasms 
 in the mountains. They bubble as 
 springs of living water from a thousand 
 obscure spots at hill-foot, in limestone 
 crevice, by great tree roots, in the soli- 
 tary forest, through humble wells digged 
 deep by crawfishes in banks of clay. 
 
 From such fountains the river gathers 
 its volume. Its waters are blent into one. 
 It pours along, gathering and increas- 
 ing. It is an entity. It may well seem
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 race in its char 
 acter and mo- 
 tion. 
 
 alive. It moves and roars and rushes. 
 Its volume is measurable, but becomes 
 immeasurable with increase. Its color 
 is of this tint. Its water has this quality 
 or that. Its manner is placid, smiling, 
 gentle, or angry, turbulent, stormy. It 
 sleeps or wakes. It rejoices with sun- 
 shine or calm, moans with the pressure 
 of shadow and tempest, becomes furious, 
 and springs with madness through nar- 
 rowing gorges and over horrid preci- 
 pices. It yields to the rigor of winter, 
 and bursts with the renewal of spring. 
 All this is the river itself. All this has 
 respect to the substance and life of the 
 great fact, and not to its results and 
 reactions. 
 
 The analogue of the river is the hu- 
 man race. That, too, is a stream flow- 
 Aspect of our ing from an invisible foun- 
 tain. That also has had 
 its sources in the highlands 
 of the past, and that also has gathered 
 and rolled down with increasing volume 
 into the plains of the present. Like the 
 river, the human race possesses a life of 
 its own. It is an entity dividing into 
 many entities. It spreads far and cov- 
 ers the earth with its floods. It leaves 
 on all shores and continents the signs of 
 its presence and activities. It builds up 
 and demolishes. It changes its course 
 according to the exigencies of the phys- 
 ical barriers that are set against its prog- 
 ress. It breaks through and traverses 
 vast regions. It modifies the whole 
 globe, and determines both its material 
 and its immaterial aspects. It becomes 
 the one really important fact on the 
 earth. It is to be considered not so 
 much in the effects and changes which 
 it has produced among its environing 
 conditions as in its own essential life. 
 
 There thus arises out of the nature of 
 the things considered a marked differ- 
 ence between ethnic and general history. 
 
 The one gives an account of the races of 
 mankind in their essential nature, pow- 
 ers, capacities, or, in a word. Essentials of du- 
 an account of themselves. 'ZT^^^ol 
 The other presents a nar- history, 
 rative of the facts and deeds of which 
 men have been the authors ; the works 
 which they have accomplished ; the in- 
 stitutions which they have created ; the 
 visible effects of their stay and activity 
 on the earth : the monuments thev have 
 biiilded; the kingdoms and empires 
 which they have devised ; the govern- 
 ments they have formed; the wars they 
 have fought; the treaties they have 
 made; the activities they have exerted 
 in peace. 
 
 With these and the like facts of hu- 
 man agency ethnic history is only inci- 
 dentally concerned. The The ethnic his- 
 
 ethnic historian does in- fve^t" afiidioe, 
 deed regard all facts and ofrace-ufe. 
 circumstances of the life of man ; but he 
 views them only as illustrations of the 
 nature and purposes of the race. By 
 him the very globe is regarded as the 
 scene of race emergence, division, mi- 
 gration, and development; as the en- 
 vironing continent of our species; the 
 ground of its activities. His attention 
 is fixed on the evolution of mankind, on 
 its characteristics and its methods of life. 
 In the following treatise the attempt 
 is made to display the history of man- 
 kind considered as a race of intelligent 
 beings, multiplying, dividing, migrat- 
 ing, developing, conquer- inthiswork 
 
 ino- and Dosqessino- the mankind is con- 
 ing, anu pubbCbbing Lue sideredasan 
 
 earth. The race is viewed entity. 
 
 in itself. It is ever\-where considered 
 
 as a living entity, acting unconsciously 
 
 under its own laws, and fulfilling a mis 
 
 sion of which only the higher members 
 
 of the species have been able to catch 
 
 occasional glimpses. — It is the object of 
 
 this Introduction to set forth with as
 
 XL 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 much conciseness and brevity as possi- 
 ble the general course of the inquiry, 
 and to lead the mind of the reader i:p 
 to a comprehension of the plan of the 
 work as a whole. 
 
 A History of the Races of Mankind 
 must needs include a number of subor- 
 First topics the dinate topics of the great- 
 ^^ll^f^^flil^ est interest to all who are 
 
 manner of tne 
 
 beginning. jq any measure concerned 
 
 with the destiny of their species. One of 
 the first of such questions is that which 
 considers the time, the place, and the 
 manner of the beginning of man-life on 
 the earth. Certain it is that men at 
 some time in the past made their appear- 
 ance on this habitable globe. Certain it 
 is also that at some place, or places, 
 such beginning was made. Equally cer- 
 tain is it that the coming of man was in 
 some manner. It was by method. The 
 beginning was not chaotic, but orderly. 
 The inquiry, therefore, turns first of 
 all to the questions here presented. At 
 what time did the human race begin to 
 be? In what place, or places, did it 
 make its appearance ? In what manner, 
 by what agencies, immediate or mediate, 
 was the introduction of such a fact as 
 man-life on the globe effected? These 
 inquiries are fundamental to any rational 
 history of the human family. The 
 attempt is made in the inquiry prelimi- 
 nary to the present work to consider them 
 in their proper place as an introductory 
 study to the whole. 
 
 After deciding, with such approxima- 
 tions to certainty as we may be able to 
 reach, the time, place, and manner of 
 Primitive estate the beginning, our next 
 
 ma^d^onsfde'r. ^^q^^^^y ^^^^^ naturally have 
 •*io"- respect to the primitive 
 
 condition of mankind. The estate of the 
 human race on the outskirts of that im- 
 penetrable darkness and barbarism out 
 of which it arose must be considered in 
 
 the best lights which tradition and 
 science are able to, hold aloft. The 
 primeval condition of the tribes and 
 peoples which we are able to discover on 
 their emergence from unconsciousness 
 and savagery is of itself the subject- 
 matter of one of the most interesting 
 themes in the whole natural history of 
 life. It involves the gathering up of the 
 fragmentary details and the reconstruc- 
 tion — as if in outline — of a condition 
 which had not the instinct and capability 
 of recording itself. The study involves 
 the gathering of materials from almost 
 every department of human knowledge, 
 and a sifting and comparison of the data 
 to the end of obtaining an adequate 
 notion of the estate of our race while it 
 still journeyed dimly and doubtfully 
 through obscure ages, far below the 
 horizon of all authentic annals. 
 
 In the course of such an inquiry, we 
 shall be brought into contact with a con- 
 dition of the world and with aspects of 
 animate existence which we Means of deter- 
 know only by the aid of rgr„li'st?te-of 
 retrospective science. We ™a"- 
 shall discover the first men in a deplor- 
 able estate, fighting desperately with the 
 huge monsters of brake and river bank 
 and wilderness, struggling to maintain a 
 merely animal life in dark and houseless 
 forests, along wild seashores, and in 
 dripping caverns. We shall note the 
 rude implements and tackle whereby the 
 barbarian life would better its chances 
 in the hard struggle for existence. Out 
 of these traces of the aboriginal life of 
 man we shall attempt to deduce his con- 
 ditions and prospects in the first dis- 
 coverable ages of his career on the eartli. 
 It is necessary that such a foundation be 
 laid in order to understand the develop- 
 ment of the human family, its progress 
 into the higher life, and its final emer- 
 gence into civilization and fame.
 
 GENERAL IXTRODUCTION. 
 
 XLI 
 
 The next special subject in the logical 
 
 development of our theme is that of the 
 
 migrations and distributions 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 the races an im- whereby the human spe- 
 por an erne. ^.^^ j^^^ been dispersed 
 
 throughout the habitable globe. It is 
 evident that in some manner and at 
 some time the different divisions of our 
 race have made their way in this direc- 
 tion and that, by movements more or 
 less orderly, into the parts of the world 
 which they occupy as the seats of their 
 localized development. To these inove- 
 ments we give the general name of dis- 
 tribution. The fact so called constitutes 
 one of the principal features of a certain 
 stage in the human evolution As prim- 
 itive tribes multiply and develop, there 
 comes a time when the passion for mi- 
 gration seizes them. The spirit of re- 
 moval prevails, and they depart from 
 their native seats. In some instances 
 the removal is phenomenal; that is, it 
 is apparent as a distinct phase of tribal 
 life. In other cases the movement is so 
 slow and gradual as to be undiscovera- 
 ble except after the lapse of time. 
 
 In either event, however, the migra- 
 tion has the same practical result. It 
 carries tribes and peoples into regions 
 hitherto unoccupied by them. It throws 
 them upon other tribes and peoples who 
 are in the way of their ad- 
 
 General view of 
 
 the nature of vancc, or, possibly, into 
 
 migration. .1 . ... 
 
 tmoccupied regions of the 
 earth . This gives to the early inhabitants 
 of our globe what may be called a rolling 
 motion. Generally the movement seems 
 to be instinctive. In some instances the 
 motive is apparent, as the desire of con- 
 quest, war, the possession of better 
 countries, escape from enemies, acqui- 
 sition of unearned resources and advan- 
 tages. 
 
 This migratory motion of tribes and 
 peoples, whereby our globe, at one time 
 
 an uninhabited sphere, has become popu- 
 lated with intelligent beings, is one of 
 the great facts in ethnic historj'. As 
 such it will occupy a considerable sec- 
 tion of the present work. With the fact 
 of migration general history is not greatly 
 concerned ; for that takes note, not of 
 the ultimate forces and processes by 
 which the present order has been estab- 
 lished, but rather of the phenomena 
 which humanity displays after it reaches 
 the stage of conscious nationality. To 
 ethnic history, however, the migratory 
 movements of the human race are of 
 great and fundamental importance. 
 
 Another essential topic in ethnic his- 
 tory is that which considers the classifi- 
 cation oi the races and their classification of 
 arrangement into a whole cruelfa lof^' 
 according to manifest and classifying, 
 established principles. It is clear that 
 all men, all varieties of men in all parts 
 of the world and in all ages, have had 
 some scientific relation as the dispersed 
 parts of a common fact. That the hu- 
 man race is coherent to its utmost ex- 
 treme is evident. A belief in such 
 wholeness and consistency is demanded 
 by the established uniformity of nature 
 and by all that we know respecting the 
 other orders of being and the general 
 scheme of the world. 
 
 We shall find in this part of the in- 
 quiry that at the present stage of our 
 knowledge some uncertainty still exists 
 relative to the best principle of division 
 for classifying the different races of 
 mankind. Some authors have proposed 
 to classify and arrange the parts of the 
 human family by one criterion, and others 
 by another. Nearly all of the physical 
 and mental characteristics of men have 
 been taken as the foundation of a classi- 
 fication of the races ; but few of these 
 characteristics have been found to be 
 sufficiently constant to furnish an in*
 
 XLIl 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 variable and scientific principle of divi- 
 sion. 
 
 In the present work the color of the 
 human body has been taken as the most 
 Color of the invariable criterion of race 
 t\°er,rd:rnt.i character, and on that 
 characteristic, fundamental fact, assisted 
 by other physical traits and by intellec- 
 tual peculiarities of development, par- 
 ticularly by the <jreat fact of language, 
 the classification has been made. This 
 has been done on the hypothesis of the 
 general unity of mankind and the deri- 
 vation of all the races from some com- 
 mon source localized in time and place. 
 The character and method of classifica- 
 tion chosen as the basis of the present 
 treatise on the races of mankind will 
 sufficiently appear in the chapter de- 
 voted to that topic. 
 
 Having thus by preliminary inquirj^ 
 investigated as well as we may the time, 
 place, and manner of the beginning of 
 man-life on the earth ; having noted the 
 primitive condition of mankind, and 
 constructed a scheme of distribution 
 and classification by which the various 
 races may be viewed as a single fact 
 with subordinate parts in proper rela- 
 tion to the whole ; having described the 
 migratory spread of the different tribes 
 and peoples from the earliest movement 
 of the race to its latest dispersion in the 
 world, we shall next advance to the con- 
 sideration of the races thejiiseloes. This 
 theme will constitute the body of our 
 work. In this we must discuss the char- 
 acteristics, special features, and peculiar 
 activities of the various divisions of 
 mankind, assigning to each its proper 
 place in the general scheme. 
 
 In entering upon this principal part 
 of the treatise we shall, from the nature 
 of the case, follow the already estab- 
 lished classification, taking up the differ- 
 ent races one by one until all have been 
 
 considered. We shall begin with that 
 which is clearly the most important di- 
 vision of mankind; that is. Ethnic history 
 The Ruddy, or White, ^:r?,X'as^" 
 Races. We shall see, first most important, 
 of all, the great ^rjw«/^;////)' parting from 
 its central locality in Western Asia into 
 its Eastern, or Asiatic, and its Western, 
 or European, stem. These we shall en- 
 deavor to follow, considering in turn the 
 ancient and modern Iranic races, and 
 afterwards the Indie Aryans, from the 
 time of their establishment in the Indus 
 valley to their modern developments in 
 the powerful races of Hindustan. Then in 
 order Ave shall follow the Western divi- 
 sion of the Indo-European family, noting 
 its emergence in the Hellenic, the Ital- 
 ican, the Celtic, and the Teutonic races. 
 This department of the Avork will bring 
 us into contact with the great classical 
 nations of the ancient world. Since it 
 includes essentially all the peoples of 
 Europe, we shall here find those races 
 in whom history has the most abiding 
 interest. We must needs dwell long 
 with the great Greeks, the Romans, the 
 Celts, the Germans, and their descend- 
 ent races in Europe and the West. 
 
 The important Aryan family, how- 
 ever, is by no means coextensive with 
 the White, or Ruddv, races Semites and 
 of mankind. Of these the ^^^t^^.t"''" 
 next general division is the R»ddy races. 
 Semitic family, second only in fame to 
 the Indo-Europeans. We shall in prop- 
 er order take up the ancient Semites 
 and follow them from their earliest 
 ethnic life in the valley of the Euphra- 
 tes, through the great Aramaic and He- 
 braic developments, down to the modern 
 Arabic evolution in Southwestern Asia. 
 Afterwards the Hamiics, of still narrower 
 activities and race dispersion, will be 
 considered, thus completing the cycle of 
 the Ruddy division of mankind.
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XLIII 
 
 li'ollowing this, we shall next find The 
 Brown Races, and pursue them from 
 their ancient to their most recent phases of 
 Brown races to development. The inquiry 
 
 be considered as -^ ■ ^^j^- 
 
 next in impor- J 
 
 tance. from the region of Belu- 
 
 chistan throughout Eastern Asia to the 
 islands of the Pacific, to the three Amer- 
 icas, and indeed to the ends of the earth. 
 In the course of this part of the inquiry 
 we shall find our principal subject-mat- 
 ter in the great peoples of the Orient. 
 There, in the Chinese group, we shall 
 see massed under a single form of life 
 about one fourth of the present inhabi- 
 tants of the globe. To these must be 
 added the Japanese, the nomadic races 
 of Northern Asia, the Polynesian Mon- 
 goloids, and all of the American abo- 
 rigines. The extent and variety of these 
 materials will of necessity demand much 
 space, and detain the reader with a mul- 
 titude of important particulars relative 
 to the present character of so large a di- 
 vision of mankind. 
 
 Still pursuing the general classification 
 of races, we shall come at last to The 
 Black Division of the human family. 
 This, though the least important, is nev- 
 ertheless of much interest as completing 
 the general scheme, and as 
 
 The Blacks are ... 
 
 last in the eth- furnishmg a large numer- 
 
 nic scheme. • i j- t- r ^i i 
 
 ical fraction oi the popula- 
 tion of the globe. Our course of study 
 will here lead us through the vast belt 
 of Equatorial Africa; thence into the 
 southern parts of that continent ; thence 
 eastward in the course of the Pelagian 
 Blacks as far as Australia, New Guinea, 
 Fiji, and the Philippines. The excur- 
 sion is thus world-wide in its sweep — - 
 omitting from consideration no country 
 or important island of the earth. 
 
 It still remains to be inquired what 
 the true materials are which must consti- 
 tute the body of an ethnic history. This 
 
 question has respect to all of the essen- 
 tial elements of the human evolution. 
 
 But what are these ele- True materials 
 
 ments? By what agencies ^^an^o'^/r,?' 
 and through what phases of sistence. 
 life and action do the races of men pass 
 in their progress from the unconscious 
 estate of primitive barbarism to the con- 
 scious estate of the civilized life? These 
 agencies and elements of the develop- 
 ment of mankind we have attempted to 
 discover and to set forth in the following 
 pages. We shall find that the first great 
 fact to be considered with respect to the 
 development of any given division of 
 mankind, or indeed of the race as a 
 whole, is the means of subsistence. This 
 takes into consideration the environ- 
 ment, and in particular the food-supply, 
 of the given people. It views those ele- 
 ments of the natural world of which man 
 avails himself in order to live and flour- 
 ish, and which react so powerfully upon 
 his faculties and frame. We shall not, 
 therefore, neglect to notice the material 
 basis of the race-life of the various peo- 
 ples, and to make comparison of the re- 
 sources of one race with those of another. 
 The next fact or element in ethnic 
 history is, in general, the relation of the 
 
 sexes and the institutions Relation and 
 
 founded thereon. There ^Te^nlxt'Lim- 
 must in the nature of the portance. 
 case be a method of union ever3-where 
 and under all conditions for the perpet- 
 uation of the species. The importance 
 of this fact has been greatly overlooked 
 or blinked by historians, even by those 
 who have essayed somewhat the ethnic 
 problems ever suggesting themselves to 
 the mind. The fact and the manner of 
 marriage are of great and primary im- 
 portance in determining the character 
 and institutions of every race that has 
 flourished or that still flourishes on the 
 earth. On the se.xual union and the
 
 XLIV 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 manner of it is founded the family, and 
 out of the family spring a great number 
 of social forms, involving most intimate- 
 ly and radically the whole character, 
 tendency, aspiration, and development 
 of the given race. It will be a part of 
 our purpose in the present work not to 
 neglect the adequate discussion of the 
 methods of the sexual union adopted by 
 the different races, and to shov/ the 
 place of marriage and the institutions 
 based upon it in human progress. 
 
 Following close after this division of 
 the subject, we come to language as an 
 Important element of ethnic history, 
 
 place of Ian- ^j ^ ^ material and 
 
 guage m ethmc 
 
 history. ^u immaterial part. The 
 
 immaterial part has for its function 
 thought, and thought has for its organ 
 speech. Man is a speaking animal. No 
 other characteristic of his nature is more 
 universal or prevailing. Speech is the 
 invariable index of the intellectual and 
 moral condition of the human kind. 
 Language has varied according to race, 
 showing most plainly the wide range of 
 aptitudes and intellectual powers pos- 
 sessed by the different races. Speech 
 has differentiated just as mankind has 
 separated into divisions and local devel- 
 opments. The fact of language thus 
 lies close to the general scheme of 
 human dispersion. The one illustrates 
 the other, and the other exemplifies the 
 first. We shall, therefore, in this trea- 
 tise on the races of mankind have much 
 to say on the linguistic developments 
 and phenomena of each. 
 
 From language we advance to arts and 
 technology. Man is the being that has 
 Practical and the powerof conceiviugaud 
 m^^fl^.'"" executing workmanship. 
 
 dex of race t> r 
 
 character. "\Ve speak not of the fine 
 
 arts in particular, but of the industrial 
 and commercial arts. To these even 
 the barbarian begins to turn his atten- 
 
 tion. All accomplishment in this direc- 
 tion arises out of that semi-ideal faculty 
 which enables the possessor to adopt 
 means to ends. It is from this source that 
 man derives his disposition to work in 
 the metals, in wood, in stone, and in that 
 large class of materials that are used in 
 the production of fabrics. Ethnic his- 
 tory considers mankind in such activities 
 as are requisite to the industrial pursuits. 
 It regards the human being as a maker 
 — a maker of houses first, and of all 
 things afterwards. It considers him as 
 a builder of structures, a miner, a metal- 
 lurgist, a planter, a weaver, a tanner of 
 skins, a fashioner of weapons and imple- 
 ments, an engraver of gems. At length 
 ethnic history views man as he emerges 
 into the domain of the higher arts. 
 Here he becomes tnily ideal. Here he 
 adorns as well as constructs. H^re by 
 the use of color and form he gives out- 
 line and substance to the things per- 
 ceived in vision and dream. 
 
 It should here be noted that the art 
 products of mankind, whether industrial 
 or ideal, may be viewed from two points 
 of observation. The first considers them 
 
 in themselves as things Artsmaybecon- 
 
 of importance without re- te^lf^^'^^T 
 spect to the instincts and dicative of man. 
 genius that produced them. The other 
 view considers them as illustrative of 
 the desires and ambitions of the makers. 
 In this sense they cast a strong light on 
 the character and dispositions of the 
 peoples and races by whom they have 
 been produced. It is this consideration 
 that gives them value in ethnic history. 
 They show ichat kind of being it is whose 
 ingenuity and industry are capable of 
 effecting such results. It is for this 
 reason that ethnic history, as well as the 
 general history of nations, takes into 
 account the arts and industries whereby 
 life is so greatly bettered and amplified.
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XLV 
 
 General history regards architecture, 
 metallurgy, all manner of construction 
 and fabrication, as facts in themselves 
 useful and important, contributing to the 
 strength of nations ; but a true study of 
 the human race regards all art products 
 as but an evidence and illustration of the 
 character, the skill and purpose of those 
 by whom they were designed. 
 
 In like manner goz'criiiiunt and laws 
 are human institutions that may be con- 
 Governments sidered in themselves. As 
 Sempu^tu. such they are objective 
 man genius. products of the genius of 
 man. But they are also ilhistrations of 
 the character, sentiment, hope, and ambi- 
 tions of the race. The existence of gov- 
 ernment and laws among all the peoples 
 of the world is of itself sufficient proof 
 that such facts are native to the instincts, 
 desires, and capabilities of mankind. It 
 is because they are so that the ethnic his- 
 torian, as well as his competitor, devotes 
 his thought and space to the considera- 
 tion of the governmental and constitu- 
 tional aspects of human society. The 
 story of the races of mankind could by no 
 means be complete without introducing 
 therein careful accounts of the laws and 
 organized governments which the vari- 
 ous peoples have adopted. But it must 
 be borne in mind that such consideration 
 of civil and legal institutions is given 
 because they illustrate the genius and 
 political skill of mankind. 
 
 Still another topic to be considered as 
 a part of the revelation of race character 
 Religion in like IS religion. The religious 
 rhrc"ha7acteTof i^^stiuct is found to have 
 peoples. been deeply implanted in 
 
 nearly or quite all the peoples of the 
 world. This was true in the dawn and 
 morning of histor)-, and it is still true at 
 the high noon of natioaalit}', power, and 
 greatness. Here, again, we do not con- 
 sider religion and religious institutions 
 
 as objective entities bearing their inter- 
 est in themselves, but as facts tending to 
 illustrate the totality of human nature. 
 In ethnic history religion, whether it 
 presents itself in the form of gross su- 
 perstition or as a more enlightened con- 
 cept of the supernal powers, or in the 
 shape of institutions having for their ob- 
 ject the systematic and visible adminis- 
 tration of rites and the teaching of the 
 doctrines of a given faith, must needs 
 occupy a considerable space, inasmuch 
 as it illustrates some of the most univer- 
 sal and constant features of man-life on 
 the earth. In the present treatise care 
 is taken, in the consideration of every 
 division of mankind, to note its reli- 
 gious instincts and practices, as well as 
 to delineate those institutions which are 
 founded on the universal sentiment of 
 religion among the various peoples. 
 
 Finally, we shall consider what maybe 
 called the proper ethnic characteristics of 
 the human race. These Kthnic traits 
 relateto those specialized ^ratf^om 
 and distinguishing traits in '^^'=®' 
 the physical, mental, and moral consti- 
 tution of mankind, whereby one people 
 is discriminated from another. We have 
 seen how it is that bodily features, such 
 as color, peculiarities of anatomical struc- 
 ture, the hair of the head, the facial an- 
 gle, the cranial capacity, and many other 
 visible facts in man-life, have been taken 
 as a basis in classifying the human spe- 
 cies into kindreds, peoples, and races. 
 The identity of feature is thus used as 
 the principle by which the classification 
 is determined. Like distinguishing fea- 
 tures or traits appear in the mind and 
 in personal activities. Another class of 
 similar facts maybe found in the deeper 
 spiritual parts of human nature. Upon 
 all of these the ethnic historian will 
 dwell with interest, as they are of the 
 essence of the inquiry.
 
 XLVI 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCriON. 
 
 It is in this order that a history of the 
 races of mankind may be best constructed. 
 In the present work such order has been 
 followed throughout, with only slight de- 
 viations in this part or in that, as the 
 same have seemed to be demanded by 
 the nature of the subject-matter. While 
 absolute uniformity in all parts of the 
 treatise has not been desired or sought 
 after, the general plan has been faith- 
 fully pursued as the same is outlined in 
 this introduction. 
 
 From the various topics herein pre- 
 sented — arising out of the nature of the 
 subject and constituting 
 
 Summary of sub- , , , . ^ . ^. 
 
 dii-isions of the the body of our study — the 
 present work. f,jiiowing synopsis of the 
 
 whole may be deduced : 
 
 Book I. — A Preliminary Inquiry into 
 the Time and Place of the Beginning of 
 Man-life on the Earth. 
 
 Book II. — An account of the Manner 
 and Conditions of the Appearance of 
 Mankind. 
 
 Book III. — An account of the Primi- 
 tive Estate of the Human Race. 
 
 Book IV. — An account of the Early 
 ^ligrations and Dispersions of the Dif- 
 ferent Divisions of Mankind over the 
 Earth. 
 
 Book V. — An account of the Iranian 
 Division of the Human Family. 
 
 Book VI. — An account of the Aryan 
 Races of India. 
 
 Book VII.— An account of the West- 
 ern Aryans, including the Races of Asia 
 Minor and the Greeks. 
 
 Book VIII. — An account of the Primi- 
 tive Italicans and the Romans. 
 
 Book IX. — An account of the Latin 
 Races. 
 
 Book X. — An account of the Celtic 
 Races. 
 
 Book XI. — An account of the Teu- 
 tonic Races. 
 
 Book XII. — An account of the Norse, 
 or Scandinavian, Races. 
 
 Book XIII. — An account of the Slavic 
 Races. 
 
 Book XIV. — An account of the Ara- 
 maean Semites. 
 
 Book XV. — An account of the Hebrew 
 Race. 
 
 Book XVI. — An account of the Ca- 
 naanites and Syrians. 
 
 Book XVII. — An account of the 
 Arabs. 
 
 Book XVIII. — An account of the 
 Hamitic Races. 
 
 Book XIX. — An accountof the Malayo- 
 Mongoloids, beginning with the Thibe- 
 tans and Burmese. 
 
 Book XX. — An account of the Indo- 
 Chinese Races. 
 
 Book XXI. — An account of the Malays 
 Proper. 
 
 Book XXII. — An account of the 
 Asiatic Mongoloids, beginning with the 
 Chinese. 
 
 Book XXIII. — An account of the 
 Japanese. 
 
 Book XXIV. — An accountof the Mon- 
 gols Proper. 
 
 Book XXV. — An account of the 
 Northern Asiatic Races. 
 
 Book XXVI. — An account of the 
 Polynesian Mongoloids, in their two divi- 
 sions of Sawaioris and Tarapons. 
 
 Book XXVII. — An account of the 
 American Mongoloids, beginning- with 
 the Northern Aborigines. 
 
 Book XXVIII. — An account of the 
 Central and vSouth American Races. 
 
 Book XXIX. — An account of the 
 Black Races, beginning- with the African 
 Nigritians. 
 
 Book XXX. — An account of the Aus- 
 tralians and Papuans. 
 
 In this order the themes of the follow- 
 ing volumes will be presented
 
 PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES 
 
 STUDIED OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK. 
 
 Agassiz, Louis. — Studies of the Glaciers. 
 I Vol. 
 Contributions to the Natural History of the 
 United States. 4 Vols. 
 
 Andersox, Rasmos B. — The Norsemen in Amer- 
 ica. I Vol. 
 
 Argyle, Duke of. — The Reign of Law. i Vol. 
 Primeval Man. i Vol. 
 
 Baker, James. — Turkey, i Vol. 
 
 Baldwin, John Denison. — Prehistoric Nations. 
 I Vol. 
 Ancient America, i Vol. 
 
 Baucroft, Hubert Howe. — Native Races of 
 America. 15 Vols. 
 
 Barante, M. De. — History of the Dukes of 
 Burgundy, i Vol. 
 
 Bastian, Adolf. — Man in History, i Vol. 
 
 Bickmore, Albert S. — Travels in the East 
 Indian Archipelago, i Vol. 
 
 Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel. — 
 Hand-book of African, Australian, and 
 Polynesian Philology. 3 Vols. 
 
 Brace, Charles Loring. — Norse Folk, i Vol. 
 Races of the Old World, i Vol. 
 
 Bray, A. E. — Jlanual of Anthropology, i Vol. 
 
 Brown, Robert. — The Races of Mankind. 
 3 Vols. 
 
 Buckle, Henry Thomas. — History of Civili- 
 zation in England. 2 Vols. 
 
 BuFFON, George Louis Leclerc. — History of 
 Domestic Animals, i Vol. 
 History of Birds. 2 Vols. 
 History of Minerals, i Vol. 
 Epochs of Nature, i Vol. 
 Theory of the Earth, i Vol. 
 Ancient America, i Vol. 
 
 Campbell, Dudley. — Turks and Greeks, i 
 Vol. 
 
 Carey, Henry C. — Manual of Social wScience. 
 I Vol. 
 
 C-iCSAR, Julius. — De Belle Gallico. i Vol. 
 
 Catlin, George. — Manners, Customs, and 
 Condition of the North American In- 
 dians. I Vol. 
 O-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony and 
 Other Customs of the Mandans. i Vol. 
 
 Charpentier, Fr.^ncois. — Essay on the Gla- 
 ciers. I Vol. 
 
 CoLLiGNON, M.^xiME. — A ISIanual of Greek 
 Archaeolog3'. i Vol. 
 
 Cox, George W. — A Manual of Mythology. 
 I Vol. 
 
 Croll, James. — Climate and Time, i Vol. 
 
 Discussions on Climate and Cosmology. 
 I Vol. 
 CuRTius, Ernest. — History of Greece. 5 Vols. 
 
 History and Topography of Asia Minor. 
 
 I Vol. 
 
 Dana, James D. — A jNIanual of Geology, i Vol. 
 
 Darwin, Charles Robert. — Origin of Species 
 
 by Means of Natural Selection, i Vol. 
 
 Variation of Plants and Animals under 
 
 Domestication, i Vol. 
 The Descent of Man and Selection in Re- 
 lation to Sex. 2 Vols. 
 On the Expression of the Emotions in 
 Men and Animals, i Vol. 
 Descartes, Rene. — Discourse on IMethod. i Vol. 
 Principles of Philosophy, i Vol. 
 Essay on Man, etc. i Vol. 
 Complete Works, Edited by Victor Cousin. 
 
 I I Vols. 
 
 Draper, John William. — History of the Intel- 
 lectual Development of Europe, i Vol. 
 History of the Conflict between Science 
 and Religion, i Vol. 
 Drummond, Henry. — Natural Law in the 
 Spiritual World, i Vol. 
 The Ascent of Man. i Vol. 
 Du Chaillu, Paul B. — Stories of the Goiilla 
 Country, i Vol. 
 Wild Life tinder the Equator, i Vol. 
 Mv Apingi Kingdom, i Vol. 
 The Country of the Dwarfs, i Vol. 
 The Land of the Midnight Sun. i Vol. 
 The Viking Age. i Vol. 
 Duncker, Max. — Historj' of Antiquit}'. Trans- 
 lated by Evelyn Abbott. 3 Vols. 
 Duruy, Victor. — Historj- of the Romans. 5 Vols. 
 Ebers, Georg jNIoritz. — Works on Egj-ptol- 
 ogy- 5 Vols. 
 Novels Relating to Same. 2 Vols. 
 Edinburgh Review, Complete.— All Articles 
 on Ethnology and the Natural Historj' 
 of INIan. 
 Ellis, Edward S. — Indian Wars of the United 
 
 States. I Vol. 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica. — New Ninth Edi- 
 tion of A. and C. Black. 24 Vols. 
 Eyre, E. J. — Discoveries in Central Australia. 
 
 2 Vols. 
 Falke, Jakob von. — Hellas and Rome, their 
 Life and .\rt. Translated by William 
 Hand Browne., i Vol. Quarto. 
 
 .XLVII
 
 XLVIII 
 
 PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 FiGUiER, GuiLLAVME Loiis. — The World before 
 the Deluge, i Vol. 
 The Vegetable World, i \'ol. 
 The Ocean World, i \'ol. 
 Primitive Man. i Vol. 
 The Human Race. l Vol. 
 Fourier, Je.vx B.\i>tiste Jo.seimi. — Analytical 
 
 Theory of Heat, i Vol. 
 Freemax, Kdw.ard a. — Historj' and Con- 
 quest of the Saracens, i Vol. 
 Historj' of the Xorman Conquest. 5 Vols. 
 Old English Historj-. i \'o\. 
 Comparative Politics, i Vol. 
 Friese, PlliLir C. — Semitic Philosophj-. i Vol. 
 Gest.\ Romanoru.m. 2 Vols. 
 GoBiNEAU, A. De. — Moral and Intellectual Di- 
 
 versitj- of Races, i Vol. 
 GuizoT, Francois. — The Historj- of Civiliza- 
 tion from the Fall of the Roman 
 Em])ire to the French Revolution. 
 4 \"ols. 
 Hallam, Henry. — View of the State of Europe 
 during the Middle Ages. 2 Vols. 
 Constitutional Historj- of England from 
 the Accession of Henry VH to the 
 Death of George II. 2 Vols. 
 Hamlin, Cyrus. — Among the Turks, i Vol. 
 He.\RX, William Edward. — The Arj-an House- 
 hold, its Structure and Development. 
 I Vol. , 
 
 Plutologj', or the Theory of the Efforts to 
 Satisfj' Human Wants, i Vol. 
 Herndon, William Lewis. — Explorations of 
 the V'alley of the River Amazon. 
 
 1 Vol. 
 
 Critiques and Addresses, i Vol. 
 History (General), of the English-speaking 
 Races, their Institutions, Laws, Gov- 
 ernment, etc. 
 
 Of the German Races and their Institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Of the French Races and tliCir Institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Of the Greeks and Romans and their Insti- 
 tutions. 
 ■ Of the Semitic and othar Oriental Races 
 and their Institutions. 
 
 Of the Ilamitic Races and their Institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Of the Malays and Polj-nesians and their 
 Institutions. 
 Horner, Leonard. — Report of Royal Society 
 
 for 1S51. I Vol. 
 Hue, EVARISTE R.— Travels in Tartarj-, Thibet, 
 
 and China. 2 Vols. 
 Humboldt, Ale.x.^nder von. — Kosmos. s 
 \'ols. 
 
 Travels. 2 Vols. 
 
 Views of Nature. 2 Vols. 
 HuxLEV, Thomas Henry.— Man's Place in 
 Nature, i \o\. 
 
 On the Physical Basis of Life, i Vol. 
 
 An Introduction to the Classification of 
 Animals, i \o\. 
 
 Laj' Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews. 
 
 2 \'ols. 
 
 Kampfer, Engelbrecht. — Historj' of Japan. 
 
 2 \'ols. 
 Kane, Elisha Kent. — Arctic Explorations in 
 
 the Years 1853, '54, '55. 2 Vols. 
 Lapham, Increase Allen. — Antiquities of 
 Wisconsin (in Smithsonian Contribu- 
 tions, Vol. VII). I Vol. 
 Laplace, Pierre Simon. — Parts of the M^can- 
 iciue Celeste, and Somerville's Abridg- 
 ment. 
 Latham, Robert Gordon. — Natural Historj- 
 of the Varieties of Mankind, i Vol. 
 INIan and his Migrations, i Vol. 
 Descriptive Ethnologj-. 2 Vols. 
 Lavisse, Ernest. — General View of the Polit- 
 ical Historj- of Europe. I Vol. 
 L.vvARD, Austi.n- Henry. — Nineveh and its 
 
 Remains. I Vol. 
 Legge, James. — The Chinese Classics, i Vol. 
 Lewes, George II. — Problems of Life and 
 
 Mind. I Vol. 
 Literature (General), of the English-speak- 
 ing Races. 
 Of the Teutonic Races. 
 Of the Greek Races. 
 Of the Latin Races. 
 
 Of the Chinese, Japanese, and other Ori- 
 ental Races, .so far as Translated. 
 Of the Barbarian Races — such as the 
 Goths, the Anglo-Saxons, the Norse, 
 etc. 
 Livingstone, David. — Missionarj- Travels. 
 
 I \o\. 
 Ln-Y', TiTus.— The Annals, i Vol. 
 Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times as Il- 
 lustrated bj' Ancient Remains and the 
 Manners and Customs of Modern Sav- 
 ages. I \'ol. 
 The Origin of Civilization, and the Primi- 
 tive Condition of Man. i Vol. 
 The Origin and Metamorphosis of Insects. 
 I Vol. 
 Lyell, Sir Charles. — Principles of Geology. 
 
 1 Vol. 
 
 Manual of Elementary Geology, i Vol. 
 Travels in North America in the Years 
 
 1 84 1 -2. 2 Vols. 
 A Second Visit to the United States. 
 
 2 \"ols. 
 
 Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of 
 I\Ian. I Vol. 
 March, 1'rancis Andrew. — .\ Method of the 
 Philological vStudy of the luiglish Lan- 
 guage. I \'ol. 
 An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon, i Vol. 
 Marsh, George Perkins. — Origin and His- 
 torj- of the English Language. i 
 \-ol. 
 The Earth as Modified bj- Human Action. 
 I Vol. 
 Menzel, Wolfgang. — The History of Germany. 
 
 3 Vols. 
 
 MiVART, St. George. — The Genesis of Species. 
 
 I Vol. 
 Mommsen, Theodor. — The History of Rome. 
 
 4 Vols.
 
 PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 XLIX 
 
 Morgan, Lewis H. — Systems of Consanguinity 
 and Affinity of the Human Family, i 
 Vol. Quarto. (In Smithsonian Con- 
 tributions.) 
 Houses and House-life of the American 
 Aborigines, i Vol. 
 MiJLLER, il.\x. — Chips from a German Work- 
 shop. 3 \'ols. 
 Science of Language. 2 Vols. 
 Science of Religion, with Papers on Bud- 
 dhism. I Vol. 
 Edition of the Vedas. 6 Vols. 
 India : What can it Teach Us ? i Vol. 
 MuRR.\Y, D.wiD. — Story of Japan, i Vol. 
 P.-VLGR,\VE, Sir Fr.ajscis. — History of the An- 
 glo-Saxons. I \o\. 
 PiCEiERiNG, Ch.arles. — The Races of Mankind 
 and their Geographical Distribution. 
 I \'ol. 
 Geographical Distribution of Animals and 
 
 Man. I Vol. 
 Geographical Distribution of Plants. I 
 Vol. 
 Plongeon, Alice D. Le. — Here and There in 
 
 Yucatan, i Vol. 
 Plixy the Elder. — Historia Xaturalis. 37 
 
 Books. 
 Prichard, J.\mes Cowles. — Researches into 
 the Physical History' of ]\Ian. 5 Vols. 
 Natural Historj- of Man. 2 Vols. 
 The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. 
 I Vol. 
 Proctor, Rich.^rd Anthoxy. — Other Worlds 
 than Ours, i Vol. 
 Saturn arid its System, i Vol. 
 Half-hours with the Stars, i Vol. 
 Elementary Astronom3'. i Vol. 
 Borderland of Science, i Vol. 
 Old and New Astronomy, i Vol. 
 Quarterly Review Co.mplete. — .\11 Articles 
 Relating to the Races of Mankind, 
 their Institutions and Development. 
 Rambaud, Alfred. — A Popular Historv- of 
 Russia from the Earliest Times to 
 1S80. 3 Vols. 
 Raxke, Leopold Vox. — The Popes of Rome, 
 their Church and State. 3 Vols. 
 Historj' of Germany in the Time of the 
 Reformation. 6 Vols. 
 Rawlinsox, George. — The Five Great Mon- 
 archies of the Eastern World. 4 
 Vols. 
 The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchv. i 
 Vol. 
 Rawlixsox, Sir Henry Creswicke. — Edition 
 of Herodotus. 4 Vols. 
 Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia. 
 3 Vols. 
 Rexax, Joseph ERNEST.^-Studies in Religious 
 History-. I Vol. 
 Concerning the Part of the Semitic Peo- 
 ples in Civilization, i Vol. 
 Comparative History of the Semitic Lan- 
 gruages. I \o\. 
 RiDPATH, George. — Border History of Scot- 
 land. I Vol. 
 
 Russell, William. — History of Modern Eu- 
 rope. 7 ^'ols. 
 Sacred Writings : Of the Hebrews and Other 
 Semitic Peoples. 
 Of the Egj-ptians. 
 
 Of the Iranian Races, with Translation of 
 the Zendavesta, bv Dermester and 
 Mills. 3 Vols. 
 Of the Hindus, with Edition and Transla- 
 tion of \'edas, by Max Miiller. 6 
 Vols. 
 Of the Oriental Races. 
 ScHiEFFELiN, S.^ML'EL B. — The Foundations of 
 Historv: A Series of First Things. 
 I Vol.' 
 ScHLiEMAXx, Hexry. — Troj-. i Vol. 
 
 Mycense. i Vol. 
 Schoolcraft, Hexry Rowe. — Historical and 
 Statistical Information Respecting the 
 Histor}', Condition, and Prospects of 
 the Indian Tribes of the United States. 
 5 Vols. 
 The Indian Fairy Book, from Original Leg- 
 ends. I Vol. 
 Plan for Investigating American Ethnol- 
 
 og\-. I \'ol. 
 Notices of Antique Earthen \'essels from 
 
 Florida, i Vol. 
 The Mvth of Hiawatha and Other Oral 
 Legends, i Vol. 
 Sinding, P.\<:l C. — The Northmen ; the Sea- 
 kings and Vikings, their Manners and 
 Customs, Discoveries, etc. 
 Spexcer, Herbert. — Social Statics, or the 
 Conditions to Human Happiness Speci- 
 fied. I Vol. 
 Principles of Psychology. 2 Vols. 
 Essaj-s, Scientific and Speculative, i Vol. 
 Essaj-s, iSIoral, Political, and ^Esthetic. 
 
 I \o\. 
 First Principles of a System of Philosophy. 
 
 I \'ol. 
 Principles of Biologj'. 2 Vols. 
 Spontaneous Generation and the H^-pothe- 
 
 sis of Physiological Units, i Vol. 
 Descriptive Sociology- : Facts Classified 
 
 and Arranged. 3 Vols. Folio. 
 The Principles of Sociologj-. In 38 numbers. 
 St.\xley, Henry' M. — How I Found Living- 
 stone. I ^'ol. 
 Through the Dark Continent. 2 Vols. 
 Tacitus, Caius Corxelius. — The Germania. 
 I Vol. 
 The Histon,-. i Vol. 
 The .\nnales. i Vol. 
 T.\IXE, HiPPOLYTE A. — Historj- of English Lit- 
 erature. 2 \'ols. 
 The Ancient Regime, i Vol. 
 Tegxer's Frithiof's S.\g.\. — Translated by 
 
 Bayard Ta\-lor. i \'ol. 
 Thompson, SirCii.^rles Wy\-ille. — Report of 
 Sea \'03-ages and Dredgings. 2 \'ols. 
 Thorpe's Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, i Vol. 
 Tour du Monde. — 52 Vols. Quarto. 
 Turner, Sharox. — Historj' of the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons. I Vol.
 
 PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Tyi-KU, Edward R. — Researches into the 
 Early Histon,- of Mankind and Devel- 
 opment of Civilization, i Vol. 
 Primitive Culture : Researches into the 
 Development of Mythology, I'hilos- 
 ophv, Religion, Art, and Custom. 2 
 Vols. 
 
 Vamberv, Arminivs.— Travels in Central Asia. 
 I \'ol. 
 
 \Vall.\cf., Alfred Russel.— On the Tendency 
 of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely 
 from the Original Type, i Vol. 
 The Malay Archipelago : The Land of the 
 Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. 
 I Vol. 
 Contributions to the Theory of Natural 
 Selection. 1 Vol. 
 
 On the Geographical Distribution of Ani- 
 mals. 2 Vols. 
 Wall.'vce, D. Mackenzie. — Russia, i Vol. 
 Whitney, William Dwight. — Language and 
 
 the Study of Language, i Vol. 
 Wilkinson, Sir John G.vrdner. — Manners 
 and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 
 5 Vols. 
 Modern Eg\pt and Thebes. 2 Vols. 
 Architecture of Ancient Egj'pt. i Vol. 
 The Egyptians under the Pharaohs, i Vol. 
 WiNCHELL, Alexander. — vSparks from a Geol- 
 ogist's Hammer, i \o\. 
 Preadamites, or a Demonstration of the 
 Existence of Men before .Adam, i Vol. 
 Wood, J. G. — The Natural History of Man. 
 I VoL
 
 Copyri^hteil tf JhtJonts Brothers Pub Ca IS^ 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MAN Kl ND. (After Huxley) 
 
 I. HiimIiiiiuii : I HushKKin Idrnwn 
 XyvFrilxfA ), - 2, Woman nt" Namaqua 
 
 Idi'Ainiln'/'ifJn. Irom npliolnilrajih) 
 ll.NijfriUaii : :) Wuman of (hi; t.nango 
 Idrawii liy Falkrii^etn t, - t , Mail of llie 
 
 IHNugi'ito: 5. Mnn of NcwHt-bndes Idrawi, 
 h>- fijf/r/7n5- 1.-6. Woman of To5mama|ara«ii 
 hylbnAi^v. from aphuli)j}r«p)i). 
 
 IV.ItalitTttn: 7. ItalumWaiHfljiUflDradrBwing 
 fromlifc), — fl Italian Man lEtftcr a ilravnns 
 
 V. AuHlffiliaii: y Moiiof Soath-vesI AunliolialJr-jiTn 
 l)>-!;mflu7im-. from apholotiraplil.- 10 Siibian Woman 
 (lirawn b>-J(^i«j4rt'A.fromaphotoSrjphl, 
 'VI.Scand!Ma>'ian: 11. Swedish Woman Ifroni 
 •Peoples of Russinl, -12. Greal Rus3lni>lfto" Tro- 
 pics or Bussiu-). 
 
 \lU.Mu<t^ol<ai>: A 
 Prixcilnraltkij I. - 
 futBWj/l. — B.i7 
 
 13 Taiansha-Moiiftalldraivnlij- 
 16. Kallni-Mungol |drawnljy/*ifjrf- 
 'hlnesefiiAer porU-ait. Muaeum 
 
 or KihnograpIiT.BHi'linl --l8.YakuiWoinn>i of *■■ 
 C\\Kla\iravin\iyitlddnilirf\.~C\'i Xurlh Anioricon 
 Inclmn ffroin a pTioloHraphl -20 South AmLTicaii. 
 Inrtinii NVonumlilrajmln' flrfult). 
 K.Csquimau: ZLKoriOkWoiiiniiKhjm'Pcopli-sorituuJaX 
 ^^.taqimuiiaf GrvenlamlldratrribrA^Vifart.frfunaplulojlniphi. 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 c
 
 fnri 1[ii|sL 
 
 Preliminary Inquiries. 
 
 . BOOK I -TIME AND PLACE OF THE BEGINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Sources oe Ixforxiation. 
 
 N entering upon the 
 history of mankind, 
 considered as a race, 
 certain questions 
 fundamental to the 
 subject naturall}^ sug- 
 gest themselves to the 
 inquirer. They obtrude upon his atten- 
 tion. If neglected or put aside they 
 recur from time to time, as if to ar- 
 rest the narrative, until fitting answers 
 are given. They haunt the mind and 
 shadow the scholar's study. They 
 flutter about the poet's dream, and cross 
 on rapid wing the philosopher's lahd- 
 si.ape. They fly abroad, and come un- 
 bidden into the thoughts of the great 
 people. Even in the most practical of 
 all ages and the least speculative of all 
 
 nations these questions are heard and 
 
 repeated in many accents and by many 
 
 tongues. He, indeed, is of The three funda- 
 
 dull apprehension and lit- l^^^^^S;,^. 
 
 tie curious to know the cal inquiry. 
 
 cogitations and dreams of his fellow-men 
 who has not discerned their anxiety to 
 find a solid basis of fact and reason in 
 what may be called the principia of 
 human history. 
 
 The principal of the questions to 
 which we here refer are three in 
 number: 
 
 1 . At what Time in the past — exact or 
 approximate — did the human race begin 
 its career on the earth ? 
 
 2. In what Place — that is, in what 
 region or regions of the earth — did man- 
 kind first appear? 
 
 37 
 
 J^58670
 
 38 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 3. What was the Method — the man- 
 ner, the process, or processes — by which 
 man came into conscious being on our 
 planet, rising into rationalitj-, asserting 
 his sway as the principal inhabitant of 
 the earth, and discovering in himself the 
 ability to consider his own thoughts and 
 actions as a study in natural histor}^? 
 
 These questions, we repeat, may not 
 
 exhibit in his feeble intellectual activi- 
 ties at least the premonitions of curiosity 
 about the genesis of his tribe — the origin 
 of his kindred and himself. As for him 
 whose thought and imagination under 
 the inspiring influences of the civilized 
 life have taken wing across all floods 
 and continents, how keenly, how eagerly 
 does he in his flight glance eagle-wise to 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THK PLIOCKNE PK KIUD.— SHOwiNCi Environment at the Time of Man's Appearance.— Drawn by Kiou. 
 
 be easily put aside. It is in the ver\- 
 Eagerness of nature of man to inquire dil- 
 ScwSs'"^ igently and persistently 
 °"s'"- into the time, the place, and 
 
 the circumstances of his own origin. 
 The disposition to search all the fields of 
 knowledge in quest of light on these 
 inquiries is as universal as the human 
 race. In some the impulse is stronger; 
 in others, weaker; but in all it exists. 
 It might be difficult to find in any quar- 
 ter of the earth a barbarian so low in the 
 scale of mental development as not to 
 
 right and left in the hope of discovering 
 the true beginning and fountain of 
 things ! 
 
 In what spirit, then, should these 
 great and vital questions be approached? 
 Certainly in the spirit of hu- True spirit in 
 mility. The honest inquirer ^^'^ty'^wd 
 must recognize from the be approached, 
 first hour of his research the nature and 
 limitations of his own powers and the 
 uncertainty of all the sources of informa- 
 tion from which he must draw his 
 materials. Honesty, also, and freedom
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 39 
 
 from prejudice must be his. Sincerity 
 of purpose must guide him on the way. 
 Singleness of aim must light his course. 
 Fidelity must steady his thought and 
 hand. Simple love of changeless truth 
 must be his inspiration. His great ob- 
 ject and passion must be to enlarge 
 somewhat, if he may, for the benefit of 
 his fellow-men the existing treasure of 
 human knowledge ; to widen and clear 
 the landscape toward which so many 
 earnest eyes are directed. Not, indeed, 
 to establish some foregone conclusion ; 
 not to verify some little prejudice ; not 
 to shore up some tottering fiction which 
 the ignorance of men has reared — is 
 the aim and end of the questioner, the 
 real student, the faithful delineator of 
 the concepts and judgments which he 
 has formed of the truth. Not, on the 
 other hand, is it part or purpose of his 
 work to assail, to destroy, to obliterate 
 the existingf forms of knowledgfe and be- 
 lief, or to disturb with wanton hand any 
 of the oldtime concepts which the mind 
 of his ancestors has evolved as the best 
 expression of its hopes and fears. But 
 rather must the true inquirer hold all 
 things in equal and steady balance. 
 With dispassionate purpose he must 
 consider and weigh every existing fact — 
 every form of human thought and belief, 
 every tangible institution and practice 
 of mankind. 
 
 But in what attitude does man stand 
 with respect to the time and place of the 
 Individual life beginning? What is his 
 ^?t:^::^^Z^ condition of mind relative 
 the race-life. to the problem of the meth- 
 od and circumstances whereby man- 
 kind began to be on the earth. Perhaps 
 the best of all analogies bearing on 
 these great questions are drawn from the 
 individual life and experience, from the 
 recollection which each member of the 
 race has of his own origin and of the 
 
 conditions under which his existence 
 was begun. This is a consideration 
 which has been astonishingly neglected. 
 The experiences of the individual man 
 with respect to himself are so obvious 
 that he has failed to note their signifi- 
 cance with respect to the larger prob- 
 lems of his tribe and race. If we take 
 our stand, as it were, inside of ourself, 
 and look backward along the lines which 
 we have traversed from our individual 
 beginning in the world, we shall find 
 those lines converging in the distance, 
 first into youth ; then still more narrow- 
 ly into childhood ; and finally to a point 
 in infancy. 
 
 As we look steadily, patiently, in the 
 direction from which we have come, we 
 see that the nearer land- what may be 
 scape of our life is flooded ^^^^ 
 in every part by the broad i°°^- 
 light of consciousness. Further down 
 the converging lines the light is less 
 abundant, the objects less distinct. 
 Here and there already in the second dec- 
 ade of our life memory begins to fail; 
 the clue is lost, and we discover many 
 patches of obscuration, man}^ parts in 
 which the light rests only on the rim of 
 the hills or on one side of the forest. 
 The valleys and depths and remoter 
 fields fade into twilight, indistinctness, 
 and thick mist. Further on, and near 
 the beginning of the first decade, only a 
 few luminous points are discoverable. 
 The father's face, the brother's pudgy 
 hand, the mother's blessed bosom are 
 still seen ; but beyond that the obscura- 
 tion is complete. We know, indeed, 
 from testimony aliunde that we had an 
 existence beyond the point to which the 
 utmost stretch of memory can reach. 
 We also know from observing the in- 
 fancy of others that our own state for 
 the first two years or more of our being 
 was one of utter unconsciousness. It
 
 40 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 was a state of mere potentiality and 
 growth. No genius, not even the pow- 
 erful soul of Plato or Shakespeare or 
 Goethe, has been able by the backward 
 look to pierce the impenetrable shadows 
 of his own infancy; to know by experi- 
 ence what manner of creature he was 
 at the beginning; to declare by direct 
 knowledge through what stages and 
 moods of evolution and tentative flight 
 his own infant spirit first raised the 
 wing and sought to journey through the 
 boundless air. 
 
 But, as we have said, we are able to 
 discover much of interest with respect 
 Methods of to the epoch of unconscious- 
 
 t^.TnV'?h!M^''" ness in the beginning of 
 
 tory 01 the un- o & 
 
 conscious epoch, our own individual lives. 
 We were observed in that stage of our 
 existence by our parents and kinsfolk. 
 The nurse was busy with her eyes and 
 her garrulous tongue. Tradition was 
 rife in the family and neighborhood 
 relative to ourselves. The first motions 
 of intelligence were noted by those w-ho 
 were keenly anxious for our welfare and 
 promise. Tales were told about us, 
 having their origin in truth and their 
 ornaments in loving fiction. Presently, 
 with the dawn of consciousness, this 
 nursery history of our lives was recited 
 in our hearing, and we imbibed it as the 
 true narrative of our previous career — - 
 but by no means sufficiently wonderful 
 to meet the demands of fancy. There- 
 fore must we ourselves expand and 
 exaggerate the story. We became in- 
 terested in our past, and carefully stored 
 the vivid memory of childhood with the 
 poetic and half-fanciful stories of our 
 former state. Thus around the life of 
 every youth are thrown the traditions 
 and legends of his own unconscious ex- 
 istence in infancy; and these forms of 
 half-knowledge he is constrained in after 
 years to accept and to use as the best 
 
 attainable evidences of his progress by 
 growth and evolution through the first 
 epoch of his being. 
 
 From all this we are able to draw 
 some useful analogies with respect to the 
 infancy of the kindred to useful anaio- 
 which we belong, the ^;!" ;[!;^ '""^i' 
 
 t> ' vidual an epit- 
 
 people of which we are omeofrace. 
 the individual parts, and finally the race 
 of mankind within which we are in- 
 cluded. It is only in recent times that 
 these analogies have come to be regarded 
 at their true valuation. More and more 
 it has come to be accepted as true that 
 the individual is the epitome of the 
 species to which he belongs. More and 
 more the reasonableness of that hypoth- 
 esis has become apparent which places 
 the life of the race in analogy with the 
 life of the individual. More and more 
 we have been able to detect in the various 
 stages of our individual lives the like- 
 ness and miniature forms of the corre- 
 sponding stages in the history of 
 the human race. Some of the ablest 
 and most satisfactory expositions of 
 the great fact called civilization — of its 
 origin, its materials, its conditions, its 
 growth, and tendencies toward maturity 
 — have been produced by the process 
 of comparisons instituted between the 
 life of the individual, the life of the 
 species, and the history of the race to 
 which he belongs.' With these facts, 
 however, we are not at the present im- 
 mediately concerned. 
 
 If, then, the human race may be 
 looked upon as an individual entity or 
 being, having an uncon- sources of Ught 
 scious infancy, a half-con- ttx^i^^^::. 
 scious childhood, a wholly inquiry- 
 conscious but erratic and visionary youth, 
 and a rational and reflective maturity. 
 
 ' Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe is 
 the finest of the treatises in this department of 
 modern inquiry.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 41 
 
 what facts or circumstances, what condi- 
 tions of knowledge may be said to exist 
 from which evidence and information 
 may be drawn 
 concerning the 
 earliest stages of 
 human existence 
 — that u n c o n - 
 scious and infan- 
 tile condition be- 
 yond the reach of 
 all ethnic mem- 
 ory — beyond the 
 horizon of light 
 and vision? Are 
 there any sources 
 of thought and 
 reflection, suffi- 
 ciently matured 
 to take the name 
 o f knowledge, 
 from which, as if 
 by a mirror, light 
 and intelligence 
 may be thrown 
 into that remote 
 region below the 
 dawn of our race- 
 consciousness? 
 
 Fortunately — 
 most fortunately 
 — such sources of 
 knowledge d o 
 actually exist. 
 Most of them 
 have been dis- 
 covered in com- 
 paratively recent 
 times. Several 
 fields of investi- 
 g a t i o n have 
 opened their 
 treasures to the human mind, and with 
 every stage of the exploration new and 
 valuable evidence has been gained rela- 
 tive to the great questions which we 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—4 
 
 have placed at the head of this chapter. 
 A whole group of sciences, growing 
 ever more luminous with each additional 
 
 <JRIGI.\ UV M.WKIM) — VVHK.iN AND WHKKE? 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 discovery, have yielded their results, 
 from which ever-improving generaliza- 
 tions may be drawn regarding the prim- 
 itive stages through which the race of
 
 42 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 man has come into its present state. 
 
 The principal of these sciences are as 
 
 follows : Astronomy, Geol- 
 
 Cycle of sciences 
 
 that may be ogy, Archseology, Palaeon- 
 ma e o es 1 . ^^^Qgy^ Anthropology, Eth- 
 nology, Ethnography, Tradition, and 
 History — the last named including the 
 poems, the dim chronicles, and mis- 
 shapen annals in which the records of 
 the Ancient World are mostly contained 
 ■ — and finally Chronology proper. 
 
 edge which considers the distribution, 
 motions, and characteristics of the heav- 
 enly bodies. It has for its Astronomy con. 
 
 first and immediate sub- .^nt^^Tor^- 
 ject the solar system, of history of life, 
 which our own earth constitutes one of 
 the minor members. Dating from the 
 days of Galileo and Copernicus, the sci- 
 ence has passed through several stages 
 of development, the last of which, known 
 in the lamjuasfe of our times as the New 
 
 liEGINNlNU Ob IHK CciNSClUUb LltK (J.\ 1 il K KA k TH. — Ijruwn by Kiou. 
 
 At first view it may be difficult to per- 
 ceive in what way the sciences here re- 
 ferred to can give any satisfactory evi- 
 dence relative to the origin and primitive 
 life of our race. But a more careful 
 consideration of the subject will at once 
 discover the bearing of the same, each 
 and several, upon the great questions 
 before us. 
 
 I. Astro>io»iy. — By this science we un- 
 derstand that branch of human knowl- 
 
 Astronomy, has concerned itself particu- 
 larly with the ultimate constitution and 
 philosophy of our own solar group, and, 
 indeed, of the whole sidereal heavens. 
 
 One of the branches of this great 
 theme has been a specific inquiry into 
 what mav be called the Or- order of vital 
 derof Cr'eation. The sub- ''^^^^ItT 
 ject embraces, in the half- world history. 
 poetical language which it has adopted,, 
 such topics as the birth, the youth, the
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING. —SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 43 
 
 ■maturity, the old age, and the death of 
 worlds. The stages through which plan- 
 ets — all planets — pass in their evolution 
 from a primordial condition into world- 
 hood have been determined with such 
 an approximation to certainty as to fur- 
 nish a clear concept of planet history. 
 The inquiry has entered still more pro- 
 foundly into the subject, showing that 
 world-growth is correlated in all of its 
 stages with certain possibilities of life. 
 More precisely it has been shown and 
 determined that the great fact called life 
 is related with a certain stao-e or stagfes 
 of planet growth, and that the former 
 does not and can not exist except under 
 the conditions which are present at those 
 stages of world development. 
 
 This signifies in exact language that 
 the infancy of a planet can not bear life. 
 ilany of the conditions then present are 
 utterly incompatible with the existence 
 of vital phenomena in any form. It is 
 doubtless true that every planet passes 
 through a series of primary evolutions, 
 tending ever to worldhood proper, be- 
 fore any forms of life can exist therein. 
 At a later stage certain forms of vital 
 existence appear, and still further on 
 higher orders, until at length animated 
 existence, properly so called, is seen in 
 the new Avorld, inhabiting its surface, 
 teeming in the waters, or traversing the 
 air. We are thus introduced in planet 
 history to what may be called the Epoch 
 of Life. 
 
 In the latter part of this epoch intel- 
 ligences such as ourselves, a race like 
 TheEpochof mankind, may appear and 
 ^'cenSlgts fi^^d the means of continu- 
 of worldhood. ity. For a period of variable 
 but great duration this high form of 
 animated being, intelligent, conscious, 
 rational, becomes the principal inhabit- 
 ant of the planet under consideration. 
 Speculative astronomy does not hesitate 
 
 to go beyond the limits of this period, 
 and to point out the old age of worldhood, 
 the disappearance of life from the planet, 
 and, in a word, the death of the ex- 
 hausted sphere. In so far as investiga- 
 tion, the principles of right reason, de- 
 ductions warranted from existing data, 
 and conclusions reached by scientific 
 methods may go toward determining the 
 past and present condition of our own 
 planet with respect to the Epoch of Life, 
 — to that extent is the science of astron- 
 omy available as one of the sources of 
 information relative to the age of the 
 human race, the date of the infancy of 
 man, the time of the beginning. 
 
 2. Geology. — Close after this astro- 
 nomical view of world-life and man-life 
 comes the science of geol- Geology indi- 
 ogy, with its vast treasures ^^^/^^l^/e o°f t-"ai 
 of information and sug- phenomena, 
 gestion. Geology takes up the investi- 
 gation of planet life where astronomy 
 leaves off. The latter deals with worlds 
 in their relation to each other, and in- 
 cidentally with world constitution. The 
 former investigates the history of our 
 own earth in particular. The object of 
 this field of inquiry is to trace the prog- 
 ress and development of our planet 
 from the date of its separation from the 
 primordial mass of matter through all 
 its stages of evolution down to its present 
 condition. Such a field of inquiry in- 
 volves the consideration of the physical 
 bases of all forms of earth-life. It is 
 out of geological relations and conditions 
 that all vital phenomena arise. Given 
 a thorough establishment of geological 
 knowledge — a complete determination 
 of the succession of events in our world 
 history — and the true place of vital phe- 
 nomena therein can be determined with 
 approximate certainty. 
 
 The successive stages in the history of 
 our planet are correlated in every part
 
 44 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKfXD. 
 
 with the successive stages in the history 
 of life. The position of our own race in 
 The earth pre- the general scheme is de- 
 tTeTa^VvAr" terminable by a careful ob- 
 phenomena. servation of the succession 
 of facts and events in the physical order 
 of the planet. The earth has received 
 the markings and the vestigia of all the 
 orders of life, each in its turn, and has 
 fortunately preserved, as if for the wis- 
 dom of after ages, very intelligible frag- 
 ments of testimony respecting the time 
 and circumstances at which each new 
 order of living beings began to exist, 
 and the successive stages through which 
 the same passed in its differentiation, 
 growth, distribution, and maturity. 
 
 3. Arcliceology. — Just as geology lies 
 back upon astronomy for its foundation, 
 „ taking up the history of life 
 
 Place of archae- ox- .' 
 
 oiogy, and its whcrc the latter leaves off, 
 
 subject-matter. , , , . 
 
 so archaeology rests m 
 turn on geology. Whatever evidences 
 of the existence and sequence of vital 
 phenomena have been left in the astro- 
 nomical and geological records of the 
 universe have been in the nature of 
 tracks, traces, impressions, which, while 
 they are sufficiently distinct and unmis- 
 takable in character, are not in the 
 nature of remains left behind by the 
 living beings that have inhabited the 
 earth. They are thus considered by the 
 two sciences referred to as the testimony 
 of the former presence of things unseen. 
 Besides such markings and indentations, 
 so to speak, which the creatures endowed 
 with life have left in the organic struc- 
 ture of nature, there are many direct 
 remains of the living beings that have 
 flourished in the different epochs of 
 world histor3\ 
 
 Our own race has done its part in this 
 respect. The earth is full of rcliqucB 
 hmnana:. This is to say that the race 
 of man has left its debris behind in 
 
 every part of the world where human 
 beings have existed. It has been in the 
 nature of the ingenious Reiiqua^hu- 
 and highly intellectual be- ^rreU^^"of 
 ings of whom we are our- man-iife. 
 selves the living exemplification, from 
 whom we are descended, with whose 
 methods of life we are so intimately 
 acquainted by experience and observa- 
 tion, to handle the materials of nature, 
 to modify them, to adapt them to vari- 
 ous uses, and tJien, witli death or 
 removal, to cast them aside. Human 
 relics are thus scattered far and wide on 
 the surface and under the surface of the 
 earth. Many of them are of imperish- 
 able materials. They survive, not only 
 for years and for centuries, but for 
 immeasurable eons of time. Nor is it 
 possible that the existing race of men 
 should be mistaken as to the origin and 
 character of this large detritus of the 
 human race. It bears in all its parts 
 the marks of an unmistakable intelli- 
 gence which divides the relics of man 
 from the remains of all other creatures. 
 
 Within the present century the scien- 
 tific consideration of the reliquae 
 humanse has been under- Historic and pre- 
 taken. That vast and im- '^^'^^ 
 portant domain of knowl- oiogy- 
 edge called archaeology is the result. 
 In its application it is partly prehistoric 
 and partly historic ; that is, one branch 
 of the inquiry reaches far back into the 
 geological history of our planet, cover- 
 ing the period anterior to the first ex- 
 pressions of human consciousness in the 
 form of traditions or written records. 
 The other branch relates to the conscious 
 period of our existence as a race ; that 
 is, to the epoch which has been covered 
 more or less perfectly by those annals 
 and monuments which men have in- 
 vented as the means of expressing and 
 preserving the story of themselves.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING>-SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 45 
 
 Eiders the ordo 
 of facts in the 
 history of life. 
 
 In its methods and principles, the 
 science of archaeology confines itself 
 The science con- Strictly to the works of man . 
 These are considered with 
 respect to their geologi- 
 cal surroundings. The scheme of 
 geology being understood, the relics of 
 the human race are estimated by their 
 juxtaposition and character. The flora 
 and fauna of past ages, the order of 
 
 have been exercised. It thus happens 
 that archaeology furnishes to the inquirer 
 much valuable and almost direct evi- 
 dence as to the time when mankind, as 
 a race, began upon the earth. 
 
 4. Palceontology. — Closely related with 
 archaeology is the next branch of inquiry, 
 palaeontology, which treats of the struc- 
 ture, aiBnities, classification, and distri- 
 bution of the prehistoric plants and ani- 
 
 ^^ CI^ , 
 
 43 <**® 
 
 ^ § 6 «»^ ^ \ ^^ 
 
 y s^ ti^^iir, ^^ R « 
 
 a ® % •i'^— i» ,® # 
 ^ ^ ^ ^6,®© ® ^ n 
 
 C D 
 
 ARCH.EOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF MAN'S EXISTENCE. 
 A, megalithic covered structure ; B, stone circle— horizontal and vertical views ; C, mound with stone entrances ; 
 
 D, megalithic ruins of causeway. 
 
 which has been already geologically 
 determined, holding the remains of 
 man's work and workmanship in a 
 matrix, furnish therefore an ordo which 
 can not well be misapprehended. The 
 bottom principle of the science is that 
 there is a definite correlation betw^een 
 all the arts in the varioiis periods of 
 human development and the world his- 
 tory in which and on which those arts 
 
 mals which have existed on the earth. 
 These are classified and arranged accord- 
 ing to the natural order in „ , , . 
 
 °_ Scope and liml- 
 
 which thev have succeeded tations of pa- . 
 
 ,1' ■ e laeontology. 
 
 one another as species of 
 living organisms. The relations between 
 plant-life and animal life are established, 
 and the dependencies of animate upon 
 inanimate forms of existence scientific- 
 ally determined. Not only the surface
 
 46 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 of the eartn, but the crust of the earth 
 to a considerable depth has been ex- 
 plored in the investigation ; so that pa- 
 laeontology, like archaeology, of which it 
 is properly a branch, may be said to rest 
 firmly on a geological basis. In its after 
 developments it yields the two sciences of 
 botany and zoolog}% each of which has 
 its roots and historical antecedents in 
 the prehistoric and extinct flora and 
 fauna of the earth. At many points pa- 
 Iseontological research touches the exist- 
 ence and conditions of man in the 
 geological and archaeological ages. It 
 considers him, indeed, as the culmina- 
 tion of the animal races whose antiquity 
 is in the rocks and whose present activi- 
 ties are displayed on the dry land and in 
 the waters of our globe. The science thus 
 furnishes another of the collateral and 
 contemporaneous evidences of the primi- 
 tive state of man, and incidentally of 
 the epoch at which our race appeared on 
 the earth. 
 
 5. Anthropology. — vStill a fifth science 
 has recently been developed which in 
 Anthropology sonie of its subject-mattcr 
 r/wttirub^'^r touches the great question 
 matter. of the antiquity of man. 
 
 This is anthropology. The nature and 
 limitations of this important branch of 
 inquiry have scarcely yet been clearly 
 defined. It considers the race of man 
 as a fact in natural history. It looks at 
 the race, first of all, from the physical, 
 or material, point of view. It considers 
 the form and structure, the adaptations 
 and relations of the beings called men, 
 as though they were a genus of animals. 
 Anatomy and physiology thus become 
 subordinate branches of a higher anthro- 
 pological study. But the new science 
 also brings into view the intellectual 
 and moral nature of mankind. It con- 
 siders the evolution of mind and all of 
 those important facts and principles 
 
 which in their scientific expression go by 
 the name of psychology. 
 
 The inquir}^ also extends backwards 
 along the lines of human development, 
 and becomes historical in its And divides 
 character. It investigates :Se''reiicsof°'°^ 
 the \-arious stages through mankind, 
 which the race of man has passed. It 
 follows the clue in the direction from 
 which that race has emerged until it en- 
 ters the domain of archaeology, and with 
 that science divides the prehistoric relics 
 of mankind. The line of division is 
 made on the principle that the remains 
 of W'hat man has done shall fall to archae- 
 olog}', and the remains of what man was 
 to anthropology. The two sciences are 
 thus allied, the one rising out of the 
 other in the same manner in which ar- 
 chaeological investigation springs from a 
 geological basis. 
 
 It has long been known that the re- 
 mains of men have survived from the 
 prehistoric ages. Such re- Two classes of 
 mains are. for the most ^™,\°LT"'' 
 part, osseous in character, activity. 
 It will be seen at a glance that such relics 
 are strongly discriminated in their na- 
 ture from those which consist of the 
 fragments of man's Avorkmanship, as, 
 for instance, his implements, utensils, ap- 
 parel, etc. While it is true that, for prac- 
 tical purposes, the skull or other part of 
 a prehistoric human being and the hatch- 
 et of stone or bronze which the prehis- 
 toric man was wont to Avield in his bat- 
 tles for existence may be considered 
 together as common evidences of his 
 existence, and, in a certain degree, of 
 the time at which he flourished, yet the 
 two relics, as will be seen at a glance, 
 belong really to wide apart branches of 
 investigation. The one is a part of the 
 organic stinicture of the man of the ar- 
 chaeological period, and the other is a part 
 of what may be called his civilization
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 47 
 
 The significance of the one is anthropo- 
 logical, while the other is a part of the 
 subject-matter of that prehistoric history 
 called archaeology. It will be seen in 
 the following pages to what extent an- 
 thropology, the study of man as man, 
 has thrown light upon the date of his 
 origin — the time of his apjjearance on 
 the earth. 
 
 6. Etitnology. — Springing out of the 
 last-named department of investigation, 
 and constituting in some sense a subor- 
 
 of men. It deals with the physical con- 
 ditions under which mankind have ex- 
 isted ; the stages of culture through which 
 they have passed ; the various aspects of 
 social life which have presented them- 
 selves in different ages; and with the 
 universal laws of progress in accordance 
 with which our species has moved for- 
 ward from the most primitive to the mogt 
 recent stage of the human evolution. 
 
 Beginning with the most rudimentary 
 arts which were invented and practiced 
 
 
 ^^5a.N:^'-^"^<^^-*s^«^~ - 
 
 REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAX. 
 
 dinate division thereof, next follows eth- 
 nology. This includes a specific depart- 
 Ethnoiogy ment of studv, the sub- 
 
 S'opX; ject-matter of which is the 
 its materials. different tribes, kindreds, 
 and races of men that have inhabited 
 the earth, considered in their relations, 
 affinities, derivation, descent, and gen- 
 eral characteristics. Ethnolog\' is a truly 
 philosophical inqiiiry into the origin, 
 differentiation, development, and distri- 
 bution of the different families consti- 
 tuting the originals of the present races 
 
 by men, and with the coarsest needs by 
 which the primeval race was pressed and 
 held in thrall, ethnology Deals with evo- 
 proceeds confidentlv by l^tT.fnl-r^t" 
 
 ■T - ./ nomena oi race- 
 
 comparison, by hypothesis, Ufe on earth, 
 by analogy, along the lines of growth 
 and expansion until it reaches the grand 
 discoveries and noble impulses which 
 constitute the ripe fruit of the most re- 
 cent epochs. The science is patient and 
 laborious in its methods. It stoops to 
 consider the food-supply whereby human 
 life, in common with all other animal
 
 48 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 life on our planet, has been supported 
 and perpetuated; the sexual relation, 
 being the general term to express the 
 methods and practices of the various 
 tribes and peoples as it respects the union 
 of the man and the woman for the in- 
 crease of the race — the laws and the sen- 
 timents under which the sexual alliance 
 has been sanctioned and encouraged by 
 
 eral rules of conduct which men by ex. 
 pcrience and right reason have invented 
 in different ages for the subordination 
 of themselves in communities and states ; 
 and finally, the religious systems which 
 have appeared in many forms, but with 
 many common features, as the expres- 
 sion of the hopes, the fears, the beliefs, 
 and yearnings of the human spirit in its 
 
 rROUUCTIUX Ul' FIRE— THE IIRST ART I'KACIICKIl 1!V MAX.— Ur.iwn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 mankind on the way from rude savagery 
 to a highly civilized condition ; the phe- 
 nomena of language, including a study 
 of the affinities and connections of the 
 different tongues in which the families 
 and kindreds of men have endeavored 
 to give a rational embodiment to their 
 thoughts, beliefs, and visions; tjie tech- 
 nology, or art interpretation of the va- 
 rious peoples ; the government, civil and 
 social, and the laws constituting the gen- 
 
 discontent with the things seen and its 
 aspirations for the things eternal. Fol- 
 lowing the clues furnished by ethnolog- 
 ical research, the inquirer is enabled to 
 make his way along the course from 
 which men have descended, and to learn 
 much of the time and circumstances un- 
 der which the race began its_ existence 
 on the earth. 
 
 7. Etlinograpliy. — It has been proposed 
 by modern scholars to separate that part
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 49 
 
 of ethnology Avhich describes the cus- 
 toms, laws, and habits of nations from 
 Narrower and the principal Science, and 
 reMcTvTredby to name the new divi- 
 ethnography. ^ion ethnography. Oi this 
 branch of inquiry it is the proper func- 
 tion to describe the phenomena of race 
 rather than to explain the same in terms 
 of the known. The office of the one is 
 delineative ; of the other, expository. 
 To the one belongs the descriptive and 
 pictorial part of race inquiry, and to the 
 other the philosophical interpretation of 
 the things described. The relation of 
 the two sciences is analogous to that 
 existing between geography and geology, 
 though the difference between the latter 
 is more pronounced and conspicuous 
 than that between the former. The 
 ethnographic inquiry is much more easy 
 and superficial than ethnology, inas- 
 much as the latter looks more profound- 
 ly into the subject-matter of the investi- 
 gation, and must proceed by wider and 
 more difficult generalizations. 
 
 The data of man-life obtained by mere 
 observation and description are easily 
 Kase of ciassifi- classified and arranged ac- 
 ^^Cnntef ■ cording to the nature of 
 preting. the subjects to which they 
 
 refer. But the interpretation of the 
 great facts in which the origin, the 
 character, and, in a word, the history of 
 the different races of men are embodied, 
 requires a breadth of research and a 
 scope of vision worthy the name of genius. 
 In so far as ethnography preserves by 
 careful delineations the characteristics 
 of primitive peoples, in so far as the 
 science notes the rate of departure and 
 the extent of the divergencies among | 
 the ancient races of mankind, to that , 
 extent it affords valuable suggestions ; 
 relative to the time of the beginning. 
 
 8. Tradition and History. — We have 
 now followed the lines of scientific evo- 
 
 lution from a high view of world history 
 downwards to man hi.story proper. As 
 in the case of the individual, 
 
 In -what manner 
 
 there comes to pass a time tradition begins 
 
 ,1 J. 1 . T 1 to be evolved. 
 
 in the progress of kindred 
 and tribe and race when consciousness 
 appears. When this happens in the in- 
 dividual, he at once begins, as we have 
 seen, to consider himself, to remember 
 with more or less distinctness the prin- 
 cipal events in his past career, to speak 
 of them as matters of importance to him- 
 self and others. In like manner the rise 
 of ethnic consciousness leads at once to 
 that peculiar, reflective, and communi- 
 cative form of mental activity which we 
 call tradition and history. When the 
 proper stage has been reached, the tribe 
 that was, becoming a people, begins to 
 consider itself. The wisest members of 
 the ethnic family, the most vigorous in 
 tliought and imagination, frame from 
 the vague legends that have drifted 
 downwards — assisted in rare instances 
 by the monumental evidences which 
 their race ha." left behind — at first an 
 incoherent, and afterwards a coherent, 
 account of the past. 
 
 Tradition and histoiy thus become the 
 first formal expression of national con- 
 sciousness. Such expres- Blendingsof 
 sion is older than any other S^t^ryTnTht 
 form of literary product, dawn. 
 It may be indeed that the earliest story- 
 teller of mankind takes for his legend the 
 vehicle of metrical language, but the 
 subject-matter is essentially historical. 
 The man-life thus begins to be delineated. 
 Of a ceilainty everything is at the first 
 local and peculiar. The myth-making 
 power is busy in the production of the 
 narrative. Fact and fiction are equally 
 present in the concept and the work. 
 The historian of the dawn is at once a 
 sage and a bard, an annalist and a rhap- 
 sodist, a storv-teller and a singer. What
 
 60 
 
 GREAT RACES OF J/AXA'/XP. 
 
 he produces blends henceforth with the 
 memory of his race. It is imbibed as a 
 verity, and is used by future chroniclers 
 and poets as the subject-matter of their 
 work. The volume of tradition expands 
 rapidly, and is to a certain extent rec- 
 tified by the improving judgment and 
 critical skill of after times. But ages go 
 
 history of mankind continues to flow in 
 the mighty stream of history and to 
 color all its waters. 
 
 But what is the difference between 
 history and tradition ? Is not the one 
 the other, and the other that? Is it 
 possible to discriminate with exactitude 
 between that form of intellectual product 
 
 A CHALDEE RHAI'SnDIST RECITING (MODERN).— Drawn by Barbanl. 
 
 by ere the elements of myth and tradi- 
 tion are eliminated from the narrative. 
 Mankind advance to the possession 
 and civilization of the great conti- 
 nents. Other branches of knowledge 
 spring from the mental fecundity of the 
 race. Nations react upon nations. A 
 vast civil and political life appears. The 
 mind improves by culture and discipline ; 
 and yet the fictitious part of the early 
 
 which goes by the name of tradition and 
 that other form which is called history.' 
 May these two parts of the Distinctions to 
 intellectual work of our ^^^^^radftion 
 race — its history and its and history, 
 tradition — be separated the one from the 
 other and be considered apart? Cer- 
 tainly the two facts to which these terms 
 refer are not the same fact ; and yet the 
 blending of the one with the other is so
 
 TIME OF THE BEGLVNING.— SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 51 
 
 intimate and universal as almost to pre- 
 clude the division of the one from the 
 other. Tradition is a general term, 
 signifying any form of story relative to 
 past events which has been transmitted 
 from generation to generation simply by 
 the vehicle of human memory and oral 
 utterance. Tradition depends for its 
 existence upon the two faculties of 
 memory and speech. It is perpetuated 
 by repetition. True, a tradition may 
 be written, and may in this manner 
 come at length to masquerade in the 
 form of history ; but the fact that it is 
 written does not alter its essential na- 
 ture. If the subject-matter have been 
 handed down by memory and oral nar- 
 ration, repeated from one age to the 
 next, the character of tradition in the 
 thing narrated is ever aftenvards pres- 
 ent, though it be written. 
 
 From this consideration it Avill at once 
 appear how variable is the value of 
 Variations in the traditions as measured by 
 v^iue^of trrdr."^' the length of time between 
 tiois. the date of the thing con- 
 
 stituting the subject-matter of the story 
 and the date of the record in which it is 
 contained. If a great period of time 
 have elapsed between the one and the 
 other — if the tradition have thus been 
 subjected to the modifications, exagger- 
 ations, and reflections to which all stories 
 are subject so long as they dwell on the 
 tongues of men, then, indeed, is the 
 tradition of small importance considered 
 as a material of history. But if, on the 
 other hand, only a single generation or 
 a fraction of a generation have inter- 
 vened between the date of the event and 
 the record which preser\-ed the story, 
 then we may allow to the tradition a 
 weight almost equal to that of true his- 
 torical narrative. 
 
 The question will at once arise. Is not 
 all history dependent upon or rather 
 
 derived from a traditional origin? Of 
 a certainty every narrative, however 
 immediate and exact, must How history 
 have passed through the ^li^^^^^rre'r 
 medium of consciousness in t^e definition, 
 the author, and to that extent it is tinged 
 with the quality of tradition. But if the 
 author, while the event is still immedi- 
 ately present to his memory, makes 
 record of the fact which he has seen and 
 known, if he follows the criterion to 
 which ^neas so confidently refers, and 
 speaks only of the things ' ' of which he 
 has been a part," then, indeed, is the 
 traditional element so slight that it may 
 be well neglected. Caesar in his tent by 
 night recording the incidents and 
 results of the day's conflicts, thus be- 
 comes the exemplar and type of the 
 historian and his work pure and simple. 
 But of a certainty many other quali- 
 ties besides this of the contemporaneity 
 of the witness and the event must enter 
 in before the work can be called true 
 history. The definition of this great 
 and important form of human knowl- 
 edge and achievement narrows from age 
 to age and becomes ever more exact. 
 At the present day it is limited to that 
 species of authentic narrative of human 
 events which is arranged on the lines of 
 the forces which produced them ; that 
 is, on the lines of universal sequence 
 and causation. Chronicles and annals, 
 merely such, are no longer considered 
 as history proper. Neither is that form 
 of dissertation which embodies the 
 speculations of a writer with regard to 
 the facts and tendencies of human 
 society to be reckoned as true history. 
 The latter implies that the personal 
 element in the narrative shall be as little 
 discoverable as possible. The historian 
 in the ideal history is as little seen as 
 Shakespeare is seen in the tragedy of 
 Hamlet.
 
 52 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .V.LYAVXn. 
 
 The historian is an interpreter of 
 events ; but the interpretation is not 
 
 Impersonality of COlorcd — doCS not SUffer 
 
 the historian ; diffraction— bv the medium 
 
 sources of his 
 
 materials. through which it passes. 
 
 The camera is essential to the photo- 
 graph. The easel, the palette, and the 
 brush, aye, the arm and hand and eye 
 of the master are essential in the pro- 
 duction of a painting. But the camera 
 is not seen in the sun picture ; neither 
 are the easel, the brush, the hand, and 
 the eye of the artist seen on his canvas. 
 So also of the historian. Beginning 
 where tradition leaves off, freely em- 
 ploying every form and product of 
 human knowledge, gathering in mate- 
 rials, especially from contemporaneous 
 annals, chronicles, dramas, and fictions, 
 he discovers wherever he may the 
 threads of causation, of antecedence and 
 consequence, and along these fine nerves 
 of the man-life he builds his narrative 
 on the principle of the photograph or 
 the reproduction of a landscape. 
 
 But the thing which we are here to 
 consider is not so much the essential 
 Tradition deals nature of tradition and 
 Snel"of ^^i^tory, not so much ibeir 
 mankind. differences and depend- 
 
 encies, but rather the testimony Avhich 
 these two forms of human knowledge 
 may bear with respect to the time of the 
 appearance of our race on the earth, the 
 date of the beginning. It is in the 
 nature of tradition, then, to deal directly 
 with these great questions. The brain 
 of the primitive man was rife with con- 
 jectures and dim memories of his former 
 state. Doubtless his recollection of the 
 past had much of the nature of a dream. 
 Doubtless the former experiences of the 
 half-conscious race were transmitted to 
 him with his blood. Doubtless the 
 vicissitudes and the vivid impressions 
 which time and circumstance had made 
 
 on his unthinking but highly sensitive 
 ancestry recurred in his own thought, 
 and constituted a sort of basis ou which 
 all of his theories respecting his past 
 history were built. As for the sub- 
 stance of these theories, that was 
 gathered from the folklore of his tribe. 
 
 Not deficient or inactive was the talk 
 passion among primeval men. In this 
 respect the various peo- work of the talk 
 pies differed greatly, some ?,\^~,':e'^^ 
 being comparatively taci- races, 
 turn, little disposed to communicate with 
 their fellows, and others having a nat- 
 ural enthusiasm and gift in the com- 
 merce of speech. Some of the most 
 intellectual and vigorous of the ancient 
 races were loquacious to a degree that 
 can not now be well appreciated. In 
 such cases much of the reflective talk of 
 the tribe took the form of traditional 
 lore. The origin of man was the key- 
 note of the ukltime story. The primi- 
 tive peoples, especially those gifted with 
 imagination and a highly developed 
 language, were ever busy with the 
 theory of the genesis of the race. 
 
 At the same time they took up the 
 problem of nature outside of man. The 
 forms, aspects, and phenomena of the 
 material world demanded ^, 
 
 Nature, also, de- 
 an explanation as well as manded an in- 
 , . . , -, r i 1 1 terpretation. 
 
 man himself. ^Mythology, 
 leeend, and tradition were soon rife, and 
 were infinitely inflected according to 
 the fancy and fragments of information 
 which the various tribes possessed. All 
 agreed that so//n- explanation must be 
 given of the time, the place, and the 
 circumstances of man's appearance on 
 the earth. All were agreed that in some 
 way he had come. None conjectured 
 that his past existence was an eternity. 
 Each had the concept of a previous con- 
 dition in earth and heaven wherein man 
 had no part or lot.
 
 TIME OF THE BEG INNING. —SO URGES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 53 
 
 It thus happened that each race, accord- 
 ing to its light, according to what it had 
 Primitive con- received from older mem- 
 SJSnuoT- bers of the tribe, accord- 
 philosophy. jj^g to its Concepts of the 
 
 methods and possibilities of the case, 
 produced the story of man-life in the 
 earth. The story was from one point of 
 view as variable as the fancies of the 
 
 with respect to the remote past. It 
 might be said, even at this late day, that' 
 the whole intellectual structure of the 
 world rests on the concrete Beliefs of man- 
 of tradition. He who there- rarg^/^"™" 
 fore would investigate for from tradition, 
 himself and for others the primitive state 
 of man — would in particular inquire into 
 the probable time and conditions under 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THE DEGlNNIXG.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 race were vague and their creative 
 powers capricious. But from another 
 point of view there were common fea- 
 tures in the traditions which now gained 
 currency, and these common features at 
 length constituted a sort of body of 
 philosophy which was accepted with 
 more or less reservation by the great 
 minds of antiquity. 
 
 From all this it must readily appear 
 how great a part tradition has performed 
 in establishing the beliefs of mankind 
 
 which men began to be among the living 
 creatures of our globe — must carefully 
 consider the traditions which the races 
 of men have formed with respect to 
 themselves. 
 
 Here, then, true history begins. As 
 it was the first, so also it seems to be the 
 last and greatest of the 
 
 ^ Office of history- 
 
 products of the human to solve all prob- 
 1 A • . ,1 T . lems of man-life. 
 
 mind. As it was the earliest 
 
 endeavor of the conscious race to express 
 
 its concepts of itself, so also is it the
 
 54 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 latest endeavor of that same race to ex- 
 plain, interpret, and elucidate the true 
 course and character of human affairs in 
 the earth. It goes with the saying that 
 it is sooner or later the function of his- 
 tory to answer in a satisfactory manner 
 the all-important questions which stand 
 at the beginning of the present inquiry. 
 In doing so the science — if science it 
 may be called — draws within its compass 
 all the results which have been reached 
 in all the fields of human inquiry. 
 
 Above all other branches of knowl- 
 edge, history sits and broods, with 
 Supreme place wings outspread as though 
 °eat*o7h™ the universe of things were 
 inquiry. pregnant and must bring 
 
 forth under the shadow and power of 
 thought. It may be truthfully said that 
 every other form of learning tends to 
 this. True history is the generalized 
 result of all things that have been 
 thought and done by men. When com- 
 plete, it must of course take cognizance 
 not only of the genesis, but also of the 
 , final destiny of man. For the present 
 it may be freely confessed that true his- 
 torical inquiry has not extended very 
 far into the past,- and that it has still 
 more feebly divined the future. Nor 
 may the historian of this age with right 
 reason hope greatly to extend the domain 
 of this science of the sciences in either 
 direction. He may, however, properly 
 aspire to place in better light that part 
 of human history which relates to the 
 primal appearance of mankind on the 
 earth, and to throw some pencils of re- 
 flected light on the time and circum- 
 stances of the beginning. 
 
 9. Chronology. — Out of history, and as 
 a department thereof, has arisen chro- 
 nology as a special branch of inquiry. 
 It vs\3.y be said to be at once a factor and a 
 result of all historical investigation. 
 With the ancients it meant properly the 
 
 computation of time. With the general 
 analysis and classification of the sciences 
 it has come to be a consider- chronology a 
 ation of the time-order of "^,2^%°^^}^-^^ 
 
 tory ; its proper 
 
 the successive events which function, 
 have occurred in the history of the world. 
 It is the function of chronology to de 
 termine, not only the particular dates at 
 which the events of the past have hap- 
 pened, but the order of their succession 
 and the intervals of time between them. 
 It thus furnishes the framework of all 
 things soever that have occurred in the 
 human universe. There is a sense in 
 which the whole structure of tradition 
 and history rests upon the chronological 
 foundation. Even the ancients who 
 gave, sometimes in charming manner, 
 the narrative of events, paying attention 
 to the dramatic order — which is only the 
 natural order of all things soever — and 
 who were as a rule given to the neglect 
 of dates, nevertheless showed consider- 
 able appreciation of the importance of 
 chronology. The true .science, however, 
 is of modern origin ; its exact phases 
 belong to the last quarter of the eight- 
 eenth century, and more particularly to 
 the clo-ser investigations of the present 
 age. 
 
 Chronology finds its possibility in the 
 movements of the heavenly bodies. The 
 primarv facts are the ro- Foundation of 
 tation 'of the earth on its t:::^ZT,i 
 axis and its revolutions the planets, 
 around the sun. The abstract concept 
 of time is more difficult to grasp than 
 might at first thought be easily appre- 
 hended. This is to say that in the ab- 
 sence of tangible phenomena, such as 
 those produced by the movements of the 
 spheres, it might be difficult to form a 
 true notion of that abstract continuance 
 or duration to which we give the name 
 of time. But the revolution of our globe, 
 and the resulting aspects of the heavenly
 
 TIME OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—ASTROXOMICAL ARGUMEXT. 
 
 55 
 
 Dodies as viewed therefrom, divides dura- 
 tion into parts, and furnishes an easy 
 calculus for time measurement. 
 
 Out of nature a scale may thus be 
 constructed to which human affairs are 
 Historical per- adjustable, and in the 
 spectivede- Y\<r\it of which they are 
 
 pends on cnron- t> J 
 
 oiogicai order, ruost easily Comprehended. 
 ChronologfV furnishes a sort of time locus 
 for everything, and it is by the employ- 
 ment of such a scheme that the vast and 
 orderly progress of human events is first 
 discovered. All historical perspective 
 depends upon the chronological relations 
 of the objects of the human landscape. 
 There is, first of all, a horizon. The 
 remoter facts stand far back against the 
 dim line which divides the known from 
 the unknown. The size, appearance, 
 and relative importance of such facts 
 must be estimated by their distance from 
 the observer. The objects of the nearer 
 landscape, as judged by the senses, seem 
 vast and tall. Without the aid of the 
 
 chronological perspective the concept of 
 the past would be utterly distorted aud 
 ludicrous. 
 
 We have here reached one of the par- 
 ticular grounds of the inquiry constitut- 
 ing the theme of the if knowledge 
 
 ° ■were complete 
 
 present book, namel}', the chronology 
 
 . , , . . T /• wovild end the 
 
 time of the beginning. Ir inquiry, 
 the scheme of human knowledge -^ere 
 perfected the inquiry would be simply 
 chronological and nothing more. But 
 the reader must bear in mind that the 
 thing attempted is to extend the chrono- 
 logical lines into that obscure domain 
 under whose mists and shadows the un- 
 conscious part of human history was 
 transacted. For this rea.son all the pre- 
 ceding sciences to which we have referred 
 are called into requisition, in this part 
 or in that, in the hope of extending the 
 scheme of chronolog}', not indeed with 
 exactitude, but with some approximate 
 certainty to the infancy and childhood 
 of the human race. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— A.SXROXO>.IICAIv ^RGU^vIEXT RESF'ECX= 
 IXG THE ^XTIQUITY OE ^.IAX. 
 
 I ROM what has been 
 presented in the first 
 chapter we may dis- 
 cover the general 
 sources from which in- 
 formation and sugges- 
 tion may be derived 
 with respect to the antiquity of man. 
 The various branches of science to which 
 we have referred in the preceding pages 
 are the witnesses which may be sum- 
 moned to give testimony on the great 
 question involved in this inquiry. It will 
 be seen at a glance that, for the most 
 part, such testimony is not direct. In 
 some instances, particularly in archasol- 
 
 og\- and geology, the evidence may be 
 considered immediate and indubitable. 
 But in most respects the science testifies 
 
 scientific knowledge which itfani'order''" 
 
 Ave possess relative to the of lift, 
 time, the place, and the circumstances 
 under which the human race made its 
 appearance on the Earth is indirect and 
 only by reflection. It is as though a 
 mirror were held aloft in the surface of 
 which we may see the objects and move- 
 ments below the horizon. He who 
 studies the prehistoric career of man- 
 kind by the aid of the sciences to which 
 we have referred, is as the observer who, 
 sitting by the window of the fljang car.
 
 56 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 may see the moving spectra of distant 
 landscapes appearing and disappearing 
 among the shadows of tlie otlier side. 
 
 On the whole, those forms of human 
 knowledge which we now possess, bearing 
 Authenticity of on the question of the rela- 
 ti^llSl.^ tions of world-life and man- 
 race compared, life, are in analogy with 
 the witne.sses who observed our indi- 
 
 CO.MPARATIVE SIZE OF THE PIANEIARY WORLDS. 
 
 vidual development through the uncon- 
 scious stages of infancy. In some 
 respects the evidence which we possess 
 with regard to our own growth and 
 conduct during the unconscious stage — 
 with respect to the date and circum- 
 stances of our birth and the events with 
 which the first years of our individual 
 life were associated — is superior in 
 quality, more satisfactory to the condi- 
 
 tions of right reason, more conclusive as 
 to the things in question, than is the 
 evidence derived from the branches of 
 knowledge referred to with respect to 
 the time and conditions of the infancy 
 and childhood of mankind. But in 
 other respects the latter evidence is the 
 better of the two. It is, on the whole, 
 less colored, less perverted by the im- 
 perfections of merely 
 human testimony, less 
 affected with errors 
 arising from what is 
 called the personal 
 equation, than is the 
 purely oral tradition 
 handed down by our 
 fathers and ancestors 
 with respect to the un- 
 conscious epoch in our 
 individual lives or in 
 the lives of themselves. 
 We may, therefore, in 
 a general way take 
 our stand among the 
 sciences above deline- 
 ated, and interrogate 
 them with some ante- 
 cedent expectation of 
 pi'ofit with regard to 
 the place of the appear- 
 ance of primeval man. 
 If we take a critical 
 survey of our solar 
 system, occupying the 
 astronomer's point of 
 that system to be in 
 of development as it 
 
 Probability of 
 the diffusion of 
 life through- 
 out our system. 
 
 view, we find 
 various stages 
 respects the great fact 
 called life. We here plant 
 ourselves upon the assump- 
 tion that the phenomena of life are 
 generally distributed through the vis- 
 ible universe. The discovery in our own 
 age of the fundamental identity of the 
 stellar and planetary materials furnishes
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 57 
 
 a solid basis for the inference of the 
 accompanying distribution of life. It is 
 clearly demonstrable that the small group 
 of worlds with which our own globe is 
 associated are fundamentally identical 
 in structure. From the sun outward to 
 the lone satellite of Neptune no consider- 
 able variation has been discovered from 
 the established material unity of the 
 whole group. There is, therefore, in 
 the first place, no perceptible physical 
 barrier to the dissemination of the com- 
 mon forms of life throughout our neigh- 
 boring worlds. But a stronger ground 
 even than this for the hypothesis of life 
 in the planets is found in the conditions 
 of right reason. That indeed must be a 
 strangely constituted intelligence which 
 can accept the theory of the limitation of 
 life to our own earth. Such a supposi- 
 tion must rather provoke a smile on the 
 countenance of every intelligent being 
 who has risen to anything like an ade- 
 quate conception of the scale and char- 
 acter of the material universe. To 
 suppose that a single insignificant orb 
 like our own, scarcely discoverable in 
 the multitude of worlds and systems, 
 should be the favored spot in which life 
 and intelligence are manifested, while all 
 the rest of the stupendous universe 
 round about is, as it were, a mere waste 
 of material structure, is to entertain a 
 concept of nature utterly absurd. Such 
 a view is the very essence of that natural, 
 but irrational, anthropomorphic notion of 
 the universe, the existence of which in 
 the mind of antiquity we can well under- 
 stand, but the perpetuation of which in 
 the era of light and knowledge seems at 
 once unaccountable and preposterous. 
 
 The fact of life constitutes, then, the 
 only rational explanation of the exist- 
 ence of the material universe. On any 
 hypothesis material nature can hardly 
 be said to exist for itself. A system of 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—5 
 
 worlds like our own has no rational ex- 
 planation except that which is found in 
 the suggestion of an arena Life and intern- 
 of life, and finally of in- ^.^^^^^ 
 
 telligent activity. Let him material nature. 
 
 who will attempt to frame any other ex- 
 planation of the existence of worlds, any 
 other intelligent or even conceivable 
 purpose for which things are designed 
 or for which they merely exist, and he 
 shall soon find the futility of the effort. 
 Material nature has its tatio ultima in 
 the basis which it furnishes for the dis- 
 play of vital phenomena, including in- 
 telligence as the highest expression of 
 living force. 
 
 It is freely admitted that direct scien- 
 tific demonstration of the existence of 
 life and intelligence in any Reason must aid 
 world other than our own The ^^^'^"i 
 is not possible in the pres- the universe, 
 ent condition of human knowledge. It 
 may not be possible for ages to come, or 
 ever possible to the end of our own 
 world-life and the final scene of the pres- 
 ent state. One of the elements, how- 
 ever, of all our best attainment is the 
 use of right reason and the ready accept- 
 ance of the results to which it leads. 
 We may not admit that the universe is 
 an absurdity. We may not any longer 
 suppose that our own small earth with 
 its burden of interests, to us so over- 
 whelming, is of any superior conse- 
 quence in the universal scheme beyond 
 what the size, place, and physical im- 
 portance of our little globe may reason- 
 ably imply. 
 
 We are thus to consider the system of 
 worlds with which our own is associated 
 as a common system, hav- General view of 
 ing common features, obey- ^i^ its coT-- 
 
 ing common laws, subject mon features. 
 
 to common vicissitudes, and determined 
 by a common destiny. The planets that 
 traverse the adjacent spaces are even as
 
 The dots round the orbits sho~.v 
 tkt position of the planets at 
 'ntef^ai^ oj" a thousand days. 
 
 The symbois \\ indicate in. 
 greatest distance o/ an o^bt'. 
 
 north and south 0/ the />ian^ 
 cf the Ecii/'tic 
 
 XqbJ^ of huniiredj of milhanj of mUe^ 
 
 6 1 ' ; i i 1 It. 
 
 WOO mtUu>n mUes — 1 i/uK 
 
 Orbits 0/ Neptune {^ ), Uranus (JJ^), 
 Saturn ( ^ )^ and Jupiter ( 2^ ). 
 
 nurcuij Viuiu* Eaitb 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 The arroiv-head on each orbit shoiu* 
 the direction 0/ rezioiution^ also eUf 
 place 0/ each planet on Jan, ist, t iVs. 
 at noon. 
 
 {Zone oJ" Asteroids^ and o*l-its 
 
 1^ ), Nodes Q P9, Near-fv 
 Apses N. U, S, 7. 
 
 Uranus Nepiune 
 
 Scale 0/ Planets lO^ooQ times that of Orbits. 
 t^fupiter and Saturn are shown iniheir true axial position. Uranus and Neptune in the axial positions in/erredjrom the ^notions 0/ their Satellites. \ 
 
 Scale 2fioo times that 0/ the Orbits. 
 
 Urtmaj's batctm^ 
 
 
 SOLAR SYSTEM— SHOWING RELATION'S OF ORBITS, COMPARISIONS OF PLANETS. AND PLACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Drawn by Richard A. Proctor. F. R, A. S
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 59 
 
 our own. Some are smaller and some 
 are almost infinitely greater, but all are 
 virtually identical in structure, character- 
 istics, and final purpose. But the worlds 
 above and around us are, nevertheless, 
 greatly discriminated from our own with 
 respect to the stage of development in 
 which they are respectively found. Some 
 are old and some are young as compared 
 with our planet. vSome are, doubtless, 
 at the present time in a process of evo- 
 lution and development almost iden- 
 tical with that through which our 
 own globe passed in geological ages 
 far agone. Others have gone for- 
 ward more rapidly than the earth, 
 and have reached the condition to- 
 ward which our planet is slowly, 
 steadily, but surely tending, and at 
 which it must at length arrive under 
 the force of universal laws. 
 
 Not only do the worlds differ among 
 
 themselves with respect to their age, 
 
 considered as planetary 
 
 Relations of . ^ 
 
 world age to the bodics, but they also 
 
 epoch of life. t - rr • 1 1 
 
 diner m another ratio 
 with respect to their age relative to 
 the epoch of life. The antiquity of a 
 planet, considered as a planet, does 
 not determine its relation to life and 
 its conditions. This is to say that the 
 process of evolution may go on so '''^' 
 slowly in some of the older w^orlds 
 that they reach the epoch of life at a 
 period much later in world history than 
 do some other planets in which the proc- 
 ess of world formation goes on more 
 rapidly. In a general way it may be 
 scientifically alleged that the smaller 
 globes, having once assumed the plan- 
 etary form and condition, sweep on more 
 rajiidly toward the epoch of life than 
 do the larger, in which the development 
 in the planetary sense is slow and long- 
 postponed. 
 
 The New Astronomy has now assigned 
 
 to each of the worlds of our system its 
 approximate place in the scheme of 
 
 development. It would ap- ' science deter- 
 
 pear that as to mere plan- ^i;^^^ 
 etary genesis the great planets, 
 worlds Jupiter and Saturn are the eldest- 
 born of the system ; but so far as the epoch 
 of life is concerned, those mighty worlds 
 are the youngest of all. The planets 
 most advanced in age as it respects the 
 correlated phenomena of life, are the 
 
 ITION OF IHt 1'l.ANETS INKEKIuK lO JUHltK — SHOWING 
 THE ZONE OF THE ASTEROIDS. 
 
 earth and Mars, between which many 
 analogies are discoverable. Of the two 
 the earth is, doubtless, considerably 
 older than the other, as world-age is 
 measured by the manifestations of life 
 thereon. This is to say that the earth 
 and I^Iars gave off their excessive heat 
 and were cooled sufficiently to admit of 
 vegetable and animal life at an age far 
 earlier than in the case of any of the 
 other planets. Drawing our analogies 
 from the forms of life wdth which we are 
 familiar, it is quite certain that- Jiipiter
 
 60 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 and Saturn have not yet reached the life- 
 bearing epoch. That they will at length 
 reach a stage of worldhood at which ani- 
 mate beings can exist upon their surface 
 and in their waters can not be doubted. 
 As little can it be doubted that in course 
 of time the earth and Mars will lose the 
 conditions under which life can be per- 
 petuated. In that event we may be sure 
 that the epoch of life will cease in our 
 own planet, though the earth, as such, 
 
 JUrntK — A I'LANEr NOr vet arrived at the ErOUH OF LIFE. 
 
 may continue to occupy its place indefi- 
 nitely in the solar system. 
 
 The thing to be granted from the con- 
 sideration of these facts is that all worlds 
 Epoch of Life is have a planet life, and that, 
 adjusted to cer- jj^ connection with this 
 
 tain stages of 
 
 planet life. planet life, at a certain 
 
 stage thereof life proper becomes toler- 
 able in the given sphere. With this 
 event the Epoch of Life begins and runs 
 parallel with the history of the given 
 world until the conditions of the latier 
 
 are so changed as to prevent the furthei 
 propagation or existence of life upon it. 
 After that, as in the probable case of our 
 secondary, the Moon, the given orb be- 
 comes a dead world, though still obeying 
 the physical laws under which its place 
 and motions have been hitherto deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Let us, then, briefly consider what we 
 may call the astronomical preparation of 
 the earth for the appearance of man-life 
 upon it. By what 
 process of world-evo- 
 lution was it brought 
 into the state of hab- 
 itability? For we 
 may be certain that 
 the fact of habita- 
 bility and the first 
 appearance of man 
 were coincident cir- 
 cumstances. The 
 preparation of our 
 globe for the human 
 race had respect pri- 
 marily to the condi- 
 tion of heat. This 
 is to say that a heat 
 equation had to be 
 established on an as- 
 tronomical basis; 
 and by considering 
 the astronomical con- 
 ditions antecedent to 
 the appearance of man-life, preparation of 
 and by knowing the rate of ^^.^.T/bX^i,, 
 change which the world has i^eat equation, 
 undergone in its planetary relations, we 
 may arrive at an approximate date for 
 the beginning of the human race. 
 
 The equation of heat to which we 
 have just referred has for its principal, 
 though not its only, element a certain 
 vibration, or oscillation, which has been 
 going on in the orbit of the earth from 
 the time when that bodv, loosened from
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 61 
 
 earth's orbit as 
 affecting distri- 
 bution of heat. 
 
 the common nebulous mass, began to be 
 evolved into worldhood, and which will 
 Vibrations of the continue to the end of 
 our planetary career. We 
 must here refer to many 
 astronomical facts which are familiar as 
 facts, but of which the significance has 
 in some measure been overlooked. The 
 orbit of the earth is an ellipse, having 
 the Sun in one of the foci ; but the ele- 
 ments of the ellipse are not constant. 
 On the contrary, the two axes of our 
 orbit lying at right angles to each other 
 
 approached, but never quite attained. 
 The elongation of the minor axis, with 
 the consequent expansion of the orbit, 
 ceases, and the major axis once more 
 begins to project like a lengthening arrow 
 into space. 
 
 These changes in the two axes of the 
 orbit, with the consequent fluctuation 
 toward and away from the circle, con- 
 tinue at immense intervals, and will 
 continue as long as the present sj'stem 
 of world order endures. Under the force 
 of the precession of the equinoxes, the 
 
 SATURN-A KING PLANET. 
 
 are inconstant or variable quantities. A 
 change is ever going on by which the 
 ratio between the major axis and the 
 minor axis is affected. 
 
 The character of the earth's orbit is 
 
 thereby constantly modified. At first it 
 
 approximates the circle, and then recedes 
 
 from the circle until it 
 
 Nature of the 
 
 fluctuation in rcaclics a maximum elonga- 
 
 our orbital axes. ,. rr'-i- i <.- „ 
 
 tion. This elongation, or 
 departure from the circle, is called the 
 eccentricity of the orbit. Having reached 
 the maximum of this eccentricity, the 
 major axis begins to contract and the 
 orbit to expand laterally, until after a 
 great lapse of time the circle is again I 
 
 position of the two axes, always at right 
 angles to each other, constantly changes. 
 They point to different parts of the sur- 
 rounding heavens, each of them con- 
 tracting and expanding within fixed 
 limits which are determinative of the 
 character and stability of our orbit. 
 
 It is assumed that the reader is famil- 
 iar with such terms as aphelion and 
 perihelion, that he has a Assumption of 
 clear concept of our planet- ^"rr^Tc^' 
 ary orbit, of the plane of phenomena, 
 the ecliptic, of the equator of the earth 
 and the heavens, of the inclination of 
 the earth's axis to the plane in which our 
 globe makes its journey around the sun,
 
 62 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JirAXk'fXP. 
 
 and of the circumstance of a summer 
 and winter solstice, a vernal and autum- 
 nal equinox, and of the precession of the 
 equinoxes. It is also assumed that he 
 apprehends the nature of the solar illu- 
 mination of an ever-changing hemisphere 
 of the earth's surface, of the altered and 
 altering position of the sun as viewed 
 from any given point on our planet, and 
 
 Present phase 
 of the planetary 
 oscillation. 
 
 ] HE MOON — A.N EXPIRED PLANET 
 
 of the attendant phenomena of the sea- 
 sons. Presumably he is able to appre- 
 hend that these phenomena go back for 
 their causes to the inclination of the axis 
 of the earth to the plane of its orbit, and 
 to the eccentricity of that orbit ; that is, 
 its deviation from the circle. 
 
 It may not be known, however, that 
 the phase of our orbital career through 
 which we are now passing is that of con- 
 
 traction, or approach to the circle. The 
 major axis of the earth's orbit is diminish- 
 ing, and the minor axis in- 
 creasing in measurement. 
 The eccentricity of the 
 orbit is slowly but surely diminishing 
 toward zero. This signifies that the 
 difference between the perihelion, or 
 nearest approach of the earth to the sun, 
 and its aphelion, or 
 greatest distance, is 
 becoming less and 
 less with each revo- 
 lution. The proc- 
 ess will continue 
 until the difference 
 shall be reduced to 
 a minimum ; but 
 immediately there- 
 after the reversal of 
 conditions cause the 
 major axis to elon- 
 gate and the minor 
 to shorten, and will 
 throw the aphelion 
 and perihelion of 
 the orbit into posi- 
 tions different from 
 those which they 
 now occupy in 
 space. 
 
 Modern astrono- 
 my has made very 
 careful and critical 
 estimates of all 
 these variations, 
 and more recently has ventured to apply 
 to them the measurement of time. The 
 eccentricity of the earth's . . 
 
 ■^ Limits of eccen- 
 
 orbit was determined with tricityinthe 
 
 , 1 , , , earth's orbit. 
 
 tolerable accuracy as early 
 as the time of Leverrier; but since the 
 days of that astronomer the calculations 
 have been perfected, and the elements 
 of our orbit more accurately determined. 
 According to these tables, the highest
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 63 
 
 eccentricity ever attained by our orbit 
 was, decimally expressed, 0.0747. The 
 minimum eccentricity is about 0.0102. 
 Between these two extremes the orbit 
 oscillates with ever-changing conditions 
 of climatic phenomena. 
 
 We may here discover the fundamen- 
 tals of that equation of heat to which we 
 have referred. It is well 
 
 Perihelion and 
 
 aphelion deter- known that in the present 
 
 minativeof heat. t.- r i •. 
 
 condition or our orbit, 
 the earth, in its annual revolution, ajo- 
 proaches and recedes from the sun, thus 
 fixing a point of nearest approach called 
 the perihelion, and another point of great- 
 est distance called the aphelion. At the 
 present time the difference in the dis- 
 tances of the earth from the sun at these 
 two crises in the annual revolution is, in 
 round numbers, three million miles — a 
 distance sufficient, as we shall see, to 
 make a very perceptible difference in the 
 heat conditions of the earth. It must be 
 noted with care that our perihelion lies 
 near to the winter solstice, and that our 
 aphelion approximates the summer sol- 
 stice. This is to say that when, owing to 
 the inclination of the earth's axis to the 
 plane of the ecliptic, the sun has receded 
 far to the south in midwinter — when the 
 daj-s thereby have been reduced to a min- 
 imum for the northern hemisj^hcre and 
 the nights lengthened to a maximum — we 
 are about three million miles nearer to 
 the sun than we are in midsummer, 
 when he has come by gradual approaches 
 northward across the tropic and looks 
 down almost vertically upon the temper- 
 ate zone. 
 
 The amount of sun heat received on 
 the surface of our earth depends upon 
 Conditions on two Simple conditions : the 
 ThelunTeTrl!' angularity of the rays as 
 ceived depends, they enter our atmosphere ; 
 and, secondly, the distance from the 
 solar luminarv. The more directlv the 
 
 rays fall upon the earth, the greater the 
 heat ; the more obliquely, the less the 
 heat. The nearer the approach of the 
 earth to the sun, thp greater the heat; 
 this, being in a ratio inversely as the 
 square of the distance between the two 
 globes. We are thus in the northern 
 hemisphere (fortunately we may say) 
 brought into perceptible nearness to the 
 solar luminary in midwinter, while in 
 summer we are remote. This is to say 
 that in all our parts of the earth the cold 
 of winter is abated, as is also the heat of 
 the summer, by the circumstance that 
 the perihelion and aphelion of our globe 
 
 >lean Velncity. 
 
 -■^fean Velocity. 
 VAKYl.SG \ tLOCITY OF PLANETARY MOTION. 
 
 fall respectively in the seasons mentioned. 
 If the conditions were reversed, so that 
 our aphelion should fall in midwinter 
 and our perihelion in midsummer, it is 
 easy to see how greatly the seasons 
 would be intensified. Instead of being 
 tempered, as they are at present, by the 
 relations of the earth and sun, the cold 
 of winter would be aggravated by the 
 removal of that luminary to a greater 
 distance in space, and on the other hand 
 the heat conditions of summer would be 
 intensified. 
 
 Astronomers have estimated with care 
 the variation in climate produced by the 
 circumstances here referred to. It has 
 been demonstrated that the cold of 
 winter in the northern hemisphere is
 
 Orbits of Mars ( % \ tkj Earth ( ® 1, 
 l^enus { ? ), and Mercury ( C ). 
 
 Nodes ft ?5. Nearer Apses M. E. F. i«. 
 
 7%tf rfio/j round the orhtts show 
 'hepositii>n o/thepla nets at 
 inter~>als of ten days. 
 
 The symbols i | indicate the greatest dis 
 tance 0/ an orbit north and south 
 it/" the plane 0/ the Ecliptic. 
 
 head on each orbit sh(ym$ 
 •oiution, aiso the piace 
 'a?i. 1st, /iS/j, at nootu 
 
 Qtifotl^ 
 
 The Sun Z^-' 
 
 Scaie /iTe tJiousand times that oj" Orbits, 
 {The Earthy Mars^ and the Sun are shown in their true axial position^ 
 
 Scale Ji/ty times that 0/ Orbzls. 
 
 THE SOLAR SYSTEM DISPLAS'ED— SHOWING ECCENTRICITY OF ORBITS INSIDE OF MARS. 
 Drawn by Richard A. Proctor, F. R. A. S.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 65 
 
 less severe by about one fifteenth than it 
 would be if the relations of perihelion 
 Favorable re- and aphelion were inter- 
 
 sulta of present 
 
 position of peri- changed. In like manner 
 
 hellon and , , . 
 
 aphelion. the heats or our summer 
 
 time are less torrid by one fifteenth than 
 they would be if the earth were at its 
 nearest approach to the sun at that season 
 of the year. Or to take the problem 
 altogether, the distribution of heat has 
 been tempered and moderated in the 
 northern hemisphere by an aggregate 
 of about two fifteenths of the whole in- 
 crement. 
 
 As has been said, there was a time in 
 the astronomical past when, by the flue- 
 Former unfavor- tuations of the earth's orbit 
 cKmon S*" above described, our planet 
 our planet. ^^^^ actually thrown into 
 
 the unfavorable relation of a perihelion 
 in summer and an aphelion in winter 
 It must be borne in mind, moreover 
 that the present eccentricity of the 
 earth's orbit is greatly less than it was 
 at the period of greatest elongation. At 
 that date in the remote past the earth in 
 perihelion approached within eighty-five 
 million miles of the sun, and at its aphel- 
 ion receded to a distance of more than 
 ninety-nine million miles. This variation 
 amounting to more than fourteen million 
 miles, between the nearest approach and 
 the farthest remove of our planet from 
 the sun, would necessarily produce a 
 corresponding difference in the amount 
 of heat and light received in the two 
 positions. This difference has been cal- 
 culated to be for the period of greatest 
 elongation about one fifth of the whole, 
 or, to be more exact, as nineteen is to 
 twenty-six. Since, at the present time, 
 by the reduced eccentricity of our orbit, 
 the difference in the sun's influence upon 
 us by his approach and recession from 
 the earth has been reduced to one fif- 
 teenth, we are able by comparison to 
 
 appreciate the vast difference between our 
 present climatic fluctuations and those 
 which prevailed at the period of greatest 
 eccentricity. 
 
 We are here noting the condition of 
 affairs in the northern hemisphere. It 
 is from this point of view that all the 
 nhenomena of man-life on the globe are 
 
 COMPAR.-iTIVE SIZE OF EARTH AND SUN. 
 
 to be considered. At that period in the 
 remote past when our orbit was extended 
 
 to its greatest elongation. Antecedent con- 
 
 the earth being in alphel- ^^^^^"nl.rtiif' 
 ion at the winter solstice, em hemisphere, 
 the cold was increased to a very marked 
 degree over that which now prevails at 
 the corresponding season of the year. It 
 was a time when the conditions of all 
 kinds of life in our hemisphere were 
 very unfavorable. At that time in the 
 history of our globe the major axis of 
 the earth's orbit was greatly extended 
 ; and the minor was correspondingly 
 shortened. This would throw the 
 elongation of the orbit in the opposite 
 direction to that which it now occupies. 
 The result would be that during that 
 period of our planetary- career the earth 
 would suffer a great depression of 
 temperature while passing through its
 
 66 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 annual aphelion. Thus the cold through- 
 out the northern hemisphere, which is 
 still sufficient to produce and maintain 
 great areas of ice, would be much inten- 
 sified, and although the heat of the 
 shortened summer would for the time be 
 greater than at present, it could not 
 prevail against the glacial condition 
 which would obtain in all the northern 
 parts of the earth.' In the southern 
 hemisphere the case would be different. 
 There the short and intense winter 
 could not prevail against the long- 
 continued high heats of summer, and 
 the ice world would melt down and flow 
 into the sea. 
 
 We are able in a measure to judge of 
 what has been in the past, under these 
 Thetwohemi- general laws, by a present 
 spheres with re- j^^rvev of the condition of 
 
 spect to develop- 
 ment of man -life, our climate. The northern 
 
 hemisphere is the principal abode of 
 
 man. It is tempered and modified as if 
 
 in adaptation to man-life and the varied 
 
 activities in which that life expresses 
 
 itself on the surface of the earth. But 
 
 in the southern hemisphere the case is 
 
 'During the perihelion of a planet, its motion in 
 the orbit is greatly accelerated, and as a result the 
 season of perihelion, whatever that ma\' be, is short- 
 ened. Oh the contrary, the motion of a planet in 
 aphelion is retarded, and the season lengthened in 
 proportion. When the perihelion falls in winter, as 
 it does in the case of our world at the present time, 
 the season of rigor is abbreviated by the increased 
 velocity of the planet. On the other hand, our sum- 
 mer is protracted by the slow movement of our 
 globe during the period of aphelion in June and 
 July. With the reversal of these conditions the 
 winter would be not only intensified by the greater 
 distance of the sun, but also prolonged by the re- 
 tarded movement of the earth, and vice versa the 
 summer, though intensified by the nearer approach 
 of the sun, would be quickly over by the rapid 
 motion of the planet in that part of its orbit. The 
 aggregate effect would be to give us in the northern 
 hemisphere a climate more severe as to the phenom- 
 ena of cold by an increment of about two fifths — 
 a change sufficient to produce the north polar ice-cap 
 of the glacial period.— See diagram, p. 63. 
 
 reversed. There the ice mountain around 
 the pole spreads far and wide as an 
 everlasting desolation. Life is kept at 
 bay not only by the absence of land in 
 the antarctic continent, but rather by the 
 excessive rigors of perpetual winter 
 The favorable one fifteenth of moderat- 
 ing heat which we receive in winter 
 works in the southern hemisphere by 
 contraries. So that, on the whole, the 
 conditions of life — the astronomical con- 
 ditions — in the north temperate zone are 
 at present more favorable by two fif- 
 teenths than they are in the antarctic 
 continents — if such there were. 
 
 The reader may now retrace the course 
 of our globe to the time when the 
 greatest elongation of the -winter aphelion 
 earth's orbit was coincident -;,?„rp'r'^,tcts 
 with winter; when the polar ice caps, 
 ice mountain surrounded the northern 
 instead of the southern pole of the earth ; 
 when the vast fields of ice extending 
 from the north pole southward in all 
 directions covered the earth as if with a 
 shining husk far down into what is now 
 the temperate zone. At the same time 
 he will perceive at that remote period 
 the freedom and openness of the south 
 polar region ; because at that epoch the 
 earth was in perihelion in summer and 
 aphelion in winter; that is, as measured 
 by an imaginary calendar for the north- 
 ern hemisphere. Possibly at that epoch 
 the antarctic continents were exposed, 
 while many parts of the islands and 
 shores of the northern hemisphere would 
 be submerged under the overwhelming, 
 waters. It is easy, in a word, to recog-i 
 nize, in the conditions here established 
 from the standpoint of astronomy, the 
 existence and the causes of that wonderful 
 epoch in world history to which geology 
 gives the name of the Glacial Period. 
 That period had its origin in the axial 
 fluctuations of the earth's orbit. The
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 67 
 
 northern hemisphere became the hemi- 
 sphere of ice at the epoch when the major 
 axis of the earth's orbit lay transversely 
 to the position -which it now occupies, 
 ■and at the time when the greatest 
 elongation of the orbit was attained. 
 The result was that our globe, our 
 northern globe, would be in aphelion in 
 winter and perihelion in summer, and 
 the effect of this would be the intensi- 
 fication of the seasons, resulting in the 
 heaping up around the north pole of 
 a prodigious ice mountain, extending 
 down in all directions like a cap over 
 the northern hemisphere, until its south- 
 em edges would be melted away by the 
 solar heat. 
 
 We have thus established the primor- 
 dial conditions of the glacial period in 
 geolog\'. We are able to 
 
 Fixing the place 
 
 of our planetary See clearly how it was that 
 
 January. r .' ■ ^ 
 
 from astronomical causes 
 the larger part of the northern hemi- 
 sphere was formerly enveloped with 
 heavy masses of ice and snow. We may 
 also perceive with equal distinctness the 
 operation of the causes which would 
 bring this period of desolation — certainly 
 anterior to the appearance of man-life 
 on the earth — to an end. These causes 
 existed fundamentall)- in the fluctuations 
 of the earth's orbit. The climax of the 
 glacial period would be theoretically co- 
 incident with the greatest elongation of | 
 the earth's orbit at a time when, owing 
 to the relative position of the major and 
 minor axes, the aphelion of the planet 
 would fall in winter. This is the key 
 to the whole argument. This astronom- 
 ical condition was the efficient cause 
 of the creation of the ice mountain and 
 envelop extending from the north pole 
 far southward in all directions toward 
 the equator. Practically, however, the 
 crisis of this era of maximum rigor in 
 our world history would fall sonu-what 
 
 beyond the time when the greatest elon- 
 gation of the orbit was attained coin- 
 cidently with the falling of the aphelion 
 in midwinter. Just as the crisis of our 
 present winter is carried by climatic con- 
 ditions considerably beyond the winter 
 solstice and thrown perhaps to the mid- 
 dle of January, so the crisis of the glacial 
 period was carried by the astronomical 
 conditions above described considerably 
 beyond what may be called the mid- 
 winter of our world-life and thrown into 
 our planetary January. 
 
 None the less, for practical purposes, 
 we may consider the glacial period, or 
 our world winter, to have been coincident 
 with the time when the Epoch of moder- 
 earth was in aphelion at the t^^^^S^ 
 winter solstice and when glacial rivers, 
 the orbit had attained its greatest trans- 
 verse elongation. From that time forth 
 the epoch of moderation began to ensue. 
 The major axis of the orbit began to 
 contract, the minor to expand. The 
 aphelion began to depart from the winter 
 solstice, and as a consequence the sun 
 with each cycle occupied a more favor- 
 able and favoring position with respect 
 to the ice cap which covered the north- 
 ern hemisphere. Gradually and with 
 long lapses of time the lower parts, that 
 is, the southern parts, or spurSj of the 
 ice mountain began to melt away. Some- 
 times great masses, inconceivably huge 
 in dimensions, were broken off, as we 
 now see in smaller example in the break- 
 ing away of the feet of the Alpine ava- 
 lanches. More and more the favoring 
 conditions came into existence, and more 
 and more the sun's heat carried away and 
 poured down intd ever-swelling rivers the 
 southern edges of the glacial deposits. 
 
 We have here the beginnings of our 
 present world order. It was at this time 
 that the general form and physical fea- 
 tures of the different countries of the
 
 68 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 northern hemisphere were determined. 
 Now it was, as time rolled on and as the 
 glacial period came to a close, that the 
 great valleys were formed and defined 
 in the bottoms of which to the present 
 day the descendent streams of the ancient 
 flood-rivers creep along on their way to 
 the seas. In all the continents and 
 countries of the northern hemisphere it 
 is notable that the river valleys are out 
 of all p'-<«!TVt'"n larg'cr than the streams 
 
 the earth's surface by the crushing and 
 plunging plow.shares of the glaciers. 
 
 The circumstances and conditions hero 
 referred to are a part of geological in- 
 quiry; but the reader will Man-ufe begins 
 have obser\-ed that the line "he'glacH* °*^ 
 of definition between astro- floods, 
 nomical antecedents and geological ef- 
 fects is quite difficult to draw. What 
 we are here to consider is this, that the 
 appearance of man on the earth is a fact 
 
 iKMATHjN 'iF I.I \LIAI. KIVEK.- llr.,un ly k 
 
 of water which they have respectively 
 borne at any time within the historical 
 period. An examination of these valleys 
 will show, moreover, unmistakabh' that 
 they were once occupied with vast rolling 
 rivers, extending from hill to hill, many 
 times miles in width, and bearing down- 
 ward under pressure of the prodigious 
 floods all manner of flotsam and jetsam 
 from the previous geological age, mixed 
 with the detritus rubbed or scoured from 
 
 lying tliis side of the glacial epoch. Tha 
 present state of inquiry points distinctly 
 to the era of the subsidence of the gla- 
 cial rivers — that is, the great volumes of 
 water produced by the melting away of 
 the ice cap of the northern hemisphere 
 — into the channels, still large and swol- 
 len, but approximately the same which 
 are now occupied by the great streams 
 of our continents, as the time when man- 
 life began on the surface of our planet.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.—ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 69 
 
 It is not needed, in this connection, to 
 enumerate the evidences by which the 
 appearance of the human race on the 
 earth is associated with the period of the 
 subsidence of the glacial floods. These 
 evidences will hereafter be presented 
 when we come to consider the geological 
 testimony bearing on the question of the 
 antiquity of man. The particular inquiry 
 with which we are here concerned is to 
 find, if we may, a measurement of years, 
 and adjust the scale to the changing 
 planetary conditions which we have 
 above described, determining thereby, 
 with some fair approximation, the date 
 of that epoch which may be taken as the 
 maximum for the appearance of man on 
 the earth. 
 
 It were unreasonable in the last de- 
 gree to expect exactitude in such an 
 Allowance to be inquirj'. In considering 
 "tftldJl^ra-st astronomical epochs and 
 calculations. geological agcs the small 
 calendars devised by man for days and 
 seasons are lost in the vastness. We 
 must content ourselves to consider 
 large numbers as units. In attempting 
 to measure planetary changes the thou- 
 sand or the million must be taken for 
 one. Employing such large measure- 
 ment, much incidental and minor in- 
 accuracy must fall in the result, to be 
 eliminated by the further application of 
 science to the problems of nature. 
 
 Fortunately, physical science is now 
 in such a stage of proficiency and ad- 
 Attempts to fix vancement as to enable us 
 :rpea™;f^' to complete the study with 
 ™^°- a tolerable approach to ac- 
 
 curacy. Since the times of the younger 
 Herschel inquirj- has been steadily pro- 
 gressing with respect to the fluctuations 
 of the earth's orbit and the changing 
 climatic conditions dependent thereon. 
 After Herschel the study was taken up 
 by Arago, Humboldt, and other geolo- 
 
 gists belonging to the first half of the 
 present century. More recently, and 
 within the eighth decade, the distin- 
 guished Dr. James Croll has carried for- 
 ward the investigation with greater suc- 
 cess than any or all of his predecessors. 
 In the following table, prepared by Dr. 
 Croll, we have a calendar of more than 
 a million of years arranged in periods of 
 ten thousand years each, from the max- 
 imum of 1,100,000 B. C. down to the 
 middle of the present century. This 
 part of the table occupies the first col- 
 umn ; the second column is made up 
 of the decimals expressing the eccen« 
 tricity of the earth's orbit for each cor- 
 responding period in column one ; the 
 third column contains, in degrees and 
 minutes, the longitude of perihelion for 
 the successive periods; the fourth gives 
 the difference of distance of the earth 
 in perihelion and aphelion measured in 
 millions of miles ; and the fifth the ex- 
 cess of winter days over summer days 
 for the corresponding periods. 
 
 It will be noted that from several 
 circumstances with which the astronomer 
 is familiar the decimals Maxima and 
 expressing the eccentricity ^™,°„^,\1 
 do not increase and our orbit, 
 diminish with perfect regularity, and 
 the same is true of the degree 
 marks expressing the longitude of 
 perihelion. But the reader will not 
 fail to note that in a general ivay the 
 figures in all the columns rise and fall 
 according to a definite law. He will 
 note, for instance, that the lowest 
 decimal of eccentricity given anywhere 
 is 0.0102, and that the highest of all is 
 0.0747. He will also observe that the 
 lowest measurement of the longitude of 
 perihelion is 4° 8', the highest being 
 358° 2'. In the third place, it will be 
 noted that a relation, not perfectly con- 
 stant, but nevertheless clear and unmis-
 
 70 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 takable, exists between the maxima and 
 the minima in the several cohimns under 
 consideration. The table is as follows, 
 the periods of greatest elongation being 
 set in antique figures : 
 
 From the accompanying table we may 
 note with ease the periods when the 
 earth's orbit in the past has attained its 
 greatest elongations. The first of these 
 corresponds in round numbers with the 
 
 CROLL'S tables of rLANET.VRV FLUCTUATIONS. 
 
 Year B. C. 
 
 Eccentritily 
 
 of earth's 
 
 orbit. 
 
 Longitude of 
 Perihelion. 
 
 Difference 
 of distance 
 in millions 
 of miles. 
 
 Number of 
 
 winter days 
 
 in excess. 
 
 Year B. C. 
 
 Eccentricity 
 
 of earth's 
 
 orbit. 
 
 Longitude of 
 Perihelion. 
 
 Difference 
 
 of distance 
 
 in millions 
 
 of miles. 
 
 Number of 
 
 winter days 
 
 in excess. 
 
 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deg. MIn. 
 
 
 
 1,100.000 
 
 0.0303 
 
 54 12 
 
 
 
 550,000 
 
 0166 
 
 251 50 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 0.0326 
 
 4 8 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 0.0388 
 
 192 56 
 
 7 
 
 18.8 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 O.OI5I 
 
 248 22 
 
 2-75 
 
 7^3 
 
 450,000 
 
 0.0308 
 
 35b 52 
 
 5-5 
 
 15 
 
 990,000 
 
 0.0224 
 
 313 50 
 
 
 
 400,000 
 
 0170 
 
 290 7 
 
 3 
 
 8.2 
 
 980,000 
 
 0.0329 
 
 358 2 
 
 
 .... 
 
 i 350,000 
 
 0.0195 
 
 182 50 
 
 3-5 
 
 9-1 
 
 970,000 
 
 0.0441 
 
 32 40 
 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 0.0424 
 
 23 29 
 
 7-75 
 
 20.6 
 
 960,000 
 
 0.0491 
 
 66 49 
 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 0.0258 
 
 59 39 
 
 4-5 
 
 12.5 
 
 950,000 
 
 0.0517 
 
 97 51 
 
 925 
 
 25.1 
 
 240,000 
 
 0.0374 
 
 74 58 
 
 
 .... 
 
 940,000 
 
 0.0495 
 
 127 42 
 
 
 
 230,000 
 
 0.0477 
 
 102 49 
 
 
 
 930,000 
 
 0.0423 
 
 156 II 
 
 
 
 220,000 
 
 0.0497 
 
 ■24 33 
 
 
 .... 
 
 920,000 
 
 0.0305 
 
 181 40 
 
 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 00575 
 
 144 55 
 
 10. 5 
 
 27.8 
 
 910,000 
 
 0.0156 
 
 '94 «5 
 
 .... 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 0.0569 
 
 168 18 
 
 10.25 
 
 27.7 
 
 900.000 
 
 0.0102 
 
 "35 2 
 
 
 4.9 
 
 190,000 
 
 0.0532 
 
 190 4 
 
 
 
 890,000 
 
 0.0285 
 
 127 1 
 
 
 
 180,000 
 
 0476 
 
 209 22 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 880,000 
 
 0.0456 
 
 "52 33 
 
 
 .... 
 
 170,000 
 
 0.0437 
 
 228 7 
 
 
 .... 
 
 870,000 
 
 0.0607 
 
 180 23 
 
 
 .... 
 
 160,000 
 
 . 0364 
 
 236 38 
 
 
 
 860,000 
 
 0.0708 
 
 209 41 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1 50,000 
 
 0.0332 
 
 242 56 
 
 6 
 
 16. 1 
 
 850,000 
 
 0.0747 
 
 239 28 
 
 13.2 
 
 36.4 
 
 140,000 
 
 0.0346 
 
 246 29 
 
 
 
 
 840,000 
 
 o.o6y8 
 
 269 14 
 
 
 
 130,000 
 
 0.0384 
 
 259 34 
 
 
 .... 
 
 830,000 
 
 0.0623 
 
 298 28 
 
 
 .... 
 
 120,000 
 
 0.0431 
 
 274 47 
 
 
 .... 
 
 820,000 
 
 0.0476 
 
 326 4 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1 10,000 
 
 0.0460 
 
 29548 
 
 
 
 810,000 
 
 0.0296 
 
 348 30 
 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 0.0473 
 
 316 18 
 
 s-s' 
 
 23 
 
 800,000 
 
 0.0132 
 
 343 49 
 
 2.2s 
 
 '6:4 
 
 90.000 
 
 0.0452 
 
 340 2 
 
 
 .... 
 
 790,000 
 
 0.0171 
 
 293 '9 
 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 0398 
 
 4 13 
 
 
 .... 
 
 780,01)0 
 
 0.0325 
 
 303 37 
 
 
 .... 
 
 70,000 
 
 0.0316 
 
 27 22 
 
 
 .... 
 
 770,000 
 
 0.0455 
 
 32838 
 
 
 
 60.000 
 
 0218 
 
 48 8 
 
 
 
 760,000 
 
 0.0540 
 
 357 12 
 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 0.0131 
 
 So 3 
 
 2.25 
 
 6.3 
 
 750,000 
 
 00575 
 
 27 18 
 
 10.5 
 
 27:8 
 
 40,000 
 
 0.0109 
 
 28 36 
 
 
 
 740.000 
 
 0.0561 
 
 58 30 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 O.OI5I 
 
 5 50 
 
 
 .... 
 
 730,000 
 
 0.0507 
 
 90 55 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 0.0188 
 
 44 
 
 
 .... 
 
 720.000 
 
 0.0422 
 
 125 14 
 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 0.0187 
 
 78 28 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 710.000 
 
 0.0307 
 
 177 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.0168 
 
 99 30 
 
 3 
 
 8.1 
 
 700,000 
 
 0220 
 
 208 13 
 
 4 
 
 10.2 
 
 Year A. D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 650,000 
 
 0.0226 
 
 141 29 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 0.0417 
 
 32 34 
 
 75 
 
 20.3 
 
 1850 
 
 0.0168 
 
 100 22 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 To these we may append CroH's spe- 
 cial calculation for the maximum ec- 
 centricity between 851,000 B. C. and 
 849,000 B. C. 
 
 Year B. C. 
 
 Eccentncity 
 
 of earth's 
 
 orbit. 
 
 Longitude of 
 Penhelion. 
 
 Difference 
 
 of distance 
 
 in millions 
 
 of miles. 
 
 Number of 
 winter days 
 in e.\ccss. 
 
 851,000 
 850,000 
 849,500 
 849,000 
 
 0.07454 
 . 074664 
 0.07466 
 0.07456 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 year 950,000 B. C. ; the next, with 
 850,000 B. C. : the third, with 750,000 
 B. C; the fourth reaches periods of great- 
 forward a little from the Z.tZf::TL^ 
 century mark thus far crou's tables, 
 maintained to about 600,000 B. C. The 
 next epoch is 500,000 B. C. It is clear 
 from the table that the next lies between 
 350,000 and 300,000. The .sixth corre- 
 sponds with the year 210,000 B. C. The 
 seventh and last falls approximately on
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 71 
 
 the year 100,000 B. C. Or to general- 
 ize, we see that during the last million 
 of years the fluctuations of our orbit 
 from one period of greatest elongation 
 to the next occupy approximately a span 
 of a thousand centuries each. The move- 
 ment is sufficiently regular to warrant 
 us in accepting this period as the ap- 
 proximate unit of the oscillation. 
 
 Neglecting all the preceding epochs 
 
 of greatest elongation down to the last, 
 
 we note that the same 
 
 Fixing of date 
 
 ofour last plan- corresponds approximately 
 
 etary winter. -.. ,-, -n /-^ 
 
 With the year 100,000 B. C. 
 This may be taken as our critical date 
 for the present inquiry. This epoch 
 corresponds not only with the last period 
 of our orbit's greatest elongation, but 
 also with the time when the earth was 
 in aphelion in winter. The date, there- 
 fore, marks the last crisis when our globe 
 passed through what we have called 
 above our planetary winter ; that is, the 
 crisis of greatest cold — the time when 
 the conditions were all favorable for the 
 production of the ice mountain around 
 the north pole, and its extension in a 
 glaring cap far down in all directions 
 toward the equator. In was, in other 
 words, the glacial period of geology. 
 
 As we have intimated, it is doubtless 
 true that the crisis of the epoch of rigor 
 Crisis of rigor on lay further ou somewhat; 
 pinod'of ^ °^ that is, this side of the date 
 
 elongation. of 100,000 B. C. We 
 
 might in a rough and conjectural way 
 deduct five thousand or ten thousand 
 years from the date of the crisis as an 
 approximation to the date of greatest 
 rigor. From that time onward there 
 would begin to be an abatement of those 
 conditions antecedent to the glacial ac- 
 cumulations; that is, the planet would 
 begin to come into more favorable and 
 favoring relations with the sun, and at 
 length the preponderance of cosmic forces 
 
 would balance the other way, and the 
 glacial mass would begin, on its south- 
 ern edges, to melt down into our north- 
 em oceans. 
 
 We thus arrive at length to the same 
 condition which we have formerly de- 
 scribed, namely, a condition of flood and 
 river deluge in the northern Epoch of the 
 hemisphere. In the present ^^^^^^^ 
 instance, however, we are hemisphere 
 working not abstractly, but with a scale 
 of years determined by astronomical cal- 
 culations. In other words, we see that 
 somewhat less than a hundred thousand 
 years ago the crisis of our glacial period 
 was reached, and that subsequently, at 
 a considerable span from that crisis, the 
 ice mountains of the northern hemi- 
 sphere began to give away under the re- 
 turning conditions of heat. How long a 
 period was required for these changed 
 conditions to become operative in the 
 liquefaction of the lower parts of the 
 glaciers we are left somewhat to con- 
 jecture, but no doubt it required a con- 
 siderable period for the returning ap- 
 proximation of the sun to begin to affect 
 materially the glacial cap of the north- 
 ern continents. 
 
 It may be assumed as a fact scientific- 
 ally determined that the whole of man- 
 life lies this side of the gla- 
 
 Era of man-life 
 
 cial period. Indeed, from on this side of 
 
 1 . , r ii the diluvial age. 
 
 what we know of the con- 
 ditions present in the northern hemi- 
 sphere during that period it would be 
 impossible for the human race to main- 
 tain an existence upon the earth, even il 
 the race had existed before. We are, 
 therefore, to conclude that the being 
 called Man made his appearance at a 
 subsequent date, when the globe had 
 been made habitable by the melting 
 away of the glaciers, the subsidence of 
 the rivers, and the definition of the con- 
 tinents in the forms which they now hold.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 73 
 
 It would appear, therefore, that we 
 might pass over at once from the work 
 of astronomical laws to the geological 
 conditions which ensued in and after the 
 diluvian period, with a view to ascertain- 
 ing more definitely at what time man 
 and his works are first discoverable on 
 the earth. This we shall presently at- 
 tempt to do ; but before passing to the 
 geological inquiry respecting the an- 
 tiquity of our race, it will be well to 
 revert to one or two additional facts 
 deducible from the laws of astronomy. 
 
 One of these is that next to the last 
 
 period of greatest elongation ii) the 
 
 earth's orbit, falling as it 
 
 Place of the last ° 
 
 thermal epoch did about a thousand cen- 
 
 for the earth. , . i /■ ii.ii. 
 
 tunes before the last, oc- 
 curred under such conditions as to pro- 
 duce an epoch of heat in the northern 
 hemisphere. That is, about the year 
 210,000 B. C, when the greatest elonga- 
 tion just referred to was attained, the 
 sun was at or near perihelion in winter, 
 the result being a great increment of 
 heat in the northern hemisphere, with 
 corresponding climatic and vital phe- 
 nomena. This supposition we find to 
 be confirmed by geological inquirj'. It 
 is evident, indeed well known, that a 
 period of heat preceded the glacial 
 epoch. There was a time anterior to 
 the great accumulation of ice and snow 
 in the northern hemisphere when almost 
 tropical conditions prevailed throughout 
 what is now our temperate zone and far 
 up toward the polar regions. 
 
 A thing of great importance to be 
 observed in connection with this warm 
 ReUcs of ther- epoch is that the remains of 
 ^^hTos^^f-'^ animal and vegetable life 
 ciai remains. which have survived there- 
 from, passing, so to speak, under the 
 glacial epoch and reappearing in the 
 diluvian period, are so mixed and blend- 
 ed with the remains of animal and vege- 
 M.— Vol. 1—6 
 
 table life belonging to the period subse- 
 quent to the prevalence of the glacial 
 age, that the casual observer and student 
 is likely to confound the two classes of 
 relics as belonging to the same epoch. 
 For instance, the specimens of woolly 
 elephant which were caught, so to speak, 
 by the glacial age, frozen up far to the 
 north, and thus preserved to the diluvian 
 period, may easily be referred by the 
 uncritical inquirer to the same geological 
 period which produced the mammoth, 
 the reindeer, and the cave bear. 
 
 The significance of this circumstance 
 is the great depth of the perspective, and the 
 large allowance of time which must be 
 made from the close of Depth of time 
 the diluvian period to the PemTelkTe o?" 
 present. If the span be- ^^'^ 
 tween the preceding age of heat and 
 the succeeding age of cold is, as it ap- 
 pears to be, measured by a thousand cen- 
 turies — if the distance from the woolly 
 elephant to the mammoth is so great — 
 we may be sure that under the slow and 
 regular processes of the natural world 
 the distance from the close of the glacial 
 epoch to the present time is almost 
 equally immense. Without the ability 
 to lay a measuring rod upon these vast 
 spaces of time, and limited as we are to 
 estimates, the mind is necessarily embar- 
 rassed with uncertainty; but the condi- 
 tions of the inquiry, its metes and 
 bounds being determined from scientific 
 data, Ave are enabled to rest securely 
 upon the general knowledge of the great 
 duration of the astronomical and geolog- 
 ical epochs which we are considering, 
 and to accept with confidence a belief in 
 the remote date of man's appearance on 
 the globe. 
 
 A summary of the leading facts gath- 
 ered in this inquiry may^serve to bring 
 before the reader with conciseness the 
 data from which the deduction of the
 
 CONniTION OF EXTREME COLD, ILLUSTRATED KKO.M ARCTIC LANDSCAPE.— Drawn by Kioii
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 Ih 
 
 high antiquity of man is made. These 
 Summary of de- data, reduced to their 
 fsTronomlcr briefest expression, are 
 
 .aws and data. aboUt aS follows : 
 
 1. The last period of greatest elonga- 
 tion of the earth's orbit fell about a thou- 
 sand centuries before the Christian era. 
 
 2. This epoch of greatest eccentricity- 
 was coincident with the aphelion of the 
 earth in winter. 
 
 3. These two conditions acting togeth- 
 er produced, so far as the climate of the 
 northern hemisphere was concerned, an 
 epoch of extreme cold, corresponding 
 with that period in geology known as 
 the glacial age. 
 
 4. The crisis of the glacial period lay 
 somewhat this side in time of the coinci- 
 dence defined in paragraphs first and 
 second of this summary. 
 
 5. Our planet ever since the crisis of 
 the glacial age has, by favoring astro- 
 nomical changes, been coming more and 
 more into an epoch of climatic modera- 
 tion suitable for the exis?tence and activ- 
 ities of the human race. 
 
 6. The time at which the conditions in 
 the northern hemisphere became suffi- 
 ciently amended to admit and favor the 
 appearance of man was coincident with 
 the epoch of the subsidence into their 
 beds and proper channels of the glacial 
 floods, produced by the melting down of 
 the accumulations of the age of ice, as 
 above described. 
 
 7. As an approximation to a measure- 
 ment by time, it is safe to allow one 
 fourth of the whole period, or two hun- 
 dred and fifty centuries, for the period 
 extending from the crisis of the glacial 
 epoch to the time of the subsidence of 
 the floods produced by the melting away 
 of the mountains of accumulated ice and 
 snow. 
 
 8. This would give us by approxima- 
 tion a maximum of seventy-five thousand 
 
 years as the date at which the habitabil- 
 ity of the northern hemisphere was suf- 
 ficiently established to admit of the com- 
 ing and preservation of man-life in our 
 continents ; but 
 
 9. The estimate just given must be 
 taken as a superior limit beyond which 
 astronomical, geological, archaeological, 
 and ethnical inquiry need not reach in 
 expectation of finding the evidences or 
 remains of human activity on our globe. 
 
 10. In cases where a maximum and 
 minimum date are established as the lim- 
 its within which an event has occurred, 
 the principle of averages points to the 
 middle part of the whole period consid- 
 ered as the .safest and most certain ap- 
 proximation to the time sought for. 
 
 1 1. This would indicate that, from as- 
 tronomical considerations and conditions 
 determinative of the character and fluc- 
 tuations of the earth's orbit, the probable 
 epoch of the appearance of man on the 
 globe was from thirtv thousand to fortv 
 thousand years before the beginning of 
 our era. 
 
 12. Such approximations and proba- 
 bilities are, in the nature of the ca.se, 
 tentative, and are subject to modification 
 and displacement by the result of inqui- 
 ries bearing on the same subject, but 
 conducted from the standpoint of other 
 sciences. 
 
 If the foregoing study has clearly im- 
 pressed the mind of the reader with any 
 one fact, it is the slow rate of ehange by 
 which our earth has pas.sed, siow progress oi 
 and is still passing, from Z?^''^:^::, 
 stage to .stage in its his- concept, 
 tory. This is said not only of the planet 
 considered as an orb in space, but of all 
 its attendant phenomena and attributes 
 of life and organization. Great, almost 
 inconceivable, lapses of time are neces- 
 .sary to any appreciable change in the 
 constitution, aspects, and vital conditions
 
 76 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 of the world. The concept of this slow 
 and orderly progress of planetary growth 
 and development is as sublime as that 
 which contemplates the magnitude and 
 endlessness of the material universe. 
 Certain it is that nature hurries not. 
 Certain it is that her progress does not 
 consist of catastrophes, phenomenal cat- 
 aclysms, and astounding revivals. The 
 rate of formation for our world, for all 
 worlds, has been so gradual as almost to 
 preclude the record of its growth by 
 other than immortal or infinite beings. 
 It is easy to refer the successive cycles 
 of world history to the measurement of 
 time by hundreds or thousands or mil- 
 lions of years ; but a clear apprehension 
 of the immense periods of duration nec- 
 essary to the fact of worldhood is unat- 
 tainable by the human mind with its 
 present capacities and powers. The 
 slow progress of world history and life 
 history is, therefore, a fundamental con- 
 cept in the work of determining the ap- 
 proximate time at which a rational form 
 of being began its manifestations on our 
 globe. 
 
 Still another consideration here sug- 
 gested is the date — again approximate — 
 at which we have now ar- 
 
 Question of our 
 
 present place ill rived in the epoch of life 
 
 tlie epoch of life. . •■ j •. i . , 
 
 considered with respect to 
 our Avorld history. Are we but entering 
 that epoch? Are we journeying on to- 
 ward its middle? Are we in the after 
 part of the stately progress? Or are we 
 nearing its close? In what part of the 
 History of Life, considered as a whole, 
 do we find ourselves as a race of intel- 
 ligent beings? 
 
 It may be assumed that our race ca- 
 reer on the earth is a long one. It stands 
 to neither fact nor reason that the be- 
 ginning and the end of human life on our 
 globe lie near together. Everything 
 that we know and observe points clearly 
 
 to an extended, long-continued epoch for 
 our race. As we have said, the scale of 
 man -life is not as great as Reasons for as- 
 that of the planet-life. ^^^^^ 
 But so far as our globe has career. 
 a purpose, that purpose has respect un- 
 doubtedly to the human beings that in- 
 habit it ; and we are at liberty to presup- 
 pose that the time during which our race 
 holds and dominates the planet is far- 
 reaching, both in the past and in the 
 future. The conditions of reason are 
 such as to lead us to believe that the 
 period of our ethnic career extends al- 
 most infinitely in both directions. 
 
 The particular point which we are 
 here to consider is the place of the 
 shorter scale of man-life on conditions on 
 the longer scale of planet ^.^utty' cl S!!;- 
 life, and the approximate ufe depends, 
 position now occupied by our race in the 
 shorter scale of existence. In determin- 
 ing the answer to this question, we have 
 again to consider that fundamental con- 
 dition upon which man-life on our globe 
 depends, namely, heat. The existence 
 and perpetuation of human beings upon 
 our globe has from the first and will to 
 the last depend upon the vitalizing power 
 of heat on the surface of the earth. 
 There was a time when this heat was in 
 excess of the demands of life, and there 
 will be a time when the deficiency of 
 heat will lead to the certain extinction of 
 all vital phenomena on our planet. Our 
 globe, once superheated and afterward, 
 as we have seen, subjected to the rigors 
 of the glacial period, has by its endless 
 elliptical journey through space parted 
 with a great portion of its residual heat ; 
 and the process is still going on. As 
 the earth speeds on in its orbit, its heat, 
 like that of a vital body passing through 
 a region colder than itself, streams off 
 behind it ; so that there is a constant loss 
 of the vitalizing power of the globe.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 77 
 
 This loss, however, is in great measure 
 resupplied from two sources. That is, 
 the superficial heat of the earth's surface 
 is replenished from two fountains : first, 
 the interior caldron, or reservoir, oc- 
 cupying the larger part of the planet and 
 held in place by the outer crust of rock ; 
 and secondly, the constant contribution 
 of the sun. 
 
 The human race continues its exist- 
 ence on the planet by economizing the 
 vital energies of heat from the two 
 Most favorable sources just named. The 
 ^^nfi"Tt''n^ .f best condition of all for the 
 
 conservation of 
 
 vital energy. existence and power of 
 man-life on the earth is that planetary 
 stage at which the loss and the gain of 
 heat on the surface are equal. The 
 middle, and we may say the maximum, 
 epoch of man-life is coincident with that 
 time in planet history when the wasting 
 expenditure of heat into the surround- 
 ing spaces of our orbit is exactly counter- 
 balanced by the radiation to the surface 
 from the internal fires of the globe, plus 
 the constant gift of the sun. "When this 
 condition is present, the state of the 
 globe is most favorable for the propaga- 
 tion, the maintenance, and the longevity 
 of human life. It is at this stage that 
 the epoch of life-equilibrium is at- 
 tained; and if the equipoise could be 
 preserved there is no discoverable rea- 
 son why the human race might not con- 
 tinue forever. Before this condition of 
 highest equilibrium is reached all the 
 warm-blooded animals, including man, 
 are at a disadvantage with respect to 
 their environment, because of the su- 
 perfluity of heat at the surface of the 
 earth, with the thousand concomitant 
 circumstances of that superfluity, tending 
 as they do to hasty growth, premature 
 development, overexcitability of the ner- 
 vous system, enervation, and all the 
 physical vices which we observe to the 
 
 present time in the tropical and semi 
 tropical parts of the globe. 
 
 After the favorable condition has 
 been passed — as it will be in the history 
 
 of our planet the struggle Nature of the 
 
 of life and for life takes Sf and^^er 
 another form. The incre- the crisis, 
 ment of heat constantly received at the 
 surface becoming less than the expendi- 
 ture leaves man and his fellow-animals 
 at a disadvantage of a different kind. 
 The struggle to exist takes the form of 
 an effort to maintain the vital fire 
 against the draught of nature. A large 
 part of human exertion must needs be 
 wasted in such a state in trying to pre- 
 serve the proper envelop of heat, wast- 
 ing ever and but feebly resupplied. The 
 after history of the human race must in- 
 deed take this form of contention wnth 
 the efflux of the natural world, and must 
 recount the struggle of man, becoming 
 ever more arduous, to maintain himself 
 and his kind upon the surface of a globe 
 sinking into the rigors of an endless 
 winter. From the middle epoch, most 
 favorable to the production and longev- 
 ity of man as an animal to the end of 
 his career, he will be put at a disadvan- 
 tage, and will cease to develop under the 
 laws of his environment. Up to that 
 time — the crisis — when the accretion and 
 the expenditure of heat are equal, our 
 race development will continue. The 
 physical, intellectual, and let us hope 
 the moral, powers of man will continue 
 to expand and develop. But after the 
 crisis we may expect to wane — slowly 
 we may believe ; but the cosmic law 
 must doubtless be obeyed. 
 
 Philosophy and astronomy have com- 
 bined their resources in the attempt to 
 determine the present condition of our 
 heat equation and the relations of man- 
 life thereto. The best scientific opinion 
 has been brought to bear on the ques-
 
 CIJXUITION' OF EXTREME HEAT, ILLUSTRATED FROM AFRICAN' FOREST.— Drawn by Alexamlre dc Bar.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGIXXING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGi'MEXT. 
 
 79 
 
 tion, and the decision is that our planet 
 has not readied, by a considerable span, 
 Condition of the maximum of its vital- 
 withtespeTto ity, considered as the arena 
 man-hfe. of our race activities. This 
 
 is to say that the world is still receiving 
 at the surface an increment of heat more 
 than equal to the constant waste in its 
 progress through space. The excess is 
 not by any ineans so great as it was in the 
 previous history of the planet ; but as we 
 approach the ci'isis — our epoch of equi- 
 librium between the heat given and re- 
 ceived — the approach thereto is retarded 
 by many favoring circumstances, thus 
 prolonging the period of human develop- 
 ment. While the amount of heat re- 
 ceived from the sun may be regarded as 
 nearly constant, the quantity given off 
 from the earth into .space diminishes by 
 an ever-decreasing ratio. The earth as 
 a reservoir of heat is at present better 
 fitted than ever before to preserve it. 
 The adamantine walls round about our 
 vast store of internal caloric are thicker 
 and more substantial with each succeed- 
 ing geologic age, and the loss of our liv- 
 ing energy is less and less rapid as we 
 journey on. 
 
 We are thus on the favorable and fa- 
 voring side of our cosmic life. It is easy 
 The human race to demonstrate with proofs 
 fendinS'of "^her than those here sug- 
 vitality. gested that the epoch 
 
 most favorable for the production and 
 maintenance of man-life on the earth has 
 not yet been attained. Whatever con- 
 clusions we may reach b)- following the 
 astronomical suggestions above given, 
 there is a substantial agreement among 
 the most competent and scholarly think- 
 ers of our times that we still have on the 
 surface of our earth an annual gift of 
 heat from internal and external stores 
 in excess of our waste into space. 
 
 It follows that the conditions for the 
 
 further development of man-life on our 
 globe are still present, and that we may 
 comfort ourselves with the our rate ot prog 
 belief and knowledge that crisis crn"'^ *"* 
 we have not as yet by a con- sidered. 
 siderable stage in our ethnic life reached 
 the highest or middle point in our race 
 career — the period of greatest longevity 
 and intellectual and bodily power. Our 
 rate of progress toward that approaching 
 crisis we are able to judge b}- the brief 
 knowledge which we possess historically 
 of the previous histor}' of mankind. 
 That is, we are able to estimate our rate 
 of progress toward that epoch which 
 shall be most favorable for the mainte- 
 nance and duration of human life in the 
 earth. We know from historical data 
 that our march toward the crisis in our 
 ethnic life is extremely slow — so slow 
 indeed as to have left much confusion in 
 the human mind respecting its own 
 direction and tendencies. There have 
 been historical periods within the limits 
 of recorded annals in which man-life 
 seemed to move not at all, but rather 
 to remain stationary, or at best to move 
 only on a level. At other times progress 
 has seemed to be actually retrogres.sive. 
 This is said of the physical life of man, 
 of his intellectual life, and of his moral 
 capacities and characteristics. 
 
 From a wider point of observation, 
 however, we can but perceive the slow 
 but unmistakable progress siow movement 
 of mankind from lower to ^o'^^dt^^her 
 higher forms of activity, development, 
 to greater length of life, to superior wis- 
 dom — particularly in the knowledge of 
 nature and of the means of subduing and 
 utilizing her magnificent energies — to 
 nobler aspirations and worthier achieve- 
 ments, to higher purposes and to grand- 
 er concepts of the universe. 
 
 Here again the slow rate of progress 
 which the human race has made in its
 
 80 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JlfAXKLXn. 
 
 of our present 
 stage in race 
 career. 
 
 course during the brief period of recorded 
 history gives us a distinct hint of the 
 long prehistoric extent of man-life on 
 the earth. It is easy for the geometri- 
 cian from a small arc to determine the 
 extent and character of the whole circle. 
 The indications to which we have just 
 referred may serve a like purpose to the 
 ethnologist and philosopher in estimating 
 the extent and variety of our race career 
 before our coming into the epoch of con- 
 scious history. 
 
 We have a traditional and historical 
 knowledge of mankind extending over 
 several thousand years. The knowledge 
 Historical hints thus derived is sufficient- 
 ly clear and authentic as 
 to the character, activities, 
 and duration of human life in remote 
 antiquity. In some particulars the prog- 
 ress since the earliest date of recorded 
 annals has not been great. In intellect, 
 pure and simple, the races of to-day 
 hardly surpass, if indeed they equal, 
 some of the favored peoples of the ancient 
 world ; but in most respects progress can 
 be discovered in every particular of the 
 life and career of man. One of the most 
 marked of these improvements is the 
 matter of longevity. Notwithstanding 
 the temporary wreck and devastation of 
 the Middle Ages, it can not be doubted 
 that human life is on the average more 
 stable and enduring than it was four 
 thousand years ago. The average period 
 of human existence is greater than it 
 was at the Renaissance ; greater than in 
 the age of the Antonines ; greater than 
 at the date of the Trojan War; greater 
 than when the Vedic hymns were sung 
 by the Brahmanic shepherds. 
 
 More remarkable by far has been the 
 gain in the means of subsistence — the 
 methods of taking from earth and sea 
 the materials on which the support of 
 human life is founded. The capacities 
 
 of the earth have been discovered and 
 utilized. The mother of all has beeiv 
 made to bring forth her Gains of man- 
 gifts in their season, and f^^^^^^^H 
 the ability of maintaining ment,. 
 life has been given to a greater number 
 and in larger measure than ever before. 
 As to the increase and accumulatiojj of 
 knowledge, the gain has been most 
 marked of all. The race has been made 
 acquainted with the laws and phenomena 
 of its environment, and nature has been 
 converted from a foe into a friend and 
 servant of man. The elements so long 
 considered hostile have become propi- 
 tious under the dominion of scientific 
 knowledge, and the miaintenance of life 
 has become easy and universal. 
 
 All of these facts, merely touched 
 upon in this connection, agree substan- 
 tially with the theory of the Facts indicating 
 
 impro^•ing habitability of lra?m?lftfe' 
 the earth. The scientific earth. 
 concept that the planet is still improving 
 as a world suitable for the habitation of 
 rational intelligences is borne out by the 
 facts of the improved and ever improv- 
 ing conditions of human life. The 
 great cosmic law is exemplified in that 
 small segment of human experience 
 which goes by the name of history ; but 
 the whole significance of the argument 
 lies in this, that the rate of improvement 
 in the human race, the increase in lon- 
 gevity, the multiplication of the means of 
 subsistence, and the permanent incre- 
 ment of knowledge, have been so slow 
 in movement and so small in the aggre- 
 gate since the beginnings of recorded 
 time as to convince us that the whole 
 circle of man-life is a circumference of 
 vast extent. Every fact and circum- 
 stance within the range of our informa- 
 tion points clearly to the long-extended 
 duration of the human period, and every 
 condition under which we live on the
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 81 
 
 earth, and have lived in the past, opposes 
 itself with persistency to the supposition 
 that we are at the present time near 
 either the beginning- or the end of our 
 race career. The phenomena of life, that 
 is, of human life, are all so intimately 
 related and correlated with the phenom- 
 ena of planet life as to convince us that, 
 though the planet life has a wider sweep 
 of duration than the race-life of mankind 
 — though there were antecedent ages of 
 preparation for the appearance of man, 
 as there will doubtless be succeeding 
 ages to his disappearance from the sur- 
 face of the globe — the date of the be- 
 ginning of rational being on the planet 
 was remote from the present by multi- 
 plied thousands of years, as the date of 
 the disappearance will be remote by 
 multiplied thousands to come. 
 
 We may here with propriety add a 
 few paragrajDhs drawn from the concep- 
 tion of design in the universe. It is not 
 Concept of de- intended in this connec- 
 IxTe^ded rac?" tion to place SO great stress 
 career. upon a plan and purpose in 
 
 universal nature as was done by the 
 natural theologians of the last century. 
 Much less is it intended to intimate the 
 absence of purpose and design in that 
 vast and magnificent system of worlds 
 of which our own is but an insignificant 
 example. That the universe is orderly 
 can no more be denied than that it is 
 grand and magnificent in extent and 
 variety. If the thing for which the old 
 mythologists invented the name of 
 Chaos ever existed, it exists no longer, 
 at least not in those tremendous fields of 
 space which have been penetrated by the 
 great telescopes of modern times. So 
 far as our solar system is concerned, the 
 chaotic element, if ever present, has 
 wholly disappeared. The belt of the 
 asteroids may, indeed, represent the 
 path and the fragments of a former 
 
 world ; but even in this region of space 
 the reign of law holds all things in its 
 beneficent grasp. In all other parts of 
 our system regularity in worldhood ap- 
 pears to right and left. Adaptation is 
 discoverable. Reason seems to prevail. 
 The universe appears to be the habitation 
 of intelligence and purpose. 
 
 Without following, beyond the sugges- 
 tion of a just rationalism, the hints of 
 design, of regularity and Long duration 
 plan, in the universe, and ^^t^VpCof 
 in our own world in par- •worldhood. 
 ticular, we may well accept the belief of 
 an adaptation of the planetary spheres 
 to the abode of rational intelligences 
 like ourselves. Thus much being grant- 
 ed, it is but a step to the conclusion that 
 the principle of duration might be ex- 
 pected as a part of the plan of world- 
 hood. Given the habitability of a planet 
 as a part of its purpose and plan, and the 
 concept of permanence, or at least great 
 duration, follows as a necessary infer- 
 ence. Why, indeed, should a world be 
 habitable for the highest order of beings 
 only for a brief season ? What possible 
 reason could be assigned for the late ap- 
 pearance and early extinction of the 
 highest and best form of intelligent ex- 
 istence? If our own earth, for instance, 
 had in it from the first the condition 
 and prophecy of habitability, as it un- 
 doubtedly did have, and as we are at lib- 
 erty to infer all other planets have, then 
 why should there be a period of prepa- 
 ration almost infinite in extent to be fol- 
 lowed only by a brief and quickly van- 
 ishing residence of the noblest of all the 
 creatures? Every condition of right 
 thinking leads to the belief that the ap- 
 pearance of man on the planet would 
 occur at the earliest practicable moment 
 (so to speak), and that mankind would 
 continue to flourish to the latest practi- 
 cable date. It is one of the novel con-
 
 82 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 tradictions in the philosophy of a certain 
 school of thinkers that they would have 
 us believe that the earth, fitted up as it 
 were for the dwelling place of man, lay 
 green and virgin, waiting for his ap- 
 pearance through eons of useless time — 
 all this for no better reason than to sat- 
 isfy the preconceptions of some impossi- 
 ble system of chronology. 
 
 Such short-sighted views of nature i 
 
 consistent with the astronomical and 
 geological preparation of the globe. 
 Reason and fact alike require us to ac- 
 cept as early a date for the appearance 
 of man as the design of the world and 
 its conditions of habitability will admit. 
 The results of reason must be accepted 
 in a world governed by law. That the 
 date of man's appearance was coinci- 
 dent, or nearly coincident, with the 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THE LOWER OOLITE (BEFORE THE AGE OF MAX).— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 and of man Ave may at once dismiss as 
 belonging to the ignorance and blindness 
 Right reason de- of a former age. While 
 ?,?AL^^^^^I'7v the demands of right reason 
 
 aate lor appear- t> 
 
 anceofman. (Jq not call for a limltlcss 
 extension of inan-life into the past, and 
 while such a view is contradicted by sci- 
 entific data which may not be doubted, 
 a rational concept of the liLiman race in 
 relation with the planetary life upon 
 which it is maintained does call for as 
 wide and far-reaching an arena as is 
 
 astronomical changes in the charactei 
 of the earth!s orbit heretofore described, 
 can not well be doubted by any one 
 whose mind has been freed from nar- 
 row preconceptions on the subject. 
 That our race career, measuring back- 
 ward through the brief historical and 
 traditional periods of our ethnic life, has 
 extended far enough into the past to 
 cover a considerable part of the planet 
 life with which it is associated, is a con- 
 clusion warranted by every condition of
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 
 
 83 
 
 right thinking. That the design of the 
 world and of our solar system points to a 
 long-continued career for the highest 
 form of living intelligences on its surface 
 can hardly be doubted by him ■\vho be- 
 lieves the universe to be underlaid with 
 
 ' plan and purpose. Finally, that our own 
 race, by its slow rate of progress, has not 
 yet attained the maximum of its power, 
 longevity, and rational activities, is a fact 
 which we may accept at the hands of sci- 
 ence as demonstrable from exi.sting data. 
 
 Chapter III.— Argujviexx from Geology. 
 
 URNIXG then from the 
 astronomical to the 
 geological argument 
 respecting the antiq- 
 uity of man, we shall 
 reach the same general 
 views, the same con- 
 clusions as above. We are not to enter 
 here into the broader discussion of the 
 
 able for the human race. The science of 
 geology belongs virtually to the present 
 century. Hitherto any truly scientific 
 concept of the formation Geoicicai sci- 
 and character of our globe ^rth:Vr°ese"nt 
 was wanting. All the for- century, 
 merachievements of mankind in geologi- 
 cal inquiry were not equal in extent and 
 variety to those which have been made 
 
 PALitOZOlC .AGE OF THE EARTH.— Laxdscape of the Eocen-e. -Drawn by Riou. 
 
 geological age of our planet, but only to i by the geologists of the nineteenth cen- 
 note the epoch in whicli it became habit- I tury. The result has been a tolerably
 
 84 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 complete investigation of the clianicter 
 of the earth's crust and of the order of 
 world formation. A summar}^ of these 
 results may here be presented with a 
 view to showing the epoch of man. 
 
 In the bottom of the world we have 
 
 the azoic, or lifeless, age. Above this, 
 
 and next in order of succes- 
 
 Outline of the 
 
 order of the sion, we have the palaeozoic 
 
 geological ages. ^^^ . ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^nc^^tnt life 
 
 period of world formation. Above this 
 
 the Carboniferous, and the Pemian .strata 
 of the earth's crust. The secondary 
 rocks of the neozoic age include the 
 Triassic, the Juras.sic, and the Cretaceous, 
 or chalk, formations. The tertiary, or 
 caenozo'ic, rocks are divided into whaf. 
 are called the eocene, the miocene, and 
 the pliocene, and above these we have 
 the superficial formations known as the 
 post-tertiary, quaternary, pleistocene, or 
 inost recent deposits of all. This .sketch 
 
 PAL,tljZ<.)ic AGE OF THE EARTH.— Cambro-Silukia.n I.ANDbCAPE.— Drawn by Rluu. 
 
 and succeeding it we have the neozoic, 
 or new-life, age, reaching to the surface 
 and including the present life-forms of 
 the world. For convenience, the neozoic 
 age has been divided into a lower, called 
 the secondary, or mesozoic, period ; and 
 an upper, called the tertiary epoch. The 
 palaeozoic age, if we begin at the bottom, 
 next to the azoic rocks, includes the 
 Cambrian, the vSilurian, the Devonian, 
 
 includes what are known as the fossil- 
 iferous strata of the world, reaching 
 downward from the present fauna and 
 flora of the surface to the lifeless bed of 
 the azoic rocks. 
 
 It is needless to urge upon the atten- 
 tion of any intelligent reader the great 
 periods of time which are indicated in 
 the geological formation of the earth. 
 How great these periods are has never
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 
 
 85 
 
 been determined, and it is possible that 
 their duration may remain indeterminate 
 Exact time to the end of time. But 
 
 noTr:<ireTin approximations can be 
 ■world history. made which are highly use- 
 ful, and many scientific data exist by 
 which previous calculations may be rec- 
 tified. Ever}' decade witnesses an in- 
 crement of knowledge to the subject be- 
 fore us, and wider and more accurate 
 generalizations are gradually building up 
 
 tions are conducted. In the first place, 
 the rate of geological change now going 
 on in the earth is a matter of observa- 
 tion and scientific measurement. The 
 slow but steady transformation of the 
 earth's surface, the reduction of its in- 
 equalities, its tendency toward the level, 
 its failing adaptations to certain forms 
 of vegetable and animal life, and many 
 other of our superficial terrene phe- 
 nomena are well-known facts, and have 
 
 PALEOZOIC AGE OF THE EARTH.— Devonian Landscape.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 an accepted theory' of the geological age 
 of our planet. 
 
 The question may well arise by what 
 possible means the inquirer can arrive 
 at any practical conclusions relative to 
 Principle of de- the lapse of time in former 
 
 ;:wgfoiog- P<^"o^^ : that is, in the pre- 
 icai changes. historic ages of our World. 
 It may be appropriate, in^view of this 
 just skepticism, to cite a few of the facts 
 and principles by which such investiga- 
 
 been obser\-ed in their processes for a 
 sufficient period to warrant scientific de- 
 duction as to both the future and the 
 past. 
 
 To this we must add the accepted law 
 of the uniformity of nature, upon 
 which, indeed, all science Acceptance of 
 rests as upon an immov- ^^Jflf;^°yoY 
 able foundation. We may nature, 
 safel}' assume that the processes of the 
 natural world which we observe around
 
 86 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKLXD. 
 
 us are the same processes which have 
 been giving form and feature to the 
 surface of our planet through eons of 
 past time. True, we may not assume 
 that the rate of change has been uni- 
 form for successive geological ages. On 
 the contrary, experience and ob.serva- 
 tion within the historical period have 
 shown that the rate of change is not by 
 any means invariable. At some epochs 
 transformation goes forward more rap- 
 idly than at others ; but on the whole, 
 not only the process of change, but the 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THE CAKBONIFEKOUS rERIOD. 
 
 rate of change may be depended on as 
 scientific factors in determining the past 
 conditions and periods of duration in 
 geological history. 
 
 It may be well in this connection to 
 illustrate with a few specific examples 
 Suggestion for- the general laws of change 
 
 rtestion'of ' tO which We have just re- 
 
 Niagara FaUs. ferred. We have in the 
 United vStates an example of the action 
 of the elements which may well convince 
 the most skeptical of the value of geolog- 
 ical physics in determining the lapse of 
 tim&. This example is furnished by the 
 
 chasm and recession of the Niagara 
 river. It is easy to trace the course of 
 the great falls backwards from lake On- 
 tario, or at least from Lewiston, to the 
 present position of the cataract ; and it 
 is easy to foresee the inevitable recession 
 of the chasm back from the present fall 
 to lake Erie. We may already contem- 
 plate (at a date how remote!) the wear- 
 ing away of the channel until the Niag- 
 ara river shall lie in the bottom of the 
 chasm all the way from Ontario to the 
 exhausted bed of Erie. The rate of the 
 
 recession o f 
 the falls is a 
 thing of obser- 
 vation and 
 measurement 
 It has been 
 placed as low 
 as eight feet in 
 a century. 
 Other esti- 
 mates have 
 been higher ; 
 but fast or 
 slow, the proc- 
 ess of wear- 
 ing away goes 
 steadily on, as 
 it has done in 
 the past, and 
 nothing is required but scientific obser- 
 vation to determine approximately the 
 length of time which has been required 
 to wear out the channel from Ontario to 
 the present falls. 
 
 Of a certainty several circumstances 
 must be kept in mind and admitted into 
 the calculation which mav Argument not 
 modify the deductions. ^feSfofL- 
 The stone in some parts of certainty. 
 the river platform may be harder and in 
 others softer. There may be occasional 
 rents and fissures which, under pressure 
 of the floods, will permit large masses oi
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 
 
 87 
 
 the supporting ledge to break away and 
 be carried down at once. But these cir- 
 cumstances are only modifying elements 
 in the problem, for which indeed allow- 
 ance must be made, but which should 
 not be permitted by the uncertainty 
 which they introduce to destroy the sci- 
 entific character of the investigation. 
 There is not wanting a certain kind of 
 mind filled with reactions and preju- 
 dices, and for that reason ever disposed 
 to resist the progress of scientific truth, 
 which is prone by its constitution and 
 habit to seize upon any element of un- 
 certainty which may exist in an investi- 
 gation of this kind, and to use that mod- 
 icum of uncertainty as a reason for 
 rejecting the whole inquiry, and for fall- 
 ing back into the easy nest of mediaeval 
 preconceptions and ignorance. 
 
 Another instance of geological change 
 which may be used as a measure of time 
 Rateofdeposi- i^ that of the rise of the 
 IX^VtSs valley of the Lower Nile, 
 a scale. \yy the deposition of matter 
 
 from the annual overflow. It is popu- 
 larly supposed that qt:ite a deposit is left 
 each year in the Nile valley as a sedi- 
 ment from the swollen waters. If it 
 were suggested, for instance, that 
 the annual depo.sition amounted to a 
 fourth of an inch, it would not seem an 
 astonishing proposition ; and yet a little 
 reflection will show that at such a rate 
 the Nile valley would long since have 
 disappeared and the river would have 
 been turned back upon its fountains in 
 the Sudan ! A fourth of an inch an- 
 nually would amount to more than two 
 feet for each century ; a little more than 
 twenty feet for a thousand years ; about 
 forty-two feet since the times of Caesar ; 
 and much more than a hundred feet 
 since the age of Ramses ! As matter of 
 fact, the elevation of the lower valley by 
 the annual deposit has not been more 
 
 than about five or six feet, as measured 
 at Rosetta or Damietta, within the 
 historical period ; from which fact we 
 may .scientifically determine the thick- 
 ness of the annual deposit as little greater 
 than that of a sheet of paper. This 
 .slight increment, however, when once it 
 has been scientifically measured, is good 
 for the past, the present, and the future, 
 serving as a measure not only of histori- 
 cal but of geological time, and furnishing 
 incidentally a striking example of the 
 slowness and orderly progress of those 
 physical changes by which the surface 
 of the earth and its distinctive features 
 have been determined. 
 
 Still a third example of time meas- 
 urement by means of physical conditions 
 mav be appropriatelv cited . spheroidal form 
 The time was when the f.^^rforu^e 
 
 mass of the earth was measurement. 
 
 fluid throtigh its whole extent. If, 
 while the globe was in such condition, 
 the rate of rotation on the axis had been 
 rapid, the equatorial distention would 
 have been correspondingly greater than 
 it is. With a very rapid rate of rotation 
 the earth would have become a thin 
 wheel or circular plate. On the other 
 hand, if the rate of revolution on the 
 axis had been as slow as that of our own 
 secondary, the moon, the equatorial 
 protuberance would scarcely have been 
 discoverable. As a matter of fact, the 
 elevation around the equator is some- 
 what greater than it would be with our 
 present rate of planetary revolution. 
 This is to say that when the earth was 
 still in a fluid or semifluid condition, and 
 its general form was determined by the 
 rate of axial revolution, the motion was 
 more rapid than at present. With the 
 hardening of the crust, the globe was 
 able to maintain its oblate spheroida! 
 form even when the rate of revolution 
 was considerably slackened.
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Astronomical science is now able to 
 determine the rate at which our axial 
 Approximate revolution lias diminished, 
 date at which ^ ^ ^j^^g Calculate 
 
 our earth took -' 
 
 Its present form, backwards to the time 
 when the globe was 
 fixed in its present 
 form. We are thus 
 able to reach by ap- 
 proximate time meas- 
 urement the date at 
 which the crust of the 
 earth became sufficiently 
 firm and thick to preserve 
 the form which the globe 
 had taken under physical 
 law while still in a state 
 of fluidity, vSir William 
 Thomson, following the 
 theory of Fourier, showed 
 by an elaborate argi:ment, 
 published in the Transac- 
 iioiii of the Royal Society for 
 1S62, that the lower limit or 
 minimum date at which ou 
 globe, under the action of phys^ 
 leal laws, could have taken its 
 present form and become super- 
 ficially consolidated, could not 
 have been less remote from the 
 present than twenty millions of 
 years. His calculations were mathe- 
 matical, and were based upon the 
 established laws of physical science, 
 While we may not accept his conclu- 
 sions with such certainty as might be 
 had in the case of computations rest- 
 ing on known and invariable data, wc 
 may, nevertheless, diagram showint, rf.lativk thickness of 
 
 11 i i 1- 1 ear-ih's ckust and depth of 
 
 conclude, tentatively, internal caldron. 
 
 that the form of our globe — 
 its solidification at the surface and its 
 assumption of the oblate spheroid as its 
 permanent figure — occurred at a date 
 fully as remote as that declared by Sir 
 William Thomson. 
 
 The eartia had become the arena of 
 vegetable and animal life before the 
 fixation of its form. Long Life began be- 
 
 fore fixation of 
 
 before the instability of g°obercroU'! 
 the surface of the globe estimates. 
 
 had given place to 
 permanence, the rudi- 
 mentary forms of life 
 had appeared and be- 
 gun to flourish. This 
 is to say that the epoch 
 of life considered from 
 the standpoint of geology 
 reaches back for its be- 
 ginnings at the close of 
 the azoic age to a period 
 much more remote than 
 that assigned for the final 
 fixation of the figure of our 
 planet. Geologists have been 
 bu.sy in like manner with 
 computations for the entire 
 period since the beginning of 
 vital phenomena on the earth. 
 If the successive strata consti- 
 tuting the superficial parts of 
 the planet have been formed at 
 the rate of change which now 
 prevails, and has prevailed since 
 the beginning of recorded observa- 
 tion, then the entire epoch of life 
 is, perhaps, from three to five times 
 as extensive as the period which lies 
 this side of the final fixation of the 
 form of the globe. Dr. James CroU 
 has, with his usual skill, calculated 
 the whole period since the beginning 
 of vital phenomena on tlie surface and 
 in the waters of the 
 earth at a period not 
 less, and probably greater, 
 than .sixty millions of yea-rs. Other emi- 
 nent geologists, reasoning from like data, 
 have been disposed to increase rather 
 than diminish this estimate. Sir Wil- 
 liam Thomson has suggested a period of a
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 
 
 89 
 
 hundred million years as an approximate 
 inferior limit of the date when the first 
 forms of life appeared on the earth. • 
 
 There is, however, a full concurrence 
 of opinion that man-life occupies but a 
 relatively small part of the whole scale of 
 Only a small part vital existence. We have 
 occupied by"''^ already shown that accord- 
 •nan. ing to the best data and 
 
 most approved deductions the human be- 
 ing was one of the latest to make its 
 
 True it is, as is constantly shown by 
 experience and observation, that human 
 remains proper easily perish and are 
 resolved into the elements. It requires 
 no great period of time, when the human 
 body is exposed to the free action of 
 nature's forces, for it to be completely 
 transformed into its elementary gases and 
 mere dust. Only under the most favor- 
 able conditions can the skeleton of man 
 be preser\^ed from one geological epoch 
 
 FORMS OF LIFE IN CRETACEOUS PERIOD (PRECEDING THE AGE OF MAN).-Drawn by Riou. 
 
 appearance. It is only in the tertiary, 
 the post-tertiary, pleistocene, or so-called 
 recent deposits of the earth's crust, or 
 at furthest in the miocene, that the 
 remains of man and of his activities are 
 found. True, we may not reason posi- 
 tively to the nonexistence of human be- 
 ings before the diluvian age. It is pos- 
 sible that such creatures as ourselves 
 had existence on the earth in the pre- 
 glacial epoch ; but there is no probabil- 
 ity of the truth of such a hypothesis. 
 M.— Vol t- > 
 
 to another. When these favorable con- 
 ditions do exist, as we shall see here- 
 after, the actual relics of our species are 
 preserved from age to age with scarcely 
 a perceptible mark of change. 
 
 The analogy between animal and 
 .vegetable bodies is in this respect com- 
 plete. With exposure grains of wheat 
 and seeds of various plants and grasses 
 are quickly resolved into their constitu- 
 ents ; but wheat grains, still preserving 
 their vital germs and capable of growth
 
 90 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 and reproduction, have been taken in 
 recent times from the Egyptian sar- 
 Possibiiity of cophagi where they were 
 long preserva- deposited as much as three 
 
 tion of organic -r 
 
 remains. thousand ycars ago. A 
 
 single find and demonstration of this 
 kind is sufficient to establisli tlie law of 
 vegetable and animal preservation under 
 favorable conditions. The absence of 
 such discoveries does not positively dis- 
 prove the existence of given forms of 
 
 SKETCH MAP SHOWING (iN DARK LINES) THE PART OF EUROPE UNDER ICE COVER 
 
 IN GLACIAL PERIOD.' 
 
 life in past geological ages ; but the fact 
 that no single example of human re- 
 mains belonging to the pre-glacial period 
 in geology has been found, while not 
 conclusive of the nonexistence of our 
 race in a period so remote, is sufficient 
 to destroy the probability. 
 
 It is, then, in the post-glacial, or dilu- 
 vian, age, and in the earlier parts there- 
 
 'The darkest portions of the map show the pres- 
 ent areas of the ice fields. 
 
 of, that we are warranted by geological 
 evidence in placing the apparition of 
 man on the earth. In order to make 
 clear the conditions under which such 
 remains have been discovered, it is nec- 
 essary to revert again to several situa- 
 tions which are peculiar to the recent 
 period in geological history. 
 
 One of the places or conditions most 
 favorable for the deposit and preser- 
 vation of the relics of man-life is the loam 
 
 in the bottom of 
 caverns ; that is, 
 in caverns having 
 a certain relation 
 to rivers. A 
 second favorable 
 position is that of 
 river alluvia prop- 
 er, namely, the 
 masses of accumu- 
 lated gravel and 
 detritus borne 
 along by running 
 streams and de- 
 posited in the 
 bends or eddies, or 
 more particularly 
 spread out in 
 broad, deep layers 
 near the debou- 
 chure of the rivers 
 with the larger 
 bodies of water 
 into which they 
 fall. A third place favorable for the 
 preservation of animal and vegetable 
 remains is the bottom of situations 
 lakes. A fourth is the col- 
 lection of peat mosses in 
 the countries where such formations ex- 
 ist. A fifth is the sand dunes heaped up 
 in certain localities by the action of the 
 winds or thrown into place by the joint 
 action of the winds and sea. 
 
 Of all these situations, perhaps the 
 
 most favorable 
 for preserving 
 human relics.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY 
 
 91 
 
 first is most favorable for the prolonged 
 preservation of human relics. The great 
 Formation and majority of Subterranean 
 peculiarities of ^averns have been formed 
 
 man-caverns 
 
 and grottoes. by the action of water. 
 Underground streams frequently carry 
 away the softer parts of the rock or for- 
 
 n,.iiiu„jiiJi,(,,D|||,i,utu- 
 SECTION OF CHALK CAVERN WITH HUMAN REMAINS 
 
 mation through which they pass, leaving 
 chambers and cavities of large extent. 
 After these nether vaults have once been 
 formed the streams may disappear or 
 dwindle to a trickling branch in the bot- 
 tom. Frequently the caverns so formed 
 are left entirely dr}-. In many parts of 
 the European countries the rivers flow 
 through districts where the chalk forma- 
 tions are abundant and are 
 favorably situated for the 
 production of caverns and 
 grottoes. In former ages, 
 while the glacial rivers were 
 still of great width and vol- 
 ume, the beds lay at a much 
 higher level than at the pres- 
 ent time. In such countries 
 the formation of underground 
 tunnels by the action and 
 pressure of the waters was 
 a common phenomenon along 
 the river shores. 
 
 In course of time the rivers 
 of the diluvian period, as we have said 
 above, receded and sank with diminished 
 volume into the lower parts of the val- 
 leys. The beds were cut to greater and 
 
 still greater depths, until at the present 
 day it is a common circumstance, both in 
 Europe and America, to find the water 
 surface of running streams as much as 
 a hundred feet or more below the level 
 formerly occupied by the river. Almost 
 every considerable stream presents on 
 either side a secondary terrace of 
 drift which, at a former age, marked 
 the level of the bed. With the reces- 
 sion of the waters to the present 
 channels, the caverns formed in the 
 old diluvial banks, especially those 
 in calcareous regions, have been left 
 dr}'. The mouths of such alluvial 
 grottoes open on the hillsides, facing 
 the rivers, and it was into these 
 caverns that the animals, including 
 primeval man, made their way as places 
 of natural resort in the earlier ages of 
 the postglacial epoch. 
 
 In the bottoms of nearly all of the 
 caverns are found a certain residual of 
 loam, or cave-earth, swept 
 
 '• Date of remains 
 
 in as sediment by the de- indicated from 
 1 geological data, 
 
 parting waters; and over 
 
 this loam there is usually a solid layer of 
 
 lOKMAl ION. 
 
 Whatever organic remains 
 
 stalagmite, 
 were left in the caverns in the age ot 
 the deposit were, as a rule, mixed with the 
 loam, and afterwards covered and, as we
 
 92 
 
 GREAT RACES OF AF AN KIND. 
 
 might say, hermetically sealed, with stal- 
 agmitic material. It is easy to perceive 
 that a study of the rate of diminution 
 and sinking away of the rivers from their 
 former elevation into their present beds 
 would furnish a measuremenf of time 
 for estimating the date of the deposit 
 of the human relics referred to. In so 
 far, therefore, as geology is able to de- 
 termine the time at which the alluvial 
 caverns were formed and at which the 
 receding waters left them subject to hab- 
 itation, she is able to suggest an ap- 
 proximate date for the appearance of 
 man-life on the earth. 
 
 The facts here referred to, which in 
 
 EXAMPLE OF STALACTITE. 
 
 the nature of the inquiry must be men- 
 tioned in many parts hereafter, are now 
 Slow process of brought forward solely to 
 [uvTafriv"ef ""■ illustrate the possibility of 
 ijeds. time measurement in the 
 
 prehistoric ages. This fact must be 
 borne in mind by the reader. The same 
 should be said respecting the alluvial de- 
 posits of gravel and other detritus contain- 
 ing the relics of animals and men. The 
 gravel beds at the mouths of rivers have 
 been gradually formed through immense 
 periods of duration. The slow rate of 
 such accumulations is a fact noted and 
 emphasized by all candid and capable 
 observers. The course of rivers on their 
 
 way to the sea is, as a rule, not rapid, 
 and in those portions where rapids exist 
 we find almost invariably that the waters 
 are supported by the hardest and most 
 enduring ledges of rock. The action of 
 water courses is therefore slow. To erode 
 such channels as we find to have been 
 formed for the passage of rivers must 
 have required almost immeasurable peri- 
 ods of time — periods in which centuries 
 rather than months and years miist be 
 the units of measurement. 
 
 It is by the erosion of their beds that 
 rivers gain the material in the forms of 
 sand and gravel which they deliver in 
 certain parts of their course and more 
 particularly at their mouths. 
 One must needs note the vast 
 accumulation of gravel and 
 other detritus brought down 
 from distant regions and 
 spread out in beds of miles in 
 extent, if he would gain an 
 adequate idea of the length 
 of time which has been re- 
 quired to furnish such accu- 
 mulations of matter. The 
 most eminent geologists have 
 given close study to the sub- 
 ject of the rate of formation 
 for the alluvial deposits, and though 
 they have not agreed with any near 
 approximations in the re- vast reach of 
 suits at which they have ^rpLTsrot*" 
 arrived, in one thing there formations, 
 has been concurrence among them all, 
 and that is the vast lapse of time req- 
 uisite to produce the given results, and 
 the consequent remote date which must 
 be assigned to the remains found in the 
 alluvial sti;ata at the mouths of rivers. 
 
 An examination of the sediment ac- 
 cumulated in the beds of lakes has led to 
 the discovery of many traces of organic 
 life belonging to the prehistoric age. 
 In such situations the remains of human
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 
 
 93 
 
 beings have been found, as we shall 
 hereafter note with more particularity, 
 Less certain re- associated with the bones 
 fnauonrra^r- ^^ animals long extinct, 
 bottoms. In. this case, however, the 
 
 attempt to detemiine the time of the 
 deposits has been less successful from 
 the peculiar character of the data than 
 in the case of caverns and river beds. 
 The rate at which the sediment has been 
 deposited in the bottoms of lakes is a 
 very uncertain factor, and though the 
 position and depth, below the surface, 
 
 vegetation prevalent at the time when 
 the peat mosses were laid, and when 
 they received their relics of human life, 
 may be easily referred to certain geo- 
 logical periods, the date of which may 
 be approximately known. Certain kinds 
 of forests, long since extinct and sup- 
 planted by other kinds belonging to a 
 later cycle, are thus known to have pre- 
 vailed at a time when primeval man was 
 in the earth ; and by estimates made on 
 scientific grounds for the date of the 
 given forest, an approximation may be 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THE PEAT UDGS. 
 
 of the sediment led to the conclusion of 
 a great antiquity, geologists have not 
 succeeded in measuring the intervening 
 time between the deposition of the lake 
 fos.sils and the present. 
 
 In the case of the peat mosses better 
 success has been attained, and the same 
 result reach-ed as from other sources of 
 Peat bogs fur- iuquirv. The peat bogs 
 blSfti^^e '-ire found in peculiar local- 
 estimates. ities, and the superincum- 
 
 bent earth has accumulated by regular 
 accretions of growth and decay which 
 may well furnish the proper data of time 
 measurement. The character of the 
 
 reached for the time of the appearance 
 of the human race. 
 
 Of the sand dunes which are found in 
 certain localities, holding the relics of 
 primitive men, the same may be said as 
 of the lake bottoms, name- uncertainty of 
 ly, that the measurement Tedfto^m'sanJ 
 of time applied thereto is dunes. 
 difficult, if not impossible. The forces 
 which produce the sand dunes, whether 
 terraqueous or acqueous, are compara- 
 tively irregular. It is easj' to under- 
 stand how a sudden cyclone might by 
 torsion heap up the sand of seashores or 
 desert places into the forms which we
 
 94 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 now discover, though in other instances 
 it might require ages for such accumula- 
 tions to be made. 
 
 In some instances, however, the dunes 
 are clearly the result of human agency, 
 being composed of the debris of primi- 
 tive dwelling places scattered about the 
 homes of the first men until heaps 
 amounting to considerable mounds were 
 found. In such cases we may well allow 
 long periods of time for the formation 
 of the dunes. It is a fact of observation 
 that it requires many centuries in thickly 
 populated localities to raise the surface 
 
 instructive results. Sir Charles Lyell, 
 one of the greatest of geologists and 
 conservative thinkers, has Time required 
 in his work. Travels in 
 
 for deposition of 
 the Mississippi 
 
 North America, undertaken delta. 
 to estimate the rate of formation in the 
 delta of the Mississippi river. That 
 low-lying terrace of alluvium has an area 
 of about thirteen thousand six hundred 
 square miles. Sir Charles by, investi- 
 gation discovered that the thickness of 
 the deposit is of an average of about 
 five hundred and twenty-eight feet. 
 From these data he was able to compute 
 
 SA^D DUNES OF EL-FKVANE, ARABIA.— Drawn by D. Grunet. 
 
 but a few feet above its former level ; 
 this, too, where the agencies of civiliza- 
 tion have been actively operative in 
 leaving a residue. The Appian Way 
 of Rome, after more than two thousand 
 years, is no more than two or three feet 
 below the level of the surrounding coun- 
 try. It is, therefore, safe to conclude 
 that the primitive dunes left around the 
 dwelling places of the first men were 
 slowly formed through many centuries 
 of time. 
 
 If we take up the actual estimates 
 which the best geologists have given for 
 some of the dates suggested in this in- 
 quiry, we have the same tangible and 
 
 approximately the whole quantity of 
 matter brought down by the Mississippi 
 since the establishment of the river in 
 his present bed. The next class of ex- 
 periments related to the amount of solid 
 matter in each cubical foot of the Missis- 
 sippi waters. It was found that about 
 one three-thousandth part in volume of 
 the water discharged into the gulf is 
 composed of mud, sand, and other 
 detritus. The percentage in weight of 
 solid material is about one part in twelve 
 hundred and forty-five. Pursuing the 
 line of reasoning and computation here 
 suggested, and assuming the law of uni- 
 formity. Sir Charles Lyell came to the
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 
 
 95 
 
 conclusion that at the rate of three thou- 
 sand seven hundred and two millions of 
 cubic feet annually it would require 
 sixty-seven thousand years for the build- 
 ing up of the Mississippi delta in the 
 form in which we now find it. 
 
 In this computation there are one or 
 two serious questions to be raised. In 
 the first place, it is undoubtedly true 
 Allowance made that in the earlier periods cf 
 S^cmS?/ thediluvian age, when such 
 problem. rivers as the Mississippi 
 
 were greatly swollen and much more 
 perturbed than at present, the quantity 
 of solid matter 
 annually brought 
 down by the 
 floods was much 
 greater than at 
 the present time. 
 It is easy to con- 
 ceive of a condi- 
 tion in which the 
 percentage of 
 mud and gravel 
 in river water 
 should be many 
 times greater 
 than at the pres- 
 ent. W e need 
 go no further 
 than the spring 
 rains of each year 
 in our present 
 climatic condition to note 
 quantities of solid matter that are carried 
 down into our river currents. Doubtless, 
 in the times of the formation of river 
 beds, when the overwhelming waters, 
 new melted from the glacial spurs, were 
 rushing along the surface of valley lands 
 to seek a permanent channel, the 
 amount of solid material cut away, mixed 
 with the waters and borne onward in a 
 volume of slush to the sea, was vastly 
 in excess of anything of like kind 
 
 which now falls under our observation. 
 Even to the present day there are large 
 rivers whose sloppy floods bear down a 
 quantity of solid matter so great as to 
 build up large sand bars and gravel 
 banks in a comparatively short space of 
 time. 
 
 It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose 
 that in the early age of the ^lississippi 
 the annual deposits at the influence of the 
 delta were much more ex- Srv^r^"' 
 tensive than they have rivers, 
 been Avithin the historical period. On 
 the other hand, however, a counter- 
 
 DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 the large 
 
 vailing circumstance must be noted 
 which has tended strongly to prolong 
 the period of formation in alluvial 
 deposits. This is the fact that when the 
 primitive rivers were still swollen and 
 much mixed with solid materials the 
 current was so heavy as to bear those 
 materials far out to sea. The strong 
 probability is that in the case of the 
 Mississippi the earlier and heavier 
 masses of solid matter were borne out 
 by the immense floods and deposited in
 
 96 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 the bottom of the gulf, so that it may 
 well be doubted whether the larger con- 
 tribution of solids in the earlier ages was 
 not actually unfavorable rather than 
 favorable to the rapid building up of 
 the delta. 
 
 Two additional facts should be noted 
 in connection with this particular sub- 
 other estimates ject. The first is that 
 "ZlZ^sT"' investigations subsequent 
 Lyeii. to those made by Sir Charles 
 
 Lyell and by geologists of the highest 
 reputation have in general terms cor- 
 roborated his estimates. Sir John Lub- 
 bock, traversing the same ground, has 
 arrived at virtually the same conclusions 
 with Sir Charles Lyell, and the latter at 
 a later period of his life, reviewing the 
 whole subject in his work on the An- 
 tiquity of Man, is more disposed to in- 
 crease than diminish his estimates for 
 the lapse of time requisite in the forma- 
 tion of alluvial deposits. 
 
 The second fact referred to is the ap- 
 proximately coincident results reached 
 by Sir Charles Lyell and those deducible 
 from the astronomical tables of Croll re- 
 specting the date of the formation of 
 the post-glacial rivers with the attend- 
 ant phenomena. It will be remembered 
 that the last epoch of planetary winter, 
 coinciding doubtless with the glacial 
 age, was about a thousand centuries ago. 
 Making allowance for a considerable 
 period thereafter to cover the time 
 when under more favorable conditions 
 the ice cupola of the northern hemi- 
 sphere should melt away with suf- 
 ficient rapidity to feed the glacial rivers, 
 we arrive at a date comparatively the 
 same as that which geology assigns for 
 the beginning of the delta of the Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 We have referred on a preceding page 
 to the deposits of the Nile valley as a 
 time measurement for geological and 
 
 human history. To this subject much 
 patient effort has been given. Professor 
 Leonard Horner, of Edin- inquiries into 
 burgh, a noted geologist of L\\LTo"/the" 
 the first half of the present NUe vaiiey. 
 century, was sent out in 1851 by the 
 Jloyal Society of Great Britain to inves- 
 tigate the antiquity of Egypt as deter- 
 mined by the rate of alluvial deposit. In 
 the time of Herodotus it was believed 
 and taught by the Egyptian priests that 
 their country of Lower Egypt had in 
 former ages been an arm of the Medi- 
 terranean, reaching far up toward the 
 site of Thebes. It was from this con- 
 sideration and the belief that the sea 
 had been driven out by the impact of 
 the river and the deposition of sediment 
 that the priests Avere wont to declare 
 that their country was the gift of Father 
 Nile — a form of speech which, though 
 mythological in appearance, is scientific 
 in its subject-matter. For it can hardly 
 be doubted that that Egypt, which was 
 perhaps the first abode and arena of a 
 civilized life of man, was literally the 
 gift, that is, the product, of the Nile. 
 
 Before the visit of Horner to Egypt 
 the savants who accompanied Napoleon 
 on his Egyptian campaign Deductions of 
 had undertaken the like ^^^^.^ff^er-s 
 problem of determining investigations, 
 the geological age of the country by es- 
 timating the rate of annual deposit from 
 the inundation of the Nile. The esti- 
 mate made by these philosophers was 
 five inches of elevation in a century. It 
 w«is found, however, that the rate of ac- 
 cumulation was more pronounced in 
 some parts of the valley than in others; 
 and Professor Horner determined to 
 conduct his experiments on the sites of 
 two ancient cities, Heliopolis and Mem- 
 phis. In the first of these stood the fa- 
 mous obelisk, and in the other the statue 
 of Ramses II. The date of the building
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM GEOLOGY. 
 
 97 
 
 of these two celebrated monuments is 
 known with approximate certainty. The 
 obelisk was erected about two thousand 
 three hundred years B. C, and the 
 reign of Ramses, according to the chro- 
 nology of Lepsius, occupied the larger 
 part of the fourteenth century B. C. 
 
 It was the theory of Homer that, hav- 
 ing laid bare the foundations of these 
 Principal data mouumcnts and discovered 
 cuiaf^^stfHt- the level of the plateaus 
 ner were made, on wliicli they Were built, 
 he might easily compute the rate of ac- 
 cretion from the overflow of the Nile. 
 The explorer found that there 
 had been deposited around the 
 obeli.sk during the four thousand 
 one hundred and fifty years of 
 its existence eleven feet of sedi- 
 ment, which by an easy calcula- 
 tion gave the result of three and 
 eighteen hundredths inches to 
 the century. 
 
 In the case of the statue of 
 Ramses it was found that the 
 surface had risen by a little 
 more than ten and a half feet 
 above the platform on which the 
 statue rested. But he was led 
 to believe that this platform was 
 fourteen or fifteen inches below the .sur- 
 face at the time of the building of the 
 colossus. Making the proper reduction 
 and accepting the antiquity of three 
 thou.sand two hundred and fifteen years 
 for the statue, it was found that the rate 
 of accretion has been at Memphis about 
 three and a half inches to the century. 
 
 These data furnished Professor Hor- 
 ner the scale of measurement by which 
 Resulting esti- various cxcavations were 
 «°/of'^ran made in different parts 
 In Egypt. of the valley, in some 
 
 places to the bottom of the alluvial for- 
 mation. In one instance a piece of pot- 
 tery was found, near the base of a statue, 
 
 at the depth of about thirty-nine feet, 
 which according to the established scale 
 would prove the existence of man and 
 his workmanship in that locality at a 
 date remote from the present by the 
 span of thirteen thousand years. Even 
 this long period does not exhaust the 
 possible habitability of the valley; for 
 the depth at which the relics were found 
 was greatly above the beginning of the 
 alluvial deposits ! 
 
 In other parts of the world besides the 
 deltas of the two great rivers to which 
 we have referred above, similar investi- 
 
 JinJos 
 
 DELTA OF THE NILE. 
 
 gations have been carried forward with 
 almost identical results. Sir Charles 
 Lyell transferred his obser- LyeU's investi- 
 vations to the river Somme, f^ie^^j^the^ 
 in France, and, after ex- Somme. 
 amining the valley and debouchure of 
 that river, came to the conclusion that 
 in that part of the world akso the hu- 
 man period extends into the prehistoric 
 ages many thousands of years. 
 
 The argument with respect to the age 
 of the caverns, in the bottoms of which 
 the relics of man-life have been found, 
 is perfectly correlative with that which 
 we have followed respecting the time 
 required to erode the river valleys and
 
 98 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 form their deltas and gravel banks. It 
 was only when the rivers began their 
 Approximate Subsidence from the gla- 
 c^StaLrg'^hu. cial epoch that the definite 
 man remains. arrangement Or plan of the 
 present alluvial deposits along their 
 banks and at their mouths was deter- 
 mined ; and it was at this very time that 
 the caverns of the calcareous regions 
 were by the recession of the waters left 
 first open and then dry for the occu- 
 pancy of men and animals. It should 
 be borne in mind, however, that the 
 conclusion of a deposit of human re- 
 mains in such situations inmicdiatcly 
 after the river floods had ceased to flow in 
 would be unwarranted by the facts, and 
 there is, therefore, a likelihood from this 
 point of view of attributing an exag- 
 gerated antiquity to the relics of life 
 discoverable in the caverns. In other 
 respects the argument in favor of the 
 antiquity, that is, of a coincident antiq- 
 uity, between the human relics found in 
 the caverns and those discovered in the 
 alluvial deposits of rivers, holds good. 
 
 Attempts have been made in accord- 
 ance with geological science to discover 
 the approximate age of the 
 
 Estimates of the ^^ , , , , 
 
 age of the Swiss relics found m the lake bot- 
 
 lake villages. . r t:- 
 
 toms or burope, particu- 
 larly those of Switzerland. Careful in- 
 vestigations have been made at the Pont 
 de Thiele between the lakes of Neuf- 
 chatel and Bienne. These two bodies 
 of water are connected by a stream 
 which was formerly an arm reaching from 
 the one lake to the other. The whole 
 valley between the Neufchatel and the 
 Bienne has been gradually filled and 
 choked up with mud and other deposits 
 under the action of forces which are still 
 at work. The di.scovery of the remains 
 of so-called lake dwellings in this region 
 and the knowledge of the rate of deposi- 
 tion by which they have been buried 
 
 away furnish acceptable data for an esti- 
 mate, not indeed of the first appearance 
 of men in this region, but of the time 
 when the lake dwellers were prevalent. 
 
 It has been found that the old Abbey 
 of St. Jean, built at the close of the 
 eleventh century, has by Data from which 
 the filling up around the f„t,TonwaT'- 
 margin of the lake receded, made, 
 as it were, from its original situation at 
 the edge of the water by the space of 
 four hundred and six yards. Professor 
 Gillieron, of the College of Neuveville, 
 has applied the ratio thus established to 
 the larger question of the date of the 
 lake dwellings which at this point have 
 receded from the shore a distance of 
 three thousand two hundred and fifty 
 yards, and has thereby determined the 
 minimum antiquity of the ancient lake- 
 shore establishments to be about six 
 thousand seven hundred and fifty years. 
 The reader in considering this calcula- 
 tion must bear in mind the peculiar 
 character of life in the lake dwellings 
 under consideration, and remember that 
 the lake habitations, while they were of 
 a prehistorical character, should not be 
 regarded as the work of the primitive 
 inhabitants of Europe. 
 
 Another example of geographical evi- 
 dence may be taken from a similar situ- 
 ation to that last described. Evidence gath- 
 
 Where the small and rapid 'X^':,Z:^l, 
 river Tinniere falls into theTinniere. 
 lake Geneva, a large accumulation of 
 .sand and gravel has been made, extend- 
 ing back to prehistoric ages. The de- 
 posit is in the form of a cone, which has 
 been opened with a railroad cut and ex- 
 posed for examination for a distance of 
 about a thousand feet and of more than 
 thirty feet in depth. The rate of forma- 
 tion in this remarkable body of materials 
 has been determined with what is be- 
 lieved to be tolerable accuracy. The
 
 Illlllll
 
 100 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 remains of man and his workmanship 
 have been found at a depth of as much 
 as nineteen feet from the surface, and 
 careful calculations conducted by the 
 French geologist, M. Morlot, have shown 
 that the period required for the forma- 
 tion of the whole bed has been between 
 seven thousand four hundred and eleven 
 thousand years. The facts and the argu- 
 ment have been reviewed by Sir John 
 Lubbock, who agrees in general with the 
 deductions of M. Morlot. 
 
 Another fact which already comes to 
 view in considering these subjects, and 
 which will persist in obtruding itself in 
 Deduction from many parts of the present 
 ^^ttnToT/rt- ^vork, is the wide-apart sit- 
 itive races. uations which have been 
 
 submitted to geological science, and the 
 consequent wide diffusion of the human 
 race in remote prehistoric limes. We 
 are here only concerned directly with 
 the geological evidences of the antiquity 
 of man ; but among these evidences we 
 may not forget or neglect the tmques- 
 tionable indications of the wide distri- 
 bution of man in the epochs soon 
 succeeding the glacial age. This wide 
 distribution is itself one of the conclusive 
 evidences of great antiquity, and though 
 it does not properly belong to geologi- 
 
 cal testimony, it is .so closely connected 
 therewith as to justify a reference to it 
 in this connection. 
 
 On any theory of a common local 
 origin for mankind the immense periods 
 of time necessary for the Great period re- - 
 multiplication and diffusion ^"ffutfo^"'^^^ 
 of the race into continents mankind, 
 far distant from one another, and in 
 some instances separated by wide oceans, 
 must be granted at the very beginning. 
 When we see the evidences of common 
 forms of life, including the life of man 
 in common stages of development, in 
 regions remote from each other by the 
 breadth of continents and seas, and al- 
 most inaccessible on account of physical 
 barriers interposing themselves to the 
 movements of the first tribes of men, 
 we must be profoundly impressed with 
 the great depth of the chronological per- 
 spective, and might well conclude that 
 the lapse of time requisite for the distri- 
 bution of the first men, whoever they 
 were, from any common point of origin 
 to the respective localities where we find 
 the first evidences of man-life in the 
 matrix of geology, would be as great 
 as all that vast geological period which 
 lies between such earliest evidences of 
 human activity and the present time. 
 
 Chapter IV.— Archaeological and F»alv5EOnto= 
 
 LOGICA.L Argument. 
 
 HE relations of a r- 
 chasology to geology 
 have already been in- 
 dicated in the first 
 chapter of this work. 
 It remains for us in 
 this connection to point 
 out with more care and elaboration the 
 bearings of archaeological science on the 
 
 question of the date of the appearance 
 of mankind on the earth. Archaeology 
 may be properly defined — though with 
 seeming paradox of language — as pre- 
 historic history. At first glance the in- 
 ference might well be drawn that the 
 study of archaeology, leading us back- 
 ward as it does along the positive traces 
 of the human race, would furnish more
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING— ARCH^OLOGICAL PROOFS. 
 
 101 
 
 satisfactory data relative to the Age of 
 Man than might possibly be derived from 
 Nature of the the astronomical or geolog- 
 deril™d"ftom^*' ical side of the question, 
 archaeology. Such, however, is not the 
 fact. While it is true that much more 
 satisfactory and direct evidence 
 may be gained from archaeolog- 
 ical sources with respect to the 
 mode and limitations of the 
 primitive life of man than can 
 be deduced from geological, or 
 indeed from any other form of 
 inquiry, it is also true that the 
 chronological value of archccology 
 rests upon the geological data 
 with which it is associated. As 
 it respects the question of time, 
 therefore, archaeology helps and 
 corroborates the estimates and 
 time measiirements of the pre- 
 historic ages without furnishing 
 much original and independent 
 testimony thereto. 
 
 These observations, however, 
 should not lead to the conclusion 
 Proofs from this that archaeology — 
 r«h7h/frn^ though long im- 
 
 hsh the prog- & & 
 
 ress of the race, peded in its prog- 
 ress by preconceived opinions — 
 is less scientific in its methods 
 and results than is geology. 
 An examination of the traces 
 and remains of the human race 
 in the long ages before the be- 
 ginnings of national conscious- 
 ness furnish excellent materials in proof 
 of the progress, and to some extent the 
 rate of the progress, by which the human 
 race has advanced from its primeval to 
 its present condition ; but the proper time 
 measurement comes from the connection 
 which the facts of this science bear to 
 the facts of geology. 
 
 We shall here refer at once and in an 
 introductory way to the material and 
 
 subject-matter of archaeological inquiry. 
 In the upper parts of the earth's surface 
 the remains of primitive 
 
 '■ . Subject-matter 
 
 men are found associated of archeeoiogicaJ 
 with the products of the ""i^"^^- 
 post-diluvian age in geology. Human 
 bones, especially the harder 
 portions, such as the skulls 
 and teeth, have been laid 
 away by accident or design 
 in localities 
 especially 
 favorable to 
 
 Primitive commin of the Stone Age. 
 
 ARCH,«OLOGICAL PROOFS OF THE EXISTENCE OF 
 
 PREHISTORIC MAN. 
 
 their preservation. Such remains are 
 associated with roclcs and other geolog- 
 ical products of known epochs, and are 
 also mixed with the bones of extinct 
 animals, the place of which is known in 
 prehistoric zoology. Not only this, but 
 the works of the first men and the sec- 
 ondary races, namely, their implements 
 and utensils, made in many instances of 
 imperishable materials, are plentifully
 
 102 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 found in association witli the bony re- 
 mains of the people by whom such im- 
 plements and tools were devised and 
 used. The materials which primitive 
 men first employed in their rude way in 
 the fabrication of such utensils as their 
 low existence and manner of life called 
 for have remained in the forms origi- 
 nally devised, and indicate most clearly 
 the customs and inartistic methods of 
 the age. 
 
 Nature led the way as to the substance 
 and design of primeval implements. 
 Materials em- Stone was clioscu first, with 
 ?L7manY/:r.r Httlc modification in the 
 ing implements, natural or accidental form. 
 At length the evidences of selection of 
 materials appear. The better qualities 
 of stone are chosen. Obsidian and fiint 
 become favorable articles of primeval 
 factory. Bone also is used, and the 
 horns of animals in the making of uten- 
 sils and weapons. At length, with the 
 increase of intelligence and the gift of 
 experience, the metals begin to be taken 
 and employed in the primitive arts. 
 Copper and bi-onze more and more take 
 the place of the stone utensils and tools 
 which had hitherto been employed. 
 Bronze is succeeded b}' iron, and the age 
 of war and nationality — the daydawn of 
 the historical epoch — is ushered in. 
 
 It is thus comparatively easy to deter- 
 mine the sequence of races and times in 
 the prehistoric ages ; but this establish- 
 Time order es- mciit of an Order docs not 
 tfve but not tb- ^^y 'iny means give us an ab- 
 solute dates. solute date for the various 
 periods of early man history on the 
 earth. The stages through which the 
 race has passed in the evolution of the 
 civilized life from the very lowest and 
 most ancient epoch to times within the 
 limits of authentic history are easily dis- 
 covered and established by quite indubi- 
 table testimou}-. But at this stage of 
 
 the inquiry the chronological scale falls 
 into confusion and doubt. The great 
 patent fact is that some races have out- 
 stripped others in their rate of progress, 
 so that even to the present day a section 
 of world history presents contemporane- 
 ously all stages of development. There 
 are still existent in the world many 
 tribes similar in nearly all respects, ex- 
 cept with respect to strength and 
 aggressiveness, to those primeval races 
 which passed away during the formation 
 of the tertiary deposits of the earth's 
 crust. 
 
 We have only to look abroad into 
 different parts of the Avorld to dis- 
 cover the first men still Existing sav- 
 pursuing methods of life ^fr/^eSrt^^ 
 that were prevalent in the state of man. 
 times almost immediately succeeding the 
 glacial age. The native inhabitants of 
 Australia, the Maoris of New Zealand, 
 the aboriginal races of other Polynesian 
 islands, the natives of the Greater and 
 Lesser Antilles — such as they were at 
 the time of the discovery of America — 
 and the Red races distributed through 
 the New World from Patagonia to the 
 lands of the Esquimaux, were all, at 
 least until a recent date — as many of them 
 still are — unacquainted with the use 
 of metals in any form. They therefore 
 belong to the age of stone as much as 
 did the barbarians of prehistoric times. 
 It thus becomes impossible, without 
 collateral evidence, to fix the dates of 
 archaeological phenomena other than 
 relatively. The relation of such facts 
 may be fixed, but not the time. It is 
 easy to say that certain facts precede 
 others, and to prove that the rate of 
 progress from one stage of development 
 to the next is slow; but it is difficult, if 
 not impracticable, to prove from the ex- 
 isting materials of archaeological inquiry 
 Junv ancient or lioiv modern they may be.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCH JiOLOGICAL PROOFS. 
 
 103 
 
 BIGHT PROGRESSIVK STAGES OF HUMAN' nr.VEI.OPMENT, ILLUSTRATED IN FABRICATION AND MATERIAI-3 
 
 Of IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 (l) Pala:ulitliic awL 
 
 To this rule, however, 
 there are certain excep- 
 tions, principally among 
 the osseous remains of an- 
 cient peoples. There are 
 certain types of structure 
 unmistakably belonging to 
 remote antiquity. The 
 surviving barbarous races 
 do not possess those strong- 
 ly marked animal char- 
 acteristics by which the 
 aggressive barbarians of 
 Differences be- remote antiquit V were char- 
 T.T:J^T'^^ acteri^ed. It would appear 
 barbarians. t;hat the more peaceable, less 
 
 warlike, less ad venturous, less progressive 
 tribes and races of the ancient world have 
 in one sense outlived the stronger and 
 more ferocious of the primitive peoples. 
 The latter seem to have survived in a civ- 
 ilized posterity, while the fcnnner have 
 preserved their ancient proclivities with 
 little evolution or change. It is for these 
 reasons that certain kinds of human re- 
 mains may be judged from their own na- 
 
 ture to have be- 
 longed to far-re- 
 mote primitive 
 races; but the 
 general fact re- 
 mains that those 
 implements and weapons, b}- which the 
 Age of Stone is easily discriminated from 
 the Age of Bronze, and the latter from 
 
 (.7) Bronze-handled 
 iron dagger. 
 
 (S) Iron 
 
 sword.
 
 104 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the Age of Iron, are comparatively use- 
 less in determining the absolute dates of 
 prehistoric times. 
 
 Another flaw — but of opposite import 
 — in the argument for the antiquity of 
 
 SKULL OF CAVli 1 
 
 man from archaeological remains is found 
 Mistaken de- in the reliance, sometimes 
 sp^e'^c'ting ::;oci- too implicitly placed, on the 
 ation of remains, association of humau bones 
 and implements with the remains of ex- 
 tinct animals. It should be remembered 
 that the present distribution of animals 
 over the earth, particularly of the car- 
 nivora, has been largely effected and 
 limited by the agency of man himself. 
 The lion, the tiger, the hyena, ct id 
 oiiine genus, can not coexist in the same 
 country with civilization. Xot indeed, 
 as is generally supposed, on account of 
 the climate, but specifically because 
 when the man and the tiger are in the 
 same arena the one or the other must 
 go to the wall. It has been generally 
 assumed that the great extinct cave 
 bear, the cave lion, and the cave 
 hyena, whose remains are foi:nd asso- 
 ciated with those of primitive men, 
 must have belonged to a period very 
 remote from the glacial age in Europe 
 — either before or after — since the 
 climate of that epoch, when the ice- 
 cover of the European countries generally 
 abutted southward against the Alps and 
 the Pyrenees, would be too rigorous for 
 the existence of animals now confined to 
 Africa and the Asiatic jungles. 
 
 This conclusion, however, is to forget 
 that the tiger, the bear, the hyena, and 
 even the lion are, to the 
 
 Ferocious beasts 
 
 present time, fully capable notwhoUyof 
 
 r . • ■ T J- tropical habitat. 
 
 or sustaining a degree of 
 
 cold approaching that of the 
 arctic circle, and that these crea- 
 tures have receded into their pres- 
 ent habitat, not because of its 
 tropical character, but for the 
 reason that civilization has driven 
 them back into those fastnesses 
 where an abundance of vegetable- 
 eating animals furnish subsistence 
 for the carnivora. In prehistoric 
 Europe, therefore, there was no reason 
 for the nonexistence of these savage 
 beasts close along the line of the re- 
 ceding glaciers. At the present time 
 the Indian tiger, where the wall of civil- 
 ization is not around him, breaks freely 
 from his jungle, pursuing the antelope 
 and the deer up the slopes of the Him- 
 alayas to the line of perpetual snow ; 
 while the leopard, the panther, and the 
 cheetah stop not even for the snow, but 
 follow their prey into the fastnesses of 
 Siberia. 
 
 For these reasons we may perceive 
 clearly the fallacy in the argument of 
 
 SKDLL OF CAVE HYENA. 
 
 those who would reduce the date of the 
 first men by claiming that the associa- 
 tion of their bones, even in the most 
 primitive localities, is with the relics of 
 animals which, though extinct, must
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROOFS. 
 
 105 
 
 have existed at a period long subsequent 
 to the glacial age. 
 
 There are, however, some direct evi- 
 dences of the antiquity of archaeological 
 remains; that is, evidences in the re- 
 Direct evidence mains themselves. Bycom- 
 arl'a^o^^gf^r mon consent the stone age 
 data. marks the first stage in 
 
 the human evolution. Now stone, when 
 it is worked by the human hand, or 
 when broken or abraded by accident, 
 presents a new surface to the action of 
 the elements, and this surface bears wit- 
 ness ever afterwards to the antiquity or 
 the recency of the fracture. All kinds 
 of stone, even the hardest and most 
 carefully polished, show after the lapse 
 of years that the surface so exposed is 
 growing old. The granite shafts pre- 
 served from ancient Egypt proclaim 
 even to the unscholarly observer their 
 manifest and indubitable antiquity. The 
 glint of all varieties of broken or pol- 
 ished stonework disappears at length, 
 and is replaced with a dulled and hoary 
 surface, the difference between which 
 and any recently polished or broken ex- 
 posure is intensified by a microscopic 
 examination. These facts hold whether 
 the specimen or monument in question 
 has been exposed only to the aerial ele- 
 ments or whether it has been buried in 
 the earth. 
 
 To all persons the difference between 
 an ancient and recently fabricated stone 
 Stone impie- implement is apparent, 
 ThT^etfS" but most apparent to the 
 production. archasologist. To his prac- 
 ticed eye every stony surface tells the 
 story of its antiquity — not, indeed, with 
 absolute certainty as to date, but ap- 
 pro.ximately as to epoch. It is easy to 
 arrange and classify the palaeolithic speci- 
 mens of a collection by the degree of the 
 secular erosion of their surfaces, to ar- 
 range the most ancient in a group by 
 M.— Vol. 1—8 
 
 themselves, and to fix with some approx- 
 imation to accuracy the age of each. 
 
 It is by the means here suggested that 
 archaeologists have determined with tol- 
 erable certainty what are piace and char- 
 the most ancient remains ^""f*^'^®,v 
 
 most ancient hu- 
 of human industry yet man remains. 
 
 discovered in Europe. In a deposit near 
 Thenay, in Central France, certain im- 
 plements of flint have been recovered 
 which are regarded as the workmanship 
 of the first men. The specimens in 
 question are rather larger than the 
 majority of .such finds, and were pro- 
 duced by primar}' and secondary' chip- 
 pings. Competent geologists have as- 
 signed to these rough relics of primitive 
 handicraft a date coincident with the 
 middle of the tertiary period. Of equal 
 age are some relics which have been 
 taken from the old bed of the river Ta- 
 gus, near Lisbon. The French archaeol- 
 ogists, and in particular M. Ribeiro, 
 who made the discover^', are strongly of 
 the opinion that the relics in question 
 are of the middle tertiary, and that noth- 
 ing more ancient of the workmanship 
 of man has been found anywhere in the 
 earth's crust. Even in this case, how- 
 ever, science is constrained to fall back 
 upon the situation and surroundings in 
 making an estimate of the true date of 
 the implements referred to. Archaeol- 
 ogy, pure and simple, is able to say no 
 more than this, that the articles in ques- 
 tion were made by a tool-using animal 
 acquainted with the use of fire; that 
 they are, by the evidence of their own 
 surfaces, of a very remote period in the 
 prehistoric ages, and that the coincident 
 geological proof points to the borders 
 of the miocene epoch as the date of their 
 production. 
 
 It should be understood by the reader 
 in his effort to gra.sp the remoteness of 
 the probable period at which these most
 
 106 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 aboriginal implements were jiroduced 
 that the gap in time and skill and prog- 
 immense time- ress between such finds and 
 fefsi::rchr°- the next in order is very 
 oiogicai ages. great. It would seem in- 
 deed that the period reaching from the 
 age of these most archaic relics to the age 
 of the finely executed flint arrowheads and 
 spearheads which we may see in almost 
 any museum of natural history, was fully 
 
 anthropoid apes. Tlie latter have been 
 known to break a club from the branch 
 of a tree and to set the weapon in a place 
 where it might be found again ; then to 
 use it a second time — all this, hoM^ever, 
 without direct adaptation of the weapon 
 to the object of its use. In the case of 
 the stone implements of the earliest age, 
 we find them, as a rule, prepared on 
 one side only. The first men seemed to 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF THE MIOCENE— BORDERLAND OF MAN.— Drawn by Rioii. 
 
 as extensive as that reaching from the age 
 of the arrowpoints to the age of iron. 
 
 This consideration, indeed, brings lis 
 again to the use and application of right 
 Intelligence of rcason to the problem be- 
 fore us. The ancient im- 
 plements which we are here 
 considering mark the first deisarture of 
 human intelligence from that of the 
 lower animals. The rude artisanship of 
 the articles in question advances but a 
 stage above the skill and ciinnino- of the 
 
 the first men 
 compared -with 
 that of animals. 
 
 have sought such fragments of stone as 
 had been partly shaped by the accident 
 of nature. This fact would reduce the 
 amount of labor and skill which the 
 aborigines must employ in preparing 
 the other side of the block. Perhaps a 
 majority of the most ancient forms are 
 characterized by human workmanship 
 on one side only, the other remaining as 
 it was produced in the more ancient 
 shop of nature. 
 
 The span from such art as this to that
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARCHyEOLOGICAL PROOFS. 
 
 107 
 
 of asymmetrical arrowpoint is very great. 
 It is not, however, such a stage of prog- 
 Stride from low- ress as might not be rap- 
 :Sgr:ra"t1r" ^^ly passed in an age of 
 sanship. progress and amelioration. 
 
 Modern society very frequently sees such 
 transitions accomplished in a few dec- 
 ades; but not so in the primitive world. 
 In that it would appear that the aborig- 
 inal savages were imable to lift them- 
 selves to new methods of life except 
 after great travail and eons of time. "We 
 have only to glance at a few facts in or- 
 der to find indubi- 
 table proofs of the 
 truth of this hypoth- 
 esis. 
 
 One of the most 
 significant of these 
 facts is the wide dis- 
 tribution of imple- 
 ments of the kind 
 referred to above. It 
 is definitely known 
 that the race of be- 
 ings by which the>" 
 Avere used was not 
 at all restricted to 
 France and England 
 
 — in which countries archaeological in- 
 quiry has been prosecuted with greatest 
 •Wide distribu- success. On the Contrary, 
 iit°hicimpi?-°' such archaic implements 
 ™®"*^- have been found in regions 
 
 of the world widely separated by moun- 
 tains, rivers, and seas. Relics of like 
 character have been discovered in the 
 Rhone gravel near Aries, and in the Po 
 and Vibrata, and as far south as Rome. 
 Others of identical character have been 
 recovered on the banks of the Meuse and 
 the Scheldt, and still others in Central 
 GeiTuany. Farther abroad, even in the 
 sands of the African rivers, and more 
 frequently in the river-beds of North 
 America, such relics have been discov- 
 
 ered. Professor Henry W. Haynes, of 
 Boston, has taken implements of like 
 sort out of the sands of the Nile. Such 
 specimens have been found forty feet 
 below the surface in the diamond fields 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, and still 
 others in a deposit near Madras, India, 
 and still others in Japan. 
 
 We thus see the unmistakably wide dis- 
 tribution of primitive men established 
 b}- archaeological evidences. But if we 
 look closely at the situation in which the 
 most ancient stone relics of human 
 
 EXAMPLES OF OLD STONE WORKMANSHIP — ADZES OF NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 workmanship have been found, we shall 
 see that everA-where the situation is 
 alike. The rivers were cho- common suua- 
 sen as the nesting places ^^.r^^etris; 
 of the aborigines; and deductions, 
 there they clung. No specimens of 
 ancient stone weapons or implements of 
 the most archaic type have been found 
 in Switzerland, or any other countries 
 greatly elevated, or in regions far re- 
 moved from river banks. This would 
 seem to establish several facts : First, 
 that the date at which the primeval 
 races here under consideration flourished 
 was as far back as the time when the 
 mountains and highlands were still 
 covered with the glacial deposits.
 
 108 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Secondly, \vc note that the geological 
 condition was such everywhere as to in- 
 vite the gathering of the primitive sav- 
 ages in the warmer spots near the estu- 
 aries of rivers, on those grounds where 
 the ice had melted away and from which 
 the waters had receded. Thirdly, we 
 infer that these first races of human be- 
 
 EXA.MPLES OF NEW STONE WORKMANSHIP — HATCHETS OK V 
 Drawn by Eugene Meunier. 
 
 ings were sedentary ; that is, that they 
 were locally fixed to their places of 
 habitation, from which they wandered 
 forth for no purpose but to procure the 
 means of subsistence. Fourthly, we 
 may justly deduce the conclusion of the 
 exceedingly unprogressive character of 
 the tribes referred to. They were virtu- 
 ally without ideas or thought. In such 
 
 an age and from such a beginning the 
 human evolution proceeds most slowly, 
 and it is probable — almost certain — that 
 many thousands of years were consumed 
 in this winter of the human race before 
 it began to grow, to break the soil of 
 environment, to rise into the air and 
 light of intelligence and progress. 
 
 Still another consideration may 
 here be properly adduced, and 
 that is the negative Negative proofe 
 argument as to the "J^ '^ri'irttl*'"" 
 
 & oi man m the 
 
 condition and conse- ow Stone Age. 
 quent remote date of the Old 
 Stone Age. We may learn from 
 the things not found that the epoch 
 in question was almost inconceiv- 
 ably remote from the present. 
 None of the implements belong- 
 ing thereto seem to have been 
 devised for the purpose of skin- 
 ning beasts, preparing hides, or 
 manufacturing clothing ; from 
 which it is probable that the arti- 
 ficial protection of the body by 
 means of garments had not yet 
 been discovered. It is claimed 
 that no evidences of burial or 
 other reverential or superstitious 
 care of the dead bodies of the 
 people have been found among the 
 relics of this age. Nor has any 
 trace of religious ceremony, as 
 evidenced by charm or amulet, 
 been discovered in association with 
 the rude weaponry of this most 
 ancient period of human exist- 
 It is claimed, however, that cer- 
 tain shells prepared for personal adorn- 
 ment have been found associated with 
 implements of the earliest age ; from 
 which the inference is drawn that the 
 earliest aesthetic ideas of mankind were 
 those relating to the decoration and 
 adornment of the body — a hopeful sign, 
 and most hopeful in the savages. 
 
 ence.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL PROOFS. 
 
 109 
 
 After the Old Stone age a change ap- 
 pears not only in the implements and 
 Evidences of de- weapons of the ancestors 
 veiopment fur- £ mankind, but, Avhat is 
 
 nistied by archae- ' ' 
 
 oiogicai reucs. far more significant, in the 
 makers also. Ideas and thought appear. 
 Talent begins to be. There are evi- 
 lences of reflection, studied 
 purpose, and design. 
 Already in the Xew Stone 
 epoch we discover the begin- 
 nings of progress and taste. 
 The implements of this age 
 are polished, fashioned, iin- 
 ished. They have, at least 
 by suggestion, the rudiments 
 of artistic form. The men 
 who made them could con- 
 ceive a pattern and follow it, 
 and — if that — could imagine. 
 Further on, in the age of 
 bronze, the mental faculties 
 are displayed in still higher 
 activity. Some of the relics 
 of this age are positively ele- 
 gant. Design reaches as far 
 as ornamentation and real art. 
 Actual genius is displayed, 
 even though it be in the carv- 
 ing of a knife-blade or the 
 decoration of a razor. 
 
 It is not needed in this con- 
 nection to follow the lines of 
 progress downward from the 
 most primitive ages, since our 
 only purpose in these chap- 
 ters is to approximate the 
 date of the beginning of the career of 
 man. The testimony of archaeolog}* 
 Arch^oiogicai taken altogether is entirely 
 r^bor^eTtr;' corroborative of that drawn 
 other sciences, from astronomical sources 
 and of the evidences gained by geolog- 
 ical study. Indeed, the whole web of 
 proof holds together, and presents a 
 unity of structure which could hardly 
 
 have been expected considering the 
 recent date of the physical sciences and 
 the still imperfect knowledge which men 
 have gained respecting the former con- 
 ditions of the earth and its inhabitants. 
 
 If we turn, in the next place, to pa- 
 laeontology-, we shall find the same cor- 
 
 Razors from Denmark. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 Small knives from Denmark. 
 OF PREHISTORIC WORKMANSHIP, FROM BRONZE AGE. 
 
 roboration in proof, and virtualh' the 
 same examples in illustration. It is the 
 peculiarity of the study be- palaeontology a 
 fore us that, beginning eh^otgfctl'in. 
 from an astronomical basis v^^- 
 and working our way downward through 
 many branches of investigation to com- 
 mon tradition and history, the successive 
 subjects seem to anticipate one another
 
 110 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 in their results. Geological inquiry in- 
 cludes as one of its departments archaeol- 
 
 HUSE ANIMALS PRECEDING THE AGE OF 
 0) Megatherium, restored. 
 
 ogy, and archaeology in like manner 
 embraces palaeontology. We can not in- 
 vestigate the evidences of man-life in the 
 earth by an examination 
 of the implements, 
 weapons, utensils, 
 adornments, primitive 
 architecture, etc., with- 
 out finding constantly 
 in the path of the in- 
 quiry the subject-matter 
 of palaeontology. But 
 without pursuing these 
 reflections, let us look at 
 once at the testimony 
 afforded in the fossilif- 
 erous history of the 
 earth relative to the date 
 of man's appearance. 
 
 A glance at the present aspect of the 
 world shows us as the two most con- 
 spicuous facts of the landscape the vege- 
 
 table and animal forms of life prevalent 
 on the surface or in the air and waters. 
 A very ca,sual examina- 
 tion of these flora and 
 fauna reveals to us the 
 
 fact that Transformation 
 thpv'Prpin the law of vege- 
 
 ine> are m ^^^.^^ ^„^ 
 
 a state of animal forms. 
 
 transformation. T h e 
 changes going on in the 
 forms of life, whether 
 vegetable or animal, are 
 slow and orderly; but 
 the fact of change is as 
 certain as the fact of 
 existence. There is not 
 a vital phenomenon of 
 any kind on the face of 
 the earth which does not 
 reveal under scrutiny 
 this law of transforma- 
 tion. The individuals 
 of a given species come 
 and go by the processes 
 growth, maturity, de- 
 cline, and death ; and the species them- 
 selves, to which these individuals be- 
 
 of procreation, 
 
 ANIMALS PRECEDING THE AGE OF MAN. 
 (2) Dinotherium. 
 
 long, though of far greater duration, are 
 in a process of change exactly analo- 
 gous to that of the individual parts.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL PROOFS. Ill 
 
 the residue of 
 extinct types of 
 being. 
 
 Some species of vegetable and animal 
 life are already old ; others are young ; 
 Existing orders Some are middle-aged. If 
 Ave begin an examination 
 of the most recent superfi- 
 cial deposits of the earth, we find there- 
 in what may be called the back history 
 of many existing orders of life. But we 
 do not pursue the investigation far until 
 we arrive at unmistakable evidences of 
 other forms of preexisting life that are 
 now extinct. Following these preexist- 
 ing forms through their fossiliferous his- 
 tory downward, we are able witlj care to 
 discover in the correlations of geology 
 the whole career of these extinct orders 
 — to find their beginnings, their middles, 
 and their ends. 
 
 But meanwhile, as we continue our 
 exploration of the crust of the earth, we 
 Older forms give come to Still Other and older 
 fiL'edoXTf^ varieties of life which are 
 l'*'*^- no longer to be found in 
 
 existing species, or even in the more su- 
 pei-ficial parts of the earth's crust. Still 
 onward and downward we make our way, 
 with results always analogous to those 
 discovered at the first. We are soon 
 able to generalize and to say that the 
 whole liistory of life is a histor}- of 
 cycles, succeeding each other from the 
 azoic ages of our planetary history to the 
 present day. An Order of Life is thus 
 established, consisting of many varieties 
 and forms through rising scales of de- 
 velopment, the older ever dying away, 
 the newer ever surviving, through the 
 w'hole extent of world duration. 
 
 This order of life, with its great cycles 
 and successions, when once it has been 
 established, is as invariable as the ge- 
 ological epochs and transformations with 
 which it is so intimately associated. The 
 life histoiy of the globe comes at length 
 to be as well fixed and as invariable as 
 the geological annals of the globe. 
 
 It is from this point of view that we 
 are able to discover the superior value of 
 palaeontological inquiry as Motions of the 
 it bears on the question !,!°''i"°"rJ 
 
 J- process among 
 
 of the antiquity of man. living forms. 
 We have seen, in a former part, that 
 archaic implements and other relics of 
 human workmanship surviving from pre- 
 historic times do not easily establish the 
 antiquity of the races by which they were 
 produced — this, for the reason that we 
 have at the present time the age of 
 stone coexisting with the age of iron. 
 But the e.xtinct forms of life never co- 
 exist with the current forms. The order 
 of living being, whether in the vege- 
 table or the animal kingdom, is absolute. 
 The newer race, the higher type, suc- 
 ceeds the older — the lower ; from which 
 it happens that the age of a given fos- 
 sil, having been once determined by its 
 correlation with some geological epoch, 
 becomes ever afterwards a means and 
 measure by which the antiquity of asso- 
 ciated facts may be determined. 
 
 Thus we have in prehistoric chro- 
 nology the Age of the Great Cave Bear 
 
 succeeding the Age of the order of animal 
 
 Mammoth, the Age of -'^f-^-^^. 
 the ^Mammoth that of the icai order. 
 Reindeer, and the Age of the Reindeer 
 that of Domestic Animals. This order 
 holding good in Central Europe, where 
 it was first discovered as a law of zoolog- 
 ical succession, may be depended upon 
 with almost as much certainty as the 
 order of the geological formations of the 
 earth's crust. We should as little ex- 
 pect to find the remains of a mammoth 
 succeeding the remains of a reindeer in 
 a given country as we should expect to 
 find a pliocene stratum under a chalk 
 bed — unless, indeed, there had been in 
 the latter case a physical cataclysm to 
 produce the inversion. 
 
 This established order in the animal
 
 112 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 world has been of vast use in determin- 
 ing the date of human phenomena in 
 Man-life closely the prehistoric ages. ]Man 
 hllforofani-"' l^as always been closely 
 mai species. associated Willi the other 
 forms of animal existence. Being to 
 some extent carnivorous in his habits — 
 and much more so in the barbarous than 
 in the civilized condition — he has from 
 
 we have many additional facts that are 
 of great value and essential interest 
 drawn from the history of 
 
 Wild animals di- 
 the fauna of the world, mlmsh in size in 
 
 Or .1 • .1 1 /■ successive eras, 
 
 ne or these is the law oi 
 
 diminishing size and power which holds 
 
 generally of the different species of wild 
 
 animals and inversely of the dome.stic 
 
 animals. Many of the beasts which in- 
 
 Elephas p 
 
 (■,ly,.t 
 
 ANIMALS ASSOCIATED WITH 
 
 his most primitive condition relied to a 
 very great degree upon the associated 
 orders of life for his means of subsist- 
 ence. We are not here to dwell upon 
 these facts save sufficiently to show the 
 usefulness of animal remains in deter- 
 mining the unknown dates of human 
 historj'. 
 
 Besides the established order of ani- 
 mated nature, from the first appearance 
 of life on the earth to the present day, 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— Drawn by Rion. 
 
 habited the earth coTncidently with the 
 first men were of prodigious size. We 
 have already referred by name to several 
 of the huge carnivora at one time pre- 
 vailing in Europe and America. One of 
 these was the tremendous cave bear, an- 
 other the cave lion, another the cave 
 hyena. In general, these creatures were 
 of the genus Felis. Besides these there 
 were vegetable-eating animals, also huge 
 and powerful. To this order belonged
 
 TIME OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—PAL^OXTOLOGICAL PROOFS. 113 
 
 versed in the 
 case of domesti- 
 cated animals. 
 
 the gigantic Megaceros Hibernicus, or 
 Irish Elk. There was also the Rhinoce- 
 rus tichorinus, or Wall-nosed rhinoceros, 
 with his two horns and woolly body; 
 likewise the Hippopotamus major, vastly 
 greater in bulk and more savage in hab- 
 its than the descendent variet)- still wal- 
 lowing in the mud of the Nile. 
 
 All of these animals, carnivora and 
 other, were greatly larger and stronger 
 than any living representatives of their 
 respective kinds. The great pachyderms. 
 The law re- most prodigious of all the 
 
 warm-blooded animals that 
 have inhabited the earth, 
 declined in proportion as they tended 
 toward extinction, and the same process 
 continues to the present day, except in 
 those species which have been reduced 
 to domestication by man. Wherever the 
 last-named process has been effected the 
 law of bulk and power has been reversed. 
 The tremendous horses which we now 
 find patiently serving man in all the 
 civilized countries are the descendants 
 of the prehistoric hiparion elcgans of pa- 
 laeontology. There are to-day larger 
 dogs, larger sheep, and larger swine in 
 the world than ever before ; and if the 
 cattle do not surpass in size the prime- 
 val ox, they do exceed in weight and 
 strength any of the varieties from which 
 they are nearly or even mediately de- 
 scended. 
 
 These two laws, the one expressing 
 the rate of decline in the size and capaci- 
 ties of the wild animals of the earth', and 
 
 the other the inverted law of increased 
 bulk and power of animals under domes- 
 tication, become the data Antiquity of 
 which the inquirer may ?,rby"e"uenc: 
 use in generalizing with ofspecies. 
 respect to the antiquity of man. The 
 coexistence of the human race with the 
 animals mentioned by name in the above 
 paragraphs is now a fact so well estab- 
 lished that it is no longer in controver- 
 sy, at least among scientific men. The 
 question, therefore, as to the antiquity 
 of man resolves itself into the question 
 of the antiquity of the prehistoric ani- 
 mals that were his coinhabitants of the 
 earth in prehistoric ages. The question 
 of the antiquity of these animals resolves 
 itself, in turn, into the question of the 
 age of the world when they were the 
 prevailing forms ; that is, the latter ques- 
 tion is partly so resolved. For, as we 
 have seen above, there are some princi- 
 ples by which the age of a given form 
 of animal life may be approximately de- 
 termined even without reference to the 
 geological conditions under which the 
 remains of such animals are discovered. 
 But for the most part the decision of the 
 question goes back, as before, to the date 
 of that post-glacial epoch in geology at 
 which the extinct animals referred to 
 and primeval man existed together. In 
 a word, the geological date is the deter- 
 minative factor in the greater part of the 
 inquiry, while the corroborative elements 
 of the argument are derived from ar- 
 chaeology' and palaeontology.
 
 114 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JIFAXKLVD. 
 
 Chapter v.— Xhe Ethnoi.ooicai^ ^^rgunient. 
 
 E have thus by progres- 
 sive stages ah-eady im- 
 pinged on the domain 
 of that recent branch 
 of science called an- 
 thropology. The scope 
 and limitations of this 
 department of inquiry have already been 
 defined in the iirst chapter of this work. 
 The science in question has one division, 
 namely, the human division, of palaeon- 
 tology as its first part, while in its after 
 development it divides naturally into 
 ethnology and ethnography. For our 
 present purpose it is sufficient to say that 
 Anthropology authropology throws at 
 thTan«yo° ^''^^^ some reflected light 
 ">an. on the question of the antiq- 
 
 uity of man. Take, for example, the lon- 
 gevity of the individual of our species as a 
 hint on the longevity of the race of beings 
 to which we belong. There is undoubted- 
 ly a correlation between the brief life of 
 ephemeral and transient living forms 
 and the rapid transformation of that 
 variety of life to which they belong. 
 Man is without question one of the most 
 long-lived animals inhabiting the earth ; 
 and the supposition of great duration, 
 past, present, and future, for the human 
 race, is in accordance with right reason 
 and scientiiic deductions. 
 
 In the anatomical structure, in the 
 
 physiological offices of man there are 
 
 evidences of the profound 
 
 Existence of . , 
 
 atrophied or- antiquity of the race. In 
 
 gansinthebody. . /• .1 1 
 
 many parts of the human 
 body there remain from the prehistoric 
 state the rudimentary forms and indica- 
 tions of organs which, as organs, no 
 longer exist in our species. These ru- 
 dimentary parts in every case stand for 
 
 actual organs in some other varieties of 
 animal life, thus indicating most posi- 
 tively, as the evolutionist believes, the 
 ultimate kinship and succes.sive differen- 
 tiation of all forms of living beings on 
 the earth. It is by no means our purpose 
 in this part of the inquiry to consider 
 the validity of the hypothesis of evolu- 
 tion ; but it may well be urged in this 
 connection that, from whatever point of 
 view we consider the descent of man, 
 the existence in the human body of rudi- 
 mentary parts points, as we think un- 
 mistakably, to a very high antiquity for 
 the human species. 
 
 Consider for a moment the existence 
 and significance of rudimentary organs 
 in the body. Under the eyelids of every 
 human being are found the outlines, and 
 indeed the fact, of a semi- 
 
 Such organs sig. 
 
 lunar fold corresponding uify a preexist- 
 
 1 , ,1 • i.-i i." ing mode of life. 
 
 precisely to the nictitating 
 membrane in the eyes of the domestic 
 fowl or the goose. Here in the human 
 anatomy is the potential representation 
 and simulacrum of an organ which must, 
 in the nature of the case, answer to some 
 function or use in the present, the future, 
 or the past. The semilunar fold in the 
 eyelid has no use in the present. It is 
 against the laws of right reason to sup- 
 pose that it will ever have a use in the 
 future, since the means of protection to 
 the eye will increase rather than dimin- 
 ish with the further evolution of human 
 life ; and at the same time the dangers 
 to which the organ is subject wall be 
 correspondingly diminished. We must 
 therefore conclude that the rudimentary 
 part represents an organ which once had 
 an office to perform for the benefit of 
 the organism as a whole. With the
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 115 
 
 gradual amelioration of conditions and 
 with the physiological improvement of 
 the eyelids proper, the necessity for such 
 an organ as the nictitating membrane 
 gradually ceased, and with disuse came 
 feebleness of func- 
 tion, reduction of 
 size, and final 
 atrophy. This 
 would appear to 
 be the only pos- 
 sible explanation 
 of the presence of 
 such a rudimen- 
 tary part as the 
 semilunar fold in 
 an animal such as 
 man. 
 
 The very same 
 thing may be said 
 of those other 
 structural ele- 
 ments in the hu- 
 man body which 
 no longer serve a 
 purpose. What 
 that purpose would 
 be under certain 
 conditions we are 
 able to see by a 
 glance at the anat- 
 omy and physi- 
 ology of other ani- 
 mals. It is no 
 longer useful to 
 human beings, 
 having as they do 
 the free use of the 
 arm and hand, to 
 possess a muscle 
 for moving the ears 
 
 instances the possessor is still able by the 
 will to move the ear in a manner which 
 must have been common and convenient 
 for the species in some remote prehistoric 
 epoch. The same thing may be said of 
 
 EXAMI'IE OK EXIKKME LONGEVITY — AN EASTERN SORCERESS. 
 Dr.iwn by G. Vuillier. 
 
 Atrophied ear- 
 muscles and ex- 
 
 though such a mus- 
 cle in the lower animals is 
 tinct mammae in highly important and bene- 
 °'^"- ficial. But the muscle, 
 
 though in an atrophied or semiatrophied 
 condition, still exists in man, and in st)me 
 
 the appendix vermiformis and of several 
 other parts of the human body for which 
 no plausible explanation has ever been 
 offered except that they stand for organs 
 and offices that were once in full exercise 
 and development by the ancestors of our
 
 116 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 race, but have fallen into desuetude 
 through ages of changing conditions and 
 
 dog's head, showing muscles for moving the ear 
 which have become atrophied, through disuse, 
 
 IN MAN. 
 
 the altered necessities of life. Aye, 
 more than this, we have in the human 
 anatomv certain parts, such as the rudi- 
 
 BODILY FORMS OF THF, rVRAMU) KUILDLKS, FORIV- 
 
 THREE CENTURIES FROM THE PRESENT. 
 
 Drawn by B. Slrassberger, from door of tomb at Gizeh. 
 
 mentarj' breasts of the male, which seem 
 to point to a condition still more primi- 
 tive in the development of our race — to 
 
 a time when even the sexes had not 
 been differentiated the one from the 
 other ! 
 
 As we said above, these facts, and the 
 
 conclusions toward which they tend in 
 support of the hypothesis of evolution, 
 are not adduced in this connection as an 
 evidence of the truth of that theory, but
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 117 
 
 simply to illustrate the testimony which 
 anthropology is able to give respecting 
 Vast reach of the antiquity of man. For 
 ^v'!^.1,^^P^n','tnm ^ow vast must have been 
 
 produce anatom- 
 ical changes, the time requisite for 
 
 producing si:ch astounding changes as 
 have manifestly taken place in the 
 organs and functions of the human 
 body ! Consider for a moment the 
 backward look which Ave are able 
 to give to the condition of man- 
 kind by the single light of history. 
 It is hardly an exaggeration to re- 
 fer to consecutive facts in the an- 
 nals of Egypt as far away as three 
 thousand years before the Christian 
 era; yet among the most ancient 
 works of that primitive seat of civil- 
 ization we are able to discover un- 
 mistakably the presence of the 
 man-form already differentiated 
 into ethnic varieties and present 
 aspects of activity. We have no 
 reason to suppose that the rudi- 
 mentary organs of the pyramid 
 builders were any larger, more 
 vital, more active, than they are 
 in the race to-day. This is to say 
 that the work of evolution — or 
 whatever it was — by which the at- 
 I'ophied condition of certain organs 
 which had fallen into disuse had 
 already been completed five thou- 
 sand years ago ! What, therefore, 
 shall we say of the lapse of time 
 necessary to have effected the trans- 
 formation ? What shall 'we say of 
 the almost inconceivable period in 
 human development requisite for 
 the differentiation of the sexes in 
 all hot-blooded animals, the evi- 
 dence of which has been transmit- 
 ted in rudimentary organs still ex- 
 isting in the males in a condition of 
 atrophy after at least five thousand 
 years? 
 
 Anthropology parts into at least two 
 kinds of inquiry of the greatest impor- 
 tance. These are eth- Relations of eth. 
 
 nography and ethnology. ^^^^l^XT^' 
 
 According to Jean RecluS other sciences. 
 
 these two departments of human knowl- 
 
 Mi^"' 
 
 /^ojijAT- 
 
 ETHNIC DIFFERENIIATION.— ^1) MARIA OK COS — EUROPEAN TYPE. 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat« from a photograph. 
 
 edge "run up into anthropology, as 
 anthropology does into zoolog}^ and 
 zoology into biology." It is true, how-
 
 118 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTXD. 
 
 ever, that the line of demarkation be- 
 tween ethnographic and ethnological in- 
 vestigation is difficult to draw, just as 
 the division between geography and 
 
 ETHNIC Dll 1 Ll.LMlAiluN.— (2) TH1-; "BLACK t'LAGb ' 
 SOUTHERN CHINA — ASIATIC TYPES. 
 Drawn by Barbotin, from a photograph. 
 
 geology is faint and in some parts un- 
 discoverable. In fact, ethnography, eth- 
 nology, and anthropology hold fast in 
 their subject-matter and methods to 
 
 philology, jurisprudence, archaeology, 
 geography, and even to tradition and 
 history. 
 
 The present work, devoted to a his^- 
 tory of the great races of mankind, 
 
 must, in the nature of Ethnology here 
 
 the case, be essen- "^^^^^ 
 tially ethnographic tiquity of man. 
 and ethnological in its subjects and 
 manner of treatment; but we are 
 not by any means at this juncture 
 to branch out into the treatise at 
 large. Our present purpose is no 
 more than to note in a general way 
 the light and testimony of eth- 
 nology and ethnography respecting 
 the question of the antiquity of 
 man. 
 
 Let us mark then, first of all, 
 the dispersion of the human race 
 into tribes and kindreds. The 
 traveler abroad, going from coun- 
 try to country, visiting one people 
 after another, is perhaps more im- 
 pressed with their differences in 
 ethnic characteristics, in manners 
 and customs and language and law, 
 than he is with their identities. 
 The distribution of mankind is 
 literall}- from the rivers to the ends 
 of the earth, and their differences 
 range through a wide scale of de- 
 parture covering almost all possible 
 \-ariations in physical, intellectual, 
 aid moral character. 
 
 When — at what time in the past 
 — did these ethnic peculiarities ap- 
 pear? As a prelinii- Ethnic differ- 
 
 ^ nary to answering this ^^l^^^lt^^^ 
 .,F question we may con- in the dawn. 
 
 fidently as.sert that they did not ap- 
 pear all at onee; that is, the eth- 
 nic marks and peculiarities by which 
 the various tribes and kindreds of man- 
 kind are so strongly discriminated, did 
 not appear jDlienomenally ; but only
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 119 
 
 mediately, and by imperceptible degrees. 
 Of one thing- we are historically certain, 
 and that is that the distinguishing traits 
 of the different peoples of the earth were 
 already strongly and 
 deeply drawn in the 
 daydawn of human an- 
 nals, and that since the 
 remotest epoch of tra- 
 dition they have scarcely 
 been so much as empha- 
 sized by increasing dif- 
 ferentiation. Indeed, it 
 is unmistakably true that 
 in modern times at least 
 the strong, deep-cutlines 
 of demarkation by which 
 races and peoples were 
 aforetime distinguished 
 the one from the other 
 are, to a considerable 
 degree, effaced and ob- 
 literated by the ebb and 
 flow of civilization ; so 
 that on the whole the 
 tribes and nations of 
 antiquity — the most re- 
 mote antiquity — were, 
 by much, more clearly 
 discriminated than they 
 are at the present time. 
 It is trite to refer to 
 the historical evidence 
 which abounds respect- 
 ing the truth of these 
 statements. The monu- 
 ments of ancient Egypt 
 and Assyria, if none 
 other existed, would of 
 themselves sufhce to es- 
 tablish the earlydiff eren- 
 
 Evidencesofthe tiation of 
 
 mankind. 
 
 mer sculptures we find 
 positively delineated at least four lead- 
 ing types of men as they exist to-day ; 
 
 and the lines are drawn with as much 
 distinctness as though they had been 
 executed by an ethnographer in the last 
 decade of the nineteenth century ! Thus 
 
 l;lFFERliMIAriON. — (3) CHIKI kn. ..,:.!.„ ...... -. 
 
 CONOO — AFRICAN TYPES. 
 Dr;iwn by Nt;idame Paule Crampel, .after a sketch of Xeboiil. 
 
 early evolution 
 of race distinc- 
 tions. 
 
 Among the for- 
 
 at the epoch of the pyramid builders 
 the races of Europe, Asia, and Africa 
 had already been confirmed for all time 
 in their ethnical characteristics.-
 
 120 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 These facts established, as they are, 
 right reason demands the acceptance of 
 Several theories One of Several possible in- 
 rhedr«-r„u;- ferences. The first of 
 tion of the races, these is that the races of 
 men, as they come into view in the early 
 dawn of history, had descended through 
 a remote prehistoric past from a com- 
 mon origin, and that in the long proc- 
 esses of that descent the ethnic charac- 
 teristics of each race and people had been 
 developed and established. Another sup- 
 position possible in the case is that men 
 began from various parts of the earth, un- 
 der various conditions, and from different 
 originals. From these the descending 
 lines of ethnic life were drawn under 
 the influences of environment, until at 
 length, in the morning of tradition, the 
 various peoples emerged into view with 
 their respective characteristics fixed as 
 we find them at the present day. A 
 third view is that which presupposes 
 phenomenal departures from a common 
 type at some period in the prehistoric 
 ages. This hypothesis includes a sup- 
 posed anomalous divergence ; as, for in- 
 stance, in a common family in which the 
 sons, though born of one father and one 
 mother, should come into the world with 
 different ethnic traits upon them, thus es- 
 tablishing, or rather opening, the foun- 
 tain heads of races and peoples. The 
 suppositions may be multiplied, but the 
 foregoing are sufficient to indicate the 
 possibilities of the case. 
 
 It is almost needless for a writer of 
 the present day — strongly indoctrinated 
 Acceptance of as the age is with the prin- 
 Zr^:^l.oi ciples of science, a knowl- 
 environment. edge of causation and uni- 
 versal sequence — to assert that only one, 
 namely, the first, of the above supposi- 
 tions is tenable. It is not our purpose 
 in this place to discuss the monogenetic 
 and polygenetic theories of the origin 
 
 of the human race. From what we 
 know, however, of the orderly evolution 
 of life, there is only one rational and 
 thoroughly consistent view of the history 
 of the ethnic distinctions existing among 
 mankind, and that is that in a period 
 far remote, beyond the beginning of hu- 
 man annals and extending to a great 
 depth in the prehistoric ages, mankind, 
 of a given type, appeared on the earth, 
 and that in the vicissitudes of the ages 
 following, far below the remotest rim of 
 historical knowledge, the tribes of primi- 
 tive men gradually, almost impercepti- 
 bly, diverged from the common type, 
 taking new features and new dispositions 
 under the conditions in which they found 
 themselves by migration, dispersion, and 
 the contingency of climate. How slowly 
 these forces operate in producing the 
 changes which have manifestly been ef- 
 fected among the peoples of the earth is 
 well known to all who have investigated 
 the subject, and those who have never 
 done so may easily apprehend the almost 
 inconceivable lapses of time necessary to 
 effect such changes. 
 
 The problem has in it a sort of math- 
 ematical basis — an ethnic calctilus — 
 
 suggestive at least of the Deduction of 
 
 immense distance at which, To^^:^"^^, 
 from the ethnological point departures, 
 of view, the origin of the human race 
 must be placed. As was intimated in 
 a foregoing paragraph, we have what 
 are no doubt exact representations of the 
 different race-types at a period nearly 
 five thousand years ago. From these, 
 and by comparison with descendent 
 forms, we may, as it were, compute the 
 rate of ethnic change in the human 
 species. It is noticeable in doing so 
 that the rate is more rapid under civili- 
 zation than in barbaristn— a fact the 
 reverse of what might have been antic- 
 ipated. The Negro physiognomy as
 
 TIME OF THE BEG IXXIXG. —ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMEXT. 121 
 
 depicted in the Egyptian sculptures is 
 almost identical with that of to-day ; but 
 thaCopt of modern Egypt, affected as 
 he has been by so many historical in- 
 fluences, has diverged not a little from 
 the parent Egyptian type. The modern 
 Greek and the modern Italian are dis- 
 criminable by many ethnic marks from 
 the great Greek of the ancient world and 
 the Roman original ; but the wild men 
 of the Asiatic steppes, and no doubt the 
 aborigines of the American continent, 
 
 kind had been evolved and established 
 as they have ever since remained, how 
 far off must have been the probabie esti- 
 beginnings of the process! ratLl/p^e-"" 
 If we should say that a historic ages, 
 lapse of time equal to five times the 
 whole distance from the beginning: of 
 human annals to the present day should 
 be allowed for the ethnic divergence of 
 the prehistoric races, we should certainly 
 not exaggerate the probabilities of the 
 case. That many thousands of years 
 
 VALLEY OF THE EUPHRATES-ONE OF 
 Drawn by Taylor, from a photi 
 
 have changed but little in form and fea- 
 ture during several milleniums. This 
 law of the more rapid change of ethnic 
 characteristics under the civilized life 
 tends to lengthen, rather than abbreviate, 
 the duration of that prehistoric period in 
 which the ethnic peculiarities of the vari- 
 ous peoples were evolved and fixed. 
 
 If, therefore, as much as five thousand 
 ■years ago, when the civilized life had 
 •certainly and strongly asserted itself in 
 the valley of the Nile and had probably 
 appeared in the valleys of the Indus and 
 
 the Euphrates, the ethnic traits of man- 
 M. — Vol. I — 9 
 
 THE PRIMITIVE SEATS OF MANKIND, 
 ograph by Madame Dieulafoy, 
 
 were required for such a transformation 
 of peoples and kindreds as had already 
 taken place before tradition and history 
 began to record the words and deeds of 
 men, can hardly be doubted by any one 
 who has taken an enlarged view of the 
 subject. 
 
 Not only has the prehistoric divergence 
 in ethnic traits established the great an- 
 tiquity of man, but the testimony derived 
 from this source has been corroborated 
 by the fact of the wide distribution 
 of the primitive peoples of the earth. 
 Within the historical period only a few
 
 122 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 places, and these for the most part islands, 
 have been found which were not already- 
 Time required occupied bv human beings 
 ^°;r'iwa"esthe ^^ the tim'c of discovery. 
 estimate. Some of the West India 
 
 islands were uninhabited at the close of 
 the fifteenth century. The same cir- 
 cumstance has been noted in Polynesia. 
 But as a general fact the world has all 
 been inhabited, even from antiquity. 
 More than this: the first comers, even 
 thousands of years ago, invariably found 
 the countries into which they made their 
 eruptions already peopled by an earlier 
 race. It may readily be granted that 
 the old Aryans themselves, before the 
 dawn of histor}', making their way Avest- 
 ward, found no uninhabited regions. 
 As far back as we are able to reach by 
 historical record and tradition, we note 
 the same condition — the same invariable 
 circumstance of the universal occupancy 
 of the world by men. 
 
 The fact of this early diffusion of the 
 human race 6ver the earth tends strongly 
 Subjective and to establish the great an- 
 drfnceslo'^Sf- tiquity of the race. This 
 fusion of races, view of the situation in pre- 
 historic times is intensified when we take 
 into consideration the difficulties which 
 confronted the first men in making their 
 way from place to place. Great were 
 the barriers and obstacles which con- 
 stantly interposed themselves to the 
 movements of primitive mankind. The 
 common idea of tribal migration is al- 
 most wholly erroneous. True, there 
 were times and peculiar conditions under 
 which primitive peoples moved out from 
 their old seats and in a phenomenal man- 
 ner made their way across the prehis- 
 toric landscape into new countries, new 
 islands, and even new continents. But, 
 on the whole, the distribution of mankind 
 over the earth has not been effected by 
 Migration, but by diffusion. The race 
 
 has diffused itself, like the slow growth 
 of a vine creeping over the surface at a 
 rate so small that it can not be detected 
 by the senses. Only after a lapse of 
 time are we able to see that the vine has 
 taken a new and advanced position. In 
 like manner the first men spread over 
 the surface of the earth by gradual dif- 
 fusion. Whenever a really favorable 
 situation was reached by the outlying 
 members of the tribe, then there would 
 be a movement somewhat more rapid in 
 that direction, until the better place so 
 discovered was peopled and dispossessed 
 of its native treasures. 
 
 By right reason we are able to see the 
 spreading volume of the human race in 
 the prehistoric ages. The siowmovement 
 advance of the frontier line Sl^^^^r^L 
 in every given direction tribution. 
 would be like the current of Caesar's 
 river, ' ' so .slow that by the natural eye 
 the direction of the current could not be 
 determined." What we are here con- 
 cerned to note is the great period of time 
 requisite for the distribution of the prim- 
 itive peoples over the earth and the 
 consequent high antiquit}^ of the race. 
 The process or processes, for instance, 
 by which a population was finally con- 
 tributed to the i.slands of the Pacific and 
 to the American continents must have 
 been so tedious, so much retarded by 
 the opposing conditions of the natural 
 world, so greatly heightened by the bar- 
 baric .state of the primitive tribes by 
 which the work was accomplished, so 
 long held back by pau.ses and retrogres- 
 sions as to demand for the accomplish- 
 ment what may well be estimated not at 
 a hundred or a thousand years, but at 
 an eon of time. 
 
 Certain facts must constantly be borne 
 in mind which by their nature must 
 have long retarded the distribution 
 of the original races over the earth.
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 123 
 
 The work was effected in some way be- 
 fore the dawn of civilization. This sig- 
 Particuiarob- nifies that men in a state 
 staciestobesur- q£ nature inhabited a nat- 
 
 mounted in mi- 
 gration of races, ural world, little modified 
 
 as yet by the influence of its inhabitants. 
 It is almost impossible for men under 
 the civilized life to realize the difficulty 
 Vvhicli a primeval people, a real aborigi- 
 nal tribe, would experience in attempt- 
 ing so simple a feat as crossing a river. 
 We may suppose that the aboriginal man 
 "Dould swim; but the transportation 
 of children across a broad and rapid 
 stream must have been to the men of 
 the first epoch an almost impossible 
 task. No doubt the introduction of 
 boats and rafts was an event belong- 
 ing to a very early age in the human 
 evolution. Nevertheless, there was 
 a time when primeval savages worked 
 their way up slowly, cautiously, dis- 
 trustfully to the concept of a canoe 
 with as much difficulty, aye, much 
 greater difficulty, than the modern 
 man has experienced in the idea and 
 construction of the ocean steamer. 
 Indeed, every advance which marked 
 the slow progress of mankind in the 
 prehistoric ages was attended with 
 such labor and doubt and tedious ap- 
 proaches of attempt and failure as must 
 have retarded for almost immemorial 
 ages the coming of primitive civiliza- 
 tion. All calculations respecting the an- 
 tiquity of man, which do not include 
 among the prominent elements of the 
 problem these facts respecting the dif- 
 ficulties interposed by nature to the dif- 
 fusion of the first races over the earth, 
 are inadequate and erroneous in their 
 bottom principles. 
 
 In all the primeval world there was 
 not a single highway. Nature builds 
 no roads, constructs no bridges. We 
 must remember in this connection that 
 
 in all that vast and warlike world re- 
 vealed to us in the history of Egypt and 
 India and Greece and Car- Absence of 
 thage and Rome there Z^.ll^ 
 was not a single tunnel, primeval ages. 
 The aqueduct, the viaduct, the sewer, 
 even the Cloaca Maxima, were known 
 at a very early age; and the building 
 abilities of the people were able to have 
 produced a tunnel in the proper sense; 
 but it remained not for the age of Alex- 
 ander or Caesar or the Antonies, not for 
 
 PROGRESS OK IKIMEVAL MAN BY WATER. 
 
 the epoch of Justinian or the era of 
 Charlemagne, not for the Renaissance or 
 the times of Napoleon, but for the nine- 
 teenth century to construct the first under- 
 ground passageway for the movements 
 of civilization — the quick transit of men 
 and merchandise. 
 
 We have already referred more than 
 once to the tremendous obstacle of the 
 seas and oceans. With what a sense of 
 impotency must the primitive man have 
 come to the sea.shore ! Even after the 
 age of boats and ships, how did he cling 
 to the shores and inlets of the seemingly 
 infinite deep ! It must be remembered
 
 124 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Check offered to 
 ethnic progress 
 by seas and 
 oceans. 
 
 that the concept nf the impassibility of 
 the sea and even of lakes and rivers was 
 one of those ideas which 
 in the early ages of the 
 world became fixed by the 
 law of heredity — transmitted from gen- 
 eration to generation, until it was a part 
 of the intellectual and even the reli- 
 gious belief of the primitive peoples. No 
 science but history — and history not 
 well — is able to estimate at its full value 
 
 the rate of diffusion by which the earth 
 was peopled with the aboriginal races; 
 
 the slowness of the prog- Rate of race dif- 
 
 ress by which from valley L^teSfro':: rb"' 
 to valley, from river to stacies thereto, 
 river, through untrodden forests, from 
 shore to shore, and finally from conti- 
 nent to continent, the aborigines of the 
 world at last made their way into its more 
 favorable and favoring parts; the vast, 
 almost immeasurable, periods of duration 
 
 THE AGE OF bOATS.— Eakliks N 
 
 Hic Epoch. 
 
 the retarding and paralyzing effect of 
 hereditary beliefs upon even the physi- 
 cal, to say nothing of the intellectual 
 and moral, progress of mankind. Not 
 infrequently we find the forward march 
 utterly impeded and a given people held 
 absolutely to their last camping ground 
 for a thousand years by a single hereditary 
 thought driven down like their tent pins 
 through the belief and practice of that 
 kindred. 
 
 The significance of these facts and 
 principles is their powerful bearing on 
 
 that must have elapsed between the 
 beginning and the end of the distribu- 
 tion of the human race, and the con- 
 sequent remoteness of the date which 
 must be assigned for the appearance of 
 man on the earth. 
 
 Every part of the problem tends to 
 establish the same conclusion. Perhaps 
 
 the most striking attribute Division and de- 
 
 of man is his faculty of TangS^gTsVe' 
 speech. Language' is his. quire great time. 
 Philology as a science has risen, as a 
 branch of anthropological study, to
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 125 
 
 explain and interpret the significance of ' among the varieties of human speech, 
 linguistic phenomena. It is not our We desire to refer to the subject only in 
 purpose in this connection to review the i corroboration of the conclusions whicli 
 
 npoc Oec C A \on 3^ 
 
 OT/T\AYTA6 nA'eeTCK VlYMeJG 
 
 K /^e UJ C KM ^V XO I f^^^if^ ^T^^^rm: ^^ W^: 
 
 Sanskrit 
 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 Egyptian Hieratic ^eleventh dynasty). * I 
 
 i^U 
 
 Egyptian Hieiaiii; (Grarco-Riinian I'enod). * * i »— '^7 
 
 — ^ At 
 
 
 i^ ^ 
 
 Arabic. .^ i 
 
 «ii^a =niHa=^i1„ 7/ Tiif ^ni Qh?. i^ Sr 
 
 ^nfliiKi-lK a jJ<HlS n 211^, Hq li>l 5.114 
 
 ©OQ. "Hln- .■\ram.V,c 
 
 Parsee, 
 
 •V' 
 
 DIFFERENTIATION OF LANGU.\GES ILLUSTRATED IN ANXIENT STYLES OF WRITINGS. 
 
 history of language, or to discuss the have been already deduced from other 
 
 varieties of form in which it has ap- kinds of knowledge. 
 
 peared, and the correlations existing Each ethnic branch of the human race
 
 126 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 has its own form of language. Among 
 the peoples who compose a given family 
 Time a condition of mankind there is gen- 
 ofltTiectsanS orally a common speech 
 languages. with dialectical differences. 
 
 These differences sometimes become so 
 well marked and firmly fixed as to con- 
 stitute independent languages. This 
 process of linguistic differentiation re- 
 quires time as one of the conditions of 
 its accomplishment. As a rule, the rate 
 of change, even in the alteration of an 
 accent, is slow, and the larger transfor- 
 mations are even more difficult to be 
 accomplished. Human language passes 
 through changes and modifications under 
 the law of evolution just as the mind 
 does, which requires speech as one of 
 its functions. In the case of peoples 
 intellectually active, and as yet not re- 
 stricted by the set forms of literary ex- 
 pression, linguistic mutation is more 
 rapid ; but among barbarians and con- 
 servative races marked with little activity 
 of thought speech continues in set forms 
 for long periods of duration. 
 
 The division of mankind into families 
 and races has been largely determined 
 Linguistic dif- by means of language. 
 ?nd?n:ra& Some of the differences by 
 1516. which one family of lan- 
 
 guages is discriminated from another 
 are very deep and ineradicable. The 
 forms of speech by which the Semitic 
 peoples are distinguished are fundamen- 
 tally different from the forms employed 
 by the Aryan races, and these in their 
 turn are radically of another type from 
 those employed by the Turanians. The 
 very root-forms of the vSemitic languages, 
 so called, are imknown in the Indo-Eu- 
 ropic tongues. It has been claimed by 
 philologists that not more than ten com- 
 mon radicals exist in the Aryan and 
 Semitic vocabularies. Even the few 
 cases of identity may doubtless be ex- 
 
 plained by reasons other than linguistic 
 affinity. 
 
 The same utter dissimilarity exists 
 in the grammar of the two families 
 
 of speech referred to. utter dissimilar- 
 
 There are no common ^^^Vlf^r^rn^s 
 features in the sentential of speech, 
 structure and composition of the two 
 types of language. The development 
 of the speech-forms of the two seems to 
 have been by the law of contraries ; in- 
 somuch that the student of a Semitic 
 language must transpose his very meth- 
 ods of thought and abandon all of his 
 preconceptions and principles of analogy 
 before he can enter the spirit of the 
 strange linguistic structure before him. 
 The student who has mastered Latin 
 and French may take up Spanish and 
 find so much that is common to what he 
 has already learned, so much that is in 
 analogy with all his preconceptions and 
 knowledge, that his task is as easy as to 
 go to the same city by a slightly diver- 
 gent route ; but not .so in the acquirement 
 of Hebrew or Arabic. 
 
 What we are here concerned to note, 
 however, is that the profound structural 
 differences between the such structural 
 great divisions of human ^I.T^rg" eat peri- 
 speech must have required odsoftime. 
 long periods of time for their production. 
 How long these periods have been to ef- 
 fect the given result it were but conjec- 
 ture to estimate. The problem is exactly 
 analogous to that presented by the dis- 
 persion of races. There has been a 
 dispersion of speech. Whether it is 
 possible, indeed, to refer all languages 
 to a common point of departure is 
 matter of dispute among linguists of the 
 highest authority. The attempt to de- 
 rive Hebrew and German from a single 
 original is, to say the least, beset with 
 as many difficulties as confronts the eth- 
 nologist in his effiMl to trace an Anglo-
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. 127 
 
 of common ori- 
 gin time must 
 be greater. 
 
 American to the same stock with an 
 aboriginal Australian. All that we are 
 at liberty, in face of the facts, to say is 
 that it may be done ; and in such a hy- 
 pothesis, whether for the different races 
 themselves or for the languages which 
 they speak, we are encouraged by the 
 results thus far attained in philology and 
 ethnology, nearly all of which tend to 
 support the belief in the monogenetic 
 origin of mankind and a common orig- 
 inal for all human speech. 
 
 The great significance, therefore, of 
 all that we have been able to learn with 
 If languages be respect to the languages of 
 the world is that if they are 
 of a common derivation, 
 then the lapse of time required for the 
 production of their several forms must 
 have been very great. At the daydawn 
 of history human speech had already 
 been deflected into forms even more 
 variant than those at the present exist- 
 ing. At that epoch the inflectional 
 languages were in full efflorescence. 
 The Sanskrit and the Greek presented 
 examples of completeness in structural 
 development for which the student of 
 language must search in vain among the 
 current tongues. Already at that most 
 remote date, on the easternmost shores 
 of the Mediterranean, a Semitic lan- 
 guage had perfected itself into that per- 
 fect triliteral rigidity which we see in 
 the sacred books of the Hebrews. In a 
 word, the linguistic types were as far 
 apart and as well established in that 
 remote morning of civilized life as they 
 are to-day. The whole divergence be- 
 tween them had been effected before the 
 
 Hebrew as a Hebrew and the Greek as 
 a Greek had made their appearance in 
 the remotest dawn of tradition and 
 story. 
 
 This period of divergence must have 
 been of great duration indeed. The 
 
 conditions of the case are Ages demanded 
 
 for production 
 such as to force us to be- of Hebrew and 
 
 lieve that the prehistoric common°st'em. 
 age or ages in which the Greek and the 
 Hebrew — as examples for all others — 
 were parted from a common linguistic 
 original must have been so great as to 
 place the date of the origin far be- 
 yond the puny calculations which were 
 accepted aforetime as not only probable 
 but authentic. Even beyond this im- 
 aginary point of departure for the two 
 languages from a common linguistic 
 original we are obliged to look still 
 further and take into account the vast 
 structure and derivation of the Oriental 
 tongues. In doing so, geographical 
 difficulties have to be overcome. The 
 high mountains of Asia must be sur- 
 passed and vast ethnical obstacles re- 
 moved before we can combine the line of 
 the Mongolian languages with that of 
 the races of Western Asia and Europe. 
 In other words, the same profound per- 
 spective is here required as in the case of 
 the dispersion of races and of the geolog- 
 ical history of primeval man. It is as 
 difficult to reach a common original for 
 all existing linguistic forms as it is to 
 find a common ancestry for the cave 
 dwellers of Western Europe, the native 
 Australians, the blubber-eating Esqui- 
 maux, and the flint-chipping barbarians 
 of Polynesia.
 
 128 
 
 GREAT RACr.S OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 Chaptkr VI.— History ani3 Tka.ditiox. 
 
 S Nve approach the pres- 
 ent, through the vari- 
 ous branches of inquiry 
 which have occupied 
 our attention, we come 
 at length to History 
 and Tradition. If the 
 first of these were complete, or the other 
 trustworthy, we might walk with more 
 confidence through the shadowland of 
 the past. We are constrained, however, 
 to take history as it is, with all its in- 
 completeness and tradition, with all its 
 crudity, contradictions, and inflections, 
 and to gain therefrom whatever we may 
 respecting the date of the appearance of 
 man on the earth. In the first place, his- 
 why history torv as an oracle is silent on 
 
 recuVofthe this subject; but this is UO 
 
 beginning. more than what we should 
 
 e.xpect. Indeed, if the historian, with- 
 out the light reflected from other fields 
 of inquiry, should attempt to fix a cal- 
 endar for the prehistoric ages, he would 
 at once denounce himself to the thinkers 
 of all posterit}'. History is a product of 
 the conscious and reflective life of man 
 — of that civilized life upon which the 
 race enters after it has reached the 
 stage of a high human evolution. "What, 
 therefore, shall history be able to record 
 about the unconscious life of the race 
 extending Below the horizon of the past, 
 and impo.ssible of approach by any back- 
 ward exploration ? 
 
 In the first chapter of this work we 
 
 have attempted to define what history is, 
 
 and to show its limitations. 
 
 Two distinct 
 
 types ofhistori- There have been two clear- 
 
 cal composition. i •, • ^ • . • ■• 
 
 ly distmct views and prac- 
 tices in the composition of historical 
 narrative. There was an ancient type, 
 
 and there is a new type. The first was 
 pictorial, descriptive; the other is ex- 
 pository and sociological. The first pro- 
 ceeded no further than men and the deeds 
 of men ; the second reaches through all 
 the individual aspects of human life, and 
 through the deeds which men have 
 seemed to accomplish, to the event, to the 
 cause of the event, and to the great social 
 evolution of which the event is but the 
 temporary expression. 
 
 The ancient history aimed at a perfect 
 .style and form of narrative, at dignity 
 of language and eloquent 
 
 " ^ ^ . Spirit and aim o* 
 
 deductions from the lives the old history 
 
 T , . J. Ti and the new. 
 
 and actions of men. It 
 was far more concerned about the turn- 
 ing of a period than about the accuracy 
 of the research and the authenticity of 
 the data which it employed. In the new 
 history we might .say that there is little 
 concern about the form and expression, 
 but an infinity of painstaking with re- 
 spect to the materials of the narrative and 
 an ever-increasing interest in those lines 
 of causation by which all events are held 
 together in a single great event consti- 
 tuting the totality of human life. It is 
 almost needless to add that the new his- 
 tory is a creation of the present century, 
 and that by its method and spirit and 
 the significance of its results it is destined 
 to relegate all the previous historical la- 
 bors of mankind to the place of the iiiatc^ 
 rials of history rather than history itself. 
 We must, however, in an inquiry like 
 the present, freely and gladly accept all 
 
 historical productions as The present in- 
 
 of value and importance, ^'^''-y "^^^es 
 
 " tree use of all 
 
 This is particularly true of materials, 
 the products of the early ages, as they 
 lie so much nearer than the present to
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 129 
 
 the beginnings of civilization and the 
 first conscious life of the race. They 
 express at least the concepts, beliefs, and 
 philosophy of the greatest minds of an- 
 tiquity. They reveal to us, without in- 
 tentional effort to do so, many aspects of 
 the societies which rose and flourished 
 around the Medi- 
 terranean. I n 
 some there is an 
 attempt to revive 
 in the historical 
 garb the myth 
 and tradition of 
 the prehistoric 
 ages, and thus to 
 acquaint the read- 
 er with the move- 
 ments of mankind 
 before the dawn. 
 
 History, as a 
 species of compo- 
 sition, was invent- 
 ed by the Greeks 
 in the fifth century 
 before the Chris- 
 tian era. To that 
 age belong He- 
 rodotus, Thucydi- 
 des, and Xeno- 
 phon. Ctesias, 
 Philistus, Theo- 
 pompu s, and 
 Ephorus came 
 afterwards, each 
 with his particular 
 merits and blem- 
 ishes, and with an 
 
 the Greek masters. From the Graeco- 
 Italic fountains literature, including 
 history as one of its branches, flowed 
 down and mingled with the intellectual 
 life of all the peoples of Western Europe, 
 and finally with that of the New World. 
 It is only within the eighteenth and nine- 
 
 THOTH AND SAFEKH (GODDESS OF HISTORY) WRITING THE DEEDS OF KAMSES 11. 
 Drawn by B. Strassberger. 
 
 evident decline from their greater pred- 
 ecessors. With the spread of Roman 
 Rise and dissem- power and the conversion 
 of Hellas into a province, 
 the seat of culture was 
 transplanted to the Tiber ; but the prod- 
 ucts of the Roman muses were never 
 equal in spirit and art to the works of 
 
 ination of his 
 tory in Europe 
 and America. 
 
 teenth centuries that the models of the 
 classical ages have been to a certain ex- 
 tent put aside and the scientific type of 
 composition substituted in their stead. 
 
 It is possible, even probable, that a 
 better acquaintance with Chinese liter- 
 ature and with that of India will put us 
 into possession of historical works of a
 
 ISO 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 more ancient date than those of Greece ; 
 but the question is still an open one in 
 the hands of explorers and Oriental 
 scholars. Not so, however, with the 
 Possible open- sacred books of the East, 
 ingofnewhis- 'p^gj^g have in man}' parts 
 
 torical vistas ni •' ^ _ 
 
 the East. at least a semihistoncal 
 
 character. Perhaps none of them were 
 produced with the true historical intent. 
 The annals and chronicles which we find 
 among- tlic literary remains of the East 
 Indian races, the Mesopotamian nations, 
 the Egyptians, and the Hebrews in par- 
 ticular, were not formulated by the an- 
 cient seers and scribes with a view to 
 the preservation of an authentic narra- 
 tive of events, but with the ulterior pur- 
 pose of furnishing a mold and matrix in 
 which the religious history and polity of 
 the respective peoples should be ex- 
 pressed, established, and perpetuated. 
 Nevertheless, historical narratives of 
 this secondary kind have a great value 
 as a source of information respecting the 
 early progress of the race. 
 
 The oldest works of the kind referred 
 
 to, belonging to the literature of the 
 
 Arvan race, are the sacred 
 
 Old historical ' /• i -n i 
 
 documents of books of the Brahmaus, 
 
 the Aryan races. . , . . , . i • i 
 
 the principal of which are 
 known collectively by the name of the 
 Vedas, This work, like the Hebrew 
 Bible, is made up of parts which were 
 produced at successive intervals of time, 
 extending in the aggregate over a great 
 period of duration. The oldest of the 
 Vedas has been assigned to the era be- 
 tween the twenty-first and the nineteenth 
 century B. C. While the work in ques- 
 tion is by no means historical in its de- 
 sign, it contains not a little historical 
 matter, and may thus be accepted as the 
 earliest existent hint of the condition of 
 society among the Aryan peoples at a 
 distance of twenty centuries beyond the 
 Christian era. 
 
 Among the Hamitic races still more 
 ancient records have been preserved. 
 The condition of literature Karaites pre- 
 (even historical literature) r^tntrapo^a^ 
 at the time of the visit of documents. 
 Herodotus to Egypt was of a kind to im- 
 press that forerunner of European his- 
 tory with a sense of remote antiquity 
 such as the modern inquirer experiences 
 in examining the oldest Greek manu- 
 scripts in existence. The records of 
 ancient Egypt, whether engraved on 
 granite shafts and the walls of palaces 
 and tombs, or written on sheets of pa- 
 pyrus, are undoubtedly the oldest con- 
 temporary documents in the possession of 
 mankind — unless future researches into 
 the literature of China should bring to 
 light others still more ancient. 
 
 The antiquity of the writings com- 
 posing the Scriptures of the Hebrews 
 has never been definitelv „ , , 
 
 ' Time and place 
 
 determined ; but they are of the Hebrew 
 
 , , , 1 , " ji historical books. 
 
 known to antedate the 
 writings of Herodotus, if not the poems 
 of Homer. It Avas about the eighth 
 century B. C. that the prophets and 
 scribes of Israel began to reduce tlicii 
 oral utterances to the fixed form of man- 
 uscript. Writing, however, already 
 existed among the Hebrews and other 
 Semitic peoples long before this date. 
 In the time of Josiah, reigning at the 
 middle of the seventh century B. C, a 
 Book of the Law was discovered, contain- 
 ing, as is believed, Deuteronomy and 
 some other fragments of more ancient 
 composition, and these were used by the 
 king and the hierarchy in a religious ref- 
 ormation of the people. It was not, how- 
 ever, until after the times of the Babylo- 
 nian captivity of the Jews that most of 
 the sacred books of Israel were composed, 
 approximately in their present forms. 
 
 Behind all the writings, historical and 
 semihistorical, poetical, mvthical. and
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 131 
 
 prophetic, to which reference has been 
 made in the preceding pages, lies the 
 Tradition pre- age of tradition. Certain 
 
 gte'^^nh^b'^S- it ''^ that human thought 
 nings of history, jmd Speech long precede 
 
 the fact of Avritten records. There Avas 
 a period in the history of mankind when 
 the imagination of the more highly 
 developed peoples ran riot through all 
 the forms of fiction and mythology-. The 
 beliefs, hopes, longings, purposes, and 
 doubtless the dreams of the primitive 
 races issued from a thousand fountains 
 and combined their products in a volume 
 of oral tradition. The lore of one age 
 "was handed down to the next, sometimes 
 in its integrity, and sometimes greatly 
 modified and inflected by the additions 
 made thereto by subsequent myth- 
 makers and story-tellers. 
 
 We must remember constantly the dif- 
 ference between history and tradition. 
 Difference be- The first rests, however re- 
 ^ore^rdtr mote the subject-matter 
 tory. may be, on the testimony of 
 
 witnesses contemporary with the facts de- 
 scribed ; the latter reposes on the testi- 
 mony of those who were removed in time 
 or place, or both, from the circumstances 
 and events constituting the subject- 
 matter of the stor}'. History' transcribes 
 directly from the eyewitness, the ear- 
 witness, of the event, or from the manu- 
 scripts and sculptures made by them; 
 while tradition repeats a narrative which 
 has been transmitted from tongue to 
 tongue, transformed through all the un- 
 certainties of memory and speech, and de- 
 livered to the fixedness of literary form 
 only after the lapse of generations." 
 
 It will be seen at a glance that history, 
 
 ' A good example of the historical tradition is fur- 
 nished in the storj- of Atlantis as given by Plato. 
 When Solon was a traveler in Egypt, near the be- 
 ginning of the sixth century B. C the priest of Sa'is, 
 pretending to a prnfonnder lore of the past than was 
 
 as determinative of the dates of past 
 events, has in it two elements of value. 
 The first and greatest of whatconsti- 
 these is present in those his- '^"^^^ Wghest 
 
 ^ and secondary 
 
 torical writings or sculp- authenticity. 
 
 tures which record the contemporary 
 event at the time and under the conditions of 
 its occurrence. Of this kind are such writ- 
 ings as the Covimentarics of Julius Caesar, 
 who used neither tradition nor docu- 
 ments, but recorded only the facts of his 
 own observation and experience in the 
 Gallic War. To the same class belong 
 a part of the writings of Josephus. Many 
 European warriors and diplomats have 
 recorded the history of their epochs in 
 books of memoirs, most instructive to 
 after times. The last half of the nine- 
 teenth century has witnessed the com- 
 position of much historical narrative by 
 the participants in such great events as 
 the Civil War in the United States, It 
 is needless to emphasize the superiority 
 of historical narrative composed on this 
 plan to every other form of recorded an- 
 nals. The second element of value and 
 authenticity is found in those writings 
 which, though not written by participants 
 in the events described, are based ex- 
 clusively upon documents and evidences 
 which were contemporaneous with the 
 
 possessed by any other cult, told him that in former 
 ages the Athenians had been great in war. In that 
 remote time the men of the great kingdom Atlantis, 
 beyond the pillars of Hercules, had made war on 
 Europe and had finally been driven back by the 
 Hellenes. Solon, on his return to Greece, told the 
 story to his friend Criiias, and the latter, in his old 
 age, recited it to his grandson, also named Critias. 
 The grandson became a member, in his mature life, 
 about a hundred years after the times of Solon, of 
 the Socratic group, and to tlie members of that un- 
 equalcd club he told one day what his grandfather 
 had heard from Solon. Plato afterwards took the 
 story up, and in the dialogue oiTimceus reduced it to 
 literarj' form. The world is much concerned to know 
 how much credence may be given to the tradition of 
 Atlantis and other such famous narratives handed 
 down from the primitive ages.
 
 132 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 event and as far as practicable a part 
 thereof.' 
 
 We may now attempt to apply certain 
 principles and deductions to the question 
 Nocontempora- of the antiquity of man as 
 neous history of determined bv historical 
 
 the time of the ■' 
 
 beginning. and traditional evidence. 
 
 In the first place, history in the primary 
 intent is, out of the nature of the case, 
 wholly silent. Nobody saiv the advent 
 of mankind on the earth. The first men 
 did not themselves record that event on 
 stone or parchment. Xo memorial or 
 monument exists which bears remotely 
 on the apparition of mankind on the 
 earth. No diligence of antiquarian re- 
 search has ever been rewarded, or can 
 ever be, with the faintest trace of an 
 original authority, that is, of contempo- 
 rary evidence, respecting the rise of the 
 human race. The case stands precisely 
 as might be anticipated by the light of 
 right reason. No man remembers his 
 own origin. Xo child notes its coming 
 into the world by making a reCord of 
 the event for posterity. To suppose as 
 much is to suppose the impossible. For 
 how could the unconscious being make 
 & record of its own advent? How could 
 primitive man, unacquainted with the 
 arts, a stranger to the desire of historical 
 fame, wholly concerned with the mate- 
 rial wants of life and the instinct of re- 
 production, be expected to create memo- 
 rials of his coming in a record which 
 would presuppose reflection, ambition, 
 forethought, and the desire of renown 
 with posterity? 
 
 We must not, therefore, expect to find 
 any satisfactory evidence in history at 
 
 'The tirst great example of a history conforming 
 throughout to this lofty standard of authenticity was 
 Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 
 which, according to the author's own testimony, 
 was deduced throughout from documents contem- 
 porary with the events; nothing was taken at second 
 hand. 
 
 first hand relative to the date of man's 
 appearance. This is equivalent to say- 
 ing, also, that history in its History from 
 
 second form, that is, that ^rcT-rJsofi. 
 kind of historical narrative possible, 
 which is derived from original contem- 
 poraneous documents, inscriptions, and 
 monumental remains, is likewise silent 
 about the time of the beginning. The 
 first men were, as we have said above, 
 involved in labors far different from that 
 of producing monuments and preparing 
 parchments for the interest and instruc- 
 tion of after ages. The very same rea- 
 son which precludes the possibility of 
 the first man's having recorded for him- 
 self the time of his coming, by monu- 
 ment or tablet, precludes also the possi- 
 bility of the discovery of contemporary 
 evidences by the story-teller or historian 
 of after times. Why should an antiqua- 
 rian search for that which is not? Why 
 should the archaeologist hope to find an 
 inscription which, should he find it, 
 would be the best possible proof that it 
 did not bear witness to the beginning? 
 Why hope that some contemporaneous 
 monument will be found with a record 
 of an age which neither built monu- 
 ments nor desired to be remembered? 
 
 While it is true that history in its first 
 and second forms and also in its primi- 
 tive elements, in poem and important de- 
 sacred book and rhapsody frriil^thf^w 
 and prophetic oracle, can cai records, 
 bear no direct evidence respecting the 
 antiquity of man, there is a collateral 
 inference drawn therefrom of consider- 
 able importance. This is found in the 
 fadt that the first writings in narrative 
 form, or tending to that form, are found 
 at very early stages in the histories of 
 great peoples widely separated in place 
 and already developed into different as- 
 pects of ethnic life. We ma}' accept it 
 as true that writings of this kind existed
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL ARGUMENT. 
 
 133 
 
 among the Chinese as much as fifteen 
 centuries before our era. We have al- 
 ready discovered the 
 beginnings of such a 
 literature among our 
 Aryan ancestors, in 
 the valley of the In- 
 dus, as far back as 
 about two thousand 
 years B. C. The his- 
 torical remains of the 
 valley of the Eu- 
 phrates and the Ti- 
 gris reach back per- 
 haps to the twenty- 
 first centur}-. The 
 monuments of Egypt 
 bear unquestionable 
 evidence of the exist- 
 ence of historical 
 thought and expres- 
 sion in that country 
 about twenty-four 
 centuries before the 
 current era. As early 
 as the eighth century 
 the bards and proph- 
 ets of Israel were 
 wont to reduce their 
 utterances to poetical 
 and semihistorical 
 forms. We find the 
 Greeks, in the person 
 of Herodotus, invent- 
 ing historical narra- 
 tive proper at the be- 
 ginning of the sixth 
 century B. C, and 
 afterwards, by the art 
 of Thucydides, bring- 
 ing that species of 
 composition to a per- 
 fection which, so far 
 as structure is concerned, has never been 
 surpassed. 
 
 We thus see that in regions far remote 
 
 from each other, among peoples as di- 
 verse in ethnic life as any that are 
 
 
 !&. 
 
 'm^S) 
 
 3 
 
 
 !^ D 
 
 
 
 '0)|,, 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 r^g 
 
 D D 
 
 3i 
 
 
 
 
 MP^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 c< 
 
 ^t^kt 
 
 DFI^^^^li 
 
 
 
 \n 
 
 ^^^^, 
 
 V 
 
 
 1> i 
 
 D O 
 
 
 g^FR))Vi 
 
 t^ 
 
 found on the earth at the present time, in 
 forms of speech as widely differentiated 
 as any dialects known t6 philology, there
 
 134 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. 
 
 were at least the rudiments of historical 
 lore at a date ranging from six to twen- 
 ■WTiat the wide- ty-four centiirles before the 
 apart writings Christian era. This fact 
 
 of many races 
 
 signify. of itself Constitutes a pow- 
 
 erful argument for the antiquity of the 
 human race. Letters and the art of 
 writing are among the later products of 
 primeval man. Even when these have 
 been invented, it requires another long 
 period of development to bring the re- 
 flective powers and the art of composi- 
 tion to the level of historical narrative. 
 We speak here not of philosophical his- 
 tory, but of the first rude attempts of 
 the human mind to make record of the 
 events of the past. To these considera- 
 tions we must in the next place add a 
 third period of great duration to cover 
 the time required in the development of 
 the mind to this grade of activity in 
 wide-apart localities. If it be true that 
 there were men of letters engaged in 
 the historical art in China at an epoch 
 beyond the age of Homer and David ; 
 if it be true that at a still earlier period 
 the sages of the Indus valley had begun 
 to produce narrative, as well as song ; if 
 it be true, as it certainly is, that the 
 Greeks as a nation had, at the beginning 
 of the sixth century B. C, reached a 
 stage of intellectual progress at which 
 the story of Herodotus might be received 
 with national applause ; if, more than 
 all this, in the valley of the Nile the 
 priests and seers of the age of the pyra- 
 mids devoted them.selves in large meas- 
 ure to the composition of sacred history 
 and philosophy, then, indeed, how great 
 must have been the niitcccdoit lapse of 
 time requisite for the evolution of these 
 various forms of ethnic life and achieve- 
 ment] 
 
 We thus reach the subject of Tradi- 
 tion proper. While history in the true 
 intent does not presume to fix the time 
 
 and place of the beginning, tradition 
 has ever been busy with these themes. 
 In almost every nation. Tradition be- 
 among almost every people, ^ra arouSd"t\T 
 a body of traditional lore conscious life, 
 has been produced in the earlier and 
 half-conscious epoch, and handed down 
 to subsequent times, including the belief 
 of that particular branch of mankind 
 with respect to its own origin. vSuch 
 traditions in the prehistoric ages became 
 a part of the national faith, was inter- 
 woven with the folklore of the people, 
 and afterwards with the whole system of 
 philosophical belief. The myth reached 
 forward out of the past and grasped the 
 present. The poetical fiction mingled 
 with the rudimentary forms of history, 
 and became a wellnigh inseparable part 
 thereof. The dream of the prirnitive 
 man became a penunibra around the life 
 of the conscious man, and thus the ear- 
 lier ages of reflection and truth were 
 shadowed and haunted with the fancies 
 and fictions which had arisen in the 
 childhood of the race. 
 
 Many are the forms and applications 
 of tradition. Generally the body of 
 primitive belief contained Essential arti- 
 one or two essential arti- t^,^^^^^::^ 
 cles. The first of these, as race. 
 a rule, declared the high antiquity of 
 the given tribe or people. It was a 
 point of honor among the primitive races 
 to assert priority. The Egyptians, for 
 instance, scorning the narrow limits of 
 earth-made calendars, declared that they, 
 as a race, were Proscloioi ; that is. Before 
 the Moon ! Almost every tribe and in- 
 cipient people urged some extravagant 
 claim to a prior possession of the countr}^ 
 or place which they occupied. There 
 seems to have been in primitive men, 
 even in the remotest ages of violence 
 and barbarism, some notion that priority 
 gave right and advantage to him who
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM TRADITION. 135 
 
 could -issert it This principle in human 
 nature acted powerfully against the pres- 
 ervation of a belief in recent migration, 
 and in favor of the assertion of long oc- 
 cupancy. Though we are convinced that 
 the world was peopled by the diffusion 
 of races, nearly all the early peoples dis- 
 claimed this method of possession, and 
 asserted immemorial residence in their 
 respective countries. 
 
 These conditions may serve to explain 
 the general prevalence of the belief in 
 an autochthonous origin among the 
 primitive peoples of the world. There 
 
 invasions of others more warlike and 
 adventurous. 
 
 But the belief among the ancient peo- 
 ples that they were autochthones did not 
 imply simply an origin from Autochthony 
 the earth. Vegetable life ^Ztt^..^. 
 
 springs from . the soil, etable world. 
 
 The growth of plants must have been 
 one of the first and most tangible phe- 
 nomena recognized by the senses and con- 
 sidered by the reason of primitive men. 
 The idea that they themselves might 
 have originated in like manner would 
 have been natural enough to the situa- 
 
 VIEW OF MOUNT OTHRYS FROM TRIKHALI.— Drawn by Dosso, after Stackelberg. 
 
 \vas scarcely an extant tradition of 
 human genesis which did not associate 
 the beginning of man-life and tribe-life 
 Universality of with the earth. It pleased 
 toththonour the fancy of the first men 
 *>"£''!• to declare that they Avere 
 
 earthborn, or at least that the power 
 Avhich called them into existence used 
 the earth as the vehicle and substance of 
 creation. There was thus established, 
 as it would appear, among each people a 
 sort of claim to the earth by the right of 
 an indisputable priority — a claim which 
 the reader may well perceive to be of 
 great use to sedentary tribes in main- 
 taining themselves against the migratory 
 
 tion ; but the myth took always another 
 form. 
 
 There was in the thought of an- 
 tiquity a conception of evolution and a 
 conception of creation. The two were 
 blended. Man was made The ancient 
 out of clay ; but a supernat- ^C^x^^^l 
 ural being was the maker, creation. 
 Among the Greeks one myth ran to this 
 effect, that the first men were plasvtata 
 pclou, that is, effigies of baked clay from 
 the hand of Prometheus. And for this 
 deed the jealous deities chained him to 
 the rocks of Caucasus. The more fa- 
 mous belief was that which assigned the 
 origin of mankind to the act of Deucalion
 
 136 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and his wife Pyrrha. These twain, 
 saved from a deluge of waters, reached 
 Mount Othrys, where, upon landing, they 
 were commanded by Zeus to cast behind 
 them the bones of their mother. Albeit 
 the bones of the mother meant the 
 stones of the earth. The.se Deucalion 
 and his wife threw down the hillside, 
 and forthwith sprang up both men and 
 women, who were the Stone race, the 
 Laoi of Greek mythology. The Indian 
 myth rims to the effect that Prajapati, 
 the creator, after many tentative experi- 
 ments, .succeeded in producing from the 
 earth a race of beings in harmony with 
 their environment, and therefore capable 
 of surviving. In India, however, the 
 fundamental concept of the genesis of 
 man was inflected into many forms, in- 
 cluding beliefs in his origin from the 
 lower animals, rather than immediately 
 from the earth. The legends of Greece, 
 and more anciently those of Egypt and 
 Libya, generally assigned the Cephissian 
 marsh as the scene of man's creation — 
 this if we may accept a fragment of 
 Pindar as authority. 
 
 It is not our purpose, however, to pur- 
 sue the forms of ancient myths, but only 
 Myths of the to sketch their general char- 
 acter and to deduce there- 
 from such value as they 
 may hold respecting the antiquity of 
 man. It is clear, in the first place, that 
 the above views relative to the begin- 
 ning of human life belong to the adoles- 
 cent period of the mind. A little reflec- 
 tion will show us the stage in the life 
 and development of the individual to 
 which the legendary period in the his- 
 tory of the race corresponds. That 
 stage is childhood ; in the one case the 
 childhood of the individual, and in the 
 other the childhood of the race. The 
 period in either instance is that in which 
 the fancy and the senses are wholly pre- 
 
 origin of man 
 belong to race 
 childhood. 
 
 dominant over reason and the reflective 
 powers of the mind. 
 
 At the time when the tradition of the 
 kind above described was produced, the 
 mind of the race was not as The question 
 yet haunted with the ques- lX?do°esf 
 tion. Why? nor were the cence. 
 insuperable difficulties which rose in the 
 way of such myths regarded as of the 
 slightest value. For instance, the ques- 
 tion might well have arisen among the 
 Greeks how it was that the clay-baked 
 beginnings who aro.se into consciousness 
 under the touch of Prometheus could 
 have known ought of their origin. How 
 could an autochthonous people have had 
 the slightest memory of the process by 
 which they came into being? How did 
 the Laoi of Deucalion understand that 
 they had been produced by the flinging 
 behind of stones? Yet these very ob- 
 vious forms of rationalism seem never 
 to have occurred to the wise Greeks, 
 even of the classical ages. 
 
 All this is in e.xact analogy with the 
 life of the individual. The child-mind 
 is not at all concerned about 
 
 . ... Child-mind of 
 
 the inconsistencies of a individual and 
 , (Ti ii i 1 r of race alike. 
 
 story. io that grade of 
 intelligence the more marvelous the 
 story the more acceptable it is. The 
 legend of childhood impresses itself in- 
 delibly upon the memory, and passes 
 down with the current of understanding, 
 mingling therewith and combining with 
 the beliefs and concepts of a later pe- 
 riod of development. So with the oral 
 traditions of the primitive world. They 
 were manifestly produced in what may 
 be called the childhood of the race, and 
 were delivered by oral transmission to 
 the conscious race which came after- 
 wards. 
 
 The present significance of these facts 
 is that they tend to confirm the belief in 
 the remote origin of the human race, and
 
 PKuMEllIliUi VIXCTUS.— Afiur tlit p^^.li.i ^y 1. 
 
 10
 
 138 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 to familiarize our thought with the con- 
 cept of a long period for the adoles- 
 Traditionsof ccHce of mankind. Beyond 
 
 man-birth con- ^|j j^ -^ ^,gj.g J^^rd tO SaV that 
 firm belief in re- • • v 
 
 mote race origin, the traditions with which 
 the early life of every people abounds 
 have any value relative to the date of 
 the beginning. It must be constantly 
 borne in mind that chronology and ge- 
 ography are precisely the circumstances 
 which tradition and the traditional age 
 of human history are most likely to neg- 
 lect. Very little are the primitive races 
 concerned about accuracy as to time and 
 place. Such facts as time and place 
 require investigation, laborious study, 
 travel, mathematical knowledge, and 
 many other conditions which the adoles- 
 cence of mankind could in no wise sup- 
 ply. Whatever the mind could invent 
 for itself by dream and reverie and fan- 
 ciful excursion, that was abundantly 
 produced ; but the sober and solid ma- 
 terials and structure of real history were 
 too heavy and exact and buixlensome to 
 be supplied or borne by the early races 
 of men. 
 
 The great deduction, therefore, from 
 the traditional lore of mankind with re- 
 
 spect to the time of the beginning of 
 man-life on the earth must be drawn 
 from the subject-matter of chud-mind 
 the traditions themselves ^Lt^'.Urrnan- 
 and from the unmistakable mind history, 
 evidence which they present that they 
 were the products of the child-mind of 
 the world. History, on the contrary, is 
 the product of the man-mind. It comes 
 only with the adult age of reason and 
 reflection. We have seen how far back 
 in the past, however, lie the rudiments 
 of historical composition. The argument 
 is that greatly beyond this date of the 
 earliest formal efforts of mankind to ex- 
 press its knowledge of itself lay the mi.sty 
 and inchoate realm of tradition and 
 fable. The time relation of such an age 
 is deduced from the character of its prod- 
 iicts. If the beginnings of hi.story are 
 to be found in wide-apart regions of the 
 earth at a date as remote as twenty cen- 
 turies before the common era, how great 
 must be the distance of that childhood 
 of the race and that early youth when 
 the mind, still surrounded with all vis- 
 ions and dreams, looked forth into a 
 landscape and beheld on every side men 
 as trees walking I 
 
 Chapter VII.— Chronological Inquiry. 
 
 E may next note with 
 interest the results 
 which have been 
 reached in chronology 
 proper. This science 
 is, as we have said, a 
 part of history. Every 
 historic event must, in the nature of the 
 case, have a time locus, and its signifi- 
 cance will depend upon its temporal rela- 
 tions. No satisfactory interpretation can 
 be made of the affairs of men without 
 
 considering them in their relations and 
 dependencies of time. So important has 
 been this element in the annals of man- 
 kind that a distinct Science of Time has 
 been developed, and to this is given the 
 name of chronology. 
 
 !Many ages ago the thinkers of the 
 world began to see the importance of 
 an accurate system of time measure- 
 ment applied to the affairs of peoples and 
 nations. It is not known, indeed, at how 
 early a date attempts were made to in-
 
 TIME OF THE BEGIXXLXG.—CHROXOLOGICAL L\0i7Ry. 
 
 139 
 
 invent a system 
 of time measure 
 ment. 
 
 vent from astronomical data a system of 
 years and eras. Perhaps every people 
 AU races seek to in the world on arriving at 
 the conscious and rational 
 stage of development busied 
 itself with the problems of a calendar. 
 The rotation of the earth and the posi- 
 tion and aspect of the spheres furnished 
 the data of the first rude calculations, as 
 they have continued to furnish the 
 foundation of the highly refined system 
 of to-day. 
 
 As a rule, in these tentative efforts at 
 time computation, some prominent event 
 in the tribal or national life was taken as 
 
 Great eras es- 
 tablished ; He- 
 brews had no 
 date. 
 
 chronology have been produced. Al- 
 most every nation of ancient times had 
 its own date from which all 
 others were measured by 
 years or cycles. There ap- 
 pears to have been a special activity 
 among the great peoples who flourished 
 in the eighth century B. C. in the work 
 of establishing eras as starting points for 
 chronological measurement. The an- 
 cient Hebrews seem to have had in their 
 earlier history no era from which they 
 reckoned the dates of their national life. 
 Such facts in their tradition and annals 
 as the call of Abraham out of Ur, or the 
 
 PHENOiMENA OK DAY AND NIGHT AND .SEASON (FOUNDATION Or ALL CALENDARS). 
 
 the Starting point for all dates. The 
 primitive organization of the state, the 
 
 In what manner founding of the citv, the 
 
 l^lT^'nhi^-^ni accession of some heroic 
 
 eras in chronol- 
 ogy arose. king, deliverance from some 
 
 impending disaster, or triumph in some 
 civic or warlike contest, would furnish, 
 each in its kind, a crisis from which 
 all other events would be reckoned. 
 There is an instinctive disposition among 
 peoples to refer all common affairs to the 
 great event gone by, and to measure its 
 distance therefrom, as if a proper es- 
 timate of the current fact might best be 
 made by holding it in contrast with an 
 established .standard set up at a distance. 
 It is thus that the so-called eras of 
 
 exodus of Israel from Egypt, might well 
 have furnished a historical era for the 
 Jewish race. But that people seems 
 never to have adopted any such crisis, 
 but rather to have used the reckonings 
 of other nations. 
 
 Not so, however, the Babylonians. 
 By them the accession to the throne of 
 the great king Nabonassar, Fixing of Baby- 
 in the year 747 B. C. 
 taken as the national era, 
 and was long used by the people of the 
 Lower Empire. A .short time before 
 this, namely, in the year 776 B. C, the 
 Greeks had established the Olympiad, 
 dating from the victorious contest of 
 Coroebus, in the Olympic games, in the 
 
 loniEUi, Greek, 
 "''^ and Roman 
 eras.
 
 140 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 year referred to. Each Olympiad in- 
 cluded four calendar years. According 
 to Varro, the city of Rome was founded 
 in the year 753 B. C, and this era was 
 chosen by the Roman race as the origin 
 of dates. It thus happened that the three 
 great eras of antiquity — Babylonian, 
 Grecian, Roman — were established so 
 near to the middle of the eighth century 
 B. C. that a period of twcnt^v-nine years 
 covered them all ! It is true, however, 
 that though the events constituting the 
 starting points of the three eras thus lay 
 so near together, the eras themselves 
 were established by the respective na- 
 tions at subsequent dates much further 
 apart. 
 
 The three eras referred to continued 
 to be used until the Christian religion 
 Era of the Christ had risen to such impor- 
 Teltl'th: ju! tance in the Roman empire 
 lian period. ^^ to be able at length to 
 
 substitute the birth of the Christ for the 
 founding of the city. The new era 
 gained the day among the Western na- 
 tions, and is at the j^resent time more 
 extensively used than any other epoch 
 of computation. The substitution of 
 the new for the old led to much confu- 
 sion in fixing the dates of historical 
 events, and it was to remedy this diffi- 
 culty that Joseph Scaliger, in 1582, in- 
 vented what is called the Julian period. 
 This, indeed, is not an era, since it does 
 not begin with any particular date in 
 the past. It uses as its units the years 
 as they were lixed by the calendar of 
 Julius CcEsar, and the Christian era is 
 made to correspond with the year 4714 
 from the beginning of the period. A 
 scale is thus furnished by which any 
 year of the era of Nabonassar, of a 
 given Olympiad, or from the founding 
 of Rome, may easily be reduced to 
 terms of the Christian calendar ; that is, 
 to the corresponding year B. C. 
 
 In the early centuries of our era the 
 Christians in many parts were scandal- 
 ized with the observance of Hebrews choose 
 
 pagan festivals according ^:^^ 
 to dates and anniversaries of the world, 
 which had been perpetuated from the 
 classical ages. In order to free them- 
 selves from these heathen rites the ad- 
 herents of the new faith began to imi- 
 tate a usage which had now grown up 
 among the Jews of reckoning from the 
 creation of the world. Israel had by 
 this time become sufficiently scholastic 
 to produce a calendar which in its terms 
 reached back to the beginning of things. 
 The Christians deemed it wise to imi- 
 tate the Hebrew method, and to employ 
 the supposed date of the creation as an 
 era from which to reckon all subsequent 
 events. In doing so, however, there 
 was much confusion. It was found that 
 the Old Testament narratives presented 
 the elements of at least three distinct 
 computations. There were three texts 
 of equal authority, and neither agreed 
 with the others in the matter of dates. 
 There was a vSamaritan, a Hebrew, and 
 a Greek text of the Scriptures, contain- 
 ing irreconcilable accounts so far as 
 time was concerned. Nor was there 
 any other calendar with which the three 
 might be compared and thcjebi' coi 
 rected. 
 
 It thus happened that among the 
 Christian nations of the West the era 
 of the creation came to be Attempts to fix 
 referred to as the primary ^:^Z'^XT^ 
 
 epoch to which all other Scriptures. 
 
 events must be referred. In the later 
 Middle Ages, and down to the beginning 
 of critical scholarship in our own cen- 
 tury, the effort was many times renewed 
 by the unlearned dogmatists of the time 
 to fix the date for the creation of the 
 world and whatever therein is. For it 
 must be imderstood once for all that
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY 
 
 141 
 
 the era of creation which crediilous 
 scholastics have so niiich busied them- 
 selves to find was always, in the estima- 
 tion of those who sought it, the era not 
 only of the physical world, but also of 
 the human race. The theory of coinci- 
 dent origin for the world and its inhab- 
 itants was held implicitly by the early 
 chronologists, and was incorporated by 
 them in their systems of reckoning. In 
 the absence of facts, hypotheses, un- 
 warranted assumptions, and vague appli- 
 cations of the three different texts of the 
 sacred writings of the Hebrews led to 
 an endless variety of results. Desvig- 
 noles has collected more than two hun- 
 dred sets of calculations, the authors of 
 which have attempted to determine the 
 era of creation from the Scriptures. 
 Nor is it possible for the modern in- 
 quirer, with these computations before 
 him, to extract therefrom any one sys- 
 tem, or to form a new one out of the 
 given materials more satisfactory than 
 the rest.' 
 
 Among the calculations to which refer- 
 ence has just been made, the briefest of 
 all is that by the Rabbi Lipmann, which 
 
 iThe fundamental difficulty in making out a 
 biblical chronology for antiquity lies in the irrecon- 
 cilable differences of statement as to the ages of the 
 first ten patriarchs as given in the Hebrew and 
 Septuagint texts. The following table may interest 
 the reader as illustrative of the many disagreements 
 between the two principal texts of the Scriptures 
 upon which modern times have placed reliance as 
 authentic records : 
 
 
 RIARCHS. 
 
 Age at 
 
 BIr 
 
 h of Heir. 
 
 Pat 
 
 Hebrew T 
 
 :xt. 
 
 Septuagint. 
 
 
 
 130 
 105 
 90 
 70 
 6S 
 162 
 65 
 187 
 182 
 600 
 
 230 
 
 205 
 190 
 170 
 16; 
 
 Seth 
 
 
 Cainan 
 
 Mahalalecl 
 
 Tared 
 
 162 
 
 
 .65 
 .87 
 188 
 
 
 Lamech 
 
 Noah (at flood) 
 
 
 foo 
 
 
 flood 
 
 
 Time of the 
 
 J. 656 
 
 
 2,262 
 
 assigns the year 3483 B. C. as the era of 
 
 the creation. The longest of all is that 
 by Regiomontanus, which contradictory 
 sets the date of 6984 B.C. as ''^:^:i^' 
 the beginning of the world, system. ; 
 
 We have thus the scholars and chronol- 
 ogists of the fifteenth, si.xteenth, and 
 seventeenth centui^es — though they em- 
 ployed the same data, namely, the three 
 texts of the Scriptures — differing among 
 themselves by as much as thirty-five cen- 
 turies ! It could hardly be supposed 
 that oiit of such diverse materials and 
 such contradictory results any conclu- 
 sion of importance could be deduced by 
 modern scholarship as to the era of the 
 world. 
 
 It was, however, from these data that 
 Archbishop James Usher undertook, at 
 the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 to prepare a system of sacred chronology. 
 The result, strangely enough, was the 
 production of a work which gained and 
 held an ascendency among the writers of 
 the Western nations for more than a 
 century. It is only in recent times 
 that scholarship has succeeded in unseat- 
 ing the Usherian system from the places 
 of learning, and even to the present day 
 it continues to exercise a remarkable 
 influence over the common mind, espe- 
 cially among the English-speaking peo- 
 ples. 
 
 The reason of the ascendency of this 
 system of dates in the literature of Eu- 
 rope and America is to be Literature and 
 
 found in the fact that the t^Z7^,:La 
 Usherian scheme secured thereby, 
 for itself, without warrant of fact, the 
 claim of being a biblical chronology. 
 By some unknown authority the dates 
 prepared by Usher were inserted in the 
 margin of authorized editions of the 
 Scriptures of the Old Testament, and 
 having once gained a place therein, the 
 uncritical and unscholarly opinion of the
 
 142 
 
 GREAT RACrS OF MANKfXD. 
 
 age permitted their retention. From 
 this source the system diffused itself 
 into general litera- 
 ture. The histor- 
 ical writers of the 
 last century and of 
 the first half of the 
 present century, 
 for the most part, 
 continued to accept 
 and to employ the 
 U.sherian dates for all the events in 
 the ancient history of mankind. To the 
 present day the authorized editions of the 
 Bible are sent forth with the Usherian 
 chronology in the margin, and in the 
 popular belief that system is referred to 
 the same source and authority as that by 
 which the sacred canon was produced ! 
 
 TIME INSTRUMENT — ANCIENT 
 SUNDIAL. 
 
 TIME INSTRUMENT — HOURGLASS. 
 
 It was thus that in modern times a 
 supposed date has been established for 
 Astonishing de- the era of the creation of 
 the earth and man. Usher 
 fixed upon the year 4004 
 B. C. and the autumnal equinox of that 
 year, namely October 23, as the pre- 
 
 tails of the 
 
 Usherian 
 
 scheme. 
 
 cise date of the apparition of the world ! 
 The creation of man he placed with 
 equal exactitude five days later, that is, 
 on October 28th!' The remainder of 
 
 b nadows we are an d" 
 like /sF) ado wsdebartr 
 
 1 1 riiiii "wi> I n i l i7 ; ;rr ii a illi[mii iT ..i 7 . . .. .m .... iii . ui i M *i » 
 
 MODERN TIME INSTRUMENT — SUNDIAL. 
 
 'It is matter of profound astonishment that such 
 a system of chronology as that devised — utterly 
 without warrant of fact — by Archbishop Usher, 
 should have been received and adopted by the best 
 scholarship of England as late as 1825: this, too, 
 without the slightest apparent distrust ! The new 
 Ediiihurgh Encyclopadia of the date just named, 
 conducted by Sir David Brewster, with the assist- 
 ance of more than a hundred European scholars 
 most eminent in science and literature, incorporates 
 without the slightest note of dissent the Usherian 
 system. The readerof the present day, and still more 
 the readerof the future, will almost doubt his senses 
 when he finds the chronological table in the great 
 encyclopaedia just referred to beginning as follows • 
 
 "4004 B. C. The world created at the autumnal 
 equinox, on Sunday, October 23. 
 
 » » # » * 
 
 " Adam and Eve created on Friday, October 28." 
 
 History is not the place for satire or humor; but 
 the comment is pardonable, and the inference might 
 well be drawn from these astounding particulars of 
 the creation that Archbishop Usher had been a 
 schoolmate and playfellow of the progenitor of the 
 human race !
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY. 143 
 
 the primitive scheme was arranged with 
 like precision and confidence ; nor may 
 we well be offended at so monstrous 
 a chronological system when we remem- 
 ber that its author was born only thirty- 
 four years after the death of Luther. 
 Our astonishment must be abated when 
 we remember that the Usherian chrono- 
 logical tables were prepared before Louis 
 XIV was twenty years of age and 
 within less than a half century of the 
 planting of the first English colonies 
 in the New World. That a trust- 
 worthy system of chronology could 
 be produced in such an age and from 
 such materials as were then extant, un- 
 der the scholastic methods which then 
 prevailed in the English and Irish uni- 
 versities, is a supposition beyond the 
 limits not only of reason, but of possi- 
 bility. 
 
 The Usherian system of dates, 
 however, though originated in absurd 
 Large place of assumptions and pressed 
 ?et!f^V/er-n ^^to form by the hand of 
 writings. dogmatism, has played a 
 
 large part in the historical writings of 
 Europe and America. Beyond these 
 and through them it has reached the 
 popular belief, becoming as it were an 
 article of faith, and intimately associated 
 with orthodoxy in religious belief. The 
 system has thus performed a most dele- 
 terious office, particularly since the be- 
 ginnings of scientific scholarship within 
 the current century. Almost every 
 branch of historical inquiry has been 
 checked and impeded by the precon- 
 ceived opinion that there exists a sys- 
 tem of biblical chronology for antiquity 
 to which all events, since the appearance 
 of man, must be conformed. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the so-called bibli- 
 cal chronology, with its supposititious era 
 of creation, was invented by an Irish 
 prelate born in the sixteenth century; 
 
 was imposed on the sacred books in some 
 unknown manner and without the sanc- 
 tion of any ecclesiastical The system an 
 
 authority; was foisted, as it '^^^^f'^^l^" 
 were, upon the books of knowledge, 
 the Old Testament, and forced into union 
 with them ; and was henceforth made to 
 supply the place of investigation and 
 forestall the advance of knowledge. It 
 is only within the last half of the present 
 century that the system of dates invent- 
 ed by Usher as a sort of compromise 
 and average among others that were ir- 
 reconcilable has been challenged, de- 
 throned, and put aside from all the 
 high places of scholarship, holding its 
 place only by usurpation and folly in the 
 authorized editions of the Bible. 
 
 It may suffice to refer briefly to some 
 of the other eras which have been em- 
 ployed in the attempted measurement of 
 time and the emplacement 
 
 . . The other prin- 
 
 of the dates of antiquity, cipaierasof 
 
 A r, i-L J ■ ■ j^ ii time reckoning. 
 
 Alter the dispersion of the 
 Jews, and up to the fifteenth century, 
 that people employed in their business 
 affairs and secular records what is called 
 the era of the Seleucidas, that is, the 
 year B. C. 311; but since the fifteenth 
 century the Israelites have fallen back 
 upon their interpretation of the Hebrew 
 text for the era of the world, fixing that 
 event at the year 3760 B. C. Mean- 
 while, the Greek Christians of Russia 
 and the East adopted for themselves 
 what is known as the era of Constanti- 
 nople, which places the creation of the 
 world in the year 5509 B. C, and makes 
 the Christian era coincident with the 
 fourth of the one hundred and ninety- 
 fourth Olympiad. There is also what is 
 known as the era of Alexandria, which 
 placed the creation in the year 5500 B. C. 
 It were better, however, to satisfy the 
 reader's curiosity in these particulars by 
 a tabulated statement showing the rela-
 
 144 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXK'fXP. 
 
 tions of the principal eras which, iintil a 
 comparatively recent date, have been 
 Synoptical view employed in fixing the time 
 and comparison j-eLitions of cvcnts in tlic 
 
 of the leading 
 
 eras. ancient history of the 
 
 world. The table is inserted, not be- 
 cause of any value in its fundamental 
 assumption of the era of creation, but 
 only as a convenient reference to ex- 
 hibit the relations of the more important 
 eras: 
 
 geological and archaeological research 
 the discrepancy between the facts of the 
 prehistoric world and the scientific spirit 
 current system of dates be- Z°t^lm^^° 
 came apparent. One or the dates, 
 other had to yield. Either scholars and 
 travelers must disbelieve the testimony 
 of their senses or reject the narrow and 
 dogmatic system which the old chronol- 
 ogists had fixed up as the framework of 
 ancient history. 
 
 The era of creation corresponds to. 
 
 The first Olympiad corresponds to. 
 
 The founding of Rome corresponds to. 
 
 The common, or Christian, era corresponds to 
 
 The Hegira corresponds to. 
 
 The era of the French republic corresponds lo 
 
 The year 4004 B. C. 
 
 The year 710 of the Julian period. 
 
 The year 3251 before the founding of Rome. 
 
 The year 5996 of the French era. 
 
 The year 776 B. C. 
 The year 322S of the era of creation. 
 The year 23 before the founding of Rome. 
 The year 3938 of the Julian period. 
 The year 2568 before the French era. 
 
 The year 753 B. C. 
 The year 3251 of the era of creation. 
 The year 4 of the sixth Olympiad. 
 The year 3961 of the Julian period. 
 The ye.ir 2545 before the p'rench era. 
 
 The year 4004 of the era of creation. 
 The year i of the I95tli Olympiad. 
 The year 753 of the founding of Rome. 
 The year 4714 of the Julian period. 
 The year 1792 of the French era. 
 
 The year 622 of the Christian era. 
 The year 4626 of the era of creation. 
 The year 3 of the 348th Olympiad. 
 The year 1375 of the founding of Rome. 
 The year 5336 of the Julian period. 
 The year 1206 before the French era. 
 
 The year 1792 of the Christian era. 
 The year 5796 of the era of cre.ition. 
 The year i of the 643d Olympiad. 
 I The year 2545 of the founding of Rome. 
 The year 1206 of the Hegira. 
 The year 6506 of the Julian period. 
 
 In no department of human knowl- 
 edge has the scientific spirit wrought 
 greater changes during the last half 
 century than in the previously accepted 
 chronology. With the beginning of 
 
 Philology, the .science of human lan- 
 guage, added its testimony. The ruins 
 of Nineveh and Babylon were exhumed 
 from the oblivion of centuries, and 
 the cylinder-tablets of the library of
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL INOUIRY 
 
 145 
 
 torical research 
 among several 
 races. 
 
 Asshur-Bani-Pal were recovered for the 
 instruction of mankind. The cuneiform 
 inscriptions were translated. The hiero- 
 glyphics of Egypt opened their long- 
 sealed treasures. The vision of men 
 began to clear, and the narrowness and 
 incapacity of the old system of chro- 
 nology were seen in ridiculous outline 
 against the almost limitless background 
 of the past. 
 
 The chronological researches of schol- 
 ars in recent times have been directed 
 Results of his- to Special fields of inquiry 
 rather than to the establish- 
 ment of a general sj'stem 
 for the whole ancient history of mankind. 
 The result has been that the annals of 
 China and India have been traced back by 
 means of native records and monuments 
 of a fairly creditable char- 
 acter to about 2 200 B. C. 
 .Sir John Gardner Wil- 
 kinson has f-xed with ap- 
 proximate certainty the 
 beginning of the fourth 
 dynasty of Egypt at the 
 year 2450 B. C. — to 
 which must be added at 
 least the uncertain period 
 covered by the preced- 
 ing dynasties. Karl 
 Richard Lepsius, labor- 
 ing in the same field of 
 inquiry, has extended the 
 period of Egyptian his- 
 tory back to the begin- 
 ning of the first dy- 
 nasty, to which he assigns the date of 
 3892 B. C. The French Egy^ptologist, 
 Mariette, one of the most expert and 
 skillful scholars of the century, by a cross- 
 examination of the history of Menetho 
 and the Egyptian sculptures has shown 
 many reasons for fixing the date of Menes 
 as far back as 5004 B. C. The Chaldaean 
 records, according to Berosus, extend 
 
 to a much higher antiquity than that as- 
 signed for the beginning of Egyptian 
 history, and the careful Rawlinson fixes 
 upon the year 2286 B. C. as the ap- 
 proximate date for the accession of the 
 first dynasty of Old Babylonian kings. 
 On every hand the scheme of dates has 
 been widened out by the most competent 
 scholars of the age, in so much that all 
 rational belief in the chronological tables 
 which were accepted at the beginning of 
 the century has passed away. 
 
 What then does chronology as a de- 
 partment of historical investigation prove 
 or tend to prove with respect to the an- 
 tiquity of man? It shows General deduc- 
 
 that many great nations of ^LTanS^ 
 the ancient world, widely of man. 
 separated, in some instances by high 
 
 STONE MASONRY ON THR Sl'MMITS OF THE ANDES. 
 
 mountains and almost impassable seas, 
 were already developed into fi.xed forms 
 of society and government, already in 
 possession of institutions and laws and 
 literary forms of record, at dates ranging 
 from twenty to fifty centuries before the 
 common era. To this we must add the 
 monumental evidence already obtained 
 relative to the ancient peoples of the
 
 146 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 American continent. Such facts as the 
 ruins which have been discovered in 
 Central America and the stone-hewn 
 foundations of temples and palaces in 
 the tops of the Andes must tend strongly 
 in every thoughtful mind to increase 
 rather than diminish the chronological 
 estimates of the antiquity of the ancient 
 European, African, and Asiatic nations. 
 
 AVe may now proceed to sunnnarizc in 
 a few paragraphs the various evidences 
 which may be gathered from scientific 
 Summary of the and Other sources of in- 
 alt "on:mfcki 4"^^' respecting the age of 
 Indication. vci^n on the earth. In the 
 
 first place, the astronomical conditions 
 and laws under which our planet came 
 into the habitable state furnish us 
 with a tolerably accurate estimate of the 
 time when with the subsidence of our 
 last planetary winter the earth, by the 
 favoring conditions which were then in- 
 troduced, presented itself as a fit abode 
 for the human race. With due allow- 
 ance for the prolongation of the epoch 
 of rigor and for the melting away of the 
 ice cap in the northern hemisphere, and 
 with certain other allowances which are 
 suggested by science and right reason, 
 and with the application of the law of 
 averages between the maximum and 
 minimum dates which may reasonably 
 be assigned for the appearance of man, 
 we may fix the time of his coming ap- 
 proximately at tldrty thousajid or tJiiriy- 
 five tkoitsaHd years before the Christian 
 era. 
 
 With this conclusion the important, 
 almost irrefragable, evidence of geology 
 Geology coiTob- fuUy corresponds. The 
 
 orates the re- *„ .• ,• ^^i .-i* 
 
 suits arrived at investigation of the earth s 
 ftom astronomy, ^.j^ust has not vet positive- 
 ly demonstrated the remains of man and 
 of his works belonging to a period quite as 
 remote as that indicated by the astro- 
 nomical antecedents as the approximate 
 
 time of the habitability of the globe. But 
 the geological evidence has stretched 
 out far toward the same remote date for 
 the origin of our species. If we trust to 
 geological evidence and indications oii/y, 
 we shall have to reduce the astronomi- 
 cal indications respecting the date of the 
 appearance of man by perhaps a hun- 
 dred centuries. It is clear, however, 
 that after making all proper allowances 
 for error of computation, mistakes of 
 judgment, and partiality of the inquirer 
 for one form and result of conclusion in- 
 stead of another, and after estimating as 
 well as may be done the irregularities in 
 the rate of change in the formation of 
 the earth's crust at different geological 
 periods, we must still assign a date of 
 not less than from livciity tJiousand to 
 tzvciity-Jivc thousand years B. C. as the 
 time of those geological formations with 
 which the remains of man and the traces 
 of his activity are indubitably associated. 
 To this conclusion should be added the 
 consideration that the lesser estimate for 
 the antiquity of man, gathered from geo- 
 logical evidences as compared with the 
 estimate from astronomical conditions, 
 furnishes against the latter only a nega- 
 tive fonn of proof. All that may be 
 said is that geology lias not fnrnis/icd as 
 high an estimate for the date of the ap- 
 pearance of man as is indicated by the 
 astronomical conditions which perfected 
 the habitability of the planet at a period 
 somewhat more remote. 
 
 The great foundations of the inquiry 
 lie in the solid structure of geology, in- 
 cluding the astronomical Geological re- 
 antecedents by which the l^J^^^^l. 
 globe was prepared for the of the inquiry, 
 maintenance of man-life upon it. About 
 these conditions all other forms of proof 
 are related and made thereto dependent. 
 The archaeological evidence respecting 
 the antiquity of man has its principal sig-
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNIXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL INQUIRY. 147 
 
 nificance from the geological basis on 
 which the whole science reposes. The 
 evidence afforded by the remains of man 
 and the fragments of his industrial 
 arts transmitted from the prehistoric 
 ages depends constantly for its value 
 upon the geological correlation and de- 
 pendency. From this origin of calcula- 
 tion and estimate the archaeologist pro- 
 ceeds with much the larger part of his 
 investigations. But while it is true that 
 the significance of his results depends 
 upon those already reached in geo- 
 logical science, it is also true that those 
 results fully hamtonizc with the deduc- 
 tions of geology, and corroborate and 
 sustain them without break or discrep- 
 ancy, in so much that the evidences af- 
 forded by the two branches of inquiry 
 become common and consistent as a 
 whole. We may therefore repeat as a 
 concliision drawn from archaeological re- 
 search the same approximate date de- 
 duced from the records and inferences 
 of geology, namely, a period of twenty 
 thousand years or more before the comirion 
 era as the epoch of man. 
 
 With this latter estimate coincides 
 also the deduction from palaeontological 
 Deduction from inquiry. Here again we fall 
 Ci^onizl^^ith back upon geology, not 
 other results. indeed for the order of the 
 facts considered, but for the approximate 
 dates to which the facts must be as- 
 signed. Those forms of animal and 
 vegetable life with which the remains 
 of man are associated in the geological 
 matrix of the earth are referable to the 
 same kinds of proof as to their antiquity 
 as are the other materials of archaeology. 
 To a certain extent the antiquity of the 
 prehistoric flora and fauna may be de- 
 termined independently of the age of 
 the geological epochs to which the same 
 belonged. But, on the whole, the argu- 
 ment from palaeontology has the very 
 
 same basis, so far as. the antiquity of 
 man is concerned, as that from archaeol- 
 ogy; and each alike corroborates the 
 geological record with respect to the 
 age of man. Negatively it may be said 
 that palaeontological research has in no 
 case tended to reduce the high estimate 
 for the antiquity of man which has been 
 made from the basis of geology. 
 
 The same results are reached from 
 the anthropological point of view. 
 Every branch of man-study Anthropological 
 
 to 
 
 deductions are 
 
 points unmistakably ... essentially the 
 
 an origin for the human same, 
 race remote from the present by not less 
 than a hundred centuries. The evi- 
 dences found in the human body of or- 
 gans and offices which had already be- 
 come rudimentary before the beginning 
 of historical records ; the like indications 
 of the prehistoric differentiation of the 
 sexes, by which the traces of a common 
 physical life were left in each ; the es- 
 tablished slowness of the intellectual 
 evolution of the race, whereby the in- 
 crement of mental power and the aver- 
 age capacity of the faculties of the mind 
 have hardly been perceptibly augmented 
 in the space of three thousand years, 
 and many other facts and laws of human 
 development which have been scientif- 
 ically determined, all tend to establish 
 beyond doubt an antiquity for the race 
 approximately as high as that indicated 
 in the deductions of geolog}\ 
 
 So also of ethnological and ethno- 
 graphical inquiry. The period requisite 
 for the ethnical dispersion Ethnology and 
 of the race must have '^^^Z^alti. 
 been as great as that fur- cai conclusions, 
 nished by the indications of geology, 
 archaeology, and anthropology. We 
 may mark with certainty not only the 
 presence but the historical development 
 of the different races of Asia, Africa, 
 and Europe at a time so far remote from
 
 143 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLAXKLXD. 
 
 the present as to warrant, and, indeed, 
 compel, the conclusion that the length of 
 time required for the differentiation of 
 the various peoples from some common 
 stock was fully as great as that indicated 
 by the rude implements and other re- 
 mains of primitive mankind and the 
 emplacement of the same with the later, 
 if not the middle, deposits of the Drift. 
 Xo scholar can reflect with earnestness 
 and dispassion upon the phenornena of 
 tribal and race development among the 
 Ar\-an families of men only without per- 
 ceiving the stretch 
 of immeasurable 
 time requisite for 
 the whole distri- 
 bution — for the 
 departure, migra- 
 tions, settlement, 
 and evolution of 
 the Indie peoples, 
 for the like diver- 
 gence, organiza- 
 tion, and develop- 
 ment of the Iran- 
 ic nations, for tlie 
 far-off and vine- 
 like progress of 
 the fathers of 
 the GrjECO-Italic 
 tribes, and older 
 than they the 
 Celts, and perhaps the Teutonic barba- 
 rians of the northern forests, all gradu- 
 ally rising through slow and painful 
 processes to the plane of permanency 
 and conscious life — without perceiving 
 the necessity for a span of at least a 
 hundred centuries to accomplish the given 
 results apparent at the beginnings of 
 recorded annals. 
 
 Bagk of all this a still profounder vista 
 must be opened of at least equal extent, 
 in order to provide the time and con- 
 ditions of ethnic change, such as were 
 
 EXTREME OF ETHNIC DIVERGENCE — HIGHEST TVIE. — 
 
 (l) EROS OK PRAXITELES. 
 
 Drawn by C. Colb. 
 
 necessary for the division of the Aryan 
 races from the Semitic and Hamitic fam- 
 ilies, from that ancient Large allowance 
 
 Cushite stock seen with r/peHo7o;'°' 
 
 difficulty on the horizon of race dispersion. 
 
 Egypt and Arabia and the Lower Eu- 
 phrates, from the original Black races 
 of Africa and Australia, and finally from 
 the ancestors of those Asiatic and Poly- 
 nesian ^Mongoloid varieties of mankind 
 which to-day are represented by at least 
 one half of the inhabitants of the earth. 
 The demands of ethnology can hardly 
 
 be satisfied with 
 a period for the 
 whole distribu- 
 tion of mankind, 
 and for the de- 
 velopment of the 
 ethnic varieties 
 already present in 
 the dawn of his- 
 tory and tradi- 
 tion, of less than 
 a hundred and 
 fifty centuries. 
 An ample esti- 
 mate for the re- 
 quired time, not 
 unreasonable in 
 view of the de- 
 monstrable condi- 
 tions that have 
 
 surrounded the progress and differentia- 
 tion of the race, may be set at twenty 
 tho usa nd j 'ca rs . 
 
 With such conclusions history and tra- 
 dition — including the special department 
 
 of chronologV are in full History sub- 
 
 and harmonious accord. f^^Slnf^ttthe. 
 History does not say or inti- other sciences, 
 mate that the world of man-life extends. 
 only six thousand years into the past. As 
 we have shown in the foregoing pages, the 
 testimony of history is negative rather 
 than positive with respect to the date of
 
 TIME OF THE BEGINNLXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL IXQUIRY. 149 
 
 because she can go 
 there- 
 
 tlie beginning'. Nothing more can be 
 expected of historical research proper 
 than to record such dates and epochs of 
 the past as are deducible from contem- 
 poraneous documents, industrial remains, 
 and monumental inscriptions. But it 
 does not follow that 
 no further than this there was, 
 fore, no previous career for 
 mankind on the earth 
 On the contrary, his- 
 tory clearly infers 
 that there was a 
 childhood, an 
 adolescence, and 
 at last a ma- 
 turity into con- 
 sciousness of 
 the primitive 
 races. With 
 this view the 
 historical rec- 
 ord, as far as 
 it extends, is 
 in entire ac- 
 cord. Histor- 
 i c a 1 inquiry 
 looks already 
 with clear vision 
 across those nar- 
 row and factitious 
 eras of time which the 
 ignorance of a former 
 age succeeded in imposing 
 
 upon manKinu as a extreme of ethnic mvERCExcE — lowest type. 
 dead wall and bound- (2) Australian of the townsville coast. 
 
 ary to the ancient 
 
 world. History sees beyond these limi- 
 tations the shadows and outlines of the 
 real facts of the early inorning of the 
 race ; but she does not presume to say 
 ihiis-and-so of events and movements con- 
 cerning which she has not, and in all 
 probability can never have, the testi- 
 mony of contemporary records. 
 
 History accepts at their proper valua- 
 
 After a Danish drawing, 
 
 tion the traditions and legends of antiq- 
 uity. She gives to them such credence 
 as the master gives to the orai story may 
 stories of the nursery and "lo* contradict 
 thepla3-ground. She gladly "ght reason, 
 admits what truth soever may have been 
 transmitted from the most ancient times 
 to the epoch of records and monuments 
 b" the oral utterance and repe- 
 n of the primitive peo- 
 ples but she disallows 
 the right of oral story 
 thus handetl down 
 from age to age to 
 contradict the 
 exact and indis- 
 putable e V i - 
 dence of sci- 
 ence and to 
 set tradition 
 on the throne 
 in the place 
 of truth. 
 
 W e have 
 seen in the 
 f o r e o- o i n 0; 
 pages to what 
 depth into the 
 past the actual 
 records of our race 
 xtend. Perhaps 
 the historical horizon 
 human life, as deter- 
 mined by contemporaneous 
 _ evidence, lies not 
 far from the line of 
 forty centuries be- 
 fore the Christian era. But this signi- 
 fies no more than that the record is 
 there broken bv the limita- Historical hori- 
 ti.ms of human knowledge. Ta^f thlfoni- 
 Beyond that border line, eth century B.C. 
 which for the present divides the historic 
 from the prehistoric life of man, extend 
 those vast unrecorded epochs of human 
 existence concernino- which our informa-
 
 150 
 
 GREAT RACf.S OF MANKIND. 
 
 tio;. must be derived from those branches 
 ot science which have extended their 
 investigations beyond the historical 
 horizon. 
 
 We have endeavored in the pre- 
 ceding pages to gather and summar- 
 ize the evidences which 
 
 Final estimate , , , e ^ i 
 
 of the date of the present state oi knowl- 
 
 the beginning. ^^^^ ^^^ furnished with 
 
 respect to the extent of man-life back- 
 wards through the prehistoric shadows. 
 While much remains as yet indetermi- 
 nate, while the evidence in many parts is 
 indecisive, while the application of the 
 law of averages and probabilities may 
 mislead somewhat the most skillful 
 research respecting the vestigia of human 
 life in the prehistoric ages, we are never- 
 
 theless fully warranted, by the juxta- 
 position of all the proofs, in accepting it 
 as an established fact that the appear- 
 ance of the human race belongs to a 
 date not less than tivo hundred centuries 
 from the present time. It only remains 
 to remind the reader that "human 
 race " in this assignment of an approxi- 
 mate date for its apparition signifies 
 that species of beings the traces of whose 
 primitive life are found close down to 
 the miocene era in geology, a species 
 having the rudiments of reason, the up- 
 right form, and the potency of the civil- 
 ized life, but otherwise not strongly dis- 
 criminated from the higher primates 
 except in the ability to fashion an im- 
 plement and to kindle a fire. 
 
 Chapter VIII.— The Quest oe Eden. 
 
 AA'ING traversed the 
 field of inquiry respect- 
 ing the probable date 
 of man's appearance on 
 the earth, we come, in 
 the next place, to con- 
 sider the flacc of his 
 origin. Since there was a time in the his- 
 tory of our globe when men did not exist 
 upon its surface, and since there was a date 
 at which human beings in some manner 
 made their appearance and became the 
 progenitors of the race, there must have 
 „ . . , been a place of apparition. 
 
 Origin of man- _ ^ ^^ 
 
 life necessarily a point or points from 
 
 in some locality. i • i . , ^ , , 
 
 which the first men and 
 their descendants took their departure 
 to people the earth. Science, conjec- 
 ture, and blank dogmatism have all in 
 turn sought to solve this problem. Nor 
 can it well be said that even at the pres- 
 ent advanced stage of inquiry the ques- 
 tion has been satisfactorily settled. 
 
 It will be seen at a glance that the 
 subject before us, namely, the place of 
 the beginning of man-life on the earth, 
 is involved with another one place or 
 question which we are to ^r/i.^n ^f t\e 
 consider hereafter. That problem, 
 other question relates to the unity or 
 multiplicity of the origin of mankind. 
 If the monogenetic theory be true, then 
 only one place is to be sought as the 
 point of original departure for all the 
 races of men ; but if Ihe polygenetic 
 theory should be established, then 
 several, perhaps many, points of origin 
 must be ascertained — at least as many as 
 may correspond to the leading ethnic 
 varieties of human kind. 
 
 There have not been wanting scholars 
 and thinkers of the current century who, 
 after an extensive survey of the field of 
 inquiry, have adopted the theory of 
 polygenesis ; that is, the doctrine of the 
 multiple origin of mankind. According
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 
 
 151 
 
 multiple origin 
 of mankind prO' 
 pounded. 
 
 to this belief, ttie race has sprung- from 
 several fountains wide apart in place 
 Theory of the and time. There has been 
 one fountain for the Black 
 races of Africa and Aus- 
 tralia, another for the Asiatic Mongo- 
 loids, another for the Polynesians, an- 
 other for the nomadic races of Northern 
 Asia, another for the Indo-European, 
 or Aryan, family, and still another, or 
 perhaps more than one, for the aborigi- 
 
 the inquiry as to the geographical locus 
 of the first men is in great measure 
 taken away. Should it be shown that 
 the human race has had more than one 
 point of original departure, then it may 
 have had ten places of beginning- or a 
 hundred. Indeed, if we adopt the poly- 
 genetic theory, we put the inquir\' upon 
 another foundation — that of supposing- 
 that when the earth was in a certain 
 cosmical stage of development and 
 
 TO PEOPLE THE EARTH.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 nal races of the American continents. 
 From these several points of departure 
 the vines of diverse human life have 
 sprung and extended themselves by 
 devious growth over the .surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 We may not here pause to consider 
 the merits of the two opposing theories 
 Poiygenesis, if of the single and multiple 
 sfr^^'s'ntefe;* origin of mankind. It is 
 in the inquiry, sufficient to note the fact 
 that if the hypothesis of poiygenesis be 
 admitted as true, then the interest in 
 
 preparation the conditions antecedent 
 to man-life were present and prevalent 
 over a large part of the globe, from 
 which conditions human existence was 
 as likely to take its origin in this place 
 as in that. 
 
 Hereafter we shall consider the value 
 of such a theory as explanatory of the 
 manner and means by opposite view 
 which the appearance of 
 man on the earth is to be ac- 
 counted for. But for the present we 
 shall take up the opposite view as more 
 
 more accordant 
 ■with facts and 
 reason.
 
 152 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 nearly in accord with the facts, shall 
 adopt the theory of the unity in place 
 as well as in time of the origin of all 
 mankind. With the acceptance of this 
 view, our interest in the attempted dis- 
 covery of the point of departure from 
 which all the kindreds and families of 
 men have derived their ultimate de- 
 scent is greatly heightened. 
 
 given in Genesis not only of the man- 
 ner, but of the place of the origin ot 
 mankind, has formed a part of the foun- 
 dation of those great systems of religious 
 thought and powerful ecclesiastical or- 
 ganizations which have constituted so 
 strong an element in the civilized life of 
 the nations of the West. The account 
 given of the creation and emplacement 
 
 HIGHLANDS OF ARMENIA.— Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Carla Serena. 
 
 The general belief among the nations 
 of the West on this subject has been de- 
 The" garden rived from the Hebrew 
 Eden," with its ^^<--riptures, constitutmg the 
 four rivers. h:s.%\?, as they do of the 
 
 religious faith and practice of the Israel- 
 itish race and. in later development, of 
 the faith and practice of all the Christian 
 nations of the earth. The account 
 
 of man need not here be repeated. It 
 is sufficient to .say that the scene of this 
 beginning of human life is fixed by the 
 record as in "a garden eastward in 
 Eden." It is said that "a river went 
 out of Eden to water the garden ; and 
 from thence it was parted, and became 
 into four heads. The name of the first 
 [that is the fir.st head or river] is Pison :
 
 THE r.llll.lCAL PARADISE.— Drawn by Guslave Dore. 
 
 M.— Vol. I — IT
 
 154 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 that is it which compasseth the whole 
 land of Havilah, where there is gold ; 
 and the gold of that land is good : there 
 is bdellium and onyx stone. And the 
 name of the second river is Gihon : the 
 same is it that compasseth the whole 
 land of Ethiopia. And the name of the 
 third river is Hiddekcl : that is it which 
 goeth toward the east of Assyria. And 
 the fourth river is Euphrates." Here 
 we have the geographical definition, so 
 to speak, of that place which is described 
 in Genesis as the scene of the creation 
 of man. 
 
 But where was the garden of Eden ? 
 Is it possible to lay this ancient sketch 
 Difficulty of fix- of the Scriptures practicallv 
 thl^^bifc'aT"' on a map or globe and de- 
 Eden. fmc its position? jMany 
 
 have been the efforts of scholars and 
 visionaries to accomplish this task of 
 identifving the ancient Eden with some 
 
 ■J o 
 
 place or places now known to men. In 
 the first place, it may be observed that 
 only one of the four rivers which are 
 said to have taken their rise from Eden 
 is known or has been known to the ge- 
 ography of modern times. The others 
 are lost, either in mythology or in 
 changes which have supervened in the 
 character and distribution of ancient 
 rivers. As to the Euphrates, the stream 
 has been explored through its whole 
 course. Its head-waters lie in the high- 
 lands of Armenia. But from that situa- 
 tion there is no Pison to compass the 
 land of Havilah, nor is there any Havi- 
 lah which may be discovered, except by 
 the fancy of him who searches for it. 
 Neither is there any second river called 
 Gihon, rising from Armenia to encircle 
 Ethiopia. And if the name Ethiopia 
 have been used in the ancient record as 
 equivalent' for the countries possessed 
 by the primitive Cushites, then no 
 river proceeding from Armenia other 
 
 than the Euphrates itself could be said 
 to approach, much less to encompass, 
 Ethiopia. As to the third river, Hid- 
 dekel, that likewise is impossible of 
 identification, unless indeed we suppose 
 the Tigris to be meant; and certainly 
 that stream does not flow toward the 
 east of Assyria. In other words, if we 
 accept the identity of the Euphrates 
 mentioned in the second chapter ol 
 Genesis with the river of that name 
 which flows from the mountains of Ar- 
 menia to the Persian gulf, we find it 
 impossible to identify the other three 
 with any existing streams without sup- 
 posing that the geographical landscape 
 has been transformed by some revolu- 
 tion of nature. 
 
 We may here pause to note that the 
 narrative of Eden as given in the Book 
 of Genesis is common in its Hebrew 
 
 sw narra- 
 
 leading features with tra- ^JX'iuTel:^. 
 ditions which still exist, or "ic traditions, 
 which have existed, among the collateral 
 branches of the Semitic race. The an- 
 cient Aramaic peoples, the Chaldseans, 
 perhaps the Old Arabians, the Ishmael- 
 ites and their descendent nations of the 
 Arabian peninsula, no less than the He- 
 brews themselves, had the same tradi- 
 tion, though much inflected in its parts 
 and circumstances, as did the family of 
 Abraham. It is evident, therefore, that 
 a belief in an Eden, with its four emer- 
 gent rivers and for its occupants the an- 
 cestors of the human race, Avas preva- 
 lent among the Semites at a date long 
 before the Babylonians were Babyloni- 
 ans, or the Hebrews were Hebrews. 
 
 Reviewing the subject in the light of 
 actual geography, we may best of all 
 
 conclude that the river The Euphrates 
 
 Euphrates referred to in .te^'Eu^hra'^^s 
 the ancient tradition, of of geography, 
 which the account given in Genesis is 
 the most authoritative, if not the oldest,
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 
 
 155 
 
 form, Avas some other than the stream 
 now known by that name. We should 
 thus be driven to reject altogether the 
 emplacem.ent of Eden in the Armenian 
 highlands, and to seek for it at the 
 source of some other system of streams 
 corresponding with those mentioned in 
 the Book of Genesis. But in so doing 
 
 into criticism and general literature re- 
 specting the place called Eden. Some 
 of the older writers were inclined to lift 
 it from the surface of the earth, and to 
 assign it a position in the third or fourth 
 heaven. Others, less mythological, but 
 hardly less extravagant in their credulity, 
 have assigned to Eden a place within 
 
 THE CEVLONESE EDEN. 
 
 we at once enter and are soon lost in the 
 region of conjecture. 
 
 It may well surprise the reader who 
 may not have given special attention to 
 Visionary and the subject, to note the vari- 
 ous conflicting and vision- 
 ary views which have not 
 only been entertained, but have been put 
 by their authors — scholarly men even, 
 accordi':>g to the standard of their age — 
 
 absurd vie"ws of 
 tlie place of 
 Kden. 
 
 the orbit of the moon, while still others 
 have contended that it lay in the moon 
 itself! Some have tried to locate the 
 terrestrial paradise in the upper air, but 
 beyond the attraction of the earth. From 
 these celestial emplacements the less 
 fanciful searchers for the original seat 
 have given it a place under the earth, 
 far within our sphere, or some unknown 
 situation on the surface. Still another
 
 156 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 class would have us accept the north 
 pole as the place of Eden, while others 
 go into the equatorial regions in the 
 search. Tartary and China have both 
 been selected as the countries within 
 whose borders Paradise was established. 
 The banks of the Ganges and the island 
 of Ceylon have in turn been chosen as 
 the site of Eden. The more rational 
 have generally attempted to fix the place 
 in Armenia; but others rejecting the 
 suggestion furnished by the mention of 
 the Euphrates, have fixed the situation 
 in Equatorial Africa. Mesopotamia, 
 Syria, Persia, Arabia, Babylonia, As- 
 syria, and Palestine itself have all had 
 their advocates as the honored land in 
 which lay the ancient Eden. More re- 
 cently the claims of Europe to the dis- 
 tinction have been advanced and strenu- 
 ously defended ; and in this particular 
 the advocates of a European Paradise 
 have had the advantage of some strong 
 scientific indications ; for it is now agreed 
 that the most ancient relics of mankind 
 as yet discovered in the crust of the 
 earth are those which the archaeologists 
 of recent times have found in Central 
 and Western Europe. 
 
 The modern scholar is obliged to 
 abandon the pursuit. True, he may 
 Modern scholar- very properly and anxiously 
 idlnttfy the ^^ek to discover the point 
 
 Paradise. of origin from which the 
 
 human race has proceeded ; but the loca- 
 tion of the particular Eden, or Paradise, 
 described in the second chapter of Gen- 
 esis may well be given over as a hope- 
 less task. The geographical concomitants 
 do not consist with the present char- 
 acter of any of the countries to which 
 the place has been assigned. In order 
 to identify the spot called Eden, we are 
 obliged to concede to him who is leading 
 the discovery so many things as to make 
 the whole argument incongruous, if not 
 
 absurd. The identity of Eden, for in- 
 stance, with the region about the north 
 pole, can be shown, no doubt, to the sat- 
 isfaction of one who begins with the 
 conclusion which he is trying to estab- 
 lish, and whose credulity has been stimu- 
 lated with the indulgence of the fallacious 
 hope of demonstrating a preconceived 
 opinion ; but to the inquirer who takes 
 up the subject without preconceptions and 
 prejudices no single proof will appeal 
 which may properly be regarded as valid- 
 In pursuing the inquiry, it is well to 
 adopt the argument b}^ exclusion. Neg- 
 atively, the traditional garden of Eden 
 may not be found in this The places sug- 
 place or in that. We mav gestedmaybe 
 
 ^ ■ excluded by 
 
 showb}' almost irrefragable negation, 
 proofs that many of the assumptions 
 which have been made about the lo- 
 cation of Eden are untenable. If, for 
 instance, the favored hypothesis of the 
 Armenian highlands can not be enter- 
 tained without supposing that a river 
 descending from that locality can make 
 its way into Equatorial Africa, we may 
 properly reject the supposition as im- 
 possible. Or, if we must suppose a river 
 flowing over the crest of the Caucasus in 
 order to make its way into the Black sea 
 or the Caspian, we may reject that hy- 
 pothesis also. So in any other case, if 
 insuperable barriers interpose, instead 
 of trying to reason them away with pre- 
 conceptions and syllogistic leverage, we 
 should at once reject the proposed theory 
 as contradictory of the facts, and there- 
 fore impossible. But if, on the other 
 hand, a hypothesis can be formed against 
 which no inexplicable facts may be op- 
 posed, and with which all the discoveries 
 made by scientific investigation fairly 
 harmonize, then we may at least tenta- 
 tively accept such a supposition as the 
 basis of a true theory of the primitive 
 origin of the human species.
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— QUEST OF EDEN. 
 
 157 
 
 yield to reason 
 ■with respect to 
 Eden. 
 
 Let US therefore look attentively at 
 some of the views which have been en- 
 Mythoiogy must tertained about the location 
 of the first seat of the an- 
 cestors of mankind. Cer- 
 tainly we need not adopt any of 
 those mythological and transcendental 
 notions which the credulity of even re- 
 cent centuries adopted and foisted upon 
 posterity as a solution of the question. 
 What shall we say of the idea that man- 
 kind originated somewhere in the celes- 
 tial sphere round 
 about ? Shall we 
 indeed be terri- 
 fied by sheer dog- 
 matism from re- 
 jecting such an 
 opinion as be- 
 longing to the su- 
 perstitious era in 
 the evolution of 
 human intelli- 
 gence ? Such a 
 notion fairly be- 
 comes the child- 
 hood of the race. 
 It is fitting that 
 children should 
 be satisfied with 
 the notion of a 
 Paradise fixed 
 afar somewhere 
 moon, or on the 
 
 human beings? Why should they be 
 thrust in and blended with the scientific 
 concept of our earth and its inhabitants? 
 Is it indeed possible that any intelligent 
 human being will accept it as true that 
 the Eden of our origin lay beyond the 
 sphere of earth — was not a part of the 
 plain, substantial, unmetaphorical sur- 
 face of the ground, such as we see it 
 and know it with our clear senses and 
 perceptions at the present day ? 
 
 The conviction is thus easily fixed in 
 
 AN ETHIOPIAN EDEN — ONE OF THE SUPPOSED PLACES OF THE BEGINNING. 
 Drawn by G. Vuillier. 
 
 in the orbit of the 
 on tue face of that bright 
 globe, and that the ancient Eden thus 
 hung up in the skyland should dip 
 down into touch with the earth, and at 
 length, after the rebellion and expulsion 
 of its inhabitants, be drawn back from 
 contact with this low and degraded 
 sphere where the great act of life must 
 henceforth be performed. But why 
 should such opinions be obtruded upon 
 the adult age of the world? Why should 
 they be thought to hold some iiuportant 
 relation to the happiness and condiict of 
 
 the mind that right reason and the in- 
 vestigations of science must guide us 
 through the maze qf manv scientific in- 
 .suppositions about the local ShTptce^of 
 
 origin of our species, the beginning. 
 
 Looking attentively at the geographical 
 land.scape of antiquity we see that many 
 jDarts of the earth could not have been 
 the place of the beginning. The high 
 regions of the north mu.st all be rejected 
 as unfavorable, not only as the starting 
 point, biit also for the development and 
 maintenance of the race-life of mankind. 
 At the time \vhcn men began to leave
 
 158 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 the traces of their activity in the river 1 
 gravels and caverns of the Old World j 
 and the New, our hemisphere was just 
 recovering from the rigors of the glacial 
 epoch. This is to say that then, much 
 more than now, the ice cap around the 
 north pole would keep at bay the begin- 
 nings of human plantation and distribu- 
 tion. It is fair to assume that at this 
 time all the continental parts of the 
 northern hemisphere north of the fif- 
 tieth parallel of latitude were still under 
 cover of the glaciers. We must there- 
 fore look to the more favoring regfions 
 of the south, to those parts of the earth 
 which, under the cheering influence of 
 the sun, had more fully recovered from 
 the effects of the long-continued planet- 
 ary winter, as a suitable scene for the 
 appearance of the first human inhabit- 
 ants of the earth. 
 
 A few general laws and facts of the 
 kind just referred to may serve a good 
 Large area in purpose in narrowing to 
 reasonable bounds the 
 field of the inquiry ; but 
 within those reasonable limitations there 
 will be found a vast geographical area 
 running through the major continents of 
 the earth in which human life might well 
 
 which mankind 
 might have orig 
 inated. 
 
 have had its origin. If we were left 
 with no better indications than those af- 
 forded by geology and geography, we 
 should, perhaps, remain, as we have so 
 long been, blind leaders of the blind in 
 our search for the probable locality of 
 the beginning of man-life on the earth. 
 But we are not thus left without sup- 
 port and guidance. Ethnography, eth- 
 nology, linguistic science, Recent sci- 
 histor>', and tradition here ^^^^^^ 
 become our best and most place of origin, 
 profound sources of evidence. The dis- 
 persion of mankind into races and kin- 
 dreds furnishes, in a word, a clue for 
 tracing backwards the course of ethnic 
 descent, and with the aid of geography 
 and other branches of science to indicate 
 the original point of departure. Nega- 
 tively, the very same evidence goes to 
 show from what regions the different 
 families of men have not proceeded. We 
 are thus enabled to get upon the track of 
 the inquiry, and to follow it, first his- 
 torically, afterwards traditionally, and 
 finally by the lamp of right reason to 
 approach, at least, that part of the 
 earth's surface from which only the 
 progressive distribution of the race could 
 have begun. 
 
 Chapter IX.— True Place ok the Beginnino. 
 
 T is not our purpose to 
 anticipate any part of 
 what must more prop- 
 erly be said, in a sub- 
 sequent division of this 
 work, on the primitive 
 migrations of man- 
 kind ; but it is well in this connection to 
 indicate in a general way the proofs fur- 
 nished by ethnography respecting the 
 place cf th*^ beginning. Take, for in- 
 
 stance, the Semitic family of mankind. 
 The Hebrews inhabiting Palestine had 
 been a migrant race. More immediately 
 they had come into the country of their 
 choice from Egypt, but more remotely 
 their ancestral tribe had Migration points 
 removed from, the Lower ^^^.^i^^a^nd 
 Euphrates westward into proceeded. 
 Canaan. This migration, well preserved 
 in the history and tradition of the Israel- 
 ites, furnishes an indication of the place.
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATIOX 
 
 159 
 
 or at least the direction, from which the 
 Semitic division of mankind was de- 
 rived. In North America, within the 
 historical period, we have an example 
 of the migration of the Tuscaroras from 
 south to north — from the Carolinas to 
 the regdon of the New York lakes. The 
 ancient world is full of the traces of such 
 migratory movements among, the primi- 
 
 of the ethnic fluctuations by which the 
 earth has been populated. We must not 
 suppose that the first men, 
 
 '^ '■ The movementa 
 
 the first tribes of men, drift- of races are gov. 
 
 -I it. i- i J emed by law. 
 
 ed over the contments under 
 lawless impulses, blown hither and thith- 
 er like mists before the capricious winds, 
 but that all the transmigrations by which 
 tribes and peoples were carried into new 
 
 WESTWARD PROGRESS OF THE SEMITES 
 
 tive peoples. That the Greeks came out 
 of Asia can not be doubted any more 
 than that the Vandals, who conquered 
 Spain and Africa in the fifth century, 
 came out of the North. 
 
 The inquirer will not have pursued 
 the subject far until he perceives that 
 the migrations of antiquity, and, indeed, 
 of all time , are governed by general laws, 
 showing the direction and ultimate origin 
 
 reeions of the earth were under tha 
 reign of law. 
 
 In some instances the motive or im- 
 pulse of the primitive ethnic distribu- 
 tion may be discovered. Not whim and 
 
 -f . J -I „ i- caprice but mo- 
 
 and m other cases not ^ive decides rac« 
 so easily. But aboriginal conduct, 
 tribes, as well as enlightened people, 
 act by motive and inducement, and not 
 b}- whim and caprice. "We may not
 
 160 
 
 GREAT RACES OE .^FANKIND. 
 
 suppose, for instance, that the original 
 Aryan population of India made its way 
 from the head-waters of the Indus down 
 the river toward the sea, instead of in 
 the inverse direction, by accident or 
 without a motive. Those migrating 
 tribes had a reason and an end, and it 
 was in pursuance of these that they con- 
 tinued to distribute themselves in the 
 country which they and their descend- 
 ants were to possess for at least four 
 thousand years. The impact of the 
 White race upon the shores of the New 
 World from the side of the Atlantic 
 rather than from the Pacific coast was not 
 by accident, but imder the reign of law ; 
 not, indeed, that men are mere automa- 
 tons, but they are creatures of reason and 
 motive; and reason and motive are, as a 
 rule, derived from *hat general causation 
 and sequence under which the world 
 and its inhabitants exist and go forward 
 to their destiny. 
 
 We have been able by ethnological 
 research and historical tradition to dis- 
 indications of covcr, we might sav, a thou- 
 ruiaSr.- sand threads in the com- 
 *'°°- plicated processes by which 
 
 the early races of men were distributed 
 in Western Asia, along the African 
 shore of the Mediterranean, and 
 throughout Europe. By following 
 these threads as a clue, we are able 
 to reason both by inclusion and exclu- 
 sion'to tolerably .satisfactory theories re- 
 specting the starting point of the human 
 distribution. Take, for example, the re- 
 cently originated theory of a European 
 beginning for the human race. As we 
 have said on a former page, the indica- 
 tions of archaeology look rather to Eu- 
 rope than to Asia or Africa as the start- 
 ing point of mankind. It may be 
 accepted as true that the oldest existing 
 remains of man have been found in the 
 valley of the Somme. But that fact is 
 
 by no means conclusive on the general 
 question of the local origin of our 
 species. Indeed, the indication is but 
 slight. It signifies no more than this, 
 that no example of the rcliqua; /iiiiiiaiice 
 older than those of Europe has been 
 discovered in Asia or Africa. But it 
 
 SECTION i>V M KiPlTAN KIVKR CAVERN, SUITABLE 
 FOR IIEI'OSITION OF HUMAN REMAINS. 
 
 should be remembered that antiquarian 
 research has had its development in Eu- 
 rope, and that Asia and Africa have in 
 all probability not yet yielded up their 
 most ancient archaeological treasures. 
 
 However this may be, the theory of 
 a European origin for the race is eon- 
 
 fronted and opposed bv Hypothesis of 
 
 almo.st every historical, tra- ^^"^^^^1-"^ 
 ditional, and ethnological jected. 
 fact with Avhich we are acquainted. All 
 the races of Europe .since the beginnings 
 of history ha^•e regarded themselves 
 either as autochthonous or immigrants 
 from the East. The early movements 
 of the European races were all from the 
 line of the Ca.spian and the Ural in the 
 direction of the Dnieper, the Danube, 
 and the Rhine. We know how power- 
 ful within the historical period has been 
 the ethnic pre.ssure from the East in all 
 parts of Europe, and how .seldom the 
 ethnic lines have curved backwards 
 from the Atlantic and Mediterranean 
 borders in the direction of their origin. 
 The emplacement of primitive cities and 
 states was nearly always in the western 
 parts of the respective countries la
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGLXXIXG.—ARGUMEXT FROM MIGRATION. 161 
 
 which certain peoples had at length 
 passed from the migrant to the seden- 
 tary plipse of life. We know that the 
 whole p )wer and contrivance of civiliza- 
 tion wi hin the historical period has 
 scarcely been able to withstand the eth- 
 nic and josmic impact of the westward 
 tendency of mankind in Europe. 
 
 point unmistakably to an Asiatic origin 
 for the ancestors of the great peoples of 
 Europe and the West. On the other 
 hand, there is not the slightest evidence, 
 from an ethnological point of view, 
 among the peoples of Western Asia 
 that they or any of them, with the sin- 
 gle exception of the Galatians, have 
 
 WEbl A-1 \N l.ANUiCAl'h.— ~t 
 
 ■^K'„E UF THE Arva-." M '^ w : - : ■ I' 1 ' i:i 
 
 by Madame Carla Serena. 
 
 These remarks apply with unusual 
 fitness to the movements of the Aryan 
 nations. The Indo-Euro- 
 peans seem to have obeyed 
 the cosmic law — to have 
 felt its force and mandate more univer- 
 sally and profoimdly than any other 
 family of men. The whole Aryan tra- 
 dition and all the testimonv of historv 
 
 Indo-Europeans 
 move westward 
 under cosmic 
 law^s. 
 
 come, either mediately or remoteh', out 
 of the West. Tradition and history in- 
 dicate immistakably that the inhabitants 
 of Western Asia, such as the Turco- 
 mans, have themselves, like the inhabit- 
 ants of Europe, migrated from coun- 
 tries further to the Ea.st. In short, 
 every fact deducible from ethnographic 
 and ethnological inquiry confirms the
 
 162 
 
 GREAT KACF.S OF MANKIND. 
 
 ence proves 
 Eastern origin 
 of Europeans. 
 
 belief that all the peoples inhabiting the 
 occidental parts of the Eastern hemi- 
 sphere are the descendants and repre- 
 sentatives of migrant races which were 
 distributed from an Oriental origin at 
 a period far below the dawn of human 
 tradition. 
 
 In this connection the histor\' of lan- 
 guage may be cited as one of the strong- 
 Linguistic sci- est proofs of an Eastern or- 
 igin for the races of the 
 West. The discovery of 
 the radical identity of Greek and San- 
 skrit made by scholars in the first half 
 of the present century is, of itself, a fact 
 sufificient to establish the Eastern origin 
 of the European Aryans. On no other 
 grounds or hypothesis can we account 
 for the fact that the Iliad, the ^iieid, the 
 Jcrusalcut Delivered, and the Paradise Lost 
 are written in the same tongue as the Ve- 
 das. Either the great Epics, and indeed 
 all literature, mythology, and history of 
 the Western nations have been produced 
 by peoples who had the same ultimate 
 derivation with the inhabitants of an- 
 cient India, or else the Hindus them- 
 selves have derived their culture, as well 
 as their blood, from some fountain in 
 Europe. The latter supposition can 
 hardly be entertained, and certainly not 
 entertained at all by any one who has 
 acquainted himself with the subject- 
 matter and deductions of ethnology. 
 Indeed, it is certain that the ancestors 
 of the European-Aryan peoples came 
 out of Western Asia, and after long 
 ages of wanderings and wars fixed 
 themselves, by discovery, occupation, 
 and conquest, in the respective coun- 
 tries where their descendants, within 
 the historical period, have grown into 
 great and famous nations. It is certain 
 also that in their westward course in the 
 prehistoric epoch they brought with 
 them the language, laws, institutions. 
 
 manners and cu.stoms, ambitions and 
 mental habitudes which the ancestral 
 tribes had pos.sessed before the begin- 
 ning of the migratory era. 
 
 By a method of investigation and 
 rea.soning precisely analogous to the 
 foregoing, we are able to Ethnic distribu- 
 prove that there never ^^--.ttl^ 
 was any general migration "«"^^*- 
 of primitive peoples out of Africa into 
 Western Asia. It might be sufficient to 
 .say that here ahso the ethnic lines, in so 
 far as they have been preserved by his- 
 tory, tradition, and language, run in the 
 opposite direction. The westernmost 
 parts of the continent of Africa have, 
 as a general fact, been peopled with 
 migratory tribes from the eastern parts. 
 In ancient times the states and cities 
 which abounded and flourished on the 
 southern shores of the Mediterranean 
 were planted progressively from east to 
 west. Egypt was the oldest of all. 
 Carthage was one of the younger plan- 
 tations of that region of the earth. In 
 the westernmost parts of Africa the 
 ethnic lines have been sometimes 
 doubled back by the barriers of moun- 
 tain and sea, just as in Europe the Celtic 
 race, having explored and to a cer- 
 tain extent peopled the soiithwestern 
 peninsulas of that continent, doubled 
 back and proceeded far to the east be- 
 fore the close of the age of migrations. 
 But it is clear to the student of these 
 exceptional movements that they were 
 made against, and as it were in the face 
 of, the cosmic and ethnic law by which 
 the primitive tribes had been carried 
 from their Asiatic origin into the West. 
 
 If the study of peoples of Western 
 Asia in ancient and modern times should 
 bring us into contact with Ethiopian 
 and Nigritian tribes — if we should find in 
 certain places the distribution of Black 
 men of the ethnic type peculiar to Equa-
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG. — IRGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 163 
 
 No Blacks in 
 Western Asia; 
 Egyptians from 
 the East. 
 
 torial Africa, speaking the languages of 
 that region and having their manners 
 and customs — we might 
 well suspect that there had 
 been at some time in the 
 past a race movement from tlie direction 
 of the Red sea backwards toward the Cas- 
 pian, the Persian gulf, and the borders 
 of India. But no such evidences have 
 been discovered. On the contrary, the 
 impingement of Asiatic races upon the 
 African coast as far south as the equato- 
 rial region is a fact everywhere attested. 
 The movement of mankind in this region 
 has been from the Persian gulf toward 
 the Red sea and Abyssinia. Indeed, we 
 can see dimly through the prehistoric 
 shadows to the time when, probably six 
 thousand or eight thousand years before 
 the Christian era, the ancestors of the 
 Egyptians themselves made their way 
 into the valley of the Nile, out of Asia, 
 became sedentary in that favorable situ- 
 ation, and planted there, after a long 
 period of development, those first famous 
 dynasties which mark, like far-off moun- 
 tain peaks, the extreme verge of the 
 historical horizon. 
 
 Again, should we begin an inquiry in 
 regard to the Mongoloid races, we should 
 Mongolians find them pressing from the 
 
 interior of Central Asia 
 eastward toward the Pacific. 
 The older divisions of this race are in- 
 land peoples rather than maritime. The 
 maritime and insular families are more 
 recent. The Japanese are younger than 
 the Chinese, and the Polynesian island- 
 ers are of later date than the continental 
 Mongoloids, from whom they are de- 
 scended. We must therefore accept 
 the conclusion that the general diffusion 
 of the eastern Asiatics has been from the 
 direction of Central Asia toward the 
 Pacific, and that the ethnic movement 
 has been strong enough to carry the van- 
 
 move east-ward 
 from Central 
 Asia. 
 
 guard into peninsular and insular situa- 
 tions far removed from the original seats 
 of the race. 
 
 The principles of ethnology and lin- 
 guistic inquiry applied to the Black races 
 give similar results. These Nigritian dis- 
 races are found only P-f---" 
 in Central and Southern European origin. 
 Africa, in ^Melanesia, and Australia. As 
 to Africa, the ethnic distribution, as far 
 as it has been discovered and traced, is 
 from the eastern coast into the interior, 
 and as far west as to where the continent 
 becomes almost peninsular in the direc- 
 tion of the Cape Verde islands. The 
 theory of a European origin for the race 
 of man is scientifically contradicted by 
 the present distribution of the Nigritian 
 peoples, and by the direction from which 
 the diffusion has been effected. In like 
 manner it would be impossible to find 
 any European stem to which the native 
 Australians and Melanesian islanders 
 can be referred — this for the reason 
 that there are neither ethnographical 
 nor linguistic traces of such peoples 
 between the countries which they now 
 occupy and the borders of Europe. 
 
 The same may be said also of Asia — 
 unless, indeed, we should except the ex- 
 treme southern parts of No continental 
 
 Hindustan. There, indeed, P°Son°;/^Sc"k 
 are found the Veddahs races, 
 and other descendants of a race belong- 
 ing, ethnologically, to the same branch 
 with the Negroes and the Melanesians. 
 There is, in a word, ho continental or' 
 igin which can well be assigned for 
 the Black races, unless we should fix 
 the same within the equatorial belt on 
 the eastern coast of Africa. From that 
 point, indeed, the Nigritian peoples 
 may all be derived with a fair conform- 
 ity to science and right reason. At the 
 same time, however, there would appear 
 to be insuperable objections to this lo-
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 165 
 
 cality as the original nidus of the Black 
 races. For in order to deduce from such 
 a situation the natives of Australia and 
 Melanesia, the original stock must have 
 crossed the Indian ocean through several 
 thousand miles — a hypothesis hardly 
 tenable under the law of probabilities. 
 
 If, moreover, we allow a great an- 
 tiquity for the Black races, and fix some 
 spot in Eastern Africa as the point of 
 their departure, we are at a total loss in 
 
 so-called Caucasian, or White, variety of 
 the human species from an original seat 
 in Africa — this whether we call that 
 original seat by the name of Eden and 
 surround it with the circumstances of 
 the terrestrial Paradise, or view it merely 
 as the locality from which the tool-mak- 
 ing, fire-kindling, anthropoid ancestors 
 of mankind arose and took their depar- 
 tttre to people the world. 
 
 Analagous reasoning may be applied 
 
 EVIDENCE OF PREHISTORIC RACES IN AMERICA.— (i) Building of the Pueblos, Restored. 
 
 attempting to derive therefrom the great 
 
 Brown peoples of Eastern Asia or the 
 
 Ruddy races of Western 
 
 Bro-sni Asiatics . ^ 
 
 can not have an Asia and Europc. If we 
 rioan origin. gj^Quld establish the origin 
 of the Black race in the continent, where 
 it now displays itself in great diversity 
 and power, then we should be obliged to 
 abandon the monogeffetic theory of the 
 origin of mankind and agree that the 
 Black races are of one ultimate stock and 
 the Ruddy races of another. Of a cer- 
 tainty it is not possible to derive the 
 
 with the same results to the supposition 
 that the American continents may have 
 been the original home of man. To this 
 hypothesis the deductions of almost every 
 branch of science are opposed. As to the 
 White race and the Black American conti- 
 race we know the dates of "^^^^^^^ 
 their arrival on the shores ""an. 
 of the New World . While there are evi- 
 dences in all the three Americas of the 
 great antiquity of the aboriginal peoples 
 who occupied and, to a certain extent, 
 civilized the milder and more favorable
 
 166 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 regions of the western hemisphere, there 
 are no other than the most visionary rea- 
 sons for supposing that the great histori- 
 cal peoples of Asia, Africa, and Europe 
 were derived therefrom. The habits, 
 manners, customs, arts, and physical 
 characteristics of the original Americans 
 — by whatever names we may define 
 them — ally them with the Mongoloid divi- 
 sions of mankind, and suggest with great 
 emphasis a derivation by way of the 
 northwest out of Asia, or by the Polyne- 
 sian islands to South America. But to 
 
 EVIDKNCK i-il 1 Ul.illalORlC RACtS IN A.MLRICA — (2) I'VK 
 IDAL MOUND IN MEXICO. 
 
 draw outward across the oceans from 
 any part of our three continents the 
 lines of ethnic distribution, and to carry 
 them to Europe, Africa, or Asia, is 
 to contradict every principle of eth- 
 nography, and to run amuck with all the 
 facts which science has discovered rela- 
 tive to the earliest inhabitants of the 
 continents round about our own. 
 
 Upon the known direction of primi- 
 tive migrations we may plant ourselves 
 firmly in this inquiry. When a given 
 race of the prehistoric times has come by 
 
 long descent and removal from a given 
 point of the horizon, wc may look confi- 
 dently in that direction in Direction of mU 
 
 the hope of discovering a f^^rtoV^"' 
 region of general ethnic o"gin. 
 dispersion — this always upon the hy- 
 pothesis that all the races of men are of 
 one common iiltinialc derivation. But 
 the inquirer, in following backwards as 
 far as he can with fact and theory the 
 lines of ethnic distribution, is likely to 
 come upon many confusing and some 
 seemingly contradictory evidence. Noth- 
 ing in which man has been con- 
 cerned is regular or mathematical. 
 Life has its order and its law; but 
 it is the order of freedom and the 
 law of variation. The calculus by 
 which the movements of all living 
 organisms, particularly those which 
 are rational, are governed, is vastly 
 more intricate than that in which are 
 expressed the mathematical laws and 
 principia governing material nature. 
 The inquirer, however, in consider- 
 ing the movements of the primitive 
 races of men, is as likely to be aided 
 as he is to be confounded Avith the 
 irregularities and ostensible lawless- 
 ness which appear in certain parts of 
 the problem. 
 ■^'" In no other part of the question is 
 this fact more noticeable than in that 
 relating to the general directions of the 
 movements of mankind from Orient to 
 
 Occident. At first glance General move- 
 we should easily conclude ^aces ftom'east 
 
 that the proper course of to west, 
 the human race had always been, as indi- 
 cated above, from east to west. This is, 
 indeed, one of the most tangible circum- 
 stances that presents itself to the ethnolo- 
 gist. We should say at the fir.st that all 
 men and tribes and peoples naturally fol- 
 low in the course of the .sun from his 
 rise to his .setting. Undoubtedly the
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT FROM MIGRATION. 167 
 
 tvhole of Europe, and, indeed, all of the 
 Mediterranean countries have been pop- 
 ulated in accordance with this cosmic 
 law. So, also, in America, leaving- out 
 of view the aborigines, we note the tre- 
 mendous pressure of the White races 
 from the eastern to the central and west- 
 ern parts of the continents. 
 
 It would be a mistake, however, to 
 suppose that all ethnic movements have 
 Exceptional been in like direction. In- 
 S:ranrn:tnre animate nature shows many 
 against the sun. exceptions to the gen- 
 eral disposition of vines and tendrils to 
 adjust them- 
 selves from left 
 to right around 
 the objects to 
 which they 
 cling. Some 
 vines and ten- 
 drils turn the 
 other way. 
 The ethnog- 
 rapher, follow- 
 ing his clues 
 eastward across 
 Europe and 
 Western Asia, 
 comes at length 
 to a reofion 
 
 If the observer take his position on 
 the northern shore of the gulf of Oman 
 and look straight across watershed be- 
 Asia in the direction of tweenwest- 
 
 bound and east- 
 
 Nova Zembla, he will have bound races, 
 before him a continental line which 
 will approximately coincide with a sort 
 of ethnic watershed in the histor}- of 
 mankind from which the races have 
 flowed to right and left in the original 
 distribution. Of a certaint)^ this state- 
 ment is not scientifically exact. There 
 will be found much twisting and turn- 
 ing after the manner of streams that take 
 
 SACKS — (3) laiNS ( 
 
 where the lines seemingly enter the 
 earth, and where others springing up 
 depart in an easterly direction. By careful 
 study from north to south through this 
 region of the earth he finds the recur- 
 rence of the same phenomena. In a 
 word, he is unable to trace further the 
 footmarks of the Aryan races. It is nat- 
 ural, and, indeed, necessary, to the prose- 
 cution of the inquiry that this particular 
 belt from which the lines of ethnic 
 transmission seem to depart to right 
 and left, that is, to east and west 
 alike, should be examined with great 
 care. 
 
 their rise, flowing in their upper courses 
 in many directions rather than in one, 
 until a heavy volume has been acquired 
 and a definite course determined. But, 
 on the whole, that belt of Asia lying be- 
 tween the fiftieth and sixtieth parallels 
 of longitude east from Greenwich will be 
 found to contain the fountain heads, as 
 far as the same have been discovered, 
 not only of the Europic- Aryan races, but 
 also of the vast Indie and Iranic-Aryan 
 families, as well as the still more widely 
 distributed Mongolian families by which 
 the larger part of Asia, Polynesia, and the 
 aboriginal Americas have been peopled.
 
 168 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKTXD. 
 
 The geographical belt in question co- 
 incides roughly with the line of the river 
 Primitive races Ural, the Caspian, the divi- 
 depart right and ..j^^^ of modem Persia cen- 
 
 leit irom a com- 
 mon belt, trally from north to sotith, 
 
 the Persian gulf and its outlet into the 
 Arabian sea. So far as ethnological re- 
 search has extended, it may be averred 
 that all the primitive races departed 
 from this belt in their primal distribu- 
 
 ceptional deviations and reflections as 
 may be accounted for by geographical 
 contingencies and the vicissitudes of dis- 
 covery and war. 
 
 So also were the Semitic and the 
 Hamitic families dispersed from the 
 same belt of the earth's surface. If we 
 press the inquiry further we shall find 
 the first appearance of the Black races 
 on the eastern coast of Africa, in the 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF ETHNIC WATERSHED —Mountains of Jobla.— Drawn by G. Vuillier. 
 
 tion in an easterly or westerly direc- 
 tion. It was only after the migrations 
 of the Mongoloid races had carried them 
 to the eastern borders of the continent 
 against the Yellow sea, the sea of Japan, 
 and the sea of Okhotsk that the lines of 
 ethnic diffusion were bent backwards in 
 a westerly -direction across the north- 
 ern and northwestern parts of Asia. In 
 like manner from the same meridian the 
 migrations of the European Aryans were 
 always to the west, with only such ex- 
 
 southern part of Hindustan — the former 
 moving in a western direction and the 
 latter in an eastern — show- au non-Aryans 
 ing conclusively that the ^.^rofdeP-' 
 Black division or divi- ture. 
 sions of mankind also departed to right 
 and left from a meridian almost identi- 
 cal with the watershed of the White and 
 Brown races across Asia. It is hardly 
 pressing the hypothesis beyond the war- 
 rant of established facts to say that with- 
 in the belt of land and sea bounded by
 
 X 
 C
 
 170 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the fiftieth and sixty-fifth meridians of 
 lon<ritude east from (Greenwich the first 
 fountains of man-life in the earth are 
 to be discovered. 
 
 Under this hypothesis it still remains 
 to be decided in ivliat part of the belt re- 
 ferred to, viewed from 
 
 Recent arrival , , . - 
 
 of the supra- uorth to sotith, the primal 
 Caspian r . gg^ts of mankind are most 
 likely to be found. First of all, we may 
 exclude the north. Nothing- is more 
 clear than that the races now inhabiting 
 the region north of the Caspian, includ- 
 ing the countries drained by the Ural 
 and the Volga, have made their way into 
 those semiarctic countries by toilsome 
 and comparatively recent migrations. 
 We have every reason to believe that 
 the Kirgheez, the Calmucks, the Cossacks 
 of the Don, and the Russian Mongols in 
 general are newcomers in the countries 
 which they now occupy. 
 
 Hereafter we shall see that man, as 
 
 an animal, was not in his primitive state 
 
 adapted to the rigors of such situations 
 
 as those lying between the 
 
 Primeval man , 
 
 uiy adapted to Caspian and the White 
 
 northern rigors. y . , . , 
 
 sea. Into such regions he 
 had to make his way slowly, fortifying 
 his constitution as he went, and learning 
 by much discipline and experience how 
 to prQtect his body from the inclemency 
 of the natural world. We may, there- 
 fore, reject the transcaucasian and 
 supracaspian region from the list of 
 places to be considered in the inquiry. 
 
 To this conclusion we are also led 
 when we consider the impossibility of 
 tracing the Black and Brown races to 
 Impossibiutyof such a gcograjDhical local- 
 *::::frlmthe ity. The derivation, for 
 North. instance, of the Negroes, 
 
 Australians, and Papuans from a coun- 
 try above the fiftieth parallel of north 
 latitude is a thing contradicted by every 
 fact with which we are acquainted and 
 
 by every principle of right reason. 
 Moreover, the races just referred to are 
 much lower in the scale of physical, in- 
 tellectual, and moral development than 
 are the great Indo-European famrlies of 
 men ; from which fact we must either 
 suppose that the Black races have been 
 derived by an inverse order of descent, in- 
 volving retrogression and reversion to- 
 ward the lower order of animals from 
 the higher races of the north, or else re- 
 ject altogether the possibility of a north- 
 ern origin for the native inhabitants of 
 Central Africa, Australia, and Mela- 
 nesia. 
 
 We are thus drawn down from the 
 subarctic regions to the consideration 
 of the countries lying be- Begion between 
 tween the Caspian and the S^^^^ 
 Arabian sea. It is to this indicated. 
 part of the earth, as we have already 
 said, that the ethnic lines of the Aryan 
 races seem to be traceable. The lati- 
 tude coincides with that great belt of 
 our globe, running from east to west, in 
 which the energies of those races have 
 been so magnificently displayed. It is 
 a region presenting- those climatic vicis- 
 situdes tinder Avhich the best discipline 
 and most vigorous development of the 
 human race have been achieved. As 
 we have said above, the lines of Aryan 
 descent do seem to arise from the an- 
 cient Iranian region under considera- 
 tion, and to depart to both east and 
 west, as might be expected, if this were 
 the starting point of human develop- 
 ment. Limiting our view, therefore, to 
 ike A ryan races only, we might well be- 
 lieve that we had discovered in the 
 region north of the Persian gulf and 
 included between that water and the 
 eastern extension of the Caucasus the 
 original home of man. 
 
 This supposition, however, is again 
 confronted with insuperable difficulty
 
 172 
 
 r^REAT RACnS OF jrAXKLYD. 
 
 when we take into consideration the 
 races other than Indo-European. There 
 Mongolians and have never been discovered 
 
 Blacks not de- • ^j^ countries south of 
 riTable from this 
 
 region. the fiftieth parallel and 
 
 •west of the sixtieth meridian the slight- 
 est trace of the Mongoloid families of 
 men. North of the Caspian and the 
 Black sea Mongols are abundantly dis- 
 tributed; but on the plateau of Iran, 
 from which Aryan life appears to have 
 taken its rise, no vestigia of Mongoloid 
 existence have been found. Still more 
 is this true of the Blacks. The Nigri- 
 tians have nowhere risen above the 
 twentieth parallel of north latitude — ex- 
 cept, indeed, in countries like the United 
 States, where the presence of the Blacks 
 is to be accounted for on other than eth- 
 nic principles. If we attempt to deduce 
 the Black races from what appears to 
 be the Aiyan nidus in Bactria, we are 
 confronted with the same insuperable 
 difficulties mentioned above. ,. The 
 Black races have not advanced as far 
 along the lines of the human evolution 
 as the so-called Caucasians. Their phys- 
 ical structure, their intellectual com- 
 pass, and their moral attributes are all 
 clearly of a more primitive and less 
 specialized form of life than we find in 
 the peoples of Western Asia and Eu- 
 rope. There must, therefore, have been 
 retrogression in the case of the Blacks, 
 or else a derivation from some region 
 lying approximate to the equator. 
 There has not been retrogression. 
 
 It would thus seem to be impossible 
 to find a position on the land surface of 
 No land surface the earth, as the same is now 
 rXoVl'he''" distributed, from which 
 problem. the Black, the Brown, 
 
 and the Ruddy races can be derived as 
 from a common original home. Indeed, 
 it is impossible to make such derivation ; 
 but when this is said, the limirtations of 
 
 possibility are determined by the re- 
 sources of our present knowledge. It is 
 altogether correct for the inquirer to 
 use such language in the present age 
 and at the present stage of human at- 
 tainment. But it is not meant that it 
 is absolutely beyond the boundaries of 
 the possible that the Ethiopians and the 
 natives of Australia should have been 
 derived from some point on the conti- 
 nent of Asia. vSuch conclusion, how- 
 ever, appears so strongly impossible, 
 and is so immensely improbable, that 
 we are warranted in adopting the ex- 
 pression, and in rejecting altogether the 
 supposition of an Asiatic origin for the 
 Black races of mankind. 
 
 What then? If the Aryan races have 
 not been derived from Africa or Aus- 
 tralia, as they have not 
 
 •' Tenability of 
 
 been; if the Brown races, another hy- 
 the great Mongoloid divi- ^° 
 sions of mankind, have not and can not 
 have had an African origin ; and if they 
 have not been found, even by trace or 
 tradition, as far west in central and 
 southern Asia as the seat of the Indo- 
 Europeans, must we conclude that the 
 discovery of a common primitive home 
 for the first men of the human species 
 is impossible, and must we adopt the 
 theory of a multiple origin for the dif- 
 ferent races? Not at all. There still 
 remains a single view which, if adopted, 
 may make consistent the theory of mon- 
 ogenesis and progressive distribution 
 with what we know of the present eth- 
 nic position and fonner migrations of 
 the various peoples of the earth. This 
 view is in brief, that the geographical 
 distribution of land and water in that 
 quarter of the earth from which it would 
 appear that the human race has taken 
 its origin may not be, and in all proba- 
 bility is not, the same as it was at the 
 date of the appearance of man.
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— LEMIRIA. 
 
 173 
 
 There are many grounds for believing 
 that the water area now occupied with 
 Grounds for the Arabian sea and the 
 suw?|ed"con- northern parts of the Indian 
 tinent. ocean, including Mada- 
 
 gascar and extending eastward almost 
 to Australia and the Malay peninsula, 
 was formerly a continent upon which 
 
 a great submerged continent in the re- 
 gion referred to is rendered probable, if 
 not positively established, by several 
 kinds of inquiry having no reference to 
 ethnological results. 
 
 In the first place, the shoal character 
 of the waters of the greater part of the 
 Indian ocean is a well-known fact of 
 
 i 
 
 IDEAL LANDSCAPE OF LE.MURIA.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 the ocean gradually encroached until its 
 submergence was effected. If this sug- 
 gestion were made with a view merely 
 to furnish a possible common home for 
 primitive mankind, it might at once be 
 rejected as a part and example of that 
 visionary reasoning in which dogmatic 
 scholarship has so much delighted for 
 several centuries; but the existence of 
 
 marine geography. That part of the 
 ocean between the thirtieth degree of 
 south latitude and the equa- shoai character 
 tor bounded east and west ^^J^^j^ "^^ 
 by Madagascar and the ocean. 
 eightieth meridian from Greenwich is 
 very shoal. Should we take our stand 
 on the island of ]SIauritius or Rodriguez, 
 we should see around us a vast area of
 
 174 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKlXD. 
 
 shallow sea. Even beyond the borders 
 of this the waters are not deep like those 
 of the profound Pacific. A compara- 
 tively slight recession of the ocean such 
 as we may well suppose to occur in one 
 of those secular movements to which 
 the fluid surface of the earth has been 
 
 these may be mentioned with confidence 
 the distribution of animals and plants on 
 the two sides of the Indian Evidences of 
 ocean. The birds of Mad- '^^^l^^^::^^ 
 aga.scar and those of the "^"t. 
 Malay peninsula are of a common type. 
 Certain species of palm trees, which are 
 
 LANDSCAPE IN BELUCHISTAN.— DEPARTURE OF THE BROWN R.\CES. 
 
 many times subjected in the past, and 
 which we know to be actively in opera- 
 tion — though slowty — at the present 
 time, would be sufficient to lay bare a 
 continent much larger than Australia in 
 the region between the Malay archipel- 
 ago and the eastern coast of Africa. 
 
 The former existence of such a conti- 
 nent is attested b}^ many proofs. Among 
 
 disseminated with great difficulty by 
 seed or transplanting, are common in 
 Singapore, the Moluccas, New Guinea, 
 Australia, and the western islands of 
 Polynesia. Botanists of great reputa- 
 tion have insisted that this distribution 
 could not have been made witJiout a con- 
 tinnons land-bridge among the countries 
 where this species of palms is found.
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGL\\\UNG.—LEMURIA. 
 
 175 
 
 fX^W 
 
 In like manner the conclusions of 
 
 geology are at least consistent with the 
 
 former existence of a con- 
 
 Geological indi- . . ' . 
 
 cations of the tinent in what is now the 
 
 same fact, i t /* ^ i t t 
 
 bed of the Indian ocean. 
 Geology recognizes clearly two secular 
 processes by which a 
 continent existing in 
 this region could have 
 ceased to exist by 
 emergence under the 
 sea. One of these is 
 the settling, or sink- 
 ing, of the low-lying 
 tropical lands in 
 question below the 
 level of the ocean. 
 The other is the en- 
 croachment of the sea 
 by one of those vast 
 fluctuations of the 
 presence of which in 
 geological time there 
 are many indications. 
 Still another con- 
 sideration worthy to 
 be weighed in the 
 argument is the fact 
 that the human race 
 must have had some 
 geographical starting 
 point on the earth. 
 The area from which 
 mankind began to be 
 distributed may have 
 been larger or small- 
 er ; but the very ne- 
 cessity of the case re- 
 quires us to select 
 some locality as the probable home of the 
 first men. Thus much granted, the lo- 
 Piace of man's cality must auswer to the 
 
 origin must an- i, , „.i • -r, 
 
 swertosome hypothesis. It Were vam 
 hypothesis. to Select some place from 
 
 which the various races could not have 
 been derived. This kind of reasoning is 
 
 strictly scientific. The search must be for 
 some situation which will answer to the 
 conditions and the facts as they now ap- 
 pear. If we may find any region on the 
 land, or even the water surface, of the 
 earth toward which the indications of eth- 
 
 HOFFMAN S SLOTHS. 
 After a drawing from life. 
 
 nography, philology, anthropology, his- 
 tory, and tradition all alike point as to a 
 locality from which all the varieties of 
 men might have been diffused, this fact 
 of itself becomes a powerful argument 
 in favor of that locality. Indeed, it is 
 this particular reasoning which has
 
 176 
 
 GREAT RACES OF ^fAXKLXD. 
 
 brought us at length to the conclusion 
 that the most probable locality in which 
 to establish the first seat of the human 
 race xvas in a coiitiiuiit mm' submerged be- 
 7ieath tlie Indian oeean. 
 
 If \ve accept such a hypothesis, the 
 whole question begins to clear. The 
 Ethnic outlook existence being granted of 
 sUiout^onT" «"^-h a continent, to which 
 "ent. -we may say, once for all, 
 
 that the name of Lemuria has been 
 assigned, we are able to look out, as it 
 
 with fair probability the departure of the 
 Ijre-Mongolians in the direction of Bel- 
 uchistan or Western India, for in these 
 countries the first traces of Mongoloid 
 life are discoverable. Lastly, we may 
 imagine a Dravidian line of ethnic de- 
 scent carried almost in the same direc- 
 tion with the pre-Mongolian, upon 
 which, in Beluchistan or Eastern Per- 
 sia, we may place the primal develop- 
 ment of the Ruddy, or White, race of 
 mankind. All of these suppositions are 
 
 BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROOS. 
 
 were, along the lines of the primitive 
 dispersion of mankind. To the west we 
 may note the departure of the Nigritian 
 stem, the presence of which is historic- 
 all}^ discovered first of all on the mid- 
 eastern coast of Africa. To the east we 
 may remark in like manner the diver- 
 gence of another line of Black men whose 
 presence we find within the historical 
 period on the northwestern coast of 
 Australia, in New Zealand, and in the 
 extreme south of Hindustan. Without 
 changing our position we may perceive 
 
 cited in this connection not because 
 they include established facts, not be- 
 cause they represent scientific knowl- 
 edge of the first distribution of men, but 
 because they do furnish a consistent basis 
 for such an inquiry and harmonize, as 
 is believed, in every part with the pres- 
 ent results of investigation, and accord 
 with what may be called the necessities 
 of the case. 
 
 But we are not left entirely to reason 
 and conjecture as it respects the fixing 
 of the primitive seat of the htiman race
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING.— LEMURI A. 
 
 177 
 
 in Lemuria. Much scientific evidence 
 may be adduced to strengthen the hy- 
 The nature of pothesis. In the first place, 
 u^p^alb^gr m^-^n i« originally a tropical 
 >""£• animal. The very least 
 
 that can be said is that he is by his na- 
 ture semitropical in constitution and 
 habits. We are obliged to select for 
 him an original habitat corresponding 
 with these conditions. Let us remark, 
 once for all, that where these conditions 
 have been maintained, there the race 
 has invariably made least progress from 
 its original state. The lowest forms of 
 man-life are tropical. The most original 
 types are found in those regions where 
 the environment has prevented the evo- 
 lution of the higher human varieties. In 
 a word, the life of man seems in the 
 tropical situation to have continued on 
 the original plane, with little variation un- 
 der the influences of physical nature. 
 
 Not so, however, with those peoples 
 who have departed from the original en- 
 Deveiopmentco- vironment. As soon as the 
 t^:ltol unclothed primitive man, 
 point of origin, covered witli his delicate 
 skin, -made his way from his warm and 
 equable climatic surroundings and be- 
 gan to be exposed, first to the vicis- 
 situdes, and further on to the rigors of 
 higher latitudes, he began to acquire the 
 discipline of nature, to be specialized in 
 his faculties, quickened in his energies, 
 and strengthened for battle with the op. 
 posing forces of the material world. With 
 this he began to rise in the scale of 
 existence. The extreme distance of his 
 departure is now measured by the span 
 between the Papuan and the German. 
 
 The significance of these facts is that 
 human life began from some region 
 where tropical or semitropical conditions 
 prevailed, and that its progress has 
 been coincident with its departure into re- 
 gions where the warfare of nature and the 
 
 struggle for existence have developed 
 and symmetrized the body, awakened the 
 mind, and produced by Conditions 
 
 '■ , ^ favorable to 
 
 complexity, reaction, re- beginning un- 
 
 ri , • 1.1 1 , . favorable to de- 
 
 flection, and the evolution veiopment. 
 
 of conscience the higher phenomena of 
 the moral life. Limiting our inquiry to 
 the period of geological time this side of 
 the last glacial epoch, the conditions 
 favorable for the beginnings of our race 
 life can be found only within the tropics, 
 or at least close to the Tropic of Cancer ; 
 not above that line. The distinction 
 between a situation favorable for the un- 
 aided beginnijig of the first men and the 
 situation most favorable to the develop- 
 ment of the race into hardihood, activity, 
 and greatness, must be constantly borne 
 in mind. 
 
 We are thus led by many lines of sug- 
 gestion and argument to select as the 
 probable home of the an- 
 
 •^ Conclusion of a 
 
 CestorS of the human species Lemurian origin 
 , , , . not final. 
 
 the countries now over- 
 washed by the comparatively shoal waters 
 of the Indian ocean. It is proper to say 
 that such a conclusion is not absolute and 
 final. Further investigation may pos- 
 sibly show us another way ; but it is not 
 probable that the conclusion will ever be 
 displaced by a different hypothesis or 
 seriously modified by subsequent inves- 
 tigation. It is a principle of science that 
 that hypothesis which explains a given 
 group of phenomena, which contradicts 
 none of the facts and is consistent with 
 all, passes, at least tentatively, into the 
 theoretical phase of knowledge ; and this 
 is at the present day the condition of the 
 inquiry with respect to the primal seat 
 of mankind in the Lemurian continent. 
 
 We ma}' not, however, pass from the 
 proofs which are adducible in favor of 
 this conclusion without citing the strong 
 argument drawn from the distribution of 
 the primate animals. If we strike a cir-
 
 178 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKIM). 
 
 Gradation of 
 animal life up 
 ■ward toward 
 Lemuria. 
 
 cle around the shores of those waters 
 which now cover the Lemurian conti- 
 nent, we shall find strong 
 evidences of what may be 
 called a zoological climax in 
 the area covered by the Indian ocean. 
 The view here taken includes the whole 
 earth. There is in general a gradation 
 of animal life npivard from the horizon 
 iozL'ard this region. If we approach the 
 so-called Lemuria from any point of the 
 compass, west, north, east, or southeast, 
 we shall find the animals graded up to- 
 ward man, as though somewhere in this 
 region he stood on the apex of all life. 
 The zoological conditions of the primi- 
 tive world seem to have been such as to 
 make the appearance of man in any other 
 quarter than in the tropical Orient im- 
 possible — unless, indeed, we suppose the 
 uniform gradations of animal life to have 
 been suddenly broken and reversed in 
 the case of man by his displacement in 
 time and locality from that region of the 
 earth where the other forms of animate 
 existence had been most highly devel- 
 oped. 
 
 A glance at a few facts and principles 
 of zo6log\- may serve to show the force 
 Illustrations of of the.se deductious. Aus- 
 t^tltT^^ tralia is the native home 
 center. Qf \^q marsupial animals. 
 
 These are the lowest in the scale of the 
 hot-blooded creatures with which the 
 human species is particularly associated. 
 True, the marsupials are widely distrib- 
 uted in other quarters of the globe ; but 
 it is evident that their presence in for- 
 eign parts is, as it were, at the extreme 
 of zoological lines which are central in 
 Australia. In the next place, the South 
 American continent is the primal seat of 
 the edentates, or toothless animals, which 
 are next in order of development above 
 the marsupials. Primitive North Amer- 
 ica was the home of the herbivorous ani- 
 
 mals, which are third from the lowest in 
 the evolution. The tropical Orient is 
 clearly the native seat of the great car- 
 nivora, which are one stage higher than 
 the herbivora in the scale of develop- 
 ment. As in the case of the marsupials, 
 so also the edentates, the herbivora, and 
 the carnivora are of world-wide distri- 
 bution ; but the density of the several 
 orders, as well as their multiplicity and 
 high development in the respective situ- 
 ations indicated, points to those regions 
 as the zoological centers of these differ- 
 ent orders of life. In a word, Australia 
 is on the lowest zoological plane, South 
 America next, North America third, 
 and the Oriental countries within the 
 tropics fourth in the ascending scale. 
 
 The argfument is strengthened in an 
 especial manner when we come to con- 
 sider the distribution of the Primate animals 
 primates, or of those forms j^^r.^^^^J.^t 
 of animal life next to Lemuria. 
 man. This subject has been investigated 
 with great care by the English naturalist, 
 Wallace, and the American palaeontolo- 
 gist, Winchell — by the former, in his 
 work on the Geographical Distribution of 
 Animals, and by the latter in the prepara- 
 tion of the materials for his Preadaniites. 
 For the purpose of making clear their 
 reasoning, the earth has been divided 
 into several regions to which specific 
 names are given as an aid to understand- 
 ing the distribution of the primates 
 throughout the world. The first division, 
 including Eiirope and Asia, except the 
 Malay peninsula, Hindustan, Southern 
 Arabia, and Africa north of the Tropic 
 of Cancer, is designated as the Palasarc- 
 tic region. The remainder of Africa, 
 including Madagascar and the adja- 
 cent islands, is called the Ethiopian 
 region. The Oriental region includes 
 the Malay peninsula and islands, Hin- 
 dustan, and Southern Arabia, Aus-
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGIXXIXG—LEMURIA. 
 
 179 
 
 tralia, Poh-nesia, and Xew Zealand 
 are defined as the Australian region. 
 South America, the West Indies, and 
 Mexico as far north as the tropic, con- 
 stitute the Neotropical region, while the 
 remainder of North America is defined 
 as the Nearctic region. The problem is 
 with the map thus adjusted, to deter- 
 mine by orders, suborders, and families 
 the distribution of the primate animals. 
 
 which we have fixed upon as the prob- 
 able home of the first men, was held in 
 between the two approxi- Raceofsup- 
 
 '■ '■ posed continent 
 
 mate parts defined in the between Ethio- 
 
 1 1 1,1 ..-i, r^ii- • • pian and Orien- 
 
 above table as the Ethiopian tai regions, 
 and Oriental regions. A glance at the 
 synopsis will show the astonishing pre- 
 ponderance of the primate animals in 
 those countries. True, the largest sin- 
 gle distribution is that of one hundred 
 
 AMKRICAX MOXKEY W 
 
 The following table prepared by Win- 
 chell contains an abstract of the results : 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMATE AND CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. 
 
 No. OF FaM[LIES. 
 
 
 2 » 
 
 c 
 ~.2 
 
 .1 = 
 
 < 
 
 u . 
 
 1.1 
 
 ■" 
 
 O^VoVld Monkeys WWW 
 Baboons and Macaques... 
 American Monkeys 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 II 
 42 
 
 10 
 28 
 
 =3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 si 
 
 33 
 
 114 
 
 162 
 
 '. ' 
 
 Total Anthropoids 
 
 Lemurs 
 
 Tassiers .... 
 
 55 
 49 
 
 61 
 4 
 
 
 Aye-ayes 
 
 Total Lemuroids. 
 
 Total Primates 
 
 Carnivora .... 
 
 Total Primates and 
 Carnivora 
 
 I 
 50 
 
 90 
 195 
 
 5 
 
 66 
 
 95 
 
 161 
 
 43 
 43 
 
 It will be remembered by the reader 
 that the supposed continent of Lemuria, 
 
 and fourteen species in South America : 
 but it has been noted that the South 
 American primates are much lower in 
 order of development than are those of 
 Southern Asia and Eastern Africa. No 
 apes or any of the higher primates have 
 been found native in any pail of the 
 New "World. Leaving out, therefore, 
 from the count the vSouth American 
 monkeys and marmosets, which are the 
 very lowest of the anthropoids, Ave have 
 the primates virtually limited to the 
 southern parts of Asia and the tropical 
 parts of Africa. 
 
 The same is true of the lemuroids, 
 which are found only in the Ethiopian 
 and Oriental regions, with the single 
 exception of one species of Tarsiers for
 
 180 
 
 GREAT RACES OF jrAXA'/XD. 
 
 Australia. In the case of the carnivora 
 there is, in the regions just named, an 
 
 Lemurs and Car- eXCeSS of fullv fifty per 
 nivora increase ^ ^^.^.j. ^]-,^, „^„nber of 
 
 tovrard luaian 
 
 ocean. species found in any other 
 
 great division of the earth. From all 
 of which we note conclusively and em- 
 phatically the climacteric tendency of all 
 the higher forms of life, most particu- 
 larly of the primate animals toward the 
 basin of the Indian ocean. On the hy- 
 pothesis that the bottom of this com- 
 paratively shallow sea constituted in 
 
 GROUP OF LEMURS. 
 
 prehistoric ages a low-lying, tropical 
 continent — reaching on the one hand to 
 the Asiatic peninsulas, and on the other 
 to the coast of Africa — we are able to 
 see with strong probability in this re- 
 gion an apex of the animal evolution, 
 and near that culmination the ancestors 
 of the human species. 
 
 The argument is intensified when we 
 estimate the character of the human 
 species round about the seeming cul- 
 mination of the lower orders of life in the 
 Lemurian region. While these orders, 
 as we have seen, rise to an apex in the 
 
 direction of the Indian ocean, the human 
 species _/v?// nj^ inversely in the same di- 
 reetion. This is said of 
 
 Mankind falls ofl 
 
 the general character of inversely in the 
 
 ., T«. . same direction. 
 
 the different races as meas- 
 ured by the extent of their departure 
 from Lemuria. Instead of finding the 
 highest type of men heading in the di- 
 rection of the hypothetical continent 
 referred to, thus following the trend 
 inanifested by all the lower orders of an- 
 imals, the law in the case of man is 
 totally reversed. If we seek for the very 
 lowest types of human 
 beings, we must do 
 so among the Papu- 
 ans and natives of 
 Australia. After 
 these, we must look 
 to Africa for the next 
 in order of ascent. 
 Thence we should 
 have to consider the 
 native races of South 
 America, and from 
 these might proceed 
 to the aborigines of 
 our own continent ; 
 thence to the Poly- 
 nesian islands, and to 
 the races of Eastern 
 and Northern Asia ; 
 finally to the Aryan division of mankind, 
 with its magnificent development in such 
 groups as the English-speaking, French- 
 speaking, and German-speaking families. 
 The course of this excursion is mani- 
 festly outward from the region of 
 Lemuria. Certainly the Lowest dip of 
 diagram is far from perfect ^^^e^^h 
 or exact ; but in general of animaUty. 
 the rise of human life, as estimated by 
 its elevation and proficiency, seems to 
 have been from that precise quarter of 
 the world toward which the lower orders 
 of animated nature ascend to a climax I
 
 PLACE OF THE BEGINNING—LEMURIA. 
 
 181 
 
 This is to say that at the lowest geograph- , beginning, so in that for the place of the 
 leal dip of the human species it seems to ' beginning there must be, in the present 
 touch the highest lift of the subordinate state of human knowledge, piaceofc 
 orders of living beings! Where the 
 
 highest of the lower primates reach their 
 culmination, there the lowest of mankind 
 
 ongin 
 
 a considerable margin left ''Ofjecturai 
 
 *=> rather than ex- 
 
 f or uncertainty. The reader act. 
 
 in pursuing such inquiries must remem. 
 
 
 FA^tILY OF GORILLAS. 
 
 take their rise. It is as though the 
 noblest of the anthropoids should from 
 the sunken continent hold out his right 
 hand to touch the left hand of the most 
 ignoble of human kind. 
 
 As in the search for the time of the 
 
 ber that all sciences are divided into the 
 exact and the inexact. Knowledge on 
 the one hand is absolute and demon- 
 strable, and on the other probable and 
 approximate. Nearly all deductions rel- 
 ative to the movements, character, and
 
 182 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 circumstances of the human race in the 
 prehistoric ages have in them consider- 
 able elements of doubt and perhaps of 
 positive error; but we are not by any 
 means to place less value on that kind 
 of knowledge which we are able to gain 
 concerning the first estate of mankind — 
 its time, its place, its circumstances — 
 than if we might apply thereto the for- 
 mukc of exact science. 
 
 Perhaps the human mind would rest 
 in a state of greater satisfaction to know 
 Phuosophicai more precisely the date, 
 advantages of ^j localitv, and all the con- 
 
 uncertain * ' 
 
 knowledge. comitants and conditions 
 
 under which our ethnic career began. 
 Nevertheless, exact knowledge has its 
 discounts and defects in the treasure- 
 total of our mental wealth. It may be 
 
 obseri'ed that the exact sciences, while 
 they have a vast and salutary effect upon 
 the mind in con-ecting the judgments and 
 decisions of the intellect, nevertheless 
 tend to reduce all mentality to a formula 
 and mathematical equation. At the 
 same time they tend to weaken by disuse 
 the ideal faculties, to benumb if not de- 
 stroy the fancy and tlic imagination, ^nd 
 thereby diminish that excursive power 
 of the mind tipon which the discovery 
 of truth and beauty has so greatly de- 
 pended. It is not desirable that con- 
 jecture, uncertainty, and doiibt should 
 be removed from the concepts which we 
 form of ourselves and of universal nature, 
 else the dream of the artist and vision 
 of the poet might cease to add their gifts 
 to the treasures of humanitv.
 
 BOOK II -MANNER OF THE BEGINNING. 
 
 Chapter X.— Kiax axd Evolutiox. 
 
 E have now looked with 
 some attention at the 
 great questions of the 
 approximate date and 
 probable place of the 
 first appearance of 
 man-life on the earth. 
 It remains to consider the still more in- 
 teresting problem of the mode of man's 
 appearance — of the process, or processes, 
 the manner, if we may so say, of his 
 coming. Here at the outsei; we are con- 
 inabiiity of man- fronted with the Same dif- 
 ficulty which arose in the 
 previous investigation rel- 
 ative to the time and place of the birth 
 of mankind, namely, the inability of 
 men themselves to testify respecting the 
 circumstances and conditions precedent 
 to the unfolding of consciousness. This 
 is true in the individual life, in the life 
 of the tribe, in the life of the people, in 
 the life of the human race. Conscious- 
 ness began ; but neither perception nor 
 memorj^ is able to pierce the oblivious 
 conditions which preceded the conscious 
 
 kind to testify 
 of the uncon- 
 scious life. 
 
 state, or to give more than imaginary 
 testimony with respect thereto. 
 
 A still more formidable difficulty 
 arises from the preconceptions and 
 deep-set opinions which preconceptions 
 men of every age and race ijnpede the free- 
 
 i-Liv-jj. v^o. v^«v,i_y "^^ c*xxvj. i«^-^ dom of mvesti- 
 
 have formed with regard gation. 
 to the circumstances of their origin. 
 Among almost everj^ people there has 
 been a sort of national faith, involving, 
 first of all, the circumstances of the 
 genesis not only of that people, but of 
 mankind. The belief in some particular 
 manner of the appearance of the race has 
 been interwoven with the philosophical, 
 social, and religious systems of the vari- 
 ous peoples, sometimes forming a part of 
 the political constitution, and always op- 
 posing itself with persistent conservatism 
 to such investigations and excursions of 
 thought as might seem to disturb the 
 existing order. To the present time it 
 has continued to appear to the great 
 majority of the most enlightened peoples 
 that a certain interpretation — accepted 
 from the wisdom of the fathers — respect- 
 
 183
 
 184 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKfXD. 
 
 ing the nature and circumstances of the 
 origin of mankind is essential to the 
 steadiness, welfare, and spiritual eleva- 
 tion of the civilized life. 
 
 Without pausing to discuss the valid- 
 ity of such opinions, we may proceed at 
 Statement of the oucc to an analysis of the 
 two divergent (jiverg-ent views which have 
 
 views; phenom- o 
 
 enai creation. been held with respect 
 to the manner of the beginning. There 
 are two general beliefs on this subject : 
 
 fected form and stature as new existences 
 without ancestry, strangers, so to speak, 
 to the planet upon which their activities 
 were to be displayed and their descend- 
 ants multiplied and disseminated. 
 
 2. That the world and all its forms of 
 life are the result of the process called 
 
 evolution, or growth ; that Evolution 
 
 the different species of --'^---*, 
 animals and plants now bygrowth. 
 aboundinof on the surface of the elr>be 
 
 MANNER OF .MAX'S Al'PEAKANCE.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 I. That the world, with all forms of 
 life existing thereon, was created by the 
 fiat of the Almighty ; that the different 
 species of vegetable and animal existence 
 were produced at once and phenomenally 
 by the agency of an intelligent power 
 over and above the world and apart 
 from it; that the work of creation oc- 
 cupied but a brief interval of time ; and 
 that the various kinds of living creatures 
 appeared under the creative act in per- 
 
 and in its waters and atmosphere sprang 
 from a few primordial germs, or possi- 
 bly a single seed of life, endowed with 
 the power of development, differentia- 
 tion, and adaptation to environment; 
 that the germs of life from which all 
 living forms are descended were exist- 
 ent in the Avorld at a period almost infi- 
 nitel}" removed from the present; that 
 the processes of evolution by which 
 the existing forms of organism have
 
 MANNER OF THE BEG/XX/XG.—F/A T AND ErOLCTIOX. 
 
 185 
 
 been produced have extended over an 
 "incalculable lapse of time, working out 
 their results slowly, tortuously, and pain- 
 fully, but preserving- by survival of the 
 fittest the best forms froin age to age, 
 thus vielding at last bv the struggle of 
 life and by natural selection the approx- 
 imately perfect species of the present 
 age. 
 
 Concerning these two widely diver- 
 gent views several important observa- 
 Paramountin- tions mav be made. In 
 rrItfe:den^cT;f the first place, they have 
 the question. interested and divided the 
 great thinkers of the after-half of the 
 nineteenth century more profoundly than 
 any other question whatsoever. Second- 
 •ly, it may be remarked that in general 
 the scholastic, conservative, and religious 
 elements among the civilized peoples 
 have mostly espoused and held to the 
 doctrine of phenomenal creation, while 
 scientists and progressive thinkers have 
 adopted the theory of evolution. Third- 
 ly, and very importantly, it should be 
 obser\'ed that the fundamental difference 
 between the two opinions is simply one 
 of modus operandi. The evolution hy- 
 pothesis does not account for, and has 
 never undertaken to explain, the origin 
 of life, but has limited the investigation 
 to the vtaitner by which from certain 
 primordial germs the existing races of 
 plants and animals may be accounted 
 for. 
 
 There is thus a common ground 
 which has been greatly overlooked be- 
 common ground tween the creatiouists and 
 ™^'rn°/,t': the evolutionists— for both 
 
 vergence of the 
 
 two opinions. begin with the hypothesis 
 of life. The difference, therefore, takes 
 the following form : That the doctrine 
 of immediate creation lays great stress 
 upon the phenomenal uutliod by which 
 the species or specific prototypes of the 
 various orders of living beings were pro- 
 
 M. — Vol. I — 13 
 
 duced ; while the doctrine of evolution, 
 without attempting to explain the origin 
 of life, proceeds scientifically to consider 
 the long intermediate processes by which 
 primordial organisms were raised by dif- 
 ferentiation and development to the 
 present perfected forms of life. 
 
 Fourthly, there seems to be a grave 
 mistake in the nomenclature by which 
 
 the two views of the origin Grave mlstalie 
 
 of nature and of man are t^^l^:^:^^t 
 distinguished. One is called hypotheses, 
 the Hypothesis of Creation. The other 
 is known as the Hypothesis of Evolution. 
 From this distinction it might well be 
 inferred that those who hold the doctrine 
 of immediate creation reject evolution 
 altogether in the consideration of nat- 
 ural and living phenomena. On the 
 other hand, also, it is plainly inferential 
 from the terms employed that the hy- 
 pothesis of evolution has been made to 
 exclude the notion of creation. As a 
 matter of fact, neither of these infer- 
 ences is correctly drawn, if we are to 
 judge by the state of opinion in the 
 present age. The creationists have not 
 excluded, and do not exclude, evolution 
 as partly explanatory of the facts and 
 conditions of life. They admit that evo- 
 lution has performed a certain subordi- 
 nate and limited office in the production 
 of the living forms now inhabiting the 
 earth ; but they lay great stress upon the 
 phenomenal aspects of the beginning. 
 
 On the other hand, the evolutionists 
 do not exclude creation from the scheme 
 of universal nature. As 
 
 Neither theory 
 
 we have said, they begin is exclusive of 
 the inquir}- with the fact of 
 life. The theory runs thus : Given 
 life — that is, i.ae primordial germs of life 
 — and evolution will account for the 
 rest. But this theory clearly does not 
 preclude creation as a part — that is, 
 the primal part — of the scheme of life.
 
 186 
 
 CRRAT RACnS. OF .IfAXK/XD. 
 
 From which, as indicated above, the 
 true division of opinion relates to the 
 mode of operation — the processes and 
 methods by which the present organic 
 
 dowed with life, and having in them the 
 possibilities of all the descendent species 
 of living beings which now appear on 
 the earth. 
 
 THE TRAnniONAI. EDEN. 
 
 forms have come to pass — whether from 
 perfected ancestral pairs for each species, 
 created by a fiat immediately, and, so to 
 speak, full-grown in power and capacity, 
 m whether from potential germs en- 
 
 Still another observation should be 
 made at the outset with respect to the 
 contention of the two opinions or views 
 of the origin of living species. This 
 is that, on the whole, the belief in evo-
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 187 
 
 lution as explanatory of the modus oper- 
 andi of universal nature has steadily 
 Belief in evoiu- gained grouud in the high- 
 g^rgr^r" est opinion of the age. Its 
 among thinkers, first conquest was that of 
 the earth itself. The hypothesis of cre- 
 ation, that is, of immediate and phe- 
 nomenal creation, formerly included the 
 earth as one of the products of a creative 
 fiat. For a long time the conservative 
 beliefs of the past held their grounds 
 steadily against the encroachments of 
 geology. That science was resisted in 
 its progress by misconception and preju- 
 dice as persistently as was the heliocen- 
 tric theory of our planetary system. Inch 
 by inch the geologist — even as Galileo, 
 his prototype — was obliged to fight his 
 Avay to a truer concept of the modes and 
 processes by which the crust of the earth 
 has been gradually formed through im- 
 measurable ages of time. Step by step 
 he was obliged to struggle with his 
 demonstration that the fossiliferous his- 
 tory of the globe, as well as the history 
 of the globe itself, extended backwards 
 through eons of time and indescribable 
 vicissitudes of transformation. But the 
 evidence was at length sufficient to con- 
 vince, and the ancient concept of the 
 earth retreated before the new. 
 
 This conquest, however, was only the 
 preliminary swirl of another more im- 
 oid opinions poftant. Zoology and bot- 
 ^^trzoViogy^" any, taking up the work 
 and botany. already accomplished by 
 geology, began to demonstrate that the 
 plants and animals now inhabiting the 
 earth are but the descendants and vari- 
 ant forms of others more simple which 
 preceded them in prehistoric time, and 
 these in their turn but the descendants 
 of the fossiliferous species brought to 
 light in the explorations of geology. 
 Against these discoveries the creative 
 hypothesis opposed itself with great 
 
 force and tenacity of purpose. The old 
 opinion had been that the existing 
 plants and lower animals are but the 
 living representatives of others like them- 
 selves, created in perfection and full form 
 only a few thousand years ago — created 
 without an ancestry or previous life of 
 any kind on the earth. 
 
 To yield this long-accepted opinion 
 seemed as if pulling up the sheet anchor 
 of the whole system of thought which, 
 as a ship, had borne the civ- investigation 
 ilized life of man for cen- "^'^^T^'T^^ 
 
 belief as to the 
 
 turies. Nevertheless, the lower orders, 
 evidences in favor of the new theory 
 accumulated. Every excursion into the 
 natural world added its proof in behalf 
 of the belief that the animal and vegeta- 
 ble forms now prevailing over the earth 
 are but the living representatives of 
 more primitive forms preceding them, 
 and they of others back to the geologi- 
 cal era, and thence downward through 
 the measureless ages of time required to 
 build up the crust of the globe from the 
 azoic bed to the present surface. 
 
 At length the evidence prevailed. 
 Again the advocates of immediate and 
 phenomenal creation as applied to the 
 plants and lower animals must recede 
 before the facts and demonstrations of 
 science. The field was yielded with re- 
 luctance, and the scattered squadrons of 
 the ancient theory of the method of the 
 beginning of plant-life and animal life 
 are still seen in various parts, holding 
 the ground against the prevalent opin- 
 ions that have occupied all the heights 
 and vantages of the htmian understand- 
 ing. 
 
 But the advocates of immediate speci- 
 fic creations did not yield ismanexcep- 
 all in conceding that plants '^^^l^fl,. 
 and the lower animals, t"re? 
 such as we now find them in living ex- 
 ample on the earth, were the results of
 
 188 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 an evolutionary process extending back- 
 wards indefinitely into the past. Man 
 was still held to be exceptional. To 
 him the hypothesis of phenomenal crea- 
 tion was now applied with redoubled 
 energy. The advocates of the long- 
 accepted belief respecting the mode of 
 the beginning of man-life on the earth, 
 yielding up with reluctance the rest of 
 the field of universal nature, still held 
 with the utmost tenacity to the belief 
 that the human species had had a be- 
 ginning different in form and manner 
 and circumstance from all the other in- 
 habitants of the earth. Man was set 
 apart and considered in another cate- 
 gory of life from all the remaining forms 
 of existence. Here the current view, 
 strongly intrenched in old belief, strong- 
 ly conservative lest the disturbance of 
 the establi.shed opinion might in some 
 way work harm to the existing social 
 and m(»al order of the world, made its 
 stand, not only for the maintenance of 
 the long-accepted hypothesis, but per- 
 haps ^for the recovery and reestablish- 
 ment of the former systems of belief. 
 
 Such was the state of opinion as be- 
 tween the two hypotheses of life history at 
 the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 Lamarck fore- Already before this time 
 llZ^yl^Z an occasional thinker had, 
 mode of life. on a more daring excursion 
 than the rest, suggested the application 
 of the known laws of the natural world, 
 universally, to the human species in 
 common with the other forms of ani- 
 mated existence. Foremost among those 
 may be mentioned Lamarck, who, before 
 the beginning of the century, and more 
 fully in the first quarter of our cen- 
 tennium, set forth in his wonderful 
 speculations, with a cogency and clear- 
 ness almost unsurpassed, the rudimen- 
 tary principles of that vast system of 
 thought which now goes by the name of 
 
 evolution. As must needs happen, how- 
 ever, in the case of a great mind fore- 
 running the camp of progress in strange 
 regions, and not sufficiently acquainted 
 by fact, observation, and experiment 
 with the new realm into which he has 
 entered, Lamarck produced a visionary 
 rather than a substantial scheme of na- 
 ture ; and while the lines which he drew 
 around the unexplored region of the 
 New Biology that was to follow in the 
 hands of another were sufficiently ample, 
 and ran in many parts surprisingly near 
 to the accurate surveying of recent 
 science, he nevertheless included in his 
 excursions and trial maps of nature a 
 vast amount of crude and erroneous de- 
 duction for which the more accurate 
 knowledge of the- present finds no place. 
 It remained for a subsequent genera- 
 tion and the more careful mind of an- 
 other naturalist to reconsid- The work taken 
 er the general aspects of l^^^^tZ^^^^'.^ 
 the natural world and to uraiists. 
 deduce therefrom that hypothesis of 
 evolution which is now accepted by 
 science as explanatory of the modus 
 operandi of all living organisms, includ- 
 ing man. It is not our purpose in this 
 connection to enter full}- into the ex- 
 plication of the principles upon which 
 the evolutionist relies to explain the 
 existence of the various forms of organic 
 life, and in particular the descent of 
 man. It is our purpose rather to point 
 out in an introductory way the leading 
 grounds of divergence between the two 
 opinions respecting the life history of 
 the world, and to show the general trend 
 of opinion and the gain of one theory over 
 the other. It will be desirable, in follow- 
 ing the inquiry, to state more fully the 
 substance of the two beliefs respecting 
 the origin of man, embracing in the 
 exposition of each theory some of 
 the particulars of its application to the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 189 
 
 world history and life history of our 
 planet. 
 
 The hypothesis of creation is generally 
 understood to signify the production of 
 
 General explica- the WOrld OUt of naught. 
 
 poThelifof c?;a- Perhaps the beliefs of those 
 tioii- who hold the theory of 
 
 phenomenal creation are not altogether 
 uniform and consistent on this point. 
 In general, however, the belief is that 
 the matter of the earth was brought into 
 existence by the fiat of the Almighty. 
 
 the universe was spoken phenomenally 
 into existence out of nothing, and this 
 view is still maintained by the great 
 majority of those who hold to the 
 hypothesis of immediate creation. 
 
 As we have said on a former page, the 
 belief in a creative fiat as the producing 
 agency of the world and its Literal aocept- 
 inhabitants, has included ^"r.^1.t?P"" 
 
 ' cation of the 
 
 as one of its features the Book of Genesis. 
 
 notion that our globe was produced im- 
 mediately, and not through intermediate 
 
 ac;k ok fishes, ok thE "fourth day." 
 
 Some hold that the creative act, as it 
 relates to the earth, was only formative 
 — that the matter of our globe existed 
 already in space, and that the act of 
 creation had respect to the production of 
 our sphere and its fitting for the abode 
 and life arena of plants and animals and 
 man. This view is to a certain extent 
 a concession to scientific discovery in 
 recent times. Up to the close of the last 
 century the popular and scholastic belief 
 was that the matter of our world and of 
 
 stages. The statements contained in 
 the first chapters of Genesis were ac- 
 cepted literally throughout the Christian 
 and Mohammedan nations. According 
 to the account referred to, the space of 
 six days was assigned for the creative 
 work. The account in Genesis is seem- 
 ingly succinct. Each of the days is oc- 
 cupied with a certain part of creation, 
 and is defined as beginning with the 
 evening and ending with the morning — • 
 according to the phraseology of the an-
 
 190 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 cient Oriental peoples. By implication 
 this period seems to include the creation 
 of the planetary and sidereal heavens ; 
 for ' ' God made two great lights ; the 
 greater light to rule the day, and the 
 lesser light to rule the night ; he made 
 the stars also." 
 
 The progress of the creative work 
 through the six days of creation is de- 
 Order of crea- lineated in the first chapter 
 tioninthe''six f Qenesis. The arrange- 
 
 days "of the => 
 
 first chapter. ment is climacteric, and 
 ends on the sixth day with the creation 
 of man, and the words are added, " Thus 
 the heavens and the earth were finished, 
 and all the host of them." It would 
 thus appear that according to the ac- 
 count preserved and transmitted by the 
 Hebrews of the beginning of things the 
 work of producing the material universe, 
 of creating our world in particular, with 
 its inhabitants, including man as the 
 paragon of animals and favorite of the 
 Almighty, occupied but six days of time. 
 The Hebrew word is yoin, and is the 
 term which is universally employed in 
 that language to express a natural day 
 as measured by a revolution of the earth 
 on its axis. 
 
 In this sense the account of the crea- 
 tion given in Genesis was universally 
 Meaning of the Understood until a compar- 
 2To:::uI:^'^ atively recent date, when 
 reasons. the rise of geology and the 
 
 correlated branches of natural science 
 made the position no longer tenable. 
 At this juncture the upholders of the 
 hypothesis of creation were obliged to 
 take a new position, and that was that 
 the six days, or yoins, of the scriptural 
 narrative did not signify six literal days 
 but six indefinite periods of time, corre- 
 sponding, if rightly understood, to six 
 geological eras, or ages, during which 
 the world had been fashioned for its 
 later inhabitants. Examples were found 
 
 in Hebrew literature where the word 
 yom had been used in a figurative sense, 
 meaning "a period of duration" quite 
 different from a natural day. 
 
 There was thus a rationalizing process 
 applied to the account of the creation in 
 Genesis, and its meaning was modified 
 and interpreted anew ac- Rationalizing 
 cording to the demands of atThTbor^d^r-^ 
 scientific discovery. It is imeofiife. 
 no longer believed by the advocates of 
 the hypothesis of phenomenal creation 
 that the world and its original inhabit- 
 ants were created in six literal days — 
 such an opinion being altogether unten- 
 able in the light and diffusion of knowl- 
 edge Avhich the nineteenth century has 
 brought to the understandings of men. 
 
 It was still held, however, by the be- 
 lievers in the creative fiat that t/u- plants 
 and auiiiials were phenomenally created 
 — that the Almighty by his will and 
 edict brought forth without germ or seed 
 the various species of vegetable and ani- 
 mal life which we see in their descend- 
 ants at the present time. It was at 
 this point that the real divergence 
 between the two theories began. The 
 hypothesis of creation seems to have 
 yielded material and inanimate na- 
 ture to the dominion of those known 
 laws under which the world is governed, 
 but to have refused to admit the exten- 
 sion of those laws over the organic 
 forms of which life, whether vegetable 
 or animal, constitutes the essential prin- 
 ciple. The theory of creation rejects 
 the notion of a development of the veg- 
 etable and animal forms of the natural 
 world from germs remotely planted in 
 the past, and to hold firmly to the im- 
 mediate production by almighty power 
 of the mature and full-grown originals of 
 the various species of living things. 
 
 This is particularly true in the case of 
 man. The doctrine of creation as enter-
 
 MAXXER OF THE BEGLXXIXG.—FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 191 
 
 tained by the enlightened peoples of Eu- 
 rope and America includes as its leading 
 Creation hy- article the belief in tlie im- 
 mands'™ ''^'dicxtc and phenomenal pro- 
 cestor. duct ion of tlie ancestor of the 
 
 human species. In this particular, also, the 
 opinion which has long prevailed with 
 regard to the progenitor of mankind has 
 been based immediately on the narrative 
 of creation as given in the first two 
 chapters of the Book of Genesis. The 
 account, or rather the accounts, there 
 given of the formation of the first pair 
 of human beings are world-wide in their 
 dissemination, and have found a pro- 
 found lodgment in the convictions of all 
 those peoples whose religious institutions 
 are based upon the sacred writings of 
 the Hebrews. 
 
 The two forms of narrative in Genesis 
 are, first, that the Almighty in the sixth 
 Svunmary of the da}" or epoch of creation 
 LThe^Sir designed the production of 
 Genesis. ^ being superior to the 
 
 other orders of animate nature ; that the 
 being thus purposed as the climax of 
 organic life was to have ' ' dominion over 
 the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of 
 the air, and over the cattle, and over all 
 the earth, and over every creeping thing 
 that creepeth upon the earth." So the 
 Elohim created man in his own image, 
 in the image of the Elohim created he 
 him; male and female created he them. 
 In the second chapter the variant form 
 of the narrative is given. There is a 
 reference to the atmosplieric and meteor- 
 ological condition of the world. For as 
 yet there had been no rain, nor was man 
 found to till the ground. But there 
 went up a mist from the earth and 
 watered it. Then the Lord Elohim 
 formed man of the dust of the ground, 
 and breathed into his nostrils the breath 
 of life, and he became a living soul. 
 This first man was placed in the garden 
 
 of Eden, said to have been "planted east- 
 ward." But the man was alone, and the 
 Lord Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall 
 upon the Adam — for such was the name 
 given him — and he took one of his ribs 
 and made thereof a woman, that is Ishah, 
 ox female man, and brought her to Ish, 
 the man, as his companion. The name 
 of the Adam which was given to the man 
 signified Earth, or Red Earth, and to the 
 woman the Lord Elohim gave the name 
 of Life — for she was the mother of all 
 living. 
 
 Such according to the common under- 
 standing of the narrative in Genesis was 
 the origin of the first pair 
 
 ° . ^ Outlines of a 
 
 of human beings, and from bibUcaieth- 
 them the races of man- "°^^p '^• 
 kind have descended. Further on in 
 the Book of Genesis we have sketches 
 and outlines of the immediate and more 
 remote offspring of the parents of the 
 race. In the tenth chapter there is an 
 account of tribal and ethnic dispersions 
 sufficiently ample to explain the presence 
 of the primitive peoples in the western- 
 most parts of Asia, Southeastern Africa, 
 and Eastern Europe. With this summarj-, 
 however, the subject of ethnography is 
 dropped from . the Scriptures, though 
 certain important lines of descent were 
 recorded until long after the destruction 
 of the Israelitish nation. 
 
 The account of the origin of things 
 given in the first chapter of Genesis is a 
 
 part of a lore which was Account of ere- 
 
 common to all the Semitic ^o^^^C^T 
 
 peoples of antiquity. All of the Semites. 
 
 these held traditions in which the critical 
 reader is able to discover at least the 
 outlines of a common belief with regard 
 to the modus operandi of creation. One 
 of the particulars which always reap- 
 pears in these accounts of the beginning 
 is that flood, or great deep, or primeval 
 chaos upon which the wind or breath of
 
 THE EDEN OF POETRY.— Milton's Vision of the First Pair and Raphael.— Drawn by Gustave Dorc.
 
 MANXER OF THE BEGINNIXG.— FIAT AND EVOLUTIOX. 
 
 193 
 
 the Elohim is said to have blown as the 
 first movement of order.' 
 
 This notion is strongly imbedded in 
 the cosmogony of the Chaldees, though 
 Variations in Avith them the primeval 
 stor^oftt\e. flood is spoken of as fani- 
 ginning. niuc, instead of the mascu- 
 
 line form used in Genesis. The universal 
 chaos is, in the oldest Babylonian ac- 
 counts, regarded as containing the crea- 
 
 the primeval flood, but as apart there- 
 from, and brooding over it, and sending 
 thereon the primal winds of order. 
 
 In other respects the ancient Semitic 
 accounts of the creation preserved in the 
 fragments of Berosus, and General agree- 
 better still in those inscrip- ^^""^ ^° "f^ *''° 
 
 c visions of crea- 
 tions and tablets which the tio"- 
 
 learned George Smith has interpreted 
 
 to the understamling of our age, corre- 
 
 ONE OF THE PRIMORDIAL CONDITIONS OF THE GLOBE. 
 
 tive beings or forces by whose agency 
 the world was to become organic and 
 man be produced. From this concept 
 there was a departure in the Hebrew 
 narrative. In the latter the Demiurge 
 is not represented as coming up out of 
 
 ' The language of Genesis seems in thie original 
 to bear this sense : " Now the earth was involved in 
 chaos, and darkness was upon the face of iehom 
 (that is, the flood), and the wind of the Elohim was 
 hovering upon the face of the waters. Then the 
 Elohim said, Let light be. And light was." 
 
 spond with the majestic imagery out- 
 lined in the Book of Genesis. There is 
 the same general arrangement of the 
 materials of nature and the same agents 
 of order and intelligence ; the same in- 
 troduction of a Demiurge, or Creator, 
 speaking a fiat ; the same eulogy pro- 
 nounced after each creative effort upon 
 the thing created as ' ' good " or " beauti- 
 ful " or " delightful; " the same suboi- 
 dination of the stars and greater lumina- 
 ries as determining days and seasons.
 
 194 
 
 GRF.AT RACES OF MAXKIXP. 
 
 vergence of the 
 Hebrew narra- 
 tive. 
 
 In one respect, however, there is, or 
 has been believed to be, a striking differ- 
 Monotheistic di- cnce between the narrative 
 in Genesis and the an- 
 cient forms of the creative 
 story as the same are preserved in the 
 ruins of the Babylonian plain on the 
 tablet cylinders of Asshur-Bani-Pal's 
 library chamber, and in the fragmentary 
 remnants of Berosus. This is the poly- 
 theism of the creative work in all the 
 Babylonian accounts of the beginning of 
 things, and the monotheism of the an- 
 cient Hebrew narrative. Even in this 
 respect there is a hint of the original 
 common derivation of all the accounts in 
 the word Elohivt used by the primitive 
 Hebrew seer in expressing his vision of 
 creation. This word is plural, though 
 it is believed by critics to be an instance 
 of what is known in the Hebrew idiom 
 as the " plural of majesty or strength." 
 Literally, the polytheistic idea is carried 
 forward into Genesis, where it is said 
 that the Elohim (literally, the El-gods) 
 created the heavens and the earth and 
 all the host of them. 
 
 In still another particular a divergence 
 may be noticed in the earliest Semitic 
 Hebrew Demi- accounts of the Creative 
 mf«r:'d "r ^^ork. in the Hebrew nar- 
 atesit. rative the Demiurge, or 
 
 Creator, works upon matter. It seems 
 to be plastic under his hands. Aye, 
 more than this, according to a long-ac- 
 cepted construction of the account in 
 Genesis, he makes the matter out of which 
 he makes the form. His work is not 
 only formative, and as it were plastic and 
 constructive, but creative, in the prime 
 intent, of something out of naught. In 
 the Chaldee traditions and kindred forms 
 of Semitic lore the creation, on the other 
 hand, is rather evolutionary. The crea- 
 tures by whom the later work is done 
 are themselves evolved out of the chaotic 
 
 floods. There is no hint of the produc- 
 tion of matter out of nothing, but only a 
 secondary process of demiurgic work- 
 manship and power upon the materials 
 of nature. 
 
 On the whole, it is .sufficient to note 
 the .substantial identity of the cosmogo- 
 nies of all the Semitic peo- Egyptian tradi- 
 
 ples and the transmission g"g'^;'''" 
 of the outlines of the same things. 
 in the sacred writings of the Hebrews to 
 the nations of modern times. Among 
 other ancient peoples the Egyptian sys- 
 tem may be mentioned as an example of 
 one of the oldest forms of belief in phe- 
 nomenal creation. In that system the 
 Demiurge is named Thoth. He it w,'<s 
 who gave light to the world when ccA 
 was darkness, " and there was no sun." 
 To this extent there is a suggestion of 
 the same primeval chaos believed in by 
 the Semitic seers. In Egypt, also, the 
 work is polj' theistic. While to Thoth was 
 a,ssigned the creation of light, Ra was 
 regarded as the supreme Demiurge of 
 nature. He was at once the sun god 
 and the Anima Mundi. The more im- 
 mediate evolution of living forms was 
 a.ssigned to Ptah, who was the " opener 
 of the e^^ of the world." From this 
 origin the species of living forms may be 
 said to have proceeded. But the system 
 is vast and intricate, and calls for no ad- 
 ditional comment in this connection. 
 
 Scholars have busied themselves much 
 with the work of attempting to discover 
 among the mythologies of creative hy- 
 the Aryan nations the out- ^^efenfirl*''" 
 lines of a system of creation nians. 
 similar to that of the Hebrews and the 
 Semites in general. But the effort has 
 been attended with little success. The 
 Aryan peoples have from a very early 
 age looked upon nature and creation 
 with another eye. In a single instance 
 a likeness has been discovered between
 
 MANNER Of THE BEGINNING.— FIAT AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 195 
 
 the belief of a primitive Aryan people 
 and that of the vSemitic races. This is 
 in the case of the ancient Iranic family 
 whose religious faith and theory of the 
 origin of things are recorded in the 
 Avesta. In that work the creation of 
 the visible world is ascribed to a super- 
 natural deity who issues a fiat, and na- 
 ture begins to be. There is a similar 
 godspeech at the beginning of each 
 creative act, and a like eulog}- at the 
 close on the perfection of the world. A 
 striking point of dissimilarity — in which 
 the Avesta myth agrees with the ac- 
 counts preserved by the Chaldees and 
 the Assyrians rather than with the nar- 
 rative of Genesis — is that in the latter 
 the world is spoken from naught, while 
 the Zend repre.sents it as being formed 
 from preexisting matter. Ahura-Maz- 
 dao speaks and creates ; but he employs 
 the matter of a universe already exist- 
 ing. Also he avails himself at times of 
 the aid of other spirits, both good and 
 evil. At times the traditions of Ahura- 
 !Mazdao rises in majesty almost to the 
 level of the Elohim of the Hebrew seer. 
 In the celebrated cuneiform inscription 
 at Naksh-I-Rustam he is described as 
 " the great God of gods who made 
 heaven and earth, and made men." 
 
 If we follow the line of the Aryan 
 evolution, however, we shall find the de- 
 velopment to present a universal polythe- 
 Poiytheistic ism. In Indian and Gre- 
 tya^nryttrof "an mythology there are as 
 creation. many gods as tribes, with 
 
 only an occasional glimpse at a supreme 
 deity. There was, moreover, little trace 
 therein of an original universal creation. 
 The Hellenic system followed the pres- 
 ent aspects of nature back to a multiplic- 
 ity of secondary' causes and agents, but 
 never fixed the beginning of things on 
 any substantial basis. Matter was al- 
 ways presupposed. In the old Indian 
 
 system there are glimpses of a higher 
 and seemingly monotheistic belief. In 
 one of the greatest of the Vedic hymns 
 we have the following : "In the begin- 
 ning there arose the Golden Child. He 
 was the one-born Lord of all that is. He 
 established the earth and the sky. Who 
 is the God to whom we shall offer our 
 sacrifice? . . . He who by his might 
 looked even over the water clouds, the 
 clouds which gave strength and lit the 
 sacrifice ; he who alone is God above all 
 gods. Who is the God to whom we 
 shall offer our sacrifice? 
 
 " Maj^ he not destroy us — he the 
 creator of the earth , or he the righteous 
 who created the heaven ; he 
 
 Old Vedic hymn 
 
 also created the bright and assigns the cre- 
 
 • i_. . ■\\T\. • ation to Indra. 
 
 mighty waters. Who is 
 the God to whom we shall offer our 
 sacrifice? " In this last strophe- we have 
 the ascription of creation to Indra, and 
 the earth and the heavens and the 
 waters are mentioned as the workman- 
 ship of his hands. There is no sug- 
 gestion, however, of a creation out of 
 naught. On the contrary, among all the 
 Aryan mythologies there is the presup- 
 position of material nature. It is as 
 though the earliest bards and philoso- 
 phers of these great peoples should have 
 adopted one of the fundamental the- 
 orems of modern materialism, namel)-, 
 there are two eternal things — matter and 
 force. But in all the attempted explana- 
 tions of the natural world there was a 
 recognition of creative intelligences em- 
 ployed in forming and shaping and be- 
 o-ettingf the world and its inhabitants. 
 
 On the whole, the principal distinction 
 between the views entertained of the 
 beginning by the Semitic Aryan seers 
 
 , 1 i_ „ J more evolution- 
 
 seers on the one hand, ary than the 
 and the Aryan poets and Semitic, 
 philosophers on the other, was that the 
 latter accepted to a larger degree the ex-
 
 196 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 istence of evolutionary processes in the 
 origin of the world and all living crea- 
 tures, while the former, the Hebrews in 
 particular, laid great stress upon the 
 creative fiat of an Almighty Power, 
 speaking the world out of nothing and 
 acting by his breath and will upon the 
 flood-like chaos of primeval nature. 
 
 This outline of the manner of the be- 
 ginning of things by immediate and 
 Long-continued phenomenal creation — en- 
 prevaience of tcrtaiued as it was by the 
 
 belief m crea- -^ 
 
 tionbyfiat. nations of antiquity — need 
 not be amplified, as it is familiar where- 
 ever the civil and religious institutions 
 of the Western nations have prevailed. 
 Up to the middle of the present century 
 the belief in a fiat of the Almighty as the 
 sufficient cause and explanation of all 
 created things was wellnigh universal. 
 This implied the production of all living 
 beings, by their respective species, at one 
 stroke of a supreme will exercised upon 
 matter, and answered by the springing 
 up of immediate and perfected creatures, 
 each in its kind. 
 
 With the development of the natural 
 sciences, however — with the better un- 
 Science discov- derstanding of the genesis 
 ftyofLTur^r Of the earth as revealed in 
 processes. geological liistory — many 
 
 doubts arose as to the correctness of the 
 popular and dogmatic concepts respect- 
 ing the origin of man and the associated 
 orders of life. More and more it came 
 to be accepted as true that nature has 
 been uniform in her methods of produc- 
 xtion and development, and that scientific 
 evidences are wanting of any break or 
 sudden reversal in the progressive meth- 
 ods of life unmistakably recorded in 
 the fossiliferous and subsequent history 
 of organic forms. 
 
 AVe have already seen to what extent 
 Lamarck forecast in his speculations 
 the impending .struggle of the new sci- 
 
 entific concept of life history with the 
 long-accepted belief in a phenomenal 
 
 origin of .species. That The Lamarckian 
 
 philosopher formed and FouS'/e^f ' 
 promulgated a theory of of ufe order, 
 nature involving in many of its elements 
 the system of evolution which a half- 
 century later was to appear with more 
 distinctness in the writings of another 
 and greater naturalist. The leading 
 doctrines of the Lamarckian sy.stem are 
 embraced in four theorems by which 
 the author would explain the production 
 of organic forms and the differentiation 
 of living species. These are as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1 . " Life by its proper forces tends 
 continually to increase the volume of 
 every body possessing it, and to enlarge 
 its parts up to a limit which it brings 
 about. 
 
 2. "The production of a new organ 
 in an animal body results from the su- 
 pervention of a new want continuing to 
 make itself felt, and a new movement 
 which this want gives birth to and en- 
 courages. 
 
 3. "The development of organs and 
 their force of action are con.stantly in 
 ratio to the employment of these organs. 
 
 4. "All which has been acquired, 
 cast off, or changed in the organization 
 of individuals in the coiirse of their life 
 is conserved by generation and trans- 
 mitted to the new individuals which 
 proceed from tho.se which have under- 
 gone those changes." 
 
 Concerning these propositions of the 
 French naturalist we may remark of the 
 first that it clearlv prcsup- what the sys- 
 poses life, and therefore T.s^T:^t 
 suggests no more than the tain, 
 method or manner by which the devel- 
 opment and completeness of organic 
 bodies are attained. The theorem does 
 not touch the question of the genesis of
 
 MA.VXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—FIAT AXD EVOLUTIOX. 
 
 197 
 
 life, but only the modus operandi of 
 living organisms. As to the second 
 law, it departs widely from the doctrine 
 of evolution as subsequently propound- 
 ed ; but the principle expressed therein 
 is nevertheless recognized as an existing 
 and efficient force in the production of 
 the organs with which living bodies are 
 supplied. • The third law is doubtless 
 correct in the main as expressing the 
 ratio between the use and the development 
 of the organic parts in all living struc- 
 tures. The fourth law is simply an ex- 
 pression of the well-known principle of 
 heredity, which undoubtedly plays so 
 large a part in determining the charac- 
 ter and limitations of species. 
 
 On the whole, though Lamarck — fol- 
 lowing as he did the hints and sugges- 
 Lamarck missed tions of Buffon — made a 
 rvnnifr'^n™ bold cxcursiou into what 
 
 ry 01 liie in many 
 
 essentials. was, at his time, a compara- 
 
 tively unexplored field of inquiry, and 
 suggested much which was calculated to 
 arouse the understandings of men to the 
 difficulties and inconsistencies involved 
 in the accepted belief respecting the 
 origin of species, and, indeed, the whole 
 method of the natural world, he never- 
 theless missed by much the clearer prin- 
 ciples of that S3'stem of doctrine which was 
 destined, under the name of evolution, 
 to contest so strongly the ground long 
 occupied by the hypothesis of phenome- 
 nal creation as the only solution of the 
 beginning of universal nature and of 
 man. It remained for the first part of 
 the after half of the nineteenth century 
 to witness the rise and development, first 
 in the higher circles of science, and aft- 
 erwards more broadly among the peoples 
 of the Western nations, of the belief that 
 the varied and perfected forms of liv- 
 ing organism have resulted from a proc- 
 ess of differentiation and development 
 from a few simpler primary forms by the 
 
 agency of natural selection and the sur- 
 vival of that which was best adapted to 
 the conditions of its environment. The 
 progress of this opinion and its actual 
 conquest of several antecedent beliefs 
 respecting the modus operandi of life 
 has itself been an evolution in the his- 
 tor}- of human thought, and may well 
 i-equire some extended notice of the 
 various stages through which it has 
 passed. 
 
 The term evolution first appears in 
 the biological essays of the eighteenth 
 centurv ; but the idea is as Historical de- 
 old as' Aristotle himself. .^trotStion 
 It might almost be said hypothesis, 
 to have been in all time the covert or 
 half-expressed opinion of leading natu- 
 ralists in different ages and countries. 
 The great physiologist Harvey (1578- 
 1657), who shares with Servetus the 
 honor of having discovered the circula- 
 tion of the blood, was a believer in the 
 theory of epigeuesis, namely, that the new 
 organs of the higher animals do not ap- 
 pear suddenly by the simultaneous addi- 
 tion of parts, or by a sudden change in 
 the arrangement of tissue, but by the 
 successive differentiation of a single 
 rudiment into the several organs of the 
 body by the influence of use and the 
 adaptation to enviromnent. Near the close 
 of the seventeenth century the question 
 was reviewed by Marcello Malpighi, of 
 Bologna, who by the application of the 
 microscope to the study of tissue in em- 
 brj'o came to conclusions quite different 
 from those of his predecessors. His views 
 respecting the process of production in 
 living bodies are known as metamorphosis, 
 in contradistinction from epigenesis. 
 The new opinion was taken up and car- 
 ried forward by Leibnitz and Jlale- 
 branche, and by Bonnet and Haller, who 
 amplified and applied the speculations of 
 their predecessors to large groups of
 
 198 
 
 GREAT RACES OE ^TAXKIXD. 
 
 vital phenomena. After them came 
 Buffon, the elder Darwin, and Lamarck, 
 to the last-named of whom, as we have 
 seen above, the origination of much of 
 the hypothesis of evolution as it is now 
 understood must be referred. 
 
 Up to the middle of the present cen- 
 tury, however, the views of biologists 
 
 CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN. 
 From the medal by Alphonse Legros, Royal Academy 
 
 were rudimentary and tentative. It 
 remained for Charles Robert Darwin to 
 Darwin and gather Up the Opinions of 
 
 Wallace lead the i, ,• , i i t • 
 
 revolution in bi- "1^ predecessors, to elimi- 
 °'°sy- nate therefrom by observa- 
 
 tion and jiritical methods those parts 
 which did not consist with the order of na- 
 ture, and to formulate on the basis of fact 
 and right reason that remarkable theory 
 of the origin of species which has to so 
 
 great an extent fixed itself in the con- 
 victions of mankind as the true explana- 
 tion of the manner by which the germinal 
 forms of life have been evolved, by strug- 
 gle, adaptation, survival and natural 
 selection, into the multifarious varieties 
 of living forms' which inhabit the earth. 
 With him and his work is intimately as- 
 sociated the great 
 naturalist, Alfred. 
 Russel Wallace, 
 who, by a com- 
 plete coincidence, 
 on July I, 1858, 
 transmitted by the 
 hands of Sir 
 Charles Lye 11, 
 and, without 
 knowledge of the 
 investigations of 
 x^Ir. Darwin, gave 
 to the Linnaean 
 Society his pajjer 
 ' ' On the Tenden- 
 cy of Varieties to 
 Depart Indefinite- 
 ly from the Orig- 
 inal Type." It 
 was on the very 
 same date that 
 Darwin himself 
 read before the 
 society his paper 
 "On the Tend- 
 ency of Species to 
 Form Varieties, 
 and on the Perpetuation of Species and 
 Varieties by Means of Natural Selection " 
 — a production which was the basis and 
 fundamental form of the greater publica- 
 tion made by the author in the following^ 
 year. 
 
 Since the close of the sixth decade of 
 the current century a vast controversial 
 and expository literature has been pro- 
 duced, having for its bottom principle of
 
 J/AXXER OF THE BEGLXXIXG.—GEXESIS OF XEW DOCTRINE. 199 
 
 contention the hypothesis of evolution. 
 To this literature the leading naturalists 
 Controversial and thinkers of all the civ- 
 Sr;:?'' ilized nations of the West 
 contest. have contributed. The new 
 
 doctrine has made its way from the spec- 
 ulative reveries of men and from the 
 hitherto unconsidered facts of nature 
 into books and libraries and seats of 
 learning, and from the.se it has descended 
 by percolation into the common mind un- 
 til, at the present time, some knowledge 
 of the leading principles of evolution is 
 
 possessed by nearly all intelligent people. 
 The hypothesis is most clearly stated in 
 Darwin's Descent of Man, published in 
 1 87 1 — a work supplementary to the 
 Origin of Species. Biologists have in 
 general adopted the doctrine as the be- 
 ginning of all their teaching, and it is 
 but just to say that the more it is ap- 
 plied to the phenomena of life, the more 
 complete and reasonable does it appear 
 as an explanation of the process by which 
 all living beings have arrived at their 
 present state of development. 
 
 Chapter XI.— Genesis oe the New Doctrine. 
 
 ij N order to a clearer un- 
 derstanding of the Doc- 
 trine of Evolution, it 
 is necessary to note 
 with precision several 
 things which it does 
 not teach. Close atten- 
 tion to these particulars may serve to 
 show how grossly a new opinion — mak- 
 ing its way among the old beliefs of 
 mankind — is likely to be misunderstood, 
 misapplied, and misrepresented by the 
 advocates of opposing views. Perhaps 
 no other hypothesis Avhich has ever been 
 propounded as the explanation of a large 
 group of phenomena has suffered more 
 in this respect than the doctrine of evo- 
 lution. It seems at the very first to have 
 been looked upon as a malevolent opin- 
 ion, calculated — and indeed designed — 
 to disturb the existing intellectual and 
 moral order of the world. 
 
 It is an unfortunate fact in the history 
 The mind takes of the human mind that it 
 takes up arms and assails 
 with unseemly animosity 
 whatever opposes itself to its precon- 
 ceptions and long-established modes of 
 
 arms -when old 
 opinions are aS' 
 sailed. 
 
 action . Evolution did to a certain extent, 
 though propounded in one of the inildest 
 and most conciliatory books of the cen- 
 tury, disturb the existing beliefs of the 
 world with respect to the phenomenal 
 creation of species ; but otherwise it can 
 hardly be said that the new doctrine ob- 
 truded itself with violence upon the for- 
 mer concepts of men respecting them- 
 selves, their nature, or their destiny. 
 Indeed, it has been no part of the evolu- 
 tion hypothesis to discuss teleological 
 questions, or to travel in any direction 
 beyond the region of fact and scientific 
 deduction. The whole significance of 
 the doctrine is its application to the vis- 
 ible processes of the natural world, with 
 special reference to the tendencies and 
 movements of organic life, by which the 
 higher and more complex are derived 
 from the simpler and more rudimentary 
 forms of existence. 
 
 The first and greatest of the miscon- 
 ceptions which have popu- Evolution deals 
 
 larly prevailed respecting ^^^^l^^^ 
 the doctrine of evolution is origin of ufe. 
 that it has presumed to teach the origin 
 of life. A belief has been disseminated
 
 200 
 
 GREAT RACES' OF MANKIND. 
 
 that the new hypothesis proposes to ac- 
 count for the existence of life on our 
 planet — to do so by the operation of the 
 known laws of the natural world, and 
 thus to refer all life to a purely material 
 origin. This view of the doctrine is at 
 once untrue and gratuitous. Perhaps a 
 few biologists in their speculations have 
 suggested the possibility of a purely 
 material beginning for the vital phe- 
 
 to suggest the indissoluble union and in- 
 terdependence of mind and matter; but 
 the theory of evolution has not, as a 
 theory, concerned itself with such in- 
 quiries. It has naught to do with 
 teleology, but rather with the processes 
 and modes of life. It considers life as a 
 fact already existent in the world, and 
 proposes no more than a rational ex- 
 planation of the processes of differenti- 
 
 ORANOE-COLORED MONERON.— Showing the seemingly Automatic Processes of Germ Life. 
 
 nomena of the world.' Some have spoken 
 of the physical basis of life in a manner 
 
 'The foundation for such a view of the origin of 
 organic forms is so slight as to be neglected. In a 
 few instances vital phenomena have been observed 
 in which it would seem that life begins in merely 
 physical reactions; but the investigation of such 
 facts is doubtless incomplete. In the case of the so- 
 called orange-colored moneron we have an example 
 of the alleged automatic or spontaneous processes of 
 life (marked in the drawing A. B, C, D, E, F,"), but 
 it will no doubt be found that in this as in all other 
 organic tendencies the beginning of life is — life. 
 
 ation and growth. It traces the correla- 
 tions of life and organization, but does 
 not pre.sume to account for the beginning 
 of the one or the ultimate purpose of the 
 other. In a word, the notion of final 
 causes does not enter into the doctrine 
 of evolution, and is indeed foreign to 
 the legitimate field of investigation 
 which is the peculiar province of the new 
 science of living forms. 
 
 It is doubtless true that the miscon- 
 ception here referred to has been the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 
 
 201 
 
 Results of the 
 misconception 
 of the theory. 
 
 fruitful source of the greater part of 
 the animosity which the scholastic and 
 ecclesiastical worlds have 
 shown to the evolution 
 hypothesis. The thought 
 / of mankind in the past ages has been 
 greatly occupied with the notion of final 
 causation. A great first cause has been 
 demanded by the mind as the ultimate 
 producing force and explanation of what- 
 ever is. This notion has included the 
 creation of matter out of naught, but 
 more particularly the creation of the 
 specific prototypes of all the existing 
 forms of life. The doctrine of evolution 
 seemed at first glance to destroy the idea 
 of a final cause as the efficient source of 
 all things, and to substitute therefor the 
 notion of one thing, namely, matter, with 
 its potencies and laws. 
 
 There was thus a failure to perceive 
 that the true doctrine of evolution, as it 
 Originators of was propounded and illus- 
 d^e^iar^Us^Tu^ trated by Darwin, Wallace, 
 "I'^ent. and their followers, did 
 
 not include — as it does not now include 
 — the consideration of final causes. On 
 the contrar}-, the author of the doctrine 
 succinctly and carefiilly disclaimed for 
 the hypothesis of evolution any purpose 
 of accounting for the origin of life or for 
 the ultimate plan and purpose of organic 
 being. He would from the first care- 
 fully limit the inquiry to the modes and 
 processes by which the organic forms of 
 life are evolved from their respective 
 germs ; but life itself as a principle and 
 fact in material nature is always presup- 
 posed and granted. 
 
 A proper attention to this important 
 feature of the doctrine of development 
 Antagonism has must have gone far, had it 
 c°eptr;fo?tir- been duly weighed, to 
 doctrine. abate, if not wholly remove, 
 
 the deep-seated antagonism between the 
 ancient theorem of life and the doctrine 
 
 M.— Vol. I— IX 
 
 of evolution. It must be understood, then, 
 at the outset that this doctrine, instead 
 of removing the notion of a final cause, 
 instead of accounting for the origin of 
 life, actually presupposes the existence 
 of life and contents itself with an inquiry 
 into the laws and processes by which 
 living organisms are brought to their 
 perfected development. The ultimate 
 cause of vital phenomena ~ remains as 
 ■occult and inaccessible since the begin- 
 ning of the prevalent theory of evolution 
 as it was before. 
 
 The recent recognition of the fact that 
 the doctrine of evolution does not pre- 
 clude a final cause as the Reconciliation 
 explanation and source of °owsu°nde^r-°'' 
 life has gone far toward standing them, 
 a reconciliation of the two opinions 
 which for a quarter of a centurj- or more 
 warred with each other for ascendency 
 over the beliefs of mankind. While 
 from one point of view the evolutionists, 
 by their ever-extending conquest, may 
 claim the victory over the long-prevalent 
 doctrine, from another station it is pos- 
 sible for the creationists, reconstructing 
 their views out of scientific materials 
 and by the tactics of right reason, to re- 
 assert their sway in this, that science 
 does not account, can not account, for 
 the origin of life, and is obliged to ac- 
 cept from the creative hypothesis its es- 
 sential principle and doctrine, namely, 
 that the germs of life from which all 
 organic forms have proceeded to matu- 
 rity by growth and law were not them- 
 selves the products of matter or of the 
 material forces now operating in the nat- 
 ural world. 
 
 A second popular and widely prevalent 
 error which has done much Mistaken beUef 
 
 that evolution 
 
 to prejudice the doctrine of teaches cross- 
 
 , . . ^ descent of spe- 
 
 evolution, and to postpone ^xes. 
 its acceptance by the civilized peo- 
 ples of the world, has been the belief
 
 202 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JifANKLXD. 
 
 that this doctrine teaches the descent of 
 the higher animals, inchuling man, from 
 the lower animals; that is, from lower 
 animals different in kind. For a long 
 time after the hypothesis of evolution 
 was formally given to the world by Dar- 
 win and Wallace, it was believed that 
 the new doctrine included as its leading 
 feature a belief that man is a descendant 
 of the apes or monkeys. Human nature 
 in its present refinement was scandalized 
 with such a proposition, and without 
 pausing to consider whether such a no- 
 tion was really a part of the evolution 
 hypothesis, rejected it with disdain. 
 This is the more surprising when we re- 
 member that Darwin and all the great 
 promoters of the new doctrine had care- 
 fully disclaimed the deduction of a cross- 
 descent of man from existing species of 
 animals. There was a failure in public 
 opinion, and even on the part of scholars, 
 to discriminate the true from the false 
 intent in- the proposed explanation of 
 the origin of species. The belief be- 
 came deeply fixed that evolution signi- 
 fied a degraded and bestial ancestry of 
 the human race from those creatures for 
 which, by acquaintance with their habits 
 and characteristics, civilized people have 
 conceived so deep a repugnance. 
 
 The theory of evolution, however, is 
 not justly chargeable, as we shall here- 
 after see, with the crude, widely dissemi- 
 nated notion that the human species has 
 been derived by descent from the an- 
 thropoid ' apes. True, the doctrine is 
 that mankind are the lineal offspring of 
 lower forms of life, not perhaps more 
 highly developed than- the simians of 
 existing species, and these in their turn 
 of others still lower in the scale of exist- 
 ence. But the idea of cross-descent 
 which would make any one species of 
 the higher animals to have been derived 
 from some other existing species of a 
 
 different kind is not only foreign to the 
 theory of evolution as set forth by its 
 great advocates, but is positively contra- 
 dictory of the leading principles of the 
 doctrine. 
 
 The distinction here drawn between 
 that cross-descent which evolution has 
 been untruly charged with Distinction here 
 teaching, and the lineal der- fj^^^^^^iffhe' 
 ivation of every existing question. 
 .species from its own ancestral line back- 
 wards through the various grades of or- 
 ganic development from the simplei- 
 forms of a remote ancestry, or even from 
 the remotest germ of life, is fundamental 
 to any correct apprehension of the theory. 
 The law of the specialization of living 
 beings by departure from common types, 
 instead of favoring the notion that one 
 species of living organisms is deducible 
 from another existing species, between 
 which and itself a Avide chasm has al- 
 ready been opened by the process of dif- 
 ferentiation, positively forbids such cross- 
 descent, and makes it impossible. It 
 has long been known, indeed, that nature 
 herself has put a bar, in the infertility 
 of hybrids, against the amalgamation, 
 cross-grafting, and confusion of the or- 
 ders of life such as would be implied in 
 the possible derivation of one species 
 from another different in kind. 
 
 The principle here insisted on as fun- 
 damental to a correct understanding of 
 the doctrine of evolution is Analogy of Un- 
 world-wide in its manifes- ^^^^- 
 tations. Upon this prin- species, 
 ciple, as an example, the modern science 
 of language is based. Without it we 
 should possess at the present time no 
 really scientific knowledge of human 
 speech. All linguistic phenomena eon- 
 form to laws precisely analogous to those 
 which govern the evolution of living or- 
 ganisms. This indeed is no more than 
 might be expected ; for language is so
 
 'MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 203 
 
 distinctly con-elated with the nervous 
 and cerebral development of the highest 
 and most perfect of the animals as to 
 constitute an invariable index of the 
 stages and modes of life through which 
 that animal has passed. 
 
 If we take the most cursory survey of 
 the science of language and of the his- 
 tory of that science since it 
 
 Languages not 
 
 the result of began to be, we shall find 
 
 cross-derivation. . - . , , 
 
 a series ot mistakes and 
 misconceptions respecting it almost iden- 
 tical with those which have beset and 
 perplexed the doctrine of evolution. 
 Glancing for a moment at the six or 
 seven principal families of Aryan speech, 
 we find two of the divisions in xVsia and 
 the remainder in Europe. The former 
 are the Indie and Iranic families, and 
 the latter the Grseco-Italic, the Celtic, 
 the Teutonic, and Slavonic branches. 
 Aforetime it was believed and taught 
 that Latin was a derivative of Greek. 
 Subsequently, within the current cen- 
 tury it was concluded that both Greek 
 and Latin were derivatives of Sanskrit, 
 and it was sometimes in dispute whether 
 Celtic was derived from a Graeco-Latin 
 original or the latter from it. 
 
 The whole idea of the species of lan- 
 guage — if we may so name the different 
 Mistake of phi- varieties of speech — was 
 i:^f onanguage thus coufused and blurred 
 descent. by ^ total misapprehension 
 
 of the fundamental principle of linguistic 
 descent. Even scholars seem to have 
 had no notion of the origin of a given 
 tongue except that it had been derived 
 from some other given tongue. In a 
 word, it did not occur to the early philol- 
 ogists that there might have been, and 
 indeed was, out of the nature of the case, 
 a prehistoric primitive language out of 
 which, as from a common germ, all forms 
 of Aryan speech had descended. 
 
 At length, however, the tiiie concept 
 
 arose itpon the understandings of schol- 
 ars, and with it came the beginning of 
 a true science of language. True concept of 
 Henceforth the absurdity relation of lan- 
 
 .' guages to their 
 
 of supposing Latin or Celt- originals, 
 ic to have been derived from Greek, or 
 Greek from Sanskrit, was manifest, and 
 at the present time even the novice in 
 linguistic study is too correct in his ap- 
 prehension of the problem to admit the 
 preposterous notion of the cross-descent 
 of one language from another. What 
 should be said of the attempt to derive 
 French from Italian, Wallachian from 
 Portuguese, Rhoetian from Spanish, 
 Swedish from Dutch, Icelandic from 
 Anglo-Saxon, English from German? 
 The scholar knows that the six Romance 
 languages have been produced by lin- 
 guistic evolution and vicissitude out of 
 an original Latin — produced by a process 
 of natural selection and survival of the 
 fittest. He also knows that Latin and 
 Greek and Teutonic and Iranic and Indie 
 speech are all the descendants of an an- 
 cient original which, though it exist only 
 by hypothesis, is known as certainly to 
 have existed as are the species of ex- 
 tinct animals whose fossil remains are 
 preserved within the stony covers of the 
 book of geology. The idea of cross- 
 derivation among the languages has thus 
 been eliminated by scientific investiga- 
 tion ; and the derivation of one tongue 
 from another by cross-descent is no more 
 spoken of as a thing possible among the 
 phenomena of human speech. 
 
 It is in this manner, or in a manner 
 precisely analogous, that public opinion, 
 
 and even the incorrect Erroneous opln- 
 
 teachings of scholars, have ^^^^ "c'trdYn^ur 
 had to be corrected respect- "^"^y- 
 ing the hypothesis of evolution. It is 
 surprising to open the earlier series of 
 the many hundreds of controversial vol- 
 umes produced in Europe and America
 
 204 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 on the subject of evolution, and to find 
 them pervaded in every part with the 
 two gross misapprehensions to which we 
 have referred ; namely, first, that the 
 doctrine presumes to explain the origin 
 of life by the operation of existing phys- 
 ical laws; and secondly, and more par- 
 ticularly, that it teaches the descent of 
 man from the apes and monkeys. 
 
 It may suffice in this connection to 
 brush away once for all these erroneous 
 Evolution seeks views and misconceptions 
 to explain the respecting the sense of the 
 
 processes of or- ^ e> 
 
 ganiciife. evolution hypothesis. That 
 
 hypothesis does not presume, and has 
 not presumed, to explain the origin of 
 life, but beginning with the fact of life, 
 it has aimed to explain the processes, 
 laws, and modes by which the many 
 varieties of organic being have been 
 brought, by natural selection and adapta- 
 tion to environment, up to their present 
 perfected forms. And in the second 
 place, the doctrine of evolution has not 
 taught, but has or the other hand dis- 
 tinctl}'- denied, the cross-descent of man 
 from the higher primates, or of these 
 from lower existing orders of animated 
 nature different in kind. 
 
 After removing from the mind of the 
 reader the foregoing misconceptions with 
 Circumstances regard to the theory of ev- 
 TuntS-of ol^ition, we might at once 
 the new theory, proceed to explain and 
 elucidate affirmatively what that theory 
 really is; but before doing so we may 
 well pause to note historically the cir- 
 cumstances which preceded the an- 
 nouncement of the new doctrine of 
 organic life. As has been said above, the 
 hypothesis of evolution is itself an evolu- 
 tion out of antecedent conditions long 
 operative in the minds of men, bringing 
 them gradually to the formation of a new 
 concept of universal nature, of our earth 
 in particular, and of its inhabitants. 
 
 The great promoters of the new theory 
 of the viodus operandi of life were them- 
 selves prepared for their Teachers of evo- 
 office and work by forces i:fr3lnTv"o- 
 which were actively at lotion, 
 work before their birth. In short, under 
 the operation of those general laws by 
 which the intellectual as well as the 
 material life of man is conditioned, the 
 time had arrived when the old anthro- 
 pomorphic concept of nature was des- 
 tined to be displaced by another and 
 more rational explanation of the existing 
 aspects of organic life, and in particular 
 of the methods by which the specific 
 germs of all things living had been 
 developed into their present forms and 
 powers. It can but prove of interest to 
 sketch the intellectual preparation which 
 preceded the announcement of the 
 hypothesis of evolution. 
 
 In the first place, Descartes had 
 formed and promulgated the conception 
 that the material universe is Descartes is foi- 
 divided into living and non- ^rob^L'L'n"' 
 living matter, and that it and experiment, 
 has the nature of a mechanism. From 
 these postulates he held that the universe 
 is susceptible of interpretation in accord- 
 ance with physical laws. In the second 
 place, the age of observation and experi- 
 ment had .supervened in place of the age 
 of dogmatism and authority. The in- 
 troduction of the microscope and the 
 profounder researches of chemistry had 
 led to a knowledge of tissue and of 
 structural forms which had never before 
 been attained. Consequent upon these 
 new excursions of science, the discovery 
 was made that structure has a history 
 reaching from a simple origin in germ 
 life to the vast complexity of organic life, 
 i This history was found to be repeated in 
 every form of vegetable and animal ex- 
 istence, thus furnishing the hints of larger 
 laws than had ever been known hitherto.
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 205 
 
 With the progress of observation, 
 analogies were discovered between the 
 Discovery of individuals constituting va- 
 reeffnd^::d- ^i^tics and species and 
 uais and species, between the species of cor- 
 related groups constituting the suborders 
 and orders of creation ; in every part 
 there was the hint of law. The next 
 stage in the coming scientific concept of 
 nature Avas the observation that all 
 species, even they of habits widely 
 different, have a common fundamental 
 structure or plan of organization, with 
 only such departures therefrom as the 
 particular environment and habit of the 
 animal or plant may have suggested. 
 This was followed with the discovery of 
 certain parts in the structure of living 
 beings for which the animal possessing 
 them had, under its changed conditions 
 and habits, cast off or lost the use, and 
 which had shrunk from disuse into a 
 rudimentary form merely suggestive of 
 the lost functions — thus indicating the 
 course of life which the given animal 
 had pursued in its development. Still 
 further, the observation was made and 
 recorded that all living beings are sub- 
 ject to variation under changed condi- 
 tions of environment and habit. 
 
 Finally, while these various branches 
 of investigation were in progress, geol- 
 Geoiogy deter- ogy Completed its work by 
 ^f'^ftil'^ct^^t!' classifying and arranging 
 cies. the extinct forms found 
 
 in the crust of the earth, so that their 
 succession from the lower to the higher 
 orders was scientifically determined — 
 thus establishing the fact that the pre- 
 historic history of life in our planet was 
 a history of progress, metamorphosis 
 under changing conditions, and evolu- 
 tion. All of these forms and principles 
 of knowledge, none of which antedate 
 the seventeenth century, were modified 
 and extended slowly and irregularly dur- 
 
 ing the eighteenth, but were not brought 
 to a condition from which generaliza- 
 tions relative to the universal laws of 
 life might be formed until about the 
 middle of the current centennium. It 
 does not require prescience, or even the 
 greatest acumen to discover in the con- 
 ditions here present — in the stage of dis- 
 covery and observation respecting vital 
 phenomena — the probability and neces- 
 sity of the promulgation of a new con- 
 cept of universal nature and of man. 
 
 Still another fact w^hich strongly pre- 
 vailed to substitute for anthropomor- 
 phism the new doctrine a knowledge of 
 of evolution under law t^^rtterndt"* 
 was the enlarged and cor- viduai. 
 rected knowledge which had been gained 
 in recent times of the life of the indi- 
 vidual. It is here, indeed, that the the- 
 ory of evolution really begins. The 
 hint of the general law is furnished by 
 the individual organism, by the method 
 of its beginning, by the process of its 
 development, and the conditions under 
 which it reaches maturity and perfec- 
 tion. We have only to study with par- 
 ticularity the progress of the individual 
 in order to gain an epitomized knowl- 
 edge of the history of the species or va- 
 riety of which the individual is the con- 
 stituent unit. 
 
 The ignorance of antiquity with re- 
 spect to anatomical and physiological 
 laws and phenomena, is a ignorance of an- 
 fact that may well surprise "^^^^^^^ 
 the understanding. When caiiaws. 
 we consider, for instance, that the hu- 
 man body is to the faculties of the mind 
 and to the consciousness the most imme- 
 diate and tangible of all the facts of na- 
 ture, we may well be surprised at the 
 profound ignorance of even the greatest 
 minds of antiquity with regard thereto. 
 The scholars, statesmen, warriors, and 
 poets of the Graeco-Italic races, as well
 
 206 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 as the old bards who sang the Vedas, the 
 priests who formulated the cult of Osiris 
 and Isis, the Chaldee sages who studied 
 by night the planets and stars, and the 
 venerable seers of Israel, were all alike 
 ignorant of the simplest processes of or- 
 ganic life. The functions of bodily or- 
 gans were unknown, or at least not un- 
 derstood. The body throughout was a 
 mystery. Its structure had never been 
 investigated. The relations and offices 
 of its parts were totally misapprehended. 
 The beginning of life was misconceived 
 in its nature ; and though the body 
 seemed ever to invite to anatomical and 
 physiological study, the notions of even 
 the wisest on these subjects were crude in 
 all particulars and preposterous in most. 
 It were hard to account for what 
 seems to have been the indifference of 
 the great thinkers of the ancient world to 
 Indifference of the practical questions of 
 :h:pr:crsses°of organic life. It would seem 
 organic life. that the mere accidents to 
 
 which living beings have been subject 
 in all time would have taught the 
 scholars of the classical ages much more 
 than they ever knew about the anatomy 
 and physiology of living bodies. It is an 
 amazing fact that all the learning of an- 
 tiquity failed to note so simple a thing 
 as the digestion of food or the circulation 
 of the blood. The offices of the organs 
 were as little known as though the body 
 did not contain a brain, a heart, a spinal 
 cord, an alimentary canal. Nor did this 
 ignorance give place to light under the 
 scholasticism of the Middle Ages. On 
 the contrary, in the mediaeval times 
 superstition raised its hand against all 
 that kind of investigation which now 
 goes under the name of natural science, 
 and the absurd beliefs of antiquity re- 
 specting the methods and phenomena of 
 life were intensified by the general gloom 
 which overhung the human mind. 
 
 It is to the present century that the great 
 scientific discoveries must be referred 
 
 by which the modus Opcr- Knowledge pro- 
 
 audi of organic being has LlfvMuaTto^le 
 been revealed. We here species, 
 speak of life in the individual, and refer 
 thereto in order to show the tremendous 
 influence which a knowledge of the laws 
 of individual growth has exerted in the 
 larger theory which explains varieties 
 and species and orders and, indeed, uni- 
 versal nature, by the same principle 
 which brings a single organic being from 
 the germ to its perfected form. What, 
 then, is the outline of evolution as de- 
 duced from the individual organism? 
 
 Each living thing has been evolved 
 from a minute particle of matter in 
 which the most critical tests of science 
 are unable to discover the aii organic life 
 slightest resemblance, out- ^^^clustav- 
 line, or suggestion of the ingiife. 
 adult form which is to arise therefrom. 
 This living particle, from which the 
 complex organism is to proceed, is called 
 a germ. It is simply, in its primordial 
 state, a cell of living matter, endowed 
 potentially with a principle of growth, 
 expansion, and final maturity of organic 
 structure ; but no trace of such organic 
 structure is discoverable in the germ it- 
 self. Indeed, it is not certainly known 
 that a germ is actually alive. Perhaps 
 it were better to define it in the first in- 
 tent as potentially alive. In any event, 
 neither the microscope nor chemical 
 analysis is able to indicate the existence 
 in a germ proper of any fact or quality 
 by which it may be discriminated from 
 other cells which have no power of 
 growth or development. 
 
 The better view is that every germ 
 capable of becoming an organic body is 
 itself a detached portion of the substance 
 of some living organism already exist- 
 ing. For a long time Harvey's biologi-
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 207 
 
 cal aphorism, " Omne vivuin ex ovo" or 
 *' Every living thing from an egg" was 
 Scientific aphor- accepted as the correct ex- 
 T^I^^torV Pi-ession for the beginning 
 ganism. of the individual life, and 
 
 the maxim has been but slightly modi- 
 fied by the more recent biology into the 
 form of ' ' Every living thing from some- 
 thing alive " — the distinction being that 
 a cell may have all the qualities of a 
 germ except the touch of life and yet 
 remain incapable as any other not-living 
 matter of becoming an organic body. 
 
 Scientific tests have been carefully ap- 
 plied to germs of many kinds, and their 
 qualitv clearly determined. 
 
 Nature and ' . . . 
 
 movements of The livmg cell IS found to 
 germ e. ^^ filled with the chem- 
 ical compound called proteine, consisting 
 under analysis of oxygen, 
 hydrogen, carbon, and nitro- 
 gen, with traces of sulphur 
 and phosphoi'us swimming 
 in much water. It should be 
 observed that proteine is not 
 a natural product ; that is, it 
 is always, so far as known, a 
 constituent of living organ- 
 isms or a product thereof — a conclusion 
 which strengthens the belief that with- 
 out life life can not begin. 
 
 Such, then, is the germ from which 
 every organic body takes its rise. From 
 History of the this the living individual 
 ^orroftTans'ort begins to be. Henceforth 
 mations. the history of the individual 
 
 life is a history of processes, changes, 
 adaptations, and, in a word, evolution. 
 The first of these changes and transfor- 
 mations is simple growth. The germ, 
 or living cell, begins to increase in size. 
 This is the first manifestation, indeed, 
 that the particle of matter in question is 
 a true germ. It expands by a force 
 seemingly within itself ; but at first with- 
 out other modification in character. It 
 
 remains under the first expansion simple 
 and homogeneous. 
 
 The second stage of the evolution is 
 marked by the appearance of a stricture 
 corresponding to the equator of the eel' 
 
 by which a division begins in what manner 
 
 to be effected, and two tt^^^Z'lT' 
 
 ' izes by process 
 
 cells produced instead of offission. 
 one. Each of the two parts assumes, 
 in turn, the form and character of the 
 original; but the division is not com- 
 plete, the substance of the two cells con- 
 tinuing to flow in common under the 
 line of stricture. Around each of the 
 two lobes lines of division appear, and 
 four parts are produced instead of two, 
 and these four, by division, become eiglit, 
 each of which retains the exact charac- 
 teristics of the original germ. Thus is 
 
 MANNER OF GERM DEVELOPMENT BY FISSION (SUCCESSIVE STAGES 
 MARKED A, B, C, D). 
 
 produced what is known as a cell aggre- 
 gate, which is the first stage in the ad- 
 vance from the germ toward complete 
 organic being. 
 
 The question at once arises by what 
 means this first enlargement of germ life 
 is effected. Whence comes How the mate- 
 the material which the cell ^^^^^^^^ar" 
 uses in its own enlarge- gathered, 
 ment? Certainly not out of nothing. 
 The cell has the power of appropriation. 
 It has this in virtue of the life-principle 
 within. It draws to itself and absorbs 
 the aliment whereby the increase in size 
 and the other phenomena of division 
 and multiplication are produced. The 
 materials so gathered are not mechan- 
 ically distributed as if they were packed
 
 208 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 between the parts of the living cells, 
 but are absorbed and assimilated with 
 the substance thereof, or, in a word, 
 digested. 
 
 The next stage in the evolution is the 
 
 formation of what is called the gastrula 
 
 out of the cell aggregate. 
 
 Formation of the . . , . , , , 
 
 gastrula and ar- T his IS accomplished by 
 chenterom. ^ ^^^j^^ ^^ transforma- 
 
 tions .such as the production of the ar- 
 chentirom and its transformation into an 
 embryonic stomach. The cells compos- 
 ing the first aggregate take the form 
 called Xheplanula, which is next doubled 
 in on one side, as if by external pressure. 
 The processes are somewhat occult, and 
 may be traced by the curious reader in 
 the pages of any modern work on physi- 
 ology. It is sufficient to say that with 
 the formation of the gastrula the rudi- 
 ments begin to appear of the different 
 parts of the organism that is to be, 
 namely, the epidermis, or outer .skin, 
 the intermediate tissue, the alimentary 
 canal, and a system of nerves. 
 
 The process of organic life — the prep- 
 aration for a complete individual — is now 
 'fully under way. Assimi- 
 
 Further evolu- 
 tion of organs lation coutmues, the matter 
 
 and parts. , • j • • 1 
 
 being drawn primarily 
 from the body of the mother and ulti- 
 mately from the nutritive substances of 
 the proximate environment. Growth 
 also continues, and the embryonic organ- 
 ism begins to manifest that distinction 
 of parts and outline of organs which in 
 the aggregate are to constitute the living 
 being that is to be. 
 
 At length, after successive stages of 
 growth and development, the new crea- 
 Manner of de- turc is ready for deliverance 
 
 This 
 
 process is ettected by 
 several methods. Some animals are 
 oviparous, or egg-bearing; that is, the 
 ova within the body of the mother are 
 
 cr;'a"rt''^i"s" to the outer world. 
 
 environment. nrnfPQQ iq effected 
 
 developed to completeness, ustially in- 
 closed in a chalky shell, and deposited 
 in a suitable situation for the secondary 
 process of fecundation. This consists 
 in subjecting the eggs to heat — generally 
 derived from the mother's body — and to 
 other favoring conditions during which 
 the processes above described, reaching 
 from germ life to organic life, are com- 
 pleted, the shell broken, and the new 
 organism liberated into the same condi- 
 tions as the adult parent. In the case 
 of the viviparous animals, the whole 
 process of embryonic development takes 
 place in the body of the mother, until 
 the offspring reaches the limit of its first 
 stage of being, when it is delivered to the 
 new arena of life independent of the 
 mother's body. 
 
 It is not needed to dwell in extenso 
 upon facts and modes of life which 
 
 in the case of the indi- Fundamental 
 
 vidual are well understood. l^rjl^^K,,, 
 The whole course of or- Uving forms, 
 ganic development, as the same is illus- 
 trated in the individual being, is Avell 
 apprehended, and has been demonstrated 
 by ob.servation and made of record until 
 hardly any feature of the process is any 
 longer obscure. But it is only in recent 
 times that the discovery has been made 
 of the fundamental identity of the meth- 
 ods of development in the embryonic 
 life of the different orders of animals. 
 There has been found to be no discover- 
 able difference in the process by which 
 the germ expands into organism in the 
 several species an d orders of living beings. 
 The process is the same in the sponge 
 as in the coelentera ; in the worm as in 
 the echinoderm ; in the tunicates as in 
 the anthropods; in the mollusks as in 
 the vertebrata. Indeed, in all the forms 
 of life, above the protozoans, the modes 
 of development from the germ to the 
 organism are fundamentally identical.
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 209 
 
 This fact is the first stage in the exten- 
 sion of the law of evolution from the in- 
 dividual to the other orders of beinof, 
 and finally to universal nature. 
 
 The next stage is like unto the first. 
 This is reached in the discovery that 
 not only are the processes of germinal 
 and embryonic life identical in the indi- 
 viduals of the various species and orders 
 of animate existence, but that the funda- 
 mental structure of the various kinds of 
 animals is essentiallv the same throueh- 
 out, with only such variations and modi- 
 fications of the 
 common pattern 
 as have been 
 produced by 
 adaptation to 
 certain c o n d i - 
 tions of life by 
 the exigency of 
 environment. 
 
 In the concept 
 of general na- 
 ture, the differ- 
 ences in the 
 structure of the 
 various orders 
 of being were 
 aforetime great- 
 ly exaggerated. 
 Mere sense of 
 
 sight and touch were used as the basis of 
 judgment respecting the degree of diver- 
 The natural gence between one kind of 
 animal and another kind, 
 m recent times no 
 scientific tests were applied to measure 
 by a truer standard the existing differ- 
 ences in the bottom plan of universal 
 nattire. To the eye the bird was suffi- 
 ciently unlike the fish, and the fish unlike 
 the mammal. What similarity might 
 the unaided sight of an untaught man 
 discover between a frog and a squirrel, 
 between a lizard and a hawk ? 
 
 By the scientific method of observa- 
 tion, however, the likenesses in the frame- 
 work and general structure Fundamental 
 of all the orders of living sf^cturai iden- 
 
 tity of all living 
 forms. 
 
 beings begin to appear, 
 and the unlikenesses to disappear. It 
 is found by the tests of science that the 
 differences between animals are .super- 
 ficial, and it might almost be said fal- 
 lacious, whereas the likenesses are fun- 
 damental and real. We here speak of 
 the likenesses existing among the mature 
 animals of different species and orders 
 
 &'B. 
 
 senses exagger- 
 ate differences 
 
 ofstructure. Until in recent times 
 
 LOWER LIMBS OF L'NT.ULATE ANIMALS — SHOWING THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT 
 
 (marked a, b, c, I), e) of organs. 
 
 in the essentials of their structure and 
 form. One not familiar with the fact 
 mu.st needs be a.stonished to note how, 
 under the investigations of comparative 
 anatomy, the fundamental parts of all 
 living creatures more and more approx- 
 imate a common type, from which the 
 several species and varieties have been 
 inflected to a certain limit only by the 
 conditions of environment, including the 
 operation of natural selection, or strug- 
 gle for life, and the survival of the best. 
 The skeletons of all vertebrates approx- 
 imate a single pattern. This pattern in
 
 210 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 turn approximates the basal structure of 
 the invertebrata ; and so on with the en- 
 largement of the investigation all animate 
 beings are seen to approach to one com- 
 mon rudimentary form, insomuch that 
 the inquirer might be induced to believe 
 
 THE SPECTROSCOPE. 
 
 that nature has had but a single pattern 
 in her laboratory of possibilities I 
 
 The effect of these discoveries in biol- 
 ogy must needs be great in leading the 
 mind toward a wider con- 
 cept of uniformity. First, 
 we have the actual demon- 
 stration of the modes and processes by 
 which mature organism is reached in the 
 
 The mind dis- 
 covers the law 
 of uniformity. 
 
 SOLAR SPECTRUM. 
 
 case of the individttal. In the next place, 
 we discover that the same processes and 
 methods of expansion and development 
 take place in the individuals of all the or- 
 ders of life. The modus operattdi cover- 
 ing the progress of life and of living 
 
 ^ grade of the protozoa. In the third place, 
 a .scientific examination and clas.sification 
 of the completed stnictural parts of all 
 animals shows an astonishing likeness 
 amounting to virtual identity for every 
 kind of organism, whether mammal, bird, 
 or reptile, whether vertebrate or in- 
 vertebrate, or mollusk, whether of the 
 highest or lowest grade of animated 
 existence. Everything approximates 
 a common type, and indicates in terms 
 not to be mistaken the fundamental 
 unity of the plan on which all varieties 
 of animal life have been produced. 
 
 It is doubtless tnie that certain 
 other discoveries made in the domain 
 of natural science have tended in re- 
 cent times to promote and suggest 
 one general law of uniformity for all 
 the processes of nature. The tendency 
 of science in the nineteenth century has 
 been toward what may be integration of 
 called the integration of 
 universal nature, 
 of the spectroscope a knowledge has been 
 acquired of the constitution and character 
 not only of the planetary worlds, but of 
 the sidereal heavens. Reviewing the 
 nature of these discov- 
 eries, it appears that the 
 human mind was in ex- 
 pectancy of a different 
 kind of knowledge from that which came 
 by the revelations of spectroscopic anal- 
 ysis. Instead of expecting to find the 
 universe a unit in its fundamental char- 
 acteristics, it would appear that expecta. 
 tion reached rather toward diversity, 
 
 all nature es- 
 tablished by 
 Bv means science. 
 
 ■nui 
 
 SPECTRUM OF IODINE VAPOR. 
 
 forms from the germ through certain in- 
 termediate stages to complete organic 
 structure is identical in all orders, species, 
 and varieties of living being above the 
 
 novelty, incongruity, and in short a dif- 
 ferent order for the upper worlds from 
 that established in our own. 
 
 All such anticipation was disappointed.
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— GENESIS OF NEW DOCTRINE. 211 
 
 Instead of unlikeness, likeness was dis- 
 covered ; instead of heterogeneity, 
 Scientific prog- identity; instead of con- 
 tWnUyTfrhe tradiction and novelty, one 
 universe. ia.\v and substance for the 
 
 whole. Hydrogen and carbon and cal- 
 cium and sodium were found above as 
 well as beneath, in the distant stars as 
 well as in our solar group of worlds. 
 The phenomena of combustion, of trans- 
 formation, the suggestions of growth, of 
 life, of mutation, of maturity, and death 
 were found everj'where, indicative of 
 the substantial imity in character, as- 
 pects, and offices of all worlds with our 
 own and the system to which it belongs. 
 In like manner chemical progress has 
 tended to one thing out of many. The 
 Chemistry old chemistrv has passed 
 
 ne°roV^:t°eria-i ^way, the new has taken 
 nature. its place. Oneofthemost 
 
 .striking aspects in this transformation 
 has been the discovery that the many 
 elements formerly supposed to constitute 
 the materials of nature are probably 
 reducible to a few, and possibly to one. 
 Of the sixty or seventy elementary sub- 
 stances which were accepted as such by 
 the chemists at the beginning of the pres- 
 ent century, all have been reduced to 
 four or five principal modes of motion 
 and sensation with the strong probabil- 
 ity that the further reduction of these- to 
 a single one will be effected. This dis- 
 covery that the substance of all nature is 
 really but one substance, or at most but 
 a few constituting those ' ' permanent 
 possibilities of sensation " ' which we call 
 matter, has conduced powerfully to bring 
 in the concept of unity, not only in 
 
 ' Matter may be defined as a permanent possibil- 
 ity of sensation. — John Stuart Mill. 
 
 material nature, but also in the realm of 
 organic life under law. 
 
 Such in general were the scientific 
 antecedents of the new doctrine of the 
 origin of species by natural selection. 
 The theory of evolution, however, came 
 by obser\^ation and experi- Evolution the 
 ment. Darwin was a trav- P'-°<iuct of ob- 
 
 servation and 
 
 eler, an observer of nature, experiment. 
 Though thoroughly versed in the biologi- 
 cal theories that had preceded his age, he 
 nevertheless relied upon generalizations 
 which he himself made from facts col- 
 lected from the natural world. Though 
 he owed to his grandfather a certain 
 hereditary type of mind favorable to the 
 formation of large theories respecting 
 the laws of man and nature, he none 
 the less pursued his lines of study as an 
 independent inquirer and with no appar- 
 ent predisposition for any class of opin- 
 ions. In 1859, as already stated, he 
 published his Origin of Species by means of 
 Natural Selection, and two years after- 
 wards his Descent of Man, in which the 
 new doctrine of the order of life was 
 fully set forth and defended by an ex- 
 tent and variety of obser\'ation and an 
 acuteness of deduction which must ever 
 remain a surprising event in the intel- 
 lectual history of the nineteenth century. 
 His studies included far-reaching excur- 
 sions into both the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms, but more particularly the 
 former. His research and industry were 
 equaled by the lucidity of his reason- 
 ing. His conclusions reached up by 
 steady approximations from the lower to 
 the higher forms of life, including man 
 himselfas the highest of all, but under the 
 dominion of the same laws which deter- 
 mine the character of the lower species.
 
 212 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKEVD. 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— The True Evolution. 
 
 HAT then is the doc- 
 trine of evolution? 
 First of all, it is the 
 theory that the higher 
 forms of living being, 
 including man, are the 
 descendants of some 
 ancient, lower, and extinct forms which 
 have been lost in the struggle for life 
 and replaced by the stronger and fitter 
 of each respective kind until the present 
 species have been produced. The proc- 
 ess is in general what is called natural 
 selection. The terms of this expression 
 were chosen by Darwin after his study 
 of the life of animals under domestica- 
 Darwin'sdis- tion. He pcrceivcd that in 
 iZ':i:Ittli these there is a c/^oice by 
 selection. the stock-raiscr of the best 
 
 of each kind and a rejection of the unfit ; 
 that by these means a given species is 
 perpetuated and improved along certain 
 lines of development which are desired 
 in preference to others; and that, in 
 short, the domestic animals are largely 
 the result of the intelligent choice or 
 selection of those who produce them. It 
 is thus that certain qualities attractive 
 and beneficial in given breeds are pre- 
 served, augmented, transmitted, and 
 perfected by a law of adaptation, and in 
 particular by the mating of the sexes so 
 as to intensify the desirable qualities of 
 the parents in the offspring. 
 
 These hints, gathered from a field of 
 inquiry to which Darwin devoted a great 
 Survival of or- amount of study, furnished 
 the word selection ; but 
 the question was whether 
 living beings not under the dominion 
 and intelligent choice of man are influ- 
 enced in their development by the action 
 
 ganic forms by 
 natural selec- 
 tion. 
 
 of a similar law. Of this law — of its 
 existence and character — Darwin may be 
 said to have been the discoverer. Mak- 
 ing a wide excursion into the open field 
 of nature, he found that a law of selec- 
 tion exists here also, by w-hich, or in ac- 
 cordance with which, the character of 
 each species of living beings has in the 
 main been determined. In a word, he 
 discovered that there is a natural selec- 
 tion prevailing in all parts of the domain 
 of life by which the fittest of each kind 
 of living creatures are chosen and the rest 
 rejected, the criterion of fitness being 
 determined by the nature of the envi- 
 ronment. This is to say that every liv- 
 ing organism is more or less fitted by its 
 powers to its surrounding condition in 
 the natural world ; more or less able by 
 its organs and faculties to secure for it- 
 self the means of subsistence ; more or 
 less fully equipped, as compared with its 
 fellows of the same species, to gain 
 place and footing in the somewhat slip- 
 pery contest for the most advantageous 
 situation — for the supply of its wants 
 and the exercise of its natural appetites. 
 Those creatures that are thus naturally 
 or fortuitouslv best fitted for the strug- 
 gle of life succeed in the competition, 
 while the weaker of the same kind fall 
 back in the race and disappear. 
 
 Such is one of the leading notions 
 which enter into the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion. It is known as natural selection, or 
 the survival of the fittest. Darwin says-: 
 
 " Let it be borne in mind how infi- 
 nitely complex and -close- Darwin's expli- 
 
 fitting are the mutual rela- ^^.1^=°™'='''' 
 
 o and Its expres- 
 
 tions of all organic beings sion. 
 to each other and to their physical condi- 
 tions of life ; and consequently what in-
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— FHE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 213 
 
 finitely varied diversities of structure 
 may be of use to each being under ctiang- 
 ing conditions of life. Can it then be 
 thought improbable, seeing that varia- 
 tions useful to man have undoubtedly 
 occurred, that other variations useful in 
 some way to each being in the great and 
 complex battle of life should sometimes 
 occur in the course of thousands of gen- 
 erations? If such do occur, can we 
 doubt (remembering that many more 
 
 It will be noted that this law involves 
 the fact called variation. Unless varia- 
 tion be admitted, then there could be no 
 such thing as selection, whether natural 
 or artificial. But the fact The law pro- 
 so-called does exist univer- t^^^^yj ^^^^\ 
 
 tion of form and 
 
 sally in the domain of life, function. 
 It exists naturally — in virtue of the very 
 conditions under which organic forms 
 are produced and developed. Living 
 organisms, instead of being alike, are 
 
 VARIATIOX OF ANIMAL FORMS.— (t) Under Nature-Common- Wolf 
 
 individuals are born than can possibly 
 survive) that individuals having any ad- 
 vantage, however slight, over others 
 would have the best chance of surviving 
 and procreating their kind ? On the other 
 hand, we may feel sure that any variation 
 in the least degree injurious would be 
 rigidly destroyed. This preservation of 
 favorable variations and the destniction 
 of injurious variations I call Natural Se- 
 lection, or The Survival of the Fittest." 
 
 unlike. This is said not of the funda- 
 mental plan of their structure, but of the 
 particular features which characterize 
 each individual. The members of a 
 given variety of living forms are dis- 
 criminable the one from the other by 
 differences which they bear. Perfect 
 likeness is nowhere found. The dis- 
 covery of two creatures however nearly 
 related and produced under howevei 
 nearlv identical conditions, which are
 
 214 
 
 GREAT RACi:S OF J/.LYAVA'D. 
 
 indiscriminable by manifest differences 
 in their structure, qualities, and physical 
 features, is impossible. No likeness of 
 parents, or careful preparation of ante- 
 cedents, or accidental results of creative 
 forces, or nurture and development, can 
 produce two organisms which are the 
 same in all particulars. It is doubtless 
 true that in all the incalculable millions 
 of bushels of wheat which the world has 
 produced no two grains were ever pre- 
 cisely alike. Xature in all of her do- 
 
 doctrine of evolution. But they are only 
 the beginning of the phenomena. Given 
 the unequal capacities of variafion in- 
 
 1- • • • 4-1,^ tensified by 
 
 hvmg organisms m the g.^wthand 
 arena of life, and we have adaptation, 
 the clue to the real variation which is to 
 follow. The individuals of a given 
 species begin their existence by gather- 
 ing sustenance and fitting themselves to 
 their environment. But those having 
 the superior powers accomplish this 
 work most successfully. In doing so 
 
 
 tr^c^'^ 
 
 \AKIATIOX OK ANIMAL FORMS.— (2) Under Domlstication — Italian Greyhound, 
 
 mains avoids with everlasting persist- 
 ency the exact repetition of any of her 
 results. It therefore happens that when 
 the living organisms which are to in- 
 habit the world are projected into the 
 arena of life they come with unequal 
 powers and capacities, with differences 
 which, though in many instances minute, 
 are nevertheless appreciable m the con- 
 test which is to ensue, with fitnesses 
 more or leSs complete for survival and 
 the procreation of their kind. 
 
 These facts constitute the basis of that 
 variation which is so fundamental to the 
 
 they augment and make permanent the 
 very faculties and organs by which 
 success is attained. The use of the 
 organs with which they are endowed 
 increases their development, and the 
 offspring of these successful organic 
 forms are born, not with the rudimen- 
 tary powers which were possessed by 
 their parents, but with the developed 
 powers, instincts, and capabilities which 
 their parents possessed and transmitted 
 in procreation. 
 
 There is thus originated a series of 
 forces culminative in their action and
 
 31ANXER OF THE BEGIXXING.—THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 215 
 
 tending- to the perfection of organic life 
 in a certain direction. Meanwhile, how- 
 ever, those original organisms which, 
 were not so well 
 endowed have 
 either wholly 
 perished or have 
 been crowded 
 from the line of 
 development 
 taken by their 
 successful com- 
 petitors, into a 
 deviating course 
 of life where the 
 conditions are 
 somewhat, per- 
 haps largely, 
 different from 
 those surround- 
 ing the lines fol- 
 lowed by the 
 first group. 
 
 It can but be 
 of interest t o ' 
 note a few spe- 
 cific instances of 
 the operation of 
 the law of sur- 
 vival. Take, for 
 example, the 
 case of that 
 large number of 
 flowering plants 
 which are per- 
 petuated by the 
 trans fer of 
 pollen. It is 
 thus that fecun- 
 dation is effected 
 and the given 
 species ex- 
 tended over wider and 
 
 Specific exam- 
 ples of the law still wider areas of growth. 
 
 Whatever favors the dis- 
 tribution of pollen will therefore be 
 
 pi-omotive of the welfare and rapid mul- 
 tiplication of the species. This work is 
 usually effected by the agency of insects 
 
 GORILLA TAKING HOLD WITH FOREFOOT. 
 
 traveling by wing from blossom ta 
 blossom and carrying with them per 
 accidens the fecundating principle. It 
 will be observed that the motive of this
 
 216 
 
 GREAT RACFS OF MANKIND. 
 
 plants flourish 
 by secreting 
 nectar. 
 
 work is, as it were, unknown to the in- 
 sects themselves, they being busy with 
 another instinct and appetite. This 
 other impulse is the seeking- of food. 
 The cells of flowers contain many .sub- 
 stances, notably honey, which attract 
 the insects and thus bring them into 
 contact with the pollen. 
 
 It is needless to say that that particu- 
 lar blossom, or particular species of blos- 
 Biossoming soms, which, under given 
 
 conditions, secretes the 
 largest quantity of the most 
 delicious sweets will draw the greater 
 number of insects, and that the pollen 
 thereof will be most widely distributed. 
 If any particular plant, or variety of 
 plants, through weakness, or semisterili- 
 ty, or any fortuitous circumstance, should 
 be poorly supplied with the attractive 
 nectar, that variety would be neglected. 
 The general result would be that the 
 favorite plant would, with the next sea- 
 son, secure a wider area of growth with 
 all the better situations. The tendency 
 thus started would increase in influence. 
 Slowly, perhaps, but steadily the plants 
 having the best supply of nectar would 
 run ahead, preoccupy the best ground, 
 overgrow their competitors, and, in short, 
 become an example of the survival of the 
 fittest. 
 
 If we pass up to the animal kingdom, 
 we find this law still more strongly oper- 
 Expiication of ative — Still more powerful- 
 ly determinative of given 
 results. It is among animate 
 beings that the struggle for existence has 
 its widest and most important exemplifi- 
 cation. It was here, indeed, that the first 
 glimp.ses of the law were caught. It was 
 in the closing years of the last centtiry 
 that Thomas Robert Malthus published 
 that Theory of Population which has ever 
 since borne his name. To him belongs 
 the honor of having first formally devel- 
 
 Malthusian 
 theory of popu- 
 lation. 
 
 oped the idea of the encroachment of 
 the animals of the world upon the means 
 of subsistence. He perceived that all 
 animal life is procreated in a geometric- 
 al, not in an arithmetical, progression. 
 However .slow the rate of increase may ■ 
 be in any given case, the ratio is always 
 a geometrical series. If a given species 
 of animals reproduce in such a rate as to 
 double the number in four years, then 
 in eight years the number will be quad- 
 rupled, and in twelve years increased to 
 eightfold the original number. If the 
 number be not doubled for twenty-five 
 years, then with fifty years it will be 
 quadrupled, and so on in a geometrical 
 ratio. 
 
 The animals of the world subsist 
 ultimately on the products of vegeta- 
 tion. Plants, multiplying in what manner 
 
 by their seeds, increase ^^rchonmeans 
 also in a geometrical ofsubsistence. 
 ratio, so that at first glance it would 
 appear that the increase of animal 
 life and the increase of the means 
 of subsistence are coordinate phenom- 
 ena ; but a moment's reflection will 
 show that all plant-life is fixed in 
 the earth or water. There is thus a 
 natural limit to the extent of the in- 
 crease of any given variety. A certain 
 kind of plants may, indeed, multiply 
 under the geometric law imtil a given 
 space of producing soil, as of an acre, 
 is occupied. After this limit is reached, 
 all that the given species of vegetation 
 can do is to occupy and fill to repletion 
 another acre, and then another. But 
 this process is addative, or simply arith- 
 metical, and not geometrical. In a 
 word, nature has provided in the lim- 
 itations of the soil of the earth a law 
 by which the rate of increase in all the 
 vegetable products of the world is 
 changed from a geometrical to an arith- 
 metical series; but in the case of the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING. — THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 217 
 
 animals, they being not so fixed to the 
 soil, the geometrical ratio of increase 
 continues operative ; which is to say 
 that the animals, multiplying more rap- 
 idly than the means of subsistence can 
 multiply, encroach with the force of the 
 calculus on the food-supply which nature 
 has provided for them. There is, there- 
 fore, only one thing remaining to equal- 
 ize the two forces, and that is the intro- 
 duction of another law, or laws, by which 
 the effects of the geometrical ratio in the 
 increase of animate beings shall be cur- 
 tailed and limited in its operation, so that 
 the means of subsistence may keep pace 
 with the demands thereon. 
 
 The law whereby the geometrical ratio 
 in the multiplication of animals is re- 
 stricted to the means of sub- 
 
 The three forms 
 
 of the struggle sistcnce is, in a word, the 
 
 for existence. . , r ,■!■ ., 
 
 Struggle tor life — the sur- 
 vival of the fittest. Among the animals 
 this struggle goes on forever. It as- 
 sumes one of three forms : 
 
 1. The struggle of the individual 
 with the individual of the same species. 
 
 2. The struggle of the individual of 
 one species with the individual of another 
 species. 
 
 3. The struggle of the individual or 
 the species with the physical conditions 
 of life, commonly called the environ- 
 ment. 
 
 The first kind of contest covers all the 
 varieties of competition which one indi- 
 vidual of any species has with another 
 individual of like kind with itself. It is 
 a well-known fact that nature is extreme- 
 ly prodigal in the provision which she 
 makes for the procreation and distribu- 
 tion of the germs of every species of or- 
 ganic life. She always provides for 
 much more than can exist. In the case 
 of some plants the number of seeds pro- 
 duced is so incalculable that if it were 
 
 not for the prodigious waste and the 
 
 M.— Vol. I— 13 
 
 countervailing laws by which the spread 
 of that species is restricted, it must in a 
 short time occupy the whole earth to the 
 exclusion of all other forms of vegeta- 
 tion. Thus it is that the very seeds of 
 life begin a competition which can only 
 end with the death of the organic forms 
 potential in them. 
 
 On the land and in the deep the same 
 phenomenon constantly reappears in all 
 
 the forms of existence. It Exuberance of 
 
 is estimated that a single "f« --est^cted 
 
 o by opposing 
 
 codfish will, under favoring agencies, 
 conditions, in one season produce three 
 million eggs! It is needless to point out 
 the fact that at this rate of increase, were 
 not the most efficient and active restraints 
 imposed upon it — including competition 
 for the means of subsistence — the whole 
 Atlantic bed, from shore to shore, would 
 in the course of a few years be filled to 
 the surface with a solid mass of this su- 
 perfecund species of fish. It can not be 
 doubted that but for the action of very 
 efficient countervailing agencies the quail 
 of North America would in a short time 
 multiply to the occupation of all fields 
 and groves and valleys, from mountain 
 to mountain and from .sea to sea. So 
 also of the rabbits and many other spe- 
 cies of ground animals. 
 
 It may suffice to point out in this gen- 
 eral way the rudiments of the great prob- 
 lem of life. Nor can it fail curtailment of 
 of interest to follow the in- ^feSli^d " 
 vestigation along the lines seed. 
 of those methods which are provided for 
 the curtailment of life under the general 
 law of natural selection. First of all, in 
 the case of living creatures vastly great- 
 er numbers of eggs are provided than are 
 necessary for the preservation of the spe- 
 cies. Here the struggle begins in the 
 destruction of the eggs of one species by 
 the animals of another. Great and mul- 
 tifarious are the exigencies through
 
 218 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKTXP. 
 
 EXAMl'l K ni RAPID MULTIPLICATION.— Burrow of Rabbits.— Drawn by Giacomelli. 
 
 which all eggs, as, for instance, the eggs 
 of birds, must pass before they can come 
 to the stage of life and organic develop- 
 
 ment. Every nest is exposed to the 
 vicissitudes of storm and flood. Every 
 nest is a temptation as well as a seat of
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 219 
 
 hope and despair. The living enemy 
 lurks on every hand. No eyrie is so in- 
 accessible as not to be approached by the 
 stealthy march of the foe. Then come 
 the vicissitudes and hardships of climate. 
 These bear alike on the germs of life and 
 upon all stages of organic development. 
 A single winter of unprecedented sever- 
 ity, like that of 1607-08, is sufficient to 
 work havoc and decimation M-ith the 
 plant and animal life of large areas of 
 the world. After such a disaster the 
 species surviving from the ordeal must, 
 as it were, begin anew, and in so doing 
 only the hardier stocks are preserved as 
 the progenitors of new races. 
 
 But we are here to speak more partic- 
 ularl}' of the contest of the individual 
 Struggle of the with the fellow-individual 
 L"th^s'of1tl"^ of the same species. In 
 species. this respect the struggle of 
 
 life is perhaps the most remorseless 
 fact which the student of nature is 
 obliged to contemplate ! It is a conflict 
 of the strong with the weak, in which 
 the strong always prevails and the 
 weak always perishes. As a rule, the 
 hungry animal seizes from his fellow 
 the one portion of food which is not 
 sufficient for both. The strong takes 
 it; the weak loses the battle. There 
 is neither remorse nor pity. True, to a 
 certain extent the parent animal, the 
 mother in particular, cares for her off- 
 spring; but this law holds only to a cer- 
 tain limit. Beyond that there is neither 
 preference nor sympathy nor recogni- 
 tion. Even while the instinct of parental 
 protection still prevails, it is counteracted 
 by appetite, and, except in the case of 
 the human species, the offspring itself is 
 ruthlessly devoured by the parents. Even 
 in our own kind this horrid circumstance 
 in the struggle for life has been again 
 and again repeated, as if to proclaim 
 with a great voice over the whole arena 
 
 of living being the one dominant law 
 that the strongest shall live and the 
 weakest go to the wall. 
 
 Passing to the war between individuals 
 of different species, we find the conflict 
 as wide and as universal as Plants of one 
 the domain of life. In the species contend 
 
 for place with 
 
 plant world the individ- those of another, 
 uals ot one species, stronger than the 
 prevailing form in a given locality, ob- 
 trudes upon the exi.sting kind, multi- 
 plies, and drives out the weaker species. 
 The struggle goes on everywhere, from 
 the conflict between one kind of cryptog- 
 amous plants, growing like a mold on 
 the cellar wall, and another kind, its 
 competitor, up to the struggle of one 
 forest growth with another. The sub- 
 stitution of one entire forest for another 
 kind is a common fact in the botanical 
 history of the world. 
 
 In the arena of animal life one species 
 drives out another. The whole sea of 
 animated nature is fluctuat- Battle forUfo 
 ingf along its entire surface between ani- 
 
 ° , ^ mals of different 
 
 from shore to shore with species, 
 the varying vicissitudes of the conflict 
 between the stronger and the weaker 
 wave. Some of the waves follow the 
 course of civilization. The black rat 
 gives way to the brown, and the gray 
 squirrel of the American woods retreats 
 before his red rival. In other portions 
 of the field the contest is waged between 
 wide-apart orders of living beings. The 
 carnivora devour the herbivora, fishing 
 birds deplete the waters of their inhab- 
 itants, parasitic insects attack the strong- 
 est animals and reduce them to skeletons. 
 Further and still further the vicissi- 
 tudes of the battle extend, until all na- 
 ture .seems to be involved , 
 
 Illustration of 
 
 in one vast complication, the vicissitudes 
 
 T . T , • . r of the contest. 
 
 In a given district or 
 
 country cats are plentiful. They are of 
 
 a strong breed, vigorous in procreation,
 
 220 
 
 GREAT RACKS OF MANKIND. 
 
 IKI l,(,l,F, 'iF LIl K— IHE STRdNc; TAKES HIS PRl-,\ . — I 'i..« .i In Sljnley Berkeley. 
 
 and eager in the pursuit of prey. They 
 
 trict, and almost exterminate them. 
 
 feed upon the ground mice of the dis- Everywhere, in meadow tuft or by the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 221 
 
 roots of decaying stumps, or along the 
 lines of fences, the mouse nests are 
 hunted from their places. The parent 
 and the young are alike devoured. With 
 the disappearance of the mice the bum- 
 blebees greatly multiply ; for the mouse 
 is the great enemy of the bumblebee. 
 The nest of the latter is constantly in- 
 vaded and its contents destroyed or eaten 
 by the enemy. With the destruction of 
 that enemy the life of the bumblebee is 
 liberated from danger; the nests are 
 multiplied in all favoring localities, and 
 with the hatching of th^offspring the air 
 is murmurous with their humdrum music. 
 Round about this scene spread the 
 fields of red clover. It is by the agency 
 Correlations of of the bumblebee that the 
 red clover with poUe^ of red clover is borne 
 
 cats, mice, and -r 
 
 bumblebees. from blossom to blossom. 
 Without such agency there can be no 
 maturity of the seed, no germination, 
 no preparation for an ensuing ci"op. It 
 is a well-known fact that in a given sea- 
 son the first cutting of red clover finds 
 no seed in the blossoms. It is only 
 later in the year, when the bumblebees 
 have gone abroad, that the seed crop is 
 developed. Note, therefore, the extent 
 of the correlation. Where cats are plen- 
 tiful the mice are exterminated, the 
 bumblebees abound, and red clover not 
 only flourishes but prepares its seed for 
 a more extended area of growth. Where 
 cats do not exist ground mice flourish 
 and multiply, the bumblebees are exter- 
 minated, and the red clover perishes for 
 want of fecundation ! 
 
 These lines of vibration and vicissi- 
 tude extend in all directions through the 
 Law of conflict whole domain of life. They 
 extends to the {nclude not onlv animated 
 
 whole domain 
 
 ofiife. nature, but the vegetable 
 
 world as well. They knit together all the 
 forms of living organisms in mutual de- 
 pendencies by which the relative advan- 
 
 tage and very existence of each are con- 
 ditioned. They furnish the clues of a 
 study which is world-wide in its extent 
 and variety. He who runs may read the 
 story of the unending warfare that goes 
 on between the species of living beings 
 — goes on from the insect battle on the 
 under side of a leaf to the dropping of 
 the tortoise from the eagle's claw ; from 
 the sting of the mosquito on baby's 
 hand to the ferocious conflict of men 
 with tigers in the Indian jungles; from 
 the snap of the swallow's beak on the 
 ephemeral gnat to the assault of the in- 
 furiated monster of the deep on the 
 whaler's boat. 
 
 In the third place, the struggle for life 
 is intensified by the resistance which the 
 
 material world offers to the Environment of- 
 
 welfare and safety of every f^^.l^f^Sr'' 
 living creature. In .some forms- 
 parts of the world, particularly toward 
 the north, the vegetation and the power 
 of nature to produce it are so limited 
 that animal life of all kinds must be 
 correspondingly sparse and barren. 
 Certain regions of the globe become 
 inore and more bleak until vital phe- 
 nomena first weaken, then sink to lower 
 levels of development, and finally dis- 
 appear. Besides this, nature, instead of 
 being a safe, is everywhere a dangerous, 
 ai-ena. While she invites life, she op- 
 poses it and puts impediments in the 
 way of its progress. Not infrequently 
 she is a destroyer. The world has its 
 cataclysms and physical commotions in 
 which not only multitudes of individuals 
 but whole races of living beings are 
 swallowed up. Life stands always on 
 the perilous edge of hazard. 
 
 The conditions not only of health but 
 of disease are present in ^^^^^^f^^^ 
 the world. Epidemics .su- subject to dis- 
 
 , J ease and death. 
 
 pervene at intervals and 
 
 sweep away or decimate existing species.
 
 222 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 The havoc of disease is seen not only 
 where human kind has risen above the 
 other orders of animated nature and 
 
 ci\dlized the world, but wherever life is 
 found. It were a great error to suppose 
 that the plant world, in a state of na- 
 
 ture, is free from the ravages of disease 
 — still greater to imagine that the lower 
 orders of animated being are not visited 
 
 by destructive 
 epidemics. It 
 might well ap- 
 pear to the cal- 
 culating mind of 
 Malthus that dis- 
 ease is one of 
 the natural 
 weapons by 
 which the su- 
 perabundance of 
 life is beaten 
 back into the 
 dust. 
 
 The genera] 
 fact called cli- 
 mate, with the 
 changes which it 
 involves, c o n • 
 tributes largely 
 to the struggle 
 for life. It would 
 appear that every 
 species of living 
 organism is care- 
 fully balanced in 
 its climatic en- 
 vironment. All 
 living beings are 
 sensitive, most of 
 them highly sen- 
 sitive, to the in- 
 fluence of even 
 slight chang-es 
 among the cos- 
 mic forces in 
 w h ic h they 
 swing. "When- 
 ever the turn of 
 the secular wheel 
 brings around an altered condition of 
 earth or sea or air, that alteration is the 
 catastrophe of many species of animals
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 223 
 
 and plants. Man}- more species are 
 seriously affected by the change, some 
 favorably and others unfavorably. Some 
 are aided by the alteration in natural 
 conditions, and others crippled for life. 
 
 The geological history of organic 
 forms preserved in the earth's crust 
 Secular changes shows conclusively that 
 f;o°phe\7u^:g the metamorphosis of spe- 
 fonns. dies has been coincident 
 
 with the secular changes to which the 
 
 If we note with particularity the habits 
 and vital capacity of any animal or 
 species of animals in given zone and 
 within a given area, we Natural seiec- 
 shall find the living being ^VTng%Tm?oTts 
 
 or beings in question to environment. 
 
 have been brought by natural selection 
 into very careful adjustment with cli- 
 matic conditions. The given animal is, 
 for instance, capable of enduring the 
 maximum cold of the winter in his lati- 
 
 MAN-LIFE Ll.MriED BY BATTLE WITH ANIMALS. 
 
 earth itself has been subjected. Life, 
 in a word, makes a new departure 
 when the general cour.se of nature is 
 disturbed. Animals are changed in 
 their forms and habits, not indeed per 
 iciuin, but gradually from one mode 
 and aspect of activity to another. The 
 distribution of plants and all forms of 
 animated existence departs on new lines 
 with every cosmic change in the en- 
 vironment. 
 
 tude, but no more. He is fitted to bear 
 the heat of the corresponding summer, 
 but no excess thereover. He is in like 
 manner balanced with the conditions of 
 moisture and drought, and indeed with 
 all the meterological and cosmical forces 
 that hold him in his place. Any dis- 
 turbance among these forces must 
 seriously affect his welfare. Any swell- 
 ing or perturbation of the secular laws 
 overwhelms him, or drives him forth
 
 224 
 
 GREAT RACES OF ^FAXKIXD. 
 
 into a new condition of activity and a 
 new form of specific development. 
 
 But these cosmical changes do occur. 
 The islands and continents of our globe 
 Cosmical crises not only yield to the 
 are attended vicissitude of changing cli- 
 
 ■with destruc- ^ ^ 
 
 tion of species, mate, but sink and emerge 
 by turns from the sea. Terra contends, 
 with Oceanus, and he with her. With 
 
 produce a general alteration in the 
 aspects and tendencies of organic life; 
 but for the most part the changes are so 
 slow as to admit of a gradual life-adjust- 
 ment to the altered conditions as they 
 arise. But the fact of climatic and cos- 
 mical disturbance exists, and the law of 
 natural selection depends thereon in part 
 for its efficiency and ultimate results. 
 
 NDkl'HKRM LlMir OF M AN-Ll IE.— King William I,a\d. 
 
 each subsidence and upcoming of the 
 land from the sea a new environment is 
 prepared — a new field for animal activi- 
 ties. True it is that since the days of 
 Sir Charles Lyell, the notion of vast im- 
 mediate cataclysms and reconstructions 
 of the globe has given place to the con- 
 cept of slow but ever-operative changes 
 in the forces that balance the world. 
 At certain times, no doubt, crises are 
 passed in these secular movements which 
 
 wStill another active force in the strug- 
 gle for life is what is called sexual selec- 
 tion. Mr. Darwin in his 
 
 struggle for life 
 
 later studies was led hx ob- on unes of sex- 
 
 ,. 1 .' . ual selection. 
 
 servation and experiment 
 to dwell much upon this circumstance in 
 nature as an efficient cause of variation. 
 Here also the study begins with the 
 methods of reproduction in the ca,se of 
 animals in a state of domestication. It 
 is clear that where the animals under
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOIUTION. 225 
 
 observation are domesticated and thus 
 subjected to the intelligence and purpose 
 of man, the largest and most striking 
 results are produced by the adaptations 
 of sex in mating. It may well surprise 
 the inquirer that a principle so widely 
 known and acted upon, perhaps from 
 antiquity, should not have suggested to 
 the early biologists the extension of the 
 law into the realm of untrammeled 
 nature beyond the limits of man's 
 agency. The principle in question 
 has been so much employed that 
 the leading aspects of animal life 
 in a state of domestication have 
 been produced by the skill of the 
 breeder, by the knowledge and 
 application of sexual selection. 
 
 Nearly every species of domestic 
 creature has been brought to its 
 Domestic ani- present State by this 
 Te^entZmsby "method. Generation 
 sexual matings. after generation the 
 breeder and raiser have chosen to 
 develop varieties on certain lines 
 of excellence, and almost the single 
 force which they have employed 
 has been the mating of the sexes 
 according to the criterion of the 
 quality desired in the offspring. 
 We may well be surprised to look 
 around us in the arena of civil- 
 ized life where domestic animals so 
 much abound and to note how each 
 creature and each variety of crea- 
 tures have been perfected by this 
 easy and manifest method of sextial ad- 
 aptation. The great breeds of Teeswater 
 cattle have been produced by the system- 
 atic choice of favorite qualities in the 
 male and female, and the mating of those 
 animals in which the desirable qualities 
 were most highly exemplified. vSo also 
 of the Alderneys and the Holsteins. 
 So also in the Polled Anguses, in which 
 the variation has proceeded to the extent 
 
 of the absolute obliteration of horns and 
 the rounding into smoothness and sym- 
 metry of the head over the part from 
 which the horns once sprang! 
 
 The various breeds of domestic fowls 
 have in like manner been brought to the 
 wide differentiation which we see among 
 them. And so indeed through the whole 
 range of those creatures which man has 
 
 BRITISI 
 OK 
 
 I ISI.F.S AND SURROl-NniNC. SEA SIlDWINT. IhlW A RISE 
 
 SIX HUNDRED FEET WOULD MAKE GREAT BRITAIN 
 CONTINENTAL. 
 
 reduced from Avild nature to domestica- 
 tion. Perhaps the different species of 
 dogs illustrate the action -wide range of 
 of the law. as well as any. ^utedby do'°" 
 Here it would seem that mastication, 
 the very extremes of possibility have 
 been reached by the simple process of 
 sexual selection. From the minute and 
 delicate poodle to the tall, muscular Irish 
 staghound — perhaps the fleetest of all
 
 226 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 animals — and the tremendous mastiff 
 and St. Bernard the work has been ac- 
 complished by simply selecting-, genera- 
 tion after generation, the individuals in 
 which the desirable qualities have begun 
 to appear and by mating these individ- 
 uals together, thus accumulating the 
 peculiarities sought for, intensifying 
 them, fixing them, and sending them 
 down with an accelerated force to the 
 next genciation. 
 
 So powerful is the action of this prin- 
 ciple of sexual selection, so general its 
 Results of seiec- application, and so uni- 
 do°neT/r^:e":;i vcrsal its efficiency, that in 
 of process. the hands of man it can 
 
 easily be reversed and made to undo its 
 own results. It is only needed to adopt 
 the method of mismating in order to 
 obliterate in a few generations the pe- 
 culiarities which have been developed 
 through many. The crossing of breeds, 
 as is well known, produces a mongrel 
 midway in size, color, features, instincts, 
 and modes of activity between the two 
 mismated parents. The strong differ- 
 entiation which sexual selection so easily 
 sets up, perpetuates, and at length fixes 
 in permanent varieties, may be easily 
 smoothed out and leveled down by the 
 ■ reversal of the same principle. 
 
 With these well-known facts before 
 us respecting the laws of animal devel- 
 Nature also se- opmeut when the same 
 covery of\he " ^'^^ applied to creatures in 
 ^'^^- domestication, it would 
 
 seem that the extension of the principle 
 to all animated nature ought to have 
 been long since discovered. But such 
 was not the case. Until the last half of 
 the current century it appears not to 
 have been suspected that the very in- 
 .stincts of animals themselves, in a state 
 of nature, are as effective in producing 
 differentiation and a development of va- 
 rieties, though perhaps not so rapid and 
 
 tangible in results, as are the .skill and 
 persistency of the breeder. Investiga- 
 tion has shown that there is a natural as 
 well as an artificial law of sexual selec- 
 tion ; that, indeed, all animated nature 
 is pervaded with an instinct which, un- 
 der various forms of manifestation, 
 works out at length the same or analo- 
 gous results with those secured by intel- 
 ligent breeding. The habits of animals 
 in a state of nature have been so well 
 observed and the results generalized 
 that it is no longer to be doubted that 
 many of the most striking differentia- 
 tions and varieties in animal life have 
 been produced by that form of adapta- 
 tion between the male and female which 
 goes by the name of sexual selection. 
 
 A few examples of this law and its 
 results in the arena of wild nature may 
 
 suffice. The stronger Examples of sex. 
 
 males of almost all species '^^^^^::^ 
 of animals beat back the f™n»- 
 weaker, and become the progenitors of 
 the next generation. Sheer force is thus 
 one of the primary elements in the prob- 
 lem. To this nature lends herself a 
 willing servant. In the case of all the 
 animals bearing deciduous horns there 
 is a special preparation for the epoch 
 and fact of mating. The horns are for 
 battle, and the battle is for the posses- 
 sion of the female. The season of bat- 
 tle and of procreation having passed, 
 the horns are cast, and for a while the 
 males are hornless; but with the ap- 
 proach of the next season of struggle the 
 horns reappear, expand, and harden for 
 the fight. 
 
 Meanwhile, in many instances the fe- 
 male of the species in like manner make 
 choice , sometimes most per- Both sexes and 
 sistentlv, of certain males. ^L!f.T-f^. =»,»» 
 
 ■> ' choose m a state 
 
 In some cases the choice is of nature, 
 determined by size and strength or fleet- 
 ness; sometimes by color or form, and
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 227 
 
 sometimes by occult dispositions which 
 it has been hard to discover. Among 
 the birds, color and plumage have per- 
 formed a large part in the work of sexual 
 selection. Sometimes it is the male and 
 sometimes the female — generally the for- 
 mer — which is the most highly adorned 
 and developed in variety and extent of 
 plumage and brilliancy of hues. But 
 until the present age it was never sus- 
 pected that these strong marks of peculiar- 
 ity and attractiveness had themselves 
 been produced through hundreds 
 of generations by the preference 
 of the females for the most beau- 
 tiful among the males. Every- 
 where, from the hugest forms of 
 life now existing on the earth 
 down to the glowworm in the 
 grass, the same principle of sex- 
 ual selection exists and works 
 out, slowly but surely, its cu- 
 mulative results in the differ- 
 entiation, establishment, and 
 perpetuation of the varieties 
 of animal life. 
 
 Still another circumstance 
 should be noted as bearing a 
 Occasional sud- part in the produc- 
 uL^l^ll:::x tion of species, 
 types. This is the occa- 
 
 sionally sudden, or at least rapid, 
 departure of offspring from the 
 parental type. It sometimes happens 
 (and by happening we do not mean a 
 work of chance, but only that the causes 
 of the phenomenon are imknown) that 
 a newborn animal exhibits qualities, 
 features, instincts, and modes of activ- 
 ity so widely divergent from not only 
 the immediate parents, but from the 
 whole ancestry as far as known, that 
 it might well appear that a new species 
 or variety had been produced per salt inn. 
 
 It is not clearly known what the ulti- 
 mate effects of these sudden departures 
 
 may be in the general economy of ani- 
 mal life. Some observers have concluded 
 that such phenomena are 
 
 , 111 Question of the 
 
 anomalous, and that the pe- results of this 
 culiar progeny born in un- p^^"°™«"°''- 
 likeness to the parental stock tends in 
 succeeding generations to sink back 
 to the type from which it is derived. 
 Others are of opinion that, in some cases 
 at least, the abnormal form perpetuates 
 and fixes itself as a new variety, or at 
 least tends to do so until it is counter- 
 
 (r) DEER HEAD WITH ANTLERS IN THE " VELVET." 
 
 acted and obliterated b}- the countervail- 
 inof forces of breedino: and environment. 
 Several other elements besides those 
 enumerated in the preceding pages enter 
 into the struggle for life, and help to 
 constitute the general doctrine known as 
 the survival of the fittest. This doctrine 
 is the key of the theory of evolution. 
 That theory we are now ready to apply 
 to the general scheme of animated na- 
 ture, and to show to what extent and in 
 what way it explains the phenomena of 
 ora:anic life.
 
 228 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JU.VAV.Vn. 
 
 In the first place, the nomenclature of 
 science should be noted as precedent to 
 Nomenclature of a clcar apprehension of 
 frtr^g^om tS the subject. Nature is di- 
 the individual, vidcd first of all into great 
 groups of .sensible facts called Kingdoms. 
 There is a Mineral Kingdom, constituting 
 the great mass of visible nature ; a Veg- 
 etable Kingdom, rising therefrom and 
 
 (2) UKER HEAD WITH MATURE ANTLERS 
 
 fixed as we have .seen to the earth as 
 its basis of growth ; an Animal King- 
 dom, including all those organic forms 
 of being which rise above the somewhat 
 indefinite horizon of plant-life. 
 
 Kingdoms are divided into Orders, or 
 great groups of facts discriminated from 
 each other by a few leading and general 
 lines of demarkation. Orders are di- 
 vided into Suborders; these into Gen- 
 era: these into Species; Species into 
 
 Varieties, and Varieties into Individuals. 
 Besides this right line we have such 
 words as Classes and Families to desig- 
 nate certain groups in the order of de- 
 scent; but in general the analysis runs 
 down in the order given above from 
 Kingdoms, the highest, to Individuals, 
 the lowest and last results in the clas- 
 sification of the forms of nature. 
 
 In the foreeoinof examination 
 
 we have seen in general how the 
 
 law of evolution 
 
 Law of the indi- 
 WOrkS m the pro- vidualis the law 
 1 ,. e ,-, . of the species, 
 
 duction of the in- 
 dividual life. This part of the 
 modus operandi has been deter- 
 mined and established by obser- 
 vation and experiment, and is, 
 indeed, so amenable to the com- 
 mon experience of mankind as 
 to admit no element of doubt 
 or uncertainty. The history of 
 every organic life in the world is 
 common to the whole domain of 
 nature. From the germ to the 
 embryo, from the embryo to the 
 living organism, from that to 
 maturity — such is the one history 
 which runs uniformly through 
 the whole realm of organic being ; 
 that is, it is the one history of the 
 individual life. The question, 
 then, is to what extent the prin- 
 ciples which govern the evolution 
 of the individual life are ap- 
 plicable in the case of vai"ieties, species, 
 genera, orders, kingdoms, and finally of 
 universal nature. Have or have not the 
 various differentiations from common 
 types upwards from individual to specific 
 and then to generic life been produced 
 by the operation of the same laws which 
 have developed the individual from its 
 germinal to the perfected form? 
 
 In the preceding discussion we have 
 seen the hints and outlines of the widen-
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 229 
 
 ing of the law of evolution from the in- 
 dividual to the variety. We have seen 
 Varieties pro- hoAV Variation is produced 
 SisbT^;^'- in organic form, instinct, 
 of variation. ^nd mode of activity by 
 the agency of natural and sexual selec- 
 tion. "We have noted the manifest and 
 indisputable evidences of the results of 
 natural selection in domestic animals, 
 and further on in the free arena of ani- 
 mated nature beyond the limits of man's 
 agency. Science has recorded the re- 
 sults of the law in thousands of in- 
 stances, showing unmistakably that the 
 variations from individual types into va- 
 rieties have been produced by the forces 
 which are common to the whole natural 
 world in the struggle for existence. The 
 question arises whether the law extends 
 still further and is sufficient to account 
 for the difference b}' which species is dis- 
 criminated from species and genus from 
 genus. 
 
 It has been the particular excellencb 
 of biological inquiry in our age to an- 
 AJi animate na- swer this question with 
 
 ture a variation 
 &om a common 
 type. 
 
 some degree of confidence. 
 
 The work was begun with 
 an examination into the relations which 
 one species of living organisms bears to 
 another. It was noted by Darwin, and 
 had indeed been known to his predeces- 
 sors, that some of the so-called species 
 of animals and plants lie much nearer 
 together than others which seem to be 
 separated by a wide chasm. Closer scru- 
 tiny showed that in many cases it was 
 doubtful whether a certain species so de- 
 fined should be classified by itself as 
 such, or should rather be regarded as a 
 variety of an approximate species. Again 
 it was found that some of the so-called 
 varieties had departed so widely the one 
 from the other that they might, without 
 straining the scheme of nature, or more 
 properly violating the diagrams of sci- 
 
 ence, be classified as distinct species. 
 Still further the inquiry was pressed, 
 until the principle was revealed that in 
 all probability the whole scheme of ani- 
 mated nature is only one vast variation 
 from a common type. 
 
 This discovery was the flash of ra- 
 diance that brought in the new concept 
 of universal nature. Un- obliteration of 
 der its light species passed ^^eutro^s d1-'" 
 away ; genera fled ; or- visions, 
 ders and suborders disappeared, and 
 nature was seen to be one vast and uni- 
 versal scheme, evolved from a few germs 
 or one single germ, spreading out tlfere- 
 from like a tremendous fan with widen- 
 ing radii, influenced in their course by 
 the same laws and principles of develop- 
 ment which govern the evolution of the 
 individual from the life-cell of its origin. 
 
 The development of this new concept 
 of organic life considered as a whole was 
 largelv the work of Dar- philosophy 
 win. inthehandsofothers, ^^Itr^ttnd 
 
 of a more philosophical the inquiry. 
 
 turn of mind, notably in the alembic of 
 Herbert Spencer, the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion has been widened and applied to 
 nature as a whole — has been systema- 
 tized, illustrated, and confirmed by spec- 
 ulative thinking, until it has become 
 the accepted theory not only underlying 
 the modern science of biology, but sup- 
 porting as it were the system of the 
 universe. 
 
 In Darwin's hands, however, evolu- 
 tion was held with scientific fidelity to 
 
 the facts of organic life. Darwin's meth- 
 
 He produced and gave to .^"u^i^^f:^;^ 
 the world, in his Origin of rai selection. 
 Species, a scheme of the evolutions and 
 movements of life showing the tendency 
 to variation and specialization of func- 
 tion upward from the generic pattern 
 to complete individuality. As a matter 
 of interest to the general reader, his
 
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 MANXER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 
 
 231 
 
 diagram is here repeated, together with 
 a summary of the accompanying expla- 
 nation. The letters A, B, C, D, E, etc., 
 to L, represent the species arising from 
 a single genus of living organisms. 
 Some of these, as for instance A, rep- 
 resent a widely diffused and varying 
 species. The dotted lines arising from 
 A represent the varieties of offspring 
 produced by the laws of natural selec- 
 tion. Some of these are preserved as a' 
 and m', in the struggle of life, while 
 others perish. When the variations 
 have risen as far as the horizontal line I, 
 they have become sufficiently marked 
 and permanent to produce what is defined 
 as a variety. 
 
 These two varieties, a' and m', are now 
 exposed to the same conditions and vi- 
 cissitudes as was the common type from 
 which they sprang, and they in turn be- 
 gin to vary upward in the direction of 
 the dotted lines. Some of these tenta- 
 tive efforts perish and some survive, un- 
 til another horizontal line, marked II, 
 is reached, by which time the departure 
 between them has been greatly aug- 
 mented. So oh upwards and upwards 
 until at last, after thousands of genera- 
 tions, the horizon of X is reached, when 
 the forins a'°, f'°, and m'° have become so 
 widely differentiated as to constitute pre- 
 cisely identical facts in nature with those 
 represented by A, B, C, etc., from which, 
 under the name of species, the inquiry 
 began; that is, varieties have become 
 species. 
 
 It is not needed to enter here into the 
 elucidation of the whole scheme, show- 
 ing how in the struggle for life the evo- 
 lution of varieties and species is now 
 going on in the world of animated nature 
 under the operation of laws which by fair 
 inference are identical with those where- 
 by the first species of living beings came 
 into existence. 
 
 The first great principle, therefore, of 
 the hypothesis of evolution, is that the 
 life of any given species of Life of the spe- 
 living beings is epitomized ^S'thiTn^ 
 in the life of the individual dividual, 
 composing the constituent unit in that 
 species or variety. The sketch of the life 
 of the individual from its germinal state 
 to complete development has alreadybeen 
 given and need not here be repeated. 
 The principle is that the same scheme 
 of life is applicable to the species. The 
 doctrine includes the hypothesis of a 
 specific germ from which a given va- 
 riety of animated beings has proceeded. 
 Whether these germs of species were 
 already variations from other antecedent 
 forms which were ultimately derivable 
 from one point of origin, or from several 
 points, is a question too difficult and ob- 
 scure for the science of the present cen- 
 tury. But the theory is that the lines 
 of all life whatsoever converge back- 
 wards toward a common point of de- 
 parture from which all varieties and 
 species have sprung by differentiation 
 under the laws of natural selection and 
 the conditions of environment. 
 
 These deductions of biological inquiry 
 include the human race in the common 
 
 scheme with the rest of ani- The human race 
 
 mated nature. It is for this TuStn^LV 
 reason that we have to so rai history, 
 considerable an extent enlarged upon 
 the doctrine of evolution as explanatory 
 of the beginning and development of 
 man-life on the earth. The theme is so 
 vast and furnishes so many suggestions 
 of interesting inquiry that we may for a 
 moment follow it to some of its most 
 manifest conclusions and results. The 
 life of man is at the very least ijitimately 
 associated with the other forms of organic 
 existence. The thread of humanity is 
 interwoven — albeit a thread of gold — 
 with the vast skein of animated nature.
 
 232 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and the human miud is so framed, and 
 especially so disciplined in our age, as 
 to find perpetual interest, if not delight, 
 in the application of those general laws 
 by which the race is bound in common 
 destinies with the correlated forms of 
 life. 
 
 In the first place, then, the theory of 
 evolution teaches that man himself is 
 the descendant, so far as his bodily 
 organism is concerned, of a lower order of 
 
 along their own lines of evolution. The 
 departure, therefore, between any exist- 
 ing species of the anthropoid apes and 
 the human species is great ; not indeed 
 so great as the fancies of many contro- 
 versialists and some alleged biologists 
 have depicted, but yet great. The chasm 
 between the two, or the full measure of 
 departure, has been produced by the 
 divergence of each from the common 
 type of an unknown ancestry. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MAX.— (i) Evulition Illustkated with Six Skills in Ascending Order. 
 
 being. This ancestral form from which 
 the human kind arose is not to be con- 
 what evolution ceived of as an ape or any 
 h>rtt"e'sTent" Other existing creature, but 
 of man. Q^jy -jg man, with lower 
 
 capacities and manner of life than are 
 now possessed by the race. It must be 
 remembered that the higher primates 
 next to man are themselves as mtich the 
 work of evolution as man himself. They, 
 too, have been developed and specialized 
 
 In the case of man the divergence 
 from the common ancestral form has 
 been ever in the manward Every species is 
 direction, and in the case of evolved from its 
 
 ' own proper 
 
 the simian the divergence original, 
 has with equal constancy been apeward 
 in its course. Since the divergence of 
 these two forms of life from the common 
 type, there never could have been pro- 
 duced the one from the other. The 
 ancestral form merely contained the po-
 
 MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—THE TRUE EVOLUTIOX. 233 
 
 tency of each. In like manner \ve may 
 follow backward the ancestral line of the 
 anthropoids until we find it converging 
 with the line representing the lemuroids 
 or the carnivores, or both. "We thus see 
 the lines of the higher animal life com- 
 ing together at some point in the remote 
 past, at which time the ancestry of all 
 these forms existed in a common t3'pe 
 from which divergence, first into varie- 
 
 and unmistakable indications of science 
 the whole vertebrate kingdom of organic 
 forms approximating at the last to a 
 common type. This is to say that a 
 single ancestry of a given but unknown 
 form at one time contained the potency 
 and elements of all the multifarious de- 
 velopments which have since taken place 
 in the widely distributed and greatly 
 divergent vertebrate animals of the earth 
 
 PROGKEsSlNK DEVELc>Pi\IEXr OF MAN.— (2) Evon rioN Illustrated with the Six Cokke!-po.\ding Luixg Forms. 
 
 ties, then into species, and finally into 
 genera, occurred under the long-contin- 
 ued influence of natural selection and its 
 correlated differentiating forces. 
 
 The scheme of life ma}-, under the 
 deductions and principles of the general 
 Widening of the law of cvolution, be fol- 
 raS^vitri- lowed still further into the 
 phenomena. illimitable depths of the 
 past. "We see not only by the light of con- 
 jecture and hvpothesis, but bv the actual 
 M.— Vol.'i— 16 
 
 and the waters. From this common 
 form, through immeasurable lapses of 
 time, the different varieties began to arise 
 and to adjust themselves to their various 
 environments in earth and air and sea. 
 
 Aye, more, the vertebrata and the in- 
 vertebrata in the ultimate biological 
 analysis approximate. The hint and 
 suggestion are to the efliect that these 
 also arose from a common type ; that the 
 molusk, too, was included in a common
 
 234 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JlfA^VA'/Xn. 
 
 ancestry with the rest. But -whether 
 this latter deduction is warranted by the 
 facts — whether all the genera and finally 
 the orders of animated nature may be 
 deduced from one common ancestral 
 tvpe — is still a hypothetical question, as 
 is also the still larger and more remote 
 problem of the derivation of all animal 
 and vegetable life from a common stem. 
 It may be, or it ma}' not be, that the spe- 
 cific beginnings of the various kinds of 
 organic life in the world were derived 
 from indej^endent originals, each en- 
 dowed with its own inherent powers of 
 evolutionary development; or, on the 
 other hand, it may be that that converging 
 tendency which is so plainly discover- 
 able and demonstrable in the nearer field 
 of view is universal and final, bringing 
 at the last to one common original n// 
 forms whatsoever of living organism be- 
 longing to the present and past history 
 of our globe ! 
 
 The problem in this particular is again 
 in close analogy with that of the history 
 Living species of language. We know, 
 ri:il7L^t f'"- instance, that six of the 
 languages. great modern languages, 
 
 inclusive of their slight dialectical devel- 
 opments, have all been derived from a 
 common original under the influence of 
 linguistic differentiation and adaptation 
 to the thought, purpose, and vocal organs 
 of the various peoples by whom these 
 tongues are spoken. Time was when 
 the potency of Italian, French, Proven- 
 gal, Wallachian, .Spanish, and Portuguese 
 was all bound up in the Latin tongue of 
 the classical ages. Thus much is his- 
 torically and linguistically demonstrable 
 beyond the adventure of denial or skepti- 
 cism. Again it may be i-easonably said 
 that our knowledge is complete of the 
 ultimate common derivation of all the 
 Aryan tongues. It can not be doubted 
 that Teutonic, Celtic, the Gra;co-Italic 
 
 languages, the Iranic tongues, and San- 
 skrit are ultimately derivable from some 
 common ancestral speech lost below the 
 horizon of tradition and history. So also 
 we know that Hebrew, Arabic, and the 
 Aramaic languages are the descendants 
 of a common original. 
 
 At this point of the inquiry, however, 
 we stand before the general problem just 
 as the biologist does in his Best scientific 
 study of the origin of spe- ^:^Tl^:^ 
 cies and genera. Thus far f°'' ^"• 
 the inquiries of each have led to the be- 
 lief in a common origin for all the diver- 
 gent forms which are the subjects of the 
 investigation ; but the lingiiist has not 
 as yet been able to discover by philolog- 
 ical inquiry a point of common depar- 
 ture for the Semitic and the Aryan lan- 
 guages. The tendency of the inquiry 
 is wholly in the direction of a common 
 linguistic original. But the student of 
 language is obliged to supply by hypoth- 
 esis the materials and laws of a study 
 which he is able to pursue no further by 
 the light of ascertained fact. 
 
 So also the biologist, though he find 
 all .species of a given order of animals 
 approaching a common Probabie deriva- 
 type in some prehistoric ^Z^™!'"^ 
 genus from which they all few germs. 
 probably arose, is obliged to follow oth- 
 erwise untraceable lines by analogy and 
 hypothesis. Still more fully is he imder 
 the dominion of these conditions when 
 he attempts the ultimate derivation of 
 all living things from one common orig- 
 inal germ and type of life. The tend- 
 ency of inquiry is to that conclusion ; 
 but the biologist does not presume to 
 say, as of definite knowledge, that all 
 living forms whatsoever are from one 
 original ancestral form. He proceeds 
 no further than to .say that the indica- 
 tions of the whole visible field of inquiry 
 are in that direction, and that the scien-
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— THE TRUE EVOLUTION. 235 
 
 tific deductions which he is able to frame 
 as if by parallax respecting- the tenden- 
 cies of life beyond the visible horizon 
 lend to the same conclusion of a common 
 original for all forms of organic being. 
 Further than this, the applications of 
 right reason to the ultimate problem are 
 by hypothesis and conjecture ; not, in- 
 deed, visionary and unreasoning conjec- 
 ture, but such dim conjecture as a 
 knowledge of the present . and past his- 
 tory' of life is able to afford. 
 
 We may thus in accordance with the 
 theorv' of evolution contemplate a lowly 
 ancestry for the human race. Exactly 
 what kind of 
 creature that 
 may have 
 been from 
 which our 
 species erria- 
 nated on the 
 organic side 
 we may not 
 know. At 
 least in the 
 present state 
 of knowl- 
 edge the an- 
 cestral type of our great and widely 
 distributed humanity remains in the 
 obscurity of dim con- 
 jecture. The hypothesis, 
 however, is strictly agree- 
 able to what we know from scientific 
 data of the ven,' first conditions and as- 
 pects of man -life on the earth. We are 
 able to see by the light of scientific 
 truth an ancestral type of mankind 
 which, so far as we are able to discover, 
 differed from the other higher primates 
 in this, that the human creature was 
 able to fashion a tool and to kindle a 
 fire. These are the very first scientific 
 indications of the presence of man-life 
 on the earth, and they are strictly con- 
 
 firmatory of the belief of the emergence 
 of the human kind from some lower 
 form of ancestr}' approximate to the as- 
 sociated orders of the higher mammalia. 
 What is here said of the origin and 
 descent of the human species may be re- 
 peated of all the other or- Present inquiry 
 
 ders and varieties. The 1°°^^ to man 
 
 and ms evo- 
 
 present work is not a biolo- iit'on- 
 g}'. It is not the purpose in this 
 connection to dwell unnecessarily upon 
 the history and descent of the vari- 
 ous kinds of animal and plant-life on 
 the globe. Our work is essentially hu- 
 man, and only incidentally concerned 
 
 Theory indi- 
 cates a low^Iy 
 ancestry for 
 mankind. 
 
 JAW BONE OF CAVE MAX, FOUND AT MOULIN BY BUICHER DE PERTHES, 1S63. — FROM THE 
 
 ORIGINAL IN PARIS MUSEUM. 
 
 about the correlated varieties of life. 
 But so much of the question as possess- 
 es a human interest we are at liberty 
 to follow. The particular study before 
 us is the manner of the beginning of 
 man-life on the earth, and the aim is to 
 set forth without prejudice or unwar- 
 ranted advocacy of either the two gen- 
 eral and hitherto conflicting opinions 
 with regard to the genesis of man. 
 
 The one opinion is, as we have shown 
 in a former part, the belief in an imme- 
 diate and phenomenal ere- Restatement of 
 
 ation of the specific origi- tJ'e two views 
 
 of human de- 
 scent. 
 
 nals of the various kinds of 
 
 organic living beings on the earth. The 
 
 other is the belief that the present as-
 
 236 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 pects and forms of all things living have 
 been produced by the operation of sec- 
 ondary laws, such as we now find efficient 
 in the determination of other phenomena; 
 that the several varieties and species of 
 living organisms, including the human 
 kind, have been evolved through great 
 lapses of time from common ancestral 
 types of a lower and simpler kind than 
 those now existing in the descendent 
 species; and that these lower and sim- 
 pler forms were in turn derived from a 
 few living cells, or possibly a single ger- 
 minal origin in which were bound itp all 
 the possibilities and potencies of our liv- 
 ing universe. 
 
 The question, as we have said and re- 
 peated and emphasized, is one of modus 
 operandi. It is an issue relating wholly 
 
 to the iitciiincr of creative processes 
 Time was when living beings did not 
 exist in our sphere. Time The question 
 is when they do exist. Thr^rdufil"- 
 Therefore time was when andiofUfe. 
 they began to exist. The whole question 
 is Iioiv and /;/ ivJiat manner the living be- 
 ings inhabiting the globe began their 
 career and have been brought to their 
 present aspects. The difference between 
 the two opinions is one of time and con- 
 dition and circumstance rather than a dif- 
 ference of fact. These unmistakable and 
 unquestionable principles relative to the 
 great inquiry before ns can not be too 
 clearly stated or too much dwelt upon it 
 we would form an intelligent and dis- 
 passionate view of the history of life and 
 of the diverse opinions regarding it. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 -Applicaxiox ok the Doctrixe to 
 Max axd Nature. 
 
 XDER the law of evo- 
 hition we may proceed, 
 in the next place, to 
 account for the forma- 
 tion of the world. The 
 Larth is the habitat of 
 man. Doubtless the 
 other worlds are in like manner the are- 
 nas and vast fields of conscious and intel- 
 ligent activity. The laws and processes 
 by which a world — our own world in 
 particular — is formed and brought to the 
 stage of habitability must ever be a mat- 
 ter of prime interest to every reflective 
 mind. 
 
 The world gren'. It did not spring 
 Our world the into existence at once, but 
 came to be through a long 
 series of intermediate 
 stages and gradual development. There 
 was a time when the space now occupied 
 
 product of evo 
 lutionary proc- 
 esses. 
 
 by our solar system was doubtlessly filled 
 b\- the sun and his concomitant gases. 
 Such was the dift'usion of matter, prin- 
 cipally through the agency of high heat, 
 that all was dispersed in a form of at- 
 tenuated matter round and about the 
 center of what was to constitute the sun 
 of .our sj'stem. From this point two 
 great facts are to be considered, namely, 
 cooling and condensation. With these 
 two processes nuclei began to be formed 
 in rings of matter at various distances 
 from the center of the inchoate system 
 of worlds. 
 
 The position of our own orb was indi- 
 cated in the first place by one of these 
 semigaseous, semifluid 
 
 Primeval condi- 
 
 rmgs of matter. In course of tion and growth 
 
 .. • 1 1 -LI i- of the earth. 
 
 time — mcalculable time — 
 the ring condensed in one part and be- 
 came attenuated in another. It then
 
 J/AXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 
 
 237 
 
 broke and began to assume the globular 
 form under the general laws which de- 
 termine the shape of free matter in a 
 fluid condition. Thus the process went 
 on until the incipient globe became a 
 plastic sphere, having a determinate or- 
 bit and drawing to itself the surround- 
 ing matter — a process Avhich has not yet 
 wholly ceased. Through long cycles of 
 duration the formative work continued 
 until the primeval world was fixed at 
 last in its earliest geological conditions. 
 What those conditions were the reader 
 may discover by special study in that 
 field of inquiry which relates to the for- 
 mation of the earth's crust, the first ap- 
 pearance of life, and the orderly progress 
 from the priinordial to the present cos- 
 mic condition. 
 
 All this has been a process of evolu- 
 tion. The planet has been formed by 
 Prevalence of progressive intermediate 
 
 fn planetfry "' stages, by the aCtioH of SCC- 
 
 formation. ondary laws whereby the 
 
 former nebulous matter coinposing the 
 earth was gradually transformed into 
 that fixed, and we may say organic, con- 
 dition in which we now find it. The 
 long-accepted opinion about the phe- 
 nomenal creation of our globe within a 
 limited period of time has given place 
 to that vast and orderly concept which 
 contemplates the growth of all worlds 
 from primordial matter up to a completed 
 stage of development. 
 
 We thus see that not only the animals 
 and plants which, as it were, possess the 
 Animals ana Surface of the earth, the 
 t:T^f^:iT 'lir, and the waters, but the 
 the same laws, globe itself has come 
 into its present form out of the past eter- 
 nity by the action of those forces which 
 go under the general name of natural 
 law. Or, if we turn in the other direc- 
 tion and begin to consider the results of 
 intelligence in our sphere, we shall find 
 
 that they also have followed analogous 
 lines of development from a germinal 
 to a completed and, as it were, organic 
 being. 
 
 We have already seen how language, 
 the product of reason, arising from the 
 necessity of intercourse Linguistic 
 among intelligent beings, fj^l^^^^^rof 
 has presented in its history race evolution, 
 a complete evolutionary diagram. The 
 history of human speech has been a his- 
 tory of ramifications and divergences. 
 It is an astonishing fact that the biolog- 
 ical diagram prepared by Darwin as the 
 epitome and brief chronicle of all his 
 study may be taken by the philologist 
 and used to illustrate the spread and de- 
 velopment of human speech without the 
 alteration of a line ! In it we have pre- 
 cisely the same phenomena which are 
 everywhere repeated in the history of 
 language. There is the same divergence 
 from a simple radical into such varieties 
 as in the case of language are called dia- 
 lects; the same survival of some of 
 these, that is, the stronger and better; 
 the same extinction of other varieties ; 
 the same fixing of the better forms, and 
 their development into special tongues. 
 
 Even among the existing languages 
 of the world we find precisely the same 
 struggle for life, the same Languages 
 natural selection on the 
 lines of fitness and adapta- 
 tion. The history of the English lan- 
 guage from the times of King Alfred, 
 a thousand years ago, to the present 
 time presents a diagram precisely anal- 
 ogous in its relations to the other ex- 
 isting forms of speech as may be seen 
 in any properly constructed scheme of 
 biology. 
 
 The same is true of all those institu- 
 tions of the human race which have rea- 
 son, convenience, and interest as their 
 original motives. One of the most strik- 
 
 struggle for life, 
 and the best 
 sur^-ive.
 
 238 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 tions arise in 
 like order of 
 growth. 
 
 ing and conspicuous of these is the in- 
 stitution of government. Who can fail 
 Human institu- to discover in the history 
 of the governmental forms 
 adopted by the liuman race 
 the outlines of an evolutionary process? 
 Of a certainty there was a time in the 
 history of mankind when no govern- 
 ment existed. Equally certain is it that 
 at the present time one of the most con- 
 spicuous facts in the history of the race 
 is the governmental form of society. 
 There was, therefore, a time between 
 these two extremes when government 
 began to be. It was not created phenom- 
 enally and at a stroke out of nothing, 
 but rather arose from an almost undis- 
 coverable origin. There was a seed of 
 government — a genn ; then an embryo, 
 and at length a birth. Then there was 
 an infancy, a childhood, an adolescence, 
 a tentative and adventurous youth ; at 
 last a maturity — if indeed the mature 
 form of this institution has as yet been 
 reached or even approximated. 
 
 In any event, the progress and viodtts 
 operandi of governmental evolution ai^e 
 „ , facts clearlv discernible 
 
 True nature of ' 
 
 the evolution among the elements of hu- 
 
 of government. , . , ^rr 
 
 man history. i rue, it re- 
 quires a high grade of intelligence and 
 no mean measure of information to en- 
 able the possessor to analyze and follow 
 the process by which the governmental 
 institutions of mankind have been 
 evolved. We must, in the first place, 
 discover the origin and point of depar- 
 ture — the time and the conditions — from 
 which the institution of government has 
 sprung. We must note some primitive 
 tribe rising gradually into the conscious 
 state and discovering the advantages 
 which might be gained from such rudi- 
 mentary civil organization as the leaders 
 of the tribe were able to effect. The 
 work would begin with tentative expe- 
 
 dients. There would be in it an element 
 of force, an element of reason, and an 
 element of authority. The last named 
 would doubtless arise from the fact of 
 fatherhood. The fatherhood of the fam- 
 ily, a purely natural fact, would extend 
 to the fatherhood of the tribe, or clan, a 
 partly artificial fact. Force would arise 
 from the mere material consideration of 
 strength. The strongest would begin to 
 rule. The strongest man would in the 
 first place compel the weaker to bear his 
 burden, to draw his cart, to do service at 
 the door of his hut. The strongest of 
 the strong men would do the same for 
 the whole village. The elenient of rea- 
 son would dovibtless spring froin the 
 action of several minds in conspirac}- 
 against the strongest. The strongest 
 would have force on his side. The 
 weaker would countervail by reason. It 
 may not be far from the truth to suggest 
 that the first check and counterpoise in 
 rudimentary government is the balance 
 of reason and force. 
 
 After government had once been in- 
 stituted, ill however crude a form, it 
 
 would begin to adapt itself Governmental 
 
 toconditions. Therewould '^^l^^lU, 
 be an adjustment of the environment, 
 governing fact with the fact governed, 
 similar in all particulars to the adjust- 
 ment of a living organism to its environ- 
 ment. Many tentative efforts would 
 perish. A few would survive. Those 
 surviving would constitute varieties. In 
 Egypt one of the varieties will become a 
 hierarchy. In the valleys of the Eu- 
 phrates and Tigris another variety will 
 become a colossal personal despotism. 
 In one part of Greece a third will be- 
 come an oligarchy, and in another part 
 a fourth will take the form of a democ- 
 racy. There will be a struggle for ex- 
 istence, a survival of the fittest. Some- 
 times the fittest will appear in the form
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 < 
 
 •z 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 c 
 
 ?3 
 > 
 
 t=1 
 
 t3
 
 240 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. 
 
 of a military empire. This will break 
 ■up in catastrophe, and a new order, half- 
 chaotic, will supervene, in which the 
 seeds of many things are present. 
 
 From this state ecclesiasticism will 
 issue as one form, feudalism as another 
 form, monarchy as a third. These in 
 turn will struggle and be differentiated. 
 Stages and as- Some elements will perish 
 pectsinthe wholly. Others will perish 
 
 development of - -^ 
 
 government. in part. Others will sur- 
 vive and flourish and bear unexpected 
 results. The great fact called the 
 People will appear as an intelligent 
 force under the law of evolution. The 
 people will itself endeavor to become 
 governmental. It Avill struggle as a liv- 
 ing force with monarchy and the expir- 
 ing parts of feudalism. Out of the side 
 of the people will spring by diiferentia- 
 tion many distinct forces. One of them 
 will be internationality ; one will be 
 communism. 
 
 So the struggle will go on, some for 
 and some against the prevailing form. 
 Government in The prevailing form will 
 Lbeys^fhellw ^^^ promoted by some con- 
 of variation. ditions and antagonized 
 by others. It will shift and adapt it- 
 self somewhat to the forces which play 
 upon it. It will, in a word, vary and 
 take new forms and exercise new or- 
 gans just as the individual varies, as 
 the variety shifts, as the species as- 
 sumes altered jjowers and fixes itself by 
 adaptation and adjustment. The insti- 
 tution of government confonns, as lan- 
 guage conforms, and as every kind of 
 biological phenomenon conforms, to the 
 one great law of evolution . 
 
 Take the case of that large fact called 
 Law. We here refer to that aggregate 
 of rules and principles which right reason 
 discovers for the conduct of society. 
 This also is what Lord Bacon might have 
 called ' ' a forthshowing instance " of the 
 
 evolutionary process. Law is nut made. 
 This is to say that it is not produced by 
 the wit and reflection of Law also an 
 men. Rather is it a pro- X'^Vthe 
 ductive force bringing the Roman statutes, 
 intellects and reasons of men into such 
 activity as may improve and formulate 
 the best of the existing codes of conduct 
 into still higher expressions of authority. 
 Take for instance the law of Rome. 
 Who shall declare its generation? Who 
 shall find its germs? Certainly they 
 existed before Rome was Rome. The 
 makers of the Ten Tables did not pro- 
 duce the Roman law. The}" wrote on 
 tablets what already existed. They 
 would fix it in a form for posterity ; but 
 the transcript would not hold. The Ten 
 Tables became Twelve. The code of 
 the primitive republic would not suffice 
 for the great republic, nor the code of 
 the latter for the empire. Behold Jus- 
 tinian's lawyers working at the problem. 
 They were only interpreters, not makers. 
 They were striving not indeed to inake 
 new rules for human conduct, but to re- 
 state and summarize those which were 
 still vital and operative. It was a part 
 of their Avork to distinguish between the 
 rules which still existed and those which 
 had petished ; between those forms, those 
 varieties which had survived, and the 
 others which had become extinct. Law 
 as well as government, of which it con- 
 stitutes one of the elementary forces, is 
 itself an evolution — the residue of a con- 
 flict between the different principles of 
 civil action, embodying the survival of 
 whatever has been found best adapted 
 to the exigencies of human society. 
 
 This society is itself, with all of its 
 powers and capacities, an society, uke the 
 evolutionary product. t^^^^^H'Zc. 
 Who created society? Cer- adapts itself, 
 tainly not man. It has grown with hia 
 growth, strengthened with his strength,
 
 MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.^EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 
 
 241 
 
 and improved with his improvement. 
 That society exists as a sort of frame- 
 work and continent for the life of man 
 and his activities is beyond denial. That 
 there was a time in the past when it did 
 not exist is certain. That there was 
 therefore a time when the social germ 
 appeared and began to present phenom- 
 ena analogous to those of embryonic 
 
 the species. Like the latter, the pri- 
 mordial form of society put out many 
 branches. Some of these displayed su- 
 perior vitality and power of adaptation. 
 Others, being weaker and ill-adapted to 
 conditions, perished. The better form.s 
 survived and took specific features which 
 were perpetuated with accumulating 
 forces to succeeding times. There was 
 
 gtrminaL =ocii;t\ 
 
 life can not be doubted. Henceforth 
 the social evolution was in the likeness 
 of growth as it is exhibited in the vege- 
 table and animal worlds. 
 
 However intangible the general fact 
 called society may be, it nevertheless 
 has passed through successive stages of 
 evolution identical with those which 
 mark the progress of the individual and 
 
 — r'r.i.Mi by Madame Paule Crampe!. 
 
 an evolution in the true sense of the 
 
 word in every part of the problem, a 
 
 natural selection, a survival of the fittest. 
 
 Perhaps the fundamental fact in the 
 
 organization of society '\Z Marriage the 
 
 the method by which the rJs°ui't^o°f°soTiai 
 sexes are joined for the in- instincts, 
 crease and preservation of the race. 
 Marriage is one of the most primitive
 
 24S 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 2rAXKrXD. 
 
 and occult forms with which the historian 
 and ethnologist has to deal. At the 
 present time marriage is a vast funda- 
 mental institution upon which society is 
 in a considerable measure founded. But 
 this element of the social structure is it- 
 self an evolution. The law of its pro- 
 duction is not well understood. The line 
 in general appears to have proceeded, 
 in remote prehistoric times, from the 
 miscellaneous mating of the sexes to the 
 present form of monogamy prevailing 
 among the most enlightened peoples. 
 The intermediate stages seem to have 
 been first polyandry, and afterwards 
 polygamy. This is to say that the social 
 instinct first attempted an organic devel- 
 opment by the line of the female. She 
 was made the central fact, and the ethnic 
 descent was drawn by way of her for the 
 whole tribe. 
 
 Around the woman and on either hand 
 w^re arranged the men of the tribe. 
 Either of these might be the father of 
 her offspring. The oft'spring thus had 
 the tribe for its father and the woman 
 for its mother. Nearly all the races have 
 passed through this stage of evolution. 
 A rude code of marital principles was 
 formulated at a very early- stage in the 
 history of every inchoate nation. As 
 late as the times of the Hebrew patriarchs 
 the remnants of this code were still oper- 
 ative, for it was not only the privilege 
 but the duty of the brothers to take the 
 widow of one of their number deceased 
 and to raise up children by her line. 
 
 With the mutation of things another 
 principle of sexual union appeared and 
 encroached on the first. This was polyg- 
 Successive amv, or an attempt to es- 
 
 Sment^'f'" tablish the line of descent 
 sexual union. wholly by the male. Here 
 the man was made the central figure, and 
 many women were associated with him 
 for the multiplication of the tribe. The 
 
 man was married to them all, or rathel 
 they to him. Their identity was lost in 
 a single family stem having for its cen- 
 tral principle the law of male descent. 
 Thus the evolution proceeded to the es- 
 tablishment of monogamy, or single 
 marriage. The affinity, or rather deri- 
 vation, of the latter institution from 
 polygani}- is indicated by a certain pre- 
 dominance which the male still maintains 
 in the organization of the family and the 
 laws of descent. He it is who in general 
 owns and controls the property. He it 
 is who gives his name to the offspring. 
 He it is who still constitutes the single 
 line of descent from ancestor to posterity. 
 The tendency in the present age to per- 
 petuate the name of the woman in the 
 offspring, and to establish in her line 
 equal rights of inheritance and descent, 
 are evidences that the law of variation 
 and adaptation is still operative in deter- 
 mining the methods by wTiich the family 
 shall be constituted and its benefits con- 
 served. 
 
 The law of evolution works also effec- 
 tively in determining the products of 
 the human mind. All of Artistic prod- 
 the arts have proceeded rseb;"-"" 
 from this common source. ^^°^- 
 Observe with care the exact correlation 
 existing between the development of the 
 plastic art and the general evolution of 
 the civilized life of man. The growth 
 of this species of artistic achievement 
 may be completely illustrated in the his- 
 tory of a single human life. Note with 
 care the fir.st attempts of the child, close 
 to the borders of infancy, to create the 
 representative forms of animals and 
 birds. The instinct is as natural as the 
 bodilv functions, such as breathing and 
 the use of the senses. The child repro- 
 duces in clay or dough the form of his 
 dog or cat. It is the infancy of art. 
 We may see it far away among the
 
 MAXXER OF THE BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 
 
 243 
 
 broken potter}- of Cush, or among the 
 nibbish of the silver-bright halls of the 
 Peruvian Incas. Note well the charac- 
 ter of those rude figures on earthen ves- 
 sels, those half-formed effigies of reptiles 
 and birds and beasts and men and dei- 
 ties Avhich the primitive races, in far 
 apart quarters of the world, produced in 
 the prehistoric ages. What are they 
 but the works of the infancy of the race? 
 What are they but the ancient ethnical 
 prototypes of what is every day repeated 
 by the children of the civilized life as 
 with laughter and quaint conceit they 
 build up in mud or dough the images of 
 their fancy and set them in array in the 
 goodly child-museum of the world ? 
 
 But children soon arise from this level 
 of infancy. They in whom the artistic 
 instincts are strongest continue in more 
 skillful ways to reproduce with model 
 and plaster the objects of the ideal sense. 
 There is thus in the individual life a 
 A'outh of art, and after that an early 
 manhood. Still later there is maturity, 
 and at length the silent and august 
 chambers of some great collection speak 
 and coruscate with the splendors of 
 achievement. 
 
 Precisely so in the progress of the 
 race. There too was there a youth of 
 Childhood of art artistic development rising 
 youtrand ^^ slowly f rom the quaintness , 
 maturity. absurdity, and grotesque 
 
 outlines of the works of childhood. 
 There too was there an evolution into 
 the higher form. There too at last the 
 survival of the fittest gave to the world 
 an artistic age and an artistic people. 
 What is true of plastic art is true also 
 of the art of the brush and of all other 
 arts soever. They have grown from 
 germinal conditions. They have sprung 
 not at once and phenomenally into full- 
 blown proportions of truth and beauty, 
 but have come to such state through 
 
 long intermediate stages and the tortur- 
 ous processes of natural selection. 
 
 So also of the correlated forms of lit- 
 erature. This, even as art, has a line- 
 age as remote, an ancestry Literature, also, 
 as olden, as the beginnings gfo^X^^/d 3^,. 
 
 of human consciousness. Tiiral of the best. 
 
 The first slight excursion of human 
 thought and its corresponding expres- 
 sion in some rude and half-ejaculatory 
 form of speech marked the origin of all 
 things possible in the subsequent ages of 
 literary development. It is only in the 
 present time that a true concept has 
 been gained of the far-reaching lines of 
 force which precede the delivery of 
 every single literarj- product. A great 
 poem or a great history has gathered up 
 in it much of the vitality and reproduc- 
 tive energies of the preceding ages. 
 
 In a larger sense, each literary epoch 
 is the product of an intellectual evolu- 
 tion which has been going on through 
 centuries of time. The men of letters in 
 a given age are only the abstracts and 
 summaries of mental forces which were 
 operative long before their birth. More- 
 over, the actual literature of any given 
 epoch is but the better residue of a vast 
 mental waste which has perished in ob- 
 livion. Could all the efforts of the mind 
 to perpetuate its acti\'ities in the form 
 of letters be recorded in a diagram, the 
 student of that mental picture would be 
 confounded with an alternate rush of 
 admiration and of tears — admiration for 
 the infinite outreachings of human 
 thought, its upward struggle for expres- 
 sion in the realm of song and story, and 
 tears for the incalculable waste and de- 
 cay and death of intellectual endeavor. 
 
 Each national literature is in like man- 
 ner the product of an evolutionary 
 process. It does not appear at once and 
 phenomenally as a dream-born blossom 
 on a dream-planted tree. It comes rather
 
 244 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .VAXAVXP. 
 
 after long ages of intellectual growth 
 and adaptation. Tnte it is that history 
 Literary prod- has left but little record 
 uctoieach ^ j j ^ f ^j^g ccnturies 
 
 race has its 
 
 own evolution which precede the coming 
 of letters . for history is dependent on lit- 
 erary expression for all or nearly all that 
 she has been able to save from the wreck 
 and desolation of time. But we know 
 
 tion of traits and transmission of qualities 
 from age to age as are discovered in the 
 history of organic life. Lawo<diver- 
 The outline of the evolution f f"aTho1dsTn' 
 of any particular species letters as in ufe. 
 of literary composition, as for instance 
 of the drama, is identical in its principal 
 features with the diagram which repre- 
 sents the life-story of the vegetable and 
 
 EVOLUTION OF WRn INC.— Hiekoglvphics Found in Cavekn of Rocky Dell. 
 
 that the preceding ages of darkness and 
 barbaric struggle did exist, and that let- 
 ters came afterwards as the bloom and 
 fruit of a tree which had been nurtured 
 through many ^-icissitudes by the cniel 
 but skillful hand of natural .selection. 
 
 In the history of letters we find the 
 same divergence from a common ances- 
 tral type, the same establishment of va- 
 riation and species, the sa-.ne accr.mula- 
 
 animal worlds or the growth and diffu- 
 sion of languages. 
 
 In this progressive examination of hu- 
 man products we rise at length to history 
 itself. The tenn is used 
 
 T^wo meanings 
 
 m two great senses. The of the term 
 first includes the affairs of ^ °'^^' 
 men ; the events of which men have 
 been the creators or at least the factors : 
 the aspects and conditions which human
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGIXXLXG.—EVOLUTIOX APPLIED. 245 
 
 life has assumed in the successive ages 
 since the rise of mankind into the con- 
 scious state and the civilizing purpose ; 
 and finally, the 
 causes and con- 
 comitants of 
 this progress, 
 the general 
 trend and bear- 
 ing of human- 
 ity in its course, 
 and the results 
 and probable 
 destiny of the 
 whole. The 
 other sense in 
 which the word 
 history is used 
 is the literar)- 
 transcript of 
 the manifold 
 human p h e - 
 nomena just 
 described. 
 History is 
 either the event 
 or the account 
 o£^ the event, 
 the thing done 
 or the narrative 
 thereof, the 
 drama of the 
 great arena as 
 it is actually 
 enacted or the 
 ■written and as 
 it were pictorial 
 representation 
 of the anteced- 
 ents, aspects, 
 and denoue- 
 ment of the 
 
 struggle. Of course, the important his- 
 tory is the real history ; that is, it is the 
 event itself — the event with its causes, 
 conditions, and results. 
 
 The career of the human race from 
 the beginning until now is the one su- 
 preme and essential history of which all 
 
 THE FIRST HISTORIANS. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 the rest are but fragments and reflections. 
 But in whatever sen.se we ma)' consider 
 the subject we shall find that this sublime 
 result of human agencv, this combina-
 
 246 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 tion and concord as it were of reason and 
 eternity which goes by the name of his- 
 Events in all tory, is itsclf the result of an 
 th:ev:iTtio°„a:^ evolutionary process. This 
 law. is not said of the primal 
 
 force with which all human things be- 
 gan. Here, as in the case of the origin 
 of life, we are obliged to presuppose 
 something antecedent to the beginning 
 of the organic form. Time was when 
 there was no history. Time is when 
 history is the one great fact of the world. 
 Time was, therefore, when history began. 
 This is to say that there was an origin 
 of events, a germ of potency out of which 
 they sprang. The affairs of men out of 
 such original point of departure have 
 arisen like living organisms by differen- 
 tiation and the struggle for life. What 
 is an event but a survival? How many 
 events have perished in the inchoate con- 
 dition ! What a prodigious, almost in- 
 finite, waste there has been of human 
 life and endeavor in the work of discov- 
 ering the fittest thing ! How much de- 
 spair and hardship and endless rebuff and 
 suffering have attested by the criterion of 
 failure the miscarriage and extinction of 
 the fruitless stems of human purpose 
 and ambition ! 
 
 The real historical diagram, could the 
 same be drawn in pictorial form, appre- 
 Likeness of his- ciable to the sense of sight 
 r^btKi as it is dimly appreciable 
 "®®- to the understanding, would 
 
 be but another example of the biological 
 tree. Here at the beginning we should 
 have a single line of departure contain- 
 ing the whole potency of the human en- 
 deavor. A little further on, the phe- 
 nomena of variation and divergence 
 would appear. Certain forms of human 
 conduct would take outline correspond- 
 ing to the varieties of living organisms; 
 but these forms would mostly perish. 
 Only a single form here and there would 
 
 survive and rise and expand into a high. 
 er development. 
 
 For a long time these growing and 
 diverging lines representative of the 
 progress of the race would wind and 
 struggle through the dark- particular as- 
 ness and oppositions of P^^^f^f « 
 the prehistoric ages. At Wstory. 
 last a few lines stronger than the rest 
 fitter than the rest, would rise as in 
 itial forms of national life above the 
 horizon of recorded annals. One 
 people would depart from another. 
 One career stronger than the next 
 would push it aside, overgrow it, sup- 
 plant it. vSome events would expand 
 and enfold others, rise into new aspects, 
 bear on to more conspicuous results. 
 Nations would emerge into the open field 
 of primitive history. They themselves 
 would begin to struggle just as other 
 species of living entities contest for place 
 and perpetuit}'. Many under pressure 
 of adverse environment aVid the compe- 
 tition of the stronger would dwindle to 
 extinction . Others, by reason of strength 
 and favorable situation, would as it were 
 make for themselves nutriment out of 
 the death and decay of the lesser sort, 
 and thus rise to gigantic stature. 
 
 The historical vine creeps westward 
 from the Euphrates to the Tiber. Na- 
 tions and peoples are but Races and na- 
 
 the outbranchings of a com- ;™,7„*f^\e 
 mon life. The Chaldees immanvine. 
 and the Assyrians are correlative arms 
 thrust out left and right from the trunk 
 which carried along the potency of the 
 nations of Asia Elinor. There is a Grasco- 
 Italic divergence from a stock which we 
 call Aryan, and history begins to babble 
 of Dorians, ^olians, and lonians ; fur- 
 ther on, in clearer language, of .Spartans, 
 Athenians, and Macedonians. What is 
 it all but the evolution of the historical 
 life of peoples under the one common
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION APPLIED. 247 
 
 law which pervades alike the world of 
 matter and the world of consciousness 
 and reason? 
 
 Look at the environment. After the 
 river valley the peninsula is more favor- 
 Peninsuia sue- able, as the scene of histor- 
 ical evolution, than is the 
 island or the continent. It 
 has the advantages of soil and stream 
 
 ceeds river val 
 ley as the habi- 
 tat of man. 
 
 in the projecting parts of Western Eu- 
 rope. Britain itself is as much peninsu- 
 lar as insular. Denmark is a peninsula ; 
 so also Sweden and Norway. Aforetime 
 Indian civilization was developed in the 
 peninsula between the bay of Bengal 
 and the Arabian sea. Environment aids 
 the diverging forces of the human race 
 in the struggle for existence. The peo- 
 
 PROGRESS FROM INSTINCT TO REASON.— The Fikst Potters.— Drawn by Emile li.iy.ird. 
 
 and forest growth and the proximity of 
 the sea. Generally the peninsula is fa- 
 ■ vored in mineral deposits. When tribes 
 drift into such a locality they begin to 
 flourish, grow strong. Further on they 
 multiply and conqiier. Society becomes 
 organic. Law exists. Government is 
 instituted. One such locality is Greece; 
 another is Italy ; another is the Iberian 
 peninsula. The Celtic life develops best 
 
 pies thus promoted rise to historical im- 
 portance, and the rest fail through im- 
 potency of ethnic energy or by conquest 
 of the stronger. 
 
 To pursue the subject along the lines 
 
 of its multifarious SUggeS- Thought itself 
 tions would be to fill a vol- evolutU.nary 
 
 ume with illustrations of process. 
 
 the one preva'iling law. Human thought 
 
 itself is an exemplification of the evolu-
 
 248 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 tionaiy principle at work among the 
 very highest forces of organic life. This 
 is not to say that thought is the product 
 of material energies, but only to offer an 
 explanation of the modes of its operation 
 and the processes in virtue of which its 
 efficiency is attained and manifested. 
 Here again the same formula applies. 
 Time was when the ancestral fire-kind- 
 ling, tool-shaping, pot-making progeni- 
 tor of human kind can hardly be said to 
 have thought at all. Time is when men 
 think to the uttermost. The excursion 
 of the intellectual powers is to all 
 heights and depths. The borders of the 
 universe are reached on airy wing. The 
 empyrean is scaled as though it were 
 but the dome of a cathedral. The 
 profound abyss is fathomed. All worlds 
 are traversed and all space explored 
 with the steady and unerring flight of 
 thought. ^Mystery is no mystery under 
 its analysis. The unknown recedes be- 
 fore it and hides behind the outer cur- 
 tains of infinitude. 
 
 But it was not so in the beginning of 
 man-life as the same is revealed in its 
 Reflection and primordial condition by the 
 
 reason spring ^ . . . 
 
 by growth from explorations of science. 
 
 sense and in- ,_, . i i i • ■ 
 
 stinct. i hen the dreamless, vision- 
 
 less, and unaspiring creatiire containing 
 within himself the jiotency of Hindu, 
 Parsee, and Greek ; of Roman, Gaul, and 
 Saxon ; of Mohammedan, Jew, and Cath- 
 olic; of Frenchman, Briton, and Ameri- 
 can, thought not at all, or thought only 
 in such sort as is common to the higher 
 orders of speechless animals. Therefore 
 the time came when men bcnxii to think. 
 There was an origin of the excursive 
 and reflective powers of mind. Xot at 
 once and in a marvelous manner did man 
 become the animal that thinks. Not in a 
 day did he become a seer, a poet, a phi- 
 losopher. Not in a single age did he be- 
 gin b}^ his knowledge of things, his ap- 
 
 prehension of the laws of causation and 
 consequence, to rise to power and great- 
 ness in the arena of the world. Thought 
 itself, the power to think, began to grow 
 by differentiation, by struggle, by resist- 
 ance, by success, by adaptation to con- 
 dition and the survival of what was best. 
 The human mind, with all of its sub- 
 lime powers and capacities, is a residue, 
 a descendant, a survival. 
 
 The present hu- 
 
 We touch here upon the man mind a sur- 
 
 , , ,. , , vivalof the ages. 
 
 close correlation between 
 mind and organism. The manifestation 
 of mind is by means of organic structure. 
 So far as our present state is concerned 
 we discover it only in connection with 
 brain. So much brain, so much manifes- 
 tation of intelligence,is the rule through- 
 out animated nature. Men are graded 
 up or graded down in the scale of being 
 accordingly as they do or do not possess 
 a highly organized nervous system and 
 a heavy brain. The distance from the 
 lowest to the highest is the distance from 
 the brain of the Bushman to the brain 
 of Cuvier. This is said of the iiianifes- 
 tation of intelligence. How much hid- 
 den and unrevealed power there may 
 be in man it is not our province to 
 determine, but rather to note the forth- 
 showing of his intellect and will and pur- 
 pose in correlation with organic structure. 
 We have seen above how organism 
 fits and adapts itself to environment; 
 how it flourishes under some conditions 
 and languishes under oth- intellect varies 
 ers. So also of the mind. ^^.^^T-ftrr 
 The intellect has its en- ^abit. 
 A'ironment. It varies and takes new 
 forms of activity according to the condi- 
 tions under which it is placed. The best 
 forms of intellect survive, and the poor- 
 er forms become extinct. Mind is dif- 
 ferentiated into varieties and species. 
 There was aforetime the mythological 
 mind of antiquity. Clo.sely allied to tbi"
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION APPLIED. 
 
 249 
 
 was the mirthful and artistic mind, such 
 as we note in the case of the Greeks. 
 Afterwards there was the mind of order, 
 oppression, and authority. There have 
 been ages in which the credulous and 
 superstitious mind was the prevalent 
 type, and other ages in which cruelty 
 and animality were the prevailing men- 
 tal characteristics of peoples and races. 
 There have been pei-iods of speculative 
 activity, and last of all an age of scien- 
 tific acquaintance with the phenomena 
 and laws of the natural world. 
 
 Thus the mind has not only its indi- 
 vidual peculiarities and dispositions, but 
 Mind struggles also its Varieties, its species, 
 f^ces'^^^'rs'"" its genera. Like the bod- 
 developed. ily organism, the intellect 
 
 has had^ to struggle with opposing forces, 
 with the shadows of doubt and darkness, 
 the trackless wilds of uncertainty and 
 error, the battles of contingency and 
 fact, with powers and dominions and 
 systems, the wreckage of the past, and 
 the visionary outlines of the future. 
 Hope has supplied one motive and fear 
 another. Happiness and hunger, suffer- 
 ing and ambition, the satiety of things 
 present and the longing for things 
 unseen, mystery, passion, dream-born 
 phantom, syllogistic formula and life 
 and death — all these have contributed 
 to give to the mind not only its moods 
 and current phases of activity, but also 
 its permanent fashion, its fixed heredi- 
 tary character, its outline, and even its 
 pictorial details; as the same are reflected 
 on the magical screen of the world's 
 literature and art. 
 
 We come thus to the border land of 
 the moral nature of man. wSuch a nature 
 The moral na- exists within him. In dif- 
 lawVmres'f' ferent races and peoples it 
 and survival. has a Varying degree of 
 development. There are tribes, such as 
 
 those of Central Africa and they whom 
 M. — Vol. I — 17 
 
 Herndon discovered in the upper valleys 
 of the Amazon, in whom the moral nature 
 is scarcely more than a possibility. There 
 are races in which this high sense is dom- 
 inant over all the other human powers. 
 The evolution of conscience has varied ac- 
 cording to the endless fluctuation of con- 
 ditions and circumstances. Among the 
 lower races the moral nature gives but 
 an uncertain sound. Its voice is but as 
 the voice of the rain-maker, the conjurer, 
 the snake-charmer, the medicine man 
 of the savage state. With the higher 
 peoples liie moral harp is attuned to 
 nobler harmonies. B3' these the laws of 
 right and wrong have been-'discovered. 
 Here the difference between turpitude 
 I and justice, between innocence and 
 virtue, between crime and righteous- 
 ness has been found and measured by a 
 standard. 
 
 But how long and painful has been 
 the conflict through which the moral na- 
 ture of man has passed in Reugions are 
 its development! The ^^^J^tu^" 
 evolution ihcludes every the races, 
 variety of hardship and trial. Who can 
 number the s^^stems and codes of moral- 
 ity which have marked the various stages 
 of human progress from savagery to civ- 
 ilization? As the condition has been, so 
 has been the moral standard. Just as a 
 given people has been evolved out of the 
 barbarous condition, just as it has suc- 
 ceeded in reaching a higher and more 
 salubrious plane of activity, just in that 
 degree has the moral code unfolded into 
 a newer and better life. 
 
 Conscience has, on the whole, been cor- 
 related with the other elements of civil- 
 ization. Rectitude as a conscience and 
 
 principle of human conduct d^* of s^ruggTe 
 has come with the emer- and adaptation, 
 gence from the savage state. Justice has 
 been established in proportion to the ad- 
 vancement of the other elements of the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION APPLIED. 
 
 251 
 
 Man himself a 
 resultant; an- 
 thropomorpliism 
 passes a-way. 
 
 higher life of man. Honor and truth 
 have been regarded according to the 
 varj'ing stages of physical and intellec- 
 tual progress with which these ennobling 
 qualities have been connected in time 
 and dependency. There has been in the 
 domain of the moral life, in the history 
 of the moral nature of mankind, the 
 same struggle and warfare, the same 
 differentiation from common types and 
 standards, the same phenomena of vari- 
 ation into specific forms as we discover 
 among the living organisms of the nat- 
 ural world and in the purely intellectual 
 progress of the race. 
 
 Finally, man himself considered as an 
 entity — -viewed not from the side of his 
 orsfanic being but more largelv as a liv- 
 ing, conscious agent, chief 
 among the creatures inhab- 
 iting this visible sphere 
 of activity — is a residue, a result, an 
 evolution. This is said of man consid- 
 ered as a whole and apart from his par- 
 ticular faculties and modes of action. 
 Under the old anthropomorphic system 
 of belief it was natural, inevitable, that 
 man should be regarded chiefly in his 
 causative character. He was viewed as a 
 cause — as an originator of forces and 
 the creator of things. Such a judgment 
 of his relations to the world in which he 
 is appointed to act his part was natural, 
 almost necessary, as the first opinion of 
 human beings respecting themselves. 
 Each viewed the other as an active pro- 
 ducingf agfent. Each saw, or seemed to 
 see, the affair, the event, arising from 
 the human hand and will. It was 
 natural to conclude that all the visible 
 conditions of life were the results of the 
 productive energies of men. They were 
 causes, and all things else were the ef- 
 fects of their cau.sation. 
 
 The man was thus placed first, and 
 civilization afterwards. Cities and states 
 
 and kingdoms were made by men. Art 
 and letters were produced by men. Great 
 contests in the senate house Relations of man 
 and greater battles in the *^ti^t™n,, 
 
 o to progress ana 
 
 field were fought by men. civilization. 
 Pyramids and temples and sculptured 
 monuments Avere done by men. Impe- ^ 
 rial dominion was achieved by man. His 
 were the ship and the poem, the catapult 
 and the aqueduct, the paradise and the 
 pantheon. 
 
 It is only in recent times that a larger 
 view of the principles of universal causa- 
 tion has been obtained. The under- 
 standing has at length taken precedence 
 of mere sense, and man is seen in a dif- 
 ferent relation with the world which he 
 inhabits. He is himself seen as a result 
 of antecedents. Not that his poM-er of 
 causation is wholly taken away. Not 
 that he is, under philosophical scrutiny, 
 unable to influence the conditions under 
 which he lives. Not that he may not 
 deflect somewhat the lines of force which 
 pass through him or by his side. But, 
 on the whole, he has ceased to be re- 
 garded as the cause of the things that 
 are and have been. He himself is rather 
 the result of forces that were operative 
 long before the beginning of his con- 
 sciovis existence. 
 
 These forces have conspired and co- 
 operated to make man what he is. This 
 is not to say that within the limits of his 
 
 own consciousness he is not spontaneity of 
 
 himself; not to say that ^Tewco" 
 he is deprived of spon- of his nature, 
 taneity ; not to say that his faculties are 
 under control of a fatality above him- 
 self; not to say that his own direction 
 through the intellectual and moral sphere 
 is not determinable by a will and purpose 
 of his own ; but rather that the man is, 
 in a general sense, the product of the 
 age, the child of a larger destiny, the 
 offspring of a paternity whose line of
 
 252 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 descent is old as the birth of the human 
 race. 
 
 These principles are true of the man 
 as an individual. He is, on the whole, 
 The individual what he is by the condi- 
 boundfrom ^^ ^f birth, anccstrv, as- 
 
 birth -with fixed ' -' 
 
 Umitations. sociation, discipline, and Op- 
 
 portunity. No man can change his race. 
 He is not consulted as to the ethnic fam- 
 ily to which he will belong. He is not 
 influential in determining the name and 
 classification of his kindred. He is thrust 
 into the world with as little power over 
 his origin and over the particular condi- 
 tions which shall determine his place 
 and opportunity of survival as though he 
 were the product of a seed transported 
 across continents and seas and planted 
 in strange regions. Here is the Es- 
 quimau in his hut, and yonder the native 
 Australian sheltered by his half-formed 
 tent. One is born in a palace, another 
 in a hovel. One is taken to the bosom 
 of a Turkish mother as she lies reclining 
 on the rugs of a harem at Ispahan. An- 
 other is caught up and borne away by 
 the swinging camel across the limitless 
 desert. A third beholds the light froiu 
 the heart of the roaring metropolis of 
 the British nation, and a fourth begins 
 to be in a cabin on the skirts of the clear- 
 ing, where the corn is planted, and the 
 robin builds her spring nest in the ash 
 tree. 
 
 The after conditions of life are deter- 
 mined for the individual rather than 
 made by him. It is said that great war- 
 riors are born ; but none 
 
 Genius is born, 
 
 but fashioned are born in other than a 
 
 by en-viroument. ,.i , rt^, , , 
 
 warlike age ! The poet also 
 is said to be born, not made; but if the 
 epoch do not favor, what then? If the 
 antecedent forces have not conspired 
 to produce him, what then? If the ma- 
 terials of great song have not been 
 supplied by his race and times and lan- 
 
 guage, what then? If his physical or- 
 ganism should fail — if malignant disease 
 should invade or vice pervert the nature 
 within him, what then? The orator, also, 
 and the statesman, the philosopher and 
 the man of letters, are each and all in- 
 debted to the combination of the forces 
 of heredity with the forces of environ- 
 ment, to the temper of the age, and even 
 to the opportunity of a great event, for 
 the development of their powers and their 
 intellectual mastery of the epoch in which 
 they flourish. 
 
 As already intimated, it is not intended 
 to press unduly and beyond the limits 
 of' demonstrable proof the as comes the 
 argument for theproduction '^ZZt:^^.. 
 and shaping of the life cies by growth, 
 of man by the operation of secondary 
 causes. But that he is in large measure 
 a result of conditions, a product of forces 
 antecedent and superior to himself, is a 
 proposition too plain and too well estab- 
 lished by indubitable facts to be confuted. 
 What is true of the individual is true in 
 a larger sense of his kind. The different 
 families of men, the races, the species — ■ 
 if so we call them — have in like manner 
 come to be what they are by the action 
 of extraneous forces; that is, by the 
 coaction of extraneous forces with the 
 inherent forces of life and growth. 
 
 Of a certainty a given variety of men 
 can not be made exclusively by environ- 
 
 ment. A type can not Environment 
 
 be produced simply with rcttn"o?hu":°' 
 a mold; albeit, there must mankind, 
 be something to be cast into the mold ! 
 In every adaptation there is an extra- 
 neous state, condition, or fact, and an- 
 other fact or force brought into contact 
 and fitness therewith. It Vere too much 
 to say that the Esquimaux are the prod- 
 uct of the arctic regions ; that the 
 Turanians are the progeny of the Asiatic 
 steppes ; that the supple Malay is the
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— E]'OLUTION APPLIED. 
 
 253 
 
 offspring of the cocoa-groves and soft, 
 warm air of Java ; that the Patagonian 
 is the product of the peculiar climate 
 and country of his nativity. But it is 
 true that all of these forms of human 
 kind are typically what they are by the 
 influence of the mold into which they 
 were cast by ethnic distribution and by 
 the forces which have played upon them 
 in the long processes of tribal and na- 
 tional development. 
 
 All men are men ; but the deflection 
 from the common type is very great. 
 Man a resultant The departure in any given 
 u/a'nd environ! ^ase from the original pat- 
 nie'it- tern must be measured as 
 
 a resultant from the combined forces of 
 ethnic heredity and environment. The 
 cranium of a Flathead Indian is still a 
 human head, however much it has been 
 made to depart from the normal type by 
 pressure. Among savages many of the 
 bodily organs have been distorted almost 
 out of semblance to the normal parts 
 which they represent ; and yet they are 
 essentially the same. Environment and 
 special conditions have produced the ab- 
 normality, but nature gave the material 
 of the product. 
 
 The differentiation of the races of men 
 has been effected along certain lines of 
 national preference and appetency. The 
 Races differen- Aryan peoples have been 
 tiatedbynat- ^^|^ explorcrs of nature; 
 
 ural preference -r ' 
 
 and appetency, the discoverers of causes. 
 They have been the adventurers and 
 conquerors of mankind. They have been 
 the makers of the myth, the fable, and 
 the song. Further on in the evolution 
 they have been the Avielders of great 
 forces, the inventors of prodigies, the 
 subduers of the natural world. From 
 all this the .Semitic line of departure is 
 clearly drawn. To the Semites belonged 
 the discovery of ancient religions, the 
 recognition of almightiness behind the 
 
 cloud and shroud of nature, the formu- 
 lation of systems of belief and ceremony. 
 Later on we discover in the descendants 
 of these the skill to gather — as quick- 
 silver gathers — gold among the debris 
 of the nations. The Hamites were the 
 builders of the ancient world. Behold 
 the pyramids, the tombs, and palaces of 
 Egypt and Chaldaea ! 
 
 Among modern peoples the law of 
 specialization has worked out still more 
 wonderful results. The dif- 
 
 Extent to which 
 
 ferent races are special- the various races 
 
 J 1 , are specialized. 
 
 ized, almost as so many or- 
 gans, in one huge body, each having its 
 function in the universal whole of the 
 varied life of man. These divergences 
 in powers, capacities, aptitudes, and ac- 
 complishments have been produced by 
 the same law of variation which holds 
 good in the domain of animated nature. 
 The Greeks were the merchants of the 
 classical ages, as the Tyrians and Sido- 
 nians had been before them. Observe in 
 this fact the operation of two forces: 
 ethnic energy and commercial situation. 
 There was an adaptation of the race to 
 the place — of the people to the oppor- 
 tunity. 
 
 So in the case of Great Britain, The 
 English-speaking race has gone forth 
 into many situations. The Differentiation 
 ethnic force is sufficient to ^'X^lf::^' 
 account for the adventure, pies considered, 
 and adaptation to account for the re- 
 sults. The great problem of English 
 civilization — the problem of holding in 
 one imperial structure of societ}^ all di- 
 visions of the multiplied m.illions who 
 speak the language of Alfred and Chau- 
 cer — is complicated to the last degree by 
 the fact that the commercial and seafar- 
 ing and warlike character which was so 
 strongly impressed upon the original 
 people has been specialized under the 
 law of environment and circumstance
 
 254 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 into many wide-apart and diverse nation- 
 al characteristics. One of these English 
 tribes holds Australia ; another, seventy 
 millions strong, occupies North Amer- 
 ica; another division, in rapid process of 
 specialization, dominates and will at 
 length populate Hindustan. They are 
 surviving branches of a single ethnic tree. 
 There have thus arisen varieties or 
 s/>eciis of Englishmen. Specialization 
 has done its -work until the original 
 British type is with difficulty discovered 
 in the lumberman of Ontario, the miner 
 
 of the Colorado caiion, the ranchman of 
 the Llano Estacado, the sheep-raiser of 
 New South Wales, and the opium mer- 
 chant of Allahabad. In all parts the law 
 of differentiation and growth, with the 
 survival of the best forms and the ex- 
 tinction of the weaker, has prevailed, 
 until the races of mankind have become 
 specialized at the extremes of the human 
 distribution, even as the organs of a liv- 
 ing body have been brought into exist- 
 ence and efficiency by their uses and 
 adaptations. 
 
 Chapter XIV.— Objections Considered. 
 
 E have thus pursued the 
 theory of evolution to 
 the full limits of fitness 
 in a work such as the 
 present. We have 
 viewed it as the viodiis 
 operandi of universal 
 nature and of man. We have seen it ex- 
 emplified, first of all, in the laws and 
 processes of individual growth, whereby 
 each living organisna in the great king- 
 dom of life has been brought by strug- 
 gle, fitness, and survival, by differenti- 
 ation, growth, and exercise into the 
 mature and perfected form. From this 
 starting point in the career of the indi- 
 vidual Ave have extended the study to 
 varieties and species of living beings. 
 Summary of de- We liave obscrved among 
 presenrsta°g':f these the Same principle 
 the inquiry. of divergence, develop- 
 ment, and adaptation as were found to 
 govern the course of the individual or- 
 ganism from the germ to the perfection 
 of its powers. We have considered the 
 same law as illustrated in the growth of 
 the world and our associated planets 
 from a common solar mass of attenuated 
 
 matter. Further on we have applied the 
 theory to the products of human intelli- 
 gence, such as language, institutions, 
 and laws. We have seen that these also 
 spring out of primordial conditions ; that 
 they diverge and struggle, survive by 
 fitness or perish by incongruity with 
 conditions and circumstances. 
 
 We have noted, in the next place, 
 how the law holds also in a wider and 
 higher sense of the human mind itself 
 and of the moral nature of man ; and, 
 last of all, we have observed the appli- 
 cation of evolution to man himself. We 
 have considered him as a living entity 
 working his way through a thousand 
 tentative efforts to the maturity of his 
 powers. We have seen that in general 
 the different forms of human life, as ex- 
 hibited in races and kindreds — spring- 
 ing, as they did spring, from a common 
 human type — have conformed in their 
 movements and methods of development 
 to the same principles which seem to 
 prevail throughout the whole world of 
 organic life, and indeed in universal na- 
 ture. It now remains to note some of 
 the objections which have been suggest-
 
 MAXXER OF THE BEGLYXIXG.—OBJECTIOXS COXSIDEKED. 255 
 
 ed, some of the reasons which have been 
 urged, for the rejection of the theory of 
 evolution considered as an explanation 
 of the phenomena of life. 
 
 In the first place, it is said as a ground 
 of disbelief in the hypothesis of evolu- 
 Objected that tion that it assigns to the 
 linsatowiy tumau spccies a degraded 
 origin to man. origin. The doctrine places 
 man in his genesis and development on 
 a level, so to speak, with the beasts 
 which nature has made prone and obe- 
 dient to their appetites. Man, so far as 
 the testimony of his consciousness is con- 
 cerned, holds himself strorfgly aloof 
 from the rest of animated nature. He 
 is able to discover in himself certain 
 mental and spiritual qualities which do 
 not affiliate with any coixesponding traits 
 in the animals below him. He has 
 hopes and fears, aspirations and ambi- 
 tions, musings and speculative reveries, 
 excursive fancy and the multiplication 
 of knowledge, for none of which can he 
 find a parallel in the mental habits of 
 the living beings around him? 
 
 Man feels instinctively that his nobil- 
 ity as a conscious creature lies in the 
 Instinctive sen- measure of his departure 
 
 timentofmen £ ^| habitudcS and 
 
 respecting tneir 
 
 origin. nature of the beasts. Any 
 
 approach to them in his thoughts and 
 manners and instincts is recognized at 
 once by himself as a degradation of his 
 nature and the stultification of all his 
 better parts. The assignment, therefore, 
 of a common origin for his own species 
 and the higher orders of lower animals 
 appears revolting to his nobler senti- 
 ments. He feels that his race is scandal- 
 ized by attributing thereto such a gen- 
 esis. For this reason the theory of 
 evolution has been strongly resisted as 
 inconsistent with the high estimate which 
 man discovers in his own consciousness 
 of himself, of his origin, and his destiny. 
 
 Such a feeling in human nature is not 
 to be put lightly aside. Observe with 
 care that a sentiment of suchbeUefit- 
 thiskindmustitself.accord- iZl^^^^^' 
 ing to the hypothesis of processes, 
 evolution, have been produced in man 
 from an instinctive germ of belief devel- 
 oped through ages of growth and varia- 
 tion, and fixed at last by certain con- 
 ditions as an immutable part of human 
 nature. The existence of such a senti- 
 ment and belief must be overcome by 
 right reason and irrefragable proofs be- 
 fore it can be given up and replaced with 
 a totally different concept of the origin 
 and primeval state of human kind. 
 
 Let us approach this problem with 
 equanimity. What has history to do 
 with the small prejudices and fluctuating 
 opinions of the current age ? She neither 
 courts them nor rejects them. She views 
 them simply as a part of that vast sub- 
 ject-matter with which her volumes of 
 majestic lore are afterwhiles to be filled. 
 History will not espouse a party or 
 range her forces with any of the divi- 
 sions of human society. Rather must 
 she hold all things in even balance if 
 thereby her own sublime purpose may 
 be fulfilled ; for she knows nothing but 
 right and truth. 
 
 The antipathy of man to a lowly orig- 
 inal for his kind is natural. We must 
 examine the sentiment, istherepug- 
 however, and discover, if ™i°S 
 we may, whether such an or habitual? 
 opinion is really rational or only habit- 
 ual. In pursuing such an inquir}- we 
 may find the best materials of the argu- 
 ment in the history of the individual 
 life of man. This is, without doubt, suf- 
 ficiently lowly. The beginning of an 
 individual life is obscurely hid among 
 the actions ancj coactions of matter and 
 force. In what sense can it be said that 
 the individual man is created ? Certainly
 
 256 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 not in the sense that he has been pro- 
 duced in an adult form and a phenom- 
 enal manner. On the contrary, every 
 human life begins in obscurity, deep in 
 the inscrutable recesses of a microscopic 
 germ. Thus much is not theory, but 
 demonstrable fact indubitably estab- 
 lished by universal experience and at- 
 tested by all the criteria of science. 
 
 Moreover, the first stages in the evolu- 
 tion of the individual life of man are in 
 like manner obscure and obedient to 
 
 FCETI OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS — SHOWING THE COMMON' PLAN OF NATURE. 
 
 (A, A', of tortoise, at four and six weeks ; B, B', of the chick, at four and eight days ; C, C 
 
 of the dog, at four and six weeks; D, D', of the human being, at four and eight weeks.) 
 
 merely physical law. The pattern of 
 
 the human creature that is to be is the 
 
 . , , same as that employed by 
 
 Obscurity of the . . 
 
 first stages ia all nature in producing all the 
 
 animal life. i • i r /• • , i 
 
 higher forms of animated 
 being. The living creature tha't is to be 
 is not discriminable by any test from the 
 correlated orders of life, and is depend- 
 ent for its future distinction wholly 
 tipon a differentiation which is not ap- 
 parent at the beginning of existence. 
 The physical life of man is thus at the 
 first a series of phenomena identical, so 
 far as science has been able to discover. 
 
 with the life of other living beings of a 
 lower order. 
 
 Nor do the evidences of difference 
 rapidly and marvelously appear and 
 
 multiply; but only slowly. Difference of hu- 
 
 tediously, and without man- r^ai^^^p^t^ 
 if est emphasis of purpose, butsiowiy. 
 The embryonic human being gradually 
 dej^arts somewhat from the common 
 type, just as in the case of the unborn 
 progeny of one of the lower animals. 
 In the one case the development begins 
 to be manward ; and in 
 other instances horse- 
 ward, kineward, dog- 
 ward. It is only in the 
 latter stages of prenatal 
 existence that the crea- 
 ture containing within 
 itself the possibility of 
 man begins to show a 
 marked difference from 
 the unborn young of 
 other species of animals. 
 Even at birth and 
 after birth the immatur- 
 ity and imperfection of 
 the human creature are 
 most conspicuous. His 
 organs are, as it were, 
 but potential suggestions 
 of what they are to be- 
 come by growth and development. As to 
 intelligence, the new-born -weakness and 
 being has none whatever, f.^nSlE; 
 with the exception of those cwid. 
 animal instincts which are necessary for 
 the preservation of its life. Even these 
 are by no means highly developed. 
 Many of the lower animals come into 
 the world with capacities and instincts 
 of preservative activity far superior to 
 any exhibited by the newborn of human 
 kind. As to physical action, a like infe- 
 riority is observable. The infant of the 
 human species can neither rise nor sit,
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIOXS CONSIDERED. 257 
 
 neither stand nor walk. Perhaps of all 
 things living the young of the human 
 race are the most absolutely helpless and 
 dependent. 
 
 Nor may the initial evidences of ac- 
 tivity in infancy be regarded as indica- 
 tive of a higher order of life. The infant 
 irrationauty of left to itself sprawls in utter 
 Srinn." helplessness, moving its 
 f^^^^- limbs in a lawless manner, 
 
 showing no evidences of adaptation to 
 the necessities of its being. The com- 
 ing of intelligence, meanwhile, is exceed- 
 ingly slow. How feeble are the first 
 movements of brain-power and intellec- 
 tion ! For many months language con- 
 sists only of ejaculatory cries, in no 
 manner differently vocalized or more 
 significant than the cries of birds and 
 beasts. Observe the beginnings of 
 speech. First, the organs instinctively 
 produce monosyllabic forms without 
 significance — mere babbling repetitions 
 of meaningless sound. Finally, there is 
 the faint light of imitation. At last the 
 utterance of one word is effected, and 
 after a month of effort another ! What 
 a beginning for the rushing vocabularies 
 of Shakespeare, Goethe, and Hugo ! 
 
 Meanwhile' the bodily functions re- 
 main under the dominion of instinct and 
 Evolution of the animal law. The Avonder 
 p^ow^r^ircU- of ^^^alking upright is at 
 iioo'i- length accomplished. The 
 
 child laughs and speaks, and (mar\-el of 
 marvels ! ) loves ! It begins to be ration- 
 al; that is, human. Hitherto it ha~ 
 been irrational ; that is, animal. Here- 
 after reason shall more and more arise 
 and assert its sway. There will be the 
 waywardness of childhood, the efferves- 
 cence and folly of youth, the passion 
 and power of coming manhood, and final- 
 ly the maturity of power. But how few 
 of human creatures ever reach complete- 
 ness of individuality and the perfection 
 
 of reason ! How many complete theii 
 career on a plane but one degree above 
 that on which the higher orders of ani- 
 mals perform their instinctive and irra- 
 tional parts in the drama of life : 
 
 What we are here to consider is this : 
 The true estimate which every mature 
 human being is obliged to Estimate that 
 
 form of his own individual "/'^.'^"stfo'™ 
 
 of his own Indi- 
 an tecedents and history, vldual history. 
 
 Man is constrained to accept for himself 
 as a person the lowliest of lowly begin- 
 nings. He is obliged to recognize the 
 fact that his own genesis as a living 
 creature has been not only in close anal- 
 ogy with the history of animal life in 
 general, but absolutely identical there- 
 with. Ever)^ thoughtful man is con- 
 strained to consider himself as once exist- 
 ing potentially in a mass of half-organic 
 protoplasmic cells. He is obliged to 
 reflect upon his embryonic life, upon the 
 fact of his birth into the world, and the 
 insensate animal life which he must needs 
 live during the first year or years of his 
 existence in this strange arena. He 
 must remember himself as prone and 
 under the dominion of animal instincts 
 - — living only by the aid of the life and 
 love of others. He must see himself in 
 that far estate abased to a condition of 
 intelligence not comparable for intelli- 
 gence with that which characterizes the 
 young of the beasts and birds. 
 
 But with what sentiment should he 
 regard this antecedent and irrational por- 
 tion of his career? Certain- with -what sen- 
 ly not with shame or with '^^.T:^^ 
 a sense of humiliation, "self. 
 On the other hand, there are reasons 
 which a reflective mind may discover in 
 all this for a justifiable pride in the de- 
 gree of departure and elevation which 
 the mature and intelligent being has 
 reached from the lowly and unconscious 
 state of infancy. No man can be reason-
 
 258 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 2LANKIND. 
 
 ably scandalized with the thought that 
 he was once a babe and once an embryo. 
 Rather may he comfort and respect him- 
 self with the reflection that by the law 
 of evolution, the beautiful processes of 
 unfolding and growth, he has risen to 
 his present sublime stature from so ob- 
 scure an origin. 
 
 Man at his best estate walks abroad 
 and surveys all nature. He knows the 
 Great capacity world and its mysteries, 
 of the human rpj^^ outline of scas and con- 
 
 mind to think 
 
 and know. tinents is before his vision. 
 
 The deeps are his. His are the clouds, 
 the panoply of starry sky, the infinitude 
 of systems and worlds beyond. Better 
 than the material landscape is the world 
 within him. Thought is his, and vision 
 and will and purpose. Imagination, 
 eagle-like, sits poised on the vast prec- 
 ipice overlooking the chasm of the 
 universe, and with one bound springs 
 forth on unfaltering wing, circling the 
 profound abyss from shore to shore, from 
 the boundless past to the endless future. 
 But in the midst of this exaltation, this 
 swift review of himself and his powers, 
 he is constrained evermore — but without 
 humiliation — to remember that his or- 
 ganic life began low down in the obscur- 
 ity of an almost unknown world, amid 
 the occult actions and coactions of mat- 
 ter and force, even as all other organic 
 life begins from a mere material cell. 
 
 If such be the backward look of the 
 individual life and consciousness, re- 
 No rational viewing itself in the light 
 tt^iltir oT* of fact and discovering no 
 a lowly origin. shame or degradation in 
 the low estate from which it sprang, 
 what shall we say of that retrospect 
 which surveys, the life of the species? 
 Shall any man feel shame on account of 
 the origin of his species? Do scandal 
 and humiliation hold of a remote and 
 undiscoverable ancestry while they do 
 
 not hold of the origin of the individual ? 
 Shall any intelligent being feel himself 
 degraded by the communal divergence 
 of his kind from the great stem of life 
 far away among the mysteries of the 
 prehistoric world, and yet feel no degra- 
 dation in the fact that he himself, during 
 the first weeks of his organic life, was 
 indiscriminable from the young of an 
 alligator? If the puppy, the calf,' and 
 the kid have larger intelligence and 
 freer use of faculties at a corresponding 
 stage of development than have the 
 children of men, shall he who, in full 
 maturity of powers, reflects upon the 
 fact feel a sense of disgrace and abase- 
 ment imder the belief that by remote 
 ancestral descent, extending thousands 
 of years before the dappled dawn of re- 
 corded history, the species to which he 
 belongs came by differentiation out of 
 the side of that great stem of life which 
 contained the possibilities of all ani- 
 mated nature ? 
 
 On the contrary, it is far more reason- 
 able that man should disregard the re- 
 moter conditions of ethnic More reasonablo 
 
 descent, and feel the deeper t^ZlS^tf""^ 
 interest in his individual our species, 
 history and the history of his immediate 
 ancestry. It is of more concern to man 
 that his personal genesis should be a 
 pleasing fact, as reviewed in conscious- 
 ness under the light of memory and re- 
 flection, than that his ancestors, even 
 within the limits of a few generations, 
 should have been possessed of certain 
 undesirable characteristics of body and 
 mind. The nearer the fact, the greater 
 its interest and importance. All things 
 sink away and fade into shadow and 
 cloud in the far horizon. But that which 
 touches the present life hath more of 
 vital interest. 
 
 The one great history to every human 
 being is the history of himself. Next
 
 MAXNER OF THE BEGLVNINC—OB/ECnOXS CONSIDERED. 259 
 
 to this is the history of that immediate 
 past wtich he may still see in retrospect 
 Greater impor- or by parallax reflected in 
 t^^df^du^^ the pages of common in- 
 lif*^- formation. Further on, and 
 
 of less concern, is that remote past 
 which must be recreated by the skill of 
 the historian and the antiquar}'. Least 
 of all in interest and attractiveness is 
 that group of facts that lie far off, dis- 
 coverable only with the glass and from 
 the mountaintop, dimly defined in the 
 morning of days and seasons. It is of 
 less disgrace and harm to a man — a 
 thousand times less shameful to him — 
 that his prehistoric ancestor should have 
 been one of the pithecanthropoids than 
 that his grandfather should have been a 
 robber or himself a villain ! 
 
 It would appear, therefore, that the 
 repugnance of enlightened and intelli- 
 Repugnanceto gent peoples to the notion 
 of an ancestral descent of 
 the human race common 
 with that of the other orders of animated 
 nature is habitual rather than rational. 
 It is a matter of education and sentiment 
 rather than a judgment or a valid deduc- 
 tion. Not to be scorned or contemned is 
 this sentiment, so jealous of the honor 
 and character of that primal stock from 
 which our species is descended. Never- 
 theless, the suggestion that our origin 
 was the common origin of all organic 
 life is not good ground for the repug- 
 nance and disdain which many have 
 shown for such a lowly genesis. The 
 beginning of the human kind may have 
 been as obscure and far removed among 
 the hidden forces of physical nature as 
 is the manifest beginning of all the in- 
 dividual forms of life. But for that rea- 
 son such origin in neither case is just 
 reason for disdain or for the sense of 
 shame. So far as these sentiments exist 
 respecting the descent of our species 
 
 derivation from 
 lew orders not 
 rational. 
 
 from a lower and simpler order of ani- 
 mals than man, they are the result of 
 views and beliefs which can not well en- 
 dure critical analysis or the higher de- 
 cisions of reason. 
 
 In the formation of the opinions which 
 the men of the nineteenth century still 
 hold, or hold in part, rela- BeUefinaGoid- 
 five to the beginning and f^^^geasaf- 
 
 t> & fecting our opin- 
 
 first estate of man , the tra- ^°^^- 
 dition widely disseminated among many 
 peoples of a Golden Age has largely con- 
 tributed, ilost of the civilized or half- 
 civilized nations of antiquity entertained 
 such a view with respect to the prehis- 
 toric epoch. It pleased the fancy of the 
 pagan peoples of the Mediterranean to 
 reconstruct a former condition of man- 
 kind more elevated and glorious than 
 the current age of semibarbarism and 
 unending war. This dream was one of 
 the prevailing poetic visions with the 
 bards of the Grasco-Italic races. They 
 depicted a primitive estate in which 
 mankind were almost as the gods. The 
 first men were taller and stronger than 
 their degenerate descendants. The first 
 men lived the life of peace and happi- 
 ness. The first men were wise in their 
 kind and virtuous in their lives. The 
 first men tilled the earth and walked 
 abroad as philosophers, gathering the 
 fruits that ripened perennially and sit- 
 ting at evening in the shade of cool ar- 
 bors where they discoursed of the gods 
 and instructed each other in the princi- 
 ples of dut}' and the obligations of fra- 
 ternit3\ Such a dream hovered about 
 the imagination of Greece, and even the 
 heavier mind of Rome was invaded at 
 intervals with the presence of this de- 
 lightful vision of an immemorial past. 
 
 Doubtless such an opinion came to the 
 Western peoples with their migrating 
 ancestry out of the East. The Orien- 
 tal nations also possessed traditions and
 
 \"NHi.\ I 11 THI-. (,liI.Di:.\ Al.E.
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. 261 
 
 fables of the golden age. With the 
 
 ascendency of Rome such a notion in 
 
 varying degrees of inten- 
 
 Genesisofthe . . 
 
 beiiefinapast sity was widely dissemina- 
 age o go . ^^^ ^y ^^^ pagan conquests. 
 
 With the incoming of Christianity — with 
 its acceptance as the religion of the state 
 and the consequent incorporation of 
 Hebrew story as a part, even the foun- 
 dation, of the new theology — the belief 
 in the antecedent greatness and perfec- 
 tion of mankind was still further ex- 
 tended and confirmed. As far as the 
 new faith extended, so far was the cur- 
 rent interpretation of the significance of 
 the terrestrial paradise and its two per- 
 fect and exalted beings accepted as the 
 condition from which the human race 
 had descended. 
 
 The belief in question was further 
 strengthened and confirmed by that un- 
 fortunate epoch in human 
 
 Effects of fhebe- ^ 
 
 lief in the de- history known as the Dark 
 cadence of man. , » i. xi i. i- n 
 
 Ages. At that time all 
 
 things seemed returning to the primitive 
 chaos. The Roman empire broke and 
 fell. Barbarism came in. vSociety was 
 disorganized and went to ruins. Dark- 
 ness supervened over the face of Europe. 
 A belief well calculated to destroy the 
 remainder of hope arose and spread 
 and took possession of all minds. This 
 was the belief in the decadence of man. 
 It became the prevalent opinion that all 
 things were falling away, and that not 
 only civilization but the world itself 
 was doomed to perish. 
 
 For several centuries, as the first mil- 
 lenium of the Christian era drew to its 
 Mediaevais af- close, this foreboding and 
 hens^no/f^'^' gloomy Spirit hovered over 
 catastrophe. the human mind. Under 
 its influence men looked back afar to the 
 primitive estate of the race as to a vision 
 of glory and exaltation. The present 
 woe was contrasted in the senses and 
 
 apprehensions of the people with that 
 far-off and beautiful Eden from which 
 the ancestor of mankind had been driven 
 forth in exile to his death. All these 
 circumstances tended most strongly to 
 fix in the mind a deep-seated conviction 
 of the early excellence and later deca- 
 dence of the human race — to extend and 
 perpetuate the pagan traditions which 
 have prevailed in many parts of the 
 world respecting a primitive golden 
 age. 
 
 As the nightmare of the Middle Ages 
 passed away, when it was seen that the 
 world and the race of man Dogmatic inter- 
 had not perished, but that P^rSm^ 
 on the other hand there progress, 
 were evidences of revival and restora- 
 tion, the new and hopeful sentiments of 
 mankind with respect to the present and 
 the future came into contact with the 
 old beliefs respecting the methods of 
 creation and the primeval state of the 
 human species. Meanwhile the creeds 
 of the Church had taken a dogmatic and 
 inflexible form. The interpretations 
 which had been placed on the ancient 
 oracles were held in all things to be 
 literal and exact. When the new as- 
 tronomy appeared it was confronted with 
 a construction of the Scriptures which 
 forbade its acceptance. The reading 
 which had been adopted of the Book of 
 Genesis made the world the center of 
 our system and the sun and moon and 
 stars its attendant satellites. To disturb 
 this construction seemed to the men of 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 
 like a destruction of the moral order of 
 the world. 
 
 Every branch of natural science was 
 met with like antagonism and resisted 
 by the adherents of the ancient system. 
 Geology in particular was assailed as un- 
 mistakably contradictory of the oracles 
 of tnith. The notion of an extended
 
 262 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 natural science 
 have been an 
 tagonized. 
 
 duration for the world — of the vast eons 
 of time which had been required for the 
 Au branches of Orderly production of our 
 globe — was denounced as 
 a horrible assault upon the 
 divine revelation and an attempt to sub- 
 stitute a bible of atheism for the true 
 wisdom of the Almighty. For espousing 
 and upholding the new belief many suf- 
 fered and died. From the date of the 
 first dawn of the revival of learning 
 each new stage in the progress of scien- 
 tific discovery, each new concept which 
 man has gained of the order of the world, 
 and in particular of the history of life, 
 has been resisted and resented as an of- 
 fense and an indignity done to those 
 sublime standards which were established 
 aforetime out of the literal construction 
 of the ancient records of both the chosen 
 people and the pagan nations of an- 
 tiquity. 
 
 All of these circumstances must be 
 weighed and estimated in making up a 
 Current opin- Current judgment with re- 
 f?o°:timatic spect to the value and ac- 
 antecedents. ceptabiUty of the theory of 
 evolution. That this theory has been 
 repugnant to many cherished sentiments 
 and beliefs can not be denied, and ought 
 not to be neglected in considering the 
 general question at issue. On the other 
 hand, the existence of such opinions, in 
 so far as they are merely habitual and 
 not the products of right reason, ought 
 not by any means to prevail against the 
 acceptance of a larger and more compre- 
 hensive concept of the history of life. 
 Just as dogma should not have prevailed 
 against the mathematics of Copernicus 
 and the telescope of Galileo, just as the 
 narrow, foolish, but long-established the- 
 ory of the phenomenal creation of the 
 earth in six days ought not to have pre- 
 vailed against the new geology which 
 fought its way through every kind of 
 
 opposition to final acceptance as the 
 rational explanation of the order and 
 development of the world, so a possibly 
 mistaken notion about the existence of a 
 golden age, in which the first of human 
 kind walked and communed as the gods, 
 ought not to prevail against the evi- 
 dences of science, pointing as they do 
 with unerring finger to the low estate 
 and primitive savagery of the earliest 
 creatures of the world worthy to take 
 the name of man. 
 
 On the Avhole, the issue between those 
 who hold the theory of phenomenal cre- 
 ation and those who accept Real issue a 
 evolution as the law of uni- ^^IT:!^ 
 versal nature and of man not of fact, 
 is a question of vuthod rather than a 
 question of fact. Life has appeared on 
 the earth at some iiine and some place 
 and in some manner. Life did not al- 
 ways exist on the earth. It began tc 
 be, and it now is, in full aspect of de- 
 velopment. The question, therefore, 
 can be no more than this : Hnv did life 
 appear? Hoiv did it begin.' Hoiv did 
 it proceed from stage to stage? Was 
 the apparition immediate and phenome- 
 nal, or was it by slow degrees and evo- 
 lutionary processes? It is not the fact 
 of creation but the inanncr of it that is 
 involved in the whole controversy which 
 has occupied at least three decades of the 
 last half of the nineteenth century. All 
 must concede that organic being has 
 come to pass in some way. The diver- 
 gence of opinion relates only to the man- 
 ner and not to the essential fact of a 
 beginning of something which before 
 had no existence. 
 
 From these considerations it would ap- 
 pear that the controversy in some expiana- 
 question has been unduly ^^p^e^c^e's^rt be 
 exaggerated and fanned accepted, 
 to an unwarrantable excess of heat. 
 It is only a question as to how the term
 
 MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. 263 
 
 creation, or the primary production of 
 life, is to be understood. Men are con- 
 strained, in virtue of the cause-seeking 
 instinct within them, to form some con- 
 cept of the manner of the beginning. 
 The mind demands an explanation. 
 There is no satisfaction or mental rest 
 without some reasonable apprehension 
 of the methods and circumstances of the 
 origin of life. More particularly the 
 whole question seems to hang about the 
 beginning of species. For some reason 
 the obvious origin of the individual life 
 has been overlooked, and the attention 
 of the disputants in this great contro- 
 versy fixed on the occult question of the 
 beginning of species. Why it is that 
 the manner of the origin of a specific 
 variety of life, belonging as it must do 
 to a remote epoch in the past, should 
 be considered of greater importance in 
 forming a correct theory of the world 
 and of organic being than is the nearby 
 and apprehensible origin of the individ- 
 ual life, is one of the strange circum- 
 stances in the intellectual history of our 
 century. 
 
 As to the adequacy of the theory of 
 
 evolution to account for the formation 
 
 of the world and for the 
 
 Adequacy of the 
 
 theory of evoiu- mcthods by wliicli the in- 
 
 tiou considered, j • • i i • -u i ^ ^ 
 
 dividual IS brought to ma- 
 turity there can be no doubt. Between 
 these two extremes of cosmogony, in a 
 general sense on the one hand and the 
 individual life on the other hand, lies 
 the intermediate question of the genesis 
 of species, and in particular the origin 
 of human kind. The general tendency 
 of scientific investigation has been to 
 extend further and still further the law 
 of evolution as the method and explana- 
 tion of the phenomena of all living 
 forms. To affirm that the inquiry is 
 complete, and that evolution is the one 
 sole explanation of all the varieties of 
 
 life, and of the stages and vicissitudes 
 through which they have passed, is to 
 affirm more than the present state of 
 human knowledge would warrant or 
 sustain. To affirm, on the other hand, 
 that the law of evolution applies to .so 
 wide a cycle of phenomena as is mani- 
 festly the case — that in general it suf- 
 fices to explain the modus operandi of 
 creation respecting the manifold species 
 of animals and plants which hold to the 
 earth as the source of their vitality ; but 
 that the law breaks when it comes to 
 the human .species, and leaves the 
 great fact of man-life as something 
 unaccounted for and exceptional to an 
 otherwise universal mode of action — is 
 to affirm less than the present condi- 
 tion of human knowledge will attest 
 and justify. 
 
 Thus much is certain, that the battle 
 of dogmatic and scientific opinion re- 
 specting the manner of the The conflict of 
 beginning of life subsides scientific and 
 
 & o dogmatic opin- 
 
 into silence. It has already ion subsides, 
 lost its clangor and .sharpness. It sinks 
 into a mild and conciliatory debate. The 
 alarm which prevailed for a season 
 among the timid folk of the ancient 
 camping ground al.so subsides and is suc- 
 ceeded by returning confidence. It is 
 seen that the world stands fast and 
 that the moral order of the world is not 
 disturbed. Perhaps the acerbity, the 
 violence, of them who attack the existing 
 interpretations of man and nature cools 
 into a rational .satisfaction over the chang- 
 ing concept of the beginning and devel- 
 opment of organic life. The glowing 
 coals of anger, fanned not a little by the 
 aeitation, cover themselves with the 
 white a.shes of peace. It has always 
 been so in the intellectual warfare of 
 mankind. It is not true, as many sup- 
 pose, that the moral deeps are broken 
 up by these disturbances of the Intel-
 
 264 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 lectital world. After the conflict is 
 over there is always the return of har- 
 mony, the blessings of sunshine, the 
 betterment of mankind. There is a re- 
 newal of the hand-clasp of fidelity, and 
 mutual congratulations of the contend- 
 ing parties that the inscriptions on the 
 obelisks of truth and right are still clear 
 and .sharp as on the morning of the 
 first day. 
 
 This better condition of the mind in 
 our age comes of the gradual acceptation 
 of the new truth and the gradual aban- 
 donment of the old error. It comes, in 
 large measure, also, of concession and 
 of the willingness of the human mind to 
 be taught in things not known before. 
 It comes of the necessary approxi- 
 mation of views to that common ground 
 which, while it is not the ground occu- 
 pied by mediaeval scholasticism and mod- 
 
 ern dogma, is, on the other hand, not 
 the ground of an atheistic materialism. 
 It is rather that point of 
 
 , . Approximation 
 
 View which accepts an orig- of the opposing 
 inal creative power as the °p'"'°"^- 
 productive energy whereby the begin- 
 nings of all life are to be accounted for 
 and explained, but at the same time 
 recognizes the evolutionary processes 
 which are manifestly at work among all 
 existing forms as the explanation and 
 method of growth whereby the living 
 species of organisms have been brought 
 from their germinal to their perfected 
 state. Under these two general con- 
 cepts the life of man may be assigned 
 to its true place as the supreme fact 
 connected with our sphere. For the 
 present it suffices to say that creation 
 is a fact, and evolution its universal 
 method.
 
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 fnvl l^tonb. 
 
 Primitive Estate of the Human Race. 
 
 BOOK III.-PRIMEVAL MAN. 
 
 Chapter XV.— Divkrs Aspects oe Barbakic Liee. 
 
 T is the i^urpose in 
 this book to present 
 as much as is known 
 relative to the prim- 
 itive condition of man- 
 kind in several quar- 
 ters of the earth. The 
 progress of historical science and archae- 
 ological research has now made us famil- 
 iar with many aspects of the early life 
 of man hitherto imknown. It is pos- 
 sible, with our present light, to make a 
 tolerably accurate picture of the social 
 Essential inter- phenomena of several peo- 
 t'toS^H J pies i n those stages of their 
 
 mtoDaroaric x o 
 
 conditions. development which lie com- 
 
 pletely beyond the horizon of formal 
 history. Nor can it be doubted that 
 
 such reconstruction and revival of the 
 M.— Vol. I— 18 
 
 primeval conditions of our race, passing 
 from the state of absolute unconscious- 
 ness into the semiwaking of the early 
 dawn, will prove of the keenest interest 
 if only the work be patiently and sym- 
 pathetically performed. 
 
 It must be understood at the outset 
 that the beginnings of civilization in dif- 
 ferent parts of the world are exceedingly 
 diverse in their aspects and Diverse aspects 
 tendencies. Nothing can °r,^: e^\^'^;:f 
 be more striking than the Ufeofman. 
 contrasts which the early races of men 
 present to the student in their methods 
 and peculiarities of development. In- 
 deed, hardly any two of the primitive 
 tribes of men wrought in the same man- 
 ner or with the same results. Their 
 work in attempting to construct their 
 
 265
 
 266 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 31ANKL\D. 
 
 social forms was as various as the con- 
 ditions of the primeval world in which 
 they struggled for existence. 
 
 From these considerations it will be 
 necessary to an adequate understanding 
 Varying activi- of the primitive condition 
 tiesofraaninthe f mankind to sketch, in 
 
 struggle for ex- ' 
 
 istence. the following chapters, 
 
 several distinct phases of the social and 
 economic life of man as we see the same 
 
 forest, with his rude implements and 
 utensils, and becomes a man of the 
 woods, a roving hunter. 
 
 Savages of the 
 
 traversing hill and thicket, woods and sea- 
 eating the mast of the oak 
 
 and the beech tree, living by the haz- 
 ards of migration and tribal warfare. 
 Still again, he gathers his little group 
 around him on the shingly shore of the 
 northern seas. He rakes from the sand, 
 
 WAN IN THE AGE OF I HE CAVE BLAK.— Drawn by tm.le Ljjartl. 
 
 obscurely outlined along the far horizon 
 of traditional history. In one quarter 
 of the world we shall see the newborn 
 man take to the caverns for a habitation 
 and defense. We shall see him, with 
 huge clubs in his hands, fighting like a 
 giant with wild beasts, sometimes crush- 
 ing their skulls and sometimes himself 
 torn to death by their tremendous fangs. 
 In another quarter man takes to the 
 
 where the receding wave has been, the 
 shellfish left there by the tide. These 
 he breaks and devours for his subsist- 
 ence. He builds him a tent, and con- 
 structs simple implements for the gather- 
 ing and preparation of his food. He 
 heaps up around him the waste of his 
 rude methods of life, the debris of his 
 half-savage industry, until his tent is on 
 a shell mound, mixed with broken frag'
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— DIVERS ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 
 
 267 
 
 ments of his utensils, and bearing- thus 
 to future ages the sole evidence of his 
 existence and manner of life. 
 
 Still again we see the primitive man 
 driving- piles in the margin of the moun- 
 Primevai man tain lake and building a 
 se'i" a home oTer pl^tform upon them, and on 
 the water. this platform, above the 
 
 water, rearing rude huts, from which he 
 reaches the shore by a flattened log or 
 other simple means of transit. Here he 
 
 herds dri^•en from place to place on the 
 plains of the East, as the spring line of 
 verdure fluctuated over the landscape 
 like the shadow of a cloud. 
 
 Again, we note those who built for 
 themselves abodes of mud and bitumen. 
 We see the low-lying plain Barbarian 
 with its cubical houses of ^^°^Z^^l^^I 
 
 or sun-Dakea 
 
 clay or sun-dried bricks, bricks. 
 
 and are surprised to observe that what 
 
 some primitive tribes of the Orient did in 
 
 ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE— Hl't of Ostiaks.— Drawn by Durand Brager. 
 
 is comparatively safe from the attacks of 
 the wild beasts with which he finds 
 himself otherwise unable to contend. 
 Through the rude slabs in the floor in 
 his dwelling he also drops into the water 
 his broken implements of peace and war ; 
 and these vestiges of a primitive and 
 peculiar form of life are taken from the 
 mud in our own century to bear witness 
 of one of the strangest aspects of prim- 
 itive history. As to the so-called pa- 
 triarchs of antiquit}^, their well-known 
 method was that of keepers of flocks and 
 
 the dawn of their nationality thousands 
 of years ago, the Arizonian races of 
 Southwestern North America have re- 
 duplicated, in every particular, in their 
 attempted emergence from barbarism. 
 In all the central regions of the New 
 World the Red Man will invite us with 
 his wigwam to scrutinize his manners 
 and customs and to note, not without 
 sympathy, his hopes and aspirations. 
 
 Far to the north the frozen ice huts 
 appear, with their stunted but resolute 
 inhabitants braving the rigors of the
 
 268 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKLXD. 
 
 frigid zone, kindling the fires within 
 them and without from the same heavy 
 carbonaceous elements furnished by the 
 monsters of the deep. All these and 
 many more are the peculiarities of pri- 
 meval life which will demand our atten- 
 tion in the the present book. 
 
 It can but be of interest in this con- 
 
 would, under the influence of instinct 
 correlated with their environment, adopt 
 almost identical methods in their strug- 
 gle for existence and progress, and 
 present a common type of development ; 
 but the facts are utterly at variance 
 with this hypothesis. To the casual ob- 
 server, indeed, it would seem that the 
 
 A_>PECI< OF BARBARIC LIKE. -Search for the Pk, ll>.--I ira',Mi 1 v Rio 
 
 thus differen- 
 tiate in manner 
 OfUfe? 
 
 nection to discuss briefly the question 
 ivh}' it is that such radical differences 
 "Why do savages existed among the primi- 
 tive tribes of men in their 
 methods of organizing 
 themselves into societies. What were 
 the causes of so great divergences in 
 the earl}' life of man ? It would be in- 
 ferred, a priori, that all semibarbarous 
 peoples in their emergence from savagery 
 
 diverse methods, the opposing manners 
 and customs, and the contradictory in- 
 stitutions of primitive mankind, were 
 the work of caprice rather than of rea- 
 son and order. A closer study of the 
 problem, however, will doubtless show 
 that in this also, as well as in all other 
 elements of human history, law has 
 been the dominant principle and reason 
 the guiding light.
 
 270 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXKLYD. 
 
 Doubtless the first great cause of the 
 divergences noticeable in the begin- 
 nings of civilization between the meth- 
 ods of one tribe or family of men and 
 those of another, is the varying influences 
 First cause the of nature reacting upon 
 reactions of na- ^j^^ human frame and fac- 
 
 ture on humau 
 
 faculties. ulties. The aspects and 
 
 conditions of the external world are far 
 removed from regularity. Every region 
 has its own climate, its own aspect of 
 earth and sky. As to the earth itself, 
 its surface is variable in the last degree. 
 The soil has different potencies. The 
 water distribution passes through all 
 grades from scarcity to abundance, from 
 the blistering desert to the dripping 
 humidity of rainy islands. The surface 
 in some parts spreads out on a dead 
 level of valley or plain, and anon rises 
 into hill and cliiT and mountain. The 
 running streams are eqi:ally irregular in 
 their disposal. Some regions have the 
 rivers as the basal fact in their consti- 
 tution, while in others the range of 
 highlands, the rocky ridge or snow peaks 
 scattered at intervals, are the fundamen- 
 tal condition of geography. Greater 
 still is the variation of heat and cold, 
 from the rigor of the hyperborean 
 regions to the furnace of the tropics ; 
 and, if possible, the differences in the 
 electrical and magnetic forces that girdle 
 the earth and impart a certain nervous 
 tension to all animal existence are even 
 more pronounced and remarkable. 
 
 Under these varying circumstances of 
 the external world the plants on its sur- 
 ManespeciaUy facc and the living crea- 
 rXS^flhe tures that subsist thereby 
 natural world, fluctuate and change in 
 their instincts and manner of life. Par- 
 ticularly does that supreme animal 
 called man fit by multifarious adjust- 
 ments into his changeful environment. 
 From his superior and more refined or- 
 
 ganization he is especially susceptible to 
 the influences of the external world. 
 More than any beast of the field does he 
 sway and bend and conform to the cli- 
 matic exigencies under which he is 
 placed. In him the sap of the world 
 circulates almost as palpably and po- 
 tently as in the plant that fixes its roots 
 in the soil. In him every varying con- 
 dition of the outer world is reflected; 
 and in him the very tone and rhythm 
 and pulsebeat of universal nature find a 
 perpetual echo and response. 
 
 These considerations are fully borne 
 out by an actual examination of the prim- 
 itive life of man in proc- au parts of civil- 
 ess of development under ^^^^^^^ 
 the varying conditions of conditions, 
 nature. Indeed, no stage of human 
 growth is exempt from the domination 
 of the natural world. Every part 
 and filament of the garb which civiliza- 
 tion wears has taken its form and 
 color and substance in large measure 
 from the material elements and condi- 
 tions under which it is woven. It can 
 not be doubted that all the aspects of 
 the life and endeavor of man have in 
 them, when closely scrutinized, the out- 
 line and semblance of physical condi- 
 tions caught by reflection from the 
 external forms and circumstances of his 
 environment and home. 
 
 So palpable and powerful have been 
 these influences of the external world on 
 the development and char- Theory of en-sri- 
 acter of the human race that ^erstretcted 
 many authors have been too far. 
 disposed to make them the be-all and 
 the end-all of the civilization of man. 
 By such writers the theory of a physical 
 basis for all things has been confldently 
 adopted ; and it is urged, without doubt 
 or hesitation, that even the highest and 
 most spiritual faculties and moods of the 
 human mind are resolvable by easy
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— DIVERS ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 271 
 
 process into elemental parts derivable 
 from nature. 
 
 Under this hj-pothesis man is regarded 
 simply as a plant with powers of lo- 
 comotion and consciousness. True, his 
 feet do not strike into the soil. He has 
 no local attachment to the ground out of 
 which he has sprung; but like those 
 vegetable anomalies which grow freely 
 in the open air or water without the for- 
 mality of roots and tendrils, so man, in 
 
 to which it is applied. Nature has, in- 
 deed, done much to give form and 
 fashion to the various and divergent as- 
 pects of human life ; but there are many 
 differences existing in the methods em- 
 ployed by primitive, and even by civilized, 
 peoples which can not be so resolved and 
 explained. Another general cause comes 
 into the field of vision, and that is the 
 influence of innate instincts and dispo- 
 sitions in mankind, working in some in- 
 
 VARIABILITY ILLUSTRATED IN MULTIPLE YOUNG OF SAME MOTHER.-Glinea Pigs 
 
 this view of his genesis and nature, 
 grows and develops into conscious life 
 and powerful activity by the mere ab- 
 sorption, from his free surroundings, of 
 all his elemental juices, his fibers, and 
 his faculties. 
 
 But this view of the case is inadequate 
 to the solution of the problem. The 
 Ethnic instincts theory of a physical basis of 
 
 also prevalent in „• ,;i: ,- ■ i 
 
 forming man- Civilization IS by no means 
 '^^^- to be rejected as a chi- 
 
 mera. It is simply insufficient of itself 
 to explain and elucidate the phenomena 
 
 stances toward one end and in others to 
 an opposite or diverse result. That such 
 native and inherent differences do exist 
 in human kind can not be doubted, and 
 that the influence of the same has been 
 largely potential in producing the va- 
 rious aspects of early civilization is, it is 
 believed, susceptible of the clearest 
 proof. 
 
 If we descend into the germinal con- 
 ditions of the vegetable world we find 
 that even the plants are, in virtue of 
 their own nature, impressed with great
 
 272 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. 
 
 variations. The seeds taken from the 
 same pod and planted in the same bed 
 
 tinct and unmistakable evidences of di- 
 vergence and individuality. If we go 
 
 MIGRATORV BARBARISM— Camp of the Kergheez.— Drawn by Emile Bayaid. 
 
 and nurtured under identical conditions 
 exhibit in growth and development dis- 
 
 forward one stage and begin an exami- 
 nation of the phenomena of animal life,
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— DIVERS ASPECTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 273 
 
 we find, the divergent principle still 
 more active and emphatic. In the mul- 
 Theia-wofvaria- tiple voung of the Same 
 enTof'^n^ron- mother we have the varia- 
 ™^''*- bility of nature illustrated 
 
 in every element of organization. The 
 color is different. Some are black, some 
 are parti-colored, and some are white. 
 
 procreative act, developed in the same 
 matrix, and thrust into the world under 
 identical conditions, are more than ap- 
 proximately alike. 
 
 Take, for instance, the pointers and 
 setters in which the hunter finds so great 
 delight. Never yet, perhaps, have two 
 of these animals, under the strictest dis- 
 
 ^i;:M^MMMl 
 
 SEDENTARV BARBARISM.— House of Greenland E-iqiimai'. 
 
 Similar variations, though perhaps less 
 pronounced, will 'be discovered in form 
 and function. One outgrows the other. 
 One is of superior activity; one is 
 hardier, and another has by nature a 
 greater longevity. If we proceed to 
 scrutinize the instincts and dispositions 
 of the group the differences ai-e still 
 more marked. In fact, no two of these 
 living creatures, produced by the same 
 
 cipline of the same master, been devel- 
 oped into identity of method and char- 
 acter. The law of animal Animal Ufenn- 
 life in this respect is sus- .^^fshrs'"' 
 ceptible of infinite illustra- divergences, 
 tion. Every species of living creatures 
 is still in a state and process of differen- 
 tiation imder that primal law of evolu- 
 tion which tends to individualize all 
 forms of life ; and as we ascend in the
 
 274 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLIXA'/XD. 
 
 scale of being the action of this law is 
 constantly increased in vigor and inten- 
 sity. 
 
 In man the presence of the divergent 
 and individualizing tendencv has been 
 In man and cspeciallv powerful from 
 
 XeTat^Tmvtr! the beginning. The primi- 
 sity prevails. tivc raccs had each its spe- 
 cial instinct and individual character. No 
 two of them were moved by the same 
 innate impulses or the same conscious 
 purposes. The ends of tribal endeavor 
 were as diverse as the methods employed 
 to reach them. And it is the existence, 
 radically, in the human family of this 
 difference of instinct and motive that, 
 combined with the powerful influence of 
 the natural world reacting upon the 
 sensitive faculties of man, has produced 
 the striking and peculiar differences, 
 oppositions, even antagonisms, which 
 we discover in the primitive history of 
 mankind. 
 
 As an illustration of the working of 
 these innate divergent tendencies in the 
 Migratory habit human race, take the great 
 ^I^'^r. fact of tribal migration. In 
 s"'=^s- the primitive history of 
 
 the world no other fact, perhaps, has so 
 great prominence as has the migratory 
 disposition exhibited by the early races ; 
 • but the working of this instinct was 
 exhibited by them only in part. That 
 is, there were conservative tribes and 
 radical tribes in the primeval world, the 
 former of which gave no sign of the 
 migratory impulse, while the latter 
 were swayed thereby to the extent of 
 having no other history than that of 
 removal. 
 
 A closer analysis will show that in the 
 same tribe the migratory disposition 
 would appear, seizing like an insupport- 
 
 able passion upon some members of the 
 clan and household, while others would be 
 exempt from its influence. A division 
 of sentiment would appear Themovingpas- 
 among these unconscious t^^!:^, 
 folk leading to a radical munity. 
 difference of tribal action and policy. A 
 break-i:p among the family would ensue, 
 a part drifting away under the action of 
 an instinct as natural and inevitable as 
 that which drives the bee swarm from 
 the parent colony to the distant forest. 
 That is, in a given household some 
 members, born under identical condi- 
 tions with the rest, would feel the mov- 
 ing passion and go, while the rest, un- 
 swayed by any such instinctive motive, 
 would remain in their native seats, 
 unable even to appreciate the impulse 
 and disposition which had separated 
 their kinsmen from them. The Orient 
 is to-da}', in some sense, a residuum of 
 those peoples over whom the migratory 
 passion was never dominant, while all 
 Europe and America, even to the shore 
 line of the Pacific, is, in a like sense, 
 the result of a certain innate radicalism 
 which has forced the moving races 
 further and further onward, until at last 
 it threatens to leap the greatest of the 
 oceans and precipitate itself again upon 
 the East. 
 
 This division of mankind into a 
 migratory and nonmigratory part must 
 have been based, in its ultimate analysis, 
 upon innate differences and unconscious, 
 unreasoning impulses in those original 
 tribes from which Asia and Europe 
 have alike been peopled. Nor can it 
 well be understood how the influence of 
 the external world can adequately ac- 
 count for the true genesis and primal 
 workings of this migratory habit.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 275 
 
 Chapter xvi.— The Cave Dwellers ok Europe. 
 
 lONG before the incom- 
 ing of the first Aryan 
 peoples into Europe 
 tribes and races of men 
 were already diffused 
 over the country. Nor 
 is it possible for us, in 
 the present state of knowledge, to pierce 
 the bottom of these human strata and 
 
 For the present, archaeological and 
 ethnical inquiry has reached down only 
 to this epoch when the aborigines of 
 Western Europe were contemporaneous 
 with certain extinct species of animals. 
 It is here that we must begin our inquiry 
 relative to the primitive life of man in 
 those parts of the world with which we 
 are most familiar. It is well to repeat 
 
 IDEAL LAXriSCAlE OF THE AGE OE REPTILES —Drawn by Rioii 
 
 find the actual beginnings of the life of 
 man on the European continent. It is 
 now clear that the first men roaming 
 Contempo- about in a state of savagery 
 
 raneityofman through the forCStS of 
 and certain ex- » 
 
 tinct animals. Denmark, of Germany, of 
 France, and of Britain were contempo- 
 raneous with several races of animals 
 that were extinct before the beginnings 
 of authentic history. 
 
 that the period here referred to is an- 
 terior to the time when the first Aryans 
 
 the Celts, the Italic tribes, and the 
 
 Teutones — made their first inroads into 
 the West. 
 
 It is only within the present century 
 that our knowledge relative to primeval, 
 man in Western Europe has taken a 
 somewhat definite form. Such inquiry 
 has been impeded by many prejudices
 
 276 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and prepossessions of tlie human mind — 
 
 many beliefs which arc no longer tenable 
 
 tinder the lijjht of increas- 
 
 Modern leaders . ° o^i i 1 
 
 of archaeological ing knowledge, i lie labors 
 nquiry. ^^ several eminent archaeol- 
 
 ogists and ethnologists, such as Sir 
 Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock in 
 England, Messieurs Tournal and Christol 
 in France, Dr. P. C. Schmerling in Ger- 
 many, and Professors Steenstrup and 
 Nilsson of Sweden, have brought the 
 resources of their genius to bear upon 
 the problem of the antiquity and prim- 
 itive life of man, and have succeeded in 
 reconstructing the primeval conditions 
 of civilization. 
 
 the cave dwellers of Western Europe 
 flourished. If we examine the crust of 
 the earth alwve those strata which con- 
 stitute the so-called age of reptiles, we 
 shall find the same to be divided into 
 two great layers, the lower of which is 
 called the Tertiary and the upper the 
 Post-Tertiary Period. The post-tertiary 
 period is itself composed of two strata, 
 the lower of which is called the Post- 
 Pliocene and the upper the Recent, which 
 latter embraces, in general terms, what 
 is popularly called the surface of the 
 earth. These two periods, the tertiary 
 and post-tertiary, cover the geologic 
 age of mammals. The mammalia are 
 
 Post-Tertiary . 
 
 Tertiary Period. 
 
 Recent 
 
 Post-Pliocene [Epoch of the Cave Men] 
 
 Newer Pliocene 
 
 Older Pliocene 
 
 Upper Miocene 
 
 Lower Miocene 
 
 Pliocene 
 
 Miocene. 
 
 Eocene 
 
 { Upper Eocene 
 \ Middle Eocene 
 
 Cenozoic Time — Age of Mammals. 
 
 I 
 
 Lower Eocene 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE TERTIARY AND POST-TERTIARY PERIODS, SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL PLACE OF THE 
 
 CAVE DWELLERS. 
 
 In the present chapter it will be the 
 aim to present the leading features of 
 Place of the cave tribal life as the Same are 
 mTnedbfg'er iUustrated in the story of 
 logical data. t^e Cave Dwellers of West- 
 ern Europe. There was, in prehistoric 
 ages, in many parts of the western 
 European states a race of men of a low 
 grade of culture who chose the caverns 
 which nature had hollowed out as their 
 abodes, and within these dreary domiciles 
 enacted the domestic drama of their 
 lives. 
 
 It is desirable to note the geological 
 epoch, now well determined, in which 
 
 conterminous with it, having first made 
 their appearance in what is called the 
 Lower Eocene and having a continu- 
 ous existence through all the upper 
 strata. Chronologically speaking, the 
 period here referred to, beginning with 
 the bottom of the tertiary and reach- 
 ing to the present, is called Cenozoic 
 time. The above diagram, drawn ac- 
 cording to Sir Charles Lyell, will show 
 the various relations of these strata and 
 the place of the cave dwellers. 
 
 It must be understood Avith reference 
 to the above diagram that all existing 
 species of mammals and man himself
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 277 
 
 belong to what is called the recent, or 
 quaternary, epoch. There were, how- 
 Man belongs to ever, several species of 
 quaternary," g^cat animals formerly well 
 epoch. known in Europe, whose 
 
 existence as distinct varieties reached up 
 from the pliocene period of the tertiary 
 epoch into the post-pliocene era, and in 
 that era ceased to exist. It appears that 
 certain climatic changes took place in 
 
 the extinct mammals above referred to 
 that the demonstration of this early 
 foiTn of existence on the earth has been 
 made. The jaroof that man was con- 
 temporaneous with several varieties of 
 animal life no longer present in the 
 countries where it formerly flourished, 
 is clear and irrefragable, and it only re- 
 mains in the following pages to deter- 
 mine as much as we may of the primi- 
 
 lUEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 Europe, rendering the country untenable 
 to these forms of life. 
 
 Now it is in this post-pliocene epoch 
 that the cave dwellers had their career. 
 It was at the time when 
 
 Extinct mam- 
 mals coVnhabil 
 ants with man in 
 
 mais coVnhabit- the species of animals just 
 
 Europe. mentioned were still prev- 
 
 alent in the west of Europe that the 
 cave man had his abode there. He was 
 their companion and fellow of the woods 
 and caverns ; and it is by the commin- 
 gling of the debris and ruins of his sav- 
 age life with the relics and vestiges of 
 
 [ five condition in which the cave man 
 held his barbarous fortunes. 
 
 The savage races of men, on their way 
 from the low condition in which they 
 are still found in absolute savages pass 
 barbarity to civilized peo- :^:2:fl:<,ttT' 
 pies, pass through four civiuzation. 
 epochs of development. These are de- 
 termined by archaeologists chiefly by 
 the character of the implements and 
 utensils which are fabricated by primi- 
 tive peoples in the different stages of 
 their progress. It had been found that
 
 278 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 3IAXKLXD. 
 
 this progress is uniform in all parts of 
 the world, and that when barbarians are 
 discovered in a given stage of growth 
 the next stage may always be inferred 
 b}'^ the general law which governs the 
 evolution. This movement forward 
 proceeds from a grade of life but little 
 above mere animality, and ends with 
 the emergence of the tribe into full his- 
 torical activity. 
 
 The various materials which the races 
 
 certain varieties of rock formation, and 
 by simple modifications, or even, at the 
 first, by no modification at all, converts 
 them into implements. 
 
 The materials first chosen are gener- 
 ally flint and obsidian, and the primitive 
 stage of workmanship consists in merely 
 breaking the substance into shape. It 
 is this fact of breakage into form, as dis- 
 tinguished from other methods of fabri- 
 cation, that marks the very first stage of 
 
 IDEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD (AGE OF MAN).— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 of men have employed in the fabrication 
 of tools and utensils are principally stone, 
 
 Materials em- WOod, boue, hom, COppCr, 
 
 E'stmak- bronze, and iron-in the 
 ing implements, order named. Among civ- 
 ilized peoples the latter metal is refined 
 into different forms of wrought iron, cast 
 iron, and finally the various grades of 
 steel. The primitive man, however, 
 begins with stone. He takes from the 
 ground, by a sort of natural selection. 
 
 man's development as a tool-making 
 animal. Perhaps in no quarter of the 
 world has a .savage tribe emerged from 
 barbarism wnthout employing this very 
 obvious method of producing imple- 
 ments. It is claimed by the most em- 
 inent naturalists that man, even in 
 the most rudimentary stages of his ev- 
 olution, has been a tool-making and 
 tool-using animal, and that he is dis- 
 criminated by this fact — strongly dis-
 
 '^ ■■" '' ■■' ' " ' ' '— y ^ fT s- 
 
 L 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS USED BY PRIMEVAL MAN, IN THE ORDER OF THE MATERIALS EMPLOYEI>. 
 
 I, 2, Stone and wooden weapons of New Caledonians ; 3, bone skewers ; 4, harpoon of slag's horn ; 5. copper celt ; 6, carpen. 
 ter's bronze chisel ; 7, bronze dagger with iron handle ; 8, iron ornaments of Africans.
 
 280 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLIXKLXD. 
 
 criminated — from the highest grades of 
 living beings below him. 
 
 No animal except man has been 
 known to make or to use a tool. That 
 is, the conscious design of 
 doing so has never been ob- 
 served in the most supe- 
 rior specimens of the lower grades of 
 animal intelligence The monkey, the 
 
 Man the tool- 
 making and 
 club-thro^iring 
 animal. 
 
 this accidental and instinctive employ- 
 ment of clubs and missiles and the con- 
 scious fabrication of a tool lies a great 
 gap in intelligence — the gap between 
 the instinct of the inferior and the con- 
 scious reason of the superior creature. 
 
 Man, then, begins his career as an 
 artisan by the making of tools and im- 
 plements from the flinty forms of rock. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF FLINT IMPLEMENTS BY PREHISTORIC MAX.— Drawn by F.mile Bayard. 
 
 ape, the ourang, the gorilla, and the 
 chimpanzee are all in some sense club- 
 using and club-throwing animals. They 
 grip and swing missiles with obvious 
 design to a certain end ; but in doing so 
 they merely seize what accident has 
 placed within their reach, and there is 
 no single instance recorded in which an 
 animal has been known to adapt a stick 
 or stone to any intended use. Between 
 
 He soon discovers that this substance, 
 by a little skill, may be broken into 
 forms approximatelyadapt- Artisanship be- 
 ed to his wants. Prog- ei»J with the 
 
 & making of tools 
 
 ress begins — progress in and weapons, 
 the selection of materials and progress 
 in the methods of forming his utensils. 
 But for a long period breakage is the 
 general method which he employs, and 
 this fact of fracture in the fabrication of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 281 
 
 tools is the essential feature by which 
 the first stage of human development is 
 characterized. 
 
 This first epoch is called the old 
 Old stone age stone age, or, if we em- 
 marks first stage j ^j^ scientific term 
 
 m human devel- r J 
 
 opment. given thereto by natural- 
 
 ists, the palaeolithic age — a term derived 
 from the Greek roots sig- 
 nifying the same thing. It 
 is impossible to determine 
 for how long a period a 
 savage tribe will remain in 
 this primitive stage of ev- 
 olution. Doubtless the 
 palaeolithic era of devel- 
 opment is never precisely 
 the same in time in the 
 case of any two barbarous 
 tribes, but the process is 
 the same. The time re- 
 mains indeterminate. 
 Another fact of great im- 
 portance to be noted is that 
 this primeval epoch of 
 human growth has ap- 
 peared at different times, 
 in different quarters of the 
 earth, as already said. It 
 is highly likelj' — almost 
 certain — that all existing 
 peoples have, in their rudi- 
 mentary condition, passed 
 through the old stone age 
 as the first phase of their 
 growth into a national life ; 
 but at what era this oc- 
 curred in the case of any 
 given family of men it is impossible to 
 determine. 
 
 The chronology of such a development 
 Chronology of Can uot be ascertained or 
 ^po'Sdeter. adjusted. In One quarter of 
 minabie. the earth a savage tribe 
 
 will be found at the present day in the 
 
 palaeolithic state of growth. In another 
 M. — Vol. I — [9 
 
 quarter this epoch of emergence from 
 barbarism has been passed a century, 
 even several centuries ago, and in others 
 we must look back through many ages 
 if we would discover even the hint of 
 such a stage of evolution. This is to say 
 that the development of savage life is 
 never synchronous among the different 
 
 PAL.EoLUHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS, FROM HOXNE. 
 
 races, but that such development is as 
 various in time as it is in place. The 
 process has been going on for many 
 thousands of years and is still going on, 
 under our own authentic observation, in 
 many parts of the unreclaimed conti- 
 nents and barbarous islands of the seas. 
 While this want of contemporaneity is
 
 282 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JElXAVXn. 
 
 an 
 
 embarrassment in the construction of I forward from one stage of his develop, 
 tribal history, it is a great advantage in ment to another. In the South Sea 
 the actual comprehension of the methods I islands the natives have been watched 
 
 in the act of con- 
 st r u c t i n g old 
 stone imple- 
 ments, and the 
 process, withal, 
 is very different 
 from what might 
 have been sup- 
 posed. The 
 savage takes a 
 small block of 
 flint between his 
 naked feet and, 
 pressing it into a 
 certain position 
 w i t h his toes, 
 drops upon i t 
 endwise a long 
 pestle of wood 
 in such way as to 
 spall off a splinter 
 from the side. 
 The stroke is re- 
 peated, and 
 another spall, or 
 " flake ," s o 
 called, is thrown 
 off; and so on 
 until, by careful 
 chipping, the 
 arrowhead or 
 spearpoint or 
 whatever it is is 
 broken into 
 shape. Doubt- 
 less this simple 
 process has been 
 practiced, w i t h 
 slight modifica- 
 tions of method, by all the Habits of pHme- 
 
 . •, c 4.1 11 val man discov- 
 
 Savage tribes of the WOlld, erable in his ma- 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN — CHASE IN THE REINDEER PERIOD. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 of the primitive man. We are able to- 
 day to scrutinize these methods and to 
 observe and note the actual processes by 
 which the tool-making animal goes 
 
 terials and art3. 
 
 and douljtless the same 
 
 manner of fabrication will continue until.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 283 
 
 by the spread of civilization, this primi- 
 tive stage of humanity shall disappear 
 from the earth. 
 
 The palseolithie, or old stone, age at 
 length gives place to a higher form of 
 manufacture — a more elegant and useful 
 Neolithic work- method of makirig utensils 
 r/conSge^of and weapons. The primi- 
 the evolution. ^iyg man, in course of time, 
 discovers that by attrition or rubbing he 
 can reduce his tools to a more elegant 
 and satisfactory pattern. 
 The forms which he has 
 hitherto attained by the proc- 
 ess of breakage and chip- 
 ping have been only approx- 
 imate to the ideal forms 
 which he has had in mind. 
 In the second stage of his 
 development he labors to 
 reach a correct outline by 
 reducing the substance on 
 which he is working into 
 proper form by rubbing or 
 grinding against some other 
 material. The time rela- 
 tions of this discovery also 
 are unknown ; but that such 
 a transformation from the 
 rough or broken stone im- 
 plements of primeval man 
 to the smooth tools and uten- 
 sils of his secondary stage 
 of development does exist — has existed 
 in the case of every tribe — is clearly 
 demonstrable. Every museum, or even 
 small private collection, of ancient stone 
 workmanship gathered from the valleys 
 of the European rivers, from the peat 
 bogs of Denmark, or turned up by the 
 plow in the open fields of North America, 
 will show unmistakable evidences of the 
 change which has everywhere taken 
 place from the age of broken or chipped- 
 off fabrication to the age of smoothed 
 or polished manufacture. 
 
 To this second epoch of implement- 
 making archaeologists have given the 
 name of the new stone, 
 
 ,.^, . _,, Relation of the 
 
 or neolithic, age. That stone epochs to 
 it follows the older and "=^^ ^ geology. 
 
 ruder era is clearly proved, but its dura- 
 tion, as in the case of the preceding 
 epoch of broken stonework, can never be 
 more than approximately determined. 
 The relative place of the neolithic era 
 in the evolution of the civilized forms 
 of life is as well known as that the 
 age of mammals succeeds the age 
 of reptiles in the geological his- 
 tory of the earth. Indeed, all of 
 the stages of human evolution 
 which we are here considering 
 have a striking likeness and anal- 
 ogy to the successive eras in the 
 
 Stone axes, Ireland. 
 
 Stone celt with handle. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 geological formation of our globe. The 
 one is as fixed and certain in its laws of 
 succession as the other, and we should no 
 more expect to find a deviation from the 
 orderly progress by which the savage 
 man proceeded from the old stone to 
 the new stone and from the new stone 
 to the subsequent ages of his develop- 
 ment than we should expect to find the 
 coal measures of the carboniferous age 
 on top of the chalk beds of the age of 
 reptiles. 
 
 There are many extraneous proofs,
 
 284 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 moreover, that the half-barbaroiis peo- 
 ples of the world, after passing into 
 Complex devei- the neolithic age, have, in 
 de^t witwt other respects than that of 
 stone age. implement-making, entered 
 
 into a wider and more complex develop- 
 ment. It is not only in the making of 
 tools that the savage man on his way to 
 larger and more rational activities dis- 
 
 Since most of the metals of the earth 
 exist in the form of ores, which hide 
 their actual contents from Great span be- 
 the unskilled eye of barba- ^ro^aXge 
 rism,ithashappenedamong ofmetais. 
 all the primitive races that the discovery 
 and manufacture of stone implements 
 has preceded by many long stages the 
 production of metallic forms. In the 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN. — Founders of the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 plays his increasing skill. All the ele- 
 ments of his progress are correlated and, 
 in some sense, kept even with his rate of 
 growth in the mere matter of manufac- 
 turing his wares and weapons. His ex- 
 pansion is in all directions, and it is easy 
 to discover by evidences deduced from 
 other sources the general course which 
 he is pursuing toward the civilized con- 
 ditions of life. 
 
 cases of silver and gold, which exist na- 
 tive in the earth — or at least the gold — 
 they have never been found in sufficient 
 quantities to justify the primitive man 
 in the attempt to make implements 
 therefrom. These, from the rarity of 
 their distribution, have been precious 
 metals from the first. They were so to 
 all the savage races who first posses.sed 
 the earth, and have continued so, even
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 285 
 
 in the powerful civilization and activities 
 of the present. Among' other metals 
 copper, and even tin, also existed in the 
 native form, and it is to these substances 
 that the faculties and interest of the 
 primeval man were directed when he 
 came to the point of emergence from the 
 neolithic age. He had now wrought, as 
 much as might well be done, from the 
 
 faculties might find a freer exercise. 
 This other substance, as the primitive 
 historj- of man has now demonstrated, 
 was copper — copper first, and then tin, 
 or, more particularly, a mixture of the 
 two, called bronze. 
 
 Nothing is known of the original dis- 
 covery which seems to have been made 
 in many quarters of the earth, of the 
 
 -MANNER- OK PREHISTORIC PEORLES.— Feast in the Age of Bkonze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 stone materials under his hand by the 
 processes of breakage and polishing. It 
 is evident on reflection that mere stone, 
 such as flint or sandstone, will only 
 bear a certain amount of artisanship. 
 Whoever would attempt to go beyond 
 the natural limits existing in the nature 
 of these materials would come to an im- 
 passable barrier. He must turn, per- 
 force, to some other substance upon 
 which, in virtue of its own nature, his 
 
 great advantage to be gained by com- 
 mingling a certain percentage (about 
 one tenths of tin with na- Art of com- 
 five copper. Such a dis- |°rcSof' 
 covery, however, is very the bronze age. 
 certain as a fact and very remote in its 
 date. It is now known that the material 
 of the weaponry of the Trojan warriors, 
 called chalchys in the Homeric poems 
 and tradition, was bronze and not iron, 
 and the old word as of the primitive
 
 286 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JELVA'LVD. 
 
 Latin race signified the same thing. At 
 any rate, the succession of an age of 
 bronze to the neolithic age is a fact 
 well established in archaeology. The 
 barbarous and now warlike peoples of 
 the prehistoric world made the great dis- 
 covery of a hard and tenacious metallic 
 compound, out of which they could manu- 
 facture at will substantial, effective, and 
 even beautiful implements so greatly 
 superior to those which they had hith- 
 erto employed as to constitute an epoch 
 in their civilization. This discovery of 
 bronze was accompanied with many 
 advances in the life and manners of 
 the people. New customs were intro- 
 duced ; the family was better organized, 
 and we contemplate the beginnings of 
 a rude society. So the third stage of 
 the human evolution which we are here 
 considering Avas that in which the half- 
 barbarous peoples of the primitive world 
 passed out of the new stone age into 
 the age of bronze. 
 
 The inquiry naturally arises in this 
 connection why it is that in nearly all 
 parts of the earth the barbarous peoples 
 
 seem to have passed direct- 
 No intervening .... 
 
 ages of copper ly from the neolithic into 
 the bronze-making age of 
 development. Why was it — why is it — 
 that the primitive peoples did not pass 
 through a clearly defined age of copper 
 or an age of tin? Why should the 
 great leap have been made from so 
 primitive form of life as that exhibited 
 in the new stone age into the com- 
 paratively complex and highly devel- 
 oped activities of the age of bronze? 
 Bronze is a composite metal. We see 
 from the perfect composition which we 
 find in the implements which have come 
 to us from the age of its early manufac- 
 ture that the ancients understood per- 
 fectly the percentage of the different 
 metals, and this knowledge would pre- 
 
 suppose a long series of trials and ex- 
 periments. True it is that in some 
 quarters of the world, particularly in the 
 peat measures of Denmark and along 
 the shores of the great lakes in North 
 America, many copper implements have 
 been discovered. But these finds have 
 been so irregular as rather to disprove 
 than to establish the existence of an age 
 of copper. It would seem that the 
 primitive man has only produced tools 
 and utensils of copper when he could 
 not procure the necessar}^ tin to make 
 the compound. In general, the fact re- 
 mains, archseologically and historically, 
 that in nearly all parts of the habitable 
 globe the various races have leaped at 
 one stride from the making of smooth 
 stone implements to the manufacture 
 and use of bronze. What theory may 
 be advanced to account for this remark- 
 able fact in the prehistoric development 
 of mankind ? 
 
 It has been suggested in answer, and 
 with much show of probability, that the 
 
 introduction of metals for Reasons why 
 
 tools and weapons is co- '^i:i:°:^^r' 
 incident in tribal develop- age of stone, 
 ment with the beginning of the age of 
 aggression and conquest. This is to 
 say that when men have once discov- 
 ered and used the metals they are at 
 that stage of tribal life in which the lust 
 of war and conquest begins to be felt as 
 a dominant passion. As a result of this, 
 when the discovery of bronze has once 
 been made, and a knowledge diffused of 
 its great superiority over either of the 
 component metals of which it is consti- 
 tuted, a bronze-bearing soldiery would 
 at once spring into existence. Owing 
 to the higher development and aggres- 
 sive instincts of this soldiery, conquest 
 in foreign parts would very soon ensue, 
 and with this conquest would be carried 
 into distant regions a knowledge of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 287 
 
 bronze and of the method of its manu- 
 facture. This rational, even probable, 
 explanation has been offered for the im- 
 mediate succession of the bronze age to 
 the age of stone. Tribes and races 
 still engaged in the fabrication and use 
 of flint implements and weapons would 
 be at so great disadvantage in compari- 
 
 glimpses of the actual historical move- 
 ments of men. The heroic conflicts 
 which we see in the far Historical con- 
 horizon, the sack and pil- sc'o^sness be- 
 
 ■r gins -with the 
 
 lage of Troy, the early and ^e of bronze, 
 shadowy movements of mankind in 
 Asia Minor, in Hellas, and in Italy, 
 bring us, at least in tradition, into the 
 
 Egj'ptian knife. 
 
 Bracelets, Switzerland. 
 
 Bronze hairpins, Switzerland. 
 EXAMPLES OF BRONZE WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 \ \ 
 
 Copper 
 spearhead. 
 
 Son with a bronze-bearing nation as to 
 be easily overrun, and with this conquest 
 the knowledge and practice of bronze 
 manufacture would immediately follow. 
 However this may be, the age of 
 bronze has everywhere succeeded the 
 neolithic age in the development of 
 civilization. It is in this age that we 
 generally catch the first authentic 
 
 age of bronze, and it is safe to regard 
 this epoch in the evolution of man as 
 the substratum of authentic history. 
 
 After a long period in bronze-making 
 and bronze-using, the pre- „, 
 
 ^ ^ The age of iron 
 
 historic tribes, or perhaps succeeds the 
 
 , , -, .. epoch of bronze. 
 
 we should now say nations, 
 
 pass into the age of iron. Iron, except 
 
 in the fomi of meteorites, does not exist
 
 288 
 
 GREAT RACES OE .-\rAXKTXD. 
 
 in the native state. For this reason its 
 discovery as a metal happens late in the 
 history of man. The extraction of iron 
 from the ore is, moreover, exceedingly 
 difficult even \vith the powerful appli- 
 
 Sweden, 
 EXAMPLES OF IRON WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 ances of modern metallurgy\ The man 
 of antiquity was unable to produce the 
 requisite heat, and even had he been 
 master of an adequate temperature he 
 could not have conjectured by a priori 
 reasoning that such a substance as 
 
 metallic iron might be expected to issue 
 from the rust-colored stone constituting 
 the ore. 
 
 Doubtless the discovery was accidental. 
 Indeed, traditions exist to this effect. It 
 
 has been handed down that 
 
 a European 
 
 Evolution of 
 discovery of ironwork in pri- 
 1 ., meval Europe. 
 
 iron by smelt- 
 ing occurred in Bohemia 
 within the historical period. 
 However this ma}^ be, we 
 have unmistakable proofs 
 that somewhere in the early 
 dawn of the Grseco- Italic 
 development in Southern 
 Europe the discovery of 
 the process of extracting 
 iron was made and the fab- 
 rication of implements 
 therefrom begun. The 
 Greeks, at least of the post- 
 Homeric epoch, had a 
 soldiery bearing iron weap- 
 ons, and it appears that the 
 Romans from the first faint 
 limnings of tradition armed 
 themselves, for both offense 
 and defense, with the same 
 heavy and enduring metal. 
 In short, the age of iron is, 
 roughly speaking, the age 
 of authentic history. 
 Though the ancient Egj'p 
 tians were unacquainted 
 with iron, and thoug-h the 
 extent of its use among the 
 Assyrians and Babylonians 
 has not been clearly deter- 
 mined, the fact remains that 
 in general terms the manufacture of iron 
 implements has been a circumstance co- 
 incident with the historic development 
 of our race. We are now and have been 
 for some three thousand years in the age 
 of iron, and it would seem that we are
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 289 
 
 destined to continue in the same epoch 
 until by a new evolution we shall pass 
 into the age of aluminum. 
 
 This somewhat extended digressive 
 study of, the four principal erasof devel- 
 CavedweUers opment through which the 
 «ve^fthe^Snro- ^aces of men have passed 
 pean races. J] j^g been made necessar}' in 
 
 order to a clear understanding of the 
 true place of the cave dwellers of West- 
 em Europe. They were men of the 
 old stone age. Their implements were 
 all palaeolithic. They flourished, or at 
 least lived, in an age before 
 the art of grinding and 
 polishing utensils of stone 
 had been discovered. This 
 is to say that they present 
 the most primitive type of 
 mankind with which we are 
 acquainted. Xor is it likely 
 that ethnologists and an- 
 tiquarians will ever be able 
 to deduce from the prehis- 
 toric shadows a form of 
 human life more nearly 
 allied to the life of the 
 lower animals than is that 
 which we are now to ex- 
 amine. 
 
 The story of the investi- 
 gation of the cave dwell- 
 ings in Europe is full of interest. The 
 Interest of the Care and zeal with which 
 ^irifcaer' the work has been carried 
 ^™^- forward will always elicit 
 
 praise from those who are concerned to 
 know the true story of the human race 
 on the earth. As early as 1825 the at- 
 tention of antiquaries began to be called 
 to the fact of the mixed remains of men 
 and animals in various caverns which had 
 been explored for other than scientific 
 purposes. It was not, however, until 
 1833 that the distinguished antiquary, 
 
 upon the consideration of scholars the 
 unmistakable lessons which the caves 
 had revealed to him and his colaborers. 
 
 The caverns in question exist in many 
 parts of the Continent and of England. 
 They abound in Southern 
 France and along the 
 borders of Belgium. They 
 are dark grottoes in limestone rock, and 
 seem in nearly all cases to have been 
 selected by the cave men because of the 
 narrowness and defensibility of the 
 openings. In many instances the mouths 
 
 Character of the 
 caves inhabited 
 by primeval 
 man. 
 
 Dr. P. C. Schmerling, of Belgium, forced 
 
 MAN CAVERN IN" GALEINREUTH, BAVARIA. 
 
 of the caverns have been found closed by 
 the very stones which the rough inhab- 
 itants rolled and pushed into place as a 
 barrier against their enemies. The 
 floors are generally on a lower level than 
 the openings, which fact has led to the 
 accumulation of thick layers of mud and 
 debris on the bottom. Over this collec- 
 tion of earth}'' materials, mixed as they 
 are with the relics of the human and non- 
 human occupants in former ages, is 
 nearly always spread a layer of that 
 calcareous substance called stalagmite, 
 deposited there in the course of centuries
 
 290 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 by the lime-saturated exudations from 
 the roof of the cavern. This stalagmitic 
 floor, holding- its secrets underneath, is 
 generally quite hard, and is in many 
 cases two or three feet in thickness. 
 The cavern here described is typical, but 
 is subject in different localities to con- 
 siderable modifications in its character 
 and details. 
 
 It was such a cave dwelling as this, 
 called the Cavern of Engis, that Dr. 
 Schmerling entered and explored in 1 8 32 . 
 Exploration of It was situated near Liege, 
 
 the Engis cavern ^^ ^j^g junction of the 
 by Dr. Scnraer- ." 
 
 liig- ^leuse and the Ourthe, in 
 
 Belgium. The story of the exploration 
 is as heroic as the results were novel and 
 instructive. vSchmerling had to be let 
 down into the cavern by a rope tied to 
 a tree outside. He was obliged to slide 
 in order to gain an entrance. Within 
 it was as dark as night. The explorer 
 had to creep from one apartment to an- 
 other through contracted and dangerous 
 passages. Into these spectral vaults he 
 introduced his workmen. Some held 
 torches while the others worked. The 
 floor of stalagmite was as hard as marble. 
 The philosopher was obliged to stand 
 hour after hour with his feet in the mud 
 while the cold exudations from the roof 
 of the cavern dripped on his head. 
 Finally the stalagmitic crust Avas broken 
 up and the materials underneath brought 
 to exposure. Everything was done un- 
 der Schmerling's personal direction, so 
 that no false statement or unfact of any 
 kind should mix with the results. 
 
 The results were marvelous. Human 
 skulls and indeed Avhole skeletons were 
 Carefulness of found ill the clay and muck 
 Iwfduc- under the floor of stalag- 
 mite. And to make the 
 discovery more astounding, the bones of 
 several species of extinct animals were 
 found intermingled with those of men ! 
 
 the investiga- 
 tion 
 tions. 
 
 It was noted, moreover, and established 
 to a demonstration that the human parts 
 and the animal parts were in such jux- 
 taposition and relation as to prove the 
 coincident lodgment and preserv'ation of 
 the remains. Every fact tending to 
 throw light on the discovery was care- 
 fully recorded by vSchmerling, and in 
 the following year he piiblished a trea- 
 tise announcing as a scientific truth the 
 contemporaneous existence of man and 
 the mammoth in Western Europe. 
 
 A second digression is here desirable, 
 relating in this instance to some changes 
 which have taken place in significance of 
 the fauna of the continent '■^::::r^::T^,. 
 
 since the close of the plio- an climate. 
 
 cene era of geology. It appears that 
 certain transformations have occurred in 
 the climate of Europe which have made 
 the country untenable to several species 
 of animals formerly prevalent therein. 
 About seventeen varieties of mammals 
 have disappeared since the old stone age. 
 These embrace several species of heavy 
 pachyderms and quite a number of 
 smaller animals, nearly all of which have 
 their habitat either in the tropics or in 
 regions much more tropical than any 
 part of Europe. That these species for- 
 merly abounded on the continent is 
 clearly demonstrable. That they could 
 not possibly exist under present climatic 
 conditions is also tnie ; from which it 
 seems clearly established that a great 
 change toward frigid conditions has 
 taken place in the European countries. 
 This change, doubtless, is the very fact 
 Avhich has caused the extinction of the 
 animals referred to and the perpetuation 
 of the varieties now existing.' 
 
 'The theory of the existence of a tropical condi- 
 tion in the northern hemisphere in the age preced- 
 ing the last glacial epoch of our planet may now 
 be considered as a demonstrated scientific truth. 
 See the discussion of the subject, p. ante 57.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 291 
 
 Tlie seventeen species of mammalia 
 which have thus been extinguished by 
 the \'icissitude of cHmate are as follows : 
 Species of ex- The cave bear; a second 
 as'^olfa't^^^th '^■ariety called I 'rsiis prisms, 
 ^^'°- or the ancient bear; the 
 
 cave hyena ; the cave lion ; the mam- 
 moth ; another species of the genus 
 Elcphas, called the old elephant; the 
 haiiy rhinoceros; two other species of 
 rhinoceros ; the hippopotamus ; the musk 
 ox; the Irish elk; the wild horse; the 
 g-lutton; the reindeer; the aurochs, or 
 European bison ; and the urus, or primi- 
 tive ox. It is thought by naturalists 
 that some of the species hei^e enumer- 
 ated have perpetuated themselves in de- 
 flected varieties of the original until the 
 present, but the rest are manifestly and 
 indubitably extinct. Yet all of these ani- 
 mals were prevalent in the old stone age, 
 and it is the testimony of the cave dwell- 
 ing' that man was their contemporary 
 and competitor for occupancy. 
 
 Dr. vSchmerling continued his investi- 
 gations in other limestone caverns and 
 Evidence cumu- "with the .Same general re- 
 \^::^::r^^lf s^lts. in at least four or , 
 primeval man. fi^g of the cavcs near Liege 
 he found unmistakable proofs that they 
 had been used for dwellings in the pre- 
 historic ages. Evidences of the manner 
 of life of the primitive barbarians of 
 "Western Europe accumulated, and fact 
 was added to fact in illustration of the 
 conditions under which man contended 
 with the laws of his environment before 
 the iirst peoples of the Aryan race had 
 found a footing in the countries this 
 side of the Danube and the Rhine. 
 
 Before proceeding to note the partic- 
 ular contents of the various European 
 cave dwellings, and to elucidate their 
 significance, it will be proper to enu- 
 merate some of the principal caverns 
 which have been explored. The Bel- 
 
 gian government finally undertook the 
 work begun by Schmerling, and in 1867 
 sent out a party of scien- sketch of the 
 lists under direction of the ™ost important 
 
 cave dwellings 
 
 naturalist, Dupont, to car- of Europe. 
 ry forward the investigation. Several 
 other caves like that of Engis were ex- 
 amined in the same region and the con- 
 tents transmitted to museums. The 
 cavern of Chaleux yielded in addition to 
 its animal relics a vast number of imple- 
 ments, all belonging to the old stone 
 age. That of Furfooz was almost 
 equally rich in prehistoric materials. 
 The cave called Frou du Frontal con- 
 tained parts of thirteen skeletons. The 
 opening of this vault was still closed 
 with the block of sfone which the cave 
 men had used to barricade the entrance. 
 The grotto of Aurignac, in the south of 
 France, yielded seventeen prehistoric 
 skeletons, but these were unfortunately 
 lost through the ignorance of the mayor 
 of the city. In the department of Dor- 
 dogne, in Southwestern France, a 
 number of cave dwellings have been 
 explored with results confirmator}- of 
 those attained elsewhere ; and in con- 
 nection with these caverns the addi- 
 tional interesting fact was noted that 
 artificial chambers connected with the 
 natural vaults in the limestone had been 
 excavated and used by the primitive oc- 
 cupants. In 1858 the philosopher, Schaaf- 
 hausen, gave to the public an account of 
 the discoveries recently made in the 
 limestone cavern of Neanderthal, be- 
 tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, includ- 
 ing a description of one of the most re- 
 markable prehistoi'ic skulls which schol- 
 ars have had the fortune to examine. 
 
 Turning to England, one of the most 
 important of the caverns 
 
 Exploration of 
 
 formerly inhabited by men the man caverns 
 
 T^ . , of England. 
 
 as Kent s 
 
 is that known 
 
 Hole, near Torqua}-, 
 
 in Devonshire.
 
 292 
 
 GREAT RACFS OF .UAXKLYD. 
 
 This was first explored by the scholar, 
 MacEnery, in the year 1825. No 
 publislied account of the resiilts, how- 
 
 (.Kull" AMj KUCK shelter of BRUNIQUEI. — AN Al 
 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 ever, was made until 1859, when the 
 relics were classified by Mr. Vivian. In 
 1862, a remarkable hyena den called 
 Wokey Hole, near Wells, was explored 
 
 and described by William Boyd Dawkins. 
 Meanwhile the naturalist, Goodwin- 
 Austen, had reexamined the cav'ern of 
 ^ Kent's Hole, and 
 ■_;iven the results 
 in a memoir to 
 t he Geological So- 
 ■ iuty. In 1858 
 I )r. Falconer in- 
 I'lirmed the saiue 
 learned body of 
 t h e intere.sting 
 iliscoveries made 
 : )}■ himself in a 
 ;ive dwelling at 
 lirixham, also in 
 Devonshire ; and 
 afterward a Pro- 
 f e s s o r Ramsay 
 explored the 
 grotto and veri- 
 fied the former 
 ' 1 inclusions r e - 
 s[iecting its con- 
 tents. 
 
 Explorations 
 \ere next carried 
 into distant parts. 
 In the grotto of 
 Maccagnone, in 
 Sicily, Dr. Fal- 
 coner made dis- 
 coveries in the 
 s;ime general line 
 with those already 
 recorded. .The 
 jieculiarity in this 
 instance was that 
 many of the 
 relics of men and 
 animals were 
 found aggluti- 
 nated to the top, or roof. 
 
 Peculiar finds in 
 
 of the cavern, where they the grotto of 
 
 1 J . 1 - 111 Maccagnone. 
 
 had seemingly been held 
 
 in place by the action of water tintil 
 
 HE OV I'KIMIA'AI. MAS.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 293 
 
 cave life drawn, 
 from three 
 sources. 
 
 the precipitation of lime had cemented 
 them to the ceiling ! .Some interesting- 
 caves have been explored at Gibraltar 
 with results similar to those enumerated 
 above. 
 
 It is thus that antiquaries and scholars 
 have become acquainted with the condi- 
 niustrations of tions Under which the cave 
 dwellers of the prehistoric 
 age passed their existence. 
 It will be seen at a glance that the illus- 
 trations of the life of these primitive 
 barbarians are drawn first from the char- 
 acter of the human remains themselves ; 
 secondly, from our knowledge of the 
 animals with the bones of which the 
 human relics are found interminorjed : 
 and thirdly, from the character of the 
 implements and utensils which the cave 
 men left with their own skeletons in the 
 clay beds of the caverns. — Let us look 
 then, first, at the remains of the cave 
 men themselves and compare these 
 human relics of a prehistoric epoch and 
 people with the like parts of existing 
 races. 
 
 One of the most interesting skulls 
 which has come to us from the time of 
 Characteristics the cave dwellers is that 
 :?theTng:s°"' fo^^d b)" Dr. Schmerling 
 ^^^'^- in the limestone cavern of 
 
 Engis. A cast of this skull has been 
 made and duplicates distributed to the 
 leading museums of the world, and the 
 most skillful naturalists have passed 
 upon its character. On the whole, it is 
 of smaller capacity and less symmetrical 
 development than the average cranium 
 of the civilized man of to-day. It is 
 narrower in the forehead, and gives evi- 
 dent indications of weakness in other 
 respects. But still it is of better capacity 
 and much less forbidding than might be 
 expected in a case of a prehistoric inhab- 
 itant of a cavern. The skull plate is not 
 especially thick, and that part which is 
 
 supposed to indicate animality is not 
 more protuberant than in the case of 
 many skulls of existing races. Professor 
 Huxley has candidly remarked that ' ' It 
 is a fair average human skull, which 
 might have belonged to a philosopher. 
 
 '^'' " ■ ■■ ''^'■■^'■■j^-:Sz 
 
 i'"i.il. 
 
 tiir '■^■-'^''/■^.•.-'-■■?^fe 
 
 THE EN'GIS SKILU 
 
 or might have contained the thoughtless 
 brains of a savage." 
 
 Very different from this, however, is 
 the skull described b}- Schaafhausen, 
 which was taken from the cave of Nean- 
 derthal, near Diisseldorf, in Rhenish 
 Prussia. The latter is so exceedingly
 
 294 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKrXD. 
 
 gross in its form and structure as to 
 suggest, almost with the force of demon- 
 stration, a type of life but little above 
 
 ity indicated by 
 the Neanderthal 
 skull. 
 
 barons, has a skull at all comparable 
 with the Neanderthal in its small ca- 
 pacity, outward-slopingocciput, and great 
 
 thickness peculiar animal- 
 
 o f bone 
 The a c 
 
 companying cut of an 
 authentic cast will suf- 
 ficiently illustrate the 
 character of the skull 
 under consideration. 
 
 It is not needed in 
 this connection to enter 
 into details respecting 
 the character of the 
 other parts of the hu- 
 man skeletons which 
 have been found in the 
 cave dwellings of Eu- 
 rope. It is sufficient to 
 note the fact that in 
 general these remains 
 depart somewhat from 
 the highly developed and 
 
 symmetri- other features 
 
 c'al forms f. 'J!! !^!'r°"' 
 
 01 the cave 
 
 O f living d-weUers. 
 
 types of men, and verge 
 off unmistakably in some 
 particulars toward the 
 forms of the lower ani- 
 mals. The ai-ms, for 
 instance, of the cave 
 men were longer than 
 tho.se of existing races. 
 The hands also shared 
 the elongation of the 
 humerus and ulna, and 
 appear to have had less 
 of that lateral flexibility 
 which distinguishes the 
 human hand from the 
 that of the beasts of the field. The i fore paw of the chimpanzee. The animal 
 
 THE NEANDERTIIAI, SKULL. 
 
 skull is almost as flat and thick and re- 
 ceeding as that of a gorilla. No man 
 of any existing race, even the most bar- 
 
 quality is again illustrated in the size 
 and shape of the under jaws of the cave 
 men. There is in this respect a con.sid-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 296 
 
 erable departure from the square, light, 
 and symmetrical lower jaw of existing 1 
 races. The teeth also of the cave 
 dweller were, as a rule, larger and more , 
 canine than the human teeth of the pres- 
 ent. The shape and armature of the 
 mouth were more distinctly carnivorous 
 than could be found in the case of any 
 living species of men, and the bones of 
 the body were, as a rule, stronger and 
 redder and armed with higher processes 
 for the attachment of muscles than we 
 find in skeletons of the historical period. 
 On the whole, the indications derived 
 from the bones of the cave dwellers 
 point convincingly to a type and man- 
 ner of life considerabh' more approx- 
 imated to the mere animal existence of 
 the creatures with which these prim- 
 itive savages contended than to the 
 highly organized bodies and refined 
 characteristics of living men. 
 
 Something has already been said of 
 the character and place of the animals 
 Extinct animals with which the prehistoric 
 associated with ^^.^g associated in 
 
 man ; the cave 
 
 bear. Western Europe. It is now 
 
 no longer doubted that he was a com- 
 panion of the mammoth and the hairy 
 rhinoceros at a time when these huge 
 pachyderms still prevailed in the coun- 
 try. Of all the animal remains with 
 which the bones and implements of man 
 are associated in the cave dwellings the 
 most numerous are those of the cave 
 bear. Perhaps not a single cavern in 
 which the relics of human life have been 
 found has been explored without the 
 discovery of the bones of this extinct 
 animal. He seems to have roamed ev- 
 erywhere in the west of Europe, and to 
 have had a special liking for those lime- 
 stone vaults which the cave men chose 
 for their dwellings. The bones of this 
 Ursus spclceus, or cave bear, indicate that 
 the possessor was sometimes killed and 
 
 eaten by the cave men, who dropped the 
 inedible parts on the cavern floor. But 
 in other instances the bear seems to 
 have died a natural death in the cavern 
 which had been inhabited in the same 
 period by men.' 
 
 The second of the extinct animals 
 with which the cave man was most as- 
 sociated was the cave hyena. 
 
 Cave hyena and 
 
 The bones of this crea- cave uon; their 
 
 T -.1 ^1 e distribution. 
 
 ture, mixed with those or 
 man and with palaeolithic implements, 
 are plentifully distributed in the caverns 
 which have been above described. The 
 animal in question did not differ very 
 greatly from the spotted hyena of Africa 
 and Asia, and his habits, doubtless, 
 were of the same kind as those of his 
 prototypes. 
 
 HEAD OF CAVE BEAK. 
 
 The cave lion, scientifically called 
 Fclis spclaa, is the third of the animals 
 which were associated with the prehis- 
 toric man. This beast was much larger 
 and stronger than modern lions, if we 
 I except the great beasts of Africa. The 
 i ancient animal was even more strongly 
 ' discriminated from the tiger than is any 
 existing variety of lion. The primitive 
 bea.st roamed freely in France, in Ger- 
 
 ' It is almost certain that the cave hear of the old 
 stone age was the progenitor of the common brown 
 bear of Europe and .America. The skeleton of Ursus 
 spelaus is somewhat larger and stronger than the 
 bone-frame of his descendants, and his jaws and 
 teeth had specific characteristics marking him as a 
 different, or at least more primitive, type of animal ; 
 but in other respects the naturalist finds little to dis- 
 criminate the ursus of the cavern from his modem 
 representatives — little except the size.
 
 296 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 many, in Italy, and in vSicily, and his re- 
 mains have been known and classified 
 since the seventeenth century. It is 
 thought that the bones of the same ani- 
 mal have been found at Natchez, on the 
 Mississippi, a fact which would seem to 
 indicate a very wide distribution of this 
 creature. Other varieties of the genus 
 Felis also existed in the epoch of the 
 cave dwellers, and their remains are 
 found associated with those of men. 
 
 Reference has already been made to 
 the contemporaneous existence of man 
 Great pachy- and the mammoth. Tliis 
 derms; restora- creature sccms to have been 
 
 tion of Elephas 
 
 primigenius. distributed over the whole 
 of North America and the continent of 
 Europe from Land's End to Siberia. 
 
 SKETCH OF CAVE BEAR, DRAWN ON A STONE 
 FOUND IN XHli CAVE OF MASSET. 
 
 From the north the mammoth crossed 
 the Alps, and his remains are found as 
 far south as Rome. But no traces of this 
 pachyderm have been found south of 
 the Pyrenees or in the Mediterranean 
 islands. As a rule, and for very obvious 
 reasons, the bones of the mammoth are 
 infrequently found in the cave dwellings 
 of Western Europe. As already noted, 
 the entrance to these abodes were gen- 
 erally too narrow to admit so huge a 
 beast; but there are instances in which 
 the bones of man and the relics of the 
 mammoth have been washed by water 
 into a contemporaneous deposit in the 
 bottom of caverns. In other localities 
 the skeletons of the mammoth or parts 
 
 thereof have been found in close and 
 frequent association with the skeletons 
 of prehistoric men, and in such localities 
 the age of the deposit can nearly always 
 be determined by the presence of old 
 stone implements. No fact in natural 
 history seems to be better established 
 than the coexistence of man and this 
 so-called Elcplias priuiigeniiis in most of 
 the Eurojiean countries. The story of 
 the discovery of the hairy mammoth im- 
 bedded in a mass of frozen soil in Siberia 
 is well known. At the beginning of 
 the century this remarkable find was 
 brouQ-ht to the knowledge of scientific 
 men, and a portion of the animal re* 
 covered from the dogs and wild beasts 
 to which it had been abandoned. The 
 mammoth was a huge pachyderm of the 
 elephant order, with a dark colored skin, 
 covered with reddish wool, mixed with 
 long black bristles stronger and coarser 
 than horsehair. A restoration, from 
 strictly scientific data, of this great 
 beast of primeval Europe has been 
 effected by Professor Henry A. Ward, 
 of the United States, and doubtless 
 the monstrous effigy thus produced 
 fitly represents the animal as he Avas 
 in the days of the cave men of Western 
 Europe. 
 
 The bones of the hairy rhinoceros are 
 fotind in the caverns in juxtaposition 
 
 with those of men. But other animal 
 
 like those of the mammoth, Zt^^^t 
 the locality best suited ^^'^• 
 to such association of human and non- 
 human relics are the drift formations 
 and gravel beds of the open country. 
 The remains of the musk ox, or more 
 properly the musk sheep, now limited 
 in its habitat to arctic America and Si- 
 beria, are also found in union with the 
 relics of the prehistoric inhabitants of 
 the Continent, and even of England. 
 Bones of this animal have been discovered
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 297 
 
 In Kent, on the banks of the Severn, 
 and in the gravel beds of Avon. 
 
 The hippopotamus also, that is, an 
 extinct variety of the species, prevails 
 within the human epoch, and the relics 
 of this animal are associated with those 
 of the cave dwellers. In at least four 
 caverns in England bones of the ancient 
 hippopotamus have been found. The 
 caves of Durdham Down, Kirkdale, 
 Kent's Hole, and Raven's Clifif, in Gower, 
 have all yielded specimens of this ex- 
 tinct beast of the post-pliocene era. 
 
 The reindeer was also contemporary 
 with the jjrehistoric tribes in the west of 
 
 The reindeer a Europe. He 
 
 former inhabit- bglono-pd to 
 ant of Central uciuugeu LU 
 
 Europe. the age of 
 
 bronze. At the present 
 this animal ranges far to 
 the north, being wellnigh 
 limited in his habitat to 
 Siberia and Lapland. In 
 America also he beats far 
 up to the arctic regions, 
 but in the central parts of 
 our continent the caribou 
 is thought to be an in- 
 flected variety of this 
 same species of rangerine 
 stag that has left his 
 remains with those of primeval man 
 in France and England. In the cav- 
 erns of Wales more than a thousand 
 horns of the reindeer have been discov- 
 ered, and traces of his existence are 
 everywhere abundant as far south as the 
 Alps and the Pyrenees. Of the extinct 
 animals that have flourished since the ap- 
 pearance of 7nan only the mammoth and 
 the hairy rhinoceros seem to have been 
 older species than the reindeer. The 
 latter appears to have had great endur- 
 ance, and as late as the time of the com- 
 position of Caesar's Gallic TFirr the animal 
 
 still roamed in the Hercynian forest — at 
 M. — Vol. I — 20 
 
 least such was the information brought 
 to Caesar. The primitive man captured 
 the reindeer, feasted on his flesh, took his 
 horns for implements, and his hide for a 
 cloak ; but the animal was not domesti- 
 cated in prehistoric times. 
 
 More noted still as a contemporary of 
 the cave dwellers was the great stag 
 called the Irish elk. This 
 
 Size and charac- 
 
 was, perhaps, the most mag- teristics of the 
 nificent animal of all that 
 we are here considering. He grew to a 
 stature of more than ten feet, and an 
 existing pair of his antlers measures 
 eleven feet from point to point! These 
 
 MAMMOTH, RESTORED. 
 
 tremendous horns were palmated like 
 those of the American moose, and the 
 huge creature dashing about the Irish 
 peat bogs or through the oak woods of 
 Britain must have been terrible, even 
 sublime, in aspect. His remains are 
 frequently found in the peat measures 
 of Ireland and on the Continent, but still 
 more abundantly in the lacustrine shell 
 marl underlying the bog earth of the 
 marsh lands. 
 
 Next in order of these prehistoric 
 animals is the glutton, called in Amer- 
 ica the wolverene. He appears to have 
 been a contemporary of the creatures
 
 298 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKFXD. 
 
 aDove enumerated, and in many places 
 
 to have had a particular association with 
 
 man. But more impor- 
 
 The prehistoric ... 
 
 bison of Europe tant by far in such associ- 
 
 and America. ^^^.^^^ ^^^ ^^^ aurOChs, or 
 
 European bison. This animal has been 
 long extinct in France and England, 
 and yet we have the remarkable fact of 
 his survival in a cognate species in 
 
 gravel yields some relic of this heavy 
 prehistoric animal. Oddly enough, his 
 name is omitted from the interesting list 
 which Caesar has enumerated as inhabit- 
 ing the Hercynian wood in the time of 
 his invasion. But the tradition of the 
 aurochs is given in the Niebelungen 
 Lied and other ancient documents. 
 It seems that the extinction of this an* 
 
 FEAST IJL'RING 1 H K b-IMLH OF 'I'HK KK INDhliR.— Drawn by Emile Bayaid. 
 
 America. The bison prisons, or old 
 buffalo of America, is now known to be 
 a more ancient variety than the aurochs 
 of Europe, and yet the latter was con- 
 temporary with man along with the 
 mammoth and the reindeer. The 
 aurochs was widely distributed. His 
 remains are found in Scotland, England, 
 France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
 Poland, Italy, and Russia. Nearly 
 every bone cave and bed of river-drift 
 
 imal is traceable wholly to the aggressions 
 of civilization and not to any vicissitude of 
 climate. The European 
 
 Late extinction 
 
 bison IS said to have been of the European 
 
 T.T .1 T> • buffalo, 
 
 .seen m JNorthern Prussia 
 
 as late as the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, and it is believed that a pre- 
 carious existence is still maintained 
 by the species in some uninhabited 
 parts of Western Asia. An interesting 
 episode is furnished in the fact that in
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE, 
 
 299 
 
 the Polish revolution of 183 1 a herd of 
 more than seven hundred bisons which 
 had been preserved by the Emperor of 
 Russia in the great forest of Lithuania 
 was attacked by a body of the insur- 
 gents, and a hundred and fifteen of them 
 slaughtered. A remnant of this herd 
 exists to the present day in the same 
 forest. 
 
 The urus, or primitive ox, seems to 
 have been limited in his ranee to the 
 „ . . . European conti- 
 
 Primitive ox of '■ 
 
 Europe; Caesar's nent. No traCeS of 
 
 description. , . . , , 
 
 his existence have 
 been found in America and 
 none in Asia, but remains of 
 the animal are plentifully dis- 
 tributed in England, Scotland, 
 Denmark, France, Germany, and 
 Sweden. Bones of this species 
 have been discovered in North- 
 ern Africa. In the museum of 
 Lund a skeleton is preserved, in 
 one of the vertebrae of which a 
 wound, made, as is believed by 
 Professor Nilsson, by a flint 
 weapon, is plainly traceable. 
 Csesar, in the sixth book of the 
 Gallic War, gives a full account 
 of the urus as follows : " Of these 
 animals, there is a third species 
 which are called uri. They are 
 in size only a little inferior to 
 the elephants ; in color and ap- 
 pearance and form they are bulls. 
 Great is their strength and great their 
 velocity. Nor do they stand in dread 
 of either man or beast. The inhabit- 
 ants take and slay them by skillful 
 contrivance and pitfalls." The tradi- 
 tion of the urus is also preserved in the 
 Niebelungen. The species has been 
 like the aurochs, especially persistent, 
 and has only given way before the in- 
 vincible pressure of civilization. It is 
 said that wandering groups of uri were 
 
 known in Germany as late as the six- 
 teenth century, and there is little doubt 
 that the wild bulls which ran at large in 
 the neighborhood of London as late as 
 the twelfth century were identical, at 
 least in descent, with the uri of the Con- 
 tinent. Nor would it be possible to say 
 to what extent the blood of the extinct 
 animal courses in the various breeds of 
 cattle at the present time. 
 
 Thus we see that while some of the 
 
 IHE IRISH tLK (.MEGACEROS HIEERNICl^S). 
 
 prehistoric animals above enumerated 
 are indubitably extinct, others have in 
 some sense transmitted someprehis- 
 themselves into the historic "^^^^^^^ 
 era. The mammoth and species, 
 the hairy rhinoceros long since ceased 
 to exist in the countries which we are 
 now considering. But the cave bear, 
 not unlike the grizzly of the Yuba 
 mountains, has doubtless left reduced 
 varieties of himself to the present time. 
 So also the reindeer, and, as we have
 
 300 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 just seen, the aurochs and the primitive 
 ox. This is to say that if we look at 
 the current of prehistoric animal life in 
 Western Europe, and consider it as a 
 river flowing over a plain and dividing 
 into multifarious streams as it flows, we 
 shall see some of these streams sinking 
 anon into the sand and disappearing 
 forever, while others maintain for a 
 while a straggling and reduced volume 
 until they in turn disappear. A few 
 currents flow still further and are found 
 precariously wandering on the surface 
 even to the present day. The main 
 point to be borne constantly in mind in 
 this connection is that far back in the 
 midst of these branching currents of 
 animal life primeval man held his career 
 as contemporary even with the oldest 
 divisions of the stream. 
 
 From the earliest appearance of man 
 on the earth, he seems to have had a 
 Disposition of disposition to Subordinate 
 man to domesti. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ various animals 
 
 cate wild ani- 
 
 niais. with which he has been 
 
 associated. According to the sacred 
 writers, he was to have " dominion over 
 the beasts of the field and every creep- 
 ing thing." Certainly he has shown a 
 disposition to subdue and possess a 
 great number of the wild creatures of 
 his habitat. His success, however, has 
 been but partial. Some of the animals 
 have spurned his control and escaped 
 from him. The struggle for masteiy has 
 gone on tintil an epoch in civilization 
 has been reached in which man has 
 given his energies to the subordination 
 of the forces of nature rather than the 
 forces of animal life. 
 
 The disposition to tame the wild crea- 
 tures has been deflected into another form 
 of activity. The present conflict of man 
 with the animals tends to destroy rather 
 than to domesticate. From the earli- 
 est ages of history and tradition, however. 
 
 some of the living creatures with which 
 man has been associated have been 
 tamed and Crought under ^ , ^ 
 
 ^ Early date of the 
 
 his control. Even the ar- practice of do- 
 
 , , . . 1 ■ !• J • 1 mastication. 
 
 chasological and inferential 
 sort of history which we have been 
 developing in the preceding pages 
 shows conclusively that in the most 
 primitive condition of human life sev- 
 eral of the animals were domesticated 
 and used by primeval man at his will. 
 It is interesting in this connection to 
 note Avhat these domesticated animals 
 were under the dominion of the cave 
 dwellers of Western Europe. 
 
 First of all, the men of the caverns 
 had tamed the dog and associated him 
 closely with their abodes.' It appears 
 that wild dogs, to say nothing of wol- 
 verenes, abounded in some 
 
 The dog the first 
 
 localities, but as a rule the of the domesti- 
 
 . 1 • 1 cated animals. 
 
 canine bones which are 
 found associated with those of men are 
 of domesticated animals, and their 
 abodes seem to indicate that the cave 
 man Avas accompanied by large packs of 
 
 ' U will interest the reader and strengthen his 
 confidence as well to know hmv it is that the nat- 
 uralist is able to distinguish the bones of a wild 
 animal from those of one domesticated. To the 
 man of science the case is perfectly clear. The 
 characteristics of the wild and the tame skeletons 
 are so well marked as to leave no doubt whatever 
 relative to their respective antecedents. The bone 
 of the animal under domestication becomes smooth, 
 and the channels on the surface through which the 
 veins and arteries and nerves are distributed become 
 so shallow as to be no longer traceable. The proc- 
 esses and spines which nature has provided for 
 muscular attachments are at the same time reduced 
 in height and size, and the whole appearance of the 
 bone surface becomes as distinctly unlike that of the 
 corresponding species of the wild animal as the liv- 
 ing aspect of the domesticated variety is unlike the 
 ferocity and vigor of his untamed kinsman. The 
 accompanying cut of the vertebrje of a cow and of 
 the corresponding part from the back of a buffalo 
 will sufficiently illustrate the marked difference in 
 the bone structure of wild and domesticated ani- 
 mals.
 
 PRIMEVAL ^^AN.—CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 301 
 
 dogs. He used them not only in his 
 contests with wild animals but also for 
 food. The canine bones which are 
 found in the caverns show conclusively 
 that they were broken and sawed open 
 for the marrow in the same manner 
 with the bones of other species. The 
 goat also was almost universally domesti- 
 cated, but, contrary to what might have 
 been expected, the sheep in many parts 
 was still abroad with the wild animals. 
 It is doubtful whether any inclosures, 
 properly so called, were used by the 
 cave dwellers, and it appears that sheep, 
 by their native instincts, 
 
 Disposition of 
 
 certain animals are less disposcd than 
 
 to domesticate. . . . , i , i 
 
 goats to accept the control 
 and protection of man — more disposed 
 to straggle off and revert to the original 
 type. The same remark may be applied 
 to the cat in contradistinction to the dog. 
 The former, though regarded as a 
 special pet of the human family, 
 seems, after all, to form only a 
 strong local attachment for a given 
 place, but very little attachment 
 to human beings. The dog, on 
 the contrary, attaches himself to 
 his master, and not to any partic- 
 ular place. He follows his master 
 to the end of the earth, and cares 
 but little for his own kennel as 
 compared with his master's com- 
 pany. It seems that the goat has 
 much of this same instinct; and 
 for this reason, doubtless, the 
 prehistoric barbarians of Western 
 Europe held the goat almost always in 
 domestication. Though sheep were 
 domesticated and used for both their 
 flesh and their fleeces, they were 
 nevertheless Avild animals rather than 
 tame. 
 
 The same classification must be ap- 
 plied to the primitive cattle. It appears 
 that in some places kine were at least 
 
 partly domesticated, but, as a rule, they 
 ran wild. This may be said also of the 
 swine of the prehistoric Many beasts 
 age. It is in evidence that ''^::^^^f ^^ 
 droves of domestic pigs races, 
 were owned and driven from place to 
 place by the barbarians ; but for the 
 most part the hog had his native lair in 
 
 PART OF THE VERTEBRA OF A COW. 
 
 CORRESPONDING PART OF VERTEBRA OF THE BISON. 
 
 the forest, and was very little subject to 
 domestication. These wild swine were 
 frequently pursued and captured and 
 used for food by the cave men, as is at- 
 tested by the broken and sawed bones 
 which are left in the caverns and gravel 
 beds. As for the horse, he also ran 
 wild, and it does not appear that in any 
 part of Western Europe, at least in the
 
 302 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MA.VAVXn. 
 
 old stone age, this noble animal had 
 been reduced to domestication. But his 
 flesh was eaten in common with that of 
 many other animals. 
 
 As a general fact the cave dwellers 
 were exceedingly carnivorous in their 
 Eating habits of habits. This is the One char- 
 the aborigines of acteristic of their method 
 
 Western Eu- 
 rope, of life which discriminates 
 
 them so strongly from the Aryan house- 
 folk described in the preceding chapter. 
 
 already remarked, the marrow of the 
 bones was sought with avidity, and 
 scarcely a single fragment was left un- 
 explored for this delicacy. In the rude 
 life of the cavern the bones were simply 
 broken or crushed by some of the heav- 
 ier stone implements employed by the 
 cave dwellers. But the more approved 
 method was to cut the bone longitudi- 
 nally with a stone saw. Specimens of 
 this work are plentifully preserved in 
 
 HUNT OF THE WILD BUAR.— ilrawn by Kmile Bayard. 
 
 It is doubtful whether by the ruder 
 type of the cave men the soil was culti- 
 vated at all. They availed themselves 
 of many vegetable growths, ate masts 
 and roots and wild fruits of the woods, 
 and even devoured the barks of trees; 
 but it does not appear that the rational 
 cultivation of the soil was practiced or 
 even known by these rude barbarians. 
 They lived for the most part on the flesh 
 of animals, and this was generally torn 
 from the skeleton and eaten raw. As 
 
 nearly all the principal museums of the 
 world. The bones of the ox, the sheep, 
 the goat, the reindeer, the fox,, the wolf, 
 and especially of the dog, are found 
 treated in this manner in the debris of 
 the caverns. Nor is there any mis- 
 taking the purpose and intent of the bar- 
 barians in this work. 
 
 We have now, in our consideration of 
 this archaic type of man in Western 
 Europe, arrived at the point where the 
 implements and i:tensils of his household
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 303 
 
 may be appropriately considered. The 
 
 one thing to be remembered and repeated 
 
 ■with emphasis in this con- 
 
 Place of the cave 
 
 men zoologically nection is that the cave 
 an geo ogica y. jj^,gijgj.g flourished in the 
 
 old stone age. Only in few instances and 
 in peculiar localities does this primeval 
 form of human life seem to have ex- 
 tended upward from the palaeolithic into 
 the new stone epoch, and 
 still less frequently into the 
 age of bronze. It must be 
 constantly borne in mind 
 that, on the zoological side 
 of this inquiry, the primitive 
 man of the western parts of 
 Europe was allied with the 
 extinct species of animals 
 described in the preceding ^^ 3 'S<3 
 pages ; that in his geological 
 relations he held his career 
 in what is called the post- 
 pliocene, or quaternary 
 period, and that in his 
 archaeological relations he 
 was associated with the old 
 stone era. We come, then, 
 to consider some of the 
 details of his implements 
 and household apparatus. 
 
 The utensils and weapons 
 of the cave men were made 
 from flint and analogous 
 varieties of stone. They 
 were broken and chipped 
 into form after the rude 
 manner described on a former page. 
 Extent and vari- Those who have givcu lit- 
 ety of prehistor- ^| attention to the subject 
 
 ic implements in J 
 
 museums. and have seldom visited our 
 
 museums of archaeology can but be 
 astonished at the great abundance of 
 old stone implements which have been 
 recovered from the age which we are 
 here considering. In the museum of 
 Copenhagen, for instance, there were, 
 
 ;1 
 
 ^1 
 
 !D( 
 
 in the year 1864, one thousand and 
 seventy flint axes aad wedges, two hun- 
 dred and eighty-five broad chisels, two 
 hundred and seventy hollow chisels, 
 three hundred and sixty-five narrow 
 chisels, thirty-three hollow narrow chis- 
 els, two hundred and fifty poniards, six 
 hundred and fifty-six lanceheads, one 
 hundred and seventy-one arrowheada^ 
 
 A^>!^ 
 
 ;l^ 
 
 
 ■ '■^ 
 
 xr i'A 
 
 PAL/EOLITHIC DAGGERS. 
 
 two hundred and five half-moon shaped 
 implements, seven hundred and forty- 
 six pierced axes and ax hammers, 
 three hundred flint flakes, four hundred 
 
 ! and eighty-nine sundries, three thou- 
 
 I sand six hundred and seventy-eight 
 rough stone implements from the shell 
 
 I mounds of Denmark, one hundred and 
 seventy-one bone implements, one hun- 
 
 I dred and nine other bone articles from
 
 304 
 
 GREAT RACES OE jrAXKLYD. 
 
 the shell mounds, making in a single 
 museum a total of eight thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety-eight specimens 
 illustrative of the age of stone. 
 
 The Danish museums contain an 
 aggregate of about thirty thousand 
 stone implements, and these are but a 
 fragment of the great collections of 
 other countries. The museum of the 
 Royal Irish Academy contains seven 
 hundred flint flakes, five hundred and 
 twelve so-called "celts," or axes, more 
 than four hundred arrowheads, fifty 
 spearheads, seventy-five scrapers and 
 
 ""■^-sMKajjai 
 
 PAI..1.11I.1 run: AXES FROM THE SHKII. M'M NIis. 
 
 many sling- stones, hammers, whetstones, 
 grain-crushers, etc. The great museum 
 of Stockholm contains upward of fifteen 
 thousand specimens illustrative of the 
 weaponry and utensils of the age of 
 stone. Indeed, in all parts of the civil- 
 ized world, in public and in private 
 collections, vast numbers of a still vaster 
 aggregate remaining in the earth of 
 these stone-made relics of the prehistoric 
 times have been gathered, and it is not 
 to be doubted that other museums still 
 more capacious could easily be filled 
 with like materials. 
 
 Perhaps the most important single 
 
 implement used by the primitive in- 
 habitants of Europe was the stone ax. 
 
 This tool, even from the stone axes, and 
 
 palaeolithic era, had a cer- ^ZT^^"^' 
 tain rude approximation in tiiem. 
 shape and character to the modern ax 
 of steel. But the stone implement was 
 generally fastened to the helve by a 
 much more primitive method than that 
 employed in the case of metallic axes. 
 The stone ax, after having been chipped 
 into proper form from a block of 
 flint, was generally inserted in the limb 
 of a tree, broken or cut off to the proper 
 length. The blade was fastened 
 in the opening by the binding 
 around of strips of rawhide or the 
 tendons of some strong animal. 
 There was great variety in the size 
 and shape of the implement and 
 equally multifarious uses. The 
 barbarian seems to have employed 
 his ax for everything. When we 
 consider the rudeness of the tool and 
 the manner of its mounting, it 
 seems almost incredible that it could 
 have been so effective in the hands 
 of those who used it. It is well 
 known that these prehistoric people 
 cut down large trees, sharpened 
 heavy piles, and accomplished other 
 astonishing feats with their rude stone 
 axes. Doubtless the time required to 
 do such work was considerable, and it 
 is known that in many cases fire was 
 employed to assist the process. The 
 barbarian used his ax, as already in- 
 dicated, to split or burst the bones of the 
 animals whose flesh he devoured and 
 whose marrow was regarded as a morsel. 
 The cave dwellers and their contem- 
 poraries also manufactured Funt knives, 
 and used a great variety a^f the manner 
 
 » J of their pro- 
 
 of knives. The patterns Auction. 
 
 of these were almost as variable as in 
 
 the case of modern cutlery. Sometimes
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 305 
 
 FLINT ARROWrOINTS 
 FROM THE BONE CAVERNS, 
 
 the knife was double, having a blade 
 fixed in either end of the handle. Gen- 
 erally it was single bladed, and in a great 
 many cases had no handle at all. The 
 blade was produced 
 from a flake of flint 
 or obsidian, and was 
 chipped into form 
 after the manner 
 already described. 
 It must ever be a 
 matter of astonish- 
 ment that the sav- 
 age man of the 
 prehistoric ages was 
 able to produce such 
 fine effects by the 
 mere breakage and 
 chipping of such 
 material as flint. 
 Next among his 
 implements may be mentioned the chisels 
 which he used and which are also of vari- 
 ous patterns — some narrow, some broad, 
 some hollowed along the center of the 
 shaft, and others convex. It was a gen- 
 eral peculiarity of these 
 stone implements that the 
 cutting edge was curvilin- 
 ear, either gibbous or 
 semilunar in shape. This 
 is true of the edges of the 
 axes and chisels and adzes 
 and knives, and indeed 
 nearly all lithic implements 
 and weapons. 
 
 Pei^iaps no complete 
 enumeration can be made 
 of the tools and utensils in 
 
 use among the prehistoric 
 
 Great variety of o i 
 
 prehistoric tools peoplcs whosc manner of 
 weapons. Hfe is here delineated. The 
 variety was weilnigh as great as that in 
 the shop of a modern artisan. There 
 were sledges and hammers and saws, 
 wedges and celts, spearheads, arrow- 
 
 heads, javelinpoints, daggers, poniards, 
 many varieties of cutting instruments 
 after the general pattern of the knife, 
 scrapers, picks, many kinds of hatchets, 
 sling-stones, weight-stones for nets and 
 fishing lines, harpoons, awls, lapstones, 
 and an infinity of the so-called flakes. 
 Nearly all the varieties here enumerated 
 can be seen in any ordinary museum of 
 antiquities, and the beholder, by their 
 inspection, can but feel himself drawn 
 near to the prehistoric race of men by 
 whose hands these implements were 
 wielded. 
 
 It is not intended in the present work 
 to enter into the details of archaeology. 
 
 It is not even the purpose Manner of life 
 
 to give any elaborate ac- ^t^rnthTman 
 count of the slow transfor- cavems. 
 mation by which the tribes of the old 
 stone age passed by evolution into the 
 new stone age and thence into the age 
 of bronze. It is sufficient to note 
 that the general manner of life of the 
 cave men and their contemporaries was 
 that of hunters and fishermen, men of 
 
 FIXE PAL,«OLITHIC ARROWPOINTS. 
 
 the woods and stream. Doubtless it would 
 be improper to speak of the ' ' social sys- 
 tem " of a people that had no society at 
 all. The cave dwelling would seem to 
 indicate an exceedingly solitarj^ life. It 
 appears that in the case of the larger 
 caverns quite a band of the barbarians
 
 306 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 lived together. The abundance of bones 
 and relics is much greater than we should 
 expect in the case of a single family or i can be immediately replaced. 
 
 The care 
 
 tool was of so great importance than in 
 a modern household where an implement 
 
 PREHISTORIC MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC AGK. 
 Drawn by Etnile Kayard. 
 
 even five families in the same abode. 
 Nor should we forget that what we may 
 ■call the waste of implements would be 
 much less among a people where a single 
 
 which 
 these people be- 
 stowed upon their 
 utensils is well 
 illustrated in the 
 distance to which 
 they were carried 
 in the case 
 of migration. 
 Nothing is more 
 common than to 
 tind flint imple- 
 ments and weap- 
 ons at a distance 
 I if hundreds of 
 miles from the 
 quarry whence the 
 material was 
 taken. The man 
 o f antiquity sought 
 assiduously for the 
 best quarries and 
 ledges from which 
 to take the ma- 
 terials of his man- 
 ufacture, and the 
 old pits which the 
 prehistoric folk 
 dug in the chalk 
 beds, in order to 
 get at the layers 
 of flint under- 
 neath, are plen- 
 tifully distributed 
 in parts of Eng- 
 land and France. 
 There appear, 
 moreover, to have 
 been seats of man- 
 ufacture, sometimes in connection with 
 the quarries and sometimes in other 
 places. This fact would indicate a rude 
 sort of commerce in implements. But
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 307 
 
 over and above this circumstance the 
 fact remains that the barbarians them- 
 selves clunor to their tools 
 
 Care taken of " 
 
 utensUs; places and weapons with great 
 
 of manufacture. ^ ., . . - 
 
 tenacity, carried them to 
 great distances, and only parted -with 
 them by the necessities of accident or 
 death. 
 
 "We are thus enabled to form a true 
 concept of the prehistoric man of West- 
 ern Europe. In stature, he is believed 
 to have been considerabl}- larger than 
 the average man of to-day. His bones 
 have greater length and strength, and 
 his proportions indicate a rather gigan- 
 tic form. Doubtless he was brutal in 
 
 appearance, with hair growing low upon 
 his forehead and an animal leer on his 
 features. Whether the day- stature and per- 
 dawn of the higher senti- sonai character- 
 
 * isticsof the cava 
 
 ments, the nobler aspira- "'a'l- 
 tions, had as yet arisen in his spirit we 
 can not know. But that he had in him 
 the potency and germ of human great- 
 ness, the possibility of light and free- 
 dom and knowledge, can not be doubted 
 or denied. He was the gross substratum 
 of that human life which even in the 
 present day is but half-refined from bar- 
 barism and half-redeemed from the 
 heavy weight of brute passion and ani- 
 mality. 
 
 Chapter XVII.— Lakk Dwellers oe Switzerland. 
 
 HE delineation of prim- 
 itive life given in the 
 preceding chapter rep- 
 resents but one of 
 several types of hu- 
 man existence in the 
 prehistoric ages. The 
 men of the caverns were a single branch 
 of the barbarians who inhabited West- 
 em Europe in the old stone age. It is 
 not intended in the present work to de- 
 scribe all the aspects of half-savage life 
 which present themselves to the anti- 
 quarian and ethnologist, but to discuss 
 only a sufficient number of the primeval 
 tribes and their methods of development 
 to enable the reader to form an adequate 
 idea of the whole. In the current chap- 
 ter we shall turn to two or three other 
 forms of aboriginal European life, and 
 present them in the light of what is 
 known or reasonably inferred concern- 
 ing their career. First of all, attention 
 will be called to the lake dwellers of 
 Switzerland and other similar situations. 
 
 It must be known that the bodies of 
 fresh water on the European conti- 
 nent have considerably di- General contrac- 
 
 minished in area and vol- rate^/artf^^ 
 ume since the age of the Europe, 
 mammoth and the reindeer. The cir- 
 cumference of all the lakes has con- 
 tracted, and the surface has sunk to a 
 lower level. The extent of this dimi- 
 nution has been much greater in some 
 localities than in others. The fall of a 
 few feet in the level of a lake will some- 
 times, owing to the flatness of the 
 shore, expose a considerable area of 
 land that was hitherto submerged, 
 Avhereas if the shores be precipitous, a 
 fall even of many feet will make no per- 
 ceptible difference in the position of the 
 water line. 
 
 Both of these conditions have occurred 
 in different localities. In character of the 
 some places around the ^f^^l.'^^^a""''* 
 margin of lakes acres and lakes, 
 even square miles of territorj" are now 
 dr\- land that were formerly underwater.
 
 808 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .)rAXKfXD. 
 
 More frequently this recently exposed 
 strip exists in the form of marshland or 
 bog, but half reclaimed from its ancient 
 submergence. Wherever the lake is 
 situated in a flat, open region, this con- 
 dition of a fenland border exists to a 
 greater or less extent. Lagoons and 
 marshes, sometimes grown up with trees 
 and sometimes covered with the reeds 
 and grasses peculiar to the region of the 
 bog, will be noted in close proximity to the 
 lake itself, and the observer will readily 
 note that the addition of a few feet to 
 the water level would restore the lake to 
 its primitive borders covering the low- 
 lands. 
 
 In other places, particularly in the 
 mountainous regions, the water line of 
 the lakes has had less fluctuation. Here 
 the waters are contained as in a cup of 
 stone, and the rising and sinking of the 
 lake surface has widened and contracted 
 the border line but little. In almost 
 every situation, however, some fluctua- 
 tion has occurred, and even a single un- 
 usual season, whether it be of rain or 
 aridity, will be clearly perceived in the 
 narrower or wider limit of the lake. 
 This is to say that around all of the 
 fresh- water bodies is a debatable shore, 
 of greater or less extent, which has been 
 in turn submerged and uncovered ac- 
 cording to the humidity or the dryness 
 of the epoch. More particularly has the 
 gradual recession of all superficial waters 
 into the inner parts of the earth told 
 upon the lakes, especially those of small 
 extent, in reducing their area and depth. 
 
 The primitive European tribes, at least 
 that portion of them which we are now 
 to consider, were by instinct and prefer- 
 certain primi- ence led to establish them- 
 tLriSerhSreT ^^Ives in proximity with 
 for residence. great Collections of water. 
 The advantages of such situations are 
 obvious. If the water be fresh it fur- 
 
 nishes to man one of the prime essentials 
 of his existence and many conveniences. 
 It gives him, inoreover, from the depths 
 a multitude of fishes, easy of capture 
 and good for food. If the water be salt, 
 though its direct use by man is impracti- 
 cable, it nevertheless yields him a great 
 store of shellfish and many valuables 
 besides. We are here to note what was 
 done on the margin of the lakes. 
 
 The winter of 1853-54 was one of ex- 
 cessive rigor in Europe, but of small 
 precipitation of rain or snow. This was 
 followed the next summer by a season 
 of unusual drought. Since Great subsi- 
 the year 1674 no parallel f^^tie^in 
 had been furnished to the 1853-54. 
 draft which was thus made upon the 
 volume of the lakes and the paucity of 
 the return which nature made thereto. 
 As a result, the level of the mountain 
 lakes in Switzerland fell off many feet, 
 and quite an area of the bottom was ex- 
 posed as terra firma. It was here that 
 the discoveries were made by the anti- 
 quary, Dr. Keller, and other explorers 
 which led to the reconstruction of that 
 type of prehistoric communities called 
 the Lake Dwellings and Villages. 
 
 In different ages and in different quar- 
 ters of the world men have frequently 
 adopted the plan of con- situation of the 
 structingtheirabodesabove LtounTS: 
 the surface of the water rodotus. 
 near the shore. The plan is to build a 
 platform, supported by different meth- 
 ods, and on these to rear the huts in 
 which the people lived. Between the 
 platform and the shore communication 
 is easily effected by some narrow struc- 
 ture which is defensible. In the fifth 
 chapter of the book called Terpsich- 
 ore, in Herodotus, we have the fol- 
 lowing paragraph descriptive of such 
 dwelling places. The author is describ- 
 ing the manners and customs of the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 809 
 
 ancient Paeonians : ' ' Their dwellings are 
 contrived after this manner: planks 
 fitted on lofty piles are placed in the 
 middle of the lake, with a narrow en- 
 trance from the main land b}^ a single 
 bridge. These piles that support the 
 planks all the citizens anciently placed 
 there at the public charge ; but after- 
 ward they established a law to the fol- 
 lowing effect : whenever a man marries, 
 for each wife he sinks three piles, bring- 
 ing wood from a mountain called Orbe- 
 lus : but every man has several wives. 
 They live in the following manner: 
 every man has a hut on the planks, in 
 which he dwells, with a trapdoor closely 
 fitted in the planks and leading down to 
 the lake. They tie the young children 
 with a cord round the foot, fearing lest 
 they should fall into the lake beneath. 
 To their horses and beasts of burden 
 they give fish for fodder ; of which there 
 is such an abundance that Avhen a man 
 has opened his trapdoor he lets down an 
 empty basket by a cord into the lake, 
 and, after waiting a short time, draws it 
 up full of fish." 
 
 ' But we have no occasion to seek for 
 evidence in the ancient world of the ex- 
 t.ake dweUings istence of sucli structurgs 
 of various coun- j^ ascribed to 
 
 tries m the pres- 
 
 entage. the Paeoniaus. Dwellings 
 
 over the water are constructed and in- 
 habited by existing tribes of men. The 
 fishermen on lake Prasias, in European 
 Turkey, build their cottages over the 
 water, and the town of Tcherkask is 
 constructed above the current of the 
 Don. In analogy with such structures 
 we might cite the buildings of the peo- 
 ple of India, which, though not over the 
 water, are set on piles several feet above 
 the earth. The same kind of abodes 
 are found in South America and in the 
 East Indian islands. The city of Borneo 
 is so founded and built. The Dyaks 
 
 have their houses on an elevated plat- 
 form twenty or thirty feet high, in a 
 long row above the edge of the river, 
 and the floors are so constructed that all 
 refuse and waste materials fall through 
 into the water. 
 
 Switzerland is a locality specially fitted 
 in its geographical structure for the du- 
 plication of the dwellings Switzerland fa- 
 described above by the rJ'''"rii"tl!^'^ 
 
 J for such settle- 
 
 Father of History. The ments. 
 
 lakes in this mountainous region have 
 fluctuated in the manner already de- 
 scribed, and it was on the borders of 
 the lake of Zurich that the first impor- 
 tant discoveries were made. But at a 
 later date explorations around the 
 marshes of lakes Constance, Geneva, 
 Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, 
 Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, and others have 
 led to like results. A very ample dem- 
 onstration has thus been obtained of 
 the manner of life of the primitive 
 lake people. The sites of more tliait 
 tzvo hundred settlements constructed as 
 above over the water have been deter- 
 mined and described. No fewer than 
 twenty prehistoric villages have been 
 found on the shores of lake Bienne ; 
 twenty-four along the margin of lake 
 Geneva; thirty-two on lake Constance; 
 and forty-nine on lake Neufchatel. 
 
 It was between Ober-Meilen and 
 Dollikon, on the banks of lake Zurich, 
 
 that the inhabitants, taking Discoveries on 
 
 advantage of the low water lf/,^,\toges o. 
 following the dry sea- Ireland, 
 son of 1854, extended their gardens 
 down to the margin along the new 
 water line. They built a wall and then 
 filled the space to landward by dredging 
 up mud out of the bottom of the lake on 
 the water side. While doing so they 
 were surprised to draw up vast numbers 
 of piles, or at least the lower ends of the 
 same, which had in some prehistoric
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 
 
 311 
 
 epoch been driven down through the 
 water. Along with these sharpened 
 points of trees 
 came iijj a large 
 variety of deer 
 horn and stone 
 im plements of 
 primitive work- 
 manship. The 
 fact that some 
 aboriginal people 
 had inhabited this 
 shore was thus 
 made clear, and 
 scientific explora- 
 tions, under the 
 direction of Dr. 
 Keller and other 
 antiquaries, soon 
 extended and 
 verified the dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Before proceed- 
 ing to describe 
 the utensils and 
 weapons revealed 
 in the lake bot- 
 toms of Switzer- 
 land, it is proper 
 to note the anal- 
 ogous results 
 attained in Ire- 
 land. The man- 
 ner of over-water 
 building is here 
 somewhat differ- 
 ent from that 
 practiced by the 
 prehistoric moun- 
 taineers. Among 
 the primitive peo- 
 ple inhabiting the 
 Irish lake coun- 
 try the plan was to construct a pkit- 
 form on the water, and on this platform 
 to create a sort of artificial island upon 
 
 which houses and defenses were erected. 
 
 The name given to this floating residence 
 
 was Crauiiog,, aiui ihe rcmnaius ul such 
 structures are easily discoverable to the 
 present time
 
 312 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The crannoges were the strongholds 
 of the primitive Irish chiefs, to which 
 Likeness to they betook themselves in 
 
 Highland refu- ^^.^^ ^^^ Highlanders 
 
 gees ; the cran- ' ^ 
 
 noge findings. of a later day to their 
 castles. These prehistoric seats are very 
 rich in implements and weapons and 
 other works of the clans by which they 
 were inhabited. But it is in evidence 
 from the discoveries made in the cran- 
 noges that they are of a much later date 
 than the cave dwellings of the Continent 
 or even the lake dwellings of Switzer- 
 land. There are instances in which the 
 contents of the Irish crannoge, as for in- 
 stance that of Dunshaughlin, have been 
 digged up by the wagon load and dis- 
 tributed on the shore to enrich the soil. 
 In the support of the platform above 
 the water on which the habitations of 
 the Swiss lake people were built, two 
 
 Methods of sup. methods were employed. 
 P°"'^s the ^1 ^^g^ ^^,^^ tQ ^^^ ^ 
 
 bw^ss viUage 
 
 platforms. trees, lop the branches from 
 
 the trunks, sharpen one end of the same, 
 and drive them, with many others of 
 like sort, into the water after the manner 
 of a modern pile work. On the upper 
 end of these, above the surface of the 
 lake, the platform was laid and extended 
 according to the demands of the village. 
 The other method was to heap up from 
 the bottom of the lake a sort of rude 
 stone walls, running here and there, 
 rising to the surface, and furnishing 
 support for the platform. But this 
 method was only employed in the more 
 sequestered waters, for the exposure to 
 storms rendered this variety of building 
 precarious. 
 
 There is little doubt that the bottom 
 Fearof-«Tid motive in selecting such a 
 «inedthe\Toice ^ite and in building a vil- 
 of such sites. j^gc or evcii a single house 
 above the water and at a distance from 
 the bank was the prospect of gaining a 
 
 vantage against ravenous beasts. In the 
 primeval world this was always a serious 
 question. For long ages the beast had 
 the advantage of the man in the struggle 
 for existence. Heroes whose fame is 
 coextensive with the traditions of man- 
 kind became such by their successful 
 warfare with wild beasts. Such was 
 Nimrod and such was Hercules. After 
 the hero, the next best thing was an 
 artifice. Building over the water was 
 an artifice. A single flattened trunk 
 reaching from the platform to the shore^ 
 or at most a narrow causeway, was easily 
 defended, and bears and wolves would 
 hardly swim to the attack of men. 
 
 It appears that the lake villages were 
 numerous and extensive. An estimate 
 has been made by the antiquary, Troyon, 
 as to the extent and popula- 
 
 Number and ex- 
 
 tions of these settlements, tent of the Swiss 
 The largest village on lake ^ ® '" ^^'^^' 
 Geneva appears to have been twelve 
 hundred feet in length and a hundred 
 and fifty feet in breadth. Giving to each 
 hut a diameter of fifteen feet and allow- 
 ing one half the space to be covered, the 
 village would contain three hundred and 
 eleven houses, and with an estimate of 
 four persons to the cabin, we should 
 have a population in this settlement of 
 twelve hundred and forty-four. The 
 same calculations give for the village on 
 lake Neufchatel a population of nearly 
 five thousand. Carrying out the same 
 estimates, M. Troyon thinks that the 
 lake population in this region was more 
 than thirty thousand at the time when 
 the villages flourished in the age of 
 stone. - 
 
 By the backward look we may still, 
 in the mind's eye, observe the process of 
 constructing these lake habitations. The 
 first thing would be, of course, the selec- 
 tion of a suitable site on the water's 
 edffe. The shore must be accessible
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAXD. 
 
 313 
 
 from the lake and the lake from the 
 shore. A forest must stand near by, 
 Materials em- from which the trees are 
 "^Zt^^eT^s fe"^^' ^^-ith almost infinite 
 the builders. labor, by the strokes of 
 stone axes and the assistance of fire. It 
 appears that these primeval men woiild 
 attack the tree at the base and cut it 
 
 It should be remarked in this con- 
 nection that the stroke of a stone ax 
 in wood is easily distinguishable from 
 that of the metallic blade. Distinction in 
 The modern steel ax l'i.T.°""^T 
 
 by stone and 
 
 struck against the side of metallic axes. 
 
 an angle, makes a 
 That is, the bottom 
 of the cut is rectilin- 
 ear. In the case of 
 the stone ax, the 
 wound is always 
 curvilinear in the bottom. 
 The effect of the blow is 
 rather in the nature of a 
 
 a tree, even at 
 straight wound. 
 
 
 AXES OF PREHISTORIC MAX, SHOWING STAGES OF IMPROVEMENT FROM STONE TO BRONZE. 
 
 1, Swiss stone ax with handle ; 2, copper celt, from Waterford ; 3, winged celt, fr<.>m Ireland ; 4, socketed celt, from 1 reland ; 5, 6, 7, celts 
 
 with handles of different patterns ; 8, bronze ax, from Naples ; 9, bronze ax, from Le Puy. 
 
 around as much as possible, and then 
 burn the wounded part down to the solid 
 body. Scraj^ing away the charred por- 
 tions, they would then cut again, until 
 finally the tree came down. Similar 
 methods were employed in sharpening 
 the trunk. Here also the axes were 
 employed and fire by turns until a rude 
 point was obtained suitable for driving 
 in the mud. 
 
 M. — Vol. I — 21 
 
 bruise, the wood where the ax falls 
 being scooped out in a furrow, deeper 
 in the bottom than at the edges 
 of the cut.' In nearly all cases the piles 
 supporting the platforms of the S^v^ss 
 
 ' It is claimed that no measure of sharpness which 
 may be imparted to a stone blade will secure a rec- 
 tilinear cut — like that so e.isily produced with metal- 
 lic axes — in the wood struck with such blade at an 
 angle ; but the reason for such difference is not clear.
 
 314 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 lake dwellings bear the marks of stone 
 and not metallic axes, and in nearly all 
 cases the process of sharpening the 
 trunks has been assisted by the applica- 
 tion of fire. 
 
 How it was that the primitive ti'ibes 
 adopting- this kind of structure suc- 
 Qnestionofset- ceeded in raising their 
 ^*oUhf piles on end and driving 
 houses. them into the lake has not 
 
 been ascertained. But the unmistakable 
 evidence furnished by the stumps of the 
 piles themselves shows that they were 
 raised in some way and driven down. 
 The work appears not to have been truly 
 done, as many of the piles stand in the 
 mud at an angle and others appear to 
 have been bent somewhat from their 
 original position by the weight of the 
 superstructure. As to the jjlatform, it 
 was made of split timbers, rudely framed 
 together on the top of the piles, and no 
 doubt tolerably firm for the reception of 
 houses. The latter appear to have been 
 circular in form, made somewhat after 
 the manner of Celtic huts.' They were 
 chinked between the cracks with small 
 branches of trees and moss, and were 
 pointed within with mud. As compared 
 with the cave dwellings described in the 
 preceding chapter, it can not be doubted 
 that the lake houses were a great ad- 
 vance, superior in comfort and safety, 
 and not wanting in a certain picturesque- 
 ness of situation and aspect. 
 
 We come now to consider the evidences 
 of ancient life which have been discovered 
 General charao- in the lake bottoms and 
 ^o'lfectroni^th peat beds over which the 
 lake villages. villages were erected. In 
 general, these settlements belong to the 
 old stone age. This is clearly shown by 
 the preponderance of rough stone im- 
 plements which are found under them. 
 
 ' See the colored Plate at the beginning of the 
 present bgok. 
 
 It appears, however, that the lake dwell- 
 ei-s continued to hold to their position 
 until progress was made into the new 
 stone age, and even into the age of 
 bronze. In several places it has been 
 demonstrated by the plentiful discovery 
 of utensils and weapons of bronze that 
 the lake villagers had advanced to the 
 manufacture and use of this metal. In 
 any event, all of these stages of develojj- 
 ment were anterior to the epoch of the 
 Romans, and therefore to the daydawn 
 of history. 
 
 If we glance at the old stone imple- 
 ments found in the margin of the Swiss 
 lakes and in the peat bogs variety of the 
 where the over-water vil- '^^^r^l^' 
 lages were built, we find ployed, 
 them to be of the same general pattern 
 as those already described in connection 
 with the cave dwellings. It has been 
 noted that the Swiss prehistoric imple- 
 ments, as a general rule, are smaller than 
 those used by the cave men. This is 
 true of the arrowheads, the spearpoints, 
 and the axes. The material employed 
 in the manufacture of these tools and 
 weapons was, for the most part, flint, 
 but in some cases rock crystal. It has 
 been noted that spindle-whirls of earth- 
 enware coexist in the same layer with 
 the rough stone implements. Other ev- 
 idences of spinning and weaving have 
 been discovered in the same situation, 
 and to this should be added the presence 
 of stone mortars and balls for crushing 
 corn. Sir John Lubbock has recapitu- 
 lated the articles found under a lake 
 village in the peat measure of Wauwyl 
 as follows : Stone axes, forty-three ; flint 
 arrowheads, thirty-six ; flakes, two hun- 
 dred; corn crushers, sixteen ; hammer.?, 
 twenty; whetstones, twenty-six; sling- 
 stones, eighty-five ; making a total of 
 four hundred and twenty-six articles oi 
 stone recovered from a single bed.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 315 
 
 ings of inter- 
 change and com 
 merce. 
 
 In examining these relics we are 
 again impressed with the fact that rude 
 commei"cial relations, at least the begin- 
 nings of traffic, existed in the age of 
 Signs in the find- which we speak. Many 
 of the implements found 
 around the vSwiss lakes 
 were brought, at least as to their mate- 
 rial, from distant localities. Many of 
 the flint implements are known to have 
 been taken from the 
 quarries of France! 
 Some are found that 
 were imported from the 
 shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. It is impossi- 
 ble to tell, however, 
 whether these weapons 
 and utensils were carried 
 by trade or by the mi- 
 gration of tribes to the 
 mountain lakes of Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 By examination of the stone hatchet with 
 animal remains found 
 under the lake dwell- 
 ings, the inquirer discovers again the re- 
 lations which the primitive people here 
 held to the lower orders of life. As a rule, 
 the prehistoric men ate nearly all kinds 
 of animals with which they were asso- 
 ciated. The skins of 
 beasts were the principal 
 articles of clothing, and 
 the flesh was invariably 
 stripped away for food. 
 We note in the case of 
 the lake dwellers the 
 same appetite for marrow 
 which we have already 
 noted in the men of the 
 caverns. They picked out of the hol- 
 low bones every particle of the con- 
 tents, and evidently regarded the mar- 
 row as the principal delicacy. The 
 harder and better bones were made into 
 
 SOCKET AND 
 HANDLE. 
 
 CHIPPED FLINT AR. 
 ROWHEAD. 
 
 implements, but the horns of the deer 
 were the principal resource in this line. 
 From these were made the handles of a 
 great number of other implements, and 
 also picks and awls and scrapers. 
 
 In some cases the 
 attempt was made 
 to produce a cutting 
 edge from bone. 
 But from the na- 
 ture of the sub- 
 stance this could 
 not succeed. Chis- 
 els were also at- 
 tempted, but the 
 material lacked 
 strength and solid- 
 ity, and the tool so 
 formed could only 
 be applied to the softer substances 
 bon e scraper was much used Use of bone in 
 
 ,1 J • j: 1 • 1 • the fabrication 
 
 mthedressmg of hides, m of tools and 
 which it appears that all of weapons, 
 the primitive Europeans had consider- 
 able skill. If the lake dwellers attempt- 
 ed the manu- 
 facture of 
 wood, it does 
 in the relics 
 left behind, 
 however, the 
 of wood liber 
 
 FLINT HATCHET FITTED 
 WITH stag's horn HANDLE. 
 
 The 
 
 not appear 
 which they 
 Doubtless, 
 eas}' decay 
 
 would in part account for 
 
 the absence of utensils 
 
 made therefrom. But it 
 
 appears, on the whole, that 
 
 the lake men preferred the 
 
 use of flint and bone and 
 
 horn. It has been noted 
 
 that tinder was employed 
 
 by the lake villagers in 
 
 the production of fire. 
 
 The appearance of broken fragment? 
 
 of pottery in the lake margins and peat 
 
 beds shows conclusively that the people 
 
 of the age which we are here consid- 
 
 PICKAX OF 
 stag's HiiKN.
 
 816 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 ering understood at least the rudiments 
 of that kind of manufacture. Very few 
 Pottery of the vessels have been discov- 
 iutneTs^the '^^^^ ^^^hole, but many in 
 relics. pieces. These all indicate 
 
 the rudest kind of work. The vessels were 
 evidently misshapen and un.symmetrical 
 in design. It is thought that the pot- 
 ter's wheel was unknown. Nor has any 
 evidence of furnace heat been discov- 
 ered in the imperfect burning to which 
 the fragments seem to have been sub- 
 jected. Perhaps an open fire produced 
 the highest heat with which these peo- 
 
 hXllNCi' MANUIAc iiiKV 
 
 pie were acquainted. The forms of a 
 few vases have been determined which, 
 viewed from an artistic point, are clumsy 
 in the last degree. It is noticeable that 
 the earthenware of these villagers is 
 without feet or other support than the 
 unfinished bottom of the vessel. It ap- 
 pears that the utensils were set upon the 
 floor or on the soft earth where there 
 was little danger of breakage. 
 
 Of human remains, strictly so called. 
 Scarcity of hu- Only a few have been dis- 
 covered under the lake vil- 
 lages. Nor might it be 
 reasonably expected that many would be 
 found. It will be seen at a glance that 
 
 man remains in 
 the lake mar- 
 gins. 
 
 the situation has been much less favor, 
 able for the preservation of human skel- 
 etons, in whole or in part, than the mud 
 beds under the stalagmite in the cave 
 dwellings. The free action of water, 
 the access of fishes to any bodies that 
 may have dropped into the lake, the 
 movement which would take place under 
 the wave, and the change of tempera- 
 ture, very great as it is in the situation, 
 would account for the destruction and 
 decay of any bodies that might have 
 gone to the bottom through the village 
 platforms. It is likely, moreover, that 
 
 the lake dwell- 
 ers had regular 
 methods of sep- 
 ulture. As has 
 been already 
 seen, they were 
 considerably 
 more advanced 
 in the human 
 evolution than 
 the cave men, 
 and care for the 
 bodies of the 
 dead is one of 
 the symptoms 
 which marks the 
 progressive people from the barbarians. 
 Some remains of men, however, have 
 been found in the mud of the lake mar- 
 gin in such relation with Bodily forms of 
 prehistoric relics as to iden- Ifetfmined'om 
 tify them with the age skeletons. 
 of stone. Perhaps a half dozen skele- 
 tons, including the skulls, have been re- 
 covered, and from these a fair idea of 
 the stature, form, and characteristics of 
 the lake people have been determined. 
 On the whole, they were not as tall as 
 the Europeans of to-day, but the skel- 
 eton does not indicate that strong ani- 
 mal affiliation which we have noted in 
 the men of the cavern. The proportions 
 
 I'OTTERY, IN THE GLACIEK l.AKUEN, AT LUCERNE.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 317 
 
 of the lake dwellers were fairly good, 
 and the skull shows a medium capacity. 
 Nor is the configuration specially differ- 
 ent from that of the mountaineers of the 
 present time. As to the personal as- 
 pect of these people there is nothing 
 better than conjecture to guide us. AVe 
 know by their manner of life that their 
 intellectual horizon was exceedingly lim- 
 ited ; that they had the carnivorous hab- 
 it, though not in that intense degree 
 peculiar to the cave dwellers; that the 
 social instinct was in some measure de- 
 veloped, as is shown in their aggrega- 
 tion in village communities, and that the 
 beginnings of agriculture among them 
 were sufficient to show the upward tend- 
 ency toward a higher level of existence. 
 As in the case of the cave men, much 
 light may be thrown on the life and 
 Animals with manners of the people of 
 which lake vii- ^j_^g i^i.g villages bv noting 
 
 lagers were as- & - & 
 
 Bociated. the animals with which 
 
 they were associated and some produc- 
 tions of the soil which are known to 
 have been economized. A large list of 
 the beasts and birds and fishes peculiar 
 to the era which we are here discussing 
 has been determined by naturalists, and 
 much valuable information therefrom 
 deduced. The prevalent wild animals 
 were the brown bear, the badger, the 
 marten, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, 
 the beaver, the elk, the urus, the aurochs, 
 the European bison, the stag, the deer, 
 the wild boar, the marsh boar, the pole- 
 cat. The domestic animals were the 
 horse, the ox, the goat, the sheep, the 
 dog, and the common swine. In the 
 case of the horse, his domestication was 
 but partial, and the demonstration of the 
 existence of tame swine is not complete. 
 It will be noticed at a glance that the 
 wild animals here enumerated are of a 
 .somewhat later epoch than those asso- 
 ciated with the cave dwellers. The 
 
 mammoth, the cave bear, the cave hyena 
 seem to have disappeared. Perhaps the 
 Irish elk and the reindeer at no time 
 held this region as a habitat. 
 
 jMuch ma}' be inferred by a little clear 
 thought relative to the condition of the 
 villagers from the consider- Manner of lake 
 ation of their domestic ani- h!;!?^!^.,!!^ 
 
 mals. Such creatures must manifest data. 
 
 be cared for, especially in winter. They 
 must be fed, not to say housed against 
 the rigors of the season. Provisions 
 and shelter would, therefore, be neces- 
 sary, and people who make such provi- 
 sion and provide such shelter could not 
 be wholly barbarous. Closely allied with 
 this consideration is another drawn from 
 the discovery of various grains that 
 were used by the villagers. Many speci- 
 mens of charred cereals have been found 
 with other relics of this ancient life. 
 Grains of wheat have been recovered 
 from the finds at !Meilan, Moosseedorf, 
 and Wangen. At the last named place 
 the antiquary had the good fortune to 
 discover several bushels of wheat pressed 
 together in a lump, the grains adhering 
 in a mass. The appearance of the wheat 
 is almost identical with that of modern 
 varieties of the same grain. Many 
 specimens of what is known as six-rowed 
 barley have been recovered from like 
 situations, and it will interest the reader 
 to be informed that this variety of cereal 
 was still under cultivation in the primi- 
 tive days of Greece and Rome. Alto- 
 gether, three kinds of wheat have been 
 found under the lake dwellings, two va- 
 rieties of barley, and two of millet. It 
 appears that rye and oats were as yet 
 unknown . 
 
 Reverting to the animals of the lake 
 regions in prehistoric times we note two 
 species of wild cattle, namely, the urus 
 and the bison. The former seems to 
 have been reduced to partial domestica-
 
 318 
 
 CRP.AT RACliS OF MAXKIND. 
 
 tion as early as the neolithic period, but 
 no indication of such a fact has been 
 Deductions from fouud in the old stonc age. 
 th:;Tkr.dwel°' The largest of the ani- 
 ingage. mals prevalent around the 
 
 Swiss lakes were these two varieties of 
 wild oxen, the elk and the stag. The 
 rhinoceros had disappeared and the 
 urus had been much reduced from the 
 
 served in the forests of Germany. It is 
 noticeable that the list of domestic ani- 
 mals has been extended and confirmed. 
 The horse has certainly become, in some 
 measure, the servant of man, and sheep 
 have been more positively reclaimed 
 from the wild condition. It is thus 
 evident that the mere barbarous life of 
 hunters and flesh-eaters was giving way 
 
 SWISS LAK.L VILLAGE UF lH L AUL UF LRUN/L 
 
 great proportions which he bore in the 
 times of the cave men. Looking back 
 from our own point of view we note that 
 elks have not existed in .Switzerland dur- 
 ing the historical period, though they 
 still maintained an existence in the low- 
 land forests as late as the Roman period. 
 The ibex has also disappeared. The 
 smaller of the wild animals enumerated 
 above still prevail in their ancient habi- 
 tat, and even the wild boar has been pre- 
 
 to a higher and more rational mode of 
 existence among these villagers of the 
 Swi.ss lakes. 
 
 It will be of interest to add a few 
 words relative to the birds which came 
 by water or bv air to the 
 
 . . ^ Species of birds 
 
 habitations of the lake men . belonging to the 
 
 ,„, IT 1 . , T same epoch. 
 
 1 he golden eagle circled 
 above them. The bones of at least four 
 varieties of hawk have been discovered. 
 Two kinds of owl were known, and two
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 319 
 
 traces of tlie 
 prehistoric agri. 
 cultural Ufe. 
 
 varieties of crow. The common starling 
 was present, and the wood pigeon. 
 There were two kinds of heath cock, also 
 the white stork, the ashy heron, the dun 
 grouse, the black coot, two varieties of 
 meu, one kind of swan, one species of 
 goose, two kinds of duck, one kind of 
 diver. Of fishes and reptiles, the 
 remains of as many as ten species have 
 been recovered and identified. 
 
 Mention has been made of the finding: 
 of the cereals under the lake dwellings. 
 Significant It appears from the discov- 
 
 eries that the grains were 
 roasted for food. Beyond 
 this primitive method of preparing 
 kernels, it is known that the lake dwell- 
 ers used bread. Cakes, hard, flat, cir- 
 cular, unleavened, have been found just 
 as they were prepared for the board at 
 a date more remote than the founding of 
 Rome ! Of the methods of cultivation 
 employed in this far time nothing is 
 known. No agricultural implements or 
 apparatus have been recovered, but tools 
 for the preparation of grain, such as 
 mortars and stones for gfrindinof the 
 kernels, are plentiful. Specimens of 
 dried fruit, such as carbonized apples 
 cut into halves or quarters, have been 
 found at both AVangen and on lake Neuf- 
 chatel. Such fruits appear to have been 
 of wild varieties, resembling the crab 
 apple of modern times. The vine had 
 not yet made its appearance. The wal- 
 nut, the cherr}', and the damson plum 
 were unknown, but seeds of the wild 
 plum have been discovered. Shells of 
 the hazelnut and beechnut are fre- 
 quently found in the mud, and some- 
 times the seeds of the raspberry and 
 blackberry. Beans have been discovered, 
 but only in the later relics of the age of 
 bronze, while peas are found farther 
 back, among the remains of the new 
 stone age. From a consideration of all 
 
 these elements we are able to make out 
 a tolerably fair schedule of the daily 
 subsistence, the means of supply, and 
 the method of preparation peculiar to the 
 prehistoric villagers of the Swiss lakes. 
 
 Bronze hairpin found la 
 Swiss lake. 
 
 Bronze pin from a Scotch 
 shell mound. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF FINE WORKMANSHIP IX BRONZE. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the 
 fact that the lake dwellers continued to 
 hold their situation until . 
 
 ^ Lake dwellings 
 
 their implements oi stone extend into the 
 
 J J , ,, age of bronze. 
 
 were succeeded by the 
 manufacture and use of bronze. The 
 villages belonging to the age of bronze 
 are not so widely distributed as those of 
 the stone period. The former were 
 built, for the most part, on the lakes of 
 Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, and Sam- 
 pach. In Eastern Su-itzerland very few
 
 320 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 evidences of the age of bronze have been 
 discovered. It appears that for some 
 reason a kind of jirimitive conserva- 
 tism prevailed on lake Constance -which 
 led to the continuance of stone manu- 
 facture long- after the inti-oduction of 
 bronze in the western settlements. It 
 is in evidence that other improvements 
 besides the introduction of metal in 
 workmanship appeared in the bronze- 
 making villages. The platforms -were 
 more substantially constructed and the 
 houses larger and of a moi-e permanent 
 character. It seems, moreover, that the 
 villagfts of the age of bronze were built 
 farther from the shore than those of the 
 age of stone. At least the bronze relics 
 are nearly always taken out from a 
 greater dej^th of water and farther out 
 than the stone implements peculiar to 
 the older age. 
 
 By examining the bronze implements 
 their superiority in design and workman- 
 Evidences of the ship to those of the peri- 
 T:i:Zlt'y' «ds preceding are quickly 
 barism. noted. The swords, dag- 
 
 gers, axes, spearheads, knives, sickles. 
 
 fishhooks, and articles of personal adorn, 
 ment are all of a pattern which may be 
 called well formed, if not artistic. Brace- 
 lets, brooches, and finger rings are found 
 which, though they may hardly be de- 
 scribed as beautiful, are not devoid of 
 tastefulness in design and elegance in 
 execution. It is noticeable, moreover, 
 that the supply of implements, weapons, 
 and personal decorations is far more 
 abundant in the case of the bronze-bear- 
 ing villages than under those of the stone 
 epoch. Many museums have been re- 
 plenished from the resources here re- 
 ferred to, and a single collection cited 
 by Sir John Lubbock contains four 
 thousand three hundred and forty-six 
 specimens; and it is an evidence of 
 what may be called the personal pride 
 of the villagers of the bronze age that of 
 the list of articles here enumerated more 
 than two thousand are hairpins and rings. 
 In the age of bronze the human race en- 
 tered upon its career of strength and 
 variety, but did not yet enter -upon the 
 career of ambition and vain delusion 
 which it was to pursue in the age of iron. 
 
 Chapter XVIII.— coast People oe the Nortih. 
 
 E now turn to another 
 aspect of primitive life 
 quite different from 
 those discussed in the 
 preceding chapters. 
 We have reconstructed 
 as far as practicable 
 the conditions of the old Ar_\-an house- 
 folk of India; of the cave dwellers of 
 Western Europe, and of the lake dwell- 
 ers who took advantage of the water 
 surface as a means of protection and 
 convenience. We now come to consider 
 a mode of prehistoric existence which 
 
 was developed along the seacoast, espe- 
 cially in the northern and northwestern 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Of the forms of primeval life already 
 presented, the most barbarous was that 
 of the cave men ; the most Relative sav- 
 elevated, the house people ^f:Jl3torT~ 
 of the East; and the most ditions. 
 progressive, the lake dwellers of Switzer- 
 land and other like localities. In enter- 
 ing upon a review of the people of the 
 seashore, we shall again be carried back 
 to an exceedingly rude and aboriginal 
 type of hiiman existence, perhaps not
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 321 
 
 quite so gross, but equally primitive with 
 that of the cave dwellers. 
 
 About the time that the really scien- 
 tific investigation of archaeological re- 
 Discovery of the mains began in the second 
 the"o^a"t of°'' quarter of this century, it 
 Denmark. -was noticed that on the 
 
 coast of Denmark and in other similar 
 situations long, low dunes were thrown 
 up. Sometimes the elevations were 
 
 were too far from the surge to have 
 been thrown up by the action of the 
 water first drew the attention of archaeol- 
 ogists and naturalists to Mound con- 
 their peculiarities. It was "^^T 
 
 found that those of the Streenstrup. 
 
 mounds which lay within reach of the 
 tide were made up in part of sand, but 
 the larger portion of the material was 
 shells. In the case of those dunes that 
 
 KITCHEN MIDDEXER^ ANH IHI IK iiWEILIXGS. 
 
 nearly circular, sometimes they were 
 ring-shaped, having a crater-like depres- 
 sion in the center. But more frequently 
 they were elongated elevations, from 
 one hundred to three hundred 3-ards in 
 length, perhaps two hundred feet in 
 breadth, and from two to ten feet in 
 heigfht. The situation was along the 
 surf line of the sea, but generally outside 
 of the reach of the tide. 
 
 The fact that these dunes and mounds 
 
 were in the higher situations, beyond 
 the reach of the water, they were com- 
 posed almost entirely of shells, and a 
 very casual examination showed that 
 the mollusks inhabiting them had be- 
 longed to another age. Such was the 
 beginning of the discoveries. 
 
 The Danish naturalists led the way in 
 examining these strange formations; 
 and it was at once observed that the 
 shells were intermixed with the debris
 
 322 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 of human life. Here, then, was a new 
 class of relics of prehistoric existence, 
 and a new field of inquiry opened before 
 the antiquary. Professor Steenstrup was 
 again in the van in the exploration of 
 the shell mounds. He gave them, in 
 the first place, the name which they 
 have ever since borne, of Kitchen 
 middens. In his own language the 
 
 Flint core or n 
 
 WORKMANSHIP OF THK KITCHEN MIDDENERS. 
 
 word is Kjdkkcnmdddings, which signifies 
 "kitchen refuse heaps." The idea of 
 the learned Dane was that these 
 mounds were the refuse of the food 
 and waste material of a people who had 
 built their huts on the seashore, and had 
 manifestly subsisted for the most part 
 on shellfish. This primary hypothesis 
 of the naturalist Avas borne out by all 
 subsequent investigations, and it was 
 soon established beyond doubt that a 
 
 prehistoric people had chosen the shore 
 of this northern sea as the best vantage 
 ground which they could procure in 
 their struggle to preserve life and per- 
 petuate their tribes. 
 
 The shell mounds are by no means 
 isolated phenomena. They are rarely 
 found singly, but in groups, covering a 
 considerable extent of coast. This is to 
 say that the primitive people 
 dwelling here lived in ag- 
 gregations, or The kitchen 
 villages of huts ^.tllmUp'^i^n, 
 
 o cate village com- 
 
 on the beach, ^unities. 
 Sometimes a principal mound 
 will appear, and around this 
 others of smaller proportions. 
 The contents are abundant, 
 and the vast heap of shells is 
 in many cases carted -away 
 by the inhabitants and used 
 to replenish the soil. 
 
 What strikes the beholder 
 in opening one of these 
 mounds is the fact that the 
 7i.'/iolc colli cnis, or 
 
 The heaps made 
 
 the materials of up of the debris 
 
 .1 1 ,. of human life. 
 
 the elevation, 
 are the debris of human life. 
 Hardly any merely natural 
 substance is found inter- 
 mixed with the shells and 
 other refuse of the kitchen 
 and the hut. Doubtless the 
 kitchen was the hut and the 
 hut was the kitchen. In a few in- 
 stances some gravel and other unmodi- 
 fied natural products are found in thin 
 layers or scattered among the Avaste of 
 the hovel. But for the most part every- 
 thing has had its use in the hands and 
 mouths of the primitive tribes inhabit- 
 ing this coast. The people appear to 
 have subsisted almost exclusively upon 
 oysters and mussels, and to have flung 
 the .shells out of the hut until they ac-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 323 
 
 cumulated to a depth of several feet. It 
 would seem that in many instances the 
 hut itself would be half buried by the 
 accumulation around, and doubtless the 
 site of the dwelling is the crater which 
 is noticed in a dune here and there. 
 
 If we examine the implements and 
 weapons which the coast people lost or 
 Character of the broke or cast aside with the 
 t^ooifancTn^et: Other debris of their vil- 
 ®'^^- lages, we shall find them to 
 
 be of the most primitive pattern and 
 rudest workmanship. They are nearly 
 or quite all of the old stone age, and the 
 method of fracture employed in making 
 them seems to have been less skillful 
 than that of the oldest lake villagers, 
 and fully as rude as the workmanship of 
 the cave men. Great quantities of flint 
 flakes, rough axes, lanceheads, arrow- 
 points, weights for fishing nets, sling- 
 stones, and awls have been recovered 
 from the ^mounds, and they are, without 
 exception, of the primitive pattern and 
 finish above described. From the shell 
 mound of Meilgaard, which was visited 
 and examined by Sir John Lubbock in 
 person, nineteen axes, a hundred and 
 thirty-nine flint flakes, six bone pins, 
 six horns, four pieces of rude pottery, 
 one stone hammer, and twenty .sling- 
 stones were recovered. This mound is 
 merely specimental of scores of others 
 that existed and still exist along the 
 coast of Denmark. These, like the lake 
 villages and the cave dwellings, have 
 contributed thousands of specimens to 
 the European museums, and these have 
 been arranged and classified with re- 
 spect to their antiquity, so that he that 
 rans may read the story of a prehistoric 
 age. 
 
 The extreme simplicity, not to say 
 barbarity, of the method of life of the 
 shell-mound people has already been in- 
 dicated. As compared with the lake 
 
 villagers of Switzerland, even of the old 
 stone age, they were far behind. The 
 lake men were acquainted 
 with wheat and barley, and low grade of 
 even ^\ath the manufac- ^^'''^^^''^^' 
 ture of bread. But in the shell mounds 
 no traces of grain have been discovered, 
 nor have any relics of vegetables such 
 as men would use for food been found 
 in the debris around the huts. The 
 people seem to have subsisted altogether 
 upon the shellfish which they gathered 
 along the shore, either by digging in the 
 sand with the recession of the tide, or by 
 rude nets which they dragged in shoal 
 water. These moUusks, together with 
 certain birds and wild animals which they 
 were able to capture, constituted the only 
 food of the hut dwellers. 
 
 The four principal varieties of sea 
 mollusks which the mound builders ate, 
 and which indeed constitut- Nature of the 
 ed their chief supply, were ^f^^°^ 
 the oyster, the cockle, the i^eaps. 
 mussel, and the periwinkle. All of 
 these, as is indicated by the shells, were 
 of larger size than those now found on 
 the same coasts. The oyster has wholly 
 disappeared from these waters, and 
 doubtless the other species were of 
 different varieties from those now exist- 
 ing. It must not be understood, how- 
 ever, that the bones of birds and mam- 
 mals are wanting in the mounds. On 
 the contrary, these are rather plentiful. 
 Professor vSteenstrup has estimated that 
 each cubic foot of the shell material con- 
 tains on the average ten or twelve bones. 
 The mound at Havelse has yielded 
 about three thousand five hundred speci- 
 mens of the bones of mammals, and 
 more than two hundred of birds. Fish 
 bones other than those of the sea mol- 
 lusks are also found intermixed in the 
 mounds. The remains of the herring, 
 the dorse, the dab, and the eel have
 
 824 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 been plentifully recovered in several 
 localities. 
 
 Of the relics of mammalia, the most 
 common are of the stag, the roedeer, and 
 wud beasts the wild boar. In addi- 
 wtcrn°r.:id! tion to these, bones of the 
 deuers. urus, the bear, the dog, the 
 
 fox, the wolf, the marten, the otter, the 
 porpoise, the seal, the water rat, the 
 beaver, the lynx, the wild cat, the hedge- 
 hog, and the mouse have been found in 
 the shell mounds, but sparsely distrib- 
 uted. It will be at once observed from 
 these facts that the animals which the 
 
 DANISH SHF.I.L-MO0N-I) AXES. 
 
 coast people were able to take and kill 
 were generally of the smaller species. 
 The extreme scarcity of the bones of 
 the heavier and fiercer beasts might well 
 beget a doubt as to whether the pre- 
 historic man of this coast dared to meet 
 them in combat at all. Another striking 
 feature revealed by the exploration of 
 the shell mound is that all of the animals 
 here eni:merated were wild. It appears 
 very doubtful whether even the dog had 
 become the friend of the dwellers in 
 these seashore huts. At any rate, his 
 bones have the same aspect as those of 
 the creatures of the woods. 
 
 The fact of the complete destruction 
 
 or corfsumption of the animals with 
 which the shore people came in contact 
 is illustrated by the absence inferences as to 
 of entire skeletons and fXttl^fof 
 the miscellaneous distri- the race, 
 bution of the bones. It is generally the 
 long bones that are found scattered 
 among the shells. The heads of these 
 have been broken off and reduced to 
 edible conditions, or else have decayed 
 in the course of ages. In all cases the 
 bone shaft has been opened for the mar- 
 row ; from which it appears that the 
 coast people had the same appetite for 
 this delicacy as did 
 the cave dwellers. 
 From the absence of 
 skeletons, or even 
 large parts thereof, 
 it has been more dif- 
 ficult for naturalists 
 to reconstruct the ani- 
 mals of the Dani.sh 
 coast than of any other 
 situations ; but enough 
 has been gathered to 
 justify the foregoing 
 statement relative to 
 the wild creatures 
 with which the shell- 
 mound people were familiar. 
 
 An interesting illustration of the skill 
 of antiquaries in looking into the past 
 is furnished in their meth- Methods of de- 
 od of determining the ^.X^tfU^/ 
 habits of the prehistoric sheu mounders. 
 tribes of Denmark. It is known, for in- 
 stance, that they were not migratory, 
 Init that they held their abode in the 
 same huts the year around. This fact 
 was ascertained from an examination of 
 the bones of the birds upon which these 
 people in part subsisted. Some of these 
 birds, as for instance the singing swan, 
 visit this coast only in the winter. In 
 the month of March they leave for the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 325 
 
 Fuegians ; de- 
 scription by 
 Dar'win. 
 
 South, and return late in November, but 
 the distribution of wild swan bones is 
 frequent in the shell mounds. It ap- 
 pears certain, therefore, that they were 
 taken in winter. Therefore the coast 
 people had their residence here in win- 
 ter. Again, the horns of stags are cast 
 at certain seasons of the year, and one 
 or two other animal phenomena of like 
 sort have a periodical significance. 
 From the collation of these facts it is 
 proved that the hut dwellers in the lo- 
 calities here described remained in their 
 place throughout the year, and were not 
 merely fishermen of the summer season. 
 We thus see on the Danish coast an- 
 other type of primitive life quite distinct 
 Analogue of the from those which Ave have 
 hitherto considered. It is 
 likely, withal, that their 
 manner of existence was not very dif- 
 ferent from that of certain tribes still 
 living in the exti^eme of South America. 
 The Terra del Fuegians subsist in a 
 manner very analogous to that ascribed 
 above to the prehistoric tribes of Den- 
 mark. They have no domestic animals 
 except the dog. They live almost ex- 
 clusively on shellfish, and their huts 
 along the coast, if continuing undis- 
 turbed for a sufficient period, would 
 doubtless be surrounded by a collection 
 of waste materials almost identical with 
 those of the remote age of the shell- 
 mound people of the North. The great 
 naturalist, Charles Darwin, says of these 
 tribes: " The inhabitants, living chiefly 
 itpon shellfish, are obliged constantly to 
 change their place of residence; but 
 they return at intervals to the same 
 spots, as is evident from the pile of old 
 shells, which must often amount to some 
 tons in weight. These heaps can be 
 distinguished at a long distance by the 
 bright green color of certain plants which 
 invariably grow on them. . . . The 
 
 Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and 
 dimensions, a haycock. It merely con- 
 sists of a few broken branches stuck 
 in the ground, and very imperfectly 
 thatched on one side with a few tufts of 
 grass and rushes. , . . Viewing such 
 men, one can hardly make oneself be- 
 lieve they are fellow-creatures and in- 
 habitants of the same world. ... At 
 night five or six human beings, naked 
 and scarcely protected from the wind 
 and rain of this tempestuous climate, 
 sleep on the wet ground coiled up like 
 animals. Whenever it is low water they 
 
 Booe harpoon of the Stone 
 Age of Denmark. 
 
 Arrouhead of reindeet 
 honi. 
 
 FINDS FROM THE KITCHEN MIDDENS. 
 
 must rise to pick shellfish from the rocks ; 
 and the women, winter and summer, 
 either dive to collect sea eggs or sit pa- 
 tiently in their canoes, and, with a baited 
 hair line, jerk out small fish. If a seal 
 is killed, or the floating carcass of a pu- 
 trid whale discovered, it is a feast; such 
 miserable food is assisted by a few taste- 
 less berries and fungi." 
 
 All attempts to construct an authentic 
 chronology for the age of the coast people 
 whose rude life is here depicted are 
 futile. The fact that such modes of
 
 326 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 tribal evolution exist in different ages 
 has already been dwelt upon. We have 
 Not possible to jiist seen that the Fuegian 
 thelXxiS' tribes in the extreme of 
 tribes. South America are still in 
 
 this aboriginal state of development ; and 
 we know that in the north of Denmark 
 the shell-mound people had passed away 
 before the beginnings of history. The 
 evidence of this is complete and irre- 
 fragable. It is known, moreover, that 
 not only were these tribes prehistoric, 
 but tliat they held their rude career at a 
 very remote period, even archaeologically 
 considered. 
 
 We are able in part to measure the 
 distance of the epoch of the coast men 
 Botanical indi- by Certain transformations 
 'T^^^.llVi}^"'' which we know to have 
 
 Temote antiq- 
 
 »i'ty- taken place in the vegetable 
 
 kingdom. Since the earliest references in 
 the works of the Roman naturalists the 
 countries of Northern Europe have been 
 heavily covered with a forest of beech. 
 This has been the prevailing growth of 
 these regions since about the time when 
 iron began to be used for implements 
 and weapons. It is well known in the 
 botanical history of the world that the 
 forest of beech is preceded in the plant- 
 cycle of nature by a forest of oak, Avhich 
 in its turn has a long period of duration 
 as the prevalent growth. That is, be- 
 fore the beginnings of the present beech 
 forest of Northern Europe an oak for- 
 est prevailed in the same countries for 
 indefinite ages. It is also known that 
 in like manner the pine precedes the oak. 
 That is, the order of nature is, first, so 
 far as we are able to discover, a forest of 
 pine, which at length falls into decrepi- 
 tude and is succeeded by a forest of oak. 
 This, in its turn, and after a long cycle, 
 grows old, maintains for a while a pre- 
 carious existence, then gives place to a 
 forest of beech. At the present time 
 
 the beech forest is growing old, and will 
 at length give place to some other. But 
 we know that the present prevailing 
 woods in Denmark and other regions of 
 the North have existed there since a 
 time long before the age of Pliny — even, 
 before the founding of Rome. 
 
 Now an examination of the bones of 
 the birds which Avere taken and eaten 
 by the coast people and shell-mound era 
 shows conclusively that some of the birds 
 in question were of spe- Bird-ufe bears 
 cies which are known to r^r^on^iu*^' 
 feed upon the berries of sion. 
 the pine tree ! So slight a fact is one of 
 many sufficient indications that point un- 
 mistakably to the conclusion of the ex- 
 treme antiquity of the age which we are 
 here considering. It is by this kind of 
 patient reseaixh that our knowledge of 
 prehistoric peoples has been widened and 
 developed into its present amplitude ; 
 and though it is by no means complete 
 and satisfactory, it is nevertheless suffi- 
 cient to enlighten the present races in- 
 habiting the earth with respect to the 
 manners and customs of those who 
 slumber in its bosom. 
 
 Coincident with the discoveries which 
 have led to the reconstruction of primi- 
 tive life in the manner over-water hab- 
 hitherto described, have '^^:^;^^ 
 been others quite analo- banks also. 
 gous. Not only did primeval tribes 
 inhabit the shores of the sea and build 
 thereon their rude huts, scattering 
 around the waste and refuse of their 
 daily life, but others like them in habit 
 and character chose the river banks. It 
 is well known that the currents of rivers 
 var}- somewhat in their place and direc- 
 tion. The bed of a running stream is 
 by no means a constant feature in geog- 
 raph}'. Though in general it traverses 
 a valley, it will be found in one age 
 against the hills on one side, and in the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 327 
 
 next age on the other. Moreover, the 
 volume of water is much greater in 
 some epochs than in others. As a gen- 
 eral fact, the streams and rivers of the 
 early ages of the world were much fuller 
 and stronger than they are to-day. As 
 a world grows older its streams grow 
 weaker, until they finally disappear, and 
 the epoch of life is at an end. The 
 primeval age was one of humidity and 
 plentiful rainfall and full vol- 
 ume in the rivers. 
 
 One of the principal con- 
 comitant circumstances of the 
 river flow is the formation of 
 sand and gravel. Ledges of 
 Physical condi- rock are broken 
 roratTon'or Off and the frag, 
 gravel beds. m e n t s divided 
 into smaller parts. These are 
 rolled over and over by the 
 stream until they are worn into 
 pebbles and gravel and sand. 
 Vast accumulations of these 
 materials are deposited here 
 and there in the river elbows 
 and bends and curves, in the 
 valley to the right hand and 
 into the left, and especially 
 about the debouchure of the 
 stream near the mouth. While 
 this process is going on the bank.3 of the 
 river on this side and on that are worn 
 away and carried along with the current. 
 Sometimes a whole valley, by a change in 
 the course of the stream, is swept oi:t 
 and deposited somewhere below. These 
 circumstances must be borne in mind if 
 we would apprehend clearly the nature 
 of the discoveries to which attention will 
 now be called. 
 
 As early as the beginning of this 
 century implements and weapons were 
 known to have been gathered from 
 river-drift gravel beds, but the signifi- 
 cance of such discoveries was unnoticed 
 
 or ignored. There has been a strange 
 disposition, even on the part of scholars, 
 to maintain old traditionary views about 
 the age of man on the earth. Every 
 new fact tending to show the antiquity 
 of the human race has been resisted and 
 resented as a sort of intrigue against 
 the integrity of existing beliefs. 
 
 In geological science this tendencv 
 has been especially noticeable. Geolo- 
 
 ^4 
 
 It was from this ?°^l'^t°i°=J.r 
 
 respecting nver- 
 SalutarV con- drift findings. 
 
 PAL.'EOLITHIC RIVER-DRIFT SPEARHEADS. 
 
 gists themselves have for a long time 
 shut their eyes to the most palpable 
 facts, patent to their own Dogmatism con- 
 senses, 
 
 supposable salutary con- 
 servatism that the first discoveries of 
 prehistoric relics in the gjavel beds, as 
 well as in other situations, were ignored 
 and denied. Those who were deter- 
 mined to maintain the old views respect- 
 ing the chronology of the earth and its 
 inhabitants put forward all sorts of ridic- 
 ulous hypotheses to account for that 
 which was unaccountable under their 
 own theory. They even published
 
 328 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 treatises in which it was boldly alleged 
 that the old stone implements which 
 had been found in prehistoric situations 
 were forgeries which had been jserpe- 
 trated against authentic science — that 
 those who were trying to disturb the 
 current beliefs of mankind had invented 
 the alleged discoveries to produce a new 
 hypothesis respecting the antiquity of 
 the human race ! 
 
 Gradually, however, light dawned and 
 the truth was acknowledged. One nat- 
 uralist after another became convinced 
 that the weapons and uten- 
 
 C.ireful exami- 
 
 aation of the flu- sils found m the gravel 
 
 vial deposits. i -. . i. i ^ • 
 
 beds were m such relation 
 with geological facts as to compel a be- 
 lief in their remote antiquity. Many of 
 the men most eminent for learning in 
 Europe visited distant localities and con- 
 ducted personal exj^lorations in order to 
 establish the truth or falsity of the new 
 view of the antiquity of man. The re- 
 sult has been corroborative of that de- 
 duced from other fields of inquiry; and 
 it is now as well known that prehistoric 
 races dwelt in Europe in the time of the 
 mammoth, and wrought rough imple- 
 ments of flint in the post-pliocene era of 
 geology, as it is known that the Assyri- 
 ans flourished on the Tigris and that 
 Caesar led Roman legions across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 The evidences of the existence of 
 primitive tribes along the river valleys 
 of Western Europe have been discovered 
 
 more abundantly in France 
 
 Buch findings •' 
 
 extend to the than in any other country ; 
 
 British Isles. i ^ ^i • 11 i- 
 
 but the river banks of 
 England have also yielded their testi- 
 mony. Before the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century a British weapon 
 had been found in a gravel bed in con- 
 nection with an elephant's tooth, in a 
 situation described as being " opposite 
 to Black Mary's, near Graye's Inn 
 
 Lane." This weapon is described as a 
 large black flint, shaped into the figure 
 of a spearpoint. It is known to have 
 been engraved as early as 17 15, and a 
 print of it has been preserved in Leland's 
 Collectanea. Since the science of antiq- 
 uities has been developed in our own 
 day, this ancient implement has been 
 shown to be of the same pattern, work- 
 manship, and quality with those found 
 in like situations on the Continent. 
 
 Several of the rivers of France have 
 been specially rich in their yield of pre- 
 historic relics. The princi- Rjver valleys of 
 pal of these are the Somme, ^^^:^^^ 
 the Seine, and the Oise. reiios. 
 In the valley of the first of these streams 
 the explorations have been conducted 
 with scientific skill, and the discoveries 
 made have been fortified as to their 
 verity with all the care and penetration 
 which the best scholars of Europe have 
 been able to bring to the question. It 
 will be of interest in this connection, 
 therefore, to look briefly at the geologi- 
 cal character of the vSomme valley, and 
 the position in which human relics have 
 been found therein, to the end that the 
 reader may have before him a clear 
 statement of the situation and proof of 
 the results. 
 
 The discoveries on the Somme have 
 been made for the most part in the 
 neighborhood of Amiens and Abbeville. 
 At these places the valley, character of the 
 from hill to hill, is about "'^^l^^t^lt 
 a mile in breadth. The Somme. 
 main geological formation of the country 
 is chalk. Through this, in the glacial 
 period, the valley of the river was 
 plowed out, and in this wide, low trough 
 the stream still makes its way to the sea. 
 But in the course of ages many second- 
 ary formations have taken place in con- 
 nection with the river. What is properly 
 called the river bottom is filled up in
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 329 
 
 a broad, deep 
 in some places 
 
 this neighborhood Avith 
 bed of peat. This is 
 thirty feet in depth and more than a third 
 of a mile in breadth. In this peat bed, 
 Avhich has been slowly forming for many 
 centuries, at a great depth therein, stone 
 implements and other relics of a pre- 
 historic people have been found. The 
 bones of extinct mammalia are here 
 associated with the works of man in such 
 relation as to estab- 
 lish their contem- 
 poraneity. 
 
 The peat forma- 
 tion in the Somnie 
 valley, however, is 
 one of the newer ac- 
 cretions peculiar to 
 the situation. If the 
 observer take his 
 stand on the low 
 peat bog near the 
 margin of the stream 
 and look to the hills 
 on either side he 
 shall find, at two or 
 three levels in the 
 chalk formation 
 which rises to the 
 height of two or 
 three hundred feet, 
 beds of gravel crop- 
 ping out of the banks. 
 Through these beds, 
 which were mani- 
 festly formed by the river in the older 
 Time relations agcs of the tertiary epoch, 
 the stream has gradually 
 worked its Avay down, by 
 attrition, to lower and lower levels, leav- 
 ing the gravel beds far above the present 
 position of the stream. Above the out- 
 croppings of these beds the old chalky 
 walls which constitute the barriers of the 
 valley are seen rising to the general 
 level of the country above, which is a 
 
 M. Vol. I 72 
 
 plateau spreading off in slight undula- 
 tions. Even the novice in geology is 
 able to perceive that the peat bogs in the 
 bottom of the valley are of recent origin 
 as compared with the old gravel beds 
 lying far above the present level of the 
 river. Yet it is in these gravel beds 
 that the discoveries of some of the most 
 ancient specimens of human workman- 
 ship in the world have been made : and 
 
 of the peat beds 
 to the chalk 
 formations. 
 
 PAL.EOLITHIC RIVER-DRIFT LANCF.HEADS AND AX OF ARCHAIC PATTERNS. 
 
 the situation in which thev have been 
 found has been scanned with so much 
 care, and the explorations conducted with 
 such scientific accuracy, as to preclude all 
 doubt relative to the verity and signifi- 
 cance of the facts in question. 
 
 .Sir Charles Lyell estimates that more 
 than a thousand implements have been 
 taken from the gravel beds in the neigh- 
 borhood of Amiens. They are all of a 
 common type, and belong to the oldest
 
 830 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKTKD. 
 
 epoch known to archaeology. They have 
 been classified under three heads, the 
 Character of the first of which includes the 
 i:^tnsd':p'o:. spearpoints; the second, a 
 "■s- sort of almond-shaped im- 
 
 plements which appear to have been 
 used as axes for general purposes, such 
 as breaking bones and cracking holes in 
 the ice ; and thirdly, flint flakes and ar- 
 rowheads. All of these are produced 
 by mere fracture, not a single specimen 
 bearing the marks of grinding or polish- 
 ing. The forms are rude, but the work- 
 manship immistakably human. In many 
 instances the prehistoric artisan has taken 
 advantage of the natural form of the 
 flint, and merely modified it by breaking 
 one J>i7rt into a cutting form. It has 
 been noted that between the spearheads 
 and the almond-shaj^ed axes several in- 
 termediate grades of implements exist, 
 which would seem to show that the end 
 in view was not clearly defined in the 
 minds of the makers. Yet in the midst 
 of the manifest barbarity of the epoch 
 in which these implements were created 
 there has been found a single evidence 
 of taste in certain small globular bodies, 
 with a tubular cavity in the center, which 
 appear to have been used for ornamen- 
 tation. 
 
 Notwithstanding the abundant proof 
 that the weapons and tools above de- 
 Beasons for Scribed are the relics of hu- 
 maTremafn^s"; "^'1" activity in a prehistoric 
 the river-drift, ^^ge, Very few human re- 
 mains, properly so called, have been 
 found in the river-drift gravel beds. 
 Only an occasional tmderjaw, or some 
 other of the harder parts of the frame 
 of man have been recovered in these sit- 
 uations. The bones of animals are much 
 more frequent, and are easily defined ; 
 but a moment's reflection will show that 
 these facts would be indicated by right 
 reason. As for the animal remains 
 
 found in the gravel, they are evidently 
 the fragments of mammals that Avere 
 drowned by ordinary accident or in times 
 of flood. In such emergencies man is 
 more expert and cautious than the lower 
 orders. Even in his lowest estate he 
 has some measure of foresight, and es- 
 capes from a dangerous situation. The 
 gravel pits were not the places of burial. 
 They do not mark the exact sites of hu- 
 man dwellings. They represent mate- 
 rials that were carried to their present 
 place by the action of water. In many 
 cases these materials have been brought 
 from considerable distances. Even an 
 occasional human skeleton given to the 
 river would be tossed and broken and 
 worn, in its course onward, being ground 
 against stones and pebbles into elemen- 
 tary fragments. Moreover, decay does 
 its work. The hardest bone will not 
 survive forever, even under conditions 
 favorable to its preservation. 
 
 The paucity of human remains in the 
 gravel beds is in close analogy with the 
 like fact in the shell mounds sheu mounds 
 of Denmark. They, ?i;°X?r?- 
 too, have yielded in but mains of men. 
 rarest instances any actual fragments of 
 the human frame, and it is easy to see 
 that more might be expected from the 
 kitchen middens, with their abundant 
 detritus of man's habitation and localized 
 association with his life, than in the case 
 of river-drift heaped up at long dis- 
 tances from the place where he had his 
 abode. 
 
 Not only in the gravel pits of the val- 
 ley of the Somme, not only in like situa- 
 tions along the banks of Extent of the 
 the Seine and the Oise, have ^j^.^^^f^i^'ol 
 these relics of the prehis- England, 
 toric life of man been discovered. Like 
 revelations have been made in the river 
 bottoms and sandpits of Great Britain. 
 In a gravel bed at Hoxne, in Suffolk,
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI 1. 1. 
 
 331 
 
 specimens of human workmanship hke 
 those above described were found as 
 early as the beginning of this century. 
 In similar formations between Guildford 
 and Godalming, flint implements of the 
 old stone age have been foimd and pre- 
 served. It must be borne in mind that 
 the special significance of such discov- 
 eries lies in the fact of the association in 
 the gravel beds of these human remains 
 with the bones of the mammoth and 
 other extinct species belonging to the 
 post-tertiary period of geology. In vari- 
 ous other localities like revelations have 
 been made by explorations of gravel beds, 
 such, for instance, as those at Ickling- 
 ham, at Heme Bay, at Abbot's-Langley, 
 and at Green Street Green, in Kent. In 
 a layer of river-drift, near Bedford, bones 
 of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the 
 hippopotamus, the primitive ox, the 
 horse, and the deer have been found in 
 prehistoric relations with flint imple- 
 ments belonging to the old stone age. 
 In short, the discoveries made in the 
 gravel beds of Great Britain have fully 
 corroborated and verified those made in 
 the valley of the Somme and on other 
 parts of the Continent. 
 
 We thus see that along the river ^■al- 
 
 leys of Europe, at a tinie before the in- 
 coming of the first Aryan tribes, prime- 
 val races had possession Deductions re- 
 
 of the country in various T^lf^^:^,.. 
 parts, and had begun those er-drift epoch, 
 rude activities out of which the civilized 
 condition was ultimately to spring. The 
 relics described in these last paragraphs 
 are of the most primitive pattern and 
 Avorkmanship. They indicate, indeed, 
 the very first emergence of men from 
 the state of absolute nature and barbarity. 
 The tool-making and tool-using instinct 
 marks, perhaps, the very earliest stages 
 of human development. Whatever may 
 have been the origin of man in these 
 western parts of Europe, we see him, in 
 these far prehistoric times, either an ab- 
 solute savage or a barbarian, but slightly 
 elevated above the savage state. Per- 
 haps if our knowledge were more com- 
 plete we should be able to delineate 
 many other circumstances relative to 
 these hard beginnings of civilized life 
 in Europe. The future may still contrib- 
 ute something to our further enlighten- 
 ment relative to the habits and manners 
 of prehistoric peoples, but for the pres- 
 ent Ave must remain satisfied with an 
 approximate view of their condition. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX.— rvlKX OK THE TUMULI. 
 
 F> F O R E d ism i ssi n g th e 
 subject of the prehis- 
 toric life of man on the 
 I continent of EurojDe, 
 still another field of 
 inquiry remains to be 
 considered. In all parts 
 of the European countries, from the Baltic 
 to the Mediterranean and from the Brit- 
 ish Isles to the Ural mountains, another 
 class of facts, bearing unmistakable evi- 
 
 dence of the ancient activities of men, 
 are plentifully distributed. These are 
 the mounds which the tribes builded, 
 in burial and for other TumuU and oth- 
 
 _ 11 11 „ 1 er memorials of 
 
 purposes, generally called pHmevaimaniu 
 Tumuli: standing stone Europe, 
 structures of several A-arieties, knoAvn 
 as Menhirs, Cromlechs, and Dol- 
 mens; barroAvs, camps, fortifications, 
 dykes, and perhaps altars of sacrifice, 
 besides manv other kinds of rude
 
 332 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 architecture and memorials. Such re- 
 mains, hardly of sufficient dij^^nity to be 
 known as' ruins, are found not only in 
 Europe but everywhere in the world. 
 
 Abundance of 
 such remains 
 throughout the 
 world. 
 
 MENHIK, AT CROISIK, FRANX'E. 
 
 Perhaps no country, great or small, is 
 ■without such manifest evidences and il- 
 lustrations of the long dead 
 activities of races and 
 tribes unknown to history. 
 EveryA\'ere this substratum of human 
 life, more aboriginal than the aborigines, 
 existed. Traces of it are found on every 
 hand. America, as well as the older 
 lands, abounds in astonishing proofs 
 of nations that existed here, even in 
 strength, between whom and the Indian 
 races that held the continent on its open- 
 ing to civilization as wide a 
 space of time and character 
 exists as that between the 
 rudest of the Red men and 
 their .Saxon conquerors. 
 The mound builders have 
 been abroad ; and the long, 
 serpentine mole of earth, or 
 conical hill, of artificial con- 
 struction, standing here and 
 there in the civilized coun- 
 tries of to-day, bear mute, 
 but everlasting testimony of the ancient 
 and un discoverable peoples who have 
 gone down to dust. 
 
 It is said by Sir John Lubbock that in 
 
 the Orkney islands more than a thousand 
 of these tumuli and stone heaps are 
 found. In the Danish 
 
 Meaning of the 
 
 peninsula the number is tumuu and stone 
 
 , .-, , T ., . T monuments. 
 
 still greater, and it would 
 be safe to say that in America more than 
 ten thousand such monuments of pre- 
 historic times exist. The variety ex- 
 hibited in these relics of a past age is 
 almost as great as their number. Per- 
 haps a majority of all were intended as 
 monument.s to the dead, but the details 
 are different, and many volumes could 
 not contain an elaborate description of 
 all. We know from history that even 
 from the daydawn of authentic story 
 men were disposed to mark the resting 
 place of the dead with a trophy. Pillars 
 were set up as the tangible evidence of 
 important transactions. In general, 
 every crisis in life, as well as its termi- 
 nation, demanded a testimonial. It is 
 said in the Assyrian annals that Semir- 
 amis buried her husband under a mound 
 of earth. A stone heajj was made over 
 the tomb of the father of CEdipus. In 
 the heroic age the building of mounds 
 over the dead was the custom of the 
 time. Patroclus, friend of the crested 
 Achilles, was buried under a tumulus a 
 
 
 DANlbH iJOLMt.N. 
 
 hundred feet in height ; and it has been 
 reported in tradition that Alyattes, father 
 of Croesus, had a stone-and-earthen tomb 
 more than a mile in circumference.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN. —MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 
 
 333 
 
 The mounds of which we are here to 
 speak belong to a remoter and ruder age 
 The mounds than that of the Trojan War 
 f:?wrof "^^ o'- the conquest of Canaan 
 bronze. by the Hebrews. And 
 
 yet they are not of so great antiquity as 
 those prehistoric memorials which we 
 
 situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, 
 England. It is the most striking relic 
 of its kind in the world, RuinofStone- 
 and has been many times ^^^^ii'^.^adi- 
 described by travelers and tio"^. 
 antiquaries. It consists of two great 
 circles of upright stones, one exterior to 
 
 CROMLECH OF HALSKOV, DENMARK. 
 
 have examined in the preceding chapter. 
 In general, the tumuli of Europe were 
 built in the age of bronze, and therefore 
 are posterior by a long epoch to the times 
 of the cave dwellers and coast people. 
 This is plainly evidenced in the utensils 
 and weaiDons which are 
 recovered from the 
 mounds, and which are 
 almost invariably of 
 bronze material. The 
 workmanship, more- 
 over, is of that half- 
 elegant desiarn and exe- 
 cution which belong to 
 an age subsequent, by 
 many centuries, even to 
 the neolithic, or new 
 stone, epoch. It now 
 remains foriis to exam- 
 ine, at least casually, 
 some of the existing 
 monuments belonging to the age of the 
 mound builders in Western Europe. 
 
 One of the most striking of these 
 memorials is the great megalithic ruin 
 known by the name of Stonehenge, 
 
 the other. The outer circle is about 
 three hundred feet in circumference, 
 and the stones in this row are as much 
 as sixteen feet in height and six feet in 
 diameter. On the tops of the rude pil- 
 lars are laid other stones, horizontally. 
 
 
 DANISH TUMULUS. 
 
 The inner circle is nine feet distant 
 from the outer. The stones composing 
 it are of smaller dimensions than the 
 others, and are in the native condition. 
 while those of the outer circle have been
 
 334 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 roughly liewn. The capstones also bear 
 the marks of having been rudely cut 
 into their present shape. 
 
 Originally the outer colonnade con- 
 tained thirty of these great pillars, with 
 their capstones, or imposts. Only sev- 
 enteen of them now remain in posi- 
 tion. The inner circle consisted at 
 first of forty pillars, only a part of 
 
 approach to the structure. Traces of 
 smaller avenues are also to be found, 
 and in the vicinity of the ruin are vari- 
 ous stones which seem to have consti- 
 tuted originally a part of the general 
 design. The whole aspect of the ruin 
 as seen to-day is weird and spectral in 
 the last degree, and the beholder can 
 but be impressed with the strangeness. 
 
 rKi:Hl>rc)KI( (^R.WEVARD ok quaternary period, near LITTAI, IN" CARNIOLA, AUSTRIA. 
 
 which are now standing. Within the 
 inner circle another series of pillars, 
 oval in character, and originally nineteen 
 in number, are found, which rise in 
 height toward the center. Around the 
 outside rim was drawn a moat and a 
 rampart about three hundred and sev- 
 enty yards in circumference. On the 
 northeast of the great circle and run- 
 ning out for a distance of about six 
 hundred }-ards, there are evidences of 
 
 as well as the antiquity of the monu- 
 ment before him. 
 
 Stonehenore has long been a fertile 
 topic in tradition. The oldest story of all 
 is that griven by Nennius, 
 
 *= -' Stories of Nen- 
 
 in the ninth century. He mus and cam- 
 declares that the structure 
 was erected by Aurelianus Ambrosius, m 
 memory of four hundred British chief- 
 tains who were slain there by Hengist 
 and his Saxon barbarians, in 472. At
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 
 
 335 
 
 the close of the twelfth century, Giral- 
 dus Cambrensis, another annalist, tells 
 a long story of a great pile of stones 
 called the Giant's Dance, anciently found 
 
 BURIAL UR.Ns (ENLARGED IROM li;l.i;ir,: 1 Ni i CUT). 
 
 in Ireland. He narrates that the stones 
 in question were brought to Ireland by 
 a company of Titans out of Africa, who 
 
 Britons, procured Merlin, by supernat- 
 ural means, to bring from Ireland into 
 Britain. And that he might leave some 
 famous monument of so great a treason 
 to future ages, in the same order and 
 art as they stood formerly, set them up 
 where the flower of the British nation 
 fell by the cutthroat practice of the 
 Saxons, and where, under the pretence 
 of peace, the ill-secured 3-outh of the 
 kingdom, by murderous designs, were 
 slain." 
 
 This story happily illustrates the com- 
 pass and authenticity of mediaeval his- 
 
 torv. It is well known that Authenticity of 
 
 the pillars composing the ^o^ySI^r^;.! 
 ruin of Stonehenge were hereby, 
 taken from stone quarries in the neigh- 
 borhood, so that no African giants were 
 needed to bring them across the sea. 
 It is also well established by an exami- 
 nation of the mounds in the vicinity 
 that the structure belongs to a period 
 not only earlier than the invasion of 
 Hengist and his Saxon marauders, but 
 long anterior to the conquest by the 
 Romans at the beginning of our era. 
 It is true that no mention is made 
 
 \ltW Ot bTONEHENGE. 
 
 set then:^ up on the plains of Kildare, 
 not far from the castle of Naas. ' ' These 
 stones," continues the story-teller, 
 ■"Aurelianus Ambrosius, King of the 
 
 of Stonehenge, by name, in the Latin 
 authors, but Hecatseus, a Greek histo- 
 rian, who flourished at Miletus about 
 550 B. C, describes a magnificent cir-
 
 336 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIhW. 
 
 cular temple, situated in what he calls 
 " The island of the Hyperboreans, over 
 against Celtica," and the description is 
 of a kind to warrant the conclusion that 
 the edifice in question was no other than 
 Stonehenge. 
 
 Clustered around this great ruin of 
 prehistoric times are many tumuli, con- 
 Extent of burial taining the dead and the 
 mounds in con- jj which Were buried 
 
 nection -with 
 
 Stonehenge. with them. No fewer than 
 three hundred burial mounds are foimd 
 within a radius of three miles from the 
 stone pillars marking the site of what 
 was doubtless a primitive temple. From 
 this it would appear that 
 the whole area round about 
 
 ««*®o. 
 
 o*" 
 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 
 %K 
 
 9 
 
 e 
 
 ¥\ 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 ^^ 
 
 « 
 
 
 GROUND PI-A^^ OF 
 
 DANISH CROMLECH. 
 
 was an ancient cemetery, 
 with some sort of barbaric 
 temple in the center. The 
 tumuli are manifestly 
 tombs. In every case, on 
 opening one of these 
 mounds, the remains of the dead are 
 found. In the great majority of cases 
 the interment has been by cremation, 
 and the evidences show that the manner 
 of sepulture was identical with that gen- 
 erally employed in the age of bronze. 
 
 If we open one of the tumuli — and 
 
 hundreds of them have been explored — 
 
 we shall find invariablv 
 
 Positions of the 
 
 primeval dead the remains of one or more 
 
 in sepulture. , , . tt 
 
 human beings. Here again 
 we discover that difference of instinct in 
 method which has al- 
 ways characterized the 
 
 The dead 
 
 two pos- 
 tures, one sitting and the 
 other prone, after the 
 manner employed in 
 modern burial. There seem to have 
 been pains taken in the adjustment of 
 the body in a posture befitting repose ; 
 and in determining what this should be, 
 
 doings of men, 
 are placed in 
 
 GROUND PLAN OF 
 DANISH DOLMEN. 
 
 some of the prehistoric tribes chose one 
 position and some another. The same 
 variety has been noticed in the case of 
 our Indian aborigines in America, many 
 of whom arrange the bodies of the dead 
 in a sitting posture. In the prehistoric 
 burial mounds which we are now con- 
 sidering, utensils and food were placed 
 
 SEl'L'LCHKAL MUNE CIRCLE. 
 
 about the body as if to serve the dead 
 in the land of the hereafter. It is here 
 that tire best revelation of the manner 
 of life peculiar to these people has been 
 made, and the best evidence afforded of 
 the epoch to which they belonged. 
 
 As already said, the implements ex- 
 humed from the tumuli are almost inva- 
 riably of bronze. In a The mounds be- 
 
 few instances iron weapons '°^}:^:''^'^''^'' 
 have been discovered, but bronze, 
 it has been invariably found on closer 
 scrutiny that the same have resulted 
 from a subsequent burial in an old grave. 
 Not a single instance is known of the re- 
 
 POSITION OF SKELETONS IN A TOMB OF THE STONE AGE. 
 
 covery from a tumulus, either in Western 
 France or Great Britian, of implements 
 or other relics belonging to the period
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TUMULI.. 
 
 337 
 
 of the Roman ascendency, and in only 
 a few cases have the discoveries carried 
 the antiquary back to a period more re- 
 mote than that of the age of bronze. 
 
 We may for a moment consider the 
 facts before us from a higher point of 
 view. The tumuli of the 
 British Isles are only one of 
 several kinds of receptacle 
 for the prehistoric dead. The palseolithic 
 and neolithic ages, as well as the age of 
 
 Diverse meth- 
 ods of races re- 
 specting death 
 and burial. 
 
 life the fact of death impressed the living 
 more seriously than any other phenome- 
 non whatsoever. This led, even in the 
 lowest stages of bai'barism, to the insti- 
 tution of rites and ceremonies connected 
 with the final putting away of the body. 
 It was one of the points at which the 
 primitive tribes easily diverged in their 
 customs and methods. There was from 
 the first a contest of belief as to the best 
 manner of disposing of the dead. One 
 
 FUNERAL IN THE PAL.t;0LITHIC AGE.^Drawnby Emile Bayard. 
 
 bronze, had their burial places, funerals, 
 and rude theories of death. Barbarism 
 developed into several forms of burial 
 method according to the locality and the 
 situation. The manner of disposing of 
 the dead was, indeed, one of the most 
 striking features of the barbaric life. It 
 would appear that from the earliest 
 emergence of man into the conscious 
 
 plan was to reduce the body to ashes, 
 and another was to preserve it in some 
 situation where it might be protected 
 from disturbance and, we might say, 
 sacrilege ; for we may well believe that 
 among the primal instincts of .'ravages 
 one of the first of those sentiments which 
 tend to the elevation of mankind was 
 respect for the body.
 
 338 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Throughout primitive Europe the evi- 
 dences of aboriginal burial are discover- 
 able in hundreds of localities. These 
 have been studied with dil- 
 igence by antiquaries, and 
 the results of the inquiry 
 We are able to distinguish 
 the older places of sepulture from the 
 newer — the palaeolithic cavern from the 
 
 Burial grounds 
 of different ages 
 may be distin- 
 guished. 
 
 ofeneralized. 
 
 pare for the funeral. Generally, after 
 rude pagan ceremonies, a procession was 
 formed and the body was borne away to 
 be either burned with loud lamentation 
 or deposited in some tomb which nature 
 had prepared in the rocks. Could the 
 observer from a distant and civilized age 
 have been lifted up over Western Eu- 
 rope in the epochs of aboriginal barba- 
 
 KUNERAI. IN THE NEOLITHIC AGE. -Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 more recent neolithic burial place, and 
 still more distinctly from the burial 
 places of the age of bronze. The con- 
 ditions of savage life in the respective 
 periods are sufficiently well known to 
 furnish the materials for the reconstruc- 
 tion of that primeval half-savage society 
 which prevailed for many ages. 
 
 It was the custom of the tribesmen 
 when one of their number died to as- 
 semble at the scene of death and pre- 
 
 rism he might have seen, winding here 
 and there in solemn manner, the funeral 
 processions on their way to the burial 
 places of the tribe. The scene was as 
 picturesque as instructive. The place 
 chosen for burial or incineration was 
 generally a solitude of cliff and wild 
 There, about the entrance of the cavern, 
 might be seen the gathered friends of 
 the dead lamentino- with wild g-esticula- 
 tions that eoinsr forth of man-life which
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.—JIEX OF THE TUMULI. 
 
 339 
 
 they — though barbarians — had already 
 discovered to be without return. 
 
 The next point of interest to be noted 
 in our examination of the 
 
 Funeral proces- . 
 
 sions and rites prehistoric burial places is 
 
 of sepulture. . i i_ ^ /• ii_ 
 
 the character oi the remains 
 in such situations. As in the case of the 
 cave dwellers, we may here learn much 
 about the stature, form, and general 
 character of the aborigines of Europe. 
 
 type between the two extremes, called 
 orthocephalic, or medium-headed. The 
 orthocephalic skull is most nearly like 
 the skull of civilized peoples, whereas 
 the other two types depart very much 
 from the common standard. As far as 
 we are able to discover, the two extreme 
 varieties of crania belonged to very- 
 primitive peoples, while the interme- 
 diate form is of more recent develop- 
 
 KL'NERAL I EAST IX THK AGE OF RRONZE.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 of skulls discoV' 
 ered in the 
 tombs. 
 
 The most striking fact in connection 
 with the skeletons of the people buried 
 The three types in the tumuH of the Brit- 
 ish Isles is the variation pre- 
 sented in the skulls. There 
 seem to be three distinct types of skull 
 revealed by an examination of the tombs. 
 These are what are called long skulls, or 
 dolichocephalic crania; short skulls, or 
 those defined as brachycephalic ; and a 
 
 ment as well as more symmetrical char- 
 acter. 
 
 The long skull, such as has been 
 found in many of the tumuli of Great 
 Britain, has almost as great character of 
 a measurement as that ^db'rrchy^e-" 
 of the Neanderthal head phaiic crania, 
 described in a previous chapter. Xot 
 that the long and narrow skulls of the 
 tumuli are so distinctly animal as the
 
 340 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 shape of skulls 
 and burial 
 mounds. 
 
 one to -svliich reference has just been 
 made, but their striking feature is the 
 long suture and great measurement 
 from front to rear. The brachycephalic 
 crania discovered in the mounds are ex- 
 actly the opposite of this. They are 
 peculiarly short from front to back, and 
 in many cases suggest to the antiquar}' 
 that they have been squeezed up into un- 
 natural dimensions. It seems, however, 
 that no marks of artificial pressure have 
 been di.scovered, and doubtless the short 
 skulls are just as nature produced them. 
 Another circumstance well calculated 
 to excite the keenest interest is now to 
 Coincidence in be noted. There IS a constant 
 and ciiriojts relation between 
 t/ic shape of the skulls and 
 the shape of the tumuli in wliieh they are 
 buried. There are two kinds of mounds : 
 a circular tumulus and an elongated 
 barrow ; and it is found on examina- 
 tion that the dolichocephalic heads are 
 invariably in the long barrows, while the 
 short heads are in the circular mounds ! 
 The evidence is conclusive that this ar- 
 rangement could not have been acciden- 
 tal, and it is almost equally clear that 
 two races, belonging perhaps to dif- 
 ferent prehistoric epochs, are repre- 
 sented in these tombs. Very careful 
 explorations have been made by skillful 
 antiquaries. Dr. Thurnam, of England, 
 has made accurate measurements of a 
 hundred and thirty-seven skulls just as 
 they were taken from the British 
 mounds. Of these, sixty-seven were 
 exhumed from long barrows and sev- 
 enty from circular tumuli. Not a single 
 long skull was found in a round tumi:- 
 lus, or a single short .skull in an elon- 
 gated barrow ; from which it appears 
 conclusive that the long-headed tribes 
 buried their dead in the elongated tu- 
 niuli, while the circular mounds were 
 used for the burial of the short-headed 
 
 people. It would be pressing the argu- 
 ment too far to say that these prehistoric 
 inhabitants of Great Britian made the 
 long barrows which they raised over 
 their dead in imitation of the shape of 
 their heads, but the fact remains that 
 such queer analogy does exist and re- 
 mains to be .accounted for. 
 
 The tumuli contain almost invariably 
 a sort of stone sarcophagus in which the 
 human remains are depos- sarcophagi and 
 ited. In the cases Avhere """^^^fJ^r; 
 
 visions tor the 
 
 cremation has been em- dead, 
 ployed, the ashes of the dead are put 
 into a rude urn and the latter buried in 
 the place of the body. In the stone 
 box are found the implements and 
 utensils which were left with the dead, 
 and this fact, as already indicated, 
 points to a belief in a hereafter. It is 
 perceived that these rude people had 
 hopes of a continuous existence or a re- 
 vival of existence beyond the event of 
 death. This does not, however, imply 
 any belief in what is called the doctrine 
 of the immortality of the soul. The 
 evidences about the dead in these 
 mounds all point to the confidence 
 which the living then had of the con- 
 tinued material existence of the person 
 buried. Ever}' article found in connec- 
 tion with the body is clearly related to 
 the ordinary daily wants and con- 
 veniences of the deceased, and the 
 significance of such association of his 
 implements, and even of food, with the 
 person deceased, points only to the be- 
 lief that the dead would continue as he 
 had been, or at least revive at some 
 time, in his former state of being. 
 
 It must not be supposed that all of the 
 facts here referred to are General distri- 
 deduced from the mounds rrdst'wil 
 locally associated with the em Europe. 
 old ruin of Stonehenge. They have 
 been gathered rather from many sources.
 
 342 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JEiXAVXE. 
 
 and are typical of all. This species of 
 burial under mounds was practiced in all 
 parts of Great Britain and nearly every- 
 where on the Continent. The peninsula 
 of Denmark is almost picturesque with 
 tumuli, and under them all are the re- 
 mains of a prehistoric people. Perhaps 
 not a single county in England is with- 
 out its monuments of this kind. Not 
 only in Wiltshire, but in Gloucestershire 
 and Berkshire, and, indeed, everywhere 
 on the island such evidences of a prim- 
 itive people are discovered. In Ireland, 
 also, and in Scotland, the tumuli are 
 plentifully scattered over the country, 
 and are indeed in some places so abun- 
 
 TUMULUS WITH STONE ENTRAN'CE, NEAR UBI, DENMARK. 
 
 dant as to suggest the frequent burial 
 grounds of modern nations. 
 
 The suggestion has been made above 
 that two or three races contributed to 
 Evidence that people thcsc aucieut scpul- 
 chers. This belief has well- 
 
 several races 
 were concerned 
 
 in the tumuli. nigh passed from theory 
 into fact. It has been noticed that all 
 the stone implements discoverable in the 
 burial mounds have been as.sociated with 
 the long heads, whereas no weapon or 
 utensil of stone has been found in any 
 .sarcophagus where the short-headed 
 tribes put away their dead. In the vaults 
 of the latter, on the contrary, the imple- 
 ments are all of bronze, and the work- 
 manship indicates a very great advance 
 toward civilization as compared with 
 that of the utensils found in the long- 
 
 head tombs. It should be said, more- 
 over, that the stone tools and weapons 
 in connection with dolichocephalic skel- 
 etons are not by any means of so prim- 
 itive a pattern as those found in the shell 
 mounds or the cave dwellings of the Con- 
 tinent. They are, on the contrary, 
 neolithic, or new stone, implem^ents, 
 which shows that the long-headed tribes 
 flourished in the epoch before, but ap- 
 proximate to, the age of bronze. It 
 might not be hazardous to infer that the 
 round heads came into the island as a 
 bronze-bearing soldiery, overcame the 
 long heads, or amalgamated with them, 
 and then adopted like methods of bur- 
 ial. It has been re- 
 marked that the 
 Lapps and Finns 
 and several other 
 existing races in 
 the north of Europe 
 are brachycephalic, 
 and the hypothesis 
 of an invasion from 
 this region and a 
 conquest of the pre- 
 historic Britons is b)- no means beyond 
 the limits of right reason. 
 
 After Stonehenge, perhaps one of the 
 most interesting monuments in the west 
 of Europe is that of Carnac, 
 
 Megalithic ruin 
 It consists of of Carnac in Bre- 
 tagne. 
 
 in Bretagne. 
 
 eleven rows of unhewn 
 stones, set up after the manner already 
 described, but not in circles. Some of 
 the pillars ai'e as much as twenty-two 
 feet in height. But in their present 
 state they differ greatly in dimensions, 
 some being scarcely discoverable above 
 the level of the plain. As far as the an- 
 tiquary has been able to trace a design 
 for the ruin, it appears to have been a 
 series of avenues several miles in length. 
 At the present time, however, it is diffi- 
 cult to make out the entire area or the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMILI. 
 
 343 
 
 complete idea of the builders. The ad- 
 jacent farms have encroached upon what 
 was doubtless sacred ground, and many 
 of the stones, even whole sections of the 
 avenues, have been cleared away. In 
 other parts it is still easy to note the 
 direction and course of the roAvs of col- 
 umns, the width and character of the in- 
 ten-ening spaces, and something of the 
 general design. 
 
 It is believed by scholars best informed 
 on the subject that this ruin of Carnac 
 has an origin somewhat more remote 
 than that of Stonehenge. Around the 
 latter the tumuli belong, for the most 
 part, to the age of bronze. But the 
 mounds of Bretagne, and it is 
 thought Carnac itself, are rel- 
 ics and monuments of the neo- ,.= 
 lithic age of an earlier date. 
 
 The fact has been men- 
 tioned that in many of the tu- 
 muli more bodies than one 
 have been de- 
 posited. It ap- 
 pears, however, 
 that in most cases these multi- 
 ple bur\'ings in the same vault 
 took place at different times. The pri- 
 mary burial, perhaps, included but a sin- 
 gle person, but at a subsequent time 
 another body would be deposited in the 
 same rude sarcophagus which held the 
 first. This would involve the opening of 
 the mound. The stone box in the bottom 
 was generally large enough to contain 
 the remains of several persons, especial- 
 ly when the sitting posture had been 
 adopted in sepulture. The prehistoric 
 people had the same respect for the 
 bodies of the dead that modern races 
 have cherished. It appears that only in 
 rare instances were the original remains 
 displaced from the sarcophagus to make 
 room for a new occupant. In case of 
 second burial, there was merely a re- 
 
 arrangement of the old skeleton to make 
 room for the new. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that 
 cremation was practiced at the same 
 time with the common mode of burial. 
 The coexistence of these two methods of 
 disposing of the bodies of coincident 
 the dead has been noted in T^Z^Ltl"^ 
 
 Dunal and cre- 
 
 the case of manj- peoples, mation. 
 ancient and modern. The Eastern na- 
 tions employed both. The Greeks some- 
 times buried their dead and sometimes 
 burned them to ashes. So also the 
 Romans, and even at the present time 
 we note the reappearance of cremation 
 and its contest for the masterv as a 
 
 Practice of suc- 
 cessive buryings 
 iu the same 
 mound. 
 
 RUINS OF CARNAC, BRETAGNE. 
 
 scientific method opposed to the un- 
 scientific, and even superstitious, dis- 
 position of dead bodies in the earth. 
 
 In the case of the tumuli we know, 
 from the examination of the other relics 
 left in connection with the , , . . 
 
 Imperfect incin- 
 
 burial urns, that the latter eration of pre- 
 
 , , -I . ,1 1 historic remains. 
 
 belonged to the .same epoch 
 as the commoner method of sepulture. It 
 mu.st be noted in this connection that 
 incineration of the dead was by no 
 means so complete in the times of 
 which we speak as by the superior proc- 
 esses of modern times. The ancients, 
 especially the barbarian ancients, were 
 unable to produce a high degree of arti- 
 ficial heat. The bodies of the dead were 
 simply exposed to the action of an open
 
 344 
 
 GREAT K AC lis OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 fire, and there was a larger residuum to 
 be put into the urn than the mere hand- 
 ful of ashes left from the cremation 
 furnace of the present time. In general, 
 the larofer and heavier bones were inere- 
 ly charred, and these, together with the 
 ashes, were put into the rude urn and 
 set in the stone box in the bottom of the 
 tumulus. 
 
 Another fact of much interest is that 
 the relics of human life and human 
 Deposition of need, so many times re- 
 giftsandproji- furred to in the preceding 
 
 sions for deaa -t fc» 
 
 not universal. pages as accompanying the 
 remains of the dead, are bv no means 
 
 buried them. Doubtless it is improper 
 to use the words rich and poor in this 
 connection ; but even in the reduced 
 stages of human evolution distinctions 
 in property and respect begin to ap- 
 pear, and it was no doubt on this basis 
 that the distribution of relics in pre- 
 historic graves was made. The wealthy, 
 if we may use the term, had more re- 
 spect and more emblems of that respect 
 in the day of burial. The poor, as in 
 all ages, went down to the potter's field 
 without such tokens of esteem. It is to 
 be presumed that the articles deposited 
 generally belonged aforetime to the per- 
 
 
 BROKEN SEPl'l (UK M URN, bllnWING INCI^iERATED REMAINS. 
 
 always found in the tumuli. In very 
 many, even a majority of cases, nothing 
 at all is found except the skeleton or 
 skeletons of them that were buried. A 
 gradation is noticed in the number and 
 character of the weapons, utensils, and 
 articles of food deposited with the body. 
 Sometimes they are plentiful and some- 
 times scarce. This indicates a differ- 
 ence in rank and station among those 
 deceased and among their friends who 
 
 son buried, and inasmuch as one would 
 have many things and his less enter- 
 prising fellow have nothing but a spear or 
 an ax, the first would be buried with many 
 relics and the other with few or none. 
 
 The two English naturalists, Bateman 
 and Green well, have given classification of 
 us the results of their obser- ,^^tw^^f"f„ 
 
 implements in 
 
 vations in about four hun- the mounds. 
 dred tombs belonging to the prehistoric 
 age. Of the two hundred and ninety-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 
 
 345 
 
 seven examined by Mr. Bateman fully 
 one hundred had no relics of any sort 
 other than the bare skeletons of the per- 
 sons buried. In forty of the tumuli he 
 found drinking vessels and food vases. 
 A hundred and 
 five had imple- 
 ments and weap- 
 ons in connec- 
 tion with the 
 skeletons, and in 
 thirty-five i n - 
 stances articles 
 of pottery were 
 found. Of the 
 one htindred and 
 two mounds 
 opened by Mr. 
 Greenwell only 
 thirty contained 
 implements or 
 weapons, and the 
 other seventy- 
 two were devoid 
 of relics. In all 
 the tombs which 
 this naturalist 
 examined the 
 skeletons were 
 found in a sit- 
 ting posture; 
 never recum- 
 bent. 
 
 In some of the 
 mounds there 
 are evidences of 
 what may be 
 called the begin- 
 nings of ideal- 
 ity. Instead of actual weapons and im- 
 Deposition of plements, models of the 
 same are sometimes bur- 
 ied with the dead. It 
 has been noticed in modern times, 
 particularly among the Esquimaux, 
 
 that this usage prevails. A mock 
 M.— Vol. 1—23 
 
 weapon is put in the place of the real one 
 in the tomb. Another fact must be 
 borne in mind in this connection, and 
 that is that the presence of implements 
 and weapons in the graves of these an- 
 
 models; ■what 
 the findings sig' 
 nify. 
 
 INCINERATION OF THE DEAD, IN THE ACE OF THE TL.Ml'LI. 
 Drawn by Ernile Bayard. 
 
 cient peoples does not indicate positively 
 their belief that the dead would revive 
 to need and use their weapons again. 
 The symbolical idea, the idea of com- 
 memoration, and the influence of tradi- 
 tion may all combine to give another 
 significance to the presence of these
 
 346 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAX/kIXD. 
 
 relics in the grave. Doubtless at the 
 first they must have been buried with 
 the dead in the belief that they would 
 be useful to iheni in another life analo- 
 gous to the present. Custom in this re- 
 spect would soon grow into habit, and 
 habit would presently have the force of 
 law. The usage would perpetuate itself 
 after the belief had perished. To the 
 present day, and even among the most 
 civilized peoples of the world, many 
 usages obtain with respect to the dead, 
 the significance of which could not be 
 deduced from the literal facts present 
 in the inquiry. Nothing is more com- 
 mon than to deposit with the dead va- 
 rious articles which have simply an 
 affectional and commemorative signifi- 
 cation. The marriage ring remains upon 
 the finger. Favorite ornaments are care- 
 fully adjusted as the owner was wont to 
 wear them. Particularly are the regalia 
 and insignia of rank put into the tomb 
 with the departed. The priest is buried 
 with his cross, the sailor with his com- 
 pass, and the warrior with his sword. 
 None of these things signify an existing 
 
 belief in the further usefulness of these 
 articles to the dead. They are com- 
 memorative merely, conventional marks 
 of rank, of association, and affection on 
 the part of the living. 
 
 To a certain extent these principles 
 no doubt operated with the prehistoric 
 peoples; and all inferences Meaning of ar- 
 relative to the meaning ^^.^/.f/-^^ 
 
 of the articles found in the human nature. 
 
 barbaric tombs of extinct races must be 
 checked and corrected by what we know 
 to be the general laws and tendencies of 
 human nature. Opinions and beliefs 
 pass through many mutations, and cus- 
 tom is known to be more persistent than 
 either. Long after the fervid convic- 
 tion of the truth of a certain doctrine 
 and theory of human life and death has 
 passed away or given place to a mild 
 and inoperative assent of the mind, the 
 ancient usages which were based on that 
 belief in the epoch of its pristine vigor 
 continue to be observed, and these might 
 well convey to distant ages an erroneous 
 impression of the current opinions of 
 the people. 
 
 Chapter XX.— Prehistoric Kaces ok Aivierica. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ESTIGES of prehistoric 
 races of men are by no 
 means limited to Eu- 
 rope and the countries 
 of the East. In the 
 three Americas akso 
 such traces of peoples 
 unknown to history are abundantly dis- 
 tributed. It remains to note in the 
 present chapter at least the prominent 
 features of the ancient monuments of 
 our own country and of the continent 
 south of the isthmus of Panama. It is 
 the intention merely to sketch the out- 
 
 line of our primitive monuments, and to 
 deduce therefrom a few general conclu- 
 sions relative to the peoples by whom 
 they were built and the ages in which 
 they flourished. 
 
 In all parts of North America, from 
 the Alleghanies to the far West, and 
 from the great lakes to 
 
 the gulf of Mexico, a class mounds in the 
 f „ ,1 . three Americas. 
 
 ot monumental remains 
 may be observed by the traveler and 
 antiquary sufficiently impressive in 
 their extent and variety, and strikingly 
 sug^gestive of a remote antiquity. Even
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 347 
 
 in the countries east of the Appala- 
 chians many such monuments are found. 
 They were noted on the first arrival of 
 the civilized races on this continent, but 
 their significance was long ignored. It 
 was supposed at the first that they were 
 the works of the then existing tribes 
 inhabiting the New World. In fact, 
 many of the remains which are now the 
 subjects of antiquarian research were 
 the products of the barbarous peoples of 
 North America and the semicivilized 
 races of Mexico, the Central Isthmus, 
 and Peru. It re- 
 quires some de- ^^ ^* 
 gree of acumen ^^r^ 
 at the present 
 day to distin- 
 guish, between 
 those monu- 
 mental remains 
 which are refer- 
 able to the peo- 
 p 1 e s possessing 
 this continent in 
 the times of the 
 discovery of 
 America and sub- 
 sequent, and 
 those other more 
 monumental tro- 
 phies of the ages long before. Modern 
 inquiry, however, has easily sifted this 
 question to the bottom, and the scholar 
 of to-day is no longer perplexed by the 
 confusion of the later with the earlier 
 monuments. 
 
 Perhaps at the beginning of the in- 
 quiry it may be well to note the extreme 
 Antiquity of the antiquity of the tumuli and 
 earthworks of America as 
 indicated by their geo- 
 logical relations. On this continent, as 
 well as in Europe, the great rivers were 
 aforetime much vaster in breadth and 
 volume than at the present day. They 
 
 filled the valleys from hill to hill with 
 great floods, sweeping on to the sea. In 
 the long course of ages the rivers shrank 
 to comparatively their present dimen- 
 sions, and in doing so withdrew their 
 waters from the hills which constituted 
 their barrier on either side, and sought a 
 narrower valley and a lower level. There 
 have thus been formed what may be 
 called the first or lower river bottom 
 and the second plateau above. 
 
 It is, perhaps, impossible to determine 
 at what remote period this retreat from 
 
 mounds indica- 
 ted by their sit- 
 uation. 
 
 GREAT MdUND NEAK MiAMISBLKG, OHId. 
 
 the higher to the lower level and from the 
 broad floods of the earlier prehistoric 
 geologic epoch to the mod- ^^^^^^rwr* 
 ern streams which trav- "ver levels, 
 erse the continent at the present time 
 occurred ; but such is the history of the 
 change which has taken place. In no 
 single instance has one of the prehistoric 
 mounds of our country been discovered 
 on the lower terraces formed by the river. 
 The}^ are found in many places on the 
 higher plateaus and on uplands round 
 about, but never on the present or recent 
 levels of an existing stream. From this 
 it has been clearlv inferred that the men-
 
 348 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfAXA'/Xn. 
 
 uments in question were built before the 
 recession of the rivers into their present 
 channels; and it can hardly be doubted 
 that the races who flourished in that 
 primeval age looked down from a hu- 
 mid atmosphere on a world abounding 
 in turbid waters. 
 
 The frequency of the American tu- 
 muli has already been remarked. They 
 
 General mystery abound. In all partS of 
 
 ciit<i"bTthe^'" the ilississippi valley the 
 
 mounds. 
 
 burial 
 
 outlines of earthworks and 
 mounds mav be discovered. 
 
 m 
 
 
 EARTHWORKS AT CEDAR BANK, OHIO. 
 
 Their numbers reach easih- into thou- 
 sands, and their importance was such long 
 ago as to constitute the subject-mattet 
 of the first volume of the .Smithsonian 
 Contribjitions to Knowledge. They have 
 demanded the attention of scholars and 
 intiquaries during a great part of the 
 present century. Though vast stores of 
 information have been gathered from 
 their exploration, the mystery of their 
 ultimate origin and design remains as 
 impenetrable as when they lirst drew 
 the attention of the pioneers. 
 
 In some localities the mounds and tu- 
 
 muli arc much more frequent and im- 
 portant than in others. In general, the 
 upper terraces along the great streams 
 which contribute to the Father of 
 Waters are the sites of the most striking 
 and instructive of these monuments. 
 But beyond the limits of our own coun- 
 try, in Central America, in ^Mexico, and 
 in Peru, and other parts of the southern 
 continent, these evidences of extinct 
 civilizations are plentiful. 
 
 The valley of the Ohio seems to have 
 been a favorite seat and stronghold of 
 the prehistoric peo- ohio valley a 
 pies by whom these '^:^^°' 
 monuments were works, 
 reared. One of the most famous 
 of them all is on the banks of the 
 Little Miami river, and from its 
 evident character is called Fort 
 Hill. Another work of great im- 
 portance is at Newark, Ohio. One 
 of the greatest of the mounds is 
 situated on the plain of Cahokia, 
 Illinois, opposite the cit}' of St. 
 Louis. Another of striking char- 
 acter is found on Grave Creek, 
 near Wheeling, in West Virginia, 
 and still another at ]\Iiamisburg, 
 in Ohio. One of the most strik- 
 ing of all is in the same State, at 
 Cedar Bank, on the Scioto, and 
 in various parts of Ohio, Indiana, and 
 Illinois such remains are found, even at 
 random. Far to the northwest, in 
 Wisconsin and Iowa, the primeval race 
 left its imperishable vestiges ; and some 
 of the most interesting mounds of the 
 kind are discovered in those States. 
 South of the river Ohio, also, such re- 
 mains of primeval man are plentiful. 
 Tennessee abounds in mounds, and Ala- 
 bama and Mississippi have many such 
 remarkable monuments. Indeed, it 
 would be easier to specify in what parts 
 of the great valley of the Mississippi
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 349 
 
 such remains of an extinct race are )!ot 
 to be found, than to note all the locali- 
 ties where they exist. 
 
 The American monuments, like those 
 
 of the principal 
 circles and 
 mounds. 
 
 PLAN OF SQUARE MOUNU, .NEAR MARIETTA. 
 
 of Europe, dififer greatly in dimensions, 
 Military design importance, and general 
 character. The most strik- 
 ing of them all were man- 
 ifestly military fortifications. These 
 are laid off and executed as if by an en- 
 gineer of modern times, though the de- 
 sign is greatly different from any that 
 would now be used in military opera- 
 tions. Great is 
 the extent and 
 area covered by 
 some of these 
 works. The re- 
 markable mon- 
 ument at Fort 
 Hill, Ohio, has 
 a circumvalla- 
 tion of nearly 
 four miles, and 
 the height of 
 the mole, or ag- 
 ger, is from ten 
 to twenty feet. 
 Outside of this 
 is a ditch, and 
 
 the whole arrangement was manifestly 
 one of defense against a powerful enemy. 
 In the first place, an exact circle of great 
 
 extent is drawn upon the hill ; and around 
 the circumference the earthworks are 
 constructed. The circle is not quite 
 closed on one side, but has a protected 
 entrance, flanked Avith long lines of 
 earthworks branching to the right and 
 left. These, in their turn, are defended 
 by other lines running out nearly in 
 the form of a great rectangle in front 
 of the entrance to the circle. Even be- 
 yond this rectangle, at two of the cor- 
 ners and in other positions, are .smaller 
 circles and long mounds of earth of pe- 
 culiar form. No one can view the situ- 
 ation and consider its extent, and even 
 the skill with which the fortifications 
 were planned, without being amazed at 
 the strength, capacity, and even genius 
 of the people by whom they were con- 
 structed. 
 
 The great fortifications at Newark, 
 Ohio, are fully two miles square. More 
 than twelve miles of em- ohio fortifica- 
 bankment, ranging from ^o°'„d'of ca. 
 two to twenty feet in height, iioWa. 
 mark the outline and nature of the de- 
 
 EARTHWORKS AT HOPETON, OHIO. 
 
 fenses. The mound on the plain of Ca- 
 hokia is seven hundred feet long and five 
 hundred feet in breadth. Its height is
 
 350 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 ninety feet, the superficial area about 
 eight acres, and the contents nearly 
 twenty millions of cubic feet. The 
 mound on Grave creek, in "West Virginia, 
 has an elevation of seventy feet, and the 
 one at Miamisburg, Ohio, is nearly as 
 great in elevation and extent. 
 
 We come now to consider some of the 
 strangest monuments which the human 
 Earthworks in race has left in its track. 
 ^eLt and ser- It "^^^ l^^en discovered that 
 pents. many of the embank- 
 
 ments and outer works under considera- 
 tion have the form of men or animals. 
 
 -€:y^% 
 
 GREAT SERPENT MOUNP, IN ADAMS COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 It is not uncommon in the States of Wis- 
 consin and Iowa to come upon one of 
 these ancient works which, considered 
 in its entirety, presents a huge effigy of 
 man or beast. There is no mistaking 
 the design. It was manifestly intended 
 to represent a living creature, laid prone 
 or in profile on the earth. The effect is 
 that of a huge bas-relief, developed from 
 
 the ground. Still more astonishing is 
 the great serpentine mound on the banks 
 of Brush creek, in Ohio. 
 
 The serpentine 
 
 The mole of earth repre- mound of Brush 
 
 .. .1 i • r creek, Ohio. 
 
 sentmg the serpent is, from 
 head to tail, over a thousand feet in 
 length. The figure is five or six feet in 
 height and nearly thirty feet in width 
 at the base, diminishing gradually to- 
 ward the tail. At the sides of the neck 
 are two flat, or ear-like, projections, 
 and the mouth stands wide open. Right 
 in front of the mouth, and placed as if 
 issuing therefrom, is a large circular ele- 
 vation four feet in height, in the shape 
 of an <i'g%. It is as though the serpent 
 had either ejected or was about to swal- 
 low the great bod}- partly inserted in its 
 jaws ! The long line of the work repre- 
 senting the serpent's body is arranged 
 on the curvilinear crest of a natural ele- 
 vation, parallel with the stream, and the 
 whole may well be regarded as one of 
 the most astonishing relics of human 
 caprice. 
 
 In connection with these mounds and 
 earthworks are the remains of the dead. 
 The circular mounds when Religious pur- 
 opened generally reveal P°--r;f-«<^ 
 skeletons of a prehistoric military. 
 race, and in connection with these are 
 found the implements and utensils pe- 
 culiar to the epoch in which the mounds 
 were erected. Another fact of interest 
 in connection with the greater works 
 which we are considering is the asso- 
 ciation of what appear to be religious 
 structures and designs. Within the cir- 
 cumvallation of what was manifestly a 
 military defense, will generally be found 
 what has been thought by antiquarians 
 to be the outlines of a sacred edifice or, 
 at any rate, a sacred site where the re- 
 ligious ceremonial of the people was 
 doubtlessly celebrated. Many marks of 
 the significance and purpose of this
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.—PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 351 
 
 part of the works have been discovered 
 and explained, from which it is inferred 
 that there was something more perma- 
 nent about the fortifications than would 
 be expected in the case of transient de- 
 fenses thrown up against an enemy. 
 These earthworks appear to mark the 
 sites and strongholds of the people, 
 to which they rallied in the times of 
 national tumult, and which consti- 
 tuted a sort of military capital for the 
 country. 
 
 The American antiquities under 
 consideration have given rise to 
 many theories and speculations. 
 Ever and anon some new and em- 
 Forgery substi- pirical view has been 
 tmo fnvjsugr put forth as to the origin 
 tioii- of the mounds and for- 
 
 tifications and the people by whom 
 they Avere reared. It is surprising 
 to what extent these speculations 
 have been carried. Those who 
 have theorized on the subject have 
 in many instances been entirely un- 
 scrupulous in regard to the means 
 by which their theory was to be sub- 
 stantiated. Forgeries innumerable 
 have been perpetrated with a view 
 to bolstering up some preposterous 
 theory about the mound builders. 
 Inscriptions have been made to 
 order, in Greek and Hebrew and 
 Celtic, and even in the Runic char- 
 acters of the Northmen, to sub- 
 stantiate what the forgers had given out 
 as an explanation of the mounds. But 
 meanwhile a truer interpretation has 
 been going forward under the care of 
 scientific antiquaries, and the foolish 
 stories which have been invented rela- 
 tive to the prehistoric earthworks of 
 America will find no further credence 
 among intelligent people. 
 
 Many are the legitimate inferences 
 which may be drawn relative to the life 
 
 and manners of the people by whom the 
 American prehistoric monuments were 
 built. In the first place, there are evi- 
 dences of a vast and far- Far-reaching in- 
 reaching intercourse among mounT ^ ot-*^^ 
 them. The relics that are teries. 
 found in the mounds are drawn from dif- 
 ferent and distant localities, and their 
 character indicates, in general, a social 
 
 SCAIB 
 
 irSBfCtolln. 
 
 
 
 
 FORT HILL, BUTLER COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 and industrial state, in a tolerable stage 
 of development. 
 
 In the tumuli and earthworks we find 
 many articles of pottery, greatly suijerior 
 to the corresponding I'elics in the primi- 
 tive tombs of Great Britain and the Con- 
 tinent. The American articles are fre- 
 quently of elegant design. Many carved 
 works in stone are found in the same 
 situations, and ornaments of silver and 
 copper, almost worthy of a modern jew-
 
 352 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 eler, are taken from their resting- places 
 alongside of ancient skeletons. 
 
 The materials of these utensils and arti- 
 cles of adornment are derived from many 
 Materials depos- and distant places. The 
 ited have been ^^oyrce of the silvcr is not 
 
 brought from 
 
 great distances, known, but the native cop- 
 per has evidently been brought from 
 the mines of lake vSuperior. The mica, 
 of which other ornaments are made, is 
 from the Alleghanies. Beautiful shells 
 are found in the same situations, which 
 had their home in the gulf of ]\Iexico. 
 Implements of obsidian and porphyry, 
 of Mexican origin, are frequently discov- 
 ered with the other relics. As to such 
 
 VASi:s KKOM MOUNDS. 
 
 implements and specimens of art of Eu- 
 ropean origin as have occasionally been 
 found in the sepulchral mounds of the 
 New World, they are to be traced unmis- 
 takably to later burials in the ancient 
 tombs. 
 
 Another dediiction of much importance 
 
 is that which relates to the extent of these 
 
 prehistoric populations and the nature of 
 
 their industries. It must 
 
 The mounds 
 
 constructed by have been a populous na- 
 
 populous races. ,. . r i <.•■<.• 
 
 tion out of whose activities 
 sprang these great mounds and fortifica- 
 tions. The amount of labor expended 
 on such a monument as that in the plain 
 of Cahokia is like the .sum of the toil 
 which reared the pyramid of Cheops. 
 
 Here we have a mass of twenty millions 
 of cubic feet of earthy material heaped 
 up in regular form and with a definite 
 design. The labor of many thousands 
 was required to do it ; and when we re- 
 flect upon the imperfect facilities which 
 the old races possessed for the execu- 
 tion of such works, we are still further 
 astonished at the magnitude of the 
 enterprise. 
 
 It is known to all that tribes inhabit- 
 ing a country in the character of hunters 
 and fishermen are always Mound builders 
 sparsely distributed. The ^^^^Tstgeln 
 most abundant natural development. 
 supplies are only sufficient for a small 
 population. The hunting 
 stage of society is, therefore, 
 always limited to a small and 
 widely scattered population. 
 It requires the agricultural 
 stage of development to pro- 
 duce and maintain a thickly 
 settled people. The artificial 
 resources of the soil must be 
 added to the native resources 
 of the woods before a great 
 population can be created or 
 maintained. Therefore, these 
 prehistoric races who built the Amer- 
 ican mounds and forts must have come 
 out of a primitive stage of barbarian 
 life and entered upon the agricul- 
 tural epoch. Their industrial life must 
 have been large and regular to sup- 
 port and foster such enterprises as we 
 have before us; and the methods and 
 economy and distribution employed by 
 them must have re.sembled, if they did 
 not approximate, the methods and facili- 
 ties of the historical era. 
 
 Still a third consideration is clearly 
 deducible from the evidence of the 
 mounds. A great fortification laid out 
 with geometric precision and executed 
 as if by regular engineering implies not
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 353 
 
 only a defensive array of the means by 
 which a people would protect itself from 
 Deductions from attack and destruction; it 
 character of the ^Iso implies «« offensive and 
 '"■"'■'^s- opposing poiver, an enemy, 
 
 numerous and dangerous to be combat- 
 ted and warded off. It does not imply 
 such an enemy as would be encountered 
 in the hunting or nomadic stages of 
 tribal development. That is, the means of 
 defense would, under the common law of 
 reason, be proportioned to the resources, 
 aggressiveness, and skill of the foe. 
 We can eas- 
 
 in the earth mounds of the New World 
 with tho.se discovered in the tumuli of 
 Great Britain indicates Evidences of 
 clearly the- greater antiq- X^^,^:"^^,,, 
 uity of the former. The ican mounds, 
 earth surrounding the bones and other 
 human relics in the American mounds is 
 exceedingly dry and compact. The situ- 
 ation is generally favorable in the last 
 degree to the preservation of human re- 
 mains. Below the level of frost and en- 
 tirely impervious to water, the dry earth 
 surrounding and covering the vaults 
 
 SC/>LE 
 aOQ tl.loXht Inch 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 ily see, in these 
 considerations 
 at least, the 
 outline of great 
 nations con- 
 tending for the 
 mastery of the 
 Mississippi 
 valley. No 
 other hypoth- 
 esis will ex- 
 plain the facts. 
 There must 
 have been in 
 these regions, 
 in an epoch 
 long antedat- 
 ing the era of 
 the Red men, 
 
 great agricultural peoples, with institu- 
 tions of religion and war. There must 
 Great peoples have been intercourse and 
 ^oTnTfof^eT-- relations with other peo- 
 ican antiquities, pigs like themselves, and 
 these must sometimes have been rela- 
 tions of hostility. Indeed, it would ap- 
 pear from the strong military character 
 of the greatest and most important of 
 the monuments that war was, even in 
 these prehistoric times, the most marked 
 and vehement activity of the human race. 
 A comparison of the skeletons found 
 
 
 
 
 MILITAkV WOKKS ON I'Al.NT CREEK, OHIO. 
 
 .seems to have been untouched by any nat- 
 ural force for ages. And yet the skeletons 
 in the American tumuli are nearly always 
 far gone in decay. It is difficult to preserve 
 them after their exposure to the air. They 
 generally crumble as soon as they are 
 taken from their long resting place. 
 Even the .skull bones generally turn 
 to a white powder with a few days ex- 
 posure to the atmosphere. In the British 
 mounds the human remains are gen- 
 erally well preserved. Notwithstanding 
 the moisture to which they have been
 
 354 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 exposed in the earth and the humidity 
 of the air of England, the skeletons stand 
 ■well on being exhumed, and are safely 
 transferred to their places in museums. 
 In some instances this may be done 
 with the mound builders of America, 
 but not often. The naturalist will not 
 fail to discover in the conditions and 
 
 common type, but those taken from re 
 mote tumuli show strong marks of eth- 
 nic divergence and peculiarity. As a 
 rule, the crania and arm bones are strict- 
 ly human in their development. They 
 conform to the ordinary standards of 
 measurement and proportion, but the 
 skulls are foreign, not to say aboriginal, 
 
 POTTERY OF THE MOUND V.XJVLDV.^-i.—Viotn Magazine oj Arl. 
 
 facts before him the evidences of a great- 
 er antiquity in the case of the American 
 remains. 
 
 Considerable variety of race has been 
 Indications of remarked among the skel- 
 etons exhumed from the 
 American mounds. They 
 differ much in form and stature. Those 
 in a given locality generally belong to a 
 
 race variety; 
 character of pre 
 historic crania. 
 
 in their form and structure. They do 
 not correspond with the crania of any 
 existing race of people. • On the whole, 
 they are more in analogy with the skulls 
 of those Oriental peoples who inhabit 
 the eastern shores of the Pacific and the 
 outlying islands. Some well-preserved 
 skulls, taken from prehistoric mounds in 
 Indiana and preserved in the museum of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 355 
 
 that vState, have a striking likeness to 
 the heads of the Japanese, but are 
 smaller in capacity than the crania of 
 that people 
 
 On the whole, the prehistoric races of 
 North America were rather under the 
 The Little Men average stature of the Red 
 lid L'kTet" men or the civilized peoples 
 nessee valleys, of our continent. Some- 
 times remains are found which are reall}- 
 diminutive. Nor are the cases of this 
 kind isolated or peculiar. On the Cum- 
 berland river, in Tennessee, several pre- 
 historic cemeteries have been examined, 
 in which the remains are uniformly of 
 a small race. So marked is this pecul- 
 iarity that some have supposed that the 
 skeletons in question are those of infants 
 and children. But a closer examination 
 has proved them to be adult. The re- 
 gion in which these pygmy cemeteries 
 are located is very favorable for the pres- 
 ervation of the dead. The soil is dry 
 and sandy. The remains are invariably 
 found in small stone boxes, and the ob- 
 server can hardly believe that they are 
 the skeletons of a full-grown, adult 
 people. 
 
 On thrusting down from the surface 
 a sharp iron rod the stone lid of one of 
 Character of the these small crypts may be 
 graves ; the sar- fQ^^^d, and ou excavating 
 
 cophagi, and the ' o 
 
 remains therein, the earth the box Can be ex- 
 amined in its undisturbed condition. 
 The graves have been constructed orig- 
 inally by excavating small, oblong vaults 
 and placing thin, undressed slabs of 
 sandstone at the bottom, sides, and 
 ends. After the burial a flat capstone 
 was placed on top, thus completing the 
 box. The inside of one of these minia- 
 ture sarcophagi measures from ten to 
 fourteen inches in width, ten to twelve 
 inches in depth, and from fourteen 
 inches to two feet in length. The space 
 is so small that no well-grown person of 
 
 an existing race, unless it should be a 
 native Australian, could be buried in it, 
 even in a contracted position. But the 
 prehistoric skeleton which is found in- 
 closed has, generally, room enough, 
 though the parts are frequently flexed 
 and sometimes doubled back. The 
 mounds covering the prehistoric pygmies 
 are thickly strewn in favorable positions 
 along the banks of the Cumberland. 
 
 The manner and epoch of the disap- 
 pearance of the mound builders from 
 North America remains Manner of the 
 conjectural. Nor is it like- ^^^S^^oric"' 
 ly that the ingenuity and races unknown, 
 adroitness of human scholarship will 
 ever be able to exhume from the past 
 the manner and time of their disappear- 
 ance. On the whole, they would seem 
 to have been a people worthy of a his- 
 tory ; but their extinction was so com- 
 plete that whatever may have been the 
 extent and variety of their national life, 
 all has gone out together. Philosophers 
 have devoted volumes to the causes of 
 national decline, and the question is 
 still open for rational solution. 
 
 It ma}- be truthftilly urged that the seeds 
 of ethnic decay exist in certain peoples 
 in virtue of their own constitutions and 
 the nature of their activities. Whether 
 races grow old and die as the individual ; 
 whether different families of men are de- 
 flected by evolutionary processes from 
 one phase of existence to another ; wheth- 
 er sudden metamorphoses take place, in 
 obedience to natural laws, such as are 
 alleged to occur at rare intervals in the 
 animal kingdom, are philosophical ques- 
 tions which the inquirer of the future 
 must solve, if indeed they are soluble at 
 all. 
 
 Certain circumstances, however, may 
 be cited which are at least effective 
 as assisting forces in the extinction of 
 races. The prevalence of vicious and
 
 356 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 luxurious habits, gradually supplanting 
 
 the early and robust virtues of a people, 
 
 tend unmistakably to na- 
 
 Forces that tend . 
 
 to the extermi- tlonal Overthrow. i he ex- 
 nation of races. ^^^.^^^^ f^j.^gg ^f ^^.^j. ^j^^^ 
 
 the great cataclysms of nature may also 
 account for the destruction and disap- 
 pearance of peoples. It is doubtless true 
 that in prehistoric ages great submer- 
 gences of peopled islands and continents 
 
 been threatened by the rage of epidemics. 
 Among uncivilized peoples the accumu- 
 lation of stores for the future is but little 
 attended to. That prudence and fore- 
 sight which keeps up the resources of 
 life against the day of calamity are but 
 little practiced by barbarians, or even by 
 races half emerged from barbarism. For 
 these reasons prehistoric peoples have 
 been greatly exposed to the ravages of 
 
 AZTEC RUINS AT PALENyUE, IN CHIAPAS, MEXICcJ. 
 
 have taken place, while others have risen, 
 dripping, from the deep. Earthquakes 
 and volcanic disturbances of the great 
 crust of the globe have terrified and 
 driven awav what thevhave not engulfed. 
 Finally, famine and pestilence have done 
 their work on prehistoric as well as his- 
 toric races. There are times within the 
 recorded story of national life when not 
 only the depopulation of great districts, 
 but the extinction of whole nations has 
 
 famine. At intervals the earth has 
 unaccountably withheld her gifts. A 
 few seasons of want in succession would 
 be sufficient to exterminate an isolated 
 and uncommercial nation, and that such 
 calamities have actually fallen upon 
 peoples like the mound builders of Amer- 
 ica can not be doubted. 
 
 Beyond the limits of the United States 
 the tumuli and other evidences of by- 
 gone races are generally secondary. Iq
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 357 
 
 one sense they are prehistoric, but in 
 another they fall, for the most part, 
 Extinct peoples within the activities of peo- 
 ?c?nTa"rfoX plcs who have been known 
 present. within the historical epoch. 
 
 The Mexican races that flourished in the 
 days of the Spanish invasions, at the 
 beginning- of the sixteenth century, may 
 well be considered as the remote extreme 
 of the people by whom the monuments 
 of Mexico Avere erected. The same is 
 true of the peoples of Central America 
 and of the Peruvians. The Aztecs, the 
 Coztecs, the Guatemalian tribes, and the 
 Peruvians, though much more advanced 
 than the Red men of Xorth America, 
 are collateral with them in time and 
 national development. In the case of 
 our North American Indians, we know 
 that they belonged to a different race 
 from the mound builders, and that they 
 flourished in an age long subsequent to 
 the prevalence of the former on this con- 
 tinent. We have not the same clear 
 evidence of the existence of a people 
 back of the Mexicans, the Central 
 Americans, and the Peruvians. Such a 
 people may have existed, and there are 
 evidences here and there of a truly pre- 
 historic basis for that type of national 
 life which was encountered by the 
 Spanish invaders under Cortez and 
 Pizarro. 
 
 The ancient monuments of ilexico 
 are among the most imposing of primi- 
 Mexicanmonu- tive ruins. They have a 
 Sr^iSouT' solidity and grandeur sug- 
 purpose. gestive of the vast struc- 
 
 tures which the antiquarian encounters 
 in the valleys of the Xile and the Eu- 
 phrates. They differ fundamentally in 
 their character from the mounds and 
 fortifications of Central North America 
 in this, that the latter were military 
 structures in their first intent, while 
 those of Mexico are based upon religion 
 
 and its ceremonials. In the case of the 
 North American tumuli, the long moles 
 and circumvallations were created under 
 the warlike purpose of the race that 
 reared them, and the religious part of 
 the monuments are only secondary to 
 the dominant ideas of warfare. In the 
 Mexican tumuli and pyramids the exact 
 reverse is true. Evidence is not wanting 
 that they at times subserved a military 
 purpose — that within their ramparts the 
 nation retreated and defended itself 
 against the foe. But the general idea of 
 all the monumental remains in the 
 region under consideration is that of 
 religion and priestly ceremonial. A 
 general sketch of the character and pur- 
 pose of the ilexican monuments can not 
 fail to prove of interest. 
 
 The structures in question have all, 
 with very few exceptions, a common 
 
 plan. A g-reat square is 
 ^ ° ^ Plan and mate- 
 
 laid off on the earth, with its rials of the pyra- 
 r -1 i j.1. J • 1 midal temples. 
 
 four sides to the cardinal 
 points of the compass. This square is 
 surrounded with walls strong and high. 
 The structure of the same is sun-dried 
 bricks, or even in some cases stone. 
 Centrally located within the great rec- 
 tangle thus inclosed is the ^ite of the 
 temple. A square foundation of solid 
 masonry is laid, extending to t\\ hun- 
 dred, three hundred, or even five hun- 
 dred feet on each side. From this 
 foundation a great structure like a pyra- 
 mid is carried up in a succession of 
 terraces. The design is almost Identical 
 with some of the oldest monuments of 
 the human race found in the valley of 
 the lower Euphrates and attributed to the 
 ancient Chaldaeans. In both instances 
 the successive platforms of masonry 
 grow smaller toward the top, and in both 
 there is generally a deflection of the 
 work toward one side, so that the pyra- 
 mid does not stand centrally over the
 
 358 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 foundation, but nearer, as a rule, to the 
 western edge. The eastern side of the 
 pyramid, facing the morning sun, is 
 ascended by a flight of steps to the 
 upper square. The structure is trun- 
 cated ; that is, cut off above without be- 
 ing carried to an apex. On the upper 
 platform is biiilt the temple proper, 
 
 AZTEC STRUCTURE — ARCH OF LAS MONJAS. 
 
 which also faces the east. Sometimes 
 on the terrace more temples than one 
 are reared. It is in evidence that several 
 deities were worshiped from the same 
 platform. Each had his own fane and 
 ceremonial. 
 
 Temples of the kind here described 
 were plentiful at the time of the Spanish 
 invasion of Mexico. Cortez declares that 
 
 he found fully four hundred of them in 
 the state of Cholula. Doubtless the num- 
 ber within the more im- plentiful distru 
 portant state of Anahuac, ^.'^^j^r/elm'' 
 embracing the plateau of choiuia. 
 the Mexican capital, was still greater. 
 Torquemada estimates the number in the 
 empire of Montezuma at forty thousand ! 
 Bernal Diaz, the old Span- 
 ish historian of the times, 
 and Cortez himself in his 
 letters to Charles V, have 
 given us full descriptions 
 of the striking religious 
 edifices and ceremonials 
 with which they came into 
 contact. 
 
 Perhaps the most elab- 
 orate structure in all Mex- 
 ico at the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century was that 
 which Cortez describes 
 from tlie capital. It was 
 in the center of the an- 
 cient city. The inclosure 
 of the outer walls was so 
 great that Cortez esti- 
 mates the interior capacity 
 as sufficient for five hun- 
 dred houses. Another es- 
 timate made by Solis is 
 that the space inside of 
 the walls and between 
 them and the pyramidal 
 foundation in the center 
 was sufficient to accom- 
 modate ten thousand dan- 
 cers on days of solemn cere- 
 monies. 
 
 was paved with dressed Mexico, 
 stone, and so smooth was the work that as 
 Bernal Diaz declares, "the horses of the 
 Spaniards could not walk upon it for slip- 
 ping." All the area within was sacred 
 territory. It was the central institution 
 of the state, religiously, educationally, 
 
 Particular fea- 
 T^v,;,, ,„^,^1« .,»,„„^ tures of the Az- 
 This whole space tec temples of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 359 
 
 Central Amer- 
 ican ruins ; like- 
 ness to those of 
 the Kast. 
 
 and politically. Here the priests had 
 their abode. Here the soothsayers and 
 scribes of the ancient epoch congre- 
 gated ; and here the emperor himself was 
 admitted only with a ceremonial. The 
 terraces constituting the pyramid were 
 five in number. The broadest platform 
 was three hundred feet square, and the 
 height of the whole to the 
 upper terrace was a hundred 
 and twenty feet. On the top 
 were two shrines, or towers, 
 which were dedicated to the 
 gods of preservation and de- 
 struction. 
 
 Central America, as well 
 as Mexico and the countries 
 
 of the North, 
 
 abounds in 
 
 ruins and 
 monumental evidences of 
 primitive peoples. The 
 style of building was here 
 the same as on the Mexican 
 plateau, but there is a greater 
 display of art. The Central 
 American pyramids are gen- 
 erally smaller than the Mex- 
 ican structures, but the tem- 
 ples on the upper terraces 
 were larger in proportion. 
 Great massiveness 
 and strength are the char- 
 acteristics of the masonry. 
 The exterior of the temples 
 were stuccoed and covered 
 with carved figures and or- 
 naments. It appears that the symbol- 
 ical imagination ran rampant among the 
 priests and architects. Within the tem- 
 ples were corridors and chambers with 
 arched roofs of stone. 
 
 The antiquary in examining these 
 ruins can but be impressed with their 
 striking analogy to the earliest monu- 
 ments of the human race in the valleys 
 
 of Western Asia. The corridors and 
 walls of the inner chambers are covered 
 with sculptures and hieroglyphics. It is 
 not impossible that a truer understand- 
 ing of the significance of these inscrip- 
 tions may make the world better acquaint- 
 ed with the character and activities of 
 the aboriginal races of our continent. 
 
 #/ 
 
 , .yim 
 
 '^t-^-m^Mtm^^Bi^z 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES — DOUBLE-HEADED FIGURE OF THE 
 CASA DEL GOBERNADOR. 
 
 In Honduras, also, many monuments 
 of the same nature have been discov- 
 ered and described. Here, too, the 
 carving is elaborate and Monumental re- 
 elegant. At Copan one rr^s^nT""" 
 of the most striking mono- Colombia, 
 lithic effigies ever recovered from the 
 ancient world has been found and pre- 
 served. Around the shores of lake
 
 360 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JElXK'LyD. 
 
 Nicaragua abundant evidences of ex- 
 tinct peoples are scattered, and wher- 
 ever these occur they are found to be 
 covered with inscriptions. It is be- 
 
 SCULPTURE OF THE TOLTECS — FROM THE RUINS OF 
 COPAN. 
 
 lieved that those in the vicinity of 
 Copan are the oldest monuments that 
 have yet been found south of the Rio 
 Grande del Norte. In Colombia, also, 
 the traveler ever and anon stumbles 
 
 upon some relic of human workmanship 
 of unknown origin. The ruins of a few 
 edifices and monuments have also been 
 examined in this land, but have not 
 added materially to our knowledge of 
 their builders. 
 
 Passing southward into the highlands 
 of Peru, we come upon additional evi- 
 dences of the activity and Temples of Cuz. 
 genius of an extinct peo- ^^ ;,TprehSo?. 
 pie. Perhaps the city of ic races. 
 Cuzco affords one of the best fields for 
 antiquarian research that may be found 
 in the world. Hererra declares that 
 there were aforetime in this city as many 
 as three hundred temples, and from the 
 nature and extent of the ruins the asser- 
 tion seems to be well grounded. 
 
 As a general fact, it appears that the 
 religious ceremonies of the peoples 
 whom we are here considering — Mexi- 
 can, Central American, Peruvian — were 
 a form of that sun worship which has 
 constituted the most rational idolatry of 
 the human race. Nearly all the tem- 
 ples seem to have been built with respect 
 to the sunrise ; and in so far as the cere- 
 monial of these ancient peoples has been 
 recovered, it reveals the same features 
 which belonged originally to the wor- 
 ship of the Chaldaeans and Assyrians, 
 primarily to the Zoroastrians of the Ira- 
 nian plateau, and in a considerable de- 
 gree to the primitive peoples of India. 
 There can be no doubt that the rising 
 sun, coming up majestically after the 
 red dawn of day and ascending the east- 
 ern arch of heaven, triumphing over 
 mist and shadow, and fleecy cloud and 
 rainstorm, constituted the one tremen- 
 dous object of adoration which im- 
 pressed itself upon the imagination of 
 the early races of men. 
 
 It must not be understood that the 
 ruined monuments which we are here 
 considering are the only memorials left
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 361 
 
 by the Southern races of the New World. 
 The outUnes of great cities are discover- 
 able here and there. Some of these 
 have survived to within the historical 
 period. Others have gone down to in- 
 discriminate dust. In connection with 
 these ruins the outlines of public works 
 are found in many parts. Not 
 infrequently the antiquary is 
 able to trace the course of a 
 great aqueduct or of some other 
 evidence of the labor and skill 
 of a prehistoric people endeav- 
 oring to supply its common 
 "wants. 
 
 It appears clear from an ex- ,^ 
 
 amination of all that we are able 
 to discover in the regions here 
 named, that man 
 
 Sad estate of the 
 
 people in prehis- himSclf in his 
 
 toric America. . , , . , , 
 
 prmiitive estate 
 was as much subordinated to 
 ecclesiastical domination and 
 political despotism as in the 
 better-known countries of the 
 East. It appears that the com- 
 mon lot was as hard and ig- 
 noble in ^Mexico and Central 
 America, in Colombia and Peru, 
 as on the Babylonian plain or 
 in the stone quarries of Egypt. 
 Even as late as the times of the 
 Spanish invasion the condition 
 of the common people was piti- 
 able in the last degree. The life 
 of the individual man had no 
 splendor or renown. Cortez and 
 the Spanish story-tellers who 
 panied him on his expedition speak 
 of the miserable houses in which the 
 people lived. They were mere huts 
 built of bamboo and covered with thatch, 
 temporary protections against a climate 
 never severe and always inviting to out- 
 door methods of life. All vestiges of 
 
 such lowly abodes have long since passed 
 M. — Vol. I — 24 
 
 away. Nor are there other means of 
 discovering the daily life of the common 
 people whom the merciless and bloody 
 waves of Spanish conquest totally en- 
 gulfed. 
 
 If we again turn our attention to the 
 regions north of the Rio Grande, we 
 
 CENTRAL AMF.RICAN STRUCTURE — CIRCULAR EDIFICE AT MAYAI'AN. 
 
 accom- 
 
 shall find in Arizona one of the best fields 
 of exploration for the relics ^ . 
 
 ^ Extinct cities 
 
 of a prehistoric people, of the Colorado 
 
 This is not said of the p^*^"' 
 ruins which the Spaniards and their 
 descendants left in this region after the 
 beginning of the sixteenth centurv, but or 
 prehistoric memorials found in several 
 localities. On the Colorado plateau
 
 362 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 there are traces of extinct cities, reser- 
 voirs, terraces, and aqueducts. Still more 
 notable, in the valley of the Gila are 
 scattered the monumental vestiges of a 
 vanished race. Along the river banks 
 are the outlines and actual debris of 
 stone houses and military fortifications 
 ■which belonged to a people long anterior 
 to the European conquerors who came 
 with Cortez and his successors. There 
 are in many places, in a sort of fast- 
 nesses which seem to have been selected 
 with not a little care, the remains of 
 human habitations in great numbers cut 
 from the native ledges, and constituting 
 a species of abodes which are in good 
 measure without an analogue among the 
 habitations built by men. lu other 
 
 QUICHIAN ARIU, 
 
 places walls of solid masonry, generally 
 rectangular in form, may be traced ; and 
 the foundations of buildings which are 
 thought to have been two or three stories 
 in height are plainly discernible in many 
 localities. It can not be doubted, indeed, 
 chat along the river Gila in past ages, 
 as well as in many other parts of the 
 territory of the United States, of Mexico, 
 and of South America, a great and even 
 flourishing prehistoric population ex- 
 isted, of which the only record is in the 
 crumbling monumental remains which 
 are left behind. 
 
 If we attempt to discriminate among the 
 ruins of Southwestern North America, of 
 Central America, and of Peru, and to 
 
 decide what proportion of them are refei 
 able to the activities of the races inhab- 
 iting the Western conti- chronological 
 nents since the New World '^:t^:^ 
 was revealed to the Euro- Southwest, 
 pean nations, and what part are the work 
 of the prehistoric races which preceded 
 them, we shall be likely, from the im- 
 perfect data in our possession, to fall 
 into error and misinterpretation. 
 Enough is known, however, to deter- 
 mine the general proposition that some 
 of the monuments in question are the 
 work of primitive peoples long anterior 
 to the epoch of Spanish conquest. 
 
 It is probable that Peru, or what was 
 anciently Upper Peru, but is now in- 
 cluded in the state of Bolivia, furnishes 
 
 the best basis 
 for the study of 
 the truly pre- 
 historic m e - 
 morials in the 
 regions which 
 we have been 
 considering. 
 Since 1S64, 
 when the mon- 
 uments of this 
 country were explored and described by 
 the American archaeologist Ephraira 
 George Squier, it has been settled that 
 the relics of man's work in the high 
 places of Upper Peru are traceable in 
 their origin to a race that flourished in 
 the country long before the era of the 
 Incas. 
 
 The monuments in question are situ- 
 ated on the Andean plateau, high up in 
 Bolivia, on the shore of lake Titicaca. 
 The early Spanish invaders Remains on 
 were greatly surprised at i^arJcteroT^he 
 the character and extent of region, 
 these remains. At the time of the in- 
 vasion of Pizarro, they diiifered little 
 from their aspect at the present time. 
 
 -REMAINS OF FilRFRKSS WALLS, AT ■ 1 /L
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN—PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 JtJ3 
 
 The region is a broad, open, arid plain. 
 During the wet season the weather is 
 cold, and becomes still more so as the 
 dry season of the year approaches. Xo 
 fruits or grain will grow in this vicinity. 
 It is said that nothing edible has been 
 produced in the region except a small 
 variety of bitter potato. It is, perhaps, 
 the only region in the world where great 
 monumental remains are found in a 
 situation Avholly unproductive, and many 
 conjectures have been advanced to 
 explain the anomaly. It has been 
 
 The monuments in question consist of 
 stonework and moles of earth. The 
 stones are either rudely hewn into shape 
 or selected and set up with- stone and eanh- 
 out dressing. The inquirer ^41^^^^^"" 
 can not long have ex- "ways, 
 amined what is before him without dis- 
 covering the analogy of the ruins to the 
 great Druidical remains of England, 
 and notably to Stonehenge. The stones 
 are set erect in many places on the great 
 terrace, but others are built into walls 
 with the most exact workmanship. One 
 
 PUKBLO STRUCTURE.— Runs in the Valley of the Gila. 
 
 thought that perhaps the great people 
 by whom the monuments which we are 
 now to examine were created had pro- 
 found superstitions or religious ceremo- 
 nials which they celebrated on this 
 almost desert plateau. It has even been 
 sugfcrested that the site of these monu- 
 mental remains may have been deter- 
 mined by augury — as the site of Rome 
 was fixed — and that superstition thus 
 determined the place where vast struc- 
 tures were created against the laws and 
 suggestions of the natural world. 
 
 of the most peculiar of the discoveries is 
 that of heavy monolithic doorway.s. 
 That is, large slabs of stone have been 
 taken, and through these the temple en- 
 trances have been cut, Avith an arch 
 above, while on the front, and even re- 
 verse, of the block are carved a multi- 
 tude of .svmbolical characters. All over 
 the plain are scattered, even for miles 
 around, the relics of vast structures .",nd 
 battlements, the position of which can 
 be plainly traced on the earth. 
 
 Among the monuments on this high
 
 364 
 
 GREAT RACf.S OF JFAXKlXn. 
 
 Astonishing 
 character of the 
 ruin called the 
 Fortress. 
 
 plain of the Andes four principal struc- 
 tures, or at least the foundations of 
 them, have been developed 
 from the ground. They 
 are known to antiqua- 
 ries by the names of the Fortress, the 
 Temple, the Palace, and the Hall of 
 Justice — from the purposes which con- 
 jecture has assigned to them respec- 
 tively. The greatest of the ruins is the 
 Fortress. It rises in the center of the 
 
 substantial as that in the faces of the 
 terrace. 
 
 If the traveler takes his stand on the 
 summit of this tremendous monument 
 
 and looks to the north, he Features of the 
 
 finds at a short distance an- ^Taidthe^H^u 
 other rectangular mound, of Justice, 
 measuring at the base four hundred and 
 forty-five by three hundred and eighty- 
 eight feet. The outline of the structure 
 is marked by rows of stones set erect in 
 
 OLD PERUVIAN STRUCTURE.— Ruins of Fortress, on Titicac.\ I^l.wu 
 
 plain, terrace on terrace, to the height 
 of fifty feet. The mound is rectangu- 
 lar, having a base measurement of six 
 hundred and fifty feet in length and 
 four hundred and fifty feet in width. 
 The faces of the terraces are laid with 
 massive stones, which are carefully and 
 skillfully cut and dovetailed the one into 
 the other in such a way as to make them 
 immovable for ages and ages. On each 
 side, running out from the ba.se, is a va.st 
 stone platform, known in architecture as 
 an " apron," in which the masonry is as 
 
 the earth, some of them as rude as those 
 of Stonehenge, and others carved with 
 skill. These are the outer supports of 
 the structures which were reared within. 
 Some of the monoliths are as much as 
 fourteen feet above the earth, and are 
 something more than two by four feet in 
 their other dimensions. This is the 
 structure to which antiquaries have 
 given the name of the Temple. The 
 Palace next attracts the attention, and is 
 specially noted for the excellence of the 
 stone cutting which is observed in its
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 365 
 
 foundations. No masons of ancient or 
 of modem times have, perhaps, excelled 
 ^vhat was done on this arid plateau be- 
 fore the dawn of history, and is still 
 preserv^ed in the foundations of the 
 monument under consideration. 
 
 It is not far from the outer limits of 
 the Palace, so called, that the Hall of 
 Justice is situated. It also is rectangu- 
 lar in its ground plan, being four hun- 
 dred and twenty feet by three hundred 
 and seventy feet in dimensions. With- 
 in this inclosure has been developed the 
 foundation of still another structure, 
 called the Sanctum vSanctorum, one 
 hundred and thirty-one by twenty-three 
 feet in measurement, which presents the 
 finest stonework of all. For the excel- 
 lence of the cutting and fitting it may 
 well be compared with the ruins of Baal- 
 bec. Some of the stones are twenty-five 
 and a half feet long, fourteen feet broad, 
 and six and a half feet in thickness. They 
 are fitted by the best rules of geometric 
 art, and are held in place by bronze 
 clamps that may well be compared with 
 the like devices found in the ruins of 
 ancient Egypt. 
 
 In the current chapter we have done 
 no more than glance at the monumental 
 remains of the three Americas. It is 
 
 believed, however, that the fragmentary 
 sketches of these memorials will be suffi- 
 cient to convey to the read- Purpose of this 
 er a fair apprehension of ^^et^etchto"' 
 the times and the people in foUow. 
 which and by whom they were created. 
 The present volume is by no means a 
 work devoted to antiquarian research. 
 It is merely intended in the present book 
 to present so much of the primitive his- 
 tory of mankind as shall furnish a satis- 
 factory basis for the consideration of the 
 great tribal migrations which are to oc- 
 cupy our attention hereafter. We have 
 in the preceding chapters reviewed the 
 conditions of aboriginal life as they have 
 presented themselves in the caverns and 
 wilds of Western Europe, along the 
 shores of the Baltic, in the tumuli of 
 Great Britain, and in the mounds and 
 among the monuments of the New World. 
 We shall now conclude this book with a 
 brief sketch of the general conditions of 
 savagery as the same are presented 
 among the barbarous and half-barbarous 
 races of the present time. It is believed 
 that the prehistoric man will thus be bet- 
 ter realised in his far-off career by being 
 seen in a reflected form of activity among 
 the savage tribes and nations of the mod- 
 ern world. 
 
 Chapter XXI.— Gexeral Coimditions oe Savage 
 
 Life. 
 
 TRUE understanding 
 of the prehistoric con- 
 dition of mankind de- 
 pends in good measure 
 upon a knowledge of 
 the manners and cus- 
 toms of the e.xisting 
 savage nations. These nations are to be 
 looked upon as the remnants and repre- 
 
 sentatives of an ancestry like themselves. 
 Doubtless the existing tribes have been 
 much deflected in the course of ages from 
 the original types to which they be- 
 longed. But it is also true that they have 
 preserved many of the leading features 
 of the original barbarism which has pre- 
 vailed in all parts of the earth. 
 
 Viewed from the animal side of exist-
 
 366 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ence, the barbarians of to-day hold ex- 
 actly the same relation to the dead races 
 that have preceded them as do many of 
 
 MAN AND WOMAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 the living species of animals to the 
 extinct varieties from which they are de- 
 scended. The mammoth and the mas- 
 
 todon and the hairy rhinoceros have 
 their living representatives in the ele- 
 phant, the Asiatic rhinoceros, and even 
 
 the common 
 wine. There has 
 oeen an evolution- 
 ary descent by 
 which the tides of 
 life have been 
 turned a.side into 
 new channels. 
 The living crea- 
 tures are not the 
 -ame in stature, 
 in habit, in as- 
 pect or mode of 
 life as the extinct 
 types from which 
 they have been 
 derived. But the 
 essential nature of 
 the original spe- 
 cies has been, in 
 large measure, 
 preserved. 
 
 So also of the dif- 
 ferent varieties of 
 men, aboriginal, 
 intermediate, and 
 modern. Sir John 
 Lubbock has de- 
 clared with great 
 force that the in- 
 habitants of Van 
 Diemen's Land 
 and Terra del 
 Fuego are to the 
 prehistoric races 
 of the age of stone 
 what the opossum 
 and the sloth and 
 the kangaroo are 
 to the extinct mar- 
 supials, known only to the geologist. 
 The flint weapon in the hands of a liv- 
 ing savage is to an antiquary precisely
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 367 
 
 what the horn-crowned nose of a rhinoc- 
 eros or the projecting tusks of a boar 
 Relations of ex- are to a naturalist. The 
 chS^wfau first carries the mind back 
 ancestry. (;q prehistoric implements 
 
 found in the peat bogs of Denmark, and 
 the other reminds the inquirer of the 
 hairy rhinoceros and the tremendous 
 tusks of Elephas primigcnius. 
 
 ducible to two general considerations 
 which are easily apprehended. The 
 first of these is what may be called the 
 appearance of national consciousness 
 among a people. Whenever this hap- 
 pens — whenever a given tribe begins 
 to be conscious of itself — the national 
 tongue will for the first time find utter- 
 ance, and this utterance will take the 
 
 EF.GIN'NINGS OF METALLURGY— A Primitive Smithy,— Dra^vn by Emile B.iyard. 
 
 tween prehistor 
 Ic and liistoric 
 races. 
 
 One of the first inquiries with which 
 we have here to deal is the fixing of a 
 Demarkationbe- line between the prehistor- 
 ic and the historic races of 
 men. What is it to have 
 been a truly prehistoric people ? and what 
 is it to lie distinctly within the historic 
 era? The answers to these questions 
 involve several matters of much impor- 
 tance and interest, but they are all re- 
 
 foi-m of narrative. The narrative may 
 be in the form of epic poetry. It may 
 be a half- formed anthropology or cos- 
 molog}-, or it may be rude annals, reciting 
 fragments of tradition and filling up the 
 spaces from imaginary materials. At 
 any rate, it is History. It is the earli- 
 est development in the form of language 
 of a nation's concept of itself and of its 
 own past
 
 368 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 History may thus be regarded as the 
 first rational transcript of the national 
 The conscious consciousness of a people, 
 man requires an There is that in the mind, 
 
 explanation of 
 
 the past. whether of the individual 
 
 or of the tribe, which on coming into 
 the conscious state immediately demands 
 some kind of narrative of its own origin 
 and previous development. When this 
 stage in the human evolution is reached, 
 written records appear as a concomitant 
 and inseparable incident of that particular 
 epoch of growth. Henceforth we have 
 the beginnings, at least, of those annals 
 and early chronicles and traditional forms 
 of literature which constitute the funda- 
 mentals of formal history. This circum- 
 stance may be taken as the first great 
 point of division between civilization and 
 its antecedent barbarism. 
 
 The second point has already been 
 alluded to in the preceding chapters. It 
 Use of metals is the itsc of jiictah. .So 
 ^^S^^:^ much stress would not be 
 sc-.ousness. laid upou this fact in the 
 
 progress and development of mankind 
 were it not for the coincidence of the 
 use of metals in the practical arts with 
 the beginnings of history referred to 
 above. It is a part of the general scheme 
 of the civilization of mankind that this 
 fact of the appearance and first expres- 
 sion of a national consciousness in the 
 form of annals and recorded traditions 
 shall be associated under law with the 
 earliest discovery and application of the 
 metals to the purposes of human life. 
 The metallic age, if we may so express 
 it, is coincident with the dawn of epic 
 poetry and the first records of legend 
 and tradition. When the primeval man 
 emerges from the shadows of barbarism 
 he begins to sing and to carry a me- 
 tallic battle-ax. Thus it appears that 
 the manufacture of the metals by ration- 
 al or empirical processes, and their use 
 
 instead of the ruder materials employed 
 in the age of savagery, is the second cir- 
 cumstance which determines the line of 
 demarkation between the civilized forms 
 of life and the preceding barbaric ages. 
 In other words, the line which is drawn 
 between the savage and unconscious state 
 of the human race and its conscious and 
 enlightened activities has history as one 
 of its points of departure and the use of 
 the metals for the other. 
 
 The question will at once arise whether 
 savage nations have no traditional forms 
 of expression. Undoubted- Evanescent 
 ly they have. All tribes ^SS-'^" 
 of men, in however low a tions. 
 condition of development, cultivate leg- 
 end and tradition. They are fond of 
 reciting stories about themselves and 
 the other races with whom they have 
 come in contact. They are even as chil- 
 dren telling unthinkable things about 
 wolves and bears and giants. But the 
 point to be observed is the ivipcrmancncc 
 of the traditions of barbarism. Contrary 
 to the popular apprehension, the legends 
 and stories of really prehistoric peoples 
 are exceedingly evanescent. They gen- 
 erally pass away with the current gener- 
 ation, or at least take a new form with 
 the .succeeding one. The absence of a 
 record to preserve and crystallize the 
 myths and imaginations of primeval 
 man is the circumstance which prevents 
 their perpetuity. Each age among bar- 
 barians has its own cycle of traditions, 
 but they have no continuance or fixed 
 form. All the legends of savagery com- 
 bined would be no other than the bab- 
 blings of the living generation, or at most 
 the transmitted form of the babblings of 
 their fathers and grandfathers. It is 
 now a well-ascertained fact that the 
 most apocryphal .stories told by .savages 
 pretending to give an account of past 
 events in which their own people have
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 369 
 
 borne a part, are only the current ex- 
 pression in a magnified and distorted 
 form of things that have happened 
 within easy reach of the memories of 
 men. 
 
 Many instructive and even amusing 
 illustrations may be given from the an- 
 Instances of nals of Current savagery of 
 ^ero^ylnTav- the Valueless and short- 
 ^s^s. lived character of barbarian 
 
 traditions. In November of 1642 Abel 
 Janssen Tasman discovered the island 
 which now bears the name of Tasmania, 
 .southeast of Australia. The people 
 passed under the dominion of the Dutch, 
 and the vicissitude Avas as great as could 
 possibly happen to a barbarian race. In 
 1770, a hundred and twenty-eight years 
 after the discovery of the island, the great 
 navigator James Cook visited the Tas- 
 manians and acquainted himself with 
 their traditional knowledge. He found 
 nowhere in the island the slightest evi- 
 dence of a recollection of Tasman's visit. 
 Every trace of that great event had 
 lapsed into oblivion. Another instance 
 of like sort is furnished in the great in- 
 land voyage and exploration of De Soto 
 through the gulf region of the United 
 States. Long before the Revolution all 
 remembrance and tradition of this event 
 had passed from the minds of the Red 
 men. On being questioned, the most 
 intelligent chiefs in the region through 
 which De Soto had passed were found 
 to be totallv ignorant of the romantic 
 expedition which had laid their own 
 country open to the aggressions of an- 
 other race. ' 
 
 ' The impermanence of the traditions of savages 
 is strongly contrasted with the persistency of tradi- 
 tion a/ler a race has once entered the conscious 
 stage of development. When a tribe has reached 
 the epoch of race consciousness and has begun to 
 employ the metals in manufacture and art, then its 
 traditions become permanent and of high historical 
 interest. 
 
 It is clear that three or four genera- 
 tions constitute the limit to which a 
 
 knowledge of even great Transformation 
 
 national catastrophes is ^ron^lta^bario" 
 transmitted among savage legends, 
 peoples. Even during the continuance 
 of a tradition in barbarism it takes on 
 constantly new and exaggerated forms, 
 rendering it totally unfit for historical 
 purposes. The imagination of the abo- 
 rigines adds to and modifies the narra- 
 tive until it is distorted out of all sem- 
 blance to the original. It is narrated 
 by Sir Alexander Mackenzie that during 
 his travels among the Esquimaux they 
 were wont to describe the English to 
 him as giants with wings. They said 
 that the English soldiers could kill men 
 by looking at them, and that one of 
 them could swallow a whole beaver at 
 a mouthful ! The traveler Mansfield 
 Parkyns, in his account of the traditions 
 of the Abyssinians, relates one of their 
 stories to the effect that some German 
 missionaries had in the course of a few 
 days made a tunnel from Adowa to 
 Massowah, on the Red sea, a distance of 
 more than a hundred and fifty miles! 
 In fact, all of the traditions and myths 
 of savage tribes are apocryphal in the 
 last degree; and this fact, taken in con- 
 nection with their impermanence, de- 
 stroys all value that they might other- 
 wise possess for the antiquary and 
 historian. 
 
 While it is true that barbarous tradi- 
 tions are thus useless for purposes of 
 history, and misleading if depended on to 
 throw light upon the general conditions 
 of savage races, it is also true that the 
 manners and customs of these same 
 races are among the most persistent facts 
 which the student of human life will 
 ever encounter. A tradition or legend 
 will change its form like the figments of 
 the kaleidoscope. It will vanish with a
 
 370 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 brief lapse of time and never reappear. 
 But the manners of even wild and rov- 
 ing tribes hold their form through every 
 vicissitude and long generations. 
 
 Nothing is better calculated to aston- 
 ish the inquirer than the persistency and 
 integrity of customs. They 
 
 Persistency and ^ 1,1 i ^ j 
 
 integrity of cus- Can hardly be destroyed. 
 
 toms and habits, rj.^^^ ^^^^ through the 
 
 severest crises, and come up after great 
 catastrophes in all their pristine vigor 
 
 shocks and revolutions, through migra- 
 tion and famine, through the ravages of 
 pestilence and the horrors of war, and is 
 indeed coexistent with the race of which 
 it is a part. A trivial custom easily out- 
 lasts the life of man. It survives the 
 mountain oak which has braved the 
 storms of a millennium. It outlasts the 
 granite obelisk which the conceit of a 
 mistaken people has reared as the most 
 permanent memorial of its greatne.ss. 
 
 #^' 
 
 PERSISTENCY OF ETHNIC FEATURES.— (t) Ancient Hebrew Shephkru with Sling.— Drawn by H, A. Harper. 
 
 and definiteness of outline. Even the 
 trivial circumstance of a peculiarity of 
 tribal speech will be perpetuated from 
 generation to generation, and the more 
 substantial elements of custom seem to 
 endure forever. Habit is, if possible, 
 more unchangeable with a tribe or 
 people than with the individual. It 
 seems to be a part of the blood and nerve 
 of national existence. It goes through 
 
 There are still present in human society 
 forms and customs and peculiarities- 
 modes of action and ceremonial habit.s — 
 that have been transmitted to the 
 modern world from the shadow and ob- 
 scurity of the unknowable ages that lie 
 below the daydawn of civilization ; and 
 in like manner the present will contrib- 
 ute to the coming ages its customs, ita 
 methods, and its ceremonials.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 371 
 
 preservation of 
 Semitic man- 
 iiers. 
 
 If we would see a striking illustration 
 of the persistency of manners and cus- 
 toms, we have only to glance at some of 
 Examples of the the modem descendants 
 of ancient nations. The 
 Semitic race, for instance, 
 presents us in modern times with two 
 striking race developments. The Jews 
 and the Arabs still stand as the typical 
 representatives of a family of 
 men already old at the birth of 
 most of the ancient kingdoms. 
 In the case of the Jews, their 
 dispersion among other peoples 
 has to a considerable extent 
 conformed them in the practical 
 affairs of life to the methods and 
 manners of those among whom 
 they drift, but with whom they 
 are by no means amalgamated. 
 So we may look to the Arabs of 
 the present time as the living 
 expression of those ethnic 
 forces which were dominant in 
 the seed of Abraham. No one 
 who acquaints himself with 
 Arabian manners and customs, 
 and is at the same time conver- 
 sant with the manners and cus- 
 toms of the Israelitish nation 
 of antiquity, can fail to notice 
 that the forms of life among 
 the Arabians of to-day are iden- 
 tical with those of the Hebrews 
 fifteen centuries before the 
 Christian era. The very gar- 
 ments which the Arabs wear 
 might have been stripped from the 
 bodies of the patriarchs. Their fashion 
 is the same, and the material and its 
 method of manufacture are to all in- 
 tents and purposes identical. The 
 ceremonial of the house and the tent are 
 just as they were in Canaan before the 
 Egyptian bondage. An Arab sheik 
 meeting another clad and mounted like 
 
 himself and each followed by his retinue 
 across the deserts and valleys of Arabia, 
 might be photographed and the matter 
 and the manner of the inter\-iew re- 
 peated, and both would be a faithful 
 transcript of the meeting and compact 
 between Lot and Abraham. 
 
 If we descend into the particulars of 
 speech and the manners of daily life 
 
 PERSISTENCY OF ETHNIC FEATURES — (2) MODERN ARAB WEARING 
 
 THE ABA. 
 
 Drawn by Paul Hatdy. 
 
 among the Arabs we shall find the an- 
 cient ceremonial faithfull}' DaUyUfeofthe 
 duplicated. The forms of ^eHpt^Ttra; of 
 salutation and of farewell the Hebrews, 
 have persisted in their integrity for 
 more than three thousand years. The 
 same views of life — of its origin, its na- 
 ture, and its destiny — the same ideas of 
 dutv and obligation, of the nature and
 
 372 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 immediate presence of a personal deity 
 interfering- with the affairs of the com- 
 mon lot and directing even the details 
 of all events, are to-day in the Arabian 
 mind and on his tongue and in his ac- 
 tions with all the realism and vitality 
 and distinctness which those same ideas 
 possessed in the minds of the great 
 military leaders and prophets of primi- 
 tive Israel. The Elohim of the Hebrew 
 is the Allah of the Arab. The appeal 
 to the one for the protection of his tribe 
 and victory over the enemy is as con- 
 stant and confident in the camp of the 
 Arabian chieftain as was the appeal to 
 the other in the tent of Joshua or Saul. 
 
 To the ancient Hebrew and to the mod- 
 ern Arab alike this Allah, this almighty 
 Common reii- personal God, directs every- 
 modernlndan- thing. He brings pesti- 
 cient Semites. lence, and is the giver of 
 health. He blesses and curses accord- 
 ing to the righteousness or the wicked- 
 ness of his people. He speaks to the 
 sleeper in dreams. The dream is only 
 the voice of God in the darkness. Years 
 of plenty and years of drought are both 
 from his hand. He ripens the grain to 
 a perfect harvest or blasts the fields with 
 mildew. He sends the early and the 
 latter rain when the people have been 
 obedient, or the murrain and the locusts 
 when they have disobeyed. All this 
 and ten thousand other things which, 
 taken in their entirety, constitute the 
 tangible outer garment of Arabian 
 life, are in manner and substance virtu- 
 ally the same at the present day as they 
 were among the captives who sat down 
 and wept by the rivers of Babylon, or 
 among the strong soldiery who followed 
 the banners of the Maccabees in their 
 last struggle for independence through 
 the wilderness of Judaea. 
 
 Were we equally well acquainted with 
 the tribal history of other races the same 
 
 phenomena — the same repetition in 
 modern life of the manners and cus- 
 toms of remote antiquity Primitive Teu- 
 
 could be discovered and rvesurvTed 
 
 pointed out. Had we at to present day. 
 
 the present a record of the boisterous 
 manners and hilarious barbarism of the 
 Teutones who hovered darkly in the 
 forests beyond the Danube and the 
 Rhine in the days of the early republic 
 of Rome, we should be able to note the 
 repetition and persistence of these cus- 
 toms among the Ostrogothic and Visi- 
 gothic invaders who, many centuries 
 later, devastated the empire. And 
 were we well acquainted, as we are ac- 
 quainted in part, with the primitive 
 barbarians Avho inliabited the lowlands 
 of Holland in the north, we should find 
 their manners and customs preserved, 
 not only in outline, but in detail and cir- 
 cumstance, among the broad-shouldered 
 and florid Saxons who followed Egbert 
 and Alfred in their battles with the 
 Danes, and upon whose rugged nature 
 still rests the superstructure of British 
 greatness. The clatter of their ale- 
 horns, the ring of their battle-axes, 
 their barbarian laughter, and their 
 snatches of savage song would be heard 
 repeated in the jocular hilarity and 
 boisterous mirth of Chaucer's bantering 
 pilgrims, in the wild uproar and vulgar- 
 ity of Shakespeare's taverns and battle- 
 fields, and even faintly echoed through 
 the mist and gauze of the refined and 
 beautiful epics of the late Laureate of 
 England. 
 
 By carefully weighing the foregoing' 
 considerations we are able to see the 
 
 means by which the Monumental re- 
 ■^ mains the cer- 
 
 character and methods of tain evidence of 
 
 .. . r 1 • i • 1 prehistoric con- 
 
 life of prehistoric peoples ditions. 
 may be in some measure comprehended. 
 The inquirer will, of course, in the first 
 place examine all the existing remains
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX—CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 373 
 
 which the peoples of antiquity have left 
 behind. A monument, unless misjudged 
 as to its design and character, consti- 
 tutes the fundamental evidence with re- 
 gard to the men who reared it. It gives 
 the only primary testimony, and may be 
 relied upon with absolute faith as to its 
 verity and significance. 
 
 Monumental remains are even more 
 certain in their testimony, more absolute 
 in their fidelity to the facts which they 
 represent, than are the best historical 
 
 indubitable as in the testimony deduced 
 from monumental remains. But man- 
 ners and customs are, nevertheless, 
 trustworthy indications of the past con- 
 dition of the human race. Mere tradi- 
 tion may not be trusted. We have seen 
 the absurdity and brevity of the legend- 
 ary part of barbarian history. Traditional 
 forms of thought, as they are passed 
 from tongue to tongue among the bar- 
 barous tribes of men, have an independ- 
 ent interest of their own, just as the 
 
 PERSISTENCY OF CUSTOMS — MOURNING WOMEN OF OLI> EGYPT. 
 From the entablature found in the tomb of Plah-Hotep, at Thebes. 
 
 writings produced by man. The latter I fictions and extravagant imaginations of 
 are always in some sense 
 warped from the image of 
 truth. They bear the impress 
 of the annalist or historian 
 from whose brain they were 
 evolved. They are tinged with 
 a thousand prejudices of the 
 passing age. But the monu- 
 ment is unconscious. It has 
 no prejudices or passions. It 
 belongs to no sect or party, and 
 is unbiased in its evidence by 
 any personal equation. No 
 conscious force of human caprice has 
 been impressed upon it. It stands in 
 naked austerity a solemn witness of the 
 purposes and genius of the people who 
 reared it. 
 
 In the second place the inquirer may, 
 as we have seen, depend in large meas- 
 Deductions ure upon the fidelity of man- 
 
 These 
 have been perpetuated from 
 age to age, and there is no doubt that 
 the earliest, even the unconscious, move- 
 ments of mankind on the earth are to a 
 considerable extent reflected and por- 
 trayed in the existing habits of barbari- 
 ans. Allowance must be made for the 
 deflection of human nature under the in- 
 fluences of time and circumstance. It 
 must always be remembered that the 
 
 u;r™e'f '■ ners and customs 
 
 and customs. 
 
 evidence in this case is not absolute and 
 
 children may prove of interest to the 
 metaphysician and philosopher. But the 
 story told by the child must not be ac- 
 cepted in the court of higher reason as 
 an evidence of its own origin or the 
 methods of its previous life. We are 
 thus virtually limited in our inquiry 
 concerning the prehistoric condition of 
 men to the two general conditions here 
 indicated, namely, the monumental re- 
 mains which are preserved on the sur- 
 face of the earth as evidences of the men 
 who produced them, and the persistency 
 of manners and customs among the peo- 
 ples now inhabiting the world. 
 
 Another consideration here presents 
 itself and demands a brief inquiry. It 
 is the source or primary origin of bar- 
 barit)^ There is no doubt that in the 
 remotest antiquity which we are able to
 
 374 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 discover by means of ethnic, linguistic, 
 
 and archaeological study, tribes of men 
 
 struggled for a precarious 
 
 Inquiry into the . . 
 
 primary origin existcncc ou the earth in a 
 o bar arism. condition of the profound- 
 est savagery. Nor is there any doubt 
 that similar races still possess a consider- 
 able portion of the surface of our planet, 
 living thereon in a condition of animal- 
 ity which must be seen in order to be 
 realized in its profound abasement and 
 savage degradation. But Avhat is the 
 origin of this degradation ? How has it 
 happened that men have come into such 
 relations of depravity and gloom? In 
 what way may the degrading barbarism 
 of the ancient world or the equally low 
 condition of the outlying savage races of 
 the present time be rationally accounted 
 for and explained? 
 
 Two principal theories have been ad- 
 vanced in answer to these questions. 
 Two expiana- They are diametrically op- 
 \Z':^T:,°L posed in the views which 
 barbaric state, they present of the history 
 of the human race. The first is the 
 theory of the descent of mankind from 
 a primitive high estate to the fenlands 
 of barbarism. In this view of the case 
 the first condition of the human family 
 was one of elevation, of refinement, of 
 knowledge, of power. But from this high 
 plane of primitive purity, excellence, 
 and greatness mankind has descended 
 to lower and lower grades of being until, 
 in remote antiquity where the ethnolo- 
 gist first discovers the primeval peoples, 
 they wallowed in savagery and degrada- 
 tion. The first age was the age of gold. 
 Then came the lapse from the noble 
 estate with which the race was started, 
 the swift decline of the dispersed and 
 broken fugitives, the loss of former reason 
 and spirituality, until the gloom of bar- 
 barism settled around all the horizon of 
 human life, and naked savages were seen 
 
 by the river banks and in the shadows 
 of the forest. 
 
 All the evidences of barbarism — so 
 the hypothesis continues — which the his- 
 torian and archaeologist discover in exist- 
 ing and extinct races are Hypothesis of 
 but the results of this lapse '^l^^^^i^'J 
 and ruin of the human an age of gold, 
 family. All the efforts which have been 
 put forth for the elevation of mankind 
 are only the broken and half-hopeless 
 struggle to restore the human race to its 
 pristine glory; and the heavy forces 
 which impede the progress and t^ie high- 
 er development of men are but the re- 
 sidual poison and malevolent habits which 
 they have acquired, as they would ac- 
 quire the infection of disease, in the 
 course of their descent and the groveling 
 of their low estate. Such in brief is the 
 general view which has long prevailed 
 relative to the origin of savagery in the 
 human family. 
 
 Directly opposed to this hypothesis is 
 the theory that the true original condi- 
 tion of men in the world Belief that the 
 was one of a low grade of Sr^asin 
 animality, and that all sub- savagery, 
 sequent movements of mankind have 
 been along the lines of an evolution 
 which is gradually lifting the human 
 race through hard and tortuous proc- 
 esses to a higher plane. In some favored 
 situations this evolutionary force has al- 
 ready, in different ages, brought certain 
 peoples out of barbarism into the light 
 of reason and at least the beginnings of 
 civilization. In other places and under 
 less favorable conditions the primitive 
 state still abounds, and men have grown 
 but little from the merely animal life 
 with which they were projected into the 
 world. All the movements of history, 
 according to this hypothesis, have a 
 common trend toward the production of 
 a complete man and a perfect society.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 375 
 
 In the struggle to reach this end some 
 peoples go to the front, others lag, and 
 still others drop into nonentity. vSome 
 become self-conscious and display those 
 high and generous activities which in 
 the aggregate go by the name of civili- 
 zation, and others remain on lower levels, 
 or even in the original sloughs of bar- 
 barism. The civilized forms of life, ac- 
 
 stone, or half-naked fishermen dragging 
 their nets and boats to shore on solitary 
 coasts. The further the lines of human 
 life are traced backward the more pro- 
 foundly do they penetrate a world where 
 reason is absent and bestiality prevails. 
 Out of this primitive state the more 
 vigorous of the savage peoples, by toil- 
 some ascent and painful struggles, 
 
 BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— ANXIENT FISHING SCENE.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 cording to this view of human history, 
 are merely the survival and develop- 
 ment of those better activities which 
 have been found to be of benefit to the 
 race. 
 
 It thtis happens that when the eth- 
 nologist and the historian begin an 
 Elaboration of examination of the past 
 this view -arga- ^^ ^^ Savagery as 
 
 ments m its sup- -' b j 
 
 pi'rt- the bottom fact. The first 
 
 discoverable men are rude hunters 
 smiting wild beasts with weapons of 
 
 gradually emerge into conscious exist- 
 ence. They expand in their intellectual 
 powers, invent superior forms of utter- 
 ance and a pictorial representation of 
 thought, write their words by means of 
 symbols, record the story of their own 
 deeds, mass themselves into strong com- 
 munities, begin to reason about the 
 origin of the world and the course of 
 nature, and finally take up the chant of 
 epic poetry. Which, then, of these two 
 contradictorv theories will better ex-
 
 376 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 plain the existence and origin of bar- 
 barism ? 
 
 Many arguments may be sincerely 
 advanced in favor of each hypothesis. It 
 is the duty of history to deal candidly 
 with all questions, to have no prejudice 
 and no fear. The time has arrived in 
 the course of human events when the 
 great problems of the past may be con- 
 sidered with calmness and courage. No 
 blind fanaticism for one or the other of 
 antagonistic theories should any longer 
 sway the decision of an inquiry which is 
 of so great an interest, and the solution 
 of which in one way or the other can 
 hardly change the great movement of 
 mankind toward the higher develop- 
 ments and grander activities of the 
 future. In behalf of the hypothesis of 
 the descent of mankind from an original 
 high estate into conditions of savagery, 
 several facts and arguments may be 
 truthfully advanced: 
 
 I . In the first place, the traditions of 
 nations, especially in that part of their 
 career when they have themselves just 
 emerged from the barbarous condition, 
 generally recount an original age of gold 
 „ which their fathers enioved 
 
 Race traditions . . ■' •" 
 
 generally point and in which they Were the 
 
 to an age of gold. . ... , tvt i 
 
 great participants. Nearly 
 all the vigorous races of antiquity that 
 played important parts in the ancient 
 world had traditional beliefs of this 
 kind. They looked back through the 
 mists and obscurities of their own age 
 and the ages immediately preceding to 
 an epoch of splendor and renown in 
 which their heroic fathers were seen afar 
 as tall trees walking. All the early 
 theogony and cosmogony of the ancients 
 as depicted in their philosophical sj's- 
 tems, their myths, their epic and dra- 
 matic poetry, were touched and flecked in 
 every part with the traces of this belief. 
 It can not be well explained why the 
 
 greatest peoples of the ancient world 
 should have held and propagated such 
 opinions respecting their Difficulty of ac- 
 ancestry and the state of ^^n^f/rof^' 
 society out of which they such a belief: 
 were descended, unless there had been 
 some ground for such belief. Looked 
 at as an abstract question, it appears 
 more rational that the bards and myth- 
 makers of the primitive world should 
 have chosen to glorify themselves and 
 the passing age by representing their 
 descent as issuing from darkness and 
 barbarism, rather than to picture them- 
 selves as degraded from a godlike an- 
 cestry. It is not certain in which way 
 the half-conscious intellect of the primi- 
 tive man would work or by what laws it 
 would be guided in the development of 
 traditional beliefs. But the fact remains 
 that the greater part of the best teach- 
 ers of antiq'aity believed themselves the 
 offspring of a great paternity, and that 
 back of the barbarities of their own age 
 and the immediate ages of their fathers 
 lay a resplendent age of gold, from 
 whose heights and heroic activities men 
 had descended by gradations into a low 
 estate. 
 
 2. In the next place, it may be well 
 urged that many nations within the his- 
 torical era have actually Actual examples 
 
 declined from higher into ^^Itunt^^ 
 lower conditions. In fact, of races, 
 all the great nations once in possession 
 of the better parts of the world, once 
 organized into tremendous communities, 
 once filling the streets of magnificent 
 cities, once directing the commerce, 
 cultivating the arts and controlling the 
 energies of mankind, once gathering 
 into vast treasure-houses the resources 
 of the world and sending forth invinci- 
 ble armies for the conquest of Gentiles 
 and barbarians, have now disappeared 
 from among the powers, and are known
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN—CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 377 
 
 only by annals and memorials. It is 
 also true that these great nations have, 
 as a rule, not gone out by sudden eclipse 
 and extinction, but 
 they have rather fallen 
 away by degrees, re- 
 laxed, insensibly at 
 first and sensibly af- 
 terwards, their hold of 
 power, and crumbled 
 away until attack from 
 without and feeble- 
 ness from within have 
 joined their forces to 
 complete an inevitable 
 downfall. 
 
 It is hardly needed 
 to recite examples of 
 national decay. It is 
 almost superfluous to 
 recount the tremen- 
 dous domination once 
 established in the val- 
 ley of the Nile, now 
 represented by Arab 
 sheiks, miserable col- 
 lections of degenerate 
 Copts in squalid vil- 
 lages, and a few de- 
 graded fellahs plow- 
 ing with oxen in the 
 glebe by the river 
 banks. The early 
 Chaldsean empire at 
 the mouth of the Eu- 
 phrates has left only 
 scattered monumental 
 traces. The glory of 
 the Assyrians and of 
 the later Babylonians 
 has passed forever 
 from the valley of the 
 two great rivers. 
 The tremendous Turcomans, iron for- 
 gers at the first from the mines 
 of the Altais, who came as conquerors 
 
 M. — Vol. I — 25 
 
 into Western Asia, surrounded the city 
 of Con.stantine and made it their capital, 
 are now degenerated into the opium 
 
 E.\A.\irLE OF RACE DEI EKIOKAllO.N — KUBlllSil-BEAKEK UF EGYPT. 
 Drawn by Gustavc Richter. 
 
 smokers and harem builders of the Bos- 
 phorus. The splendor of Athens and 
 the glory of the Athenian intellect have
 
 378 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 given way, through long ages, to for- 
 eign domination, and the traveler stands 
 sad-hearted among the ruins of the 
 Acropolis, or marks with astonishment 
 
 l.XAMILE OF RACE DETEKIOKATION — KOMAN BEGGARS. 
 
 the miserable goat houses built over the 
 oracle of Delphi. The Rome of an- 
 tiquity, whose solid walls of stone and 
 tremendous legions clanking their armor 
 on the stone slabs of the Appian Way 
 have become onlv a tradition and a 
 
 name, has shrunk from her ancient cir- 
 cuit of the hills to a commonplace city, 
 the throne of superstition and conserva- 
 tism, and haunt of beggary. 
 
 3. The care- 
 ful reader of 
 the preceding 
 pages will not 
 have failed to 
 note that many 
 of the monu- 
 mental re- 
 mains of an- 
 tiquitybetoken 
 unmistakably 
 the energies 
 and genius of 
 a superior peo- 
 ple. Some of 
 the most prim- 
 itive memori- 
 als of the hu- 
 man race are 
 . L m o n g the 
 most convinc- 
 ing and sub- 
 stantial evi- 
 d e n c e s of 
 power and 
 grandeur. The 
 granite obe- 
 lisks and pyra- 
 mids of Egypt, 
 the so-called 
 Cyclopean 
 ruins in 
 Greece, the old 
 Etruscan aque- 
 ducts, such as 
 the Cloaca 
 Maxima at Rome, the great military 
 
 mounds and fortifications Monumental re- 
 
 mains indicate 
 
 in North America, and SiJ greatness of 
 particularly the Peruvian ancient peoples, 
 ruins on the plateau of the Andes, mark 
 and emphasize the activities of races of
 
 PRL]rE]\4L MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE IJl-R. 
 
 379 
 
 men hardly inferior to the strongest and 
 most skillful known in history. It will 
 be remembered that in many of these 
 localities barbarism long- flourished and 
 ran rampant after the tremendous 
 monuments reared by preceding civil- 
 ized peoples had gone down to ruins. 
 The Peruvian monuments were in their 
 origin as far anterior to the domination 
 of the Incas as the Incas are remote 
 from the Peruvians of to-da}-. The 
 earthworks and mounds of North Amer- 
 ica antedate the epoch of the Red men 
 by a span of ages. The massive foun- 
 dations laid by the Etniscans in their 
 own district and in Latium are far more 
 ancient than even the traditions of the 
 primitive Latin race. So also are the 
 Cyclopean remains of Greece far more 
 remote than even the age of the heroes ; 
 and as to the monuments of Egypt, it is 
 sufficient to say that the oldest of them 
 are the grandest and most enduring. 
 
 4. In the fourth place, the evidence 
 of language points to a primitive condi- 
 tion of mankind in which 
 
 Language seems 
 
 to have begun in the intelligence and 
 
 an age of reason. , . 
 
 reason were the supreme 
 characteristics. Whatever may have 
 been the origin of human speech, it is 
 clearly a rational product. The oldest 
 languages with which we are acquainted 
 are the most perfect in their kind. If 
 we consider that great group which we 
 call the Aryan, or the Indo-European, 
 languages, we find them to improve as 
 we trace up their descent toward their 
 origin. This is to say that, as a rule, the 
 older dialectical form is fuller, more 
 complete, and more rational than its 
 descendent derivative. The modern 
 languages of Western Europe are, as a 
 rule, devoid of grammatical structure, 
 and are in reality rather the detritus of 
 a perfect speech than the speech itself. 
 The Anglo-Saxon tongue had a more 
 
 extensive grammar, if not a fuller vo- 
 cabulary, than the English of to-day. 
 Moesogothic was richer in inflections and 
 rational forms than its descendent Ger- 
 man. Latin was more inflected and 
 developed than Gothic, and Greek pre- 
 served many of the forms which had 
 already decayed and fallen out of Latin. 
 Sanskrit was far more nearly perfect in 
 its structure and inflections than anv 
 later Aryan tongue. With its eight 
 cases and three numbers for nouns, with 
 its full verbal development and its in- 
 flected adjectives, it stands to-day as 
 perhaps the most complete .structural ex- 
 pression of human thought. Thus we 
 see that the higher we trace the streams 
 of the Indo-European languages, the 
 broader and fuller are the forms which 
 we encounter. Xot a trace of evidence 
 is discoverable that any one of the multi- 
 farious languages descended from this 
 common source had an origin in bar- 
 barian ejaculations, or in any form of 
 irrational utterance. And if we look 
 still more closely into some .standard 
 form of this speech we shall find that 
 it has been evolved by the logical proc- 
 esses of abstraction and generalization, 
 the noun being derived from the verb 
 and the adjective from the noun, by an 
 evident effort to abstract a substance or 
 thing from an action and a qualit}'^ from 
 a substance. 
 
 It will thiis be seen that many rea.sons 
 may be assigned for accepting and per- 
 petuating the old-time be- Arguments may 
 liefs of the human race in HHl^^lf,^, 
 the splendor of its own posmg theory, 
 ancestry and the reality of the age of 
 gold. But, on the other hand, many 
 reasons may be given for rejecting such 
 belief and putting in its place the hy- 
 pothesis of an ascent from barbarism 
 instead of a descent from heroes. Titans, 
 and gods. The principal arguments in
 
 380 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKLXD. 
 
 favor of the theory of savagery as the 
 original condition (jf mankind ma}' be 
 stated as follows : 
 
 I. Our first actual historical knowl- 
 edge reaching into the past touches only 
 Backward look conditions of barbarism, 
 of history reach- n^ ^j^^ historian or ethnol- 
 
 es barbaric be- 
 ginnings, ogist the primeval state of 
 
 man, as seen from his point of view, ap- 
 
 of progress and development have, mani- 
 festly, been borne forward by evolution- 
 ary forces out of barbarian conditions 
 only a little more remote than the peo- 
 ples themselves. Such nations as the 
 primitive Greeks were evidently result- 
 ant from an ag^g-lomeration of semicivil- 
 ized tribes who, settling down from 
 migratory habits, entered into union 
 
 BARUARIAX LIFE ILLUSTRATED— Chase in the Ace of Bkunze— Drawn by Ru 
 
 pears to be one of savagery. It is true 
 that many nations are discovered in the 
 far horizon of antiquity that on our ear- 
 liest acquaintance with them appear al- 
 read}^ in a state of intellectual activity and 
 swift progress toward the civilized forms 
 of life. But close scrutiny will discover 
 just behind thciii a lower tribal condition, 
 and behind that a still lower. In other 
 words, the peoples Avho on our first ac- 
 quaintance with them appear in a state 
 
 with each other and began to develop 
 into rational activities. So also of the 
 Roman gens in Latium and other parts 
 of the Italic peninsula. 
 
 All this is a .statement of the case as it 
 stands in the backward vision of the his- 
 torian or ethnologist. His actual ac- 
 quaintance with the races of men can 
 not well penetrate beyond the conditions 
 of savagery 7uhich he sees, and ascend to 
 a primeval of intellectual elevation and
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.—COXDiriOXS OF SArAGE LIFE. 
 
 381 
 
 social happiness which /u- docs not scr. 
 He need not deny the existence of such 
 a primitive state, but his discernment 
 can not reach it throua^h the intervenino" 
 darkness. 
 
 2 . Not only is the first discernible con- 
 dition of mankind one of barbarism, but 
 Races are dis- the evidence of an emer- 
 ^cruXoces?' gence therefrom is abun- 
 of evolution. jant. This is to say that 
 under the eye of history early peoples, 
 savage or half-savage in their manners, 
 are in many instances sciit in the actual 
 process of evolution toward the higher form 
 of rational existence. No condition in 
 the primitive annals of mankind is more 
 certainly established than the fact that 
 peoples do improve. They are seen to do 
 it. If we measure the condition of a 
 barbarous tribe and compare it with the 
 condition of the same people after a cen- 
 tury or two centuries of growth, we can 
 easily discover the process of evolution 
 and its results. 
 
 It must be confessed that the improve- 
 ment of barbarian races is in many cases 
 sio-w rate of race slow-paced. Scarcely notice- 
 7^^T^r ^-ible after the lapse of a long 
 agery. period. It may even be 
 
 admitted that many barbarous peoples 
 have not improved at all. It is probably 
 true that the original forces with which 
 some tribes are impressed are not suffi- 
 cient to bring them out of the savage 
 state. They continue as they were from 
 age to age. They become as iixed in 
 their habits and methods of life as are 
 the birds and beasts. They build as the 
 beaver builds, and the concept of a high- 
 er state is totally wanting in their under- 
 standing. But in most instances there 
 is a forward march — slow it may be, but 
 still a movement that may be seen and 
 measured. 
 
 History is filled with illustrations of 
 human development. Tribes become 
 
 peoples. Peoples become states and 
 kingdoms and nations. The expansive 
 
 force of the social and civil History replete 
 
 instinct in man is seen '"^'tii examples 
 
 of human devel- 
 
 working powerfully in the opment. 
 evolution of higher forms of activity and 
 better expressions of right reason. The 
 whole story of the human career is in 
 good part a story of progress, ameliora- 
 tion, development. It is the law of life. 
 The hitman race shares it in common 
 with all other forms and modes of exist- 
 ence. Aye, it is most manifest in man. 
 In him the evolution is strongest, and 
 the tendency toward a higher state — the 
 dream of something beyond and above — 
 is always discernible in his actions and 
 language. The roving tribes in ancient 
 Hellas became the bronze-clad warriors 
 of the heroic age. The returning war- 
 riors became the rhapsodists and orators 
 of the age of patriotism ; and the rhapso- 
 dists and oi^ators became the philosophers 
 and poets of the most intellectual epoch 
 of the human race. The robbers gath- 
 ered on the Capitoline Hill plant a city 
 and organize a state. Their wolfish 
 manners give way to the culture of the 
 market place and the early forum. An- 
 other evolution, and we see the senate- 
 house, the tribune, and the temple. Still 
 another, and the marble-built city, with 
 its marching armies and citizens in toga, 
 its columns, its busts, its trophies, its 
 roaring circus with its multitudes are 
 seen — finally the domination of the 
 world. 
 
 In subject Gaul the half-savage and 
 wholly barbarous Franks hoist their chief- 
 tain on their shields, and Clovis appears 
 as the primitive king of a The Greek evo- 
 primitive people. Further ^"rthaTofth^ 
 on are Charlemagne and Gauis. 
 his school of the palace. Already they 
 are reading the annals of the past, send- 
 ing polite messages to Haroun-al-Rashid,
 
 382 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 and studying the stars. Still further on, 
 Godfrey and Raymond and vSaint Louis 
 gather their helmeted warriors and, un- 
 der an ideal enthusiasm, would rescue the 
 tomb of the Christ from barbarians and 
 infidels. Further on stands forth the 
 French nation, breaking the fetters of 
 feudalism, rising through the bloodiest 
 of revolutions into a splendor and free- 
 dom hitherto unknown among the peo- 
 ples of the earth — Napoleon the Great, 
 
 splendor of the Plantagenets ; the greater 
 glory of Shakespeare and the bards ; the 
 establishment of liberty by war; over- 
 throw and rebuilding ; emergence ; Eng- 
 lish liberty ; . the colonization of the 
 world ; the triumph of letters and art. 
 
 Everywhere the story is the same. 
 Progress and development, the first law. 
 Foundations are laid; then comes con- 
 quest, first of savagery and then of the 
 forces of nature — the bending down of 
 
 THREE STAGES OF CIVILIZATION ILLUSTRATED-SKETCH FROM FORT LARAMIE. 
 
 his conquering armies, victory, renown, 
 the republic. 
 
 In the oak woods of primeval Britain 
 are the barbarian Saxons gathered around 
 Rise of the Sax- their chiefs. They have 
 b^A^t^Tre^V filled themselves with raw 
 ''^ss. meats, coarse cheese, and 
 
 fiery drinks, but they found their petty 
 states — a heptarchy of possibilities. 
 Then come Egbert and Alfred and the 
 foundations of the immovable kingdom ; 
 the Conqueror; Chaucer; the mediaeval 
 
 the tremendous energies of the material 
 world to the purposes of human will and 
 endeavor — the mastery of the earth and 
 its fullness. All these are the very 
 law, the fundamental method of human 
 existence on the earth. These facts are 
 palpable. The}^ are seen and touched. 
 They are known and manifest ; and in so 
 far as they are the demonstrable rule by 
 which mankind are guided, it appears 
 undeniable that the history of humanity 
 is the history of a development from a
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 383 
 
 lower into a higher form of life — from 
 barbarism to civilization. 
 
 3. In the third place it must be acknowl- 
 edged that the condition into which 
 many civilized nations have fallen and 
 The faUen estate relapsed is a condition very 
 
 of races differs t-rr 4 r ji j ^ ^ ■ ■ 
 
 whoUyfromsav- 'i'prcHt from that of prim i- 
 ^^^' tivc savagery. It would seem 
 
 that nations iiaving once occupied a 
 high plane of political and intellectual 
 power do indeed lapse into effeminacy, 
 vice, slavery, and moral degradation; 
 but they do not become barbarous or 
 savage. We should look in vain for a 
 single instance in which a civilized peo- 
 ple, Avhetherof ancient or modern times, 
 has fallen back into an aspect of life at 
 all analogous to that of the cave dwell- 
 ers of Europe or the Red men of North 
 America. They do indeed relapse. The 
 heroic Greeks of the fourth century 
 B. C. have become the degenerate weak- 
 lings of modern Greece. The Romans 
 of the sturdy republic have left as their 
 descendants the mendicant mi:sicians of 
 Florence, the dirt}' boatmen of the 
 Venetian canals, and the lazzaroni of 
 Naples. The Spanish warriors and 
 navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries who found a new world and 
 took it for their sovereign, have as their 
 living representatives the mandolin 
 players of Cadiz and the brandishers of 
 stilettos in the half-lighted streets of 
 Madrid. The evidence cf retrogression 
 and decay is sufficiently striking to the 
 philosopher and painful to the philan- 
 thropist. But the modern Greeks, the 
 Italians, and the degenerate Spaniards of 
 to-day have no likeness or kinship with 
 the savage races whom we discover on 
 the fiirther confines of history. This is 
 to say that the ascending and descend- 
 ing phases of national life present whol- 
 ly diverse aspects; insomuch that one 
 can scarcely be compared with the 
 
 other. The true savage appears to have 
 in him the potency of the time to come, 
 while the effeminated and degraded de- 
 scendant of a great ancestry has in him 
 only the potency of death. In so far as 
 this dissimilarity between the barbarian, 
 under the influence of forces that may 
 bring him into the civilized state, and 
 the depraved posterity of great ancestry 
 does exist as a fact, it seems to be an 
 evidence of the original barbarity of all 
 peoples and the evolution of a few into 
 the higher forms of life, rather than an 
 evidence of the relapse of races into 
 original savagery. 
 
 4. The believer in the hypothesis of 
 an ascending movement of human nature 
 
 from a primitive savage Monuments and 
 
 condition into light and Sd'tww 
 freedom and greatness, conditions, 
 may well urge that the great monumental 
 remains of the remotest antiquity and 
 the perfected languages which we find 
 at the daydawn of civilization are the 
 work of races which had already /assed 
 through the stages of thve/opiiient from 
 original barbarism to the higher condi- 
 tions of life. In our present state of 
 knowledge it would be rash to allege 
 that the striking memorials of civiliza- 
 tion belonging to the remotest antiquity 
 are certainly the work of peoples who 
 had been developed from savagery 
 through preceding ages of discipline and 
 endeavor ; but it would be ^qualh rash 
 to allege that such memorials of pri- 
 meval greatness are the work of nations 
 who began their career in civilization 
 and enlightenment. vSo also of human 
 speech. It is true that such languages 
 as the Sanskrit appear as the highest 
 grammatical and logical formulae which 
 have ever been invented for the expres- 
 sion of human thought, and that sub- 
 sequent linguistic developments have 
 been, so far as the structural forms of
 
 384 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 speech are concerned, retrogressive 
 rather than progressive. But no one 
 can say that the apparition of Sanskrit 
 was not itself the result of preceding 
 ages of progress and development. 
 
 On the whole, it appears rather 
 against right reason than in conformity 
 
 Not reasonable '^vith what WC knOW of the 
 
 JliSesb^gan ^i^man mind and its princi- 
 atonce. pies of growth to suppose 
 
 that a vast structure of speech like the 
 Sanskrit should come forth at one effort 
 from the brain and tongue of a perfect 
 race. It would seem too much a marvel 
 that the Aryan house-folk of the primi- 
 tive Indian valle3'S should have begun to 
 speak with the perfected formulae of 
 language. It is not alleged that such a 
 phenomenon is impossible, but the 
 development of a language from small 
 beginnings and in constant correlation 
 with the opening powers of the mind 
 seems to conform more nearly with the 
 progressive order of human nature and 
 of univer.sal nature than the sudden 
 phenomenal efflorescence and fruitage of 
 a full-grown language. 
 
 Such, then, are the principal argu- 
 ments for and against the theories which 
 have been advanced to explain the fact 
 of barbarism. Both views of the begin- 
 nings of the barbaric life have been sus- 
 tained with such hot contentions as are 
 born of preconception. The historian 
 may frankly admit that the arguments 
 on either side are weighty and important, 
 and if for the present he suspends a judg- 
 ment, it will not be thought to proceed 
 from a reluctance to decide according to 
 the evidence before him, but rather from 
 the incompleteness of the data thus far 
 attainable. Meanwhile the argument 
 strongly preponderates toward that the- 
 ory which makes barbarism and savagery 
 to have been the primitive condition of 
 mankind, and civilization to be the result- 
 ant of the slow processes of ethnic evolu- 
 tion. The statement of the various 
 reasons for and against such a vieAv pre- 
 sented in the current chapter has been 
 given as a digressive study, preparatory 
 to a notice of some of the general and ac- 
 tual conditions of barbarism, and to that 
 great topic we now turn our attention. 
 
 Chapter XXII. — barbarisxi Illustrated. 
 
 T is painful to reflect 
 how great a portion 
 of the earth is still 
 under the dominion of 
 savage races. Europe, 
 the smallest of the 
 continents, has long 
 emerged from her primitive condition. 
 Large tracts of Asia have been occupied 
 by civilized nations from a remote an- 
 tiquity. A new world has within the 
 last three centuries been reclaimed. A 
 powerful race has planted itself in place 
 of the scattered aborigines. South 
 
 America has, within the current century 
 at least, presented the redeeming aspect 
 
 of Latin civilization. But Large areas of 
 
 the rest of the world is still f^^°']tt^ 
 
 dominatea by 
 
 dominated by races of men barbarism, 
 whose manners and customs lie close to 
 original barbarity. The islands of the 
 sea present some of the most striking 
 aspects of this current savagery of 
 mankind. Africa throughout nearlv its 
 whole extent is untouched with the sun- 
 shine of the higher life. The boreal 
 regions, whether in the Old World or the 
 New, are still occupied by races on a
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 385 
 
 very low plane of development. It is 
 among- such peoples that we must now 
 seek and find our examples of existing 
 
 •iv r 
 
 ■!ni. 
 
 NATIVE AUSTRALIAN FROM JHE DARLING RIVER 
 (headdress of FEATHERS). 
 
 forms of barbarity in illustration of the 
 prehistoric life of man. 
 
 One of the most striking facts in con- 
 nection Avith the savagely of the human 
 FUthiuessof race is filth. There is 
 example of Hot- perhaps no single example 
 tentots. among aboriginal tribes 
 
 of anything like cleanliness. Those 
 dispositions which we observe in man}' 
 birds and animals to plume and cleanse 
 themselves and to protect their nests 
 and lairs from the grosser forms of filth 
 are strangely absent among the ruder 
 savages. The historian Kolben has re- 
 marked of the Hottentots that they maj' 
 be regarded as the filthiest animals in 
 the world! Not content with the ofiien- 
 sive accumulations of nature and con- 
 stant contact with the dirt, they actually 
 cultivate gross forms of defilement, ren- 
 dering them in their personal habits re- 
 
 pulsive and disgusting to the last degree. 
 In his description of these heathen the 
 author says: "Their bodies were cov- 
 ered with grease, their clothes were 
 never washed, and their hair was loaded 
 from day to day with such a quantity of 
 soot and fat, and it gathers so much dust 
 and other filth, which they leave to clot 
 and harden in it, for they never cleanse 
 it, that it looks like a crust or cap of 
 black mortar. They wore a skin over 
 the back, fastened in front. They 
 carried this as long as thej- lived, and 
 were buried in it when they died. Their 
 only other garment Avas a square piece 
 of skin, tied around the waist by a 
 string, and left to hang down in front. 
 In winter, however, they sometimes 
 used a cap. For ornaments they wore 
 rings of iron, copper, ivory, or leather. 
 The latter had the advantage of sendng 
 for food in bad times." 
 
 TYPES OF SAVAGERY — BUSHMAN WOMAN AND CHILDREN. 
 
 The bath has been practiced by nearly 
 all peoples, whether savage or civilized. 
 But among heathen tribes the act is
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 387 
 
 performed with little respect to personal 
 purification. The sensuous change of 
 Savages bathe temperature, from cold to 
 mhtTanpuri- ^^-arm or from warm to cold, 
 fication. with the mere pleasure of 
 
 splashing like a porpoise in the surf, 
 seems to constitute the barbarous idea 
 of the bath. Instead of desiring to 
 purify themselves from all animal taint, 
 from defilement, from those offensive 
 odors which are peculiar to tribes in low 
 condition, such peoples seem to take 
 pleasure in intensifying the disgusting 
 peculiarities of the beast-life which they 
 live. It requires many ages of develop- 
 ment, as a rule, to change this horrid 
 instinct and to substitute therefor the 
 instinct of personal purity. It is in 
 proof that as low in race development 
 as the beginnings of barbarous song 
 savages are accustomed to refer, in their 
 rude rhapsodies, to the offensiveness of 
 their bodies, and to rejoice in it as an 
 element of merit and preeminence ! 
 
 The Hottentots are also a good ex- 
 ample of other debasing usages. The 
 Filth in food gathering, preparation, 
 fiSpeTsonal ^^d taking of food may be 
 ^^"bit. cited as a second strongly 
 
 discriminating feature of human life. 
 One must needs reflect upon the vast 
 difference in the method of refined eat- 
 ing and that of barbarism. The savage 
 man eats very much after the manner 
 of brutes. As to materials, he selects 
 first of all native roots and wild fruits, 
 such as yield themselves readily to his 
 appetite, without cultivation or much 
 search. The proportion of animal food 
 in tropical countries is always consider- 
 ably less than in higher latitudes, but 
 the Hottentots are none the less great 
 eaters of meat. As a rule, they take 
 their flesh food raw. If they cook it at 
 all they prefer a kind of broil in the blood 
 of the animal, the whole being mixed 
 
 with milk. Xo pains whatever are 
 taken for cleanliness, either of the meat 
 itself or of the utensils. Unless the 
 meat is thus taken fresh in the blood 
 they prefer to let it remain until it is 
 half-putrid, regarding the odor and 
 taste of decaying flesh as delicious. 
 Such other victuals as they possess are 
 boiled in leathern sacks, among heated 
 stones. Sometimes earthen pots are 
 used. The materials of the larder are 
 kept in leathern bags, in the bladders of 
 animals, or in baskets rudely constructed 
 of rushes. Tobacco is in common use 
 by the people, and is carried in pouches 
 made of the skins of animals. The pipe 
 is of stone or wood. The whole stock 
 of provisions is borne fromi hut to hut, 
 or from one camping place to another. 
 
 Australia, on the whole, furnishes one 
 of the most interesting and satisfactory 
 
 fields in which to study Australians an 
 
 the native aspects of hu- ^^aTedta^v-''^' 
 man life. The barbarians agery. 
 inhabiting this island-continent when it 
 became known to the European nations 
 were as truly aboriginal in their charac- 
 ter as any people with whom scientific 
 observation has had to deal. Nor can it 
 be .said that the lapse of time since the 
 coast regions of Australia fell under the 
 dominion of civilization has materially 
 changed the native inhabitants. They 
 are to-day virtually as they were when 
 they were first made known to the West- 
 ern nations. And. it is still possible to 
 study their manners and customs with- 
 out having to make allowance for the 
 influence of other peoples upon them. 
 
 The Australian houses are perhaps 
 the smallest and most insignificant which 
 have- ever been used as human abodes. 
 They are scarcely large enough to con- 
 tain a single person. They are shaped 
 much like an inverted oven. The frame- 
 work consists of a series of reeds, not
 
 p 
 I 
 
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 a 
 
 < 
 
 « 
 
 H 
 D 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 W 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
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 fl 
 

 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 889 
 
 more than an inch in diameter, bent 
 over so as to bring the two ends to the 
 earth, in which they are driven. The 
 covering of the hut is of palm leaves or 
 bark, and the protection afforded to the 
 inhabitant is very small. One side of 
 the hovel is open, and there is little pre- 
 tense of shelter. When the inhabitant 
 enters he must sit or lie down, as the 
 concavity overhead is not high enough 
 to permit him to stand. Xo evidences 
 of artistic taste or adornment have been 
 discovered in connection with these 
 primitive habitations. Xor could such 
 houses avail anything in a country whose 
 climate was less mild than that of Aus- 
 tralia. Many inhabitants go without 
 houses at all, sleeping on the groimd 
 and making no effort to secure a local 
 habitation of their own. In .some places 
 the effort at- housebuilding proceeds 
 only so far as setting up two or three 
 poles and leaning against them large 
 pieces of bark, forming a sloping roof, 
 which furnishes a simple protection from 
 the sun and wind. 
 
 In matters of taste and cleanliness, 
 the Australians are but little superior to 
 the Hottentots. Their personal appear- 
 ance approaches .somewhat 
 
 Feeding as the 
 
 beasts; the the better type of human- 
 w aecarmva. ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ daily habits 
 
 of life are low down among the elements 
 of savagery. The food of the people 
 consists of roots and nuts, certain kinds 
 of wood fungfus, or mushroom, shellfish, 
 frogs, snakes, worms, moths, birds, 
 birds' eggs, turtles, dogs, kangaroos, 
 seals, and sometimes whales. All of 
 these things, however, or nearly all, are 
 eaten without preparation, and are taken 
 with no sense of cleanliness or decency. 
 It will be .seen from their li-st of edibles 
 that most of the articles are such as may 
 be grabbled from the earth or the sea- 
 shore. The kangaroo is a wild, fleet 
 
 animal, and is taken with considerable 
 difficulty. The dog is only eaten under 
 stress of hunger and necessity. 
 
 The whale is, of course, bej-ond the 
 reach of capture to these barbarians, but 
 he is .sometimes stranded from the deep 
 or washed up dead on the .shore. When 
 this happens bonfires are kindled as a 
 signal, and there is a holiday for the na- 
 tives. It is their great providence, which 
 they accept with as much gratitude as 
 they are capable of knowing. The in- 
 habitants gather from the region about, 
 and pounce upon the carcass with the 
 avidity of beasts. It makes no differ- 
 ence in what stage of putridity the flesh 
 may be. They gorge them.selves. to ut- 
 ter repletion. They clamber about the 
 dead body, and quarrel for the choicer 
 parts. Notwithstanding the heat of the 
 climate, the}' stuff themselves with blub- 
 ber until they are distended with the 
 fatty mass. They eat holes into the in- 
 terior, and go inside to find what they 
 can not devour. They smear themselves 
 with the offen.sive oil, and remain for 
 days together half -suffocated around the 
 scene of their feast. Perhaps the an- 
 nals of barbarism furnish no example of 
 bestiality more gross and revolting. 
 
 It is b}- no means intended in this 
 connection to give a full description of 
 the manners and customs TheVeddahs 
 of the Australians or of f^TeTo-nfsfof 
 any other barbarous nation . barbaric ufe. 
 The whole object in this part is to illus- 
 trate the primitive life of man by a few 
 citations from the current conditions of 
 savagery. In another part of the work 
 it will remain to illustrate more fully the 
 tribal condition of the barbarous peoples 
 lying along the outskirts of the civilized 
 world. In further illustration of the 
 present state of savage peoples, a few 
 citations may be made from the life of 
 the Veddahs, or aboriginal inhabitants
 
 390 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 of the island of Ceylon. These people 
 are among the rudest and most primitive 
 of any with whom modern observers 
 have come in contact. They are small 
 in stature, the adult male rarely reach- 
 ing the height of five feet. 
 
 With the exception of a piece of skin 
 suspended in front of the body the Ved- 
 dahs go entirely naked. Their habits 
 are as coarse and low as those of the 
 other barbarians whom we have been 
 describing. They live upon the wild 
 products of the woods and by gathering 
 shellfish from the shore. They are in 
 possession of axes and spears and bows 
 and arrows. These are employed almost 
 exclusively in the chase. The peculiar 
 feature of the Veddah life seems to be 
 its secretiveness, or silence. Even in 
 the hunt they are silent, attempting to 
 .slip upon and strike their game un- 
 awares. The chase consists in a noise- 
 less approach to the animal which the 
 hunter wishes to take. In prosecuting 
 this kind of capture the natives adopt 
 several devices, the most prominent be- 
 ing the training of bi.son to the purposes 
 of the chase. The hunter hides behind 
 the tame animal, which is taught to feed 
 along so near to the wild one that the 
 hunter may spring from behind and 
 strike it down. It is a species of stalk- 
 ing, almost panther-like in its method 
 and success. 
 
 The Veddahs, like the Australians 
 and the Hottentots, have no social or 
 Marriage cus- civil institutions, but one or 
 ucTodfof r:" two customs are marked 
 Veddahs. f,ji- their peculiarity. They 
 
 do not indulge in polygamy, each man 
 having one wife, and the tribal code be- 
 ing very severe in demanding fidelity of 
 the one to the other. The rule, how- 
 ever, does not exclude intermarriage in 
 the family. Brothers and sisters may 
 marry with impunity, subject only to the 
 
 restriction that the sister must be the 
 younger of the two. Otherwise the tribe 
 is scandalized. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Andaman 
 islands have been cited by some travel- 
 ers as the lowest existing species of men. 
 In some respects it is doubt- „ 
 
 ■^ . . Debased condi- 
 
 less true that their habits tion of the ah- 
 
 . r 1T i- daman islanders 
 
 and manner ot lite are oi 
 the most degraded and savage order. 
 They build their houses by planting four 
 rude posts, two being much lower than 
 the others. A rude, inclined roof is 
 thus formed of bamboo, palm leaves, and 
 bark. This is their only structure. 
 The people appear to live exclusively 
 upon the wild gifts of nature and by 
 means of the primitive chase. There is 
 a species of wild pigs that live in the 
 jungles, which are sometiines taken and 
 eaten by the natives. The best piece of 
 Andaman workmanship is the rude 
 canoe, hollowed by means of a stone 
 ax and fire. The people use the bow 
 and arrow, and point their missiles with 
 such bits of glass and iron as they are 
 able to gather from the wrecks of vessels. 
 Travelers have admired their skill in 
 marksmanship, which is generally accu- 
 rate to the distance of fifty yards. They 
 take fish by means of hooks and nets 
 and harpoons. It has been noted that 
 they are exceedingly agile in the water, 
 and the tradition exists that the diving 
 native is sometimes able, by the rapidity 
 of his action, to clutch a fish with his 
 unaided hand. 
 
 In their personal habits the Anda- 
 maners are exceedingly filthy and coarse. 
 They smear themselves 
 
 . Filthiness of 
 
 With mud, and wear no personal habits; 
 
 1,1- m ii • ■ j.1. uses of the dead. 
 
 clothing. Tattooing is the 
 common practice of the tribe, but the 
 cicatrices exhibit less skill in design 
 than in the case of other tribes. It is 
 the custom of the people to dig up and
 
 392 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 distribute the bones of the dead, the 
 skull being reserved for the widow. 
 This she suspends by a cord around her 
 neck and uses as a casket for her orna- 
 ments and vahiables ! It is believed that 
 these savages have not succeeded in 
 domesticating any of the animals, though 
 it has been noted that tame fowls are 
 seen about their huts. For the rest, 
 their state is one of absolute savagery. 
 
 The same may be said of the Tasma- 
 nians. Captain Cook has left a record 
 Low estate of to the effect that these 
 Selnd™reser!' peoplc have neither houses 
 vationoffire. jjor clothes. Nor does it 
 appear that they possessed canoes or 
 
 Dacota fire-drill bow. Iroquois fire-pump drill. 
 
 MANNER OF PRODUCING FIRE. 
 
 implements for taking fish. They seem 
 to subsist on mussels, cockles, and peri- 
 winkles. The bow and arrow were 
 wanting at the time of Cook's visit to 
 the island, the only weapon of the peo- 
 ple being a long wooden spear. 
 
 Most of the barbarians to whom we 
 have referred in the foregoing para- 
 graphs are acquainted with the use and 
 preservation of fire. The Australians 
 imderstand the method of kindling ma- 
 terials by friction. It is of record that 
 this knowledge does not extend to all 
 the tribes. In some districts the fire 
 goes out and must be relighted from the 
 resources of a neighboring tribe. Most 
 
 of the natives, especially those of Tas- 
 mania, are very careful to avoid the 
 loss of their fire, and it is generally car- 
 ried about from place to place. It has 
 been noted that in Tasmania the duty of 
 preserving the fire is assigned to the 
 women, and they are held responsible 
 for its loss. 
 
 It is not intended in this connection to 
 discuss what may be called the moral 
 ideas of barbarians. Indeed, it might 
 
 be difficult to speak intelli- Moral ideas and 
 
 gently of what has little or ^folf l^g "ir-- 
 no existence. It is still in barians. 
 doubt whether the barbarous peoples re- 
 ferred to in the preceding pages have 
 I any true concept of religion 
 
 or of its duties and ceremo- 
 nial. The matter is in dispute 
 even by observant travelers 
 who have visited these coun- 
 tries and familiarized them- 
 selves with the manners and 
 customs of the people. It 
 has • been recorded that 
 among the Australians cer- 
 tain dances and ceremonies 
 are celebrated, which would 
 seem to imply a service of re- 
 ligion. But this is doubt- 
 ful. It is not clear that the natives of 
 Australia, of Tasmania, and Ceylon 
 have any notion of a Supreme Being 
 or of a life after death. If such notions 
 do really exist they are in such a germi- 
 nal and undeveloped condition as to be 
 little indicative of a higher nature in the 
 people. Certain customs and obliga- 
 tions do exist among them, which are 
 observed under a sense of duty ; but it 
 may be fairly alleged that no general 
 morality or religious bond exists. 
 
 If we leave the natives of these east- 
 ern waters and turn to those of the South 
 Pacific, we find at least two principal 
 races of barbarians. These are the Ne-
 
 PKf.\fE]'AL jr.i.v.—n.i/^n.iK/sjf illvstra t/id. 
 
 393 
 
 grito peoples and the so-called Polyne- 
 sians. Among the most jjrominent of the 
 former mav be mentioned 
 
 Character of the 
 
 Pelagian Blacks, the Black inhabitants of 
 
 or Sea Negroes. ,, t-,... . ., -, » 
 
 the riji islands. In gen- 
 eral, they are of darker complexion than 
 the Polynesians, and are of larger stat- 
 ure and stronger frames. The features 
 are more prominent and pronounced, 
 and the hair is frizzled. There are, 
 however, traces of Polynesian descent 
 discoverable in the Fijians, especially 
 in their language and in their manners 
 and customs. In their use of conso- 
 nants, and especially in the peculiarity of 
 placing in or n before the consonants b, 
 d, and g, the people appear to be of the 
 same linguistic family with the .\frican 
 Nigritians. 
 
 The structures of the Fijians are, first 
 of all, their dwellings. These, however, 
 
 are much larger and more 
 
 Buildings and , . , 
 
 jurnishings of skiUfuUy built than those 
 
 the Fijians. i • i i ^ i • 
 
 which we ha^■e noted m 
 Australia. They are made for the most 
 part of the trunks of cocoa trees and 
 ferns framed in a rectangular manner, 
 somewhat like the log houses of pioneers 
 in North America, but by no means so 
 substantially built. Regular doorways 
 are made in the sides, and the houses 
 are as much as twenty or thirty feet in 
 length, and sometimes fifteen feet in 
 height. In anotlier variety of house the 
 posts are set up at intervals, like the 
 framework of a like building designed 
 by a modern carpenter, and the spaces 
 between the posts are filled with wicker 
 work of bamboo and palm branches. 
 The roof is thatched with sugar cane and 
 fern leaves; and, considering the mild- 
 ness of the climate, the abode may be 
 regarded as fairly convenient and com- 
 fortable. Hanging mats take the places 
 of door shutters. In the middle of the 
 
 floor some flat stones arc laid down, 
 M.— Vol. 1—26 
 
 which .serve the purpose of a hearth. 
 Here the fire is kept burning, and such 
 rude cooking is done as is known to the 
 people. 
 
 The Fijians surpass most other native 
 islanders in the building and manage- 
 ment of boats. Thcv build Making and . 
 their canoes with consider- ^^Tt^^tTois^nd 
 able skill, and have small pottery, 
 masts and sails. The framing of the 
 bottom is strongly done, and the joints 
 are calked and filled with a kind of 
 gum prepared from the bread-fruit tree. 
 When the islands were first known to 
 White men stone tools were universally 
 employed, but these have given place 
 in part to the employment of iron. 
 Native materials are still used in the 
 fabrication of goods and in such rude 
 arts as are cultivated in the islands. The 
 natives have been observed in the work 
 of carving and engraving, using for 
 their tools the teeth of rats and mice. 
 They have a way of preparing knives 
 from the outside layer of the bamboo, 
 which is exceedingly hard and close. 
 After the blade of the implement has 
 been cut into shape, it is charred and 
 then brought to an edge so fine and 
 strone that the instrument can be used 
 in surgery. The Fijians understand 
 the art of pottery, but are unacquainted 
 with the use of the wheel. Their earth- 
 en vessels are manufactured by mere 
 handicraft, flat stones and slips of wood 
 being used by the women in bringing 
 the vessels into shape. This work is so 
 skillfully done as to resemble the prod- 
 uct of the turning wheel, and it some- 
 times requires careful observation to 
 decide whether the vessel has been actu- 
 ally turned or wrought by hand. The 
 other tablewares of the Fijians are some- 
 what superior to those in common use 
 among barbarians. Forks are employed 
 in taking food, and other usages in-
 
 394 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 dicate at least the beginnings of refine- 
 ment. 
 
 The cannibalism of these islanders is 
 proverbial the world over. The eating 
 of human flesh was until 
 recent times the ilniversal 
 practice. It was done as a 
 matter of course, and without the slight- 
 
 Open and as- 
 tovmding can- 
 nibalism of the 
 Fijians. 
 
 fowl among civilized peoples. Any one 
 might kill and eat his own women. It 
 is in evidence that the Fijian looked 
 upon his living companions with con- 
 stant regard to their edibility. It was 
 the custom of those who expected to 
 feast upon young women and boys to 
 speak of the lusciousness of their in- 
 
 BARDAklSM li.I.U^-'lK A'ri.i '. — Fijian in a Banana Grove.— Drawn by Thirial, from a photograph. 
 
 est repugnance or disgust. It was the 
 custom, first of all, to eat the bodies of 
 the enemy slain or taken in battle. 
 Those recently killed were preferred, 
 but it was not against usage to eat tha 
 bodies of those who had been dead for 
 a considerable period. Young people, 
 especially girls, were chosen for the 
 feast. The preliminary murder was no 
 more regarded than the slaughter of a 
 
 tended victims. It has been declared, 
 with probable truth, that the Fijians have 
 no word in their language to denote a hu- 
 man body except such as convey the notion 
 of food. One of the common descriptive 
 epithets of human flesh vs, puaka balava, 
 which signifies "long pig !" it is impos- 
 sible to convey an impression sufficiently 
 horrifying of the cannibalism of these 
 people and its attendant degradation.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLCSTRA TED. 
 
 395 
 
 The manner of life among the Red 
 barbarians of North America is suffi- 
 ciently well known, at least to readers 
 in our own country. The investigations 
 Barbarism iiius- of Schoolcraf t and Morgan 
 TeM^T^r and a score of other dis- 
 America. tinguislied and painstaking 
 
 writers have revealed to the American 
 people, in an imperishable record, the 
 customs, beliefs, and habits of those pe- 
 
 ing all the way around from Siberia to 
 Greenland and from Greenland to Si- 
 beria. By race affinity they are allied 
 to the North American Indians, but it 
 is al.so clear from their physiognomy 
 and other ethnic traits that they have a 
 kinship to the Chinese and the Tartars. 
 
 It may be of interest, in passing, t» 
 note the fact that in several other in- 
 stances in ethnic history we have the 
 
 BARI5ARISM H.LUSTRAl ED —Esquimau Huts at Etah.— Drawn by A. de Xeuville. 
 
 culiar tribes of the woods who preceded 
 the White race on this continent. It is 
 not needed, therefore, in this connec- 
 tion to make any extended citations 
 from the manners and customs of our 
 Indian races in illustration of the prob- 
 able methods of antiquity. In the case 
 of the Esquimaux, however, the matter 
 is diiTerent. The latter are perhaps the 
 most widely disseminated race of bar- 
 barians on the earth. They belong on 
 the shores of the arctic oceans, stretch - 
 
 same contradictory evidence in regard 
 to race descent. The Innuit language 
 has unmistakably the same Race features oi 
 radical structure, and to "^Jl^t^S 
 some extent the same o"gin. 
 vocabulary, with that of the Red men of 
 North America. But the stature, the 
 form, the features of the Esquimaux, 
 especial!}' the physiognomy about the 
 eyes and the structure of the skull, 'are 
 clearly derivable from a common source 
 with the Tartars. The manner of life.
 
 BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED-THE NORTH AMERICAN MANNER.-T.m Ghost DANca.-Drawn by J. Steeple Davis.
 
 PRIMirn-R MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 
 
 397 
 
 ^Pinter aspect of 
 Esquimau bar- 
 barism. 
 
 moreover, of the Esquimau nations is 
 as much in affinity with the customs and 
 usages of Northern Asia as with the 
 tribal habits of the New World.' 
 
 Living as they do in the most frigid 
 regions of our planet, the Esquimau bar- 
 barians are obliged to defend themselves 
 eummerand from the rigor of the cli- 
 mate. The three great 
 elements of such defense 
 against the hardships of nature are, of 
 course, food, clothing, and shelter. The 
 vicissitude of this region of the earth 
 makes it desirable for the inhabitant to 
 have one manner of life for the summer 
 and another for the winter. It is in a 
 large measure the difference between 
 day and night — between extreme rigor 
 of cold and a comparatively temperate 
 climate. Two kinds of houses are 
 therefore necessary, the one for the 
 mild and the other for the severe aspect 
 of nature. 
 
 The Esquimaux are, perhaps, the 
 greatest eaters in the world, and tlieir 
 food is almost exclusivelv of fish and 
 
 ' The reader need not be especially surprised at 
 the fact of a race descent from one source and a 
 ling'uislic descent from another. Such phenomena 
 have actually occurred in the clear light of day and' 
 under the open eye of history. The Northmen who 
 came down in a horde, in their pirate ships, from Scan- 
 dinavia, under the leadership of Kolph the Ganger, 
 in the ninth century, and who possessed themselves 
 of the fairest portion of France and founded in 
 Neustria a dominion which has projected itself far 
 and powerfully into the modern world, spoke a lan- 
 guage as certainly Teutonic, or Norse, as they were 
 themselves of that descent. But within a hundred 
 years after their settlement in the South, that speech 
 had strangely given way to another which they had 
 absorbed from the subject peasantry of Normandy, 
 and which became ever afterwards the vernacular of 
 the conquering race. So that when William the 
 Bastard came with his barons into England and 
 planted there the Norman dynasty, he brought with 
 him a race descent from the shores of the Baltic and a 
 linguistic utterance derived from the softened dialects 
 of the Southern Romance. 
 
 flesh. The reindeer, the mu.sk ox, the 
 walrus, the seal, land and water fowl, and 
 salmon constitute the prin- omnivorous 
 cipal varieties of living ^^bit and giut- 
 
 •i^ o tony of the Es- 
 
 creatures upon which they qnimaui. 
 prey. But there is scarcely any kind of 
 animal, whether marine or dryland, that 
 they do not use for food. The fatty 
 portions, heavy in carbonaceous mate- 
 rials, are greath' preferred. As to the 
 bones of animals, the E.squimaux have 
 the exact method of antiquity: they 
 .split them or bunst them open by 
 pounding with stones, and take the 
 marrow as the greatest delicacy. 
 
 In the manufacture of their utensils 
 the Esquimaux have considerable ingc- 
 nuitv. The methods em- swu in the man- 
 ployed are nearly identical ^[:r„nnd- 
 with those which we have utensils, 
 already described as peculiar to the age 
 of stone. Arrowheads and spearpoints 
 are produced by spalling off flakes from 
 blocks of flint. This is not done, how- 
 ever, by percttssion, but by pressure. 
 The block is set in rest and pressed with 
 a beam of wood until it .splits, flinging 
 off a flake. Iron and bone are consider- 
 ably employed for pointing arrows, 
 spears, and harpoons. The method of 
 making and rigging the bow is nearly 
 identical with that of the North Ameri- 
 can Indians. The arrows are short, and 
 the flight of the shaft is made steady by 
 an arrangement of feathers. It has been 
 noted, however, that the Esquimaux are 
 by no means so expert in the use of the 
 bow and arrow as the primitive Red men 
 of our own country. The heads of ar- 
 rows and spears are frequently barbed. 
 The most formidable of the Esquimau 
 weapons is the harpoon, the point being 
 fixed to a rather heavy shaft of wood 
 and secured by means of a line. 
 
 When the hunters attack a whale it is 
 customary to affix bladders to the ends of
 
 •ij'^! 
 
 ^ 
 

 
 PRIME VA L MA X. —BA RBA RISM IL L US TRA TED. 
 
 399 
 
 the harpoon lines so that the position 
 of the wounded animal may be seen at a 
 Manner of har- distance and his course 
 rhTie^Vd'^the throughthewaterimpeded. 
 ss^- The same plan is used 
 
 in the less exciting and dangerous hunt 
 of the seal. In harpooning their game 
 the weapon is so arranged that the head, 
 or barb, generally loosens itself from the 
 shaft and is retained by the line which 
 holds the bladder at the other end. In 
 seal hunting, it is the plan of the hunter 
 
 tion of music. They sing a sort of 
 monotonous songs, in both solo and 
 chorus, accompanying themselves with 
 drums and other rude instruments. 
 The choral effect of this alleged music 
 is not unpleasant to the trained ear of 
 civilized travelers. Xor does it appear 
 that the Esquimau songs are intended 
 for ceremonial or for exciting the pas- 
 sions of the chase and war. It is amuse- 
 ment, or entertainment, properly so 
 called, and therefore falls in the same 
 
 Hs-^==>^r>s:^^^#Bir^-t-rfe'^4>^ 
 
 jg-MI .^^-^,f13.»^-?iH:T^g3 
 
 ;)f^'t^;/^HFf|,Fif-rfii-^ 
 
 5:E»^^!!aM7 ^rrr ^w^w^;:u 
 
 ^^^Ms^.^:ii ^st^A?:^i.\rr\i'!'%iu\ mHHLa^jaj^ 
 
 B&f '^^^..^s^ ^■'V^t'^f^ I^ta.HtlL.'^^S"'?^ 
 
 ART WORK OF BARBARIANS. 
 
 to watch carefully for the reappearance 
 of the harpooned animal and to strike it 
 instantly on its emergence at the surface. 
 The Esquimaux are not without skill in 
 pursuing the dry land animals. They 
 stalk the reindeer with considerable suc- 
 cess, and are able to deceive many ani- 
 mals by imitating their cry or call. 
 
 It may be noted that the Esquimaux 
 Songs and mu- have in their character and 
 customs the rudiments of 
 This is man- 
 ifest in at least two particulars. In 
 the first place, they have some apprecia- 
 
 eical instru 
 ments; amuse- 
 ment the motive, an ideal life. 
 
 I category with the music of civilized peo- 
 
 j pies. 
 
 But a still more remarkable evidence 
 of ideality among the Esquimaux is 
 
 ; found in their disposition Taste of the 
 
 1 to draw and sketch. The LTanYma'^'" 
 taste for this kind of work making, 
 among them amounts almost to a pas- 
 sion. They have a real talent for de- 
 picting the outlines of natural objects. 
 This extends to a considerable degree 
 of skill in the production of maps. The 
 people have a fairly accurate knowledge 
 of the topography of the , neighborhood
 
 PRIMEl'AL JfAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 401' 
 
 bone and ivory; 
 subjects of art 
 "work. 
 
 and country in ^vhicll they dwell. 
 Travelers in the arctic regions have 
 frequently drawn upon the natives in 
 the work of sketchingf the coasts and 
 physical features of the countrv. In 
 many instances the natives have pro- 
 duced maps for their visitors Avliich 
 have proved in application to be more 
 accurate than could have been expected 
 at the hands of barbarians. 
 
 Still more striking is their skill in the 
 •work of drawing proper. Nearly all the 
 Drawing on Esquimau ornaments and 
 
 utensils are decorated with 
 the outlines of men and 
 birds and beasts. The tusks of walruses 
 and the fossil ivory, Avhich is frequently 
 obtained, are covered with such sketch- 
 ing, and no little degree of skill is dis- 
 played in the work. The Esquimau's 
 fancy takes up the scenes and incidents 
 of daily life, the little dramas of the hut 
 and seashore, the hazards of the chase 
 or of fishing, and even the farcical 
 happenings of their barbarous society, 
 and depicts the same, with no little 
 humor, on the surface of their drawing 
 materials. It is probably true that no 
 other people, ancient or modern, with 
 whom the ethnologist and historian have 
 acquaintance have exhibited in a corre- 
 sponding stage of development so much 
 aptitude and skill in the pictorial repre- 
 sentation of natural objects. 
 
 Otherwise the Esquimaux have little 
 intellectual force and no attainments. 
 Weakness of the It is Surprising to the trav- 
 eler to observe their labored 
 efforts in attempting to 
 grasp general ideas. They have no 
 mathematical ability whatever. Their 
 minds in respect to number and permu- 
 tation are as weak ac those of children. 
 They are rarely able to count as much 
 as ten, and beyond this they are unable 
 to go. They have large families, which 
 
 Esquimaux in 
 abstraction; in- 
 ability to count, 
 
 in the northern regions are a blessing 
 rather than a discomfort. It has been 
 observed that the man of the hut can 
 rarely tell the number of his children. 
 He will attempt to enumerate them on 
 his fingers, will fail, and the matter will 
 result in an animated dispute between 
 himself and his wife ! The perceptions 
 properly so called are in a better state of 
 development than the judgment. Tho.se 
 faculties which have been brought into 
 exercise by the conditions of the E.squi- 
 mau environment have been quickened 
 into tolerable activity. But the rest of 
 the mind lies dormant, as in a state of 
 absolute savagery. 
 
 The .social .system of these people is 
 miserable in the last degree. They 
 
 practice polvgamv. The Degradations 
 
 chief men particularly ^^--^^^y^rnT 
 encumber themselves with polyandry. 
 
 multiple wives, and the usage attracts 
 no comment. Polyandry is akso in 
 vogue, but is not so common as polyg- 
 amy. A woman of unusual attractive- 
 ness will frequently have two or three 
 husbands, but the common lot are con- 
 tent with one. The sanctity of the 
 relation of the man and the woman is 
 not regarded. The cu.stom which has 
 been noted among many savage nations 
 of loaning to a visiting stranger the wife 
 of the man who is visited prevails among 
 the Esquimaux. The act is regarded as 
 a social compliment, and any refusal to 
 accept the same on the part of the 
 visitor would be a gross violation of 
 etiquette. 
 
 As to moral qualities, the Esquimaux 
 have very little appreciation of duty, 
 obligation, or dependence ^^^^^^^^, 
 
 on a higher power. Their moral nature; a 
 , rude humanity. 
 
 promise or pledge, how- 
 ever solemnly made, is generally worth- 
 less. It does not appear that they will- 
 fully deceive or purposely break their
 
 402 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 word. But the changing conditions of 
 to-morrow making it of advantage to 
 violate a pledge of to-day furnish an 
 easy reason to the barbarian for doing so. 
 Of religious duty and ceremony they 
 know but little or nothing. In their 
 relations with one another, however, they 
 are generally kind, humane, accom- 
 modating. The neighborly feeling pre- 
 vails in the Esquimau settlements. 
 There is much of common interest 
 among them. The people support each 
 other in their rude enterprises, and 
 
 Drawing of an ibex. 
 
 Group of figures. 
 ART WORK OF THIS ESQUIMAUX — DRAWIXG OK BONE AND IVORY 
 
 generosity is by no means unknown. 
 The poorer members of the tribe are 
 supplied in times of want. The hunter 
 ■divides the results of his successful pur- 
 suit with his less successful companion. 
 Two or three fishermen who have had 
 the good fortune to take a walrus are by 
 no means niggardly in distributing to 
 others a portion of their fortune. 
 
 In one striking particular the Esqui- 
 maux rise above their contemj^oraries of 
 the American forest. They are never 
 willfully and maliciously cruel. There 
 is, perhaps, no authentic instance on 
 
 record of vindictive and preconcerted 
 cruelty toward their fellows. The 
 
 absence of this disposition Absence of cru- 
 
 among them, however, is :il^„rirmff^r."' 
 rather in the nature of ^nce. 
 apathy than of a positive virtue. They 
 are simply indifferent, and are incapable 
 of cruelty or revenge because of their 
 passionless character. They are cold in 
 life and manners, and, though little dis- 
 posed to do actual harm or to inflict pain 
 upon their fellows, they are equally 
 indisposed to do them positive good. 
 Such, in brief, is the manner of life, the 
 habit, the taste, the intellectual capacity, 
 and general disposition of these widely 
 disseminated barbarians of the North. 
 
 The foregoing account of the general 
 condition of several barbarian races is 
 little more than a sketch of present disser- 
 superficial aspects. There ^.^.^o^or:"" 
 is no pretense in this than a sketch. 
 connection of making a complete picture 
 of savage life as it exists at present in 
 various quarters of the 
 world. That work is re- 
 served for another part of 
 this treatise on the Great 
 Races. What is here pre- 
 sented is merely illustra- 
 tive of savage manners 
 and customs as they 
 now prevail, and the meaning of the 
 illustration is simply to throw light, by 
 reflection, upon the condition of man- 
 kind in prehistoric ages. In every epoch 
 since the appearance of human beings 
 on the globe men have been men. 
 Their essential characters, dispositions, 
 and tendencies have always been the 
 same, or at least in close analogy. The 
 human animal has always had his own 
 habits, peculiarities, and possibilities of 
 development. The present state of the 
 barbarous races, therefore, is of much 
 value to the historian and ethnologist in
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 403 
 
 determining the primitive condition of 
 mankind, and it is for this purpose that 
 the foregoing imperfect sketches of 
 several savage peoples have been pre- 
 sented. The current savagery of the 
 world is exponential of that prehistoric 
 barbarism \vhich prevailed before the 
 beginnings of authentic history; and, 
 although much allowance must be made 
 for the varying conditions of environ- 
 ment and instinct in the prehistoric ages 
 and at the present time, it can not be 
 doubted that the current aspect of bar- 
 barous life is in most respects a faithful 
 picture of that which prevailed before 
 the Vedas were chanted in the valley of 
 the Indus, before Abraham took his 
 journey from Ur of the Chaldees, before 
 the sea-beaten ^^neas and his Trojan 
 companions had found a footing on the 
 western coasts of Latium. 
 
 Besides the condition of absolute sav- 
 agery described in the preceding para- 
 piace of semi- graphs, Certain secondary 
 th^ltcendiiTg Stages of barbarism may 
 scale of races. well be noticed. We may 
 not say with certainty that the semi- 
 barbarity of the world is the resultant of 
 such antecedent savagerj' as Ave have de- 
 scribed ; but no doubt such is the fact. 
 Neither may we affirm certainly that the 
 semibarbarous peoples are to be the 
 progenitors of highly civilized races. It 
 is probable that the analogy of the tree 
 should here again be applied to the human 
 race as a whole. Branches put out and 
 are developed to a certain stage. Be- 
 yond this they do not expand. Pres- 
 ently they decay and die. Then they 
 fall away from the vital trunk which 
 supports the more vigorous and ex- 
 pansive branches above. 
 
 It will not do to say that all branches 
 of a vital organism are equally potent in 
 development. It is only the more cen- 
 tral and stronger that shoot up and 
 
 spread and flourish. This is probably 
 true of the evolution of mankind con- 
 sidered as one orgfanic, 
 
 -uT 41 Philosophy of 
 living thing. Possibly the the semibarbar- 
 . -11 ic estate of man. 
 
 present residual savagery 
 of the world will never reach much be- 
 yond its present stage of evolution. 
 This may be " true also of the semibar- 
 barous peoples. For the present it suf- 
 fices that such peoples exist and occupy 
 a considerable part of the earth's surface. 
 Their manners, customs, and modes of 
 existence differ much from those of the 
 savages whom we have described above. 
 They also differ much from the usages 
 of the civilized races — most of all from 
 the refined and cultivated peoples of 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Such types as we here contemplate 
 may be found widely distributed 
 throughout Northern Asia. The TuiK^uses 
 They are of vast terri- ^.thTs'^atfc 
 torial expansion and of a barbanty. 
 comparatively low manner of life. As 
 an example of the whole class the Tun- 
 g^ses of North-Central Asia may be 
 cited. Their customs are above the 
 horizon of savagery, but greatly below 
 the line of civilization. What is said of 
 their customs may be repeated of their 
 intellectual and moral qualities. We 
 note among them a considerable devel- 
 opment of the mental faculties and a 
 measure of moral obligation and duty. 
 But these terms must be defined, not 
 according to the standards with which 
 we are familiar, but by a criterion fixed 
 for the particular thing to be defined. 
 
 The Tungusic barbarians live the 
 wild life of hunters and fishermen. 
 They tame the reindeer, using that ani- 
 mal for both food and draught. In like 
 manner they train their dogs to draw 
 their sledges. They live a half-seden- 
 tary life, having a rude society and the 
 beginnings of usages that in higher
 
 404 
 
 GREAT RACES OF J\LL\A7X/). 
 
 progress would be defined as civil. The 
 domestic estate is in a corresponding 
 stage of development. The religious 
 life has been vaguely determined by a 
 native faith which is called Shamanism, 
 and by the vague outreaching influences 
 of Lamaism from the side of the Mon- 
 golian countries, and the touch of Greek 
 
 and others in the other; that is, one as- 
 pect of the Moorish life seems to ap- 
 proximate the conditions present in Eu- 
 rope and the Americas, while another 
 aspect is distinctly barbarous. 
 
 In their commercial transactions, and 
 indeed in all of those parts of their pub- 
 lic life in which they are brought into 
 
 SF.MlliARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— THE NORTH ASIATIC MANNER. -Tingusic Sukleki 
 Drawn by Victor Adam, after a sketch of the Cnunt de Rcchhcrg. 
 
 Catholicism out of .Siberia and the 
 West. 
 
 We may note also a grade of semi- 
 barbarity peculiar to North Africa and 
 to some portions of Eastern 
 
 Semibarbarism ^ 
 
 of the Moors and and Southeastern Asia. 
 Perhaps the s e m i b a r- 
 barous life of the Moors is the high- 
 est estate of mankind below the level of 
 civilization. Some of the usages of the 
 Moors and Berbers look in one direction 
 
 contact with foreign nations, the Moors 
 have the manners peculiar to the ruder 
 forms of civilization. But in their race 
 customs — those which they have de- 
 rived from the past — they arc distinctly 
 barbaric. Their personal manners 
 among themselves have the sense and 
 flavor of a remote and barbaric past. 
 Their wild dances and crude religious 
 ceremonies all}- the race with the barba- 
 rians, leaving only a small reason for
 
 406 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JfAXA'LVD. 
 
 classifying them with the civilized peo- 
 ples of the world. 
 
 Several important inferences are now 
 to be drawn from the subject-matter of 
 the present chapter. It remains to sum- 
 marize the results and to state their 
 meaning. The reader will, doubtless, 
 already have deduced several conclusions 
 from his study of the preceding chap- 
 ters; but it will be of additional interest 
 to state in a few paragraphs the leading 
 truths which follow as a logical conclu- 
 sion from premises furnished by the 
 study and comparison of prehistoric and 
 modern barbarism. 
 
 repulsive features. What the cave men 
 of Western Europe and the shell-mound 
 people of the shores of the Baltic were 
 in the post-pliocene era — when the 
 mammoth was still a denizen of West- 
 ern Europe and America, when the 
 hairy rhinoceros and the reindeer were 
 in the valleys of the Seine and the Loire, 
 when the cave bear and the cave hyena 
 and the Bos primigciiiiis still maintained 
 their existence from the northern ocean 
 to the Pyrenees — that the native Austra- 
 lians, theVeddahsof Ceylon, the savages 
 of the Andaman islands, and the Fue- 
 gians of South America are' to the pres- 
 
 PICIORIAI, WORK OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 I. In the first place, it will be noted 
 that the prehistoric age and the current 
 AU ages furnish epoch of human history 
 "^tZ:'^Z- alike furnish examples of the 
 dition. lozvest stages of human devel- 
 
 opment. This is to say that at the two 
 extremes of human history, the one ly- 
 ing below the daydawn of authentic 
 annals and the other reaching to the 
 very feet of the present, tribes of men 
 are found in similar stages of degradation 
 and savagery. This signifies that the 
 whole of human history has not been 
 sufficient to extinguish barbarism from 
 the earth, or even to obliterate its most 
 
 ent day. Some variations and departures 
 of tribal character doubtless exist be- 
 tween the prehistoric barbarians and 
 their fellows of the modern world. No 
 doubt there are conditions prevalent, 
 forces operative in the processes of our 
 planet life which have effected changes 
 and diversities of character between the 
 ancient and the modern savages ; but the 
 fact remains of their characteristic and es- 
 sential identity. In food and clothing, 
 in weapons and utensils, in hut building 
 and the rude beginnings of artisanship, 
 in coarseness of manners and brutality 
 of life, the two extremes of the ethnic
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 407 
 
 history of man may be brought together, 
 and the difference might be hard to 
 seek. 
 
 2. The life of man in the prehistoric 
 ages and in the modern barbarian 
 ^i^® ^^,^''®"^^ world presents similar cx- 
 
 of developmeut •■ 
 
 present in an- treDies of development . This 
 
 cient and mod- . , . . . 
 
 em times. IS to Say that in the primi- 
 
 tive -world great variety is discovered in 
 the life of tribes and peoples, and in the 
 degree of development. In some, the 
 evolutionary forces had already worked 
 a considerable result at our earliest ac- 
 
 expansion and possibility. In general, 
 the aboriginal inhabitants of Western 
 Europe were as low in development as 
 may well be conceived. The cave men 
 and the coast people were in the extreme 
 of savagery, and it is difficult to point to 
 a single evidence among the relics and 
 memorials which they have left to ar- 
 chaeolog}^ and historj' of even a tendency 
 to reach a higher stage of life. 
 
 This same contrariety between the 
 higher and lower aspects of human 
 existence in the prehistoric world finds 
 
 NONPROGRESSIVE STATE OF BARBARISM.— Chippewas of Sai lt SArNte Makik. 
 
 quaintance with a given people, while 
 in others the grossness of savagery 
 was unabated. If we scrutinize the 
 old house-folk of Arya or study the 
 characteristics of some of the better 
 peoples of Asia Minor and the West, 
 such as the Pelasgians of Greece, or 
 the Etiiiscans of Italy, we shall find 
 them to have been vigorous and growing 
 races, great builders of stone, makers of 
 towns and treasure-houses and fortifica- 
 tions and aqueducts. But if we glance 
 at other aspects of prehistoric humanity 
 we find no such promising symptoms of 
 
 an exact analogy among modem barba- 
 rians. Here, also, we have Existing barba- 
 mixed evidences of the ^Z^^^^t 
 progressive and nonpro- nonprogressiTe. 
 gressive disposition. Many of the exist- 
 ing barbarous races are as absolute in 
 their savagery as were any of the pre- 
 historic tribes, while others give proof 
 of a forward movement and of actual at- 
 tainment, which may well elicit hopeful- 
 ness and even challenge admiration. 
 The general principle is that the same 
 diversity which we find evidenced 
 among the races of the primitive world
 
 408 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 exist among the barbarous peoples of tlie 
 present time; from which it would ap- 
 pear that beyond the pale and influence 
 of the civilized nations a state of human 
 society still exists which is little dissimi- 
 lar to that which the ethnolotjist discov- 
 
 I'litioH of inaiikiiid. In contemplating 
 the barbai'ous races now inhabiting the 
 
 outskirts of the world, we The barbaric Ufe 
 
 discover little or nothing f.^rrongTor 
 
 to inform the judgment as spread. 
 
 to //('Ti' savagery begins or ends, or as to 
 
 PROGRESSIVE ELEMENT IN BARB ARISM— ILLUS I'RATED IN WEAPONS OF NEW ZEALANDERb. 
 I, saw ; a, chisel ; 3, knife ; 4, nx of chipped flint ; 5, spe.-ir of ground stone ; 6, ax of polished stone. 
 
 ers on the remotest horizon of his in- ! the ethnic soi/nr from which such peo 
 
 quiry. 
 
 3. The study of the existing forms of 
 barbarism throws very little light on 
 fundamental questions relative to f//c ori- 
 gin of savagery and tlic prifuitivc distri- 
 
 ples have descended. Their traditions, 
 as already remarked are valueless, and 
 their monuments and arts serve only to 
 illustrate the passing phases of their 
 social condition. It is possible for the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 409 
 
 historian to see in the actions of existing 
 barbarians those unconscious movements 
 of man which, in some instances at least, 
 precede the birth and early struggles of 
 civilization. Savage tribes in such a 
 state of development — if, indeed, they 
 are developing at all — arc in close anal- 
 ogy with the unconscious period in hu- 
 man life. There is a sense in which the 
 species is always epitomized and ex- 
 pressed in the individual. What the 
 child does without consciousness of its 
 own actions or tendencies, that the 
 species does in an analogous stage of de- 
 velopment. But the evidence of the 
 child with respect to its own past, or 
 even with respect to its own purposes, 
 would be little regarded by any candid 
 inquirer. It is a period in individual or 
 tribal life characterized by dreams and 
 vagaries of the fancy ; and it must not be 
 forgotten that the fancy is frequently 
 distorted by abnormal conditions and 
 even by disease and delirium. On the 
 whole, the impartial student of the 
 primitive condition of mankind is able 
 to discover as much evidence out of the 
 memorials of the prehistoric ages rela- 
 tive to the origin and essential charac- 
 ter of barbarism and the beginnings of 
 tribal life in different quarters of the 
 world, as he is able to discover from the 
 closest scrutiny of the actions and man- 
 ner of life of the existing barbarous 
 peoples. 
 
 4. The chief difference between the 
 aspect of modern barbarism and that of 
 Ancient and the primitive world is in 
 
 current barba- y cranrniphical distribution. 
 Tism differently {^ t> i 
 
 distributed. The disposition of modern 
 savagery is very different as it respects 
 the habitable surface of the globe from 
 that of the ancient world. In the earli- 
 est epochs accessible to our information 
 savagery was distributed into all parts 
 
 and places. It had possession of the 
 M.— Vol. 1—27 
 
 choicest regions of the globe. There was 
 a time Avhen it was the central fact in 
 Asia, in Europe, and in the two Ameri- 
 cas. Until the present century it was 
 still the central fact in Australia, but 
 the growth and spread of civilization 
 has displaced its barbaric competitor. 
 At the first the savage state gave away 
 in the river valleys of the East and in 
 those choice peninsulas which drop 
 down from the northern continents 
 into the southern waters. In a later 
 stage barbari.sm receded from the re- 
 
 \ 
 
 UM'ROGRESSIVE CONDITION — MINCOPA 5IAN. FROM THB 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 
 
 gions north of the great mountain 
 chains. The central portions of the 
 continents were reclaimed, and there 
 was a recession, a retreat, of savagery 
 toward the borders of the world. 
 
 The general result has been the ex- 
 tirpation of the barbarous condition in 
 all the central and better civilization has 
 
 crowded sav- 
 
 parts of the habitable globe, agery out of the 
 
 ^ . . , . , better parts of 
 
 It is in these best re- the world, 
 gions of the world that the great powers 
 are planted. Here they flourish, and in 
 proportion as they are vigorous and 
 possess the elements of perpetuity, they 
 extend themselves, by varying con- 
 quests, toward the horizon. Savagery
 
 410 
 
 GREAT RACKS OF JfAXKlXD. 
 
 has fallen back before this movement 
 and is now compelled to occupy the fur- 
 ther coasts of the planet. In the far 
 regions of the north it is still able to 
 maintain itself, at least for a season. 
 In parts of .South America and in nearly 
 the whole of Africa it still prevails, 
 flourishing- as it were under the :egis of 
 a climate which seems to forbid the de- 
 velopment of a higher civilization. As 
 for the rest, barbarism plants itself in 
 what will perhaps prove its last .strong- 
 hold, the remote islands of the great 
 oceans. It is easy to discover how vastly 
 the position and relative importance of 
 civilization and the barbaric life have 
 been changed in their geographical 
 place, with a constant advantage in fa- 
 vor of the civilized condition. 
 
 5. The principal lesson deducible 
 from the present aspect of savagery is 
 the emphasis which it places on the dif- 
 
 Difference be- fcrclliC bct'd'CCIl tllC pros^rcssivc 
 tween progress- -^ . 
 
 ive and nonpro- and tlw iioiiprogrfssive parts 
 
 gressive parts of ^ , , . ..-,^ 
 
 human life. "f t'^'^ liunian spccies. We 
 
 have seen above that many forms of ex- 
 isting savagery are as low and unprom- 
 ising as any which prevailed in the pre- 
 historic era. The flint implement of 
 to-day is in no %\-ise superior to that 
 which the cave dweller used in his bat- 
 tle with the extinct mammalia of West- 
 
 ern Europe. The manners and cusloni.s 
 of the Andamaners and the Veddahs, 
 and the method of life of the Digger 
 Indians in Western America are in 
 every wise as gross and degrading as 
 any which are suggested by the memo- 
 rials and relics of the primitive world. 
 
 It appears c()nclusi\-e that a considera- 
 ble part of the human race is at the 
 present time in a condition Lowest savage- 
 as degraded and unpro- ^J^^^^^ 
 gressive as any which is the globe, 
 suggested by our knowledge of the pre- 
 historic races of the Old World. On the 
 other hand, we have the fact of evolu- 
 tionary progress splendidly illustrated 
 in the history, tendencies, and prospects 
 of the civilized races. It is apart from 
 the present purpose to speak of the in- 
 dustry, the enterprise, the letters, the 
 art, the triumph over the obdurate forces 
 of the natural Avorld, which have been 
 practiced and achieved by the great peo- 
 ples now holding dominion in the earth. 
 It is sufficient to note and to emphasize 
 the contrast which is afforded by the de- 
 graded and the elevated a.spects of hu- 
 man life, and this contrast is brought 
 most vividly to the mind of the inquirer 
 as he considers the aspect of barbari.sm 
 set darkly against the blazing disk of 
 civilization.
 
 (^ 
 
 • 
 
 ^)
 
 RACE CriART No. 1. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 It is the purpose of this Chart to show THE Distribution of the 
 Races of Mankind, on the theory that they have all proceeded from a 
 common source. That source is indicated by the heavy black line at the left, 
 marked " Orig^-inal Stock of Mankind." From this original slock several 
 great divisions branch off, the first of which is the stem of the prehistoric 
 Black races; the second, the stem of the prehistoric Brown, or Mongoloid, 
 races: and the third, the stem of the prehistoric Ruddv, or While, races. 
 Each of these stems divides into many branches. 
 
 In general, the latitude of the given race is indicated in the Chart as on 
 an ordinarj^ map; that is, those races having the most northernly distribu- 
 tion are above ; those in the temperate zones come next, as nearly as prac- 
 ticable ; and those in the tropical regions fall in the center or lower part of 
 the Chart. 
 
 Wherever the red lines extend, there the White, or Ruddy, races are 
 distributed ; wherever the brown lines reach, there the Brown, or Mongoloid, 
 races are found; while the black lines indicate the distribution of the Black 
 races. 
 
 Nearly one-fourth of the Chart at the left indicates the prehistoric, or 
 unknown, period of race distribution. Out of this prehistoric period the 
 various races emerge. There is an Aryan, or Indo-European, familj- ; a 
 Semitic family; a Hamitic family; a Mongoloid familj- ; and .sundry Black 
 races, little known to the present day. ' 
 
 In the greater part of the center of the Chart, and to the right, wherever 
 the names of races or stocks are printed in black letters, those races, or 
 stocks, are extinct ; that is, they have either ceased to exist, or are repre- 
 sented only in their descendants. Examples of such are the Visigoths, the 
 Carthaginians, the Etruscans, etc. 
 
 All the names of races, families, and stocks, printed in red letters, are 
 existing, or living, peoples. These are found, for the most part, distributed 
 to the right at the end of race-stems. Thus we have, as examples of living 
 races, beginning above, the Welsh, the Icelanders, the Red Russians, the 
 Montenegrins, the English-speaking races, the High Germans, the Swiss, the 
 Brazilians, the Esquimaux, the Magyars, the Osmanlis, etc. 
 
 The Chart enables the reader, in particular, to trace the race descent 
 of any living variety of mankind. Thus, the English-speaking races are de- 
 rived (read back from right to left) from Anglo-Saxons, Saxons, Ingavo- 
 nians, Moeso-Goths, out of the German stem, of the Teuto-Slavic division, of 
 the West Aryan branch, of the Indo-European family, of the prehistoric 
 Ruddy, or White, races. 
 
 So, in all the cases of race-histon', the Chart is intended to show, at a 
 single survey, all of the leading developments of mankind. Many minor 
 varieties are necessarity omitted ; but all of the principal stocks of the human 
 race are here displayed in their proper ethnical and historical development. 
 (For the geographical distribution of the various races, see Race Charts Nos. 
 2 to 9, inclusive. )
 
 %^MS^^^^^^^^^^^^'y-- -'ft^fe&«*^telfe^ 
 
 BOOK IV.-DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. 
 
 Chapter XXIII.— Classification ok the Human 
 
 Species. 
 
 T has already been re- 
 marked that migration 
 constitutes one of the 
 leading facts in the 
 history of the primitive 
 world. Movement was 
 the mood of the first 
 men who possessed the earth. It was 
 by means of tribal and national migra- 
 tions that mankind were distributed into 
 the various regions where they subse- 
 quently established themselves in com- 
 munities and states. From certain cen- 
 ters the human streams arose and flowed 
 in different directions, bearing afar the 
 fecund waters of future national life. 
 
 Nearly all of these movements are 
 hidden under the obscurity that clouds 
 Obscurity of the the beginnings of history. 
 mJ^sTfm'an- The very best penetration 
 «^°<i- of the historian and eth- 
 
 nologist can reach no further than the 
 shadowy confines of the countries and 
 ages in which these primitive motions of 
 
 the human race took their origin and 
 expended their force. The task of de- 
 lineating the migrations and dispersions 
 of the early races may well challenge 
 the profoundest inquiry, and the prob- 
 lem must even then be attempted with 
 extreme diffidence and much distrust of 
 the existing- resources of knowledg-e. — 
 It is the purpose in the present book to 
 delineate at least the leading migrations 
 of the early races of man. 
 
 In the nature of the case, the migratory 
 movements of primitive mankind have 
 left only incidental traces in 
 
 •^ . . why a classifica- 
 
 histor}' and tradition. For tion of the races 
 
 ^ , . ' . , .J is necessary. 
 
 this reason the evidences 
 of human distribution have to be gath- 
 ered, for the most part, by indirection 
 out of collateral branches of inquir)-. 
 As preparatory to a description of these 
 movements, upon which all future history 
 in some sense depended, it is necessary to 
 frame an adequate analysis of the hu- 
 man family according to those distinc- 
 
 411
 
 412 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 tions upon wiiich the tribal and national 
 life of one people is discriminated from 
 that of .another. It is impossible to 
 speak intelligently of the early migra- 
 tions of mankind without a division and 
 classification of the human species, to 
 the end that its various parts may be 
 considered in detail and in relation the 
 one with another. Such a classification 
 into different races, families, and stocks 
 is the first task imposed upon the eth- 
 nologist, and is a work in every way 
 
 race according to its true ethnic distinc- 
 tions has never been satisfactorily ac- 
 complished. The principle according 
 to which the division or divisions aie to 
 be made has never been well determined, 
 and the problem at the present day is 
 still to be considered in its original 
 elements. 
 
 It can but be of interest in this con- 
 nection to present in brief some of the 
 leading methods which have been adopt- 
 ed in the attempted classification of the 
 
 A MtlrHOD OF MIGRATION.— Eastern Caravan.— Drawn by W. J. Morg;in. 
 
 method of clas. 
 sifying yet dis- 
 covered. 
 
 essential to the understanding of the 
 beginnings of human history. 
 
 The division of the vegetable kingdom 
 by Linnaevis, and the arrangement of the 
 No adequate animal world into genera 
 and species and varieties 
 by Cuvier, were not more 
 essential to the understanding of those 
 two great departments of nature than is 
 an adequate classification of mankind 
 into races, families, and types essential 
 to a knowledge of ethnic history. Great, 
 therefore, is the embarrassment of the 
 inquirer to find that even to the present 
 day this work of classifying the human 
 
 human race. The most learned of the an- 
 cients were profoundly ignorant of the af- 
 finities of the different f am- The ancients bo- 
 ilies of mankind, and found "^^^^^^ 
 no pleasure in tracing races, 
 such relationshijDS. On the contrary, the 
 mental tone of antiquity was against the 
 notion of the kinship and common 
 descent of the nations. Each people 
 disseminated the belief in its own prior- 
 ity and preeminence, and discarded as 
 much as possible those democratic tradi- 
 tions which seemed to reduce themselves 
 to a common level with barbarians and 
 heathen. Not until long after the eclip.se
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 413 
 
 of the classical ages, not until the bar- 
 barism of mediaeval Europe had at length 
 been pushed back by the revival of 
 learning, did men attempt in a more 
 thoughtful and philanthropic spirit to 
 investigate the beginnings of human 
 development and the affinities of the 
 different peoples who inhabited the 
 earth. 
 
 At the time of this reenlightenment 
 of the European nations the Roman Cath- 
 scripturai opin- olic Church was dominant 
 T.l°:^Z^ throughout the West. This 
 unity. great organization was 
 
 based upon the Scriptures of the Old and 
 New Testaments, and from these ancient 
 books were derived, either directly or 
 indirectly, the greater part of the learn- 
 ing of the Middle Ages. It came to pass, 
 therefore, that the first rational views 
 with regard to mankind considered as a 
 race and the dispersion and affinity of 
 the nations were derived from scriptural 
 sources. It was from this origin that 
 the prevalent opinions of several cen- 
 turies were deduced, and it will, there- 
 fore, be appropriate in this connection to 
 present, first of all, the long prevalent 
 beliefs which were derived from the 
 Hebrew Scriptures. 
 
 I. The Biblical Ethnology. — In the 
 tenth chapter of Genesis we have an ac- 
 The biblical eth- count of the departures and 
 Sut°Sn=ofsw migrations of primitive 
 and Ham. mankind. The narrative 
 
 begins with the descendants of Noah, 
 the survivors of a deluge. His three 
 sons become the progenitors of the three 
 dominant races which go forth to people 
 the world. The progenies of Shem, 
 Ham, and Japheth, according to their 
 families and tribes, are dispersed in 
 the various countries of Western Asia, 
 Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe. 
 
 In general, this account assigns to 
 Shem and his family the Elamites, the 
 
 Assyrians, " Arphaxad and Lud and 
 Aram." According to this scheme Eber 
 is the grandson or descendant of Arphax- 
 ad, from which we are able to sec emerg- 
 ing dimly at least three historical peoples 
 — the Elamites, the Assyrians, and the 
 Hebrews. Among the sons of Ham are 
 mentioned Cush, and Mizraim, and Phut, 
 and Canaan, with their respective de- 
 scendants. To Cush is assigned Nimrod 
 and his historical progeny. Mizraim is 
 doubtless the original tribal name of the 
 Egyptians, while Canaan, whose sons are 
 Sidon and Heth, is clearly the ancestor 
 
 CUSHITE TYPE — SHEIK OF CHAMARS. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Mougal. 
 
 of the Canaanitish races of subsequent 
 times. 
 
 The generations of Japheth are said 
 to be Gomer and Magog and Madai 
 and Javan and Tubal and japheth dissem. 
 Meshech and Tiras. To '^t^'tX^^ 
 each of these is given a fam- gentiles." 
 ily of sons and descendants, and they 
 are .said to have distributed themselves 
 among the " isles of the gentiles," " ev- 
 ery one after his tongue, after their fam- 
 ilies, in their nations." In the case of 
 Japheth, also, we are able to detect the
 
 414 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 historical beginning of nations, especial- 
 ly in the case of his son Madai, who is 
 thought to have given his name to the 
 ancient Aledes. Besides what is here 
 presented in outline, a place must be left 
 in the ethnic scheme for the direct de- 
 scendants of Noah, who is said to have 
 lived for more than a century after the 
 Deluge, and to have begotten sons and 
 daughters. 
 
 Such, in a word, is the biblical scheme 
 which the first ethnologists of modern 
 Europe employed to account for the dis- 
 Snmmaryofthe persion of the human race 
 nleofp^Se in the earth. It gives a fair- 
 peoples. ly adequate outline of the 
 
 peopling of Western and Southwestern 
 Asia and of the countries around the 
 eastern parts of the Mediterranean. We 
 may even allow for the dissemination of 
 the descendants of Noah eastward from 
 Armenia, and thus cover a still Avider 
 area of the habitable globe. A sum- 
 mar}'', then, of the biblical schedule of 
 the primitive peoples will give the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 1. Japhcthites, with seven tribal divi- 
 sions, migratory in habit, journeying to 
 the west, and peopling the gentile lands 
 beyond the limits of Asia. 
 
 2. Hainihs, with four family, or tribal, 
 divisions, three of which, at any rate, 
 may be located, respectively, in Cush and 
 Canaan and Egypt. 
 
 3. Scviitcs, with five tribal branches, 
 of which the Assyrians, the Elamites, the 
 people of ancient Aram, called Aramse- 
 ans, and the Hebrews, became, in their 
 respective countries, the leading repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 4. Noac/iitcs proper, of the divisions of 
 which the biblical narrative has given us 
 no outline, but concerning which a ra- 
 tional inference of eastern migration 
 may be drawn. 
 
 'i"he account in Genesis indicates 
 
 clearly a disposition of the Noachite 
 families to part company and disperse 
 into various resfions. The 
 
 ^ Value of the eth- 
 
 diiterentiation of tribes mc scheme out- 
 
 1 1 I lined in Genesis. 
 
 IS clearly announced as 
 the fundamental fact in the first epoch 
 after the traditional destruction of the 
 Old World by water. There is thus a 
 certain conformity in the account given 
 in Genesis to the actual facts which we 
 discover on the furtherest horizon of the 
 primeval world. The jostling and di- 
 vision of tribes under the impulse of the 
 migratory instinct is a fact which pre- 
 sents itself with equal clearness to the 
 historian, the ethnologist, and the an- 
 tiquary; and the correspondence of the 
 primitive Hebrew narrative with this 
 manifest tendency among the primeval 
 families of men gives force and credibil- 
 ity and corroboration to both branches 
 of the inquir}\ 
 
 Concerning the above biblical scheme 
 of the dispersion of mankind in the 
 primitive world, it may be fairly urged 
 that it is hardly as ample as the facts to 
 which it is applied. Within the limits 
 of the peoples and countries referred to 
 in the tenth chapter of Genesis, it ap- 
 pears to cover approximately the facts 
 as they have been revealed by other 
 methods of investigation, but it leaves 
 man}' parts of the world unprovided 
 with the populations which they are 
 known to have possessed even before 
 the dawn of authentic histoiy. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to strain 
 and exaggerate the biblical ethnology, 
 and to compel it, by attenuation and hy- 
 pothesis, to cover all parts points of inap- 
 
 of the habit-ible (rlobe pi'cability in the 
 01 me uauiuiuie glOUC. Hebrew classifi- 
 
 These efforts appear to have cation. 
 been inspired by a zeal beyond knowl- 
 edge, and to have had little .success in 
 application, except in the minds of those 
 who had been already fixed in belief by
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 415 
 
 preconceived opinions. This is to say 
 that the attempt to derive such races as 
 the primitive inhabitants of Western 
 Europe — the cave men, the people of 
 the shell mounds, and the tumuli — from 
 some branch of the Semites, the Japheth- 
 ites, or the Hamites, as those families 
 are outlined in the tenth chapter of 
 Genesis, would have no ground on 
 which to rest — at least in the pres- 
 ent state of human knowledge. In 
 like manner, the attempted deriva- 
 tion of the North American In- 
 dians, of the Aztecs, of the South 
 Pacific Islanders, of the Fuegians, 
 of the native Australians, or of the 
 Hottentots, from the Hebrew plan 
 of dispersion would be equally 
 without avail, at least with such 
 data as are now in the possession 
 of scholars. 
 
 The scheme of family and tribal 
 
 division given in the tenth chapter 
 
 of Genesis appears to 
 
 The scheme sat- 
 
 isfactory within the historian and eth- 
 
 narrow^ limits. . • j. j. i_ i • ir 
 
 nologist to be satisfac- 
 tory within the narrow limits of the 
 races and countries to which it ap- 
 plies ; but it also appears that there 
 are many parts of the globe which 
 are known to have been inhabited 
 at a time even more remote than 
 current chronology assigns to the 
 rise of the Noachite nations for 
 which the plan of dispersion pre- 
 .sented above seems to provide no 
 likelihood or even possibility of 
 inhabitants. How far the Hebrew 
 scheme of dispersion and development 
 from a Noachite origin through its three 
 leading branches of Hamites, Semites, 
 and Japhethites conforms to other ethno- 
 loeical outlines derived from different 
 data and by means of different methods 
 of investigation, remains to be elucidated 
 in the following pages. 
 
 II. Historical Ethnology. — With 
 the progress of historical investigation 
 during the last three or four origin and da- 
 centuries so much infor- ^«iop°>ef of 
 
 mstoncal eth- . 
 
 mation has been gathered noiogy. 
 relative to the first races of men and 
 their movements across the ancient land- 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN TYPE — THE SULTAN MACOUD MIRZA. 
 Drawn by H, Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Diculafoy. 
 
 scape, that a system of ethnic classifica- 
 tion has been adA-anced from a purely 
 historical basis. It was known, or sus- 
 pected, by the Romans and Greeks two 
 thousand years ago that they were re- 
 lated in their descent. Later on it be- 
 came known that such peoples as the 
 Medes and Persians were of the same 
 race-origin with the Macedonians and
 
 416 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JELVAV.VD. 
 
 the Hellenes. In still more recent times 
 it was discovered that the Teutonic races 
 had an ethnic affinity with the Graeco- 
 Italic family and with the Celts of West- 
 em Europe. Still more recently it be- 
 came known that the Hindu races were 
 descended, in all probability, from a 
 common origin with the Greeks, the Ro- 
 mans, and the Teutonic branches of man- 
 kind. A still higher view 
 
 Glimpses of a 1-1 11 • 1 
 
 wide appUcation of the whole question has 
 
 »>f this method. ii,.i.-ui-i- r^i 1 
 
 led to the belief of the ul- 
 timate affinity of the Semitic nations with 
 the great peoples mentioned above, and 
 
 SEMITIC TYPE— THR ARAB BENI LAAM. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, 
 
 of the Hamites with all the rest. As 
 the historical horizon has widened and 
 the vision of the observer has become 
 clearer with the increase of knowledge, 
 the true relations of the various families 
 of men have been discovered to the ex- 
 tent of warranting a classification on the 
 basis of actual history; and many at- 
 tempts have been made to produce on 
 this basis a scheme of ethnic dispersion 
 as broad and comprehensive as the far- 
 reaching facts which it is intended to 
 explain. 
 
 As a result of this method, several 
 
 races of men have been distinguished 
 from each other and classified according 
 to their ethnic descent and affinities. 
 
 1. T/ie Indo-European Race. — It has 
 been definitely ascertained that two of 
 the great Asiatic families Meaning and 
 and at least four of the prev- terr' °i"do- 
 
 alent peoples of Europe European race." 
 
 have had a common descent from a com- 
 mon ancient origin. To this community 
 of nations the name Indo-European, or 
 Indo-Germanic, has been applied by his- 
 torical writers. The term signifies the two 
 extremes in place and time of the nation- 
 al dispersion from the common origin 
 referred to. It signifies that an Indie 
 branch of the human family, including 
 with this term the Iranic, or Persic, di- 
 vision of mankind, has been derived 
 primarily from the same fountain with 
 the Grasco-Italic race and with the Celtic 
 and Teutonic divisions of mankind in 
 Europe. From the common fountain, 
 two Asiatic streams flowing to the south 
 and the east are known to have arisen in 
 common with the four westward flow- 
 ing streams that were destined to bear 
 into Europe and through all the west 
 the primitive waters of Hellenic, Italic, 
 Teutonic, and Celtic nationality. The 
 term Indo-European is thus devised to 
 cover the wide extremes of human de- 
 velopment which span the world from 
 the valley of the Indus to California. 
 
 2 . The Semitic Race. — Under this head 
 the historians have developed a classifi- 
 cation very nearly analogous to that em- 
 braced under the same clas- Races included 
 
 sification in biblical ethnol- Tt^^'f^^^^' 
 
 mtion 01 bem- 
 
 ogy. There is, historically Mis- 
 speaking, some indistinctness on the 
 further borders of Semitic development. 
 Whether, for instance, the ancient Chal- 
 dees were to be included under this 
 designation may be regarded as doubt- 
 ful. It is sufficient to note that the He-
 
 DISTRIBUTIOX OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 417 
 
 brew race, in its several divisions, ancient 
 and modern, is included under the 
 Semitic division of mankind, and consti- 
 tutes, indeed, its most striking repre- 
 sentatives. So also the more recent 
 Arabs are included as a cognate branch 
 of the same great family; and the an- 
 cient Aramaeans prevalent in Syria, 
 Mesopotamia, and other western dis- 
 tricts of Asia must in like manner be 
 classified with the Semitic division of 
 mankind. The reader will not fail to 
 observe that history, considered as a sci- 
 ence, and the scriptural account of the 
 dispersion of the human race are very 
 nearly in accord as it respects the divi- 
 sions, migrations, and historical devel- 
 opment of the Semitic family of men. 
 
 3 . The Hamitic Race. — This division of 
 mankind is known to history chiefly by 
 its greatest representatives, the ancient 
 •WTio the Ham- Egyptians. As planters 
 d^Xtfas'to °f the strongest and most 
 certain races. enduring civilization of re- 
 mote antiquity, these people could but 
 make a strong impression on the earliest 
 historical developments of the world. 
 Cognate with the Egyptian race were 
 several other branches of Hamites, 
 but nearly all of them are obscured 
 with doubt as to their origin and classi- 
 fication. Such are the old Chaldasans, 
 who planted their empire on the Lower 
 Euphrates as much as two thousand 
 years before our era ; and such are the 
 Joktanian Arabs of the south, bordering 
 on the ocean, and such are several of 
 the Canaanitish rations, with whom the 
 greater historical peoples came into con- 
 tact from the seventh to the third cen- 
 tury B. C. Many historians have re- 
 garded the Phoenicians, the Sidonians, 
 and the Carthaginians as of Hamitic 
 descent, and it is highly probable that 
 some of these peoples were at least com- 
 posite in their ethnic origin. As a gen- 
 
 eral fact, it appears that the Semitic and 
 Hamitic peoples of antiquity were less 
 completely separated from each other's 
 influence, less perfectly differentiated 
 
 HAMITIC TYPE — THE EGYPTIAN SAIS. 
 Drawn by A. de liar. 
 > 
 
 into diverse types of race development, 
 than any other two branches of the 
 primitive family of men. 
 
 4. Tlie Altaian Races. — The great no- 
 madic peoples having- the highlands of
 
 418 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 the Altais as their original habitat have 
 been designated by many terms, and 
 The Altaian there is yet mucli confusion 
 ZZnt^ZT' in their attempted classifi- 
 Tartars. cation. Evcn the major 
 
 divisions of these races are not well 
 made out. One of the broadest divisions 
 is the Tartar family, spreading to the 
 north and east over a great part of 
 Asia. It is still in di.spute whether 
 
 v^ can 
 
 > « •» SI B « 
 
 
 .'p^^/lT. 
 
 ALTAIAN TYPE — OLD TARANTCHI. 
 Dr.iwn by R. Ronj.'it, from a plintograph. 
 
 the Tartars and Mongolians should be 
 considered as primary ethnic divisions 
 of mankind, or whether the Llongolian 
 branch of the south has been deflected 
 from the Tartar group of the nortli. As 
 we shall presently see, this great assem- 
 blage of semicivilized races, nomadic 
 over the vast steppes of the north and 
 in a low grade of development in the 
 wuth, is defined by the term Turanian 
 
 in the linguistic division of men. But 
 for historical purposes the whole group 
 may best be classified and named from 
 its geographical center on the northern 
 slopes of the Altais. The White Tar- 
 tars, or Turcomans, as the westernmost 
 division of the great Altaian group, 
 have, by their aggressions in Asia Minor, 
 Syria, and Eastern Europe, brought the 
 family of nations to which they belong 
 into historical relationship with the Indo- 
 European race, and have thus preserved 
 unto the present time at least the rem- 
 iniscence of the prowess for which 
 they were characterized in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 5. Western Aborigines. — Besides the 
 greater peoples with whom history has had 
 to deal in Western Asia and 
 
 Aboriginal races 
 
 Europe, the progress of na- of the western 
 
 , . . , 1 , . hemisphere. 
 
 tions westward has brought 
 them into contact with new varieties of 
 the human family, unknown in ancient 
 times. The limited geographical knowl- 
 edge of the ancient peoples shut them 
 out from an acquaintance with the wide- 
 ly spread barbarian races occupying the 
 New World, the continent of Australia, 
 and the islands of the sea. It is not 
 meant that the inhabitants of the vast 
 regions here referred to are of a common 
 ethnic descent. On the contrary, as we 
 shall see hereafter, many original stocks 
 of mankind are represented in the exist- 
 ing savagery of the world. But for his- 
 torical purposes the aborigines of the 
 West and of the ocean lands of the 
 South and west may, for convenience, be 
 grouped together and considered as an 
 unclassified mass of peoples, in varying 
 stages of evolution. 
 
 It will be remembered that what is 
 here attempted is merely to indicate 
 such results in the way of classification 
 as are afforded from a purely historical 
 point of view ; and for this purpose all
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 419 
 
 the outlj'ing barbarous peoples that have 
 been revealed since the beginning of 
 Results of the geographical discovery at 
 ftol^on's'inX" the close of the fifteenth 
 scheme. century may be grouped as 
 
 one, and considered as a single fact in 
 the analysis of the human race. If, 
 then, we collect the results derivable 
 from this historical view of the disper- 
 sion of mankind, we shall find the fore- 
 going five groups of peoples, the first 
 three of which, the Indo-European, the 
 Semitic, and the Hamitic branches, are 
 tolerably clearly defined and separated 
 by ethnic lines, while the remaining 
 two, the Altaian group of nations and 
 the Western aborigines, are banked to- 
 gether rather for convenience of consid- 
 eration than by exact principles of clas- 
 sification. 
 
 III. LiXGUiSTic Ethnology. — Within 
 the present century the study of lan- 
 guage has thrown new light on all the 
 In what manner disputed questions relative 
 'come abasfs^o^/' to the dispcrsion and race 
 classification. developments of mankind. 
 The scientific investigation of speech 
 has made clear man}- vexed questions in 
 the primitive history of men that to all 
 seeming could have found no other so- 
 lution. The general effect has been to 
 confirm and establish many of the views 
 already received from tradition and his- 
 torical inquiry, and to disprove and ren- 
 der untenable many other opinions con- 
 cerning the movements and affinities of 
 the early races. Much that was conjec- 
 tural has become known as fact. The- 
 ories have been demonstrated or de- 
 stroyed, and new views of the extent, 
 variety, and true character of tribal and 
 national evolution have been projected. 
 In some departments of inquiry the new 
 knowledge has amounted to a revolu- 
 tion. On the whole, it is almost impos- 
 sible to overestimate the value of lin- 
 
 guistic science in the exposition of all 
 questions relative to the prehistoric con- 
 ditions and movements ot mankind. 
 
 If we take up the results of this study 
 of human speech as it respects the eth- 
 nic classification of the race, we find a 
 certain general parallelism to what has 
 been presented above as proceeding 
 from biblical and historical investiga- 
 tion. To begin with, the science of 
 
 WEST AUVAN IVrii — ALLllilAUtS. 
 
 language declares with emphasis and 
 demonstrates the existence of — 
 
 I. Tlie Aryan Race. — This term, as 
 elucidated in the preceding book, relates 
 primarily to a primitive nobility claimed 
 and maintained by the peo- The Aryan race 
 pies called Aryan, which ^^^^:^ 
 nobility was based upon esses, 
 the agricultural life as distinguished 
 from nomadic and pastoral pursuits. It 
 is not needed to illustrate further in this 
 connection the meaning and application 
 of the term. It suffices to note the fact
 
 420 
 
 GREAT RACES OE }rAXKIXD. 
 
 that the study of language has defined 
 and proved beyond a doubt the funda- 
 mental affinity and kinship of the Aryan 
 folk of Asia — that is, the great Hindu 
 family of Arj'ans in the valleys of India 
 and the Iranian, or Persic, division of 
 mankind — with the Grasco-Italic race 
 and the Teutones and Celts of Europe. 
 
 The community of the original speech 
 of all these jjeoples, spreading in its wid- 
 est development from the base of the 
 Himalayas westwai'd over the table-lands 
 of Iran, through the southern peninsulas 
 Racemove- ^mcl the transmontane for- 
 
 byThenorefa' estsof Europe to the Atlan- 
 of language. tic, and through the New 
 World to the Pacific coast, has been es- 
 tablished by proofs irrefragable as those 
 which determine the truths of geology 
 or the laws of the physical world. The 
 course of the tribal movements by which 
 from the countries east of the Caspian 
 these great and progressive streams of 
 human life pursued their way to their 
 destination can be traced by the linguis- 
 tic phenomena which they left in their 
 track, and the elimination of the great 
 family of men to which scholars have in 
 recent times given the name Aryan 
 from the remaining races has been com- 
 pletely effected. 
 
 It can but be of interest at this point 
 to state the linguistic facts upon which 
 "WTiat facts in the classification of man- 
 ianfTtrnilaT" ^iud has bccu attempted, 
 conclusions. jt is found that certain peo- 
 ples, like the Aryan family above defined, 
 speak dialects of a common language. 
 In general, they havQ a vocabulary and 
 a grammar in common. When we find 
 two peoples living in different and dis- 
 tant parts of the earth naming the objects 
 of sense and reflection with the same 
 words, and combining those words in 
 sentences under the same laws of gram- 
 matical and logical structure, we are com- 
 
 pelled to conclude that the two languages 
 have had a common origin somewhere 
 in the past ; and if the languages have 
 thus arisen from a common source, the 
 two peoples who spoke them had also an 
 original tribal identity. This is exactly 
 the case with the great nations called 
 Aryan. The six branches of this vast 
 family of mankind, namely, the Indie, 
 the Iranic, the Hellenic, the Italic, the 
 Teutonic (including the Slavonic), and 
 the Celtic, are not only identified by the 
 laws of history, but also by the laws of 
 speech. The vSanskrit, spoken in ancient 
 India, the Persic dialects of the plateau 
 of Iran, the different varieties of Greek 
 peculiar to Hellas and the ^gean 
 islands, the Latin tongue of the West, 
 the various Teutonic languages, and the 
 Celtic, with its two or three derivatives, 
 have all a fundamental linguistic iden- 
 tity. Their vocabulary as it respects 
 the primary objects of sense and the 
 common actions of life is virtually the 
 same in all. 
 
 More striking still are the fundamen- 
 tal peculiarities of their respective 
 grammars. The great fea- inflection the 
 ture of all these tongues YZT^rlt^ 
 is inflection. The varia- speech. 
 tions of thought as, for instance, nurn- 
 ber, gender, and case in nouns, mood 
 and tense in verbs, comparison in adjec- 
 tives and adverbs, are indicated by 
 terminational changes in the words of 
 the language, and these changes obey 
 the same laws and present the same 
 phenomena in all the speeches above 
 referred to. Only the student of lan- 
 guage can fully appreciate the striking 
 similarities which present themselves in 
 all branches of the Indo-European, or 
 Aryan, tongues. It is as though we 
 should study a single language with 
 dialectical variations. And so indeed it 
 is. The original speech of all these peo-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 421 
 
 pies was one. Somewhere in the past 
 and somewhere on the surface of the 
 earth, before the era of tribal migration, 
 a famih' of men had, by reason and 
 experience, developed a language of the 
 inflectional variety, had given names to 
 the objects of nature and the concepts 
 of the mind, had defined by certain 
 words the actions and thoughts peculiar 
 to their volitions and imaginations. 
 
 The general result of this evolution 
 
 was the production of a great typical 
 
 speech, which was spoken 
 
 How languages '■ ^ 
 
 are modified by by all the members of 
 
 environment. ,/ ^ m ■ -^ ± ^ 
 
 the tribe m its ancestral 
 home. From this region the migrations 
 began, and each band of emigrants 
 carried with them the ancestral speech. 
 As they entered into new relations with 
 nature and new experiences in life, 
 passing through belts of different cli- 
 mate, encountering new landscapes and 
 familiarizing themselves Avith new con- 
 ditions and environments, their tongues 
 began to modify the original language, 
 and to adapt it to the changing panorama 
 of nature and the varying concepts of 
 the mind. Generations went by. Differ- 
 ent regions of the earth were reached. 
 National developments ensued. But 
 still the fundamental identity of the 
 speech of all these peoples was main- 
 tained. So that in India, in Persia, in 
 Macedonia and Greece, in Italy, in the 
 forests of Northern Europe, and .in the 
 outlying portions of Spain and Gaul 
 and Britain, the scholar of after times 
 discovers the broken, but clearly identi- 
 cal, fragments of a common language 
 once spoken by the ancestors of all these 
 peoples. Thus it is that the stud}- of 
 language has furnished one of the surest 
 criteria by which to determine the ethnic 
 classification of mankind. 
 
 2. The Semitic Race. — Following this 
 same clue, we discover by means of lan- 
 
 guage another family of men, to which is 
 given the name of Semitic. Here we no- 
 tice the recurrence of the Semitic races 
 same term which was given ^ay be classified 
 
 t> by means of 
 
 US in the biblical ethnol- ti»eir languages, 
 ogy and repeated in the historical divi- 
 sion of the races. The linguistic inquirer 
 finds in the East a group of nations 
 speaking languages totally different in 
 structure and vocabulary from the Aryan 
 tongues above defined. The speech of 
 the Hebrews, the old Aramaeans, and the 
 Arabs is as distinct in its essential char- 
 acter from vSanskrit and Greek and Latin 
 as though it belonged to a wholly differ- 
 ent class of phenomena. The words of 
 the Semitic languages, instead of being 
 of all lengths as to syllables and letters, 
 consisted fundamentally of triliteral sym- 
 bols. Every word is essentially a word 
 of three letters and three only. These 
 constitute the skeleton, so to speak, of 
 the vocal symbol, and around this skele- 
 ton the vocalic elements are arranged. 
 
 Inflection is almost unknown to the 
 Semitic languages. The grammar of 
 these tongues is construct- contrast be- 
 ed upon a totally different ^rAryaTmeth- 
 principle from that of the ods of speech. 
 Aryan languages. Even the superficial 
 student of human speech must be struck 
 and astonished from the ver}' first with 
 the essential difference and contrast be- 
 tween the Semitic method of expressing 
 thought and the method of the Aryan 
 peoples. It is from this distinction that 
 the linguistic inquirer has constructed 
 the classification of the Semitic races. 
 The Hebrews, the Aramaeans, and the 
 Arabs, with their derivatives in ancient 
 and modern times, are grouped by them- 
 selves, and are as certainly defined by 
 means of the languages which they speak 
 or have spoken as they are clearly divid- 
 ed from the other nations in historic de- 
 velopment.
 
 422 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfA-VA'/XD. 
 
 3. T//C Turanian Races. — The progress 
 of linguistic science has revealed another 
 Peculiarities of great group of languages, 
 Tu/anrafran- differing entirely in struc- 
 guages- tural character from the 
 
 two varieties above described. It is 
 found that in general the languages of 
 
 lURANlAN TYPK — KIRGHKKZ KAI.CONER. 
 Drawn by Delort, from a photograph and de^cripiion. 
 
 the nomadic nations of Northern Asia 
 are monosyllabic. They consisted origi- 
 nally of words of a single syllable, and 
 are never inflected. In order, however, to 
 
 express the necessary inflection of ideas 
 and to effect the construction of the 
 sentence, they adopted ^^■hat is called 
 the agglutinative method of combina- 
 tion. That is, several mono.syllables are 
 put in juxtaposition to express the com- 
 plex or compound notion which in the 
 Aryan languages would 
 be denoted bj- means of 
 inflectional terminations. 
 This feature of combin- 
 ing monosyllables in 
 long, compound expres- 
 sions, partly resembling 
 words and partl}^ sen- 
 tences, is common to the 
 languages of nearly all 
 the nomadic nations of 
 the eai'th. 
 
 It is believed by schol- 
 ars that such languages 
 have not yet reached the 
 
 inflectional Features of ag- 
 
 stage of de- f "ti"<-^"^« 
 
 & tongues; mean- 
 
 Velopmen t, mg of " tura." 
 
 and that, in obedience to 
 natural laws, they will 
 ultimately pass into a 
 form of structure similar 
 to that of the Aryan vo- 
 cabulary and grammar. 
 No example of .such trans- 
 mutation, however, has 
 been noted in any quar- 
 ter of the world. The 
 agglutinative languages 
 hold fast to their original 
 character, and the peo- 
 ples who speak them 
 prefer to retain their te- 
 dious, periphra.stic meth- 
 ods of expression to the 
 adoption of the briefer and more elegant 
 inflectional forms of .speech. Ba.sed on 
 these agglutinative dialects, the ethnic 
 classification of races has been extended to 
 
 W''%
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 42.3- 
 
 include the great group called Turanian. 
 The word is derived from turn, "a 
 horseman," and has respect to the nation- 
 al habit of life peculiar to the semibar- 
 barous races of 
 
 Northern Asia. 
 In general, the 
 Turanian fam- 
 il)% as deter- 
 mined by the 
 peculiarities of 
 language, con- 
 forms with tol- 
 erable identity 
 to the Altaian 
 group of na- 
 tions as deter- 
 mined by his- 
 torical relation- 
 .ships. 
 
 4. The Gan- 
 oivanian Races. 
 — In addition to 
 the three major 
 divisions of 
 mankind thus 
 determined by 
 the evidence of 
 language, a 
 fourth division 
 has been sug- 
 gested to in- 
 clude the bar- 
 barian races of 
 the New Wo rid; 
 and for this 
 branch of man- 
 kind the name 
 ( ianowanian has 
 been proposed 
 
 as indicating the most universal charac- 
 teristic of the Indian races. They are, 
 and have always been, the wearers of 
 the bow. Just as the root ar has fur- 
 
 by Pro f e ssor 
 Lewis H. Mor- 
 gan, of the United States. In the Seneca- 
 Iroquois dialects the wavdi. gano-xuano sig- 
 nifies " bow-and-arrow," and Professor 
 Morgan has seized upon this expression 
 
 GANOWANI.W TYPES — rCAYI.t INDIANS. 
 Drawn by P. Fritel. 
 
 nished to ^la.x iliiller and other Euro- 
 pean scholars the hint for the ethnic 
 name Arj-an, meaning the races of the 
 plow, just as tura, meaning a horseman.
 
 424 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JELVAVXP. 
 
 has furnished the root of the word Tu- 
 ranian, descriptive of the nomadic races 
 of Asia, so the word Gan- 
 
 The Ganowan- . 
 
 ian, or t)ow-and- owaniau may properly be 
 arrow, races. employed to designate the 
 races of the bow and arrow. Linguis- 
 
 SF.A NEGRO TYPES — NATIVES OK DOREV. 
 Drawn by P. Sellier, .ifter a sketch of Dumont d'Urville. 
 
 tically considered, the various tongues 
 of the Indian family of men belong by 
 analogy to the same group with the 
 Turanian languages of Asia. They 
 have the same peculiarities. They are 
 monosyllabic, and all complex and com- 
 
 pound ideas arc expressed by the agglu- 
 tinative process ; that is, the mere jux- 
 taposition of one monosyllable with 
 another, until the mind of the speaker 
 is satisfied with the modification. 
 
 IV. Geographical Ethnology. — We 
 have thus considered three of the 
 general methods which have been 
 adopted for classifying 
 
 ^ . General theory 
 
 the human race into of geographical 
 
 , ... ethnology. 
 
 species and varieties. 
 Still another plan has been proposed 
 by a certain class of writers with a 
 view to the ethnic division of man- 
 kind. This we will now consider 
 as the fourth attempt to group the 
 different families of men according 
 to their origin and race descent. It 
 has appeared more feasible to many 
 inquirers to use geography as the 
 basis of a classification rather than 
 alleged affinities of blood or actual 
 identities of language. It has been 
 thought that for practical results the 
 arrangement of the human race ac- 
 cording to its continental distribu- 
 tion and its local developments 
 would be of greater value than the 
 somewhat theoretical analysis of 
 mankind according to linguistic 
 distinctions. The result has been 
 a more elaborate but less valuable 
 classification than by any of the 
 other methods. The plan in ques- 
 tion begins with a hypothetical cen- 
 ter for the human race, located in 
 the Indian ocean, west of Hindu. 
 Stan. From this supposed origin 
 of mankind streams of ethnic de- 
 scent are carried shorewards from 
 Lemuria until, touching the various 
 continents, they are deflected and dis- 
 tributed into all parts of the earth. 
 According to this scheme we have the 
 following results : 
 
 I. The Papna)is, with their derivative
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATION. 425 
 
 families of Negritos, Papuans proper, 
 Melanese, and Tasmanians. These 
 Summary of re- peoples, as their names 
 gripS^''^^"' indicate, are distributed 
 method. jn IMalacca, the Philippine 
 
 islands, Papua, ]\Ielanesia, and Tas- 
 mania. 
 
 2. The Hottentots, with their two lead- 
 ing branches, the Hottentots proper 
 and the Bushmen, both inhabiting Cape- 
 land. 
 
 3. The Kaffirs, with their three divi- 
 sions, the Zulu-Kaffirs, the Bechuanas, 
 and the Congo Kaffirs, inhabiting re- 
 spectively the eastern, the central, and 
 the western districts of South Africa. 
 
 4. The Negroes, 
 with their four 
 principal divisions 
 of Tibbu Negroes, 
 Stidan Negroes, 
 Seneganibians, 
 and Nigritians, 
 inhabiting the re- 
 gions indicated by 
 their respective 
 names. 
 
 5. The Austra- 
 lians, with the two 
 geographical 
 branches of North 
 
 Australians and South Australians. 
 
 6. The Malayans, with their three divi- 
 sions of Sundanese, Polynesians, and 
 Madagascans, the first two inhabiting 
 the Sunda archipelago and the Pacific is- 
 lands, and the latter the island of Mad- 
 agascar. 
 
 7. The Mongolians, with their three va- 
 rieties of Indo-Chinese, Coreo- Japanese, 
 Altaians, and Uralians, the first belong- 
 ing to Thibet and China, the second to 
 Corea and Japan, the third to Central 
 and Northern Asia, and the fourth to 
 Northwestern Asia and Hungary in 
 
 Europe. 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—28 
 
 8. The Arctics, with the two principal 
 divisions of Hyperboreans and Esqui- 
 maux, belonging respectively to North- 
 eastern Asia and Northeastern America. 
 
 9. The Americans , with four leading 
 divisions, the North Americans (In- 
 dians), Central Americans, South Amer» 
 icans, and Patagonians, distributed ac- 
 cording to their several ethnic names. 
 
 10. The Dravidians, with two race de- 
 velopments, the Deccanese of India and 
 the Singalese of Ceylon. 
 
 1 1 . The Nubians, with their three va- 
 rieties, the Shangallas and Dongolese of 
 Nubia, and the Fulahs of Fulah. 
 
 12. The Mediterraneans, divided ac- 
 
 ESQUIMAU TYPES. 
 
 cording to this scheme into Caucasians, 
 Basques, Semites, and Indo-Europeans; 
 the first of these four being named from 
 the range of the Caucasus, the .second 
 belonging to the northeastern portion of 
 Spain, the third being limited to Eastern 
 Europe and portions of Northern Africa, 
 and the Indo-European branch being 
 nearly coincident with the European 
 division of the Aryan race as defined in 
 the linguistic scheme above. 
 
 We thus have, according to the geo- 
 graphical scheme, no fewer than twelve 
 major divisions of human kind, repre- 
 sented by thirty-seven different races.
 
 426 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLIXKLYD. 
 
 many of which are in turn divided and 
 subdivided into various peoples and 
 tribes, according- to their localities, lan- 
 guages, and ethnic peculiarities. 
 
 On the \vhole, this method of classifica- 
 tion according to the geographical basis is 
 
 Unsatisfactory leSS Satisfactor}^ in its re- 
 character of geo- n.g ^-^^^ an^'of the others 
 
 g-apmcal classi- •' 
 
 Bcation. presented. It assumes that 
 
 tribes of a given stock will, as a rule, mi- 
 
 associated. A classification like the 
 above, which places so old and radical a 
 stock as that of the Semites in the same 
 group with the Indo-European races, 
 lacks every element of accuracy, and 
 tends to perpetuate the worst vices of the 
 old system of ethnology. None the less, 
 such a division of mankind as that pre- 
 sented in the geographical scheme above 
 has its value when set in comparison and 
 
 NUBIAN BOY— TYPE. -Dra«n by Ishrnael Geiil7. 
 
 grate in +he same direction and occupy 
 the same territories. It is based upon the 
 hypothesis that an aggregation of peo- 
 ples in any given part of the world is of 
 itself s. proof of a common race descent. 
 On the contrary, it is well known that in 
 many parts of the world races and tribes 
 of men, as wide apart as the poles in 
 their ethnic aiUnities, are geographically 
 
 parallelism with other and more rational 
 ethnic classifications. 
 
 V. Scientific Ethnology. — In the 
 schemes of race descent thus far pre- 
 sented the lingi:istic plan Klements of un- 
 
 of division most nearly ^^^^^j^^j^^ 
 approaches a scientific ba- of race division, 
 sis. There are in the same, however, 
 certain unscientific conditions that must
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATIOX. 427 
 
 be eliminated before the division of the 
 human race by language only could be 
 accepted as a finality. One of these con- 
 ditions is the patent fact that a people of 
 a given ethnic origin may, in the vicissi- 
 tudes of history, adopt a speech other 
 than its own, and thus be thrown in a 
 classification very different from that to 
 which it really belongs. 
 
 Several instances might be cited in 
 which this phenomenon has actually 
 
 and probability of error in classifying by 
 means of language only. 
 
 But there are other means of a more 
 strictly scientific character which may be 
 employed in classifying the possibuity of 
 divisions of the human classifying on 
 
 variations in 
 
 race. Differences or identi- fo"°- 
 ties in anatomical structure, persistently 
 transmitted from generation to genera- 
 tion, constitute a valid evidence of eth- 
 nic divergence or relationship. The 
 stature of a given people is generally 
 uniform. The men are of a uniform 
 height, and so are the women. In this 
 respect the different families of man- 
 kind have presented remarkable varia- 
 
 Dolicocephalic skulL Brachycephalic skuU. 
 
 CRANIAL CONFIGURATION, SHOWING VARIATIONS IN HUMAN FORM. 
 
 presented itself. At times the conquer- 
 ing race absorbs the language of the 
 conquered people, and, in such a case, 
 subsequent investigation would be put 
 at fault if the linguistic affinity of the 
 people were accepted as the sole criterion 
 of its race relationship. The conspicu- 
 ous modern example of the Normans, 
 who abandoned their own Teutonic 
 speech and adopted French as their ver- 
 nacular, carrying the same with them 
 into England, and effecting in the Eng- 
 lish language a permanent modification 
 by the infusion therein of linguistic ele- 
 ments which they had borrowed from 
 another people, is sufficiently well known, 
 and completely establishes the possibility 
 
 tions. Some approximate the stature of 
 giants, and others of p\-gmies. The pro- 
 portions of the skeletons likewise con- 
 stitute a fair basis of distinction between 
 people of one race and those of another. 
 The character of the hands and the feet, 
 the length and proportion of the arm 
 bones and the legs, the particular figure 
 of the chest, and especially the facial 
 angle, are peculiarities which may well 
 be employed in a scientific way in dis- 
 tinguishing people of one race descent 
 from those of another. 
 
 More especially the figure and capac- 
 ity of the skull are typical, each family 
 of men having a cranial configuration 
 and development peculiar to itself.
 
 428 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 2LlNKIiYD. 
 
 Careful investigations have shown the 
 limits of these variations, and have de- 
 Crania and termincd those features of 
 Of dete^^.:^^ the Skull and brain Avliich 
 race. are distinctive of several 
 races of men. The hair of the head, 
 likewise, has furnished a distinguishing 
 mark in different peoples. It is found 
 that the hair in different races ranges 
 all the way from a woolly fiber, present- 
 ing a triangular section and having its 
 vital channel on the exterior surface, to 
 the straight, tubular filament which 
 constitutes the head covering of some of 
 the superior races. Between these ex- 
 tremes are all varieties of capillary for- 
 mation. These varieties are found to 
 
 granite crypts of Egypt, where they 
 were laid more than two thousand years 
 before our era, exhibit the same pecul- 
 
 PAPUAN TYPE, SHOVVl.NO CKISP HAIK. 
 
 be persistent from generation to genera- 
 tion and from century to century. Spec- 
 imens of human hair recovered from the 
 
 C, 
 
 >■,. f 
 
 AMEKICAN INDIAN TYPE, SHOWING STRAIGHI' HAIR. 
 Drawn by Riou, 
 
 iarities and diversities of structure as are 
 found on the heads of living races. Such 
 specific differences in the external cov. 
 ering of the skull may well be used in a 
 scientific way as ^ mark or criterion by 
 which the different families of mankind 
 may be discriminated the one from the 
 other. 
 
 The human skin also has its particu- 
 lar features and peculiarities, unlike in 
 the different types of man- 
 
 . . . T Color of the skin 
 
 kmd. This is said more a true test of 
 particularly of the color. Of ^ "'° ^ "' ^' 
 all the features with respect to which 
 men differ in physiological constitution 
 the pigmentary character of the cuticle 
 is perhaps the most marked, invariable, 
 and persistent. This fact has been se- 
 lected by many ethnographers as the 
 best consideration from which to frame 
 ;i scheme of division for the human 
 species. It is found that the different 
 races have different colored skins; that 
 a given race is sufficiently uniform in its 
 hue ; that the color once determined, is 
 persistent, reproducing itself from age to 
 age, and being recognizable even after 
 thousands of years as belonging to a cer- 
 tain species. Why not, therefore, adopt 
 the color of the body as the most marked
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 429 
 
 Scientific classi- 
 fication may be 
 made from color. 
 
 and invariable characteristic by which to 
 distinguish the ethnic classi£cation of 
 the various peoples? 
 
 Such a principle of division appears to 
 be in every v.'ise scientific. The color 
 of the skin is a physical fact 
 in nature, and its invaria- 
 bility in a given species 
 assures the constancy of the fact and 
 furnishes a guarantee against error. Xo 
 anomalous depar- 
 tures from the 
 given standard of 
 color need be ex- 
 pected except in 
 the case of indi- 
 viduals, and such 
 exceptions would 
 in no wise disturb 
 the regularity of 
 the law. More- 
 over, the other 
 sources of infor- 
 mation, the other 
 bases of division 
 of the human fam 
 ily, may well be 
 used as auxiliary 
 to the truly scien- 
 tific classification 
 of mankind by 
 means of color. 
 All that is known 
 historically of the different races, all 
 that is known of the various branches 
 of the human family as determined by 
 mean? of the languages which they 
 speak, may be brought to bear upon the 
 problem to rectify and amend whatever 
 may be suspected of error in the classi- 
 fication by means of color. 
 
 Such a method of division has been 
 many times attempted by scholars, but 
 until recently the results have been 
 variable and uncertain. The reason of 
 this is found in the imperfect observa- 
 
 tion which has first been given to the 
 question. What are the different colors 
 presented on the covering sources of for- 
 
 of the bodies of men 
 
 ;, mer error in this 
 
 method of clas- 
 
 What primary or secondary siiying. 
 hues are really characteristic of the hu- 
 man skin in different races and coun- 
 tries? Error in deciding these questions 
 has been at the bottom of all diversity 
 in results. 
 
 NIGRIIIAN TYPES, SHOWINC, WOOLLY HAll 
 Drawn by Madame Paule Crampel. 
 
 It appears strange to the thoughtful 
 inquirer of the present day that so little 
 accuracy has been displayed by those 
 who have attempted to note and de- 
 scribe the different natural colors of the 
 human skin. It will readily be allowed 
 that an examination of the whole race 
 now occupying the earth will discover 
 nearly all colors and shades of color, 
 from one extreme of the spectrum to 
 another; but a very casual examina- 
 tion will show that these various tints 
 are reducible to a few, and these to
 
 430 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 still fewer primary pigmentary distinc- 
 tions. 
 
 The great error made by those eth- 
 nographers who have attempted to use 
 color of the skin as a basis 
 
 Only three pri- . ^ , . i , 
 
 mary colors of of classihcation has been 
 
 the human skin. ■ 1 1 ■ . j ■ 
 
 111 allowing too many dis- 
 tinctions of tint. Inability on their part 
 to generalize the facts, and to reduce the 
 
 ENGLISH TYPE (MRS. SIDDONS), SHOWING WAVY HAIR. 
 
 different hues to a few radical distinc- 
 tions, has been the fruitful source of all 
 inaccuracy and confusion. The first 
 classifications attempted on this basis 
 of color resulted in multiplying- rather 
 than in simplifying the classification of 
 the human race. According to these 
 first efforts there were white men, yel- 
 low men, olive-colored men, red men, 
 
 orange-colored men, copper-colored men, 
 brown men, black men, and many other 
 slighter distinctions which tended to 
 confuse rather than to establish a scien- 
 tific division. All this turned upon in- 
 accuracy of perception. It is the feature 
 of modern inquiry that the sense-percep- 
 tion with which it begins has become 
 constantly more accurate and penetrating 
 in recent times. It is now 
 clearly perceived that there 
 are by no means so many 
 fundamental colors to be 
 recognized as the distin- 
 guishing characteristics of 
 the different races. On the 
 contrary, there are but few. 
 Without passing through all 
 stages of the inquiry, it is 
 sufficient to say that the 
 very best scrutiny of the 
 actual facts shows that there 
 are only tJircc primary colors 
 peculiar to tlic hiiinan body ; 
 and that these colors are 
 ruddy, black, and brown. 
 From these fundamental 
 and characteristic tints of 
 the human skin all the 
 other varieties are easily 
 derived, and to them all 
 minor distinctions are read- 
 ily referred. 
 
 What, then, is the true 
 nature of these three fun- 
 damental colors peculiar to 
 thei-aces.of mankind? It 
 will be noted that the term zvhite is 
 rejected. This is done The term ruddy 
 for the sufficient reason ;\^fe"ntws'°' 
 that there are not now treatise, 
 and never were any tribes of people 
 on the earth to whom the term white 
 could properly be applied. The fairest- 
 skinned specimens of the human race 
 are very far from white. He who has
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 431 
 
 not himself looked candidly and care- 
 fully at the fact here referred to must 
 needs be surprised to note how great the 
 error is in describing the color of any 
 people as white. The races that have 
 been recognized as white are in reality 
 ruddy in color, and approach much more 
 nearly to the standard 
 of red than the Indian 
 peoples, who have been 
 erroneously defined as 
 red men. 
 
 The so-called Cauca- 
 sians, for instance, who 
 perhaps present the skin 
 in its fairest tint, are 
 truly a ruddy people. 
 The peculiarity of the 
 skin is its transparency 
 and the consequent rev- 
 elation of the blood in 
 the capillaries. The red 
 tinge of the blood is 
 thus discernible 
 through the cuticle, and 
 the flush of color, slight- 
 er or more emphatic, is 
 always ruddy in its char- 
 acter. The peoples hav- 
 ing this quality of skin 
 are the blushing races. 
 "With every varying de- 
 gree of excitement the 
 blood appears or re- 
 cedes in the skin at the 
 surface, giving a deeper 
 or paler tinge to the 
 body. But under no 
 conditions can the skin be said to be 
 ^ white. The fairest in- 
 
 No races may be 
 
 properly defined fant ever born into the 
 world, even when bloodless 
 and cold in death, is so far from being 
 white that a really white object placed 
 alongside of the skin furnishes a con- 
 trast so striking as at once and forever 
 
 to disabuse the judgment of the be- 
 holder. The term white, therefore, as 
 one of the definitive epithets descriptive 
 of the color of the human race, must be 
 rejected, and its place be taken with the 
 more accurate term rudd}-. We thus 
 have in a scientific classification of man* 
 
 THE RUDDY TYPE — PAUL CRAMPEL. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. 
 
 kind based on the distinction of color, 
 first of all : 
 
 I. The Ruddv Races. — It is found 
 when this distinction of color is applied to 
 the great facts under consideration that 
 the larger part of ilie historical nations of 
 the earth come under the classification 
 of ruddy. The great races who first
 
 432 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JLLVKEVn. 
 
 redeemed the world from barbarism 
 were of this color. It is quite certain 
 that those strong and heroic peoples who 
 Mniat races may appear in the remote hori- 
 be correctly ^f ^^^^ primitive world 
 
 Classinea as ^ 
 
 ruddy. were ruddy in their 
 
 complexions. vSpeaking- from a biblical 
 point of view, all three of the Noachite 
 
 THE BROWN TYPE — MISTRESS SENKI. 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat. 
 
 races, with their several divisions, had 
 complexions of this hue. This is true 
 alike of Hamites, Semites, and Japheth- 
 ites. The long prevalent notion that 
 the Hamites were a black race, corre- 
 sponding roughly to what we call 
 African, in modern history, is utterly 
 untenable. They had, on the contrary, 
 the same general complexion — some- 
 
 what intensified by the scorching sun of 
 the climates in which they were for the 
 most part developed — with the cognate 
 races of Shem and Japheth. Or, if we 
 speak from the historical point of view, 
 we shall find the same indications of the 
 fundamental identity in color of the 
 early races who developed civilization in 
 the earth. The Indo-Europeans 
 were all ruddy in complexion. 
 From the foothills of the Him- 
 alayas across the table-lands of Per- 
 sia into Ionia and Macedonia and 
 Greece and Italy and the " isles of 
 the gentiles " the same fundamen- 
 tal race complexion is discover- 
 able. Likewise, the Semites and 
 the Hamitic races, noted from the 
 historical point of view, are found 
 to be of the same bodily color. 
 Language contributes its evidence 
 also to establish the same general 
 fact as to the complexion of the 
 Indo-European and other Noachite 
 families of men. They were all 
 ruddy, and the hint in Genesis of 
 the rcd-cartli color of the Adamite 
 would seem to be justified by the 
 facts observable in several of the 
 principal divisions of the human 
 family. 
 
 II. The Brown Races. —The 
 second fundamental division of 
 mankind determined on the line of 
 color is by the browti complexion, 
 which characterizes many of the 
 leading races. It will be observed 
 from the selection of this hue that many 
 varieties of color may be referred there- 
 to. Several shades of yel- 
 
 •^ General analysis 
 
 low and of red may be cor- of the Brown 
 rectly carried back into a 
 fundamental brown, which is the com- 
 posite of black with one of the two tints 
 referred to. Careful observation will 
 show that this is the actual color of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHXIC CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 433 
 
 great races of Northern and Eastern 
 Asia, as well as of all the aborigines of 
 the two Americas and Polynesia. As 
 the major division of these races we 
 may cite : 
 
 1. T\\.Q Asiatic Mongoloids, correspond- 
 ing in general terms with the Mon- 
 golian race indicated by historical in- 
 quiry, or witli the two divisions of the 
 Turanians according to the linguistic 
 division. 
 
 2. The Polynesian Mongoloids, or the 
 peoples scattered through the islands of 
 the South Pacific, with the exception of 
 the Melanesians and the Australians. 
 
 3. The Dravidians, or the Deccanese 
 and the people of the Micronesian is- 
 lands north and east of Australia. 
 
 III. The Black Races. — It is clear, 
 on an examination of the facts, that 
 „^ , many of the peoples, 
 
 The four groups . . 
 
 of the Black even the primitive races 
 distributed in portions of 
 the world lying in the equatorial re- 
 gions, are properly defined as Black. 
 The pigmentary deposit under the cuti- 
 cle is of such a character as to absorb all 
 or the greater portion of the rays of 
 light, and to return to the eye only that 
 negative sensation which we define as 
 blackness. The line of chromatic division 
 between these races of Black men and 
 those who were defined as Brown, is that 
 under the cuticle of the skin of the latter 
 peoples a certain percentage of coloring 
 matter is combined with the black pig- 
 ment, producing the various shades of 
 color known as brown. 
 
 This characteristic difference between 
 the two colors is constant, and tends to 
 perpetuate itself by the physiological 
 law called ' ' reversion to the original 
 type." This is to say that in a contact 
 of the various races. Black and Brown 
 and Ruddy, and in their intermingling 
 of blood, there is a tendency for one or the 
 
 other of the elements of ethnic constitu- 
 tion to declare itself and become domi- 
 nant over the rest. Given a sufficient 
 lapse of time, and these intermediate 
 varieties return to the one or the other of 
 the original types from which they are 
 derived. Geographically speaking, the 
 Black races are distributed throughout 
 the larger part of Africa and through 
 the whole of Australia and that portion 
 of the Pacific archipelago called Melane- 
 sia. These are the limits of the natural 
 dispersion of the Black races. The eth- 
 nic divisions of this third primary family 
 of men are : 
 
 1 . The Negroes, who occupy the larger 
 band of Central Africa from east to west, 
 and are also distributed through a great 
 portion of the southern division of the 
 continent. 
 
 2. The Australians, occupying all of 
 Central and Southern Australia, except 
 the coast region on the east and north. 
 
 3. "YY^Q Hottentots, distributed through, 
 the larger part of the southern extrem- 
 ity of Africa. 
 
 4. The Papuans, occupying the island 
 of New Guinea, the northern and eastern 
 maritime districts of Australia, the is- 
 land of Tasmania, and, in general, the 
 Melanesian archipelago. 
 
 The foregoing classification of the hu- 
 man race on the scientific method and 
 by the distinction of color is, perhaps, as 
 nearly a satisfactory solution of the prob- 
 lem as can be given in the other plans of 
 present state of knowledge. ^^^^^ 
 The three distinctions of with this. 
 Ruddy, Brown, and Black races are 
 fundamental. They are broad enough 
 to include the whole race of man, with 
 its multiform developments in ancient 
 and modern times. The classification is 
 sufficiently ample to embrace in its major 
 and minor divisions all the races and 
 peoples which have been distinguished
 
 434 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXJh 
 
 from each other by means of historical 
 and linguistic inquiry. It is easy to con- 
 form to this plan of division all the others 
 that have been suggested, and to make 
 them consistent with the wider and more 
 scientific scheme. Thus, for instance, 
 the biblical race of Japheth, the histori- 
 cal divisions of mankind called Indo- 
 
 THE BLACK TYPE — NEGRO MAKUTULU. 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 European, the ethnic branches of men 
 called Aryan in the linguistic classifica- 
 tion, all fall under the common designa- 
 tion of Ruddy races. "With these are 
 grouped by means of the same color 
 distinction the Semitic families of men, 
 and also the Hamitic divisions. These 
 ten races taken together constitute the 
 whole group, which may be defined by 
 the term Ruddy and considered as of a 
 primary, common descent. 
 
 In the second place, the widely dis- 
 seminated Brown races, covering nearly 
 the whole of Asia, the 
 
 General distri- 
 
 two great continents of the button of the 
 
 TTT i J ii i <- Brown races. 
 
 West, and the greater part 
 of Polynesia, may be grouped together 
 on the line of color and considered as a 
 common family in its origin and race 
 descent. It will be the purpose in 
 the following pages of the present 
 book to trace out the lines of the 
 great tribal and race divergencies 
 and migrations which in the lapse 
 of ages have carried these Brown 
 peoples over by far the largest dis- 
 tricts of the earth. It will be un- 
 derstood, of course, that the race 
 classification of the peoples of the 
 two Americas as here presented re- 
 lates to the original peoples of these 
 continents, and not to the Indo- 
 European nations that have taken 
 possession of them in recent times 
 by migration and conquest. 
 
 The third general division as indi- 
 cated in this analysis on the basis of 
 color has already been pointed out 
 in its ethnic and geographical dis- 
 tribution. No branch of the Black 
 races has of its own motion crossed 
 the equator of the earth to a point 
 higher than the twentieth degree of 
 north latitude. It will be found in 
 the subsequent chapters of this 
 book that the dispersion of this divi- 
 sion of mankind was by means of a west- 
 ward stream flowing in from 
 Eastern Africa and spread- 
 ing in many branches 
 through all those parts of the continent 
 between the equatorial region and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, while the eastern 
 stream bore off by way of Southern Hin- 
 dustan into the great, closely distributed 
 islands lying to the south of Asia. It is be- 
 lieved that sufficient is now known of the 
 
 Outline of the 
 dispersion of the 
 Blacks.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 435 
 
 movements of the Black races to delin- 
 eate their tribal divergencies and mi- 
 grations with tolerable certainty, and 
 although much will remain to be rectified 
 and amended by subsequent investiga- 
 tions, something may be at present ad- 
 vanced to enlarge the borders of com- 
 mon knowledge relative to this the least 
 known and least progressive of the great 
 divisions of mankind. 
 
 From these considerations and others 
 that may be readily deduced therefrom, 
 Mankind to be it has been determined to 
 
 divided into 
 
 Ruddy races, employ in the present work 
 
 Brown races, ... . .^ . - . 
 
 and Black races, the Scientific method in 
 classifying the different races of men, 
 and to use the color of the body as the 
 fundamental fact in considering the 
 scheme of division. In all the sub- 
 sequent parts of the present work, in 
 
 the description of the migrations of the 
 primitive tribes and families of men, in 
 the delineation of manners and customs, 
 and the peculiarities of national develop- 
 ment which will in great measure fill 
 up the body of the work, it is purposed 
 to keep always in mind this fundamental 
 division of mankind into, I. RUDDY 
 Races; II. Browx Races; III. Black 
 Races; with their manifest divisions 
 into the three branches, Hamite, Semite, 
 and Aryan in the first; three divi- 
 sions of Asiatic Mongoloids, Polynesian 
 Mongoloids, and Dravidians, in the 
 second; and four branches, Negroes, 
 Australians, Hottentots, and Papuans, in 
 the third. These ten race classes of man- 
 kind will constitute the basis of much 
 of the discussion in the present and the 
 succeeding volumes. 
 
 CHAPXER XXIV.— NOACHITE DISPERSION CONSID= 
 
 ERED. 
 
 O far as the present re- 
 sources of human 
 knowledge have indi- 
 cated the primary seat 
 and early movements 
 of the Ruddy races of 
 mankind, the same be- 
 gan on the north shores of the western 
 gulf of the Indian ocean. The scene of 
 this important primitive aspect of the 
 race Avas probably in the southern part 
 of Beluchistan, eastward from the Per- 
 sian gulf. When these statements are 
 made the whole of our knowledge on the 
 subject may be said to 
 have been delivered. His- 
 tory knows little besides of 
 the time or the advent of this primary 
 stream of human existence; but it can 
 hardlv be doubted that this is the real 
 
 Primitive seats 
 of the Adamites. 
 
 seat of the Adamite and his descendants. 
 Ethnologists ha\'tr generally been dis- 
 posed to go further, to trace backwards the 
 stream of this division of the race to the 
 shores of ocean, and thence to carry it 
 by hypothesis far out into the so-called 
 Lemuria, a supposed submerged region 
 in the bed of the Indian ocean. 
 
 On the theor}' that the Black, the 
 Brown, and the Ruddy races of man- 
 kind have all had a single . , ^ 
 
 ° . Apparent point 
 
 ancestral origin, there is of origin for au 
 
 If. ■, the races. 
 
 some ground for such a 
 hypothesis. The first tribes of Black 
 men appear to have struck the continent 
 of Africa from the east. In like manner 
 the Brown races seem to have touched 
 the continent on the coast line eastward 
 of the Persian gulf ; while the ancestors 
 of the Australians and Papuans appear
 
 436 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 to have reached their destination from 
 the northwest. Thus the observer, stand- 
 ing on the western shore of India, the 
 eastern shore of Africa, or the southern 
 shore of Baluchistan, would seem to see 
 the three major divisions of mankind ap- 
 proaching from the deep, as if from some 
 common origin under the sea. 
 
 Nor has tradition been wholly silent in 
 witnessing to such a primeval movement 
 Berosusre- of the race landwards from 
 
 counts the myth ^j^ Qne of the cldcst 
 
 of the sea god 
 
 Oan. traditions on record is pre- 
 
 served in a fragment of Berosus, and 
 indicates the ocean origin, not only of 
 
 the day with men. But he took no nour- 
 ishment, and at sunset went again into 
 the sea, and there remained for the 
 night. This animal taught men lan- 
 guage and science, the harvesting of 
 seeds and fruits, the rules for the bound- 
 aries of land, the modes of building 
 cities and temples, arts, and writing, 
 and all that pertains to civilization." 
 
 In the fifth chapter of the book of 
 Genesis we have an account of the Adamic 
 race from the beginning down to the 
 Deluge. This space is occupied with 
 ten successive patriarchs and their ex- 
 panding families. To these great 
 
 LANDSCAPi; OF THE NOACHITE DISPERSION.— Bender-Dilem.— Drawn by Taylor, afl<.-r a skitcl, o( Huu^^ay. 
 
 the arts, but of man himself. A portion 
 of the story is as follows : 
 
 "Then there appeared to them from 
 the sea, on the shore of Babylonia, a fear- 
 ful animal of the name of Oan. His 
 body was that of a fish, but under the 
 fish's head another head was attached, 
 and on the fins were feet like those of a 
 man, and he had a man's voice. The 
 image of the creature is still preserved. 
 The animal came at morning, and passed 
 
 longevity is attributed, and the nar- 
 rative indicates in various „ 
 
 Outline in Gen- 
 
 ways the rapid tribal de- esisofthe 
 
 1 i /• ji Ti Adaimic races. 
 
 velopment of the race. It 
 will be noted also by a comparison of the 
 fifth chapter with the fourth that two 
 parallel lines of descent are recorded, 
 the one through Cain, and the other 
 through Seth. "For," said Eve, " God 
 hath appointed me another seed instead 
 of Abel, whom Cain slew."
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACHITE BISPERSIOX. 437 
 
 The Adamic descendants are traced in 
 the fourth chapter down to the children 
 of Adah and Zillah, the two wives of 
 Lamech; that is, to Jabal, "the father 
 of such as dwell in tents and such as 
 have cattle;" to Jubal, "the father of 
 all such as handle the harp and organ;" 
 and to Tubal-cain, "an instructor of ev- 
 ery artificer in brass and iron." Here 
 the narrative ends, and the other branch 
 of the Adamites, that is, the descendants 
 of Seth, are taken up, down to Noah, the 
 son of Lamech. The recurrence of 
 common names in both lines of descent 
 introduces a good deal of confusion, but 
 the line of Seth, considered by itself, is 
 straight through ten generations. 
 
 The Hebrew narrative of the Adamite 
 and his posterity to the Deluge is here 
 Value of the cited in part because of its 
 founfo'X Striking parallelism with 
 Chaidaeans. the secular tradition 
 handed down by Berosus. This cele- 
 brated ancient author was a priest of 
 Bel, at Babylon, and flourished there in 
 the first half of the third century before 
 our era. He was a native of the coun- 
 try and well acquainted with its earlier 
 and later history. He knew as well as 
 one might know in an uncritical and 
 credi;lous age the annals not only of the 
 later Babylonian empire, but also of the 
 older Chaldaean dominion which had 
 been established on the lower Euphrates 
 in the very earliest stages of human 
 history. 
 
 In that part of his work devoted to 
 the chronology of the Chaldsean king- 
 Ten Chaidee dom, Berosus describes the 
 
 mythical kings ; 
 
 conformity to epoch bcfore the flood ; for, 
 scheme. like the Hebrew author 
 
 of Genesis, he has an account of a uni- 
 versal deluge of waters, through which 
 a single great captain named Xisi:thrus, 
 with his family, came safely in a ship 
 and descended from a mountain, to re- 
 
 people the earth. To the antedeluvian 
 era Berosus also assigns a dynasty of 
 ten kings. To these reigns of fabulous 
 duration are given the ten eons of their 
 dominion, being as follows: 
 
 Years. 
 
 1. .\lorus, a Chalclsan, who reigned 36,000 
 
 2. Aloparus, son of Alorus, who reigned. . . 10,800 
 
 3. Almelon, a native of Sippara, who reigned. 46,800 
 
 4. Ammenon, a Chaldsan, who reigned. .. . 43,200 
 
 5. Amegalarus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 
 
 6. Daonus, of Sippara, who reigned 36,000 
 
 7. Edoranlchus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 
 
 8. Amempsinus, a Chaldaean, who reigned. 36,000 
 
 9. Otiartes, a Chaldjean, who reigned 28,000 
 
 10. Xisuthrus, the Chaldsean Noah, who 
 
 reigned 64,800 
 
 A total of ten kings, reigning 431,200 
 
 The general conformity of these two 
 schemes of ethnic descent must be pat- 
 ent at a glance. The Chaldaean and the 
 Hebrew accounts of this dim age of an 
 ancestral race agree in the important 
 consideration of ten successive patri- 
 archical kingships. It is easy to observe 
 the more moderate conception and out- 
 line of the Hebrew scheme of descent and 
 longevity, and the wild extravagance of 
 the Chaldaean tradition. But the pattern 
 and outline of the progress of the race 
 are alike in both, and in either case this 
 line of long-lived mj'thical rulers ends 
 with a righteous captain, whose virtue 
 and wisdom, in the wickedness of his 
 surroundings, enable him to go safely 
 through the waters of a deluge and re- 
 people a new world on the hither side 
 of the catastrophe. 
 
 The identity of the two narratives in 
 their essential spirit and leading features 
 can hardly be doubted. "We „, ^ ^ 
 
 ■^ The neaomen 
 
 thus see in the maritime of the Adamite 
 parts of Beluchistan, at a 
 time almost imimaginably remote, even 
 from the standpoint of the oldest histo- 
 rians who have attempted to trace the 
 course and development of mankind,
 
 438 
 
 GREAT RACES OF jrANKlXD. 
 
 the apparition of a ruddy race of men 
 expanding through a mythical age of 
 unknown duration, and entering at least 
 three stages of civilizing activity. Jabal 
 was the "father of such as dwell in 
 tents and of such as have cattle." This 
 is manifestly an outline of the begin- 
 ning of the pastoral life which occupied 
 so large a part in the subsequent his- 
 tory of the races of Western Asia. Ju- 
 
 instruments as have pleased the senses 
 of men in all subsequent ages with the 
 concord of sweet sounds. 
 
 To the same epoch, or a little later, in 
 the tribal evolution, is assigned Tubal- 
 cain. He is represented as Question of the 
 a worker in brass and iron. f^^J^o^ti,'^''^' 
 Very notable is the fact Semites, 
 that the composite metal brass is here 
 mentioned as the material of the earliest 
 
 THE FATHERS OF "SUCH AS DWELL IN TENTS"— OLD SEMITIC TYPES. 
 
 bal, the brother of Jabal, is represented 
 as being the ' ' father of all such as 
 handle the harp and the organ." From 
 this we are to infer that at least the 
 musical branches of art made their ap- 
 pearance in the East contemporaneously 
 with the development of the pastoral 
 life. The makers of tents and the 
 keepers of flocks and herds discovered 
 harmonv, and became the makers of such 
 
 metal work of the Adamites. Iron also 
 is named as the other substance in which 
 Tubal-cain and his successors became 
 proficient as workmen. It would ajjpear 
 in accord with right reason that both of 
 these names of the metals are errone- 
 ously deduced from some original which 
 has been misunderstood in translation. 
 The primitive men could hardly have 
 begun as workers in brass, since the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACHITE DISPERSIOX. 139 
 
 copper and zinc of which it is composed 
 must first have been employed and the 
 ratio of their combination discovered 
 before brass could have an existence. 
 Moreover, the extraction of iron from 
 the matrix is a process so difficult and so 
 late in the order of metallic discovery 
 that, as we have already seen in another 
 part of this ^^•ork, it follows and does 
 not precede the discovery of copper, of 
 tin, of the precious metals, and, indeed, 
 of nearly all the other metallic ele- 
 ments common to the surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 At the close of this Adamite period in 
 
 the history of the Ruddy race we come 
 
 to that o-reat catastrophe. 
 
 Dissemination ^ 
 
 of traditions of the Dclugc of watcrs. In 
 e uge. respect to this event tradi- 
 
 tion was busy throughout the primitive 
 world. Among almost every people 
 there was a mythical reminiscence of a 
 flood by which their ancestors were 
 destroyed from the earth. The diluvian 
 legend generally assigned the wickedness 
 of the race as a cause of its overthrow. 
 The tradition of such a visitation always 
 presented itself most emphatically in 
 countries so situated as to be subject to 
 inundations. Perhaps the greatest seat 
 of such a belief was in the valleys of 
 the Lower Euphrates and Tigris. It 
 was from this region that the Hebrew 
 account of the Deluge was transmitted by 
 Abraham and his posterity to the west, 
 and there recorded in the annals of that 
 people. At the same time a like tradi- 
 tion was handed down among the 
 Chaldseans, and at a later epoch in 
 history was repeated and modified by 
 the Assyrian seers, on the Upper Tigris. 
 The story of Deucalion and his survival 
 of the Deluge was rife among the primi- 
 tive Greeks, and other primeval nations 
 had like accounts of a like disaster. 
 To this general dissemination of the 
 
 tian race pos- 
 sessed no such 
 tradition. 
 
 belief in a deluge of waters by which 
 the race of man was swept away, the 
 ancient Egyptians furnish -miytheEgyp- 
 a remarkable exception. 
 Their legends and mythol- 
 ogy furnish no account of any such 
 event, either in the primitive or later 
 ages of their country. It is easy to see 
 in this fact the action and reaction of 
 natural and supernatural elements in the 
 primitive history of a people. The Nile 
 is, perhaps, the only river in the world 
 whose swellings and fallings obey a 
 certain law, the knowledge of which 
 secures the inhabitants of the valley 
 from disastrous consequences. The 
 regularity of the coming and the reces- 
 sion of the waters furnishes a guarantee 
 against all harm. A curse is thus con- 
 verted into a blessing; and the river 
 becomes, instead of an object of dread 
 and superstition, an obje'ct of reverence 
 and worship ! The uniformity of nature 
 stood guard over the welfare of the 
 people Avho built the pyramids, and even 
 if a prehistoric deluge had occurred be- 
 fore the civilized development of the 
 Egyptian race, the tradition of it would 
 have perished in the presence of the 
 future beneficent conduct of the great 
 river. In other valleys of the East 
 irregularity rather than uniform flood 
 and subsidence was the law, and where- 
 ever, as a result, disaster on many oc- 
 casions and from natural causes must 
 necessarily have ensued to the people 
 living on the river banks, the tradition 
 of a great catastrophe overwhelming all 
 would be perpetuated and handed down 
 as a distinct and memorable crisis in the 
 past history of the world. 
 
 However this may be, we find a 
 remarkable conformity between the 
 Chaldaean and the Hebrew account of 
 the disaster by which the race of man was 
 swept away at the close of the Adamite
 
 440 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 era. The well-known narrative of the 
 Deluge given in the seventh chapter of 
 the Book of Genesis need not be here 
 General har- repeated. Nor is it desir- 
 dseanandHe- able to rccount m full the 
 Of trflo'or' story of the flood asrecorded 
 by the ancient Chaldasans and Assyr- 
 ians. The principal features of the 
 
 destroy the world by a flood. The great 
 captain \Vas ordered to bury the records 
 of his country in Sippara and to embark 
 in a ship, Avith his kindred and friends. 
 He was also directed to take into the ark 
 with him all manner of living creatures. 
 When everything was completed and the 
 ship, nine thousand feet in length, was 
 
 MESOPOTAMIAN LANDSCAPE.— View of Jto'ssuL.— Drawn by E. Flandin. 
 
 latter, however, will serve to show the 
 fundamental identity of the three prin- 
 cipal narratives of the Deluge. The 
 Chalda;an and Assyrian accounts differ 
 in this, that the latter assigns as a cause 
 for the destruction of the human race 
 by a flood the wickedness of mankind in 
 the earth, whereas the older, or Chal- 
 dsean, account simply recites that the god { 
 Bel revealed to Xisuthrus his purpose to \ 
 
 closed, the Deluge came. In course of 
 time Xisuthrus sent oiit birds, which at 
 first came back without evidence of rest- 
 ing, but afterwards with mud on their 
 feet. At length the ship rested on the 
 Gordyaean mountain, and the inhabitants 
 came forth to repeople the earth. 
 
 In the Assyrian account the divinity 
 who revealed the flood is Hea, and the 
 Assyrian Noah is named Sisit. He, as
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—NOACHITE DISPERSION. 
 
 441 
 
 in the case of his Chaldsean protot}'pe, 
 gathered all manner of living creatures 
 The Assyrian and seeds of the Vegetable 
 p".S^':;e world into his ship. Then 
 older forms. Samas, the sun god, 
 sent the flood. There was a great storm 
 that went over the nations, and the 
 waters reached up to heaven. Even the 
 gods had to ascend to their highest 
 thrones and sit there tin til the subsid- 
 ence. All living things outside were 
 drowned. At last the Avaters abated; 
 the ark rested on ]Mount Xizir, and Bel 
 led forth Sisit by the hand to repopulate 
 the countr)'. It is sufficient to note that 
 the narrative given of the great catas- 
 trophe in the seventh chapter of Genesis 
 is much more serious and elevated than 
 the two forms of tradition which were 
 preserved to after times in the valleys of 
 the Euphrates and the Tigris. 
 
 Apart from these traditional accounts 
 of the manner in which the Adamite 
 Early division of Tsce Came to its termiua- 
 int^o'thr ™"^^ tion , we turn to a more scien- 
 branches. tific aspect of t^jp question. 
 
 It appears that before the destruction of 
 this people, before they had reached the 
 scene — at least the central scene — of 
 their disaster, they had already begun 
 to part into the three branches of ethnic 
 life already mentioned as the major 
 divisions of the Ruddy family of man- 
 kind. It is in evidence that the Noa- 
 chite race, from its old maritime dtfboii- 
 chiire on the shores of Gedrosia, the 
 modern Beluchistan, made its way first 
 to the north, in the direction of the Car- 
 manian desert, and was thence deflected 
 to the west. It was here, on the table- 
 land of ancient Iran, in the district of 
 country east of Yezd, that the ancestors 
 of the Ruddy races of mankind seem to 
 have felt for the first time the impulse 
 of westward migration. Here, at any 
 
 rate, they were deflected toward the 
 M. — Vol. I — 29 
 
 setting sun. Here, too, they appear to 
 have begun that threefold ethnic separa- 
 tion which was destined, in far ages 
 and countries, to give to history some of 
 its most vigorous and highly developed 
 peoples. 
 
 If we fall back again for a moment 
 upon the classification the nomenclature 
 of which is derived from uncertain eth- 
 the three sons of Noah, etriyMe's°opo^' 
 we find here the begin- tamians. 
 nings of the division. So that if we re- 
 gard the valley of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris as the center, or seat, of the great 
 diluvian disaster which subsequently oc- 
 curred, we must conclude that the Ruddy 
 peoples who made their way into these 
 valleys from the east had already sepa- 
 rated, or at least begun to separate, into 
 Hamites, Semites, and possibly Japheth- 
 ites. The adoption of such a hypothe- 
 sis would tend to explain or remove the 
 difiiculty which historians, ethnologists, 
 and linguists alike have experienced in 
 the attempted classification of the most 
 ancient peoples of the Tigrine and Eu- 
 phratine valleys. This work has never 
 been satisfactorily and conclusively ac- 
 complished. In a general way it has been 
 decided that the oldChaldaeans wereHam- 
 itic in their origin and development. In 
 like manner the preponderance of evi- 
 dence has tended to show that the Assyri- 
 ans were Semitic in their race descent and 
 character. But the evidences also indi- 
 cate much mixture and confusion in the 
 primitive history of these regions. 
 
 It is extremely difiicult, either by 
 means of historical traditions, ethnic 
 traces, or linguistic proofs, point of disper- 
 to determine satisfactorily t^^^^^ 
 to which branch of the orig- ^^ Chaidaea. 
 inal threefold division the Assyrians 
 and the Chaldasans respectively belong. 
 Moreover, at later periods, when the 
 Hamitic race has well emerged from this
 
 442 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 region, and is discovered witli all its pecul- 
 iar traits in Southeastern and Southern 
 Arabia and in Egypt, and when the Sem- 
 ites have likewise appeared, with their 
 distinctive peculiarities well developed, in 
 the West, the course from which the two 
 races have manifestly come into subse- 
 quent fields of activity, when traced back- 
 
 the center, and the Japhethites close iip 
 to the Caspian. 
 
 From these evidences and by this just 
 train of reasoning, it would appear con- 
 clusive that the primary division of the 
 Noachite family took place in the up- 
 lands of ancient Iran, at a point more 
 than ten degrees of latitude eastward 
 
 IN KUivDlbi'AN. — Vitw OF Little Ararat, with Group of Kurds in Foreground.— Drawn by Alfred Paris. 
 
 wards, shows a conjuncture viitch to the 
 east of the Mesopotamian region and 
 not in the valleys of the Euphrates and 
 the Tigris. This is to say that at the 
 time when the Hamite, the .Semite, and 
 the Japhethite races made their way 
 through Mesopotamia to the West, they 
 were already separated geographically, 
 the Hamites being on the south, pressing 
 close to the Persian gulf, the Semites in 
 
 from the ilesopotamian region, which 
 may be regarded as the center of the tra- 
 ditions of the Deluge. It is safe, there- 
 fore, in the ethnic scheme, to mark th& 
 division of the Xoachites far beyond and 
 to the eastward of the low-lying alluvial 
 plains of Mesopotamia. 
 
 If, then, the observer should take his 
 stand in the Arabian desert west of 
 Mesopotamia and look thitherward in
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 443 
 
 the earliest epoch of human develop- 
 ment, he might see emerging from the 
 shadows the vanguard of 
 
 Issuance of the 
 
 Noachites to the two races, With possibly a 
 ^^^ ' third on the north. The 
 
 Hamitic division of mankind would be 
 seen making its way to the westward, 
 close to the head-waters of the Persian 
 gulf and bending, as- if by preference, to 
 the south into Old Arabia, next to the 
 sea. The central phalanx would be the 
 descendants of Shem, heading for the 
 west, and, perhaps, deflected somewhat 
 to the north, on its way from Ur of the 
 Chaldees into Canaan. The Japhetic 
 division, if seen at all, would be well to 
 the north, close to the southern shores 
 of the Caspian, and bending in a north- 
 westerly direction toward the eastern 
 limits of the Black sea. This may be 
 called the Noachite dispersion of the 
 human race. The lines of its progress 
 westward lie between the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Caspian and the northern 
 limits of the Persian gulf. This region 
 is to Eui'ope and Southwestern Asia 
 what the wrist is to the extended palm. 
 Mesopotamia, considered longitudinally 
 from east to west and in connection 
 with Kurdistan, is a strait, and through 
 this strait the streams of the Ruddy 
 races of men flowed out toward the open 
 regions in the prehistoric ages. 
 
 It is from this point of view that we 
 may, in part at least, apprehend the 
 Probable direc- cthnic characteristics of the 
 nr.tld'it primitive peoples of Elam 
 persion. and Chaldsea. Through 
 
 these most ancient countries the Ham- 
 itic division of men made their way 
 in their earliest departure and migra- 
 tion from the parent stock. It is, per- 
 haps, safe to say that the Elamites were 
 the first development of a Hamitic na- 
 tionality in the world. This earliest 
 lodgment of the oldest branch of the 
 
 Noachites was in the country afterwards 
 called Susiana by the Greeks, and the 
 dominion established here remained for 
 many ages a seat and stronghold of the 
 primitive race. Historical traditions in- 
 dicate that the Hamites came into this 
 region by invasion, and that they dis- 
 placed, by conquest, the original Semitic 
 and possibly Turanian peoples who were 
 there before them. 
 
 This view, however, is a doubtful 
 hypothesis. As already stated, it is 
 likely that the disentangle- Traces of ethnic 
 ment of the Semitic and ^^vTEran.- 
 Hamitic tribes had not yet "es. 
 been comiDletely effected when the Elam- 
 ite nationality was founded; and it 
 may well be confessed that Semitic 
 influences were afterwards discoverable 
 in the development of what was traly 
 a Hamitic dominion. Geographically 
 considered, the country here referred to 
 was bounded on the north by the river 
 Diyalah, on the east by the Kebir Kuh 
 mountains, on the west by the Tigris, 
 and on the south by the Persian gulf. 
 It was a low-lying countr}% fertile and 
 inviting, identical almost in character 
 with those other regions of the world — 
 Chaldaea, Southeastern Arabia, the val- 
 ley of the Nile — where the Hamites es- 
 tablished in subsequent ages the seats 
 of their dominion. 
 
 Primitive Assyria may be assigned to 
 the Semites. Asshur was the son of 
 Shem. The position of First distribu- 
 Assyria, east of the Tigris '^ :llf,^::t- 
 rather than in ]\Iesopotamia tJ"tes. 
 Proper, would indicate its planting by 
 early tribes of the vSemitic race coming 
 from the east. There are evidences 
 that such a dominion, north of the 
 Greater Zab and east of the Tigris, was 
 planted as early as the fourteenth cen- 
 tury before our era. 
 
 The Japhetic branch is generally re-
 
 444 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 garded as the oldest division of the No- 
 achite family. The movements of this 
 race have been by far the most compli- 
 cated and difficult to trace. The first 
 deflection from the jjarent stem was 
 doubtless to the north or northwest of 
 the common stream flowing- westward. 
 The point of departure of the Japheth- 
 ites has already been indicated. It is 
 more than likely that their first course 
 after separation from the ancestral 
 tribes was so well to the north as to 
 bring them into contact with the lower 
 extremity of the Caspian, in which 
 event they would be turned back or de- 
 flected more directly toward Northern 
 Asia. It may be fairly conjectured 
 that this geographical circumstance lies 
 at the bottom of the formation of that 
 great ethnic whirl, or center, from 
 which the Aryan races of subsequent 
 times were all descended. It is not pur- 
 posed in this connection to trace out the 
 after ramifications of the Japhethites, or, 
 indeed, of the cognate races of the south. 
 It is sufficient to note that from the 
 Japhetic center the subsequent migra- 
 tions took place in both directions, east 
 and west, Avhile the Semitic and Hamitic 
 movements followed a more orderly 
 progress, the one toward Canaan and 
 the other into Southeastern Arabia. 
 
 It has been intimated above that the 
 Old Chaldsean dominion on the Lower 
 Indications that Euphrates was Hamitic in 
 d'L'a™™'' its origin. Several circum- 
 Hamitic. stances besides the mere 
 
 course which the tribal migrations were 
 then pursuing may be cited for assign- 
 ing Chaldiea to the Hamites. Historical 
 evidence shows almost conclusively that 
 there were race prejudices and frettings 
 between the Chaldaeans and the Assyri- 
 ans on the north. The two peoples were 
 hardly ever at peace. There was a di- 
 vergence of language, of tradition, and 
 
 of religious ceremonials, but at the same 
 time such striking analogies in all as to 
 indicate close affinities of race. 
 
 It was the preponderance and pressure 
 of the stronger Assyrian nationality on 
 the north that, at the close Race troubles 
 of the fourteenth century ^.^^^^S^h^ 
 B. C, finally overpowered em Semites, 
 the Chaldasan dominion and replaced it 
 with Semitic influence in the south. By 
 careful observation we are able to see, 
 long anterior to this period, the race 
 troubles between the northern and the 
 southern people. There are indications 
 of invasion and oppression on the part 
 of the Assyrians respecting their south- 
 ern kinsmen. It is not improbable that 
 these difficulties Avere at the bottom of 
 some of the earliest migrations to the 
 west. Perhaps Eber, the father of 
 Abraham, had drifted from beyond the 
 Tigris into the low-lying country of the 
 south. His name is said to signify 
 "from beyond;" that is, from beyond 
 the rivers. Doubtless he was either an 
 immigrant into the low country or an 
 invader. A family so situated, expand- 
 ing into a patriarchical tribe, would soon 
 find itself with unpleasant surroundings, 
 and a cure for local troubles might be 
 sought and found in a further migration 
 into the freer west. Hence the Abra- 
 hamic exodus from Ur of the Chaldees. 
 
 Another proof of the race diversity 
 already existing between the Old Chal- 
 daeans and the people of As- Differences in 
 
 shur is found in the monu- rat^LlAsf^- 
 mental remains of the two Syrians, 
 countries. There is already a clear de- 
 parture in the typical physiognomy of 
 the Chaldaeans and the Assyrians. The 
 former are like the Elamites in personal 
 characteristics, while the latter are of 
 the well-known Semitic type, with hints 
 of Medo-Persian modifications. It is 
 easy for the ethnographer to see in the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 445 
 
 features and person of the ancient Chal- 
 daean the antitype of the Cushite, the 
 Old Arabians, the Hamitic Canaanites, 
 and even the Ethiopians and Egyptians. 
 It will be readily agreed that the Semitic 
 peoples became, in the course of time, 
 predominant throughout Mesopotamia. 
 It is likely that the Hamitic race, by pres- 
 sure from the north, became attenuated 
 even to actual separation around the head 
 of the Persian gulf, and that the Elamite 
 dominion on the east preserved the prin- 
 cipal, if not the only, remnants of that 
 race beyond the meridian of Chaldasa 
 and Assyria. 
 
 Several facts of some interest come to 
 
 light on an examination of the ethnic 
 
 names of the three branches of the No- 
 
 achite family. The word 
 
 Significance of 
 
 theNoacMte Shcm means a " name, or 
 
 patronymics. i < < c 
 
 more properly, " sons or a 
 name." The sense is, that this division 
 of the Noachites was an aristocracy 
 having a name, that is, a lineal descent 
 from reputable fathers, as distinguished 
 from the no-name, or base-born, descend- 
 ants of other stocks. The early Sem- 
 ites evidently regarded themselves as 
 peculiarly the representatives of the 
 Noachite race, and perpetuated the be- 
 lief in the nameless, that is, the gentile, 
 character of the cognate families of their 
 own descent. The innuendo was direct- 
 ed against both the Japhethites and the 
 Hamites, particularly against the de- 
 scendants of Canaan in the west, whom 
 the sons of" Shem afterwards overcame 
 and expelled from their territories. 
 
 The evidence of this race contention 
 and feud is plentifully scattered in the 
 Contention for Hebrew writings. The old 
 
 precedence ^ 
 
 among Shem, prejudice lies at the bot- 
 
 Ham, and Ja- , j. . , , ,. ... 
 
 pheth. tom of the relative priority 
 
 of the sons of Noah. As a matter of 
 fact, the Japhethites were the eldest, 
 the Hamites second, and the Semites 
 
 the youngest division of the Noachite 
 family. But there was a constant effort, 
 extending through many centuries, on 
 the part of the Hebrew scribes and 
 cbroniclers to change this order and to 
 give to Shem the rank peculiar to the 
 eldest son. In the biblical ethnography 
 the order of the three descendants is 
 always given thus: Shem, Ham, Ja- 
 pheth. But it will be observed that even 
 in the tenth chapter of Genesis, while 
 the first verse preserves this order, giv- 
 ing priority to Shem, the analysis of 
 tribes Avhich immediately follows places 
 Japheth in his true position, and assigns 
 the place of youngest son to Shem. 
 Sucli primitive quarrels as to the senior* 
 ity of descendants were very common 
 among the early families of men, and 
 are of little value to modern scholarship 
 except as illustrative of a striking and 
 persistent feature of organization and 
 belief existing in the earliest ages of 
 human development. 
 
 All the ancient nations strenuously 
 insisted that they were respectively the 
 most ancient of all. Pri- strife of th» 
 ority seems to have been ^^of prio? 
 an idea which sufficed to "?• 
 establish right, and make all things 
 legitimate in primeval society. "We 
 were here first, and therefore possess 
 this region, and are greater than you," 
 was the language of every primitive 
 people to its neighbors. As a result of 
 this disposition, claims to extravagant 
 antiquity were advanced by all, and 
 were attested by long lines of successive 
 monarchs, in successive dynasties, ex- 
 tending through fabulous ages. One of 
 the principal devices to rnake good such 
 claims was to extend the lives of their 
 rulers to hundreds and thousands of 
 A-ears. The Berosian scheme presented 
 above of the Noachite dynasty in 
 Chaldaea down to the epoch of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 447 
 
 Deluge is a sample of the plan which 
 the ancients adopted to make good their 
 claim of primogeniture and proscriptive 
 right. The Egyptians, not satisfied 
 with even the fanciful expansion of their 
 dynasty, were wont to abandon terres- 
 trial criteria and appeal to the planets for 
 their antiquity. It was a common boast 
 among' the Egyptian priests that their 
 people Avere Prosclcnoi, that is, pre- 
 Moonites, older than the moon in their 
 occupancy and possession of Mizraim. 
 
 In the discussion of the Mesopotamian 
 development of the different branches of 
 Chronology at the Noachitc races, no at- 
 [re NoaThTtf= tempt has been made toes- 
 races. tablish the chronological 
 
 relations of the several ethnic divisions 
 in the dispersion, or even to date the 
 general epoch to which they all be- 
 longed. In fact, chronology is wholly 
 at fault in considering such primitive 
 movements of the race. As to the time 
 when the Noachites may be said to have 
 been deflected to the west, and to have 
 begun their separation into dift'erent 
 peoples, nothing can be alleged with 
 even approximate certainty. The whole 
 tendency of recent inquiry has been to 
 extend the time relations of these early 
 events. It is clearly perceived that the 
 notions formerly prevalent about the 
 lime required for the peopling of differ- 
 ent and distant regions of the earth, and 
 the development therein of distinct na- 
 tionalities, must be abandoned as totally 
 inadequate for the ethnic evolutions to 
 which they refer. It is known that the 
 first progress of men gathering into tribes 
 and nations is exceeding slow as com- 
 pared w'ith subsequent stages of human 
 development. There is an accelerating 
 tendency in the progress of mankind, 
 and this manifest fact emphasizes the 
 necessity of widening and enlarging the 
 whole scheme of ancient chronology. 
 
 As it respects the Semitic and Hamitic 
 peoples who created the earliest civil so- 
 cieties in Elam, Chaldasa, and Assyria, a 
 few suggestions may be of- Evidence of 
 fered as to the time when ^Z%\^^^T^ 
 
 of Egyptian 
 
 the same occurred. If we Hamites. 
 look at the rise of the Hamitic race in 
 the valley of the Nile we discover the 
 most emphatic evidence of a very remote 
 antiquity. It is safe to affirm that almost 
 as early as four thousand years before 
 the common era the primitive Eg^'p- 
 tians, who themselves seem to have taken 
 possession of the valley by conquest, 
 were already a strong and progressive 
 people. They had civil organizations 
 and many well-developed institutions of 
 religion and secular society. The}- were 
 magnificent builders in stone, and appear 
 to have been, from the earliest date 
 of their ddboucJiure into Northeastern 
 Africa, in possession of considerable sci- 
 entific knowledge. These Egyptians 
 were descendants of the older Hamites 
 in Asia. They came by migration and 
 invasion into the country of their sub- 
 sequent development. For this move- 
 ment out of Asia much time must be 
 allowed. 
 
 A greatly extended period must have 
 elapsed between the founding of the first 
 Hamitic societies in Lower ^lesopotamia 
 
 and that subsequent time Probable derira- 
 
 when the Hamitic tribes, ^j^fromS' 
 making their way westward ^aea. 
 through Syria, established themselves in 
 Eg}-pt. It is true that the formal chro- 
 nology, so. far as it has been recovered 
 and reconstructed for the Chaldasan as- 
 cendency, does not by any means reach 
 a period so remote as that of Egypt. But 
 the movement of the race to the west- 
 ward points unmistakably to the fact 
 that the Chaldasan ascendency and the 
 dominion of Elam were long anterior to 
 the creation of political power in the val-
 
 448 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ley of the Nile. This indicates for the 
 primitive peoples of Mesopotamia an an- 
 tiquity far greater than history, or even 
 ethnology in its current phases, has been 
 accustomed to assign or accept. 
 
 The country lying between Arme- 
 nia and the head of the Persian gulf 
 Effects of envi- fumishes a good example 
 
 ronmentonthe £ ^j-^^ influence of phys- 
 jnigrant Noa- '^ •> 
 
 chites. ical environment on the 
 
 movements and development of the 
 early races. Mesopotamia constituted a 
 
 its way, while through the gaps of the 
 Zagros the Semites would precipitate 
 themselves into Upper ]\Iesopotamia. 
 
 Before the immigrants would spread 
 an open country, traversed by two great 
 streams of living water, fertile in natu- 
 ral products, and inviting to settlement. 
 The alluvial plain in Lower jMesopotamia 
 would in a special manner provoke to 
 permanent residence from the ease with 
 which multiplying tribes could here sup- 
 port themselves by the resources of the 
 
 PASS IN THE ZAGROS MOUNTAINS.— Dr.uv 
 
 a pliol'jgriiph. 
 
 natural, perhaps an inevitable, stopping- 
 place in the westward movement of the 
 Noachites. Such was the situation as 
 to make it necessary for them to pause, 
 and to paiise meant the growth of fixed 
 societies. On the east of this region the 
 country is defended by the bulwark of 
 the Zagros and Kebir Kuh mountains. 
 It is easy to see how the already half- 
 separated races, drifting from the east, 
 would be impeded for a time by the in- 
 terposition of the mountain range. Pres- 
 ently, however, through the southern 
 passes, the Hamitic division would make 
 
 earth. Adventure would soon carry the 
 still half-nomadic peoples across the 
 country to the western borders. Here, 
 however, there would be a pause. Even 
 the civilized man hesitates long, and the 
 compulsion must be extreme ere he 
 throws himself into the desert. Perhaps 
 of all the natural landscapes presented 
 on the surface of the globe the most for- 
 bidding and repellant is the desert. 
 
 West and southwest of Mesopotamia 
 is a wide stretch of desert country. It 
 fatigues the eye and scorches the feet. 
 On the north is the Assvrian desert, and
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 449 
 
 to the south and west stretches aAvay the 
 seemingly infinite waste of Arabia. Here 
 CJhaidaeaand are the fundamental con- 
 t^l\M:rJ^ ditions which made Chal- 
 peoples. dgea and Assyria a sort 
 
 of necessity in the progress of the early 
 race. It is not needed in this connection 
 to enter elaborately into the geography 
 of the valleys of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris and the adjacent upland coun- 
 tries. On the north, from the Caspian 
 to the Black sea, stretch the Armenian 
 mountains ; on the south, is the sea ; on 
 the east, the Zagros range, and beyond, 
 the great plateau of Iran ; on the west, 
 the boundary line is the long stretch of 
 the Syrian desert. 
 
 At the time of the development of the 
 early empires in these valleys and for 
 The Ruddy ages afterwards the two 
 twstt m great rivers still discharged 
 Mesopotamia, their Waters by separate 
 channels into the Persian gulf. Meso- 
 potamia reached to the sea, and the 
 mouths of the rivers were fully a hun- 
 
 dred miles south of the present shore 
 line. Along the banks of these streams, 
 high up to the foothills out of which 
 their upper waters are drawn, especially 
 on the east by a multitude of smaller 
 streams, the earliest, or at least one of 
 the earliest, civilizations was developed 
 in the w^orld. It was the work of the 
 Ruddy races coming from the east. 
 Here they planted themselves at the 
 north and the sotith, according to their 
 race descent, and became in course of 
 time much more strongly marked by 
 ethnic differences than they were on 
 their first arrival in the country. It is 
 from this region that the different races 
 belonging to the Hamitic and Semitic 
 families of mankind made their way at 
 length into the western foreground of 
 history, where we shall discover them in 
 a somew^hat clearer light than that in 
 which they have thus far been revealed. 
 Here, then, is the end of what may be 
 appropriately called the Noachite dis- 
 persion of mankind. 
 
 Chapter XXV.— The Haviixic Mioraxions. 
 
 N the current chapter 
 the attempt will be 
 made to trace out 
 geographically the va- 
 rious lines by which 
 the Hamitic race was 
 distribi:ted, first into 
 Southwestern Asia, and thence through 
 a large part of Northern Africa, to the 
 borders of the Western ocean. The 
 Hamitic races lie inquiry will begin with the 
 nearest the movements of the Hamitic 
 
 Blacks m race 
 
 distribution. division of mankind, not 
 from any preference for that race as a 
 dominant people of antiquity, not be- 
 cause their civilization reached a higher 
 
 stage than that of the cognate races, but 
 rather for geographical reasons. The 
 Hamites were distributed to the south 
 and west, and are thus the southernmost 
 branch of the Ruddy races. It will, 
 therefore, be convenient to begin on that 
 side of the ethnic distribution which lies 
 nearest to the lines marking the disper- 
 sion of the Black races, and thence to 
 pursue the inquiry northward imtil the 
 Hamitic movements have been ex- 
 hausted. In the next place, the various 
 branches of the Semitic family may be 
 taken iip and considered in- like order, 
 leaving the Aryan, or Indo-European, 
 divisions of mankind, most important of
 
 450 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 all, historically considered, for the con- 
 cluding chapters on distribution. 
 
 The historical circumstances which 
 gave rise to the first departure of the 
 Historical rea- Hamitic emigrants from 
 sons for the mi- Lower Mesopotamia for the 
 
 grations of the '^ 
 
 Hamitea. southwest are not known. 
 
 It is not unlikely, however, that the 
 pressure of the stronger Assyrians on 
 the north, who by repeated invasions 
 and conquests reduced the old Chalda;an 
 empire to a condition first of dependency 
 and then of actual subversion, may have 
 been the occasion, if not the real cause, 
 of the first migratory movements of the 
 Hamites in the direction of Arabia. It 
 is not known whether this primitive 
 impulse was coincident with the Chal- 
 d;ean ascendency in Lower Mesopotamia 
 or subsequent thereto, but the former 
 supposition is more in accord with right 
 reason and with such other facts as bear 
 upon the question. At any rate, the first 
 dispersive migration of the Hamitic family 
 was from the primitive seat of the Chal- 
 daians toward the south and into the 
 maritime parts of Arabia. 
 
 It is likely that the first progressive 
 people in the Arabian peninsula were 
 Primitive Ara- the descendants of the mi- 
 bianpopiuation gratory movement here de- 
 
 of Hamitio de- • » ^ "- 
 
 scent. scribed, and that they be- 
 
 longed to the maritime parts adjacent 
 to the Persian gulf. The primitive 
 Arabians of the eastern parts next to the 
 sea were of Semito-Hamitic origin, and 
 that they antedated the Central and West- 
 ern Arabians may be safely inferred from 
 the ethnic movements then prevailing in 
 the world, and also from an old prefer- 
 ence of the early races for the seashore 
 and the regions adjacent. A glance at 
 the geography of the peninsula will 
 show a range of mountains between the 
 modern Arab state of Hasa and the great 
 desert. It was through the strip of 
 
 territory lying between these mountains 
 and the Persian gulf that the earliest 
 tribes of the Hamitic family made their 
 way to the southwest. In the lower part 
 of the peninsula the migration divided, 
 throwing off one branch into the modern 
 province of Oman, while the major di- 
 vision was deflected somewhat in conform- 
 ity with the coast line to the southwest, 
 toward the modern state of Yemen, adja- 
 cent to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Such 
 in general was the direction of the oldest 
 ethnic line in the Arabian peninsula, and 
 it was from this primitive migration 
 that the Old Arabs, as contradistinguished 
 from the more recent Ishmaelites, were 
 derived. The former were, in general 
 terms, a maritime people, and to the 
 present day the distinctions between their 
 descendants and the Arabians of the re- 
 gions bordering on the Red sea are suffi- 
 ciently marked. 
 
 Throughout the whole of Southern 
 Arabia, especially toward the south- 
 western termination of the Himyaritic writ- 
 peninsula, are found lin- "gsshow traces 
 
 '■ of Hamitic pro- 
 
 guistic traces of this ancient auction, 
 people. A class of primitive writings, 
 called Himyaritic Inscriptions, testify un- 
 mistakably of the presence of a peculiar 
 people in th.e regions where they are 
 found. These writings, generally en- 
 graved on stone, have been one of the 
 most interesting and puzzling studies pre- 
 sented to modern students of language, 
 and there has been great diversity of 
 views in regard to classifying the origi- 
 nal speech to which these writings belong. 
 Man)' most eminent linguists have re- 
 garded them as of a Semitic origin. An- 
 other plausible view is that of Renan, 
 who holds that the inscriptions in ques- 
 tion differ too widely from Arabic and 
 cognate varieties of Semitic speech to be 
 classified therewith. 
 
 These facts open a question of much
 
 ;i»iUiiiiiiiiNi.i;:iiiJiiiiiitei««.!«u>iii.iiiiiii:iiUjii
 
 452 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 importance respecting the aflinilies of 
 the Hamitic and Semitic languages. It 
 appears that the linguistic separation of 
 Affinities and thesc two raccs was never 
 
 connection of ... 
 
 Hamitic and SO complete as the division 
 guages. " of either of them from the 
 Aryan families of the north. It is likely 
 that in manners, institutions, language, 
 and laws tlic primitive Hamitic tribes 
 held togctlicr with their vSemitic kins- 
 men until common linguistic forms had 
 been in a considerable measure fixed in 
 each, from which circumstance consider- 
 able similarity would appear in the sub- 
 .sequent development of the respective 
 languages. • On the whole, it is safer to 
 classify the Himyaritic inscriptions with 
 the other vSemitic dialects, and to admit 
 the influence of the Hamitic Arabs in 
 giving particular features to tlie writings 
 of Southern Arabia. 
 
 Wherever the inscriptions in question 
 may be placed in linguistic classification, 
 it is certain that their origin is extremely 
 ■Wide distribu- ancient, and that thcv were 
 ^arUicSp"- deduced geographically 
 *'°"s- from Lower Mesopotamia. 
 
 The line of these writings has been 
 traced from about the junction of the 
 Euphrates and the Tigris all the way 
 around through Southeastern and South- 
 ern Arabia to Yemen, and even across 
 into Africa. The explorer Loftus found 
 a sandstone slab covered with Himyaritic 
 inscriptions in one of the mounds of 
 Warka, in ancient ChakL-ea. Two speci- 
 mens of gems covered with like charac- 
 ters are preserved in the British Museum. 
 Coghlan and Playfair made similar dis- 
 coveries at Amran, near Sana. In short, 
 the identity of the writings along the 
 line of the extreme southern dispersion 
 of the Hamites is clearly esta"bli.shed . 
 
 The Himyarites, as a people, occupied 
 the southwestern extremity of the Ara- 
 bian peninsula. They are nearly iden- 
 
 tified geographically with the inhabit- 
 ants of the modern Yemen, though 
 the Himvarites were fur- Geographical 
 ther south and more mar- '^^:::^^^ 
 itinic than the modern "tes. 
 Arabic state. It will thus be seen that 
 the Hamitic branch of mankind which 
 we have been tracing was brought, 
 in its southwestern migration, to the 
 southern neck of the Red sea. It was 
 not likely that .so narrow a strait of water 
 would prevent the further dispersion of 
 the ancient stock. The opposite African 
 shore is embraced in the small maritime 
 districts called Samara. More generally, 
 it is Abyssinia to the north and .Somali- 
 land to the south. 
 
 The fact has long been recognized that 
 there was an ancient race identity be- 
 tween the peoples inhabit- Race kinship of 
 ing the countries on the ^^rEa^^tenr''' 
 
 two sides of the strait of Africans. 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb. The belief that the 
 Old Abyssinians were of Semitic deri- 
 vation, and the knowledge that they 
 were of the same race with the people 
 of the Himyaritic district in Arabia, 
 has led to the conclusion that the lat- 
 ter were Semites, and this belief has 
 been perpetuated by the discovery of 
 strong Semitic traces in the Himyaritic 
 writings. The Abyssinians and other 
 ancient Ruddy races of this region of 
 Africa were clearly in .some sort of race 
 afifinity with the Egyptians, the Canaan- 
 ites, and the Old Arabians, as well as 
 with the Semites proper. The whole 
 question clears up on the hypothesis that 
 this most southerly division of the Noa- 
 chite descendants was Semito-Hamitic, 
 and that the Semites proper were dis- 
 persed toward the south about to the cen- 
 ter of the Arabian peninsula. It is true 
 that some ethnographers have carried the 
 Lshmaelite migration southward along 
 the eastern shores of the Red sea to the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 453 
 
 strait, and thence into Africa, which 
 would bring the Semitic tribes into the 
 same country with the cognate Ha:nites, 
 but it may be doubted whether the true 
 line of Ishmael was ever carried so far 
 in that direction. 
 
 If we attempt to trace the Hamitic dis- 
 persion beyond the crossing into Africa, 
 Distribution of we shall find the migration 
 pursuing the same general 
 course to the southwest 
 which it had taken while in Southern 
 Arabia. It appears that the peoples of 
 this stock were thinly distributed from the 
 
 Hamitio blood 
 in Eastern 
 Africa. 
 
 bearing divisions of the Black races. The 
 ancestors of the Hottentots and the Ne- 
 groes made their way from the east 
 through this same region of Gallaland, 
 and their migratory intersection with the 
 south-bearing progress of the Hamitic 
 family must have constituted one of the 
 earliest, if not, indeed, the very first, 
 contact of the Ruddy with the Black 
 races of antiquity. 
 
 Meanwhile Syria, almost directly 
 west from Chaldaea, had also been pre- 
 occupied by Hamitic tribes. While the 
 movement into the maritime parts of 
 
 DESERT COUNTRY OF THE SYRIAN BORDERS.-The Plain of Tobtose.— Drawn by A. de Bar, from a photograph by 
 
 Lockioy. 
 
 strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in the general 
 direction of the Victoria Nyanza, and 
 that the westward progress of the Ham- 
 itic race was finally checked in this re- 
 gion. The Somalian peoples of the 
 extreme eastern portion of Africa were 
 doubtless derived from a deflected branch 
 of this Semito-Hamitic migration ; and, 
 in general, the Noachite races of Galla- 
 land had the same origin. 
 
 One peculiar feature of this African 
 distribution of the Ruddv 
 
 Crossing of the _ ' 
 
 ethnic lines in peoples from Arabia wasthe 
 fact that the lines of their 
 progress to the southwest into the con- 
 tinent must have crossed the westward- 
 
 Arabia had been going on, another di- 
 vision of the Hamitic stock had made its 
 way out of Mesopotamia to syriaispre- 
 the west. It appears that '^^^^ 
 this migration divided in grants, 
 the desert country on the Syrian borders, 
 one branch being deflected into Western 
 Arabia, and the other pursuing its direct 
 course toward the sea at Suez. If we 
 take up the first division, we shall find 
 the line of its dispersion drawn through 
 Southeastern Syria and thence in the 
 direction of iledina and !Mecca. There 
 can be no doubt about the race descent 
 of the original peoples of this region. 
 They were prior to the first Semitic mi-
 
 454 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 grations or invasions of the west ; and 
 the aboriginal substratum of the more 
 recent Ishmaelites and Joktanians was 
 undoubtedly of llamitic origin. 
 
 It was the peculiarity of the westward 
 course of the Ilamites from Central 
 Divisions and re- Mesopotamia that they di- 
 f„"'l''."A^'r^\' vided north and south in 
 
 ings of the mi- 
 gration, their progress. At first, 
 
 the volume of national life which flowed 
 off toward Syria contained the potency 
 of the Western Arabs, the Canaanites, 
 and the Egyptians. The Canaanitish 
 deflection from the main migratory line 
 was northward, and occurred in the re- 
 gion of Central Syria. The northward- 
 bearing branch from this point entered 
 Canaan Proper and Phoenicia ; and here 
 began the development of one of the 
 most prominent divisions of the Hamitic 
 family. 
 
 Traditional Canaan takes its name 
 from the son of Ham. In the chronicles 
 Ham founds ca- of the Hebrew race this 
 ^;Lf:elt7^ division of the Hamites is 
 kinsmen. most prominent. They 
 
 were greatly disparaged by the early an- 
 nalists of the Hebrew race, and through all 
 subsequent ages were despised and con- 
 temned by them as gentiles and servants 
 of servants. It was against these de- 
 scendants of Canaan in their tribes and 
 generations that the wrath of invading 
 Israel was turned, after the Egyptian 
 exodus. 
 
 The progress of the Hamitic migra- 
 tions to the northwest, around the east- 
 ,„ em extremity of the Med- 
 
 Extent of Ham- / 
 
 itic migrations itcrraneau, introduces the 
 
 Into Asia Minor. ... - ,, 
 
 mquirer to one of the most 
 diSicult passages in the ethnic distribu- 
 tion of mankind . The problem is the ex- 
 tent of the migration in the direction of 
 Asia Minor. Ethnographers are not 
 agreed as to how far the Hamitic move- 
 ment in this direction continued. One 
 
 class of writers are of the opinion that 
 the traces of this branch of the human 
 family extend no further than the south- 
 ern regions of Asia Elinor, or, at most, 
 the eastern borders of the JEgean sea. 
 Some are of opinion that the line wa» 
 deflected into the island of Cyprus, 
 and there terminated so far as its west- 
 ward progress was concerned. Still an- 
 other class of inquirers hold that the 
 Hamitic progress extended westward 
 through the .^-Egean archipelago and into 
 Southern Greece. This view of the case 
 makes the Pelasgians, to whom consid- 
 erable space was devoted in a chapter of 
 the preceding book, to be the descend- 
 ants of the Hamitic stock. It will be 
 remembered that the view of a northern, 
 that is, a Thes.salian, origin for the Pe- 
 lasgic race was advanced in the former 
 account of that people. This view of 
 the case is not fully established. Nor 
 can it well be said that the opposite 
 opinion, namely, that the Pelasgians 
 came from the archipelago into Argolis, 
 and thence continued their progress to 
 the West, is more than tentative. 
 
 Winchell, in his Chart of the Pro- 
 gressk'e Dispersion of Mankind, holds to 
 the view that the Hamitic migration was 
 carried through the south- ^incheU's 
 
 ° views regarding 
 
 ern parts of Asia Minor, the European 
 
 T ^, 1 ji /-I 1 1 dispersion of the 
 
 and thence by the Cyclades Hamites. 
 into Peloponnesus. From Southern 
 Hellas this distinguished ethnographer 
 extends the Hamitic line first into 
 Northwestern Greece, where, in Epirus, 
 as we have seen, one of the principal 
 Pelasgie developments occurred. But 
 the main line is carried across the 
 Southern Adriatic into Italy, whence 
 one branch is turned to the left, to fur- 
 nish an aboriginal stock for the island 
 of Sicily, while the other line bifurcates 
 on the twosidesof the Apennines, giving 
 in Central Italy an origin for the prob-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 455 
 
 lematical Etruscans and their primitive 
 development. It may be possible, even 
 probable, that this scheme furnishes the 
 best solution as to the race-origin of the 
 first peoples of the Ruddy race in South- 
 ern Greece and Central Italy. If so, we 
 may regard the valley of the Po, the in- 
 land region of Etruria, and the remote 
 parts of vSicily as the westernmost limits 
 
 Egypt. But a better view of the whole 
 subject shows that if any such race 
 movement occurred it was of a later, and 
 perhaps a Semitic, origin, from Arabia 
 into North Central Africa. 
 
 The original occupancy, then, of the 
 Nile valley by the Ruddy races was 
 certainly by the incoming of the Ham- 
 ites, first into the eastern delta, and 
 
 ROUTE OF THE HAMITE MIGRATION', NEAR SUEZ.— Lake Timsah.— Drawn by Dom Grenet. 
 
 of the European excursion of the Ham- 
 itic race. 
 
 We now turn to the central progress 
 
 of the same race to the west. From 
 
 Syria, the Hamitic movement continued 
 
 directly through the isthmus of Suez 
 
 into the valley of the Nile. 
 
 The race enters ^ _ 
 
 and occupies the It has bccn believed by 
 ey. some historians that the 
 
 invasion by which the aboriginal Egi'p- 
 tians were expelled from their country 
 was carried, in part at least, across the 
 Red sea into Central, or even Upper 
 
 thence southward along both banks of 
 the river to Upper Egypt. The progress 
 of Hamitic civilization from the vicinity 
 of jMemphis and Cairo southward to its 
 extreme limit at Elephantis has been 
 traced by ethnographers and historians 
 until its course and character are no 
 longer doubtful. The oldest occupation 
 was in that part of the delta l_ving next 
 to the isthmus, and from hence the prog- 
 ress of the race was constant until the 
 whole valley was populated by tribes of 
 a common descent.
 
 456 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The account of the original dispersion 
 of mankind may well pause at this point, 
 that the attention of the reader may be 
 Extreme antiq- once morc callcd to the cx- 
 movelrntstere "■^■""■' antiquity of the move- 
 described. mcntshere described. It is 
 
 worthy of special note that the civiliza- 
 tion of Egypt tended, in virtue of its 
 own character, to transmit better evi- 
 dences of time-relations and the succes- 
 sion of events than that of any other 
 country. One of the fundamental ideas 
 of the civilization created in the Nile 
 valley was architectural grandeur, and 
 closely connected with this was the no- 
 tion of perpetuating the records of hu- 
 man life by means of colossal tombs and 
 imj^erishable inscriptions. Fortunate- 
 ly the granite quarries of the country, 
 especially in Centi-al Egypt, gave oppor- 
 tunity to gratif}- this disposition, if 
 indeed the presence of such materials 
 did not first provoke the habit. The 
 peculiar priestly organization of the 
 race, in close union as it was with the 
 secular d3-nast3-, also tended to the crea- 
 tion and preservation of records. 
 
 From these circumstances the great 
 
 antiquity of Egypt became a marvel to 
 
 the earliest historians and 
 
 Old travelers 
 
 marvel at the travelers of other races, 
 age Of Egypt. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Egyptian 
 
 scribes profited by the credulity of the 
 age in which they flourished, and en- 
 larged as much as possible the ancient 
 records which they possessed. When 
 Herodotus came into the country, about 
 the middle of the fifth century B. C, he 
 was shown the records of the old dy- 
 nasties, from the founding of the first by 
 Menes down to the reign of Seti. From 
 this scheme he made up his estimate of 
 the antiquity of the nation, producing as 
 a result something over 12000 B. C. 
 as the epoch of Menes. Four centuries 
 atterwards, when Diodorus traveled 
 
 in Egypt, he also studied the records 
 of the countr}', and made out the found- 
 ing of the first dynasty to have been 
 more than twelve thousand years before 
 the common era. According to IManetho, 
 a native historian, the span between 
 Menes and our era is reduced about one 
 half, the accession of the first dynasty 
 being fixed at about 5706 B. C. 
 
 The mediaeval historians did nothing 
 with the question, but in recent times 
 many learned inquirers have taken up 
 
 the subject, and the result Modeminquiry 
 
 has been the almost concur- ^^trdTefor 
 rent agreement of modern Menes. 
 scholars that the epoch of Menes, founder 
 of the oldest dynasty, goes back to the 
 year 3892 B. C. This date is now ac- 
 cepted as approximately correct. Indeed, 
 it appears to be rather within than be- 
 yond the true limits. Jleanwhile a fact 
 in astronomy has thrown perhaps the 
 strongest light on the true era of the 
 founding of Egyptian nationality. By 
 the rate of the great movement called 
 the precession of the equinoxes, it is 
 now known that the equator of the 
 heavens accomplished on the ecliptic a 
 complete circuit in about twenty-five 
 thousand years. It is also known that a 
 certain star, which was polar at the time 
 of the building of the oldest pyramids in 
 Lower Egypt, has been, at the present 
 time, turned by torsion just about one 
 fourth of the way around the circuit of 
 the heavens. This would imply the 
 lapse of a little over six thousand years 
 since the construction of the first pyra- 
 mids ; and the date indicated would be 
 somewhat more than four thousand 
 years before the common era. 
 
 It is safe to fix upon this date as a fair 
 approximation for the time of the in- 
 coming of the tribes and the beginning 
 of the great architectural era of the 
 Hamitic race in Egypt. And it will be
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 4.37 
 
 remembered that the ethnic movements 
 which have furnished the subject-matter 
 of the preceding paragraphs belonged to 
 a still earlier period in the historj- of the 
 race ; all of which facts tend most 
 strongly to emphasize the necessity of a 
 great extension and widening out of the 
 whole scheme of ancient chronologj'. 
 
 It is difficult for one removed to mod- 
 em times and distant countries to realize 
 the nature and method 
 
 True nature of 
 
 primitive tribal of the ethnic migrations of 
 migrations. antiquity. It is not pur- 
 
 posed in this connection to attempt to 
 
 hard to obtain. But ever and anon this 
 rapid volume of the moving race, most 
 rapid in the vanguard, would flow into 
 a region which, from its geographical 
 situation and its fertility, would invite to 
 settlement. Here there would be a 
 pause. The tribe would spread over the 
 surface of the country' like a lake of 
 water running into an inclosed lowland. 
 For a long time the incoming tribes 
 would pour along and discharge their 
 volume into the reservoir. If the situa- 
 tion were sufficiently auspicious, there 
 would be, in a short time, the begin- 
 
 VERTICAL SECTION OF THE GREAT PVKAMm FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. 
 A, debris ; B, vault ; C, passage of entrj' ; U. abutments ; E, chamber of the queen ; F, chamber of the king ; G, ancient entrance ; H, 
 
 primitive facing of granite ; 1, K, ventilators. ^ 
 
 depict the actual manner of tribal 
 removal from place to place to final 
 settlement. One great feature, how- 
 ever, of the migrator^' progress of ancient 
 peoples was the alternate speed and 
 cessation of the movement. vSometimes 
 the migrating horde would pour along 
 like a swift stream, traversing in a short 
 time va.st stretches of country-. Such 
 was the rate of progress in desert regions 
 and in mountainous districts where the 
 means of subsistence were scattered and 
 
 M. — Vol. I — 30 
 
 nings of a national development. The 
 more conservative elements of the tribes 
 
 would establish themselves in what manner 
 
 on the soil. Hunting would S:comep;p- 
 give place to the pastoral elated, 
 pursuit, and the pastoral pursuit to agri- 
 culture. Permanence would assert it- 
 self, and vacillation cease. Institutions 
 would soon be planted. Architecture 
 and the other practical arts would arise, 
 and society would emerge from the tribal 
 chaos which had preceded it.
 
 458 
 
 GREAT RACES OE ^r AN KIND. 
 
 Into such situations, however, a rest- 
 less element is always poured, along- 
 •with the calmer varieties of humanity. 
 The radical eie- This radicalism would first 
 ment breaks flow to the furthest— gen- 
 
 away irom the *^ 
 
 conservative. erally the western — limit 
 of the locality. Ere long, dissatisfied 
 with the situation and longing for the 
 old tribal freedom, these elements would 
 burst away from the restraints of the 
 civilizing- communities and resume the 
 migratory habits of antiquity. They 
 would draw after them all adventurers, 
 all the unprosperous parts of the half- 
 formed societies behind them. They 
 would strike out into new regions, driven 
 by an impulse which they had no dis- 
 position to understand or check. 
 
 We may conceive that ancient Egypt 
 furnished one of the most striking ex- 
 amples of this di'boiicJmre 
 
 Egypt a striking . ^ ^ ., , ^ ^^ 
 
 example of the of tribal watcrs. Here 
 
 ethnic sack. ,-, ii j j 
 
 they were gathered, and 
 here, out of the fecund soil, the ele- 
 ments of primitive life drew at first the 
 means of subsistence and afterwards of 
 development. How long the general 
 progress of the Hamitic race to the west 
 was checked and hindered by the out- 
 spread of the incoming volume in the 
 valley of the Nile, it were, perhaps, vain 
 to conjecture. For many centuries, no 
 doubt, the outline was sufficient, and 
 the auspicious character of the valley for 
 succeeding ages appeased and satisfied 
 the cupidity and restlessness of the im- 
 migrants. 
 
 In course of time, however, the more 
 nomadic elements of Egyptian life 
 Migration at climbed the western slope 
 iSghNonh' of the valley, and found 
 em Africa. the sand waste of Africa 
 
 before them. Iiligration was resumed, 
 and the first line of the new movement 
 was stretched along the Mediterranean 
 in the direction of Barca. It may be 
 
 safely affirmed that the first tribes which 
 Avere dropped into permanence in the 
 country west of Lower Egypt were the 
 ancient Marmaricans. It is well known 
 that in after times Cyrenaica was col- 
 onized by the Greeks, but the primitive 
 people whom they expelled from the 
 coast and forced back into the interior 
 were the descendants of the ancient 
 Hamitic exodus from Egypt. 
 
 The main line of migration continued 
 to the west, branching into the interior 
 
 south of the modern Greek Branchings and 
 
 colony, and also turning re^SSnam! 
 into the peninsula toward itic dispersion. 
 •Ptolemais. When we consider the ge- 
 ography of Northern Africa we shall 
 find the country well adapted to the 
 maintenance and perpetuation of such a 
 movement. Throughout the whole ex- 
 tent of the region, from Eg\'pt to the At- 
 lantic, a mountain range of greater or 
 less elevation defines the coast region 
 from the desert to the south. Toward 
 the eastern terminus this range is of 
 slight elevation, being in the plain of 
 Barca no more than a thousand feet in 
 height. Toward the western exireme 
 the peaks of the Atlas rise to a much 
 greater elevation, reaching the line of 
 perpetual snow. Throughout the whole 
 extent the range approximates the sea, 
 and the country between the mountains 
 and the Mediterranean slopes down rap- 
 idly to the level of the ocean. It was 
 through this region that the African 
 Hamites made their way to the west, 
 through Barca and Tripoli, into the an- 
 cient state of Africa Proper, and thence 
 into ^Mauritania, and finally to the ex- 
 treme west. 
 
 This region, thus peopled in the pre- 
 historic ages, became one of the most 
 important of the subsequent historical 
 countries. The ancient states along the 
 southern shores of the Mediterranean
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 459 
 
 never attained — with tlie exception of 
 Egypt — tlie power and importance of 
 tliose situated on the nortli- 
 ern coasts, but they reached 
 a considerable degree of 
 development, and were able to compete 
 with the Mediterranean peninsular pow- 
 ers for the mastery of the west. Funda- 
 
 Rank and char' 
 acter of North 
 African states 
 and peoples. 
 
 stream flowed still further to the south. 
 It may also be noted that the seafaring 
 Semitic Phoenicians who passed west- 
 ward through the Southern ]\Iediterra- 
 nean skirted the coast of Africa, and 
 touched the islands rather than estab- 
 lished colonies or built states on the 
 mainland. 
 
 TUNISIAN COAST.— GlLF of Hammamet.— Drawn by Eugene Girardet, after a sketch of Saladin. 
 
 mentally, the people of the North Afri- 
 can provinces were Hamitic in their 
 origin. It is true, as we shall see here- 
 after, that parallel streams of a diflferent 
 race descent were at a subsequent time 
 led westward through the ,same region. 
 But the Brown race division of mankind 
 carried its migration toward the Atlantic 
 on the sout/icni slope of the North 
 African mountains, while the Semitic 
 
 The main stream of Hamitic migration 
 may be said to have reached its terminus 
 with the Atlantic, or at TheHamites 
 least with the islands west 7^"*"^''?^' . . 
 
 land, but avoid 
 
 of ^Morocco. It is believed the sea. 
 that the original tribes inhabiting the 
 Canary islands were the westernmost dis- 
 persion of the human race, so far as the 
 Hamitic migration from the east was 
 concerned. As a rule, the Hamites no-
 
 460 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 where took to the sea. They were a 
 land people, and while preferring the 
 coast regions of the ancient world, they 
 avoided the open ocean and formed very 
 few insular settlements. They had far 
 less dread of the perils of the desert than 
 of those peculiar to the deep. An exam- 
 ination of the movement of the race west- 
 ward through Northern Africa will show 
 a much greater number of tribal de- 
 partures toward the south than toward 
 the north. The inviting character of the 
 Mediterranean islands seems to have 
 appealed less strongly to the people of 
 this descent than did even the desert 
 wastes of Sahara. 
 
 It is possible that the Hamitic move- 
 ment, considered as a whole, Avas some- 
 what determined by latitude and tem- 
 perature. The race appears 
 
 Hamitic prefer- 
 ences for the to have had a preference 
 equatorial trend, r ,i ,-, i- . 
 
 for the southern climates. 
 If we consider the central line of migra- 
 tion from the original seat of the race 
 to its extreme Avestern limit in the 
 Canaries, we shall find only one or two 
 considerable developments toward the 
 north. The whole expansion of the 
 Hamites was in the direction of the 
 equatorial regions. If we allow the 
 Pelasgians and the Etiniscans to have 
 been of this descent, we shall find this 
 single stream to have attained a north- 
 ern limit of a little more than forty-five 
 degrees, in the valley of the Po. Other- 
 wise, the northernmost deflections were 
 scarcely above thirty-five degrees north. 
 The main line of westward population 
 was about the parallel of thirty degrees, 
 and from this line nearly all the depar- 
 tures, both in Asia and Africa, were to 
 the south and southwest. From the 
 main course, the various tribal migra- 
 tions into the regions of the equator and 
 their ramifications filled a considerable 
 portion of the old countries from the 
 
 Persian gulf to the Atlantic south of the 
 thirtieth parallel and north of the equa- 
 tor. None of the Hamites crossed the 
 equatorial line southward in their origi- 
 nal dispersion, the nearest approach 
 thereto being made by the Galla tribes 
 of Eastern Africa. 
 
 Among these various lines of southern 
 deflection, the two principal were, first, 
 the great Cushite departure The Berber 
 into Southeastern Arabia ToT^T^,.^ 
 and Eastern Africa; and movements. 
 secondly, the West African division, 
 which left the parent stem on the bor- 
 ders of the Lib3-an desert, in the modern 
 state of Algeria. From this point the 
 secondary current turned to the south- 
 west into the Moorish states and again 
 divided in the Sahara, one stream con- 
 tinuing the original course and the 
 other bending back toward the east, 
 forming a loop Avhose southern line 
 reached nearly to the parallel of twenty 
 degrees north. It w'as thus that the 
 aboriginal population of the Moorish 
 and Berber states was supplied. Here 
 sprang the desert people of the African 
 waste, and from this source have been 
 derived at least a majority of all the 
 Berber, Tuareg, and Imoshag nations. 
 
 In following the course of the Ham- 
 itic progress toward the Atlantic, the 
 ethnopfrapher meets some 
 
 ° -"^ . Kthnic place of 
 
 peculiar difficulties. The the carthagin- 
 
 .1 . 1 ■ £1 i^- c i.^ ians considered. 
 
 ethnic classification of the 
 Carthaginians has been the source of 
 much perplexity ; and there are even yet 
 unsolved elements in the problem. By 
 language and many of their institutions 
 the ancient Carthaginians seem to have 
 been closely allied with the Semitic 
 races of the Orient. Tradition has dis- 
 tinctly and emphatically assigned to 
 them a Phoenician origin. Many ripe 
 scholars have not hesitated to classify 
 them as Semitic.
 
 DISTRTBrTIOy OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 461 
 
 In the first place, it must be remem- 
 bered that the institutions and languages 
 Institutional of the Hamitic race were 
 
 and linguistic 
 
 intimacy of by no iTieans clearly sepa- 
 
 Semites and i i j- ^i /• ji 
 
 Hamites. rated from those of the 
 
 Semites. Linguistically and institution- 
 ally, as well as ethnically, these two 
 branches of the human family appear to 
 have hung together until the forms and 
 characteristics of each had to a consider- 
 able degree become fixed by develop- 
 ment. The selvages, so to speak, of 
 the various Hamitic and Semitic migra- 
 tions lay together and overlapped each 
 other in a measure that could not be ex- 
 pected in the case of the Aryan nations. 
 For these reasons, identities and analo- 
 gies of language and of institutional 
 forms of both public and private life are 
 abundant between the earliest Hamitic 
 and Semitic nations. The Phoenicians 
 were doubtless in the first place Hamitic 
 in their origin. With the Semitic con- 
 quest of Canaan, that race became domi- 
 nant to the sea. To what extent they 
 were modified in their Phoenician de- 
 velopment by Hamitic Canaanites it were 
 impossible to tell, but doubtless the 
 more recent Phoenician character was in 
 its ethnic origin the product of both 
 elements-. 
 
 Moreover, in this region, the common 
 forms of the two races were especially 
 Semitic influ- abundant. So if we con- 
 sider the Phoenicians in the 
 act of colonization in the 
 west, as at Carthage, we shall find them 
 planting on that shore a mixed race in 
 which the oldest blood was Hamitic, and 
 the more recent vSemitic, in its deriva- 
 tion. Again, the later commercial 
 relations of the Phoenicians brought 
 many of their merchants and not a few 
 Eastern institutions into the mart of 
 Carthage. If, then, we look at the Car- 
 thaginian state, particularly at the city, 
 
 ence prevails 
 over the Hamit- 
 ic at Carthage. 
 
 in the time of its ascendency, we shall 
 find a people marked in all of their civic 
 and private life with the unmistakable 
 traces of Shem. But it need not be 
 
 HAMITIC TYPE OF THE UPPER NIGER — BAMBARRA. 
 Drawn by Rioii, after a sketch of Valliere. 
 
 forgotten, at the same time, that the 
 westward progress of the Hamites along 
 this coast must, almost of necessity, 
 have furnished the aboriginal element 
 and germs of all the states primarily
 
 462 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 created between Egyj^t and the Pillars 
 of Hercules. 
 
 Continuing the course of Hamitic 
 migration in the west of Africa, we find 
 the main line of progress passing to the 
 south from the Moorish states across the 
 Extreme limits twentieth parallel and into 
 of Hamitic dis- ^-^ habitable coun- 
 
 tnbution in the 
 
 west. tries of the Upper Niger. 
 
 Here there was another bifurcation, the 
 western branch reaching out to the coast 
 and furnishing the original elements of 
 the Fulah tribes ' of Western Guinea. 
 This was the second extreme limit in 
 westward extent of the Hamitic migra- 
 tions, being almost as far in that direc- 
 tion as the Canary islands. The other 
 branch of the race appears to have turned 
 eastward in the lake region of the 
 Upper Niger, and to have thence de- 
 scended the valley of that river into the 
 Sudan and as far east as the country 
 drained by the streams which flow into 
 lake Chad. It is likely that the Baghirmi 
 nations, lying southeast of the lake just 
 named, mark the remotest point to 
 which the original impulse carried the 
 race of Ham into Central Africa. 
 
 The whole course of the migration, 
 
 considered from the standpoint of Lower 
 
 Egj'pt, resembles a fishhook bending 
 
 southward around the largf- 
 
 Nature of the *^ 
 
 dispersion in cr part of the dcsert region 
 African interior. <• ^i \ r • , ■ 
 
 or the Airican continent 
 
 and presenting an interior and an ex- 
 terior line, the latter of which reaches 
 back toward the country of the original 
 exodus, about one half way from the 
 western coast of the continent to the 
 Red sea. The final distribution of tribes, 
 by means of this great migration in the 
 prehistoric ages, was in a region of Africa 
 into which the Black races, coming from 
 the east, had already been poured, and 
 with which the Hamitic peoples have in 
 all subsequent ages been intermingled, 
 
 until it were difficult, if not impossible, 
 in modern times to discriminate the 
 diverse race elements in the peoples 
 of this region. 
 
 This, then, concludes the summary of 
 Hamitic migrations in Southwestern 
 Arabia and Northern Africa. No doubt 
 all such movements are Ethnic move- 
 more clearly drawn,_ more ^xTcTandrog- 
 definitely indicated, in dis- 'cai. 
 cussions of the kind here presented than 
 they were in fact. In the physical 
 world nature abhors a line, and the 
 same may be affirmed with emphasis of 
 the movements and phenomena of the 
 world of life. Of a certainty, tribes 
 migrate from place to place. The}' flow 
 here and there into favorable localities, 
 and there possibly develop into nations. 
 But the movement is not so exact find log- 
 ical as it appears to be when viewed 
 through the medium of description. 
 There is, on the contrary, much that is 
 desultory and irregular in the course of 
 migration from one country to another. 
 Much allowance must be made for de- 
 lays and deflections, and still more for 
 the intermingling of one tribe with an- 
 other on the way. The incoming peo- 
 ple frequently disperse themselves 
 among the original inhabitants, and are 
 mixed with them in the race develop- 
 ment of the future. 
 
 In some cases the migration is more 
 exact and definite, and in such instances 
 the facts correspond more General sum- 
 nearly to the concept of the ^Z^:^^,. 
 movement as it is trans- tions. 
 mitted by description. In the case of 
 the Hamitic dispersion over the coun- 
 tries to which we have referred in the 
 current chapter, it must be constantly 
 remembered that these people were not 
 so different typically from their Semitic 
 kinsmen as the latter were from the 
 Indo-European races. From this source
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 463 
 
 also much confiision has necessarily 
 arisen in the attempted classification of 
 these people by their ethnic affinities. 
 But it is believed that, on the Avhole, the 
 Hamitic race took in prehistoric times 
 the general lines of distribution which 
 are here indicated ; that it was distribu-, 
 ted first into Southeastern and Southern 
 Arabia, then into the western portions 
 of the same peninsula, and then into 
 Canaan. From this position the lines 
 of migration part around the ilediter- 
 ranean north and south, the lower de- 
 parture being into Egypt, and after- 
 wards into Northern Africa. In the 
 course of ages the movement continued 
 to the west, along the southern shores of 
 the Mediterranean, to the Atlantic, and 
 
 was thence deflected to the south into 
 the equatorial regions, and finally turned 
 back into the desert wastes covering the 
 central and north-central parts of the 
 continent. 
 
 It is not intended in this connec- 
 tion to trace further the historical de- 
 velopment of the various peoples who 
 sprang up on the line of these migra- 
 tions. That part of the work will be at- 
 tempted in another book. For the 
 present, we turn from this cursory out- 
 line of the Hamitic distribution of man- 
 kind to consider another of the great 
 primitive races in its similar dispersion, 
 first through a great part of the Orient, 
 and afterwards into different parts of the 
 Western continents. 
 
 Chapter XXVI.— aiigrations ok the Semites. 
 
 OUGHLY considered, 
 the great monarchies 
 in the valleys of the 
 Euphrates and the Ti- 
 gris were planted and 
 developed by people 
 of the Semitic race. 
 It was in Mesopotamia that the first 
 striking evolution of this branch of man- 
 kind was manifested. This is said of 
 civil and political expansion, and of the 
 establishment of social and linguistic 
 forms. It is here that ancient histor}- 
 Mesopotamia finds its first great buttress 
 against the unknown. If 
 we look at the upper part 
 of the valley, below the Armenian 
 mountains on the north and the range of 
 the Zagros on the east, we find a region 
 in which Semitic elements followed their 
 natural course of evolution and were un- 
 adulterated by foreign nations. In the 
 south of Mesopotamia, as we have seen. 
 
 essentially a 
 land of the 
 Semites. 
 
 there was a mixture with the Hamitic 
 stock. But in the later Babylonian as- 
 pect of these nations the influence of the 
 Hamites had waned to such an extent 
 as to leave the Semitic races dominant 
 throughout the whole region drained by 
 the great rivers. 
 
 We have already noticed the fact of 
 the prevalence of this division of the 
 race in the Tigrine and Euphratine val- 
 leys. It remains in the present chapter 
 to take up the course of Semitic life and 
 
 follow it on its migration central position 
 
 into western lands. For a ^"^^^Td = ^^^ 
 long time after their de- movement, 
 parture from the Mesopotamian regions 
 the different branches of the traditional 
 Noachite descent Avere held well together 
 by the geographical environment. On 
 the whole, the Semitic stock was cen- 
 tral in its movement to the west. The 
 Syrian desert was entered from about 
 the middle of the valley of the Euphrates,
 
 464 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and was traversed by the migrating fam- 
 ily directly into Canaan. 
 
 It is here, moreover, that the eth- 
 nographer, in his attempted delineation 
 
 of the prehistoric move- 
 Tradition of the -^ .... 
 outgoing of the mcnts of mankind, IS rem- 
 Abrahamites. forced by tradition. One of 
 the oldest and most authentic of these is 
 the story of the migration of Abraham 
 
 el-Hie. The place is called Mugheir, 
 meaning " supplied with bitumen." The 
 outline of a most ancient 
 
 . . . Place and char- 
 
 temple is still discoverable acterofUrof 
 .I 1 1 ii 1 the Chaldees. 
 
 m the place ; and the plan 
 of the foundations, and indeed of the 
 whole structure, has been made out by 
 Rawlinson and other Oriental scholars. 
 It was from this vicinity that the Abra- 
 
 RUINS AND PLAIN OF MUGHEIR.— Drawn by W. H. Boot. 
 
 from Ur of the Chaldees into Canaan. 
 This, viewed from the Semitic stand- 
 point, is one of the most famous move- 
 ments of the early world. The tradition 
 of it exists among all the cognate races 
 of the Hebrews, and with themselves it 
 is the virtual founding of their race. 
 
 The position of Ur in Mesopotamia is 
 well known. It is identical, in site at 
 least, with the extensive ruins about six 
 miles to the west of the Euphrates and 
 nearly opposite its junction with the Shat- 
 
 hamic tribe took its way, first ascending 
 the valley of the Euphrates for a consid- 
 erable distance, and thence traversing 
 the country into Canaan. 
 
 All, or nearly all, the names that have 
 been preserved to us of this period are 
 significant of tribal move- special signifi- 
 ments. Eber, the ancestor ~,r/p\tr„. 
 from whom the name of "ymics. 
 Hebrew is taken, means "from be- 
 yond," that is, he was an emigrant 
 from beyond the Euphrates, perhaps the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIOXS. 
 
 465 
 
 Tigris. The name of his elder son, Pe- 
 leg, signifies "division," "because in 
 his time the earth was divided." The 
 name of Salah, the father of Eber, sig- 
 nifies "departure," and evidently refers 
 to a title which that patriarch received 
 in departing, or setting out, with his 
 tribe for a new home. Everything per- 
 tains to migration. If the meaning of 
 the name Arphaxad has not been ascer- 
 tained, the position of his tribe at least is 
 known. Arphaxad is a mountain district 
 of Southern Armenia, between lakes 
 
 finally of his really serious battle with 
 Chedorlaomer, or according to the As- 
 syrian spelling, Kudur-Lagamer, is suffi- 
 ciently striking and impressive. Kudur- 
 Lagamer was king of Elam, or rather 
 the Elamite king of Chaldsea, and had 
 followed the Abrahamic tribe out of the 
 East, with the hope of falling upon it and 
 gathering great spoil. There is little 
 doubt that this Elamite dynasty in Chal- 
 dsea was of Hamitic origin ; and the de- 
 parting Abraham was thus the object of 
 race antipathy, as well as the possessor of 
 
 LAKD OF THE ARPHAXAD.— View op Kopans Kale.— Drawn by T. Deyrolle, from nature. 
 
 Van and Urumiah ; and there is no doubt 
 that the primitive clan of this ancient 
 Semite had its original locus at this place. 
 Nahor, the son of Serug, means "the 
 river," that is, the Euphrates — and so of 
 scores of other proper names referring 
 to Mesopotamian localities or to family 
 or tribal movements in that region. 
 
 The pastoral picture which is drawn 
 Contact of the in Gcnesis of Abraham on 
 his way to the Promised 
 Land, and of the troubles 
 which beset him on his journey, of his 
 contention with his kinsman Lot, and 
 
 Abrahamites 
 with the races 
 of Canaan. 
 
 flocks and herds. According to the He- 
 brew account of this migration, which 
 was the origin of Israelitish greatness in 
 Palestine, there Avas a division of the 
 family which appears to have been on 
 the borders of Canaan, about the time 
 of the invasion. Ishmael, the oldest 
 son of the patriarch, had married an 
 Eg}-ptian bondwoman and had become 
 the head of a tribe. The troubles 
 arising out of this heathen alliance 
 led to a separation of the families, and 
 Ishmael was carried off into the south, 
 into Arabia.
 
 466 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Several generations before this time, 
 however, another branch of the Eberites 
 Outgoing and had already made a de- 
 piantings of parture into Arabia. This 
 
 Joktan in ^ 
 
 Arabia. movement was made by 
 
 laktan, or Joktan, his elder brother 
 being that Peleg who was the ancestor 
 of the Abrahamites. Joktan was thus 
 five generations before the patriarch of 
 Israel. A large list of twelve sons and 
 a daughter are assigned to Joktan as the 
 heads of the tribes which he led off into 
 Northern and Western Arabia. 
 
 The movement was at a very early 
 date. Joktan w^as the great grandson of 
 Arphaxad, and the latter, as is Avell 
 known, belonged to the extreme north 
 ■of ^Mesopotamia, in the mountainous re- 
 gion of Armenia. So the Joktanites 
 must have been strongly in the migra- 
 tory spirit. Eber, the father, had come 
 "from beyond." Salah, the grandfather, 
 was the "departer." It is thus evident 
 that the whole race of Arphaxad was in 
 process of removal and migration. 
 
 Ethnographers, ancient and modern, 
 
 have made out and identified several of 
 
 the tribes having their or- 
 
 Modern traces .... . 
 
 of the ancient igiu in the Joktanian de- 
 
 Joktanians. ., , t~>^ i 
 
 scendants. rtolemy men- 
 tions the Almodoeci dwelling in the cen- 
 tral portions of Arabia Felix, and it can 
 hardly be doubted that the name is de- 
 rived from Almodad, the oldest son or 
 tribe of Joktan. Another people called 
 the Salapcni by the same geographer, 
 are thought to have been derived from 
 Sheleph, the second son of the same 
 patriarch. This branch of the race was 
 set down by Ptolemy as having its abode 
 near the modern Mecca. A third divi- 
 sion called the Cathramitse Avere pre.sum- 
 ably the descendants of the third son of 
 Joktan, named Hazarmaveth. It is like- 
 ly that the modern provincial name of 
 Hadramaut preserves the reminiscence 
 
 of the original Semitic tribe by whom 
 this region was peopled. There is also 
 a modern tribe called Yarab, having its 
 territories on the Arabian -gulf border 
 and thought to have been descended 
 from Jerah, the fourth division of the 
 Joktanian progeny. 
 
 The Semitic inhabitants of Yemen are 
 believed to have descended from Uzal, 
 sixth son of Joktan. The The joktanidse 
 Himyaritic tribe, called the ^^^eVn^e's 
 Dulkhelitas, are believed and races, 
 to be the descendants of Diklah, the sev- 
 enth branch of the original family. The 
 tribe called Mali by Theophrastus, the 
 Malichae of Ptolemy, stand for the de- 
 scendants of Abimael, the ninth Joktan- 
 ian. The name of the modern town 
 Malai, in the vicinity of jMedina, pre- 
 serves the same word. The tenth issue 
 of Joktan was that Sheba, wdiich is men- 
 tioned in the Hebrew writings and still 
 more frequently among the local names 
 of Southwestern Arabia. The eleventh 
 Joktanian branch was called Ophir, and 
 preserves another name famous in the 
 Hebrew writings of the time of the king- 
 dom of David and Solomon. It is be- 
 lieved that Havilah, a name common 
 to one of the descendants of Ham, is 
 represented by the modern Semitic peo- 
 ple at Chaulan, in Arabia Felix. The 
 tribe of the lobaritas, mentioned by 
 Ptolemy, have their ancestral represent- 
 ative in lobab, or Jobab, the thirteenth 
 member of the Joktanian tribe. 
 
 We thus see, w-ith more than usual 
 certainty, considering the extreme re- 
 moteness of the time, the , , 
 
 Relations of the 
 outlines of a distribution Joktamans and 
 
 of Eberites into Northern 
 and Western Arabia. If we accept the- 
 extreme longevity assigned by the sacred 
 writings to the patriarchs of this era, we 
 shall find that the six generations be- 
 tween Joktan and Ishmael would cover a
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 467 
 
 period of thousands of years. However 
 this may be, it can not be doubted 
 that the Joktanians departed from the 
 parent stem at a date much more re- 
 mote than the more recent Abraham- 
 ites, and that when Ishmael, with 
 the descendants of the Egyptian bond- 
 woman, turned off into the "wilder- 
 ness," he found already in Arabia 
 Felix the half-nomadic and half-set- 
 tled descendants of the older branch of 
 the Eberite race. It will be borne in 
 mind, however, that the progeny of Jok- 
 tan, the younger brother of Peleg, would 
 be displaced in rights and prerogatives 
 by the descendants of the senior branch 
 of the family ; so that the Ishmaelites 
 would have precedence in these regions 
 as the representatives of the common 
 father Arphaxad. The accompanying 
 diagram will illustrate the tribal rela- 
 tionships of the descendants of the Joktan 
 and the Ishmaelites : 
 
 Ishmaelitic migration was from the bor- 
 ders of Syria to the .southwest and thence 
 to the south, until the coast of the Red 
 sea was reached, and skirted southward 
 to the extreme limit of that body of 
 water. If, as some ethnographers main- 
 tain, the Semitic race crossed at Bab-el- 
 Mandeb into Africa, it was an Ishmael- 
 ite removal, and whatever elements there 
 may be of Semitic descent among the 
 Galla races of Eastern Africa, the same 
 must be traced to Ishmael rather than 
 to the Joktanian branch of the original 
 Semitic family. 
 
 In the course of their progress through 
 the peninsula, the Ishmaelites appear to 
 have divided east and west The western 
 about the eastern border ^^ilshagu 
 of Hejaz, and to have Africa, 
 thrown off one branch toward the cen- 
 tral desert and another across the Red 
 sea into Africa. This latter movement 
 of the race must not be confounded with 
 
 Aram 
 I 
 
 Hul 
 
 Elam 
 
 Gether 
 
 Asshur 
 
 Mash 
 
 Arphaxad 
 Salah 
 
 Eber 
 
 Lud 
 
 Joktan 
 I 
 
 Peleg 
 
 Reu 
 
 Serug Almodad Sheleph Hazarmaveth Jcrah Hadoram Uzal Diklah Obal Abimael Sheba Ophir 
 
 Nahor 
 
 Terah 
 
 I 
 
 Havilab Jobab 
 
 5—Abraham=Hagar 
 Isaac Ishmael 
 
 Nahor 
 
 Ha ran 
 
 I 
 
 Lot 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING TRIBAL RELATIONSHIPS OF JOKTAN AND ISHMAEL. 
 
 The career of the Ishmaelites in 
 
 Arabia was one of aggression. They 
 
 encroached, especially in 
 
 Spread of the ^ ■' 
 
 Ishmaehtes the northern part of the 
 
 through Arabia. . , ^111 
 
 peninsula, upon the older 
 Joktanians and also upon the original 
 Hamitie Arabians, who were anterior to 
 both branches of the Semitic immigrants. 
 In general terms, the course of the 
 
 the supposed one at the southwest angle 
 of the peninsula. The real Semitic line 
 was carried into the continent about the 
 parallel of twenty-four degrees north, 
 across Middle Egypt, and almost directly 
 west into the Great Desert. The migra- 
 tion of the Ishmaelites in this direction 
 appears to have extended as far as the 
 Imoshag races, to the southwest of
 
 468 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 3TANKIND. 
 
 Fezzan ; and this point may be regarded 
 as the extreme landward progress of the 
 Semitic race south of the I\Iediterra- 
 nean. 
 
 In general, the modern Arabs are 
 regarded as the lineal descendants of the 
 Ishmaelitic branch of the Semitic family. 
 In the main, this opinion is verified by 
 
 extent the Joktanian influence of latei 
 ages. Finally, in the north and west of 
 Arabia, the immigrant Ishmaelites over- 
 came and subordinated all the peoples 
 that had previously occupied the country. 
 The antipath}'' between Shem and Ham, 
 however, was never great — except in 
 matters of religious dogma and cere- 
 
 ARAFAT DUklNT, A riLc.iUMAGE (LAXD OF OPHIR).— Drawn by D. Lancelot, frnm a i.hntn^r.n.li. 
 
 character of the 
 modern Ara- 
 bians. 
 
 the facts in possession of the ethnogra- 
 pher and historian. But the Arab char- 
 Composite race acter is, to a Considerable 
 extent, composite. Several 
 ethnic elements have con- 
 tributed to its formation. The Ham- 
 itic race, especially in the southern part 
 of the peninsula, underlay the national 
 development of subsequent times. With 
 this oldest stock was blended to some 
 
 monial. For this reason the original in- 
 habitants, already a composite people in 
 Arabia Felix, may be supposed to have 
 contributed not a little to the ultimate 
 formation of that type known in modern 
 times as Arabian. But the dominant 
 stock, at least in the important regions 
 bordering the Red sea from Suez to 
 Yemen, was Ishmaelitic in its origin and 
 development.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 469 
 
 We have thus considered the south- 
 ernmost migratory movements of the 
 
 Vicissitudes of Semitic race. The Abra- 
 theAbrahamites j^ -^^ ^^.-^^g entered and 
 
 m possessing 
 
 Canaan. posscsscd Canaan. This 
 
 movement of the principal stock, repre- 
 sentative of the family of 
 Eber, is better understood 
 in its character and re- 
 sults than any other sin- 
 gle migration at a time 
 equally remote from the 
 present. The story is 
 elaborately expanded in 
 the Book of Genesis. All 
 the principal episodes in 
 the career of the Abra- 
 hamic tribe are narrated, 
 even to details. The pa- 
 triarch became the pro- 
 genitor of a famous race 
 which he planted in Ca- 
 naan. The extent and 
 variety of his tribe are 
 indicated by the conduct 
 toward him of Melchize- 
 dek, King of Salem, and 
 by many other incidents 
 and events. A great de- 
 velopment of the immi- 
 grant race took place in 
 the time of Israel, grand- 
 son of Abraham, whose 
 twelve sons became the 
 progenitors of the twelve 
 tribes and the origin of 
 the twelve geographical 
 divisions of the rising 
 race. It is not needed to recount the epi- 
 sode of the sojourn in Egj'pt and of the 
 rapid multiplication of the foreigners 
 about Pelusium. The return out of 
 bondage and the repossession of Canaan 
 by conquest furnished the material for 
 the heroic aspect and story of the Israel- 
 itish nation, which became dominant 
 
 from the borders of the Syrian desert to 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 It is worthy to be noted in this connec- 
 tion that the Hebrews were never a seafar- 
 ing people. It was against the economy 
 of the state, and regarded perhaps as in- 
 
 "^ ■*■ . 
 
 LIFE OF THE ABRAHAMITES — SHEPHERD WITH LAMBS. 
 Drawn by Paul Hardy. 
 
 jurious to the theocratic principle upon 
 which the government was founded, to 
 
 make commercial excur- Noncommercial 
 
 sionsand contract relations pSi'v^He^* 
 with foreign powers. A brews, 
 student of history will not forget that 
 the narrow strip of coast called Phoeni- 
 cia, with its great seaports, lay between
 
 470 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLLYA'/XD. 
 
 bre'w influence 
 on the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 Israel and the Western ocean. This 
 fact has an ethnic signification also ; for 
 the Tyrians and Sidonians and other old 
 stocks of mankind, hanging in their 
 rookeries along the eastern end of the 
 Mediterranean, represented races long 
 anterior in their western distribution 
 and development to the immigration and 
 conquest of Canaan by the Eberites. 
 
 In course of time the Semitic stock 
 became dominant to the sea. But the 
 spirit of navigation which prevailed in 
 Extent of He- the ports of Tvre and Sidon 
 must be attributed to a 
 race impulse other than 
 that of the Hebrews. To the extent 
 that the Phoenicians had accepted the in- 
 stitutions and blood of the invaders who 
 conquered Canaan, we may regard the 
 outgoing fleets from these shores as car- 
 rying Semitic influences through the 
 Mediterranean. But it is doubtful if 
 these fleets of outbound merchants car- 
 ried to the western parts anything dis- 
 tiiiciivcly Hebrew. All the traces of the 
 Semitic race which have been found in 
 the Mediterranean islands, on the shores 
 of Spain, and beyond the straits of Gib- 
 raltar, in Wales, and in the littoral 
 islands of Western Africa, must be at- 
 tributed to that community of language 
 and institutions which the Phoenicians, 
 particularly the Sidonians, possessed in 
 common with the race of Abraham. 
 
 Time and again we have shown that the 
 Hamites had common forms of laneuaee 
 The Azores and a common institutional 
 
 mark the Atlan- 
 tic limit of He- development with the cog- 
 brew depar- . ,. r^, 
 ture. nate nations of Shem, and 
 
 the original Canaanites could thus carry 
 
 into western waters evidences of a race 
 
 affinity with the dominant Semitic .stock. 
 
 However this may be, ethnographers 
 
 have agreed in extending the Semitic 
 
 line of dispersion through the Phoenician 
 
 coast and around the northern shores of 
 
 Africa by water. As just indicated, 
 this line extends beyond the Pillars of 
 Hercules, and is deflected northward to 
 Britain and southward to the twentieth 
 degree of latitude. The western limit 
 of this maritime migration is thought to 
 have been in the Azores ; and this group 
 of islands may be said to mark the ex- 
 treme Atlantic progress in the natural 
 dispersion of the Semitic famih-. 
 
 It must be noted in connection with 
 the foregoing schemes of dispersion that 
 most of the names employed appear as 
 the names of individuals — use and signif- 
 as the sons of a household. ^^TtHbfr 
 This fact gives to the dis- names, 
 cussion a ?>\x\QWy family aspect which is too 
 exact and too narrow for the facts which it 
 represents. Many of the names in the 
 above classifications are known to be the 
 names of tribes and of whole divisions, 
 or even of whole peoples. It is impos- 
 sible from a study of primitive Semitic 
 records to make out precisely which of 
 the ancestral names employed in geneo- 
 logical tables are intended to represent 
 single ancestors, and which are designed 
 to specify households, tribes, andpeojjles. 
 It is the custom in the Semitic languages 
 to prefix to many personal names, espe- 
 cially such as have a descriptive significa- 
 tion, the definite article, thereby giving 
 to the word an ethnic turn of sense dif- 
 ferent from what would be expressed in 
 the Aryan languages. Such names, 
 moreover, are frequently in tlic plural ; 
 and the Hebrew vScriptures, taken as an 
 example of all such records, have, in 
 many instances, intermixed these tribal 
 or ethnic epithets with individual names 
 until even the closest criticism is put at 
 fault in determining precisely what is 
 meant. On the whole, it is safe to 
 make considerable allowance for this 
 circumstance in estimating the value of 
 the names, apparently individual, given
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 471 
 
 to the ancestors of the Semitic and Ham- 
 itic races. This fact must always be 
 taken into account in attempting to esti- 
 mate the time and the extent of a given 
 migratory movement. 
 
 If we look to the north of the central 
 line of the Semitic dispersion into Ca- 
 
 and it has already been suggested that 
 in Cyprus itself the aboriginal develop, 
 ment was of Hamitic origin. The primi- 
 tive history of the island is exceedingly 
 obscure, but all that is known with 
 reference thereto points to an early 
 colonization by the Phoenicians from the 
 
 ' LAND OF THE SCORCHED FACES." 
 
 -Abu Senoum, on Frontier of Kordofan, toward Darfur. — Drawn by Karl 
 Oirardet, after a sketch of Lejean. 
 
 naan and the west, we shall find only a 
 single significant departure. This leaves 
 The Hebrew the main stem on the north 
 ^rttnr-^^ in the Syrian desert, and 
 itio in Cyprus, bears off in the direction of 
 the northeastern extremity of the ]\Iedi- 
 terranean, where it touches the coast, 
 and is thence carried over to the island 
 of Cypriis. It is hardly to be doubted 
 that along the line of this migration 
 other peoples had preceded the Semites, 
 
 neighboring coast. The ancient wor- 
 ship of Ashtaroth in Cyprus seems to be 
 identical with the corresponding cult in 
 Phoenicia, and it may be concluded that 
 the first race, by which is meant the first 
 progressive race, in the island was of 
 the old Canaanitish stock which fixed 
 itself in the earliest ages along the 
 eastern shore of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Such, then, is the general view of 
 the dispersion of the Semitic nations-
 
 472 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Geographically considered, the race 
 was narrow and intense. Its migra- 
 Summaryand tory excursions did not 
 HebrakTdil'!^ Tcach out SO extensivcly 
 tribution. as tliose of other peo- 
 
 ples. The extreme western continental 
 limit was, as we have seen, in North 
 Central Africa. The southern departure 
 dropped down as far as the limits of 
 Arabia. The northern limit was the 
 island of Cypn:s; and the maritime 
 expeditions — if we regard the Phoeni- 
 cians as representatives of this race — 
 extended through the Mediterranean and 
 to a certain distance around the western 
 coasts of Europe and Africa. Taken 
 altogether, the dispersion is the smallest, 
 that is, the most limited in geographical 
 extent, of all the great ethnic departures. 
 The dispersion of Japlieth in compari- 
 son with that of vShem was, as we shall 
 presently sec, world-wide in its extent. 
 But within the limited territories oc- 
 cupied by the Semitic race a very intense 
 form of religious and civil develoj^ment 
 ensued, making the Semites conspicuous 
 among ancient peoples for their pecul- 
 iarities and persistence and force of 
 character. 
 
 In the course of the current chapter 
 little has been intimated relative to the 
 Question of the primitive populations of 
 rrTheEtWopi" Ethiopia. This name was 
 *"*• given by the Greeks to the 
 
 region lying immediately south of 
 Egypt. The word means " the land of 
 the scorched faces," and was doubtless 
 applied by the Hellenic ethnographers 
 to the Ethiopians on account of their 
 swarthy hue. This, however, by no 
 means implies tliat they were a branch 
 of the Black races of mankind. It is 
 well known, on the contrary, that this 
 people were allied with the Hamitic and 
 Semitic families of men, and not with 
 the Negroes or Hottentots. 
 
 The early history of Egypt indicates 
 close relationship between that couniry 
 and Ethiopia. At one epoch an Ethi- 
 opian dynasty is found in western ish- 
 the ascendant in the Nile ^:^^l^ 
 valley. There was mitch Hamites. 
 community of religions and of civil in- 
 stitutions between the two peoples, who, 
 however, frequently went to war. To 
 what extent, in the prehistoric ages, the 
 Hamitic race had made its way up the 
 valley beyond the falls of the Nile and 
 contributed a first population to Ethi- 
 opia can not be well ascertained. But 
 that the original race of this region was 
 at least to some extent Hamitic in its 
 origin can hardly be doubted. We may, 
 nevertheless, accept the current view of 
 ethnographers that the western division 
 of the Ishmaelites crossed tlie Red sea 
 and gave a Semitic character to the first 
 Ethiopian tribes. It is possible, more- 
 over, that the same race, after making 
 its way to the southern extremity of the 
 Red sea and passing thence into Africa, 
 doubled back into Ethiopia and dis- 
 seminated certain tribal elements in this 
 obscure but important region of the 
 earth . 
 
 We thus note three great divisions of 
 the Semitic stock. The primary depar- 
 ture .sent off the Aramaic Aram the seat 
 branch of the race. In gen- remmfrfr 
 eral terms the people of opment. 
 Aram, known ethnically as Aramaeans, 
 were distributed from the Zagros and 
 Kcbir Kuh on the east, to the borders of 
 Canaan on the west. Aram embraced 
 all of Mesopotamia except Chaldsea, 
 sul)sequently known as Babylonia, and 
 all of Syria in the west except Palestine 
 and Phoenicia. The .seat of Aramaic cul- 
 ture was Mesopotamia. Here was ex- 
 hibited the strongest development of the 
 race. Geographically, Aram was the 
 northern division of the Semitic family,
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 473 
 
 as the Hebraic stock was the central and 
 the Arabic division the southern evolu- 
 tion of Shem. 
 
 In considering the race characteristics 
 and historical progress of these peoples, 
 we shall have occasion to revert to this 
 division of the Semitic family, and to 
 make the same the basis of a discussion of 
 
 the national life of the Mesopotamian 
 nations, the Hebrews and the Arabs. 
 We turn, then, in the next place, to a 
 discussion of the far wider, and in many 
 senses more important, development of 
 the oldest branch of the Noachite 
 family of mankind — the Aryans, or 
 Japhethites. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII,— The East Aryan Departure. 
 
 Determination 
 of the origin of 
 
 the Aryan mi- 
 grations. 
 
 HE dispersion of the 
 Japhetic, Aryan, or 
 Indo-European race — 
 for the three ethnic 
 names are virtually 
 synonymous — consti- 
 tutes the most pictur- 
 esque chapter in the prehistoric annals 
 of the world. We are brought in the 
 investigation to what appears to have 
 been an inexhaustible fountain of hu- 
 man life, and are led to view the issu- 
 ance from this common .source of at 
 least six of the great races 
 which became in their de- 
 velopment the principal his- 
 torical forces in the ancient world. It 
 will be of primar}'- interest in this in- 
 quiry to note, first of all, the geograph- 
 ical location of this common fountain 
 wherefrom issued the best, or at least 
 the strongest, peoples who have, by 
 their energy and genius, transformed 
 the primeval world into its present civil- 
 ized and auspicious condition. 
 
 With the map of Asia before him the 
 student need not be long in fixinof the 
 great ethnic center which we are about 
 to consider. Regarding the ancient 
 countr}- of Carmania as the seat of the 
 Noachite division of peoples, and fixing 
 the line of Japheth on the north, it may 
 
 be easily perceived that its westward- 
 M. — Vol. I — 3t 
 
 bearing course would come against the 
 Hyrcanian mountains and the Lower 
 Caspian, and be deflected or doubled 
 back toward the Upper Oxus into Mar- 
 giana and Bactria. It was in this region 
 that the great ethnic whirl was estab- 
 lished, where the Aryan race seems to 
 have found itself turned by torsion for a 
 .season under the dominion of cosmic 
 forces, which it were, perhaps, vain to 
 attempt to analyze and define. 
 
 Ethnographers have differed some- 
 what as to the true seat of the great 
 races which we are now to Region of the 
 con.sider. The better opin- ,^,7;;,^'^- 
 ion places the center of parture. 
 the distribution about the Lower Cas- 
 pian, or eastward toward the borders of 
 Bactria. It is likely that the rapidlv 
 multiplying race covered geographically 
 the larger part of the country between 
 the Bactrian borders and the Lower Cas- 
 pian. At least this is the general local- 
 ity from which the most powerful ethnic 
 forces have ever proceeded. In viewing 
 the situation, we may discover once more 
 how the laws of physical environnient 
 cooperated with the laws of instinct in 
 producing such marvelous results. 
 There is little doubt, in the first place, 
 that evenness of surface and approxima- 
 tion to sea level have a marked influence 
 in preserving the aggregationor compact-
 
 474 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JfANKLYD. 
 
 ness of tribes in the formative state, and 
 in conducing to certain religious and po- 
 litical types of development. 
 
 In the next place latitude, with its 
 
 invariable concomitant of temperature, 
 
 contributes much to modify the peoples 
 
 who are subject to given 
 
 Bamites are eth- 
 nically modified degrees of heat and cold. 
 
 by environment, ^j^.^ .^ ^^^^ -^ particular of 
 
 tribes who are still in the plastic state. 
 There can be no doubt that there is a 
 childhood and a vouth to mankind — an 
 
 men. They also grew sedate and aus- 
 tere, less disposed to highly developed 
 forms of society, and, in brief, more 
 like the de.sert and rainless countries in- 
 to which they penetrated than were the 
 races which distributed themselves fur- 
 ther northward. 
 
 Among the oldest monuments of the 
 Egyptians there are pictorial repre.ser\- 
 tations of the differences w-hich had al- 
 ready been produced among the Noa- 
 chite descendants by the influences of 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF OLD AKVA.— Ruins of Tous.— Drawn by A. de Bar, from a photograph. 
 
 impressionable stage of evolution in 
 which the influences of the external 
 world are more potent in their reaction 
 upon the mental and phy.sical constitu- 
 tion than they are in later .stages of de- 
 velopment. In these early stages of so- 
 ciety there are infantine susceptibilities 
 and diseases from which the race re- 
 covers at a stage of fuller maturity. For 
 this reason the early peoples in their 
 migratory epochs have developed a con- 
 stitution peculiarly significant of the 
 climate and region of their tribal so- 
 journ. The races of Ham became much 
 darker in color than their Semitic kins- 
 
 environment. The sculptors, in these 
 representations, have unwittingly borne 
 
 evidence of the tendency of Egyptian sculp- 
 tures evidence 
 races in the plastic stage of the early dlffer- 
 ,i_ ■ 1 ,• . entiationof 
 
 their evolution to con- races, 
 form to climatic conditions. The 
 Egyptians defined themselves as Roth, 
 meaning red, or ruddy, as to complexion. 
 They pictured the cognate Semites as 
 Nainahii, meaning yellow; and the 
 Japhethites, or North Mediterranean 
 peoples, as Tamaliu, or white. Yet it is 
 now well knowm that these three types 
 of color and the associated form, feature, 
 and stature of the three peoples to
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 475 
 
 which they belong, were all of a com- 
 mon ethnic descent. 
 
 The race of Japheth on the north and 
 east of ^Mesopotamia was, in its earliest 
 stages of development, thrown into a 
 Primitive ja- region where nature had 
 
 phethites affect- '^ 
 
 ed by climate greater variety than in any 
 
 and surround- i- .1 . • 1. ^.-u 
 
 ings of the countries where the 
 
 Semitic and Hamitic families were dis- 
 persed. It was a region of uplands, ris- 
 
 mer, the quick oncoming of the storm, 
 the biting frost of a comparatively early 
 autumn, the high winds, the blasts of 
 snow and sleet peculiar to the winter 
 months. It is in .some sense a climatic 
 maelstrom, and the Japhetic race was 
 whirled and beaten in its childhood by 
 the wild elements that dashed and 
 turned from alternate calm to tempest, 
 and from warm airs to biting blasts and 
 
 hM^^^W^^^^'^'' ^^"' 
 
 PASS OF THE ARAXES. 
 
 ing easily into mountain ranges of con- 
 .siderable elevation. It was a country of 
 snows, and particularly of storms in 
 winter. There are few parts of the 
 earth in which vicissitude in temperature 
 and the whole external mood of nature 
 are more pronounced than in the region 
 .south and east of the Caspian. 
 
 The primitive Japhethites were ex- 
 posed from the beginning to the full 
 force of these climatic changes — to the 
 flush of early spring, the heat of sum- 
 
 freezing sleets. For the.se reasons the 
 early Japhethites would, by the turbu- 
 lence of nature, be impres.sed with great- 
 er restlessness, hardihood, and adven- 
 ture than might be expected in the case 
 of any other primitive people. 
 
 How great must have been the influ- 
 ence of such an environment upon sen- 
 sitive peoples recently liberated from a 
 parent stock in a more genial latitude! 
 We have already seen that the Adamite 
 seems to have come up from the low-
 
 476 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 lying seashore, where the Ichthyoi^hagi 
 afterwards roamed, half-naked in the 
 seashore sunshine, gathering shellfish 
 from the brine. Many of these moder- 
 ating influences had been carried by the 
 Noachites into the Carmanian uplands ; 
 and it was from thence that the Japheth- 
 ites were deflected to the northwest into 
 the region of snow and mountains. 
 
 Before beginning a review of the 
 wider aspects of the Japhetic dispersion 
 Indefiniteness jn^o remote Continents, it 
 
 of biblical refer- 
 ences to the can but prove of interest to 
 
 Japhetic disper- . i i j 
 
 Bion. note, as we have already 
 
 done in the case of the Joktanian migra- 
 tions, the narrower biblical plan of dis- 
 tribution presented in the tenth chapter 
 of Genesis. Japheth signifies, etymo- 
 logically, " widespreading," from which 
 meaning of the word the inference is 
 drawn that the name was applied to the 
 Northern Aryans afdr they had shown 
 the migrator}' disposition. Far back in 
 the Noachitic era there was a prophecy 
 that Japheth should be odargcd. Every- 
 thing from the biblical point of view 
 points to the expansion of this branch 
 of the Noachite family. The close 
 relation of the western division of the 
 face with European tribes is shown in 
 the fact that the Greeks had a myth of 
 their own ancestor under the name of 
 lapetus, which is clearly the same as 
 Japheth. In general terms, the countries 
 assigned to the descendants of this 
 branch of mankind are called the "isles 
 of the gentiles." Doubtless the expres- 
 sion is poetical. The Oriental imagi- 
 nation substituted " isles " for countries 
 in general, no doubt from the remote 
 and seagirt meaning suggested by the 
 word. 
 
 If we scrutinize carefully the Japhetic 
 family as recorded in Genesis, we shall 
 find seven sons, or founders of tribes, 
 assigned to the head of the race. These 
 
 are, first of all, Gomer. Among the de- 
 scendants of this ancestor many names 
 are found, even in Europe, seven tribes of 
 which preserve the ety- i^:^,^^:!^"^^^ 
 mology of the ancestral Gomer. 
 title. Rawlinson has noted the presence 
 of the Gimirians among the cuneiform 
 inscriptions, belonging to the age of 
 Darius Hystaspes. The Cimmerians, 
 dwelling on the northern shores of the 
 Black sea, are believed to have their name 
 fi'om Gomer. The word Cymri (Kymri), 
 one of the Celtic names of Western Eu- 
 rope, is thought to have the same origin ; 
 and the words Cambria, in England, and 
 Cambrai, in France, preserve, perhaps, 
 an etymological tradition of the oldest 
 branch of the Japhethites. 
 
 The first son of Gomer was Ashkenez, 
 from whom, no doubt, the ancient tribe 
 of Ascanians, dwelling to the south of the 
 Black sea, were descended. These are 
 believed to have been the ancestors of 
 the Phrygians, and were therefore closely 
 related with the Hellenic emigrants 
 who subsequently peopled Greece. The 
 cotmtry of Ascania extended over the 
 land of Troy, from which circumstance 
 we may deduce something of the ethnic 
 relations existing between the Trojans 
 and the Hellenes. It is worthy of note 
 that "the boy Ascanius," the son of 
 .(Eneas, founder of mythical Rome, per- 
 petuated the ancestral name of Ashkenez. 
 It is not impossible that the classical 
 name Euxine, formerly spelled Axenus, 
 is also derived from the ethnic designa- 
 tion of the early race dwelling on the 
 southern borders of this sea. 
 
 The second branch of the Gomerites 
 was, according to Genesis, deduced from 
 the tribal ancestor Riphath. 
 
 ^ Place of the Ri- 
 
 From him are thought phacesinthe 
 
 ,1 J J J ii ethnic scheme. 
 
 to have descended the 
 
 ancient Paphlagonians, whom Josephus 
 
 designates as Riphaces. This people,
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 477 
 
 like the Ashkenites, dwelt on the south- 
 ern borders of the Black sea, though the 
 location has not been so definitely deter- 
 mined as that of the first Gomeritic 
 division. On the whole, it is likely that 
 the Riphaces had their dwelling place 
 somewhat toward the east, in a district 
 which was properly included in Arme- 
 nia. The third son 
 of Gomer was To- 
 garmah, who is be- 
 lie V e d to have 
 founded an Arme- 
 nian tribe which 
 may be identified 
 with the modem 
 Thorgonites inhab- 
 iting the same re- 
 gion. 
 
 The next branch 
 of the Japhethites 
 was deduced from 
 the second son, 
 called Magog. But 
 it is difiScult to de- 
 termine into which 
 
 nation spread southward over the Irani- 
 an plateau, and passed by conquest into 
 Assyria, and even to Babylonia. But 
 the prehistoric tribes descended from 
 Madai were limited to the northern prov- 
 inces east of the mountains. 
 
 The fourth son of Japheth was Javan, 
 easily identified with the Greek ancestral 
 
 A^yy^/S^^ 
 
 of the Black 
 provinces this 
 
 sea 
 di- 
 vision was led and distributed. There 
 is general consent that the famous savage 
 race of vScythians were the 
 
 Distribution of . „ 
 
 the Magog and oiispring oi Magog. bome 
 the Madai. ethnographers have re- 
 
 Ol.n MEDIAN TYPES — THE SASSANIAN PRINCES (oF THE SCULPTURES). 
 Drawn by H. Chapuis. from a photograph by Madame Dieiilafoy. 
 
 ferred the Turanians in general to this 
 origin, and others have derived the 
 Circassians, inhabiting the mountainous 
 district between the Caspian and the 
 Black sea, from the Magogian stock. 
 
 Concerning the Madai, who are record- 
 ed as the third tribe of Japheth, there can 
 be little doubt that these were the ances- 
 tors of the great race of Medes, whose 
 country spread from the Upper Zagros 
 toward the east, as far as Hyrcania and 
 the desert of Aria. Subsequently, in the 
 development of the Median race, the 
 
 name laones, from whom, according to 
 the Hellenic tradition, the lonians of 
 Asia Minor and the .<^gean _ 
 
 ° Traces of the 
 
 islands were descended, dispersion of the 
 
 Traces of the Javanites ^^^" ^^' 
 have been discovered among the inscrip- 
 tions of Egypt ; and the Greeks as a race 
 were called Javanas among the ancient 
 Hindus. The Arabic word for Greeks 
 is Yunan, which is evidently of the same 
 etymology with Javan. In later times 
 the Hellenic ethnographers were dis- 
 posed to accept laones as the ancestor of 
 their whole race, and to make Ionian 
 and Greek equivalent terms. 
 
 From the J^'^'^n, several ancestral 
 stocks are said to have been derived. The 
 first son bore the name of Elishah, and it is
 
 478 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. 
 
 possible that the Greek state of Elis, in 
 the eastern part of Peloponnesus, perpet- 
 uated this name. Some have suggested 
 that Hellas itself is a derivative from 
 Elishah. Tarsus, on the Cilician coast, 
 has been derived from the word Tarshish, 
 assigned as tlie name of a second son of 
 Javan. A third tribe was called Kittim, 
 which is believed to have been distrib- 
 uted near Paphlj-gonia, or possibly into 
 the island of Cyprus. A fourth division 
 of Javanites were the Dodanim, which 
 we may possibly identify with the Do- 
 donians of Macedonia. The tribal name 
 
 GALEWAV OK 1 HE KAST ARYANS INK) INIJIA — IHE UOLAN 
 
 is sometimes spelled Rodaniin, which 
 would point to the island of Rhodes as 
 the locality of this branch of Javan. 
 
 The race of Tibareni, mentioned by 
 the Greek historians, have generally 
 Probable identi- been referred to the Tubal, 
 G?orgranswrth ^^th tribe of Japheth. 
 the Tubaiites. They have been identified 
 with the original Georgians, but the 
 name in itself does not indicate the 
 descent. In the Iberians we may dis- 
 cover traces of the original name. The 
 latter had their habitation bordering on 
 the Black sea and reaching out on the 
 southern .slope of the Caucasus. 
 
 The sixth .son of Japheth is called 
 Meshech, whose descendants were doubt- 
 less the ancient Mosclii. The territory 
 of this tribe lay next to that of the 
 Tibareni. The Moschian range of 
 mountains preserves the word in the 
 north of Armenia to the present time. 
 According to a conjecture of Rawlinson, 
 the modern national name of Muscovite 
 is derived, through Moschi, from the 
 Japhetic Meshech. 
 
 It is believed that the great Thracian 
 stock of mankind ma}^ be traced up to 
 Tiras, the seventh and last of the Japhetic 
 
 progeny. It is 
 thought that the 
 country into 
 which this 
 branch of tlie 
 race was distrib- 
 uted was on the 
 north of the 
 Black .sea, on 
 the banks of the 
 Dniester, the 
 name of which 
 river is believed 
 to preserve the 
 etymology of 
 Tiras. After- 
 wards the same 
 geographical name was carried into Eu- 
 rope. The Thracians were Possible deriva- 
 originally distributed over %Z^'£lfr... 
 a wide range of country, Tiras. 
 extending from the Black sea as far as 
 the borders of the Cimmerians. 
 
 It will be .seen that according to this 
 genealogical scheme, deduced from the 
 Book of Genesis, the dis- Bibiicai scheme 
 
 represents the 
 
 persion of the Japhethites Japhethites as 
 
 , ,, , , developed west- 
 
 was wholly to the xvcstivard ward. 
 
 from the point of departure. This in- 
 dicates that the ea.stward migrations of 
 the race, .so important in the subsequent 
 development of the Medo-Persian up-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 479 
 
 lands and India, were unknown to the 
 Hebrews, or at least omitted from the 
 ethnic tables which they preserved. As 
 a general fact, the Hebrew accounts of 
 peoples other than themselves were lim- 
 ited to the necessity of the case, while 
 the movements of the Abrahamites were 
 expanded and developed in full propor- 
 tions. 
 
 A second observation relative to the 
 Japhetic dispersion is that according- to 
 this sevenfold tribal scheme all, or near- 
 ly all, the races of Indo-European origin 
 How far the He- are located in Armenia and 
 brew outline of ^round the shores of the 
 
 Japheth ex- 
 tended. Black sea. The territory 
 
 contemplated by the Hebrew author ex- 
 tended westward into Phrygia and at 
 least as far as the ^gean islands. It is 
 safe to mark out the wilds of Thrace and 
 the island of Rhodes as the western- 
 most boundaries of the Japhetic disper- 
 sion as deduced from the tribal refer- 
 ences in Genesis. But if we examine 
 the geographical knowledge which was 
 possessed in the times of the composi- 
 tion of the earlier Hebrew books, and 
 join to this the comparative indifference 
 of the race to the movements and distri- 
 bution of the Japhethites, we can dis- 
 cover sufficient reasons for the imperfec- 
 tion or inadequacy of the ethnic scheme. 
 It now remains to look at the question 
 in the broader light of historical and 
 linguistic indications. 
 
 It has already been indicated in the 
 first chapter of the preceding book that 
 Great contribu- the study of language has 
 ^ci^ntt'et-"'' led to many rectifications 
 nography. in the general scheme of 
 
 knowledge. In no other department of 
 science has this correction and emenda- 
 tion of previous opinion been more 
 manifest than in ethnography. One of 
 the most striking examples of the im- 
 provement of the old scheme of learning 
 
 by the new linguistic contribution is 
 found in the discovery that the Indie 
 peoples of Hindustan have certainly 
 been derived from the same origin with 
 the great nations of Europe and Amer- 
 ica. The bringing to light of the iden- 
 tity of Sanskrit in its elements as a lan- 
 guage with the Greek and Latin opened 
 up a totally different view of the move- 
 ments and distribution of the Indo-Eu- 
 ropean family of men. The slightly 
 subsequent demonstration of the iden- 
 tity of the language in which are re- 
 corded the sacred writings of the Iranic 
 or Persic race, added proof to proof of 
 the great community of the six or seven 
 branches which are now known to com- 
 pose the Aryan family of nations. 
 
 Ethnographers were quick to seize 
 upon these additions to their previous 
 knowledge ; and one of their first works 
 was to trace backward the Discovery of 
 Indie streams of mankind ^iTe'sTymttns 
 through the passes of the of Sanskrit. 
 Hindu-Kush to its confluence with the 
 Iranic stream, and then to follow up the 
 Old Indo-Persic family in its descent 
 from an ancestral home common to 
 themselves and the Grseco- Italic stock in 
 Europe. These ancient and shadowy 
 movements, most important in the dis- 
 semination of the strongest peoples in 
 the world, have now been sufficiently 
 delineated, and the scholar of to-day 
 may trace with comparative certainty 
 the ethnic lines which mark the course 
 of primitive peoples from the great cen- 
 ter which they had in common, east- 
 ward of the Lower Caspian, to their sev- 
 eral destinations in distant continents. 
 
 The primary movement of the Old Ar- 
 yans in the geographical First move- 
 vortex just referred to ap- ZTx^l'j^'L 
 pears to have been a sort of nidus, 
 spiral, throwing off streams east and 
 west from its circumference. The oldest
 
 480 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. 
 
 of these departures was that toward the 
 southeast. It contained the potency of 
 two principal developments, an older 
 and a younger; the former finding its 
 geographical area of expansion on the 
 table-lands of Iran, and the latter con- 
 tinuing in migratory movements to the 
 east, until it descended from the moun- 
 tain gaps into the Punjab, and thence 
 down the Indian valleys to the sea. 
 
 The first peculiarity of this remarka- 
 ble departure is the fact that it stands 
 alone of all the Aryan migrations in 
 having a general direction /otonrd the 
 cast. All the other dispersive move- 
 ments of this race were to tlic west, the 
 tendency being in common with that 
 of the vSemitic and Hamitic families on 
 the south. The Eastern Aryans, how- 
 ever, made their departure against the 
 course of nature, and followed it per- 
 sistently across nearly a third of Asia to 
 their final lodgment and distribution in 
 the East. 
 
 The reason for this reversal of the 
 general migratory movement to the 
 Hints of physic- West, and of the departure 
 fnlTh^rvT" oi the Eastern Aryans 
 jnents of races, from what appears to be a 
 common ethnic law, is diiificult to deter- 
 mine. The earth is held in equipoise by 
 the electric currents with which it is 
 girdled and by which all its magnetic 
 elements are polarized. These encircling 
 influences, which are doubtless deter- 
 mined in their fundamental direction by 
 the diurnal course of the sun, extend into 
 and control all the vegetable and animal 
 life on the surface of the planet. Every 
 vine and tendril that springs from the 
 earth and seeks a support twines around 
 the object to which it fastens in obedi- 
 ence to a common law which determines 
 the met hod and direction of the growth. 
 No mechanical means or contrivance can 
 prevail against this obvious and invinci- 
 
 ble tendency of a vine to turn in its own 
 direction about the object on which it 
 seizes. In general, the tendrils of the 
 vegetable kingdom follow the course of 
 the Sim, from left to right in a circle. In 
 the animal kingdom the same phenom- 
 ena recur. Bees departing from the 
 parent colony follow, in every country, 
 a given line of migration. Birds and 
 quadrupeds also obey these cosmic in- 
 fluences, bi:t are somewhat more variable 
 in the directions of their tribal move- 
 ments. As we shall see further on, the 
 Brown races of mankind have in general 
 carried the lines of their migration to the 
 east instead of the ziwst ; and the same 
 is true of the Australian and Papuan 
 streams of dispersion among the Blacks. 
 But the Aryans have shown almost 
 a passion for the westward course. All 
 the original ethnic move- possible reason 
 ments of this great division ^TA'd^'peT^" 
 of mankind were toward migration, 
 the setting sun, with the single except 
 tion of that which we are now consider- 
 ing. Why should the Indo-Persian mi- 
 gration have disobeyed the general law? 
 Why should the Ruddy race have con- 
 tributed to populate the valleys of India 
 at a distance so great from the original 
 tribal departure ? It may be said in 
 answer, that the vegetable kingdom is 
 not quite uniform in the directions of its 
 growth. There are a few exceptional 
 instances in which vines and tendrils are 
 specifically opposed in their method of 
 growth to the action of the common 
 law, and when such reversal of the 
 usual order is discovered in a given 
 plant, it is found to be as obsti- 
 nate in its manifestation as are those 
 which conform to the usual methods of 
 development. It is possible that some- 
 thing analogous to this may have pre- 
 vailed among the Eastern Aryans to the 
 extent of a prevalent instinct contrary
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 481 
 
 in its action to the usual desires and dis- 
 positions of the race. 
 
 At any rate, the first great migration 
 of this family of mankind was toward 
 the rising sun. The epoch in time in 
 
 Light derived 
 from Iranio and 
 Vedio literature, 
 
 which the movement began 
 
 can not be ascertained, 
 but the condition of the 
 
 migrating nation has fortunately been, 
 
 to some extent, 
 
 preserved in the 
 language. The old 
 books of the Iranic 
 and Indie races 
 have been to the 
 ethnographer what 
 the stone-leaves of 
 the earth are to the 
 geologist. There 
 are even to "be dis- 
 covered in these 
 works some hints 
 of chronology. It 
 is now conceded 
 that the Rig-Ved;i 
 is the oldest book 
 in the possession 
 of the human race. 
 It may be that in- 
 vestigations here- 
 after among Ori- 
 entals, particularly 
 the Chinese, may 
 substitute some 
 other work for the 
 Hindu Bible. It is 
 now generally ad- 
 mitted that the 
 earliest hymns of the Vedic collection 
 go back to wellnigh three thousand 
 years before our era. The sacred 
 books of Zoroastrianism were compiled 
 at a later date. The evidence of lan- 
 guage is sufficient to show that the 
 Iranic speech and religious institutions 
 were developed at a period considerably 
 
 subsequent to that from which the Rig- 
 Veda proceeded. It is possible that the 
 hymns and ceremonials composing this 
 most ancient book were sung or chanted 
 by the Aryan tribes long before they 
 descended into the valleys of India. It 
 is certain at least that the language was 
 well forward in evolution of structure 
 and determination of vocabulary while 
 
 IHE ANCIENT BRAHM — LEPER KING OF ANGCOR WAT. 
 Drawn by E. Tournois, after a sketch of Delapoiti. 
 
 the Iranians and Indicans still drifted in 
 a common migration toward the south 
 and east. 
 
 The distribution of the Indie peoples, 
 first into the Punjab and afterwards 
 into the lower valleys, thence into the 
 uplands, and finally eastward to the 
 foothills of the Himalayas, has already
 
 482 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 been described. It was here that the 
 
 great race of Brahm expanded through 
 
 centuries of progress into 
 
 Expansion of ,- t . ■ ^ c 
 
 the race of that hxed national lorm 
 
 Brahm in India, ^^.j^j^^j^ ^^.^ disCOVCr in the 
 
 earlier epochs of authentic history. 
 Here the Brahmanic form of worship 
 prevailed. Here the Indian castes were 
 established in society. Here those 
 peculiar philosophical theories of life 
 and duty and destiny wei-e evolved 
 which seemed to be an exact reversal of 
 the beliefs and dogmas of the Western 
 nations. It will be the work of a sub- 
 sequent chapter to trace out this eastei'n- 
 most development of the Aryan peoples, 
 to note its peculiarities and tendencies, 
 and to contrast the life of the Hindu 
 peoples with the more aggressive and 
 active social phenomena exhibited by the 
 primitive races of Europe. 
 
 In the case of this migration we have 
 another example of the disposition of 
 Primitive tribes primitive tribes to hang 
 the"LlSry " together and maintain their 
 movement. .Solidarity for a consider- 
 
 able distance toward their unknown 
 destination, and then to depart into two 
 or more courses of independent develop- 
 ment. While the Indie branch of the 
 
 eastward-bearing Aryans had been mak- 
 ing its way farther and farther toward 
 the Indian valleys, the Iranic division 
 gradually spread from the common 
 movement and turned into the half- 
 desert plateaus on the south. The move- 
 ment was first into Media Proper, and 
 then into Persia. The course of this 
 branch of the race, which may be defined 
 as Indo-Iranian, appears to have been 
 almost exactly the reverse of that of the 
 original Ruddy stock making its way 
 north and westward from the shores of 
 the Indian ocean. 
 
 It is not the purpose at the present 
 time to note in extenso the establish- 
 ment of the Median tribes The Medes pre- 
 and their organization ^ratin'^MsYJric- 
 
 first into a political com- al development. 
 
 munity and then into a kingdom. It is 
 well known that the Medes preceded the 
 Persians in the formation of a body pol- 
 itic and in the development of the arts. 
 We are here, however, on the borders 
 of history, and pass, for the present, 
 from the eastward dispersion of the 
 Aryans, to note the still wider and more 
 significant distribution of the race into 
 the westernmost parts of Asia and thence 
 into Europe. 
 
 Chapter XXVIII.— The west Aryan Migrations, 
 
 T is clear from the evi- 
 dence in possession of 
 modern scholars that 
 there was an attempt 
 on the part of the 
 original Aryans to 
 make their way around 
 the eastern shores of the Caspian and 
 thence westward across the Ural river ; 
 and it is also clear that this movement 
 did not succeed. The migrations in 
 
 this direction reached no further to the 
 north than the sea of Aral, where the 
 course of the tribes was permanently 
 checked. It is more than likely that 
 the climate in this region was so severe 
 as to i^revent further progress in that 
 direction. The country between the 
 Lower Ural and the Aral sea is one of 
 the bleakest and most forbidding in the 
 world, and Arj-an adventure was stayed 
 in this direction.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 483 
 
 In these facts we discover another ex- 
 ample of the peculiarities of migratory 
 Sense in which tribal movements. Eth- 
 " migration" is ^ profifress is bv no means 
 
 to be under- r & J 
 
 stood. so rapid and exact as the 
 
 word migration would imply. These 
 north-bound Aryans, if they had been 
 " emigrants " in the modern sense of that 
 word , would have 
 continued their 
 course around the 
 Caspian to the north, 
 and would have found 
 an ample vent for 
 westward expansion 
 afterwards. But the 
 movement of primi- 
 tive tribes is a prog- 
 ress rather than a mi- 
 gration. The removal 
 from place to place is 
 slow. It involves 
 camping, temporary 
 settlement, and a test 
 of the locality as to 
 its resources and suit- 
 ableness for perma- 
 nent abode. The 
 ethnic movement is 
 thus tentative in its 
 whole course. It puts 
 out in this direction 
 and in that, testing 
 the climate and the 
 resources of the re- 
 gion, and spreading 
 into different tracts adjacent until the 
 course of further migration is determined 
 by the inviting or uninviting character of 
 the borders beyond. There is a sense in 
 which the migrating tribe is always 
 tempted to proceed on its way in a given 
 direction. The imagination is allured 
 to the extent of inciting a new depar- 
 ture. While the natural instinct of the 
 race, in the form of cupidity or the 
 
 spirit of adventure, furnishes the bottom 
 impulse of the progress, the suggestions 
 of the natural world determine its course 
 and the rapidity and oscillations of the 
 forward movement. 
 
 The north-bound migration which we 
 have here described, and which ended 
 with the Aral sea, contributed an abo- 
 
 KARAKAI.PACK TYPES— TWO USBEKS. 
 Drawn by A. Ferdinandus. 
 
 of Aryan disper- 
 sion in Asia. 
 
 riginal race between the Oxus and the 
 Caspian. Here a single Indo-European 
 family is represented which ^^ ^ 
 
 ^ '^ Northern hmits 
 
 its origin 
 
 primitive 
 
 described. The Kara- 
 kalpacks, whose territory lies immedi- 
 ately north of the Atrek river, which 
 empties into the Lower Caspian from 
 the east, are probably of Aryan descent, 
 
 doubtless owes 
 to the very 
 movement just
 
 484 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXk'LYD. 
 
 as are also a second tribe, called the Us- 
 beks, who have their habitat further to 
 the north ; also the Tadshiks, holding the 
 country immediately south of the sea of 
 Aral, at the dcboiuliurc of the Oxus, are 
 Indo-Europeans, and are the ni)rthern- 
 most of the Aryan peoples of Asia east- 
 ward of the Caspian sea. 
 
 the Caucasi:s. Defined in terms of an- 
 cient geography, the course was across 
 !Media, through Atropatene and Ar- 
 menia Major. In all this region — such 
 was its geographical constitution — the 
 migratory race appears to have held to- 
 gether. Indeed, it was not possible that 
 there should be dispersion in a country 
 
 CAUCASIAN TYPES.— Georgian Women. — Drawn by Eugene Burnand, from a photograph. 
 
 In the meantime a still .stronger mi- 
 gratory movement of the Aryans had 
 
 Sources of the taken place directly to the 
 
 race movement wcst. The Stream of de- 
 into Europe. . ... 
 
 parture m this case carried 
 in its current the potency of all the Eu- 
 ropean nations. It extended primarily 
 south of the Caspian along the upper 
 parts of Mesopotamia, and was held 
 from northern deflection by the spurs of 
 
 .so confined. All of the ancient states 
 which we have just mentioned were 
 strongly Aryan in their original popula- 
 tion, from which circumstance it is easy 
 to discern how Aryan influences would 
 press upon ancient Assyria from the 
 east and modify that nationality by the 
 , infusion of manj^ foreign elements. The 
 I modern countries of Mazanderan, Arda- 
 lan, and Adarbijan hold a .similar rela-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 485 
 
 planted on the 
 lines of the out- 
 going. 
 
 tion to the Mesopotamian regions, and 
 the pressure of the Kurds upon the peo- 
 ples between the Tigris and the Euphra- 
 tes has in progress of ages amounted to 
 a conquest. 
 
 After reaching the more open region 
 midway between the Caspian and the 
 Black sea, the Ar3-ans divided into two 
 major streams, one continuing the west- 
 ward course, and the other passing 
 through the Caucasus mountains into 
 Armenia. It is at this point that the 
 line of departure to the right enters the 
 Russian empire of modern times. 
 
 The first peoples of Aryan stock de- 
 posited in the region of this divergence 
 First races Were the Armenians and 
 
 Georgians. Here is the 
 seat of that great division 
 of mankind to which the ethnographers 
 of the last century gave the name of 
 Caucasian. Until the more compre- 
 hensive scholarship of recent times 
 had thrown a stronger light on the 
 question, it was supposed that the 
 White, or Ruddy, races had all issued 
 from this source, the southern branch 
 passing into Asia Minor, and the north- 
 ern being carried around the Black sea 
 into Europe. It is now seen, however, 
 that the real origin of the Aryans lay 
 further to the east, and that the starting 
 point of dispersion in the Caucasian re- 
 gion was only secondary to an older de- 
 parture beyond the Caspian. 
 
 It will be desirable in following out 
 the great migrations which we are now 
 Origin of the to Consider to take up first 
 the western branch of de- 
 parture and follow the same 
 into Asia Minor, and thence into penin- 
 sular Europe. If from the eastern ex- 
 tremity of the Black sea to the north- 
 eastern limit of the Mediterranean a line 
 be drawn, we shall find that all of the 
 original peoples of peninsular Asia lying 
 
 Minor Asians ; 
 Hamitic influ- 
 ences. 
 
 west of the line and east of the Black 
 sea were contributed by the principal 
 stream of Aryan migration to the west. 
 This movement entered the peninsula 
 centrally from the east and was distrib- 
 uted into all parts, especially around the 
 southern shores of the Black sea. The 
 only exception to the ethnic distribution 
 here stated is the possible Pelasgic line 
 of the Hamites, carried around from 
 Syria into the archipelago. Otherwise, 
 all of the prominent nations who, out of 
 prehistoric shadows, came into view 
 with the beginning of authentic history 
 in Asia Elinor were of a common Arj-an 
 descent, and this descent was immedi- 
 ately from the point in the Caucasus 
 where the primitive races of Northern 
 Europe took their departure into Great 
 Russia and the West. 
 
 The Aryans, once in Asia Minor, 
 found themselves in a region inviting to 
 development. The result MadtipUcity of 
 was that in the earliest t^^^^^tlf^' 
 ages of histor}- many states -^sia. 
 were created within a comparatively 
 limited territory. Kingdoms and em- 
 pires that even contended with the great 
 powers of ^Mesopotamia arose in several 
 parts of this Lesser Asia ; and if the 
 countrj- had been as fortunate in the 
 preservation, by literature and monu- 
 ments, of the story of its past as were 
 the states of Assyria, Egypt, and Greece, 
 we might expect some of the most strik- 
 ing contributions to the ethnography 
 and annals of primitive times. It will 
 be fitting in this connection to notice a 
 few of the leading peoples who were 
 developed from the Aryan stem in the 
 countrj- between the Black sea and the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 If any of the nations within the limits 
 here defined belonged, in whole or in 
 part, to other than an Aryan stock, it 
 was the Cilicians, lying at the extreme
 
 486 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 east of the peninsula and along the 
 
 Mediterranean border. The physical 
 
 features of this country are 
 
 Place and race . , 
 
 composition of the Taurus mountains and 
 
 theCilicians. ^,^^ ^.j^.^^. CydnUS, both 
 
 famous from the remotest ages for their 
 historical associations. The belief is 
 prevalent that the Phoenicians were first 
 to colonize these regions, and it is quite 
 likely that their adventurers and seamen 
 passed around the coast and established 
 settlements as far west as Lycia. To 
 the extent that the Phoenicians had as 
 the basal element in their race character 
 an element of Hamitic descent, it will be 
 proper to regard the Cilician race, espe- 
 cially of the seacoast provinces, as de- 
 scended from the southern branch of the 
 Noachites. But subsequently the in- 
 coming Aryans gave another complexion 
 to the people. Cilicia was Aryanized, 
 and remained ever afterwards virtually 
 an Indo-European state. In the times 
 of Hellenic colonization the Greeks sent 
 around maritime bands, who settled 
 along the Cilician coasts, and thus com- 
 pleted the race revolution which their 
 ancestors had begun in prehistoric ages. 
 North of Cilicia lay the still greater 
 country of Cappadocia. The primitive 
 Beginnings of racc inhabiting this region 
 ^'IpapMlTo- ^^-^s contributed directly 
 nian races. from the Aryan migration 
 
 westward. Indeed, the region lay im- 
 mediately in the path of the great move- 
 ment, and the people sprang up from 
 the elements which were dropped by the 
 race on its progress toward the Black sea. 
 The same may be said of Paphlagonia, 
 Ij-ing in the inner curve of that sea 
 on the south. We have already seen 
 that these countries were assigned by 
 the Hebrew account to the sons of 
 Japheth. Paphlagonia is believed to 
 have belonged to the Kittim of the 
 Japhetic dispersion, while the same 
 
 country is by other writers assigned to 
 the Riphaces, descendants of Riphath, 
 the second tribal head of the Gomerites. 
 
 Immediately west of Cappadocia lay 
 the still more important country of Phryg- 
 ia, with its northern penin- Kiseof the 
 sula next to the Propontis. ^Sp wilh^h^ 
 This region also lay imme- Armenians, 
 diately under the center of the migratory 
 line, and the primitive population was 
 distributed in the manner already de- 
 scribed for Cappadocia. The political 
 power subsequently developed in this 
 part of Asia Minor was of great impor- 
 tance in the earlier historical times. The 
 state was touched on its various borders 
 by Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, 
 L3-conia, Pisidia, Lycia, Caria, Lydia, 
 and Mysia. It was the center of the 
 Lesser Asia. The country of which we 
 here speak was called Greater Phrygia, 
 to distinguish it from the extension of 
 the same region along the Propontis, 
 which was known as Lesser Phrygia. 
 
 According to the traditions of the 
 various races of the peninsula, the Phryg- 
 ians were the most ancient nation of 
 Asia Minor. They were thought by the 
 Greeks to be in close race affinity with the 
 Thraciaus. There are also hints of their 
 relationship with the Armenians on the 
 east. Both of these conjectures of the 
 ancients were correct. The Phrvafians 
 were the result of a migratory move- 
 ment out of Armenia into the countries 
 of the West, and the people were accord- 
 ingly allied, by race descent, on the east 
 with the Armenians, and on the west 
 with the Thracians. It is not the place 
 to review the important historical bear- 
 ings of Phrygia in the earlier ages of 
 Grecian history, or to repeat the tradi- 
 tions and legends which have been pre- 
 serv'ed of the nation. 
 
 South of Phrygia lay the smaller states 
 of Caria, Lycia, and Pisidia ; and to the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 487 
 
 north, on the shores of the Black sea and 
 reaching to the Bosphorus, was the coun- 
 other Minor try of Bithynia. All of these 
 Asians ; Lydi- districts were peopled by 
 
 aus in particular. ^ ., , ,7 
 
 tribes who were dispersed 
 right and left from the original Aryan 
 migration which brought the ancestors 
 
 the ^gean were from the earliest ages 
 intimate. The Lydians were to the 
 ^gean sea what the Phoenicians were to 
 the Eastern Mediterranean. In the arts 
 and sciences they antedated the Greeks, 
 and their history is only second in im- 
 portance to that of the Hellenic states. 
 
 ROUTE OF \VE>1 ARYANS THRDUGH ASIA .M 1N( jR.-Pass 
 Drawn by Grandsire. afler Langlois. 
 
 OK HaDJIN. in CAPrADOCIA. 
 
 of the Europeans to the eastern bor- 
 ders of the .'Egean sea. Immediately 
 west of Phrygia, next the archipelago, 
 was the important state of Lydia. The 
 history of the people who were here de- 
 veloped is better known than those who 
 grew into importance further east. The 
 Lydians were nearly allied to the Greeks. 
 The Ionian cities were on the Lydian 
 coast, and the commercial relations be- 
 tween the peoples on the two sides of 
 
 We have thus noted the westward 
 progress of the Aryans through the 
 whole country from Upper ^Mesopotamia 
 
 to the ^gean sea. This Minor Asians 
 
 region of Lesser Asia pre- ^"th'SfiraS- 
 sented one of the earliest ansandindicans. 
 fields of Aryan development. While 
 the ;Medes and Persians on the east of 
 the Zagros, and the Indie Aryans in 
 the Punjab, were laying the foundations 
 of their respective nationalities, the
 
 488 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 various peoples of Asia Minor, all 
 closely allied by race descent and com- 
 mon institutions, Avere settling from the 
 nomadic stale into permanent residence, 
 discovering the native resources which 
 were richl)- distributed in their country, 
 and creating those institutional forms 
 out of which great monarchies, rivaling 
 those of the valley of the Euphrates and 
 the Nile, were to spring and flourish. 
 
 It is probable that the westward prog- 
 ress of the Aryan race was considerably 
 Reasons for the dclavcd bv its course 
 stf^rs'ofHei- through Asia Minor. The 
 lenic migration, richness of the Country in 
 resources, the fertility of the soil, the 
 abundance of the forests which prevailed 
 in prehistoric times, the acceptability of 
 the climate, and the general beauty of 
 the landscape invited to residence; and 
 here the migratory and adventurous 
 spirit would be checked. It was only 
 after the penin.sula began to be well 
 filled with the immigrant race, when the 
 nations began to contend and displace 
 each other by conquest, that the old 
 migratory impulse revived and progress 
 toward the west was continued. These 
 circumstances may accoimt for the fact 
 of t/w different streams of migration which 
 appear to have discharged their volume 
 into the Hellenic peninsula. 
 
 With the resumption of the movement 
 to the west from the shores of Lydia we 
 Race progress have the picturcsque epi- 
 c^Tiades*toto sode of a race crossing the 
 HeUas. M^&^xi by means of the 
 
 archipelago. The Cyclades are gener- 
 ally within easy sail the one of the 
 other, and the pas.sage of a primitive 
 people would be easy. The gradual 
 spread of Phrygian and Lydian adven- 
 turers into these waters presents an 
 aspect of dispersion quite as unique as it 
 is poetical. Some ethnographers main- 
 tain that the incoming of the Hellenic 
 
 race into Hellas Proper was by means of 
 this island progress across the .^gean, 
 while others hold that the true Hellenes 
 dropped into Greece from the north, out 
 of Thrace, whither they had drifted out 
 of Lesser Phrygia, across the Helles- 
 pont. 
 
 Perhaps the truer view would be to 
 ascribe the Hellenic peoples to both of 
 these origins. Several principal migra- 
 kinds of evidence V^^^^ "ZYyT^^l. 
 unmistakably to the con- and Thessaiy. 
 elusion that the Hellenes were out of 
 Phrygia. The Greeks themselves, 
 though many of them held to the m3-th- 
 ological opinion of an earth-born, or 
 autochthonic, origin, recited the legend 
 of a northern descent, and it is almost 
 certain that a majority of the incoming 
 tribes descended out of Thrace through 
 Thessaiy, where they had found a foot- 
 ing and partial development, after their 
 migration from Asia. But that the 
 general progress of the Aryan peoples 
 was continued out of Asia Minor acro.ss 
 the iEgean archipelago into the main- 
 land, thus making the two streams con- 
 fluent in the Hellenic peninsula, can 
 hardly be doubted. 
 
 Great was the restlessness of the early 
 races in Greece. They were, perhaps, 
 the mo.st turbulent tribes of Ethnic restless- 
 whom history has made ^^X^^^an- 
 a record. Ages elapsed ing of the name, 
 before permanence of settlement was at- 
 tained. They were ages of myth and 
 adventure. The gods were mixed with 
 the men, and the Titans stood between. 
 It now appears that the older name of 
 the i^eople was in their own language 
 Graikoi, a term which the immigrants 
 had evidently applied to themselves 
 with a view to distinction from more 
 barbarous peoples. The word Graikoi, 
 which subsequently, in the Latin form of 
 Graeci, became the designative of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 489 
 
 Hellenic race among all peoples, signi- 
 fied old, or honorable. It was thus very 
 nearly equivalent to the Latin senator. 
 Aristotle declares that ancient Hellas 
 was the country about Dodona and 
 Achelous. "Here," he adds, "lived 
 the Selloi and the people then called the 
 Graikoi, afterwards the Hellenes." Thus 
 
 itself the elements which were after- 
 wards to be distributed in Italy and to 
 become the germs of the The Greek mu 
 
 gration con- 
 
 Italic, or Latin, race. The tainedthepo- 
 
 . , r ii • tencyofthe 
 
 exact shape oi the mi- naiican. 
 gration in this respect is, of course, un- 
 known. It is sufficient to allege that 
 the migratory wave out of Asia carried 
 
 
 m^W"""^ 
 
 ROUTE OF THE GREEK ARYANS INTO HELLAS.— Pass of Kalabaka, Thessaly. -Drawn by Taylor, from a photograph. 
 
 m^^^pa^«ii^iiiffi 
 
 it appears that the Greeks, in course of 
 time, rejected the older national name 
 and substituted Hellenes as the title by 
 which they would be known among the 
 nations. 
 
 We may here pause to anticipate what 
 will appear in a subsequent part of the 
 present chapter ; that is, that this Greek, 
 or Hellenic, volume of tribal life flow- 
 ing into Hellas contained along with 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—32 
 
 the potency of both the Greek and 
 Latin peoples. The uncertaint}^ is as to 
 which foreran the other. It is possible 
 that tho.se tribes which were destined to 
 plant themselves in Italy were the van- 
 guard of the whole movement. Again, 
 it is possible that the Celts of the ex- 
 treme west went before the Latins, but 
 the likelihood is that the Celtic stem 
 was bent ai'ound from the north of Eu-
 
 490 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 rope and did not cross by way of the 
 peninsulas. It is possible also that the 
 prehistoric Greek and Latin stocks held 
 together as far west as the Hellenic 
 peninsula, from which point the Latin 
 branch continued its course to the 
 west. It is sufficient to know that the 
 name Graeco-Italic, designating the whole 
 stock, is appropriate as descriptive of its 
 ethnic character, until the two peoples 
 were differentiated and distributed into 
 their respective countries. 
 
 Students of language have been curi- 
 ous to inquire into the relative antiquity 
 of the two races as determined by their 
 Linguistic hints respective dialects. It is 
 Grleks'orRo"*^ » remarkable fact that the 
 mans. evidence points both zcaj's. 
 
 There are parts of the Greek grammar 
 and vocabulary which are manifestly 
 older than the corresponding parts in 
 Latin, and*, on the other hand, there are 
 Latin constructions and words which are 
 just as clearly of a higher antiquity than 
 those of Greek. Thus the preservation 
 of the ablative case in Latin points to 
 the retention of a form of grammar 
 which had died out of the more recent 
 grammar of the Greeks. Siimiis, the 
 first person, plural, of the verb to be, is 
 much more nearly identical with the 
 Sanskrit asamas than is the correspond- 
 ing csinbn of Greek ; that is, csiitbn is the 
 more recent grammatical inflection. On 
 the other hand, the retention in Greek 
 of the dual number in nouns and of the 
 middle voice in verbs indicates an older 
 grammatical structure than that exhib- 
 ited in Latin grammar, where no such 
 nominal and verbal inflections exist. 
 Likewise, the much more complete evo- 
 lution of the Greek verb, considered in 
 its entirety, and of the adjective, with 
 its one hundred and thirty-five inflec- 
 tional blossoms, shows a closer alliance 
 with the full tables of the older Sanskrit 
 
 than the narrower and later forms of 
 Latin. There is, however, nothing 
 really paradoxical in thisseeminglj' con- 
 tradictory testimony of language as to 
 the relative age of the two races ; for it is 
 easy to perceive that in some respects the 
 Greek tongue might preserve the older 
 forms, while in other peculiarities 
 Latin would retain the ancient stntcture 
 and vocabulary less impaired by time 
 and migration than in the corresponding 
 linguistic development of the Hellenes. 
 
 Early in the mythical age, the incom- 
 ing tribes superimposing themselves 
 upon the Pelasgian peoples 
 already in the peninsula, tem of ancestral 
 ceased to designate their ^^ ° °^^' 
 race as Graik, and took up a sort of 
 ancestral mythology, which they ever 
 afterwards zealously disseminated. The 
 story ran thus: The ancestor of their 
 race was the immigrant hero Hellen. 
 He was the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. 
 He led his tribe into Hellas after the 
 Deluge. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, 
 ^olus, and Xuthus. Dorus became the 
 founder of one race and xEolus of 
 another, while the two sons of Xuthus, 
 Ion and Achaeus — like Ephraim and 
 Manassah, sons of Joseph, in the Hebrew 
 scheme — rose to equal rank with their 
 uncles, Dorus and ^olus, and became 
 the heads of the lonians and Achseans. 
 It will be noticed in this table of family 
 dispersion that the name Ion reappears, 
 recalling the Hebrew Javan and also the 
 Hindu name Javanas, which occurs in 
 the Lazvs of Menu, and is thought to 
 designate the lonians. This legendary 
 account of the origin of the principal 
 Greek races was accepted by the credulous 
 Hellenes as an ample and final ex- 
 planation of their origin and diversities 
 of national development. 
 
 Historically considered, the Hellenes 
 present two great branches of race
 
 DISTRIBUTIOX OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 491 
 
 evolution : the one Dorian, and tlie other 
 
 Ionian. These two are separated from 
 
 each other b}' such marked 
 
 Place and char- 
 acteristics of characteristics as to distm- 
 
 the Cohans. • i ii. • n i 
 
 guish them m all epochs 
 of Greek history. The -i^olian tribes 
 do not appear to have diverged greatly 
 from the common ancestral type. The 
 term ^^solian may well be regarded 
 as discriminative of a number of partly 
 developed Greek peoples dwelling in 
 the northern part of Hellas, particularly 
 in the plains of Thessaly. With the 
 jostling of the other races from their 
 original seats, however, the ^^^^olians 
 became more distinct as a people. When 
 the Dorians possessed themselves of the 
 Peloponnesus, the >45olians passed over 
 to the northwest coast of Asia Elinor and 
 established there a confederation of 
 cities under the name of ^^olis. They 
 also populated the Lslands of Lesbos and 
 Tenedos, from which insular .seats the 
 ^olic dialect of Greek spread into other 
 regions, and left beh,ind some scanty 
 specimens in Hellenic literature. 
 
 The ^olian was the least important 
 development of the Hellenic race. The 
 Dorians were far more powerful and 
 
 famous. Their native seats 
 
 Evolution and 
 
 race character in the peninsula appear 
 
 of the Dorians. . , , , , . , 
 
 to have been between the 
 ranges of Olympus and Ossa. At one 
 period they invaded ilacedonia and 
 took possession of a part of the country, 
 but were afterwards expelled. They 
 established themselves in the island of 
 Crete, and made the little state of Doris 
 the .seat of their power until the so- 
 called " return of the Heraclidae " carried 
 them into Peloponnesus. Here thev 
 became predominant, and were the 
 virtuaJt founders of the powerful states 
 of Sparta, Argos, and Messenia. 
 
 It was from this epoch in their de- 
 velopment that the Dorians became so 
 
 strongly discriminated in their character 
 from the other Hellenes. They became 
 austere, rough in manners, and laconic 
 in speech, to the extent of transmitting 
 their name to all after times as a synonym 
 for the peculiarly selfish, stoical, and in- 
 different character which they presented 
 in their own age. Even the architecture 
 which they cultivated retained unmis- 
 
 \0t^jA 
 
 
 MODERN' ACH.IiAN TYPE — ODYSSE. 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat, from a photograph, 
 
 takable traces of the simplicity and 
 severity of the Doric race, and the same 
 may be said of that variety of Greek 
 which they spoke, and out of which the 
 dramatists, especially the tragedians, of 
 the literary age were prone to draw 
 those archaic and rude forms of versi- 
 fication peculiar to the Greek tragical 
 chorus. 
 
 Ancient Ionia was on the coa-st of Asia 
 Minor, between the rivers Hermus and
 
 492 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Mseander. 
 Chios and 
 
 Situation of 
 Ionia; the Do- 
 decapolis. 
 
 The adjacent islands of 
 Samos were inckidod with 
 this dependency, llow far 
 the lonians, or Javanites, 
 had been distributed along 
 this shore before their migration into 
 European Greece can not be stated with 
 certainty. The country above defined 
 was determined in its limit after the 
 return of the lonians, in later times, and 
 their resettlement in the region of their 
 ancient home. Here it was that they 
 founded the Ionian confederacy of twelve 
 states or cities called the Dodecapolis. 
 
 tions of the 
 Achaeans among 
 the Greeks. 
 
 It remains to note the geographical 
 situation of the Achseans. It is believed 
 that in the heroic age ^MyceUcX', Argos, 
 and Sparta were peopled Rank and reia- 
 by tribes of Achaean de- 
 scent. This race also ex- 
 tended into Thessaly. Indeed, the 
 latter country is thought by ethnog- 
 raphers to have been their original 
 seat, whence they migrated into Pelo- 
 ponnesus. The importance of this 
 branch of the Greek race was greatly 
 lessened in the time of the Hellenic 
 ascendency. In the Homeric age the 
 
 UOUTE OF THE GR.KCO-ITALICANS.— Sebemco, ox the Dalmatian CoAsr.-Drawn by Charles W. Wyllic 
 
 Many of the most important maritime 
 towns of the fifth, fourth, and third 
 centuries B. C. were included in the list. 
 Here were Miletus and Ephesus, Clazom- 
 enae and Phocsea. The city of Smyrna 
 was transplanted, about 700 B. C., from 
 the ^olic to the Ionian confederation. 
 In course of time this assemblage of 
 important communities became subject 
 to Lydia, and after the overthrow of 
 Croesus they were annexed to the Per- 
 sian empire by Cyrus. Ionia furnished 
 the field of broken faith and conflicting 
 interests from which began the great 
 struggle for the subjugation of Greece 
 by the Persian kings. 
 
 leadership of the Achaean s was con- 
 stantly recognized, and in the Iliad their 
 name is many times employed as a 
 synonym for the whole Greek host 
 engaged in the Trojan War. They 
 appear, however, to have been lacking 
 in the elements of intellectual greatness. 
 In the later epochs of Greek history the 
 term Achaean sank from its old heroic 
 sense into a name of contempt. But it 
 is of interest to note that, geographically 
 at least, the relative importance of the 
 race was acknowledged by the Romans, 
 who, on their conquest of Greece, gave 
 the name of Acliaia to the whole prov- 
 ince.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 493 
 
 Such is the outline of the distribution 
 
 of the early Aryan tribes in Hellas. The 
 
 eeopfraphical relations be- 
 Easy ethnic re- '^ ° -^ . 
 
 lations of Greece tween that peninsula and 
 and Italy. j^.^^^ ^^^^^^ always easy. 
 
 The Adriatic is, even in its widest part, 
 a narrow body, easily crossed from shore 
 to shore. The course out of Epirus 
 around the coast into Upper Italy is 
 crossed with no barriers and attended 
 with no dififictilty. It can not be known 
 bv which of these routes the primitive 
 peoples of Italy were distributed to their 
 several tribal localities in the West, prob- 
 ably by both. It is safe to assume 
 that a race which had made its way from 
 beyond the Caspian, passing centuries 
 en route in a contest with the forces of 
 nature and crossing from island to island 
 in more remote ages, would easily navi- 
 gate the Adriatic. And this is the more 
 likely highway of the prehistoric Ital- 
 icans. 
 
 According to our best information 
 there were four principal groups of peo- 
 ples in primitive Italy. On the south w^e 
 find the lapygians, or Q^notrians, with 
 their several branching tribes, occupying 
 first the peninsular projection next to 
 Greece, and afterwards the 
 
 Place of the 
 
 lapygians ; races whole COUntty acroSS tO the 
 
 of the north. ,^ , . r^ 
 
 iyrrhenian sea. home 
 ethnographers have concluded that these 
 southern peoples were not of Aryan de- 
 scent, and it is possible that the Hamitic 
 lines which we have agreed to carry into 
 Italy distributed .some branches in the 
 southern parts as well as in Etruria. 
 Upper Italy was occupied on the east by 
 Gaulish, that is, Celtic, tribes, of which 
 the Lingones and Insubres constituted 
 the chief. On the west, as we have al- 
 ready seen, were the Etruscans, who 
 were clearly a foreign' race, differing 
 radically in language and development 
 from the other Italic peoples. 
 
 The greatest group of primitive tribes 
 belonged to Central Italy and were nearly 
 allied in ethnic descent. 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 Of these peoples there the umtro-sa- 
 
 c J ■ . • . ^1 belliau tribes. 
 
 were five distinct stocks, 
 namely, the Umbrians, the Sabines, the 
 Latins, the Volscians, and the Sabellians, 
 commonly called Oscans, with their two 
 branches 'of Samnites and Campanians. 
 This scheme covers in general the popu- 
 lations which were distributed in the 
 country stretching across from the Cen- 
 tral Adriatic to the western shores of 
 Italy. 
 
 The first of these nations, called Um- 
 brians, had their original seats on the 
 Adriatic, between the Rubicon and the 
 ^sis. The western boundary was the 
 Apennine range and the Tiber. It is 
 likely that in early times their territories 
 were still more extensive. But before 
 the rise of the Roman gens the Umbri- 
 ans had already declined, and were easily 
 subordinated by the dominant people. 
 The territory of the Sabines lay close to 
 Latium, and they and the Latins had in- 
 timate relations from the earliest times. 
 The Sabine district was rugged in physi- 
 cal features and inclement in climate, 
 and the opportunities of development 
 w^ere much less favorable than those of 
 the people on the west. 
 
 The origin of the Latins is involved in 
 inextricable myths. Poets and fable- 
 makers of republican and , , , ,, 
 
 ^ Myth and tradi- 
 
 imperial Rome elaborated tion of the prim- 
 and inflected the legendary 
 lore which they had received from antiq- 
 uity until it resembled the Greek fables 
 in complexity and contradiction. One 
 myth assigned to the Latins a Pela.sgic 
 origin, in common with the Pelopon- 
 nesian Greeks and the Etruscans. More 
 famous was the tradition of a descent 
 from the heroic families of Troy. A 
 more obscure legend assigned the moun-
 
 I-AND OF THE ANCIENT LIGURIANS -Massa. near Carrara -Drawn by J. Fulleylove
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—IVEST ARYAN MIGRA TIONS. 495 
 
 tainous parts of Central Italy as the native 
 seat from which the founders of Latium 
 had descended into the low countries of 
 the west. There was an attempt in all 
 this to bring in, after the Greek fashion, 
 the agency of the gods, and to make it 
 appear that the Latins were of divine 
 origin and fatherhood. It is sufficient 
 to recognize the kinship of these peoples 
 with the other races associated with 
 them in historical development in Cen- 
 tral Italy. 
 
 The Volscians were prominent among 
 the prehistoric peoples of the peninsula. 
 They had for their neighbors the Sabel- 
 Scantyknowi- lians, or Oscans. Their 
 
 tZfX^°'' ^o«^« ^^-^s i° the forbid- 
 situation. ding mountain district with 
 
 which their name is geographically asso- 
 ciated. At the beginning of authentic 
 history they had ceased to be a separate 
 people, and the remains of the race are 
 scanty and imperfect. It may be said, 
 however, that their isolated situation in 
 the mountains tended to preserve their 
 dialect from the mutations to which the 
 languages of the neighboring tribes were 
 subjected. 
 
 In the earliest times the Oscans pos- 
 sessed the largest territory in Central 
 Predominance Italy. Their couutry ex- 
 tended well to the south, 
 and this wide region they 
 continued to dominate until Rome be- 
 gan by conquest to become mistress of 
 Italy. Of the various Oscan peoples, 
 the Samnites were the most powerful 
 tribe, though the Campanians, Luca- 
 nians, and Bruttians were all impor- 
 tant peoples before the' ascendency of 
 Rome. 
 
 If we glance to Northern Italy, we 
 find three peoples of different ethnic de- 
 scent in that region. The Gauls proper 
 occupied the great plains in the valley of 
 ^he Po and its tributaries. Their coun- 
 
 of the Oscans ; 
 the Italian 
 Gauls. 
 
 try extended from the Alps to the Apen- 
 nines and the Adriatic. It was com- 
 monly conceded that their immigration 
 into Italy had been of a later date than 
 that which must be assigned for the 
 coming of the central nations. The 
 principal divisions of the Gaulish race 
 were the Insubres and the Senomani 
 on the north of the Po, and the Boii and 
 the Lingones on the south of that river. 
 
 The second general division of the 
 peoples of Upper Italy were the Veneti, 
 whose countr}' covered the 
 whole head of the Adriatic vationof the 
 from Istria on the east 
 to the valley of the Po in the west. Cor- 
 responding with what is now the south- 
 em part of Piedmont lay the territory 
 of the Ligurians, of whose origin not 
 much is known. They came into the 
 country, however, before the Gauls, 
 and were doiibtlcss allied in their 
 race descent with the peoples of Cen- 
 tral Italy. Such in general was the 
 tribal distribution of those primitive races 
 which in process of time were consoli- 
 dated under the leadership of the Latins, 
 and ultimately forged into the most pow- 
 erful nationality of the ancient world. 
 
 It appears tolerably conclusive that the 
 Graeco-Italic migration reached its limit 
 with the Alps on the north 
 
 Limits of the 
 
 and Liguria on the west. Graeco-itauo 
 Other Aryan tribes in ™'^'"^ '°'^' 
 course of time found their way through 
 the Alpine passes, and penetrated the 
 civilizations established by their kins- 
 men in the south of Europe. But the 
 Italic race proper was stayed with Italy. 
 We therefore return to the East and 
 again take our stand in the region of the 
 transcaucasus. Here, on the northern 
 slopes of the Armenian mountains, we 
 find the Aryan dispersion pressing bold- 
 ly to the north. 
 
 In the country between the Caspian
 
 496 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and the eastern shore of the Black sea 
 at least two ethnic departures were made 
 from the main branch of migration. The 
 Origin and first of these was to the right 
 
 North Aryan "^ '^^^^ ^'"^ o^ progress, and 
 distribution. contributed thfe Ossetes and 
 perhaps one or two other stocks of Indo- 
 Europeans on the western borders of the 
 Caspian. The other division seems to 
 have been maritime in its plan, to have 
 entered the Black sea, and to have car- 
 ried itself in the direction of the Bos- 
 phorus. It is not unlikely that the 
 ancient Phrj-gians, especially that part of 
 the race inhabiting the Black sea coast, 
 were contributed by this deflected move- 
 ment out of Upper Armenia. 
 
 By the course of the line we are now 
 pursuing we are unexpectedly bi'ought 
 into proximity with that country in Asia 
 Ethnic move- Minor which received the 
 rS""''' final migratory impulse of 
 reached Gaiatia. the Celtic race. Though we 
 have not yet reached the point in ethnic 
 dispersion from which that race took its 
 departure from the main northwestern 
 stem of Aryan progression, we may well 
 anticipate sufficiently to account for the 
 presence in Asia Minor, on the southern 
 borders of Bithynia and Paphlygonia, of 
 a country peopled by Celts. This is the 
 province of Gaiatia. The population of 
 this country was contributed by the bend- 
 ing back of the Celtic race from its Avest- 
 ern limits of migration in the remote 
 parts of Europe. The movement in 
 question presents one of the strangest 
 aspects of race progress. It is that of 
 an ethnic line carried backward from the 
 lower parts of Spain, in the old country of 
 the Iberians, around the northern coasts 
 of the Mediterranean, across Upper Italy, 
 and down through the valley of the Dan- 
 ube to the Bosphorus. The latter part 
 of this movement took place in the his- 
 torical era. In the third century B. C. 
 
 the Gallic people crossed over into Asia 
 Minor and conquered the province to 
 which they gave their own name. This 
 invading migration was carried forward 
 by three principal tribes and twelve 
 tetrarchies, each directed by a chief, 
 after the Celtic manner of warfare. It 
 is instructive to reflect, while we here 
 have our stand on the highlands of 
 Phrygia or Pontus, that we are able to 
 observe, as with a field glass, the north- 
 ward movement of the old Aryan stock 
 on the eastern borders of the Black sea, 
 while, on the other hand, we can look 
 down into Gaiatia, which was the ter- 
 minus, after perhaps two thousand 
 years, of one branch of the great migra- 
 tion. 
 
 If then, for a moment, we anticipate 
 the departure of the Celts from the main 
 Aryan stem, which we are now tracing, to 
 the north, we shall find the point of depar- 
 same to have occurred about ^"eitiStrsion 
 the valley of the Upper in Europe. 
 Dnieper. From this point the migra- 
 tory impulse bore off alinost due west, 
 across the larger part of Europe. It 
 traversed Germany, and crossed the 
 Rhine in general conformity with the 
 coast line of the Baltic. It is probable 
 that by this first movement to the west 
 no races were deposited in anything like 
 permanence until the stream was dis- 
 persed in Gaul. If we seek for time rela- 
 tions in this great movement we are at 
 fault, but the period of the Celtic migra- 
 tion could hardly have been less than 
 two thousand years B. C. 
 
 It would appear from the invasion of 
 Gaul and Britain by the Romans, in the 
 first century B. C, that the complete derei- 
 Celtic race had already °P---ltnd 
 been long established in Britain, 
 those regions, and that it had matured 
 its institutional forms without disturb- 
 ance. This is especially true of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 497 
 
 western parts of Gaul and of Britain, 
 where the completeness of the druidical 
 ceremonial and perfect condition of 
 tribal government indicated a long- oc- 
 cupation of the country. Ethnographers 
 have not attempted to decide with cer- 
 tainty the priority 
 of the respective 
 movements by %_ 
 which the British 
 Isles received their 
 primitive Celtic 
 population and 
 Central Italy 
 passed under 
 the dominion of 
 Grasco - Italic im- 
 migrants. 
 
 In the begin- 
 nings of authentic 
 history the Celts 
 had already trav- 
 ersed Northern 
 Europe, and had 
 left traces of their 
 progress in the 
 east and actual 
 tribes in the west. 
 It was from this 
 source that the 
 Gauls (C e 1 1 ae) , 
 whom Caesar de- 
 clares to have been 
 divided into three 
 races of Galli, 
 Aqiritani, and 
 Belgas, were dis- 
 tributed. In all of 
 Europe west of the Rhine the Celtic 
 Wide distribu- race became predominant, 
 almost to the exclusion of 
 other people. If we ex- 
 cept the Basques and Iberians, it may 
 be said that the whole country between 
 the Rhine and the Atlantic was Celtic 
 as to its primitive population. 
 
 In the preceding book we have already 
 pointed out the fact that prehistoric 
 
 races occupied this part of The Celtic races 
 
 Europe before the Aryan on^aborigi°n^'^ 
 migration. What the con- barbarians, 
 dition of the aborigines was at the time 
 
 tion of the Celts 
 throughout the 
 West. 
 
 THE CELTIC VANGUARD, OF THE AGE OF BRONZE. 
 Drawn by Emile Hayard. 
 
 of the incoming of the Celts we are left to 
 determine by conjecture. We have seen 
 the extreme barbarity which character- 
 ized the aboriginal life of the cave 
 dwellers and other savages to whom 
 primeval Europe seems to have belonged. 
 Upon these rude races the Celtic tribes 
 were superimposed, and the foundations
 
 498 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 were laid of that condition which we 
 perceive when the expanding power of 
 Rome brought her legions into Gaulish 
 territory. 
 
 As the Celtic race continued its way to 
 the south, several streams of migration 
 put off laterally to the coast. The most 
 Ramifications of important of these crossed 
 the Celtic stock ^j channel into Britain, 
 
 in the British ' 
 
 Isles. where it again divided, one 
 
 branch being carried over into Ireland, 
 and the other penetrating the Highlands 
 of Scotland. An examination of the 
 Celtic languages has enabled the modern 
 ethnographer to determine with toler- 
 
 OI.nF.ST CELTIC TYPES. 
 From the Gaulish bas-reliefs found at Entremont, ne.ir Aix. 
 
 able certainty the original distribution 
 of the race in the British islands. There 
 were two general Celtic stocks. The 
 first of these was the Gadhelic, or Gaelic, 
 branch, which was divided into three 
 departures : the Irish stem proper, called 
 the Erse, the Scottish Gael, and the 
 Manx. These linguistic divisions point 
 unmistakably to the tribal separation of 
 the Gael of the Highlands, the Irish folk, 
 and the inhabitants of the Isle of Man. 
 The second stem presents the British 
 division proper of Celtic. This also 
 parted into three : the first of which was 
 the Kymrasg, softened into Cymric, 
 meaning the original speech of the 
 
 Welsh ; the second was the Cornish ; 
 and the third the Armorican, being the 
 language of Bretagne. 
 
 We thus note the dispersion of the 
 Celts in our ancestral islands, and dis- 
 cover the parts of the COUn- Bending back of 
 
 try appropriated by the ^^ifeXc^lr 
 several tribes. Meanwhile, beginning. 
 far down in Spain the main continental 
 stream of Celtic migration was bent 
 backwards, as we have seen above, 
 through the greater part of Southern 
 Europe, making its way finally to the 
 valley of the Danube and thence to the 
 Bosphorus. From this point migration 
 and warfare carried the race, as has been 
 said, into Galatia, thus bringing it in 
 its final distribution to a point so near to 
 the original Aryan movement east of the 
 Black sea that the old departure of the 
 race to the northwest and its last distribu- 
 tion in Galatia after thousands of years of 
 wandering might almost be seen with a 
 field glass in the hands of the observer 
 from the highlands of Eastern Pontus! 
 
 In resuming the consideration of the 
 movement of the great northwestern 
 branch of the Aryan race, Question of the 
 
 •' race connection 
 
 making its way between of Teutons and 
 the Black .sea and the Cas- ered. 
 pian, from the tran.scaucasus toward 
 the Don, we are confronted by another 
 of the disputed questions in ethnogra- 
 phy. This relates to the independent 
 or dependent origin of the Slavic peo- 
 ples in their relations with the great 
 Teutonic family. Were the Slavs and 
 Germans involved originally in a com- 
 mon movement out of Asia? Were 
 they still a common people in their 
 progress from their Asiatic origin to 
 their European dominions ? If so, 
 where and when did they part com- 
 pany in linguistic and institutional de- 
 velopment ? Which is the older of the 
 two races ? Which, if either, is derived
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRA TIONS. 499 
 
 from the other ? Was the migration 
 common to both, or were there iivo mi- 
 grations, one Slavonic and the other 
 Teutonic ? These problems have been 
 variously solved by different ethnogra- 
 phers, and the whole ground has been 
 hotly contested since the question of 
 race distribution assumed its present 
 scientific aspect. 
 
 On the whole, it appears that the 
 movement was common which carried 
 
 Branches and these twO raCCS OUt of 
 
 rlT^^lfol" Asia into Europe. It may 
 stem. be safely alleged that the 
 
 Teutonic and Slavonic peoples held to- 
 gether on their way to the north and far 
 into the heart of Great Russia. It would 
 be proper to call the whole line of prog- 
 ress from the Caucasus to the north, well 
 itp to the northern borders of the Russian 
 empire, thence westward and southward 
 to the borders of Poland, the Slavo- 
 Teutonic stem. It certainly carried the 
 volume of both races, both languages, 
 both varieties of institutional forms. 
 Above the sea of Azof, on the left as 
 the migratory progress continued, a 
 branch was thrown off into Sarmatia, 
 from which that division of the modern 
 Slavs, called Little Russians, have 
 sprung. But the main line continued 
 northward in the direction of the sub- 
 sequent site of Moscow, and afterwards 
 toward the gulf of Riga, on the Baltic. 
 It was, however, to the south of the 
 gulf of Finland, and perhaps nearly 
 midway between that water and the 
 northern bend of the Black sea that the 
 final separation took place between the 
 Germanic and the Slavonic races. In 
 the meantime, a branch had been thrown 
 off northward toward that collection of 
 inland waters extending from the White 
 sea to lake Ladoga, and another divi- 
 sion to the west, into the country of the 
 Letts. 
 
 If, then, we take our stand on the 
 head -waters of the Dnieper, we shall 
 not be far from the ethnic division on 
 which was based the subse- point of division 
 quent separation of the ofthf two races; 
 
 T- -^ the Russian 
 
 Slavonic and Teutonic peo- family. 
 pies. The two stocks were both char- 
 acterized for extreme fecunditj' and' 
 power of development. There are at 
 the present time within the limits of 
 European Russia and Poland about sev- 
 enty-five million of people of Aryan 
 descent. These may be divided into 
 Russians proper, Poles, Bulgarians, 
 Czechs, and Serbs, all of which are 
 Slavonic in their ethnic origin. 
 
 The Russians are subdivided into 
 Great Russians, Little Russians, and 
 White Russians. The Letto-Lithua- 
 nian peoples are divided into Lithua- 
 nians proper, Zhmuds, and Letts, with a 
 total of over three million. This is the 
 summary of populations which have 
 sprung in modern times from the sin- 
 gle ethnic stem called Letto-Slavonic. 
 The Great Russians themselves number 
 forty-two million, and the Little Rus- 
 sians more than seventeen million. 
 Besides the above peoples, the Grseco- 
 Roman population in Russia numbers 
 considerably over a million, Avhile the 
 Germans, in admixture with the Arme- 
 nians, Georgians, and Tsigans are repre- 
 sented by considerable communities. 
 
 Geographically, the Great Russians 
 are grouped in the states and provinces 
 around Moscow, extending Distribution of 
 northward to Novgorod and "^l f^fwhite 
 
 Vologda, southward to Russians. 
 
 Kiev, eastward to Penza and ^'yatka, 
 westward to the Baltic provinces and 
 the borders of Poland. The Little Rus- 
 sians are distributed chiefly in Galicia 
 and Bukovina. In general, they belong 
 to the southern parts of Russia, next to 
 the Caucasus. The White Russians are
 
 500 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 distributed throughout the western gov- 
 ernments of the empire. The Bulgari- 
 ans inhabit Bulgaria Proper, Eastern 
 Roumelia, and Roumania, and are scat- 
 tered into Austria, Russia, and Mace- 
 donia. The other ethnic divisions are 
 dispersed into the countries to which 
 they have given their respective names 
 — Servia, Lithuania, Croatia, etc. 
 
 Second only in importance as to num- 
 bers and first in importance in civiliz- 
 Dispersion of ing energy are the Teutonic 
 the Germans; races which issued in com- 
 
 three branches 
 
 of the race. mon with the peoples de- 
 
 scribed above from the Slavo-Germanic 
 stem. A glance at the map will .show 
 that Europe is divided from southeast to 
 northwest by the two great rivers Dan- 
 ube and Rhine, whose waters issue from 
 the same upland region, in the central 
 part of the continent. It was on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, extending 
 down to the Baltic from the great cen- 
 tral region, that the Germanic nations 
 were first distributed. As the left bank 
 of that river and hitherward to the Avest- 
 ern parts of Europe belonged roughly 
 to the Celtic race, so the right bank east- 
 ward to the Vistula was Germania. 
 
 Into this great region was extended 
 and dispersed the Teutonic stream of 
 immigration. Roughly speaking, the 
 whole Teutonic stock was parted into 
 three divisions, which correspond rough- 
 ly with the modern linguistic distinc- 
 tions of High German, Lo\v German, and 
 Scandinavian. In prehistoric times, 
 however, one of the fir.st distinct de- 
 partures of the primitive stock was that 
 which carried down the great race of the 
 Goths into the valley of the Danube. 
 They issued from the southern portion 
 of the Baltic region, and appeared on 
 the scene of their sub.sequent activities 
 during the fourth centurj^ B. C. 
 
 The family known as Gothic has been 
 
 somewhat unscientifically divided into 
 the Vandals, the Heruli, the Rugii, the 
 Gepidse, the Alani, the 
 
 '■ . Analysis and 
 
 Suevi, the Longobards, the distribution of 
 
 T-, f 1 ii the Goths. 
 
 Burgundians, and the 
 Franks. On their arrival on the Lower 
 Danube the Gothic race began to di- 
 vide into the two major families of Os- 
 trogoths and Visigoths, meaning the 
 Eastern and Western Goths. The for- 
 mer had a habitation originally in South- 
 ern Russia, between the Dniester and the 
 Don, while the latter held their terri- 
 tories from the Lower Danube to the 
 Carpathian mountains. In course of 
 time the Goths were pressed on their 
 eastern frontiers by various invasions, 
 until they were aggregated and heaped 
 up on the left bank of the Danube, 
 whence they ultimately burst into the 
 Roman empire. After this event, as is 
 well known, the Ostrogoths found an ul- 
 timate lodgment in Italy, while the Vis- 
 igoths continued their progress into the 
 vSpanish peninsula and became a sub- 
 stratum of population in the modem 
 ethnic development of that peninsula. 
 
 The Franks appeared as an aggrega- 
 tion of Teutonic tribes on the Lower 
 Rhine as early as the middle of the third 
 
 centurv B. C. At the first Franks people 
 
 they were confined to the '^;^:r^^,, 
 right bank of the river, distribution, 
 but in course of time passed over and 
 began their settlements in the northern 
 part of Gaul. They were ultimately 
 divided into two families, known as the 
 Salian Franks and the Ripuarians. It 
 was the former division of the race that 
 was thrown by impact on Gaul, and that 
 was established within the limits of that 
 country as a barbarian empire under 
 Clovis and his successors. The Ripua- 
 rians spread southward and occupied first 
 the right and afterwards the left bank of 
 the Rhine, whence they carried their
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAX MIGRATIONS. 501 
 
 incursions on the west to the Meuse and 
 on the east to the Main. It was from the 
 Ripuarian Franks that the Teutonic 
 state called Franconia took its name. 
 The Salians constituted one of the ethnic 
 
 elements in the -^^- ^^ -ir" "~ 
 
 formation of the 
 French people. 
 
 It will prove of 
 interest to note 
 only the ultimate 
 distribution of the 
 other branches of 
 the Teutonic stock. 
 The Vandals were 
 essentially of this 
 race, but had taken 
 into their constitu- 
 tion Slavonic and 
 Celtic elements. 
 They belonged to 
 the general divi- 
 sion of Goths. One 
 of their oldest seats 
 was in the Riesen- 
 Gebirge. After- 
 wards they occu- 
 pied Pannonia and 
 Dacia. In the fifth 
 century of our era 
 they played an im- 
 portant part in the 
 overthrow of the 
 Roman empire. In 
 the Spanish penin- 
 sula they founded 
 the state of x\nda- 
 lusia. Under Gen- 
 seric they crossed 
 into Africa, and 
 there developed 
 their gi-eatest .strength and nationalit}'. 
 
 The Heruli were the earliest of the 
 German races to make their way into 
 Italy. There they established themselves 
 under their great leader Odoacer, and 
 
 the Herulian kingdom was the first bar- 
 barian empire created within the limits 
 of the home government of Rome. The 
 Gepidas were likewise of Gothic extrac- 
 tion. Historically, they are first known 
 
 THE PRANKISH VANGVARD. 
 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 to US in the third century B. C, in their 
 territories on the Baltic. They also 
 came into Pannonia, and were interposed 
 for a while between the O.strogothic and 
 Visigothic divisions of the race. They
 
 502 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 were joined to the armies of Attila, and 
 
 were subsequently successful in gaining 
 
 a province for themselves, 
 
 Movements of . , 
 
 theHeruiiand on the Lower 1 hciss ana 
 theGepid». Danube. Here they were 
 finally overrun by the Longobards and 
 the Avars, with whom the remnants of 
 the race were amalgamated. 
 
 One of the most powerful of the Ger- 
 man migratory tribes was the Siicvi. 
 Their territories lay between the Rhine 
 and the Weser. In their 
 
 Progress of the 
 
 Suevi ; the Lon- progress and development 
 
 gobards in Italy. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ southward aS 
 
 far as the Upper Danube. On the north 
 they reached the coasts of the Baltic. It 
 was with the Suevians that Ctesar had 
 one of his hardest contests in his 
 struggle for dominion north of the Alps. 
 The Longobards, commonly called Lom- 
 bards, were nearly related to the Suevic 
 branch of the German race. From their 
 seats in the valley of the Elbe they 
 made their way into Italy, within the 
 historical period, overthrew the Heru- 
 lian monarchy, and established one of 
 their own on the ruins of the empire. 
 In later times they contributed their 
 name to the modern state of Lombardy 
 in Italy, and it is likely that their ethnic 
 influence entered more largely into the 
 formation of the northern Italian race 
 than did the qualities of any other bar- 
 barian people. 
 
 The Burgundians were a branch of the 
 Gothic family, and first established 
 Ethnic place and themselves in Europe, in 
 
 vicissitudes of .1 , -i. .1 
 
 theBurgun- ^hc couutry between the 
 dians. • Oder and the Vistula. The 
 
 Gepidse drove them from their seats, and 
 they sought refuge in the territory lying 
 between the Main and Neckar. Here 
 they were combined in common enter- 
 prises with the .Suevi and Alani and the 
 yandals in their wars with the remain- 
 ing powers of Rome. Afterwards they 
 
 struggled with the Franks, by whom 
 they were restricted to the province 
 bearing their name. Such, in brief, was 
 the European distribution of the prin- 
 cipal barbarian nations of the Gothic 
 stock. 
 
 Meanwhile, another division of the 
 Teutonic race had made its way along 
 the shores of the Baltic, outspread of 
 and in Jutland, Friesland, ^^^^^^.^he 
 Angleland, and in Hollow- Norse. 
 land had possessed themselves of the 
 country and begun the formation of in- 
 stitutions. This is the so-called Low 
 Germanic branch of the Aryan family. 
 The tribal ramiiication in these lowlands 
 was extraordinary. It Avas from this re- 
 gion that the Angles and Saxons and 
 Jutes took their rise, and, in the fifth 
 century, carried their battle-axes and 
 spears into the forests of Britain. 
 
 From the southern coast line of the 
 North sea the race next made its way 
 into Scandinavia. Two branches of mi- 
 gration sprang from this region, one 
 penetrating the great peninsula of Nor- 
 way and Sweden, and the other making 
 its way by water to Iceland. It was in 
 the latter island that the Norse, or Scan- 
 dinavian, race presented, and does until 
 the present exhibit, the purest aspect of 
 Scandinavian life and manners. There 
 have always been such intimate race re- 
 lations between the southern and north- 
 ern shores of the Baltic that the Low 
 Germans inhabiting the two countries 
 have intermingled almost to the extinc- 
 tion of ethnic differences. But in Ice- 
 land the old Norse, or Scandinavian, 
 stock has been allowed to develop accord- 
 ing to its own laws into an independent 
 race character. 
 
 Such, then, was the distribution of the 
 great Teutonic and .Slavonic races in the 
 northern parts of Europe. It will be of 
 interest to note the extent of the complete
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 503 
 
 dispersion of the Aryan family of men. 
 
 On the east the Indie branch of the race 
 
 reached the meridian of 
 
 Extent of the 
 
 dispersion of the nmety degrees east from 
 Aryan famny. Q^eenwich. On the west 
 
 the extreme limit of the primary Indo- 
 European development was in Iceland 
 and Ireland, under the meridian of ten 
 
 tively. In the latter country the race was 
 dispersed as far south as Beluchistan, 
 and in the former to the bay of Bengal, 
 in latitude twenty degrees north. But 
 turning to the westward branches of the 
 Indo-Europeans, we find them invaria- 
 bly bending to the north. Perhaps the 
 only exception to this general law was 
 
 NORTHERN' LIMIT OF THE ARYAN' UlSrERSION.— View in Uiper NoRWAV.-Drawn by .Mirbach, from .1 photograph. 
 
 degrees west, making a complete diver- 
 gence east and west of one hundred de- 
 grees of longitude. 
 
 It was a peculiarity of the Aryan race 
 General and ex- never to be deflected to the 
 
 ceptional move- ^j^ ^|^^ j^. -j^ -^j. ^.gg^. 
 
 ments 01 the ' ' 
 
 Aryans. ward movements. The In- 
 
 dican and Iranian branches of the famil}- 
 dropped into India and Per.sia re.spec- 
 
 in the ca.se of the Celts, who, from their 
 somewhat northern range in Germany, 
 turned to the southwest across the Rhine 
 into Gaul, and thence continued their 
 course in the same direction as far as the 
 country of the Basques and Iberians in 
 Spain. 
 
 The northernmost limit of the whole 
 movement was reached in the upper parts
 
 504 
 
 GREAT RACES OF ^fAXKlXn. 
 
 of Norway and Sweden, about the parallel 
 of seventy degrees north. The migra- 
 tion thus, in its entirety, 
 
 Extent and , , , 
 
 boundaries of presents a band very nearly 
 the Aryan belt, ^.^j^cident with the north 
 temperate zone. The belt is forty-five 
 degrees in width, reaching a little above 
 and extending a little below the limits of 
 the zone referred to. The next conspicu- 
 ous feature of this great distribution is 
 the fact that it is essentially European. 
 The exceptions within the borders of 
 that continent of peoples derived from 
 any other than x\ryan stock are so few 
 and insignificant as to be neglected with- 
 out hurt to the general scheme. Europe 
 is An,-an, and the Western Aryans are 
 Europeans. 
 
 It is, of course, not the purpose to 
 extend the lines of race movement by 
 Only conscious tracing out the continental 
 be^LTstdlredin colonization and develop- 
 migration. meut of the two Americas 
 
 by people of Indo-European blood, or to 
 note the world-wide colonization which 
 has been effected within the last two or 
 three centuries by people of the same 
 race. These secondary movements, if 
 developed in this connection, would con- 
 fuse the concept of the original or 
 natural distribution of mankind in the 
 prehistoric ages. There is a sense in 
 which men have moved from place to 
 place on the surface of the earth uncon- 
 sciously. That is, the movement has 
 been accomplished while the race was 
 still in the unconsciousness of childhood. 
 There is another sense in which civiliza- 
 tion has consciously carried forward the 
 .work of peopling the earth. All the 
 latter movements are of record in the open 
 annals of authentic history, and with 
 such development and expansion the 
 ethnographer has not much to do. His 
 work is primarily with those prehistoric 
 movements in which the races of men 
 
 were distributed, under the influence of 
 in.stinct and environment, to their 
 destination in different quarters of the 
 earth. 
 
 At this point, then, we touch the 
 limit of the primeval excursions and 
 settlements of the Ruddy races of man- 
 kind. To these races we General view of 
 
 have given the general eth- J^^ ^y '- °* 
 nic name of Noachites, but races. 
 have chosen to define them more scien- 
 tifically by the term Ruddy, as indica- 
 tive of their color. We have now traced 
 out the dispersion of the three families 
 to which ethnography has assigned the 
 popular and traditional names of Ham- 
 ites, Semites, and Japhethites. We 
 have seen the first dropping southward 
 into a form of geographical development 
 very similar to that which the Japheth- 
 ites, or Aryans, have exhibited in the 
 north. The whole scheme of migratory 
 dispersion resembles the two sides of a 
 leaf, having its stem between the Cas- 
 pian and the Persian gulf, its point in 
 the Atlantic west of the Pillars of 
 Hercules, its left-hand side in Arabia 
 and Africa, and its right division in 
 Europe. The central lines of this leaf 
 correspond in general with the move- 
 ments of the Semitic races to the west. 
 The right-hand lines are those of the 
 Aryans, and the left-hand departures 
 those of the Hamites. 
 
 The limits of the present chapter are 
 reached when we have marked out 
 the migratory movements by which 
 they were distributed into their re- 
 spective countries. It now remains 
 to take up another general division of 
 mankind, and to note in like manner 
 the course which the Brown races have 
 pursued on their way to their destina- 
 tion in the great arena of Asia, in the 
 islands of the Pacific, and ultimately in 
 the two Americas.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 505 
 
 Chapter XXIX.— Dispersion oe the Brown Races. 
 
 F it were not for the 
 Black races of man- 
 kind distributed in 
 Equatorial and South- 
 ern Africa, in Aus- 
 tralia, and Melanesia, 
 the primitive seat of 
 the human family might perhaps be dis- 
 covered. If the observer should take 
 his stand upon the mountains of West- 
 ern Afghanistan, he would not be far 
 from such a crossing and divergence of 
 ethnic lines as might indicate the original 
 center from which the human race was 
 Common source distributed into all quarters 
 
 of Ruddy and f ^j^ jrlobc. This is tO 
 
 Brown races & 
 
 may be found. gay that in the country be- 
 tween the Afghan borders and Beluchis- 
 tan the Brown races of men, as well as 
 the Ruddy races, seem to take their 
 rise. All the Mongoloid varieties of 
 mankind can be traced back to this 
 geographical center, and we have already 
 seen that the Noachite, or Ruddy, race 
 had its origin somewhere in the same 
 region. 
 
 It will not do, however, to press these 
 indications too far. The Dravidian peo- 
 Dravidians ap. ples, also brown as to their 
 rs^ara^runr color, had a departure 
 of departure. somewhat further south, on 
 the coast, between the mouth of the 
 Indus and the Persian gulf. In fact, the 
 origin of this branch of the human fam- 
 ily appears to have been nearly coinci- 
 dent with what may be supposed to have 
 been the seat of the pre-Noachites. But 
 a greater obstacle in the way of deter- 
 mining an ethnic center for all the divi- 
 sions of mankind is encountered in the 
 case of the Black races, who seem not to 
 have originated from this region at all. 
 
 M. — Vol. I — 33 
 
 Some ethnographers, going beyond 
 the limits of determined fact, have at- 
 tempted to find the origin Hypothesis of 
 of the Brown races in the tT^iZ^e^'"" 
 Indian ocean ; that is, in a mu"a. 
 submerged continent formerly occupying 
 the bottom of that sea. This theory has, 
 no doubt, been put forth with a view to 
 reconciling existing facts with the hy- 
 pothesis of a single origin for the whole 
 human race, and it maybe admitted that 
 such a hypothesis would fairly explain 
 the facts to which it is applied. In the 
 present state of knowledge, however, the 
 line of demarkation between ascertained 
 truth and hypothetical explanation must 
 be strictly observed ; not with a view to 
 the denial of the possible truth in the 
 supposition of a submarine continent un- 
 der the Indian ocean, with its Lemuria, 
 a thing indeed probable; not with a 
 view to the positive assertion of such an 
 opinion as the truth, but simply to main- 
 tain a definite boundary between knowl- 
 edge and conjecture. 
 
 We must, therefore, content ourselves 
 to note the issuance of the Brown races 
 from Beluchistan, and to trace from that 
 origin the course of the tribal migrations 
 which ensued. It maybe criteria for de- 
 inquired by what right or *^™on'o?' 
 for what reason the eth- migrations, 
 nographer fixes upon such a locality as 
 the point of departure for great races in- 
 habiting distant quarters of the earth, 
 particularly since the movement which 
 has distributed those races to their re- 
 spective countries was prehistoric, and 
 therefore not to be ascertained by the 
 usual methods of proof. It may be well, 
 at this point, to satisfy the reader as to 
 the validity of that course of reasoning
 
 506 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAA'A'/Nn. 
 
 which leads inevitably to the conclusion 
 of certain race origins and divergencies 
 beyond the borders of authentic history. 
 In the first place, the testimony of 
 language is nearly always available in 
 In what manner carr\'ing the inquirer back- 
 
 the language , • . i ■ i i, 
 
 and institutions ward to a point whicii he 
 ?est°r"d.'"'^''' could not Otherwise reach. 
 Suppose, for instance, that all authentic 
 
 from the minds of men. Would it be 
 possible, under such circumstances, to 
 revive, by means of existing languages, 
 a knowledge of the Latin race, of its in- 
 stitutions, its practices, and, in general, 
 its history ? 
 
 Undoubtedly such a revival could be 
 easily produced. Take the six modern 
 Roman languages, called Italian, French, 
 
 ROUTE OF THF. DRAVIDIAN DISPERSION.— Gorge and Fortress of ARDEBnEND.— Drawn by A. de Bar, after a eltetch f>» 
 
 Blocqueville, 
 
 knowledge of the great political power 
 called Rome was obliterated from the 
 annals of mankind. Suppose that every 
 book in which a trace of the Latin lan- 
 giaage and literature is recorded were 
 utterly destroyed. Suppose that the 
 memory and tradition of the people 
 t-alled Romans had passed completely 
 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and 
 Proven9al, and examine their structure 
 and peculiarities. It is found that they 
 have been originally deduced /ro7U sonic 
 coinmon speech having a grammar and vo- 
 cabulary of a determinate form. Out of 
 the study of these six languages that old 
 grammar and vocabulary can be rccon-
 
 DISTRIBi'TIOX OF THE RACES.— THE BROIVX DISPERSION. 507 
 
 strucicd, and when reconstructed, they 
 are Latin. If Latin, then there was a 
 Latin race that spoke it. If a Latin race, 
 it had its seat- and its institutions. The 
 seat of the race can be discovered geo- 
 graphically by tracing back the lines of 
 departure by which the six nations re- 
 ferred to have reached their respective 
 countries ; and the institutions of Rome 
 can be largely redeveloped by means of 
 
 tions of a method which may be univer- 
 sally pursued. Wherever two kindred 
 tribes are found on the earth an ex- 
 amination of their language and of 
 their geographical environment will 
 lead, if carefully carried out, to a dis- 
 covery of their common origin, or of the 
 divergence of the one from the other. 
 By this and analogous processes, strictly 
 scientific in their nature and peculiarly 
 
 LAMi OF THE 1 JRA\ 1 Dl ANS.- 
 
 the etymological hints and inherent reve- 
 lations of the descendent languages. 
 
 In like manner we may group togeth- 
 er Latin and Greek and Old High Ger- 
 man, Celtic, Slavic, Persic, and Sanskrit, 
 The whole Ar- and, by means of a similar 
 comparison of these great 
 varieties of speech, can 
 revive the grammar and vocabulary of- 
 the primitive Aryan race lying, in all of 
 its activities, completely below the day- 
 dawn of histoiy. These are but illustra- 
 
 yan group may 
 be reconstruct- 
 ed likewse. 
 
 interesting as methods for the increase 
 of human knowledge, the ethnic lines 
 of the prehistoric nations may be traced 
 over continents and across seas until, by 
 their conjunctions, convergencies, and 
 parallelisms, we are able to determine 
 with approximate accuracy the earliest 
 movements of the human race. 
 
 We will begin the examination of the 
 migrations of the Brown races of men by 
 tracing out the course of the Dravidians, 
 these being the southernmost of the
 
 508 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ethnic divisions which we are to consider. 
 Perhaps they were the oldest. At any 
 Direction and rate, their origin appears 
 
 character of the ^ ^^ ^^ ^ nearer tO 
 
 DravidiEin dis- 
 persion, the Indian ocean than 
 
 was the line of the Asiatic Mongoloids. 
 As already intimated, the point of de- 
 parture between this branch of the hu- 
 man family and the primary stem of the 
 Ruddy races may be fixed in southern 
 Beluchistan. From this region the Dra- 
 vndian migratory movement was toward 
 the east, into the valley of the Indus. It 
 is probable that the place at which the 
 Brown tribes first entered the country 
 was near the junction of the several 
 .streams which, converging from the 
 north, inclo.se the Punjab. From this 
 region the dispersion of the race began, 
 eastward across the uplands of Northern 
 Hindustan and southward into the penin- 
 sula proper. 
 
 It can not be doubted that from the 
 region here described the great country 
 between the bay of Bengal and the Ara- 
 invading Aryans biau sca received its original 
 TorigTeVo; populations. It will be re- 
 i'"i''^- membered that in the pre- 
 
 ceding book we had occasion, in speak- 
 ing of the incoming of the Old Aryans 
 into the Punjab and their dispersion 
 hence through Hindustan, to refer to the 
 preoccupation of the country by aborigi- 
 nal tribes. These, then, are the peoples 
 whom the Aryans found and overcame 
 on their entrance into India. It was, 
 perhaps, the first contact of the Ruddy 
 races of the northwest with the Brown 
 peoples of the southeast, since the orig- 
 inal dispersion — if such there were — of 
 the race. 
 
 No historical record has been preserved 
 of the conquests or other measures by 
 which the Aryans became dominant in 
 India. But there are the best of reasons 
 for believing that the original population 
 
 was spared by the stronger people, and 
 was absorbed or amalgamated into the 
 Hindu races of after times. Theconquerors 
 One of the principal evi- ?rerb%'cf' ^ 
 deuces of such amalgama- races, 
 tion is found in the color which people of 
 this region of the earth subsequently as- 
 sumed. The modern Hindu is a living 
 witness of some prehistoric change in 
 complexion, in all probability the direct 
 result of the admixture of the primitive 
 Brown races of the peninsula with the 
 dominant Aryan conquerors from the 
 north and west. 
 
 The fact to which we have just re- 
 ferred of a permanent modification in 
 the color of the skin by the probability that 
 admixture of races, and '^^^H^^,^. 
 the establishment thereby io'is- 
 of a typical complexion different some- 
 what from that of either of the original 
 peoples from which it is derived, are 
 general phenomena which recur, under 
 like circitmstances, in different parts of 
 the world. In all probability every 
 race now existing on the face of the 
 earth has been somewhat modified in its 
 complexion by the absorption of foreign 
 elements, and it is only by a recognition 
 of this fact and a reference of it to its 
 true causes that the ethnograjDher has 
 been able to discover that underlying 
 all the shades of complexion in the 
 world are only a -few fundamental colors 
 from which every intermediate hue has 
 been obtained by admixture and amal- 
 gamation. 
 
 For a long time after the attempt was 
 first made to classify the human race on 
 some rational plan, the color of the dif- 
 ferent families of men was coiorof thehu- 
 regarded as an incident of ^^^.t ftomcur 
 climate. It was believed mate, 
 that races transferred from one region 
 to another suffered a change of complex- 
 ion under the influence of sun and air.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 509 
 
 Beginning with the general fact that the 
 darker races are, for the most part, equa- 
 torial in their distribution, it was con- 
 cluded that the Black races had become 
 so from the high heat, the scorching 
 sunlight, and the arid atmosphere to 
 which they were exposed. It was as- 
 sumed that the White races belonged to 
 the higher latitudes and that the Yellow 
 and Brown peoples have been made so 
 by their respective geographical, or 
 rather climatic, environment. It has 
 remained for more careful investiga- 
 tions to show that these opinions have 
 but little foundation in fact. 
 
 It appears, then, that instead of the 
 colors of the different races being de- 
 Variations of pendent upon the latitude 
 ?oprrar;tth. ^ud Other Conditions of 
 nic conditions, the couutry into which 
 the tribes were dispersed, the different 
 complexions of the primitive peoples 
 were almost independent of their posi- 
 tion with respect to the equator. The 
 relation, or correlation, between color 
 and climate is neither constant nor ex- 
 act in any particular. It has been found 
 that some of the Indians of Upper Cal- 
 ifornia, rmder the latitude of forty-two 
 decrees north, are as black as the Ne- 
 groes of Guinea; and it is also noted 
 that those Negroes who are at a de- 
 parture of as much as fifteen degrees 
 from the equator are much more nearly 
 absolutely black than those who dwell 
 along the equatorial line ; that is, in 
 this region the race seems to grozu ■whiter 
 with its approach to the center of solar 
 influence. 
 
 In the southernmost parts of North 
 America, namely, in the extremes of 
 Evidence of the Mexico lying between the 
 insufficiency of latitudes of fifteen degrees 
 
 climate to make *=> 
 
 complexion. and tweuty-three degrees 
 north, many of the aboriginal peoples 
 ■were of a reddish or olive complexion. 
 
 almost as light as that of the Ruddy 
 races. The Esquimaux of the extreme 
 north of Europe and America are very 
 dark as to their complexion, Avhile the 
 Finns, who are almost as near the polar 
 reeions as it is possible for men to live, 
 are comparatively white. The concom- 
 itant facts of light hair and blue eyes, 
 along with the lightness of skin color, 
 belong to many tribes that are dispersed 
 well toward the tropical regions. The 
 Afghans of India and the Taureg tribes 
 of the .Sahara desert and the Amazonian 
 nations of South America are of this 
 character. Humboldt has pointed out 
 the fact that the South American In- 
 dians inhabiting the plateau of the Cor- 
 dilleras, clearly within the torrid zone, 
 are identical in color with others whom 
 he had observed as far down as the forty- 
 fifth degree of south latitude. We are 
 thus constrained by undeniable facts to 
 refer the extremes of complexion in the 
 human race to an origin other than cli- 
 matic environment. In fact, the races 
 of men differ in color absolutely, and have 
 done so independently of their geograph- 
 ical position from the earliest ages in 
 which human phenomena began to be 
 observed and recorded. 
 
 Returning from this digression, we 
 find the lines of distribution for the 
 Dra vidians to be drawn course of the 
 around by the valley of the StlTnd"'' 
 Ganges, skirting the south- Ceyion. 
 eastern coast of the Indian peninsula to 
 its southern extremity. Thence the 
 race passed, by easy migration, into the 
 island of Ceylon, where it received per- 
 haps its most characteristic development. 
 It is here that the modern Veddahs, of 
 whom mention has been previously 
 made, display the old race character in 
 its recent aspects. In the island, as 
 well as on the continent, however, the 
 dominant Aryan peoples have pressed
 
 510 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 upon the natives, until the latter now 
 represent only about thirty per cent of 
 the whole population. In the prehistoric 
 ao-e all the aborijjincs of Ccvlon were of 
 the same Brown family witli the people 
 of Southern India and Eastern Bcluchis- 
 tan. At the present time the Dravid- 
 ian population is compacted in the east- 
 ern and southern parts of the island, 
 where the condition and character of the 
 race are still subject to the study of 
 travelers and scholars. 
 
 nese departure; 
 Lohitos and 
 Burmese. 
 
 MODERN DRAVIDIANS — KOTA TYPES, 
 Dr.lwn by P. FVitel. from a photograph. 
 
 Returning to what may be called the 
 intersection of the original Brown and 
 The Maiayo-Chi- Ruddy races of mankind 
 in Afghanistan, we find 
 that the first principal Asi- 
 atic stream of the former family was the 
 !Malayo-Chinese departure. This took 
 its course in the direction of the Upper 
 Punjat, and crossed directly to the 
 east into Thibet. There appears, how- 
 ever, to have been thrown off to the 
 southeast, into the Himalayas, a branch 
 of this family, which is at the present 
 
 time represented by the Lohito tribes, 
 between the Ganges and the Himalayas. 
 These are evidently Jlongoloids, and 
 must thus be in race alliance with the 
 Thibetans north of the mountains. A 
 second stream carried down the Bunnese 
 to their destination on the east coa.st of 
 the bay of Bengal. From this line 
 there appears to have been deflected, 
 somewhat above its intersection with 
 the Lan-Tlisang river, a secondary move- 
 ment, tending almost directly to the 
 southeast and termi- 
 nating in two 
 branches, the one 
 in Southern Annam 
 and the other on the 
 gulf of Tonquin. 
 
 By this latter 
 movement the An- 
 namese peninsula, 
 between the Cam- 
 bodia and the South 
 China sea, was pop- 
 ulated. It appears, 
 however, that the 
 Siamese peninsula, 
 west of the Cambo- 
 dia, received its eth- 
 nic stream from a 
 departure which was 
 made high up in 
 Thibet, and that this 
 latter migratory line crossed the Annam- 
 ese dispersion on its way to the south. 
 Another peculiarity of the Doubts respect- 
 ethnic di.stribution of Siam '^J^ir^^:^: 
 is found in the fact that suiarAsia. 
 the populations south of latitude fif- 
 teen degrees north all partake of the 
 character of the Polynesian Mongo- 
 loids, as distinguished from the Asi- 
 atics. Ethnogi"aphers have therefore 
 agreed to regard the extreme of the 
 penin,sula and the adjacent i-slands 
 of Sumatra and Borneo as having re-
 
 512 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 ceived a Polynesian stream either 
 turned back by reversal from the Micro- 
 nesian archipelago, or else deduced by a 
 change of ethnic character from the 
 Malayo-Chinese stem. The Polynesian 
 line which we are here considering may 
 be traced through Sumatra and North- 
 ern Borneo, from which the migration 
 appears to have turned northward into 
 the Philippine islands, and thence to the 
 east into Micronesia. 
 
 Here it is that we begin to consider the 
 
 more 
 
 VIEW IN EASTER ISLAND — IMAGES AT RONOBORAK 
 Drawn by E. Meunier. 
 
 great problem of the original peopling 
 of the islands of the South Pacific. Ex- 
 cept in Melanesia, all of the great 
 group lying between the coast of China 
 and South America are inhabited by 
 people of the Brown race. They are 
 manifestly allied with the 
 Asiatic Mongoloids and 
 the Dravidians in their 
 ultimate origin and descent. No meth- 
 od more rational, more consistent with 
 the facts can be devised than to sup- 
 pose their distribution into the great 
 archipelago from the smaller group of 
 
 Problem of the 
 peopling of 
 Polynesia. 
 
 islands directly east of the Philippines. 
 This group is generally known as the 
 Caroline islands, or Micronesia. From 
 this point the archipelago eastward is 
 exceedingly dispersed through a distance 
 of more than twenty-five degrees of 
 longitude. Yet the progress northward 
 into the Ladrones could have been easily 
 made. 
 
 From the Caroline group eastward to 
 the Marshall and Gilbert islands was a 
 extended and difficult voyage. 
 Thence the 
 line contin- 
 ued to the 
 southeast, 
 through the 
 Ellice group 
 to Samoa, 
 where there 
 was an evi- 
 dent bifurca- 
 tion into two 
 great lines of 
 progress. 
 Meanwhile, 
 from the El- 
 lice a stream 
 of island mi- 
 gration ap- 
 pears to have 
 been carried 
 out to the Phoenix islands, where we may 
 suppose the movement in tliis direction 
 to have ceased. From Sa- outreaching 
 moa one line of departure St^a^d'""" 
 
 was to the west of south into Gilbert islands. 
 
 the Friendly islands, then southwest to 
 Norfolk, and then southeast to New 
 Zealand. Here, in the North island and 
 the South island, were distributed the 
 ocean tribes from which has sprung the 
 remarkable race of Maoris, of whose char- 
 acter and peculiarities a sketch will be 
 presented in a subsequent book. 
 
 Eastward from Samoa the line of 
 
 ^-^^^^^^
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 513 
 
 migration was carried to the Society 
 islands, whence it again divided north 
 Dispersion from and south for two great 
 
 *rou ^Tnd'the departures toward the con- 
 Marquesas, tinents of America. The 
 southern line passed down to the Austral 
 islands, and then southeastward to the 
 Oparo group, one hundred and forty-five 
 degrees west from Greenwich. From 
 this point, about latitude twenty-eight 
 degrees south, the line of departure, 
 through seventy-five degrees of longi- 
 tude, appears to have been almost di- 
 rectly to the east, through the Elizabeth 
 islands, the Easter group. Saint Am- 
 brose, and finally to the coast of South 
 America, about the center of Chili. 
 
 The other branch of Polynesian dis- 
 persion from the Society islands was 
 borne to the northeast, to the Mar- 
 quesas group. On this line there was a 
 departure to the right, from which the 
 Low Archipelago may be supposed to 
 have been peopled. From the Marque- 
 sas the island migrations bore backward 
 to the northwest, through more than 
 twenty degrees of latitude, passing, by 
 way of Maldon and Fanning, to Carson. 
 Here the course was again changed to 
 the east of north, to the Sandwich 
 islands. From this noted ocean group 
 the migration continued islandwise to 
 the northeast, passing through the 
 sparsely scattered points for a distance 
 of twenty degrees of longitude, to the 
 Pasaries. From this group the line was 
 carried away through Henderson on a 
 long curve a little to the south of east, 
 until it entered the gulf of California 
 and touched the coast of Mexico. 
 
 These migratory movements which 
 ethnogi'aphers have attempted to trace 
 through the South Pacific represent, of 
 course, only tlic major lines of dispersion 
 along which the Polynesian Mongoloids 
 were carried to their almost infinite dis- 
 
 tribution in these limitless waters. It 
 was essentially a progress from island to 
 
 island. The stages were Easiness and 
 *= difficulty of 
 
 sometimes easy and the the progress 
 
 , 1 . through Poly- 
 
 movement by no means m- nesia. 
 
 credible. In other parts of the migra- 
 tions the distance was great from point to 
 23oint of departure and lodgment. Nor 
 may it be easily conceived how the prog- 
 ress was continued by races whose skill 
 in navigation must have been limited by 
 the conditions of savagery. It must be 
 borne in mind, however, that for weeks 
 and months together the waters of the 
 South Pacific are as placid as an unruffled 
 lake.. The trade winds are equable and 
 of constant direction. The climate is 
 mild in the last degree. Under such 
 conditions even savages, in open boats, 
 with a modicum of sail, would drift, as 
 in a dream, for hundreds, perhaps thou- 
 sands, of miles. These are the circum- 
 stances which make it possible for the eth- 
 nic distribution through the islands of 
 Polynesia to have been effected in the 
 manner above described. 
 
 It is not the purpose, at this point, to 
 develop the dispersion of the Polynesian 
 
 races through the two con- Probable deriva- 
 
 tinents of America. The ^^^VeNew^"^^ 
 distribution of the vari- "World. 
 ous branches of the human family in 
 these continents will be considered when 
 the Asiatic Mongoloids have also been 
 traced to the western shores of North 
 America. Grave questions arise in the 
 mind of the inquirer relative to the cer- 
 tainty or uncertainty of the movements 
 by which the first men were distributed 
 on our continent. In the present state 
 of knowledge the bottom problems aris- 
 ing in this connection must be passed by 
 as unsolved. The best that ethnography 
 can do in the premises is to trace out the 
 possible, even probable, approximation of 
 the Polynesian and Asiatic Mongoloids
 
 514 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 to the westerr. parts of the two Ameri- 
 cas. It is certainly not impossible that the 
 race of man may have thus made its ap- 
 pearance in the New World, and may 
 have been disseminated from ethnic 
 stocks which were derived from the 
 northeasternmost parts of Asia and the 
 islands of the South Pacific. The im- 
 mediate task before us is to resume the 
 consideration of the migratory lines by 
 which the Brown races were dispersed 
 through the larger parts of Asia. 
 
 dispersed, and where they have since 
 developed into the type of Chinese prop- 
 er. All the races south of the Hoang-Ho 
 and north of the Yang-tse-Kiang are 
 of this common stock, which is one of 
 the most distinct and persistent types of 
 mankind. 
 
 The East Mongols, as distinguished 
 from the Chinese and the Malayo-Chi- 
 nese, flowed from a branch of the Asiatic 
 Mongoloid family known as the North- 
 east division. Its course from Afghan- 
 
 -•^^jfe«a=!^' lU*-^* w 
 
 fc 
 
 ROUTE OF THE IKJXGOLIAN IMSl'KIIlU rioN— Thian-,>h.>:, MuwM ,,i.N.,.-Ui.iiMi by Ki. 
 
 We have now followed the lines of 
 distribution from Thibet, in the south- 
 r, ,, ^. eastward direction, to the 
 
 Outbranching 
 
 of the Asiatic Anuamese and the Siamese 
 
 Mongoloids. . , _ 
 
 penmsulas. Returnmg to 
 the point of departure we find from the 
 valley of the Lan-Thsang a full stream of 
 migration, tending directly toward the 
 east and into the heart of the Chinese 
 empire. From the head-waters of the 
 Lan-Thsang to those of the Yang-tse the 
 migratory movement carried the true 
 ^Mongolians into the valley of the great 
 central river of China, where they were 
 
 istan was through Eastern Turkistan and 
 into that part of China which is known 
 geographically as Mongolia. This coun- 
 try occupies the great re- 
 
 J ^ *' Distribution of 
 
 gion between the Amoor the Northeast- 
 
 , . 1 TT TT .,, ,, ern Asiatics. 
 
 and the Hoang-Ho, With the 
 exception of the eastern part, next to 
 Corea and the sea of Japan, which is 
 called Manchuria. The people known 
 as Manchus are also descendants of the 
 northeast stream of Asiatic Mongoloids. 
 It is in this region, near the mouth of 
 the Amoor, that the great movement of 
 the Brown races of men in their progress
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 515 
 
 eastward was checked and turned back 
 into the almost limitless regions of North- 
 Dispersionof em Asia. First of all the 
 d'eflfct:iintr/ Mongolian stream, after 
 Amoor valley. crossing to the nortli of the 
 Amoor, was reflected into a loop, and the 
 migratory movement was resumed to- 
 ward the head-waters of the Hoane-Ho. 
 
 appears that the reverse line represent- 
 ing the departure of this race reaches 
 throughoiit the entire breadth of Asia, 
 having its origin as a separate ethnic 
 division in the Russian province of 
 Amoor, north of the river of that name, 
 and extending westward through Mon- 
 golia into Turkistan. The main migra- 
 
 iK-HCElrm 
 
 CHUTE OF TCHrMBdULAC— Drawn by D. Lancelot, after Atklii^r,,,. 
 
 In the upper valley of this great river 
 the Calmuck Tartars were deposited, as 
 the result of the backward migration just 
 described. A second stream was deflect- 
 ed from the main line of this movement 
 and contributed the Buriats, holding the 
 country south of lake Baikal. More ex- 
 traordinary still was the departure from 
 the backward curve of the Mongoloids 
 of the Turkish division of mankind. It 
 
 tory line seems to have passed south of 
 lake Balkash, and to have thence contin- 
 ued its western progress across the Ural 
 and the Volga to the northern shores of 
 the Black .sea. On the whole, this progress 
 of the Turcomans is one of the most re- 
 markable among the ethnic movements 
 of mankind. The principal families de- 
 posited at the extreme of the migration 
 on the line we are now considering were
 
 516 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the Nogaians, whose territory reached 
 from the Volga to the Caucasus and the 
 Black sea. 
 
 Before attempting to define all the 
 dispersions of the Turks in their back- 
 ward movement into West- 
 
 Bace lines of .....,, 
 
 Samoyedsand crn Asia, it IS desirable to 
 
 Ural-Altaics. , r it. 1.1. 
 
 note some of the other re- 
 turning ethnic curves of the Brown 
 
 gration from the departure of these two 
 peoples was, for the Samoyeds, some- 
 what south, through the region between 
 lake Baikal and the desert of Gobi ; 
 thence the line extended westward 
 until it crossed the river Obi, near its 
 junction with the Tobol. West of this 
 great stream began the dispersion of the 
 so-called Turanian, or Ural-Altaic, na- 
 
 OKF THE COAST OF COREA.— Drawn by Theodure Weber, after Zuber. 
 
 races to the north of the Turkish line. 
 From the same origin with the Turks 
 themselves, in the country north of the 
 principal bend of the Amoor, extended 
 westward another grejit stream of mi- 
 gration, which bore at first the com- 
 bined volume of the Samoyed and Ural- 
 Altaic nations. The course of the mi- 
 
 tions, whose development covers, in 
 general terms, the whole region be- 
 tween the Baltic and the Obi. From 
 the central line of migration westward, 
 having its termini among the Finns and 
 Lapps in the extreme north of Europe, 
 many subordinate migrations turned to 
 the left and right, the principal of which
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 517 
 
 were the streams which' contributed cer- 
 tain Mongoloid families in the valleys 
 of the Ural and the Volga, and the de- 
 parture on the south which ended with 
 the Esths, on the eastern coast of the 
 Baltic. 
 
 Returning to the point of division be- 
 tween the Ural-Altaic and the Samoyed 
 families east of lake Baikal, 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 theTwagiand we find the latter stream 
 
 the Juraks. • -. . j 
 
 pursuing its way westward, 
 dropping one branch of the family in the 
 valley of the Upper Angora, and carry- 
 ing its volume thence northward to the 
 Twagi tribes, east of the gulf of Obi, un- 
 der latitude seventy degrees north. The 
 main stream continued westward to about 
 the meridian of eighty degrees east 
 from Greenwich, where another branch 
 was thrown off northward, contributing 
 the Juraks to the peninsula west of the 
 Yenisei river. Still a third departure 
 entered the Yalmal peninsula, where the 
 Juraks also bear witness of the Mongo- 
 loid origin. The westward course of the 
 Samoyed dispersion ended between the 
 meridians of forty degrees and fifty de- 
 grees east, with the tribes of Vanuta and 
 Laghe. 
 
 If then once more we take our stand 
 in Manchuria, we shall find still an- 
 other great curve, to which 
 
 Outline of the , , . c rr^ 
 
 Tungusian dis- the ethnic name of iun- 
 
 persion. ■ i -u 
 
 gusian has been given, 
 bending in like manner close along the 
 sea of Japan, and thence turning to the 
 west and north. It was from a branch 
 of this Tungusian stem bearing off to 
 the south through Manchuria that the 
 Coreans were deduced, and an extension 
 of the same migration carried into Nip- 
 pon the primitive Japanese. The Ainos, 
 also of Yezo, on the north, may be a 
 derivative of the same branch which 
 here perhaps reaches its limit ocean- 
 ward. The main line also divides in 
 
 high latitudes, throwing out branches, 
 especially on the right, which find the 
 limits of their departure among the Ya- 
 taks, the Tunguses, and other arctic 
 tribes, in the extreme limits of North- 
 eastern Asia. From this same origin, 
 moreover, the eastern movement was 
 continued through the great Asiatic 
 peninsula which stretches out between 
 the Arctic ocean and the North Pacific 
 toward Behring strait. There can be 
 little doubt that the Mongoloid tribes 
 inhabiting this region, such as the La- 
 muts, the Itelmes, the Koriaks, and oth- 
 ers, are of the same Alongoloid origin with 
 the Tungusians, the ]Manchurians, the 
 East Mongolians, the Ural-Altaics, and 
 the Samoyeds, the difference being 
 chiefly in modifications of development 
 effected by the peculiar geographical 
 environment into which the eastern di- 
 vision of the race was thrown on its 
 progress to the northwestern extremity 
 of North America. 
 
 Such, in brief, is a sketch in outline 
 of the distribution of the Brown races 
 through the continent of Asia. We 
 have now traced the Polynesian lines to 
 the western coasts of South outer circuit of 
 America and Mexico, and '■^t't^l^ 
 the Asiatic Mongoloid lines races, 
 through the eastern extension of North- 
 ern Asia and the Aleutian islands, to 
 the northwestern shores of North Amer- 
 ica. Before beginning an account of 
 the distribution of the.se various ilongo- 
 loid races in the New World, it will be 
 desirable to notice some exceptional 
 lines which they seem to have followed, 
 even to the extreme west of Europe. 
 
 It is claimed by ethnographers that 
 the Basques and Iberians, Question of the 
 the ancient nations of the t^^^^^T^A 
 Spanish peninsula, were of n>erians. 
 Mongoloid extraction. The question 
 has been much debated and the argu-
 
 518 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXk'IXD. 
 
 ments fortified with every variety of 
 proof. On the whole, it may be conceded 
 that these primitive peoples of Spain 
 were allied in their race descent with the 
 Mongolians of the Asiatic continent. 
 Between the straits of Gibraltar, how- 
 ever, and the main line of the original 
 Mongoloid dispersion where it passes 
 northward through Beluchistan, there 
 have been found no ilongoloid tribes, or 
 indeed any distinct traces of their pres- 
 ence. In some manner, then, we may 
 assume that the Basques and Iberians 
 reached their destination in the extreme 
 west. By what route they did so must 
 remain conjectural. It may have been 
 by transnavigation of the IMediterranean. 
 But the greater likelihood seems to be 
 that in very primitive times a branch 
 put off to the west from the pre-Mongo- 
 loid stem, passing through the countries 
 of the Hamites about the head of the 
 Persian gulf, across Upper Arabia, and 
 through the whole extent of North Afri- 
 ca to the straits, and thence into South- 
 ern Spain. Such a line may, at any 
 rate, without undue .straining of the 
 hypothesis, account for the presence in 
 the west of Europe of nations evidently 
 allied in their ethnic descent with the 
 Thibetans and Malayo-Chinese. 
 
 The presence of the Esths between 
 
 the Letts and Finns on the eastern 
 
 shores of the Baltic has 
 
 Place of the 
 
 Esths in the al.so constituted a problem 
 
 scheme of races, j. i • i , ■ , 
 
 tor which a solution has 
 already been found in the deflection of a 
 southern line from the Ural-Altaic 
 migration in Northern Europe. Some 
 ethnographers have not hesitated to 
 mark out a route of migration from the 
 country of the Basques in a north- 
 eastern direction, across Gaul and Ger- 
 many, into Esthonia ! But, considering 
 the general course and character of the 
 movements by which Central Europe 
 
 was peopled, the latter supposition ap- 
 pears to be altogether unwarranted. 
 
 A general comment or two will be 
 appropriate as to the character of the 
 dispersion of the Brown races in the 
 countries which we have 
 
 Ethnic connec- 
 
 thus far considered. In tionsofthe 
 the first place, it is remark- ^ ^e^^y- 
 able, in view of the earl}- preferences 
 which the Mongoloids showed for warm 
 climates, that Africa has been untouched 
 by their migrations. The nearest ap- 
 proach to this continent which the Brown 
 races has made is that of the Polynesian 
 Mongoloids in Madagascar. It is in 
 evidence that from the island of Java a 
 branch of this race made its way through 
 the Indian ocean, touching perhaps at 
 the southern point of Ceylon, and thence 
 passing in a southerly dii-ection from 
 island group to island group to its 
 destination and development in the 
 natives races of Madagascar. To these 
 peoples ethnography has assigned the 
 ethnic name of Malagasy. 
 
 In the second place, it may be noted 
 that the Brown races, in the primary 
 stages of their distribution, appear to 
 have been drawn by cosmic General and 
 
 ■' special direc- 
 
 forces toivard tlic cast. In tions ofthe 
 
 , ^ , , . Brown disper- 
 
 general, Southern Asia re- sion. 
 ceived its populatioi> from movements in 
 this direction. These movements con- 
 tinued until the Pacific was reached, and 
 was even carried forward through the 
 Polynesian archipelagoes until, as we 
 have seen, the race lines probably touched 
 the western shores of the New World. 
 But on the continent the eastern migra- 
 tions of the Mongoloids seem to have 
 fallen into a whirl in Manchuria, and to 
 have been bent backwards, as above de- 
 scribed, through the whole extent of 
 Northern Asia and even far into Eu- 
 rope. The world-wide extent of these 
 movements can with difficulty be appre-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWX DISPERSIOX. 519 
 
 ciated or understood even by the student 
 of history, to whom great continental 
 stretches and far-reaching developments 
 are familiar. As compared with the 
 limited dispersion of the Hamitic and 
 Semitic nations, or even with the greater 
 and more populous distribution of the 
 Aryans in the small continent of Eu- 
 rope, the Asiatic and Oceanic disper- 
 sion of the Mongoloids appears to the 
 scholar in ethnography and history as 
 world-wide and limitless. 
 
 We come, then, 
 to look briefly at 
 the primitive dis- 
 tribution of man- 
 kind in the two 
 Americas. For 
 many reasons the 
 ethnology of these 
 continents is be- 
 set with special 
 difficulties. The 
 aboriginal peoples 
 inhabiting them 
 were uncivilized 
 races in the prelit- 
 erary stages of de- 
 velopment. Their 
 monuments had 
 already fallen into 
 the domain of 
 
 archasolog)- before the coming of the 
 White races. The peculiar family rela- 
 tion existing among nearly all the tribes 
 Difficult eth- of the New World tended 
 to confuse the lines of race 
 distinction and to blur the 
 whole ethnographic outline. The house- 
 hold was generally based upon a system of 
 marriage differing but little from poly- 
 andry, the result of which was to con- 
 verge the lines of descent through the 
 woman instead of the man. The tribes 
 were largely nomadic in their disposi- 
 tion. War and conquest were frequent, 
 
 and one race, by means of aggression 
 and victory, was many times super- 
 imposed territorially on another. 
 
 Behind all this confusion there ap- 
 pears to the ethnographer the shadow 
 of the bottom question rel- , 
 
 . . . ultunate denva- 
 
 ative to the primary origin tionofthein- 
 
 ^ ., ^,. T dian races. 
 
 of these races. \\ e nave 
 agreed to regard the Polynesian islands 
 and Northeastern Asia as the sources of 
 the American aborigines, but it may be 
 frankly confessed that so much has not 
 
 COAST OF MADAGASCAR ANU 
 
 nography of the 
 American ab- 
 origines. 
 
 VIEW OF MAJONGA. — LIMIT OF THE BROWX DISPERSION". 
 Drawn by De Berard. 
 
 been established by irrefragable proofs. 
 Nevertheless, the affinity and diversity 
 of languages prevalent in the New World 
 give many evidences, when compared 
 with Polynesian and Asiatic tongues, 
 of a common paternity; and ethnic 
 and tribal lines have been in many 
 parts sufficiently maintained to indi- 
 cate Avith tolerable certainty the direc- 
 tion of migrations and the ultimate 
 derivation of these barbarous peoples. 
 The physical peculiarities of the Red 
 men, the primitive Mexicans, and the Es- 
 quimaux have also been of advantage in
 
 520 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. 
 
 clearing up many questions relating to the 
 first people of North America ; and the 
 persistcncyof manners and customs — that 
 great fact wliich has often come to the 
 rescue of embarrassed scholarship — has 
 thrown its constant light on many ob- 
 scure parts of the questions here before 
 us. We shall now attempt, following the 
 hypothesis of an Asiatic and Polynesian 
 origin, to delineate the course of dis- 
 tribution of the primitive races through 
 the two Americas, and their develop- 
 
 the Koriaks and Chuk-chee tribes, that 
 has warranted the conclusion of an Asi- 
 atic derivation for the Orarians. 
 
 The line, therefore, marking the dis- 
 persion of the northeastern stream of 
 Asiatic Mongoloids into Easy derivation 
 these extreme parts of Asia t^^^^:^' 
 may well be drawn across the Asiatics, 
 the strait and distributed into the penin- 
 sular region of Northwestern North 
 America. In like manner, the clear 
 relationship of the people inhabiting 
 
 ROUTE OF THE ORARIAN DISPERSION.— Peril SxRAlTS.-Drawn by Theodore Weber. 
 
 ment into distinct families of the hu- 
 man species. 
 
 In the extreme northwestern portion 
 of North America we find a rather wide- 
 _, ^ ^ ly dispersed race, to which 
 
 Place and affin- ■' ^ ' 
 
 itiesofthe ethnographers have given 
 
 the name of Orarians. In 
 general, they are distributed in that penin- 
 sular part of the continent which extends 
 from the meridian of about one hundred 
 and twenty degrees west to Behring 
 strait. It is the affinity, almost unmis- 
 takable, of these people wath the Yakuts 
 of Northeastern Asia, particularly with 
 
 the southern part of the Alaskan penin- 
 sula with the Pacific peoples of the 
 Aleutian islands, gives warrant for the 
 derivation of the former from the latter. 
 It is in this Alaskan portion of the 
 country that ethnographers have placed 
 the Orarians proper, while to the north, 
 in Upper Alaska, that is, between the 
 Yukon and the Arctic ocean, we have a 
 distribution of the Western Esquimaux. 
 Further to the east and central to the 
 peninsula are the Tinneh races, or at 
 least a branch thereof, w-hile to the 
 south of these and around the coar.t of
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 521 
 
 the Great archipelago are located the 
 Tlinkets and Xasses. The outlying 
 islands are inhabited by other branches 
 of the same race called the Yakuts, 
 the Sitkans, and the Hidahs. 
 
 By the time that the ethnographer has 
 advanced thus far to the east, in follow- 
 ing the lines of the Asiatic Mongoloids 
 
 the Polynesians who had come primarily 
 to the shore of the continent in the re- 
 gion of Old California. Advancing still 
 further to the east, and following the 
 same Asiatic Mongoloid line of disper- 
 sion in the extreme north, the inquirer 
 will make his way above the region of 
 the Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, 
 
 ROUTE OF THE CHONTAL DISPERSION SOLTHW ARD.-Coast of PANAMA.-Drawn by De Berard. 
 
 continentward, he finds himself con- 
 fronted with what appear to be return- 
 Polynesian Mon- ing races of Polynesian 
 ^thAs^to extraction. The Tinneh 
 derivatives. family above referred to 
 are a people different apparently in race 
 characteristics from the other stocks of 
 Alaska, and it is generally conceded 
 that they have been carried into this re- 
 mote position by a returning migration of 
 M. — Vol. 1 — 34 
 
 in the country of the widely spread fam- 
 ily called the Tinneh. The territory 
 occupied by this division extends from 
 about the meridian of one hundred and 
 twenty-five degrees west, eastward to 
 Hudson's bay and the gulf of Boothia. 
 Its limits northward are the Arctic 
 ocean and the countries of the Eastern 
 Esquimaux, whose line of dispersion 
 reaches the coast of Labrador. On the
 
 522 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 south, the great river and lake system 
 which discharges its waters through the 
 Nelson into Hudson's bay mark the 
 boundaries of the Tinneh. 
 
 It is in the latter region that the re- 
 turning lines of the Polynesian Mongo- 
 
 General course 
 of Polynesian 
 and Esquimau 
 migrations. 
 
 loidsare again encountered. 
 
 The whole movement of 
 the latter races here ap- 
 pears from the east to the west, while 
 the Asiatics flow from the west to the 
 
 TYPE OF AMERICAN MONGOLOIDS — THE INDIAN BARRE, 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 east. The main migration of the East- 
 ern Esquimaux may be regarded as ex- 
 tending through the j\.rctic archipelago, 
 perhaps by way of North Devon island, 
 or Ellesmere land, across Smith's sound 
 into Greenland, where the final distribu- 
 tion of this family has its limits. 
 
 It will be seen by an examination of 
 the map that this region is under the 
 meridian of fifty degrees west from 
 
 Greenwich, while the original source 
 which we have assigned to the Brown 
 races in Beluchistan is very near the 
 meridian of sixty -five degrees east, 
 from which it is manifest that the di- 
 rect dispersion east and west of the 
 Asiatic Mongoloids has covered a longi- 
 tude of one Iiuudrcd and sixty- five degrees ; 
 and if we take into account the multi- 
 farious departures to the right and left — 
 the endless curves and windings by 
 which such a move- 
 ment would be car- 
 ried forward from 
 its initial departure 
 to its final destina- 
 tion — we shall see 
 that the Brown 
 races of men have 
 virtually encircled 
 the earth in their 
 wanderings 1 
 
 Meanwhile, the 
 migration of this 
 same family of 
 Mongoloids had ex- 
 tended down the 
 Alaskan coast to 
 Vancouver'sisland. 
 Here, in the north- 
 western part of 
 what is now the 
 United States, the 
 great family of the 
 Seli.sh was dis- 
 tributed. By hy- 
 pothesis, a deflected branch of this 
 famil}- may be traced eastward and 
 thence southward to about 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 the fortieth parallel of lat- the seiish; the 
 
 .^ T 1 ji • i Mexican races. 
 
 itude and the ninety- 
 fourth west from Greenwich. From 
 this center several lines of departure 
 may be noted upon which, in the south- 
 ern parts of the United States, the 
 old nations of Choctaws, Creeks, and
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BROWN DISPERSION. 523 
 
 persion of the 
 Central Amer^ 
 icans. 
 
 Natchez Indians were developed. An- 
 other line, perhaps, passed from the same 
 origin to the west, thence southward into 
 Mexico, and from the latter dispersion 
 we gather the old races of the Toltecs, 
 the Aztecs, andtheOttomies, who played 
 so important a part in the quasi civili- 
 zation which the .Spanish invaders dis- 
 covered and destroyed. 
 
 From another branch of the same dis- 
 persion arose the Cholulans. Still south- 
 Origin and dis- ward the course of migra- 
 tion was continued into 
 Central America, where the 
 nations called the ^layas, the Nahoas, 
 the Quiches, and the Chontals were dis- 
 tributed north of the isthmus. We may 
 even continue the same line of southern 
 departure through the isthmus of Panama 
 and down the whole coast of Western 
 South America. The native races along 
 this extended seashore, from Panama 
 through Peru and Chili to Patagonia 
 and finally to Terra del Fuego, have 
 been found to be allied throughout with 
 the Asiatic Mongoloids rather than with 
 the Polynesians. The greatest of these 
 families are perhaps the Aymaras, the 
 Quichuas, the Araucanians, the Pampas, 
 and the Patagonians, named in the order 
 of the descent from the north. The 
 Fuegians mark the extreme of this dis- 
 persion. The lines indicating the prog- 
 ress traverse the entire extent of the 
 two continents, besides many meander- 
 ings, the limits of which could hardly be 
 determined in terms of current geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 At this point it may be well to note 
 also some special developments north of 
 Place of the Mexico. The Californians, 
 
 fv'uonTfVhf" together with the Sho- 
 Six Nations. shoues, the Mutsun, and 
 Yuma nations, may be regarded as dis- 
 persions from the north. 
 
 It may be, however, in the case of the 
 
 Shoshones, that they proceeded from an 
 eastern migration, having its origin in 
 the center of the United States. There 
 appear to have been a good many inter- 
 changes of character in the central 
 nations of Nortli America, the Asiatic 
 Mongoloids taking on the character of 
 Polynesians, and vice versa. The great 
 nations of the Eastern United States, 
 
 TVPE OF AMERICAN MONGOLOIDS 
 INDIAN WOMAN. 
 
 -MONDURNCA 
 
 the Onondagas, the Oneidas, the Sen- 
 ecas, the ^Mohicans, may be referred 
 ultimately to the same stock with the 
 Cherokees, the Muskogees, and other 
 families of the Southeastern United 
 States, and these in turn seem to have 
 originated in the Antilles, and to have 
 arisen ultimately from a Polynesian 
 source. 
 
 It will be well, therefore, at this point 
 to take up the course of dispersion of the 
 Polynesian races from the center of the 
 west coast of South America and follow 
 the same in its divisions through that
 
 524 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 continent. Perhaps the first deflection 
 
 from the main line of eastern departure 
 
 was to the right, into the 
 
 The Polynesian . • i •. 
 
 Mongoioidsin countries now occupied by 
 South America. ^,^^ Argentine Republic. 
 
 The native races of this region are known 
 by the name of Guaycurus. They be- 
 long in general to the cotintry between 
 the mouths of tlie La Plata and the Rio 
 Negro. The coast nation of this part of 
 the continent arc known as the Puclches. 
 A second migratory stream put off about 
 the head-waters of the La Plata, taking 
 its course eastward, and was thence 
 deflected to the coast, in Uruguay, where 
 the people called Charraks bear evidence 
 of the dispersion. Higher up, the 
 Guarani were distributed, and from this 
 region the main line extended in a 
 course nearly parallel with the sea, into 
 the heart of Brazil. The mountain races 
 to the left of this line are known by the 
 name of the Parexis, while the still 
 greater family of nations between the 
 river Amazon and the San Francisco 
 are called Tupis. The latter are sub- 
 divided into the Crans, the Crens, and 
 the Gucks, with many subordinate tribes 
 and ramifications. 
 
 One branch of this same Polynesian 
 migration turned from this country up 
 Origin of tne the Valley of the Amazon 
 Shelemr- ^nd was distributed among 
 *'°i^S' the initial streams of 
 
 that great river, while another branch 
 crossed the Amazon to the north and 
 contributed the Caribbean nations in 
 their various families and tribes. It ap- 
 pears that from the coast at the mouth 
 of the Orinoco, almost directly north- 
 ward, and thence westward through 
 the islands to Hayti, and thence by way 
 of the Greater Antilles to the southern 
 extremity of Florida, the line of migra- 
 tion was carried, depositing the Sem- 
 inoles in the latter country, and thence 
 
 bending eastward through the coast re- 
 gions of the United States. It is proba- 
 bly true that the kinship and affinity of 
 so great numbers of the Indian tribes of 
 North America with the Polynesians of 
 the South Pacific must be referred to this 
 almost infinite line of departure which 
 we have been following from Sumatra 
 and Siam across the South Pacific to the 
 western coast of South America. 
 
 Hereafter, in noticing the peculiarities 
 of the Indian races of the New World, 
 we may have occasion to speak again of 
 their geographical positions universality of 
 and mutations. It is be- ^S^n^thr 
 
 lieved that this cursory out- Americas. 
 
 line of the general movements by which 
 the New World was probably peopled with 
 inhabitants belonging to the Brown races 
 of mankind, will be sufficient to give an 
 adequate idea of the development of 
 these races. The great peculiarity which 
 impresses itself most upon the mind of 
 the ethnographer and historian is that 
 all the aboriginal families of these con- 
 tinents belonged to the Brown family of 
 mankind. In those primary movements 
 which may be called natural, as contra- 
 distinguished from the somewhat artifi- 
 cial migrations and colonizations which 
 are projected from civilized countries 
 into the barbarous territories of the 
 world, not a single Black or Ruddy tribe 
 of men reached the shores of either 
 America. 
 
 It is, indeed, a reflection well calculat- 
 ed to astonish the inquirer that the most 
 progressive and energetic peoples of the 
 world have not, until times most recent, 
 carried the lines of their Astonishing ex- 
 dispersion into the remoter ^::^,°/„f/fl'; 
 parts of the habitable globe. Brown races. 
 It is true that the Aryan races have at 
 present extended their languages and 
 institutions — even their blood progeny — 
 into the uttermost parts of the earth, but
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 525 
 
 these movements do not belong to the 
 same class of phenomena by which the 
 primitive, unconscious peoples were dis- 
 tributed, to their several destinations. 
 
 If we look at these primary movements 
 only, our surprise may w^ell be great at 
 the indescribable extent of the wander- 
 ings and ethnic dispersions of the Brown 
 taces of mankind and the comparatively 
 small areas in which the progressive 
 and civilizing peoples have borne them- 
 selves and their institutions. With a 
 map of the world drawn on Mercator's 
 projection before the student who de- 
 sires to inform himself of the prehistoric 
 movements of mankind, the great, well- 
 nigh universal, diffusion of the Brown 
 races throughout all Asia, several parts 
 of Europe, and the whole of Polynesia 
 and the two American continents must 
 iinpress his mind with the striking char- 
 acter and singularit}- of these human phe- 
 nomena. 
 
 Before dismissing the subject of the 
 distribution of the Brown races, we will 
 point once more to the outer geograph- 
 ical limits of the dispersion in different 
 
 parts of the world. The migratory lines 
 in South America drop to the extremity 
 of the continent in latitude fifty-five de- 
 grees. The FuegianS rep- outer periphery 
 
 resent the nearest approach t^e Brown°dis. 
 of the Brown races to persion. 
 the south pole. The next limit in the 
 same direction may be found in the 
 Chatham islands and the southern parts 
 of New Zealand, extending from lati- 
 tude forty-five degrees to fifty degrees 
 south. As already noted, the western 
 stream of this family terminates in 
 Spain, at about ten degrees west from 
 Greenwich. The eastern boundary of 
 the Greenland Esquimaux may be given 
 at about twenty degrees west. The 
 northern excursions of this race have 
 reached to at least the eightieth paral- 
 lel north ; from which we may gather 
 that through three hundred and fifty de- 
 grees of longitude and « Inmdred mid tlnrty- 
 five degrees of latitude the descendants of 
 the Brown races of mankind have been 
 dispersed by the natural forces to which 
 barbarians in their migratory movements 
 are subject! 
 
 Chapter XXX.— Disxribuxiom of^ xhe Black 
 
 Races. 
 
 S compared with the 
 complexity and extent 
 of the dispersion of the 
 Brown races of man- 
 kind, the Black divi- 
 sions and departures 
 of the human family 
 are simple and easy of apprehension. 
 They are confined, in general terms, to 
 that portion of the African continent ly- 
 ing south of the twentieth parallel of 
 north latitude, and to Australia and the 
 Micronesian islands. The fact that the 
 
 Indian ocean lies between these African 
 and Australian dispersions of the race, 
 
 and that the presence of General charac- 
 
 Black peoples isnotdiscov- ^frdistrlb^'u-""* 
 erable in any other of the ^^io''- 
 great continents, except by reason of re- 
 cent civilizing movements, introduces 
 the one great difficulty in determining 
 the origin whence both streams of the 
 race have flowed. It is this circum- 
 stance, moreover, which has in a great 
 measure fortified the hypothesis that 
 under the Indian ocean lies the sub-
 
 526 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 merged continent of Lenmria, the an- 
 cestral home of all the races of men. 
 
 Granted the existence in prehistoric 
 ages of such a continent, and the sub- 
 Lemuria neces- Sequent dispcrsiou of man- 
 BiackXper-'''* ^^^^ «" the monogenetic 
 sion. hypothesis becomes not 
 
 only plausible, but easy and natural. 
 But the continent is a supposition so 
 
 Africa seems to have been on the east- 
 ern or jDcninsular coast where the conti- 
 nent juts out into the In- origin of the eth- 
 
 dian ocean, about the par- 'Z^:^lT"' 
 allel of ten degrees north. African races. 
 It has been stated above that most of 
 the peoples of this coast region as far 
 west as about the thirty-seventh degree 
 of longitude are of Semitic origin, with 
 
 MEURKA.— Drawn by Y. PranishnikoS. 
 
 far as the present knowledge of man- 
 kind is concerned, and we are obliged 
 to consider the African and the Aus- 
 tralian distribution of the Black races as 
 .separate phenomena, one presenting it- 
 self with a westward and the other with 
 an eastward migratory tendency. 
 
 As already remarked, the beginning 
 of the Black populations of Southern 
 
 perhaps a mixture of Hamitic stock. 
 Such peoples are the Somali, the Dona- 
 kil, the Galla tribes, and others, inhabit- 
 ing this peninsular part of Africa. It is 
 somewhat to the west of these, there- 
 fore, that the actual dispersion of the 
 Black peoples seems to have its center. 
 This is to say that the lines indicative 
 of the migration of the Black races from
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 b-11 
 
 the eastern coast of Africa are for a dis- 
 tance of about ten degrees from the 
 ocean hypothetical, the country through 
 which they pass being now occupied by 
 tribes of another race. 
 
 It may be conceded that the oldest 
 branch of the Xegro family, upon the 
 Place and dis- consideration of which we 
 are now to enter, are the 
 Fundi-Sudanese, who oc- 
 cupy the country between the Blue and 
 the White Nile for some distance south of 
 
 tribution of the 
 Fundi-Sudan- 
 ese. 
 
 At this point it may be well to des- 
 ignate the principal branches into which 
 the Xegro race proper is divided. The 
 northern stem, next to the Kinship of Fuiah 
 Fundi just mentioned, car- ''^l^^Hr^' 
 ried into Central Africa famiUes. 
 the Negroes of the Sudan and perhaps 
 the Fulah races lying to the north. 
 Some trouble has arisen as to the classi- 
 fication of the latter peoples, and there 
 are traces in their color and other pecul- 
 iarities indicative of an admixture of 
 
 
 BAMliARRA TYPES.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 their intersection. It is likely that this 
 was the first territorial dispersion of the 
 family which afterwards spread through 
 the larger part of the continent to the 
 west and south. The Fundi seem never 
 to have removed very far from their 
 original seats. They founded here the 
 kingdom of Sennaar. They have the 
 same peculiarities of person and tribal 
 character with the Negroes of Southern 
 and Western Africa, and are certainly in 
 affinity with them by race descent. 
 
 Hamitic blood. By the Sudanese, how- 
 ever, the Fulahs are regarded as of the 
 same race with themselves, and, on the 
 whole, the evidences of kinship with the 
 Black peoples on the south are sufficient 
 to warrant this classification. 
 
 Several subordinate families were 
 thrown off from this same northernmost 
 stem of Black dispersion. Among these 
 are the Haussa tribes, the Sonhrays in 
 the valley of the Niger on the extreme 
 west, the Jolofers between the Senegal
 
 528 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 and the Gambia on the coast. There is 
 no doubt that the Hamitic line of migra- 
 tion, bending- to the south out of the 
 Moorish states of Western Africa, pen- 
 etrated the valley of the Niger, and that 
 this stock has contributed somewhat to 
 modify tlie Black peoples in the north 
 of the S;idan. 
 
 The Sudanese proper are likewise 
 divided into many peoples, distributed 
 from the Upper White Nile, across the 
 Distribution of Continent to the westward, 
 ^se'IdGur'-""' to the Mandingos and 
 eans. other tribes of Guinea. 
 
 Glancing over the whole field of Central 
 Africa, between the twentieth parallel of 
 north latitude and ten degrees .south, we 
 may, on a geographical basis, note four 
 principal ethnic divisions of peoples: 
 
 I . West Sudan and Guinea. — In this re- 
 gion there are beside the Fulahs six other 
 groujDS, distinguishable by sufficient dif- 
 ferences to warrant a classification . The 
 Mandingos, with ten or twelve subordi- 
 nate tribes, occujjy Ujipcr Guinea and 
 vSouthern Senegambia. The Woloffs have 
 .seven divisions, or tribes, which are dis- 
 tributed inland between the vSenegal and 
 Gambia rivers. The Felups are divided 
 into twelve tribes, or nations, scattered 
 over the territory between the Gambia 
 and Sierra Leone. The Liberians have 
 seventeen tribal divisions .scattered along 
 the Grain coast and the Ivory coast. 
 The Ewe group consi.sts of ten different 
 nations, and are distributed along the 
 Gold and vSlave coasts. The Ibo group 
 also embraces ten subdivisions, having 
 their territories in Benu6 and along the 
 Lower Niger. The Sonhray family, with 
 many subordinate tribes, occupy the 
 country along the Middle Niger, from 
 Timbuctu toGando. The Fulahs, already 
 described, are divided into eight nations, 
 inhabiting the eastern parts of Sene- 
 gambia and distributed eastward to the 
 
 Baghirmi country. All these peoples 
 except the Sonhray and Fulah nalit)ns 
 speak dialects of a common language, 
 but the latter peoples appear to have 
 each a distinct vernacular. 
 
 2. Central Sudan and tlie Chad Basin. — 
 In this region there are five separate 
 groups of peoples. The „ „ . 
 
 ° ^ ^ ^ Central Sudan- 
 
 first are the Adamawa ese and tribes of 
 ... . . the Chad Basin. 
 
 group, with some sixteen 
 tribal branches, belonging to L'pper 
 Benue and scattered thence eastward to 
 Logo. The second division, called the 
 Tubu nations, embraces twelve tribes, 
 inhabiting Tibesti, Kanem, and the 
 countries extending to the northern part 
 of Darfur. The third, or Logon, group 
 includes about fifteen branches, inhab- 
 iting Bornu, Lower Shari, and the Chad 
 islands. The fourth group, called the 
 Baghirmi, is divided into fifteen nations, 
 occupying the lower and middle parts 
 of Shari and the territories eastward to 
 Runga and Darbanda. The fourth, or 
 Waday, group, including a vast number 
 of tribes, occupy the country of Waday 
 and the districts eastward to Darfur. 
 
 3. East Sudan and Upper Nile. — In this 
 region there are four race families. The 
 first, known as the Dar- 
 
 Place of the 
 banda group, has eleven East Sudanese 
 ^ ., 1 , . . . . and the Nilotes. 
 
 tribal divisions, occupying 
 the country of Upper Shari and the ter- 
 ritory eastward to Dar-Fertit. The sec- 
 ond family of tribes, called the Eur 
 group, have about seventeen nations oc- 
 cupying the country of Darfur and Kor- 
 dofan, between Waday and the White 
 Nile. The third group, called Nilotes, 
 are divided into more than twenty tribes, 
 living along the White Nile and its trib- 
 utaries, eastward to Kaffa and Gallaland, 
 and southward to Uganda. The fourth 
 group of tribes are known as the Zandey, 
 and are better organized as a nation than 
 any of tho.se above enumerated. They
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 529 
 
 live about the Welle, and extend south- 
 ward to the Lualaba. 
 
 The above three general divisions are 
 all included under the general head of 
 Ethnic traces Sudaucsc, and are all Ne- 
 ^^nnl^C^r groes — though consider- 
 
 among the Ni- c> & 
 
 gritians. ably differentiated in ethnic 
 
 character — except in so far as they have 
 been modified alonsf the northern and 
 
 BANTU TYPE — CHJKF N'dOUMBA. 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 western borders by Hamitic influences. 
 It has already been noted that the Fulah 
 nations, especially the West Fulahs, 
 have been influenced not a little in their 
 race development by the impact of the 
 Hamitic migration, turning from the 
 north into vSenegambia. We now come 
 to the fourth general division of the Ne- 
 gro race. 
 
 4. The Bantu Family. — This great race 
 occupies South Central Africa, between 
 
 the Sudanese on the north and the Kaf- 
 firs and Hottentots on the south. The 
 Bantus have been classified, 
 
 . Classification 
 
 according to such dlStmC- and subdivisions 
 . • , -1 i. • i. of the Bantus. 
 
 tions as they present, mto 
 five ethnic groups. These are arranged 
 principally on the lines of geographical 
 locality: first, the Zulu-Kafhr group, 
 embracing many tribes, are scattered 
 through Zululand, Xatal-Kaflfraria, and 
 in the region northward toward the 
 great lakes of Eastern Africa; second, 
 the Central group, divided into about 
 sixteen nations, occupy the Upper 
 Orange river, Transvaal, the shores of 
 lake N'gami, and portions of the Zam- 
 besi. The Eastern group, also includ- 
 ing many subordinate tribes, fill the ter- 
 ritories on the east coast from the equa- 
 tor southward to the edge of Delagoa, 
 and westward to lake Nyassa; fourth, 
 the fequatorial group, including more 
 than twenty nations, fill the regions of 
 the great lakes, the upper part of Lua- 
 laba, and the country southward to the 
 Lokinga mountains; fifth, the Western 
 group, including about forty nations, 
 are distributed along the west coast of 
 the continent, from Damaraland north- 
 ward to the Cameroon mountains, and 
 eastward to the twentieth meridian of 
 longitude. 
 
 Within these vast regions, almost in- 
 comprehensible in their extent and char- 
 acter bv people of the , „ 
 
 '^ '^ Africa the Patria 
 
 Western continents, there Dolorosa of the 
 
 arc distributed about one 
 hundred and thirty million of people of 
 pure Negro origin, besides about twenty 
 million who have received, from one 
 circumstance or another, the traces of 
 foreign blood. These are the parts of 
 the earth out of which the conscience- 
 less states of the Middle Ages, and the 
 great nations of modern times as well, 
 have gathered their cargoes of human
 
 630 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JM.VAVXn. 
 
 chattels for the slave markets of the 
 world. It is the region of infinite sor- 
 rows, to which the inhabitants of a bet- 
 ter universe might point with shame, as 
 to the Patria Dolorosa of all planets, 
 upon which the stronger races of man- 
 kind have preyed with the cruelty of 
 tigers and the gluttony of wolves. 
 
 If we resume the consideration of the 
 migratory lines by which the widely dis- 
 persed races of the Sudan and the Bantu 
 countries were distributed, we shall find 
 one great departure turning 
 
 Limits of the , ' ° 
 
 Zulu and Kaffir to the south , from the coun- 
 dispersion. ^^^ included between the 
 
 Blue and the White Nile, and bearing 
 down the eastern coast of Africa the 
 primitive races of that region as far as 
 the Zulus and Coast Kaffirs of the south. 
 It appears that this branch of the dis- 
 persion was limited to the country be- 
 tween lake Nyassa and the .sea, thus con- 
 stituting a marked division between the 
 coast Negroes of Eastern Africa and the 
 Hottentots of the central and western 
 parts of the continent. 
 
 In the district immediately east of the 
 Victoria Nyanza the migratory line 
 Ethnic relations seems to have bifurcated, 
 Kaffirs'indthe ^ ^vestern branch putting 
 Bantus. off from the Coast Kaffir 
 
 division and extending around lake Tan- 
 ganyika and into the heart of the Bantu 
 country. It was by the ramification, 
 very extensive and multifarious, of this 
 line that the Bantu nations and the great 
 family of the West Kaffirs were distrib- 
 uted. The dispersion continued to the 
 western coast of the continent, the rami- 
 fications in this region reaching from 
 above the equator to the parallel of twen- 
 ty degrees south. On the lower coast, 
 however, the Bantu tribes were some- 
 what restricted to the interior by a line 
 of Hottentot migration from the south, 
 which distributed the Obongas and 
 
 other tribes between the Kaffirs and the 
 sea. 
 
 Such, then, in general terms, are the 
 limits and extent of the Negro di.spersio.n 
 of mankind. Geographically, its south- 
 ernmost point is with the General bound- 
 
 Zulus, under the parallel of ^^^"^^^^ 
 thirty degrees south. Its tion. 
 northernmost departure is with that eth- 
 nic line which carried the Jolofers to their 
 place on the south banks of the Senegal, 
 in latitude twenty degrees north. The 
 eastern divisions of the Negro family 
 arc conterminous with the African coast 
 adjacent to the Indian ocean, and the 
 western distribution of the race is along 
 the shores of the Atlantic. Measured 
 by meridians of longitude, the dispersion 
 reaches from fifty degrees east to twenty 
 degrees west. The whole area, therefore, 
 included by the dissemination of Negro 
 races, extends through about fifty degrees 
 of latitude and seventy degrees of longi- 
 tude, being, in general terms, coexten- 
 sive with Central and Southern Africa. 
 
 We come, in the next place, to con- 
 sider the dispersion of the Hottentots. 
 These constitute the remaining major 
 division of the Black race 
 in Africa. 
 
 Race origin of 
 It is claimed by the Hottentots 
 
 ethnographers that the line 
 of migration which carried this people 
 into the south extremity of the continent 
 entered from the side of the Indian 
 ocean at a point on the coast somewhat 
 below the entrance of the Negroes. We 
 have, however, in the case of the Hot- 
 tentots the same uncertainty that con- 
 fronted us in the case of the Negro race. 
 This is to say that Hottentot tribes have 
 not been found, within the historical era, 
 in that part of the country where they 
 arc supposed to have entered. The line 
 from the coast, running in a southwest- 
 erly direction between lakes Tangan- 
 yika and Nyassa, is carried by hypothesis
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. — THE BLACKS. 
 
 531 
 
 through more than twenty degrees of 
 latitude before the borders of the Hot- 
 tentot dispersion are reached. Such is. 
 the theory. All probabilities, however, 
 point to the incoming of these tribes 
 from the direction indicated, and their 
 affinity with the Negroes fully warrants 
 the assumption of a common origin with 
 them. 
 
 It is not until the inquirer reaches the 
 valley of the Upper Zambesi in his jour- 
 Where the Hot- ney across Southern Africa 
 from the east that he 
 comes upon the first tribes 
 of Hottentots. They are virtually lim- 
 ited in their actual distribution to the 
 
 tentots and 
 Bechuanas are 
 distributed. 
 
 BliCHUANA TYPE — A PAHOUIN. 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 country south of the Zambesi. The first 
 nation of importance is the Makololo 
 people, on the right bank of the river 
 and in the central part of the country. 
 They have the Negro Ovambos and Bun- 
 das on the west and the Coast Kaffirs on 
 the east. The Makololo may be regard- 
 ed as the oldest existing branch of the 
 Hottentot race, though it is in evidence 
 that in former times they extended much 
 further to the east, and that they occu- 
 
 pied the country from which they were 
 subsequently expelled by the Kaffirs 
 and other Negro tribes. 
 
 The next branch of the race is found 
 on the head-waters of the Gariep, or Or- 
 ange, river, and is known by the ethnic 
 name of Bechuanas. Some ethnogra- 
 phers have been disposed to make them a 
 race of different origin from the Hotten- 
 tots. It can not be denied that they are 
 distinguished from the aborigines of Cape 
 Colony by several important character- 
 istics. The nation has been consider- 
 ably compressed by wars with the peo- 
 ple of the south and with the Kaffirs on 
 the east ; and in recent times the Boers 
 have established themselves within the 
 Bechuana territory. 
 
 The family of Hottentots are, like 
 the Negroes further north, divided into 
 many subordinate tribes, subordinate 
 of which the Bassutos are r/th^eHrttlfn? 
 the principal. They have ^;°ts- 
 their territories to the west of the Ouath- 
 lamba mountains. A second tribe is 
 called the Batlapi, having their habitat 
 on the borders of the Kalahari desert. 
 A third family, known as the Barolong, 
 dwell to the north of the last named 
 people, but these have been nearly ex- 
 terminated in warfare with the Kaffirs. 
 Still north of the Barolong are the Bang- 
 waketse, while the Bahurutse have their 
 territories close alongside. The Badoana 
 are scattered on the north coast of lake 
 N'gami, and the Bakwains occupy the 
 hill-country whence the rivers Notuani 
 and Marqua descend to the coast. These 
 are the principal tribal divisions of the 
 Hottentot family. In the extreme south, 
 however, the most characteristic of all 
 these races, the Bushman and the Nam- 
 aqua are foimd, whose names have been 
 synonyms for one of the lowest types of 
 aboriginal life known in the annals of 
 existing races.
 
 532 
 
 GREAT .RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 There are not wanting evidences, suffi- 
 ciently conclusive to the ethnographer, 
 Indications that that the peoplcs whom we 
 H:?t'::?otfare 'ire here considcring-Ne- 
 primitive races, groes and Hotteutots — are 
 among the most ancient races on the 
 face of the globe. A single fact maj' be 
 cited, or rather repeated from a former 
 chapter, of the monumental delineation 
 of Xegroes among the captives of the 
 primitive Egyptians. All the race char- 
 acteristics of the two peoples were al- 
 ready distinctly developed. The eth- 
 nologist of to-day could not detect any 
 radical mark of difference between the 
 Negro as he is depicted among the 
 sculptures of the Egyptians or unwrapped 
 from the mummy cases of their tombs 
 and the living specimen of the same 
 race taken from the heart of Bantuland. 
 But the Negro of the sculptures and he 
 of the valley of the Livingstone are 
 separated in time by a period of hardly 
 less than six thousand years. Yet before 
 Egypt -was Egypt the Black race was dis- 
 seminated in Central Africa, and was in 
 all probability at that remote prehistoric 
 epoch not different in characteristics 
 and tendencies from what it is to-day. 
 
 Still further away from the historical 
 era ai-e the primitive Hottentots. All 
 Probability that the cthuic qualities of these 
 ar:ieaTd"evei! P^^pl^ point to an extrava- 
 oped of mankind, gant antiquity. An argu- 
 ment would not be far to seek from 
 these premises in favor of the evolution- 
 ary hypothesis of the human race, and 
 the assignment of a primitive, or in- 
 digenous, race center to the southern 
 parts of Africa. The cranial capacity of 
 the Hottentot is considerably less than 
 that of the Negro, as the Negro's bulk 
 and weight of brain are less than those 
 of the Turanians. Following the same 
 line of development we note the still 
 more extended brain evolution of the 
 
 Indo-Europeans, reaching its maximum 
 in Europe and North America. In what 
 direction soever these hints, drawn from 
 the natural history of man, may lead, 
 we may safely conclude that the Hot- 
 tentots are the oldest and least developed 
 of all the races which we have thus far 
 attempted to trace in their migratory 
 movements. No sketch of their char- 
 acteristics as a people is here attempted. 
 It has been the purpose in the current 
 chapter merely to mark out the cour.se 
 of dispersion and distribution b}- which 
 the Black races of Central and Southern 
 Africa have reached their respective 
 destination. 
 
 It now remains to notice the migra- 
 tory movements of the primitive Austra- 
 lian branch of the human family. Viewed 
 as a whole continent, Aus- 
 
 Homogenity of 
 
 tralia presents m its aborig- the Australian 
 
 1 ■ 1 i r aborigines. 
 
 mes only a single type of 
 people, to whom ethnographers have 
 given the name Australians. If there 
 be any trace at all of another race in the 
 great i.sland continent, it is on the ex- 
 treme eastern borders where the Papu- 
 ans of Tasmania may have left some 
 evidences of their presence or at least 
 their transmigration. 
 
 If the inquirer should begin his inves- 
 tigations from the standpoint of Aus- 
 tralia, he might well con- The Australians 
 elude that the native races ^f.^dtuhthe' 
 are indigenous to the coun- Nigritians. 
 try, being apparently without derivation 
 from any other race. In color, it is true 
 that the primitive people are in affinity 
 with the Negroes and Hottentots, but 
 their general characteristics and person- 
 ality would seem to set them apart from 
 almost every other type of mankind. It 
 has been agreed, however, that, pro- 
 ceeding on the monogenetic hypothesis, 
 that is, on the supposition of one com- 
 mon origin for all the races of men, the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 533 
 
 Australians may best be classified with 
 the Black races of Africa, and that their 
 incoming into the island should be reck- 
 oned from the northern coast. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN TYPE — JOKKAI. 
 
 Drawn by Tufani, 
 
 Ethnography has not hesitated to trace 
 backwards from this point, b}^ way of 
 Java and thence across the Indian ocean 
 to Southern Hindustan, the prehistoric 
 line of Australian dispersion. This, of 
 course, is done to carry out the ever- 
 
 present supposition of a submerged con- 
 tinent in the region between India and 
 Africa. Thus much being Lemuria seems 
 granted, it is easy to de- ^^^^/^^^^^J^^.^^^ 
 velop the line of probability tribution. 
 by which the primitive Black tribes of 
 Australia may have made their way 
 from Lemuria into the country of their 
 present occupancy. We shall therefore 
 follow the hypothesis to its legitimate 
 conclusions, and regard the Australian 
 branch of mankind as an eastern deflec- 
 tion from a parent stream, which was 
 common in its origin with the Xegritic 
 and Hottentot divisions on the other side 
 of the Indian ocean. 
 
 It ajjpears, then, that from the north- 
 west coast, near the gulf of Cambridge, or 
 Arnhem's land, the primitive Australian 
 migration was extended by 
 
 . . -^ Lines of the 
 
 divergencies through the Black dispersion 
 
 • 1 J • .1 :i-££ i T in Australia. 
 
 island m three different di- 
 rections. The first extended laterally 
 from north to south to the coast in the 
 vicinity of .Spencer gulf and the gulf of 
 St. \'incent. The second branch turned 
 to the west coast, which it followed as 
 far as the valle}' of Swan river, and was 
 thence extended to King George sound. 
 These divisions were subordinate, how- 
 ever, to the third ethnic branch which 
 turned to the east, near the head of thff 
 gulf of Carpentaria, and was thence 
 parted into several divisions, losing 
 themselves in the modern Queensland. 
 It appears that Xcav South Wales was 
 populated by tribes from the Upper 
 Darling, and that the whole of South- 
 eastern Australia was filled from the 
 sam.e general source. 
 
 The inquiry will again suggest itself 
 by zi'/iat mains these prehis- 
 
 Valid grounds 01 
 
 tone movements have been ethnographic 
 indicated to the ethnog- ^° 
 rapher. What are the sources from 
 which he has drawn his conjectures and
 
 534 
 
 CRRAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 proofs? In the first place, a comparison 
 of the different dialects spoken by the 
 native Australians indicates sufficiently 
 their affinity and common origin in some 
 single parent linguistic stock. But sec- 
 ondly, the general community of manners 
 and customs, the identity of the barba- 
 rous institutions, of -which at least the 
 rudiments are discernible, lead to the 
 same conclusion of a common origin for 
 all the natives of the continent. In the 
 third place, what may be called personal 
 peculiarities, identical in different and 
 
 VuK) 
 
 of mankind has apparently taken its 
 rise. In general, the Melanesian islands 
 are peopled with races de- origin and 
 rivedfromthissource. New ''^ZZ:'^^:,,. 
 Guinea has drawn its pojj- bution. 
 Illation from this Papuan stock, and has 
 taken their name as the modern designa- 
 tion of the island. Traces of the same 
 race have been followed to the east 
 and south as far as the Fiji islands, 
 where the migratory movement seems 
 to have terminated. In .short, through- 
 out Melanesia the Papuan lines have 
 
 S/1'Vr.r 
 
 ^VMtfl 
 
 PAITAN TVIM.S— MALE AND I-EMALE HEADS.-Drawn by E. M&plfa. 
 
 widely spread tribes, point likewise to a 
 common descent from a single ethnic 
 branch of the human family. It will be 
 the aim in a sub.sequcnt part of the pres- 
 ent work to give an account of the man- 
 ners and customs of these native races, 
 and to outline the institutional forms of 
 which their savage state has shown some 
 traces and beginnings. 
 
 From the main line of pre-Australian 
 migration a .secondary ethnic develop- 
 ment has apparently occurred in the 
 archipelago lying north of Au.stralia. 
 From this origin the Papuan division 
 
 carried peoples of this stock north, 
 south, east, and west, as far even as the 
 coast of Japan, and westward to the 
 Andamans. 
 
 Southern Borneo and a great part ot 
 Sumatra have felt the like influence 
 among their aborigines, 
 
 . Geographical 
 
 and nearly all of the islands limitations of 
 between Au.stralia and the 
 coast of China are infected with the 
 same blood and derivation. The south- 
 ern limit of the dispersion is reached 
 in Tasmania where the Papuans took 
 one of their most characteristic and
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 535 
 
 undisturbed developments. The geo- 
 graphical limits of the race are the 
 great ocean region between the forty- 
 second degree of south latitude and the 
 thirty-fifth north. Eastward the Fiji 
 islands, under the meridian of one hun- 
 dred and eighty from Greenwich, and 
 westward the Andaman islands under 
 ninety-two degrees east, define the lat- 
 eral distribution of the Papuan race. Its 
 peculiarity is that it is wholly insular. 
 The great country of Australia, though 
 lying in what might be called the heart 
 of this ethnic development, seems for 
 .some reason to have shed the Papuans 
 and to have taken a family of native 
 peoples peculiar to itself. 
 
 We have thus attempted to trace out 
 the geographical distribution of man- 
 kind according to their sev- 
 
 Legitimate use , , . ^ 
 
 of hypothesis in cral raccs and kmdreds. 
 mc inquiry. ^^ parts of tlie globe have 
 
 now been considered, including the re- 
 mote islands of the South Pacific. It will 
 readily be allowed that in many places 
 the course of migrations, as indicated in 
 the foregoing discussion, is hypothet- 
 ical. It may be claimed in this partic- 
 i:lar that in a scientific age, such as the 
 present, all work by hypothesis and con- 
 jecture ought to be eliminated from a 
 discussion which pretends to partake of 
 the nature of the exact sciences. This 
 view of the case is too extreme and se- 
 vere. The progress of knowledge de- 
 pends not infrequently upon stepping 
 from shore to shore by means of hy- 
 pothesis and theory. This method of 
 human investigation in many cases fore- 
 runs the observed order of nature and 
 indicates the place and limitations of 
 law. It is only in this sense that Ave 
 have here ventured to fill up certain 
 gaps in the movements of mankind by 
 theoretical lines. All .such work is, in 
 the nature of the case, tentative, and sub- 
 
 ject to revision and correction, as dis- 
 covered and discoverable data may 
 hereafter indicate the necessity of such 
 modification. 
 
 Before dismissing this part of the sub- 
 ject, several topics present themselves 
 for passing consideration. 
 
 '■ ^ Question of 
 
 In the first place, the long- time, place, and 
 T T , , . manner recurs. 
 
 standmg dispute about 
 the place, the time, and the method of 
 man's appearance on the earth obtrudes 
 itself constantly into the inquiry. It is 
 pressed upon the mind of the ethnog- 
 rapher not only by the ever-recurring 
 suggestions of traditional belief, but also 
 by the very necessities of his theme. 
 Almost in despite of those restraints and 
 cautious methods which he imposes upon 
 himself and upon every branch of the 
 subject, he finds himself disposed to 
 favor the one or the other of the several 
 current theories respecting the original 
 locus of mankind and the nature of the 
 genesis of the race. 
 
 The fundamental question is whether 
 the facts of ethnology on the whole tend 
 to strengthen or to weaken Theory of Mon- 
 the monogenetic theory of "S^ei^^/^* 
 the human family. Did fa°ts. 
 the race of man arise from a single 
 source and a single pair, at a single time 
 and under simple conditions? or did the 
 various branches of mankind have poly- 
 centric origins and independent lines of 
 development? In this fonn the ques- 
 tion is simply anthropological. Carried 
 into the domain of natural science, how- 
 ever, the problem has become one of 
 creation by evolution or immediate and 
 phenomenal creation ; and the inquiry 
 takes the same form which it has respect- 
 ing all other animals and all plants on 
 the face of the earth, namely, did they 
 originate by evolutionary processes of 
 growth and adjustment from a single 
 genu or a few germs of life, scattered in
 
 536 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the soil of possibility, or did the exist- 
 ing forms of life appear phenomenally 
 in time and place and in complete de- 
 velopment? On the whole, it may be 
 said that the theory of a monocentric 
 origin for the human race gains under 
 the addition of facts and the readjust- 
 ments of right reason ; while on the other 
 hand, it may well be allowed that the 
 universality of the evolutionary process 
 as applied to all other forms of life would 
 seem to demand a like process of growth 
 and development for man. 
 
 It is also fitting in this connection to 
 add a paragraph in the way of further 
 True aspect and explanation of what jnay be 
 t;™™o=:.ts C'-^lle*! the true aspect and 
 considered. form of thoso migratory 
 movements which have been delineated 
 in the present book. In several places 
 the reader has already been put on cau- 
 tion against the too exact representation 
 of these human phenomena by means of 
 lines and the other physical terms made 
 necessary by the nature of the discus- 
 sion. Ethnic lines drawn on a map 
 from place to place as indications of 
 the movements of tribes of men in 
 process of natural dispersion must not 
 be understood as a narrow highway or 
 as a river channel bearing a single 
 definite volume of water from its source 
 to its mouth — from its departure to its 
 dcboucliurc. Human progress over the 
 face of the earth has never been in this 
 exact similitude. If any tangible symbol 
 could be adopted to express to the senses 
 and receptive faculties of man the exact 
 nature of tribal diffusion, it would be 
 that of a f I III spreading' over the faec of the 
 earth. Xevertheless, this filmy and 
 irregular dispersion of mankind does 
 proceed from one place to another. It 
 starts from a definite origin and rees- 
 tablishes itself in another locus far re- 
 moved. A line drawn from one of these 
 
 places to another subserves an excellent 
 purpose as indicating the direction which 
 the movement, considered as a whole, 
 has taken, and also as defining the points 
 of departure and arrival. But in other 
 respects the line is altogether mislead- 
 ing, as being too iiiatheiiiatieal and precise 
 for the fact whicli i-t is intended to repre- 
 sent. If a map could be so constructed 
 as to bear broad, thin bands of color, 
 widening and contracting and bending 
 in likeness to the expansion and narrow- 
 ing and eddying of actual tribal move- 
 ments, the representation would be more 
 in conformity with the facts. The stu- 
 dent of ethnography must, therefore, be 
 on his guard lest the notion or concept 
 which he receives of the migrations of 
 mankind, deduced from the drawing of 
 lines across the map through continents 
 and over seas, be inadequate, and, in- 
 deed, erroneous in its nature. 
 
 Many familiar illustrations drawn at 
 random from the movement of peoples 
 within the historical era may be deduced 
 in illustration of the misconceptions into 
 which the inquirer is likely Familiar iiius- 
 to fall. For instance, the t^:^:^,^^^ 
 passage from the shores of races, 
 the Old World, in ships, of the colonists 
 who planted themselves in little rook- 
 eries on the eastern seaboard of America 
 might well be represented by lines drawn 
 across the Atlantic from point of de- 
 parture to point of settlement. But the 
 diffusion of those peoples inland from 
 the Atlantic shores, though it had a di- 
 rection and a tendency, could hardly be 
 given a linear representation. With the 
 development of the Old Thirteen vStates, 
 the overflow of their population by 
 adventure came through the passes of 
 the Alleghanies into the Ohio and 
 Mississippi valleA^s; but such a move- 
 ment would be very poorly represented 
 by lines.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES—THE BLACKS. 
 
 537 
 
 Gradual diffu- 
 sion of the 
 Anglo-Ameri- 
 cans westward. 
 
 The peopling of the trans-Mississippi 
 states and territories was in the nature 
 of a gradual spreading of 
 the American race toward 
 the Rocky mountains. 
 The colonization of Kansas and Ne- 
 braska may in general be traced to an 
 origin in New England. But a single 
 line drawn from Western Massachusetts 
 across New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 Illinois, and Iowa, and bifurcated at its 
 passage of the Missouri river into East- 
 ern Kansas and Nebraska, would be a 
 very inadequate, not to say an errone- 
 ous, representation of the actual facts. 
 Yet the movements which we have here 
 described were projected in the open 
 daylight of history, under the conscious 
 and rational forces of civilization. They 
 were consequently much more exact than 
 those natural expeditions and swarmings 
 forth which characterized the barbarous 
 epochs of human society. The progress 
 by which the colonists have peopled 
 the western portions of America by mi- 
 gration from the east is much more 
 susceptible of exact delineation than 
 were those prehistoric movements which 
 were directed by the blind forces of bar- 
 barism. An attempt to point out with 
 geometric curves the course taken by the 
 Teutonic hordes who came into Britain 
 in the fifth century, or by the Northmen 
 into Neustria in the ninth, would be not 
 only conjectural but exceedingly ineffi- 
 cient as a pictorial method of symboliz- 
 ing the things it is intended to express. 
 The movements of human society on 
 the surface of the earth are as multifari- 
 Exactitude not ous as the swarming of bees 
 inetw^moet f^n^ the parent colony, 
 "le'^ts. It is easy to indicate the 
 
 general direction of the swarm, to point 
 out its origin and its ultimate destination 
 in the distant forest ; but its exact course 
 
 and the manner of its going are phe- 
 M. — Vol. I — 35 
 
 nomena exceedingly difficult of definition 
 and description. Human migrations are 
 even more intangible and multifarious 
 in their manifestations than are the blind- 
 er circlings about and the final settlings 
 of animals and birds, and the reader 
 must be on his guard against the exact 
 and mathematical delineation of such 
 movements on maps and globes. They 
 are, at best, the vague indications of the 
 places from which and to which and the 
 space over which the tribes of men have 
 drifted and turned and whirled on their 
 way to a final occupancy of a different 
 and distant part of the earth's surface. 
 
 Still another important consideration 
 arises with respect to the classification 
 and tribal dispersion of mankind. This 
 relates to the precise separa- 
 
 Separation of 
 
 tion of tribe from tribe and tribes and races 
 
 r 1 • -L Ai not complete. 
 
 race from race which the 
 ethnographers have employed in their 
 schemes of division. These plans of 
 distribution and of race partition are 
 drawn up as if they were mathematical 
 formulas. It is assumed that the Ruddy 
 races are clearly defined from the Brown, 
 and the Brown races from the Black ; 
 that is, that the lines of demarkation be- 
 tween these major divisions of mankind 
 are clearly and definitely drawn. Such 
 a supposition is as wide from the fact as 
 is the use of a line to represent the pre- 
 historic movements of a tribe. It is true 
 that there are Ruddy races, that there 
 are other races which are Black, and 
 others Brown. But the lines of dix-ision 
 which are supposed to separate the one 
 from the other, that is, the ethnic dis- 
 tinctions by which the one is separated 
 from the other, would be difficult to 
 discover. 
 
 It is here, as in all natural anah'sis, 
 that nature hangs together. The races 
 of men grade off, the one into the other, 
 by imperceptible degrees. This is true
 
 538 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 of their physical characteristics, of their 
 mental habitudes, of their morality, and 
 )ff-gradmg of of their institutional forms 
 of life. It would perhaps 
 be impossible to find the 
 exact points of division between the 
 
 the human spe- 
 cies ; no Unes in 
 nature. 
 
 TYPE OF RUDDY RACE APPROXIMATED TO BROWN 
 
 — A NATIVE OF MADRAS. 
 
 Drawn by Einile Bayard. 
 
 Black peoples of the world and those 
 ■who are classified as Brown. Xor could 
 the Ruddy peoples be separated from 
 either by a precise line of demarkation. 
 Nature abhors a line! The physical 
 
 world does not present a single instance 
 of what may properly be called a line. 
 Every phenomenon is .shaded off on all 
 sides into the other facts with which it 
 is associated. It is true that the dis- 
 tinction between night and day is suffi- 
 ciently striking; but all the scien- 
 tific tests in the world could never 
 define the limits of that dawn which 
 separates the one from the other. 
 The cloud is discriminated from the 
 sky, and yet by what kind of test 
 could the edge of a cloud be de- 
 fined from its atmospheric envel- 
 ope? It is not pos.sible to produce 
 even on the edge of the finest cut- 
 lery an actual line. Everywhere 
 there is a blending of the phenom- 
 ena that lie on the two sides of the 
 demarkation. In the world of life 
 this absence of exact outlines by def- 
 inition is equally noticeable. The 
 differences between races of men are 
 among the most striking and inter- 
 esting facts with which historical in- 
 ; quiry has to do ; but these condi- 
 tions are graded down until at the 
 selvage they blend with one another 
 into a common character. 
 
 This, however, is not to assert 
 that there is.no difference between 
 one race of men and species a mis- 
 another. It is only to "°;^"'^*^!,„ 
 
 J economy oi na- 
 
 deny the division of the t"re. 
 one from the other by those exact 
 lines of discrimination which ethnog- 
 raphers are wont to employ. Those 
 thinkers who have made the widest 
 application of the hypothesis of evo- 
 lution to the various forms of life on 
 the globe have become satisfied that 
 all varieties of living forms merge into 
 each other, and that the method of clas- 
 sifying by genera and species is in reality 
 fictitious — a convenience of science per- 
 haps, but having no corresponding fact
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— THE BLACKS. 
 
 639 
 
 in nature. It is held that whereas there 
 are almost infinite varieties among liv- 
 ing creatures, there are no species in the 
 sense in which that term has been 
 hitherto understood by natural phi- 
 losophers. In many places in the 
 world of life great gaps and chasms 
 are discovered which it is necessary to 
 bridge over by supposing intermediate 
 living forms which have disappeared. 
 But it is believed that if all the phenom- 
 enal exhibitions of life which have been 
 seen on the earth could be restored, the 
 artificial methods of classification now 
 employed would disappear; in other 
 words, that all life would become one, 
 the various formal manifestations of the 
 same being shaded off by such fine de- 
 grees as not to warrant the fixing of the 
 great classes and smaller divisions which 
 furnish the nomenclature of biology. 
 
 If this view of nature be accepted as 
 applied to the human race, we should be 
 Races of men led to regard the chasms 
 must be regard- between the different divi- 
 
 ed as varieties of 
 
 acommoniife. sions of mankind as the re- 
 sult of the perishing and dropping out 
 of certain intermediate types that, on the 
 whole, were less able to perpetuate them- 
 selves than were those varieties of men 
 who were differentiated under more fa- 
 vorable conditions on either side of the 
 departure. We should thus be led to 
 regard a given "race," so called, as a 
 certain form of humanity which nature 
 had proved and ratified under the laws 
 
 of environment and survival. A differ- 
 ent family would present simply another 
 aspect of the one common fact adjusted 
 to new conditions and developed on new 
 lines of activity. Intermediate between 
 these two separate forms of human evo- 
 lution we should find both branches 
 grading toward each other and approxi- 
 mating to a common type. The type 
 itself would perhaps be absent, but the 
 shades on either side of the line of de- 
 markation would be so slightly different 
 as to be hardly distinguishable the one 
 from the other. 
 
 Such conditions are discovered along 
 the edges, or selvages, of race develop- 
 ment. The Danube in Peoples approx- 
 ancient times constituted i^^t'eS 
 a kind of geographical bar- margins, 
 rier between the Teutonic and the 
 Grseco-Italic races. The Goth, consid- 
 ered as a Goth, was sufficiently distinct 
 from the Greek considered as a Greek, 
 or the Roman as a Roman. But the 
 two races at their margins approxi- 
 mated a common ethnic form, and this 
 Independently of the admixture of blood. 
 All of these considerations are adduced 
 and urged upon the attention of the in- 
 quirer to the end that his concept of 
 race divisions may be somewhat more 
 in accordance with the facts, than would 
 likely happen if he were trained to con- 
 sider the different streams of mankind 
 distinctly separated by the exact lines of 
 ethnography.
 
 540 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Chapter XXXI.— IVIixed Races oe NIankind. 
 
 Existence of 
 mixed or inter- 
 mediate races. 
 
 |E are thus led to the 
 consideration of an- 
 other fact of no little 
 importance in the gen- 
 eral apprehension of 
 the movements and 
 dispersion and devel- 
 opment of mankind. This is the exist- 
 ence and character of intermediate or 
 mixed races. It has always happened 
 that wherever two families 
 of men have touched each 
 other geographically, they 
 have also touched by the more intimate 
 admixture of blood. In the early ages 
 of history, when race antipathy was 
 stronger than it is under the light of 
 civilization, the intermingling of differ 
 ent branches of the race was less fre- 
 quent and conspicuous than in modern 
 times. But intermarriages were com- 
 mon from the remotest epochs, and are 
 mentioned as common circumstances in 
 the most primitive traditions of the 
 world. 
 
 As a result of the cross-relation- 
 ships thus established between fami- 
 Race offspring Hes of different blood an 
 
 takes character cc 
 
 fi-om both an- offspnug, possessmg some- 
 cestors. thing of the traits of both 
 
 ancestors, would arise, intermediate be- 
 tween the two ; and when the departure 
 between the two stocks thus blended 
 was strongly marked in color and other 
 ethnic qualities, the result of the union 
 would present a type sufficiently distinct 
 to be classified by itself. An interme- 
 diate group, or branch, of people would 
 thus be established who, preferring as- 
 sociations with their own kind, would 
 become a tribe, and finally a nation. 
 Such is the somewhat theoretical 
 
 view of the genesis of a mixed race of 
 people. 
 
 Strangely enough, however, the facts 
 do not seem to warrant the conclusion. 
 
 This is to say that the But intermedl- 
 
 tribal and race development pe'pe™a\t° "°* 
 of the intermediate stock themselves. 
 has never seemed to answer to the ex- 
 pectation of the premises. That is, 
 there is an apparent law in the natural 
 world which forbids the propagation and 
 expansion of these intermediate varieties 
 of mankind. The law in question is 
 common to man, to the lower animals, 
 and to plants. The hybrid does not 
 procreate its kind. It is incapable of 
 doing so. This is to say that if the two 
 animals which have been united in the 
 production of a third be sufficiently dif- 
 ferentiated from each other as to belong 
 to what the naturalist calls diverse " spe- 
 cies," then the offspring can not procre- 
 ate its kind, and the movement in the 
 direction of a new variety of animals 
 ceases with the first stage. If, how- 
 ever, the two animals are so near to- 
 gether in structure and characteristics 
 as to fall within the limits of what is 
 called a "species," then, indeed, the off- 
 spring of their union can procreate along 
 the new line of life. But it has been 
 universally observed that such propaga- 
 tion is extremely feeble, and that it 
 tends to weakness and early extinction. 
 In cases where this does not actually 
 happen, the offspring of the original 
 union, after a few generations, reverts 
 to the type of the one or the other of the 
 ancestors from which it was descended. 
 This reversion to the character of an 
 ancestral stock appears to be the case 
 with the union of the different branches
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— MIXED FORMS. 
 
 541 
 
 of mankind. That is, considered accord- 
 ing to the biological classifications 
 until recently acknowledged as the best 
 
 APPROXIMATION OF BLACK AND BKOUN RACES — THE 
 
 MOOR FAG HE. 
 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat. 
 
 expressions of the different orders of 
 nature, all men fall within a single spe- 
 cies, having its varieties 
 
 All varieties of . ^ . 
 
 men fall within a which may Unite despite 
 
 single "species." <• .1 • . i- i- 
 
 of their strong distinc- 
 tions, and produce a progeny having 
 the qualities of both parentages. It has 
 been maintained by many naturalists, 
 and until recently has been generally 
 believed, that these hybrid forms of hu- 
 man life have in them the elements of 
 perpetuit}^ that the new variety of man- 
 kind thus established is fecund in its 
 kind, and as well qualified to maintain 
 its independent characteristics as is 
 
 either of the types from which it has 
 been derived. 
 
 A closer study of the situation, how- 
 ever, has established the opposite view. 
 It is now known, and wellnigh universal- 
 ly recognized bv biologists, 
 
 ■^ ^ . " o ' Short-Uved 
 
 that the intermediate va- character of all 
 
 • , ■ 111 -1 mixed varieties. 
 
 rieties, or so-called mixed 
 races of men, are, considered as distinct 
 types, exceedingly short lived, unable as 
 a rule to continue their existence or to 
 maintain the distinct features which they 
 present in the first generations after the 
 original admixture. Such intermediate 
 peoples, therefore, constitute, not, as was 
 hitherto supposed, distinct races in the 
 ethnography of mankind, but a kind of 
 floating population interfused among 
 the nations of the world, mixing and 
 
 APPRO.KI.MATION OF THE RUDDY AND BROWN RACES- 
 DON MARIANO TERAN, PRIEST OF COPORAQUE. 
 Drawn by Riou, from a photograph. 
 
 mingling dimly with the other human 
 elements, but really effecting no changes 
 in the general constitution of any type.
 
 542 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 In all ages this impermanent compound 
 of humanity has shown itself along the 
 Results of inter- margins of race contact, 
 mixture in the |^ ^ j ^,^^ exerted other 
 
 case of the 
 
 ludo-Aryans. than a modifying influence 
 on the separate peoples from whom the 
 mixed type has been deduced. We have 
 already seen that the valleys of India 
 were populated before the immigrant 
 Aryans took possession of the country. 
 In another chapter the presence of this 
 aboriginal population has been accounted 
 for by the hypothesis of a Dra vidian mi- 
 gratory movement across the peninsula 
 before the deflection of that race into the 
 great archipelagoes of the East. The 
 Aryan tribes were not severe with the 
 aborigines, but absorbed them by blood 
 union and amalgamation. The result 
 was, not the establishment and perpetu- 
 ity of an intermediate or mixed race, but 
 merely a modification in the Indo- Aryan 
 character. It is believed that the immi- 
 grant and superior race took a consider- 
 able percentage of the Brown color of the 
 Dravidians, something of their tropical 
 suppleness of body, and a certain mental 
 quiescence favorable to the genesis and 
 propagation of the dreamy philosophies 
 and negative religions of India. These 
 results have continued to the present 
 time, and are quickly discernible by the 
 ethnographer in the swarthy complexion, 
 litheness, and subjective moods of the 
 peoples of Hindustan. But the Hindus 
 are not to be regarded in the light of a 
 mixed race. They are essentially Ar- 
 yan, not only in their genesis and evolu- 
 tion, but in their present character as a 
 race. The tint of the Old Dravidians is 
 in their countenance, and their blood is 
 tinged with the influences of aboriginal 
 descent ; but the ethnic type is the same 
 that it was beyond the Hindu-Kush and 
 in the old Aryan nidus in Bactria. 
 The same phenomenon has occurred 
 
 and recurred in hundreds of instances in 
 the history of mankind. In fact, it is ex- 
 ceedingly exceptional to 
 
 ^ Examples of like 
 
 find a race of men who have ethnic phenom- 
 
 . , 1 . ena elsewhere. 
 
 not been more or less in- 
 fected in blood and development by alien 
 influences. But each race has continued 
 its course of evolution under the domin- 
 ion of the original ethnic impulse ; and 
 while it has accepted modifications from 
 foreign peoples, it has persisted in main- 
 taining its own type. The attention of 
 the reader has already been called to the 
 fact that the Assyrians were a people 
 who had been thus modified by two or 
 three contacts with other races. The 
 Hamites on the south had somewhat in- 
 fected the ethnic character of the people 
 in Upper Mesopotamia. Later on, the 
 Aryan Medes penetrated the country on 
 the east and gave another modification 
 to the people. So great were the changes 
 thus efl'ected in the Assyrian race char- 
 acter that ethnographers have been con- 
 fused in their classification. Even the 
 language was so much infected as to mis- 
 lead the inquirer in regard to the lin- 
 guistic stock from which it was deduced. 
 But all of these foreign influences were 
 no more than modifications in the real 
 .Semitic constitution of the Assyrians. 
 The foreign admixture deflected some- 
 what the course and character of the 
 people of the Upper Tigris, but did not 
 subvert their fundamental constitution 
 or substitute one ethnic descent for an- 
 other. 
 
 The peoples of Western Asia Minor, 
 especially on the south, were regarded 
 
 as composite. This fact Further exam- 
 has been pointed out in telt^^ZT- 
 a former chapter. But acter. 
 the persistency of the strongest stock, 
 whatever that was in a given instance, 
 preserved the original type, however 
 modified and diverted from its earlier
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—MIXED FORMS. 
 
 543 
 
 standards. All the western nations of 
 ■ primitive Europe might be cited as ex- 
 amples of the absorption, to a greater or 
 less degree, of preceding populations 
 that were overcome by conquest and 
 taken up by the pi^ocess of amalgama- 
 tion. The Hamitic Basques and Ibe- 
 rians of Spain were in this manner 
 absorbed by the Aryan Spaniards of a 
 later age, and the latter received from 
 the former a darker tinge of color, and 
 perhaps other physical and mental char- 
 acteristics which they carry to the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 The modern world presents still more 
 strikingly the modifications resultant 
 The Israelites from the intermixture of 
 eT^io^irof distinct types of people, 
 races. Perhaps no stock in the 
 
 world can better exhibit the persistency 
 of the original type under infinite modi- 
 fications of environment and foreign im- 
 pact than the Israelites, who are at present 
 interfused among the Western nations. 
 The " Abrahamic face " is seen in all the 
 marts of the world. The original char- 
 acter is strong upon him. He has inter- 
 mingled with all the races. The Spanish 
 Jew is very different in constitution and 
 ethnic character from the German or 
 Polish Jew ; but each and all have pre- 
 served an original type under diverse 
 and divergent aspects. 
 
 Modern ethnography has taken note 
 of an almost endless variety of mixed 
 races which present the beginnings, but 
 never the results, of new ethnic develop- 
 „.^ ^-^ ■ ments. The distribution 
 
 Wide diffusion 
 
 ofmixed types; of the Black and Brown 
 
 the Mulattoes. . . . ^ , 
 
 races mto regions of the 
 earth now occupied by the Ruddy fami- 
 lies of men has given occasion for the 
 production of these multiform cross- 
 bloods whose interest as races lies 
 not in their perpetuity, but merely 
 in their present aspect. Wherever the 
 
 Ruddy and the Black race have come 
 into contact, that type known as Mulat- 
 toes has appeared, and until recently it 
 might have been thought that the Mu- 
 latto was destined to permanence as an 
 intermediate type of mankind. This, 
 however, is the very thing which, under 
 the law of nature, can not, or at least 
 does not, occur. The Mulatto is fecund. 
 It has been noticed by statisticians that 
 the first generation of Mulatto children, 
 that is, Cascos, or those who have Mu- 
 lattoes for both parents, are unusually 
 numerous; but it is also observed that 
 the tendency to reversion immediately 
 appears, some being blacker, like the 
 ancestral mother, and others whiter, like 
 the first father of the admixture. 
 
 The latter type of Mulattoes, that is, 
 those who gravitate toward the white 
 parentage, are almost in- 
 
 . Instability of 
 
 variably weak and spirit- the Mulatto 
 less. If they procreate at all, 
 the offspring dies, and the reversion to- 
 ward the white parentage soon ceases 
 for want of material. The blackward 
 tendency goes on for several genera- 
 tions, when the distinction between the 
 Mulatto progeny and the children of 
 Blacks is no longer noticeable. The 
 type has reverted on the side of the 
 original mother. The same phenom- 
 enon recurs with the Mestizo, or the 
 half-breed of the Mexican and the 
 Spanish-American states. As a rule, 
 the father, in this case, is a white 
 Spaniard and the mother an Indian 
 woman. Here, again, in the first gener- 
 ation a distinction appears among the 
 children. The Mestizos fluctuate from 
 the father's to the mother's side, and, 
 though somewhat more persistent than 
 the Mulattoes, they either revert or 
 perish. 
 
 That indefinable tj-pe, called Creole 
 in those countries where the word is
 
 644 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 Used to designate half-breeds, shows 
 
 the same or analogous tendencies. The 
 
 Zambo, or cross between 
 
 Crosses of Amer- i i t t 
 
 lean aborigines the Negro and the Indian, 
 with Negroes. .^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ generations 
 
 undiscoverable as a separate type. That 
 is, the Zambo can only be perpetuated 
 by the repetition of the original cross. 
 
 l,iliti:;!!;:!11!iti1l!irtl1'rTT!ff™ffiri!!||l|lli 
 
 or forces which occasion the departure 
 of one type of people from another, and 
 the development of each Ethnic instincts 
 into diverse forms of ac- ^'^^^f^l'^i","'"' 
 
 creation and 
 
 tivity, we should, perhaps, birth, 
 find the answer to our inquiry in the 
 nature of procnatioii and birth. There is 
 a human instinct which, in virtue of its 
 
 MlXhli IVPhS-MEXICAN WOM F.N. -Drawn by Riou 
 
 So, likewise, of the Cholo of .South 
 America, the Pardo and the Mamaluco 
 of Brazil, the Chino of Mexico and 
 Spanish America, the Cafuso, or Negro- 
 Indian cross, of Brazil, and in general of 
 all varieties and .shades of the so-called 
 mixed races of mankind. 
 
 If we are dispo.sed to look into what 
 may be called the origin of races, 
 that is, the very primary circumstances 
 
 own nature, hovers around the fact of 
 maternity. Still deeper down than this 
 somewhat generalized sentiment that 
 covers the mother, there is an instinct of 
 the mother herself for her oifspring. 
 This is sufficiently strong even in ani- 
 mals to .stimulate intelligence and fore- 
 thought. The mother does not abandon 
 her child. She protects it, nunses it. 
 Otherwise, there were no perpetuity.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—MIXED FORMS. 
 
 545 
 
 This maternal impulse is the bottom 
 
 fact in the ethnic dispersion of mankind. 
 
 The mother is bound to her 
 
 AU race disposi- , ., , , ... . , , 
 
 tions arise from child by the law oi her be- 
 the family. .^^^ Therefore she keeps 
 
 it, first on her breast, afterwards at her 
 side. She is the mother, not of one, 
 but of many. She nurtures and gathers 
 all of them about her, and puts herself 
 between them and danger. This phe- 
 nomenon is perfectly natural, and, like 
 other elementary facts, is incapable of 
 explanation. To the mother and her 
 group the father is drawn. They con- 
 stitute a complex fact, and he a simple 
 fact. Even in savagery he is tied to 
 this group, with one of whom he has 
 the most intimate association, and of the 
 rest of whom he recognizes himself as 
 the creator. 
 
 The ties which bind the father to 
 the mother and to his offspring are 
 Place of the not SO permanent and abso- 
 lute as those between the 
 mother and her children. 
 But they are, nevertheless, sufficient to 
 hold him, with tolerable singularity, to 
 her and to them, and, indeed, to con- 
 stitute him their head and defender. 
 Doubtless the sentiment of fatherhood 
 arises at a very early period in the 
 breast of the savage, and, though it is 
 not constant and dominating in the bar- 
 barian, it nevertheless is sufficiently 
 pronounced to complete the elementary 
 conditions of the family. The family, 
 then, begun on these simple and natural, 
 we might say inevitable, conditions, is 
 the beginning of race divergence. 
 
 Out of the family springs the gens. 
 The brothers of a given family, mayhap 
 In what manner the sisters, become the 
 ^vXd/r'om heads of other families, 
 famiues. bearing an intimate rela- 
 
 tionship the one to the other. They have 
 a common blood. They dwell together 
 
 father in the 
 primary organ 
 ization. 
 
 or in proximity. Their interests are, in 
 large measure, mutual. They help each 
 other, prosper together, suffer together, 
 and struggle in common causes. They 
 call each other by the common ancestral 
 name, and are thus all grouped as one, 
 constituting that fact in the evolution of 
 man called tlie gens, the clans, the sept, 
 the totem, or some such name significant 
 of a single blood origin and develop- 
 ment. The gens, then, is the second 
 stage of race evolution. 
 
 Out of the gens arises the tribe. That 
 strange fact which we call by the general 
 name of nature does not „ 
 
 The tribe m like 
 
 freely permit the intermar- manner springs 
 
 1111 . r fromgentes. 
 
 riage and blood union or 
 intimate kinspeople. There is a revul- 
 sion against it as a method of procreat- 
 ing and extending the race. The natural 
 affections of brotherhood and sisterhood, 
 even in the most savage state, are totally 
 different from those sexual affections 
 upon which the multiplication of the 
 race depends. It is thus found con- 
 venient and desirable, in the very earli- 
 est stages of society, that the members of 
 a given gens do not intermarry with one 
 another. It is found to be more fitting 
 that the man of one gens take the 
 woman of another to his wife, and vice 
 versa. For convenience, we call the 
 members of a given gens gentiles, and 
 the rule of even the most profound bar- 
 barism is that gentiles shall not inter- 
 marry. "With the cross unions which take 
 place under these natural laws, relations 
 are at once established between two or 
 more gentes. These cross relations bring 
 the several orentes together in a common 
 cause. The selvages of all are knit to- 
 gether by the marriage unions among 
 them, and the offsprings of such unions 
 are allied to all in common. This union 
 of several gentes constitutes the tribal 
 or third staa-e in race evolution.
 
 546 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the 
 
 threefold process which we have here 
 
 described occurs in the plastic stage of 
 
 human development. It may be assumed 
 
 that the primitive gentile 
 
 The gentile life . '^ r i 
 
 astateofsus- was m a State of youth as 
 
 cept.bil.ty. .J. j.g^p^.^t^ y^^ fj^n,i]y ^.hiid- 
 
 hood that had been and the race man- 
 hood that was to be. It is well known 
 that throughout all nature plants and 
 animals pass through a state of suscepti- 
 bility in which and out of which they 
 may be deflected into almost any form 
 of growth. There is a time in the his- 
 tory of a tree when, as a mere withe, it 
 can be tied into a knot without injury 
 to the organism. There is a time when 
 the husk of corn may be opened and a 
 row of the grains cut out, and the wound 
 will close and the completed ear give no 
 hint of the process by which the number 
 of rows thereon has been reduced from 
 even to odd. Aye, more, in the early 
 stages of life all animal forms are virtu- 
 ally identical. But at a certain period 
 they begin, in obedience to their own 
 laws, to differentiate into the several 
 types which tliey are ultimately to bear. 
 The gentile age of man appears to be 
 his "age of susceptibility," as it respects 
 r .V . -^ y.c tl^6 form and character of 
 
 In the tribal life 
 
 ethnic features the race toward which 
 
 are established. 1^1 ,, 
 
 he tends. .Something of 
 
 this susceptibility is carried forward into 
 the tribe, which is the next higher form 
 of human structure. It is likely that 
 after the tribe has been well constituted, 
 the features of the race are not only dis- 
 coverable in the tribal lineaments, but 
 are in a measure /.nv/ so as to be subjected 
 to little additional modification . Thus, if 
 we trace the barbarian unit of the primi- 
 tive world toward the coming race of 
 which his descendant is to be the epitome 
 and brief abstract, we shall find that his 
 actual differentiation into race form takes 
 
 place while he is passing through the 
 gentile and tribal stages of develop- 
 ment. 
 
 It happens — has happened — in a vast 
 number of instances that the develop- 
 ment of mankind has been arrested in 
 the gentile stage. This is The horde arises 
 to say that the or^anie tend- ^TJJZTC 
 ency ceases at this low ment. 
 point in the scale, and instead of reach- 
 ing a tribe by the evolution of the gens, 
 we come to that other remarkable fact in 
 the prehistoric world called the horde. 
 A horde is not a tribe. We have in the 
 vegetable kingdom a phenomenon called 
 blasting. The grain that is to be, in- 
 stead of coming to development and 
 maturity, suddenly passes, as in the 
 ergot of rye, into a blasted and inorganic 
 condition. The horde is a blasted tribe. 
 It happened in the ancient world that 
 the growing gens sometimes expanded 
 sparsely into a vast and cheerless region, 
 unfavorable for aggregation and, per- 
 haps, already thinly populated by some 
 aboriginal form of humanity. The dis- 
 persing members of the gens that might 
 have become a tribe under more favora- 
 ble circumstances, inviting them to imite 
 with some other gens into a more com- 
 plex form of organization, merely diffuse 
 and scatter among the barbarians already 
 existing, intermingle with them, become 
 a common mass, without discoverable 
 features or form, and presently, after 
 multiplication without development, roll 
 away, under the influence of some blind 
 force, into the form of a Iiorde. This 
 phenomenon recurs and re-recurs beyond 
 the horizon of history, and even on this 
 side of the dawn. To the present day 
 there are hordes drifting over the waste 
 regions of the earth, without form and 
 void. They are the miscarried aspects 
 of tribal development, the ergot of races 
 that have suffered abortion.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— MIXED FORMS. 
 
 547 
 
 The surviving tribe, however, situated 
 
 under more favorable conditions and 
 
 uro;ed b\' a more rational 
 
 The race is the . . . 
 
 result of tribal instlUCt, Iixes itSelf 111 the 
 
 evolution. ■, i .1 1 •, 
 
 SOU, and presently, by its 
 growth, expansion, and maturity, pre- 
 sents us with that aspect of humanity 
 
 to the divisions thereof, and sometimes 
 even to minor stocks. But, as we have 
 said, the context generally shows in 
 which sense the word has been em- 
 ployed. Race, then, may be understood 
 as an expression for a given type of 
 mankind sufficiently differentiated from 
 
 THK HOKUE.— Kntkance ok the Moors i.\to Alcazar. 
 
 which we call a race. The word is very 
 inexact. It has a wider and a narrower 
 sense. Its merit is that it generally con- 
 veys to the mind, in its relations with a 
 given context, the true sense which it is 
 intended to gfive. The term race is some- 
 times applied to all mankind, sometimes 
 
 all other tvpes to present and maintain 
 certain characteristics easih- distin- 
 ginshed from those of other branches 
 of the human family. 
 
 Such a differentiated form of mankind 
 is the product of tribal evolution into 
 permanency and persistency of structure.
 
 548 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The genesis begins with the instinctive 
 preference and passion of the mother for 
 The successive her own offspring", and the 
 stages of devei- association and binding of 
 
 opment summzi- ° 
 
 tized. the father to the mother 
 
 and child as the head of the family. The 
 evolution passes easily into the gentile 
 form, Avhich is the first stage above the 
 family development. The gens unites 
 with another gens, or with other gentes, 
 to produce a tribe. This is the migra- 
 tory, and also the differential, period of 
 the human career. When the tribe has 
 become fixed in a favorable locality it 
 expands, under auspicious conditions, 
 into the permanent form of a race, and 
 the evolution is complete. 
 
 The gradual and toilsome spreading of 
 
 mankind over the surface of the globe 
 
 has been a process both 
 
 Slow and toil- /■ -, r ■, 
 
 some progress of Striking and wondertul. 
 
 the human race, -r .^ r ii. 
 
 In the course of ages the 
 planet came into the habitable condition 
 — into the ej^och of life. Life appeared. 
 The lower forms were succeeded by the 
 higher. Man came as the master race 
 of animals. He came with reason, at 
 least potentially, and with possibilities 
 of improvement, of adjustment and re- 
 adjustment to his environment, of change 
 and growth and high achievement. 
 With the development of his tribes mi- 
 gration became a necessity, not, indeed, 
 a definite movement from one locality to 
 another far distant, but a spreading first 
 into adjacent regions, and afterwards to 
 lands afar. 
 
 With this outbranching from old eth- 
 nic centers there came, in the plastic 
 stage of mankind, the differentiation of 
 tribe from tribe, of race from race. 
 Possibly a diversity of individual in- 
 stinct was the small source from which 
 the differential tendency arose. Some 
 cause there certainly was for the branch- 
 ing forth into different forms of the 
 common stock of humanity. Long, 
 tedious, and variable have been the proc- 
 esses of movement and evolution un- 
 til, at last, all parts of the habitable 
 globe have come under the dominion, 
 or at least the occupancy, of the race. 
 
 It has been the aim in the current 
 book to give merely a cursory sketch of 
 the principal movements 
 
 ■^ .... Synoptical view 
 
 by which this distribution of the dispersion 
 
 . , . T . , ., ^ J. of mankind. 
 
 of mankind into all parts oi 
 the earth has been effected. In tracing 
 out the.se migratory waves we have only 
 incidentally touched upon the peculiari- 
 ties and characteristics which were 
 meanwhile manifesting themselves 
 among the various races and nations. 
 While the distribution has been in 
 process of accomplishment, the distinct 
 features by which race is distinguished 
 from race have been evolved. The con- 
 spicuous differences which discriminate 
 one people from another have appeared, 
 until the modern inquirer is more .sur- 
 prised at the variable aspect of mankind 
 than he is with those movements which 
 have preceded the present conditions of 
 the race.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 549 
 
 Chapter XXXII. 
 
 -General View ok Ethnic Char= 
 acteristics. 
 
 Personal charac- 
 teristics of races 
 to be considered. 
 
 EFORE passing to an- 
 other general division 
 of the subject, we pause 
 to look somewhat more 
 attentively at the gen- 
 eral ethnic peculiarities 
 by which the different 
 races of mankind are discriminated the 
 one from the other. The inquiry will 
 include not only distinctions, but also 
 analogies and identities among the dif- 
 ferent branches of the hu- 
 man race. It is intended 
 to note the traits and quali- 
 ties of life and manners among at least 
 the principal divisions of mankind, to 
 the end that the race characters of all 
 may be clearly discerned. The study 
 before us will include Avhat may be 
 called the personal characteristics of the 
 various races, together with their means 
 of subsistence, their habits and manners, 
 their primitive institutional forms, their 
 intellectual appetencies, their arts^ 
 where the same exist — and their influ- 
 ence as a modifying force in the phys- 
 ical world, or, in general, the traits of 
 mankind and their relations with the 
 laws and conditions of environment. 
 
 It is purposed in the present chapter 
 to glance briefly at these ethnic pecul- 
 Racesofmen iarities from a general 
 Z^^^^. point of view. There are 
 ing features. a few leading features by 
 which the races of men may be strongly 
 discriminated, and it is perhaps along 
 these primary lines that their differenti- 
 ation has been chiefly accomplished. 
 After noting these first principles of 
 divergence, we may, in the following 
 chapters of the present book, descend 
 
 into the particulars of tribal life, devel- 
 oping, according to the present resources 
 of knowledge, the whole aspect of the 
 race as the same is displayed in differ- 
 ent parts of the world. 
 
 In the first place, it may prove of in- 
 terest to note, as we look down upon the 
 whole scene of human AbiHtyofman- 
 development, from the be- ^fp^;^°^ 
 ginnings of race evolution environment. 
 unto the present day, the extent to which 
 the different kindreds of mankind have 
 been able to modify the conditions of the 
 physical world. The observer will be 
 struck at the beginning with the fact 
 that some peoples have effected a very 
 considerable change in the surface of the 
 earth, while others have in no wise modi- 
 fied the primitive aspect of nature. 
 There are parts of the earth in which 
 the change effected by human agency 
 has been very considerable, insomuch 
 that if the earth were viewed, planet- 
 like, as we view the moon, the modifica- 
 tions effected by human agency would 
 be easily discoverable. It has happened 
 that all such changes have taken place 
 in the north temperate zone, or possi- 
 bly to a small extent within the tropics. 
 Western Asia and Europe throughout 
 have been, until the present century, 
 the scene of the largest modifications 
 produced by the agency of man. At the 
 present time the most rapid change in 
 the general aspect of the world is that 
 which is taking place in the central zone 
 of North America, under the impact of 
 the English-speaking race. 
 
 If we look at these changes from an 
 ethnic point of view, we shall soon dis- 
 cover that they have been effected most
 
 550 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 largely by the agency of the Ruddy, or 
 so-called White, races of mankind. In 
 The Ruddy the coiuitries of the Brown 
 races it is not in evidence 
 that the surface of the 
 earth has been transformed to any con- 
 siderable degree, except in Eastern Asia, 
 
 races have ef- 
 fected greatest 
 modifications. 
 
 been changed by the massing of a great 
 population and its neecs.sary subsistence 
 from the soil. Native woodlands could 
 not possibly coexist with so den.se a pop- 
 ulation. Forests have entirely disap- 
 peared, and the rivers have n(j doubt 
 slirunk considerably in their volume. 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 « 
 
 *--T.^ ^ ^ 
 
 -^1 
 
 MODIFICATION OF THE NATURAL WORLD BY MAN.— View of the Fortificatjons of Belfokt.— Drawn by Taylor, 
 
 from a photograph. 
 
 where the Chinese Mongolians, through 
 long occupancy of a given country, have 
 wrought a considerable change in its as- 
 pect. The original physical condition 
 of China is a matter of conjecture, but 
 
 In most parts of the earth, however, 
 the Brown races have little concerned 
 themselves with the physic- ^rown races do 
 
 ■' ■' not concern 
 
 al conditions around them, themselves with 
 ^lore particularly, they 
 
 physical con- 
 ditions. 
 
 it is not unlikely that forests were prev- have made few efforts to transform the 
 
 alent, and that much greater humidity 
 prevailed in primitive ages than within 
 the hi.storical era. As a matter of course, 
 both of these former conditions have 
 
 primeval state of the countries into which 
 they have penetrated. A.sia north of the 
 Altais remains virtually as it was before 
 the race of man had taken possession — if
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 551 
 
 possession that may be called which con- 
 sists in mere occupancy. Doubtless 
 considerable cosmic modification has oc- 
 curred since the coming of mankind, and 
 those limitless steppes and cheerless 
 mountain slopes have shared in common 
 with the rest of the earth the slow proc- 
 esses of climatic change ; but the actual 
 agency of man in the Turanian countries 
 has been but slight in so far as the 
 conditions of physical nature are con- 
 cerned. 
 
 One of the first instances of the mas- 
 tery of the earth's surface Avas in the 
 Mesopotamian region, where the strong 
 tide of the Noachite family flowed to the 
 west. In Chaldaea, about the 
 
 Modifications ef- . 
 
 fectedbyraan he.:d of the Persian gulf, 
 
 in Mesopotamia. , , , , /■ r ^i 
 
 the whole surface or the 
 low-lying plain has been raised to an 
 elevation of many feet above its prehis- 
 toric position. It has not been deter- 
 mined by geologists and ethnographers 
 by what process the surface of thickly 
 inhabited countries is elevated to higher 
 levels ; but that such is the actual fact 
 the old Chaldsean burying grounds and 
 the level of the whole region around 
 Rome conclusively show. It is well 
 known that the two great rivers, Eu- 
 phrates and Tigris, were thrown to- 
 gether either by the elevation of the 
 country along their banks or by the cut- 
 ting of canals through the alluvium. 
 Another marked variation in the Chal- 
 dsean landscape was the extension of the 
 verdant region on the side next the 
 Arabian desert. In this direction the 
 waters of the Euphrates were carried off 
 by the agency of man to a distance of 
 a score of miles, by which agency the 
 fertile extent of Lower Mesopotamia was 
 perhaps doubled in area. In the north- 
 ern region the native woods from the 
 foot of the Armenian mountains down 
 into Central Mesopotamia were removed. 
 
 and the desert cha,racter of the country, 
 such as it was in the days of Herodotus 
 and afterwards in the timesof Xenophon, 
 was the result. 
 
 To what extent nature sympathized 
 with these changes on the surface of the 
 earth we may not well determine ; but 
 
 there was doubtless a con- Nature changes 
 
 siderable climatic modifica- th^fiSuen^or 
 tion resultant from human "'=^'^- 
 agenc)'. Through all of Asia Minor to 
 the ^gean the same kind of modifica- 
 tions were effected. On the whole, the 
 country between the Black sea and the 
 Eastern Mediterranean was greatly de- 
 teriorated by the influence of the early 
 peoples who planted themselves in this 
 fertile region. 
 
 It is here that we may consider for a 
 moment the great injury done to the 
 face of the world by the injury done to 
 butchery of forests. It is ^^eltTut^n^of 
 true that the relations of forests, 
 man with the earth require the conver- 
 sion of wild woods into fields and gar- 
 dens, but the wise energies of the race 
 should be directed to the redistribution 
 of the tree-growths on the face of the 
 earth rather than to their mere destruc- 
 tion. Nothing is more certain than the 
 desert tendency which immediately ap- 
 pears in every country which is reck- 
 lessly denuded of its trees. No country 
 has suffered in this respect more than 
 has Asia ^Minor. Its extreme fertility 
 in ancient times can not be doubted. 
 For a long time after the institution of 
 civilized states in this peninsular portion 
 of Asia the country was proverbial for 
 its great vield of grains and fruits. Man 
 has virtually exhausted the whole region 
 by his careless administration. He has 
 consumed the current resources of the 
 country and provided nothing in their 
 place. The result has been the creation 
 of p-reat deserts on this area once cov-
 
 652 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ered with grain-bearing fields and or- 
 chards and vineyards. 
 
 This was the work of the Aryan peo- 
 ples who came into Lesser Asia and 
 Asia Minor more there developed the early 
 
 modified than ^ 
 
 Easterner States which flourished iin- 
 
 NorthernEu- ^-i ,. i j i 
 
 rope. til they were crushed be- 
 
 tween Persia and Europe. But if we 
 follow the northwestern line of Aryan 
 
 The migratory tribes generally effect- 
 ed no change in the regions through 
 which they passed. Their 
 
 Variable power 
 
 vocations of hunters and of races as mod- 
 mast-eaters did not inter- '^"^2 agents. 
 fere with the natural course of the phys- 
 ical world. At the beginnings of au- 
 thentic history Germany and Gaul and 
 Britain were in the primeval condition. 
 
 UNMODIFIED ENVIRONMENT OF MAN.— View of Sonmarg.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a phoiograph. 
 
 migration into Northern Europe, we 
 shall pursue our inquiry far before we 
 come upon another countr}'- so greatly 
 modified by the agency of man. The 
 southern peninsulas of Europe were 
 early transformed from their native 
 state into habitable territories, but the 
 vaster regions north of the Alps and the 
 Carpathians remained in the wild. 
 
 In general, the Celtic race accomplished 
 but a slight transformation in the phys- 
 ical landscape. The Grseco-Italic peo- 
 ples wrought successfully in establish- 
 ing themselves locally upon the soil and 
 in changing the face of nature. Indeed, 
 this is what is implied in civilization. 
 
 Within certain limits, the transforma- 
 tion of the surface of the earth is coin-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 553 
 
 cident and coextensive with the march 
 of the general fact which we call the 
 Modification of civilizcd Condition of man. 
 the earth correi- n^^^ principle, however, 
 
 ative with CIV- r I ' > 
 
 uization. Jjas its limitations. It 
 
 is only within certain bounds that man 
 can effect any change in his environ- 
 ment. It is probably true that in such 
 a country as France, or Belgium, or 
 Great Britain, the limit of man's agen- 
 cy as a cosmic force has been reached. 
 This is to say that nature will hardly 
 feel any additional modification from 
 the continuance of the established status 
 in these countries. Of course, if civili- 
 zation should decline, there Avould be a 
 reversion to the primitive condition, as 
 has actually occurred in other quarters 
 of the globe. 
 
 It is, then, the civilizing Ruddy races 
 which have effected the largest modifica- 
 tion in the surface of the earth, and by 
 Europe more this means have given a cer- 
 tain direction to the ebb 
 and flow of nature. The 
 changes effected primarily in the southern 
 parts of Europe, and, in later times, 
 throughout the whole continent, have 
 been more conspicuous than those pre- 
 sented in othet portions of the ancient 
 world. Along the northern shores of 
 Africa, except in the extreme northeast, 
 only slight modifications were made by 
 the races occupying these countries. It 
 should be noted that the earth is much 
 more refractoiy in .some parts, much 
 less susceptible of receiving and express- 
 ing the agency of man, than in other 
 parts. 
 
 There are three general features on 
 the surface of the globe that strongly 
 Man success- resist the influence of its 
 thrSmsi^ inhabitants. These are the 
 nature. mountains, the desert, and 
 
 the sea. Perhaps a slight exception 
 ought to be made in the case of the 
 
 than Africa 
 changed by hu 
 man agency. 
 
 M. 
 
 -Vol. I- 
 
 desert; but the mountains and the sea 
 are absolute. It is possible, indeed, that 
 all the deserts of the world may finally 
 be reclaimed by the agency of man, but 
 the mountains will hardly ever submit 
 to his dominion. As to the ocean, its 
 exemption from human authority has 
 been happily discovered by the poets. 
 Here the human race loses completely 
 its power and ascendency. 
 
 " Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 
 Stops with the shore; upon the wateiy plain 
 The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain 
 A shadow of man's ravage, save his own. 
 When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, 
 He sinks into thy depths with bubbling- groan. 
 Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and un- 
 known." 
 
 The narrow countries of Northern 
 Africa were held between the mountain 
 ranges and the Meditcrra- Great modifica- 
 nean. These two facts de- r^:^^^ 
 termined the climate and races, 
 the aspect of nature. The Hamitic peo- 
 ples who built the primitive states on 
 these shores effected but a slight change 
 in the physical environment. The 
 Teutonic races in the north of Europe 
 have accomplished a great work in the 
 transformation of nature. This region 
 was exceedingly obdurate as it stood in 
 the primeval ages. But the race which 
 was precipitated along the Baltic was as 
 persistent as the physical world was for- 
 bidding. In one part the primeval 
 forest, dark and ominous, and the great 
 shiggish rivers, rolling down their beds 
 of ooze, were the enemies of progress and 
 development. In another part it was 
 the ocean, surging back and forth over 
 the lowlands, alternately covering and 
 uncovering the vast and coveted regions 
 which were only exhibited for a few 
 hours at a time. The Teuton made a 
 league against the woods and the sea. 
 The one he destroyed, and the other he
 
 554 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 forced back and compelled to stand 
 aloof. It Northern Europe could be 
 viewed with a telescope from the inter- 
 planetary spaces, a great change would 
 be noticed in this region of our world- 
 
 Semitic and Hamitic tribes we shall 
 find but little modification in the track 
 which they have pursued. This is part- 
 ly attributable to the nature of the coun- 
 tries into which they threw themselves 
 
 INABIT.ITV OF BLACKS TO MODIFY ENVIRONMENT.— African Town on River. -Drawn by Kiou. 
 
 disk from the dark and dolorous aspect 
 which it presented in the prehistoric 
 ages. 
 
 We thus note that the conspicuous 
 changes which have been effected on the 
 The Aryan belt surfacc of the earth by the 
 ^;\T"emlrLb.e ^g^ncv of man have been 
 transformation, measurably limited to the 
 great belt through which the Aryan races 
 flowed to the we.st. If we take up the 
 
 in their primitive migrations. The cir- 
 cuit of Arabia furnishes little oppor- 
 tunity for the agency of man as it re- 
 spects the landscape. At the present 
 time it may readily be ob.served how 
 little, on the whole, the Arabs, from 
 their manner of life, and particularly 
 from the nature of the countries which 
 they hold, have been able to transform 
 the physical condition of the earth.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 555 
 
 But apart from the fact that nature 
 in a treeless and riverless region 
 Hamiticand does not invite the trans- 
 urvoralTeto forming power of man to 
 physical change, play upon her features, 
 there has been much in the character 
 and instincts of the Hamitic and Semitic 
 peoples averse to that kind of exertion 
 which modifies the surface of the earth. 
 It is true that the Hamites and Semites, 
 especially during" the ancient activities 
 of these races, were great builders, and 
 in some instances large producers from 
 the soil. But the mere fact of building 
 does not bring about the transformation 
 of the landscape. In the lapse of time 
 the structures which men rear go down 
 to dust, and things are as they were be- 
 fore, particularly in a country such as 
 Egypt, rainless, cloudless, snowless, 
 treeless. However greatly the building 
 energies of the early race might display 
 themselves, the country itself would be 
 but little modified. It is doubtless 
 true that the valley of the Nile has suf- 
 fered as little change in its physical con- 
 dition, under the dominion of the many 
 races which have succeeded each other 
 there, as has any other part of the 
 globe. 
 
 In general, the countries into which 
 the Hamites and Semites were dispersed 
 were less subject to the vicissitude of 
 Countries of climate and more uniform 
 
 Hamites and 
 
 Semites not sus- in aspcct than the variable 
 
 ceptible to mod- , . r i i i . 
 
 ification. and changetul lands to 
 
 which the Japhetic nations were as- 
 signed by their destiny. It will be con- 
 ceded that in Syria, notably in the 
 Mediterranean states of Palestine and 
 Phoenicia, the Semites accomplished a 
 considerable change in the physical con- 
 dition of the earth. If we may trust 
 the ancient descriptions which tradition 
 has handed down of the aspect of these 
 lands, it will certainly appear that great 
 
 modification has been produced by the 
 agency of the peoples dwelling therein. 
 
 If we turn to the Black races of man- 
 kind, it will be perfectly reasonable to 
 assert that they have effected, in the 
 countries to which they were distributed, 
 no perceptible changes in the conditions 
 of their environment. The Negro races 
 inhabiting the great central belt of Af- 
 rica have never shown a disposition to 
 struggle with the forces of the natural 
 world and to subordinate them to the 
 purposes of life. The same is true of 
 the Hottentots. Along the great Afri- 
 can rivers the forests stand as they were 
 from the beginning. The towns are 
 built in the forests by the river banks 
 and nature is imchanged. Though the 
 country is peopled and occupied, it is in 
 no sense possessed to the extent of mas- 
 tery and dominion. The same is true 
 in Australia and Melanesia. We speak, 
 of course, of the influence of the native 
 races in these countries. It is a mere 
 truism to assert that barbarians so low 
 in the scale as the Australian and Papuan 
 races neither would nor could modify 
 the surface of the earth by their indus- 
 tries and enterprises. The great differ- 
 ence, . indeed, between the barbarian 
 and the civilized states is that in the one 
 the man is the master and in the other 
 the slave of the natural world. 
 
 On the whole, we see that the great 
 modifying influence of man on his phys- 
 ical environment has been Modiiying influ- 
 exerted most largely by ^^^led w 
 the Ruddy races, in their Ruddy to Black, 
 progress to the West. The Brown races 
 in Southern Asia have effected certain 
 changes of like kind in the aspect and 
 conditions of the outer world; but these 
 results have been rather incidental to the 
 massing of vast populations within small 
 areas of territory than from any direct 
 and enerofetic assault of man on the nat-
 
 556 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 nral world. In other regions, the Brown 
 races have in no wise modified the nature 
 of the earth or directed the forces and 
 conditions of their environment. The 
 nomadic Turanians and the Polynesian 
 islanders have submitted themselves to 
 the laws of the material world, and turned 
 their whole activities to other fields of 
 exertion. The Black races, as we have 
 seen, have in a still less degree influ- 
 enced the physical surroundings where 
 they have held their career. They have 
 .simply yielded to the blind elements of 
 the natural world, and have resisted the 
 swirl of the forces to which they were 
 exposed only .so far as to cling to the 
 surface of the earth and maintain there- 
 on a precarious existence. 
 
 If wc seek for the reasons of this di- 
 versity in the relations of the different 
 races with the planet on which they hold 
 The countries of their career, we shall find, 
 "^:.TlTo::r ^^-^t of an, that the severer 
 development. aspccts of naturc in those 
 countries where the Aryan races have 
 been dispersed have invited and pro- 
 voked the energies of man to the con- 
 flict. This is to .say that life — mere life 
 ■—has a harder contest under the condi- 
 tions which have been imposed on the 
 Ruddy races than in other parts of the 
 world. Wc have seen that the Black 
 races have all been tropical in their nat- 
 ural development. Under the influence 
 of the blazing sun the earth brings forth 
 in the tropics, and the eater eats. He 
 has no need to subsist upon the heavy 
 carbonaceous and nitrogenous foods 
 which are a sine qua nqn amid the rigors 
 of the north. There is much of the 
 same condition in the Orient and in the 
 islands of the Pacific. It still remains a 
 disputed question whether the higher 
 energies of civilization can be displayed 
 under the effeminating influences of 
 southern climates. However this may 
 
 be, it is certain that the vigor and an- 
 tagonistic spirit of man have been most 
 highly provoked by the bhister and cold, 
 not to say the fury, of northern climates. 
 Thus far in the history of the world 
 Egypt and Carthage furnish the only 
 conspicuous examples of really vigorous 
 peoples who have arisen without the 
 spur of the frost and the sting of the 
 snowflake. 
 
 There are also certain subjective rea- 
 sons for the preeminence of the Aryan 
 race as a modifying force subjective rea- 
 on the surface of the earth. ^o/^U'it.aion 
 These peoples have an of the Aryans. 
 instinctive curiosity to scrutinize and 
 manage the elements of nature. The 
 Aryan, from our first acquaintance 
 with him in the shadows of prehistoric 
 ages, has been curious to know, to the- 
 orize, to experiment with the phenomena 
 and laws of the material world. In the 
 most primitive epoch of his activity he 
 created a mythology in explanation of 
 the aspects and conditions around him. 
 From the time of the awakening of his 
 tribal consciousness he was on the alert 
 to note, and even to record, the move- 
 ments and caprices of physical nature. 
 He was quick to discover the identities 
 and antagonisms of natural facts, and 
 thus were laid the foundations of those 
 classifications which, in the riper ages of 
 the world, have become science. 
 
 In this respect the Aryans have been 
 strongly discriminated from the peoples 
 
 of Brown descent, and still Natural science 
 
 more strongly from the l^-J^nl^nd S: 
 Black races of the tropics. Blacks. 
 It is doubtful if any such thing as nat- 
 ural science has ever suggested itself to 
 the inquiry of thinkers among the Brown 
 peoples of mankind. Doubtless the 
 highest degree of knowledge possessed 
 by any branch of this family is that to 
 which the Chinese have attained, and it
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES—ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 551 
 
 IS certain that among thein the natural 
 sciences are either utterly wanting or 
 
 families of men the Aryan race is al- 
 most equally distinguished by its scien- 
 
 MOUIUCATION OK ENVIRONMENT BY APPLICATION OF NATURAL FORCES.-Hvdraulic Mining. 
 
 else in so crude a condition as to merit 
 no attention from the Western nations. 
 Even from the Hamitic and Semitic 
 
 tific tendency and attainments. The 
 disposition of the Semitic peoples, and 
 of the Hamites in their best estate, as
 
 558 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 among the Egyptians, has been, from 
 the first, to look at nature as a caused 
 phenomenon, and pass immediately to 
 reflection on the nature and character 
 of the Caitsi- ; while the Aryan mimd has 
 had almost a passion for scrutinizing the 
 phenomena themselves, for determining 
 the relations of physical facts, and dis- 
 covering the laws by which they are 
 governed. 
 
 This subjective difference, as will 
 readily be seen, has led to the scientific 
 The Aryans have asccudency of the Aryan 
 '::::it^:t^r ^^ces and to their domina- 
 of phenomena, tiou ovcr the earth. That 
 is, the Aryan peoples have mastered the 
 laws of phenomena and subordinated the 
 forces of nature so successfully as to turn 
 them upon their environment, and to 
 compel nature to operate against her- 
 self for the benefit of her most intel- 
 ligent creature. The modification 
 which these peoples have effected in 
 the general aspect of those parts of the 
 world where they have held their career 
 has been resultant from their instinctive 
 curiosity to know and handle the forces 
 of the natural world. If for a moment 
 we contemplate the hydraulic miners at 
 their gigantic task among the gorges of 
 the Sierras, with the uplifted brazen 
 nozzle of their hose throwing a volume 
 of more than a hundred square inches 
 of water, compressed into the destroy- 
 ing impact of a solid column, against 
 the granite mountain side, hurling and 
 hurtling the bowlders and debris as 
 mere sand flying before the blast, we 
 shall see the Aryan mind displayed at 
 its topmost bent and in its most charac- 
 teristic activity. This intellect delights 
 in attacking the environment and crush- 
 ing it into subjection. And in this re- 
 spect it is totally unlike the quiescent 
 and adjustable intellect of the Brown 
 or the Black races. 
 
 vStill again we may note a second in- 
 stinct, or at least a subjective quality, 
 in the Aryan peoples which has given 
 them their energy as a Extreme sensi- 
 modifying force on the sur- TyZVolst 
 face of the earth. This is want. 
 their scnsitivciuss to want, and the power- 
 ful reaction which such want produces 
 in arousing them to exertion. The 
 stomach was the prehistoric schoolmas- 
 ter, and hunger was the first professor 
 of natural science. Under the influence 
 of these austere but capable instructors 
 the Aryan responded more quickly than 
 the other pupils of the universal school. 
 The energy displayed by the Aryan 
 races under the influence of hunger, of 
 cold, of need in general, has been a 
 matter of astonishment in all ages. 
 Bodily and mental want has acted upon 
 this race like a passion upon the indi- 
 vidual man, and the trem.endous exer- 
 tions growing out of this hunger of body 
 and spirit have told like a storm on all 
 the wild forests and hills and river banks 
 where the Indo-European tribes have 
 made their abodes. 
 
 The inquiry will at once arise whether 
 this curiosity to scrutinize the processes of 
 nature and to direct her en- Are Aryan in- 
 ergies, whether this keen ^^^^ 
 hunger, this anxiety to feed or cause? 
 and clothe and build against inclemency 
 which the Aryan race has ever exhibit- 
 ed, is not in the nature of an effect rather 
 than a cause. Have we not here — thus 
 may ask the reader — a substitution of a 
 result for its antecedent force ? Has not 
 such instinct in the Arj'an race been de- 
 veloped by the very antagonisms with 
 which it has had to contend ? Has not the 
 hunger arisen from the very exposure 
 and wasted energy which has come to 
 the half-barbarian wanderer in the wilds 
 of Northern Europe? Doubtless there 
 are many reasons that may be assigned,
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 559 
 
 many arguments that may be construct- 
 ed to answer these questions iu the af- 
 firmative, thus making it appear that 
 the subjective conditions among the Ar- 
 yan peoples from which we have deduced 
 their modifying energy in the physical 
 world are not really subjective conditions 
 at all, but merely superinduced modes of 
 activity. But, on the contrary, if we 
 look profoundly into the problem, we 
 shall see still better grounds for admit- 
 ting the subjective ethnic distinctions 
 which we have here assigned to the peo- 
 ple of the Indo-European race. 
 
 For, in the first place, it was a matter 
 of clioicc and preference on the part of the 
 migrating tribes. In fact, all the peo- 
 
 Ethnic prefer- plcS of the WOrld, if WC eX- 
 
 rcMr^rS:! cept only the colonizations 
 veiopment. of modern times, have 
 
 been distributed to their respective 
 quarters of the globe by the unreason- 
 ing and but half-conscious choice and 
 preference of the peoples themselves. 
 Why, otherwise, should a tribe of pri- 
 meval half-barbarians prefer to depart 
 toward the north and enter the bleak 
 regions of storm and snow and desola- 
 tion ? Why should others prefer to trav- 
 erse the desert? There was at the first 
 no compulsion, no contrivance. There 
 was preference only. The ethnic forces 
 were working out their own results. 
 Tlie long lines of tribal migration, as 
 traced over the surface of the earth, were 
 determined in their course and extent 
 by the choice and instinctive dispositions 
 of the moving masses. True it is that 
 every race of living beings is acted upon 
 by the conditions of the environment, 
 and many second natures are produced 
 by these external causes. But the prefer- 
 ence which impels a given animal to adopt 
 a given habitat as his home, is an in- 
 stinctive choice, not determined, as a rule, 
 bv the influences of the external world. 
 
 So in a larger degree the rational ani- 
 mal man. The Esquimaux cling to the 
 
 ice floes, struggle with the Races choose 
 
 walrus, live in their snow ^^IJI^-^^L, 
 huts, and, indeed, suffer all onraces. 
 the hardships of the polar circle because 
 they choose to do it. And the huge Pata- 
 gonians, bounding among the rocks at 
 the extreme of the continent, are there 
 from choice, and remain from a tribal 
 preference, for which no explanation 
 other than itself can be assigned. All 
 the selections of the intermediate terri- 
 tories of the world have been made 
 originally by the same unreasoning 
 preference of the original tribes that oc 
 cupied them. We thus see, after allow- 
 ing all due influence to the reactionary 
 effects of nature upon man, that there 
 were fundamental activities in himself 
 which led him to choose his environ- 
 ment and to fix himself in certain con- 
 ditions and in certain relations with the 
 physical world. 
 
 There are not wanting in recent times 
 a large class of profound thinkers who as- 
 cribe the march of civiliza- Great part of 
 
 human develop- 
 tion to the disposition in ment based on 
 1 , J. the kno-wledge 
 
 some advanced races of men of nature. 
 to acquaint themselves with the laws of 
 phenomena, and to make those laws 
 available in the administration of life. 
 It would be, doubtless, too much to grant 
 the truth of this theory without restric- 
 tions and limitations ; but that it ex- 
 presses a great section of the whole truth 
 can hardly be denied. The last two 
 centuries have been conspicuous in the 
 whole history of the race by the rapid 
 development of scientific knowledge and 
 the consequent subordination of the 
 forces of the natural world to the will of 
 man. It is one of the great secrets of 
 progress, and it has belonged to the Ar- 
 yan race. It is they who have entered 
 into the arcana of the physical environ-
 
 560 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ment and extracted its principles of ac- 
 tion. They have preserved and record- 
 ed the invariable sequence in which one 
 natural fact succeeds another, and have 
 given to this sequence the name of law. 
 From this they have deduced the recur- 
 rence and the expectation of recurrence 
 among the phenomena of the outer 
 
 It would be trite to enlarge upon the 
 advantages which the highest races of 
 men have derived from concomitancy 
 their knowledge of physical °h|civ"uze^d"* 
 nature and the laws by 'ife. 
 which it is governed. As between this 
 knowledge and the general fact called 
 civilization, defined as it is in our mod- 
 
 MASTl.kV 01' MAX BY NATURE— A Boat Wreck. 
 
 world, and have availed themselves of 
 all the advantages derivable from the 
 knowledge of what is to be. The man 
 ■who knows what will happen is wise and 
 strong. He who does not know what 
 •will happen is foolish and weak. This 
 is said of man in his relations with the 
 natural world. What he understands, 
 he can control. What he can control, he 
 can use. What he can use, is beneficial. 
 Benefit is health and wealth and renown. 
 
 ern languages, it were hard to determine 
 which of the two more powerfully stim- 
 ulates the other. A certain kind of civ- 
 ilization may exist without the preva- 
 lence of scientific knowledge, and a 
 certain kind of scientific knowledge may 
 prevail without inducing a high grade 
 of civilization. But, on the whole, the 
 two are concomitant. The more the 
 man knows the more does he develop 
 and direct the civilizing forces. The
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 561 
 
 more he uses the forces of civilization 
 the more he knows of the principles by 
 which universal nature is controlled and 
 directed. 
 
 As compared with the other races, the 
 Aryan stock has been preeminent in 
 Scientific pre- these rcspects. The dis- 
 eminence of the ti^ction between them and 
 
 Indo-European 
 
 races. the Hamitic and Semitic 
 
 families of men on the line of scientific 
 achievement is sufficiently broad, and 
 
 Indo-European, families of mankind on 
 the other. 
 
 It is believed that the differences in 
 the intellectual habits and achievements 
 of the several races as Knowledge of 
 viewed from a general eonditionTf^ 
 point of observation are perpetuity, 
 most distinct and striking with respect to 
 this great fact of natural law and the con- 
 nection of man with the material world. 
 In general, barbarians and half-civilized 
 
 MASTERY OF NATURE BY MAN.— A Screw Steamer at Sea. 
 
 when we look at the Brown races of 
 Asia and Polynesia and at the Black 
 races of Africa and Melanesia, we can but 
 be struck with the strong contrast be- 
 tween the indifference of the latter to 
 natural law, their inability to control 
 and direct for benefit the forces of the 
 material world on the one hand, and the 
 breadth and profundity of scientific 
 knowledge and the astonishing benefits 
 derived therefrom by the Aryan, or 
 
 peoples are utterly subject to the forces 
 of physical nature. It is not impossible 
 that the weakness of the old forms of 
 civilization, their want of perpetuit}-, was 
 chiefly attributable to the prevailing ig- 
 norance of the laws of phenomena ; and 
 it is probable that the strength and per- 
 manence of existing institutions are cor- 
 related with the prevalence or the non- 
 prevalence of scientific knowledge. This 
 is to say that at least one of the conditions
 
 562 
 
 GREAT RACIIS OF MANKfXD. 
 
 of perpetuity among; the institutional 
 foi-ms established b}' mankind is the 
 knowledge of the physical laws by which 
 the world is governed, and the sympathy 
 and concord of man with those laws in 
 the exercise of his activities. 
 
 out of Mesopotamia directly to the west 
 and were there developed into the He- 
 brew and Arabian nations, seem to have 
 dwelt in their mental activities upon the 
 nature and character of the intelligence 
 which preceded and formed and directed 
 
 SEMITE CONTEMPLATING NATURE —Drawn l,y Paul Hardy. 
 
 It was hinted on a preceding page that 
 the Semitic mind had shown itself more 
 concerned with what may 
 be called the Cause of na- 
 ture than with natural phe- 
 nomena themselves. From the earliest 
 ages of history the peoples who cnme 
 
 The Semitic 
 mind seeks per- 
 sonality in na- 
 ture. 
 
 not only the isolated facts and processes 
 of the material world, but the world it- 
 self and universal nature. It appears to 
 have been in the nature of the Semitic 
 mind to ascribe personality and intelligence 
 as the cause of phenomena and to pass 
 over the phenomena themselves, their
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 563 
 
 relations and dependencies, to reflect 
 upon the character and will and woi-k of 
 the personal agent behind the aspects of 
 the material world. 
 
 Following out this fundamental con- 
 cept, the Semitic seer of the primitive ; 
 world would proceed to the 
 
 And makes man i i • i 
 
 to be related and immediate establishment 
 
 bound thereto. c i !.• ^ ±. i • 
 
 ot relations between him- 
 self and the personal intelligence beyond 
 the tangible forms of nature. That is, 
 human relationship, according to his 
 views, would spring up, not between 
 man and physical laws and phenomena, 
 but between man and that agent who 
 stood above them. We can easily dis- 
 cern the strong religious tendency which 
 would at once arise from the existence 
 of such a disposition of mind, and we 
 may perceive with equal clearness the 
 absence of scientific knowledge from a 
 system of thought thus originated. 
 
 In these facts may be readily discov- 
 ered the bottom principles of what has 
 been called, in the philosophical and re- 
 Notion of spir- ligious discussions of the 
 peTuUaHrsem- P^^sent century, Semitic 
 'ti=- monotheism. More prop- 
 
 erly, however, we should say that the 
 fact indicated is the theory of immaterial 
 causation, without respect to its single- 
 ness or multiplicity. If we examine the 
 Semitic nations, at our first acquaintance 
 with them, in Chaldasa and Assyria, we 
 shall find that they were polytheistic in 
 their religious development — not poly- 
 theistic in the same sense with the Grasco- 
 Italic peoples of Europe, but in the same 
 sense with the Hamitic Egyptians. It 
 was the peculiarity of both the Hamitic 
 and Semitic races that they ascribed to 
 the phenomena of the material world 
 immaterial intelligent causes. 
 
 This view of the universe and its ad- 
 ministration is totally diflferent from 
 polytheism as it was developed by the 
 
 Aryan nations. In course of time the 
 Aryan also arrived at the concept of im- 
 material and intelligent cau- This notion dif- 
 sation. But in the earlier 'Zyl^^^^^ 
 ages of these peoples they ism. 
 looked simply at phenomena and gave 
 names thereto, and the names passed, 
 according as the phenomena were vast 
 and majestic, into the catalogue of dei- 
 ties. Aryan polytheism was the result 
 of the combined tendencies of primitive 
 natural philosophy and linguistic growth 
 and decay. It is not intended in this 
 place to elaborate, but only to point out 
 the difference between the fundamental 
 ideas of the Semitic and the Indo-Euro- 
 pean races. The former conceived of 
 the cause apart from the phenomena 
 and antecedent thereto. The system of 
 religion, therefore, as developed in Meso- 
 potamia, and even transmitted to the 
 West, was an immaterial kathenothe- 
 ism, as distinguished from the material 
 polytheism of Europe. 
 
 The primitive Hebrew fathers revolt- 
 ed against this system because it was 
 
 polvtheistic. Their revolu- Misconception 
 ^ ^ _ , of modem phi- 
 
 tion consisted in the substi- losophy respect- 
 
 , .. c .X. ii • i- ing such differ- 
 
 tution of the monotheistic gnce. 
 idea as the bottom fact in the universe. 
 The Hamites never proceeded thus far 
 in the religious evolution. They there- 
 fore remained identified in their beliefs 
 with the Mesopotamian people ; and the 
 Egyptian system of religion differed 
 only from the Chaldaean in its more 
 elaborate development and its finer 
 philosophical expression. The attempt 
 of certain modern scholars to make it 
 appear that the Aryan Dyaus Pitar of 
 India, the Zeus of the Greeks, and the 
 Jove of Rome were fundamentally the 
 same concept with the Elohira of the 
 Hebrews, is to misconceive the whole 
 question, to confound phenomenon with 
 noumenon, and to obliterate the differ-
 
 564 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ence between a material and an imma- 
 terial causation of nature. 
 
 If we look among the Brown races for 
 the highest expression of their thought 
 The Brown on the Subject we are here 
 
 L'thoVoryo"" considering, we shall find 
 religion. a totally different view of 
 
 both premises and conclusions. The 
 Chinese and Japanese as the oldest and 
 most thoughtful of the early Brown peo- 
 ples of Southern and Eastern Asia, gave 
 little heed to the aspects of nature or 
 to the interpretation of what we call 
 natural phenomena. Neither did they 
 concern them.selves to seek for causes 
 behind these phenomena, either material 
 or immaterial. As a result, the Chinese 
 have never produced a highl}^ inflected 
 mythology, or what we may properly 
 call a religion. They have risen in 
 their evolution as far as ethics and mo- 
 rality, and on these lines of development 
 have proceeded as far as any other 
 people. 
 
 From the first it appears that the 
 Chinese mind has been mo.st concerned 
 Philosophical not with the facts of na- 
 I^sremo^f"""'" tare, but with the facts of 
 thought. ]ife_ Their native religions 
 
 have been simply elaborated systems of 
 ethics. Confuciani-sm is not a religion 
 in the sense in which that word is em- 
 ployed by the Western nations. It is 
 simply a code of human morality as de- 
 duced from the life and teaching of the 
 most illustrious sage of the people. The 
 imported Buddhism has in great measure 
 lost its spiritual and .subjective peculiar- 
 ities. In the concept of the Chinese mind 
 it has been transformed into harmony 
 with the older .systems native to the na- 
 tion. If the Chinese can be said to 
 worship at all, it is the worship of life 
 and duty and obligation rather than the 
 adoration of any objective being, whether 
 the same be the highest expression of 
 
 some supreme thing, as the sky, or of a 
 great Spirit behind and above all aspects 
 of earth and heaven. It will readily be 
 seen that such a view is radically differ- 
 ent from the bottom notions upon which 
 the great religious systems of Western 
 Asia and Europe have been erected. 
 
 In their concept of nature and of the 
 author or authors of nature, the Black 
 races have been lowest of all in the scale 
 of rationality. In fact, it 
 
 The Black races 
 
 has been authentically dis- still lower in the 
 puted that some of these ^^ ® ° ""^ igion. 
 peoples have any concept of a moving 
 power among the objects of their sense 
 perceptions. As a general statement, 
 the Blacks in their native condition have 
 risen as high as fetichism and no higher 
 in the religious evolution. Hereafter 
 we shall note with more particularity 
 the peculiarities of their superstitions, 
 and mark out the divergence of their 
 thought from that of the Brown and 
 Ruddy races. 
 
 Turning from the siibjective differ- 
 ences of mind and thought among the 
 races of antiquity to their Difference of 
 objective aetivities,^^ find a re%S?oT""^ 
 corresponding divergence adventure, 
 and distinction of character. The di- 
 versity of men of different races in their 
 modes and purposes of action is among 
 the most striking features by which 
 they are discriminated. In what may 
 be called the spirit of adi'cutiire, for in- 
 stance, the various races have had each- 
 its own distinctive character and method.. 
 Some have taken to the water, chosea 
 the maritime li.'e, sailed afar to distant 
 coasts and islands, and made the sea a 
 familiar spirit. To others, the oceart 
 has been a terror, while the continental 
 vastnesses have invited to exploration 
 and even to peril. To other branches of 
 the human family both sea and land have 
 appalled and paralyzed the adventurous
 
 THE BLACKS FEAR NATURE.— Storm in African Forest.— Drawn by Rjoii .
 
 50U 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 energies. Such peoples have shrank 
 back from the enticements of explora- 
 tion and the wild liberty which it af- 
 fords. They have settled into the safest 
 and most convenient nooks, and shielded 
 themselves from the opposing forces of 
 nature by what barriers soever they 
 could discover in a given environment. 
 
 In these respects, we find again that 
 the Ruddy races have been superior to 
 The Ruddy the Correlated branches of 
 races strongest ^j^g human familv. It can 
 
 in the adventur- .- 
 
 ous disposition, not be said that their ad- 
 venture has carried them as far as in the 
 case of the nomadic peoples of Asia^ 
 those great Turanians of the Brown race 
 who have drifted through all parts of the 
 greatest of the continents. But the ac- 
 tivities of the Aryans have been char- 
 acterized by greater energy and more 
 rational method. Their migrations have 
 been directed by a purpose, at least a 
 half-formed purpo.se, to seek for better 
 things and gain the ma.stery. The Ham- 
 ites have given a few conspicuous exam- 
 ples of adventure, as when, in times of 
 Pharaoh Neku 11, they circumnavigated 
 Africa twenty-one centuries in advance 
 of Vasco da Gama. 
 
 The negative side of adventure is 
 timidity. Adventure is courage. It im- 
 Courageofthe pHcs the facing of danger, 
 voTc'Idw ra- the willing exposure of the 
 tionai purpose, bodily life for the sake 
 of advantage, or even for the mere sake 
 of freedom from restraint. The latter 
 qualities have belonged preeminently to 
 the Ruddy races. It can not be said that 
 the Brown peoples of Northern Asia are 
 lacking in courage. On the contrary, 
 they have contributed some of the most 
 warlike and fiery spirits which the West- 
 ern nations have had to meet in combat. 
 But the bravery of the Brown races as it 
 was manifested in the barbarian era was 
 lacking in rationality and the conscious 
 
 purpose to achieve advantage by victory. 
 The conquests of the Turcomans, hur- 
 tling down from the Altais upon the ter- 
 rified and somewhat effeminated popula- 
 tion in vSoiithwestern Asia and Eastern 
 Europe, succeeding as conquests and 
 then sinking into an inane and torpid 
 condition from want of rational purpose 
 and deliberation of method, are at once 
 the striking example and the epitome of 
 the spirit of courage as it has been man- 
 ifested by the Brown races of mankind. 
 
 A volume could not suffice to trace out 
 all the diversities of action among the 
 different families of men. undeniable and 
 The present chapter is de- fJi^'^-f.^T'""^- 
 voted merely to a general Aryans. 
 view of the most conspicuous traits in 
 which the people of one race have dif- 
 fered from those of another. On the 
 whole, the superiority of the Ruddy 
 peoples over the other varieties of man- 
 kind, in their masterful relations with the 
 physical world, in their concept of nat- 
 ural phenomena and the laws by which 
 they are governed, in adaptation of 
 means to ends in gaining and maintain- 
 ing a dominion over the earth, and in the 
 exercise of an adventurous and rational 
 spirit, giving them preeminence and 
 leadership, is undeniable and sufficient- 
 ly striking. 
 
 It may appear, at first glance, a long 
 departure from the subjects which we 
 are here considering to the 
 
 . Ethnic diversity 
 
 discussion of tlw bodily form in bodily form 
 J.J ■ , y • ■, • r arid activity. 
 
 ana physical activities oi 
 the various peoples of earth. Men 
 have differed according to race not 
 only in their view of the world and in 
 their attitude toward the laws of matter, 
 not only in their concept of the primary 
 principle from which all things have 
 proceeded and by which all things are 
 governed, not only in theirnotion relative 
 to dut}', oblig-ation, and destiii)-, but also
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES— ETHXIC CHARACTERISTICS. 567 
 
 in the material organism in which for the 
 period of life all thought is resident and 
 from which all forms of activity proceed. 
 In fact, the bodily form and features of 
 the different races are the most con- 
 spicuous single circumstance as well as 
 the easiest criterion by which those 
 races are distinguished the one from the 
 other. 
 
 We are not able to penetrate through 
 
 the shadows of the prehistoric ages 
 
 to a time when these 
 
 Such diversity 
 
 dates back to Very tangible evidences 
 
 the earliest ages. r .1 ■ t t i 
 
 of ethnic divergence did 
 not exist as they exist to-day. Time 
 and again we have repeated what is 
 perfectly well known to historians and 
 antiquaries, that the very oldest mon- 
 uments which modern times have in- 
 herited from antiquity bear mute but 
 indubitable evidence to the fact that, in 
 the earliest ages to which we can in 
 any wise penetrate, the physical diver- 
 gence of the different branches of man- 
 kind was as conspicuously and deeply 
 cut in determinate outlines as at the 
 present time. It is worth while, then, 
 to note with some care the general pe- 
 culiarities in physical structure of man- 
 kind, and to point out the features by 
 which one race of men is most notably 
 and permanently discriminated from the 
 others. 
 
 In the first place, as to the bulk and 
 
 stature of the human body. It will be 
 
 found on an examination 
 
 Great diversity . . 
 
 In the stature of the facts Within reach 
 
 and bulk of men. r .i • • it. ^ 
 
 of the inquirer that very 
 great diversity exists among men of dif- 
 ferent races in these respects. On the 
 whole, it does not appear that the people 
 of antiquity were specially different in 
 stature and weight from the peoples of 
 modern times. It might be difficult to 
 determine whether the race, considered 
 as a whole, tends, in its evolutionary 
 
 processes, to the production of larger 
 or smaller individual members of the 
 species. 
 
 Tradition has preserved the shadowy 
 recollection of both giants and pygmies 
 in the ancient world, and from the mon- 
 umental delineation of figures we are 
 able to determine that the average peo- 
 ples were about of the same stature as 
 those of to-da}-. Among the Assyrian 
 and Egyptian sculptures this fact is 
 abundantly illustrated. But while 
 this is true, it is clear that, on the 
 whole, the smaller peoples of antiq- 
 uity, as well as in modern ages, were 
 among the aborigines and barbarous 
 tribes, while those of great stature and 
 gigantic bulk were derived from the 
 progressive and well-developed families 
 of mankind. 
 
 This will appear at first glance as an 
 evidence of the truth of the evolution- 
 ary process. Casually, it may be ob- 
 served that the body of man has been 
 developed from a comparatively insig- 
 nificant race of ancestral „ , . 
 
 Correlations of 
 savages. It is known to mind and body 
 
 the biologist that all exist- "'^'^ " ' 
 ing species of horse have been derived 
 from a single prehistoric typical animal 
 known as Hipparion thoaiis ; and it is 
 also known that this primitive animal 
 was of very small stature, so small, in- 
 deed, that it would seem impossible that 
 the enormous Norman or Clydesdale stal- 
 lion of our day could have been derived 
 from so diminutive an ancestor. There 
 is one circumstance, however, which 
 breaks the analog}- so far as the devel- 
 opment of the human body is concerned ; 
 that is, that the most intellectual and 
 powerful peoples, civilly, socially, and 
 politically considered, have not been 
 those of largest stature. This is to say- 
 that if the evolutionary process is 
 to be accepted as an explanation of
 
 568 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. 
 
 the large size of some races as com- 
 pared with the diminutive stature of 
 others, there is a clear break in the 
 analogy of bodily and intellectual evo- 
 lution — a thing that may be difficult of 
 explanation. 
 
 It is not intended in these pages to 
 enter into the abstruse and difficult 
 questions of biology. Such matters 
 
 absolute proof exists of a smaller race 
 of people than these. The native 
 Australians and some of the inhab- 
 itants of the Melanesian islands are 
 no • more than four feet in stature, 
 and are slender in prdportion. These 
 examples may be taken as a minimum 
 of size for prehistoric and existing race.* 
 of men. 
 
 THE TARrAN (FIRST REMOVE FROM THE PRIMITIVE HORSE). 
 
 may be remanded to specialists and to 
 the skill and scholarship of the future. 
 _, , ,,. It is sufficient to note the 
 
 The lowest lim- 
 its of sire in the great diversity in the size 
 humEui race. , . , , , , . ^ 
 
 of the members of different 
 races. In a preceding book it was noted 
 that the prehistoric folk who were buried 
 in the stone boxes along the banks of 
 the Cumberland, in North America, 
 were no more than three and a half feet 
 in stature. It is doubtful whether any 
 
 In considering the other extreme, we 
 come to the half-mythical and half-his- 
 torical giants of the heroic ages. Near- 
 ly all races have transmitted to posterity 
 some account of exceptionally enormous 
 specimens of the race, and in some tra- 
 ditions we have accounts of Maxima of 
 
 whole tribes conforming to ^T^i^^' 
 the gigantic pattern. It ^^^s^- 
 is impossible to give an authentic aver- 
 age for the stature of the so-called
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 569 
 
 Slants of antiquity. Goliath of Gath 
 was reputed to be nine feet nine inches 
 in height. We have hints in Homer of 
 towering warriors who might well be 
 called gigantic. Some of the largest 
 specimens of the human i^ace have in 
 modern times been brought out of 
 Syria. The Teutones and Gauls were, 
 among barbarians, notoriously huge 
 
 ick William I. His regiment, known 
 as the Potsdam Guards, was made up 
 of men gathered from all parts of 
 Europe, the smallest of whom was over 
 seven feet in height. They reached 
 a maximum of nine feet, and it is 
 perhaps not bej'ond the truth to as- 
 sign an average of eight feet for the 
 whole regiment. We may accept this. 
 
 AN ARAB STEED (GREATEST REMOVE FROM IRLMHIVE TYPE).— Drawn by T. F. Zimmennann. 
 
 in body. The paragraph in Caesar's 
 Gallic War, wherein he recites the 
 ridicule which the Gaulish warriors of 
 the Aduatuci bestowed on his Roman 
 legionaries on account of their diminu- 
 tive stature {brcviias nostra), will not be 
 forgotten. 
 
 The most conspicuous example of 
 an assemblage, or collection, of giants 
 within the historical era was that 
 
 resulting from the caprice of Freder- 
 M. — Vol. I — 37 
 
 then, as the inaxvnuiii stature of our 
 race, though possibly exceptional in- 
 stances may have shown greater height. 
 Whether the Blacks have contributed 
 any specimens worthy to be classified as 
 giants can not be stated Largest exam- 
 with certainty, 
 Brown races, the most con- 
 spicuous examples of greatness of size 
 are given by the Asiatic Mongoloids in 
 Patagonia, jMany of these exceed 
 
 A ~, «„ ™ 4-t, ^ pies of human 
 Among the beings among 
 the Bro'WTis.
 
 570 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 seven feet in stature, and it is known 
 that among their far ethnic kinspeo- 
 ple, the Chinese, equally exaggerated 
 specimens of mankind have been found 
 — this, too, among a people who are 
 conspicuously below the average in 
 stature. 
 
 To generalize these results, we find 
 very great departures from the common 
 Standard of size among the ancient peo- 
 ples. The same phenomenon recurs in 
 Aryan peoples modcm times. This vari- 
 reach the high- ^j extends not only to 
 
 est average 
 
 Stature. individual members of the 
 
 human species, but to whole races. It 
 appears that, considered as races, there 
 were smaller peoples in the prehistoric 
 than in the modern world. It would 
 also seem that in ancient times the ex- 
 aggeration of size above the average 
 standard was as conspicuous as in recent 
 ages. On the whole, the White races 
 are larger in stature than any other 
 people. Among these, the Aryans 
 are conspicuously above the average; 
 and of the Aryans, the largest are 
 those who have been exposed to the 
 rigors of northern climates, but not in 
 the high latitudes. 
 
 As between the barbarian and the civ- 
 ilized state of man, there is not much 
 Geographical difference as to size. On 
 the whole, the bai'barian is 
 larger, on the average, than 
 his contemporary from the civilized 
 states. Geographically, the distribution 
 of the largest races has been in the tem- 
 perate zones. Beyond a certain degree 
 of cold the human family has been 
 somewhat dwarfed, rather than stimu- 
 lated into extraordinary growth. The 
 polar people are small in stature. The 
 insular populations of the world present 
 the same variations as those of the con- 
 tinents. The primitive Saxons of our 
 ancestral islands were huge in body and 
 
 situation and 
 the size of the 
 body. 
 
 highly muscular. The Japanese, simi- 
 larly situated, are small in stature and 
 delicate in development. On the whole, 
 there was not much difference in the 
 stature and muscular power of the three 
 great branches of the Ruddy race. The 
 advantage was in favor of the Aryans, 
 and the Hamites appear to have been 
 somewhat weaker and smaller than the 
 Semitic peoples; but the distinction was 
 not great. 
 
 The races of men have generally pre- 
 served a given type and standard of 
 form and stature from our Form and stat- 
 earliest acquaintance lZ^^::.}::i 
 therewith to the present from antiquity. 
 time. The sarcophagi of Egypt, the 
 dish-covered tombs of Assyria, and the 
 burying grounds of Chaldsea have made 
 us acquainted with the stature and pro- 
 portions of at least three peoples of re- 
 mote antiquity. The Assyrians were 
 not taller than the average of modern 
 peoples, but were exceedingly stout 
 and muscular, like the Romans. The 
 Chaldaeans were of the average height 
 and form. The mummies of Egypt are 
 below the average standard in height 
 and in general proportions. 
 
 If we descend from the general form 
 and stature of the different peoples of 
 ancient and modern times to consider 
 some of the special features by which 
 they have been characterized, the first 
 to attract our attention is the size, shape, 
 and capacity of the head. This organ, 
 indeed, is about the only one with which 
 the historian and ethnographer need to 
 concern himself. The established fact 
 that the intellect of man resides in his 
 brain, and is correlated in its manifesta- 
 tions with that organ, and the additional 
 fact that the mind is the agent of all 
 that has been accomplished by the hu- 
 man race, may warrant us in looking at 
 the cranial development of the different
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 571 
 
 peoples as an interesting study in ethnic 
 history. 
 
 There is a constant relation between 
 the size and formation of the brain and 
 Constant reia- ^q active energy of the 
 
 tiou between °'' 
 
 the size of the racc. The facts connect- 
 
 brain and human , -.i ,i • • , . 
 
 energy. sd With this important 
 
 study have been gathered from many 
 sources, and may now be studied on the 
 scientific basis. It is found that there 
 is an ascending ethnic scale of cranial 
 development, beginning with the Aus- 
 tralians and Papuans and proceeding 
 upwards, through the Black races of Af- 
 rica, to the Asiatic and Polynesian Mon- 
 goloids, and thence to the Ruddy peoples 
 of Europe and America. It will not be 
 considered a materializing digression to 
 note this fact, to dwell upon it, and to 
 point out the perfect correlation existing 
 between the average capacity of the brain 
 and the grade of civilization to which the 
 people of that average have attained. 
 The law is: small brain, little achieve- 
 ment; great brain, great achievement. 
 It is not necessary to refer the progress 
 of civilization to the mere physical fact 
 of cranial growth. A more rational 
 view is that the larger display of mental 
 power is correlated with the size and 
 activity of the organ by which that men- 
 tal power is expressed. 
 
 It has been found that a large varia- 
 bleness exists among the races with re- 
 spect to the volume and weight of that 
 organ upon which all thought depends. 
 The size and the capacity of the brain 
 in the different races of men have been 
 carefully examined, and the 
 
 •Winchell's table "' 
 
 of cranial capac- rcsults tabulated in a form 
 
 Ity of races. ia l i. -1 
 
 that may be easily appre- 
 hended. The following table, present- 
 ing these results in a concise form, is 
 from Winchell's Prcadamiics, and may 
 be regarded as an accurate and indispu- 
 table summary of the best that is known 
 
 relative to the race gradation of men on 
 the line of cranial capacity : 
 
 TABLE OF CRANIAL CAPACITIES. 
 
 No. of 
 Speci- 
 mens. 
 
 570 
 293 
 
 goi 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 lOI 
 
 126 
 61 
 .87 
 
 176 
 
 i8 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 Races. 
 
 I. KLDDV FACES. 
 
 Arj-ans of S. W. Europe . . 
 
 Europeans 
 
 Britons, Anglo-Sa.\ons, 
 Swedes, Irish, Nether- 
 landers 
 
 Ruddy Races, mean ca- \ 
 pac'ty f 
 
 II. BROWN RACES. 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Chinese... 
 
 -Mongols 
 
 Esquimaux 
 
 Asiatic Esquimaux 
 
 N. W, American Esqui- 
 maux 
 
 Greenland Esquimaux. . . . 
 
 Esquimaux, mean capacity 
 
 Chinese and _MongoU, I. 
 
 mean capacity S 
 
 Mongoloids, mean ca- f 
 
 pacity J 
 
 nl. BLACK RACES. 
 
 Negroes, W. Africa 
 
 Negroes of .Africa 
 
 Dahoman Negroes 
 
 Negroes, mean capacity. 
 
 -Australians 
 
 Australians 
 
 Austnilians, mean ca- i 
 pacity 
 
 Cubic 
 Centi.meters. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Wom- 
 
 •.576 
 
 1.518 
 1.539 
 
 1.383 
 1,428 
 
 l,iSi 
 
 Aver- 
 age. 
 
 Autlum 
 ity. 
 
 Broca. 
 Morton* 
 
 Davis. 
 
 1,485 
 '.534 
 
 1,486 
 
 1,450 Broca. 
 
 1,452' L)avis, 
 z,42i|Mortoa. 
 l,488j Broca. 
 1,488: Dall. 
 
 1,270 Dall. 
 1,250 Bessels. 
 
 .' J.372 
 I 1,286 
 \ 1.441 
 ( 1,442 
 ) 1.403 
 1 1.338 
 
 1,345 Broca. 
 1,364; Morton. 
 1,452 Davis. 
 
 ( 1.360 
 
 i,264|Broca. 
 1,295 Davis. 
 
 1.279' 
 1,276, 
 
 From the foregoing schedule it will 
 be seen that the native Australians are 
 
 the lowest type of men in Deductions from 
 
 cranial capacity, being in- '^,\^r;^''^' 
 ferior in this respect to the mau-ufe. 
 Negroes by an average of eighty-four 
 cubic centimeters. The table does not 
 include the Hottentots as a separate 
 study. These people, as a matter of 
 fact, have a cranial development inter- 
 mediate between the Australians and the 
 Negroes. Again, it will be noted that 
 the Mongoloids have an average capacity 
 of eighty -two cubic centimeters in excess 
 of the Negroes, while the average ca- 
 pacity of the Aryans is forty-four cubic 
 centimeters above the measure of the 
 Mongoloids. It will also be observed 
 that the preceding table does not exhibit 
 the relative size of the brain of the Papa*
 
 572 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ans, but from other sources this has been 
 found to be above that of the Australi- 
 ans, and nearly identical with that of 
 the Hottentots. 
 
 It may well be confessed that this 
 physical index discovered in the capacity 
 Relation of of the brain for the several 
 toTh^^'physfcai races points distinctly to a 
 features. certain grade of rational 
 
 activity and progressive power in each 
 people. Here, then, is the fundamental 
 fact of a certain quantity of brain forces 
 expended in the administration of life 
 among the various peoples of the earth. 
 The same is correlated with other pecul- 
 iarities of anatomical structure. It is 
 found that the cranial cavity is very vari- 
 able in its shape, conforming in its pro- 
 portions and relative distribution of parts 
 to the general configuration of the skull. 
 And this is typical in each of the primary 
 races. It is not the place to enter into 
 any elaborate illustration of the definite 
 angles and peculiarities of the hiiman 
 skull, or to describe by comparisons its 
 various approximations to the crania of 
 other animals. Such discussion belones 
 to special scientific treatises, and the re- 
 sults derivable therefrom could play 
 but a small part in the ethnic history of 
 mankind. 
 
 The same is true of the other bodily 
 
 organs. It is well known that the lower 
 
 types of the human family 
 
 Selvage of man- •' ^ . . , •' 
 
 kind and the approximate in various de- 
 
 lower animala. ^ ,-, t i 
 
 grees to the form and or- 
 ganism of certain quadrumana, and that 
 these close analogies, even identities, 
 have given rise to much speculation 
 about the connection between the bot- 
 tom selvage of the human race and the 
 upper margin of the animal kingdom. 
 How near together these two edges of 
 life may approximate, or how far apart 
 they may be found to lie, it is not the duty 
 of the historian, or even the ethnog- 
 
 rapher, to determine. Certain it is that 
 the highest types of men have a very 
 marked divergence from all species of 
 quadrupeds, and it will certainly be ad- 
 mitted that the lowest orders of man- 
 kind have in them at least the potential- 
 ity of a rational, and possibly an elevated, 
 life. 
 
 The nearest approach in anatomical 
 structure in the human species to the 
 lower orders of nature is 
 
 Approximation 
 found m the Bushmen of of certain Blacks 
 o ii A r • ii i- to the simians. 
 
 South Africa, the native 
 Australians, and the Papuans of Mel- 
 anesia. Specimens of men have been 
 found among the native races of Central 
 America and in South America almost 
 equally near akin on the physical side 
 with the simians and other superior or- 
 ders of animals. The peculiarities which 
 constitute this physical affinity of man 
 with the brutes are well known. The 
 arms of the lower orders of men are 
 very long, reaching to the knees or be- 
 low the knees when the person is erect. 
 The hands also are spread out and set 
 on the wrists after the manner of fore- 
 feet in the quadrupeds. The feet are 
 strikingly animal in their structure, 
 having a long heel and so flat an instep 
 that the whole bottom of the foot is 
 pressed on the ground. Rising from 
 these expressionless parts of the body 
 to the features of the face, we find them 
 also strongly marked with animal char- 
 acteristics. The chin in many cases is 
 scarcely better developed than in the 
 chimpanzee, and the forehead slopes 
 back from the brow with scarcely greater 
 elevation than is found in the orang or 
 ape. 
 
 From these low grades of development 
 in the human form, there is a gradual 
 ascent from the level of the Hottentot 
 and Australian, through the Negroes 
 and the barbarous aborigines of South
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 573 
 
 The three prin. 
 Cipal things, 
 food, clothing, 
 and shelter. 
 
 America and the Pacific islands to the 
 
 Esquimaux, thence to the nomadic races 
 
 of Asia, and thence to the 
 
 Eiuts in lo^w 
 
 races of future nighly-developed physical 
 
 development. j. r ii, t^ 
 
 form of the Europeans. 
 It should be noted, however, that occa- 
 sionally among the natives of Polynesia 
 and South America, and also among the 
 native races of North America, an excep- 
 tional example of high personal beauty 
 of form and feature will be discovered. 
 Such instances may be regarded as the 
 premonitory outgoings of nature relative 
 to what the race may become in its bet- 
 ter stages of development. 
 
 We have now arrived at that point 
 in the inquiry w^here the general view 
 which takes in the higher 
 relations of the races de- 
 scends into particulars and 
 widens to infinity. Were we to pursue 
 the subject further in the present chap- 
 ter, it would be to consider what may be 
 called the tangible parts or evidences of 
 civilization as illustrative of race charac- 
 ter in different ages and countries. As 
 already said, the three great means of 
 supporting and developing human life 
 are food,clothing,and shelter. The man- 
 ner of man's activities in procuring these 
 essentials of his own existence and the 
 perpetuity of his kind would demand in 
 its exemplification a great amount of 
 space and variety of inquiry. 
 
 On the side of food, the problem 
 would begin with the appropriation of 
 the simplest vegetable products by the 
 Range of ethnic primitive races, and would 
 prorut^l ef,en- ^nd with the most highly 
 tiaisofUfe. elaborated and carefully 
 
 prepared tissues of animals. This is to 
 say that food begins with the starchy 
 elements in vegetation, just as they 
 are distilled and manufactured by na- 
 ture, in vegetable cells, and ends Avith 
 the highest form of nitrogenous product 
 
 in the animal kingdom. To procure the 
 latter requires all the refinements of 
 skill and contrivances of art. On the 
 side of clothing, the question is first 
 with the appropriation of the skins of 
 beasts, the mere transfer of the natural 
 covering of a dead animal to the body 
 of a living one. It ends with the finest 
 and most delicately wrought fabrics 
 which the ingenuity and caprice of civil- 
 ized races have been able to invent. On 
 the side of shelter, it begins with a 
 piece of bark set up at an angle between 
 a witless savage and the rain. It ends 
 with the villa and the palace, shining 
 down with marble front over boughs of 
 bending myrtle and avenues of ever- 
 green and fountains of flashing w'ater. 
 
 The activities of the different races of 
 mankind have been exerted primarily 
 in the three directions above indicated; 
 but the methods of exer- 
 
 Method of man 
 
 tion have been as variable in adapting him- 
 
 j i.-£ .-I , •I self to nature. 
 
 and multiform as the tribes 
 of the human race. In the first place, 
 the earth herself has been capricious in 
 the distribution and character of her 
 natural gifts. Men have adapted them- 
 selves to this whimsicality of the natural 
 world. But with the progress and 
 development of the race, they have first 
 gone beyond and then ignored the hints 
 of nature relative to subsistence, and 
 have transplanted and wrought in a way 
 suggested by their instinctive appe- 
 tencies and ethnic preference. 
 
 It is in this way that the human race 
 has done so much in the way of diffusing 
 the natural products of the Adjustment va- 
 earth. In his adjustment t^^^^^^. 
 with the means of siib- ^itions. 
 sistence, natural and artificial, man has 
 changed first himself and afterwards his 
 surroundings. At the beginning he 
 fitted and adjusted himself simply to 
 natural conditions; but these he soon
 
 574 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 outgrew and overpassed in development. 
 It is in this respect again that the races 
 have shown remarkable diversity. The 
 life of some has become highly artifi- 
 cial, while in others the natural life pre- 
 dominates as from the first. The 
 Hamitic race in all of its development 
 remained close to the soil. The some- 
 what complex life of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians was, nevertheless, of the earth, 
 earthy. No concept of Egyptian civiliza- 
 tion is at all adequate which has not the 
 mud of the Nile at the bottom. It was 
 founded on the ground, and its high- 
 est aspirations rose no higher than 
 a basket of lotus on the head of a 
 peasant. 
 
 Among the Semites, the evolution of 
 food took place more rapidly than that 
 Evolution of oi either raiment or archi- 
 food precedes tccture. For some reason 
 
 building and 
 
 clothing. these peoples bestowed 
 
 especial attention upon the materials 
 upon which they subsisted. Even on 
 their first emergence from the pre- 
 historic shadows we find them classify- 
 ing and arranging their foods, especially 
 those deduced from the animal kingdom, 
 by the distinction of clean and imclean. 
 In common with the Hamites, they 
 refined upon this idea, and carried it 
 into their religious system. But unlike 
 the Hamites, they were not, especially 
 in the first stages of their development, 
 a people much interested in architecture. 
 The pastoral life which they adopted 
 was unfavorable to building, and even 
 when they settled into fixed communi- 
 ties and became husbandmen and keep- 
 ers of vineyards, they were still indiffer- 
 ent to building. The records of the 
 Semitic race would be searched in vain 
 for even the shadows of such architec- 
 tural grandeur as was displayed in the 
 valley of the Nile or in the opposite 
 peninsula of Hellas. 
 
 The Brown races, such as the Chinese 
 Mongolians, have always led a simple 
 and somewhat primitive The Chinese ex. 
 life. Their means of sub- ^^rSa^Lnof a;. 
 sistence have remained chitecture. 
 primary. We may well be surprised, 
 when we reflect upon the antiquity of 
 the Chinese nation and upon the in- 
 tellectual astuteness of the race, to note 
 the really primitive condition of their 
 industrial and social life. Their building 
 is, at its best estate, a piece of Oriental 
 elegance, never rising to the grand or 
 sublime. Their raiment has perhaps 
 never been changed in its character or 
 material for a thousand years, and their 
 food is as simple as it was in the days 
 of Confucius. In the midst of much 
 intellectual acumen and a certain kind of 
 perpetual industry, they have signally 
 failed to advance into the higher forms 
 of physical culture and development. 
 
 The Black races have scarcely at- 
 tained, in their industrial and social 
 state, to a higher level than The Blacks are 
 that of aboriginal tribes. l^^Z%T:ir''' 
 In respect of food, cloth- tionsofufe. 
 ing, and shelter, they are savages, but 
 the peaceful character of the race has 
 forbidden the display on a large scale of 
 either the savage instincts or the savage 
 virtues. The Blacks have shown no 
 skill in their native places in the adap- 
 tation of means to ends, and have, there- 
 fore, made no progress in those primary 
 industries on which the civilized state of 
 man is founded. 
 
 It is the Aryan race again that has 
 shown itself preeminent in its adaptations 
 
 to the natural resources of The Aryans pre- 
 
 the earth, and in improving ^f^nlw' 
 upon the conditions and resources, 
 methods suggested by nature. We have 
 already seen that the face of the earth 
 has, to a considerable degree, been 
 transformed by the energy and force of
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 575 
 
 character of the Aryan peoples. In no 
 respect has their departure from the 
 primitive condition of mankind been 
 more marked than with regard to the 
 resources by which life is supported and 
 made strong. The Aryan peoples, at 
 least the Western Aryans, have all ad- 
 vanced from the primitive foods to the 
 
 these, great systems of industry and 
 commerce have been instituted, devel- 
 oping the energies and perfecting the 
 skill of the most active communities in 
 the world. The same refinement and 
 advance may be observed in regard to 
 the means by which the human body is 
 defended from the vicissitudes and rigors 
 
 LOW INDUSTRIAL ESTATE OF THE BROWN AKD BLACK RACES.— Post of the Gr.\nd Talibouche. 
 
 Drawn by Y. Pranishnikoff. 
 
 higher and more complex form of or- 
 ganic tissue in which the elements of 
 subsistence are most highly condensed. 
 The race might be defined as ' ' the peo- 
 ple who eat costly food." A second na- 
 ture has been produced in all Indo-Euro- 
 pean countries requiring sustenance from 
 the most costly elements of nature ; and 
 for the production and distribution of 
 
 of climate. This is said of the materials 
 which the civilized peoples of the West 
 employ in clothing, rather than of'their 
 skill in fabrication. 
 
 As builders, the Aryans appear just 
 at the present age to be entering into 
 the era of splendid and substantial archi- 
 tecture. Strangely enough the race, 
 thoueh marked bv imusual skill and en-
 
 576 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 ergy in the handling of materials, has 
 not been conspicuous in recent ages for 
 Place of the its ability to build. Among 
 arolHelVr'ar ^hc ancients, the only Ar- 
 evolution. yan peoples noted for their 
 
 preeminence in architecture were the 
 Greeks and Romans, and the latter were 
 only imitators of the former. The belief 
 that even the skillful and artistic Greeks 
 derived their architectural forms and 
 methods from the Hamitic Egyptians 
 seems to be well supported by historical 
 evidence. From which it would appear 
 that the Hamites of the Nile valley were 
 the first great original builders — the 
 first of the human race to create archi- 
 tectural monuments. 
 
 As already intimated, however, the 
 discussion of these topics leads us imme. 
 diately into the subject-matter which has 
 been reserved for the detailed account 
 
 of the industrial and social life of the 
 different races of mankind. We have 
 now reached the threshold of that dis- 
 cussion. In the former chapters we 
 have endeavored to delineate the primi 
 tive condition of the human race, and the 
 tribal departures and migrations by which 
 the race was originally distributed to the 
 various quarters of the globe. In the 
 current chapter we have endeavored to 
 look down, as from a high point of view, 
 upon the various families of men, and to 
 note a few of the leading features by 
 which they are distinguished. AVe shall 
 now take u^d for consideration the de- 
 tails of the methods and manner of life 
 among the principal families of man- 
 kind, and shall attempt to depict the es- 
 sential facts and some of the peculiar 
 incidents in the past and present condi- 
 tion of the leadino- divisions of our race.
 
 r^
 
 RACn CriART No. 2. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 This Chart shows the geographical spread of the East Arj-an family of 
 mankind. (For the connection of this stock with the whole race of man- 
 kind, see Race Chart No. i, at the proper point of departure, to the left, 
 above.) The point of departure for this division is indicated by the heavy 
 red line at the foot of the Caspian Sea, near Teheran. 
 
 The East Aryans, from this region, departed to the right hand ; while 
 m-ii West Aryans (see "Armenians," "Georgians," " Ossetes," etc.) departed 
 to the left. The movement extended eastward until the stricture between the 
 Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf was passed, when the race branched out 
 in many directions. 
 
 The northern division, now represented in Turkestan, was the Usbeks. 
 To the south were the old races of the Medes and Persians. The ancient 
 Persians, as will be seen, developed into several modern families. Out of this 
 line sprang the Afghans, and further to the south the Beluchs. Far to the 
 north, from the original Iranian stem, arise the Bactriaus, one of the oldest 
 families of this division. 
 
 The migrator}- stem of the East Indian races is indicated by the word 
 Indicans. From this stem arise the Punjabese ; and from this stock, in turn, 
 the old Brahmans, in the valley of the Indus; and the great Hindu family, 
 farther to the East. From the Punjabese stem, we have the modern Nepa- 
 lese. From the Hindu stem, we have the great races of the Mahrallas, the 
 Bengalese, etc; From the Bengalese division, at its easternmost extreme, we 
 have the Indo-Burmese family, which is tlie remotest Asiatic division of the 
 East Aryan races. The Chart covers about fifty degrees of longitude, and 
 twenty degrees of latitude.
 
 THE RUDDY RACES. 
 
 I.-The East Aryans. 
 
 BOOK V.-THE IRANIANS, 
 
 Chapter XXXIII.— Elementary Character and 
 
 Religion. 
 
 jUR oldest kinspeople, 
 reckoning by antiquity 
 of descent, are discov- 
 erable along the far- 
 thest horizon of his- 
 tory on the plateau of 
 ancient Iran. The 
 country corresponds in general with 
 modern Persia. It must be borne in 
 mind that the political boundaries of 
 antiquity were not generally so defi- 
 nitely drawn as in the modern world. 
 The Semitic races in Western Asia and 
 the Greeks in Eastern Europe were the 
 first to set up termini, and thus to estab- 
 
 lish definitely the metes and bounds of 
 a political state. 
 
 The impulse which carried the Old 
 Iranians southward from the primitive 
 Aryan nidus in the coun- „^ . 
 
 •' The mqniry may 
 
 try aboi:t the lower Cas- begin with tiie 
 
 , ... , Irzmians. 
 
 plan has already been de- 
 scribed. We are now to look with 
 some care at the people of the Iranic 
 family, and to note their ethnic peculiar- 
 ities. It will not be forgotten that at 
 the time of their first dispersion in Iran 
 they were still, as a race, fundamentally 
 identical in character with the other 
 eastern branch of our ancestral kindred, 
 
 577
 
 
 J ■.■"'■■■ • 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 "^^ 
 
 4^- : 
 
 
 v <^.- 
 
 '//:i 
 
 
 
 M' 
 
 -^- 
 
 # 
 
 i±ii 
 
 \ 1
 
 THE IRANIANS.— ELEMENTARY CHARACTER. 
 
 679 
 
 which was carried into the Punjab and 
 thence down the river valleys of India. 
 
 Ancient Iran invited to the nomadic 
 life. This was the first impress which 
 the environment made upon the primi- 
 piateauof Iran tive tribes of our race. At 
 LtsMplnd"" the time of their coming 
 outdoor Ufe. into these open highland 
 regions they had already domesticated 
 the horse and several other species of 
 animals. But the horse was the special 
 companion of 
 the Iranian on 
 his excursions, 
 and it is worthy 
 of note that 
 through all 
 ages of history 
 the preemi- 
 nence of the 
 Persian steed 
 has been main- 
 ta i n e d . A 
 household had 
 
 been organized 
 after the man- 
 ner which has 
 ever since pre- 
 vailed among 
 the Aryan 
 races. The re- 
 
 chase, and their use for food. The 
 country of Iran was in its natural fea- 
 tures and resources promotive of the 
 chase. It was inhabited by all the com- 
 mon varieties of wild beasts peculiar to 
 the plains and mountains in the temper- 
 ate zone. To the pursuit of these the 
 Iranian tribes gave themselves with zest, 
 and soon became proficient in the cap- 
 ture of even lions and bears and tigers. 
 Another method of life opened to the East- 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE OF PERSIA. — MOUNTAIN SHEET OF KEROLT. 
 Drawn by Tofani, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, 
 
 lations of fa- 
 therhood and motherhood, of sonship 
 and daughtership, had been established, 
 and the home of the group was a tent 
 at first, and a more permanent abode 
 afterwards. 
 
 Not only were the common animals 
 known to the primitive Iranians, but 
 also the common cereals and vegetable 
 products. One point of divergence be- 
 The desert Ira- tween this branch of the 
 
 nians become 
 
 hunters: the human family and their in- 
 
 Indicans agri- . a i ■ r '11 ii a 
 
 cuiturist-i timate kinsfolk, the Aryans 
 
 of India, was with respect to the wild 
 animals, the capture of the same in the 
 
 ern Aryans, who gave themselves up to 
 the quiet of the agricultural and domes- 
 tic life ; and it is from this point that 
 one of the striking divergencies in the 
 languages of Iran and India may be no- 
 ticed. The domestic animals are named 
 in common by the two peoples, while 
 the wild beasts are generally designated 
 by distinct terms invented after the sep- 
 aration of the races. 
 
 The Iranian life thus presented some 
 diverse and peculiar aspects. It was in 
 one respect the half -barbarous life of the 
 chase, and in another respect the civil-
 
 580 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 of life combine 
 In the race char 
 acter. 
 
 izing life of the field and the garden. 
 In proportion as the first prevailed, the 
 Both methods old nomadic and migratory 
 impulse of the race was 
 stimulated into activity ; in 
 proportion as the other became predom- 
 inant, the people were aggregated into 
 settled communities and began to build 
 cities and states. It is worthy of note 
 that the origin of several world-wide va- 
 rieties of fruits, such as apples, peaches, 
 and plums, has been assigned to Iran. 
 
 r.'iir 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE OF PERSIA. — AN OX OF THE BISHOPRIC. 
 Drawn by A. L. Clement, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 It is quite likely that the primitive Medo- 
 Persian peoples were the first to cultivate 
 and improve these valuable products of 
 the vegetable kingdom.' 
 
 The social evolution among this an- 
 
 ' The definition of "apple-eating animal" might 
 be given to the Old Iranian and to all of his Asiatic 
 and European descendants. The word apple, he- 
 ginning with the Zend and Sanskrit ap p'/iala, 
 meaning " fruit of the water," or "juicy fruit," is 
 common in nearly every dialect of the Aryan lan- 
 guages! It might be difficult to point out any other 
 term of like universality among the names of the 
 things eaten by men. 
 
 cient race took the course of a subsid- 
 ence from the nomadic into the agri- 
 
 cultural and pastoral life. The sedentary 
 
 The change was very grad- '^^^TAt" 
 ual, and had been nearly nomadic, 
 accomplished at our earliest historical 
 acquaintance w'ith the Medes. A more 
 permanent style of building had super- 
 vened, and many other evidences of a 
 rising nationality were seen as early as 
 the eighth century before our era. 
 
 Before proceeding to delineate the 
 manners and 
 customs, the re- 
 ligious and so- 
 cial state of the 
 Old Iranians, it 
 will be well to 
 describe the per- 
 sonal character 
 of the race. 
 Herodotus and 
 Xenophon have 
 given us full ac- 
 counts of the ap. 
 pearance of the 
 Medes in their 
 day, and we 
 may conclude 
 that the type 
 was the same 
 which had pre- 
 vailed from the 
 time of the original tribes. The sculp- 
 tures of Persepolis also have preserved 
 the person and features of 
 
 . . Ethnic and per- 
 
 the race, giving us perhaps sonai character 
 
 ,1 i ii i- J of the Iranians. 
 
 the most authentic and 
 permanent representation of the ances- 
 tors of the Indo-European family of 
 men. 
 
 The ancient Iranian was tall and well 
 formed. In personal grace and phys- 
 ical nobility he was almost the eqiial of 
 his kinsmen, the Hellenes of the West. 
 In strength and activity he was the peer 
 
 Cle'ment.
 
 THE IRANIAXS.— ELEMENTARY CHARACTER. 
 
 581 
 
 not only of his contemporaries in Meso- 
 potamia and Hellas, but of any rival in 
 any age of tlie ^vorld. The features 
 were dignified and finely drawn. The 
 forehead was high and straight. The 
 nose was developed on a line with the 
 frontal bone, after the manner of the 
 ]Macedonian face, and was prominent 
 and well formed. Sometimes the organ 
 had that imperious and hawklike shape 
 which reappeared among the Romans of 
 a later age. The beard was manly and 
 
 stantly exposed to the reactions of na- 
 ture than were these progenitors of great 
 races. True, the climate was not au- 
 spicious for an out-of-door life. Storms 
 were frequent, and the winters of Par- 
 thia, Margiana, and Bactria were toler- 
 ably severe. But neither the rain blast 
 of summer nor the rigors of the winter 
 season were sufficient to extinguish or 
 repress the nomadic freedom of the 
 race. To scour the plains on horseback 
 became a second nature to the Iranian, 
 
 REMAINS OF IRANIAN BUILDING.— Ruins of the Palace op Darils, at PersepoUS.— Drawn by A. Deroy, after a photo- 
 graph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 heavy, and the hair abundant to super- 
 fluity. The Iranian women were ad- 
 mired for their beauty and grace even 
 by the critical Greeks. In dignity of 
 personal carriage, they are represented 
 to have borne themselves after the man- 
 ner of the barbaric queens of the heroic 
 ages of history. 
 
 The environment of the early Iranian 
 The race con- tribes brought them into 
 ^htinflTnct co'istant contact with the 
 of nature. open aspects of the natural 
 
 world. Their life was outdoors. Per- 
 haps no people have been more con- 
 
 and his preference for chasing wild 
 beasts took the form of a passion. 
 
 As late as the beginnings of authentic 
 histor}% not only the evidences, but the 
 actual example of this kind of life was 
 
 still to be observed. In Tribal divisions 
 
 the times of Herodotus the "[.^r^fHe'ld- 
 nations of Iran had not "t^^. 
 yet settled into permanence or affixed 
 themselves to given districts of terri- 
 tory. They were divided into tribes, 
 some of which had located their settle- 
 ments and fixed their institutions within 
 definite territories, while others roamed
 
 582 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 at large. Among the Medes, the Father 
 of History mentions six tribal division : 
 the Busse, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, 
 the Arazanti, the Budii, and the Magi. 
 The Persians were, in like manner, di- 
 vided into the Pasargadae, the ilara- 
 phians, the Maspians, the Panthialaeans, 
 the Derusiaeans, the Gerraanians, the 
 Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, 
 and the Sagartians. The last four 
 tribes were still nomadic in the times 
 of Herodotus, while the others had set- 
 tled on the soil and given themselves to 
 husbandry. The tribes were subdivided 
 into smaller clans, and these into gentes, 
 or households. In this condition of af- 
 fairs, which we may accept as correct 
 for the middle of the fifth century B. C, 
 we may readily recognize another ex- 
 ample of that transforming process by 
 which the family is succeeded in regular 
 order by the gens, the tribe, and the 
 race. 
 
 At a very early period the intellect 
 of the Iranian nations reacted under the 
 Feebleness of influences of growth and 
 oi^uorronr ^^^i^°°"i^°t, and began 
 the Iranians. to display itself with con- 
 siderable vigor. It is to this circum- 
 stance, indeed, that the importance of 
 the race in after ages is to be attributed. 
 It was not, indeed, in the direction of 
 architecture and art that this primitive 
 race exhibited its best powers. On the 
 contrary, it may be truthfully alleged 
 that the ^ledes and Persians were ineffi- 
 cient as builders and artists. It appears 
 that the aesthetic sense was weak, and 
 that even as late as the earlier stages of 
 Medo-Persian nationality the evidences 
 of architectural structure are few and 
 meager. In all Persia the foundations 
 of but two cities have remained to after 
 times, in illustration of the building and 
 decorative capacity of the people. In 
 Media not a single structure has left a 
 
 trace. It is true that this paucity of 
 architectural monuments is to be ac- 
 counted for in part by the use of wood 
 rather than stone as the building ma- 
 terial of the Iranians. It is believed 
 that the ancient Medes employed neither 
 stone nor brick in their edifices, relying 
 wholly upon wood and the metals even 
 for the palaces of their kings. 
 
 It was on the side of the literary 
 evokition that the Iranian mind first dis- 
 played its energies. It fell Early motion of 
 to chanting the aspects of ^"^.^i^^JtS ""* 
 the natural world and to ""ace. 
 inventing metrical expression* for the 
 mysteries above the material aspects of 
 nature. Already, before the partition of 
 the Indie and Iranic nations, the lan- 
 guage had been well developed. It had 
 an extensive and flexible grammar and 
 an abundant vocabulary. Its descriptive 
 elements admitted of inflection, and its 
 verbal structure indicated the niceties of 
 action in time and manner. With this 
 vehicle of language on his tongue and 
 the vision of supernal nature above 
 him, the Old Iranian began to elaborate 
 that system of religion and philosophy 
 which has transmitted to the modern 
 world an intellectual interest in the peo- 
 ple by whom the system was produced. 
 
 The language of the Iranic branch of 
 the human family, as preserved in its 
 most ancient books, is known as Zend, 
 and the great Bible of the Language and 
 race, out of which its sub- ^„?^CzeTa?" 
 sequent religious and liter- Avesta. 
 ary development proceeded, is called the 
 Zend-Avesta. It is in eight books, which 
 embrace as their subject-matter the same 
 general topics as are presented in the 
 Old Testament. The themes are laws, 
 covenants, prayers, songs, and cere- 
 monials. 
 
 The Avesta may be called the Iranian 
 Bible. Its oldest portion is included in
 
 THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 583 
 
 the Gathas, or " Songs," many of which 
 are very nearly identical with the hymns 
 of the Indie Veda. This fact would in- 
 dicate that the Gathas had been chanted 
 by the primitive Aryan race before the 
 separation of the Iranic and Indie 
 families. If we 'ook into the spirit 
 of the hymns, we shall find them 
 to be the exuberant expression, the 
 fervent utterances of the primitive 
 worshipers, awe-struck under the mys- 
 teries of nature, exclaiming in highly 
 figurative language, and pouring out 
 praise and prayer to the invisible powers 
 of nature. It is as though the primeval 
 singer had turned up his face in adora- 
 tion to airland and skyland on high, 
 praising the goodness and magnificence 
 of the majesties above, and making 
 petition for blessing and peace. 
 
 The hymns of the Avesta are polythe- 
 istic. The powers on high are many. 
 The beneficent not One, and Seem to be de- 
 t^::::^"^t: void of personality. These 
 Gathas. powers were good, not 
 
 bad — at least in the earliest concepts of 
 the race. The divine attributes of the 
 heavens — deities, if we may call them 
 so — bent auspiciously over the worship- 
 er, and he adored because of the benefits 
 received and expected. The supernal 
 powers were called Ahtiras, and were 
 regarded as the life-giving influences of 
 the world. It may be noted here as a 
 fact beyond dispute that dualism, or the 
 recognition- of evil powers in the uni- 
 verse set over against the good, is a later 
 concept of the human mind, and does 
 not belong to the really primitive sys- 
 tems of belief. Among no people of the 
 world was dualism more fully developed 
 or the evil powers raised to higher rank 
 than among the Iranians. But the evo- 
 lution of this system followed the real 
 body of the national worship as ex- 
 pressed in the earlier Gathas as the 
 
 shadow follows the substance. The evil 
 hierarchy was the invention of a later 
 age, and was set over against the benefi- 
 cent powers of earth and air and sky as 
 if to oppose them and to thwart their 
 benefits to men. 
 
 The Gathas are gathered from that 
 general division of the Avesta called the 
 Yayna. The more important part of the 
 sacred writings, however, 
 
 T \. -,■-,-, Theme and 
 
 is known as the v endidad, method of the 
 
 1 • 1 -, • Vendidad. 
 
 which corresponds in gen- 
 eral outline with the Pentateuch of the 
 Hebrew Bible. It contains in general 
 an account of the genesis of things and 
 the laws for the ethical government of 
 mankind. It embraces, besides, the 
 ceremonial code, in which the rites and 
 processes necessary for avoiding evil 
 and expiating sin and impurity are pre- 
 scribed. The whole is presented in the 
 general form of dialogue, or colloquy, 
 between the supreme Ahura, called 
 Ahura-Mazdao, and his favorite servant, 
 named Zarathustra, who is a prophet. 
 In his Iranic name we recognize at once 
 the Zoroaster of tradition. To him 
 Ahura-Mazdao reveals his will in an- 
 swer to questions and prayers; and by 
 him the purposes and laws of the su- 
 preme being are revealed to the people 
 of Iran. 
 
 The Yagna is of a widely different 
 character. In this are included expres- 
 sions of praise and adoration peculiar to 
 the Iranian worship. It is TheYacna 
 the devotional part of the ^^^Ztedftw 
 Zoroastrian Bible. As al- relations, 
 ready said, it contains the most ancient 
 element of the whole Avesta. There 
 can be no doubt that the primitive 
 hymns included in this collection were 
 sung by the Indian Aryans and the Ira- 
 nians while they were still a common peo- 
 ple. This aspect of the hymnody of 
 Zoroastrianism raises again the disputed
 
 584 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 question as to whether the Iranians went 
 together with the Indie branch of the 
 race into the Punjab, and then, from 
 schism or other cause, parted company 
 with their kinspeople and turned into 
 Iran. This view has been stoutly main- 
 tained even by Professor Max Miiller. 
 But on the whole it appears more ration- 
 al, considering the geographical situation 
 and the much greater extent of the mi- 
 gratory movement into India, that the 
 two races divided on the plateau, leaving 
 
 I'hUSlAN KING \VOKSHlriNG AHURA-MAZDAO. 
 
 the Iranic division behind, while the In- 
 die families made their way through the 
 Hindu-Kush or the Himalayas to their 
 destination. However this may be, the 
 common element in the old songs of the 
 Iranians and in the Veda can not be de- 
 nied or ignored, and the fact points un- 
 mistakably to a common religious cere- 
 monial earlier in its origin than the 
 division of the races. 
 
 The hymns of the Ya9na are devo- 
 tional. Sometimes the utterance of the 
 worshiper is merely praiseful The 
 attributes of goodness and love and 
 
 beneficence are ascribed, in exclamatory 
 language, to the powers on high. More 
 frequently the subject-mat- 
 
 i ■' •* _ _ Hymns of the 
 
 ter of the Gathas is in Yacna; MuUer'a 
 ..J. 1- r^c comments. 
 
 the form of prayer. Of 
 these, the great German Orientalist, Dr. 
 Martin Haug, has made a translation 
 into German, from which a rendering 
 into English has been easily effected. 
 The general integrity of the translation 
 is attested by Miiller, who sums up the 
 results as follows: "Many of the pas- 
 sages as translated by 
 him [Dr. Haug] are as 
 clear as daylight, and 
 carry conviction by 
 their very clearness. 
 Others, however, are 
 obscure, hazy, mean- 
 ingless. We feel that 
 they must have been 
 intended for some- 
 thing else, something 
 more definite and for- 
 cible, though we can 
 not tell what to do 
 with the words as 
 they stand. Sense, 
 after all, is the great 
 test of translation. 
 We must feel con- 
 vinced that there was 
 good sense in these ancient poems, other- 
 wise mankind would not have taken the 
 trouble to preserve them ; and if we can 
 not discover good sense in tliem, it must 
 be either our fault, or the words as we 
 read them were not the words 
 
 now 
 
 uttered by the ancient prophets of the 
 
 world." 
 
 It can but be of interest to the gen- 
 eral reader to examine a „ 
 
 . Specimen trans. 
 
 few specimens of some of lationofthe 
 these primitive prayers. 
 
 representing as they 
 cient invocations of 
 
 do the most an- 
 mankind. The
 
 THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 585 
 
 following four sections are from the 
 Gathas : 
 
 1. "This thing will I ask Thee. 
 
 Tell Thou it to me arijjht. Thou living God. 
 
 How rose this world .' 
 
 By what means are the present things sup- 
 ported .' 
 
 That spirit, the holy Vohu-Mano, O true, wise 
 spirit, 
 
 Guardian of the beings who ward off evil, 
 
 He is the promoter of life." 
 
 2. " This thing will I ask Thee. 
 
 Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. 
 Who was in the beginning the father and 
 
 creator of truth ? 
 Who made the sun and stars ? 
 Who causes the moon to increase and wane, if 
 
 not Thou ? 
 This would I know, besides what I know 
 
 already." 
 
 3 "This thing will I ask Thee. 
 
 Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. 
 Who is holding the earth and the skies above it ? 
 Who made the waters and the trees of the field ? 
 Who is in the winds and storms that they so 
 
 quickly run ? 
 Who is the creator of the good-minded beings, 
 O Thou wise .'" 
 
 4. " This thing will I ask Thee. 
 
 Tell Thou it to me aright. Thou living God. 
 Will your friend Sraosha [Angel of Light] recite 
 
 his hymn to my friend Vistaspa, O Thou 
 
 Wise ? 
 Will he come to us with the good mind. 
 To perform for us true actions of friendship ? " 
 
 It has been mentioned that a consider- 
 able portion cf the Zend-Avesta is in the 
 form of colloquy, or dialogue, in ^vhich 
 Example of Zarathustra appeals to 
 uo'n'of tlrzend- Ahura-Mazdao for wisdom 
 Avesta. an(j benefits, and the latter 
 
 replies with revelations of peace and 
 beneficence. The following specimen 
 from Dr. Haug's translation will suffi- 
 ciently illustrate the form in which the 
 subject is presented : 
 
 "Zarathustra asked Ahura-Mazdao 
 after the most effectual spell to guard 
 against the influence of evil spirits. He 
 was answered by the supreme spirit that 
 
 M,— Vol. 1—38 
 
 the utterance of the different names of 
 Ahura-Mazdao protects best from evil. 
 Thereupon Zarathustra begged Ahura- 
 Mazdao to reveal to him the.se names. 
 Ahura-Mazdao then communicated to 
 him twenty of his names, of which the 
 following are examples : The first is 
 Ahmi, meaning 'I am;' the fourth is 
 Asha-Vahista, meaning ' the best puri- 
 ty,' or, perhaps, 'purest and best;' the 
 sixth signifies ' I am wisdom ;' the 
 eighth, ' I am knowledge;' the twelfth, 
 Ahura, meaning 'the living one;* the 
 twentieth, ' I*am-who-I-am Mazdao.*" 
 
 After this revelation, Ahura-Mazdao 
 then continues: 
 
 ' ' If you call me at day or at night by 
 these names I shall come to assist and 
 help you ; the angel Sraosha will then 
 come, the genii of the waters and the 
 trees." Mazdao then reveals to his serv- 
 ant another series of names by which 
 evil spirits, bad men, witches. Peris, and 
 other enemies of the human race may 
 be thwarted in their bad designs. Such 
 titles as protector, guardian, spirit, the 
 holy one, the best fire priest, etc., are 
 communicated as the talismanic symbols 
 by which men are to be saved from the 
 influence of the evil powers. 
 
 It is believed that at least all the ear- 
 lier parts of the Avesta proceeded from 
 Zoroaster himself ; that he _ 
 
 Relation of Zo- 
 was, in brief, the primitive roaster to ira- 
 , . , 1 i f nian theology. 
 
 lawgiver and prophet of 
 the Iranian race. It is evident, more- 
 over, that he held his career while the 
 Indo-Iranic peoples were still a single 
 division of mankind. So that the scheme 
 of religious thought which we have here 
 presented belongs rather to the Old Bac- 
 trians than to either of the branches of 
 Eastern Aryans that proceeded there- 
 from. It will be of interest, therefore, 
 to consider briefly what may be called 
 the Bactrian deities, or those objects of
 
 586 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 adoration which were deemed by the an- 
 cient people of the highest order among 
 the supernal powers. 
 
 In so far as one supreme being was 
 
 recognized above the rest, his name was 
 
 Ahura-Mazdao. The name 
 
 Place and of- ., • ^ j -ii 
 
 ficesofAhura- Ahura IS associated witn 
 
 Mazdao. jj^g ^^^ ljgj^^_ ^g tl^g sun 
 
 is the supreme object of the visible uni- 
 verse and illuminates the whole, so 
 
 
 ^ ^i'^../ ^^^^ff"^ 
 
 FIRE ALTARS OF THE OLD ZOROASTRIANS. 
 From Magazine of Art, 
 
 Ahura-Mazdao was the highest and 
 brightest. The concept did not rise to 
 the level of monotheism. Mazdao was 
 the great god of the race, and was re- 
 garded as the living creator of all. In 
 general, he was the giver of blessings 
 both temporal and eternal. Such bless' 
 ings as earthly honor, preferment, and 
 such subjective good as wisdom and in- 
 telligence came from this immortal 
 source. Health and virtue, wealth and 
 
 good fortune were given by Ahura-Maz- 
 dao. These good gifts were withheld 
 from the evil-minded and the wicked. 
 He was a spirit, and approximated in 
 his attributes to the Hebrew Elohim, for 
 which reason there was always a reli- 
 gious affinity between the later Medes 
 and the Hebrews. The careful reader 
 of the Old Testament will note that the 
 two races were in sympathy, even in 
 matters where sympathy was 
 generally impossible. 
 
 Ahura-Mazdao had his ret- 
 inue of ministering angels. 
 
 They were about The retinue of 
 him in a dwell- ^^g^^^ 
 
 ing of light, and come personal. 
 
 ^ carried out his will respecting 
 ^ the race of men. One of 
 ^ these hierarchs, greater and 
 brighter than the rest, was 
 called Sraosha. He was pre- 
 r eminently the Angel of the 
 ■^^;^J Light, and, since light re- 
 veals all things, Sraosha was 
 the revealer of the will of 
 Mazdao. Primarily, he was 
 merely an attribute of the 
 Most High, one of his shin- 
 ings forth. Another of these 
 attributes was called Vohu- 
 Mano, meaning "the good 
 mind;" another was Mazda, 
 meaning "the wise;" and 
 the third was Asha, mean- 
 ing "the true." It was as if the at- 
 tributes of the primitive Godhead were 
 detached into personalities, under the 
 figure of angels, or messengers. 
 
 After Sraosha, the next of the divine 
 beings, as conceived by the primitive 
 Iranian, was Armati, mean- 
 ing " the earth," who was "^^TL^^i. 
 the same as the Gaia, or 
 Demeter, of the Greeks, and the Ceres 
 of the Romans. The earth was con«
 
 THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 587 
 
 ceived to be a beneficent power. From 
 the mere physical fact of giving food 
 and yielding- increase, the mind of the 
 
 the contest with physical nature man 
 was helped by the invisible spirit of the 
 
 earth. When the adverse forces of the 
 
 i'AK>KE 1 I.MPLE 
 
 FlkK A r A 1 I- CH-uA. — ll;.i...n Ly M. Moynet. 
 
 Old Iranian passed to the general notion 
 of a good being who befriended man 
 and aided him in maintaining life. In 
 
 material world gave back under the 
 exertion of man, it was Armati that 
 aided him to get the victory. Armati
 
 588 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 gave the seed of the plant and the fruit 
 of the orchard-bough. When the earth 
 was covered with green grass and 
 blossoms, Armati gave the blessing and 
 clothed her habitation with verdure. 
 
 jDroduced. It was a development rather. 
 At the first there was a nature worship, 
 pure and simple. It was The personal 
 by refining upon this nat- deit.es arise out 
 
 ural 
 
 1 ll;l. T'lWIiR i)f ATECH-GA, AT FIROUE-ABAD. 
 Drawn by Taylor, after the restoration by Madame Uieulafoy 
 
 Whatever good thing had its root in the 
 bosom of the earth and yielded its bene- 
 fit toman, was the gift of this generous, 
 beautiful angel of the world. 
 
 The. scheme of religious belief and 
 service here outlined was not the most 
 primitive form which the Iranian mind 
 
 of nature ■wor- 
 
 system of belief that ^wp. 
 the hierarchy of Mazdao and his 
 subordinates was developed. In 
 the earlier ages, while the Iranians 
 and the Aryans of India still so- 
 journed together, the simple pow- 
 ers of the natural world were 
 adored and worshiped. These 
 powers came to be regarded as 
 living beings over and above the 
 visible aspects of nature. The 
 first was called Indra, meaning 
 "the storm;" Mithra was "the 
 sunlight;" Armati, as we have 
 seen, was "the earth;" Vayu was 
 " the wind ;" Agni, "the fire ;" and 
 Soma, "intoxication." These 
 forces or facts of the natural world 
 were adored as the suitable objects 
 of worship, and the deities thus cre- 
 ated were common to the Hindus 
 and the Iranians. 
 
 In the beginning it was simply 
 a nature worship, under the garb 
 
 of polytheism. The separation of 
 
 concepts of the su- t:^Z:i^^^^ 
 perior beings arose duaUsm. 
 gradually to higher levels. The 
 materialistic element gave place 
 to the spiritual. The separation 
 between the visible aspect and the 
 A invisible power became more dis- 
 " tinct. At the same time dualism 
 
 began to appear. It was dis- 
 cerned that the powers of nature 
 are both good and bad. Some are bene- 
 ficial to men and others disastrous to his 
 interests. The former attracted human 
 aflfection, adoration, worship. The latter 
 excited human fear, dread, aversion. 
 To the beneficent powers the Iranians 
 gave the name of Ahuras, and to the evil
 
 THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 589 
 
 spirits the name of Devas. Such was 
 the genesis of the gods and demons of 
 the primitive Aryan worid. 
 
 Full of interest to every thoughtful 
 mind are these toilsome processes by 
 T\'hich our ancestral race, 
 yields to adora- m the prehistoric ages, 
 spin . gained at length a loftier 
 view of themselves and of the universe 
 in which they were appointed to live. 
 The struggle upward of the Old Iranian 
 mind in its endeavor to reach higher 
 concepts of the natural world and of the 
 powers by which it is governed may be 
 noted with constant admiration. The 
 ascent was spiritward. By degrees the 
 worship of these primitive peoples was 
 lifted from the contemplation of material 
 forms to the adoration of spirit and duty. 
 It was, in its very lowest aspect, an 
 advance from the consideration of mat- 
 ter to the consideration of force. The 
 mind, in its search for truth and stability, 
 ceased to dwell upon the visible form, 
 and passed to the invisible essence. 
 The form was wind, or thunder, or sun- 
 light, or fire, but the essence was truth, 
 or purit}% or wisdom, or life. Through 
 all the emblems of this most ancient 
 form of faith it is possible for the mod- 
 ern student to discover a constant tend- 
 ency to refinement and to the substitution 
 of spirit for material form. 
 
 Philosophically considered, the march 
 of the human mind from matter to spirit 
 SjTuboUsmin- passes through a stage of 
 "ZlHt^..r.^ symbolism. It is doubtful 
 spirit- -worship, whether any stage in the 
 human evolution can be cited in which 
 the concept of spirit has been substituted 
 at ottcc for the concept of matter without 
 the interposition of symbolical imager\\ 
 There is always a period in the develop- 
 ment of mankind, passing out of uncon- 
 scious into conscious states, more par- 
 ticularly in the progress from a merely 
 
 material into the ideal life — a period in 
 which emblem and allegory and myth 
 are built into the bridge which spans 
 the chasm between the things that are 
 seen and the things that are eternal. 
 
 In the instance before us we may se- 
 lect the myth of the Earth as an illus- 
 tration of the method by which the mind 
 rises to higher views and 
 
 . . . The Karth and 
 
 fixes itself in contemplation the metaphor of 
 
 r , 1 1 the cow. 
 
 oi the supernal powers. 
 Armati, "the Earth," was represented 
 under the metaphor of a cou'. At first 
 view such an image may appear gro- 
 tesque. But the most life-giving of all 
 substances with which the primitive 
 man was acquainted — and, forsooth, the 
 modern man has found none better — 
 was drawn from the udder of the cow. 
 Like her was the great earth. Out of 
 it came the streams of life. All the life- 
 producing elements were given from the 
 ground. So Armati was a cow. But 
 the cow was alive. .She had a breast, a 
 spirit, a soul. Therefore the earth had 
 a soul. Armati was pervaded by the 
 directing principle of life — a form of be- 
 lief which reappeared in after ages, in 
 the anima viiindi of the Grasco - Italic 
 philosophers. 
 
 Now this soul of Armati was called 
 Geus Urva, "soul of the cow." And 
 here arises the mj'th of 
 
 . . Elaboration of 
 
 Geus L rva. ilan, inspired the myth of 
 
 1 T i J t, V 1. Geus XJrva. 
 
 and directed by Ahura- 
 ]\Iazdao, when he came to plant seed in 
 the ground, cut the breast of Armati 
 with a plowshare. Then the Geus Urva, 
 or soul of the cow, cried out in anguish, 
 and appealed to the angels on high to 
 defend Armati against her brutal rav- 
 ishers. But the mighty angels, under- 
 standing the purpose and thought of 
 Ahura-Mazdao, would not interfere to 
 save Armati from the wound of the har- 
 row and the plowshare. She was left to
 
 590 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 suffer and to moan without alleviation 
 of her anguish. But in recompense for 
 her sorrow, she was given the flowers 
 and fruits and waving harvests to hide 
 the wounds in her bosom. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the 
 
 Devas. There was a hierarchy of the 
 
 Bad as well as of the 
 
 Ahriman and ^ , ^ • i a i. 
 
 the hierarchy Good. Over agamst Ahura- 
 of the Devas. jja^jao was placed Ahri- 
 man, the Iranian Satan. He was the 
 foe not only of the good powers on high, 
 but also of man. The world was a bat- 
 tlefield between the benevolent and 
 malevolent spirits. Here again we may 
 see the evolution of a concept, proceed- 
 ing from material to immaterial images. 
 At the first it was the physical world that 
 was divided between the power of light 
 and darkness. In the world of matter 
 dualism is a fact, and perhaps a neces- 
 sity. While there is day, there is night. 
 While there is sunshine, there is storm. 
 While there is a balm of summer, there 
 is a blast of winter. While there is dew, 
 there are hailstones. While there is 
 blossoming mead, there is blasted har- 
 vest. While there is plenty, there is 
 starvation. While there is good, there 
 is bad. While there is life, there is 
 death. The ascent from the opposition 
 and antagonism of material things to the 
 antagonism of things ideal and spiritual 
 is inevitable while the aspects of ph3's- 
 ical nature are unchanged and the laws 
 of human thought retain, their integrity. 
 Out of these conditions the Old Aryan 
 mind constructed its world of Devas, its 
 hierarchy of malignant spirits. Ahri- 
 man was at the head. The rest were 
 graduated in descending orders of ma- 
 lignity, to the small sprites that troubled 
 the dreams of childhood. Ahriman was 
 a demon. He was the Bad Mind of the 
 universe. Indra and Siva, taken from 
 the pantheon of the Brahmans, were his 
 
 couhselors, who presided in the malign 
 parliament whence the black armies- of 
 earth and heaven were ordered forth to 
 debase and destroy the children of men. 
 No tribe of men on the face of the earth 
 has been found without its intoxicant. 
 Neither primitive barbarian nor modern 
 savage has failed to find , . . 
 
 ■^ Intoxication 
 
 the substance and the proc- and the wor- 
 
 , 1-1,1 ship of Soma. 
 
 ess by which the nervous 
 system may be artificially excited and 
 the mind distraught with the flying fan- 
 cies of stimulation. Some of the oldest 
 hints of mortal tradition have transmit- 
 ted the story of drunkenness and the 
 knowledge of the means by which it 
 was produced. Among the Old Iranians 
 the plant of the East, called Asclcpias, 
 was discovered, the juices of its pith ex- 
 tracted, and turned by fermentation into 
 wine. He who swallowed it was lifted 
 with a sudden delight into the realm of 
 delirium. His heart throbbed and his 
 vision was exalted, while wild land- 
 scapes of fairies and phantoms flitted 
 before his eyes. Certainly, said he, 
 this is the gift of a god. It is divine. 
 It is the blessed secret of the immortals, 
 and its name is Soma. Let us drink 
 again and worship Soma. Of a cer- 
 tainty the gods di-ink and are drunken. 
 Soma is the only good thing which the 
 gods have given us. — Such was the hi- 
 larious dream which 
 
 " Brought death into the world, and all our woe 
 With loss of Eden." 
 
 Under the influence of this system of 
 religion the Old Iranians rose to a high 
 level as it respects prac- „ , 
 
 '■ '■ , High raorahty 
 
 tical ethics and morality, of the primitive 
 
 T, 11 1 1 1 , T Zoroastrians. 
 
 It may well be doubted 
 whether any other primitive race of 
 men were superior to the Bactrian an- 
 cestors of the Aryan peoples as it re- 
 spects the common virtues of life. The
 
 THE IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 591 
 
 laws of Ahura-Mazdao, as revealed by 
 Zarathustra to his people, demanded 
 piety toward the gods and honest en- 
 deavor among men. Truth and purity 
 were regarded as the fountains of all 
 good. A life without virtue was worth- 
 less. True, the thing called virtue by 
 the best pagans of the ancient world 
 was very different in sense from the 
 narrow and technical meaning of the 
 word in modern times. It was the vir- 
 tue of strength and courage, the virtue 
 which defended the weak and shielded 
 innocence. 
 
 According to the Iranian system the 
 actions of men were judged by their 
 Motive made motives. Conduct was 
 of^ethi^s^and"" praiscd or condemned ac- 
 reUgion. cording to the intent from 
 
 which it sprang. The simplest pursuits 
 of life were infected with morality. To 
 till the soil was a religious duty. The 
 destruction of weeds and brambles was 
 a thing pleasing to Ahura-ilazdao. The 
 people of Iran were exhorted to turn 
 from the barbarism of the nomadic 
 life and to seek their subsistence from 
 the bosom of the earth, the breast of 
 that orenerous Armati, from which came 
 the milk of life to her hungrj- children. 
 Tillage was, therefore, a duty of reli- 
 gion. Zarathustra enjoined it in his pre- 
 cepts, and piety demanded that men 
 should love and cultivate the earth. 
 
 As in the case of all other religions, 
 
 that of the ancient Iranians soon required 
 
 a retinue of priests. Some 
 
 Evolution of 
 
 the order of the must be set apart to attend 
 ^"' especially to the worship 
 
 of the gods. In this system there were 
 three divisions in the priesthood. First, 
 the Kavi, or Prophets, were supposed, 
 by their discipline and communion with 
 the Ahuras, to be versed not only in the 
 lore of the present, but in the things of 
 the future. This ofl&ce was a part of 
 
 that general scheme of benefit which 
 underlay the whole fact of early wor- 
 ship. The fundamental idea was that 
 of advantage to men ; and secondly, the 
 avoidance of evil. The primitive man 
 worshiped because he conceived it to be 
 of advantage to him to do so. He wished 
 to stand well with the powers of earth 
 and air, to be in alliance with them, to 
 conciliate their favor. Afterwards he 
 wished to avoid, even to propitiate, the 
 evil forces of the world, and to thwart 
 the malevolence of the bad-minded dei- 
 ties. 
 
 One may well be astonished to see 
 how completely all ancient forms of 
 religfion are permeated with , , . , 
 
 ° ^ . . Imperfection of 
 
 this narrow consideration primitive reu- 
 
 • 1 1 i glous concepts. 
 
 of personal advantage. 
 Those high and unselfish considerations 
 that are urged iipon the minds of modem 
 peoples by religious teachers were un- 
 known in the primitive world. There 
 was, indeed, in the mind of antiquity no 
 perception or sense to w^hich such ex- 
 hortations and inducements would have 
 appealed at all. The old tribes, still 
 struggling with the rank conditions of 
 unsubdued environment, thought only 
 of advantage, how thej^ might for the 
 present be benefited, how gain might be 
 had and misfortune avoided. 
 
 Even among the Semitic nations the 
 same low concept of the relation of man 
 
 to the power on high ex- KventheSem- 
 
 isted. As late as the time 'l^^^t'Zrl^^ 
 of the composition of the and duty. 
 Pentateuch the Hebrew race had risen 
 no higher than this earthly view of the 
 profitableness of religion. In the twenty- 
 eighth chapter of Deuteronomy the sum- 
 mary of the whole argument in favor 
 of the expediency and rightfulness of 
 religious servace to Jehovah Elohim is 
 set forth in an extended catalogue of 
 benefits to be gained and evils to be
 
 592 
 
 GREAT RACES OE .UAX/kEVE). 
 
 avoided, not a single one of which rises 
 above the level of mere temporal advan- 
 tages on the one hand or physical afflic- 
 tions on the other. This is all the more 
 surprising when we reflect on the high 
 concept which the Hebrew race had of 
 the nature and attributes of Deity. 
 
 added the natural curiosity of the human 
 race to know mystery and to see the in- 
 visible. The Kavi were supposed to be 
 in communion, at least when exercising 
 their priestly office, with the Ahuras, 
 especially with Mazdao and Sraosha, and 
 from such intercourse with the powers 
 
 (",rKl;FR CKKEMONIES AT TEMPLE OF ATECII-OA, XEAR P.AKAM.— Drawn by M. Moynet. 
 
 This notion of advantage underlay 
 the prophetical office of the Iranian 
 _ ^ , Kavi. It was beneficial 
 
 Fundamental 
 
 ideas of the to foreknow what was to 
 
 office of Kavi. _,, ^ . , 
 
 come. 1 he Iranic people, 
 with such revelation of the hereafter, 
 might better adjust themselves to the 
 conditions of the physical world, and 
 thereby more easily gain its benefits and 
 avoid its evils. To this bottom motive 
 in the institution of prophecy must be 
 
 on high they gathered their revelations 
 for men. 
 
 The second class of Iranian priests 
 were known as Karopani ; that is, 
 " Sacrificers." The notion Sacrifice in- 
 
 tended to supply 
 
 of contributing something the deities with 
 
 , - , . , , food and ral- 
 
 to the gods from the ment. 
 abundance of the earth is one of the 
 most primitive of the religious concepts 
 of mankind. It implies mutual advan- 
 tage. Men, hoping to receive favors
 
 THE IRANIANS— RELIGION. 
 
 593 
 
 from the powers of earth and heaven, 
 give something of their own goods in 
 return. The fruits of the field are 
 brought and laid upon the altar. Favor- 
 ite animals are led forth and presented 
 to the deities. 
 
 There are two correlations here which 
 may be noticed with interest. First, 
 that the deities — in this case, the Ahuras 
 — are supposed to require for food the 
 same things that are agreeable to the 
 appetites and wants of men. Very rarely 
 do the things sacrificed represent any 
 other element than that of food value. 
 Among some primitive peoples articles 
 of clothing, the hunter's gear and 
 weaponry, were given in sacrifice. But 
 generally there was a strict conformity 
 of the things offered to the articles of 
 food most desired by the sacrificers. 
 With the growth of aesthetic tastes 
 flowers were added, but generally those 
 articles of the vegetable and animal 
 kingdom which were used by the peo- 
 ple to sustain life were given as an 
 offering. 
 
 Among the Old Iranians, such articles 
 were fruits and grains and certain ani- 
 mals, particularly the horse. The latter 
 was a notable departure 
 rificed ; gift of from the usual order. The 
 t e orse. horse was sacrificed not as 
 
 an article of food, but as the most valu- 
 able of the possessions of the worshiper. 
 Without the horse his journey from 
 place to place could not be made. 
 Without him the hunt would be reduced 
 to a mere struggle of man with the wild 
 beast, and without him war would be 
 impossible. So the horse must be given 
 to the Ahuras as the most acceptable 
 gift. 
 
 The second notion above referred to 
 is that of the method of transferring the 
 gifts from the visible hands of the givers 
 to the invisible hands of the Ahuras. 
 
 Fire has been a possession of all the 
 races of men. Its general office is to 
 make the visible forms of 
 
 _ Fire employed 
 
 things invisible by combus- as the agent of 
 
 , . m 1 • i r • transformation. 
 
 tion. Phis transforming 
 force was therefore employed in all the 
 sacrifices of the primitive world. The 
 thing 2:iven was committed to the flames, 
 and disappeared. By this process of 
 divine commerce the fruit of the earth 
 or the slaughtered animal was trans- 
 ferred to the immortals. As a rule, 
 however, not all of the thing sacrificed 
 was committed to the flames. The 
 shrewd wit of the primitive worshiper 
 still dallied with the idea of advantage 
 to himself. A part of the offering was 
 reserved for the priest. As for him, 
 he could readily make a tradition that 
 by eating of the sacrificial offering he 
 sat at a common table with the gods. 
 This ingenious casuistry would be ac- 
 cepted as a verity, and the giver of the 
 sacrifice would be satisfied. 
 
 The third group of Iranian priests 
 were known as the Ricikhs, or the 
 "Sages." They were the The primitive 
 eariy philosophers of the ?,^^Sar°' 
 race. In the religious race, 
 evolution the Iranian mind conceived 
 it wise to draw along with the develop- 
 ment of ceremony the incipient learning 
 of the age. A class of hierarchs, known 
 as the Ricikhs, thus arose, as natural 
 philosophers, interpreters of earth and 
 air and heaven, not seers in the pro- 
 phetical sense, for that was the office of 
 the Kavi, but wise men in the inter- 
 pretation of all things secular and 
 material — teachers of the commonplace 
 and natural. 
 
 Nature worshipers in the primitive 
 ages are little disposed to building tem- 
 ples. It is only in subsequent stages of 
 development that a system of religion, 
 founded on natural concepts, requires
 
 594 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the erection of houses for the deities. In 
 the beginning all worship is conducted 
 in the open spaces, under 
 the arch of heaven. 
 Among the Old Iranians, 
 the hilltops were chosen as the most 
 
 East Aryans 
 preferred the 
 open air for 
 worship. 
 
 PRESENT STATE OF FIRE-TOWERS AT ATECH-GA. 
 Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 suitable places on which to build their 
 altars and offer their sacrifices. It was 
 on these high places, from which a view 
 of a great horizon could be obtained, 
 where sun and earth and air were 
 
 revealed in all their grandeur and 
 beauty, that the earliest priests of the 
 Ar3-an race stood up and chanted their 
 Gathas and offered prayer. It was a 
 long time before the temple-building 
 epoch arrived in the history of the two 
 branches of the East Aryan race. 
 It is perhaps impossible for the 
 modern inquirer to transport him- 
 self into the consciousness of this 
 ancient people, and to feel t/ie rca- 
 sous which were sufficient for per- 
 forming the services of religion 
 in the open air and which forbade 
 the localization of worship in a 
 temple. Even to comparatively 
 late epochs in the history of this 
 race the palace of the king always 
 outshone the temple of the gods. 
 To the present day the hilltops 
 back of Bombay smoke with the 
 fires of the Parsees, with no roof 
 above save the Indian sky. 
 
 Nature worship did not incul- 
 cate immortality. The doctrine 
 of the continuous ,^ . 
 
 Notion of Im- 
 
 existence of the soul mortauty of 
 
 -. , , , 1 later date. 
 
 after death rose slow- 
 ly and through many tortuous proc- 
 esses of thought from the primi- 
 tive naturalism of the Iranian race. 
 It is surprising to view the indif- 
 ference of all the Aryan peoples 
 of antiquity to the question of a 
 life after death. When the pow- 
 ers of the natural world had been 
 separated from its physical aspects 
 and elevated into the character of 
 Ahuras, they were regarded as im- 
 mortal. But even this aspect of 
 the old natural theology was not 
 dwelt upon before the classical ages. 
 It came at length, however, to be per- 
 ceived that the gods, in order to be of 
 permanent benefit to their worshipers, 
 must be immortal. Otherwise, death
 
 THE IRANIANS.— SEX AND MARRIAGE. 
 
 595 
 
 might inten-ene and all advantages 
 cease forever. 
 
 From the immortality of the gods, it 
 was but a step to the concept of the im- 
 At first worship mortality of the soul. In 
 ho^^'^fldtSl ^^^ ^^^^^ development of 
 tage. Zoroastrianism such belief 
 
 became prevalent, and the teachings of 
 the ^lagi were largely based upon the 
 belief in an existence of the souls of 
 men after death. But in the earlier 
 ages duty and obligation were enforced 
 by the Kavi and the Sages of Mazdao 
 on the simple grounds of benefits to 
 be gained and evils to be averted. 
 The concept of an eternal existence 
 had not entered in ; the horizon of re- 
 ligion, as it was believed and practiced 
 by the Old Iranians, was coincident 
 with the horizon of life, and the reli- 
 gious ceremonial was all prepared and 
 performed with the expectation of 
 earthly benefits. 
 
 In the attempt to gather the outlines 
 of the prehistoric life of a people, and to 
 depict the same as one complete image 
 to be looked upon by living races of 
 
 men, the writer is many times embar- 
 rassed in selecting those features which 
 are most likely to make a 
 
 Iraruan religion 
 distinct and lasting image, foreran national 
 T , . development. 
 
 In the present case we 
 have dwelt at some length upon that Old 
 Iranian faith which had Ahura-ilazdao 
 for its supreme spirit and the Zoroas- 
 trian Bible for its apocalypse. We have 
 done so for the reason that this system 
 of belief and practice was a fundamental 
 element, if not indeed the very life, of 
 Iranic development and nationality. 
 The rising institutions of the race took 
 form and fashion from the religious 
 system of Zarathustra. One of the 
 strongest forces by which the impulses 
 of the nomadic life were held back and 
 finally bound down to the pastoral and 
 agricultural career, by which the set- 
 tled tribes gradually became predomi- 
 nant over the hunters, and by which in- 
 stitutional forms took the place of mere 
 tribal chaos, was the unity of religious 
 beliefs and practices common not only 
 to the Iranians themselves, but also to 
 their kinsmen in India. 
 
 Chapter XXXIV.— Sex axd ]Marriaoe Axiong 
 
 A.RVAXS. 
 
 THE 
 
 T will now be of inter- 
 est to say something 
 of the relations of man 
 and woman among the 
 forefathers of the In- 
 do-European races. 
 The perpetuity and, 
 indeed, the very existence of the human 
 family depends upon the fact of sex in 
 the species. The complete mankind is 
 divided into two parts, the man and the 
 "f'oman. By a beautiful coordination, 
 and perhaps what may be called a nat- 
 
 ural division of labor, the procreation 
 and the bearing of offspring are divided 
 as might be a piece of work importance of 
 in economics. The duty of ^^^Z^l^,, 
 perpetuating the race is history. 
 separated into parts and given to two in- 
 stead of to one. In this respect man- 
 kind share in the general analogies of 
 nature. Nearly all animals and plants 
 reproduce by sex. In some cases the 
 whole procreative act is accomplished in 
 a single individual of the species, but, 
 as a rule, it is divided between two
 
 596 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The laws by which the two cooperate in 
 this vital effort to maintain the species of 
 which they are themselves the units are 
 all-important, and must ever constitute 
 one of the most interesting studies to 
 which the reflective mind may be devoted. 
 
 tain that no one of these has been 
 used by all as the first, or primal, meth- 
 od of maintaining human existence. The 
 facts seem to warrant the belief that 
 some of the primitive races have in- 
 stinctively employed one plan for the 
 
 union of the 
 
 IRANIAN FAMILY TYPE. 
 Drawn by Tofani, after a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 general 
 
 In the human family four 
 schemes of propagation have been em- 
 „ ploved by various tribes 
 
 Four methods ^ ^ -^ _ 
 
 of sexual union of men while still under 
 among races. ,, , . . r .1 
 
 the dominion of the un- 
 conscious forces peculiar to the child- 
 hood of the race. It is almost cer- 
 
 sexes, and oth- 
 ers another plan. 
 The four meth- 
 ods referred to 
 differ among 
 themselves ma- 
 terially. They 
 are unlike con- 
 sidered as plans 
 of procreation, 
 and are diverse 
 in the social re- 
 sults to which 
 they lead. 
 
 The first is the 
 scheme of sexual 
 union in which 
 men and women 
 are miscellane- 
 ously joined in 
 the procreation 
 of the race. It 
 implies little 
 more than the in- 
 stinctive and 
 temporary union 
 of the male and 
 the female in the 
 other races of an- 
 imals. It signi- 
 fies that after 
 this temporary 
 relation, resultant in the birth of a new 
 member of the species, the relation 
 shall cease as it respects communal sys- 
 the parents, and that each ^^-J^^^,™^' 
 of them shall thereafter nence. 
 enter into new unions with other 
 members of the species, and so on
 
 THE IRAXIAXS.—SEX AND MARRIAGE. 
 
 597 
 
 throughout the productive period of 
 life. 
 
 Impennanence is the feature of such 
 a connection of the sexes. It extends 
 even to uncertainty as to the male pa- 
 rentage of all offspring. It makes the 
 woman the mother of many children 
 by different men, and the man the 
 father of many children by differ- 
 ent women. The sy.stem is known as 
 communal marriage, and it may well 
 be regarded as the most barbarous, if 
 not the most primitive, of all the forms 
 of procreative union between the sexes. 
 
 The second scheme is that in which 
 
 one man selects two or more women as 
 
 his wives and by them multiplies his 
 
 kind. The relation once 
 
 Nature of the 
 
 polygamous established is supposed to 
 
 schpjiie of union. , i j • ii. 
 
 be permanent during the 
 procreative period of life. This makes 
 the man the central fact in the propaga- 
 tion of the race. From him the lines of 
 life diverge through several members of 
 the opposite sex, and are spread wider 
 and wider as the process goes on, to the 
 second and third generation, until his 
 blood is almost infinitely diffused. After 
 some generations vast multitudes would 
 trace backward, through different moth- 
 ers, their descent from a common father. 
 To this scheme of multiple marriage is 
 given the name of polygamy — a word 
 which the discerning tongue of the 
 Greeks has contributed to the vocabulary 
 of the world. 
 
 The third plan of union between the 
 sexes is like the last, except that the po- 
 sition of the parties is reversed — exactly 
 reversed as to parentage, but not as to 
 Antecedents rcsults in offspring. In this 
 ^^J^^^l^,,l^ tliird scheme several men 
 
 polyandrous 
 
 marriage. are married to one woman. 
 
 She, and not the man, becomes the cen- 
 tral fact in whom the lines of life con- 
 verge. In all other schemes the lines 
 
 are divergent toward posterity, but in 
 this — such is the nature of the union — 
 the course of all the forces of procreation 
 is toward the woman. As to the off- 
 spring, the mother, as in all cases, is 
 known ; but the paternity is undiscover- 
 able. Each child has a single unit for 
 its mother and a multiple factor for its 
 father. In some tribes all the brothers 
 born of a single mother are married in 
 common to one woman. But when it is 
 said fhat all the brotlurs are so wedded 
 to one, it must be remembered that the 
 brothers in question have a multiple pa- 
 ternity ; that is, they are not brothers in 
 the sense that men are brothers in the 
 monogamic relation, or even in polygamy. 
 In other tribes not only the sons of a 
 single mother are wedded to one woman 
 as her husbands, but all of the members 
 of the tribe are in like relation with her. 
 Among many of the' North American 
 aboriginal nations the woman is the wife 
 of the tribe. This system is called poly- 
 andry, a term which is self-definitive of 
 the relation. 
 
 The fourth plan of procreative union 
 is called monogamy. It is the joining 
 of one man to one woman Monogamy de- 
 and of her to him. The ^^/^rnt- 
 relation thus established is ^s®- 
 distinct from any of the three preceding. 
 It is especially different as it relates to 
 offspring. It signifies an ascertained 
 parentage in both maternity and paterni- 
 ty. It signifies that all the children bom 
 of one woman have a single father, and 
 that all the children bom of one father 
 have a common mother. The relation is 
 so easily apprehensible that it need not 
 be described, either in itself or its re- 
 sults. 
 
 It shjuld be remarked that the sexual 
 usage in different nations adopting differ- 
 ent schemes of procreative relationship 
 is particularly tenacious, and is generally
 
 698 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 maintained with scrupulous exactitude 
 
 by the sentiment of the given people. 
 
 Monogam\' is by no means 
 
 All races have , , . , 
 
 and maintain a regarded as more essential 
 sexual code. ^^ ^^^ welfare of the race 
 
 by those peoples who practice it than are 
 
 OLDEST TYPE OF THE MARRIED WOMAN — A CHA!.D.«AN. 
 Drawn by Mile, de Lancelot, after a sketch by Madame Dieiilafoy. 
 
 the other schemes of union by the re- 
 spective races among whom they pre- 
 vail. There has never been found a 
 tribe of savages so low in the human 
 scale as not to have a certain sexual code, 
 any departure from which by the mem- 
 
 bers of the tribe would be regarded not 
 only as scandalous, but as destructive of 
 the welfare and happiness of all. 
 
 We can not pass from this analytic view 
 of the nature and methods employed by 
 different peoples in perpetuating the 
 race without notic- 
 ing the bearings of 
 the subject on cer- 
 tain controverted 
 questions. The 
 principal of these is 
 the historical prior- 
 ity of the several 
 plans of marriage 
 enumerated above. 
 The problem is not 
 so important in it- 
 self as in its rela- 
 t i o n s to another 
 question. It is easy 
 to perceive that if 
 monogamy be the 
 first great method 
 of mankind, then 
 the family, which is 
 the second unit in 
 ethnic development, 
 precedes the gens, 
 the gens the tribe, 
 and the tribe the 
 race, in the order 
 delineated in a for- 
 mer chapter. But, 
 on the other hand, 
 if the system of 
 polyandry should 
 be the primitive 
 method of union, 
 then, undoubtedly, 
 
 be the Historical prl- 
 
 tribe would 
 
 thp order of de- o"ty of marriago 
 me oruer or ue- systems consid- 
 
 the 
 
 first in 
 
 velopment, the gens sec- ^^^^' 
 
 ond, and the family the last stage in the 
 
 human evolution. 
 
 If the ethnographer of to-day is com-
 
 THE IRANIANS.— SEX AND MARRIAGE. 
 
 599 
 
 pelled, with the data before him, to de- 
 cide this important question, he will be 
 Some tribes obliged, in view of all the 
 od?ndTomTan; f'-^^ts, to express . the belief 
 o^T^e^- that some of the primitive 
 
 races of mankind have adopted one of 
 these schemes, and others another. This 
 is to say that in certain families of men 
 the monogamic principle employed from 
 the beginning has led from the family to 
 the gens, from the gens to the tribe, and 
 from the tribe to the race, while in 
 other branches and under different con- 
 ditions instinctive ethnic preferences 
 have led to the adoption of communal 
 marriage, or more particularly to poly- 
 andry, by which the general course of 
 the race development has been exactly 
 reversed, beginning with the tribe and 
 passing by way of the gens to the final 
 establishment of the family. 
 
 It has been the custom to say that 
 monogamy originated, or was at least 
 AUeged begin- given its first authoritative 
 ^^M^g tl; expression, among the Ro- 
 Romans. mans. It can not be de- 
 
 nied that from a very early age the 
 monogamic relation was formally recog- 
 nized by the Latin race as the one valid 
 law of sexual union. It is equally cer- 
 tain that the extension of Roman 
 power over all the countries around the 
 Mediterranean and far into the East 
 compelled the acceptance of this feature 
 of social organization. Monogamy be- 
 came thus intimately associated with the 
 bottom principles of Christianity, and 
 after the decline of the empire the law 
 of single marriage, the union of one man 
 and one woman for life, was carried 
 throughout the world, wherever that 
 system of religious belief found a foot- 
 ing. But it is doubtful if such is — if 
 such was — the actual beginning and es- 
 tablishment of the monogamic relation 
 among mankind. 
 
 The Greeks were monogamists. In 
 general, the Oriental nations were polyg- 
 amists, but in the West the opposite prin- 
 ciple prevailed. Among the other Indo-Eu- 
 Gothic races, also, as far as ^"f/.T p''"''- 
 
 ' ' ticed smgle mar- 
 
 custom had been formu- "age. 
 lated into law, it appears that the prin- 
 ciple of single marriage was universally 
 recognized. The primitive institutions 
 of the Celtic tribes in Western Europe 
 have not been well ascertained, but we 
 have reason to believe that among them 
 also the law was monogamic. The 
 Greeks did not elevate woman to a high 
 rank or make her, in any sense, the so- 
 cial equal of man, but they were not 
 polygamists. Neither were the primi- 
 tive Aryans of India. We have already 
 seen that the Old Aryan Housefolk of 
 the Indian valleys were organized into 
 families on the m.onogamic basis. The 
 system of naming which they used to 
 express the family relations precludes 
 all idea of communal or polygamic prac- 
 tices among them. 
 
 The same is true in Iran. As far 
 back toward the bottom of the Ar}^an 
 nidus as we are able to Difficulty of 
 penetrate the relation was IZ^^/ 
 one man for one woman against ucense. 
 and one womaa for one man. While 
 men are in a tribal state, such a prin- 
 ciple can never be carried into full effect. 
 All modern nations have had cause to 
 appreciate the extreme difficulty of main- 
 taining in its integrity the system of 
 monogamy as against the natural license 
 and vagrant instincts of the race. If the 
 system has thus had to contend with 
 many diverse forces in the higher forms 
 of society, how much more may we ex- 
 pect it to have had an imperfect form 
 among prehistoric nations! 
 
 It is true, then, that the Romans were 
 the great authoritative promoters of sin- 
 gle marriage in the ancient world, and
 
 600 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 that the Christian religion was at least 
 
 the vehicle of the diffusion of that plan 
 
 of union among the nations 
 
 Single marriage n i -^ 
 
 peculiar to the of the earth. But It may 
 Aryan races. ^^ g^j^^^ asserted that the 
 
 system is peculiar to the Aryan race. For 
 some reason it accords with the in.stinc- 
 tive sentiments of nearly all people of 
 Indo-European descent. The attempt 
 to introduce and to maintain some other 
 law of sexual union among the Indo- 
 European races has been always com- 
 bated not only by the statutory princi- 
 ples and positive laws prevalent among 
 them, but also by the bottom instincts 
 of the race. 
 
 It remains, therefore, to look briefly 
 at the reasons that may be assigned for 
 the preference of one system of marriage 
 Faotstending to over another. What are 
 
 determine mar- ^^ cirCUmstanceS, the 
 
 riage systems ' 
 
 considered. facts, which induced some 
 
 of the primitive tribes of mankind to 
 adopt monogamy, others polygamy, and 
 still others polyandry, or even communal 
 marriage? It might well be thought 
 that human beings in the unconscious 
 state, placed under like conditions and 
 confronted with a problem so natural 
 and inevitable as that of procreation, 
 would all alike solve the question in a 
 given way, and adopt a common ethnic 
 code governing the manner and even 
 the details of this great central fact in 
 the perpetuation of the race. Such, 
 however, we shall not find to have been 
 the natural and necessary order in the 
 evolution of human society. 
 
 A close study of the conditions under 
 which the races of men were originally 
 Conditions ante- placed will show great di- 
 versity in their situations. 
 It may be perceived that the 
 motives which, unconsciously to them- 
 selves, played upon the first men and 
 women in different parts of the earth 
 
 cedent to the 
 
 monogamic 
 
 method. 
 
 were very diverse and even antagonis- 
 tic. From the beginning the unconquer- 
 able instinct of the mother was for the 
 preservation of her child. The instinct 
 of the father also tended to its preserva- 
 tion, but not with so great force as on 
 the mother's side. Under certain con- 
 ditions the sustenance of the child was 
 so easy as to be almost natural. Under 
 other circumstances, it was a work of 
 difficulty and labor. In the latter case, 
 a repugnance to offspring would arise 
 among primitive people, and would pres- 
 ently become so strong as to suggest 
 destruction. As soon as barbarian fa^ 
 thers should adopt this method of les- 
 sening the number of those whom they 
 must support and with whom their 
 households were encumbered, a natural 
 selection would lead to the destructioa 
 of the girls and to the preservation of 
 the boys. By this means the tribal so- 
 ciety would soon haye a preponderance 
 of males and a paucity of females. This 
 is a monogamic condition. vSuch a state 
 is the antecedent of single marriage. 
 
 Under such circumstances several men 
 would compete for a single woman. The 
 strongest would obtain her, Nature of the 
 partly by his strength and ^^rogal";!:"^ 
 partly by her preference confirmed, 
 for him as the best. He who obtained 
 could generally defend. The man thus 
 married would become a party of the 
 first part, and those whom he had sur- 
 passed in competition a party of the sec- 
 ond part, both obliged to the mainte- 
 nance of the union thus established. 
 Each of the party of the second part 
 would hope in turn to obtain some other 
 woman as his own, and thus to become 
 a party of the first part, in a compact to 
 which Ids coinpetitors were a party of 
 the second part. Here are the founda- 
 tions of a natural league on the part of 
 all to support and maintain monogamy.
 
 FORM OF ROYAI, TOMl; IN POLYGAMOUS COUNTRY — Drawn by Taylor, from a pliotograph.
 
 602 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Under other conditions a wholly dif- 
 ferent state of circumstances might 
 Certain other aHse. In a wami and fer- 
 conditions tend ^|j igland or in a fecund 
 
 to establish 
 
 polygamy. Oriental valley — where na- 
 
 ture brings forth in abundance all things 
 soever which are desired by man, where 
 her resources seem exhaustless and the 
 eater has but to lift his hand to the bend- 
 ing bough to gather what fruits he will, 
 ■where the genial atmosphere and the 
 equability of the seasons requires no 
 clothing and suggests no permanent 
 shelter, where even the infant, before 
 it leaves its mother's breast, begins to 
 gather from its environment all manner 
 of natural foods adapted to its wants — 
 the law of life and of the maintenance 
 of life is almost reversed from what it is 
 amid the hardships incident to adverse 
 regions. In such circumstances the 
 maintenance of offspring, however nu- 
 merous, could not be regarded as a task. 
 Neither father nor mother could be 
 much embarrassed even by a multitude. 
 The suggestion of reducing an overplus 
 by destroying it would not arise. ■ The 
 unrestrained impulses and the unlimited 
 results of human instinct would take 
 their natural cour.sc, and no one would 
 feel the burden. In the choice of their 
 sexual mates men would not be limited 
 to one by a confederation against him of 
 the parties of the second part. The fe- 
 males of the tribe would be at least equal 
 in number to the males. The stronger 
 and more vigorous men would take two 
 women or more to wife, and there would 
 be no league against them b}' a disfran- 
 chised minority. The strong man would 
 thus originate two, three, or many 
 branches to his family. The weak man 
 would perhaps have none. In other 
 words, here is the antecedent state and 
 condition of polygamy; and, as a matter 
 of fact, the t'nstitution .so called has gen- 
 
 erally prevailed under the circumstances 
 above enumerated. 
 
 As to communal marriage, it ap- 
 pears to be merely the sexual chaos of 
 tribes in whom the human 
 
 Communal mar- 
 
 sentiments peculiar to this riage the result 
 
 1 ^ . , . . of sexual chaos. 
 
 relation have not yet ap- 
 peared. It wofild be difficult to point 
 out any particular in which this s)'stem 
 differs from the method of union in- 
 stinctivel}' chosen by the lower animals. 
 The existence of such a method, if 
 method it may be called, implies the 
 existence of tribes of men between whom 
 and the animals there is only a small 
 diversity of physical form and the pos- 
 session by the one of larger capacities 
 than by the other. It is a state of na- 
 ture, pure and simple, and has only been 
 found among peoples whose advance 
 from absolute savagery has not pro- 
 ceeded so far as the institution of any 
 definite social forms. We shall here- 
 after have occasion to speak further of 
 this state in connection with some of the 
 tribes by whom simple communal unions 
 are the only custom and law of mar- 
 riage. 
 
 The natural antecedents of polyandry 
 are hard to trace. This form^of union 
 has prevailed in different paucity of fe- 
 parts of the earth to an ^.tld^dpot" 
 extent not understood or andry. 
 appreciated until recent investigations 
 have brought the matter to light. The 
 majority of all the Indian races of North 
 America employed polyandry as the 
 bottom fact in their social structure. 
 The same method of marriage prevails 
 largely in the Polynesian islands and in 
 other quarters of the globe populated 
 by races of Mongoloid descent. Some 
 suggestions may be offered, however, 
 relative to the obscure origin of this, 
 which to the enlightened understanding 
 seems the most repulsive of all forms of
 
 THE IRAXIAXS.—SEX AND MARRIAGE. 
 
 603 
 
 union between the sexes. In the first 
 place, there must have been antecedent 
 to the origin of the custom a paucity of 
 females, either from some perversion of 
 the laws of birth, or from the destruc- 
 tion of female infants. If the latter, it 
 may have occurred either by the will of 
 the parents or bj- natural cau.ses. Suffi- 
 cient data are not accessible to indicate 
 which of the.se circumstances has led 
 among certain of the primitive tribes to 
 the excess of males. Such an excess 
 being granted, we can conceive that 
 
 mcjther. Among Aryan nations, how- 
 ever, the rivalry of brothers is not le.ss 
 intense, even deadly, than between 
 strangers. But for some reason among 
 the polyandrous tribes, the riv^alry of 
 the males has not taken the same 
 course. Perhaps this may be accounted 
 for on the ground of the smallness of 
 the divisions into which the Polynesians 
 and the American Indian tribes have 
 generally been parted. Where a given 
 totem has embraced but a few wigwams, 
 a few warriors, and still fewer women, 
 
 POLVOAMOUS FATHER AND HIS SONS.— Fattallv Chaii.— Draw,, by H. Ch.ipiii>, after a photograph by M.idame Dieulafoy. 
 
 several males would compete for the 
 pos.session of one woman, and to this 
 extent the antecedent condition is 
 identical with that among monogamous 
 barbarians. 
 
 But from this point the analogy 
 breads. For in polyandry, instead of 
 Smallness of the strongest competitor 
 
 tribal division t„i * . i i • .1 
 
 favors poiyan- taking and keepmg the 
 drous system. prize to the exclusion of 
 the rest, the rivals make a league to 
 have the woman in common. The facts 
 show that the rivals are in the first place 
 the brothers born of some common 
 
 it might have been disadvantageous for 
 the warriors to go into deadly rivalry 
 over the question of marriage. It may 
 have been found among tribes thus weak 
 that it was advantageous to husband the 
 meager resources of force and tribal 
 vitality by assigning two or three war- 
 riors to a given woman in the bond of a 
 friendly hu.sbandry. Whatever truth 
 there may be in the.se conjectures, 
 which are put forth as tentative explana- 
 tions of the institution in question, 
 polyandry exists as a large fact in the 
 primitive history of mankind. It has
 
 604 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 31 AN KIND. 
 
 doubtless been practiced by a greater 
 number of aboriginal tribes and races 
 than has polygamy or communal mar- 
 riage itself. 
 
 A question of great importance relat- 
 ing to vital statistics and to a still deeper 
 Bearing of mar- h'lw of biology has been 
 riage systems on j-ais^d with rcspect to the 
 
 proportion of ^ 
 
 the sexes. tendency of these several 
 
 forms of marriage on the proportion of 
 male and female births under each. It 
 is conceded that generally through the 
 kingdom of life the ratio is equally main- 
 tained, under equal conditions, between 
 the male and female members of a race. 
 There can be little doubt that mankind 
 in the monogamic relation obeys the 
 general law, and is perpetuated by near- 
 ly equal increments of the two sexes. 
 The same may be said of communal 
 marriages. Among the tribes where 
 this usage holds, infants are born in 
 equal proportions in either sex. The 
 great question is whether in the two in- 
 termediate systems of polygamy and 
 polyandry the opposing methods of 
 tinion tend to perpetuate them.selves by 
 producing in one an excess of female 
 births and in the other an excess of 
 males. 
 
 That such is the result has been 
 stoutly maintained. It has been averred, 
 Do polygamy and many facts have been 
 cited in substantiation of 
 the principle, that in po- 
 lygamy a tendency to an excess of fe- 
 males is at once discoverable. This is 
 to say that nature provides for the con- 
 tinuance of the system by giving, as 
 the fruit of the multiple marriages of one 
 man, a considerable preponderance of fe- 
 male children. It is also alleged that in 
 polyandry the system perpetuates itself 
 by the production of an excess of males. 
 But both of these principles have been 
 strongly controverted, and facts have 
 
 and polyandry 
 
 perpetuate 
 
 themselves? 
 
 been adduced which would seem in 
 given cases to establish the law of equal 
 birth under both the systems mentioned. 
 There are some physiological reasons 
 for believing that the first of the two ar- 
 guments is better maintained, and, on 
 the whole, the true one. But the ques 
 tion is still ob.scured with much doubt, 
 and must be remanded to future inves- 
 tigation for a final decision. 
 
 This digressive study relative to what 
 may be called the primary or bottom or- 
 ganization of society among the various 
 tribes and races of mankind has been 
 brought in in this connection once for 
 all, that the reader, at the beginning of 
 the delineation of tribal and national 
 life may have, as in a chart before him, 
 the diver.se plans or methods of sexual 
 union, and the consequent perpetuation 
 of the human family in the various 
 quarters of the globe. The Old Iranians 
 were monogamists, with only such de- 
 partures from the law which instinct 
 and custom had provided as are incident 
 to the general lawlessness of mankind. 
 
 With this monogamic principle the 
 religious elements which were developed 
 
 by Zarathustra and the Monogamy reVn- 
 
 Kavi entered into combina- ^°I^,ta„''^ '*'" 
 tion, and, as the nomadic prophets, 
 life gave place to a settled state, the old 
 provincial nationality of the Medes may 
 be said to have begun. We are here ex- 
 amining the very roots of human his- 
 tory. The opinion is confidently ad- 
 vanced that there was something in the 
 instinct and something in the environ- 
 ment of the primitive Aryan race, in'its 
 old Bactrian nidus, before the Veda was 
 the Veda, before the Avesta was the 
 Avesta, which impelled to the union of 
 man and woman in the procreative re- 
 lation.ship on the monogamic, or single 
 marriage, principle. And from this re- 
 mote period, below the daydawn of hu-
 
 THE IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 605 
 
 man history, that principle has remained 
 instinctive in the race and in all its 
 branches. Doubtless, in some particu- 
 lar instances the old bottom law of Ar- 
 yan thought and preference on this sub- 
 ject has been subverted by environment 
 
 and association, and has been supplanted 
 by one of the other principles of sexual 
 relationship, but the exceptions will be 
 found, on the whole, rather to verify 
 and illustrate than to abrogate the gen- 
 eral law. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV.— HISTORIC^VL DEVELOPMENT OF 
 
 THE iRAXIA^iSS. 
 
 HUvS far in the course 
 of the present work 
 little attention has been 
 paid to chronolog>'. 
 No effort has been 
 made to fix, with even 
 approximate certainty, 
 the time relations of events. This 
 course has been fully justified by the 
 fact that the events referred to have 
 been either absolutely prehistoric, or 
 else located along the farthest horizon of 
 formal history. Nothing 
 
 Question of . , , 
 
 dates in Old certain as to dates can be 
 
 Iranian history, ^ggj-g^j fo^. g^ch shadowy 
 
 parts of the annals of the human race. 
 Chronology is one of the special devices 
 of history. It is said to be one of the 
 historical eyes through which all things 
 are seen. Perhaps we are now, however, 
 arrived at a point when something may 
 well be said as to the approximate time 
 when the Old Iranians merged into the 
 dim morning light of antiquity. 
 
 On this subject we are fortunately in 
 
 possession of some distinct points of 
 
 observation. It is conceded that the 
 
 Medes were the oldest his- 
 
 Probable place . . . , 
 
 and epoch of torical expression for the 
 Zoroaster ancient Iranian race. Con- 
 
 cerning the antiquity of the Medes, we 
 are able to draw at least a vague outline. 
 According to Polyhistor, following and 
 repeating Berosus, Zarathustra, or Zoro- 
 
 aster, was the first of a dynasty of eight 
 iledian kings ruling in Chaldaea in the 
 very earliest ages of history. Indeed, 
 with the exception of the Egyptian 
 annals, this is the farthest point of light 
 which the historian is now able to touch, 
 as he looks into the mist-covered dawn 
 of human affairs. The Chaldaean dy- 
 nasty referred to was the second which 
 had ruled in the old empire at the mouth 
 of the two Mesopotamian rivers. It was 
 composed of eight kings, Zoroaster be- 
 ing the first ; and there are good reasons 
 for fixing the limits of this dynasty be- 
 tween the years 2286 and 2052 B. C. At 
 the close of this period it appears that 
 the foreign, that is the Median, domina- 
 tion in Chaldjea was broken and the 
 throne regained by native princes. It 
 has been customary to make the date of 
 Zoroaster about coincident with that of 
 Abraham, but the current chronology 
 would hardly admit of this construction. 
 It maj^ be accepted as approximately 
 correct that the founder of the Old Ira- 
 nian faith flourished at about the time 
 indicated above. 
 
 One of the principal errors into which 
 the occasional student is likely to fall 
 relative to the relations of Historical stu- 
 
 dents do not 
 
 ancient events is to fix sufficiently con- 
 
 „ sider perspec- 
 
 them, as it were, on a flat tive. 
 surface, without allowing for perspective. 
 In the present case, it must be remem-
 
 THE IRA NIA NS.—HIS TO RICA I DE J 'EL OPMENT. 
 
 607 
 
 bered that there was necessarily a long 
 Iranian history before the time of Zoro- 
 aster. There was already an organized 
 people, developed from the tribal state 
 and sufficiently high in the 
 scale of unity and self-con- 
 sciousness to receive the reve- 
 lations and accept the ideas 
 which he brought. The mi 
 gratory period of the Old Ai 
 yan departure, of the joint and 
 common progress of the Indie 
 and Iranic races, of their grad- 
 ual separation into two distinct 
 families, and the development 
 of institutio'nal forms in each, 
 all preceded by ages of inde- 
 terminate, or at least undeter- 
 mined, duration the apparition 
 of the great teacher and prophet 
 of Ahura-Mazdao. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that 
 the Old Iranians, 
 of whom we are .^^..^ ,,, 
 here speaking, are L^J'of-' ''' 
 a prehistoric peo- 
 ple. That is to 
 say that their life 
 and history have 
 been developed bv 
 what may be called 
 historical paralla.K. 
 The data in pos- 
 session of the eth- 
 nographer and his- 
 torian are sufficient 
 to construct an ac- 
 curate outline for 
 the career of many 
 peoples whose act- 
 ual annals nowhere 
 exist in the liter- 
 
 reached by this method of investigation. 
 The astronomer, acquainted with the laws 
 of physics and with his calculus before 
 him, feels into the depths of invisible 
 
 OLD MEDIAN TYPE — CYRUS THE GREAl. 
 Prawn liy Madame Dieiilafoy after the sculpture. 
 
 ature or among the monu- 
 ments of mankind. Nor 
 is there any uncertainty 
 about the process of the results which are 
 
 Possibility of 
 developing his- 
 torical outlines 
 by 'jarallax 
 
 space and grasps the un.seen planet, de- 
 termining its mass and velocity with an 
 exactitude which in a less cultivated age 
 would be set down as miraculous. To
 
 608 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 the sight of the well-instructed ethnolo- 
 gist, or even well-versed historian, the 
 outline of prehistoric nati<Mis, their ca- 
 
 'Vll \ MAN KING — DARIUS AND THE UON. 
 
 Heliogravure, alter a photograph from the sculptures, by Madame 
 
 Diculafoy. 
 
 reer and character, are as plainly dis- 
 cernible as are the unseen worlds to the 
 vision of the astronomer. 
 
 We may, first of all, discover the Old 
 Iranian in the person of the Mede. The 
 Median nation is the earli- The oid Medes 
 cstapparition intotheactual ^f.^'e'irl^™^ 
 foreground of the ancient evolutions. 
 Bactrian Aryans whom the natural eye 
 has ever seen. For how long a period 
 the Iranian race continued to expand and 
 become fi.xed in institutional aspects be- 
 fore the actual historical emergence of 
 the nation it is impossible to determine. 
 So far as existing records are concerned, 
 our first acquaintance with this people 
 may be set at the latter half of the ninth 
 century before our era. It was at this 
 time, in the reign of Shalmaneser II of 
 Ass3^ria, that an expedition was carried 
 out across the Zagros into j\Iedia, where 
 the Assyrian army succeeded in taking 
 several cities, slaying the inhabitants, 
 and carrying off the spoils of victory. 
 From this time forth a formal history of 
 the Median power, until its amalgama- 
 tion or absorption in the rising dominion 
 of Persia, may be authentically con- 
 structed. It is not here that we have 
 to do with historical narrative proper. 
 There is a difference to be observed 
 between an account of the social, civil, 
 and military movements of nations, and 
 an ethnic history of mankind. It is 
 here essayed to develop the latter, and 
 we have only to deal with the race as- 
 pects of the questions arising before us. 
 
 Monarchy came with tribal consolida- 
 tion in Iran. It is fairly well established 
 that the first authentic iniler of the king- 
 dom was Phraortes, who 
 
 Rise and prog- 
 reigned from about 660 to ress of Iranian 
 
 633 B. C. Long before this '"""^'"^^y- 
 time are seen the shadows of the kings 
 walking. Herodotus accepted some of 
 them as real. Ctesias extended the list 
 backwards, arranging a fictitious dynasty 
 to the first quarter of the ninth centuiy 
 B. C. Names and dates are given. We
 
 THE IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 609 
 
 are introduced to Arbaces, Maudaces, 
 Sosarmus, Artycas, Arbianes, Artaeus, 
 and finally Dei'oces, which last stands in 
 the dawn of the reality. The rest are 
 fabulous, and are to be ranked with the 
 mythical kings of Greece and Rome. 
 From Phraortes, however, monarchy as 
 an institution may be regarded as estab- 
 lished among the Old Iranians. The 
 great reign of Cyaxares followed, and 
 the civil power was consolidated. Then 
 followed the reign of Astyages, 593-558 
 B. C, at which latter date the relations 
 
 fact much nearer to unity of character 
 than the term Graeco-Italic, applied to 
 the two branches of the Southern Ar- 
 yans in Europe. In Iran the language, 
 manners, customs, and growth of soci- 
 ety, civil and political, the religious be- 
 lief of the people, and, indeed, all the 
 elements of development were the same 
 for both jNIedes and Persians, with only 
 such slight differences as were incident 
 to territorial separation and environ- 
 ment. 
 
 These historical references are made 
 
 COURT OF PKRSIAN .MONARCH (ROVAL PALACb; l)F i^l'AHA.Nj. 
 
 previously existing between ]\Iedia and 
 Persia were totally reversed by the gen- 
 ius and warlike daring of the young 
 prince Cyrus, who subverted the throne 
 of his grandfather Astyages, and re- 
 moved the seat of government to his 
 own capital in Persia. 
 
 But the race was one, not two. Medo- 
 Persian stock was not materially differ- 
 ent in its two branches, 
 
 Order of the 
 
 Medo-Persian the chief diversity being 
 
 development. . ., , , r i i 
 
 m the date of develop- 
 ment. The Persian sprang last and 
 grew highest. The term Medo-Persian 
 must be understood to express an ethnic 
 
 merely to impress the truth that mon- 
 archy was a fundamental „ , , , 
 
 ■' _ . , Warlike form of 
 
 fact in the evolution of Iranian institu- 
 
 the Iranian race. The cen- 
 tral principle was not only monarchic, 
 but absolute. It was a tyranny on a 
 large scale, and nothing more autocratic 
 or cruel has been seen in the way of 
 government among men. The genesis 
 of the system was military. It was a 
 warlike chieftainship, grown great and 
 established in a local autocracy, sur- 
 rounded with luxury and the imple- 
 ments of despotism. It is not intended 
 in this connection to enlarge upon the
 
 610 
 
 GREAT RACKS OF MANKIXD. 
 
 particular features of the old Medo-Per- 
 sian imperial government. It is suffi- 
 cient to note its existence as one of the 
 striking aspects of ancient civil society. 
 The absolute and cruel character of 
 the institution had two roots of bitter- 
 ness. The first was in tribal warfare, 
 War passion and arising from leadership in 
 cruelty the at- s,s;\{^^-\\ the mythical kings 
 
 tributes of the ■' " 
 
 race. gradually arose to wider 
 
 and still wider dominion until all the Ira- 
 nian countries were consolidated in one. 
 The second source of the characteristics 
 
 tial foes, or to conciliate them, or to 
 
 beat them by subtlety became a necessity 
 
 of the national life. It was a perpetual 
 
 warfare with demons, and the actual 
 
 warfare with men soon gave the enemy 
 
 the character of devils. 
 
 The wild freedom of the race during 
 
 its tribal stages of development, the 
 
 bloody conflicts of the chase, , , 
 
 Ferocity oi the 
 
 the reactions of the dreary Medo-Persiaa 
 
 1 ^ . 1 r soldiery. 
 
 desert in summer and oi 
 
 snowstorm in winter, all intensified the 
 
 instincts of the people, and added to the 
 
 
 ■'TliSI 
 
 isii 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 'A 
 
 '^3. 
 
 ymt 
 
 '4vmmm m- 
 
 rr 
 
 ■s\ 
 
 MEDIAN" SOLDIERS.— Hravure hy Bnzin, after a photograph nf the bas-relief of Chapotir. 
 
 of the Medo-Persian power was deduced 
 from an inherent intellectual and moral 
 quality of the race. It had been a cruel 
 and vindictive race from the time of its 
 separation from the Indie family and 
 the establishment of the principle of 
 dualism in the national belief. As soon 
 as the Old Iranian priests had developed 
 the evil hierarchy of Ahriman and his 
 bad angels, the people came to regard 
 themselves as in a constant conflict with 
 the adverse powers of earth and heaven. 
 To put down these terrestrial and celes- 
 
 vindictive malevolence of their character. 
 The ferocity of the Median soldiers be- 
 came proverbial in all nations where their 
 name was known, and as late as the time 
 of Augustus, Horace, in his Str/i/nr Hyunt, 
 could find no stronger historical reference 
 in illustration of the power of the empire 
 than to cite the subjection of Iran : 
 
 "Now by the sea, and on the land. ///(• Mede 
 Fears the strong squadrons and the ax of Rome !" 
 
 While this civil evolution from the 
 primitive tribal condition of the Old Ira-
 
 THE IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL DEVTLOPMENT. 
 
 611 
 
 mans into a despotic monarchy had been 
 in progress, a counterchange was occur- 
 ring in the religion of the 
 race. It was a change to a 
 lower and idolatrous level. 
 It is easy to note the process by which 
 
 Deterioration of 
 Zoroastriauism 
 into fire Tvor- 
 ship. 
 
 cepts into close affinity with the sun as 
 the king of physical nature. His warmth 
 and radiance were qualities most sensi- 
 ble and grateful»to the bodies of men, 
 and it was easy to ascribe to him the 
 attributes of a godhead. The Old Ira- 
 
 i;i™a'!KaiiiW!!7«jB»l»iiP!llllW^^ 
 
 the high concept 
 of Ahura-Mazdao 
 and his court of 
 hierarchs was 
 brought down 
 again to a coinci- 
 dence with ma- 
 terial objects. 
 The first and 
 greatest of these 
 was the sun. It 
 may be frankly 
 confessed that sun 
 worship is the 
 highest and most 
 rational form of 
 idolatry. Even 
 modern science 
 has verified that 
 conception of the 
 ancients which 
 made the sun the 
 lord of day and 
 the origin of life. 
 As the dominant 
 object of the ma- 
 terial universe, he 
 has naturall}' at- 
 tracted the won- 
 der, the awe, and 
 the reverence 
 of all primitive ^g 
 peopled. 
 
 In a country such 
 as Iran the as- 
 cendency of the orb of day would be 
 especially striking. The Zoroastrian 
 idea that Ahura-AIazdao was the living 
 one, and that his prime angel, Sraosha, 
 was the lord of light, brought both con- 
 
 rERSO-MOHAMMEOAN' TYPES — ARAB CHIEF IN THE HOl'SE OF A SHKIK. 
 
 Draun liy K. Roiijat, after a photograph by Madame I>ieiiIafoy. 
 
 nian beliefs took this course, and the 
 next descent brought in the element of 
 fire. It was a symbol and analogue of 
 the sun. It was the sun localized on 
 the hearthstone and the altar. One
 
 612 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 may easily perceive the whole course of 
 degeneration from Sraosha to the flame 
 of fire. 
 
 By the time of the Medo-Persian as- 
 cendency under the Achaemenian kings, 
 •Wide preva- the transformation from 
 lenceofthesun- oj-iginal Zoroastriauism to 
 
 and fire-idol- » 
 
 atry. fire worship was complete. 
 
 The great Persian armies which were 
 led by Darius and Xerxes to the West, 
 except in so far as they had gathered 
 out of the .satrapies on the hither side 
 of Mesopotamia, were all worshipers of 
 fire. The religious ceremonial of the 
 Persians had taken that fixed form which 
 it has maintained to the present day. 
 The Par.see altars on the hilltops of Fars 
 and Yezd, and the smoking summits seen 
 here and there in Bombay, are at once 
 the remnants and illu.strations of the 
 striking but idolatrous ceremonial which 
 was already establi.shed when the ^ledo- 
 Persian race was dominant throughout 
 Western Asia. 
 
 It is the purpose of the present book, 
 devoted to the subject of ethnic charac- 
 
 ter, to note not only the peculiarities and 
 race distinctions of the ancient peoples, 
 but aLso to delineate the Ancient iraman 
 character and peculiarities ^^^es^n^'e-"'" 
 of their descendants. The scendent races. 
 Old Iranians have their representatives 
 in the races distributed between the 
 Caspian and the Indus. If we glance 
 over the whole field we shall find that 
 the Western peoples of this group have 
 best preserved the lineaments of the 
 ancient stock, while those of the East, 
 next to India, are graded off into the 
 Oriental type. This is true not only of 
 physical, but also of mental and moral 
 characteristics. The Iranian peoples 
 next to Hindustan pass almost imper- 
 ceptibly into the character of the In- 
 dian races. The religious propagand- 
 ism of Islam has carried the faith of the 
 Prophet and the institutions of his fol- 
 lowers into these regions as well as into 
 India, and the result is manifest in the 
 establishment of common customs and 
 in a modification of the old national 
 character. 
 
 Chapter XXXVI.— Ethnic Divisions and Charac= 
 
 TERISTICS. 
 
 F we enter the west of 
 what was ancient Iran 
 and begin an examina- 
 tion of the present 
 representatives of the 
 primitive stock, we 
 shall find first of all 
 
 The central locus of this 
 in Astrakhan, that 
 
 the Armenians. 
 
 race is now found 
 
 The language portion of European Rus 
 
 and literature 
 known as Hai- 
 kanic. 
 
 sia next the Caspian . Even 
 in this region the ancient 
 Iranian blood has been considerably 
 deteriorated with Semitic and Turani- 
 
 an admixture. The language, called the 
 Haikaiiic, from Haiks, the name of the 
 Armenians in the vernacular, has been 
 developed into an independent tongue, 
 strictly Iranic in its origin and in most 
 of its characteristics. A literature of 
 some merit has sprung up, even in the 
 absence of national unity. The ancient 
 writings have been edited and translated 
 into the vernacular, and a considerable 
 intellectual activity is otherwise shown 
 by the people. 
 
 In their complexion and person the 
 Armenians are not very different from
 
 THE IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 
 
 613 
 
 Ethnic features 
 and off-grading 
 of the Arme- 
 nians. 
 
 Persians, both men and women, and of 
 nearly all the peoples as far east as 
 India. The outer garments of both men 
 and women are loosely worn, and de- 
 scend below the knee. The men have 
 trousers, and are belted at the waist. 
 On the whole, the effect of the costume 
 
 the peoples of Southern Europe. They 
 have fair features, and arc regarded as a 
 
 handsome race. Tlie hair 
 
 is abundant in quantity, 
 
 black in color, sometimes 
 straight and sometimes curled. The 
 forehead is low, but well shaped, the 
 face oval, the eyes full of expres- 
 sion and prominent, the lips thick, 
 resembling those of Afghans. 
 What is called the expression of 
 the Armenian face is divided be- 
 tween the features of Southern 
 Europe and those of India. In 
 stature, the people are rather 
 above than below the average of 
 mankind, are lithe in form and 
 agile in action. The Armenians 
 are taller than the Afghans and t*^ • Wp t^^^^P k^" H^" ^pftumn^ 
 the Beluchs. Here we have again 'libwj fi^iiuini. . ^^^ ^/» ifuuitu^wifubir 
 a grading down of the physical 
 forces toward the east, the people 
 of the Indian border being lower 
 and less active than they of the 
 west. The odd circumstance of 
 large and clumsy feet must not be 
 overlooked in noting the bodily 
 peculiarities of the Armenians. 
 
 This people are peculiarly te- 
 nacious of ancient customs. They 
 
 umhipUknn Ltuuiiuplilt^ 'nnuil;unft hn 
 uijuiLkninn nuuhi : 
 
 *\\nLU ohqfw ^luJutn nnn-ykini. ku , 
 liiutT nUn^nLUhi^ II LutiT ^Q-ti . Liu J* 
 |^M«i#7tfi/i" 'nhmnbiriL. bu , U- LiuiT uui^ 
 tnuiUiuU : \\ uintu^bu nn litlPtj ItltPH- 
 pninpnJpU utu anph ItU iniuu ^ U. uhi 
 uif uiUt/h^uJtkiliU y nuiUnft iJujniinni_bn. 
 
 P~l^ pltuiL 1^2'^^^pb^" futuniunnLp-bLt/- 
 
 <^uflJi 
 
 vjo' fiLU li. 'nLpiulunLfd~bi-U 
 
 lubtnh jD. uibuUiuu y P^ "P m-lp" ^iiH 
 Abn-pniln bplfltUpp pnJbbi'' Ll unijM 
 
 AbrLonurL uM-yfiuuip^Dp : [^i/^"" pulu 
 Aal^ y LnpuLantp ^nt. ubuthpn. np 
 'Unpl^ nutUuiu i (^^buni./i'U tul^u pu^ ^ 
 *'. \\uiia bu rtL hiP uiulUu \f'^niJujU 
 
 have preserved, even from remote mftrnfi uiui2tnb'l>^ • " X\u bfd^l^ tuu pU^ 
 antiquity, a considerable part of ^„„^A^L'>^, „^/.„^ /bp^y/u opp n^ni^U 
 the social and religious life of the i i' i , r ii i i n i 
 
 Old Iranians. Their laws are like \-P'"lf' tk*r ^1^1, uif^u^l, pi^^u.*, , ^h 
 
 the common law of the English- 
 speaking race, derived from prec- 
 edents of common life, reaching back to 
 the times of tribal dispersion. The pop- 
 Armenians pre- ular dresa preserves many 
 
 of the features which were 
 
 peculiar to the age of 
 the Persian ascendency. As a general 
 fact, the Iranians have always been dis- 
 posed to wear a high dress for the head, 
 a sort of tiara, of which illustrations may 
 te seen in the everyday costume of the 
 
 serve the sem 
 blance of Old 
 Iranian life. 
 
 SPECIMEN PAGE FROM ARMENIAN BOOK. 
 
 is rather Oriental than suggestive of the 
 apparel of Western peoples. 
 
 The Armenians are a shrewd and 
 rather intellectual race. inteUectuai 
 Were it not for the effects re'-.TpMtof' 
 
 of old traditions, religious independence. 
 
 and social, they would have the capacity 
 of a good modern development. They are 
 brave and adventurous, good soldiers, 
 and especially noted for their ability in •
 
 ,1 II , 1 1 I
 
 THE IRAXIAXS.—ETHXrC DIVISIOXS. 
 
 615 
 
 the transaction of business. In general, | dividual in their character and as little 
 they present what man)' ethnographers subject to restraint as were their pre- 
 have chosen to call the Caucasian type of historic ancestors. 
 
 mankind at its best estate. For this reason it is somewhat diffi- 
 
 In common with the other peoples of cult to generalize on the subject of man- 
 Western Iran, the Armenians exhibit a ners and customs where the same are 
 
 .ARMENIAN A RCHBISHOP— TVPF.-Drawii by Y. Pr.iiU!.hinkoff. 
 
 certain spirit of independence and love 
 of liberty. They regard valor as the 
 principal virtue of life. In the cities of 
 Armenia society is well organized, but 
 in the open regions, especially in those 
 parts where the country becomes moun- 
 tainous, the population con-sists of vigor- 
 ous shepherd tribes, who are almost as in- 
 
 sb variable in different districts. One 
 thing maj' be noted with peculiar inter- 
 est, and that is the complete change in the 
 change in the method of ^^J^^^f^f.^f 
 disposing of the dead. <*®»d. 
 Zarathustra required that the bodies of 
 the dead .should be expo.sed on high, in 
 a kind of tower or building erected for
 
 616 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIXD. 
 
 that purpose, so that birds of prey might 
 gradually devour them. It was con- 
 ceived that this, of all possible methods, 
 was least likely to contaminate the ele- 
 ments. It was held that earth burial 
 would pollute the ground. To submerge 
 the body in rivers would defile the 
 water, and to consume them by fire 
 
 ARMENIAN FAMILY — TYPES. 
 Drawn by A. Sirouy, after a photograph by Madame Uieulafoy. 
 
 would poi.son the air, and even heaven. 
 The Zoroa.strian plan, finding as it does 
 a strange reflection in the method adopt- 
 ed by some of the American Indians, 
 was thus produced as a means of pre- 
 sendng the purity of the elements 
 against the noxious influence of dead 
 bodies. 
 
 The modern Iranians have given up 
 
 the old method as no longer practicable. 
 If they are Mohammedans, they employ 
 the plan in vogue among Mohammedan 
 the followers of the Proph- ^^^.^^"fiuper. 
 et ; if Christians, they adopt vened. 
 the Christian manner. In either case 
 the burial is in the earth. There is 
 generally something of Oriental fantasy 
 attending the circumstance of 
 death, something of Semitic 
 clamor, and also traces of abo- 
 riginal superstitions. In October 
 the Armenians have a festival, 
 which they call the Feast of thr 
 Dead. On such 'occasions the cem- 
 etery is lighted with fires, kindled 
 here and there. Tapers are set on 
 the graves, and the women aban- 
 don them.selves to weeping and 
 wailing. 
 
 Over the Armenian graves tomb- 
 stones, on which are cut the effi. 
 gies of rams, horses. 
 
 Character and 
 or lions, are set up, sense of grave- 
 , . , stone etiigies. 
 
 a custom as ancient 
 in its origin as the tribal dispersion 
 ^f the Iranian race. It is evident 
 ihat such sepulchral imagery pre- 
 serves the primitive belief in sa- 
 cred animals and their guardianship 
 over men. One of the earliest su- 
 perstitions of the human race was 
 that of the power of certain ani- 
 mals to intercede with the gods. 
 We shall see that in Egypt, and 
 even among the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, there was a pi-evalent sus- 
 picion that the ram was an efficacious me- 
 diator between the deities and human 
 kind. 
 
 The ancient nomadic life of Iran is 
 best preser\-ed by the Lures, 
 
 Certain Persic 
 
 another branch of the race, types represent 
 
 h „.•„•, ill the ancient race. 
 
 aving Its central locus 
 
 in Luristan, but spreading therefrom 
 
 northward and northeastward, through
 
 THE IRA XI A XS. —E THXIC DI I VSIOXS. 
 
 617 
 
 modern Persia as far as the Caspian, 
 and into the province of Mazanderan. 
 These people are in many respects 
 like the rude classes of the Armenians, 
 but are still more 
 nearly allied with the 
 inhabitants of Kurdi- 
 stan on the west. With 
 the latter people the 
 Lures have many 
 things in common, not 
 the least of which is 
 the thieving disposi- 
 tion for which the 
 Kurds are proverbial 
 among all peoples. It 
 is noticeable that 
 among the Lures many 
 ancient customs of the 
 Iranians are preserved, 
 and this in despite of 
 their conversion to Mo- 
 hammedanism. One 
 tribe, called the Gu- 
 ranes, are associated 
 with the Dushik Kurds 
 as a sort of peas- 
 ant caste distributed 
 among them. On the 
 western coast of the 
 Caspian sea another 
 group of the same peo- 
 ple, called the Tats, are 
 found. Indeed, the 
 Lures are scattered 
 through the whole of 
 Northwestern Persia, 
 as that empire is now 
 constituted , and far 
 out into Kurdistan, to 
 lake Van and the up- 
 per valley of the Tigris. 
 
 One might well suppose, glancing at 
 the fruitful and luxurious valleys of 
 Luristan, that any people long dwelling 
 
 there would abandon the nomadic life 
 M. — Vol. I — 40 
 
 and settle into fixed pursuits; but such 
 is not the case. Wandering tribes still 
 possess the country, dwelling in tents, 
 owing allegiance only to their own 
 
 „^ --- i.}i^4^r^ 
 
 TOMB OX THE BORDER OF KAROUX. 
 Drawn by Taylor, after a photograph by Madame Pieulafoy. 
 
 ' chiefs, and engaged in almost constant 
 j warfare. Of these, the most conspicu- 
 ous example is the ferocious Bakhti- 
 }'ari, whose name is proverbial in West- 
 1 em Asia. The only town of any im-
 
 618 
 
 GREAT RACES OE ^^ANKIND. 
 
 portance within the limits of Luristan is 
 
 Khorramabad, which is said to contain 
 
 a thousand huts. The 
 
 Prevalence of . -, ■, r .■ n i 
 
 the wandering place IS ruuely lortinea, 
 BfeinLuristan. .^^^^^ possesses the pakice 
 
 of the chieftain of the Lures. 
 
 The next great division of the Iranic 
 
 sivan, or Persians. They are the most 
 widely distributed of any of the existing 
 Iranic families. They are even dis- 
 persed into districts far beyond the lim- 
 its of their own countries. Their lan- 
 guage is Persic, and is the best repre- 
 sentative, or rather lineal descendant, of 
 
 MOURNERS Wait. INC.— Drawn by V. PranKhnikofT, after a sketch of Madame Carla Serena. 
 
 acter of the 
 Tajiks, or Par- 
 elvan. 
 
 race, distributed eastward of the Lures 
 Place and char, and the Other western 
 Persian tribes, includes the 
 Tajiks. These people are 
 spread from Kabul northward to Badakh- 
 shan, to the table-land of Pameer, and 
 into Bokhara, in Central Turkistan. On 
 the east they lie against the Afghans and 
 Bekichs. Westward, they spread into 
 all Central Persia, and are called Par- 
 
 the ancient Iranian speech. By them 
 also was preserved, imtil the conquest 
 of the country by the ISIohammedans, 
 the deteriorated or fire-worship aspect 
 of the old Zoroastrian faith. After the 
 conquest they became Mohammedans, 
 the old religion being preserved only by 
 the Guebers. 
 
 In .stature, person, and complexion 
 the Tajiks are intermediate between the
 
 THE IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 
 
 619 
 
 Armenians and the Kurds un the one 
 hand, and the Afghans on the other. 
 Stature and eth- They are not so tall or 
 
 nic characteris- •] ^j j ^^ 
 
 tics of this peo- to ' 
 
 pie. dark-skinned and (Oriental 
 
 as the other. They are comparatively 
 small in person, but heavy in build. 
 The limbs, and especially the feet, are 
 large, and the face broad. The features, 
 
 rior in appearance to the intermediate 
 race. 
 
 But the Tajiks, perhaps best of all, 
 preserve to modern times the general 
 character of the ancient 
 
 . rri \ ■ They present 
 
 Iranic race. IheArmeni- strongly the oia 
 
 , -,1.1 ■ Iranian traits. 
 
 ans compete with them m 
 this respect. The old customs and man- 
 ners of Iran have come down by wav of 
 
 BAKHTIYARl TYPES— Draw 
 
 ln)\vever, are good, if we except the 
 mouth, which is large and coarse. The 
 type is not by any means so favorable in 
 the judgment of Western peoples as that 
 of the nations of the Caucasus. Even 
 the Kurds are larger and handsomer than 
 the Tajiks, and some ethnographers pro- 
 nounce the Afghans, who are not in- 
 frequently of good stature, to be supe- 
 
 n by G. Viiillier, from a photo^i.iiih. 
 
 the Taiiks and Kurds of Persia, and rep- 
 resent to the modern inquirer a tolera- 
 bly authentic transcript of antiquity. It 
 is quite likely that many fcatui-es of the 
 costume of the modern Persians, such 
 as the old tiara, or high cap, which was 
 worn by the subjects of Cyrus the Great, 
 are more faithfully preserved in the cur- 
 rent styles than is the Persian character
 
 620 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 and person upon which they are exhib- 
 ited. 
 
 The cruelty and tyrannical disposition 
 
 of the Medo-Persians in the times of the 
 
 greatness of the race has 
 
 Cruelty and , , , r i * 
 
 fierceness of the alrcadv been reierred to. 
 
 Persic stock. g^.^^^ \^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 suffered a terrible degeneration, and 
 is more repulsive in the coarseness, 
 
 to the trying exigencies through which 
 the Iranian peoples have passed. The 
 Mohammedan conquest was of itself a 
 sufficient shock to destroy nationality; 
 and the substitution of Islam for the Old 
 Iranian faith aggravated the calamity. 
 
 The modern Persians may be ranked 
 among the principal races of Asia. In 
 Western Asia they compete with the 
 
 USBEK AND TAJIK. TVPF.S.-Draivn by A. Fcrdinandus, 
 
 treachery, and immorality of the mod- 
 ern Persian character than in its ancient 
 aspect of fierce brutality. The race is 
 avaricious and untruthful. There is 
 little intellectual development; and if 
 corruption of heart and life were the 
 only term definitive of savagery, the 
 whole race might well be dismissed as 
 savages. Much of this degradation, 
 however, must undoubtedly be attributed 
 
 Turks and Russians for the first place in 
 ethnic importance. The race, however, 
 lacks homogeneity. It is 
 
 , Race character 
 
 more mixed than either of the modem 
 the Turkish or the Russian 
 stock. In Central Persia the ancient race 
 of Iranians is represented in tolerable 
 purity in the descendent people. But 
 all around the borders this is not true. 
 On the west, and particularly the south-
 
 rnil IRANIANS.— ETHNIC DIVISIONS. 
 
 621 
 
 west, there is a strong admixture of 
 Ti:rkish blood. On the north and 
 northeast the Mongol stock of man- 
 kind has made itself felt and given a 
 tinge to the race complexion ; while on 
 the side of Afghanistan and Baluchis- 
 tan, Indian or Hindu characteristics are 
 plainly discoverable. 
 
 The Persians at the present time num- 
 
 nomadic in habit. These number hardly 
 fewer than four million. They consti- 
 tute the great intermediate body of Per- 
 sians, and are the element upon whi(;h the 
 Shah's government most relies in the 
 matter of the Persian army. The national 
 forces, however, are recruited to an ex- 
 tent from the wilder tribesmen ; while 
 the official classes, commanders and the 
 
 KURD TYPES-— Drawn by F. Courboin, from a photograph. 
 
 ditions of the 
 Persian pop- 
 ulation. 
 
 ber approximately eight million. Of 
 Classes and con- these nearly two million 
 are townspeople. About 
 an equal number are Iliyats, 
 or nomads, of whom we shall presently 
 speak. Between these two extremes of 
 stationary citizens and wandering tribes- 
 men there is a large intermediate class 
 of villagers who are more sedentary than 
 
 like, are derived from the townspeople 
 or citizens who correspond to the aristoc- 
 racy of Western Europe. 
 
 No class of the Persian population is 
 of greater interest to the Ethnic place 
 traveler and ethnographer f^^o'^^he" °^ 
 than the Iliyats, or wander- lUyats. 
 ing herdsmen. Of these, the manner 
 of life is pastoral rather than agricultural.
 
 
 .«S 
 
 ■^.•^^ 
 
 
 FALCONER OF THE SHEIK— Hindu-Pe';5iav T'Tes and Costvmes— Dra-.>n f>y A. Sirouy, from a pV.otojr.iph ' y Madame I)ic;:lafoy.
 
 THE IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 623 
 
 They are organized into tribes, of which 
 the name is legion. Over each tribe is 
 set a hereditary chieftain, who commands 
 in war and peace. His authority is quite 
 absolute. The manner of life has respect 
 to a division of the country into pastoral 
 districts. Each tribe has its own dis- 
 trict, and the same may be said of the 
 minor clans and families. Though all 
 wander about with their flocks, obeying 
 the suggestion of the season as to pas- 
 turage, the wandering is within the lim- 
 its of the clan lands. Each tribe has its 
 own section in the hill-country, and to 
 this region it betakes itself with the 
 coming of spring, and there the tents are 
 pitched until with the advance of the sea- 
 son a removal to better grounds is neces- 
 sary. But each tribe in its wanderings 
 must confine itself to its own section. 
 
 The .social and domestic life of the Per- 
 sians has been derived from the institu- 
 tional forms of ]\Iohammedanism. Soon 
 Social and do- after the rise of Islam in 
 Sfrf: M^- Arabia and its spread into 
 hammedanism. Syria the Crescent was car- 
 ried victoriously into Persia. A religious 
 conquest of the race was soon effected, 
 and the faith of the Prophet was substi- 
 tuted for the former paganism. It was 
 the incoming of a Semitic religion, and 
 of the usages thereto belonging, into an 
 Iranian, that is, and Aryan, country. 
 The event was not unlike the previous 
 conquest of Europe by Christianity. In 
 either case we have an Aryan people ac- 
 cepting from Semitic prophets and their 
 followers a new religious system. 
 
 Islam brought with it polygamy. We 
 have hitherto remarked upon the fact 
 Polygamy sub- that Persia is the line of 
 
 fnctntm^Lt' ^^^^"'^ breakage between 
 amy- the Orient and the West. 
 
 By race the Persians were inclined to 
 the usages of the Indo-European family 
 of mankind. But by the religious con- 
 
 test they were led to adopt the theory of 
 Mohammedanism. This brought, with- 
 in certain limits, the system of multiple 
 marriage. Thei'e is thus a counter force 
 playing upon the domestic life of the 
 race. Polj-gamy, though prevalent, has 
 not been so universal as in Arabia, 
 Egypt, and Turke}'. The Persian fam- 
 ily and household, however, are organ- 
 ized on much the same basis as in the 
 countries just named. The domestic 
 usages are largely of the Arabian and 
 Eg)-ptian type ; but are in part deter- 
 mined b}- the ethnic instincts and Old 
 Iranian biases of the race. 
 
 The Persian family is better in most 
 of its features than that of the Turks. 
 With an equal degree of 
 
 ^ Character of the 
 
 culture and refinement the Persian family; 
 
 1 1 1 ,■■,-. the women. 
 
 comparison would be still 
 more favorable to the former people. In 
 the homes of the better class of Persians 
 there is elegance of manners, luxurious 
 surroundings, and many forms of com- 
 fort. The children are reared at first by 
 nurses, and are afterwards committed 
 to the schools under charge of iloham- 
 medan instructors. The women are in 
 great measure secluded, and are partially 
 veiled in public. Notwithstanding the 
 serious and rather sinister expression of 
 the Persian face, the countenance of the 
 woman is often regular and beautiful. 
 The artist in search of fine types of beauty 
 and elegance, even after he has studied 
 the faces of the women of Cashmere and 
 Georgia, may well pause to admire the 
 sweetness and warm expression of the 
 Persian Avomen. 
 
 Just as the social system of the Per- 
 sians has been derived from Islam, so 
 
 also the architecture of the Architecture of 
 
 country has been copied ^rM^iTr-" 
 from the Mohammedan medan styles, 
 countries. The original type of this 
 manner of building was arabesque ; but
 
 
 :iv 
 
 MUSSULMAN NUKSVS AND CHILD— TVPKS AND COSTUMES. 
 Drawn by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy.
 
 THE IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 625 
 
 this style has suffered considerable modi- 
 fication in the hands of Persian archi- 
 tects. In the building of mosques and 
 tombs the Arabian manner has been well 
 preserved. Indeed, the forms and cere- 
 monial of Islam made this necessary. 
 The minaret is everywhere a part 
 of the Mohammedan church and 
 religious establishment. If the cir- 
 cular domes are not also a neces.sary 
 part, they are at least a part estab- ^ " 
 lished by the usage of eleven cen- 
 turies. These features of building 
 assert themselves strongly in the 
 major architecture of the Persians. , 
 Some of the finest edifices of this V 
 style are the tombs of the Persian '> 
 great, seen in many cities and sacred 
 places. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of 
 
 these structures, typical of all, but 
 
 preeminent bvits vast- 
 
 Torab-building '^ ■' 
 
 of the race ; the ness and elaboration, 
 
 burial tower. • ^i i i jr t 'x 
 
 IS the tomb of Iman 
 Mousa at Kazhemeine. This re- 
 markable edifice is surrounded with 
 buildings of stone or marble, but 
 rises above them with its four min- 
 arets and two domes in a manner 
 at once majestic and beautiful. 
 Others of the Persian tombs, like 
 that of Zobeide, are derived as to 
 their style from the building of the 
 ancient Iranians. That people, as 
 the reader knows, invented the 
 burial tower on the top of which r> 
 the dead were exposed to be de- 
 voured by birds. This pagan form 
 of disposing of dead bodies was Zo- 
 roastrian in its first intent, as it is Par- 
 see in its last evolution. The form 
 of the burial tower has been transmitted 
 to Persian architecture, and though 
 greatly modified in the hands of the 
 builders of the last eight centuries, it 
 still reappears in tombs. In .such struc- 
 
 tures the ground plan is hexagonal. 
 This form is carried i:p sloping 
 slightly to a considerable height, and is 
 then surmounted with a sharp pyramidal 
 tower of stone shooting upwards much 
 in the form of the ancient burial towers 
 
 \ • 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 YOUNG I.APY OF ISPAHAN — TYPE. 
 iVii by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Uieulafoy. 
 
 of the Zoroastrians. The materials of 
 such building are cut stone and bricks. 
 
 The smaller ai'chitecture of the Per- 
 sians has but little interest to the traveler. 
 
 The houses of the people Aspect of Per- 
 1 1 ^ sian houses and 
 
 are square m ground plan ^owns; interior 
 and have flat roofs. This decorations, 
 gives to the structures the appearance of 
 cubes. The materials are wood, brick,
 
 AKLlil 1 lie I LRIi UK THK PERSIANS.— Tomb of Ihan Molsa, at Kazhemeine.— Drawn by Barclay, from a photograph.
 
 THE IRA NIA NS.—A RCHI TEC Ti 'RE. 
 
 627 
 
 and stone. White is preferred as the 
 color of the exterior. The plan is uni- 
 formly followed, and the appearance of 
 buildings is corresponding-ly monot- 
 onous. The Per- 
 sian town or city 
 is unattractive in 
 itself, though the 
 surroundings are 
 beautiful. It is 
 the custom to 
 plant gardens and 
 orchards around 
 the towns in close 
 setting against 
 them. The abun- 
 dance of rose 
 trees and other 
 flowering shnibs 
 in the gardens 
 and yards make 
 the towns to ap- 
 pear embowered. 
 Viewed from a 
 distance the pic- 
 ture thus afforded 
 is sometimes ex- 
 quisite. But with- 
 in the cities the 
 illusion is dis- 
 pelled. The 
 streets are never 
 improved. They 
 are merely nar- 
 row roads of clay, 
 and are always 
 either dusty or 
 muddy. They are 
 too narrow as a 
 rule to permit of 
 the passage of 
 wheeled vehicles, 
 and are uneven for want of paving. 
 
 The disposition and tastes of the Per- 
 sians, however, have compensated for 
 the lack of beauty without by elaborate 
 
 and luxurious furnishings within. There 
 is much that is Oriental in the interior 
 decorations and arrangement of the 
 houses. The tapestries are exquisite, 
 
 PERSIAN STRUCTL'RE. — TOMB OF ZOBEinE. 
 Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 with sofas and ottomans on every hand. 
 Especially on the women's side of the 
 court is such richness displayed. The 
 arrangement of the apartments betokens
 
 628 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .VANKIND. 
 
 ease, indolence, leisure, pride, and in- 
 dulgence. These arc the qualities of the 
 race. 
 
 The character of the Persian language 
 has already been indicated in the account 
 of the parent Iranian speech from which 
 
 
 
 Aiy-V >; '>^ 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 i/ >; 
 
 CJ.' 
 
 / y 
 
 V 
 
 
 J^ J 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 W i 
 
 I tf -* ' -=- 
 
 SPtXIMKN PAGE OF PERSIAN BOOK. 
 
 it is descended. The order of linguistic 
 
 development has been from Sanskrit to 
 
 Zend, from Zend to Old 
 
 Liinguistic evo- 
 lution ; influence Persian, from Old Persian 
 
 to the current speech. The 
 
 common features and peculiarities of the 
 
 Aryan tongues are seen in the decay of 
 
 the ancient grammar and the substitu- 
 tion of prepositional forms. The new 
 style of speech began with the national 
 poet Firdusi, and has been perfected by 
 the poets and romancers of the present 
 century. The course of the language is 
 in strict analogy with the move- 
 ment by which Latin has become 
 Portuguese and Anglo-Saxon been 
 transformed into English. The 
 Arabic literature has meanwhile 
 performed for Persian almost the 
 same office of refinement and for- 
 eign ornamentation as that of 
 Xorman French interfused with 
 our own tongue. 
 
 The governmental system of 
 the Persians is the result of an 
 
 evolution extending Governmental 
 
 backwards to the ^-.--/-.t:! 
 classical ages. Per- ai ages. 
 sia has had a continuous civil his- 
 tory for at least twenty-three cen- 
 turies. The administration has 
 been many times transformed 
 with the successive revolutions 
 and changes of race in the coun- 
 try. Nearly always the govern- 
 ment has been a despotism with 
 few constitutional checks or limi- 
 tations. This was true as far 
 back as the ascendency of the 
 Achaemenian kings. The modern 
 system was virtually instituted 
 with the Mohammedan conquest 
 of Persia in the eighth century. 
 
 At the head of the government 
 
 stands the shah, who is at once 
 
 emperor and vicegerent of the 
 
 Prophet. He occupies much the same 
 
 relation to the people as does the sultan 
 
 of the Turks to his sub- 
 
 Place of the 
 jects, but is less restricted shah ; his ab- 
 
 ,1 T J -i i • solutisra. 
 
 by law and constitution. 
 He exercises the right of absolute gov- 
 ernment, and implicit obedience is ex- 
 
 ^j^ W-^ 
 
 
 u?
 
 THE IRA NT A NS.—GO I ^ERNMENT. 
 
 629 
 
 acted so long as his rule and mandates 
 do not conflict with the Koran and its 
 interpretation. 
 
 CiviHzation has sufficiently advanced 
 in Persia to compel some conformity of 
 the political system to the usages of 
 modern governments. 
 This has resulted in a 
 ministry as a means of 
 executive administration. 
 The ministry, however, is 
 almost wholly dependent 
 upon the will of the shah. 
 He removes and appoints 
 the members of his coun- 
 cil in a manner arbitrary 
 and capricious. Some min- 
 isters easily obtain the 
 royal favor and exercise 
 great power in the state. 
 Others have little influ- 
 ence, and are used by the 
 stronger in the promotion 
 of their own ends. 
 
 The departments of 
 government have been 
 organized with some 
 show of regularity. There 
 
 is a ministry 
 
 of war, and 
 
 others of in- 
 teriorand finance, foreign 
 affairs, justice, worship, 
 and telegraphs. The 
 ministers are nobles of 
 high rank, and are set 
 around the throne in a 
 way to add to its reputa- 
 tion and glory. Persia, however, has in 
 her governmental system hardly entered 
 into the family of civilized nations. The 
 skill of the shah and his advisers in state- 
 craft is very limited ; and ignorance and 
 passrv.>n hold sway in high places. 
 
 Under the imperial administration the 
 army is organized and is fairly efficient. 
 
 It is recruited by conscription and poorly 
 paid. One of the means adopted by the 
 shah to obtain continuous and faithful 
 service is to withhold the pay of the sol- 
 diers and to keep them long in arrears. 
 The Persian army numbers over one 
 
 Departments of 
 administration ; 
 organization of 
 the army. 
 
 NASR ED DIN SHAH — ROYAL TYPE AND COSTUME. 
 Dr.i\vn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. 
 
 hundred thousand men, of whom about 
 a half are infantry, one third cavalry, 
 and the remainder artillery, etc. The 
 system of revenue is tolerably well or- 
 ganized, and the credit of the govern- 
 ment is sufficient to enable the shah and 
 his ministers to make loans in the money 
 markets of the world.
 
 TYPES AN-D COSTL MES OF THE ZiCROS HIGHLANDb -AI, tchpid cf T^ ^ d , i OFr.cERs.-Drawn hy Tofani
 
 THE IRANI AXS.— SOCIETY. 
 
 631 
 
 Derivation of 
 manners and 
 customs ; vary- 
 ing character- 
 istics. 
 
 The manners and customs of the Per- 
 sians have been derived in part from the 
 ancient race character, and 
 in part from the institutions 
 and influences of Islam. 
 From the latter source has been deduced 
 the easy-going habit of the Persian in 
 his intercourse and manner of life. In 
 this respect he departs greatly from the 
 habits of his kinsmen in Europe. 
 Contrary to common report the Per- 
 sians are affable and polite, at least ,.■■;:: 
 such as are refined by the influ- ••':; 
 ences of cities and the scholastic pur- 
 suits. The different races inhabit- 
 ing Persia present types quite di- 
 verse as it respects manners and 
 usages. Those of the northern prov- 
 inces and in the northwest, where 
 the race spreads out to the Arme- 
 nian highlands, are rougher and 
 more -uncouth in person and life, 
 while they of the south and of the 
 principal cities have been civilized 
 into forms of ethnic life much more 
 polite and attractive. 
 
 Slavery is a common form of Per- 
 sian society, though the institution 
 Slavery and the is not strictly based 
 on either color or race. 
 The slaves vary great- 
 ly in complexion and belong to sev- 
 eral races. Those imported from 
 Abyssinia are of greatest value. 
 Somaliland has contributed to the 
 slave population, as has also the 
 interior of Africa. The slave mar- 
 ket is always open and the institu- 
 tion is quite univei-sal, but is less 
 barbarous than the corresponding forms 
 of servitude in other countries. The 
 slaves are regarded as a kind of pro- 
 tected class, and to this extent share 
 the common treatment which is extended 
 to children and domestic animals. 
 
 The costumes of the Persians are 
 
 slave market 
 among the 
 Persians. 
 
 picturesque and not unattractive — ac- 
 cording to Eastern standards. ^len wear 
 a cotton garment fastened Materials and 
 in front and falling below ^^^^^^ 
 the heels. It fits loosely dicated thereby, 
 about the person, having wide sleeves 
 and no collar. Several colors are used 
 in dyeing such garments. Trousers are 
 worn by the higher classes, especially by 
 
 FANATICAI, TYPE AND COSTU.MK. — UERVISII OF THE TIGER- 
 SKIN. 
 Drawn by A. Ferdinandus, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 the military orders, among whom West- 
 ern fashions begin to prevail. The out- 
 side garment is a shawl, generally of 
 some fine material like .silk or satin. 
 The length and quality of the garments, 
 particularly of the cloak worn by nobles, 
 indicates the rank of the wearer. Priests,
 
 632 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 merchants, townspeople, storekeepers, 
 and professional men are distinguished 
 by the long cloak which generally falls 
 to the heels. The costume of the shep- 
 herds and country people is more simple 
 in structure and of cheaper materials. 
 The custom of shaving the hair at the 
 crown is common though not universal. 
 The face, except in the case of ultra 
 fa.shionable men, is unshorn, the beard 
 being one of the distinguishing features 
 of the race. 
 
 The costumes of the women are pretty, 
 and are Oriental in their main features. 
 The ladies of high rank wear shoes of 
 Apparel of worn- colored leather, while the 
 en;annsand ^gn, particularly the 
 
 arm-bearing of ' i J 
 
 the Persians. .soldiers, are booted in the 
 manner of Ea.stern Europe. Arms are 
 permitted to the greater part of the pop- 
 ulation. The tribesman of the open 
 country generally go armed. ]SIost of 
 them carry what is called a kammah, or 
 dirk, dangerous to the enemy. These 
 knives the wearers are said to use in a 
 hacking manner, not stabbing or thrust- 
 ing as is the usage of those who kill in 
 the West. 
 
 Painting the face is customary only on 
 important occasions or with fashionable 
 ladies. The cheeks are painted and the 
 _ . . ^ eyebrows improved accord- 
 
 Painling the '■ 
 
 face and the ing to the taste or whim 
 
 type of beauty. f ^ i, • /t^v , c 
 
 ot fashion. Ihe type of 
 beauty most admii-ed is the circular 
 countenance and complexion. The Per- 
 sian women are much smaller than the 
 men, and are noted for their tinv hands 
 and feet. 
 
 Directly between Persia and India lie 
 the Afghans. They call themselves in 
 
 _,,, . , the vernacular, Pukhtaneh, 
 
 Ethnic place ' 
 
 and character from Pukhtu, the native 
 
 of the Afghans. , . , . . , 
 
 designation of the lan- 
 guage. It is here that the Iranian race is 
 graded off into India. The most southern 
 
 division of the Afghans included the Lo- 
 hanis, who are distributed on the east of 
 the Suleiman range, where they main- 
 tain a nomadic life in tribal separation. 
 The Eastern Afghans are known by the 
 name of Berduranis. They also have 
 tribal divisions, and approximate the In- 
 dian character. Southward of Cabul 
 live the West Afghans, divided into the 
 two principal tribes of Ghilzais and Du- 
 ranis, the latter occupying the south- 
 western angle of Afghanistan. 
 
 In person, the Afghans are described 
 as being of medium stature. They have 
 short necks, making the General fea- 
 head appear to rest upon 'Z7-X^^^ 
 the shoulders. Their com- admixture, 
 plexion is dark, and the skin has that 
 glossy, velvety character peculiar to the 
 Black races. In the fiat nose there is 
 another hint of southern admixture. 
 The lips are thick, and the line of the 
 eyes horizontal. 
 
 Throughout the whole of Afghanistan 
 there is a considerable element of for- 
 eign population, and the intermixture of 
 this with the native blood has greatly 
 modified the per.sonal character of the 
 race. The women have handsome fea- 
 tures, suggesting the faces of Jewesses. 
 The}- are much fairer than the men, 
 sometimes rosy, though more usually 
 pale. They wear the hair braided, plait- 
 ed in two long tresses, with silken tassels 
 at the ends. The influence of Moham- 
 medanism has driven the women into 
 .seclusion, but intrigue and violence fre- 
 quently prevail over superstition, and in 
 parts of the country there is much license 
 between the sexes. 
 
 The whole population of the country 
 is divided into about a dozen tribal or- 
 ganizations. These con- Tribal divisions 
 form to the clan in charac- °V^^ZIZI^% 
 
 their manner of 
 
 ter. The Duranis and the i^fe. 
 Ghilzais have already been mentioned.
 
 -^■J" 
 
 ■ ii& T '^- ^r"i~"Sa 
 
 HUZAREH TYPES.— Afridis Attacicing English Troops.— Drawn by Emilc Bayard.
 
 634 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKLXD. 
 
 The Yiisufzais live in a hill tract north 
 of Peshawer, where they maintain a 
 semi-independence. They are regarded 
 by the Afghan chiefs as among the most 
 turbulent race with whom they have to 
 deal. The Kakars, almoin Scinthe.T^tern 
 
 1 1 lv.>IAN SCHOLAR TYPE. llAjl MiK/.A-l l,li A/.ZI. 
 
 Afghanistan, are comparatively inde- 
 pendent. Their country is very difficult 
 to explore, and but little is known of 
 their manner of life. 
 
 In several parts of Afghanistan wan- 
 dering colonies of Persians known as 
 Kizilbashis have settled. 
 
 Distribution and 
 
 1 hey bear the character character of the 
 of Persian ized Turks, and "^^"^^ ' 
 speak the Persian language. They are 
 
 found chiefly in 
 the towns, where 
 they maintain 
 themselves as 
 merchants, phy- 
 sicians, and 
 scribes. Many 
 of them are en- 
 rolled in the Af- 
 ghan cavalry and 
 in the Indian 
 regiments of the 
 English army. 
 The Huzar eh 
 dwell in the 
 mountain coun- 
 tr}-, in the north- 
 west of Afghan- 
 istan, among the 
 spurs of Hindu- 
 Kush. Their 
 dwellings are 
 frequently found 
 as much as ten 
 thousand feet 
 above the level 
 of the sea. It is 
 evident that the 
 tribe has been 
 infected with 
 Mongolian influ- 
 e n c e . It is 
 thought that 
 Jilongoloid tribes 
 came from the 
 East with Gen- 
 ghis Khan and settled in this region. 
 
 The Huzareh are tributary to the 
 Afghan princes, but they rarely pay 
 their stipend except lander compulsion
 
 THE IRA XI A XS. —BEL UCITS. 
 
 635 
 
 of arms. They are an exceedingly im- 
 moral people, having many of the vices 
 of ancient paganism. They 
 
 Their immoral- . i 
 
 ity; other tribes are, however, gOOQ Sol- 
 
 of East Iranians. -,■ , j i ^ j- 
 
 diers when reduced to dis- 
 cipline, exhibiting the proverbial cour- 
 age of mountaineers. Many of their 
 manners remind the traveler of the ruder 
 class of Swiss peasants. There is a 
 Huzareh yodel sung by them, after the 
 manner of the Swiss. Other tribes are 
 called the Eimauk and the Hindkis. In 
 the latter term it is easy to see the word 
 Hindu concealed under a vernacular 
 form. They represent certain immi- 
 grants from the East, who are scattered 
 over Afghanistan, where they form in 
 many villages and towns quite an im- 
 portant element in the population. They 
 are bankers and traders in lands. 
 
 The language and literature of the 
 Afghans have both been infected b}^ 
 many foreign influences. The Moham- 
 T-anguage of the medan conquest of the 
 ^^''s^^fSry country greatly corrupted 
 development. the tides of the old national 
 life, turning them into new channels. 
 The admixture of alien elements among 
 the people and their institutions has in- 
 duced much uncertainty even as to the 
 etlinic classification of the race ; but the 
 language is unmistakably Aryan, of the 
 Indo-Persian branch. The vernacular 
 speech, or Pukhtu, prevails everywhere 
 except in Herat. There has been a con- 
 siderable literary development in mod- 
 ern times. A history was composed by 
 Shaikh Mali as early as the first quarter 
 of the fifteenth century. Poetry has 
 been cultivated by the Afghans. Khush- 
 al Khan, the chief of the Khattaks, 
 was recognized as a bard as early as 
 the reign of Arungzeebe. The foreign 
 infection above referred to, and traced to 
 the Mohammedans, is noticeable in the 
 vernacular Afghan history, in which the 
 
 people are said to be Bani-Israil, that is, 
 children of Israel. The tradition is so 
 elaborated as to give a race descent from 
 the Hebrew patriarchs. This fiction is 
 intertwined with the oldest books of the 
 Afghans, as far back as the sixteenth 
 century. In one of the histories Afghan- 
 istan is said to have been settled by 
 , King vSolomon himself, who gave his 
 name to the Suleiman mountain ! 
 
 The manners and customs of the 
 Afghan race are in most respects in 
 close analogy with those of Western 
 Iran. They are the .same with the Tajik 
 customs and traditions, with such excep- 
 tions and modifications only as have 
 been imported by foreign influence, par- 
 ticularly by the conquest of Islam and 
 the intercommunication with India. 
 
 The next great branch of the modern 
 Iranians includes the Beluchs, or native 
 peoples of Beluchistan. Here again the 
 language spoken, called in piaceofthe 
 the vernacular Baluchckcc, f.tcuo'^jrtle 
 indicates unmistakably side of India, 
 the common ethnic descent of these 
 people with the Persians. Indeed, the 
 dialect is so much like New Persian as 
 to point to the fact of a very late sep- 
 aration of the Beluchs from the "West 
 Iranians. Here, as in Afghanistan, the 
 people have been infected to a great 
 degree in language and institutions by 
 contact with India. Indeed, there is 
 a dialect spoken by the Brahoes which 
 is manifestly derived from the languages 
 of the Punjab, and not from an Iranian 
 source. All along the border there is 
 a great admixture of the two races, and 
 the prevalence of a common ^Moham- 
 medanism has tended to a community of 
 institutions and ethnic character. 
 
 In person, the Beluchs are of about 
 the same stature with the Tajiks. Many 
 of them are above the average height. 
 The prevailing bodily form is lithe, and
 
 
 NORTHERN' BELUCHS— TYPES.— Mountaineers of tu« Western Himalayas.— Drawn by Emile Bayard, from a photograph.
 
 THE IRA NIA XS. —BEL I 'CHS. 
 
 637 
 
 not suggestive of great physical strength. 
 The people are inured to great and rapid 
 Personal fea- changes of season and cli- 
 tures and race niate peculiar to the coun- 
 
 traits of the ^ 
 
 Beiaohs. try, and are exposed by their 
 
 out-of-door life to many hardships. They 
 bear fatigue, and are 
 capable of long 
 marches and endur- 
 ance of hunger. They 
 are a brave and pred- 
 atory race, restless, 
 and addicted to war. 
 The physiognomy is 
 strongly marked, the 
 complexion is almost 
 as dark as that of the 
 Hindus, the nose is 
 broad and flat, the 
 forehead low. The 
 hair and beard are 
 abundant and coarse ; 
 the hands and feet, 
 large and heavv, in 
 which feature they 
 are strongly discrim- 
 inated from the Ar- 
 yans of India, whose 
 extremities are fine, 
 even to delicacy. 
 
 The Beluchs have 
 preserved in their 
 character, and even 
 cultivated, the ele- 
 ment of cruelty and 
 barbarous outrage 
 which we have noted 
 as peculiar to the Old 
 Iranians. Their so- 
 cial life is marked 
 with many strange customs. They re- 
 sociai customs; gard hospitality as the 
 ^Ind'i^^^i- prime Virtue. A stranger 
 pations. calling at their huts is sure 
 
 to be entertained as a guest, fed and 
 lodged with all the care which the family 
 
 are able to afford ; but no sooner has he 
 left the protection afforded by this tradi- 
 tional fiction of the East than he is 
 attacked and robbed, or even murdered. 
 In all industrial pursuits the Beluchs 
 are indolent and unenterprising, but no 
 
 'l^^ 
 
 WOMEN OF CHIRAZ — TYPES AND COSTUMES. 
 Drawn by Adrien Marie, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 sooner is war announced than all the 
 latent energies of the race are excited to 
 fierce action. In times of peace they are 
 dissipated, giving their whole time to 
 gambling, smoking tobacco or Indian 
 hemp-seed, and chewing opium. The in.-
 
 638 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 terdict of Islam keeps them from the use 
 of spirituous liquors. They are voracious 
 in appetite, dcTouring immense quanti- 
 ties of flesh, half raw, and filling them- 
 selves with other crude articles of food. 
 They season their victuals with capsi- 
 cum, onions, garlic, and other strong 
 and stimulating flavors, until one unac- 
 customed to such fiery condiments could 
 in no wise swallow the burning mass. 
 
 a method derived from the Levitical law, 
 as modified by the practice of Islam. 
 The old Hebrew usage which required 
 the widow to be taken to wife by the 
 surviving brother is repeated in the 
 Beluch custom. The funeral ceremony 
 demands a watch over the dead body for 
 three successive nights, during which 
 the kinsfolk and friends of the deceased 
 spend their time in re\-el aiid feasting. 
 
 DOMESTIC MANNKUS OF THE EELUCHS.— Interior of Tent.— Drawn by Emile Bayard, after Vambery. 
 
 Llohammedanism has g-raduallv en- 
 croached upon the old instincts of the 
 Slavery and the Iranian race. Slavery is 
 Stlril^elTnd Universal, each petty chief 
 ceremonies. having as large a retinue as 
 possible. Polygamy prevails. Even the 
 hill peasant will have as many as eight 
 or ten wives, and the number is in- 
 creased with the ascending rank of the 
 man. Young women are obtained by 
 paying cattle or sheep or goats to the 
 father. The marriage is performed after 
 
 The dress of the Beluchs is similar to 
 the Tajik co.stume already de.scribed. 
 They wear for under-gar- 
 
 •^ . • ^ Dress ot the 
 
 ment a shirt, generally of Beiuchs; the 
 blue or white calico, but- P^^'^^'^'^sar 
 toned at the neck and reaching below 
 the knee. They have wide trousers, 
 which are open at the ankle. The head- 
 dress consists of a turban, which is 
 generally a high silk or cotton cap, 
 quilted and fitted to the head. The 
 chiefs and their relatives wear white
 
 THE IRANIANS.— MIXED PEOPLES. 
 
 639 
 
 tunics of chintz, which are lined and 
 padded with cotton. The peasants de- 
 pend for warmth upon a surtout, in 
 which they envelop themselves. The 
 cloth is manufacttired coarsely from a 
 mixture of the hair of goats and the 
 wool of sheep. The dress of women is 
 little discriminated from that of men. 
 The trousers of the former are very 
 wide, almost like a skirt around each 
 limb, and are made either of silk or of 
 a mixture of that substance with cotton. 
 The Brahoes, or Hindu Beluchs, have a 
 costume very similar to that of the Bel- 
 uchs, but of a poorer quality of material 
 and simpler in fabrication. 
 
 Within the broad region inhabited by 
 
 the modern Iranians many subordinate 
 
 races are found, each with its local 
 
 peculiarities of character 
 
 Character and 
 
 ethnic place of and development. In the 
 
 the Ossetes. j. ^ i • i ■ ,^ 
 
 far west, high up m the 
 passes of the Caucasus, are found the 
 Ossetes, who call themselves Iron, that 
 is, Iranians. They are so strongly dis- 
 criminated in personal character from 
 their neighbors and from all other of 
 the peoples of the plateau as to suggest 
 a foreign race descent; but their lan- 
 guage is Iranian, and they are evidently 
 of the same stock with the other Arme- 
 niaps, the Tajiks, and the Kurds. In 
 stature they are below the average, but 
 are very thickset and strong. The hair 
 is either blonde or red, and the com- 
 plexion is as fair as that of the Germans. 
 In religious faith and practice the Os- 
 setes are associated with the Armenians, 
 and their habits of life are similar to 
 those of the peasant class of that people. 
 They are mountaineers, and, like all 
 races in such situations, have a less com- 
 pact social development than do the 
 races of the lowlands and plains. 
 
 We may now glance for a moment at 
 the geographical region over which the 
 
 Iranic Arj-ans are distributed in their 
 modern estate. A line drawn from the 
 northwestern extremitv of Geographical 
 the Persian gulf into Syr- ^If^^^^i™, 
 ia, and thence to the Black Aryans, 
 sea, would mark the western limits of 
 the dispersion. On the north, the range 
 of the Caucasus, the Caspian, the north, 
 ern boundary' of Turkistan, and a line 
 drawn from the ^Middle Oxus to lake 
 Balkash, are the boundary. On the east, 
 the general limit is the Indus, from its 
 head-waters to the mouth ; and on the 
 south, the Indian ocean and the Persian 
 gulf. 
 
 The great countries within these lim- 
 its are Persia, Turkistan, Afghanistan, 
 and Beluchistan. The races inhabiting 
 these are independent in Principal conn- 
 development and political •X'e'n"e°of'^^ 
 form, but are all primarily islam, 
 peoples of a common origin. Around 
 the borders, especially on the east, the 
 admixture of foreign elements has been 
 so considerable as to modify, and in 
 some parts reverse, the original ethnic 
 character. The largest foreign force 
 which the Iranians of all these regions 
 have suffered and the greatest modifica- 
 tion in their national aspects have been 
 produced b}- the impact of ]\Ioham- 
 medanism. By this agency a great part 
 of the original traditions and ceremo- 
 nials of the Iranians, especially in Belu- 
 chistan, have been supplanted with 
 vSemitic institutional lorms of a totally 
 different nature. 
 
 Into some districts of ancient Iran 
 the lines of the primitive migration have 
 carried the Brown, even the Black and 
 Black, races of antiquity, fj^e^.l^^" 
 as in the case of the Brahoes Iranians, 
 in Northeastern Beluchistan, around 
 Kelat, who are a people of Dravidian 
 descent. All of these elements have 
 left an ethnic detritus in the countries
 
 640 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 over which they have passed, and these 
 elements have been absorbed by the 
 Iranians, with a consequent change in 
 personal character and tribal develop- 
 ment. 
 
 After the Tajiks, who are the most 
 widely distributed of the modern Irani- 
 ans, the Afghans are next in breadth of 
 dispersion and in numbers. They are 
 estimated at about four million nine 
 hundred thousand souls. This includes 
 the inhabitants of Turkistan and of sev- 
 eral adjacent provinces, who have a com- 
 mon ethnic character. The Beluchs 
 number about half a million. They, 
 most of all, have suffered from the in- 
 
 termixture of foreign races, and are 
 most conformed to the character of the 
 peoples of Hindustan. 
 
 Here, then, we shall conclude this cur- 
 sory outline of the race which contends 
 with the Indie Aryans for the rank of 
 eldest among our ancestral Asiatic house- 
 hold. We have endeavored in the cur- 
 rent chapter to revive, as far as possible, 
 an image of the Iranians in the garb of 
 their ancient life and in process of pre- 
 historic evolution. From this we have 
 proceeded to the consideration of those 
 modern peoples who best represent the 
 primitive stock. We shall now pass to 
 their kin.smen in the valley of the Indus.
 
 Plato n. 
 
 EAST ARYAN ART WORK. Indican Designs.
 
 BOOK VI.-THE INDICANS. 
 
 Chapter xxxvil.— Hotjsk Peopi^e ok ^rya. 
 
 Indian civilization was planned and de- 
 veloped. We must not depreciate the 
 influence of phvsical nature 
 
 '■ ^ ... Reactions of na- 
 Upon man and his instl- tureonmanand 
 , , . ,-> , 1 i his institutions. 
 
 tutions. On the contrary, 
 it is frankly conceded that the reaction- 
 ary effect of universal nature on the 
 senses and intellections, and even on the 
 emotions and passions of mankind, is one 
 of the o-reatest elements in determiningf 
 the course and character of human de- 
 velopment. 
 
 The country in which the house build- 
 ers of ancient Arya were destined, most 
 of all, to display their native dispositions 
 and acquired activities, may well serve as 
 an illustration of the potency, not to say 
 domination, of nature over man. 
 
 The name India is of recent origin. 
 If we consult the native tongues of the 
 East, we shall find no sin 
 
 iT is our purpose in the 
 current chapter to pre- 
 sent as much as may 
 be gathered relative to 
 one of the most inter- 
 esting types in primi- 
 tive civilization. This 
 is the method of life, the structure of the 
 household, the form of domestic and 
 social economy adopted by the primitive 
 Aryans of India. vSince 
 
 Reason for the . 
 
 caption "House the buildmg of a liou.se for 
 eop e o rya. ^^ abode, and the dwelling 
 
 together therein of one man and one 
 woman with their children in the inethod 
 of that persistent and glorious fact called 
 the family, constitute the leading fea- 
 ture, the form and substance, of the life 
 of this far-off division of our own race, 
 the caption employed for the present 
 chapter will be the " House People of 
 Arya." 
 
 Before entering upon the formal elu- 
 cidation of the social life of this people, 
 it is desirable to note the features of the 
 country in which the great structure of 
 
 Derivation and 
 
 gle word sufficiently com- sense of the 
 
 , . , -I ^' ii name India. 
 
 prehensive to define the 
 country which we are now to consider. 
 The name which in vSanskrit would most 
 nearly describe the vast region whicb 
 
 641
 
 642 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 the modern nations call India, would be 
 Blidrata-varslia, signifying the land, or 
 kingdom, of Bharata. The latter is the 
 name of a legendary monarcli of the 
 Lunar dynasty, whose dominion, ac- 
 cording to the Indie mythology and tra- 
 dition, was perhaps as wide as the aggre- 
 
 of the Sanskrit Sindliu, or Hindu, mean- 
 ing rivers; and this is the fundamental 
 sense of the nomenclature. "Rivers" 
 was the name which the primitive Ar- 
 yan folk, coming into the upper valley 
 from the table-lands of Iran and through 
 the gateways of the Hindu-Kush, first 
 
 VIF.W IX SAI-r \ SINDHU.-The Mounchi-Eagh.— Drawn by G. Vuillitr, f,. 
 
 ..l..j,r.ii>h. 
 
 gate of countries now called by the gen- 
 eral name of India. 
 
 The name Hindustan has been fre- 
 quently used by geographers to desig- 
 
 The sapta Sind- "''^^^ ^ '"^-^°'^ "^"^^^ broader 
 hu of the Old than the limited country 
 
 Indicans. . . . . ^, ,-,. 1 
 
 lying north of the \ md- 
 hya mountains; but such usage is no 
 longer warranted. The name India is 
 the smoothed and melodized Greek form 
 
 gave to the country now known by the 
 designation of Punjab, or Five Rivers. 
 It is thought, however, that the very 
 oldest designation given by the immi- 
 grating tribes to this region was Sapta 
 vSindhu, or Seven Rivers, the two streams 
 additional to the five of the Punjab being 
 the Indus on the one side and the Saras- 
 wati on the other. At any rate, it was 
 into this country of many rivers — so
 
 THE INDICAXS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 
 
 643 
 
 many that they constituted the leading 
 geographical feature, and impressed 
 themselves first of all upon the imagi- 
 nation of the new folk from the north- 
 west — that the Old Aryans came from 
 their native seats at a time far more re- 
 mote than we are able to measure by 
 any existing system of chronology. 
 
 These tribal immigrants came ulti- 
 mately, as we shall see in another part 
 Origin and wan- of this work, out of ancicnt 
 deringsofthe Bactria. For a long time 
 
 Indican immi- <= 
 
 grants. after their departure from 
 
 their primitive seats they maintained 
 a nomadic, or rather a sort of pastoral, 
 life on the broad plateaus of Iran. Per- 
 haps the extent of their wanderings in this 
 region will never be ascertained ; but in 
 process of time, as they made their way 
 further and further to the east and 
 south, they descended into the valley 
 lands of the Upper Indus, and thence 
 made their way down the Sapta Sindliu 
 until the whole region between the Pun- 
 jab and the sea was dominated by their 
 influence. 
 
 Great were the climatic and other 
 changes which they experienced in this 
 Aryan mythoi- migration ; and it is easy to 
 ogy modified by discover, by an examination 
 
 the new environ- ' -' 
 
 ment. of the ancient Indie and 
 
 Persic mythologies and by a comparison 
 of the one with the other, to how great 
 an extent the mythology and tradition 
 of the migratory Aryans was modified 
 by their debouclmrc into the valleys of 
 the east. The somewhat austere and 
 simple ideas of Zoroastrianism immedi- 
 ately broke out into an inflected mythol- 
 ogy, almost as variable in its forms and 
 development as that of Greece ; and 
 this, no doubt, is traceable to the multi- 
 farious aspects and phenomena of nature 
 as she exhibited herself in India, in 
 contrast with her half-desert singularity 
 on the Iranian table-lands and deserts. 
 
 India is a country very variable in its 
 climatic conditions. The sky is broad 
 and open, flecked with „ . ^ , 
 
 ^ . . Variability of 
 
 clouds, and invaded at in- climatic condi- 
 
 . 1 . rr:\ tions in India, 
 
 tervals by storms. Ihe 
 heavens by night are, at least in the up- 
 lands, almost as blue and starrj^ as those 
 of Mesopotamia. The rainfall varies 
 with the season and the district, being 
 less than thirty inches in some of the 
 drier parts, and much more than sixty 
 inches in the lowlands near the sea. But 
 first of all, something should be said of the 
 general relations and geographical fea- 
 tures of the vast region stretching from 
 the borders of Afghanistan to the de- 
 pendent mountain spurs which divide 
 Assam from Burmah. 
 
 The extreme breadth of the country 
 called India is about twelve hundred 
 niiles, and its extent from north to south 
 fully fifteen hundred miles. Extent and 
 India is the central of the t^lsti'^^ 
 three great peninsulas country, 
 which -drop from the backbone of Asia 
 into the southern ocean. It is the Italy 
 of Asia, but an Italy on a vaster and 
 grander scale than that which depends 
 from the Central Alps into the IMediter- 
 ranean. The general shape of the In- 
 dian peninsula is a triangle, having its 
 base set firmly against the tremendous 
 buttresses of the Himalayas, and its apex 
 extending far into the warm waters of 
 the tropics. The southern point of the 
 country reaches to the eighth parallel of 
 north latitude; and its northern limit 
 lies under parallel thirty-five. Within 
 these vast boundaries there are three 
 distinct geographical areas. First, the 
 great uplifted mountain region, from the 
 double ridges of the Himalayan summits 
 to the hill-country at their foot. Second, 
 the great river plains, embracing the 
 larger part of the country, and bearing 
 throuofh various channels the streams of
 
 644 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 tending to iso- 
 late the Indican 
 race. 
 
 the Punjab, of the Brahmaputra valley, 
 and of the valley of the Ganges. Third, a 
 peculiar, triangular table-land, called the 
 Deccan, rising from the river plains just 
 mentioned, and held in place between 
 the Narbada and the Kistna rivers and 
 the range of the Vindhya on the north. 
 It is not needed in a history of man 
 to enter into the minute details of geog- 
 Circumstances raphy ; but the general fea- 
 tures of the country are of 
 prime importance to the 
 understanding of human development. 
 It is necessary here to note, first of all, 
 the inaccessible barrier of the Himalayas, 
 shutting off India from connection with 
 the rest of Asia. The average height 
 of these mountains is at least nineteen 
 thousand feet, and they have few gate- 
 ways by which the country lying to the 
 south may be approached. It is believed 
 that the Indie Aryans came, in part at 
 least, through these mountain fastnesses 
 ^vhen they first reached the region of 
 their future abode and development. If 
 so, however, the migration must have 
 been one of excessive toil and danger, 
 and, the river valleys having once been 
 reached, the mountain gates behind 
 would .seem to close, never to be re- 
 opened. 
 
 Thus we find that the Old Aryans of the 
 Ea.st, having completed their migration, 
 found themselves isolated from the rest 
 of mankind and placed in a region well 
 suited for race development. It is not 
 needed, in this connection, to dwell upon 
 the fact that these people were the last 
 of the tribes to leave their old Bactrian 
 abode, and that they had less of the 
 migratory or roving disposition than 
 any of their kinsfolk who removed 
 from the same region, at earlier dates, 
 into the plateau of Iran or the fa- 
 European islands and peninsulas of the 
 West. 
 
 The instinct of remaining — what the 
 philosophers would call the aiiiniKS man- 
 endi — was thus stronger Thelndicans 
 
 with the Indie Aryans than j^^iSh;; 
 with any other branch of others, 
 the great family to which they belonged. 
 They were more localized in their dis- 
 positions, and less adventurous than the 
 kin.speople with whom they had been 
 associated from the beginning. They 
 now found themselves in beautiful river 
 valleys and fertile viplands backed by 
 mountains, well suited to promote the 
 growth and expansion of those qualities 
 which race instinct and innate prefer- 
 ence had given them. They were alone 
 among the peoples at a date much more 
 than two thousand j-ears before the 
 Christian era. All the circumstances of 
 their situation tended powerfully to de- 
 veloj? a type of life j^eculiar in every fea- 
 ture. ^ 
 
 It is not intended in this place to 
 sketch the character of the Indie mind 
 and philosophy, except in so far as the 
 .same may have appeared in its most rudi- 
 mentary stages. The present chapter 
 is devoted to the ])riniitive condition 
 of the race as it is revealed to us in 
 its earliest aspects and conditions. Let 
 us, then, proceed to note as much as 
 may be authentically gathered of the 
 primitive condition of these old peoples 
 of the Indian valleys. 
 
 On their reaching the regions which 
 they were to inhabit, the Arj'an folk 
 from the northwest found already 
 in the countrv an aborig- The immigrant 
 inal people which they f^f^f^^f^.^^ 
 had to crowd out of their country, 
 way. It is not known by how much ag- 
 gression and force these aborigines were 
 driven from their seats. Nor can it be 
 well ascertained to what extent the fu- 
 ture race was modified by the absorption 
 of the primitive tribes of the country.
 
 846 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .\L\XKIXD. 
 
 Those who have investigated the sub- 
 ject most closely differ in their estimates 
 of the extent to which the future people 
 of India were influenced in their blood 
 and character by contact with the old 
 tribes whom they overcame and dispos- 
 sessed of their native seats. Perhaps 
 the best judgment is that which assigns 
 but a small modification on account of 
 the absorption of characteristics from the 
 primitive races. The situation, doubt- 
 less, was not very different, in some re- 
 spects, from that which another Aryan 
 people, after nearly four thousand years, 
 discovered by their impact on the abo- 
 riginal races of the New World. The 
 great adventurers from Western Europe, 
 precipitating themselves upon the east- 
 ern coasts of North America, settling 
 there and planting a new civilization, 
 were not greatly modified, either at the 
 beginning or at any subsequent period, 
 by their contact with the Red men whom 
 they displaced from the country. In some 
 other regions conquest has given a dif- 
 ferent result. The Latin races, victori- 
 ous over the provincial peoples Avho 
 held Europe in the time of the Roman 
 ascendency, assimilated freely with 
 those whom they conquered and sub- 
 dued. As already indicated, it is not 
 now possible to determine with exacti- 
 tude how much of the original human 
 life of India w-as absorbed into the new 
 Aryan life which came by migration and 
 conquest. 
 
 The caption of the present chapter has 
 already hinted at what may be regarded 
 „ as the primarv character- 
 
 House-building . . ■' ^ 
 
 instincts of the istic of the primitive Ar- 
 
 East Aryans. ^ t i • /tm 
 
 yans of India. ihej'' were 
 the builders of houses, the makers of 
 homes, the organizers of families. This 
 is the distinctive feature of that primi- 
 tive life which we see afar in the valleys 
 of the East, and also of the semitribal 
 
 life which we behold in process of evolu- 
 tion among the early ]\Iedes and Per- 
 sians, the Greeks, the Italic races, and 
 even the Teutonic tribes of the north. 
 They were all makers of hou.se.s — houses 
 above ground, built from the material 
 furnished by nature, and constructed 
 with special reference to the permanent 
 abode and comfort of a single house- 
 hold. 
 
 It may well surprise us to reflect that 
 the primitive houses of the Indian valley, 
 built by a branch of our an- sympathy of 
 cestral' races long before f/eeTIJi'in '^^ 
 Sanskrit was Sanskrit or ■■^°°^ structure. 
 Greek was Greek, had the same general 
 form and substance and design as the 
 houses built by the wanderers and pio- 
 neers of the New World in the seven- 
 teenth century of our era. There has 
 always been a close sympathy between 
 the man of Arya and the tree. He has 
 always looked upon the tree as his friend. 
 He has seen in it the possibility of pro- 
 tection and comfort and plenty. He has 
 used it as the auxiliary of his develop- 
 ment. Already, on his entrance into 
 the Indian valleys, he knew how to 
 create a house, to frame a structure out 
 of the trunks of trees. The Old Medes 
 had learned this . lesson on the great 
 plateau, and it is not a little instructive 
 to note the fact that antiquarian research 
 has not until the present day discovered 
 a single Median structure left to us in 
 ruin or tradition which was not made of 
 wood. 
 
 Stone buildings and buildings of bricks 
 were things somewhat repugnant to the 
 first instincts of the East- Name of the 
 ern Aryan races. These ^--;^-^ ^"^^^ 
 forms of structure came therewith, 
 only by development and discipline, and 
 belong to the aesthetic periods of 
 national life. To fell the tree, to cut 
 and square the trunk, to put it in place in
 
 THE IXDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 
 
 647 
 
 four solid walls, and put a roof over the 
 space for an abode, was the fundamental 
 idea with the Aryan peoples. He called 
 it his house, a word which is common to 
 every branch of the great Aryan speech, 
 from the oldest to the youngest. Nor 
 are we able to discover a period of tribal 
 life so remote that the house was not the 
 tangible evidence and bottom fact. Of 
 the exact forms which the structure 
 assumed, we have no precise informa- 
 tion ; but the 
 general nature 
 of the primitive 
 abodes of our 
 own race, as dis- 
 tinguished from 
 those of the 
 Semites and Tu- 
 ranians, was as 
 defined above, 
 and its purpose 
 was to consti- 
 tute a fixed 
 home for a man 
 and a woman, 
 with their off- 
 
 singular core of the household to which 
 all the rest adheres and without which it 
 falls instantly into disintegration and 
 ruin. His life is the constant barrier be- 
 tween it and all harm. His valor and 
 strength are the safeguards and guaranty 
 of his own place, which stands apart 
 from the rest and holds his treasures. 
 In all the tribes which have sprung from 
 that original Bactrian fountain, bubbling 
 up with human fecundity in remote pre- 
 
 PRIMITIVE BUILDING OF 
 Drawn 
 
 The man was 
 
 called pitar ; in 
 
 Greek, pater ; in 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, feeder; that is, father. 
 
 ^ , The father was the funda- 
 
 Nature of the 
 
 household ; the mental fact of the house- 
 paternal name. . . -. _., , 
 
 hold. ihe word means 
 the protector. And it is upon this idea 
 that the whole structure of Aryan society, 
 ancient and modern, is founded. The 
 father protects his house and household. 
 They are his. The idea is that of a nest. 
 He is the roof above it. He defends it. 
 His arm is bared for its protection, 
 and his faculties are all vigilant lest 
 harm come to his abode. He is the stem 
 around which the whole structure is 
 gathered and developed. He is the 
 
 THE INDUS VALLEY. — HOUSE I.N THE KOULOU. 
 by G. Vuillier, from a photograph. 
 
 historic ages, fatJterltood and protection 
 have been inseparable synonyms. 
 
 As a necessary adjunct to this central 
 fact called the father in the Arj'an 
 household, was the institution of mo- 
 nogamy. Single marriage 
 
 ^ ^ » » The fact and 
 
 was the rule from the be- sentiment of 
 
 rr\^ ■ e single marriage. 
 
 ginning. The union of one 
 man with one woman, perpetually de- 
 voted the one to the other, was the fun- 
 damental concept of the creative relation 
 and of the outward fact called the home. 
 It appears, moreover, that this union 
 among the Aryan peoples has always 
 bpftn based on the sentiment of affectio".
 
 648 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 A preference, loving and tender, has 
 ahvays existed, at least a preferenee of 
 the man for the woman. It is doubtful, 
 indeed, if the preference of the woman 
 for the man has ever been wholly ig-- 
 nored in any Aryan tribe. It is true 
 that the idea of ownership, the belief 
 and practice that the man was not only 
 
 strong- contradistinction to the polyga- 
 mous practices of the Semitic races and the 
 polyandry of many of the The Aryan 
 barbarian families of man- 'Z^^''^::. 
 kind, the single marriage ogamic. 
 of the Aryan household stands preemi- 
 nent. Further on we shall see that this 
 principle of monogamy was so strong 
 
 .MODERN HOUSES OF TDK SAl'TA SINUUU.— V 
 
 ii.L.\(,ii IN THE KouLOU.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a pliotograph. 
 
 the possessor but the ozvner of the woman, 
 has prevailed among many of even the 
 leading peoples of our race. But a 
 close study of primitive conditions will 
 show that even at the earliest emergence 
 from barbarism some — even much — def- 
 erence was given to the sentiments and 
 instincts of the woman. 
 
 However this may be, the monogamic 
 relation is certain and definite. In 
 
 am^ng the Greeks and Romans as to be 
 by them communicated and forced upon 
 the prevalent social, political, and reli- 
 gious systems of the world. 
 
 In the valle}' of the Indus the primitive 
 Ar\'an household was or- 
 
 Institution of 
 
 ganized on these prmciples. the family; office 
 A house was built. A fa- °f t^« «'°ti'e'^- 
 ther declared himself. He took on 
 woman in marriage. He became her
 
 THE INDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 
 
 649 
 
 protector and the defender of the house 
 where she dwelt and where he dwelt 
 with her. When the child was born, 
 his fatherhood was emphasized. He 
 was the protector also of the child — of 
 the children. They grew around him. 
 He was the center of the primitive 
 home, its defender from harm, and the 
 fundamental fact of its existence. And 
 this brings tis to consider the mother in 
 /^^/- office and character as she is revealed 
 to us in the Aryan dawn. 
 
 The mother in Arya was the pro- 
 ducer, that is, the producer of life. She 
 was the genetrix, the wellspring. When 
 the name of mother (Sanskrit vidta) was 
 first given her, she was thought of as 
 the blessed origin of being, the bearer 
 of the new living form which the 
 father was to acknowledge and protect." 
 As to her own being, it was wedded to 
 that of the man. She lost her name 
 and her family relationship by her union 
 with the man. She was taken oiit of 
 the household to which she belonged in 
 girlhood and transferred to the man. 
 To this extent she became his. At 
 least, she was of Jiim, and her identity 
 was henceforth merged with his in the 
 household which they had founded. But 
 the household took its origin in him, 
 bore his name, and was under his pro- 
 tection and sovereignty. 
 
 We are able, by means of linguistic 
 study, to penetrate the inner life of the 
 The son and primitive house of Arya, 
 sfgr^'canc'e 'oV ^"^^ to discover its methods, 
 their names. The names given to the 
 son and the daughter indicate, as clearly 
 as can be, the offices which they held in 
 
 ' The fundamenta! unity of the idea of mother 
 among all the Aryan peoples is shown by the identity 
 of the word in the different languages — thus : San- 
 skrit, 7n&ia ; Old Persic, mata; Greek, initlr; Latin, 
 mater; Old Slav, matt; O. H. Ger., jnuotar ; 
 Gaelic, maihair, etc., etc. 
 M.— Vol. I — 42 
 
 the family. The ideas upon which the 
 organizations depended are clearly shown 
 by the words employed to define the 
 household relations. As for the son, he 
 was called sunn, meaning the begotten, 
 and the thought was that as the begotten 
 of his father he was to be his successor 
 and representative. He was named ac- 
 cordingly ; and we are thus able to see at 
 the very foundation of Aryan life the 
 notion which the primitive father had of 
 his male offspring. 
 
 The daughter was named on a differ- 
 ent principle. They called her at the 
 first diiliitar, a term of endearment, sig- 
 nificant in its first intent of the tender- 
 ness with which the girl-child was re- 
 garded. Her place in the household was 
 affectional. She was the darling from 
 her birth, and this relation of loving ten- 
 derness she continued to bear in the 
 family until her transplanting out of it 
 to the side of her husband. But while 
 she continued to be duhitar, the daughter, 
 she also, in maidenhood, took on another 
 name or names significant of her place 
 and duty. Instead of being called duhi- 
 tar, she was nicknamed milkmaid, and 
 by this simple fact we ai-e let into a sec- 
 tion of the daily life of the household. 
 It was her duty, on arriving at mature 
 maidenhood, to milk the cows and goats, 
 and her duty in this respect was so clear- 
 ly defined as to warrant her nickname 
 milkmaid. By this title she was called 
 without disparagement, and her original 
 office has been carried with the frag- 
 ments of speech into several modern 
 languages. 
 
 If we scrutinize more closely the 
 method of life pursued _ ^ 
 
 ^ Predominance 01 
 
 at the beginning by the the agricultural 
 
 T -,. , 1 11 instinct. 
 
 Indic Aryans, we shall 
 find them to be a people of the soil. 
 They lived from the resources of the 
 earth produced by cultivation. In these
 
 650 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKTND. 
 
 migrating tribes the agricultural impulse 
 was dominant from the first. They 
 were peculiarly a people of ground- 
 
 HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARVA — THE DUHITAR. 
 
 itive life of the Aryans is so strongly 
 marked as to have left its own demon- 
 stration and history in the languages 
 
 spoken b}- the 
 different races of 
 this stock. Nor 
 can it fail of in- 
 terest, even to 
 the unlearned 
 reader, to note 
 the proof and il- 
 lustration of the 
 agricultural as- 
 pect of Arj^an 
 life by an ex- 
 amination of 
 that group of 
 words which ex- 
 hibit the fact 
 most strikingly. 
 The word Ar- 
 yan is from the 
 Sanskrit Arja, 
 meaning "no- 
 ble." It signifies 
 thenobilityof the 
 agricultural caste 
 in ancient India. 
 The plowmen 
 were the noble 
 people, and were 
 socalledby them- 
 selves from the 
 begfinning. The 
 root AR means 
 to plow, and this 
 signification is 
 traceable in 
 nearly every dia- 
 lect of Aryan 
 speech. In Latin 
 «r-are Avas to 
 
 glebe. It 
 
 julture. They plowed the 
 was their vocation to plant seeds and de- 
 velop the growing stalk to maturity and 
 fruitage. This peculiarity of the prim- 
 
 In Greek rt'r-oun had . 
 
 Meaning and ap- 
 Even plication of the 
 
 Old Enoflish we have '^°^ 
 
 plow 
 
 the same meaning 
 
 in 
 
 the expression to car the ground, meaU'
 
 THE INDICANS.— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 
 
 651 
 
 ing to plow. In the forty-fifth chapter 
 of Genesis occurs the expression , ' ' There 
 shall neither be ^vrring- nor harvest." 
 This signifies, "There shall be neither 
 ploiviiig nor harvest time." Ancient 
 geographical names in all parts of the 
 Aryan world have preserved the traces 
 of this word. The old name of Thrace 
 was Ar-xa.. The ancient name of the 
 
 vocation of the Aryan race. The names 
 of men in various parts of the world 
 have carried forward the same noble 
 tradition ; and that great German leader 
 with whom Julius Caesar contended for 
 the mastery of Europe was called Ar- 
 iovistus. All these facts prove beyond 
 doubt that the vocation of this great 
 branch of the human family was agri- 
 
 HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA— THE TILLERS OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Median and Persian plateau was /r-an, 
 meaning the land of the Aryans. The 
 name of //-^--land, formerly written Eirc- 
 land, preserves the same root, and the 
 poetical name Er-\n, sometimes sup- 
 posed to mean the land of the west, is 
 only the same word, and signifies the 
 land of the plow. Aye, the very word 
 f^r-th is doubtless the same, preserving 
 in its spelling and pronunciation the un- 
 mistakable evidence of the primitive 
 
 cultural, and this at a period before the 
 breakup of the ancient tribes in the orig- 
 inal seats of Bactria. Thej' were the 
 people of the plow long before the Hel- 
 lenes were known to history or the an- 
 cient Medes had appeared as a power on 
 the Iranian plains. 
 
 The general character of the earl}' life 
 of man is largely discoverable by his re- 
 lations with the other animals. From 
 his appearance on the earth, be the
 
 652 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKINi. 
 
 mode and the time of that appearance 
 whatever it may, he has been in close 
 Relations of the affiliation with the lower or- 
 indicanswith | £ being. The dis- 
 
 tame and -wild «> 
 
 beasts. tinction between wild and 
 
 domestic animals is doubtless fictitious. 
 All animals at the first were wild. vSome 
 species have, in process of time, been 
 tamed by the superior wit and contriv- 
 ance of man ; and the creatures thus do- 
 mesticated have acquired the instinct of 
 docility. The peculiarities of the Old 
 Aryan life of India are again revealed in 
 the character of the animals which they 
 succeeded in subduing. They are those 
 peculiar to the agricultural life. The 
 horse was their servant long before their 
 migration from the Bactrian uplands. 
 Tradition has preserved even into the 
 dawn of authentic historj' the story of 
 the horses of the Medes and Persians. 
 The Indie Aryans were equally the mas- 
 ters of this noble animal, but with them 
 he was bred and reared rather for the 
 service of the field and the household 
 than for swiftne.ss in flight or the charge 
 of battle. The horse in the Indian val- 
 le\'s partook in course of time of the 
 mild and docile qualities of the people, 
 and obeyed somewhat the influences of 
 his environment. 
 
 So also of the cattle and the sheep. 
 Both were domesticated and drawn 
 The agricultural around the Aryan house. 
 th:dote\"can". F™"^ the earliest days 
 imais. of the migration wild cat- 
 
 tle still existed in the uplands of Persia 
 and perhaps in the mountain countries 
 of the north ; but the kine of the valle3^s 
 were domesticated, and were used for 
 food and service more than fifteen hun- 
 dred years before the conquest of Alex- 
 ander. Likewise, the goat was among 
 the tamed animals of the primitive In- 
 dians. He was eaten as to his flesh, and 
 from the ewes was derived the principal 
 
 supply of milk, with its secondary prod- 
 ucts of butter and cheese. So also was 
 the dog — but not the cat — the con'stant 
 companion of these people. Indeed, 
 the whole life of the Aryan household 
 was of the strictly agricultural type ; and 
 it may well surprise us to find repre- 
 sented in the daily curriculum of the 
 oldest tribes of our race so many of the 
 features, the methods, and characteristics 
 of the modern family. 
 
 Strangely enough, it does not appear 
 that the ancient Aryans of India were 
 much acquainted with the Names of wild 
 wild beasts of the woods. "^^^^^^^ 
 At any rate, such acquaint- languages, 
 ance as they had seems to have been 
 gained after the departure -from their 
 kinsfolk of the highlands and their com- 
 ing into the Indian valleys. These facts 
 we know again from the testimony of 
 language. The names of the wild beasts 
 are generally different in the different 
 Aryan languages. If the bear, for in- 
 stance, or the wolf had been familiar to 
 the tribes before the migration from their 
 original seats, they would have given 
 him a name, and that name would have 
 been common in the various dialects 
 arising from the common source. So 
 also of the other fierce beasts of the 
 woods. But we find that the wild crea- 
 tures have each a specific name in the 
 different Aryan tongues, from which the 
 nonacquaintance of the primitive folk 
 with such beasts is clearly inferred. 
 
 If we glance at the implements and 
 utensils of the Old Aryan household, we 
 shall find another illustra- Names of impie. 
 tion of the peaceful agri- rhrmanteVo'J-"" 
 cultural life which they led . life. 
 The various implements of tillage are 
 named in common by the different 
 Aryan folk who used them. The plow, 
 the rake, and the hoe, the iron ax and 
 sickle, and many other of the imple-
 
 THE INDICANS— HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARYA. 
 
 653 
 
 ments of husbandry were manifestly in 
 use by the immigrants who peopled 
 ancient India. But here again we find 
 a different result when we look at the 
 names of the implements of the chase 
 and of war. The name of the bow and 
 arrow, the spear, the lance, and the 
 sword are different in the different dia- 
 lects which sprang from the common 
 source ; and we are able by such means 
 to discover that hunting and the still 
 
 at eventide. It is i:nmistakably true 
 that the leading features of the primitive 
 Aryan home of India had an outline of 
 identity with those of Greece and Italy, 
 and even of the Teutonic fastnesses of 
 the north and the oak woods of Britain. 
 Unto this day many words still live in 
 India and in England that had a common 
 birth and common meaning before the 
 separation of the ancient tribes from the 
 Bactrian homestead, and these words 
 
 HOUSE PEOPLE OF ARVA— THE AGRICULTURAL LIFE. 
 
 more exciting vocations of war were 
 phases of life comparatively unknown to 
 the primitive Aryans, and only super- 
 imposed upon their ancient agricultural 
 life at a later date and under foreign 
 influences. 
 
 War and the chase were not the native 
 pursuits of these peaceable people ; and 
 Indications of a the Very nomenclature of 
 their household and garden 
 utensils is sufficient of it- 
 self to establish their character as men 
 of the field by day and the hearthstone 
 
 peaceable and 
 domestic race 
 character. 
 
 and forms of speech bear unmistakable 
 evidence of the common primitive life 
 which all these tribes inherited from a 
 common ancestry. The name for house 
 is the same in all. So also the names 
 for father and mother, for son and 
 daughter, for dog and cow, for heart and 
 tears, for ax and tree, for plow and 
 doorway — all are common in their origin 
 and meaning in the whole group of 
 Indo-European languages. And thus 
 are we able, by linguistic research and 
 careful comparison, to draw from the
 
 654 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 prehistoric shadows a tolerably accurate 
 outline of that primitive life which was 
 led by the Aryans of India before the 
 Veda was sung, and even by their own 
 ancestral tribes long before the Zend- 
 Avesta had taken form in the minds 
 of the Iranian bards and philosophers. 
 
 Thus we see, in a very remote pre- 
 historic age, certainly as much as two 
 thousand vears before our 
 
 Synopsis of the 
 
 aspects of life era, the incoming of cer- 
 
 In Old India. ^ • . . -i • .. 
 
 tarn migratory tribes into 
 the great country which we call India. 
 We see them settling there and develop- 
 ing according to the laws of their own 
 instinct and the influences of their en- 
 vironment. We see them building 
 houses and organizing families on the 
 basis of monogamy. We see them 
 localized in their abodes and in close 
 relation with the soil, from which they 
 derived their subsistence by means of 
 regular cultivation. We see them de- 
 voting themselves to the pursuits of 
 peace ; emplo3-ing the domestic animals 
 and using the implements of husbandry, 
 
 i driving the oxen to the plow and bearing 
 the milk pail from the goatfold at even- 
 
 I ing. We see them but little acquainted 
 with the chase and little disposed to the 
 dangers and excitements of war, a pecul- 
 iar people, given to peace and dreading 
 the hazards and alarms of conflict and 
 battle. We see them following from 
 generation to generation, even from 
 century to century, the same primitive 
 methods of life until, in the process of 
 time and with the rise of more aggres- 
 sive and adventurous peoples in other 
 parts of Asia, their national life is at last 
 thrust into the faint dawn of authentic 
 history. Then it is that the priest is 
 heard chanting the songs of the Veda, 
 and the old philosopher of Arya begins 
 to teach his mystic beliefs to dreaming 
 followers in the valleys of the East. 
 When we anive at this juncture in the 
 history of the Indie races, it will be time 
 for us to pass from the purely primitive 
 aspect of Aryan life in India to consider 
 its tribal and historical relations — as will 
 be done in the following chapters. 
 
 Chapter XXXVIII.— Relioion. 
 
 N the entrance of the 
 Old Aryans into the 
 Indian valleys all the 
 ethnic harmonies of 
 the race were softened 
 into a minor key. 
 There was a loss of 
 intellectual force, with a gain of imagi- 
 nation ; a loss of bodily energy, with a 
 General effect of gain of activitv ; a loss 
 th:E;iXa:s of adventure, with a gain 
 into India. of dreaming. Every ele- 
 
 ment of the originally robust Aryan 
 character, as it had shown itself through 
 all the stage? r: drifting from the Bac- 
 
 trian homestead through the mountaiti 
 passes into the Punjab, was toned 
 down and soon forced, by a new disci- 
 pline, to vibrate to a softer chant. 
 Every force of nature conspired by its 
 reaction on the faculties of man to 
 abridge freedom, cool passion, assuage 
 tribal heat, and diffuse a calmer mood. 
 
 We come now to consider the old life 
 of India, always an obscure problem in 
 the history of mankind. We have al- 
 ready considered those ancient migra- 
 tory movements which carried down the 
 peoples of our ancestral race, by succes- 
 sive waves into the Punjab, and thence
 
 656 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 southward and eastward to the ocean 
 and the mountains. We have even 
 noted some of the original conditions 
 which surrounded the immigrants and 
 conduced to the formation of a new race 
 character. The attentive reader is by 
 this time tolerably informed with re- 
 spect to the ethnic inheritance which the 
 Aryans brought with them into India ; 
 of their dispositions and peculiarities, 
 and the beginnings of the institutional 
 form which they carried along on their 
 way from the highlands of Iran into the 
 lowlands of Sapta vSindhu. It shall 
 now be our object to take up the trans- 
 planted life of the Old Aryans, and to 
 note its evolution into new forms pecul- 
 iar to the East. 
 
 We are here on the threshold of Brali- 
 manism. Perhaps it will be well first of 
 indican religious all to notc the peculiarities 
 Sed b/tl7'' "f tl."« ancient faith, and es- 
 Brahmans. peciallv its divergence from 
 
 the system of Zoroaster. The term is 
 derived from the Brahmans, the sacer- 
 dotal caste of the Hindu family, who 
 have, from the most ancient times, been 
 the custodians of the national faith, pre- 
 serving its dogmas and directing its 
 ceremonial. In their hands — such is 
 their antiquity and such their influence 
 over the destinies of Indian civilization 
 — both the linguistic and the religious 
 development of the Indian race have 
 been determined, and it is interesting to 
 note the almost perfect parallelism of 
 the changes from the Old Aryan tongue 
 to the modern languages of 'Hindustan, 
 and the corresponding inflections of the 
 old religious beliefs into the forms and 
 ceremonials of the existing races of 
 India. 
 
 The doctrines of Brahmanism are 
 summed up and contained in a body of 
 sacred writings, under the collective 
 name of the Veda. The word signifies 
 
 "knowledge," or " revelation." Perhaps 
 the older portions thereof are the oldest 
 written compositions now 
 
 '■ Nature and 
 
 in possession of the hu- extent of the 
 man race, unless we should 
 except certain parts of the Chinese liter- 
 ature, concerning the antiquity of which 
 the Western peoples are not well in- 
 formed. 
 
 The Veda consists of four parts, or 
 collections of sacred texts, called San- 
 hitas, or IVIantras. The texts include 
 not only expositions of doctrine and 
 revelations of the gods, but also hymns 
 and incantations and prayers and sacri- 
 ficial forms peculiar to the national re- 
 ligion. The first major division of the 
 whole work is known as the ^/(7^-Veda, 
 commonly written Rig- Veda ; the second 
 is the Sainan-'W&AdL, or Sama-Veda ; the 
 third is the Frt/>/j//-Veda, written Yajur- 
 Veda; and the fourth, the AtJiarvan- 
 Veda, or Atharva-Veda. Each of these 
 greater parts has its i^eculiarities, and 
 the whole covers a vast epoch as it re- 
 lates to the time of composition. 
 
 In addition to the sacred texts proper, 
 there is a large mass of prose writings 
 attached thereto called the Additional writ- 
 Brahmanas. The subject- ^f^ThTsal^fd 
 matter of these relates to text. 
 the ceremonial application of the sacred 
 texts, the proper method of conducting 
 the rites, and other practical and exposi- 
 tory matters. There' are two other kinds 
 of commentaries or appendages to the 
 Vedas, called the Aranyakas and the 
 Upanishads, the former of which are 
 analogous in subject to the Brahmanas, 
 being in the nature of a comment and 
 explanation upon the sense and proper 
 usage of the sacred books. The Upani- 
 shads, however, are more philosophical 
 in their character. They contain the 
 great body of speculations on the prob- 
 lems of life and of destiny, particularly
 
 THE IN Die A NS. —RELIGION. 
 
 657 
 
 that part of philosophy which relates to 
 the universe and its religion. These 
 commentaries and expositional parts of 
 the Hindic Bible come down to a com- 
 paratively recent date, from which cir- 
 cumstance the sacred language of India 
 may be studied entirely from the reli- 
 gious texts. Nearly every inflection 
 and linguistic development which has 
 taken place from the most ancient vSan- 
 skrit to Hindustani niay be gathered 
 and understood from an examination of 
 the Vedas, with their accompanying 
 gloss and commentaries. 
 
 It is the Rig- Veda which constitutes the 
 essence of the whole. It corresponds 
 with the Gathas of the Avesta, contain- 
 Essenceofthe ing the hvmns and other 
 t^ineTin' the ly^^al cffusions of the carli- 
 Rig-Veda. gst Aryan settlers in India. 
 
 It is clear, however, that these most an- 
 cient songs differ greatly among them- 
 selves in date of composition. Some of 
 them represent the language in its old- 
 est aspect, and others are of a later date ; 
 but all are ancient, and belong to that 
 primitive period of religious and linguis- 
 tic history in which the thought of the 
 ancestral race was still in native efflo- 
 rescence, freeing itself from the bosom of 
 man in ejaculatory expressions, apostro- 
 phes, and hymns of praise to the gods. 
 Quite unlike the Rig- Veda are the three 
 other divisions of the sacred books. 
 The Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda are 
 ritualistic in character. They either 
 explain, illustrate, or apply the doctrines 
 of the older hymns, or repeat them in 
 more modern phraseology. 
 
 Much has already been said relative to 
 
 the bottom character of the Old Aryan 
 
 worship. It was based upon 
 
 Vedaism based , '■ 
 
 on the adoration a reverential regard for 
 na ure. ^^ powers of nature. The 
 
 grand and striking phenomena of the 
 physical universe struck upon the con- 
 
 sciousness of this early race with peculiar 
 power, and the heart of the people burst 
 out m adoration and praise. Doubtless 
 in its very earliest aspect the religious 
 system thus produced was merely a na- 
 ture worship, having for its objective re- 
 alities the sublime aspects and processes 
 of the material world. 
 
 Generally, the vision of this early peo- 
 ple was lifted to the air and sky. At- 
 mospheric phenomena particularly af- 
 fected the sen.ses and attracted the rev- 
 erence of the Old Indians, Natural rever- 
 
 Higher still were the heav- Zl^Zt:.^.. 
 enly bodies. The efiful- ly bodies. 
 gence of the sun poured down upon a 
 sensitive race and warmed them into 
 gratitude and devotion. There was in a 
 very early age a division of the powers 
 of the universe similar to that discerned 
 and developed by the Greeks. There 
 were powers of the earth, powers of the 
 air, and powers of heaven. For a long 
 time the polytheistic aspect of the sys- 
 tem was maintained, and it is not until 
 we reach the tenth book of the Rig- Veda 
 that we find an effort on the part of the 
 worshiper to elevate one particular deity 
 to the rank of an omnipotent God. 
 
 We have already called attention to 
 the mode by which, in the worship of 
 the powers of nature, the 
 
 '- . The mind seeks 
 
 mind, ever in process of ex- to separate mat- 
 
 1 , , . te'r from spirit. 
 
 pansion, labors to separate 
 the force behind the phenomenon from 
 the phenomenon itself. This happened 
 in the case of the Indians. Their sys- 
 tem was elevated from the merely phys- 
 ical aspects of the universe to the invis- 
 ible powers which control and direct. 
 These were henceforth worshiped. 
 Names were given to them, and a hier- 
 archy was established, having a supreme 
 head in the sky god called Dyaus Pitar, 
 or Heaven Father. We thus see in the 
 extreme East a religious evolution which
 
 658 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 The prayerful 
 element in the 
 Vedic worship. 
 
 reached the same result as that which 
 was subsequently attained, without his- 
 torical contact, by the kindred Aryans of 
 the Grseco- Italic race. Dyaus Pitar is 
 the same as the Greek Zeus and the Ro- 
 man Jove. 
 
 The system of worship adopted by the 
 Indie Aryans was noted for what may 
 be called its praycrftil character. Its es- 
 sence was invocation, and 
 even the gloss and commen- 
 tary, so abundantly elab- 
 orated in the books accompanying the 
 Veda, are nearly all devoted to the 
 proper exposition and form of prayer. 
 The whole system presents man in a 
 reverential attitude toward the gods, 
 pouring out his devotions, sometimes in 
 praise and what may be narrowly defined 
 as worship; but generally the substance 
 of the devotional act was an appeal to 
 the powers above, a prayer for benefit, 
 for grace, for wisdom. The word Brah- 
 ma is said to signify "devotion," or 
 " prayer." 
 
 It must not be understood that this 
 simple and essential element in the the- 
 
 T, , , Ology of India was not sub- 
 
 Development of , 
 
 ■worship and use ject to development, in the 
 
 of sacrifices. , , /• . , 
 
 hands of the priests, into 
 a vast and incomprehensible formulary. 
 On the contrary, the inflection of cere- 
 mony was never carried to a higher de- 
 gree than by the priests of the Old Indie 
 faith. Not only was the form of the 
 prayer, its subject, and its method to be 
 carefully defined, but the philosophical 
 concepts of the worshiper must be regu- 
 lated and mingled with his devotion, in 
 order that a true religion might be illus- 
 trated in his life. 
 
 The second idea was that of the effi- 
 cacy of sacrifices. The earnest prayer 
 properly expressed could hardly fail to 
 bring to the worshiper an answer from 
 the gods, but the pleasure of the latter 
 
 was enhanced and their purposes toward 
 men made more auspicious by the giving 
 of gifts on the altar. Thus a sacrificial 
 system was demanded to supplement 
 the system of prayers ; and for the con- 
 duct of the ceremonies and sacrifices 
 orders of priests became necessary, who, 
 by the multiplication of their own func- 
 tions and dignities, increased tl\e num- 
 ber and reputation of their caste. Pro- 
 fessor Wax ^MLiller has enumerated four 
 classes of priests required in the conduct 
 of solemn sacrifices : 
 
 1. The officiating priests, manual la- 
 borers, and acolytes, who have chiefly to 
 prepare the sacrificial ground, to dress 
 the altar, slay the victims, and pour oiit 
 the libations. 
 
 2. The choristers, who chant the sa- 
 cred hymns. 
 
 3. The reciters, or readers, who repeat 
 certain hymns. 
 
 4. The overseers, or bishops, who 
 watch and superintend the proceedings 
 of the other priests, and ought to be fa- 
 miliar with all the Vedas. 
 
 It is the purpose in the present work 
 to make as few excerpts as possible from 
 existing writings. It has 
 
 ^ ° Kxtracts from 
 
 been the plan rather to sum- the veda; hymn 
 marize and to place in the ° '^ ''^ 
 best light the substance of such docu- 
 ments as would most demand attention in 
 the course of an ethnic history. At this 
 point, however, it seems fitting to pre- 
 sent some examples of the Vedic hymns 
 in English. Only so much will be given 
 as may familiarize the reader with the 
 phraseology of these ancient songs and 
 with the worshipful spirit in which they 
 were chanted, in the faint dawn of his- 
 tory, by the old bards of India. The 
 selections are made from Miiller's trans- 
 lation of the Vedas. The first is from 
 the fifty-third chapter of the first book 
 of the Rig- Veda.
 
 THE INDICANS.—RELIGIOX. 
 
 659 
 
 SAKYA MUM. 
 
 I. Hymn to Indra. 
 
 I. Keep silence well ! We offer praises to the great 
 '.udra in the house of the sacrificer. Does he find 
 treasure for those who are like sleepers? Mean 
 praise is not valued among the munificent. 
 
 2. Thou art the 
 giver of horses, Indra, 
 thou art the giver of 
 cows, the giver of 
 corn, the strong lord 
 of wealth; the old 
 guide of man, disap- 
 pointing no desires, a 
 friend of friends ; to 
 him we address this 
 song. 
 
 3. O powerful In- 
 dra, achiever of many 
 works, most brilliant 
 god — all this W'eallh 
 around here is known 
 to be thine alone : take 
 from it conqueror, 
 
 bring it hither! do not stint the desire of the wor- 
 shiper who longs for thee ! 
 
 4. On these days thou art gracious, and on these 
 nights, keepihg off the enemy from our cows and from 
 our stud. Tearing the fiend night after night with the 
 help of Indra, let us rejoice in food, freed from haters. 
 
 5. Let us rejoice, Indra, in treasure and food, in 
 wealth of manifold delight and splendor. Let us 
 rejoice in the blessingof the gods, which gives us the 
 strength of offspring, gives us cows first, and horses. 
 
 6. These draughts inspired thee, O lord of the 
 brave ! these were vigor, these libations in battles, 
 when for the sake of the poet, the sacrificer, thou 
 struckest down irresistibly ten thousands of enemies. 
 
 In the following- hymn the invocation 
 
 is to Ag-ni, the god of fire. As we have 
 
 seen, this deity was perhaps 
 
 ■VTorship of , 1 • 1 i j 
 
 Agnijhymn the most lineal aescend- 
 lahis praise. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ancient Aryan 
 
 Mazdao, being the earthly representative 
 of the sun, shining on the hearthstone 
 and from the altar place. Agni was 
 regarded as the guardian of the house 
 and the messenger of intercourse be- 
 tween gods and men, having thus the 
 character of the Hermes of the Greeks. 
 Since flame was the devouring element 
 in the offering of sacrifices, Agni was 
 regarded as the divinity of the altar. 
 
 The following invocation is from the 
 sixth chapter of the second book of the 
 Rig- Veda. 
 
 II. Hymn to .Vcxi. 
 :. Agni, accept this log which I offer to thee, 
 accept this my service ; listen well to these my 
 songs. 
 
 2. With this log, O Agni, may we worship thee, 
 thou son of strength, conqueror of horses ! and with 
 this hymn, thou highborn ! 
 
 3. May we thy servants serve thee with songs, O 
 granter of riches, thou who lovest songs and delight- 
 est in riches. 
 
 4. Thou lord of wealth and giver of wealth, be 
 thou wise and powerful; drive away from us the 
 enemies! 
 
 5. He gives us rain from heaven, he gives us 
 inviolable strength, he gives us food a thousand- 
 fold. 
 
 6. Youngest of the gods, their messenger, their in- 
 voker, most deserving of worship, come, at our 
 praise, to him who worships thee and longs for thy 
 help. 
 
 7. For thou, O sage, goest wisely between these 
 two creations [heaven and earth, gods and men], like 
 a friendly messenger between two hamlets. 
 
 8. Thou art wise, and thou hast been pleased ; 
 perform thou, intelligent Agni, the sacrifice without 
 interruption ; sit down on this sacred grass ! 
 
 The worship of storm was a peculiar 
 feature of the religion of Old Arya. It 
 can not be 
 said that 
 this phase 
 of the orig- 
 inal cult re- 
 appeared in 
 the mythol- 
 ogy of the 
 Greeks and 
 Romans, at 
 least in a 
 distinct 
 form , but 
 storm wor- 
 ship was a 
 conspicuoits 
 
 element in the devotions of India, as it 
 had been, to a certain extent, among 
 the Iranians. The storm gods were 
 
 GOD OF FIRE.
 
 660 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 known as the Maruts, and the following- 
 hymn, from the thirty-ninth chapter 
 of the first book of the 
 
 Cult of the .^ . _., -, .ii m • ii 
 
 Btorra;hymn Rig-\ ecla, Will Sufficiently 
 to the Maruts. in^strate the nature of the 
 adoration which was paid to them : 
 
 III. Hymn to the jMaruts. 
 I. When you thus from afar cast forward your 
 measure, Uke a blast of lire, through whose wisdom 
 
 5. They make the rocks to tremble, they tear asun- 
 der the kings of the forest. Come on, Maruts ; like 
 madmen, ye gods, with your whole tribe. 
 
 10. Bounteous givers, ye possess whole strength, 
 whole power, ye shakers. Send, O Maruts, against 
 the proud enemy of the poets, an enemy, like an 
 arrow. 
 
 One of the tenderest aspects of the 
 natural world is the dawn of the day. 
 This phenomenon appears to have im- 
 
 SCUI.riURlS IROM A I'dRCH AT KARIT 
 
 \'\ H. Catenacci, after r.ran.lsire. 
 
 is it, through whose design? To whom do ye go, 
 to whom, ye shakers? 
 
 2. May your weapons be firm to attack, strong 
 also to withstand ! May yours be the more glorious 
 strength, not that of the deceitful mortal I 
 
 3. When you overthrow what is firm, O ye men, 
 and whirl about what is heavy, ye pass through the 
 trees of the earth, through the clefts of the rocks. 
 
 4. No real foe of yours is know-n in heaven or in earth, 
 ye devourer of enemies ! May strength be yours, to- 
 gether with your race, O Rudras, to defy even now. 
 
 Myth of the 
 da'wn; hymn 
 to Ushas. 
 
 pressed itself upon the senses of all early 
 races of men. In the Greek mythol- 
 ogy Daphne, the "dawn," 
 was chased a r o u n d 
 the earth by her lover 
 Apollo. In the Indian system the 
 myth reappeared tinder the name of 
 Ushas, first adored as a visible aspect of 
 nature, and afterwards elevated into a
 
 THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 661 
 
 living being and impersonated as one of 
 the gods. From the seventy-seventh 
 chapter of the seventh book of the Rig- 
 Veda the following hymn to Ushas is 
 presented : 
 
 IV. Hymn to Ushas. 
 
 1. She shines upon us, like a young wife, rousing 
 every living being to go to his work. When the fire 
 had to be kindled by men, she made the light by 
 striking down darkness. 
 
 2. She rose up, spreading far and wide, and mov- 
 ing everywhere. She grew in brightness, wearing 
 her brilliant garment. The mother of the cows [the 
 mornings], the leader of the days, she shone gold- 
 colored, lovely to behold. 
 
 3. She, the fortunate, who brings the eye of the 
 gods, who leads the white and lovely steed [of the 
 sun], the dawn was seen revealed by her rays, wiih 
 brilliant treasures, following everyone. 
 
 4. Thou art a blessing where thou art near; drive 
 far away the unfriendly ; make the pasture wide, 
 give us safety ! Scatter the enemy, bring riches ! 
 Raise up wealth to the worshiper, thou mighty dawn. 
 
 5. Shine for us with thy best rays, thou bright 
 dawn, thou who lengthenest our life, thou the love of 
 all, who givest us food, who givest us wealth in 
 cows, horses, and chariots. 
 
 6. Thou daughter of the sky, thou highborn 
 dawn, whom the Vasishthas magnify with songs, 
 give us riches high and wide : all ye gods protect us 
 always with your blessing. 
 
 We will conclude these extracts from 
 the oldest division of the Indie scrip- 
 tures by presenting two hymns to Va- 
 runa, from the eie'hty-sixth 
 
 Theory of Va- , . , ■ 
 
 runa, andhis and eighty-nintli chapters 
 ymns. ^^ ^^^ Seventh book of 
 
 the Rig- Veda. This deity was the god 
 of the waters, or of the "Western world, 
 as it was understood in the Hindu myth. 
 In the philosophical imagery of the 
 Brahmans, Varuna was represented as a 
 four-armed man, riding on a fabulous 
 sea monster, bearing in his right, hand 
 a rope and in his left a bludgeon : 
 
 V. Hymn to V.\ru.\a. 
 
 1. Let me not yet, O Varuna, enter into the house 
 of clay; have mercy, almighty, have mercy! 
 
 2. If I go along trembling, like a cloud driven by 
 the wind ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy ! 
 
 3. Through want of strength, thou strong and 
 bright god, have I gone wrong ; have mercy, al- 
 mighty, have mercy ! 
 
 4. Thirst came upon the worshiper, though he 
 stood in the midst of the waters ; have mercy, al- 
 mighty, have mercy ! 
 
 5. Whenever we men, O Varuna, commit an of- 
 fense before the heavenly host, whenever we break 
 the law through thoughtlessness, punish us not, O 
 god, for that offense. 
 
 Second hymn : 
 
 1. Wise and mighty are the works of him who 
 stemmed asunder the wide firmaments. He lifted 
 on high the bright and glorious heaven ; he stretched 
 out apart the starry sky and the earth. 
 
 2. Do I say this to my own self ? How can I get 
 unto Varuna? Will he accept my offering without 
 displeasure.' When shall I, with a quiet mind, see 
 him propitiated ? 
 
 3. I ask, O Varuna, wisliing to know this my sin. 
 I go to ask the wise. The sages all tell me the 
 same : Varuna it is who is angry with thee. 
 
 4. Was it an old sin, O Varuna, that thou vvishest 
 to destroy thy friend, who always praises thee? 
 Tell me, thou unconquerable lord, and I will quickly 
 turn to thee w'ith praise, freed from sin. 
 
 5. Absolve us from the sins of our fathers, and 
 from those which we committed with our own bod- 
 ies. Release \'asishiha, O king, like a thief who has 
 feasted on stolen o.xen ; release him like a calf from 
 the rope. 
 
 6. It was not our own doing, O Varuna, it was 
 necessity, an iiito.\icating draught, passion, dice, 
 thoughtlessness. The old is there to mislead the 
 young; even sleep brings unrighteousness. 
 
 7. Let me without sin give satisfaction to the an- 
 gry god, like a slave to his bounteous lord. Ths 
 lord god enlightened the foolish ; he, the wisest, 
 leads his worshiper to wealth. 
 
 8. O lord A'aruna, may this song go well lo thy 
 heart ! May we prosper in keeping and acquiring ! 
 Protect us, O gods, always with your blessings! 
 
 The foregoing examples will be suflfi- 
 cient to illustrate the spirit in which 
 some of the earliest apostrophes of man- 
 kind to the immortal gods Mutter's views 
 were uttered. It is denied 'IZTXiZ^' 
 by the translator that the vedic hymns, 
 system of religion whose fundamental 
 ideas are expressed in these prayers is 
 polytheistic. He also wotild den}- that 
 they are an expression of monotheism.
 
 d62 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 As a term definitive of their real nature, 
 he suggests Kathcnotluisiii, which would 
 imply that the deities of the Indie race 
 were the personified attributes of a single 
 godhead, that is, several under one. 
 This, however, is to enter into the nice- 
 ties and hair-splittings of that theological 
 and philosophical controversy, the re- 
 finements of which, even when most 
 carefully expressed, have proved of but 
 little advantage to the human race. It 
 will, however, be a fitting conclusion to 
 these extracts from the Indie Bible to 
 repeat some verses from another part of 
 the same translation. They correspond 
 to the Hebrew Book of Genesis rather 
 than to the Psalms, as do the Vedic 
 hymns already quoted : 
 
 Rig-Veda, Book X, Chapter 121. 
 
 1. In ihe beginning there arose the golden Child — 
 be was the one born lord of all that is. He estal)- 
 lished the earth and this sky. Who is the God to 
 whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 
 
 2. He who gives life, he who gives strength ; 
 whose command all the bright gods revere ; whose 
 shadow is immortality, whose shadow is death. 
 Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sac- 
 rifice "> 
 
 3. He who through iiis power is the one king of 
 the breathing and awakening world ; he who gov- 
 erns all, man and heast. Who is the God to whom 
 we shall offer our sacrifice ? 
 
 4. He whose greatness these snowy mountains, 
 whose greatness the sea proclaims, with the distant 
 river ; he whose these regions are, as it were, his two 
 arms. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our 
 sacrifice ? 
 
 5. He through whom the sky is bright and the 
 earth firm ; he through whom the heaven was estab- 
 lished, nay, the highest heaven ; he who measured 
 
 . out the light in the air. Who is the God to whom we 
 shall offer our sacrifice } 
 
 6. He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm 
 by his will, look up, trembling inwardly ; he over 
 whom the rising sun shines forth. Who is the God 
 to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 
 
 7. Wherever the mighty water clouds went, where 
 they placed the seed, and lit the fire, thence arose 
 he who is the sole life of the bright gods. Who is 
 the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? 
 
 8. He who by his might looked even over the 
 
 water clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit 
 the sacrifice ; he who alone is God above all gods. 
 Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sac- 
 rifice ? 
 
 9. May he not destroy us. he the creator of the 
 earth, or He, the righteous, who created the heavens ; 
 he also created the bright and mighty waters. 
 Who is the God to whom we shall offer our saci 
 rifice ? 
 
 vSjDace would fail to extend these 
 quotations from the ancient religious 
 writings of the Indie Ar- Brahmanism be- 
 yans. It can not be known ""^^^ an incom- 
 
 -* prehensible 
 
 to what extent the same mythology. 
 were originated after the incoming of 
 the immigrant peoples into India, or 
 to what extent they had already been 
 formulated at an earlier period. As 
 frequently happens in the case of reli- 
 gions, the old system of nature worship, 
 spiritualized and elevated in the hands 
 of the primitive seers of the East, soon 
 fell into degeneration in the hands of 
 the Brahmans. A volume could not 
 contain an account of the changed and 
 changing aspects through which Brah- 
 manism passed from its old form, as ex- 
 pressed in the Vedic hymns, to its later 
 inflections and incomprehensible refine- 
 ments, as elaborated by the Brahmani- 
 cal priesthood. It became a mythology 
 rather than a religion. The old spiritual 
 concepts gave place to vague and even 
 ridiculous myths, irrational in their sub- 
 ject-matter and preposterous in their 
 application. The old religion grew into 
 the most enormous body of ceremoni- 
 als and formalities which were ever, 
 perhaps, devised by the ingenuity of a 
 priestly order. 
 
 We have accepted Max Miiller's view 
 that the original faith of India was Kath- 
 enothei.sm,' that is, a system of many 
 
 ' The word kathenotheism is derived from the 
 Greek kata, "under," henos, "one," and iheos, 
 " god; " that is, a pantheon of many gods under one 
 supreme godhead.
 
 THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 663 
 
 deities tinder one, the latter being the 
 supreme being of the universe, and the 
 Meaning of former his impersonated at- 
 
 Kathenotheism; ^j.-l3^j^^.^_ In the hands of 
 nature of tne 
 
 Trimurti. the Brahmans, this concept 
 
 finally took the form of a godhead, com- 
 posed of a triune person, or persons, 
 called the Trimurti, the first of whom 
 was Brahma, the creator ; the sec- 
 ond, Vishnu, the preserver; and the 
 third, Siva, the destro3'er of all things. 
 This trinity was represented, not as 
 a single person, as in the Christian 
 theology but as three deities, in in- 
 timate union of relationship. They 
 presided gloomily and in a fatalistic 
 sense over the destinies of human 
 life. 
 
 While the concept of Brahma as 
 the supreme deity of the Indian 
 pantheon was evolved, another no- 
 tion, of a philosoph- 
 
 Wliat brahma 
 
 was and what ical rather than reli- 
 
 it became. . ^ i i 
 
 gious nature, had ap- 
 peared. The word brahuia, as a neu- 
 ter noun, became impersonal, and 
 was used by the philosophers to de- 
 note the sum of all nature, the 
 germ of everything that is, the one 
 thing that embraces everything. 
 The idea is especially difficult to 
 grasp. The incisive intellect of the _ 
 Western nations, requiring clear 
 definition in everything, does not 
 readily apprehend the meaning of this 
 brahma, and when we attempt to clear our 
 understandings by an examination of the 
 Vedic commentaries, such as the Upani- 
 shads, we are generally confused rather 
 than enlightened. The book known as 
 the Kena-Upanishad says of this imper- 
 sonal brahma: "Eye, tongue, mind 
 can not reach it ; we comprehend it not, 
 we can not teach it to anyone ; it is other 
 than all that is known and all that is un- 
 known." 
 
 The speculations of the Brahmans rela- 
 tive to the meaning of the term would, 
 in their turn, demand volumes of expli- 
 cation. They have a mys- speculations 
 
 . • 11 ui„ •■ ,,.!-, ;«l, and refinements 
 
 tenons .syllable, om, which respecting the 
 contains a peculiar trinity °™- 
 of sounds, and by this they symbolize 
 the brahma. This inexplicable explana- 
 
 KAMl-RATI. 
 
 tion is in its turn made the subject of 
 commentary, and the Mandukya-Upan- 
 ishad is wholly devoted to explanations 
 of the sense of om. As illustrative of 
 the abstruse and involved ideas after 
 which the authors .seem to .struggle, the 
 following paragraph is quoted: " Om is 
 immortal. Its unfolding is this universe ; 
 is all that was, is, and .shall be. Indeed, 
 all is the word om ; and if there is any- 
 thing- outside of these three manifcsta- 
 tions, it is also 6m. For this all is
 
 664 
 
 GREAT RACES 
 
 This 
 
 Brahma; this soul is Brahma, 
 soul has four existences." 
 
 Having once developed the notion of 
 this neuter brahma, as an expression for 
 the sum of all nature, the concept soon 
 became the end of the religious system. 
 This is to say that while the original 
 system was active in its character, the 
 
 BRAHMA AS THE FOUR-FACED BUDDHA. 
 Drawn by F.. Tournois, after a sketch of Delaporte. 
 
 degenerate form was passive. The 
 mind, instead of resting upon Brahma, 
 as the creator of the imiverse, came to 
 rest upon brahma as the end of the uni- 
 verse, including man. 
 
 The early Aryans of India, in common 
 with all their related peoples in the 
 West, gave themselves to speculations 
 about the origin of things, how it was 
 
 OF MANKIND. 
 
 that nature came into her present 
 forms, the agencies by which the world 
 was made, and man, and ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Later Brahman- 
 
 everything that is. It was ism puts the end 
 
 , , , r .■ for the cause. 
 
 the problem or active 
 creation, of the invisible effort by 
 which universal nature was reared into 
 its present form. But with the latter 
 Brahmanism, this 
 kind of speculation 
 was supplanted by 
 another directly the 
 reverse. The ques- 
 tion now became, 
 not in what manner 
 and by what agency 
 nature was reared, 
 but to what end the 
 universe is tending, 
 into what , state all 
 the material aspects 
 of animate and in- 
 animate nature will 
 fall at the conclu- 
 sion of the universal 
 career. 
 
 This species of in- 
 quiry at length pre- 
 dominated over the 
 other, and the Brah- 
 mans began to teach 
 the final condition 
 of the universe, in- 
 cluding man. They 
 called it brahma, 
 using the same term 
 that they had em- 
 ployed as the name of the creator of 
 all things, but in another The believer 
 sense. Henceforth the aim raL^wI.lh'is 
 and endeavor of the wor- to receive him. 
 shiper must be, not so much to acquaint 
 himself with this creator and his will, as 
 to know that other brahma which stands 
 in shadowy outline at the further verge of 
 nature, ready to receive and swallow up
 
 THE INDICAXS.— -RELIGION. 
 
 665 
 
 all forms and aspects of the visible uni- 
 verse. 
 
 No contrast can be stronger than that 
 which is thus offered between the 
 
 into moods of meditative gloom and 
 sheer brooding over the desperation of 
 human life. A sort of astrology' sprang 
 up in place of the vivid concepts which 
 
 CYCLE OF TRANSMIGRATIONS ACCORDING TO A THIBETAN IMAGE. 
 
 bright and happy Vedic religion as it 
 existed in the days of the 
 
 Contrast of the 
 
 old and the new- old pOCtS who Sang the 
 
 er Brahmanism. ■ -i- i /■ \ 
 
 primitive hymns of Arya, 
 
 and that fatalistic spell which has fallen 
 
 upon the mind of India, transforming it 
 M. — Vol. I — 43 
 
 the old bards had had of the visible 
 powers of nature. The whole spirit and 
 genius of the Indie race were turned to 
 the darkest problems and most inscru- 
 table mysteries of destiny and fate. 
 As a natui-al consequence of this
 
 666 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 brooding over the transmutation of one 
 form of visible nature into another, and 
 Source of the SO on and on to the final 
 f™Tgrtio: plunge into that brahma 
 of souls. which they regarded as the 
 
 end, even as the other Brahma was the 
 beginning of all creation, there arose 
 the notion of the transmigration of the 
 human soul. The concept of a grada- 
 tion up and down through all animate 
 nature took firm hold of the mind, al- 
 ready bound in fatalism. The human 
 race was divided into castes, and these 
 became a part of the system of the 
 world. All living creatures were the 
 progeny of Brahma, and they must pass 
 through the intermediate forms of life 
 in order to be resolved into brahma 
 again. Brahma is the origin, and 
 brahma is the destiny of all, but the 
 stages through which each living crea- 
 ture must pass are as various as the 
 forms of life. 
 
 Each living thing is born according to 
 the deeds of that from which it is 
 Theory of descended, and each living 
 
 STd^autf thing fixes, by its deeds, 
 of living forms, the State of that future liv- 
 ing thing which is to be born therefrom. 
 Animate nature has its orders through 
 which the souls of men must pass in 
 their ascending and descending stages of 
 transformation. The lowest order of 
 living things includes insects, fishes, 
 serpents, tortoises, dogs, and asses. 
 The next order has elephants, horses, 
 lions, boars, Sudras, and other races 
 not speaking the sacred language of 
 India. The third grade of creatures in- 
 cludes thieves, actors, Rakshasas and 
 Pigachas. The fourth order comprises 
 athletes, dancers, armorers, drunkards, 
 and the Vaisyas. The fifth includes the 
 Kshatriyas, kings, great soldiers, speak- 
 ers, the Gandharvas and the Asparases. 
 The sixth class has the Brahmans, dev- 
 
 otees, gods, and the great Rishis. The 
 seventh has only Brahma himself. Such 
 are the several orders of living things. 
 
 Brahmanism recognizes the sinfulness 
 of man. For this sin there must be 
 expiation. No such thing as redemp- 
 tion is recognized. All 
 sin is balanced against so andofexpfatlon. 
 much punishment, and the 
 expiation must be by the sinner himself. 
 Man, however, may do something to 
 free himself from the consequences and 
 tendencies of his actions ; either put him- 
 self in the ascending scale of transmi- 
 gration, or in the descending scale which 
 leads to the condemnation of his life to 
 some of the lower orders of being in his 
 next existence. Thus the soul may 
 make its way upward until it is taken 
 back into brahma, or may descend into 
 insects, worms, and reptiles. 
 
 The Brahmanical theory of sin is very 
 different from that of the Western na- 
 tions. It is essentially un- 
 
 Notion that sin 
 cleanness, as dlStmgUlshed and uncleanness 
 J. 1 , . , . are one. 
 
 irom cleanness, which is 
 righteousness. Pollution is the funda- 
 mental concept of offense against 
 Brahma. Things are holy or unholy in 
 proportion as they are clean and unclean, 
 but the definitions of that which is clean 
 or unclean sounds strangely to the 
 understanding of the West. The high- 
 est notion of defilement is that which 
 comes from the touch of the dead, the 
 excretions of the body, the circumstances 
 of birth, and of everything relating to 
 the sexual life. The cleanest of living 
 creatures is the cow. She is not only 
 clean, but holy, and is incapable of 
 defilement. The remedy for sin is pen- 
 itence, fasting, mortification of the body, 
 prayer, and recitations of the Veda. 
 One of the greatest pollutions is drunk- 
 enness. He who so sins is compelled to 
 drink boiling rice water unto death.
 
 THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 667 
 
 So far as earthly punishments are 
 concerned, they are adjusted to the prev- 
 Punishments alent false theories of 
 sin. Offenses done against 
 the holy things are pun- 
 ished in the highest degree. The mur- 
 der of a person belonging to a lower 
 caste may pass with slight retribution, 
 but the killing of a cow is a mortal 
 
 adjusted to the 
 false theory of 
 sin. 
 
 One of the concepts peculiar to Brah- 
 manism is that of the incarnation of the 
 deities. It is known by 
 
 Doctrine of the 
 
 the name or avatar. On incamation, or 
 
 J 1 , the avatars. 
 
 many occasions the great 
 gods of the Indie pantheon have passed 
 into the form of animals or men. 
 Vishnu, the "preserver," has had ten 
 avatars assigned to him, following each 
 
 THE SACRED COW OF INDIA. -Drawn by A. de Neu 
 
 crime. One who kills a Brahman with 
 intent must thrust his own head three 
 times into the fire, until he die. If the 
 killing is unintentional, he shall build a 
 hut in the woods and live alone for 
 twelve years, carrying the skull of the 
 slain man in his girdle. So throughout 
 the whole list of human misdeeds the 
 same irrational and ill-adju.sted methods 
 of punishment are employed. 
 
 other in an ascending scale. In the 
 first three instances he was incarnated 
 in the form of animals, namely, as a 
 fish, as a tortoise, and as a boar. In 
 the fourth earthly revelation he was the 
 Manu lion. Then began the human 
 avatars. In the fifth estate Vishnu was 
 a dwarf; in the sixth, a hero; and in 
 the seventh, a Ramchandra and a Krish- 
 na. Buddha him.self was an incarna-
 
 668 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXK/XD. 
 
 tion. It is also believed that Vishnu 
 will ultimately appear on earth in his 
 own person. This will happen when 
 the highest age of man has been re- 
 duced to twenty-three years. When 
 \'ishnu shall come he will be called 
 Kalki.and will possess eight supernatural 
 powers on the earth. This great avatar 
 
 equal with Brahma and Vishnu. Siva 
 was identified with Rudra, god of the 
 storm, iust as Vishnu took 
 
 -' Place of Siva 
 
 the place of Indra in the in the Indian 
 older mythology. The ^^" 
 Brahmanic systein represents Siva as 
 dwelling at times with the human race, 
 but never as incorporated in earthly 
 
 VISHNU IN THE FORM OF A BOAR, 
 
 is to occur at the end of three hundred 
 and sixty thousand years, as time is 
 reckoned by men, or one thousand two 
 hundred years as it is reckoned by the 
 gods. 
 
 It appears that Siva, the third person 
 of the Brahmanical trinity, was an old 
 god of the Dra vidian race before the in- 
 coming of the Arj-ans. By them this 
 divinity was raised to the rank of co- 
 
 form. His place in the mythological 
 system is that of destroyer, and hence 
 his genesis from the storm god of the 
 Old Dravidians. His power is symbol- 
 ized by the trident, while in his hands 
 he bears a lasso or sling, an antelope, 
 and sometimes a ilame of fire. 
 
 Ethnic history does not demand more 
 than an outline of the religious beliefs 
 which the ancient kindreds of mankind
 
 THE IXDICANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 669 
 
 adopted for themselves and their pos- 
 terity. It is only while religions are ex- 
 To what extent pressive of the subjective 
 religions are states of the mind that they 
 
 part of ethnic -' 
 
 history. are really an ethnic con- 
 
 dition. When they pass into objective 
 ceremonies and institutional forms, they 
 become a part of the subject-matter of 
 general history. In this connection, as 
 in the account of the Iranians, we offer 
 no more than a sketch of that primal 
 faith which was developed by the early 
 bards and rhapsodists who, with up- 
 turned faces, chanted the praises of the 
 gods in the valleys of India. In course 
 of time, both in Iran and in India, an 
 age of commentators and mere gram- 
 marians succeeded to the age of poets, 
 and lifeless ceremony took the place 
 of living inspiration. From this time 
 forth the ethnologist has but little con- 
 cern with the inflected forms, the mere 
 outer garb which the Brahmans flung 
 around the ancient religion of the 
 East. 
 
 One other topic remains to be consid- 
 ered before the Vedic system of religious 
 evolution is dismissed. The spirit of the 
 old faith had died out many centuries 
 before the Christian era. On the tongues 
 of the priests even the 
 
 Apparition of 
 
 sakya Gautama apostrophcs of the old rhap- 
 
 the Buddha. j . , , i. j -u 
 
 .sodi-sts and seers had be- 
 come an echo and a mockery. It was 
 under such circumstances, in the latter 
 part of the .sixth century B. C, that the 
 great reform was instituted which was 
 destined to carry on its tide more than 
 thirty per cent of the human race. It 
 originated with Sakya Gautama, com- 
 monly called the Buddha, Prince of 
 Kapilavastu, in Northern India. But 
 the reform, like that of Luther in the 
 West, was already prepared, in its ele- 
 mentary' conditions, by a reaction in the 
 mind of the upper clas.ses again.st the 
 
 absolutism and uselessness of the Brah- 
 manic order. 
 
 The career of Gautama is now accessi- 
 
 SIVA AS MAN AND WOMAN. 
 
 ble in many forms to English readers, 
 and need not be repeated, career and e van- 
 It was. in general, that P^'^iTght^L'd 
 of a sincere and elevated one." 
 mind, highl\- sensitive in its organiza- 
 tion and in.spired by philanthropy, re-
 
 670 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MA.VAVXP. 
 
 belling against the current religious sys- 
 tem of his country and people. He re- 
 tires, as if into the desert. He muses 
 long on life and destiny. He communes 
 with himself and with the invisible 
 Spirit. He struggles and writhes in 
 anguish and despair. Light breaks into 
 his understanding. He becomes the 
 Buddha, the •• I^nlightened One."' He 
 
 NEPAL BVDDHA IN BRONZE. 
 Drawn by P. Sellier, from the collection of Le Bon. 
 
 takes that name and returns to his 
 people as a teacher. He would substi- 
 tute for the intolerable mass of formali- 
 ties and philo.sophical dogmas of the 
 Brahmans a new code of thought and 
 morality. He would teach the living 
 way. First a few, and then multitudes, 
 follow him. He becomes, even in his 
 life, a great leader. His work is well 
 begun. The burden is upon him. He 
 leaves to others what he could not him- 
 
 self accompli.sh within the limits of a 
 mortal life. He goes again alone to the 
 woods and de.serts. He journeys on, 
 and at last, wearied with the burden of 
 thought and oppressed perhaps with 
 the sorrows of the race, he sits down by 
 the root of a tree, and there, alone, gives 
 up his spirit and enters into Nirvana. — 
 Such is the origin of that great system 
 called Buddhism, which is now professed 
 by 31.2 per cent of the human family. 
 
 The reform thus instituted was almost 
 identical in its nature with the Protes- 
 tant revolt which roused Parallel of'Bud- 
 
 Europe from her stupor ^llZTr^Trotes. 
 in the sixteenth century, tantism. 
 Buddhism is essentially the Protestant- 
 ism of the East. It is to the older Brah- 
 manism what Protestantism is to the 
 Catholic Church in Europe and Amer- 
 ica, If we look at India the parallel 
 may be carried still ftirther. Buddhism 
 did not achieve, or at least maintain, a 
 great success in the country where the 
 older system of faith prevailed. Brah- 
 manism had taken too deep root in the 
 .soil of India to be exterminated by a 
 counter revolt. Just as in Italy the as- 
 cendency of Rome has ever been main- 
 tained, so in its central seat the power 
 of Brahmanism remains to the present 
 day. 
 
 While Buddhism had temporary and 
 local success in the land of its origin, 
 its great triumph was achieved by its 
 dissemination in foreign lands. It swept 
 eastward and northward to the limits of 
 the furthest oceans, carrying with it a 
 great proportion of the Mongoloid races 
 of mankind, but the elder faith held its 
 own against the innovation in the valleys 
 of India, and continued to bear up its 
 vast system of inane speculation as the 
 better theor}- of life and destiny. 
 
 It is impossible to convey to one who 
 has not personally acquainted himself
 
 THE IN Die A NS.—RELIGIOX. 
 
 671 
 
 with the degradation of the Brahmanical 
 faith and practice an adequate idea 
 Debasing char- of its debasing character. 
 Brahj^anicai '^^^ ceremonies are not only 
 ceremonies. offensive to the human 
 
 understand- 
 ing, irrational 
 and foolish as 
 expressions of 
 religious faith, 
 but they are dis- 
 gusting to taste 
 and indecent to 
 the eyes of mo- 
 rality. The de- 
 generation of the 
 system is com- 
 plete, its ruin 
 overwhelm- 
 ing. Whatever 
 potency it may 
 have had in for- 
 mer centuries to 
 purify the theory 
 and practice of 
 human life, or 
 even to control 
 its violence or 
 moderate its ex- 
 cesses, has long 
 since passed 
 away, and inane 
 ceremonies and 
 ridiculous dog- 
 mas are all that 
 remain. These, 
 however, are suf- 
 ficient to uphold 
 the Brahmanical 
 ascendency in 
 
 India, and until this is broken, neither 
 Buddhism nor an}' other system of faith 
 can penetrate the gloom and despair of 
 the Indian mind. 
 
 A few instances of the external, visi- 
 ble aspect of Brahmanism may prove of 
 
 interest. The usage until recently much 
 in vogue was sutteeism, or the devotion 
 to death of the widow of a dead husband 
 on his funeral pyre. This was regarded 
 and is still regarded, as an act of the 
 
 INDICAN Fl'NF.RAI. PYRE AND SUTTEE. 
 After a Persian miiiiiliire. 
 
 highest merit. The woman was taught 
 to believe that bv immolat- „ . , . 
 
 Practice of sut- 
 
 ing herself in this manner teeism; the rite 
 
 , 1 u • ii • i not obligatory. 
 
 she shoiild enjoy thirty- 
 five million of years with her husband 
 after thev had both gone to Brahma.
 
 672 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 For the credit of humanity, the system 
 was never obligatory. The sacrifice was 
 voluntary; but the superstitious despot- 
 ism over the mind of the victim was 
 sufficient to enforce it with more energy 
 than might have been 
 expected even of civil 
 authority. 
 
 India is full of dev- 
 otees. In every popu- 
 lous district and even 
 in waste places the tra\-- 
 eler will find them. The 
 
 from sin or impurity rests iipon the soul 
 of India like a pall. The space of a 
 chapter would not be .sufficient to enu- 
 merate all the forms of bodily degrada- 
 tion and mutilation which the depraved 
 ingenuity of the devotees has invented 
 wherewith to mortify themselves and 
 prepare for happiness hereafter. One 
 superstitious wretch will sit starv- 
 ing in the dirt, or will take only 
 so much food as barely to feed 
 the fire of life. Such emaciation 
 and wretchedness are not to be 
 seen otherwhere in the world. 
 Another .stands and 
 repeats senseless 
 mutterings out of the 
 
 INDIAN DEVOTEES.— Jc.iGEES Wolnding Themselves. — Drawn by Emile B.^yard, from a photograph. 
 
 idea is similar to that which in the Mid- 
 dle Ages drove the monks 
 isola- 
 The 
 
 notion that the mortification of the body 
 is meritorious as a means of salvation 
 
 Usages and self- 
 inflicted torture and anchorites into 
 
 of the devotees. .. , 
 
 tion and poverty. 
 
 .sacred books. A third goes about with 
 a living .snake drawn through a slit in 
 his tongue. Another hangs a weight 
 to some bodily organ until it is drawn 
 out of all semblance to nature. Another 
 thrusts an arrow or a sword through his
 
 THE INDICANS.— RELIGION. 
 
 673 
 
 limbs, and still another holds up his 
 hands with nails and spikes driven 
 through them. 
 
 The distortion of the body into some 
 Belief that bod- horrible and repulsive form 
 iiy distortion j thousjht to be most effi- 
 
 IS efficacious ^ 
 
 against sin. cacious. Many devotees 
 
 take a strange 
 attitude and 
 hold it by force 
 of will until 
 the freedom 
 of the given 
 organs is de- 
 stroyed. vSome 
 will hold up an 
 arm straight 
 above the head 
 for days and 
 weeks and 
 months, until it 
 becomes wasted 
 away and rigid 
 as bone. Others, 
 by contortion, 
 twist their mus- 
 cles out of shape 
 until they are no 
 more able to re- 
 turn to symme- 
 try or perform 
 their office. And 
 so on and on 
 through an end- 
 less variety of 
 tortures and tor- 
 ments self - in- 
 flicted by a su- 
 perstition which 
 admits of no limit 
 or palliation. 
 
 Not only has the Brahmanical system 
 fallen into this degraded aspect ; it has 
 sunk to absolute immorality and inde- 
 cency. Perhaps no single ceremony bet- 
 ter illustrates the debasing level to which 
 
 the national religion has descended than 
 does the ceremony of Juggernaut. This 
 is primarily the name of a 
 
 '■ City and annual 
 
 town of Bengal, on the ceremonial of 
 
 northwest coast of the bay "seemau . 
 of that name. The true word, however, 
 is Jagannatha, meaning " the lord of the 
 
 CAK Oc JUGGERNAUT, 
 by A. d • Neuville, from a photoj^raph. 
 
 world," which was the descriptive epi- 
 thet of Vishnu when he was incarnated 
 as Krishna. This gave the name to the 
 Brahmanical temple, and finally to the 
 
 .town.
 
 674 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Juggernaut became a city of temples. 
 The principal street is for the most part 
 filled on both sides with religious es- 
 tablishments. At the further end of the 
 main avenue, where it widens out to 
 rather grand proportions, is situated the 
 famous temple, most holy, perhaps, of 
 all the shrines of Hindustan. More than 
 a million of pilgrims come annually to 
 say their prayers and make their offer- 
 ings at this spot. Around the temple is 
 a lofty inclosure of solid stone, six hun- 
 dred and fifty feet square, covering an 
 area of nearly ten acres. In the eastern 
 wall is a great gate, through which the 
 pilgrims ascend, by stone steps, to the 
 terrace. The latter is four hundred and 
 forty-five feet square, and on this the 
 great pagoda rises. It is thirty feet 
 square at the base, and the pinnacle is 
 two hundred feet above the ground level. 
 The structure tapers from bottom to top, 
 and is rounded off on the summit after 
 the Oriental manner. 
 
 Siva and Subhadra are next in emi- 
 nence among the deities who are wor- 
 shiped in this city. Of these gods there 
 are wooden images painted blue, which 
 are regarded with extreme veneration. 
 Each idol has a "chariot," so called, 
 consisting of a lofty platform on wheels, 
 upon which the effigies of the deities are 
 mounted. The chariot of Juggernaut is 
 thirty-four and a half feet square and 
 forty-three and a half feet high. It is 
 supported on sixteen wheels, which are 
 six and a half feet in diameter. The 
 great festival of the deity occurs in 
 March of each j-ear, and is governed in 
 the date of its return by the phase of 
 the moon, like the Christian feast of 
 Easter. 
 
 At this time the city is thronged with 
 pilgrims from all parts of India. The 
 cars of the different idols are drawn by 
 the multitude through the city and for a 
 
 short distance into the country, where 
 the idols have what may be called a sum- 
 mer home. In the case of ^ 
 
 Scenes at the 
 
 Tusrsrernaut, a Ions: cable is procession of the 
 
 , , 1 , tower chariot. 
 
 attached to the car, and 
 tens of thousands of pilgrims and wor- 
 shipers take hold with their hands and 
 draw the idol through the streets. On 
 the platform about the effigy are the 
 priests, who, while the procession is un- 
 der way, perform with great activity the 
 ceremony prescribed for the occasion. 
 This consists of what may be called the 
 abandonment of humanity. The priests 
 go through with a series of bodily atti- 
 tudes utterly disgusting and obscene, 
 during the performance of which vulgar 
 gymna.stics the multitude witnessing 
 the same are in the highest glee of wor- 
 .ship. 
 
 This shameless exhibition of depravity 
 is the essence of the ceremony, which is 
 here cited in proof of the 
 
 \ . Question of im- 
 
 utter degradation to which moiation under 
 Brahmanism has descend- 
 ed. About the chariot the throng is so 
 great and the enthusiasm so high that 
 rarely does the procession reach its end 
 without some of the multitude being 
 crushed to death under the wheels of 
 the car. It is said — though the evidence 
 is not definite — that devotees sometimes 
 throw themselves under the wheels and 
 are purposely crushed to death. It is 
 believed, however, that at the present 
 time this does not occur. The popular 
 belief that mothers are in the habit of 
 throwing their children under Jugger- 
 naut, that they may thus be sacrificed to 
 the god, is proved to be entirely erro- 
 neous. 
 
 The ceremony above described is 
 illustrative of many peculiar to modern 
 Brahmanism. One of the mo.st wide- 
 spread superstitions of the present day 
 is that relating to the Ganges. This is
 
 SACRIFICE TO THE GANGES.— Drawn by Emile bavar,
 
 676 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 regarded as the sacred river of the coun- 
 try. The belief extends, indeed, to the 
 whole system of streams, 
 
 ■Worship of the 
 
 Ganges and sac- nmetccn or twenty in num- 
 rifice thereto. ^^^^ ^x\v\i:\^ descend from 
 the spurs of the Himalayas and combine 
 their waters in the principal river. Per- 
 haps the superstition is very ancient. 
 The Nile was worshiped in like manner. 
 A great and tractable river in a primi- 
 tive country thickly peopled must always 
 have been regarded as an incalculable 
 blessing. 
 
 In an epoch of the nature worship it 
 is natural that the adoring instincts of 
 men .should turn to the visible source of 
 their blessings. It may be thus that as 
 early as the composition of the Veda the 
 Ganges was looked upon and adored. 
 At the present time, and for some cen- 
 turies in the past, the waters of the great 
 stream ai-e regarded as holy. They are 
 dipped up and carried into all parts of 
 India that they may contribute a purify- 
 
 ing element in the sacrifices and ablu- 
 tions of the altar. He who pos.ses.ses a 
 bottle of the sacred water carries with 
 him a talisman against impurity and 
 sin. At many places the river is made 
 accessible to pilgrims and other worship- 
 ers by flights of stone steps going down 
 to the water's edge, and on these the 
 Brahmans and devotees, and often the 
 common people, may be seen standing 
 and worshiping the river as it flows. If 
 the ceremonies stopped with the dipping 
 up and bearing off of the waters for 
 purposes of purification, or even with the 
 idolatrous worship of the stream, there 
 might be less cause for repugnance to 
 the Brahmanical formula, but to be 
 drowned in the holy river is in the nature 
 of a blessing. From time immemorial 
 .sacrifices of human life have thus been 
 made, especially by mothers, who bring 
 their children and commit them to the 
 oblivion of the floods. Civilization stands 
 against it, but the usage still exists. 
 
 Chapter XXXIX.— Castes axd Kace Divisions. 
 
 E come now to consider 
 the greatest single fact 
 which the Brahman- 
 ical system has trans- 
 mitted from ancient to 
 modern times. It is 
 the system of Caste. 
 The fact expressed by this term is not 
 well apprehended by the Western na- 
 Origin and evo- tions. It .signifies the nat- 
 ural and fixed classification 
 into which the vast and 
 growing populations of India fell, under 
 the influences of the Aryan conquest, the 
 Yedic institutions, and the administra- 
 tion of the Brahmans. Caste as it ex- 
 ists in India extends downwards through 
 
 lution of caste 
 among the 
 Hindus. 
 
 all Brahmanism into the Vedic epoch, 
 and has its roots in the profoundest soil 
 of the prehi-storic ages. Given the ex- 
 isting conditions in the time when the 
 Aryan race was flung upon the aborig- 
 inal peoples of India and began by 
 conquest to possess the land, and under 
 the influences of the Vedic poets to 
 organize their natiire worship into in- 
 visible institutions, and the whole 
 system of caste ensues. It is our pur- 
 pose, then, at this point to trace the 
 course of events by which the great fact 
 of caste was built up into the social 
 structure of India. 
 
 In the first place, it must be remem- 
 bered that when the nature worship
 
 THE INDICANS.— CASTES. 
 
 677 
 
 expressed in the Vedas was given forth , 
 it was done in a preliterary age by a 
 Division of the class of poets. It was the 
 v^hTsht^rtrd language of rhapsody, 
 visvamitra. poured forth in verse and 
 committed to memory. The poem, or 
 hymn, thus composed was taught by the 
 rhapsodist to his son and to other bards. 
 A body of Vedic psalms was thus 
 produced and transmitted orally 
 from generation to generation. 
 There were great singers who knew 
 many hymns and others who could 
 chant but a few. It was in this sit- 
 uation of affairs that the famous 
 quarrel, the shadow of which is seen 
 in the Vedic worship, arose between 
 the two rival sages Vashishtha and 
 Visvamitra. They disputed with 
 each other the poetical and religious 
 leadership of the Indie race. 
 
 Around Vashishtha, the success- 
 ful contestant, and his followers 
 others who learned the 
 hymns were gathered. 
 A clan of singers 
 Some hymns were po- 
 tent to give victory in battle. The 
 singers of these were specially hon- 
 ored. The prevailing prayer, or 
 hymn, was called braJniia, and the 
 singer of it was a Braluuaii. ' ' Who- 
 soever," says the Rig- Veda, " scoflts 
 at the Brahma which we have made, 
 may hot plagues come upon him; 
 may the sky burn up the hater of 
 Brahmas." Such was the origin of the 
 Brahmanical caste, highest in rank of 
 the four in which Indian society is 
 divided. 
 
 In the age of conquest, when the 
 Aryan immigrants were making their 
 way by war from the valley of the Indus 
 to the valley of the Ganges, the success- 
 ful chieftain was next in honor to him 
 who chanted the praises of the gods and 
 
 prayed for victory. Around each chief- 
 tain would gather a certain number who 
 devoted themselves espe- 
 
 Development of 
 
 cially to war. Such leaders the Kshatriyas, 
 took the better portions of " a-JP'^t^. 
 the land and soon established themselves 
 apart from the body of the tribes as an 
 independent class. They were known 
 
 Rise and as- 
 cendency of the 
 Brahmanical 
 caste. 
 
 sprang up. 
 
 the 
 
 A SIVAITE BRAHMAN — TYPE. 
 Drart'n by F. Regamey. 
 
 as Kshatriyas,' or "companions of the 
 king," and they presently constituted the 
 second caste in the system of India. 
 
 The weaker portions of the immigrant 
 tribes settled on the soil and became hus- 
 bandmen. They received vaisyas, or 
 the name of Vaisyas, signi- ^Sti^eTtod 
 
 fying simply ' 
 Without the 
 
 ' the people." 
 adventurous 
 
 caste. 
 
 spirit requi- 
 
 'The modem name of the Kshatriyas is Rajputs.
 
 678 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 site for war, 'they chose to arrange them- 
 selves in secluded places and village 
 communities, where safety was the chief 
 consideration. Whnevcr in the chaos of 
 a half-barbarous age chooses safety, 
 chooses subordination. The class of 
 husbandmen became subordinate to the 
 Kshatriyas, as the latter were in some 
 sense inferior to the Brahmans. 
 
 Caste always implies a conquered as 
 
 A SECOND CASTE PAN'DIT— lYPE. 
 
 well as a conquering race. The abo- 
 riginal peoples of India, especially the 
 Thesudras; Dravidians, were brought 
 possibility of into complete subjection. 
 
 caste promotion, r^i , , 
 
 i hey were reduced to 
 .servitude. They were called " once- 
 born " slaves, to distinguish them from 
 the noble " twice -born " Aryan con- 
 querors. These subjugated aborigines 
 were known, and are .still known, by the 
 name of .Sudras, between whom and the 
 
 three superior classes of Aryan descend- 
 ants there is nothing in common. 
 Among the other three castes there is 
 some degree of mutation. Sometimes 
 the Kshatriyas, by learning the hymns 
 and ceremonies of the national faith, may 
 pass into the rank of Brahmans. An 
 aspiring Vaisya, or husbandman, may 
 throw off his peaceful dispositions, go 
 to war, and possibly make his way to a 
 place among the Kshatriyas, or 
 warrior caste. But the Sudra is a 
 Sudra, a slave of slaves, fixed by 
 the fate of birth to unalterable .sub- 
 jection and isolation. 
 
 In the cour.se of this outline of 
 the religious system which has con- 
 stituted one of the essential ele- 
 ments of the Indian 
 
 Summary char- 
 
 character from the i"e- acterof the 
 
 , , 1 i ii present view. 
 
 motest epoch to the 
 present day, it has been necessary 
 to neglect all time-relations and to 
 bring together parts which are sep- 
 arated by centuries. The aim has 
 been to present distinct images by 
 gathering certain leading features 
 and setting them in relation the 
 one with the other. It has been 
 necessary, in so doing, to express 
 important facts in a single word or 
 reference, and to cover the chasm 
 of ages with a clause. It will now 
 be our purpose to look in upon the 
 India of modern times and, as in 
 the case of the Iranian nations, to de- 
 lineate the character of the multifarious 
 peoples classified as the descendants of 
 those ancient Indie Aryans who drifted 
 by migration through the passes of the 
 Hindu-Ku.sh in an epoch below the 
 morning twilight of history. 
 
 Within the limits of India, as defined 
 in a former book, dwell about one sixth 
 of all the inhabitants of the globe. Un- 
 til within the last quarter of a century
 
 THE INDICANS.—RACE DIl'ISIOXS. 
 
 673 
 
 but little was known of the multiplied 
 millions populating these vast and un- 
 Efforts of Great traversed regions. The 
 Britain in the ascendencv of Great Britain 
 
 census 01 ■' 
 
 1871-72. in the East suggested, and 
 
 the facilities of her government in India 
 encouraged, an effort to make an actual 
 enumeration of the almost limitless na- 
 tions under her sway. Not, however, 
 until 1871-72 was an effort actualh^ 
 made. It was attended with unusual 
 success. The whole work was done in 
 its principal parts concurrently in a 
 single night. The ofhcers of the gov- 
 ernment had arranged that every village 
 and district in British India .should re- 
 turn its own numbers to the registrars, 
 and, with very few exceptions, this was 
 
 Teutonic race had reached back mort 
 than ten thousand miles into the East, 
 had lifted up over one of the vastest ana 
 
 THIRD CASTE TYPE — LANDOWNER OF KOUMAN. 
 Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photograph. 
 
 done. The spectacle itself was worthy 
 of commemoration. Out of the British 
 islands in the West the strong arm of a 
 
 LOW CASTE TYPE — DANl. LVG WOMAN, OR BAYADERE. 
 
 richest regions of the earth the rod of 
 authority, and had now, by a single 
 effort, accomplished what had never 
 been accomplished before, an enumera- 
 tion of the peoples under English do- 
 minion. 
 
 The result has been a better knowl- 
 edge of the extent and variety of the 
 Indian populations. The 
 
 ^ _ '■ Aggregate re- 
 
 enumeration showed that suits ; density 
 
 _ . . , T 1 ■ 1 of population. 
 
 British India alone con- 
 tained a population of a little more than 
 a hundred and ninetj^-one million, 
 while the native states increased the ag- 
 gregate to two hundred and forty million 
 nine hundred and thirty-one thousand 
 five hundred and twenty-one. This gives 
 an average of one hundred and sixty- 
 three to the square mile throughout 
 India. The aggregate is twice as great 
 as that which Gibbon gives for the pop-
 
 680 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ulation of the Roman empire at its best 
 estate, under the Antonines, in the 
 second century of our era. 
 
 Not only do we have thus an astound- 
 ing total for the peoples of India. In 
 
 SdXTAI.S OF BEHAR — TVPF.S. 
 Drawn by Emile B.iyard, from a photograph. 
 
 some districts the density of the popula- 
 tion is almost inconceivable, reaching 
 the limit of six hundred, or even more, 
 to the square mile. It has generally 
 been agreed among Western statis- 
 ticians that any people who surpass 
 
 two hundred to the square mile must 
 sustain themselves by manufacturing 
 interests, by mines, and by the com- 
 mercial industries of great cities. In 
 India, however, this rule is turned to 
 
 naught by the 
 existence of 
 purely agricul- 
 tural populations 
 three t ivies as 
 dense as the pre- 
 scribed limit for 
 ^ Western peoples. 
 "L^ The province of 
 .Saran, in North 
 ^" Behar, has an 
 area of two thou- 
 .sand six hundred 
 and fifty -four 
 square miles, and 
 no city with a 
 population great- 
 e r t h a n fifty 
 thousand, and 
 yet the average 
 is seven hundred 
 and seventy- 
 eight people to 
 the square mile, 
 and in one place 
 the maximum 
 rises to nine hun- 
 dred and eighty- 
 four. A careful 
 estimate places 
 the average for 
 the whole valley 
 of the Ganges, 
 from Saharunpur 
 to Calcutta, at five 
 hundred to the square mile, or nearly 
 double the rate for the population of 
 England, including her cities. 
 
 The general feature of modern India, 
 as it relates to population, is the absence 
 of great cities. There are in the whole 
 
 ^>^
 
 THE INDICANS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 
 
 681 
 
 of the British Indian empire only eight- 
 een cities of the first class, that is, 
 Distribution of having over one hundred 
 the people ; ab- thousand inhabitants each, 
 
 sence of great ' 
 
 cities. and of these only two, 
 
 Bombay and Calcutta, exceed half a mil- 
 lion respectively. This will appear an 
 astonishing fact when we reflect that in 
 the United States of America, after only 
 a century of national development, there 
 are twenty-six cities of the first class' 
 in a popuation of only sixty million. 
 
 tion of fifty thousand. Nowhere on the 
 globe, with the possible exception of 
 China and Japan, is there so vast and 
 dense an agricultural, or country, people 
 as in the provinces of India. 
 
 If we look at the distribution of this 
 great mass of human beings according 
 to the religions which they proportion of 
 profess, we shall find first ^^fthe 
 of all the prevailing Hin- castes, 
 duism, or Brahmanism, which has its 
 basis ultimately in the Veda and in the 
 
 VIEW IN THE PUNJAB, SHOWING THE HOVERNOR'S RESIDENCE AT SIMLA.— Drawn by G. Viiillier, fiom a phologiaph. 
 
 The disproportion thus expressed be- 
 tween the agricultural distribution of 
 the ancient peoples of India and the city 
 aggregations of Europe and America not 
 only surprises the statistician, but affords 
 the elements of a profound problem in 
 the progress of civilization. The census 
 of 1871-72 shows four hundred and 
 ninety-three thousand four hundred and 
 forty-four towns and villages in British 
 India, bitt of this number there are only 
 forty-four that have reached a popula- 
 
 ' Census of 1880. 
 M. — Vol. 1—44 
 
 bards of the Aryan immigration. Of 
 these Hindus there are over one hun- 
 dred and thirty -nine million. They 
 are di.stributed in general throughout 
 Southern India and in the upper valley 
 of the Ganges. The student of history 
 will revert readily to the many Mo- 
 hammedan invasions and conquests that 
 have been made in different parts of the 
 countries now dominated by England in 
 the East. Next after Hinduism is Islam, 
 whose followers in Sindh, the Punjab, 
 Eastern Bengal, and the Northwest 
 provinces number over forty million.
 
 682 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 In the Central provinces, in Bomba)% 
 
 and sparsely scattered in other districts 
 
 is a large element derived 
 
 Ethnic and reli- " ^, i t^ • t 
 
 gious elements from the Old Dravidian 
 
 in the census. p^p.^lj^tion , which Still pro- 
 
 fesses various forms of religion of the 
 Mongoloid character quite unlike, in 
 ceremonials and superstitions, to the 
 other faiths of India. These aborigi- 
 nals number about five and a half 
 million. Fourthly, the Buddhists and 
 Jains who are confined to British Bur- 
 mah number over two million eight 
 himdred thousand. The sect called the 
 Sikhs are found only in the Punjab, 
 and number a million one hundred and 
 seventy-five thousand. The Christians, 
 who are as yet confined to the coast 
 cities and a few isolated spots in the in- 
 terior, number eight hundred and ninety- 
 seven thousand, while certain unclassi- 
 fied clans, professing peculiar beliefs 
 here and there, are registered at ov'er 
 half a million. It will thus be seen that 
 the Hindus proper, or Brahmans, if we 
 use the religious term by whicti they are 
 distinguished, are more than three times 
 as numerous as all the other religious 
 divisions of the Indian races. 
 
 Before proceeding to the ethnic classi- 
 fication of the peoples of modern India, 
 
 , , it will be of interest to no- 
 Excess of males 
 
 in the Indian tice a peculiar general fea- 
 ture relative to the propor- 
 tion of the sexes. Of the hundred and 
 ninety-one million of people in British 
 India there is an excess of males over 
 females of nearly .six million. The 
 proportion is about one hundred to 
 ninety-four. In the province of Oudh 
 the males are seven per cent in excess 
 of the females, and in Bombay eight 
 per cent. In the Northwestern prov- 
 inces the excess rises to twelve per 
 cent, and in the Punjab as high as six- 
 teen per cent. It has been currently 
 
 believed that the practice of female in- 
 fanticide so much in vogue among abo- 
 rigines and in the Oriental countries has 
 produced this result. There are places 
 in India, .such as the Meerut district, in 
 which there have been found as many as 
 seven boys to one girl, and in other 
 provinces the disproportion is almost as 
 great. 
 
 We pass on to consider the true eth- 
 nical classification of the peoples of In- 
 dia. The grouping of Five principal 
 these races is most largely t^^!^^^^ 
 effected on the basis of re- tions. 
 ligion and caste. Of these there are 
 five principal divisions, each of which is 
 widely distributed and numerous. In 
 noticing these, we will proceed accord- 
 ing to antiquity of occupancy in the 
 country ; that is, we will notice the old- 
 est Indian races first and the more re- 
 cent afterwards. There is, of course, 
 some obscurity in determining the rela- 
 tive antiquity of ancient peoples, but 
 linguistic science is generally a sufficient 
 evidence of priority and order of devel- 
 opment. Glancing, then, at the ethnic 
 divisions of the Indian stocks, we find : 
 
 I. TIic Old Dravidians and tluir Dc- 
 sccndaitls. — The derivation of these from 
 the Mongoloid stem has 
 
 Distribution 
 
 already been noticed m a and tribes of the 
 
 J. '-Li. T Old Dratidiaus. 
 
 former chapter. In gener- 
 al, the peoples of this stock are found in 
 the southern part of the peninsula, but 
 branches of the family extend as far 
 north as Chuta-Nagpur. The}' are, 
 doubtless, the oldest race in India. Most 
 of the Dravidian tribes are associated 
 in tolerably compact settlements, but in 
 some parts of the countr}^ especially to- 
 ward the north, they are sparsely scat- 
 tered among the other races. Twelve 
 distinct Dravidian languages have been 
 examined and classified. These are the 
 Tamil dialect, theMalayalim, theTelugu,
 
 THE JNDICAXS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 
 
 683 
 
 the Kanarese, the Tulu, the Kudugu, 
 the Toda, the Kota, the Gond, the 
 Khond, the Uraon, and the Rajmahal. 
 Each of these tongues has its peculiar 
 
 with the Bhils of Bombay on the west, 
 and extending to the Sontals of Bengal 
 in the east. The race characteristics of 
 these peoples are thought by some eth- 
 
 OLD DRAVIDIAN TYPES-KHOND CHIEFTAINS. 
 
 vocabulary and grammatical structure, 
 all different by a wide departure from 
 the other languages of India. 
 
 2. The Hill Tribes of Central India. — 
 These are the upland races, beginning 
 
 nographers to be in affinity with the 
 Negroid family of man- 
 
 , . J - . Kolarians, or 
 
 kind, but this is, perhaps, hiu populations 
 incorrect. They, like the °f "'«'"*«"-• 
 Dravidians, are of Mongolian extraction.
 
 684 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and belong to an original stock derived 
 from the same stem with the Dravidians 
 themselves. All these hill tribes are as- 
 sociated together by a linguistic classifi- 
 cation, and are known by the name of 
 Kolarians. They appear to have entered 
 
 P 
 
 and the Dravidians is the difference be- 
 tween a more ancient and a less ancient 
 
 stock of people migrating Difference be- 
 . . • *• -.1 , „ fween the 
 
 into regions of the same Koiarianand 
 country by different routes. Dravidian races. 
 In Central India the two families have 
 — I had considerable contact and inter- 
 CBCGtr LccBT^ LSsQi(^(2ffirLc>uec,rtiS!Tf,eSeBrp, fixture, and in these provinces the 
 ^. ^^^<F(?,?:(rLc.t_i«S@jj5iLQ6.^a/g«(_/Qt_/ff0„-ifl Dravidians have given character to 
 
 luececir^ ipQh jS&i'BRu^iunS^ (tpeesn—iieiMnil. 
 
 ^eaeiuirfi-OLjcr0enirs!,ffQiuei)ei)ir^^^u ^^^^^.^ ^^ ^^^^ Comorin, Avhile the 
 
 race. The latter are much the 
 more numerous, and are massed to- 
 ward the south, extending as far 
 
 Kolarians are scattered through the 
 northern region in isolated tribes. 
 The vSontals, who are the eastern- 
 most representatives of the race, oc- 
 
 emuiu <sirec!!tl ^!J}j5«sr^iuei?sirjs^^. j^juOurr ^^p^. ^|^g extreme eastern edge of the 
 
 es>&i sQ p ^ n: (^Q Siiem L^uj ^^i—lBsoSsoGiu. ^nesr 
 eree'es'GfFiuiUeisiru:,! weaf me^i^&ujmje^siT isneer 
 
 table-land of Central India, next to 
 the valley of the Ganges. On the 
 west, at a distance of four hundred 
 miles, dwell the Kurkus, separated 
 from their kinsmen by mountain 
 ranges, great forests, and interven- 
 
 descendants. 
 
 In Northern India, Madras, and 
 
 ^ene'SeriLjLa^.wQeGs'ffp^enieuds §^iliuL^ff i^g tribes of Dravidians and Aryan 
 
 (i^eirserrsi?QjesLjLJL^L^(TF,iiQs<5'j}:)^ ^srosiuceo Orissa are found the remnants of the 
 
 eieOirVu:>m(Tr^eei . LJsrirLjaGm) ^eu^cGst^Q^ir 
 ewswjg, t^^^iSestGecul §)pp ^an s-^-MSGei 
 
 Savars, a degenerate and „ , , 
 
 ° Place of the 
 
 mendicant people, re- Savars;Koia- 
 
 T 1 , . ■! 1 r rian languages. 
 
 duced to the rank of serv- 
 ants, yet their name was known in 
 the earliest ages of history, and is 
 
 B<BQ&nenenLJu®La, ^uOljitq^^ ^ Gff'&S^ mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy 
 afiibj&^eire'Gff^£>£peu^£^ ^ui-iUiXeUJ ^u>u 
 
 hl'KCIMEN PAGE OF TAMIL BOOK. 
 
 India, especially Bengal, by the north- 
 east passes of the mountains. Their 
 habitation geographically is along the 
 northern and eastern edges of the trian- 
 gular table-land constituting the south- 
 ern half of India. 
 
 The difference between the Kolarians ! 
 
 The Kolarian languages are divided 
 into nine principal groups: the San- 
 tali, the Mundari, the Ho, the Bhu- 
 mij, the Korwa, the Kharria, the 
 Juang, the Kurku, and the Savar. 
 There is a marked difference between 
 the vocabulary of the Kolarians and that 
 of their race kinsfolk, the Dravidians 
 on the south, and the grammars of the 
 two peoples are as distinct as those of 
 German and Greek. 
 
 3. T//r ludo-Cliincsc Races. — These be-
 
 bito/^f'i If 

 
 686 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 long geographical!)'' to the slopes of the 
 Himalayas, to the valley of Assam, and 
 Tribal and lin- to Burmah. The latter 
 country is wholly occupied 
 by people of this stock. In 
 Northern Bengal there are certain low 
 castes, half Hindu and half Kolarian in 
 their characteristics, who are also thought 
 to be Indo-Chinese. It is evident that this 
 
 guistic divi- 
 sions of the 
 Indo-Chinese 
 
 HIGH-CASTK HIXDU (aNANT RAM, PRIME MINISTER)- 
 Drawn by E. Ronjat, from a photograph by Burke. 
 
 race came into Burmah and Assam by the 
 northeast passes of the Himalayas. They 
 have clearly had an original common 
 home with the Chinese and other Mon- 
 golians of Central Asia. There is a 
 similarity of dialect, in some instances so 
 marked that particular expressions might 
 be understood alike in Bengal and Can- 
 ton. The linguistic designation of the 
 Indo-Chinese group of nations is Thibeto- 
 Burmese. Of this family of languages 
 
 there are more than twenty dialects : the 
 Cachari or Bodo, the Garo, the Tripuara 
 Mrung, the Thibetan or Bhutan, the Gu- 
 rung, the Murmi, the Newar, the Lepcha, 
 the Meri, the Aka, the Mishmi, the Dhi- 
 mal, the Kanawari, the Mikir, the Sing- 
 pho, the Naga dialects, the Kuki, the Bur- 
 mese, the Khyeng, and the Manipuri. 
 These twenty dialects are allied in their 
 _,„_, grammatical formation and vocab- 
 ularj- like the Romance languages 
 of Europe. The affinities of the 
 Italian, French, Spanish, and the 
 Portuguese may well illustrate the 
 analogies of Thibetan, Dhimal, and 
 liurmese. The names of numerals, 
 of common objects of sense, the 
 organs of the body, and common 
 actions are usually expressed by 
 root words which are essentially 
 \ the same in all. No accurate enu- 
 meration of the numbers speaking 
 the Thibeto-Burmese languages 
 has been made. It is estimated 
 that fully forty million of people 
 speak the Kolarian tongues in the 
 several dialects, and doubtless the 
 Indo-Chinese group is much in ex- 
 cess of the Kolarian. 
 
 The three principal Indian races 
 which we have here mentioned, 
 the Dravidians, the Kolarians, 
 and the Indo-Chinese, may all be 
 defined as non-Aryan peoples to 
 distinguish them from the domi- 
 race. They do not, therefore, 
 
 come distinctly within the Dravidians, 
 
 range of the present dis- f^^tSesf 
 
 CUSSion, which is intended are non-Aryan. 
 
 to cover the Aryan peoples of India. 
 But the presence of the above races 
 among the Hindus proper, and the large 
 degree of ethnic admixture which has 
 occurred along all the lines of contact, 
 make it desirable to refer in this con- 
 nection to the aboriginal races, although 
 
 nant
 
 THE INDICANS.—RACE DIl'ISIONS. 
 
 687 
 
 they have been deduced from a Mongo- 
 lian rather than an Aryan stock. 
 
 4. The High-Caste Hindus. — These are 
 the dominant nations of India. In num- 
 bers they probably surpass 
 
 Dominant Indi- , , , , . , 
 
 cans are wgh- all the rest Combined, 
 caste Hindus. Li].g^.ise ^^ influence they 
 
 are superior. Their intellectual, and 
 perhaps we should say their moral, 
 development greatly surpasses that 
 of any other Indie people, unless 
 we should except the Christian col- 
 onies, and doubtfully the iMoham- 
 medans. Generally speaking, the 
 Hindus are the lineal descendants 
 of the Old Aryans who came, in 
 prehistoric times, into the Indian 
 valleys and conquered and over- 
 ran the aboriginal inhabitants. At 
 what date this occurred it is not 
 possible to determine. The Hin- 
 dus themselves believe that the 
 Vedic hymnal was composed at or 
 before the beoinning of time. Some 
 of their philosophers, more moder- 
 ate in their estimates, place the 
 date at 3001 years before our era. 
 The best estimate which modern 
 scholars have been able to make 
 fixes the minimum of 1900 B. C. 
 as the date for the composition of 
 the older hymns of the Veda. 
 
 It is not possible to make the 
 ethnic line which defines or in- 
 cludes the Hindus proper corre- 
 spond with the caste lines which 
 we have already drawn. Of course, 
 the Brahmans are all included in the 
 ethnic class of Hindus. 
 
 Ethnic and t- i 
 
 caste Unas do The Kshatriyas likewise 
 
 not coincide. 11 x ii ■ 1 
 
 belong to this race; also 
 the Vaisyas, or at least the greater por- 
 tion of them. But at this point the in- 
 termingling of races begins to show its 
 effects, for the Vaisyas have in many 
 parts of India absorbed a considerable 
 
 amount of foreign blood from the Dra- 
 vidians and Kolarians. In some parts 
 the Kolarians have made their way into 
 the Vaisyas caste, so that at this point 
 the ethnic line can no longer be made 
 coincident with the caste line between 
 the Vaisyas and the Sudras. 
 
 5 . The Mohammedans. — These came by 
 
 MUSSULMAN OF CASHMERE — TYPE. 
 Drawn by E, Zier, from a photograph by Burke. 
 
 conquest. They were originally Arabs, 
 Afghans, Mughals, and piaceofthe 
 Persians. In successive in- 
 
 occurring at inter- 
 
 Mohammedans 
 among the 
 Indian races. 
 
 vasions, 
 
 vals sometimes of centuries, the followers 
 of the Prophet have thrown themselves 
 from the west into Sindh, the Punjab, 
 and all the Northwest provinces. On 
 some occasions the impact has carried
 
 THE LYDICAXS.—RACE DIVISIONS. 
 
 689 
 
 bands of invaders as far east as Bengal. 
 These conquests have always been ac- 
 companied with religious propagandism. 
 Islam has borne the sword in one hand 
 and the Koran in the other. Indeed, 
 the impulse which has carried the armies 
 of the Prophet north, south, east, and 
 west from the original seat in Arabia 
 has always been rather the spread of 
 Islam than the mere conquest of 
 nations. 
 
 On the whole, the }*Iohammedan in- 
 vasions in India have by this criterion 
 been attended with success, ilore than 
 forty million of people have adopted 
 the Arab faith, and we thus have an- 
 other remarkable example of the inter- 
 fusion of a Semitic religion among the 
 Aryan races. Next to the Hindus them- 
 selves the ^Mohammedans are the most 
 populous division of the Indian nations. 
 The difference in numbers, however, 
 between them and the non-Aryan Kola- 
 rians and Dravidians is not great, but in 
 respect of spirit and power the !Moham- 
 medans are infinitely above the aborigi- 
 nal peoples of the south. Indeed, if we 
 regard the Islamites as a caste in Indian 
 society, it would hardly be an exagger- 
 ation to say that in pride, arrogance, ex- 
 clusiveness, and bigotry they are fairly 
 the rivals of the Brahmans themselves. 
 The great mass of Mohammedan popu- 
 lation is distributed in Bengal, in West- 
 em and Northwestern India, and along 
 the borders of those Iranian countries 
 where the faith of the Prophet has long 
 been in the ascendant. - 
 
 We must now, however, omit the 
 
 non -Aryan populations of India as the 
 same belong to other parts of this work. 
 
 We shall attempt to fix our The Bralimans 
 "■ . represent the 
 
 attention more exclusively inteUectaai 
 
 .1 J T ^ r forces cf the 
 
 upon the descendants of Hindus, 
 the dominant race known by the eth- 
 nic name of Hindus, but classified reli- 
 giously as adherents of Brahmanism. It 
 is among the Hindus that the real power 
 and intellectual forces of the native races 
 of Hindustan are found. The Brah- 
 mans have in their possession not only 
 the sacred books in which the faith of 
 the Indians is recorded, but also the 
 philosophy, the science, and the juris- 
 prudence of the Hindu race. In like 
 manner they have been the creators and 
 the custodians of the secular literature, 
 such as it is, and of the educational 
 forces existent in Indian society. Their 
 exclusive claims in all of these partic- 
 ulars amount to a monopoly of the real 
 life of the Indian races. 
 
 The Brahmans are close alongside the 
 native Hindu princes, and are their 
 counselors and teachers. Locally, they 
 have the center of their power in the 
 great middle region of India, just as the 
 southern triangle has an excess of the Old 
 Dravidian populations, and as the slopes 
 of the Himalayas are occupied by the 
 Indo-Burmese. The Brahmans, as the 
 spokesmen of this dominant Hindu race, 
 represent not only the mind, the will, 
 the purpose, and the native power of 
 modern India, but also the continuity 
 of the Aryan race and the institutions 
 of that race from the earliest epoch of 
 human history to the present day.
 
 690 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Chapter XL.- 
 
 -Anuvtal and Vegetable Resources 
 
 OE INDIA. 
 
 HE Aryans began in In- 
 dia as poets and war- 
 riors, and have ended 
 as priests and peasants. 
 The primitive aspect 
 was one of aggres- 
 sion, conquest, ener- 
 getic activity ; the present aspect is one of 
 submission, quiescence, passivity. There 
 is only one point of \-iew from which the 
 energies of the race may be said to be 
 unabated, and that is in the perpetual 
 but timid industry of the people. It is 
 now proper to review briefly the condi- 
 tions of environment under which the 
 transformation of the India of antiquity 
 into the India of modern times has been 
 effected. 
 
 This vast region, a peninsula in its 
 general form and relations to the sea, 
 Slight changes has perhaps been less af- 
 fected in its original condi- 
 tions of climate and phys- 
 ical character under the great and con- 
 tinuous burden of population than has 
 any other country of like extent on the 
 globe. The traveler, the ethnographer, 
 the historian, is to-day able, as in the 
 times of Alexander or in the times of 
 the Vedic bards, to scrutinize the move- 
 ments and products of physical nature 
 essentially unchanged and but slightly 
 varying from what they Avere in the 
 time of the prehistoric Mongolian abo- 
 rigines. 
 
 India has always been a land of vast 
 .„, , . , and varied resources. In 
 
 vast and varied 
 
 resources of the the earlier ages of Aryan 
 domination the conquer- 
 ors were brought into relation rather 
 with the animal life of the peninsula 
 
 in the environ^ 
 ment ol the In 
 dicans. 
 
 than with the products of the soil. In 
 the beginning all people must be hunters, 
 warriors, adventurers of the hill and 
 jungle. Here in the valleys of the 
 rivers, in the wooded uplands, and on 
 the slopes of the Himalayas, steep-up to 
 the clouds, they foiind a variety and 
 abundance of animal life unequaled in 
 any other part of the earth. It is now 
 recognized as a fact by zoologists that a 
 majority of all the animals, great and 
 small, common to the north temper- 
 ate belts of the earth have their origin, 
 or at least a native place, in India. 
 Nearly every species of creature, from 
 the domestic fowl to the elephant, may 
 be found, with its pristine habits and in 
 its original abode in the vast wilds of the 
 Indian jungles. 
 
 To note particularl}' the principal ani- 
 mals of this great region would require 
 a separate treatise. Here 
 
 Animal life of 
 
 from the earliest ages the India; tigers and 
 has flourished, and ®°p^^ ^* 
 
 lion 
 
 from hence the striped tiger has carried 
 the name of Bengal to every spot on the 
 planet where a collection of wild beasts 
 has been established or a traveling men- 
 agerie has pitched its tents. To the 
 present day the people, even in thickly 
 settled districts, are in mortal dread of 
 this formidable beast, who from the 
 days of the beginning has been known 
 as a man-eater. Within the last quarter 
 of a century a single tiger has killed 
 hundreds of people before he could be 
 de.stroyed. In one instance a country 
 having an area of two hundred and fifty 
 square miles and thirteen villages was 
 thrown out of cultivation and abandoned 
 from the ravages of one tiger!
 
 THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 691 
 
 Leopards also are found in all parts of 
 India, and being much more numerous 
 than tigers, are on the whole more 
 destructive of life and property. One 
 variety, known as the Cheetah leopard, 
 has been domesticated and trained to 
 hunt. In the chase of the antelope this 
 creature is used, and by its speed and 
 
 considerably troubled, with wolves. 01 
 old time the antelope, the wild goat, and 
 the hare were their prey, country in- 
 but with the increase of I'^^Jl^^ 
 population and the spread jackals, 
 of the pastoral life they turned to the 
 sheepfold. Sometimes they attack man. 
 As late as 1827 a single neighborhood 
 
 VIEW IX THE HIMALAYAS.— A Mountajn Village.— Drawn by G. Vuillier, from a photogr.iph by Baker. 
 
 activity is a powerful auxiliary to the 
 hunter. It is said to .surpass in swift- 
 ness of flight any other wild beasts in 
 India. Its peculiarity of habit is that if it 
 misses its prey at the first bound, it will 
 make no second attempt, but return ap- 
 parentl}- mortified, to its master. 
 
 All the open countrj' between the 
 Indus and the Ganges was originalh- in- 
 fested, and is to-day in wooded districts 
 
 lost thirty children by the ravages of 
 wolves. Next in order may be men- 
 tioned the Indian fox and the jackal, 
 whose hideous yell by night may be 
 heard in most of the country districts of 
 India. The latter animal is sought by 
 the European huntsmen who are settled 
 here and there in the country, for whom 
 the jackal takes the place of the fox in 
 the hunt of the "Western nations.
 
 692 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKfXD. 
 
 Dogs, wild and tame, are numerous. 
 
 The Cniiis dhola is an inhabitant of the 
 
 wildest jungles. These, 
 
 The Canis dhola, . . . , ■ 
 
 the sloth and indeed, are his native laii, 
 the snn bear. ^nd have been SO from the 
 
 prehistoric ages. Of bears, there are 
 many varieties throughout all India. 
 The black, or sloth, bear is found in the 
 forests and on the mountains. This is 
 
 the other almost as large as the grizzly 
 of the Sierras. 
 
 The elephant is native to all parts of 
 the country except the Northwest prov- 
 inces. His native abode is ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 the hill-country rather than immemorial iu 
 
 < -, , India. 
 
 the plains. He does not 
 
 much descend into the river valleys, but 
 
 takes to the higher ridges. In the south- 
 
 .ANl.MAL LIKE OF INUl.-^.— Siag Slai.-j uv a Tiger.— Dfawn by A. de XeuviUe, after Llelapurlc. 
 
 the creature so strangely marked with a 
 white horseshoe on his breast. The 
 Thibetan sun bear is found along the 
 mountain spurs, all the way from the 
 Punjab to Assam, but never at a lower 
 level than five thousand feet above the 
 sea. The Malayan sun bear inhabits 
 British Burmah, along with two other 
 species, one of which is quite small and 
 
 ern peninsula the elephant has been 
 nearly exterminated, but a few are still 
 found in the forests of Coorg and ]\Iy- 
 sore, and in the states of Orissa. It was 
 out of India that the elephants were 
 drawn in the classical ages and trained 
 for the shock of battle. From this source 
 Hannibal drew his supply when Rome 
 trembled under the march of his armies.
 
 THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 693 
 
 Four varieties of rhinoceros are found 
 in India. Two of the species are uni- 
 corns, and two have double horns. 
 They most abound in the 
 
 The principal 
 
 pachyderms Valley of thc Brahmaputra 
 
 and ruminants. j • , i o j i_ 
 
 and m the bundarbans. 
 Its habitat is mostly in swampy places, 
 and its manner of life like that of swine, 
 
 on the slopes of the Himalayas, where 
 some of them range as high as twelve 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 Here also is found the ibex, even on the 
 highest ranges of the mountains; also 
 the chamois, in the Himalayas, from 
 Assam to Burmah. 
 
 It would be vain to enumerate the an- 
 
 KHINOCEROS FIGH l' AT BAKOOA. -Drawn by E mile liayard. 
 
 or even the hippopotamus. From the 
 earliest times the wild hog has abounded 
 in the Indian jungles. Its habit is to 
 hover along the edges of settlements 
 and to gratif}' its predatory habits by 
 plunging into fields and villages. In 
 the deserts of Sindh and Kachheh the 
 wild ass still exists, as in the times of 
 the Aryan migration. Many varieties 
 of wild sheep and wild goats are found 
 
 telope and the deer, with its many spe- 
 cies, the bi.son, from the „ 
 
 Habits and size 
 
 gaur of the Western Ghats of the Indian 
 to the gayal of the north- 
 eastern frontier. In the latter region 
 the bison has been domesticated, and is 
 used by the aboriginal tribes in their 
 sacrifices. In Burmah the buffalo is 
 found, large and fierce. The heads of 
 some bulls captured in modern times
 
 694 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 have been as much as thirteen feet six 
 inches in circumference and fully six 
 feet and a half between the tips of the 
 horns. The animal reaches a height of 
 six feet, and compares favorably in mag- 
 nitude with the tremendous creatures 
 formerly inhabiting the great American 
 plains of the West. 
 
 Of birds, tlicrc arc an endless variet\-. 
 
 generally innocuous. The inhabitant of 
 the safe countries of Europe has little 
 apprehension of the deadly work of those 
 Indian serpents, of which the cobra de 
 capello is the imperial and venomous 
 king. The fatality from snake-biting is 
 everywhere increased by the supersti- 
 tion of the people, who generally re- 
 gard the snake with veneration. The 
 
 INDIAN l;UKFALOES.-Drawn by Mesvel, 
 
 The reptiles of India have been known 
 
 Prevalence of ^''^"^ ^^^ earliest ages for 
 reptues; lossof their tremendous size and 
 
 life thereby. . , . ,^ 
 
 poisonous bite. The most 
 deadly serpents to be found in any part 
 of the world lurk in the dank jungles, 
 along the river banks, and even in the 
 uplands of the Deccan. It is said that 
 all the salt water snakes of India are poi- 
 sonous, while those of fresh waters are 
 
 census of 1877 returned a total of six- 
 teen thousand seven hundred and sev- 
 enty-seven persons killed in a single 
 year by the bites of serpents. 
 
 It is against this great phalanx of an- 
 imal life, fierce and malign, that the In- 
 dian races have flung themselves for 
 thousands of years. It has been a war 
 at once offensive and defensive, and the 
 battle has not infrequently gone against
 
 THE INDICANS.—AXIMAL LIFE. 
 
 695 
 
 the man. In no other quarter of the 
 habitable globe does the wild animal 
 life peculiar to the primeval world stand 
 forth against the human race, even to 
 the present day, in such fierce and de- 
 fiant antagonism as in this thickly popu- 
 lated India. 
 
 It is a strange reflection that after 
 fully four thousand years of conflict, 
 during which the great peninsula reach- 
 
 a stronger arm and better prospect of 
 victory than does his timid, light-limbed, 
 brown-bronze descendant. 
 
 In course of time, no doubt, every 
 species of savage creature will be exter- 
 minated from the world, civilization ex- 
 
 The multiplication and ex- ^^^:^::^^,, 
 pansion of the human fam- ''fe- 
 ily will carry the abodes of man into the 
 reclaimed fenlands, to the river brink. 
 
 DEADLY SERPENTS OF INDIA.— The Bunjaris Kasciatus.— Drawn by K. Kretstlmer. 
 
 ing into the Indian ocean and embraced 
 by the Indus and the Ganges has never 
 wanted for multitudes of inhabitants, the 
 The Indian man lias not on the whole 
 
 surdu'^e7t\r held his own against the 
 wild beasts. beast. It is likely that the 
 primitive Aryan adventurer who pene- 
 trated the jungles while the earliest poet 
 of the Vedas was still chanting his hymns 
 in Sindh and the Punjab, met the fierce 
 creatures of the woods and marshes with 
 
 through the wild morass and woodland, 
 and up the mountain slopes beyond the 
 line of snow. The spread of civilization, 
 as exemplified in the cultivation of the 
 soil, in the improved means of defense, 
 in the scientific mastery over every ele- 
 ment in the environment, will demand 
 and accomplish the extinction of all the 
 hurtful races of lower animals. In some 
 parts of the earth poisonous reptiles and 
 savage beasts have already disappeared.
 
 696 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Even in the New World the rattlesnake, 
 the viper, the panther, and the bear 
 have either totally vanished or maintain 
 
 maintain and perpetuate the wilder and 
 more dangerous varieties of animal ex- 
 istence, but this condition could soon be 
 
 THK Th.ER HUNT.-Ur.iwn by T.uiley Berkeley, from nauire. 
 
 a precarious existence among the moun- 
 tains or inaccessible ledges of rock. 
 The same thing will happen in India. 
 Doubtless the countrv is well situated to 
 
 changed by a larger expenditure of gim- 
 powder and a less supply of Brahman- 
 ism. Both of these modifications in the 
 existing status of India will occur in
 
 THE INDICANS.— ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 697 
 
 time, but perhaps the day will never 
 come when the tradition, and even the 
 historical record of the fierce conflict 
 between human and mere animal life 
 in this region of the world will pass 
 away. 
 
 There is no more spectacular display 
 of man's activity than in the tiger and 
 elephant hunts of Hindustan. For how 
 many centuries such exhibitions of nat- 
 ural combat have occurred 
 Spectacular ... ., - 
 
 character of the it IS impossible to say. 
 
 in • ^\\Q defensive fight for life 
 
 with the tremendous beasts of the Indian 
 jungle must have begun with the appari- 
 tion of the human race in the valley of 
 the Indus. Not only the battle to the 
 uttermost has been perpetually reneAved 
 for thousands of years, but the fight for 
 capture has brought out the ingenuity 
 and daring of the native races, and even 
 taxed the skill and courage of foreigners 
 dwelling in the land. The census of 
 1877 showed the destruction of a thou- 
 sand five hundred and seventy-nine tigers 
 in a single year. 
 
 The character of the tiger hunt has 
 taxed the descriptive pen and the artist's 
 Useoftheeie- brusli. The favorite mode 
 gjrtil^t'lg^r-s is fi-om the back of the 
 habits. elephant. The scene has 
 
 been many times described. The hunt- 
 ers fix themselves with their spears 
 and javelins and guns on the back of 
 the huge beast and enter the jungle. 
 The tiger is roused from his lair, and 
 the battle begins. The elephant is 
 trained to perform his part of the con- 
 flict. With his tusks and huge trunk 
 made into a flail of destruction he lays 
 about him in what is many times a vain 
 endeavor to strike the terrible cat that 
 springs about him. The weaponry of 
 the Indian hunters is generally ineffi- 
 cient. Many lives are lost in the con- 
 flict, and the battle is usually long and 
 
 M. — Vol. 1—45 
 
 evenly contested before the tiger is slain. 
 Another method is the construction of 
 elevated platforms, framed of the boughs 
 of trees in a jungle, from which height " 
 the hunters fight, as from the elephant's 
 back. The tiger, until he is wounded 
 or has had a taste of human blood, will 
 escape from the presence of man ; but if 
 he is hungered, or has sufi'ered pain at 
 his enemy's hand, or particularly if he 
 has wet his pink tongue with a drop of 
 human blood, he will never desist until 
 he has devoured his enemy, or is himself 
 slain or captured. In Assam the tiger 
 hunt is conducted in boats on the rivers. 
 The spearmen thus gain a great advan- 
 tage by being out of reach of the bound 
 of their enemy and having his move- 
 ments impeded in the water. 
 
 In all parts of India, except in the 
 Northwest provinces, the elephant either 
 abounds or may be discov- Native land of 
 ered for the seeking. That ^j^^h^P.^rni. 
 part of India which fur- ™g- 
 nishes the best suppty is the hill-country 
 forming the northeastern boundary be- 
 tween Hindustan and Assam and Bur- 
 niah. Here the monster not infrequently 
 reaches the height of twelve feet, and 
 but for his clumsiness he would be the 
 most formidable natural foe that man 
 has found on the earth. The hunters 
 must approach him on foot. Horses are 
 generally an impediment. Several meth- 
 ods have been adopted of taking the 
 elephant alive. The hunt to the death is 
 not only dangerous in the last degree, 
 but difficult on account of the invulnera- 
 bility of the animal. Nearly all parts of 
 his anatomy are proof against the bullet 
 of even improved firearms. In a few 
 spots the well-directed ball may reach 
 the seat of life. 
 
 Generally the killing of an elephant is 
 a tedious and barbarous work. This is 
 now forbidden by the government of
 
 THE INDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 
 
 699 
 
 British India except in cases of neces- 
 sity, but the capture alive of elephants 
 is much practiced. The 
 
 Capture alive ; . 
 
 methods of tak- taking, however, IS under 
 mgau aming. ^^^^^^ regulation of law. 
 
 In 1887-88 two hundred and sixty-four 
 elephants were captured in the province 
 of Assam. The profit of this work 
 amounted to three thousand six hundred 
 pounds sterling. It is a government 
 monopoly. In 1873-74 Mr. Sanderson, 
 one of the officers of the government in 
 Mysore, studied the habit of the elephant, 
 and devised a plan by which he captured 
 fifty-three animals in a single hunt. 
 The former method of taking the crea- 
 ture was by driving him into a pit. In 
 this he was generally made to fall upon 
 a sharpened stake, which worked its 
 way into his vitals. The prevailing 
 method is to find a company of elephants 
 in the forest, to rouse them and drive 
 them into a strong stockade, where they 
 are shut up and reduced, by starvation 
 and by the agency of tame elephants, to 
 submission and docility. When tamed, 
 the animals are used in the government 
 transportation of timber and for other 
 heavy draught and powerful exertions. 
 They are also taught to fight, and their 
 combats are perhaps the most spectacular 
 and exciting contests to be witnessed in 
 the world. Among the natives the 
 princes and nabobs are, as they have 
 always been, ambitious of the distinction 
 of going about gorgeously mounted on 
 tame elephants. 
 
 It is not to be doubted that a good 
 deal of the timidity and fearfulness dis- 
 Race timidity plavcd bv the people of In- 
 ooblast': In!'" dia' is attributable to the 
 reptiles. dangers to which they are 
 
 exposed on account of poisonous reptiles 
 and other lurking foes. The methods 
 which they have adopted to defend them- 
 selves against such enemies are multi- 
 
 Physical setting 
 like India there of India; the na. 
 tive land of rice. 
 
 farious. In some districts where ven- 
 omous serpents abound a plan of build- 
 ing is common which is determined in 
 its main feature by the consideration of 
 safety from reptiles. The houses are 
 put on piles or large stakes at consider- 
 able elevation above the surface. By 
 this means a space is left between the 
 domicile and the earth, over which it is 
 difficult for the fanged enemies of man to 
 make their way. The edifice considered 
 apart from its situation is perhaps almost 
 identical in structure with the prehistoric 
 lake dwellings of Switzerland. 
 
 The maintenance of a food-supply 
 is the prime consideration with every 
 people of the world. In a 
 country 
 
 must needs be vast natural 
 resources. The whole peninsula may 
 be said to be inclined toward the sun. 
 On the north the great wall of the 
 Himalayas rises, and from the spurs of 
 this immovable buttress the land slopes 
 to the sea. In these majestic mountains 
 are the treasures of the snow. Here 
 scores of rivers take their rise, and south- 
 ward tending combine their waters in 
 the great streams which are one of the 
 fundamental physical features of India. 
 
 The Indian valleys are as rich as any 
 on the globe. Great, however, is the 
 difference between them and the low- 
 lying alluvium of the Nile and the Lower 
 Euphrates. The river banks in India 
 are marsh and jungle. Nature is rank 
 in the last degree. Among the sappy 
 and dense-growing products of the 
 valleys many grains and fruits grow 
 wild, which under the improving direc- 
 tion of man have become the great 
 cereals in the markets of the world. As 
 far back as the days of Pliny and the 
 oldest naturalists of the Graeco-Italic 
 peoples the grain known by the Greek 
 name of oryza, the modern rice, sprang
 
 700 
 
 GREAT RACr.S OF MAXK7XD. 
 
 plentifully and wild in the lowlands of 
 Southern India. Tlius it grows to the 
 present day ; now the old native grain 
 of the marshes is preferred by the na- 
 tive nabobs and princes to any of the 
 cultivated varieties. 
 
 India has been regarded as par ex- 
 cellence the native land of rice. The 
 belief is not warranted by 
 
 Extent of the . 
 
 rice crop in dif- the facts. True, the rice 
 
 ferent districts. ^^^,^^^p^ „£ gj-itish Bur- 
 
 mah are among the most fruitful in the 
 •world. In Rangpur eighty-eight per 
 
 the average crop is as high as two thou, 
 sand five hundred pounds per acre. In 
 1878 the exports of this cereal from 
 Calcutta amounted to one billion six 
 hundred million pounds. 
 
 The rival grain of rice in India is 
 wheat. Where the one prevails the 
 other does not thrive. The center of 
 the wheat-producing region ^ 
 
 ^ . . Extent and 
 
 is the Punjab, and it is character of the 
 
 ,., 1 ii i 1 wheat product. 
 
 not unlikely that here 
 
 this principal food-grain of the human 
 
 famiU" \\,is first brought out ef the 
 
 I\ I IIK IMH \\ VALLEYS.— Vii.i.AKE 01 I'l Kia;.Mli,iKKK.s.-l > 
 
 cent of the cultivable land is sown in 
 this single crop. In Orissa also — as is 
 indicated by the name of the province — 
 and in the deltas of the Godavery, 
 Kistna, and Kaveri, as well as in the 
 lowlands of Malabar and Kanara, rice 
 culture is the one predominant industry 
 and means of support. In the Northwest 
 provinces the grain is grown success- 
 fully, but only in damp localities. But 
 if we look at India as a whole, rice is not 
 the prevailing crop. In the regions 
 adapted to its cultivation, however, the 
 yield is immense. In British Btirmah 
 
 native state by cultivation to the per- 
 fected form which it has had for more 
 than three thousand years. The quality 
 of Indian wheat is satisfactory in the 
 best markets of the world. It is accept- 
 ed in the great mills of England as the 
 peer of the wheat imported from the 
 Danubian provinces and other favorite 
 localities. The yield, as far as the .same 
 has been determined by census reports, 
 is fairly good, averaging about thirteen 
 bushels per acre for the whole area sown 
 in India, as against fifteen and a half 
 bushels for the whole of France.
 
 THE INDIC A NS.— RESOURCES. 
 
 701 
 
 Millet is next among the field crops of 
 
 India. Viewed as a food of the people, 
 
 it is more employed than 
 
 Millet the re- . , "^ . 
 
 source of the either rice or wheat. It is 
 common peep e. ^^^aimed that millet is the 
 most fruitful grain in the world as to 
 abundance, and on the whole the best 
 adapted to tropical climates. It is the 
 most widely disseminated of any grain 
 grown in the peninsula. Millet flourishes 
 from Madras in the south, as far north 
 as Rajputana. There are several varie- 
 ties adapted to the different districts, but 
 nearly all are known as " dry crops," or 
 such as are dependent only on the 
 natural rainfall, while rice and many 
 other products depend upon irrigation. 
 
 B}' one of the strange mutations of 
 history and of language, that fruitful 
 maize called Indian corn has become In- 
 dian in reality. It is culti- 
 
 Indian" corn, 
 
 barley, and oth- vated in nearly all parts of 
 
 er cereals. ii ^ i 
 
 the country, and grows to 
 
 perfection. Along the Upper Ganges 
 barley is a standard crop. In the Hima- 
 layan valleys and in the Punjab oats are 
 grown, but as yet the cultivation of this 
 grain is experimental in the hands of 
 Europeans. Throughout all India the 
 oil seeds are raised in abundance. The 
 demand for vegetable oil in India is very 
 great. It is used for anointing the per- 
 son, for illumination, and for food. The 
 discarding of animal fats by the people 
 has increased the consumption of the 
 oils produced from seeds. In recent 
 years an export trade with Europe has 
 sprung up, and since the oil .seeds can 
 be produced as an after crop, when rice 
 and other grains have been cut aw-ay, 
 the production of the oils has become 
 a source of great profit. There are four 
 principal seeds from which oil is pro- 
 duced: the rape seed, linseed, sesamum, 
 and the castor bean. The regions in 
 which these products are most abundant 
 
 are the Northwest provinces, Bengal, 
 and for sesamum the presidency of Ma- 
 dras. 
 
 No cunsory description could do jus- 
 tice to the vast variety of vegetable 
 products springing native Extent and va- 
 or under cultivation in ^^t^^/p^.^L^c^'s* 
 the different districts of In- of India, 
 dia ; and the .same may be said of the 
 fruits. Among the latter may be enu- 
 merated the mango, the pineapple, the 
 guava, the tamarind, the custard apple, 
 the papaw% the shaddock, and an end- 
 less variety of figs, melons, oranges, 
 limes, and citrons. In nearly all of 
 these fruits traces of the original native 
 saps maybe discovered by the cultivated 
 palate, and they are doubtless not com- 
 parable for delicacy of flavor with the 
 corresponding varieties produced by the 
 skillful grafting and cultivation in vogue 
 among the Western nations. 
 
 Already, when the traveler enters In- 
 dia, he finds himself in the land of 
 spices. True, the air is 
 
 Abundance and 
 
 not yet burdened, as in distribution of 
 Ceylon and the Celebes, ^^Pi<=®s- 
 with the almost oppressive odors which 
 spring from the groves and native woods 
 of the tropical islands ; but the Indian 
 spices are abundant and fragrant. The 
 principal of these products are the chili, 
 or cayenne pepper, the turmeric, ginger, 
 coriander, aniseed, and black cumin. 
 Pepper is mostly produced along the 
 western shores of Southern India, in the 
 region known as the Malabar Coast. 
 The spice called cardamon belongs to 
 the same locality, but is also produced 
 in Nepal. Betel nuts are grown in the 
 deltas of Lower Bengal and in other 
 parts of Southern India. 
 
 In all the more tropical parts of the 
 countr}' the palm flourishes. Dates have 
 been plentiful from time immemorial. 
 Three varieties are found : the true date.
 
 702 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 the palmyra, and the bastard. From the 
 last named is manufactured the Jagjjery 
 sugar of commerce; also an intoxicating 
 
 COOLIES AT THE COTTON MARKET IN BOMBAY. 
 
 liquor, which is doubtless identical with 
 
 Varieties of that described by Xenophon 
 in the Annbnsis. The true 
 date flourishes in vSindh 
 
 and the lower districts of the Punjab. 
 
 Along the western coast of India the 
 
 dates ; sugar 
 and the sugar 
 manufacture. 
 
 cocoanut is not only plentiful, but abun- 
 dant, ranking as a product next in value 
 to rice. Sugar is produced not only 
 
 from the bastard 
 date palm, but 
 also from sugar 
 cane, which flour- 
 is lies in the 
 Northwest prov- 
 inces. It requires 
 irrigation, how- 
 ever, and is other- 
 wise expensive in 
 production. The 
 manufacture of 
 sugar h a s r e - 
 mained in the un- 
 skillful hands of 
 the natives until 
 in recent times, 
 when facilities for 
 making it have 
 been produced in 
 the Madras presi- 
 dency and in My- 
 sore. 
 
 The cotton 
 plant is also a na- 
 tive of India. It 
 has been found 
 from the earliest 
 t i ni e s , a n d the 
 product has sup- 
 plied the local 
 wants of the coun- 
 try within the his- 
 torical era. Until 
 the last century 
 cotton was not ex- 
 ported as a prod- 
 Here we touch upon 
 
 circum- The Indian cot- 
 
 uct from India. 
 
 that remarkable 
 
 stance in the 
 
 history of modern times, ests. 
 
 balancing and unbalancing the cotton 
 
 trade of the world during the American 
 
 commproifll to" crop and 
 commercial -western inter-
 
 THE IK Die. 1 XS. —RE SO URGES. 
 
 r03 
 
 Civil War. It will be remembered that 
 in Lancashire, England, seat of the great 
 cotton factories of the United Kingdom, 
 a crisis was reached in 1 86 1 by the clos- 
 ing of the ports of the confederated 
 Southern States. The American market 
 was thus hermetically sealed, and the 
 
 portation of cotton had been less than 
 three million of pounds a year, but the 
 cotton industry suddenly sprang up un- 
 der the tremendous stimulus, until 1866, 
 when the exportation amounted to thirty- 
 seven million. With this year, how- 
 ever, the stress was removed b}- the 
 
 ^ssp' 
 
 
 
 
 ,^v 
 
 INDlr.O FACTORV AT ALLAHABAD.— Drawn hy E. Therond. 
 
 English factories suddenly stopped for 
 want of raw material. 
 
 At this juncture Great Britain turned 
 eagerly to the cotton fields of India. 
 Cotton produc- With an open market, the 
 
 b'th^A^'en^au ^^^^^'^^Y "^ ^^'^'""1^ produced 
 
 Civil War. j^ the East was not equal 
 
 to tlie American product, and could not 
 be, but in this time of extreme strin- 
 gency it sufficed to supply the demand. 
 Prior to iS6o the average Indian ex- 
 
 opening of the American market, and 
 the Indian exportation immediately fell 
 off to eight million a year. Perhaps no 
 other world market of a great product, 
 balancing at its two poles eight thou- 
 sand miles apart, has e\-er exhibited so 
 remarkable a fluctuation. 
 
 Next after cotton may be ranked the 
 jute of India. It is virtually a hemp, 
 though the fiber is .somewhat coarser. 
 The region of its production is confined
 
 704 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 to Bengal, on the north and east. The 
 
 cliicf seat of the product is in the valley 
 
 of the Brahmaputra, where 
 
 The jute Indus- „ . , 
 
 try: extent of the jute flourishes in the 
 epro uc . highest degree. It is 
 believed that no other product which 
 has reached to the rank of an important 
 e.xport has done so much in a reactionary 
 way for the comfort of the producers as 
 jute. It is one of those peculiar prod- 
 
 Of the purely European products 
 which have been introduced into In- 
 dia, indigo is entitled to the 
 
 ° . Large place df 
 
 first rank ; but the interest indigo in Indian 
 
 .. , 11- 1 ■ ii commerce. 
 
 in It has declined in the 
 last quarter of a century. In North 
 Behar the industry is as important as 
 ever, and from this single district about 
 half the product of the entire country is 
 derived. The exports of the dye from 
 
 OPIUM MANUh AC rORY.— Drawn by A. Sirouy, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 ucts which does not perish when placed 
 in depot from season to .season, and the 
 supply, therefore, may be regulated by 
 the producer according to the demands 
 of the market. In 1872 a million a(?fes 
 were planted in jute, and it is estimated 
 that the area of country in which it may 
 be profitably produced extends to over 
 twenty million of acres. The export 
 from Calcutta has amounted in a single 
 year to more than four million pounds 
 sterling. 
 
 all India amounted in the years 1878-79 
 to nearly three million pounds sterling. 
 
 But the most profitable of the East 
 Indian industries, so far as exportation 
 is concerned, is that of opium. The 
 valley of the Ganges and the table-land of 
 Central India are as much Extent, impor- 
 a native place of the opium- Tolllt^^r" 
 producing poppy as is Per- duction. 
 sia herself. The production of opium in 
 India is under the control of the govern- 
 ment. In some districts the growth of
 
 THE IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 
 
 705 
 
 the drug is free, and the opium is sub- 
 jected to a duty in passing through 
 Bombay for exportation. In the valley 
 of the Ganges the product is under su- 
 pervision of government agencies estab- 
 lished at Ghazeepur and Patna, and at 
 these two places the opium is manufac- 
 tured for exportation. In Rajputana and 
 
 had risen to a value of nearly thirteen 
 million pounds, and from this a net rev- 
 enue was derived by the government 
 of .seven million seven hundred pounds 
 sterling. 
 
 The tobacco plant grows everywhere 
 in India. It may be said to ilourish ; all 
 the natural conditions for the product 
 
 TEA PLAN'T.\TIO.\ IN THK VALLEY OF K AX( ;RA.— Drawn by Paul Langlois, from a photograph. 
 
 the Punjab the drug is al.so produced, 
 but only for local consumption. In the 
 other provinces under the dominion of 
 Great Britain the production of opium is 
 prohibited. The census of 1872 showed 
 an area of five hundred and sixty thou- 
 sand acres in poppy cultivation. The 
 revenue derived by the government in 
 this year was over four million pounds 
 sterling. In 1878-79 the exportation 
 
 Indian tobacco ; 
 
 the markets of the inferiority of 
 
 are favorable ; but the quality of the 
 leaf has never found favor 
 in 
 
 world. Indian tobacco is ^^'^° 
 unable to compete with the richly fla- 
 I vored growth of the West Indies and the 
 United States. Tobacco is grown, how- 
 ever, in all parts of the country for native 
 consumption. In the Coimbatore and 
 Aladur? districts in iladras the variety
 
 706 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JMAXKEXD. 
 
 of the plant from which 7 rn/iiiio/^o/i clu- 
 root is manufactured, flourishes, and this 
 is the only tobacco product which com- 
 petes with that of the West in the mar- 
 kets of Europe. There is, however, an 
 exportation of tobacco from Bengal into 
 British Burmah, where the plant does 
 not flourish. Notwithstanding the wide 
 distribution of the growth of tobacco in 
 India, the importation at Calcutta has 
 amounted to forty million pounds in a 
 single year. 
 
 Neither coffee nor tea may be regard- 
 ed as native products of India. The 
 former has been introduced within the 
 historical period bv the na- 
 
 Coffee and tea 
 
 not properly na- tivcs, and thelatter at a time 
 
 tive to India. , . , , i. i t7 
 
 still more recent, by Eu- 
 ropeans. The cultivation of coffee is 
 limited to a portion of the Western Ghats 
 and to certain districts in Mysore and 
 Madras. The export of coffee in 1 878-79 
 was valued at a million and a half pounds 
 sterling. The reports of early explorers 
 that the tea plant grew wild in the south- 
 ern valleys of the Himalayas were with- 
 out foundation in fact. It is only in 
 As.sam that the true Tlica viridis will 
 flourish without cultivation. In this re- 
 gion it attains the proportions of a real 
 tree, and it is believed by botanists that 
 here is the native place of the plant, and 
 that it was carried hence in early times 
 into China. 
 
 Many other products of great impor- 
 tance might be enumerated as belonging 
 peculiarly to India, but the 
 above are sufficient to in- 
 dicate the general charac- 
 ter of the grain and other animal and 
 vegetable resources of the countrv. In 
 general, everything is rank. The high 
 heat and abundant moisture in the val- 
 leys stimulate vegetation, and bring all 
 manner of fruits and grains to early ma- 
 turity. Three crops annually are not 
 
 Indian vegeta- 
 tion favored by 
 stimulating con- 
 ditions. 
 
 unusual on the same fields. In the great- 
 er part of the country the winter is not 
 sufficiently rigorous seriously to impede 
 the work in fields and gardens. 
 
 The rainfall ranges from twenty-four 
 inches in the drier districts to nearly 
 one hundred and twenty-three inches in 
 the rice regions of the south. The rains 
 are periodic, being the re- precipitation 
 suit of the monsoon, or sea totwei?h°"' 
 wind, wliich blows steadily rate, 
 at certain .seasons, bringing on and main- 
 taining a steady and copious rainfall. It 
 is from the occasional, though rare, fail- 
 ure of this monsoon that famine has at 
 intervals possessed the land. In the 
 years 1876-78 nearh- the whole of In- 
 dia was afflicted by the partial or total 
 failure of crops. In 1877 the death 
 rate rose, on account of the famine, 
 from six hundred and eighty thousand 
 to a million five hundred thousand. 
 The most strenuous efforts of the gov- 
 ernment were not sufficient to prevent 
 widespread and dreadful starvation. For 
 two years the monsoons failed to return 
 at the appointed season, and the country 
 was helpless in the grip of drought. 
 
 We are now able, from a wide view 
 of the re.sources of India, of the charac- 
 ter of the race predominant therein, of 
 
 the effects which climatic Physical degen- 
 eration result- 
 
 and other johysical condi- ant from condi- 
 
 ., ... tions present in 
 
 tions naturally entail on india. 
 man, and of the contact and intermix- 
 ture of diff'erent races, to estimate, 
 though imperfectly, the nature and di- 
 rection of the human evolution, and of 
 ] the aspects which mankind would be 
 likely to assume under such conditions 
 and environment. On the whole, we 
 should expect a certain degree of phys- 
 ical degeneration. That the climate of 
 India is effeminating in its effects on 
 man has been plainly demonstrated by 
 actual observation in modern times. It
 
 THE IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 
 
 707 
 
 Is a general law that the subsidence into 
 agricultural life from the nomadic pur- 
 suit, with its accompanying excitements 
 of the chase and tribal warfare, exercises 
 a deleterious effect on the physical con- 
 stitution of man. It is a change from a 
 wider and freer and less toilsome mode 
 of activity, from a life of hazard and 
 wild excitements, to the more localized 
 and mure laborious methods of the hus- 
 
 tending the activity of human life. 
 What may be called the science of diet 
 is still in its infancy. To importance of 
 no class of students is the ^XtA'i''tofi.'l 
 
 relation to race 
 
 subject of greater inter- character, 
 est than to those who are curious in his- 
 torical and ethnic inquiry. What is the 
 law of the maintenance of life by food? 
 What shall be eaten as most conducive 
 t(j strength, to longevity, to the support 
 
 ASPECIS OF INDIAN LIFE.— Repose at NoONDAV.-Drann bv F. Reg.imey, from i 
 
 bandman. It is not meant that the ag- 
 ricultural life is without great value in 
 maintaining the physical vigor of those 
 who follow it, but the toil and tameness 
 which are inseparable therefrom are not 
 favorable to the highest development 
 and greatest vigor of the human frame. 
 We are here again on the ver}- border 
 of that world-wide problem of the rela- 
 tive effect and value of the different 
 foods in su.staining the vigor an-^ «x- 
 
 of all the virile energies of man ? What 
 may be known scientifically on this sub- 
 ject over and above that simple folklore 
 which the untutored experience and tra- 
 dition of human kind has transmitted to 
 our age? 
 
 Foods have been subjected to a .scien- 
 tific classification. They are divided by 
 physiologists into liydrocarboiis, carbohy- 
 drates, and iiitrogcuous foods ; and it .is 
 novv well ascertained that each of these
 
 708 
 
 GREAT RACES OF J/A.V/k/.VD. 
 
 classes of aliments has its particular 
 value and relation to the physical consti- 
 tution of man. The char- 
 
 Classification of . . 
 
 foods ; the hy- actcHstic of the hvurocar- 
 drocarbonates. ,^^^^^ .^ ^^^^ presence and 
 
 excess of oil. This generally exists in 
 the form of animal fats, though oil is 
 also a large product of the vegetable 
 kingdom. But the most concentrated 
 and characteristic development of this 
 food substance is in the fatty tissue of 
 animals. From the earliest ages men 
 have used this substance for the support 
 of life. It is, however, in the more rig- 
 orous climates that the appetency of the 
 human being for animal food of this de- 
 scription is most intense. There is a 
 law of natural selection which indicates 
 a diminishing quantity of the hydrocar- 
 bons as the human race spreads toward 
 the tropics. There is little or no nat- 
 ural appetite for animal oils in the 
 warmer climates. 
 
 The second class of foods are the car- 
 bohydrates. In these there is an ex- 
 The carbohy- ccss of starch or sugar, 
 foodsc'o>7stf.* J"st as in the hydrocarbons 
 tute this class, there is an excess of oil. 
 The cereals and certain ground products, 
 such as the potato, may be taken as the 
 standard^examples of the carbohydrate 
 foods. Rice is of this kind par excel- 
 lence. It will be seen at a glance that 
 the great products of the earth gener- 
 ally yield a high per cent of starch, and 
 in so far as the productive regions of 
 the globe lie within the temperate zones 
 and become more intense in productive 
 energy in the tropics, to that extent the 
 starch-bearing foods are prevalent in the 
 same regions. In general, the line be- 
 tween the hj^drocarbon and the carbo- 
 hydrate aliments, upon which for the 
 most part all animated forms of ex- 
 istence are .sustained on tlie earth, is 
 practically coincident with the line which 
 
 divides the animal from the vegetable 
 kingdom ; that is, the fat-bearing ani- 
 mals from the field products and ground 
 crops, which are starch-bearing. 
 
 The third variety includes the ni- 
 trogenous foods. All highly organized 
 tissue, whether animal or The nitrogenous 
 vegetable, contains a per- f:::^^^'Xos. 
 centage of nitrogen. This phates. 
 is generally the fourth element in the 
 quadruple compounds which constitute 
 so large a part of the organic substances 
 of the material world. Nitrogen occurs 
 in all leguminous plants and grains, and 
 particularly in the muscular fibers of all 
 animals. It is a principal constituent of 
 " lean meat," its presence being as con- 
 stant and conspicuous in such fiber as is 
 carbon in the fats and oils. Among veg- 
 etable products all pulse grains, siich as 
 peas and beans, are rich in the same 
 element. 
 
 Besides the three general classes of 
 foods here enumerated, there is a fourth 
 class, though scarcelv distinct from the 
 others, in which certain valuable salts 
 are the meritorious element. These 
 are principally the phosphates of lime, 
 of potash, of soda, and of iron, without 
 which as constituents of human food 
 the rrervous energy of the body can not 
 be long sustained. These salts are dis- 
 tributed in both the animal and the veg- 
 etable kingdoms, perhaps more plenti- 
 fully in the latter (?), and it is now a 
 well-known fact that the nervous vigor of 
 animals turns largely upon the percent- 
 age of the phosphates in the substances 
 upon which they feed. 
 
 Now it is the adjustment of the human 
 race to these different classes of foods, 
 
 as well as to the different Race character 
 
 climates of the earth, that ^HCTt^e 
 determines the race tend- kind of food, 
 ency of every people. This is said, first 
 of all, of the physical constitution which
 
 ^m^r.y^^ 
 
 iii 
 
 ■fc 
 
 Vf", '
 
 710 
 
 GREAT RACES OE .UA.VAYXP. 
 
 will be developed in a given environ- 
 ment, and afterwards of the modes of 
 activity and mental dispcfsitions which 
 the given people will display. In a 
 country where muscular exertion is es- 
 sential to life and welfare, and t where 
 man must brace himself stoutly against 
 the opposition of the elements — must face 
 angry vicissitudes of climate and season, 
 the hardships of sterility, the obstacles 
 of heavy forests and oozy rivers with un- 
 determined channels — there must needs 
 be a perpetual feeding upon those ele- 
 ments of nature which furnish the es- 
 sentials of human energy under such 
 conditions. Here it is that man mu.st 
 fill himself with an abundance of solid 
 food. Under the action of an untutored 
 instinct at first and the discipline of 
 right reason afterwards, he slays the 
 living creatures and eats their tissiies 
 and the fat. 
 
 It is in the nature of the hydrocarbon 
 foods to supply him with heat. That is 
 The office of the physiological office of 
 S^ra'dn.- all the Oil-producing sub- 
 trogenous foods, stances of the vegetable 
 kingdom, and particularly of the fat of 
 animals. By this means the superior 
 races feed the fires of life amid the 
 rigors of northern climates. There is 
 an aspect in which man may be viewed 
 as a living furnace. His stomach is a 
 firebox; and nothing that he can cast 
 therein flames like oil. Thus he warms 
 himself, and goes abroad unharmed 
 amid the terrors of the high latitudes, 
 where all forms of life not supported 
 like his own must inevitably perish. 
 But he not only feeds himself with oil. 
 If he is in a region where active exertion 
 is demanded, where the excitements of 
 the chase, the adventures of the Avide 
 campaign, the struggle with the obdu- 
 racy of physical nature, and particularly 
 the flaming excitements of war call out 
 
 his energies, he must support his mus- 
 cular system with an abundant supply 
 of nitrogenous foods. Hence he falls 
 upon and devours the dry meats and the 
 fresh tissues of slain animals, and from 
 this source builds up anew the broken 
 structure of his own muscles, exhausted 
 by toil and strain. 
 
 The kind of activity contemplated 
 imder the stimulus of foods like those 
 we have here described is in -what relation 
 not the activity of mere f;j::'::^ll,. 
 indu.stry. There may be "'•^"y ^^sed. 
 long continued assiduity of application 
 to industrial pursuits without that kind 
 of muscular destruction, without that 
 combustion of the hydrocarbons, which 
 is here delineated. The agricultural 
 life in its milder aspects does not demand 
 the high feeding that is an essential in 
 heroic endeavor. It requires rather a 
 i certain steady force, such as is gener- 
 I ated from the carbohydrate elements. 
 All agricultural countries fall to the use 
 of grains and vegetables, and to a cer- 
 tain extent abandon animal food. In 
 proportion as the country lies well to the 
 south, the relinquishment of the hydro- 
 carbons will be more complete, and food 
 will be almost exclusively drawn from 
 the field, the orchard, and the garden. 
 
 These carboliAxlrates ai^e the producers 
 of force. The starch foods taken inta 
 the human constitution Effects of such 
 pass by metamorphosis in- ^^^^eonsmu"^" 
 to sugar and from sugar ^^°^- 
 into oil. In the last named form they 
 are consumed. He who demands simple 
 working energy without regard to the 
 waste of his muscular tissue will turn 
 instinctively to the cereals and fruits. 
 Ultimately this tendency lands on rice 
 and potatoes. In countries where nature 
 brings forth abundantly of the cereals, 
 where all ground crops are plentiful and 
 fruits abundant, there will be afi i/ievi-
 
 712 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXA'EVD. 
 
 table shrinkage of tlic muscular parts of 
 ail anitiials. Man subsisting on such a 
 food will become assiduous in his ap- 
 plication, even persistent in his pursuits. 
 He may be lithe and active, supple- 
 jointed and quick in movement, but he 
 will be essentially weak in his skeleton 
 and muscular structure. 
 
 Here we have the fundamental condi- 
 tions which have divided the Aryan race 
 The Hindu body iu India from the Iranians 
 and from the great races 
 of the West. The Hindu 
 body is the result of a long discipline in 
 
 the result of the 
 long discipline 
 ot nature. 
 
 HINDU JEWELER AT WORK. 
 Drawn by A. de Xeuville. 
 
 the hands of nature. It has been con- 
 stituted under the enervating infliiences 
 of a semitropical or wholly tropical cli- 
 mate, combined with the resttlts of the 
 substitution of the carbohydrates for the 
 hydrocarbons and nitrogenous foods of 
 the great northern peoples. 
 
 As the man is individually, so is his 
 ^ ,j tribe, his nation, his race. 
 
 Same laws hold 
 
 of the race as of India is not wanting in the 
 the mstn. i • i f , • ■, 
 
 display of active and per- 
 sistent industry, but the industry it- 
 self is as feeble as it is persistent. The 
 
 tremendous energies displayed by Some 
 of the Western nations in their mas- 
 terful struggle with an adverse envi- 
 ronment in subordinating the forces of 
 nature, in organizing the astounding ap- 
 paratus of commerce, in planting political 
 dominion even at the distance of thou- 
 sands of miles from its central source, 
 are set in vivid and exalted contrast 
 with the timid> and effeminate exer- 
 tions peculiar to the same stock of 
 men as they have grown into mere 
 suppleness under the influences of the 
 Indian sun and the enfeebling tenden- 
 cy of the starch- 
 bearing foods. 
 • .■.' .'. " One must needs 
 
 .' ' • •" ..-V. / travel through the 
 
 Indian kingdoms 
 to be properly im- 
 pressed with the 
 physical character 
 of the people. The 
 high-caste Brah- 
 mans, especially 
 in the north, have 
 preserved to some 
 extent the fine 
 stature and man- 
 ly bearing of their 
 A r }• a n f o r e - 
 fathers ; but as a 
 rule, the j)eople 
 are not onl}- low, but slender. They are 
 weak-muscled, and have weakness of the 
 nothing left of that ag- grs^sTenincf 
 gressive physical force andciim.ate. 
 which the old stock possessed in its an- 
 cestral home and Avhich has been so 
 strongly developed in the Indo-Euro- 
 peans of the West. It is claimed that 
 Hindu laborers are as industrious as any 
 in the world. Their assiduity can not 
 be denied, but assiduity is not strength. 
 The race is weak. It lacks in courage 
 and audacity. It has fallen into a
 
 THE IXDICA XS. —RESOURCES. 
 
 713 
 
 Ethnic life the 
 Joint product of 
 subjective and 
 objective condi- 
 tions. 
 
 passive condition which has in it neither i 
 power nor progress. 
 
 It is held by a certain class of think- 
 ers that no people can ever be pow- | 
 erful and progressive ' 
 whose principal subsist- 
 ence is on rice and other 
 starch-bearing products. This is look- ' 
 ing at the problem of life as merely a 
 physical phenomenon. It does not take 
 into consideration those other elements 
 which we have previously discussed. It 
 is sufficient to repeat that a race of men 
 as it presents itself in modern times is the 
 joint product of two principal forces, one 
 of which is .subjective or instinctive in 
 the race itself, and the other an objective, 
 or reactionary physical force, including 
 the elements of climate, food, and shel- 
 ter. The Hindus have been thus evolved 
 from the old prehistoric condition in 
 which we beheld them in their Iranian 
 homestead and in their migrations to 
 the East. They have been carried for- 
 ward on the line of race development by 
 the force of instincts which have deter- 
 mined in large measure their mental 
 and moral characteristics, and by phys- 
 ical agencies which have given to the 
 race its visible aspect and character. 
 
 Among the other physical conditions 
 
 that have modified the race constitution 
 
 of the Hindus mav be men- 
 
 Precious stones . ' . . 
 
 in relation to tioncd the peculiar min- 
 
 race character. , /• ji , t 
 
 erals of the countr}-. In 
 ancient times, and to a limited extent at 
 the present day, India is the country of 
 precious stones. Besides the usual de- 
 posits of the metals which provoked at a 
 very early day a considerable degree of 
 skill in metallurgy, the diamond mines 
 and other deposits of tho.se rare stones 
 which have been classified as precious 
 have attracted the' cupidity and excited 
 the pride of the Hindu race. Without 
 diamonds and other gems of great value 
 
 M — Vol. 1—46 
 
 such a thing as Oriental magnificence 
 could hardly exist. Barbaric state, .such 
 as Eastern monarchs in the iliddle Ages 
 and even in modern times are wont to 
 maintain and which constitutes so large 
 an element in personal despotism, could 
 hardly continue without the blaze of 
 precious stones. Indeed, no civilized 
 society in the world has as j-et freed it- 
 self from the illusion of diamonds. The 
 name of Golconda, the old capital of the 
 Deccan, has passed into the literature of 
 all nations as a synonym for that kind 
 of splendor which blazes from precious 
 stones. 
 
 True it is that recent investiga- 
 tions have destroyed a part of the tra- 
 ditional gloiy possessed bv Golcondathe 
 
 this city as the native place ^:^L°ringTn°d"'' 
 of diamonds, but it was stone-cutting, 
 nevertheless the greatest seat of gem- 
 cutting and precious stone Avork known 
 in the Middle Ages, and perhaps in the 
 history of the human race. Xot without 
 its effect upon the character of the Hin- 
 dus as a people was the gathering, the 
 wearing, the exhibition, and the com. 
 merce in precious stones. All this im- 
 parted much of the Oriental character to 
 Indian civilization. The nabob of to- 
 day has many traits which depend, if 
 not for their existence, at least for their 
 manifestation, on the presence in his 
 country of precious mines, with the 
 trea.sures of which he maintains his 
 grandeur and pride. It was this form 
 of barbaiic magnificence which contrib- 
 uted to Milton's pictured page one of his 
 
 " High on a thione of royal state whicli far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind." 
 
 The attention of the reader has been 
 called to the fact that iron is the last of 
 the ofreat metals now in use to be discov- 
 ered and extracted from the matrix.
 
 714 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JlfANKlXD. 
 
 The forbidding and refractory character 
 of the ore impeded the manufacture of 
 iron until Ion'"- after the other tnetals 
 
 the most useful of the metals. Iron 
 mines abound in all parts of India. 
 There is scarcely a district between the 
 
 DIAMOND .\UNE OF PUNNAH 
 
 that exist in the native state had been 
 brought out and employed 
 
 -Drawn Ijy Kniilu B;i)aid. 
 
 The working of 
 
 iron originated in the arts. It was in this 
 
 in India. . , . _ , . , 
 
 land of India that the Ar- 
 yan race first succeeded in mastering the 
 difficulties in the way and brought forth 
 
 mountains of Assam and the soutiiern 
 parts of Madras in which mines arc not 
 abundant. The ore is purer than that 
 of almost any other region in the eai-th. 
 It is this circumstance, together with the 
 antiquity and ingenuity of the race, that
 
 THE INDICANS.— RESOURCES. 
 
 715 
 
 Method of 
 smelting and 
 excellence of 
 product. 
 
 has made India the first cotmtry of the 
 world in which iron has been manufac- 
 tured. 
 
 The indigenous method of smelting 
 the ore is still preserved. The very 
 same processes which were 
 employed at the beginning 
 of the historical era are 
 still in vogue. The great drawback 
 upon the success of the method employed 
 is the wasteful consumption of 
 charcoal. Where iron is smelted 
 in the open air there must be high 
 heat, long preserved, with the 
 consequent large consump- 
 tion of fuel. From time im- 
 memorial the native races of 
 
 appear that this metal was in use before 
 this time. From India the knowledge 
 of the processes of smelting the ore, and 
 the superiority of the metal thus ob- 
 tained over every other employed in the 
 arts, was in course of time recognized 
 even to the extreme limits of Europe. 
 
 Copper mines are also frequent in In- 
 dia. The best of all are found in the 
 skirts of the Himalayas, in the hill-coun- 
 try lying eastward of 
 Kumaon. The manu- 
 facture of copper has 
 remained to the pres- 
 ent day in the hands 
 of the natives. The 
 region where the ore 
 is abundant is almost 
 
 COPPER VESSELS OF HINDU WORKMANSHIP.-Drawn by Schmidt, from the originals. 
 
 India have succeeded in producing one 
 of the purest and best articles of 
 wrought iron known to men. Since 
 the creation of the East Indian em- 
 pire, much foreign capital has been 
 expended in establishing works and col- 
 lieries in the country; and modern sci- 
 ence applied to the problem of extracting 
 the ore has greatly increased the quan- 
 tity, but not the quality, of the metal. 
 It was after the incoming of the Aryan 
 population into India that the manufac- 
 ture of iron was discovered. It does not 
 
 inaccessible, and the capital of the West 
 has not \-et made its way 
 
 Mining of cop- 
 mtO the country. The per and method 
 
 I .. ,11 of manufacture. 
 
 deposits are worked b}- 
 the miners of Nepal, according to 
 the methods which have become tra- 
 ditional through lapse of time. In 
 many districts old abandoned copper 
 mines are found, indicating the antiquity 
 of the knowledge of copper in India. 
 The process of working is primitive and 
 simple. Holes are carried into the earthy 
 following the vagaries of the deposit^
 
 716 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 until the region is burrowed as if gigan- 
 tic conies or rabbits had selected the place 
 for their cities. When the ore is taken 
 out it is pounded up with an iron sledge 
 and smelted on the spot of its delivery. 
 
 It is not needed that the lead mines of 
 
 the Himalayas and the Punjab should 
 
 be described. Tin is found 
 
 The Indian lead . ^ , , ^^ 
 
 mines; antimony m Burmali, where the ore 
 an petro eum. j.yjjg ,^g ^jgh as Seventy 
 
 per cent of pure metal. The mines are 
 worked by the Chinese, with whom all 
 improvement is innovation. Antimony is 
 found in the hill-countries of the Punjab, 
 and also in Mysore. In Burmah rich 
 deposits of petroleum have been discov- 
 ered, and the annual yield in the hands 
 of European enterprise has risen to eleven 
 thousand tons. In the Punjab the petro- 
 leum wells are managed as a branch of 
 the public works. 
 
 The river beds of India are generally 
 laid with a nodular form of limestone. 
 Distribution of This rock has subserved 
 snit"ab\lfor"°' the usual purposes from 
 pottery. the earliest ages. At the 
 
 present time it is taken up and em- 
 ployed in large quantities in macadamiz- 
 . ing roadbeds. In the Khasia hills in 
 Assam there are limestone quarries from 
 which building material has been im- 
 memorially taken. In Bankura, also, 
 
 there are valuable ledges of the same 
 stone. The lower valley of the Ganges 
 has suffered the same inconvenience as 
 did that of the Euphrates and Tigris 
 after their descent to the alluvial plain. 
 In the Ganges valley there is no lime- 
 stone, nor indeed any adequate building 
 materials. The soil, moreover, is not 
 suitable for the manufacture of either 
 bricks or pottery. Since the domination 
 of Great Britain was establisiied in 
 India, pottery works have been built in 
 Bardwan, but these are devoted only to 
 the manufacture of drainage pipes and 
 the coarser form of stoneware. 
 
 In all the vast upland region between 
 the two principal rivers of India, build- 
 ing stone is abundant. In Rajputana 
 that pink marble out of which the old 
 temple and palace of Agra were reared 
 is found. In Godaverv 
 
 ' Quarries of mar- 
 aud JN'arbada sandstone bie, slate, and 
 
 abounds, and Southern In- ™''^^' 
 
 dia is i-ich in granite. vSince the incoming 
 
 of European caj^ital the slate quarries 
 
 have been opened, also mines of mica 
 
 and talc. Finally, the hills of Oris.sa 
 
 and Chuta-Nagpur abound in a variety 
 
 of indurated potstone, out of which 
 
 vessels of utility and others of ornament 
 
 are manufactured with that skill for 
 
 which the art of India is famous. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI.— Ethnic Characteristics. 
 
 HEN a race of men 
 has long occupied a 
 land so varied in its 
 resources and physical 
 character as India, it 
 \ is natural, inevitable, 
 that there shall be a 
 diverse ethnic development. The peo- 
 ple of one part of the country will be 
 
 formed upon conditions different from 
 those in another. In the Diverse develop. 
 
 ment follows 
 
 case of a stock .so conserva- long occupancy 
 
 i.' ii i 1 • 1 11 in -wide coun- 
 
 tive as that which peopled tries. 
 India, tlie diversit}' of social forms and 
 of ethnic character would be strongly 
 marked. After the settled estate had 
 once prevailed among the tribes, each 
 would develop on its own lines and reach
 
 THE IN Die A NS. —E THNIC CHA RA C TERIS TICS. 
 
 717 
 
 Sanskrit the 
 original of the 
 Hindu lan- 
 
 a different result. The absorption of 
 the aboriginal population would greatly 
 contribute also to the divergent tend- 
 
 R:^a1 ^T( ^Ttrs^ afs flTa fsii ' ^=1^=^, c^ ^■^\^ 
 
 5tJ3I? Si5T ft^ ^ '^^.''R^ ^t^ ITS I 
 
 SPECIMEN OF SANSKKli'. 
 
 ency. In a preliterarj' age dialectic 
 tendencies would shoot out over the sur- 
 face like growing vines, and in course of 
 time the inhabitants of one district 
 would no longer understand the vernac- 
 ular of another. 
 
 In India these dialectic departures 
 w^ere all made from the common linguis- 
 tic form called Sanskrit. 
 It was that sacred primitive 
 guages. language which grew to 
 
 maturity of grammatical form and into 
 a fixed vocabulary on the tongues of the 
 Vedic poets. The speech once established 
 in structure and phraseology in the 
 sacred hymns would no longer suffer 
 inflection, no longer present the phe- 
 nomena of growth. The Old Aryan 
 tongue became crystalized in the Vedas. 
 It was Sans kr at a, the " perfect speech." 
 And to speak the truth, among languages 
 developed into literary form by the 
 genius of man, only the Greek is able to 
 compete in the perfection of its structure 
 and methods with the old Sanskrit as it 
 was uttered two thousand years before 
 our era by the Vedic bards. 
 
 This old Sanskrit literature has dis- 
 seminated through all the Aryan tongues 
 of India a common element to which we 
 may give the name of Hindi, the lan- 
 guage of the Hindus. This 
 Hindic element in the 
 tongues of Hindustan is 
 much like the Latin element in the Ro- 
 mance languages of Western Europe 
 and South America. As the scholar 
 
 Hindi corre- 
 sponds to the 
 Latin stage in 
 Western devel- 
 opment. 
 
 wanders through France and Italy, 
 through Spain and Portugal, through 
 Wallachia and Brazil, he sees and hears 
 evermore the movement and rhythm of 
 the old Latin tongue out of which the 
 vernaculars of ail these people have 
 grown into literary forms, diverse among 
 themselves, but common in a single ori- 
 gin. So also with the Hindic element in 
 the languages of India. 
 
 As are the languages, so are the peo- 
 ples. Perhaps the first and most dis- 
 tinct etlmic division of the Cashmerians 
 
 Indie race is the Cashmeri- ^teX'^in-"* 
 ans. They are the best dicans. 
 representatives of the early Indicans, and 
 through them the clearest retrospective 
 glance may be had at the race character 
 of the original Aryans who peopled the 
 Punjab. Only in one respect do the 
 Cashmerians fail best of all to represent 
 and reflect the ancient and essential 
 character of the Indie branch of the Ar- 
 yan family of men. In religion they 
 
 SACKED INSCRlrnON FROM THE VEDA. 
 
 have largely apostatized from Brahman- 
 ism and accepted the faith of the Arabian 
 prophet. They have thus become in-
 
 718 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 fected on the religious and linguistic 
 side of their development by foreign in- 
 fluences deduced from the Arabian des- 
 ert, from Islam, from Shem. 
 
 The Cashmerians are the most north- 
 erly division of the Hindu race, being 
 above the inhabitants of the Punjab. 
 They have developed their own tongues, 
 their own manners, their own institu- 
 tions, having, of course, a common basis 
 with the other Hindu races. Many of 
 
 '^^qrf^ i^^^ IFTcT^T ^^T -^X f^ilT 
 
 |m xn;^ ^^^ '^ft'^^ "^^ ' • 
 
 
 VARIANT FORMS OK SANSKRIT. 
 I. Hindi ; 2. Punjabi. 
 
 them have retained the old faith of the 
 Brahmans. 
 
 Perhaps the climate of Cashmere has 
 Climate and en- been more favorable to the 
 ^lt:^:tltr maintenance of the original 
 race integrity, character of the race than 
 in any other district of India. The range 
 of the thermometer does not reach above 
 eighty-five degrees F, at noon in sum- 
 mer time. The heat, however, is op- 
 pressive, owing to the stillness of the 
 summer air. In winter the temperature 
 sinks miich below the freezing point, and 
 snow is abundant. The conditions are 
 such as to favor physical perfection. The 
 Cashmerians are not only the handsom- 
 est of the Indian races, but are fairly 
 esteemed among the peoples of the West. 
 The men are tall, sinewy, and robust. 
 It is conceded that the complexion of the 
 women is one of the best, if not the fair- 
 
 est, in the world, and the female features 
 possess many other elements of beauty. 
 The people of Cashmere are noted for 
 their gayety of demeanor. They are 
 fond of pleasures. Music 
 
 Intellectual and 
 
 and dancing are the preva- sociaiufe of the 
 
 1 . i 1 i 1-i Cashmerians. 
 
 lent amusements, but liter- 
 ature, especially in the form of poetry, 
 is cultivated. The Cashmerians have 
 obtained, and perhaps retained, one of 
 the worst reputations as it respects mor- 
 al character that any modern people of 
 like development has possessed withal. 
 Not that they are sunk in debasing vices. 
 Quite on the contrary, their manners 
 and social criteria are so high as to be 
 accepted even in the civilized countries 
 of the West. In respect to manners, the 
 Cashmerians may be properly styled the 
 French of India; but they are the most 
 cunning, and perhaps the most avari- 
 cious of modern peoples, and their fame 
 for lying is infamous. Cashmere has 
 suffered to an unusual degree within the 
 present century by natural disasters and 
 the half-natural visitations of pestilence 
 and famine. The country is visited with 
 earthquakes; and it has been estimated 
 that since the establishment of the Brit- 
 ish East Indian empire the population 
 of certain districts has been reduced to 
 one fourth of the original number. 
 
 The people of the Punjab lie in eth- 
 nic character close to those of Cashmere. 
 Indeed, there is no nat- points of di- 
 ural line of demarkation JlX^.^^i^L 
 between the two countries and Punjabese. 
 either in geography or ethnic develop, 
 ment. Mohammedanism, however, has 
 not gained the ascendency in the one coun- 
 try as it has in the other, and the dialec- 
 tical difference between the language of 
 the Punjab and that of the Cashmerians 
 is sufficient to classify the peoples as dis- 
 tinct. The population numbers nearly 
 twenty million. The country is suffi-
 
 THE IXDICAXS.— ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 719 
 
 ciently irregular in outline to have pre- 
 served, as in Cashmere, many of the 
 ori«-inal features of the Arvan race. In 
 both language and religion they lie 
 nearer to the primitive type than do the 
 Cashmerians. Not only have they re- 
 sisted the propagandism of Islam, but 
 they have a strong antipathy for the fol- 
 
 Next in order of the Indian popula- 
 tions may be mentioned the great race 
 of the Mahrattas. They are so called 
 from the Sanskrit name 
 Maharashtra, the ancient S^^^^'St^a^f 
 designation for the "Great 
 Kingdom," or region. The country in- 
 habited by them extends from the Ara- 
 
 VIEW IX CASHMERE. — \'ALi ev of the Tirtan. — nr3\\n by G. \'iiil!ier, from a photograph by Bourne. 
 
 lowers of the Prophet, whom they despise 
 as aliens in faith and nationality. As the 
 original seat of the earliest Aryan in- 
 stitutions, the Punjab -will ever remain 
 a field of interest for the ethnologist and 
 historian. It is, geographically speak- 
 ing, to the Aryan nations what Italy is 
 to Southern Europe — the ancient seat 
 whence conquest spread and institution- 
 al forms were exported to foreign parts. 
 
 bian sea on the west to the Satpura moun- 
 tains in the north. It includes the 
 larger part of Western and Central 
 India. By this designation are covered 
 the provinces of Comean, Kandashesh, 
 Berar, the Briti.sh Deccan, half of the 
 Nizam's Deccan, and a part of Nagpur. 
 Within the limits here defined, the 
 Mahratta population numbers about 
 twelve million. Considered as an eth-
 
 
 ASPECTS OF CASHMERIAN LIFE.- Uavcinc Gi«l of Serinagur.— Drawn bv EmUt Bayard.
 
 THE INDiCA NS.—E THXIC CHA RA C TliRlS TIL S. 
 
 721 
 
 ratta popula- 
 tion ; the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 nic term, Mahratta is not definitive. 
 Neither is it the name for a particular 
 Extent of Mah- social caste or a given re- 
 ligion. It is rather one of 
 those wide terms which 
 history demands in the definition of a 
 race somewhat composite in ethnic ele- 
 ments, and even diverse in religious and 
 social qualities. vStill the diversity is not 
 sufficient to warrant a division into 
 separate tribes. The common tie which 
 binds the several peoples living within 
 the regions defined above is language. 
 They speak the }ilahratti, one of the 
 most widespread of the modern Indian 
 tongues. In common with the other 
 Indie languages, it is a dialectical form 
 of Hindi, difiiering only from Hindu- 
 stani as French differs from Italian. 
 Though the tribes of ]Mahrattas are 
 somewhat distinct in the different prov- 
 inces, they are all true Indicans. We 
 have Mahratta Brahmans, Mahratta 
 Rajputs, and Mahratta Kumbis for the 
 names of the several castes, all Mah- 
 rattas, but having nonintercourse with 
 each other, from the same prejudices 
 which prevail in other parts of India. 
 
 In so far as the ^Mahratta race has 
 fallen under the dominion of Great Brit- 
 ain, as in the Deccan, it 
 
 Variation in 
 
 character from has preserved to a consider- 
 
 foreign impact. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ features of 
 
 the original stock from which it is 
 descended; but in the Nizam's Deccan 
 the people have yielded to the ]\Ioham- 
 medan pressure, and to that extent have 
 taken the character of the Islamites. In 
 other districts the race is comparatively 
 pure. Of these, Kolhpur, in the vSouth- 
 ern Deccan, is perhaps the best e.xample. 
 The states of Sinde, Indore, and a 
 part of Gujerat are nominally native, 
 but have been considerably subjected to 
 foreign influences. The native Mahratta 
 princes and the attaches of their barbaric 
 
 T mans the high- 
 est type of 
 
 courts are ^lahrattas, but a large part 
 of the people arc Hindus from other 
 regions. 
 
 The Mahratta Brahmans may be named 
 as the best exemplars of the qualities and 
 character of the Brahmanic Mahratta Brah- 
 caste in all India. 
 physical, intellectual, and Hindus, 
 moral development they are Brahmans at 
 the best estate. The traveler can but be 
 impressed with the serene countenance, 
 the majestic walk, the lithe, straight 
 figure, the high forehead, and features 
 regular — almost Gi'ecian in outlines — of 
 these leading representatives of the an- 
 
 ^TRTT^' '^ ^ %^t ^"Ri: f^'^m 
 ?f^ ^^T ^"ST ft^ vjir, cK ^T^ 
 
 Sl'ECIMli.N U1-' M.-\HKATT1. 
 
 cient priestly order. The Briti.sh gov- 
 ernment has found them the most able 
 and energetic of all the natives of the 
 empire ; and he who visits India curious 
 for instruction relative to the language, 
 literature, and tradition preserved in the 
 Sanskrit books, will find the ]\Iahratta 
 Brahmans to be the best of all his sources 
 of information. 
 
 All of the castes are represented among 
 the ]\Iahrattas. The Kshatriyas, or the 
 Rajputs, are not numer- 
 
 ■'>■ ' The lowest 
 
 ous, and seem to maintain a classes of lu- 
 , . . , dican society. 
 
 rather precarious existence 
 between the two preponderating castes 
 of Brahmans and Sudras. The latter, 
 lowest of the four great strata in which 
 Indian society is divided — lowest with 
 the exception only of the Pariahs, or serf 
 caste, whose business it is to handle the 
 dead — have preserved so man}' features 
 of the aborigines and of the Scythians, 
 who on several occasions have invaded
 
 r9-T! 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLLVAV.VP. 
 
 the country, as to constitute them ahnost 
 a distinct race. Indeed, an ethnic analy- 
 sis would show them to possess a com- 
 paratively slight admixture of Ar\an 
 blood. Hut the .Sudras of the Mahratta 
 region, as in other parts of India, have 
 conformed .so much to the structure of 
 the dominant ca.stes as to be classified 
 
 are said to be exceedingly boorish 
 in manners, and to have the looks of 
 clowns. As comjiared with the inhab- 
 itants of the Punjab and the Cashmeri- 
 ans, the Sudra class of ]\Iahrattas are 
 physically weak and mentally inferior. 
 They have vigor and tenacity without 
 strength. They are essentially a race of 
 
 GROUP OF WAHRATTAS— TYPES. 
 
 with them as a branch of the common 
 family. 
 
 The contrast in features and per.son 
 between the Sudras and the Mahratta 
 Contrasts and Brahmaus is sufficiently 
 
 comparisons of *„;i •„ mi r> i 
 
 Sudras and strikmg. The vSudra couu- 
 
 Mahrattas. tenance is wanting in all 
 
 those features of elevation which are 
 posses.sed by the superior caste. The}' 
 are small in person, though in common 
 with most Indian races they are lithe, 
 active, wiry, and able to endure. They 
 
 movmtaineers, and have in common with 
 that cla.ss of people in every country of 
 the world the qualities of courage and 
 independence. They have but a slight 
 social or political organization in their 
 native places ; but they have submitted 
 to the discipline of the empire, and under 
 the command of English officers have 
 become an excellent .soldiery. In the 
 pursuits of life they are herdsmen, cattle 
 raisers, drivers of stock and vehicles, 
 rather than husbandmen or tillers of the
 
 THE IX Die A XS. —E THXIC CHA RA C TERIS TICS. 
 
 723 
 
 soil. They have some skill as weavers 
 and manufacturers of armor, but have 
 not otherwise distinguished themselves 
 in the practical arts. 
 Geographically 
 speaking, India and 
 Hindustan are coex- 
 tensive, identical. 
 In a certain popular 
 sense Hindus and 
 Indians are convert- 
 ible terms; but if the 
 meaning of Hindus 
 be determined by 
 linguistic evidence, 
 we shall find that 
 not all Indians are 
 Hindus. Hindu- 
 stani, or Urdu, is a 
 dialect of that me- 
 diaeval Hindi which 
 is the term for the 
 second origin of all 
 the Indie languages, 
 as Sanskrit was the 
 original root. Hindi 
 is to Hindustani as 
 the old Langue d'Oil 
 is to French . Again ,. 
 Hindustani is only 
 one of the seven 
 Aryan languages 
 spoken in Northern 
 India. The other 
 six are the Punjabi, 
 the Sindhi, the Gu- 
 jarati, the Mahratti, 
 the Bangali, and the 
 Oriya. So if we reck- 
 on as Hindus only 
 
 those whose vernacular is Hindustani, we 
 Ethnic and lin- shall find them occupying a 
 
 and from the Himalayas to the Vindhya 
 
 range. 
 It will 
 
 alreadv have become clear to 
 
 guistic relations 
 of the Hindu 
 peoples. 
 
 territory of about two hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand 
 square miles, reaching from the Gandak 
 on the east to the Sutlcj on the west, 
 
 PEASANTS OF THE DOAB — TYPES. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard, from a photograph. 
 
 the mind of the reader that generaliza 
 tions with regard to peo- 
 ples so widely dispersed 
 and so differently developed popuiati 
 as those of India are wellnigh impossible. 
 Beginning with differences of person 
 
 Difficulty of gen- 
 eralizing ethnic 
 traits of great 
 ions.
 
 GREAT RACES OF JEIXK/XD. 
 
 and running through the whole gamut 
 of human attributes, there is so great 
 diversity that only a few geneial out- 
 lines of the Hindu eharacter can be pre- 
 sented with anything like accuracy. In 
 
 •%IT •^{■r\ ^\U ^T?:^ -^TT flfi^t ^ ^^ -^TT ^T 
 
 ^^^ vr ^<j?i n^^ 31T ^w ^5^^ %r ^'^. ^ ^^ tttt 
 
 ^ o 
 
 H7T im, ^X% ^ % tft %T-% ^"1^ -g^ ftfi^^ 
 ^TTTTT ^TT ^5T TO 1 Ti: f^^q ^T^T 1% ^^ f^^ 
 
 who followed the army of Alexander, or 
 rather constituted a jiart of it, in the 
 great campaign into the valley of the 
 Indus, were as shrewd in their kind and 
 hardly less fertile in descriptive ability 
 than were the savants who ac- 
 companied Napoleon on his 
 invasion of Egypt. 
 
 The results were similar in 
 both instances. Macedonia in 
 the one case and France in the 
 other was en- 
 
 Brahmans and 
 Sudras repre- 
 riched with a sent extremes 
 of Hindu devel- 
 
 great store of in- 
 
 opment. 
 
 SPECIMEN PAGE OF HINDI BOOK. 
 
 mere physical characteristics the gener- 
 alization is especially difficult. Personal 
 descriptions of the Hindus are as old as 
 the first contact of the Greek race with 
 that remote region of the world. The 
 astute observers — such as Nearchus 
 
 formation drawn from the old 
 and abandoned mines of the 
 East. The Hindus of to-day 
 are the same in personal ap- 
 pearance as they were in the 
 days when they were described 
 by the invading Greeks. This 
 view is more true of the Brah- 
 mans than of the lower castes. 
 The representations in the old 
 Indian sculpture preserve the 
 identical figure, the form, the 
 features, and much of the ap- 
 parel of the modern descend- 
 ant of the Old Aryans. The 
 Hindus, then, are of middle 
 size. From this stature the 
 Brahmans depart in one direc- 
 tion and the Sudras in an- 
 other. That is, the Brahmans 
 are fully up to or beyond the 
 average height, while the .Su- 
 dras and other lower caste peo- 
 ples are below that standard — 
 much below it. Ethnogra- 
 phers have estimated the aver- 
 age height of the Hindus, considered as 
 a race, at one hundred and sixty-three 
 centimeters, or sixty-four inches in 
 English measure. This, perhaps, is a 
 little above the average of the Japa- 
 nese.
 
 726 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The bodily organs of the Hindu are 
 symmetrical, but light. The limbs are 
 Bodily charac- often delicate, so slender 
 nYndusHhe^^ indeed as to suggest weak- 
 coior. ness according to the stal- 
 
 wart Western criterion. As the traveler 
 passes from the plains into the hill- 
 countries, however, he comes upon more 
 vigorous tribes. In Rajputana, and other 
 districts similarly situated, the average 
 height is greater and the bodily weight 
 and strength are augmented. The com- 
 plexion varies from almost white, 
 through dark yellow, to bronze, or even 
 to a .sooty black. The last-named color 
 is always indicative of foreign admix- 
 ture, the absorption of that Old Dravid- 
 ian stock which contributed the abo- 
 rigines. There is a general intensifica- 
 tion of the skin pigment as we proceed 
 from the north to the .south, from the 
 mountain spurs to the burning coasts of 
 Southern India. To the latter influence, 
 that of climate, some ethnologists have 
 been di.spo.sed to attribute the whole 
 variation of color. It is true that among 
 the Dravidians them.selves, that is, the 
 old population, so far as it is preserved 
 in anything like ethnic purity, consider- 
 able diversities of color appear. Some 
 Dravidian women are said to be almost 
 white, but on the whole the race is 
 
 dark-hued, so much so as to have fur- 
 nished the larger part of the intenser 
 color to the southern divisions of the 
 Aryan population. 
 
 The Hindus have preserved the 
 straight or wavy and glossy black hair 
 which the Old Ar\-ans 
 
 Special features 
 
 brought down from the of head and 
 
 I.- -11 ^ /x>i 1 J i countenance. 
 
 highlands. 1 he abundant 
 beard is also well preserved in the 
 de.scendants of the ancient .stock. The 
 habit of the country is to shave, except 
 as to the upper lip, and tonsure of the 
 head is common with the men, only a 
 few curls being preserved at the poll 
 and on the temples. Classified by the 
 shape of the skull, the Hindus are me.so- 
 cephalic ; that is, the head is medium 
 between the long-skull and the short- 
 skull type of cranial development. The 
 face is oval. The forehead is open, and 
 indicative of good perceptions. It is 
 rare to see in India a contracted and 
 corrugated brow. Hindu eyes are large, 
 dark colored, brown, or black. The 
 eyebrows are curved into two arches. 
 The nose is rather after the pattern 
 called Roman, having not infrequently 
 the aquiline contour which gives an im- 
 perious expression to the countenance. 
 But this haughty feature is developed 
 principally among the Brahmans. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XLII.— Architecture, 
 
 ERNIVIENT. 
 
 TvlANNERS, GOVa 
 
 iF we look at the objec- 
 tive forms which are 
 the expression of the 
 ideal life of the Hin- 
 dus, we shall find much 
 of interest — .some 
 things to admire. 
 Doubtless the most conspicuous fact in 
 which the ideal life of man is expressed 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 is architecture. It stands, as we have 
 seen, in the triple category of necessities, 
 the other two being food and clothing; 
 but inasmuch as man is more than an 
 animal, his shelter is more than a house. 
 From the mere physical fact of shelter, 
 the abode of the human race rises rap- 
 idly into higher forms ; and elegance is 
 added to necessary structure.
 
 THE INDICANS.—ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 727 
 
 The Hindus have been immemorially 
 noted for the extreme elaboration and ex- 
 travagant taste exhibited in their build- 
 
 India. The style in general is Oriental. 
 Flat roofs are the prevailing form, with 
 projecting balconies and verandas. The 
 
 IXUIA.X ARLHrlECTUKE— 1 1 W 1 
 
 ings ; and the same is true of their plastic 
 arts. The traveler must needs feel him- 
 self in the western twilight of the Orient 
 as he begins to scan the architecture of 
 
 name of the latter is from the Hindu 
 vocabulary, and both the fact and the 
 word have been carried into all Western 
 nations. In connection with the Hindu
 
 728 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXk'LXn. 
 
 residence is nearly always found a gar- 
 den, and in this is displayed the same kind 
 
 Extreme eiabo- oi elaborate taste which 
 ration of the ^ j j ^^^ permanent 
 
 Hindu architec- '^ 
 
 ture. architecture of the coun- 
 
 try. The arbor, the trellis, the curious 
 
 Lightness of 
 structure relat- 
 ed to climate and 
 outdoor life. 
 
 >N ARCHITECTURE — EI.ABORA lU.N uK okNAMKM- 
 Drawn by F. Regamey, from the original. 
 
 grotto, and many other parts of the gar- 
 dener's art are only the details of the 
 larger architectural art which has been 
 developed by the Indian builders. 
 
 It is in the nature of warm climates to 
 
 put the people much out of doors. The 
 
 same fact ofives licjhtness to all classes 
 
 of structure ; but in a coun 
 
 try subject to storms 
 
 strength as well as light 
 
 ness must be consulted. Of the common 
 
 and low - caste 
 Hindus, the 
 houses are plain 
 and siinple in 
 design. In these 
 the idea of shel- 
 ter is predom- 
 inant over what 
 in the higher 
 grades of soci- 
 ety becomes or- 
 na mentation 
 and elegance. It 
 should be said, 
 howe\-er, that 
 the style of liv- 
 ing among the 
 rich, even Brah- 
 mans of the 
 highest rank, is 
 more simple 
 than among 
 Western peoples 
 of like wealth 
 and magnificent 
 tastes. 
 
 The ancient 
 architecture and 
 sculpture of In- 
 dia may almost 
 take rank with 
 that of Eg}-pt, 
 if not for abun- 
 dance, at least 
 for majesty.^ It 
 oive an extended 
 
 { is not the place to ^ 
 account of the old temples 
 
 '■ The isle and 
 
 of the countr}-, but an il- cavemof 
 
 \ 1 , ,• -, 1 Elephanta. 
 
 lustration may be drawn, 
 ! once for all, from the famous isle and
 
 THE INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 729 
 
 cavern of Elephanta. This island is 
 situated about seven miles from Bom- 
 bay. AVithin it are found the remains 
 of those celebrated Hindu sculptures 
 and excavations which have preserved 
 to us the best notion of the ancient 
 art of the race. Near the shore stands 
 a colossal statue of the elephant from 
 which the name Elephanta was given 
 
 Unfortunately, many of the effigies of 
 Elephanta have been mutilated or de- 
 stroyed by the Portuguese vandals and 
 the Mohammedan zealots of later times. 
 Some of the statues, however, have been 
 tolerably well pre.served. 
 
 ■' , Effigies of the 
 
 In the center of the cavern Hindu gods m 
 is the colossal bust of the ecavem. 
 Trimurti, or Hindu Trinity: Brahma, 
 
 11*11111 !!iii..i.;>>--- ^,..,.^ A ---^ iiiliiij- 
 
 MARRIAGE OF SIVA AND PARVATI. -From the cave of Elephanta. 
 
 
 to the island by the Portuguese navi- 
 gators. A short distance from the huge 
 effigy is the entrance to the cavern. 
 The same is about sixty feet in width 
 and eighteen feet high. The pillars of 
 support are cut out of the native rock. 
 In the sides of the cavern are hewn 
 many compartments which were dedi- 
 cated as shrines to the old Hindu gods. 
 M. — Vol. I — 47 
 
 Vi-shnu, and Siva. Some .scholars, how- 
 ever, have in recent times decided that 
 the triune figure is not intended for 
 Brahma and Vishnu at all, but only to 
 express the threefold aspect of Siva, the 
 ' ' Destroyer." The heads of the effigA-are 
 six feet in height, and the features have 
 much of the majesty and repose peculiar 
 to the sphinxes of Egypt. Critics, how-
 
 Il I 
 
 In' I
 
 THE INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 731 
 
 ever, have noted an unpleasing expres- 
 sion of the underlip, which seems to be 
 too animal or faun-like for the deity. 
 Egyptian analogies are also discoverable 
 in the headdresses, which are ornament- 
 ed. In the hand of one of the gods is a 
 cobra de capello, and on the cap are set 
 a human skull and an infant. Doubt- 
 less here we have an allegory of life and 
 death in the infant and the skull and of 
 the destroying agent by which the one 
 becomes the other, in the serpent. Siva 
 was the destroyer. Perhaps the cobra 
 was his principal abettor. 
 
 On either side of the Trimurti stands 
 the figure of a man leaning on a dwarf. 
 To the right is a cavity hollowed in the 
 wall, in which are a great number of 
 mythological figures, the principal one 
 being a double image of Siva and Par- 
 vati, an effigy half male and half female. 
 To the right also is the four-faced statue 
 of Brahma reclining on a lotus. It is 
 one of the rare images of the supreme 
 Hindu deity now preserved in India. 
 Perhaps there is no space of like dimen- 
 sions in the vaults, grottoes, or caverns 
 of the world of so great interest to the 
 antiquary as is the cave of Elephanta. 
 
 As a field for the study of Indian archi- 
 tecture in general, the district and city 
 Agra the best of Agra, in the Northwest 
 orindTanlfchi- PTOvinccs are, perhaps, 
 teoture. the best of all in the coun- 
 
 try. The remains of old-time splendor, 
 however, are not so ancient as the sculp- 
 tures just referred to. The city of Agra 
 is on the Jumna river, in latitude 
 27° 11' north. It was the old native 
 capital of the province. Until 1803 it 
 Avas held by the Mahrattas, but at that 
 time was taken by the British army, un- 
 der Lord Lake. 
 
 Three structures within the city of 
 Agra are known for their architectural 
 beauty and grandeur. The first of these 
 
 is the old palace of the native princes. 
 It has a great court within, five hundred 
 feet by three hundred and 
 
 . - . . The old palace 
 
 seventy feet m dimensions, of the native 
 The approaches to the ^"°'^'- 
 court are by arcades and gateways of the 
 greatest beauty and Oriental splendor. 
 The hall of the palace is two hundred 
 and eight feet by seventy-six feet in di- 
 mensions, and to this are adjoined two 
 smaller courts, one of which was former- 
 ly the private audience chamber of the 
 nabob and the other his harem. In Agra 
 also is the celebrated pearl mosque, the 
 most elegant specimen of Mohammedan 
 architecture in all India. The dimen- 
 sions of the ground plan are two hundred 
 and thirty-five by one hundred and nine- 
 ty feet. The court is a rectangle one 
 hundred and fifty-five feet square. The 
 courtyard is the center of interest. It is 
 wholly of white marble, from the pave- 
 ment to the dome. In design the pearl 
 mosque is similar to the mosque of Dehli. 
 The structure is noted for the absence of 
 elaboration. A single inscription from 
 the Koran, inlaid with black marble as a 
 frieze, is the principal piece of sculpture 
 in connection with the edifice. 
 
 But the most remarkable example of 
 the building skill of India is the great 
 Taj built in Agra by the character of the 
 Emperor Shah Jehan in ^aredTe^aj 
 honor of his beautiful wife, Mahal. 
 JMumtaza Mahal. Here the empress and 
 himself are buried. The building is, 
 like the mosque, of white marble. It is 
 surmounted by four tall minarets. The 
 ground plan is a terrace, also of marble. 
 The whole parallelogram, including the 
 gardens and court, are eighteen hundred 
 and sixty feet by one thousand feet in di- 
 mensions. The approaches are hx arcades 
 and magnificent gateways, the principal 
 of which measures one hundred and ten 
 feet in width by one hundred and forty
 
 732 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 feet in height. Through this the trav- 
 eler passes from the court to the garden. 
 The tomb proper stands on an elevated 
 platform eighteen feet in height. It is 
 faced in every part with white marble, 
 and is three hundred and thirteen feet 
 square. At each comer stands a mina- 
 ret one hundred and thirty-three feet in 
 height. The mausoleum is in the cen- 
 
 DRESS OF THE HINDUS — PRINCESS OF AGRA. 
 
 ter on a marble platform. It is one hun- 
 dred and eighty-six feet square, but the 
 corners are cut off by sections thirty- 
 three feet in extent. Ch'er the mausoleum 
 rises a dome fifty-eight feet in diameter 
 and eighty feet in height. It is doubtful 
 whether any other emperor and empress 
 who have ruled barbaric millions liave 
 had a more splendid tomb. 
 
 The dress and personal ornaments of 
 the Hindus are now well known to West- 
 ern peoples. Story and pictorial art 
 
 have conspired to make familiar the 
 bodily vesture and decoration of the In- 
 dian races. The materials _ 
 
 Dress ana per- 
 of fabrication for apparel sonal ornaments 
 ,, .. ,, of the Hindus. 
 
 are generally linen, cotton, 
 silk. The style of garment is Oriental. 
 The costume of the men and the women 
 differs in degree rather than in kind. 
 The High Brahmans wear drapery rather 
 than clothes. The Kshatriyas gather 
 their garments about them with a belt. 
 Everything is loosely worn. The Su- 
 dras, especially in the south, are but 
 slightly clad, a large part of the person 
 being exposed. In the schools and other 
 assemblies the upper part of the body 
 of the pupil is naked ; and in the house- 
 hold and on the streets there is much 
 exposure, but without vulgarit}'. 
 
 The dyeing of the hair and the beard 
 is a common adjunct to effect in dress. 
 It is customary to color red the nails 
 of the fingers and toes. The eyelashes 
 and eyebrows are dyed black with anti- 
 mony. The fan is much used by both 
 men and women, but not so universally 
 as in Japan. Ornaments are profuse. 
 Necklaces, bracelets, and earrings are 
 iiniversal. Flowers and pearls are worn 
 in the hair. The ears and the septum of 
 the nostrils are pierced to receive jewels 
 and other pendant ornaments. Tattoo- 
 ing is but slightly practiced, but the 
 features are frequently painted with 
 marks and stripes across the brows, 
 between the eyes, and on the neck. 
 These marks constitute a kind of totem, 
 disting-uishinar one caste from another. 
 
 In India there is great diversit)^ in the 
 manner of marriage. Each religion or 
 
 superstition gives its own ceremonies of 
 
 inflection to the ceremony. 
 
 In one respect the usage 
 
 is common, and that is the early age at 
 
 which the woman is marriageable. At 
 
 twelve or thirteen she is regfarded as fit for 
 
 marriage and 
 estimate of the 
 ■womaji.
 
 
 -^^C^^^'^' 
 
 MANNERS or THE HINDUS.— Kiii.EiiiuN ax the Court of the Begum.— Drawn by A. de NeuvUle.
 
 734 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the wedded relation and for maternity. 
 The oldest ceremonial required that the 
 man take the woman by the hand and 
 walk around an altar with her. Perhaps 
 this still remains the fundamental idea 
 in the nuptial union. The woman after 
 marriage remains as she was before, a 
 dependent of man. There is here a con- 
 flict between the Old Aryan recognition 
 of the nobility, if not the equality, of 
 woman and the Oriental view which 
 holds her as a slave, a chattel. The 
 Hindu woman has much more respect 
 and honor than she of China, but is by 
 no means the equal of the man . She is 
 not wholly secluded in the house, but 
 may go forth after marriage. In gen- 
 eral, she is treated with respect. The 
 almost universal aboriginal usage of 
 giving presents to the bride's parents by 
 the husband, as in purchase of her, is 
 still maintained. It is in evidence that 
 polyandry was much in vogue in ancient 
 times, and polygamy is now frequent, 
 particularly in those provinces where 
 Islam is in the ascendant. The entrance 
 of strangers into acquaintance and com- 
 pany with Indian women is strictly in- 
 hibited, and it has been with great 
 difficulty that a knowledge of the manner 
 of life of the Hindu household has been 
 obtained by any alien. 
 
 The reader will have already perceived 
 the general di.stribution of the Hindus 
 ^ , over the larger part of 
 
 Extent of race . . . 
 
 interfusion in India and their interfusion 
 
 Hindustan. . , , 
 
 With other peoples. The 
 race has extended north, south, east, and 
 we.st, to the limits of the mountains and 
 the sea. In Nepal, in the very .shadow 
 of the Himalayas, they are found associ- 
 ated with the Gurungs, the Magars, the 
 Murmis, and many other races. In 
 this region, however, it is the low-caste 
 Hindus rather than the Brahmans that 
 are mixed among the Nepalese. Further 
 
 on in Assam the census shows nearly 
 two million of Hindus, but they are, as 
 in Nepal, of the lower order. It appears 
 that Hinduism in this region made its 
 way first among the kings and nobility. 
 That is, the higher Assamese cultivated 
 Hinduism as a faith, but the great mass 
 of Hindus in Assam have been imported 
 as laborers, to work in the tea gardens 
 and in other pursuits of serfdom. 
 
 This peasant class has, nevertheless, 
 attained to a fair degree of home life 
 and competency. The Hindu popula- 
 tion has improved under 
 
 '- Particular fea- 
 
 British rule, and the char- tures of certain 
 acter of the people has been 
 greatly elevated since the last century. 
 The Assamese are not very much dis- 
 tinguished from the Bengalese and 
 Hindus in appearance. The person of 
 the former is shorter and more robust, 
 but the native is not so lithe and active 
 as the Hindu. As already remarked, 
 the Chinese type, that is the Thibeto- 
 Chinese, has infected all the races of 
 farther India, and the fiat face, high 
 cheek bones, and general physiognomy 
 of the Assamese tells unmistakably the 
 story of an influence from beyond the 
 Himalayas. 
 
 ALso into Burmah the Hindus have 
 made their way, but not in so great 
 numbers as in Assarr^. Here the lan- 
 guage and the general character of the 
 people is properly Indo- Grading oir of 
 Chinese; and the race der- ^^j: f j.^.'J^Lr 
 ivation from beyond still nesetype. 
 more strongly than in Assam discrimi- 
 nates the ethnic type from that of Be_ngal. 
 The census of 1872 gives a population 
 for the whole of Burmah of two million 
 seven hundred and forty thousand, or an 
 average of thirty-one to the square mile. 
 Of these, the vast preponderance are 
 Buddhists. The Mohammedans num- 
 ber about a hundred thousand, and the
 
 THE INDICA NS.—S UPERS TITIONS. 
 
 735 
 
 Hindus only thirty-six thousand. Of 
 the whole number, one hundred and ten 
 thousand are still classified as aborigines. 
 It is probable that India jDresents a 
 greater variety of superstitions in an in- 
 tenser form than any other country of 
 Extent and va- the world. Except in the 
 lower districts of heathen- 
 ism, such as South Africa 
 furnishes, the general fact called super- 
 stition has relaxed its hold somewhat 
 
 Tiety of the 
 Hindu snpeP' 
 stitions. 
 
 declining, losing its dominion and power 
 over the mind of man. To this general 
 fact India is somewhat exceptional. The 
 peculiar tendencies of the Indian mind 
 under the influence and discipline of 
 Brahmanism have been unfavorable to 
 the reception and dissemination of sci- 
 entific knowledge. The Indian mind 
 furnishes an example of a comparatively 
 high development in abstract thought, 
 in the ability to generalize and deduce 
 conclusions from established concepts 
 and premises. The inferential power 
 of the human intellect as it is displayed 
 in these countries is not to be despised, 
 but the inductive method of inquiry has 
 never found footing among them. The 
 disposition to scrutinize and question 
 the processes of the material world and 
 to find out the laws which govern nature 
 has not appeared, and the old supersti- 
 tions of paganism continue to prevail. 
 
 These are manifest in almost every 
 department of life. There are a thou- 
 sand superstitious beliefs Amulets and 
 
 ^ charms; super- 
 
 respecting food. Amulets stitious beliefs 
 
 , , 1 , , • respecting the 
 
 and charms and talismans dead. 
 
 are worn to protect the person and life 
 
 from harm. The image of an ances- 
 
 SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HINDUS, -Amilets Taken from the Body of Tupit Said. 
 
 upon the human mind. It is now clearly 
 perceived that superstitious beliefs and 
 practices can not coexist with scientific 
 knowledge. We have already seen that 
 the peculiarity of the recent ages is the 
 rapid extension of the knowledge of the 
 laws by which the phenomena of the 
 material world are governed. This is 
 equivalent to saying that superstition is 
 
 tor is swung about the neck in confi- 
 dent trust that the paternal spirit will 
 follow his image and guard his descend- 
 ant who wears it. One of the most strik- 
 ing superstitions relates to the dead. 
 There is an abhorrent fear of all places 
 where dead bodies have been brought or 
 deposited. Even where cremation is 
 employed, the spot on which the cere-
 
 736 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 mony is performed becomes a terror to 
 all who approach it ; and the small build- 
 iug-s in which the ashes are stored are 
 avoided as children w'ould avoid an old 
 ruin haunted by evil spirits. A like 
 
 
 MINDL- FAKIR, CARRYING CIRCLEIS OF IRON ABOUT 
 
 HIS NECK. 
 
 Drawn by Emile Uayard, from a photograph. 
 
 fear possesses the Indian mind with re- 
 spect to darkness. The night is dreaded. 
 They who are willing- to expose them- 
 selves like good soldiers in the hazards 
 of battle, and who stand up against the 
 enemy with a fair degree of courage, 
 
 tremble with the coming of night. 
 Doubtless it is the association in their 
 mind of the facts of darkness and death 
 that have made both appalling. 
 
 In common with the Oriental nations, 
 the Hindus have a veneration tor the 
 dead. If the}- do not positively worship 
 their ancestors in the man- 
 
 Shrines and ef- 
 
 ner of the Egyptians, they figies to the de- 
 at least erect small tem- ^^^ ^ 
 pies to the fathers, and within these are 
 placed pieces of wood on which are drawn 
 images of the departed. The masses of 
 the people have perhaps never been able 
 to grasp the idea of the universal Brah- 
 ma as the supreme God of the world, 
 and as a result, the)' have fallen through 
 the intermediate stages of polytheism 
 into idolatry. 
 
 The superstitions of India, in part 
 religious and in part merely mytholog- 
 ical, are strikingly mani- superstition the 
 fested in all ranks of so- "^^^^ 
 ciety. Beliefs and^a'^'^'s- 
 practices, having their origin in super- 
 stition have prevailed to the extent of 
 creating whole classes of the Hindus 
 sufficiently numerous to populate a king- 
 dom. Thus, for example, the Moham- 
 medan mendicants, widely distributed 
 through all the Islamite countries, and 
 known as Fakirs, have been recnaited 
 not on the basis of race, but on the lines 
 of their peculiar and degrading super- 
 stitions. Of this great order of devotee 
 vagabonds there are more than a mil- 
 lion in India. They wander from place 
 to place about the towns, villages, and 
 countr}-side, constituting a pauper class, 
 everywhere present and everywhere il- 
 lustrating in their beggary and usages 
 the combined results of race deteriora- 
 tion and superstitious fanaticism. 
 
 In some respects, however, the beliefs 
 and practices of the Hindus are merito- 
 rious. They believe in cleanliness, in
 
 THE INDICANS.—RISE OF ROYALTY. 
 
 737 
 
 washings of the body, in what may be 
 called personal purity. The Brahmans 
 Hinduism re- enjoin the conquest of sen- 
 soTe'^b^eLT^^d sualityas a part of that vir- 
 practices. tue by which the soul may 
 
 find eternal rest. The devotee is en- 
 couraged to master earthly thoughts and 
 mere human affections as obstacles in the 
 way of his perfection. All of this tends 
 of course to asceticism, with its accompa- 
 nying follies and vices ; but it is probably 
 true that the sages of India have reached 
 as high a degree of self-masterj' as any 
 other devotees to the dogma of the mor- 
 tification of the body as a means of eter- 
 nal happiness. 
 
 Chieftainship was a part of the original 
 structure of the Arj'an race. It may not 
 be known whether this fact in the or- 
 oid Indian ganization of the primitive 
 
 b^'omtmn^dn people was developed in 
 petty royalty. the old household of the 
 race, or whether it came forth as a 
 concomitant circumstance of migration. 
 Certain it is that migrating tribes must 
 have their chiefs, their headmen, who 
 lead and direct and take the responsibil- 
 ity. This chieftainship would inevitably 
 take on the character of a military cap- 
 tainc)'. The migration would traverse 
 hostile grounds. There would be the 
 clash of moving people with the aborig- 
 ines and the conflict with other tribes in 
 motion. He who could best control the 
 action of barbaric battle would have great 
 reputation. He would be a hero while 
 the migration continued, and a prince as 
 soon as the tribe had settled into per- 
 manent abodes. Such is the genesis of 
 the half-militarj^ and half-royal petty 
 kinglets whose figures are seen rising 
 above the confusion and strife of the his- 
 torical dawn. 
 
 We have already seen that in the coun- 
 tries possessed by the Indian races the 
 Vedic bard, in the first place, and the 
 
 Sjrmpathy of the 
 Brahmans and 
 the military 
 caste. 
 
 Brahman priest afterwards, accompanied 
 the chieftain who led the tribe, and 
 invoked the deities to his 
 aid in battle and conquest. 
 The spectacle in the In- 
 dian valleys, as we discover it in the far 
 twilight of history, is somewhat similar 
 to that which reappeared in the feudal 
 ages in Western Europe, when the 
 priest of Rome kept himself at the side 
 of the barbarian chieftain until the latter 
 was transformed into a feudal baron. 
 So in India ; with this difference, how- 
 ever, that the Brahman and the military 
 chief were in that country of the same 
 race and kindred. The union, therefore, 
 of religious dogma with barbarian state- 
 craft would be more intimate and friend- 
 ly in India than in the West. The as- 
 cendency of the priest would also be 
 more fatal to the natural evolution of 
 political power and the establishment of 
 secular forms of government in a coun- 
 try where the chieftain sj-mpathized by 
 kinship with the priest, than in lands 
 where they two were in antagonism. 
 This was one of the leading causes of 
 the miserable condition into which the 
 political institutions of India fell at an 
 early age, and in which they have ever 
 since continued. 
 
 After the militar}' chieftain in a bar- 
 barous age, leader and defender of a 
 wandering tribe, has passed, by the set- 
 tled residence of his people. Primogeniture 
 
 into a prince, having a court ^'JS^^eS^r' 
 and a retinue and even tainship. 
 the beginnings of an administrative sys- 
 tem, he must provide for the continu- 
 ance of his rank, his reputation, his 
 government. This is most easily and 
 naturally done by transmitting it to 
 his son. The priest would encourage 
 this tendency ; for the counselor of the 
 father would have a favorable situation 
 for influence with the descendant. He-
 
 •.SDIAN PRIXCE— TYPE— The Maharajah of Gwalior.— Drawn by A. de NeuviUe.
 
 THE INDICANS.—GO VERNMENT. 
 
 739 
 
 redity would thus become a natural ele- 
 ment in the system, and primogeniture 
 ■would follow as a secondary suggestion. 
 All of these facts have appeared in the 
 political structure of India, and in the 
 order named. 
 
 The government of the Indian princes 
 has been an absolutism from the earliest 
 ages. Everything has conspired to make 
 Absolutism of the native prince a des- 
 ^f tL°rdrn"' pot, and to perpetuate the 
 princes. dcspotism in his family. 
 
 The right of the Indian nabob to tax his 
 subjects for the support of the govern- 
 ment and to supply the means of war 
 rests with himself. Any part of the 
 private property of the people, from one 
 twelfth to one fourth of the same he 
 may take as a revenue, without responsi- 
 bility. In the same way he may enlist 
 his subjects into the army. Custom has 
 prescribed that those who serve in war 
 shall be recompensed by a gift of land. 
 In former times only the K.shatriyas 
 were summoned for military duty. The 
 other castes were permitted to pursue 
 the vocations of peace without disturb- 
 ance. 
 
 As to the methods of warfare, they 
 were rude and traditional. The Indian 
 Rude methods Weaponry was the same as 
 ofwareie'-'"'' that employed by all half- 
 phants. barbarous peoples. Until 
 
 modern times bows and arrows, clubs, 
 discuses, spears, swords, shields, and 
 war chariots were the armor, offensive 
 and defensive, of the native soldiery. 
 These were never entirely supplanted 
 until the establishment of the British 
 East Indian empire. From time im- 
 memorial the elephant has been used in 
 war. It may be frankly confessed that 
 until the artillery of modern times was 
 leveled against him he was one of the 
 most formidable engines ever seen on a 
 battlefield. From the days of Porus to 
 
 the days of Nana Sahib the enemy had 
 cause to look with dread on the huge 
 monster as he raged in the conflict, bear- 
 ing, as in a tower, his company of sol- 
 diers, and bringing down his tremen- 
 dous trunk, like the fall of a Norway 
 pine, upon half a legion at a blow. 
 
 All the conditions, social, civil, and re- 
 ligious, in the Indian countries have con- 
 spired to engender a su- superstitious 
 
 perStitioUS veneration for reverence for 
 ^ princes ana 
 
 princes and rulers. As rulers, 
 among other ancient Oriental peoples, 
 the king, the nabob, is regarded as half- 
 divine. He is the representative of the 
 unseen powers, and is responsible to 
 them for his conduct. He is their equal 
 and companion, and his right to rule is 
 ■from on high. Against a prince thus 
 hedged about with that divinity which 
 accompanies kings, insurrection is re- 
 garded as most wicked and dangerous, 
 and the puni-shment of disloyalty is al- 
 ways to the uttermost. 
 
 It were exceedingly difficult, if not 
 impossible, to present a satisfactory ex- 
 hibit of the distribution of the various 
 races in India. We have now given a 
 sketch of some of the leading elements 
 of the political, social, and religious 
 structure of the country ; but much 
 would remain if an accurate delineation 
 should be attempted of the relations and 
 tendencies of the various parts of Indian 
 society. 
 
 The Hindus, to whom the foregoing 
 pages have been devoted, constitute the 
 leading element, the most 
 
 " . General view of 
 
 widely distributed popula- race conditions 
 
 tion of India. Perhaps a '" ^"^^ ' 
 sketch of the condition of affairs in Ben- 
 gal may serve as an illustration of the 
 status existing in all the provinces and 
 governments. Within this country there 
 is an aggregation of peoples of diverse 
 ethnic origin, speaking different Ian-
 
 -TYPES.— Diawn by Emlle bayard.
 
 THE IXDICAXS.—GO VERNMENT. 
 
 741 
 
 Aggregate of 
 subjects under 
 the provincial 
 government. 
 
 guages. They represent eras of devel- 
 opment as far apart as the earliest ages 
 of history and the present day. These 
 diversities exist in religious thought and 
 practices, in political ideas, in race pro- 
 clivities, and in 
 every aspect of na- 
 tionality. 
 
 According to the 
 census of 1872 Ben- 
 gal, which then in- 
 cluded the province 
 
 of As- 
 
 s a m , 
 
 had a 
 population of sixty- 
 six million eight 
 hundred and fif- 
 ty-six thousand 
 eight hundred and 
 fifty-nine, being 
 fully equal to that 
 of the entire United 
 States at the present 
 time. We thus have 
 the remarkable spec- 
 tacle of a lieutenant 
 governor sent out 
 from London, a dis- 
 tance of six thou- 
 sand miles, to pre- 
 side over a conge- 
 ries of nations far 
 exceeding the entire 
 population of the 
 United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and 
 Ireland ! The ele- 
 ments under this government — and Ben- 
 gal was only one of many provinces un- 
 der British dominion — were so diversified 
 and contradictory as to make a govern- 
 mental problem which no nation other 
 than England would have had the polit- 
 ical courage to undertake or the skill to 
 solve. 
 
 The people thus aggregated presented 
 every type of the human evolution, from 
 sheer barbarism and the grossest forms 
 of supeTstition to a high degree of human 
 enlightenment. Educated native noble- 
 
 GROUP OF HINDU WEAPONS OF WAK. 
 
 men from Bengal, full of the skeptical 
 spirit of modern times, have The Hindus pre- 
 come to London as dip- ^tLT^f^''"' 
 lomats, have sat in the evolution, 
 clubs of that metropolis, and delivered 
 speeches at public dinners among law- 
 yers, bishops, and statesmen as skillful 
 at fence, as witty, and almost as schol-
 
 I
 
 THE INDICANS.— ISOLATED RACES. 
 
 743 
 
 ariy as they, while at the same time 
 barbarous chieftains of their own race, 
 in their own country, were sacrificing 
 idiots and paupers on hilltops in order 
 to make sure of the political advantages 
 which the noblemen had gone to Lon- 
 don to plead for ! So great is the diversity 
 of development among the Hindus. 
 
 These people, viewed as a whole, are 
 most largely descended from the Aryan 
 Linguistic affin- stock. Their languages 
 flaturf/i^Sfe ^rc classical, and, strange 
 British rule. to Say, are more nearly in 
 analogy with the current English tongue 
 than are the Highland dialects of Scot-- 
 land or the broken speech of Wales! 
 Of the sixty-.six million of Bengalese, 
 forty-two and a half million are classi- 
 
 fied as Hindus ; and of the remainder, 
 about twenty and a half million are 
 Alohammedans. The British lieuten- 
 ant governor has thus under his sway 
 in the single province of Bengal a larger 
 Mohammedan population than that ruled 
 by the Sultan of Turkey I Besides the 
 two great peoples, the Hindus and the 
 Islamites, a small percentage of other 
 Indian races is diffused throughout the 
 country, and to this must be added the 
 Europeans, notably the English, who 
 have sat down at Calcutta under a May 
 and June temperature of one hundred 
 and ten degrees F. to control and 
 direct a mass of nations numerically in 
 excess of all the other subjects of the 
 queen. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XLIII.— Isolated 
 Aspects. 
 
 Races— General 
 
 T remains to notice 
 briefly one or two addi- 
 tional Indian families 
 less widely known than 
 the great races alreadj' 
 described. In the west- 
 ern part of the country, 
 on the slopes of the Hindu-Kush,'are 
 the Daradas, or Dards, and further to 
 the west another people called the Sijah- 
 Posh. The latter word signifies " black 
 coats," because the men are mostly clad, 
 as to their outer garments, in black 
 hides. To these people the Moham- 
 medans give the name of Kaffirs, or In- 
 fidels. It is believed that they migrated 
 into India from Kandahar in Afghan- 
 istan. 
 
 We have among these extreme races 
 the same dialectical differences, the same 
 peculiarities, which belong to the other 
 branches of the Indie familv. These 
 
 m.ountaineers are larger in person and 
 
 of finer iDuild than are the people of 
 
 the Punjab, or even their 
 
 Distributionaad 
 old kinsfolk the Afghans, character of 
 
 rr^-i 1 1 • 1 . 1 • the Kaffirs. 
 
 ihey have light skm, 
 blue eyes, and blonde hair. They are 
 more warlike than the people in the 
 valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. 
 They have an extreme aversion to the 
 Mohammedans ; and it is one of the 
 tests of good citizenship to have slain 
 one of the followers of the Prophet, 
 Whenever this feat has been accom- 
 plished the slayer henceforth wears a 
 feather in commemoration of his deed, 
 and allows his hair to grow long. 
 
 In other respects the Kaffirs are like 
 the Hindus. They offer sacrifices of 
 cows and goats, and have ceremonies 
 and feasts in honor of the gods, who are 
 both male and female, according to the 
 Indian theory. Like the greater races.
 
 \ 
 
 744 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 they venerate the souls of their ances- 
 tors. Amiisements are popular, and 
 music and dancing are cultivated to a 
 high degree. 
 
 Perhaps after dispersed Israel, the 
 Gypsies are the most remarkable people 
 Anomalous in the World in their dis- 
 
 TnThVetw^'^^ tribution into foreign lands, 
 scheme. Their name has been 
 
 given to them by other peoples, who 
 
 habit of life has carried them into all 
 quarters of the globe. Their dispersion 
 among the Western nations began with 
 the fourteenth century, and has extended 
 to the present time. 
 
 It is believed that the Gypsies were 
 originally of the Pariah, or Sudra, caste , 
 that is, the lowest order of Indian soci- 
 ety. Their dialects have certainly been 
 derived from Hindustani, but each tribe 
 
 AGRICULTURAL LIFK IN INDIA.— Ghaddis Cl-ltivators.— Drawn by E. Zier, from a photograph by E. Bo 
 
 have supposed them to be of Egvptian 
 origin. They do not call themselves 
 Gypsies, but Rovi, or Romany. The ver- 
 nacular Siutc is always employed by 
 them as their own ethnic epithet, and 
 in this it is easy to perceive the word 
 Sindh. Doubtless the original seat of 
 the Gypsies was in the valley of the 
 Lower Indus, whence their migratory 
 
 of Gypsies has adopted parts of the vo- 
 cabulary and even of the grammatical 
 structure of the languages The race orig- 
 spoken in the countries of ^"^^it'oVsudra, 
 their sojourn. Perhaps no class of Hindus. 
 people in the world have to a like degree 
 incorporated into their own speech so 
 much of other languages ; and the incor- 
 porated parts remain without assimila-
 
 THE INDICANS.— ISOLATED RACES. 
 
 745 
 
 tion. Leland, in his work on the Eng- 
 lish Gypsies and Their Language, has 
 given examples of the mongrel speech 
 employed by these wanderers. The 
 following two proverbs will suffice to 
 illustrate the gross deterioration of the 
 Gypsy tongue : 
 
 " A cloudy sala often purabens to a fi)io 
 
 " A cloudy morning often changes to a fine 
 
 dhnncs." 
 day." 
 
 " It's sim lo a choomer, kiishti for kek till 
 
 "It's like a kiss, good for nothing until 
 
 it's pordired atwt't'ji diti." 
 it is divided between two." 
 
 By some Gypsy tribes their own lan- 
 guage has been better preserved, and 
 few traces of the speech of the country 
 in which they chance to 
 
 Features of the _ . ■^ 
 
 Gypsy language be sojourning can be found 
 illustrated. • ^i • 
 
 m their current expres- 
 sions. The following paragraph from a 
 Welsh Gypsy story will illustrate the 
 character of the speech when free from 
 English admixture : 
 
 '• Yeker a doi ses bearengaro ta vaver store 
 " Once there were (a) sailor and other four 
 
 mors/i ; yek ses peltanengaro, ta ow vm'er ses 
 men; one was (a) blacksmith, and the other was 
 
 kora»iangaro, ta sivamangaro, to pallano ses 
 (a) soldier, and (a) tailor, and the last was 
 
 kirchimackaro. Ow bearengaro potchedas e 
 (an) innkeeper. The sailor asked the 
 
 peltanengaro te vel apra ow doreav. Ow pelta- 
 blacksmith to come on the sea. The black- 
 
 7iengaro pendas, ' Nan shorn ie fa te kerra boottee.' 
 smith said, ' No (I) am to go to do work.' 
 
 ' So se tero boottee ?' ' Te tasarra sastarn' 
 
 ' What is thy work ? ' ' To heat iron,' 
 
 chotchy ow peltanengaro, ' ta te kerravles utidra 
 quoth the blacksmith, 'and to make it into 
 
 chichaw grengey.' " 
 shoes for horses.' " 
 
 The ethnic classification of the Gypsies 
 was long a puzzling question. The most 
 skillful scholars were at fault in attempt- 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—48 
 
 ing to fix their place. Here again, how- 
 ever, language furnishes the clue. The 
 course of the Gypsies on Language far- 
 their way to Europe and t^Z^^l^lT 
 the West can be accurately ^'o^i- 
 traced b)' the admixture of foreign words 
 which they have brought along with 
 them. The oldest element thus incor- 
 porated with the Gypsy language is Per- 
 sian ; after that, Armenian, and so on to 
 the West. Doubtless a few bands of this 
 vagrant people have come into Europe 
 from Egypt, but their sojourn in that 
 country must have been brief, for no 
 tribe has been found speaking a language 
 in which there were traces of Arabic, as 
 would have been the case if they had 
 tarried long in Egypt or other parts of 
 Xorthern Africa. 
 
 Much investigation has been given to 
 the Gypsies as a people. Traces of them 
 have been found west of the Bosphorus 
 as early as the ninth cen- Apparition of 
 tury, but their presence in S^/llTr '" 
 Europe is uncertain until America, 
 the year 1346, when Catharine of Valois 
 granted to the chiefs of Corfu the right 
 to reduce to serfdom certain Homines 
 Vageniti, or vagrants, who liad come into 
 the country. This same people pitched 
 its tents along the Danube as early as 
 1417. In 1422 it was estimated that four- 
 teen thousand of them had reached Italy. 
 In August, 1427, a band numbering a 
 hundred and twenty came to Paris, 
 representing themselves as fugitives 
 from the Saracens in Eg}'pt. It is 
 doubtless from this circumstance that 
 the name Gypsy has been applied to the 
 race. In 1530 they had become so numer- 
 ous in England that Henry VIII issued a 
 proclamation against them. In nearly 
 every country of Western Europe stat- 
 utes were enacted to prevent the incom- 
 ing of Gypsies and to expel those who 
 already arrived.
 
 740 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 At the present time it is estimated 
 that Europe contains about seven hun- 
 Deveiopment of dred thousand of this race. 
 
 Eufope'and"'" '^^'"^V ^^''^^'6 m^de their way 
 America. into the two Americas, 
 
 into the islands of the sea, into Au.stra- 
 Ha. Everywhere their character is the 
 
 thie'v'iiig char- 
 acter of the 
 race. 
 
 Hindu. The complexion is tawny; 
 eyes black, glancing quickly to right and 
 left, black hair, cheek bones high and 
 prominent, lower jaw slightly project- 
 ing, mouth small, and teeth white and 
 even. It is not uncommon to see among 
 Gypsy women and girls figures and fea- 
 tures that would be consid- 
 ered beautiful by the most 
 critical judgment of West- 
 ern peoples. 
 
 .The character of the 
 Gypsy race is bad in the 
 
 last degree. Mendicant and 
 
 Both men 
 and women 
 
 are usually degraded. It 
 is not, however, charged 
 that they have licentious 
 habits. They are addicted 
 to every sharp practice by 
 which rogues and thieves 
 obtain property that is not 
 their own. They are con- 
 scienceless, and are un- 
 acquainted with religious 
 obligation. It has been de- 
 clared by some scholars in 
 language that there is no 
 Gypsy word for soul or im- 
 mortality or God. They 
 pretend to the fortune tell- 
 er's lore and to skill in 
 palmistry, and to every 
 other species of 
 from card-playing 
 black art of the 
 
 magic, 
 to the 
 Middle 
 
 BENJARI GYPSIES — TYPES. 
 Drawn by A. de Neuville, from a photograph. 
 
 same. The form, the features, the man- 
 ner of life and character of the Gypsies 
 are repeated in all places where their 
 tents or huts are found. The physiog- 
 nomy is plainly Asiatic. The Gypsy 
 face is the best representation to be seen 
 west of the Atlantic of the face of the 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Fixedness is the great cen- 
 tral fact in the constitution of India. All 
 of the races inhabiting that vast country 
 or emanating therefrom be- 
 
 ,.-,.. , Fixedness the 
 
 tray in their beliefs and central fact in 
 
 ,. ,1 ,. T Hindu life. 
 
 practices the unaltered con- 
 ditions of a former life. While the West- 
 ern Aryans, as we shall see hereafter,
 
 748 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 have been almost infinitely inflected in 
 their development, the Indie branch of 
 the race fell at an early age into estab- 
 lished forms, to amend or alter which 
 has been regarded as innovation and 
 sacrilege. 
 
 In this respect India may be ranked 
 with the Egypt that was and the China 
 that is. Doubtless the Hamites in an- 
 Comparisons cicnt Egyptian society were 
 
 with the Ham- ^j,.^j -^^ ^ given SO- 
 
 Ites and the * 
 
 Chinese. eiul Structure, less subject 
 
 to fluctuation and evolution into new 
 forms, than are the Indie races of to-day. 
 The Chinese also, who change not at all 
 from generation to generation, who re- 
 gard all movement or progress from the 
 old and approved constitution of things 
 as a iiseless and dangerous departure 
 from the best attainable standard, are 
 doubtless an intenscr form of social com- 
 pleteness and conservatism than are the 
 Hindus. But as compared with the 
 flexibility and progressive tendencies of 
 all the Western peoples the nations of 
 India are in the strongest contrast. 
 
 It is impossible now to tell for how 
 long a time even the details of every- 
 Preservation day life, the circumstances 
 dress'andrT-* ^^ manners and dress, the 
 eaiia. rules of caste, and the 
 
 laws of social propriety have remained 
 unaltered. The styles of personal adorn- 
 ment described in the oldest records of 
 the race are still patterned and repeated 
 by the Indian jewelers. The ornament 
 has been immemorially regulated by 
 rank. Even wealth and profusion have 
 not been able to pass the prescribed lim- 
 its of form. The law books of Manu 
 fixed the limits and the details of caste 
 and determined the paraphernalia of 
 each. All descendants of Ar^'ans should 
 wear the sacred cord around the person. 
 The cord must pass over the left and 
 under the right shoulder, and be placed 
 
 there when the wearer was initiated into 
 his caste. The cord of the Brahman 
 should be composed of three cotton 
 threads. The Kshatriyas, or warrior 
 caste, had also a threefold cord, but the 
 strands were of hemp ; and that of the 
 Vaisyas was made of triple strands of 
 wool . 
 
 Custom having once determned the 
 symbol, it must remain unaltered age 
 after age. The Brahman's 
 
 . Usage of f he 
 
 belt must be made of sugar belt; clothing 
 
 H, , ., of the Sudras. 
 
 e must wear the 
 
 .skin of the gazelle. His staff must be 
 of bamboo and reach to the top of his- 
 head from the ground. The .soldier's 
 belt must be made of bowstrings. His 
 garment must be a deenskin, and his 
 bamboo staff must reach no higher than 
 the forehead. The belt of the \'ais}-a 
 must be made of hemp. His garment 
 mu.st be a sheepskin, and his fig-tree 
 staff, cut from an unpeeled branch, must 
 reach only to his nose. Let none violate 
 these things, for they are a part of the 
 usage and the law of the land. Opin- 
 ions must not change, neither must the 
 outer forms of society. True enough, 
 the Sudras may clothe themselves as 
 they will, for they are no true caste, but 
 only a residuum, a melange, left on the 
 soil after the three major castes have 
 been determined and defined. These 
 things are necessary that the purity of 
 the dominant races may be preserved. 
 Change will lead to confusion, corrup- 
 tion of blood, deterioration of manners, 
 destruction of race character, national 
 shame. 
 
 Life is growth. It is as truly .so of 
 the tribe as it is of the individual ; of 
 the nation as of the tribe ; Race life, once 
 of the race as of the nation. %7„","j '"^^ 
 The part of the human atrophy. 
 body which is not used, which does not 
 expand and grow by the addition of new
 
 THE IND/CANS.— GENERAL ASPECTS. 
 
 749 
 
 elements, the substitution of living tis- 
 sue for that which is broken down and 
 expelled, will suffer atrophy. It will 
 cease to act. It may not possibly decay. 
 It may even retain a certain circulation 
 of the blood and a sort of nervous vital- 
 ity, but in other respects it is dead. 
 The same is true of national life, and 
 even of the institutional forms of so- 
 ciety. They must progress or fall into 
 a shriveled and useless condition, unfitted 
 for the altered relations under which they 
 pass by lapse of time and change of cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 India thus presents to the modern in- 
 quirer a fixed surface. There is less 
 perspective in Indian society than in al- 
 most any other of the world. This is to 
 say that the existing form 
 
 Lack of perspeo- 
 
 tive in Hindu has the Same character that 
 society. j^ j^^^ ages ago. In any 
 
 Western state, if a cross section be made 
 of society as it now exists, such section 
 will present phenomena wholly different 
 from what we would have discovered in 
 the sixteenth century, and the latter in 
 turn would be equally distinct from the 
 aspects discovered in the sixth century. 
 The art of China is said to have no per- 
 spective. The Chinese drawings and 
 paintings are all made as though the ob- 
 jects delineated had been viewed from 
 above instead of horizontally. The insti- 
 tutions of India have this fixed expres- 
 sion. They are as if sketched from 
 above, and the forms of things have no 
 converging lines behind them. 
 
 Since the beginning of European 
 ascendency in India, however, the im- 
 pact of Western influence 
 
 Western influ- . . 
 
 ence begins to upou the crystalizcd m- 
 
 pre vail In India. .-. .■ jr ii ^ 
 
 stitutions of the country 
 have scattered the germs of change. 
 There is a slight relaxation even of 
 caste. The Brahmans themselves have 
 separated somewhat into higher and 
 
 lower orders, and in some instances 
 have engaged in secular employments. 
 It is not unusual to find a Brahman in 
 the military service of the empire, and 
 
 THE I'ARIAH DJONGAL OF SARGUJA — TYPE. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 in some parts of the country what arc 
 known as " plow Brahmans," or agricul- 
 turists, are found. Though engaged in 
 the pursuits of the field and garden, 
 these members of the Brahmanical order
 
 750 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 toward the 
 neglect of caste 
 distinction. 
 
 still hold fast to their old distinctions, 
 wear the Brahman's thread, and claim 
 and receive recognition as belonging to 
 the highest caste. 
 
 The subsidence of the Kshatriyas, or 
 at least the subsiding tendency among 
 them into industrial pursuits, is .still more 
 Tendency marked. It can hardly be 
 
 said that the Pariahs are 
 now a caste separate from 
 the vSudras. They are rather a lower 
 class of Sudras than a distinct division. 
 These changes, noticeable by the close 
 observer in recent times, are exceedingly 
 slow, and are made against the whole 
 force of the existing order; but they 
 foretoken an ultimate regeneration of 
 the social order and institutions of the 
 East. 
 
 We have now completed the intended 
 sketch of the Eastern divisions of the 
 General view of Aryan racc. In a former 
 p^:s?n''s\"ge°of ^ook we followed the 
 the inquiry. migrations of these great 
 
 and pojjulous nations from their old seats 
 east of the Caspian into the regions of 
 their subsequent occupancy and devel- 
 opment. In the present book we have 
 
 noted the past and current aspects 
 which the various nations springing 
 from the primitive stock have presented 
 in ancient and modern times. The 
 object has been to give to the reader an 
 accurate general notion of the ethnic 
 character of these peoples. Geograph- 
 ically, we have found them distributed 
 from the Iranian Ossetes along the 
 northern spurs of the Caucasus, in lati- 
 tude forty-five degrees north and longi- 
 tude forty-five degrees east from Green- 
 wich, to the inhabitants of British Bur 
 mah, in latitude ten degrees north and 
 longitude one hundred and two degrees 
 east. Within the.se extremes are dis- 
 tributed some of the most populous 
 nations on the globe ; and if the civiliza- 
 tions of these peoples do not present to 
 the inquirer of to-day so promising and 
 inspiring a view as the more vigorous 
 and expanding developments in Western 
 nations, there is, nevertheless, a per- 
 petual fund of interest and a limitless 
 revenue of information to be found 
 among the races and institutions of the 
 old Iranian plateau and the teeming 
 valleys of India.
 
 ^ 
 
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