THE EYTHEi'UTHOROFTHE TMnAinmnzctTJT Case ^lackie &f So 71 L/ mi tec/ T^7'ivate Lii'ra?y C....C Rh^lf 10 Shelf. THE HISTORY OF PROGRESS GREAT BRITAIN THE fflSTORY OF PEOGRESS IN GREAT BRITAIN/ -^ ' T!V TTTR ATTTTTnTJ fl BY THE ATTTnOR OP THE 'ENQUIEE WITHIN" AND "EEASON WHY" SERIES, "THAT'S IT," ETC. WITH NUMEEOUS ILLUSTEATIONS SHIPS OF THE TniRTEENTH CENTURY. THIRD THOUSAND LONDON H O U L S T O N AND AV E I G H T 65, PATERNOSTEE ROW .MDCCCLXTI. PREFACE. The " History of Progress in Great Britain " is submitted to the reader's attention, believing that it contains some interesting Facts and Kecords not hitherto known, or, at least, not heretofore applied to demonstrate the growth of the British mind, and the development of the Nation's material resources. Though necessarily concise, the History is not superficial. The Author has endeavoured to throw himself as far as possible into the moral and mental atmosphere which surrounded former generations. He has striven to realize their life, thoughts, fears, and difficulties. The reader will find that he frequently quotes their words, in preference to using his own ; feeling convinced that no language of his could so aptly explain the old notions of vegetation (for instance) as those which have been given from Goodge, Piatt, Gabriel Plattes, Markham, and other " ingenious husbandmen," who undertook to enlighten mankind upon their favourite theme ; and that the notes by Pigafetta upon Magalhaen's voyage most significantly show the scantiness of knowledge of Natural Phenomena and History in the sixteenth century. This Work was designed to be essentially a British History, and confined, as far as possible, to the advancement made within these Islands. But as Britain is connected, by the Sea and her Shipping, with every part of the world, it was found necessary, in the section upon Navigation and Geographical Discovery, to wander beyond the prescribed limits, and to include the Portuguese and Spanish discoveries, which opened to British enterprise a highway East, West, and South. vi PREFACE. The subjects included are complete as far as possible. Their further progress will henceforward, it is presumed, consist rather of the application of Inventions already tested, than of the in- troduction of new applications; for the genius of Man appears to have ransacked the stores of Natural Philosophy, and already to have gleaned therefrom ever}' element of previously hidden power. A considerable portion of space has been devoted, in the Second Series of this Work, to the deeply interesting subject of Civil and Religious Liberty ; but so grand and comprehensive a Theme must have its own separate Historian who shall be worthy of it. Mean- while, the brief notices here given are commended to the reader's indulgence. Whatever be their faults, they have been written by one who ardently desires to see his country, and all mankind, in the fullest possible enjoyment of everything that is conveyed in the words Civil- and Religious Liberty. These, rightly understood and determinedly acted on, must tend to elevate the individual nature of Man, and bring the entire Human Family into complete and harmonious unity. The Author tenders his grateful acknowledgments for the favour with which this Work has been received, and for the popularity it has attained since it was first published. He confidently anticipates that this new and cheaper edition will find a phice in every Library, public or private, in all Reading Clubs and Mechanics' Institutes, for which it is specially adapted. London, February, 18G6. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST SERIES. PAGE VIEW OF BEITAIN AT THE PERIOD OF THE ROMAN INVASION 1 THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE . . . .65 THE PROGRESS OF ROADS, CARRIAGES, AND WATER CONVEYANCE 137 THE PROGRESS OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE . . 205 THE PROGRESS OF SHIPPING, OF NAVIGATION, AND OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY .... 273 WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. — • m DAILY WANTS, DICTION AKY OF. 7s. U. USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, DICTIONAEY OF. 10s. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL KNOWLEDGE, DICTIONAEY OF. 5s. REASON WHY. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 3s. 6rf. REASON WHY. DENOMINATIONAL. 3s. U. ENQUIRE WITHIN UPON EVERYTHING. 2s. 6i. PRACTICAL HOUSEWIFE AND FAMILY MEDICAL GUIDE. 2s. M. FAMILY SAVE-ALL; oB, SECONDARY COOKERY. 2s. 6rf. REASON WHY. GARDENER'S AND FARMER'S. 2s. "TES, CANTII, AND SOUTHEJIN SETTLEMENTS. subsequently. Eut we do more than this : we learn that it was to the pick and spade, rather than to the sword ; that it was to the levelling of forests, rather than to the slaughtering of armies of men ; to the draining of marshes, and not to the draining of human veins ; to the opening of ways, and not to the construction of walls and fortresses* that the Komans, after a struggle of two hundred and sixty years, chiefly owed the ultimate subversion of a barbarian people. True, great sacrifices of life were made in those early works of Progress ; but the sacrifices were due to the war element which still lurked in those designs, causing tliem to be pursued with an unnecessary impatience A BBITISII TOWN. 13 destructive of human strength. By those improvements the Roman rule gradually assumed such a hold upon the British heart, that when at a later period the Romans withdrew from Britain, and released the people from allegiance to then' power, the emancipated Britons, dreading again the disturbance of their kingdoms and the spoil of their settle- ments, which had assumed a happier aspect imder the Roman dominion, implored their conquerors to remain, and tendered their warmest adhe- sion to Latia authority. Thus, in that darlc age, a barbarous people was taught so to appreciate the benefits of advanced government, that If I 4 v/ BKITISH TOWX. they readily submitted to be governed, and parted with their first conquerors with regret. While the impassibility of the land for a long period gave great advantages to the Britons in warfare against their invaders, the sea afforded vast facilities to the Romans, since the Britons had not yet learned the art of ship-building. Their boats, or coracles, as described by Caesar, were built of light wood covered over with leather. In those frail vessels they floated about upon the rivers, made excursions along the coast, and sometimes voyaged to Gaul, to Hibernia, and to the islands of Mona, Monoeda, and Vecta. But so little did the Britons 1-1 THE DISASTERS OF THE ROMA^T FLEET. know of sliips of any considerable dimensions, that Ciosar says they ■o'ere awed at the first invasion by the shape and appearance of his galleys, and that they halted, and began to fall back. It is probable that some of tliem, who had been trading with the Pho'uicians and the Granls, might have seen large vessels ; bnt to the hosts who had gathered on the shore to resist the landing of the Eomau legions, the appearance of formidable galleys, propelled rapidly by a mnnber of rowers, inspired terror. And still later (a.d. 84), when Agricola took his fleet to explore the coasts of the powerful nations that dwelt beyond the Forth, the Britons of those parts were struck with consternation. When we consider the great maritime supremacy of the British people in the present day, it becomes interesting to ponder upon these evidences of the simplicity of oiu* ancestors. Such has been our mighty advance in maritime progress, that not only do the coracles of the jjrimitive Britons appear insignificant, but even the fleets of imperial Home will scarcely bear comparison with the squadrons of fishing craft that now daily expand their white sails iipon the bosom of our blue waters. When we consider the safety and power with which oiu' ships majestically plou^gh the briny deep, the exploits and disasters of the Eoman fleet possess a complexion of Quixotic colouring. In his first invasion (b.c. 54), Csesar left the Gallic shore with two legions of infantry, on board eighty transports. His cavalry also em- barked in eighteen other transports, and were ordered to follow Caesar, "as soon as weather permitted." But the weather did not permit, and the Homan horse were detained some four days, until their services were " no longer required," at least for the actual purposes of the invasion. Arrived on the Britisli coast, at ten o'clock on the morning of the 25th of Avigust, C.Tsar found that he had selected the AVTong spot to eftect a landing, so he bore along the coast, from a point near Dover, until he reached an open and flat shore, supposed to lie be- tween AValmer Castle and Sandwich. Here some laggard vessels, which in so short a -Noyage had dropped away from the fleet, hove in sight, and at three o'clock in the day, the Eoman legions eftected a landing, in spite of a stubborn resistance from tlie Britons, who had journeyed along the coast for the purpose of opposing them. Some days after, wlien a peace had been concluded between C^psar and the southern Brituns, tlie transports having the cavalry on board hove in SHIP BUILDING COMMENCED. 15 sight ; but before the_y could reach the shore, and while they were in view of Caesar's camp, a tempest — such a one as our fishing craft would now probably defy — drove them all back to the port whence they had sailed. And, to make Csesar's disaster all the worse, it happened that same night to be full moon, the occasion of spring-tides — a fact unknown to the Eoman navigators. The galleys which had landed the troops, and which had been drawn upon the shore for greater security, were seized by the swelling tide, and washed away, and the transports, which lay at anchor in the roadstead, were either dashed to pieces or rendered unfit for sailing. As soon as the Britons dis- covered the disasters to Caesar's fleet, they revoked the terms of the peace they had concluded, and again put themselves in open hostility to his authority. Ca?sar did the best he could to collect his scattered fleet, and repair those vessels that were not fatally injured. After a few skirmishes with the enemy, in which he again established the supremacy of the Roman arms, he concluded fresh conditions of peace Avith the Britons, upon easy terms, and determined to return to G-aul, "because the equinox was approaching, and his ships were leaky." In the spring of the following year he once more embarked from tlie same point, with a fleet of 800 vessels of all classes, carrying 30,000 men, and 2000 cavalry. He effected an unopposed landing- near the same jioint as before ; and having moved ? large proportion of his force inland, in pursuit of the islanders, who had broken the terms of the peace previously concluded, he fought a battle with them near the spot where the city of Canterbury now stands. The Eomans drove the Britons into a dense wood. The following morning they were about to follow up the advantage they had gained ; the trumpets had soimded for the advance, when a party of horsemen arrived to inform Caesar that his fleet had again been completely wrecked during the night. He immediately ordered a retreat, and returning Avith his disappointed legions to the sea-shore, found that forty ships had been totally wrecked, and the rest so damaged that they scarcely seemed capable of repair. Then the carpenters of the army were set to work, other artizans were sent for from Gaul, ship-building com- menced upon the British coast, and the ships, for better security, were drawn upon dry land, in the immediate vicinity of the camp. Such is the history of the grand Eoman fleet, whose exploits contri- buted largely to the fame of Julius Ca>sar! Let us now contrast the coracle of the ancient Britons, or the IG THE CORACLES OF THE BEITONS. proudest vessel of the Eoman fleet, or the whole fleet collectively, with the most recent triumph of naval architecture. Nineteen centuries ago our forefathers constructed their rude hoats by covering a descrip- tion of wicker-basket with the hides of buff"aloes. Some historians have conjectured that they also had larger vessels, and that those boats Avere so frequently mentioned by ancient Avriters on account of their singularity. We must, however, bend to the authority of Ca>sar, whose conquests were effected upon the sea coasts, and who, from a general disposition to exalt his feats of prowess, would certainly have mentioned the British ships, if any such existed. Not only did the COEACLES OF THE ANCIENT BlilTONS. Britons oppose no naval resistance to Ca-sar, but they appear not to have had a single vessel by which they could Avatch the motions of his fleet. The descent of Cjcsar upon tlio Britisli shore Avas, therefore, a matter of sudden surprise to the Britons, so far as tlie time and place were concerned. The voyages that Avere made in those small coracles appear to have been undertaken only in the more temperate seasons. Solinus confirms this view, saying, that " tlie sea Avhicli floAvs between Britain and Ireland is so unquiet and stormy, that it is only navigable in summer, Avhen the people of those countries pass and repass it in THE GKEAT LEVIATHANS'. 17 small boats made of wattles, and covered carefully with tlie hides of oxen." Had they other and larger vessels, they would scarcely have limited their voyages to the extent indicated, or have performed them, even in the more favourable season, in coracles of wattles. Those boats doubtless varied in size, according to their employment, either on the sea-shore, or in rivers and shallow waters. Sometimes the coracles were carried in carts many miles overland, to meet the water ; upon other occasions, the navigator, returning to the shore, swung his boat across his back and bore it to his hut. A superstition is said to have prevailed among the Britons, which prohibited their taking food during STJiKI,-K£EL AND bCKEW-SHAFT OF THE LEVIATHAN. a voyage. This alone would prevent their undertaking to make sea passages of any considerable extent. The statement can scarcely be received, except with some reservation, for Timaeus, a very ancient historian, related that the people of Britain used to voyage to an island at the distance of six days' sailing; and he also says, that the boats in which they made those long voyages were made of wattles, covered with skins. Superstitions, creeds, and prejudices, have always been found to yield to necessities. It is not improbable, therefore, that when the Britons undertook those long voyages, they received some c 18 SIZE OF THE EnMA:^' VESSELS. kind of dispensation to release them from the bonds of superstition, and permit them to satisfy tlieir appetites. Of the dimensions of the ships of the Eoman fleet, some idea may be formed -when it is remembered that in his second invasion eight hunch-ed A'essels are stated to have conveyed 32,000 men to these shores, besides 2000 horses. These figures are liable to much doubt, since they are founded solely upon modern calculations of the number of men composing the legions Avliich Ca?sar states to have accompanied him. According to the statement given, each ship must have been large enough to transport four hundred soldiers, independently of the horses. Setting the doubts respecting the dimensions of those vessels aside, we may gather some idea of the " sea "worthiness " of the Eoman fleet by tlie repeated disasters whicli befel it. In the two expeditions the ships were severally driven back, scattered, and 'UTecked. But we learn more of their probable dimensions and strength when we read, from Ca-sar's own account, tiiat upon one occasion, forty ships were entirely destroyed, and the rest so much damaged that they were hardly repairable. He immediately set to work all the carpenters of the fleet, sent for others from Graul, drew all his ships on shore, and enclosed them witliin the fortifications of his camp ; and, by the vigorous and incessant toil of tlie Avhole army, this Avas accomplished in the short space of ten days. "AVe turn now to contemplate the grandest and the most recent work of naval architecture. Lying off" the town of Deptford, like an unfinished Avorld midergoing the preparations tliat are to adapt it to the reception of liuman beings, there floats tlie Leviathan, upon those waters on Avhich, in the daAA^n of our nation's story, our ancestors paddled to and fro in their coracles of wattles and hides. There she floats, in peaceful majesty, already a proud monument of the victories of Mind and Industry, and tlie boldness of British enterprise. Men of every clime — the Ethiopian, the Arabian, the Asiatic, the American, gaze upon her Avitli Avonder, as tiiey pass her toAvering sides in the humbler craft that ])]y the busy river. Princes haA-e visited her, and paid homage to the heaven-born genius and the industrious hands that have united to send forth from the Thames so glorious an evidence of youtli and vigour slill animating the souls of the children of Old England. The power and success of this Ocean City are, to some extent, FAITH IX PROGRESS. 19 matters of speculation. But the day lias come when mankind may have confidence in this, that whatever the spirit of Progress proposes, it has the power ultimately to accomplish. Times have been, and unfortunately too often, when the nation's means and sinews, drained by distracting wars, its heart crushed by internal discord, and mind cramped by rampant bigotry, the hand of Progress has been paralyzed, and has been deterred from attempting, or marred in performing, the works which its genius had projected. But ever when the weight of folly and oppression has been diminished, and the bandage of bigotry removed from the people's eyes, a noble army of inventors and labourers have gone to work for the good of themselves and of man- kind. They have made the world their workshop, and the elements their material. This applies not alone to the inventors of vast schemes, and the investigators of deep problems, but to every one "who holdeth the plough, and glorieth in the goad that di'iveth the oxen, and is occupied in their labours, and whose talk is of the breed of bullocks. He that givetb his mind to make furrows ; and is diligent to give the kine fodder. So every carpenter and work-master that laboureth night and day ; and they that cut and grave seals, and are diligent to make a great variety, and give themselves to counterfeit imagery, and watcli to finish a work. The smith also sitting by his anvil, and considering the iron- work ; the vapour of the fire wasteth his flesh, and he fighteth with the heat of the furnace ; the noise of the hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears, and his eyes still look upon the pattern of the thing that he maketh ; he setteth his mind to finish his work, and watcheth to polish it perfectly. So doth the potter sitting at his work, and turning the wheel about with his feet, who is always carefully set at his work, and maketh all his work by number ; he fashioneth clay with his arm, and tempereth it with his feet ; he applieth himself to lead it over ; and he is diligent to make clean the surface. All these trust in their hands ; and every one is Avise in his work. Without these a city cannot be inhabited." The Leviathan is the work of such hands. Long before she grsAv into actual existence, she was seen in the " mind's eye " of one of those great translators of the ideal into the actual, whose triumphs over natural obstacles eclipse the victories of Alexander — Caesar — Napoleon — "Wellington! The astronomer excites our wonder by penetrating illimitable space, and discovering celestial gems shining in the solemn darkness of an unbounded solitude. But the inventor of a thing 20 THE IDEAL BECOMES THE ACTUAL. hitherto unknown, the speculator npoii .1 problem untried, dives into greater depths, and from a more ethereal essence than that which fills the vast universe of space, calls into existence a neAV creation : thus, from a thought which may have flitted in the darlaiess of night across a sleepless brain— a brain ever probing the depths of the unlmo^ra and the imtried, for some new triumph over difficulty— came the first con- ception of the Leviathan, which, like a phantom-ship, must have passed and repassed the sea of imagination until the true moment of inspira- tion came, when her lines, ^A'hich at first existed only in the realms of nCTS OF THE NORTH. fancy, were transferred to paper, and the ideal tlieuccforth became|^the actual. Prom this we see how erroneous is tlie view of those economic theorists who contend that only thos(> who labour bodily are producers — aU else consumers and absorbers of the wealth created by mankind. A thought kindled in the mind of an earnest thinker, and directed to some object of practical good, may open mines of wealth, giye work to thousands, and add vastly to the liappiness of mankind. Compare the coracles of our British forefathers with the floating city whose majestic form wiU soon ride upon the heaving bosom of the waves. See the proportion which man bears to his works of eighteen THE LETIATJIAN AND THE ROMAN ELEET. 21 hundred years ago, and those of the present day. Standing upon the work of his ovra industry, man seems little more than a specie — like an eagle, whose form may be dimly descried upon a mountain peak. One vessel, of the capacity and speed of the Leviathan, would have accomplished more than the whole of Caesar's fleet of eight hundred ships. It would have crossed the channel before the Eoman vessels could get into position to disembark their legions. And in four trips it would have lauded his army of 32,000 men upon the British shores. This city of the seas is provided with accommodation for 4,000 CALEDO^•IA^■S. passengers, independently of her crew — a number equal to the popula- tion of some of oiu- floiu-ishing to\\'ns. But she might, upon an emer- gency, carry 10,000, allowing them the usual accommodation aftorded to troops. She will travel at the rate of twenty miles an hour, wiU reach the antipodes in from thirty to thirty-five days, and will then lie keel upwards towards the point from which she sailed ! She will make her way against wind and tide with the power of two thousand six hundred horses. Her five saloons will afibrd accommodation equal to that of five of our celebrated hotels ; while her deck will aftord a vast area, a 22 POWEKS A>'D 1»IME>'SI0XS Ol" THE LETIATHA^'. promenade around wliieli will be equal to a quarter of a mile. Her screw propeller is twenty-four feet in diameter, and its sliaft is one hundred and twenty feet long : the diameter of each paddle-wheel is fifty-six feet — considerably larger than the circus of Astley's theatre. She ^^•ill carry twenty large boats on deck, and will bear on her sides two screw steamers, each one hundred feet long, and between sixty and seventy tons biu-den. There will be an electric telegraph on board, to commiuiieate orders simultaneously from the officer in command to the distant parts of the ship. She will be lit by gas, which Avill be made on board ; and the electric light is designed to shine like a star of the first magnitude from her mast-head! CHAPTEE III. THE MAX>"^EES A>'D CUSTOilS OP THE AXCIE>'T BEITISH PEOPLE. A RAPID sketch, of tlie manners and customs of the Britons will be interesting as a starting point for the contemplation of those nmnerous works of Progress which have metamorphosed the Avhole aspect of society, and given to the humblest man in the State powers and pleasures which even a little span of time ago kings could not enjoy. Caesar distinctly states that all the Britons used to dye themselves with woad, which imparted to their skins a blue colour. He assigns as the reason for their doing so, the desire to make themselves appear more terrible in war ; for which reason also, it is said, the men tattooed themselves in various parts of the body with the forms of ferocious beasts. Herodian says that they knew no use of garments at all, but wore about their waists and necks chains of iron, supposing them to be a goodly ornament and a proof of their wealth. Pliny adds another ornament, and says that they wore rings on their fingers. Herodian further adds, that they marked their bare boxlies with sundry pictures, representing all manner of living creatures ; and therefore they would not be clad, for hiding the gay paintings of their bodies. According to the testimony of Ciesar, they allowed the hair of their heads to grow long, and it was naturally curled, and of a yellow colour. They shaved all other parts of their bodies, except the upper lip. As various authorities difter to some extent in their description of the Britons, it may be luiderstood that the maimers and customs of different tribes were dissimilar, and hence arose the discrepancies to be found in the early histories. It appears pretty clearly estabbshed that among those tribes that Avore clothing, the skins of beasts for a con- siderable period formed their only attire, and that those skins Avere frequently cast aside, just as our warmer garments may be in these days ; and thus the same people went sometimes clad in skins, and at other times naked. 24 DRESS OF THE BRITOXS. Dr. Henry, a very careful inquirer into the uiamiers and customs of the ancient Britons, gives the following account of the first progress of the British tribes from their nude condition to the habit of wearing garments : — The nppcr garment of the ancient Britons, and of all other Celtic nations, was the mantle or plaid. This was a piece of cloth of a square form, sufficiently large to cover the whole trunk of the body, both behind and before. It was iastened upon the breast, or one of the shoulders, Avith a clasp ; or, for want of that, with a tlioi'n or sharp-pointed piece of wood. As this garment succeeded the mantles made of skins of some of the larger animals, which had formerly been worn by the Celtic nations, it was n^.ade to imitate those skins in their shape and form ; and iu several countries, as particnlarly in Britain, those who were poor or less civilized still continued to wear skins, while those who were more wealthy or more improved Avere clad in plaids. Xot only did the plaids or mantles of cloth which were first used resemble the mantles of skins which they had worn before in their shape, but also in their appearance, and in other respects, being all of one colour, smooth on the inside, with long hair, either straight or curled, on the outside, not unlike the rugs Avliich are still used in some parts of Britain by the common people upon their beds. Those plaids, or rather rugs, Avhen they were first introduced, were esteemed so precious and so great a piece of luxury, that they were only used by persons of ranlc and wealth, and by them only in the winter season when they went abroad, being carefully laid aside in summer or when they were within doors. By degrees this garment became more common, and was worn by pei-sons of all ranks and at all seasons, at home as Avell as abroad, the mantles of skins being no longer used. As those most ancient plaids were made of coarse Vtocl, ill dressed, and spun in yarn of a great thiclvness, they A\ere only one degree more comfortable than the skins to wliich they succeeded, and were particularly inconvenient in the summer season on account of tlieir weight. This put the British weavers, now become a little more oxpei't in tlicir business, iipon making others of fine avooI, better di'essed, and woven the same on both sides. These were worn at first by persons of distinction, and in fair weather. For a considerable time the ancient Britons, and other Celtic nations, had no other garments but llieir plaids and mantles, which, being neither \cry long nor very liroad, Ici't their legs, arms, and some other parts of their bodies nalced. As long as the ancient Britons and other Celtic nations only CHANGES INTRODUCED BV THE KOMANS. 25 oovered their bodies Avitli their plaids or mantles, leaving their arms, thighs, and legs naked, it is not to be imagined that thej had any covering either for the head or the feet ; but after they had provided garments for all the other parts of the body, they would naturally begin to think of some kind of covering for its extremities. Some of these nations, and perhaps the Britons, had no other shoes but a piece of the skin of a horse, cow, or other animal, tied about the feet, with the hair ■outwards. Prom a figure of a British captive on a Roman monument in Glasgow, it seems probable that the common people wore a kind of cap on their heads very like the bonnet which is still used in the high- lands of Scotland, The dress of the women in the time of Boadicea may be gathered by the description given by Die of the dress which that heroic queen herself wore : — " She Avore a tunick of various colovu's, long and plaited, over which she had a large and thick mantle. This was her common dress, which she wore at all times ; and upon occasions of war she bore a spear." The Roman conquest made a considerable change in the di'ess and clothing of the people. Not a few of them, and particidarly of their young nobility, adopted the dress as well as the language and manners ■of their conquerors. Speed remarks of the diet of the Britons, that their religion prohibited 26 DIET AXD COOKEET. theiu from eating either a hen, a hare, or a goose ; yet they bred those animals as a matter of ftxncy. jN'either did they feed daintily at full and rich meals, but could in necessity live upon barks and roots of trees. They are said to have had a kind of meat, of which a small piece no bigger than a bean would stay their hunger. This Avas probably some narcotic preparation of herbs. The ruder tribes tilled no ground, neither did they catch fish, although the rivers were abundantly stored therewith ; but tliey lived upon the plunder which they obtained from the more frugal tribes, or subsisted by the hunt upon venison, to which they added wild fruits. They used millv and butter, but were imacquaiuted with the method of making cheese ; they also had a drink which was made of barley. One authority only accuses our ancestors of cannibalism. St. Jerome is said to have wTitten to this eifect : — " AYlieu I was a j'oimg man, I saw in Graul the Attacotti, a British nation who fed on himian flesh. AVhen they fovmd in the woods herds of hogs and cattle, and flocks of sheep, they used to cut off" the buttocks of the herdsmen and the breasts of women, esteeming those parts of the body the greatest dainties." Tliis assertion, however, is generally dis- credited. St. Jerome was a boy about the middle of the fourth century, at "which period it is highly improbable that cannibalism prevailed among even the most barbarous of the tribes, supposing it ever to have previously existed. The story told to St. Jerome, when he was a little boy in Gaul, was probably one of those mischievous inventions too frequently employed, even in the present day, to alarm children, and make them afraid of something terrible or unnatural. The cookery of the ancient Britons was limited to a few very simple processes. Some of the Celtic nations had the art of roasting acorns and other wild fruits, grinding them into meal, and malcing them into a kind of bread. The following is said to have been their method ot cooking venison : — A pit, lined with smooth stones, Avas made, and near it stood a heap of smooth flat stones of tlie flint kind. The stones, as Avell as the pit, were heated with heath ; then they laid some venison at the bottom, and a stratum of stones above it ; and thus they did alter- nately till the pit was full. The whole was covered over a\ itli heath to confine the steam. ^J'liey eat only tuice a day, making a slight breakflist in the fore- noon, and a supper towards the evening, when the labours and diversions of the day were ended. The last was their chief meal, at which, when they had an opportunity, they ate and drank with great freedom, or even MODES OF EATIXG, DRiyKI>'G, A>'D DAVELLIXG. 27 to excess. On those occasions the guests sat in a circle upon the ground, with a little hay, grass, or the slvin of some animal under them, A low table, stool, or block of wood, was set before each person, wdth his meat upon it. In this distribution they never neglected to set the largest and best pieces before those that were most distinguished for their rank, their exploits, or their riches. Every guest took the meat set before him in his hands, and, tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it in the best manner he could. If any one found difficulty in separating any part of his meat with his hands and teeth, he made use of a large knife that lay in a particiJar place for the benefit of the whole company. Servants, or young boys and girls, the childi'en of the family, stood behind the guests ready to supply them with drink, or anything they wanted. The dishes, in which the meat was served up, were either of wood, or earthenware, or a kind of basket made of osiers. These last were most used by the Britons, as they very much excelled in the art of making them, -both for their o^vn iise and for exportation. The drink- ing vessels of the G-auls, Britons, and other Celtic tribes, were, for the most part, made of the horns of oxen and other animals ; but those used among the Caledonians consisted of large shells, which are still used by some of their posterity in the Highlands of Scotland. Their houses have already been described as circular, the fire-place being in the centre, with a large chimney, which, with the door, constituted the only sources of light. The doors were high and wide, and it was not uncommon for a horseman upon a journey to ride into a house, converse with the inmates, still keeping upon horse-back, and when his interWew had ended, kicking the sides of his steed, and making his exit without having alighted. Their beds were made ujion the floor by the skins of beasts, or coarse woollen garments, which they wore in the day-time, and a whole family slept in a circle around the fire-place. Caesar alleges that their wives were ten or twelve, and says that they held them common among brothers and parents ; but the issue was reputed his who first married the mother when she was a maid. It is not, how- ever, improbable that Caesar was led into error in his estimate of their marriage institution on account of the promiscuous manner in wliich they lived. The revolt of a number of the formidable tribe of the Brigautes against their Queen for having proved false to the king, is a clear indication that marinage was regarded, by some of the tribes at least, as a sacred institution. 28 METHODS or AVAEFAEE. C.Tsar savs that the traffic they held between themselves, was not of much worth ; and it should always he remembered that he speaks of the more advanced tribes whom lie coiKjuered in the southern pai-t of tlie island. The coins which they had Avere either of brass, or else iron rings, and bits of metal cut to certain Aveights. He describes their system of warfare thus :• — They ride about all parts of the battle casting their darts ; and oftentimes, with the terrible noise of their horses, and the rattling of their chariot AAheels, they amaze the enemy and break their array. And Avhen they have wound themselves in among the troops, they leap forth from their Avaggons and fight on foot. In the meanwhile the Avaggoners AvithdraAV themselves somewhat out of the battle, and set their Avaggous in such order that, if tliey be overcharged by the enemy, they may have speedy and easy recoiu'se to them ; by means Avhereof tliey are as ready to remote as horsemen, and as stedfast to stand in the battle as footmen, and supply botli duties in one; and they are come to such perfectness by daily practice and exercise, that even in steep and falling places, they AAill stop their horses running a full gallop, and guide and turn tliem in a short room, and run upon the verges, and stand upon the beams, and quickly recover themselves back again into the waggons. The chariots, or more properly Avaggons or low carts, Avhich they used in battle, appeared to be common only to the southern tribes, no mention of them being made in the account of tlie battles Avilli the tribes in the interior of the country. The Avoiiien appear to have borne arms together Avith the men; and certain it is that many of that sex A\ere renoAvned for courage among them. But besides the use of arms, the British Avomen liad another employment in the field. Tacitus tell us tliat Avhen Paulinus Suetonius attacked the Druids in the isle of Mona, the British army stood on the shore, tliiclv of men and munition, and Avomen running up and doAMi among tliem like furies, can-ying burning firebrands, in rueful attire, and Avith tlieir hair lianging about their shoulders. The Druids, mean- while, Avent Avitli their liands lifted up In heaven, ])ouriug out prayers and imprecations. The strangeness of a\ hicli sight so amazed the Eoman soldiers, that tliey stood stock still, Avhile the others Avoiinded them at their pleasure, till I'auliuiis cin-ouragcd llicni, and apjicaleil lo tliciiniot to be so daunted bv an army of Avoincii and wizaids. ©I^TRIBFTIOIT of Hie Aiicieut CHAPTER IT THE ANCIENT BRITISH TRIBES. The several tribes wliicli occupied this island appear to have been con- stantly at war with each other, prior to the Roman invasion. ]S'o idea of a common nationality prevailed among them. The tribes of South Britain, however, entered into a confederacy to resist the Romans, and appointed Cassibelanus, the chief of the powerful tribe of Catieuehlani, to be the commander of their united forces. But so weak were the ties of this confederacy, that it soon dissolved, several of the other states making peace with Caesar, leaving Cassibelanus alone in his resistance to the Romans. One motive of the tribes for submitting to the Romans was the hope of obtaining the overthrow of Cassibelanus, wlio had long been an antagonist from whose encroachments they had suffered much. Although those tribes were generally at war, and the Britons looked upon fighting as their daily occupation, some of the ruder tribes subsisting by plundering the cattle and corn of the more privileged communities, yet there are evidences of friendly relations subsisting between them, as occasion demanded. Hospitality and kindness to strangers, when not at war, is set forth as being one of tlieir most remarkable virtues. As soon as they beheld the face of a stranger, all their haughtiness and ferocity were laid aside ; they felt the sincerest joy at his arrival ; accosted him with the most friendly greetings ; and gave him the warmest invitations to enter tlieir doors. It was even esteemed infamous for a chieftain to close the door of his house at all, lest, as their bards said, " the stranger should come and behold his contracting soul." As soon as the stranger accepted the friendly invitation, and entered the hospitable door, water was presented to him to wash his feet ; and if he received and used it, and at the same time delivered liis arms to the master of the house, it 30 THE CRAX-TAUA, OR WAR SIGNAL. was luiderstood as an intimation tliat lie designed to favonr him with his company for some time. An entertainment was then prepared, as sumptuous as the host could aftord. After the entertaimnent had concluded, the host might, without any breach of the laws of hospitality, enter into familiar conversation with his guest, ask his name, from whence he came, whither he was going, and such questions. As long as the stranger stayed, his person was esteemed sacred and inviolable, the season was devoted to festiAity, and every amusement in the power of his host was procured for him, to make him pass his time agreeably, and prolong his stay. Before his departure, it vras usual for the stranger to exchange a sword, spear, shield, or some piece of armour, ■with his hospitable entertainer, and these they preserved as marks of mutual friendship, and the rights of hospitality established between them and their families and posterity. As war was the favourite profession of the Britons, they had many remarkable customs in the prosecution of it. Our knowledge of some of these customs are derived from purely conjectural soiu'ces, yet the following, which are among the most clearly established, will be regarded with interest. Wlieu an unfortunate chieftain implored the protection and assistance of another, he approached the place of his residence with a shield all bloody in one hand, to intimate the death of his friends, and a broken spear in the other, to represent his incapacity to revenge them. A prince having immediate occasion for the assistance of his Avarlike followers to repel some invasion, or engage in some expedition, besides striking the shield and sounding the horn, to give warning to those who were within hearing, sent the cran-tara, a stick burnt at the end, and dipped in the blood of a goat, by a swift messenger, to the nearest hamlet, where he delivered it, without saying one word but the place of rendezvous. This cran-tara, which was well understood to denounce destruction by fir(> and sword to all who did not obc}" this summons, was carried with great rapidity from village to village ; and the prince in a little time found himself surroiuided by warriors I'eady to obey his conunands. "When one chieftain entered the territories of another on a friendly visit, he and his followers carried their spears inverted, with their points behind them ; but when they came with hostile intentions, they carried theui with the points before. An invading army never neglected to draw blood from the first animal they met with on the enemy's ground, and sprinkle it on their shields. INDEPENDENCE OF THE TRIBES. 31 When a British prince gained a victory, he sekloin neglected to erect some monument on the held of battle, to perpetuate the memory of his success. Those monuments consisted commonly of one large stone placed erect in the ground, without any inscription ; of which there are many still standing in different parts of Britain. As Britisli warriors had their arms put into their hands in public, and with various ceremonies, so they resigned them when they became old and unfit for the toils of war, in the same public manner, and with equal cere- mony. When two British kings or cliiefs made peace after a Avar, or entered into an alliance, they commonly confirmed the peace or alliance by feasting together, by exchanging arms, and sometimes by drinking a few drops of each other's blood, which was esteemed a most sacred and inviolable bond of friendship.* Every tribe had its own chief, or chiefs ; and although the will of the chiefs was absolute, they used to call the common people together, and confer with them upon all matters concerning their general welfare. Of these petty kings, or chiefs, the historian Speed thus speaks : — " Such was Cassibelan over the Tribonants ; Cingetorex, Caruilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax, all four rulers together in Kent ; Comius, supposed to be the king of the Attrebatii, and to be the same Comius of Arras, whom Caesar employed to tease and worke the Britaines to his subjection ; Caractacus, the warlike king of the Silures ; Galgacus, the worthy king of the Caledonians ; yea, and euen women also, Avithout exception of sex, held government among them, such Avas the faithlesse Cartismandua, Queene of Brigantes, and famous Boudicea, Queene of the Icenians. AVhereby it seemeth that euery several prouince owed service and allegiance only to their 0A\'n prince. And as their govern- ments were confined unto certaine boimds and limits, so were the inhabitants diuided and distingvdshed by diners names ; of A\^hom because we shall have occasion hereafter often to speak, it shall not therefore be amisse in this place once for all, tablcAvise, to lay doAATi the same, whereby our narrations may passe ATitroubled Avithout more explanations." (See Map, p. 29.) Such Avere the people who early occupied this island, which has risen to great fame among the nations of the earth. Where CornwaR now pursues its peaceful fisheries, and seventy thousand hands are daily employed in raising the mineral treasures of the earth ; where Devonshire spreads its rich pastures, and grazes its * Dr. Hciirr's "History of England." 32 THE DANMONII — THE BELGiE. quiet hei'ds — there flourished the Danmonii, a race remarkable even in tliose times for their robust natures and warlil^e courage. Carn Bos- cawen, in Cornwall, was the seat of the chief Druid of the Danmonii ; the stones of their Druidical altars remain to this day. In Madern parish there was a holed stone used by the Druids for the purpose of drawing children through for the cure of diseases ! In Devonshire, according to Greoffrey of Monmouth, the struggle took place between Corineus and Grog-Magog, in which the last of the giant race occupy- ing this island Avas destroyed ! Where Somersetshire spreads its rich pastures, and where, in the midst* of rural plenty and beauty, manufactories raise their tall chimneys, and flourish surrounded by fields of waving corn ; where "Wiltshire multiplies its sheep and swine, and contrasts its sterile plains with fertile valleys, and nests of manufacturing industry ; where Hampsliire displays its grand forests and extensive heaths ; where the quick hammer of the shipwright ia heard in the extensive dock- yards of Portsmouth ; and where busy steamers from a neighbouring isle, or from far distant shores, disturb the slumber of Southampton Avaters — there flourished the Helgce, a race of people who originally " were the most remote of old Gaul, as well in point of cultivation as in locality."* A very early accoimt of Somersetshire desci"ibes it as " a vast wilderness, covered witli brambles and briers, with thick woods extending every way, and with high mountains and amazing valleys." To the north of Salisbury Plain, in AViltshire, lies Stonehenge, one of the most interesting relics of Driddical antiqtuty. Many conjec- tixres respecting the massive stones of Stonehenge have been indulged in. There remains, however, no doubt that it formed one of the chief temples of Druidical worsliip, and was probably the seat of their great assize. Skulls of cattle, sacrificed by the Druids, have been dug up in the immediate neighbourhood. Stonehenge was, in all probability, founded four hundred and five years prior to the landing of Julius Ca)sar. It is believed to have been devoted to the worship of the Moon. There was a similar temple at Abury, Avhich Avas the seat of the Arch-Druid of the Belgae. There was also a similar temple in Somersetshire. Around Stonehenge are barroAvs, or bui'ial-places of the Britons, which rise like waves upon tlie green plain, so numerous that " one may coimt fifty at a time, in the evening Avhen the sloping rays of the sun shine on the ground beyond them." * Camden. IN t-Qv^-- 'X'~''i>/ jwmm 'i r 5?, Y;,^^^# ^ »/^- THE DUEOTEIG^ THE ATTREBATII THE CATIEUCHLANI. 33 Dorsetsliire, now abounding in flocks of sheep, and wooded with luxuriant orchards, was then the settlement of the Dwrotrigce, whose name was probably derived from the British words Dour, or Dwr, signifying water, and Trig, an inhabitant ; meaning inhabiting near the water or sea.* Where now are spread the fine corn-fields of Berkshire— where the waters of the Thames pursue their devious way, laving the fertile banks of green meadows and ducal parks — there dwelt the Attrehatu, a colony of people from Graul, on the banks of the Seine. Comius was the chief COIN OF COMIUS. of this tribe. While Csesar was pursuing his conquests in Gaul, he defeated Comius, who fled, with the remnant of his followers, to the sea-shore; but finding that the ships were agroimd, and that they could not, therefore, embark before the Eomans would overtake them, he ordered the sails of the ships to be spread, notwithstanding that they lay dry upon the beach. Csesar, seeing from a distance the swelling sails of the vessels, believed that Comius was already on the sea, and abandoned the pursuit. By this stratagem Comius and his followers escaped, and reaching Britain, founded the colony now described. Comius afterwards entered into friendly relations with Caesar, and became his ambassador to the Britons. Other tribes were located on the opposite side of the river. Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Huntingdonshire, formed the settlement of the Catieuchlani, over whom Cassibelanus was chief. These people were a very powerful tribe, constantly at war with their neighbours, upon whose territories they committed frequent depreda- tions. But when the island was threatened by Caesar, the southern tribes entered into an alliance for the defence of their territories, and placed Cassibelanus at their head. The warlike skill of the British chief occasioned great difficulties to the Eoman arms; and, * Camden. D 34 THE DOBUNl — THE EEGNI. but for jealousies and antipathies between the subordinate chiefs, the success of Ca?sar, partial as it was, would have been a very doubt- COIN OF CASSIBELANUS. ful issue. The tribes, breaking through their alliance one by one, sought to make terms of favour with the Eomans, until at last Cassibelanus stood alone against the common enemy, and yielded only when every chance of success had fled. Oxfordshire, now the seat of classic learning, proud in the splendour of its colleges and halls, was, with the picturesque county in which it stands, the seat of the Dobuni, who occupied also the county of Glou- cestershire, and had their towns scattered upon the banks of the beauti- ful Avon, whose immortal bard has so powerfully told the most thrilling story of Saxon times.* Of the Dobuni nothing more is known than that they suffered severely from the attacks of the Catieuchlani, and that Plautius, about the year 45, made terms with them, took them under Roman protection, and created garrisons among them for their defence. "Where Surrey displays its picturesque iiplands, romantic heights, woodland dells, verdant valleys, and plains covered with waving corn — where Sussex spreads its broad downs, and lofty white clifts look down upon the waters of the blue ocean — there lived the Herjid, whose king was Cogidunus. The spot at present knovsTi as Holwood Hill, in Surrey, is said to have been the seat of the capital of the tribe. The Devil's Dyke, near Brighton, to which so many fashionables flock in the summer season, was a British earth-work, believed to have been constructed as a retreat for the distressed Britons. It is almost * Sliakspere's Tragedy of Kin/^ Lear was first publisliecl in 1608, under the title of" Mr. William Sbake-spcare, liis true Chronicle History of the Life and Death of Kin^' Lear and his tlu-ee Daugliters. AVith the unfortunate Life of Edgar, Sonne and Ileire to the Earle of Gloucester, and his sulkn and assumed humour of Tom of Bedlam." THE CANTII THE TRIXOBANTES. 35 certain that on the very spot where Brighton now stands — on the Esplanade, where throngs of pleasure'Seekers pass to and fro, breathing the inspirations of the ocean winds, there once existed rude towns of the aboriginal people. Where Kent displays its beautiful hop-gardens, rivalling the vine- yards of sunnier climes, there flourished the Cantii. It was within the settlement of this people that Csesar effected his landing upon two occasions ; and with the Cantii his first battles must have been mainly fought. A portion of Dover Castle is said to have been of early British construction. The Cantii, in the time of Caesar, had four kings, named respectively, Cyngetorex, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Senogax. There is little doubt that before the landing of the Romans the space of COIN OF SENOGAX. country between Deptford and the Thames, as high up as Lambeth, was a swampy marsh, a great part of which was constantly overflowed by the tide, and quite uninhabitable. This marsh, with the channel of the Thames as its extremity, might be looked upon by the Cantii and the Trinobantes as a kind of barrier between them. The Romans afterwards, to secure this barrier, drained as much of the land as served their piu-pose, erected a station, and made roads to it ; but on their further conquests they removed to the north side of the river, where London now stands ; after which, neither of the above people claiming the drained district, it became part of the country of the Regni.* The counties of Middlesex and Essex formed the district of the Trinobantes. AVlien we contemplate the vast city of London, with its two millions and a half of inhabitants, and think of the wonders of social, political, and scientific triumph that have emanated from it, it becomes curious to reflect that this, the greatest and richest city in the world, was founded by the Britons, in all probability many years before the Romans set foot upon our soil, and that it must have been * Camden. 36 THE TRIXOBANTES. originally a mere town, or series of straggling villages (such as we have already described), scattered along the south bank of the Thames. That learned antiquary and historian, Camden, speculating upon the origin of the name of London says — " For myself, as Caesar and Strabo expressly say that the Britons give the names of cities or towns to woods and groves fortified by trees which they had cut dowTi, and I am informed that groves in the British language are called Lhwn, I am almost inclined to think that London had its name from thence, as the city, by way of eminence, or the city in the grove.'''' By others the name is said to be derived from Llyn-Din, meaning the town on the lake. The Trinobantes were the first people who submitted to the liomans, which they did on account of the oppressions of Cassibelanus and the Catieuchlani. They were, however, long regarded with preju- dice by the contemporary Britons for having been the first to submit. Cassibelanus murdered Imanuentius, king of the Trinobantes, and drove the son of the king, and successor to the throne, Mandubratius, into Graul, where he sought the favour and protection of Csesar, who, the better to promote his own designs, succoured Mandubratius, and reinstated him on the throne of his kingdom. At a later period the territories of the Trinobantes, the Catieuchlani, and the Dobuni were united under the government of Cunobeline, a grandson of the British king, Lud. Cmiobeline was at an early age taken to Bome, and edu- cated in Roman manners ; when he was set up over the three king- doms, he exercised great influence with the Britons in favour of the Romans, and preserved the peace of the states for many years. He held his court at Camulodunum, now Maldon, iu Essex, where it is said the first coins were struck in this country. Cunobelinus certainly COIN OF CU>'0BELINU3. did institute and encourage coining to an extraordinary extent ; no less than forty difierent coins have been satisfactorily traced to him, and are still preserved. It is probable, however, that tlie first British coins THE ICENI. 37 were struck at Venilam, now St. Alban's (of whicli the annexed en- graving is a specimen), before the Komans were in possession of tliat EARLIEST BRITISH COIN.* place. One side of the coin bears no device, and on the other is a rude design, evidently intended, by the horse and wheel, to represent a war-chariot. This intention is sufficiently explained by another British coin, in which the war-chariot is more evidently indicated by the BRITISH COIN. attitude of the driver, and the horse which is galloping over a prostrate foe. The districts now represented by Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon were peopled by the Iceni, who sustained a remarkable part in the troubled history of those early times. About the year 61, a revolt was commenced by these people, which had nearly proved destructive of Roman supremacy. The history of this revolt affords so good an insight into the turbulent and unsettled state of the times, that it should be given at length. Suetonius succeeded to the government of Britain in the year 58. He found that the Druids were the greatest enemies to the Eoman rule, stirring up " seditions" against their authority, and that the Isle of Mona (now called Anglesea) had become the stronghold of refugees, who fled before the advances of the Eoman sword. He therefore * The money first used by the Britons consisted of rude pieces of brass, tin, and iron, formed into rings or other simple shapes. See the Initial, p. 55. 38 EEYOLT or THE ICEJ^IANS. determined to conquer that island, and exterminate the last of the Druidical priesthood. For this purpose he collected the chief part of his army, and marched towards Mona. Of the occurrences there we shall have to speak hereafter. Whilst Suetonius was thus employed, the Britons of the south determined to seize an opportunity of casting ofl' the yoke. The Icenians were the first to stir in the revolt, and their example was soon followed by other tribes. The immediate cause which led to this formidable rebellion was as follows : — Prasutagus, king of the Icenians, who had been during his reign a faithful ally to the Eomans, died; and in order the more firmly to establish the peace of his state, he decreed a will, in which he made Nero joint-heir with his two daughters to all his efiects. But his death was no sooner known than, tempted by his wealth, the Eomans seized upon his possessions, and overran them with plunder and spoliation. The queen, Boadicea, remonstrating against these unjust COIN OF BOADICEA. proceedings, was seized by the soldiers, and scourged in a contemptuous manner, her daughters were violated, and all the relatives of the late monarch were reduced to indignity and slavery. The queen, being a woman of great courage, appealed to her people to avenge their wrongs, and, responding to that appeal, they determined to make a last struggle for the recovery of their liberty. Desperate in their rage, they rushed to arms, and were quickly joined by the Trinobantes. Among the latter, the Bonian soldiers stationed at Camulodunum had exercised the most tyrannical power, thrusting the inhabitants from tlieir houses, seizing their goods, and subjecting the people to the most ignominious treatment. Stirred to rebellion by these repeated injuries, they rose against their tyrannical oppressors, and, with burning hope of revenge, flocked to the standard of Boadicea. The Britons poured like an irresistible torrent upon the Eonian colony at Camulodunum. The Ixitter, unable to withstand the overwhelming attack, tied to the temple, REVOLT OF THE ICENIANS. 39 and defended themselves for two days, when the Britons forced an entrance, put every soul to the sword, and reduced the city to ashes. As the Britons were retiring from the scene of their recent victory, they came upon the ninth Roman legion, which was advancing to the aid of the colony. The Britons suddenly surrounded them, cut to pieces all the infantry, and the cavalry escaped with great difficulty. In the meantime, Suetonius, receiving information of these alarming events, left Anglesea with the greatest speed, and passing through a part of the enemy's country, hastened to London, which city still remained faithful to the Romans, As a stratagem of war, he determined to remove his troops from the narrow confines of the city, where they would fight under considerable disadvantages, and abide the issue of a battle upon an open plain. The inhabitants of London implored him to stay and protect them ; but he knew that the issue would be a vital one, and he left the city, with its numerous inhabitants, to the doubtful mercy of an exasperated foe. As soon as the Roman army had left the city, the Britons, with Boadicea at their head, entered it, and slaughtered all they found therein. From thence they marched on to the city of Verulam (St. Alban's), which they also conquered and despoiled. They reta- liated the injuries they had received from their enemies with a terrible revenge ; they would neither sell nor exchange prisoners, but either killed with the sword, gibbeted, burnt, or crucified all those who fell into their bauds. It is remarkable that this historical passage, with all its terrible features of outrage, oppression, rebellion, and massacre, should find so exact a parallel under British rule in India, after a lapse of eighteen hundred years ! And why ? Because the progressive lessons of experience have been forgotten. Thirst for dominion and wealth, without regard to the principles and rights that should ever attend the operations of enlightened governments, and regulate the intercourse of the pioneers of civilization even with barbarous people, has been as iniquitously indulged as if the conquerors of India had never read a page of history. That the Britons were subsequently beaten in an open battle, that 80,000 of them were slain, and that Boadicea destroyed herself rather than yield to the tyranny of the Romans, are matters of liistory sufiicieutly authenticated. But even with this terrible defeat, the Britons were unconquered ! A hundred and seventy years had rolled 40 THE COEITANI THE COENAYII — THE SILURES. away after this event, and yet tlie clash of British and Eoman swords was frequently heard in various parts of the island. The ultimate subjection of tlie people was mainly due to causes to which we have already alluded at page 12. The countries now divided into Eutlandshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Derbyshire were occupied by the Coritani. Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Cheshire formed the settlement of the Cornavii. The Sihires occupied those parts which the Welsh in their language called Dehenbarth, or the south part, divided at present into the counties of Hereford, Monmouth, Glamorgan, Brecknock, and Eadnor. Theii' king was Caractacus. The Silures, as described by Ptolomy, COIN OF CAEACTACUS. were a tribe distinctively marked from the other British people. Tacitus supposed them to have been orignally Iberians. Their com- plexions were ruddy, their hair dark and curled ; they were warlike, impatient of slavery, of great intrepidity, and exhibited a stubbornness iminfluenced alike by clemency or severity. The physical character- istics, as tlius described, have come down with the inhabitants of Silm*ia to the jjresent day, and confirm, in a remarkable degree, the description given of them in those early times. When the Eomans invaded their territory, they withstood so harassing a war, and inflicted such heavy losses upon their invaders, that Ostorious, the lioman general, died worn out with grief and difficulties, and Veranius, who subsequently attacked the Silures, did so in vain. Caractacus was, however, defeated and made captive. Being severely pressed, he retired into the dominions of t]ie Ordovices, whose territory included a portion of Shropshire, and his last great battle was fought upon a hill, now called Caer-Caradoc (twelve miles from Ludlow). Caractacus fortified the liill with a rampart of stones, and held it obstinately against tlie Komans, until the latter effected breaches in the rude rampart, remains of which may still be seen, and drove the THE DIMET^ THE BRIQANTES. 41 Silures in disorder to the mountains. Caractacus fled for protection to the territory of the Brigantes ; but the Silures were not reduced until the time of Vespasian, when Julius Proutinus conquered them, and placed garrisons of the legionary troops among them. Further mention of Caractacus will be made in the accoimt of the Brigantes, and in the Chapter in which the general character of the Britons will be reviewed. Pembrokesliire, Carmarthenshire, and Cardiganshire formed the settlement of the Dimet