UC-NRLF B ^ SOD M^fi o GIFT OF uax/v>JoUa'vX4 (bjJIaJca^ Vol. LXX:s:VI, No. 3 OICH, 1^ ma: - X' A. hi THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY EDITED BY J. McKEEN CATTELL PACIKIC COAST NUNIBKR Edited by HARRY BEAL TORREY Astronomy on the Pacific Coast. Professor Kussell Tracy Craw- FORD . 209 The Biological Laboratories of the Pacific Coast. Professor William E. KiTTER 223 The Last Wild Tribe of California. Professor T. T. Waterman . . 233 Extinct Faunas of the Mohave Desert, their Significance in a Study of the Origin and Evolution of Life in America. Professor John C. Merriam 245 Insects of the Pacific. Professor Vernon L. Kellogg .... 265 The Phyiiological Aspects of California for the Botanist. Professor George J. Peirce 270 Social Legislation on the Pacific Coast. Professor William F. Ogburn 276 The Volcanic Activity of Lassen Peak, California. Professor Euliff S. Holwat 290 The Progress of Science: Science on the Pacific Coast ; The Organization of the Pacific Division of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; The California Meeting of the American Association . . . . . . , . .307 H o M Ph o 02 EH H n M M Eh M 02 n > Eh HJ Eh i <=> THE SCIENCE PKESS LANCASTER, PA. 6AREIS0N, N. Y. NEW YORK : Sub-Station 84 Single Number, 30 Cents Ye ably Subsceiption, $3.00 Copyright. 1914. by THE SCIENCE PRESS cji '\ '■ ^ SCHOOL AND SOCIETY A weekly journal, beginning publication on January 2, 1915, covering the whole field of education in relation to the problems of American democracy. Its objects are the advancement of education as a science and the adjustment of our lower and higher schools to the needs of modem life. Each number will ordinarily contain articles and addresses of some length, shorter contributions, discussion and corre- spondence, reviews and abstracts, reports and quotations, proceedings of societies and a department of educational notes and news Annual subscription $3.00; single copies 10 cents SCIENCE A weekly Journal, established in 1883, devoted to the advancement of the natural and exact sciences, the official organ of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. For twenty years Science has been conducted by its present editor, on the lines which will be followed by School and Society, and is now generally regarded as the professional journal of American men of science. Annual subscription $5.00; sing.e copies 15 cents THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY An illustrated magazine, established in 1872, devoted to the diffusion of science, publishing articles by leading authorities in all departments of pure and applied science, including the appUcations of science to education and society. Annual subscription $3.00; single copies 30 cents THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A monthly Journal, established in 1867, devoted to the biological sciences with special reference to the factors of organic evolution. Annual subscription $4.00; single copies 40 cents AMERICAN MEN OF SCIENCE A biographical directory, containing the records of about 5,500 scientific men. Price, $5.00 net SCIENCE AND EDUCATION A series of volumes for the promotion of scientific research and educational progress. Volume I. The Foundations of Science By H. PoiNCARf;. Containing the authorized English translation by George Bruce Hakted of "Science and Hypothesis," "The Value of Science," and "Science and Method." Price, $3.00 net Volume II. Medical Research and Education By Geokge Mills Pearce, William H. Welch, C. S. Minot and other authors. Price, $3.00 net Volume III. University Control By J. McKeen Cattell and other authors. Price, $3.00 net THE SCIENCE PRESS LANCASTER, PA. GARRISON, N. Y. SUB-STATION 84, NEW YORK CITY To THE SCIENCE PRESS Lancaster f Pa., and Garrison, N. Y. Please find enclosed check or money' order for in payment for the publications checked above. Name Address Date SCHOOL AND SOCIETY A weekly journal covering the whole field of education in relation to the problems of American democracy I'i SCHOOL AND SOCIETY began publication on January 2, 1915, under the editor- ship of Dr. J. McKeen Cattell, professor of psj'chology in Cokimbia University and the Teachers College, editor of "Science," "The Popular Science Monthly" and "The American Naturalist." The journal will follow the general lines that have made " Science " of service in the sciences, cooperating with publications in special fields, aiming to become the professional journal for those engaged in the work of our lower and higher schools, and to be of interest to the wider public for whom education is of vital concern. It will emphasize the relations of education to the social order, scientific research in education and its applications, freedom of discussion, and reports and news of events of educational interest. A weekly journal of education of this character, which at present does not exist in any country, has been under consideration for some time, but the plans were postponed on the outbreak of the war. Finally, however, it appeared that if the European nations must neglect their educational interests it Is all the more important that we should do the best we can in America, and the journal has begun publication at a time when there is thrust on this country great responsibility and great opportunity. The publishers hope that those who read this announcement will subscribe to the journal in order to assure its usefulness and success. There will be published two volumes a year, each containing over 800 double column pages of reading matter well printed on good paper. The annual subscription price is $3.00, the cost of a volume, $1.50, and the charge for single copies, 10 cents. THE SCIENCE PRESS LANCASTER, PA. GARRISON, N. Y. SUB-STATION 84, NEW YORK CITY To THE SCIENCE PRESS Lancaster, Pa., and Garrison, N. Y. Please enter my name as a subscriber for School and Society^ for which I .7, J check or money order for three dollars, will send ^ •' Name Address ^ Date 301386 Scientific Book I Binding I NELBCO ^^^Sk bindings €€^j€€€€€€€€€€€€€ ^ (^ WHO'S WHO IN AMERICA A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Liv- ing Men and Women of the United States Edited by ALBERT NELSON MARQUIS The only hiographical reference book con- taining trustworthy information in regard to leading Americans in all parts of the world. Just the facts every intelligent person wants to know. "Who they are, what they are, where they are." Over 21,000 personal sketches. P^dition for 1914-1915 now ready. Nearly 3,000 pages, cloth. Sent to any ad- dress on receipt of Price, $5.00 A. N. MARQUIS & COMPANY 440-442 Dearborn Street South CHICAGO Prof. F. A. Saunder's Wave Projec- tion Slide WM. GAERTNER & CO. Astronomical and Physical Apparatus SPECIALTIES Standard Apparatus of New and Improved Desigrn* Reading Microscopes and Telescopes Astronomical Telescopes Dividing Engines Spectroscopes Comparators Michelson Interferometers General Laboratojy Apparatus Heliostats Universal Laboratory Supports 5345 and 5349 Lake Park Ave. CHICAGO of Sanitats" Porcelain! (Registered Name) from the Porcelain Works of W. HALDENWANQER, SPANDAU near BERLIN can be obtained from all dealers In chemical apparatus Please take notice f I Blue Arrow" y of my Trade-Mark under the enamel ISIS M'OXDELGEM, (BELGIUM) Objects : 1° To study the evolution of human thought, chiefly of scientific thought, taking into account all influences which life in common brings constantly into play. We think indeed that the history of science — that is to say, the history of human thought and civilization in this highest form — is the rational basis of all really scientific philosophy. 2° To study the means of accelerating civilization by increasing the intellectual output of humanity, and by obtaining the more rapid record, classification, diffusion and assimilation of knowledge acquired, in a word : to organize science. A quarterly review published in French, English, German, Italian ; French being however predominant. Volume I (1913-1914) 826 p. gr. 8°, 2 portraits: 30 francs, half vellum : 33 francs Volume II and following. (400-500 p.) : 15 francs, half vellum 18 francs Edition de luxe Hollande v. Gelder: 18.50 francs, half vellum 21.50 francs. {The ist number of Vol. II has fust appeared) L'ENCYCLOPEDIE SUR FICHES Bibliographical notes reprinted from Isis, one side of paper only, forming an encyclopaedia on cards, relative to the highest realms of thought- A collection of from 1000 to 1500 notes = 5 francs. (Each subscriber to Isis has the right to buy one ooll. at 1.50 francs.) A prospectus will be sent gratis A specimen copy will be sent on application (accompanied by two international stamps) to ISIS, Wondelgem, Belgium SCIENCE A WEEKLY rOURNAh DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE Friday, February 5, 1915 The Present and Future of Botany in America: Professor Douglas H. Campbell. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. The Bureau of Mines. . The University of Cincinnati Bureau of City Tests. The Retirement of Charles Horton Peck. Scientific Notes and News. University and Educational News. Discussion and Correspondence: — The Fundamental Equation of Mechanics: Professor Edward v. Huntington. Geologic History of Lake Lahontan: Hoyt S. Gale. Botany in the Agricultural Colleges: C. V. Piper. In Regard to the Poisoning of Trees by Potassic Cyanide: Pro- essor Fernando Sanford. Quotations: — The Organization of Science. Scientific Books: — Cabrera's Fauna Iberico: Dr. W. J. Holland. Johnston on The Modern High School: Clayton C. Kohl. Plant Autographs. Special Articles: — Inheritance in the Honey Bee: Wilmon Newell. Tillite in New Hampshire: Robert W. Sayles. The Philadelphia Meeting of the American Anthropologial As- sociation: Robert H. Lowie. Slng-le Numbers 15 cents. Friday, February 12, 1915 The American Association for the Advancement of Science: — The Economic Trend of Botany: Henry C. Cowles. Conserve the Collector: Joseph Grinnell. The Scientific Trend in Secondary Schools: Dr. Elliot R. Downing. Patronizing the South American Republics: President J. C. Branner. A New Field School of Geology for Harvard University. The Summer Meeting of the Geological Society of America. Scientific Notes and News. University and Educational News. Discussion and Correspondence; — The Rate of Continental Denudation: Eugene Wesley Shaw. Albinism in the English Sparrow: Professor Charles W. Har- gitt. Scientific Books: — Volterra's Legons les Fonctions de Lignes: Dr. G. C. Evans. Price's The Essence of Astronomy: Professor Charles Lane Poor. Ogden's Introduction to General Psychology: Profes- sor Mary Whiton Calkins. Petroleum Developments in Foreign Countries. A Study of the Influence of Volcanic Dust Veils on Climatic Variations: Dr. Henryk Arctowski. Special Articles: — On the Nature of Antagonism: Professor W. J. \'. Oslerhout. Isolation of Bacillus radicicola from the Soil: Dr. C. B. Lip- man and L. W. Fowler. The American Physical Society: Professor A. D. Cole. Societies and Academies: — The Botanical Society of Washington: Dr. Perley Spaulding. Annual Subscription $5.00. Published every Friday by THE SCIErNCB PRESS LANCASTER, PA. Sub-Station 84 : New York GARRISON, NEW YORK, ELEVENTH EDITION THB MICROSCOPE, en Introduction to Microscopic Methods and to Histology, by BiMON Henry Gage of Cornell University. The 11th edition has eight pages of new matter and corrections, otherwise It Ig like the 10th ed. Price 82.00 postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. BOOKS /-, Technical, Scientific. Self Instructiev books. Sciences. Pure or applied. Books on any subject. Engli.sh and foreign languages. Write for lists. Please explain as deli- nitely as possible what subjects or languajjes interest you. C. HIGENE CO. R 2441 Post St. San Francisco, Cal. ROMEIKE'S PRESS CLIPPINGS are now an absolnte necessity for every scientific man. By methodical searching through the most important papers and periodicals published in this country and abroad we are able to supply yon at short notice with information on any subject which perhaps you would be unable to find yourself in libraries or reference books after spending days or even weeks at such a task. Write for further information. HENRY ROMEIKE, Inc. 106-110 Seventh Avenue New York City Before Deciding WHERE TO ATTEND SCHOOL •:^o";oi Valparaiso University ^n-jr.';:'*"' One of the Largest Universities and Training Schools in the United States. 29 Departments Excellent Equipments tn Instructors School the Entire Year Bx|>ea*e5 less than at any ether school. Catalog mailed *»e. Address H. B. Brown, President, or O. P. KiNSKY, Vice-Pres. PATENTS BALDWIN & WIGHT 25 Grant Place, Washin^on, D. C. Patents, Trade-Marks and Copyrights Practice before the Patent Office, Library of Congress and Patent, Trade- Mark and Copyright Courts. Over 20 years' experience. Reference: Columbia National Bank. Washington, D.C. other references furnished If desired. THE COUNTRY LIFE EDUCATION SERIES Types and Breeds of Farm Animals By Charles Sumner Plumb, Professor of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agricul- ture, Ohio State University $2.00 Principles of Breeding: Thremmatology By Eugene Daveni'okt, Dean ul the College of Agriculture, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station and Professor of Them- matology in the University of Illinois . . 2.50 Fungous Diseases of Plants By Benjamin Minge Duggar, Professor of Plant Physiology in Cornell University . 2.00 Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture By Cyril George IIoi-kins. Professor of Agronomy in the University of Illinois; Chief in Agronomy ana Chemistry and Vice-Di- recor of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 2.25 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture By .John Henrv Uouinsox, Etlitor of Farm Poultry, Boston 2.50 Garden Farming By Lee Cleveland Corbett, Horticulturist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture 2.00 Other books in preparation GINN & COMPANY Boston New York Chicago London Atlanta Dallas Columbus San Francisco LEARN TO BE A WATCHMAKER iSADLEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE Horological Department Peoria, Illinois Formerly Parsonfl Horological iait. Largest and Best Watch School In America . . . We teach Watch Work, Jewelrj, kngrftTlng, Okok Work, Optics. Tuition reasoDable. Board and rooms near school at moderate ratc«. This entire building aaed «■ I for Catalog of Infoimation. atasiTel; as a watch i Georgetown Universilj School of Medicine and Dental Department The Sixty-fourth Session will begin September 28th. 191-1, and continue eight and one-half months. Six-Year Collegiate and MedicalCourse leading todeprfes B.S.Biid W.D. Prac- tical laboratory work under gpecial instructors, in Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, Histology. Pathology and Bacteriol- ogy. Ample facilities for clinical experience and practical work in hospitals of city and in the University Hospital, containing in all over 3000 beds. For particulars address GEORGE M. KOBER. M.D. Dean School of :\tedi("ine. 1819 Q Street SHIRLEY W. BOWLES. D D.S. Dean Dental Department, ItUtJ Eye Street. N. W. Washington, D. C. FOR SALE Avtronomlcal Telescope — 6 inch (Brashear) objective, 90 inch focus, with tin.ler ; mounted on iron column having fine adjustment in azimuth— circles reading by vernier to 1 minute, respectively, time and arc— Driving clock, with governors, driven by Weights — Slow motion attachments in both Right Ascension and Declination— Ten eye pieces, with diagonal prisms for both star and solar observations. Price, $.575. Also Fauth micrometer with position circle. 8175. STEPHEN LOINES. 51 Wall Street, NEW YORK. •....■■■,:•..::••■.■■■.■•■■■••••••■ THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. MARCH, 1915 ASTEONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST By Professor RUSSELL TRACY CRAWFORD THIS subject brings instantly to the mind's eye the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton, and the Solar Observatory on Mount Wil- son, as they are two of the greatest astronomical observatories in the world, and probably the best generally known of all. The one is an asset of the Pacific coast, probably accidentally, the other was placed there as a result of mature deliberation after thorough investigation of many locations. In addition to these two wonderful institutions there is in process o^ construction a third great observatory near Victoria, B. C, which, when completed, will contain the second largest reflecting telescope in the world. It is evident, therefore, that conditions on this coast are extremely favorable for developing the practical side of astronomy. On the other hand, the theoretical side of the subject is by no means to be lost sight of, as I shall point out. In the early days before the erection of the Lick Observatory, the only astronomical work on the Pacific Coast was that done by the TJ. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey under the able direction of the late Pro- fessor George Davidson. This was not astronomical work as such, but merely the solving of such astronomical practical problems as were inci- dent to the regular work of the survey. The first real scientific astro- nomical investigations came with the advent of the Lick Observatory. This institution is the gift 6f James Lick, a California pioneer, who had amassed a fortune of several million dollars. On July 16, 1874, he executed a deed of trust which devoted the entire sum to public purposes. Among the provisions of the deed is one that directed the trustees to expend the sum of seven hundred thousand dollars for the purpose of con- structing ... a powerful telescope, superior to and more powerful than any telescope ever yet made, with all the machinery appertaining thereto. . . . He left the trustees certain discretionary powers as to its location VOL. LXXXVI. — 15. 2:io. .", .'.".THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY '•'■ '■ w-'; './ ': ■ ,J /.'c .^/ K yf^H '^ ';, C3 O o 2 ASTRONOMY ON THE PACTFI(JAOASt{ \ " :^ix\ with the proviso^ however, that " the same must he located within the state of California." Just why Lick provided for this telescope and observatory will prob- ably never be known. While I can not recall my authority, I have a very distinct recollection of having heard it stated that the idea was first suggested to him and frequently urged upon him by Professor George Davidson. Concerning this point, however, the director of the Lick Observatory writes,^ The question, " What induced Lick to provide for a great telescope? " has never been satisfactorily answered; but there is no reason to doubt that he came to this determination without conscious suggestion from others. After having several sites tested the trustees decided upon Mount Hamilton, California, as the best location for the observatory. Active work was begun in 1879, and the observatory was completed and ready for regular work in 1888. The plant cost all but $90,000 of the amount set aside for it. The observatory and this balance were turned over to the regents of the University of California by the trustees June 1, 1888 ; and since then it has been an integral part of the university. The principal instruments of this observatory are the great 36-inch refractor, a 6-inch Eepsold meridian circle, provided by the Lick Trust, and the 36^-inch reflector, a gift from Edward Crossley, Esq., of Eng- land. Besides these there is a host of smaller instruments and auxiliary apparatus. I can not go into details here concerning the instruments, but I wish to mention one which has an important bearing upon the subject of this article. It is that the magnifying power of the great refractor may be made to be as much as 3,000 diameters. When one considers that everything in the line of sight of the telescope is magni- fied by this amount, it becomes evident that, to be efficient, the telescope must be located at a site where the atmosphere through which the line of sight passes is extremely stead}^ for any little atmospheric disturb- ance will be magnified to this amount and destroy what is called the "seeing," giving a poorly defined image of the star or object under observation. And it is principally on account of the splendid atmos- pheric conditions on the Pacific coast, especially on some of the moder- ately high mountains, which make excellent "seeing" possible that observational astronomy here has been able to make such tremendous strides. For the efficient use of a great telescope its location must be in a region of great atmospheric calm, where the sky is clear and trans- parent, with little wind, and where the number of days and nights of a year during which such conditions do not exist is small. For some reason, the " seeing " conditions at Mount Hamilton during the day are not of the best; but at night excellent conditions are found on a large 1 " A Brief Account of the Lick Observatory of the T^niversity of Califor- nia," prepared by the Director of the Observatory. Fourth edition, 1914. •2-I.2- 'iS[E'\ pOPt'LAR SCIENCE MONTHLY Lick Observatory fkom the West. majority of the nights of a year, and many nights yield "seeing" that might be considered perfect. X glance at the illustrations showing the mountain as seen from the east and from the west will make it evident at once why these conditions obtain. With the exception of a saddle running eastward, the land slopes away rapidly from the summit down into deep valleys, so that there is but little opportunity for heat waves radiated from surrounding land to mount to the atmosphere above the observatory and create atmospheric disturbances. The mountain is not so verj^ high (4,209 feet above mean sea level), but it is high enough to hold the observatory in an atmosphere free from dust, smoke and fog. Being near the ocean, fogs are very frequent at certain seasons over the valleys in this region. It is seldom, however, that they mount high enough to envelop the observatory. Many evenings and early mornings fog completely fills the surrounding valleys, so that the observatory seems to rest on an island in a vast sea of fog. Often peaks only a few hun- dred feet lower than Mount Hamilton are covered by the fog, yet the work with the great instruments is uninterrupted. The picture "Fog in the Valleys at Sunset" gives a better idea of this condition than I can describe. In such a location as this the 36-inch refractor can be used with its maximum power a large portion of the time. In less favorable localities even larger instruments would not be so efficient. It is one thing to have an excellent plant, and it is another thing to have men skillful enough to operate such a plant effectively. A very proficient marksman can not do very much damage with a blunderbuss. ASTRONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST 213 and one unskilled will not be able to produce any good results from the best modern artillery; but an expert behind a Krupp can produce a high percentage of effective hits. And so it is with the Lick Observa- tory. JSTot only is it a wonderful engine of science, but also it has been very fortunate in the astronomers who have operated it. I can not here go into the details of all that has been done at the Lick Observatory, but the following extracts from "A Brief Account of the Lick Observatory of the University of California," prepared by the director of the observatory, 1914, give an idea of the principal things of general interest that liave been accomplished in the quarter of a century of its existence : 1. To the four bright satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo in 1610, the Lick Observatory has added four satellites. 2.. Twenty-uiiie comets have been discovered. Nineteen of these were un- expected, and ten were periodic comets whose return had been predicted. 3. The first great success in photographing comets and the Milky Way were made here. 4. About 4,400 double star systems have been discovered. 5. Irregularities in the motions of the first magnitude star Procyon had led the celebrated German astronomer Bessel, three quarters of a century ago, to predict that Procyon had a companion sun revolving around it. This compan- ion was discovered with the Lick telescope. 6. Spectographic observations of stellar motions have shown that the solar system is traveling through space, with reference to the general stellar system, at a speed of about twelve miles per second. 1^ :^:-'*«*i>i#KrfK-fii)^-^, 'J "■j^Sfb^^-^' Fog in the Valleys at Sunset, Mt. Hamilton. 2 14 THE POPULAR SCIENCE JIONTHLY 7. The Mount Hamilton and Santiago2 spectographic observations of stel- lar motions have shown that stars effectively young are traveling slowly, middle- aged stars more rapidly, and old stars more rapidly still; that is, that the velocities of the stars increase with their eifective ages. 8. Observations have established that those nebute known as planetary nebulae are traveling through space with average speeds even higher than the average speeds of the stars. It had previously been supposed that these nebulae represented a stage of existence antecedent to the stellar age. The high veloci- ties of these objects have created the opinion that they have more probably been formed from stars which have been overtaken by catastrophes, such as collisions with other celestial objects. 9. The North Pole Star was found to be a triple star, in 1899, by means of spectrographie observations. The first magnitude star Capella was discovered to consist of two stars revolving around their center of mass in 104.1 days, the two nearly equal components being inseparable in our largest telescopes. 10. In the same manner about 250 spectroscopic binary stars have been found at Mount Hamilton and Santiago. 11. A study of the orbits of spectroscopic binary stars has established that the component stars in a system whose spectrum indicates early age are rela- tively very close together, requiring very short periods of revolution, and that the orbits are nearly circular. In systems whose spectra show them to be of greater effective ages, the distances separating the components are successively greater, on the average, and their orbits are more eccentric. The observed facts on the subject are fully confirmative of existing mathematical theories of the evolution of double star systems. 12. The Crossley reflecting telescope established for the first time the tre- mendous advantage of this form of telescope in the photography of certain classes of celestial objects, such as nebulag, star clusters, etc. 13. Before the Crossley reflector was in use about 10,000 nebulae had been discovered at various observatories. A few dozens of these were known to be spiral in form. The Crossley photographs led to the discovery of many hun- dreds of additional nebulae in the extremely small part of the sky covered by the photographs. It was a simple matter to calculate that certainly 120,000 and possibly half a million nebute await discovery whenever time can be spared for the Crossley' reflector to undertake this work. These photographs led to the unexpected discovery that a majority of the nebula; are of spiral form — un- doubted evidence of their rotation. 14. The extensive series of photographs of the minor planet Eros and sur- rounding stars, with the Crossley reflector, led to a new and accurate determina- tion of the distance from the earth to the sun. 15. Eight total solar eclipses have been successfully observed by expeditions whose expenses were defrayed by friends of the observatory. 16. It has been shown that the new stars appearing in recent years have been converted into nebulae, and later, in many cases, into extremely faint stars of apparently normal condition. 17. Many thousands of extremely accurate positions of the stars have been secured with the meridian circle. IS. Very extensive observations of double stars, comets, planets, and satel- lites have been made. 19. A large number of orbits have been computed for visual double stars, spectroscopic binary stars, comets, and asteroids. 20. Extensive additions have been made to our knowledge of the spectra of nebulae, comets, new stars, and stars of special interest. 2 Santiago, Chile, is the location of the D. 0. Mills Observatory, which is administered by the director of the Lick Observatory. ASTRONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST 215 21. Important studies of the spectra of spiral nebulaj and star clusters have been inaugurated. 22. An atlas of the moon was made in the first year of the observatory's existence, on the basis of photographs obtained with the large telescope. 23. The motions of approach and recession of about 1,500 naked-eye stars, distributed over the entire sky, have been observed with the 36-inch refractor at Mount Hamilton and the D. O. Mills reflector at Santiago. The 3G-IXCH Refractor of tke Lick Observatory. 24. Spectroscopic observations at Mount Hamilton and on the summit of Mount Whitney have shown that the atmosphere of Mars is of low density, prob- ably much less dense at the surface of Mars than the earth's atmosphere is at the summit of the highest peak in the Himalaya Mountains. These observa- tions have established likewise that the quantity of water vapor in the atmos- phere of Mars above, say, a square mile of its surface, must be very slight as compared with the quantity of water vapor in the earth's atmosphere above an equal area. 2l6 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY <«,•■' « O H < « a! a O -i) J O o H G O d ASTRONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST 217 The wise economical policy of this observatory is to engage prin- cipally in those investigations which can not be carried on with smaller and less effective instruments. Much that could be done there is left to smaller institutions. The great instruments are used only for the prob- lems that demand their great power. And these are quite sufficient to keep them in constant use. Turning now to the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory we find a unique institution. As its name implies^ it is an observatory erected primarily for the study of the sun. In 1902, Dr. S. P. Langley addressed a communication to the Carnegie In- stitution recommending the establishment of an observ^atory at a very high alti- tude for the special purpose of measuring the solar radiation. This recommendation resulted ultimately in the erection of the Solar Observatory by the Carnegie Institution by which it is supported. Various sites in Arizona and in southern California were tested, and the summit of Mount Wilson (nearly 6,000 feet above sea-level) near Pasa- dena in southern California was selected. In the choice of a site for this observatory excellent " seeing " conditions in day time as well as at night were of primary importance. Such conditions were found to exist on Mount Wilson. For director of the observatory a very wise choice was made in Dr. George E. Hale. It is due principally to his genius and untiring efforts that this wonderful plant has been designed and brought to its present high state. Dr. Hale points out that the term " solar observatory '' is to be used in a broad sense, since it is not intended to exclude from the program certain investigations of stars which are of fundamental importance in any general study of the prob- lem of stellar evolution. For the sun is a star, comparable in almost every re- spect' with many other stars in the heavens, and rendering possible, through an intimate knowledge of its own phenomena, the solution of some of the most puzzling questions in the general problem of stellar evolution. Conversely, how- ever, the stars are suns, and if we would know the past and future conditions of the sun, we must examine into the physical condition of stars which represent earlier and later stages of development. It will be seen that there is ample ground for the inclusion in the equipment of a solar observatory of certain in- struments especially designed for the study of stellar problems. Such an observatory, whose primary object is " to apply new instru- ments and methods of research in a study of the physical elements of the problem of stellar evolution," must of necessity have as comple- mentary parts of its equipment a physical laboratory and an adequate machine shop. These two parts have been supplied and are located in Pasadena. Here not only are smaller pieces of apparatus made and repaired, but also the enormous discs of glass for the 60-inch and the 100-inch reflectors have been figured and tested. The instrumental equipment of the solar observatory is naturally 2i8 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY very comislete. In addition to the numerous smaller pieces of apparatus there may be mentioned in particular the Snow telescope, the two tower telescopes, and the monster reflectors. The Snow telescope consists of two 24-inch concave mirrors of different focal lengths (when either one is in use the other is easily put out of the way) mounted well above the ground in such a way as to throw the sun's rays horizontally under a louvre covering to the spectro- scope or other apparatus, where they are analyzed. Soon after this instrument was in operation Dr. liale conceived the idea of mounting the coelostat at the top of a tower, and sending the rays vertically down- ward to the spectroscope so as "to avoid disturbance of definition caused by heated currents of air arising from the ground." He therefore had designed and erected a 65-foot tower for this purpose. This was very successful. Then desiring a greater focal length than could be obtained with this height, bo had built a second tower 150 feet high. Under this tower a well was excavated to the depth of nearly 80 feet, thus providing for a possible focal length of about 230 feet. The 150-foot tower is of ingenious construction. It is a tower within a tower. The main struc- ture which supports the coelostat at the top is completely sheathed in an encasing tower which supports the dome, so that there is complete pro- tection from the wind. When one looks at the tower he sees only the framework of the sheathing. This great tower telescope is a most effi- cient and satisfactory instrument. There is no larger telescope in operation to-day than the 60-inch reflector, the reflecting surface of which was ground by Mr. Ritchey in the shop at Pasadena. The remarkable photographs of nebulas that have been made with it speak loudly in praise of its efficiency. This instrument is soon to be supplanted in its proud position of size by the 100-inch reflector, the gift of Mr. J. D. Hooker, which is nearing com- pletion. The figuring of the enormous block of glass has also been done by Mr. Eitchey. The present state of the building to hold this great reflector is shown in the accompanying picture. The completion of this, the largest telescope in the world, will undoubtedly mark an epoch in observational astronomy. Its light-gathering power will be nearly three times as great as that of the 60-inch, and more than seven times that of the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory which in its turn fifteen years ago marked an epoch. If "half a million nebulae await dis- covery " with the Crossley, think of the possibilities awaiting this giant ! In the ten years of its existence the results of the investigations of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory have been very numerous and most valuable. I have not space here even to enumerate them. Every an- nual report of the director contains a summary of the principal results of the year. The number of such results is noticed to increase from year to year. In the last Annual Report (1913) seventy-two results are summarized. Most of these are of such a technical nature that they are ASTRONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST 219 of interest only to the scientist. Of the results of general interest I may mention the discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots ; the fact that " the sun is a magnet, with magnetic poles at or near the poles of rota- tion"; "the polarity of the sun corresponds with that of the earth — a conclusion which may prove to have an important bearing on theories of terrestrial magnetism"; "the evidence that has been amassed in sup- TiiE 150-FOOT Tower, Mt. Wilson Solar Obsekvatoey. port of the view that light is absorbed in space." The last, as Dr. Hale points out not only offers an explanation of otherwise obscure phenomena, but pronaises to give what appears to be the only possible method of measuring the most pro- found depths of the universe. The investigations of the solar observatory are carried on not only by the regular staff, but also by other scientists who are invited to make use of the wonderful equipment there. 220 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY Peesext State uf Klilding i-ok Housing the 100-ixcii Rei-lector, Mount Wilso.v Solar Observatory. At ■HRSMl '•xU ^ ^**^-.— The Glass Disc eor the IOU-incii Mirror, in the Tiisadena Laboratory of the Mouut Wilson Solar Observatory. ASTRONOMY ON THE PACIFIC COAST 221 The Lipk and the Mount Wilson Solar Observatories are the only ones at present on the Pacific coast whose energies are devoted wholly to investigations. A third will soon be in operation. This is to be an observatory eight miles north of Victoria, B. C, to house the 72-inch reflector of the Canadian government. Dr. Plaskett says : Word has been received from Paris that the disc for the mirror is ready for shipment and there is every prospect of the telescope being ready for erec- tion next year. This was written in June, 1014. A later report tells us that the disc has been received at Allegheny, and that work upon the mirror has been begun. When completed this will be the second largest reflector in the world. In addition to these there are on the Pacific coast several small ob- servatories connected with educational institutions whose principal use is to supplement by practical work the, instruction in astronomy in these institutions. Among these may be mentioned the observatories of Pomona College, of Santa Clara College, Chabot Observatory of the Oakland High School (the Chabot Observatory is soon to be supplied with a 20-inch refractor). University of Washington, and the Students' Observatory of the University of California. Besides these there is a small government observatory, a branch of the U. S. Naval Observatory, located at the naval station on Mare Island, used principally for time service and the regulation of the chronometers of the ships of the Navy. Finally, there are a few small private observatories wherein some ama- teur astronomers delight to " follow the courses of the stars." Theoretical as well as practical astronomy is well fostered on the Pacific coast. Its chief development is to be found in the Berkeley Astronomical Department of the University of California. Here has been organized a thorough school of astronomy, than which, according to the late Professor Simon Newcomb, there is none better. Not only is the science taught at Berkeley, but also theoretical investigations are continually being carried on. It is only natural that in a region possessed of such institutions as I have mentioned there should be a considerable interest in astronomy among the people. This interest is manifested principally through an organization known as the Astronomical Society of the Pacific with headquarters in San Francisco. This society resulted from the interest taken by a group of amateur astronomers and photographers in the total eclipse of the sun visible in California, January 1, 1889. It has a membership of several hundred who are interested in a general way in the science of astronomy. In addition to its meetings the Society issues bi-monthly its Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. The Society has been given two funds the interest from which is to be devoted to giving certain medals. One of these is known as the 222 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY Donohue Comet Medal. One such medal is awarded to every discoverer of a new comet. The other is the Bruce Gold Medal, and is looked upon as one of the most important medals that can be awarded to an astron- omer. It is awarded "for distinguished services to astronomy." The medal itself is a beautiful work of art, and is valuable both intrinsically and for what it symbolizes. The great value that astronomers attribute to this medal can be appreciated better when the manner of making the award is understood. The process is as follows: The directors of six observatories (Harvard, Yerkes, Lick, Berlin, Paris, and Greenwich) are each requested to nominate three men worthy to receive the medal in any given year. After these nominations are in it is usually found that six or seven names are presented to the directors of the Society from which then their choice for the medal must be made. If an award is made, therefore, it is to some one nominated by one or more (usually more) of the directors of six of the leading observatories of the world. There can be no doubt then that the recipient is justly entitled to this medal "for distinguished services to astronomy." That it is most highly prized by its recipients I quote from a typical letter of accept- ance of the medal. The medallist writes, " I regard this distinction as the highest an astronomer can receive. . . ." The results of the investigations at the Lick Observatory are issued in the Bulletins of the Lick Observatory for short articles, and in the Publications of the Lick Observatory (Volume XII. just issued) for the more extended work. Results from the Berkeley astronomical de- partment are also issued in the Bulletins of the Lick Observatory, and one volume (VII.) of the Publications of the Lick Observatory is de- voted to its investigations. The Contributions from the Solar Observatory, Mount Wilson, Cali- fornia, issued by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, give to the world the results of the investigations carried on at the observatory on Moimt Wilson and in the laboratories in Pasadena. The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific I have already mentioned. The list of astronomical publications on the Pacific coast is made complete, I think, when I mention finally the Publication of the Astronomical Society of Pomona College, an interesting quarterly popular magazine issued by the astronomical students of Pomona College. In preparing this account of astronomy on the Pacific coast I have dra'ttTi freely from "A Brief Account of the Lick Observatory" (fourth edition), and from the annual reports of the director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to the directors of these two observatories for their kindness in provid- ing the illustrations. BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 223 THE BIOLOGICAL LABOEATOEIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST By Peofessok WM. E. RITTER THE study of marine botany and zoology has gained a foothold on the Pacific coast of the United States in the brief period during which biology has been institutionally naturalized in this part of the world, that promises well for the future. Seaside laboratories have been established at three main centers of population : at Puget Sound, in central California, and in southern California. At the extreme north the University of Washington, in cooperation with several other institutions, has a laboratory at Friday Harbor on San Jaan Island. In central California the Timothy Hop- kins Laboratory on Monterey Ba}^, belonging to the Lei and Stanford Junior University, has now been in operation for twenty- three years; and near by is the Herzstein Laboratory owned "by the University of California. On the coast of southern California are the Scripps Insti- tution for Biological Eesearch at La Jolla, near San Diego, securely founded because permanently endowed, and in the vicinity of Los Angeles laboratories at Venice and Laguna Beach are manfully striv- ing toward permanency. The Scripps Institution is a research depart- ment of the University of California. The laboratory at Venice is being fostered by the University of Southern California and that at Laguna Beach by Pomona College. With this bird's-eye view of what the country's long western sea frontage presents in the way of effort to turn to intellectual account the riches of life of this part of the Pacific ocean, we may proceed to a somewhat closer look at what is being done. A student of marine life who has considered the geography of Puget Sound even from afar, does not need to be told that it is a great, richly stocked aquarium of both animals and plants. Almost completely land- locked though sufficiently open at both ends to enable the water to flow through it with each run of tides, beset with innumerable irregular islands, and rock-shored everywhere, a piece of the sea could hardly be more ideally circumstanced for all kinds of organisms adapted to such conditions. For several decades the prodigality of life in the Soimd has aroused the enthusiasm of naturalists, resident and visiting. Credit for the first efforts to create a laboratory for making use of this wealth of life is due to Professor Trevor Kincaid, of the University of Washington. After several years of preliminary collecting and re- connoitering by Professor Kincaid and his students, Friday Harbor was selected in 1903 as, on the whole, the most favorable place for a per- 224. THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY I'LGKT t5UU-NO M.via.NE f>TATiu.N, x\i Friday Harbor, f