SAN C
 
 L . M i 
 
 / 
 
 JOLLA. CALIFORNIA
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 OP THE 
 
 CHINESE LANGUAGE.
 
 ' ' Die Sprachlehre lehrt nicht eigentlich, wie man sprechen toll, sondern nor, 
 
 wie man spricht Die Sprachlehre ist nur eine Physiologic der Sprache ; sie 
 
 kann nur in so fern lehren, wie man sprechen soil, als sie in uns die innern 
 Bildungsgesetze der Sprache zum Bewusstsein bringt, und Tins dadurch in 
 Stand setzt, zu beurtheilen, ob die Sprechweise im Einzelnen diesen Gesetzen 
 geinass sei, oder nicht." BECKER'S Organism der Sprache, page 9.
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 PARTS I AND II, 
 
 GRAMMAR AND CHRESTOMATHY, 
 
 PREPARED WITH A VIEW 
 
 TO INITIATE THE STUDENT OF CHINESE IN THE RUDIMENTS 
 
 OF THIS LANGUAGE, AND TO SUPPLY MATERIALS 
 
 FOR HIS EARLY STUDIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES SUMMERS, 
 
 MAGDALEN HALL, OXFORD, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON, 
 LATE AN ASSISTANT IN THE LIBRARY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 
 
 JUL 
 
 M 
 
 OXFORD: 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 MDCCCLXIII.
 
 " Study things profoundly, and investigate the precise meaning of what you 
 learn, and then you will acquire the means of forming a comprehensive system 
 of principles." Free translation of the extract from the works of MANO-TBZ, 
 which is printed on the title-page.
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 IT has been deemed advisable to publish, in their present form, 
 Parts I and II of the Handbook of the Chinese Language, in order 
 to meet the demand which now exists for the work. They are 
 complete in themselves, but when Parts III and IV the Exer- 
 cises and Dictionaryare finished, (which, it is hoped, may be 
 done in a few months,) the whole will form a perfect apparatus 
 for the student of Chinese to commence with in this country.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 JL HE intention of the author in preparing this work for the press was to 
 make a text-book for students of the Chinese language who attend his 
 lectures at King's College, London, and to assist others who might commence 
 the study of the language in this country, as well as to aid those who enter 
 for the first time upon this study in China itself. 
 
 In order to show the need of some such book, it will be necessary fairly to 
 pass in review the various works which are within reach of, or which may be 
 supposed to exist for the student, to point out candidly what appear to be 
 their defects, and also to note their real value as aids to the study of Chinese. 
 
 The investigation of Chinese in this country, and even in Europe generally, 
 is but of recent date. The vague expressions collected from the works of the 
 Jesuits on the subject, though correct for the most part in themselves, needed 
 a Jesuit to explain them and to guard the wayward fancy from misinterpret- 
 ing them. The best rules and the deepest truths are often misunderstood 
 because there is no teacher at hand to purge the idola from the mind and 
 clear it of its earlier prejudices. The colouring of every thing that concerns 
 the Chinese has been heightened by the romantic accounts of this nation 
 given by the early historians of the East, and the imagination has supplied 
 much that was not found in the reality. 
 
 The first work of a systematic character on the Chinese language was 
 written by a Dominican, Pere Varo, and printed from wooden blocks in 
 Canton in 1703*. 
 
 Theoph. Sigefr. Bayer wrote a work in Latin, which was published in 
 St. Petersburg in 1730 t. He was however not in a position to render much 
 service to the subject which he attempted to explain. The work is made up 
 
 * The title ran thus : " Arte de la lengua mandarina, compuesto por el M. R. P*. 
 Francisco Varo, de la sagrada orden de N. P. S. Domingo, acrecentado y reducido a 
 mejor forma, por N. H. Fr. Pedro de la Pinuela, p. or y commissario prov. de la Mission 
 serafica de China ; Anadio se un Confesionario muy util y provechoso para alivio de los 
 nuevos ministros. Impreso en Canton, ano de 1 703. " It consisted of 64 double leaves, 
 8., printed in the Chinese manner. The work is very rare, but a copy is to be found 
 among the Sloane MSS. of the British Museum. 
 
 + Museum Sinicum, in quo Sinicae linguae et litteraturse ratio explicatur. Petropol. 
 1730. 2 vols. in 8.
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 of various matter collected from the works of the Jesuits, which are com- 
 mented on in a very vague and unsatisfactory manner. M. Abel-Remuaat 
 writing, in the preface to his Grammaire, on this book says : " The greater 
 part of this Grammar is taken up with details on the writing, the dictionaries, 
 and the poetry; about fifty pages present nothing but the most ordinary 
 notions on the mechanism of the language, and almost without any examples. 
 The original characters are printed upon copper plates, to which the reader 
 is referred. They are moreover so badly executed, that only those experienced 
 in the subject can recognise them." 
 
 The next writer of note on Chinese was Fourmont *, who was quite incom- 
 petent for the task which he undertook ; but in those times he was able to 
 palm upon his countrymen many incorrect and absurd views of his own, 
 while the little good and true information, which his books contain, was 
 the production of other minds. The student may spare himself the trouble 
 of examining them, as they are only calculated to mislead him. Several 
 other works, unworthy of consideration, were published in various parts 
 of Europe; but no book on the subject of Chinese was produced which 
 can be recommended as worth perusal before the learned and able treatise 
 of Dr. Marshman. His knowledge of the Sanskrit and the classical lan- 
 guages of antiquity, coupled with a practical acquaintance with Chinese, 
 through his private studies with native teachers, enabled him to arrive at 
 correct views on the genius and composition of the Chinese language. The 
 Clavis Sinica t of Dr. Marshman is still worthy of a careful perusal by the 
 earnest student, although, as a whole, it falls short of the requirements of 
 the present day. 
 
 Dr. Morrison's Chinese Grammar issued the next year (1815) from the 
 same press at Serampore. This work contains some valuable matter, but 
 from the haste with which it appears to have been prepared for publication, 
 and from the fact of its having been published at so early a period after 
 Dr. Morrison's entrance upon the study, the student must not expect to 
 derive much positively practical advantage from its perusal. 
 
 The first work that appeared in some measure to correspond to the wants 
 of the student was the very clear and scientific grammar of M. Abel-Re'musat +, 
 the first Professor of the Language and Literature of China in the Royal 
 
 * Meditationes Sinicse, 1737, in fol., and Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicse hieroglyphicse 
 Grammatica duplex, 1 742, in fol. 
 
 f The Clavis Sinica was published at Serampore in India in 1814. Dr. Marshman had 
 had the opportunity of reading with several native Chinese scholars while in India, he 
 availed himself of the aid of M. Rodrigues, a Jesuit from Peking, and he was assisted by 
 Mr. Thomas Manning, who had also resided in China. 
 
 Ele'mens de la grammaire chinoise, ou principes ge'ne'raux du Kou-wen ou style 
 antique, et du Kouan-hoa, c'est-a-dire, de la langue commune geWralement uaite"e dans 
 1'Empire chinois. Par M. Abel-Re'musat, de I'Acade'mie royale des Inscriptions et Belles- 
 Lettres, Professeur de Langue et de LitteVature chinoises et tartares au College royal de 
 France. Paris, 1822, in 8. A new edition was recently printed in Paris, edited by 
 M. Le"on de Rosny, with a supplement.
 
 PREFACE. vii 
 
 College of France. The author had read the valuable examples given in the 
 MS. of Premare's Notitia Linguae Sinicce, and had carefully consulted the 
 original works referred to by that writer. M. Remusat analysed these exam- 
 ples, and produced a work drawn out upon scientific principles, which keep in 
 view the genius and peculiarities of the Chinese language. 
 
 The work of Premare, mentioned above, remained for many years in 
 manuscript in the Imperial Library of Paris. The author resided in China 
 from 1698 until his death, about the year 1735. His plan was to teach 
 by examples, and instead of giving rules, he gave the material from which 
 rules might be formed. He recommended imitation and the practice of 
 committing passages to memory. It will be seen therefore that although 
 his work is an immense storehouse, it leaves the learner very much to 
 himself in arriving at conclusions respecting the nature and genius of the 
 language. It is not to be expected that every young man, who takes up 
 such a work as this of Premare's, can form a judgment of much grammatical 
 significance from the examples before him. It is the duty of the grammarian 
 to form the rules and to prove his propositions by examples. The value 
 therefore of the work of Premare is limited to affording a number of examples 
 from which the advanced student may acquire a good deal of information on 
 the style of the novels, and of a few other books from which they were drawn. 
 The versions given of some of the examples are incorrect, but as a general 
 rule they are sufficiently true to the original to be of service in acquiring the 
 idiom of the language *. 
 
 In the year in which Dr. Morrison's Grammar was printed at Serampore, 
 the first portion of his Dictionary was published at Macao, having been printed 
 at the sole expense of the East India Company. This great work in six 
 quarto volumes, the last of which was not published until 1821, contains so 
 much that is interesting and profitable to the student of Chinese that it is 
 indispensably necessary to all who wish to collect information that may 
 be depended upon. But with all praise of Dr. Morrison's ability and indefa- 
 tigable labour, we cannot conceal the fact that his Dictior-i.ry is very imperfect, 
 and often fails to render that assistance to the student which he requires. 
 The enormous labour, almost without any help, which it involved, renders it a 
 matter of surprise that so much was done and so well ; and it behoves the 
 author of the present small work to speak with diffidence on the subject of its 
 demerits. Another work was written about the same time by Dr. Morrison, 
 entitled : Dialogues and detached sentences in the Chinese language, with a free 
 and verbal translation in English. This was a great help at the time it was 
 published ; but since China has been more largely opened to Europeans, and 
 the facilities for learning the language are become greater, some parts of this 
 work are found to savour of the Canton provincial phraseology. It is however 
 
 * Notitia Lingua Sinicce, auctore P. Premare, Malaccas cura academiae Anglo-Sinensis. 
 M.DCCC.XXXI. It was printed in 4% at the expense of a British nobleman. A version 
 of the Latin was made by the Rev. J. G. Bridgman, and was printed in 8. at Canton in 
 1847. Copies of this work are now very scarce.
 
 viii PREFACE. 
 
 likely to prove very useful to those who can obtain it, but it is now difficult 
 to be procured, as copies of it are scarce. 
 
 A useful little book appeared in 1823, compiled by Sir John F. Davis, 
 Bart., F. R. S., &c., entitled Hien wun slioo. Chinese moral maxims, with a 
 free and verbal translation, affording examples of the grammatical structure 
 of the language. These maxims are likely to be useful to those students who 
 will commit them to memory; and, as the literal rendering of each word is 
 given, as well as the free translation, it will be found useful to beginners. 
 
 The next writer who made an immense addition to the aids for learning 
 Chinese was Pere J. A. Goncalves, a missionary at Macao. His Arte China, 
 which was published in 1829, is the most complete work on the Chinese lan- 
 guage which we possess. He spent great labour on an analysis of the characters, 
 the result of which was what he called an "Alphabeto China;" but from its 
 being explained in the Portuguese language, comparatively few study it. 
 Every student of Chinese ought, however, to possess this work, on account of 
 the valuable store of good phrases which it contains. After the alphabet he 
 has ranged a collection of phrases and sentences, both in the colloquial idiom 
 (kwdn-hwd}, and in the style of the books (ku-wdn), graduated in difficulty to 
 suit the beginner ; then follows a grammar, in which he occasionally tortures 
 the Chinese to adapt it to some peculiarity in the grammar of his own lan- 
 guage. There is also a very good collection of sentences in the form of 
 dialogues. The allusions made to facts in history, the great names, the 
 epistolary style, extracts from prose and poetry, and the principles of elegant 
 composition (wdn-chdng), all enter into this fund for the Chinese student. 
 Unfortunately very meagre explanations are given; while the sounds of the 
 characters, except in the alphabeto, are omitted, and the translations appear 
 in some cases to be not the most happy. For study with a native instructor 
 the book is invaluable; but without such assistance it must fail to aid the 
 beginner. Pere Goncalves also prepared several other great works, dictionaries, 
 in Portuguese and Latin, all of which are worthy of consideration. 
 
 Two works by Mr. Robert Thorn, H. B. Majesty's Consul at Ningpo, also 
 deserve mention here, as calculated to assist the student in his initiatory 
 studies ; JEsop's Fables in Chinese, with interlinear translation in the Canton 
 and Mandarin dialects ; and the Chinese Speaker, or extracts from works written 
 in the Mandarin dialect as spoken at Peking. The author however had not 
 much opportunity of hearing the Peking dialect spoken, and being under the 
 necessity of following the work from which he translated, which was a book 
 used to teach the Mandarin dialect in the provinces, he fell into some errors 
 of pronunciation; and what is to be regretted still more, he entirely dis- 
 regarded the "tones," and neglected to insert any mark by which to guide 
 the student in learning them. 
 
 The works of Dr. Medhurst call for some notice at this point. We can only 
 speak of them in a general manner, as it would occupy too large a space to 
 criticise them with any degree of minuteness. The most useful and import- 
 ant work of Dr. Medhurst's on the Chinese language is his Chinese-English
 
 PREFACE. ix 
 
 Dictionary, published in Batavia in 1843, 2 v l s - 8 - The whole was litho- 
 graphed, and therefore is so far inferior to Dr. Morrison's Dictionary, but in 
 other respects it is far superior and more complete than Dr. Morrison's first 
 part, to which it corresponds in arrangement. Dr. Medhurst next edited 
 "Notices of Chinese Grammar" by Philosinensis (Dr. GUtzlaff). This work 
 was prepared in haste, and consequently neither the author nor the editor did 
 justice to his abilities and acquirements. Dr. Medhurst afterwards published 
 a book of Dialogues, which are good, and an English-Chinese Dictionary, as 
 well as a Dictionary of Chinese in the Hok-kien dialect. All his works are 
 useful. He was a Chinese scholar of very extensive reading and indefatigable 
 in labour. . 
 
 M. Gallery's Dictionary, entitled, Systema Phoneticum Scriptures Sinicce, 
 published in 1842, was on a new plan, which is worthy of the student's atten- 
 tion (cf. Arts. 50 and 51 of this Grammar); but the meanings given of each 
 character are few, and the absence of words which are formed with the cha- 
 racters diminishes the usefulness of the book. We have found however that 
 the meanings are very correct, and we should recommend the student to pro- 
 cure a copy, if possible. Mr. Williams, the editor of the Chinese Repository, 
 now connected with the United States Mission to China, has produced several 
 very practical works for the beginner, from among which the Vocabulary 
 (English-Chinese) in the Mandarin dialect, and his recently published Dic- 
 tionary in the Canton dialect, may be recommended. His Easy Lessons in 
 Chinese are universally spoken of with praise; they are however in the 
 Canton dialect; but much that is common to the Mandarin dialect is also 
 to be found in the book. 
 
 The sinologues of France and Germany claim some notice at this period. 
 Professor Julien of Paris, whose learning in Chinese is unquestioned, his accu- 
 rate knowledge of the language having been proved by his excellent translation 
 of Mencius in 1824, stands first among them. But unfortunately he has not 
 published any grammar or dictionary of the language, tasks for which he 
 must be eminently qualified. His writings consist chiefly of translations and 
 critiques, and we consider his views of such weight that we recommend the 
 student of Chinese to procure any of his works which he can meet with, 
 especially his critical translation of the works of Mencius into Latin. Pro- 
 fessor Bazin also deserves well of all students of Chinese for his various 
 papers on Chinese literature, and for his Grammaire Mandarine, which is a 
 good work on the subject, and may be read with profit, notwithstanding some 
 blemishes, owing probably to the author's not having studied the language 
 in China. 
 
 Among the Germans, Dr. Stephen Endlicher of Vienna has written a very 
 perspicuous work on Chinese Grammar, as far as the language of the books 
 is concerned. 
 
 Dr. Julius Klaproth was engaged upon Chinese many years, and his criti- 
 cisms are generally marked by shrewd discernment and accurate distinction, 
 but he did not write either a grammar or a dictionary, although he added a 
 
 b
 
 x PREFACE. 
 
 Supplement of great value to the Dictionary of De Guignes. This latter, which 
 we omitted to mention above, may well be noticed here. It was published 
 by order of the Emperor Napoleon I. in huge folio. The basis of it was the 
 Manuscript Dictionary of Pere Bazil de Glemone. The editor added very little 
 to the original MS. excepting probably the French renderings, which are 
 given as well as the Latin. The meanings are singularly correct; they had 
 been made from the native Chinese Dictionary of K'ang-hi. The deficiency 
 however among the words which occur as compounds under each character, 
 and the unwieldy size of the book, render it, even with the Supplement of 
 Klaproth, inferior to the Dictionaries of Morrison, Medhurst, and Williams. 
 
 In 1857 a ChinesiscJie Sprachlehre by Dr. Schott was published in Berlin. 
 This work is in our opinion superior to all others in its simple system of 
 grammatical analysis for the Chinese language, and although it does not 
 extend to the spoken language the Mandarin dialect at all, what is said 
 therein respecting the book-style or learned language of China, and the 
 analysis of the same, is well worthy of the most careful study. Dr. Schott's 
 Sketch of the Literature of China is another great acquisition to the aids 
 in the study of Chinese. We recommend both of these to the student's 
 attention. 
 
 In the same year in which Dr. Schott's Grammar appeared in Germany, the 
 Rev. Joseph Edkins, B. A., of Shanghai, published a Grammar of the Mandarin 
 Dialect. He had previously given to the public a Grammar of the Dialect of 
 Shanghai, in which much accurate knowledge of the language was displayed ; 
 and in his next work on the Mandarin he eclipsed all his predecessors in 
 exhibiting not the mere language of the novels, which had sufficed for Premare, 
 GUtzlaff, and others, but the language which he had obtained vivd voce from 
 the natives, and by a comparison with many native scholars. We cannot 
 agree with him in every thing he says respecting the tones or with his mode 
 of spelling Chinese syllables in every instance, but we are bound to give un- 
 qualified praise to a work which shows so much laborious research, and which 
 has made such an advance in the mode of treating the subject. Every stu- 
 dent should possess himself of a copy as soon as he arrives in China. 
 
 Another work which it behoves us to mention is by the present Chinese 
 Secretary, Thomas Francis Wade, Esq., C. B. It is entitled, The Hsin-tsing-lu, 
 or Book of Experiments, being Hie first of a series of Contributions to the Study 
 of Chinese. It was published at Hongkong in 1859. It is devoted to the 
 dialect of Peking, the species of Mandarin which is affected by the court and 
 the officials of the empire; but not employed throughout the provinces as 
 Mandarin, excepting by the high officials who come direct from the northern 
 capital. This work of Mr. Wade's is very limited in its scope, for the 362 
 sentences given in the first part are confined to the single subject of "heaven" 
 and the phenomena of the skies. The second part contains a passage from 
 the Paraphrase of the Sacred Edict; and the third, some good sentences 
 explanatory of the tones of the Peking dialect. The notes which the work 
 contains are calculated to prove useful, and there is no question about its
 
 PREFACE. xi 
 
 being a bond-fide work on Pekinese. It is to be regretted that greater care 
 was not bestowed on revision, and that the subject of the first part was not 
 made more extensive in its range, so as to have answered more immediately 
 to the wants of the student-interpreters, for whose benefit the work was 
 composed. With the enormous labour which has devolved upon Mr. Wade 
 as Chief Interpreter and Secretary, coupled with his own close habits of study, 
 we may well wonder that he found time to bring any work of this kind to a 
 completion; and we hail the " Contributions" as being likely to serve a very 
 good purpose, and as the earnest of much moi - e as soon as leisure affords the 
 opportunity for its preparation. 
 
 The last work which we must notice is by Dr. James Legge, of the London 
 Missionary Society. This bids fair to supersede all its predecessors in the 
 field of Chinese classics. The work is entitled, The Chinese Classics: with 
 a translation, critical and exegetical notes, prolegomena, and copious indexes : 
 roy. 8vo. Hongkong, 1861. The whole work will consist of seven volumes, 
 one of which has recently appeared ; and the remaining six volumes are 
 expected to be ready for publication during the course of the next five years. 
 The enormous labour which must be expended upon a critical translation and 
 explanation of the classical books of the Chinese, executed in the style which 
 this first volume indicates, could hardly have been undertaken by a scholar 
 more likely to succeed in the task than Dr. Legge. The Prolegomena con- 
 tains digested information, on the lives and opinions of Confucius and his dis- 
 ciples, never before presented to European readers. Dr. Legge has drawn 
 largely upon native sources, and the facts which he has collected, and his own 
 remarks upon them, cannot fail to be interesting and instructive to students 
 of Chinese in common with many others. The native text is in bold clear 
 type, and is accompanied by a translation and critical notes on each page. 
 The indexes will be found most valuable to the student; they form at once a 
 concordance and dictionary to the volume; and the book as a whole will 
 render a great service to Chinese scholars generally. We earnestly hope that 
 Dr. Legge's health may not suffer from his close application in the climate of 
 Hongkong. 
 
 After reading this list of the principal works on the subject of Chinese, the 
 reader may ask what need there was of another. Our answer to this is, that 
 no one of these books meets the wants of the beginner ; they do undoubtedly 
 en masse give almost all that is needed, certainly more than the author of the 
 present work could on his sole responsibility lay before the student, but each 
 individually cannot answer all the common questions which suggest themselves 
 to the mind of the student on entering upon the study of Chinese. Among 
 the questions which we may suppose to arise are, " As the Chinese have no 
 letters, how shall I write down the sounds of their words'? How do they re- 
 present words in writing? How do they pronounce ? How do they distinguish 
 one syllable from another of the same sound? What is their mode of writing? 
 How are their Avords constructed? Where shall I obtain copies for writing? 
 text to read, explanation to this text?" The reply might be: "You 
 
 b 2
 
 xii PREFACE. 
 
 must purchase the works of Morrison or Schott or Williams for one thing, you 
 must buy those of Edkins and Wade for another, you must send to China for 
 text, and buy a Dictionary which will cost you from four to ten guineas for 
 explanations, and then you will find you want a native teacher or a European 
 proficient in the language to hefp you." 
 
 In the work which the author now ventures to present to the public, he 
 thinks a sufficient answer to the above questions will be found, as well as all 
 the aids which a beginner needs in this most difficult study. He has availed 
 himself of all the help which he felt he needed from the above authors, and he 
 freely acknowledges the great assistance which the works of Drs. Morrison 
 and Williams have afforded him for lexicography, and the works of Pr6mare, 
 Goncalves, Giitzlaff, Schott, Edkins, and Wade, for grammar and examples 
 to grammatical rules. 
 
 For translations of some of the passages in the Chrestomathy he is under 
 obligation for help derived from the works of Dr. Medhurst, Sir John Davis, 
 Bart., F. R. S., Pere Goncalves, and Professor Bazin. 
 
 Having noticed the various works on the subject of Chinese grammar and 
 lexicography, and having pointed out the need which exists for a book adapted 
 to the wants of the beginner, it remains for the author of the present work to 
 explain the plan of it, and to show wherein it is likely to fulfil the purpose 
 for which it was prepared. In a work which professes to initiate the student 
 in the rudiments of a language, three things are generally looked for; 
 i. Some account of the letters employed to represent its sounds, with the 
 character and quality of those sounds; 2. An explanation of its forms of 
 words, and, if possible, a complete classification of these words as parts of 
 speech ; 3. An exposition of its arrangement of words in sentences, showing 
 how words and clauses are dependent upon each other, either on account of 
 their relative positions, or the peculiar inflexions of the words themselves. 
 
 These considerations naturally lead to the formation of three divisions in 
 the grammar of the Chinese tongue. And in order to adapt it to this arrange- 
 ment, we have to consider, in the first place, the best mode of representing 
 its sounds and syllables. But as the Chinese language possesses no alphabet, 
 we are compelled to employ that with which we are best acquainted, viz. the 
 Roman. And then we have to consider what value each Roman letter shall 
 possess in a system for spelling Chinese words. Shall the uncertain value of 
 English letters be taken? or shall we assume for each letter, which we employ, 
 a value which shall remain constant and uniform, as is the case in some of the 
 languages on the continent of Europe ? We have preferred the latter course, 
 and have followed in the footsteps of Sir William Jones, Dr. Lepsius, and 
 many other Orientalists. As we have to invent an alphabet to represent 
 Chinese sounds, we deem it best to avoid the eccentricities of the English 
 mode of spelling, and we have chosen the regular orthography of the German 
 and the Italian in preference. It may be observed that the system of ortho- 
 graphy adopted presents scarcely any deviation from that now acknowledged 
 to be the "best suited for writing down the sounds of strange tongues,
 
 PREFACE. xiii 
 
 being most in accordance with the fundamental laws of speech. A glance at 
 the tables given on pages 3 and 5 will suffice to show the extreme simplicity 
 of Chinese syllables, as regards their formation, and the ease with which the 
 mere syllable may be read. The value of each letter has been explained very 
 fully by examples in English, French, and German, so that no mistake need 
 arise on that score. 
 
 A more difficult subject, however, presented itself in the elucidation of the 
 Chinese " tones." The explanation which the author has given of them will, 
 he thinks, assist the student. They were the subject of his careful study 
 while in China, and he has more than once proved his views respecting them 
 to be correct. That there are slight variations in these Chinese tones there 
 is no denying. But the mode of illustrating them by the accentuation or 
 emphasis given to English words under certain circumstances will enable the 
 foreign student to acquire the first elementary power to enunciate them ; and 
 with such an attainment, although rude and in a measure unpolished, he will 
 have made progress in the right direction. His object should be to pro- 
 nounce the tones with the full force and modulation at first, and to rely on 
 future practice with the natives for making the unevenness and crudeness of 
 his pronunciation to disappear. It must be remembered that a large majority 
 of those who study to speak foreign languages never speak them exactly as 
 the natives do; that refinement in the pronunciation which a native would 
 admire is rarely attained by a foreigner, and even when it is mastered, it is 
 only after a considerable degree of practice. 
 
 In the next place, the formation of words, or, as it is frequently called, 
 " Word-building," claims our attention. If there exists in Chinese any pro- 
 cess for the formation of words, by which a classification of them may take 
 place, it must be for the interest of the student to know what it is. And this 
 process, which does exist, we have endeavoured to indicate, and we leave it to 
 the student himself to develope the principles which have been laid down on 
 the formation of nouns and verbs. This part of Chinese grammar is vast in 
 extent, and many years of discriminating study will be required to exhaust it. 
 We are now but upon the threshold of the subject. Some earnest workers in 
 this mine of the East will enter into it very much further, and will, we hope, 
 complete the work. 
 
 And thirdly, the sentence in Chinese has been analysed with a view to a 
 comparison of its parts, and to show the effect which certain forms of the sen- 
 tence have upon the meaning and grammatical value of the words in it. 
 
 But without native text the student would find the abstract rules of gram- 
 mar excessively dry and uninteresting. This want has been supplied, in some 
 measure, by about forty pages of extracts from Chinese authors, explained at 
 length, with translations and notes. To these we have added a third part, 
 consisting of exercises, by which the student may acquire a practical acquaint- 
 ance with Chinese prose composition, and an ability to speak the language 
 with correctness. The fourth part of the Handbook consists of a dictionary 
 of all the characters in general use, and it is hoped that this portion may prove
 
 xiv PREFACE. 
 
 very useful to the beginner, and that the whole may answer the purpose for 
 which it was intended. 
 
 One of the great difficulties which beset a beginner in a language like the 
 Chinese is the enormous number of words and phrases which present them- 
 selves, without his being able to distinguish those best suited for the early 
 stages of his course from the less common expressions which are used in 
 books only. And no simple tales and stories exist in Chinese, as in European 
 languages, to supply him with a stock of useful words. The examples taken 
 from books are seldom the expressions employed in common parlance; and 
 unless the student is in a position to avail himself of native help and proper 
 advice, he may labour for a long time without much profit. The object, 
 therefore, in this work has been to bring together chiefly such expressions as 
 are of frequent occurrence in every day life. Some terms which will be met 
 with in the Dictionary will readily be distinguished by the significations given, 
 as belonging to the higher classes of literature. It would be useless and 
 absurd in a writer of an English grammar for foreigners to collect words from 
 Chaucer and Spenser, or even from Shakespeare, in order to teach them the 
 English language of the nineteenth century. To avoid such a mistake with 
 respect to Chinese, we have selected the most common words, and have 
 endeavoured to clear the path of the beginner, and to give a more simple 
 exposition of the Chinese language than has hitherto appeared. 
 
 In the absence of a teacher, a few hints on the use of this work and on the 
 method of study which it will be advisable to adopt will perhaps be acceptable 
 to the beginner. His first object should be to master the system of orthography 
 which is given in this work, and exercise himself in it, by reading aloud the 
 list of syllables on page 5, or a page of the native text in Eoman letter. 
 Then the instructions relating to intonation should be thoroughly understood 
 and applied practically by reading again a page of the Chrestomathy. He 
 should then commit to memory the words given to exemplify the tones 
 (pp. 9 ii, without the characters); and commence learning to read and 
 write the elementary characters (pp. 19 28). And in learning Chinese cha- 
 racters, the student should on no account attempt too many at once. The 
 first fifty radicals may be speedily acquired, but afterwards he will find that 
 ten characters a day, thoroughly learnt, will test his powers ; and at this rate, 
 if it can be sustained, he will know three thousand characters at the end of a 
 year ; and if these include two thousand of those in common use, he will have 
 made most satisfactory progress. In his choice of characters the Grammar 
 will supply him first, and then the Chrestomathy. It is, moreover, desii-able 
 that couples and triples of characters, which form phrases, should be sought 
 for and committed to memory, so as to store the mind with good expressions, 
 either for positive use, or that they may be readily recognised when uttered 
 by native Chinese. But while pursuing this mere plodding study by memory, 
 he must not neglect to read passages in the Chrestomathy (Paii II), and make 
 sentences upon the model of those given in the Exercises (Part III). And 
 in the Chrestomathy some passages will be found better adapted than others
 
 PREFACE. xv 
 
 for this purpose: we should recommend him to begin by learning to read 
 the syllables which stand for the characters in pages 8 12 of the native 
 text (Hau-k'iti, chuen) ; and pages 27 30 (Mandarin Phrases). The sylla- 
 bles will be found in the Chrestomathy. The Mandarin Phrases should be 
 committed to memory as soon as they are understood, and daily practice in 
 copying the characters with the Chinese pencil should be persevered in. 
 
 Four hours a day ought to be the minimum of time given to the study 
 during the first year; but this is only general advice, the time allotted to 
 the subject and the method of study mult depend on the ability and power of 
 application in each individual ; 
 
 Sumite materiam vestris, qui discitis, cequam 
 
 Viribus, et versate diu, quidferre recusent, 
 
 Quid valeant humeri. 
 
 Some apology is necessary for the occasional defectiveness of the Chinese 
 type used in this work ; although as a whole, and when the characters are in 
 a perfect state, they are in very good proportion, and in some cases beautiful, 
 a few are deficient in regularity of form. But thirty -four pages of the Chres- 
 tomathy, which were printed in Hongkong with the new type, will supply to 
 the diligent student any deficiency which may be noticed in the Grammar. 
 
 In conclusion, the author, in common with all the friends of Anglo-Chinese 
 literature, has to thank the Delegates of the Oxford University Press for their 
 liberality in undertaking so expensive a work upon the ground of its utility 
 alone ; and the author has only to regret the errors which may have crept in 
 to mar the work, and render it a less worthy object of such distinguished 
 patronage. Unlike many works of this kind, it has had but one fostering 
 hand; and the author has none to thank for friendly counsel or assistance. 
 It will therefore, he trusts, be accepted with a generous criticism as the first 
 work on the subject ever published in this country, and as having been pre- 
 pared under very many disadvantages. 
 
 J. SUMMERS. 
 KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON, Jan. 18G3.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 JLHE language which we call Chinese is to the languages of eastern Asia 
 what Sanskrit is to the Indian and to the Indo-Germanic stock of languages, 
 or what Arabic is to some of the other eastern tongues; that is to say, 
 Chinese is the parent, in some sense or degree, of Japanese, Corean, Cochin- 
 Chinese, and Annamese, as well as of all the numerous dialects of China 
 Proper. It is a sort of universal medium of communication throughout the vast 
 territories of the emperor of China, which include Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, 
 and other countries, which are together equal in extent to the whole of Europe. 
 The use of Chinese in some of these countries is indeed confined to official com- 
 munications, but by about 300,000,000 of the Chinese race it is spoken, and 
 among these it forms the only colloquial medium of intercourse. In Japan, 
 Annam, and some other regions, the written characters of China, and fre- 
 quently the original words, have been so much changed by the literati, that 
 they cannot be readily distinguished from the native characters and words *. 
 In Japan, for example, the Chinese word t'ien, ' heaven,' is changed to ten; the 
 nasal ng, at the end of some Chinese words, being always omitted, the syllable 
 Hang would become liau or lau. Sometimes the Chinese character will repre- 
 sent a mere syllable, at other times it is allowed to represent an idea, and to 
 go under a Japanese name of perhaps two or three syllables, e. g. the Chinese 
 character kia or ka ~tf&, changed to ~^t , is the common letter for the syllable Jca, 
 and scarcely ever carries with it the signification which the Chinese character 
 
 bears (i. e. ' to add') ; but the character cKdng -P|:, ' long,' is allowed to stand 
 
 for the same idea in Japanese, its name however being changed to naga. In 
 Annamese the Chinese characters are more frequently taken for syllables 
 alone, and they have undergone a variety of changes to adapt them for use 
 in that language. 
 
 But notwithstanding these peculiar changes and modes of usage with 
 respect to the Chinese language among the neighbouring nations, it stands 
 
 * Numerous examples of similar changes both in the characters and the words em- 
 ployed in European languages might be given. Let the following suffice. The Slavonic 
 aha \\\ (sh English) from the Hebrew shin U? ; the letter D altered from the daleth "f 
 and delta A. The F from the digamma f, &c. &c. Swedish somnar, 'to sleep,' from 
 the Lat. somnire, i. e. a Teutonic termination is appended to a Latin root. The verbs 
 stare, stand, stehen, from araai. 
 
 c
 
 xviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 pre-eminent as a classical language to them, and it occupies the same position 
 as Latin and Greek do among Europeans. The philosophers, historians, and 
 poets of China are read and studied diligently by the Japanese ; their works 
 are annotated and explained by writers of that country, and every child of 
 respectable parentage begins the study of Chinese as soon as he goes to 
 school, and carries it on simultaneously with the study of his native tongue. 
 The works of Confucius and Mencius have exerted a mighty influence over 
 the rninds of all these eastern tribes. Confucius was to China and her tri- 
 butaries what Aristotle has been to Europe. Would that his doctrines had been 
 more energising and more fructifying ! But we may attribute the comparative 
 failure of Confucianism not to its author, but to the recipients of his instruc- 
 tion. Probably Confucius would have been an Aristotle had he lived in the 
 west, and Aristotle a Confucius in the east. The TroXmKij and fjdiKT) of the one 
 find their counterpart in the other, and while the Greek republics with their 
 social and moral science have passed away, the Chinese empire still remains, 
 a monument of political coherency and wisdom, in some respects at least, with 
 the quality of marvellous endurance and steadfastness. 
 
 The antiquity of the Chinese language and written character invests them with 
 peculiar interest, for in them may be discovered facts connected with the social 
 and political history of a nation which flourished two thousand years before 
 our era. It is remarkable too, that Chinese has suffered little change through 
 this great period of time, compared with the mutations which have taken 
 place in other languages. While the pronunciation of its written symbols has 
 varied, and ever will vary in consequence of its want of an alphabetic system 
 to represent the syllables which are uttered, the written characters have been 
 altered scarcely at all during a period of two thousand years. Commencing 
 with the rude pictures of objects within the sphere of life in those early 
 times, as the Chinese mind developed, and the forms of government and 
 society became fixed, the symbols to express authority and the various rela- 
 tionships of life were invented to correspond to the wants of public and pri- 
 vate intercourse *. 
 
 * Writing, which may be defined to be a representation of language and an exhibition 
 of it to the eye, is divided into two kinds: i. Notion-writing, which is independent of 
 any given language, and conveys its meaning to the understanding immediately through 
 the eye; 2. Sound-writing, which exhibits the sounds of a particular language, the 
 understanding of which depends upon a knowledge of that language. 
 
 Notion-writing, again, is divided into two kinds, viz. Picture-writing and Figure-writing. 
 The former, which is the most natural and probably the most ancient, consists in this, that 
 the figure which is pictured to the eye represents the thing delineated, and by this figure 
 are also symbolized the other notions, which admit of no immediate representation, such as 
 the tropical and symbolical meanings of the object. The mere representation of the visible 
 thing is called Curioloyical writing (from itvpios, proprius), and to this belong most of the 
 hieroglyphics (v. Champollion, Gram. Egyptienne. Paris, 1836. Fol. I. p. 3). Such a kind 
 of writing the Chinese had originally (v. Kopp, Bilder und Schriften II. 66. Abel-Remusat, 
 Gram. Chin. . 2. 4, 5), as had also the Mexicans. The same kind of writing however 
 has another element, the symbolic meaning, which rests upon a comparison of the real 
 and possible representations with the intellectual and the abstract; and the thousandfold
 
 INTRODUCTION. xix 
 
 These symbols are partly hieroglyphic and partly ideographic, that is, 
 representations of objects or marks of notions. The hieroglyphs from which, 
 the forty thousand characters have been derived were originally signs of con- 
 crete notions; symbols for abstract terms and general notions were subse- 
 quently formed, as the Chinese mind developed and literature increased. The 
 combinations, which can be effected by means of the four or five hundred 
 elementary forms, give the Chinese language, as far as its written character 
 is concerned, a power of expression unknown in other languages. And the 
 simple and logical character of its formation renders it a far more efficient 
 medium for the communication of ideas, and as an instrument of thought, 
 than the languages of Europe. 
 
 The Chinese has a double advantage ; it presents to the eye of the initiated 
 the pictures of things, the general term derived from them, or the common 
 notion deduced from a combination of elementary figures. It addresses to 
 the ear, by the simple form of its constructions, the most complex notions 
 and the most general expressions, without disturbing the necessary unity, 
 which should always exist in the sentence ; while it conveys in a few words, 
 compactly arranged, the full idea with emphasis and logical precision. There 
 is the language of the books and the language of conversation. These differ 
 from each other, for, in writing, a few monosyllabic characters are made to 
 express much, while, in speaking, many syllables are required; but they are 
 the same in their principles of construction, the same simplicity and logical 
 order run through both. 
 
 combinations which are possible in this kind of writing approach the ridiculous. Accord- 
 ing to Diodor. (III. 4), the hawk among the Egyptians signified 'swiftness;' the crocodile, 
 'evil;' flies, 'impudence;' the eye, 'a watchman;' an outstretched hand, 'liberality;' a 
 closed hand, 'greediness and avarice ;' but most of the other tropical meanings of hiero- 
 glyphics rest upon more remote comparisons: e. g. the bee for 'the king;' sparrow-hawk 
 for 'sublimity;' eye of the sparrow-hawk for 'vision' and 'contemplation;' the vulture, on 
 account of its maternal love, for 'mother.' Indeed in many of those which are called senig- 
 matical hieroglyphs, the reason for the combination is sometimes doubtful and sometimes 
 wholly unknown ; as when the ostrich feather stands for 'justice,' because all the feathers 
 of the wing of the ostrich are of equal size; or the palm branch for 'the year,' because 
 the palm tree brings forth every year regularly twelve branches. Among the Chinese, two 
 men, one following the other, stands for the verb ' to follow ;' the sun and moon for ' light ;' 
 a man on a mountain for a 'hermit ;' a woman, a hand, and a broom, for a 'matron.' 
 
 The other kind of Notion-writing, Figure-writing, expresses the notion by means 
 of figures taken arbitrarily, which have no similarity to the thing intended. A rude 
 example of this kind were the gay-coloured threads (quipos) of the Peruvians, who under- 
 stood how to knot them and to twist them in so many ways (v. Gotting. Hist. Magaz. III. 
 p. 422. Lehrgeb.derDiplom.il. 305). The Chinese have a very complete system of this kind; 
 they have from 20 to 30 thousand characters, which may be reduced to 214 radicals (called 
 keys). To the same category belong also the technical marks used by medical men, and 
 perhaps also the astronomical signs for the planets and the signs of the zodiac ; while such 
 figures often seem to be only arbitrary marks, they really have proceeded from hieroglyphics, 
 in which the figures have been so very much contracted and mutilated that they have lost 
 all resemblance to the original object intended to be represented (v. Ersch and Griiber's 
 Encyclopaedic, art. Paleographie by Gesenius, of which the above is a translation). 
 
 c 2
 
 xx INTBODUCTION. 
 
 An eminent writer on logic observes, that " the chief impediments to the 
 correct performance of the process of reasoning lie in the defects of expres- 
 sion *," but we think that such defects will not be found in Chinese, while no 
 difficulty will be experienced in forming a complete apparatus for this or for 
 any other science as soon as the native mind becomes alive to the importance 
 of more vigorous and systematic thinking. The subtle distinctions and exact 
 meanings, which may be referred to a vast number of Chinese words, prove the 
 analytic character of the language, as does also the complexity of the syntax 
 and the arrangement of words and sentences, a remedy, as it were, for the 
 want of inflexions. If inflexions have arisen by the agglutination of separate 
 and distinct words, by pronouns, prepositions, &c., being placed after and 
 joined to the words to which they refer; if they were produced, not merely by 
 a scientific process, but by a vulgar and careless pronunciation of the words, 
 and so were agglutinated, the reason why Chinese has never undergone this pro- 
 cess, and obtained inflexions, appears to be, because the original terms, which 
 were employed as the names of objects and relations of things, were so definite 
 and distinct from each other, and the characters, which at a very early period 
 represented them, so unique and separate, that union of two of the latter 
 being impossible, two of the former could not well be agglutinated. Be this 
 as it may, the Chinese, without any sort of inflexion in its words, affords a 
 remarkable specimen of the power of syntactical arrangement to express the 
 multitudinous variations of human thought. Instead of being composed, as 
 is frequently supposed, of a vast number of arbitrary and complicated symbols, 
 the characters of the Chinese language are compounded of very simple ele- 
 ments, which carry along with them into their derivatives something of their 
 own meaning, while each generally preserves its figure unchanged. These 
 elementary characters supply the place of an alphabet, but it is an alphabet 
 of ideas, not of sounds. With it may be produced thousands of different 
 radical words, and with these words hundreds of thousands of compounded 
 words have been and may be formed. It is not even necessary to become 
 acquainted with more than four or five thousand of these radical words and 
 characters to enable the literary man to understand, with etymological accuracy, 
 the meaning of myriads of expressions which are, or may be, formed by them. 
 The task to the foreign student is trifling, when he considers that these four 
 thousand characters are systematically derived from two hundred and fourteen 
 simple figures, and that when these are mastered, all other difficulties vanish 
 entirely, or diminish to such a degree that the rest of his labour is easy and 
 pleasant. The process however of derivation and composition is not without 
 some arbitrary and, at first sight, absurd deviations from rules, but such 
 exceptions are found in every language, and we do not see that the Chinese 
 exhibits many more of them than our own tongue. 
 
 Dr. Morrison's view of Chinese etymology to be derived from the hieroglyphic 
 
 * See "Outline of the Laws of Thought" by Dr. Thomson, Provost of Queen's College, 
 Oxford. 12". London, 1849, p. 42.
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxi 
 
 forms of characters is worth noting * : " The ancients formed characters from 
 things ; these gradually came to be used metaphorically to denote the opera- 
 tions of the mind, and to serve as auxiliaries in speech. As the number of such 
 characters increased, it was necessary to modify them again in order to dis- 
 tinguish them. Thus chl S* was originally chl-t'sati ~>* j==j" (i. e. ' the 
 grass,' now a particle of relation, demonstration, &c.), hu >|A was 
 
 ( hti-k'i (i. e. ' the breath issuing forth in exclamation,' now a particle 
 
 _r t- 
 
 of interrogation), and yen TJjjj was yuen 7 (i. e. ' a kite or fish-hawk,' now 
 
 used as a final particle of assertion, interrogation, &c.). When the etymology 
 of a word or the various metaphorical changes of a hieroglyphic can be traced, 
 it is amusing ; but the present usage alone can fix what the meaning of a word 
 is at the present time. 
 
 " Assuming the truth of the above critic's remark, it may be inferred, that 
 many characters are so mutilated or increased that to trace the gradual 
 changes up to their original form is hopeless." While these remarks indicate 
 the scope which Chinese affords for the sound discrimination of the ingenious 
 mind, the student who follows such an authority as Dr. Morrison will not be 
 discouraged on finding his efforts frequently unavailing to fathom the sense of 
 a Chinese character, and to trace its origin and history. 
 
 The extent of Chinese literature and its praises cannot be expressed more 
 fully than in the enthusiastic description of Prof. Abel-Re'musat, a translation 
 of which we will subjoin : " There are few Europeans," he says, " who would not 
 smile at hearing one speak of the geometry of the Chinese, of their astronomy, 
 or of their natural history ; although it is true that the progress, which these 
 sciences have made amongst us during the last two centuries, causes us to dis- 
 pense with having recourse to the knowledge of those distant nations, ought 
 we therefore to be ignorant of their present state, and especially of what their 
 former state was amongst a nation which has never ceased to cultivate and 
 honour them? The proportion of the right-angled triangle was known in 
 China B. C. 2200; and the works of Yu the Great, to restrain two streams 
 equal in impetuosity and almost in breadth to the great rivers of America; 
 to direct the waters of 100 rivers, and to guide their flowing over a space of 
 ground of more than 1 00,000 square leagues, are more than sufficient proof 
 of this. If the astronomical and physical theories of these people are defec- 
 tive, their catalogue of eclipses, of occultations, of comets, and of aerolites are 
 not the less interesting; and if people maintain that the Chinese make mis- 
 takes in their calculations, at least we must confess that they have, like us, 
 observant eyes. 
 
 " Besides this, rural and domestic economy is sufficiently perfected amongst 
 them for them to teach us many useful things ; of this, at least, we are assured 
 by those who have made a study of this science. As to their descriptions of 
 
 * Cf. Chinese Dictionary, Part I. vol. I. p. 34, where L)r. Morrison translated the above 
 passage from a native author.
 
 xxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 natural beings, since nothing can supply their place whilst Europeans have 
 not free access to their country, they are not to be despised from a people 
 so exact and circumstantial : and I hope to prove by several extracts from 
 their books on botany and zoology that the writers in this department are as 
 much above the Latin naturalists, or those of the Middle Ages, as they are 
 inferior to Linnaeus, Jussieu, or Des Fontaines. But if we pass to polite 
 literature, philosophy, and history, some Chinese, in these subjects, may even 
 set us an example. 
 
 " An immense fund of literature, the fruit of 4000 years of assiduous efforts 
 and labours ; eloquence and poetry enriched by the beauties of the picturesque 
 language, which preserve to the imagination all its colours, metaphors, alle- 
 gory, and allusion, all combining to form the most smiling, energetic, or 
 imposing pictures; on the other side, the most vast and authentic annals 
 which ever came from the hands of men, unfolding to our view actions almost 
 unknown, not only of the Chinese, but of the Japanese, Coreans, Tartars, 
 Tibetans, and of the inhabitants on the peninsula beyond the Ganges ; unfolding 
 the mysterious dogmas of Buddha, or those of the sect of the Tauists, or con- 
 secrating, in short, the eternal principles and the philosophic politics of the 
 school of Confucius : these are the objects which Chinese books present to 
 the student, who, without leaving Europe, may wish to travel in imagination 
 to these distant countries. More than 5000 volumes have been collected, at 
 great expense, in the Royal Library ; their titles have scarcely been read by 
 Fourmont; a few historical works have been opened by De Guignes and 
 by Des Hauterayes; all the rest still await readers and translators*." 
 
 These are the words of one who in his day stood high among the Oriental- 
 ists of Europe, and whose opinions will always be regarded with respect by 
 the student of Chinese. M. Remusat had actual experience on the subject, 
 and had read much of the literature on which he dilated. His evidence is 
 worthy of our full credit, and, while so much has been written and said which 
 is adverse to China and the Chinese, his testimony calls for our honest accept- 
 ance, for he views China through the writings of its great minds, and not, as 
 too many do, by the exhibitions of some of its vulgar rulers or the acts of some 
 low unruly mob. Even from those who should understand the subject well, 
 we too often hear statements which, although they have some appearance of 
 truth, are yet unfair, because they are based on insufficient grounds, but they 
 tell nevertheless to the prejudice of this people and their language. For 
 instance, it has been stated that " this language does not afford much scope 
 for oratorical display," a view which we consider very erroneous, for Chinese 
 is just that kind of language which leaves the speaker free from the techni- 
 calities of grammar and of artificial forms of expression, and allows him to rise 
 in sublimity by the power of allusion and the various figures of the rhetor's 
 art, and through the various styles of composition to affect his hearers ; or to 
 descend into the vulgar colloquial, and raise a smile at his antagonist's expense, 
 or ridicule the cavils of a supposed objector. 
 
 * V. Melanges Asiatiques par Abel -Remusat, vol. II. p. 14.
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxiii 
 
 It cannot be asserted that the speeches of the Chinese ministers of state 
 exhibit much oratorical power, but there can be no reason why the Chinese 
 should not display as much power in this way as did Demosthenes himself, if 
 they once fell into the circumstances which would call it forth, and were gifted 
 with the same argumentative powers as he was. The fault is in the mind of 
 China, and not in the language. When the Chinese mind is elevated, the 
 language will be found to be not only sufficient for the requirements of this 
 development, but also a valuable agent in the work of its advancement. 
 
 But it will be necessary to notice the dialects of which Chinese is composed. 
 The mother-tongue, which is every where expressed by the antique characters, 
 finds a different utterance in every province of the empire. So various are the 
 dialectal changes that the inhabitants of adjacent provinces cannot understand 
 each other. If a native of Canton meet with a native of Shanghai he can com- 
 municate with him only by some language common to them both, or by the 
 learned characters, which are used in books. The dialects (for there are 
 several) between Canton and Shanghai differ very much from each other. 
 They have, it is true, a common basis and groundwork ; but the pronunciation 
 of syllables in them, especially of diphthongal sounds, varies considerably, 
 though these changes are in accordance with the general laws of such variations 
 in other tongues. Their idioms, moreover, are peculiar, and these therefore 
 present a further obstacle to the communication of ideas. The comparative 
 tables of dialects will explain our meaning in some degree. 
 
 It must not be supposed that these dialects are so different as to present 
 to a native a formidable task in the acquisition of several of them. Native 
 merchants and traders frequently have a smattering of three or four ; but we 
 think that foreigners are in a position to acquire a more exact knowledge of 
 them than natives themselves. As they are all derived from the same written 
 language, so when this is acquired, or at least when the mandarin or court dia- 
 lect is learnt, the others may be mastered with comparative ease, after a few 
 months' practice. The foreigner in representing by Roman letters the precise 
 sounds of the language, has an advantage over the native, who cannot do so, 
 unless he learn the system of European orthography. The European soon per- 
 ceives that certain letters of his Roman alphabet undergo regular changes in the 
 different dialects, and this affords him an immense assistance. For example, he 
 may observe that the primary vowel sounds, a, i, u (ah, ee, oo), generally remain 
 in the language of each province, thus pa in Shanghai remains pa in Canton ; 
 Id in Nanking remains ki in Peking, with a little stronger aspiration; ku in 
 Ningpo is ku every where else : but, on the contrary, kai in Mandarin becomes 
 koi in Canton and ke in Shanghai; you in Mandarin becomes yiu in Canton 
 and yo (yaw) in Shanghai. Thus he finds that only the diphthongs (that is, 
 those sounds formed by the combination of two primary vowels) are affected 
 by dialectal changes. The same fact in articulate sounds is shown in our own 
 words clause, pause, &c., where the diphthong au, which is formed of the two 
 primary vowels a and u, and is generally represented by the secondary vowel 
 o, has been changed in course of time to the sound of o in order. These
 
 xxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 regular changes suggest the importance of having but one system of ortho- 
 graphy for writing Chinese in Roman letter, so that various dialects may 
 be acquired with greater facility. With how much greater ease, than under 
 the present systems, would French, German, and the other European tongues 
 be learnt, if only one system of writing existed, and but one uniform value 
 were given to the letters employed ! 
 
 It is no longer necessary to advise the public of the importance of a know- 
 ledge of Chinese to those who are connected with China; now that the whole 
 empire is, by the late treaty, declared open to travellers with passports, the 
 language is indispensable to those who would penetrate into the interior. The 
 advantages to the merchant, the missionary, the traveller, and the scientific 
 explorer, of an acquaintance with the Chinese language, cannot well be over- 
 rated. And when the vast territories under Chinese rule, and their relations 
 to Great Britain are considered, the perfect medium of communication, which 
 this language would afford, renders the attainment of it an object of primary 
 importance. With this object in view, the cultivation of it should be com- 
 menced before leaving this country, that no time may be lost in entering upon 
 a work which will require so much time and arduous effort to accomplish. Very 
 much may be done by the young student before he leaves England, especially 
 in the acquisition of the style of the books, and also in some degree the lan- 
 guage of conversation. The written characters of the Chinese may be acquired 
 any where by means of books alone, and, as the pronunciation of these written 
 symbols is exceedingly simple, considerable progress may be made, with a 
 little assistance, in learning such simple sentences as have the stamp of being 
 native, but he should avoid those which are made up to suit foreign expressions. 
 Where native teachers, good grammars, and perfect dictionaries of Chinese 
 are wanting, this language can only be studied to perfection in its native land. 
 Some knowledge however may and ought to be acquired under a European 
 tutor, who can generally explain far better than a native Chinese the diffi- 
 culties which will beset a beginner. The plan which we would suggest for 
 cementing our new relations with China, and removing the numerous miscon- 
 ceptions which exist on both sides, is the establishment of a College in this 
 country for the education of young Chinese in English, and for affording to 
 young Englishmen the means of acquiring the rudiments of Chinese; and 
 also the foundation of a College in Peking, or in some other city of China, for 
 the preparation of such Chinese youths in the rudiments of English, and for the 
 instruction of English youths in the Chinese language. Each College should 
 have two departments, and these should be directed by English and Chinese 
 tutors. The Chinese youths would cultivate the languages and sciences of 
 Europe to the best advantage in England, while the English youths in China 
 would learn perfectly, as natives do, the Chinese language, and would make 
 themselves acquainted with the products and the resources of China, and 
 gain a knowledge too of the home and foreign policy of the Chinese. 
 Such an arrangement would be productive of most beneficial results. The 
 plan of an Anglo -Chinese College was carried out at Malacca about thirty-
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxv 
 
 five years ago, and much good was done thereby, but from its position out of 
 China and from a deficiency in means, less was accomplished than might have 
 been under more favourable circumstances. For an institution of this kind to 
 succeed, it should receive the countenance and support of the governments 
 of both countries; but the education should not be gratuitous, as it would 
 be desirable to obtain the better class of boys for instruction; and the rela- 
 tives of such youths would be in a position to defray the expenses of their 
 education, and thus lessen the amount of expenditure on the part of the pro- 
 moters of the plan. But while the civil war in China is raging, and the govern- 
 ment of that country is so insecure, no extensive plans of amelioration can be 
 carried out. As commerce and Christianity advance, civilization and peace 
 will follow in the steps of the missionary and the merchant. In the mean- 
 time it is not from the partial knowledge of European languages in the case 
 of a few natives that much good may be anticipated, but the full and frequent 
 dissemination of religious and political truth, by means of translations into 
 Chinese, will affect the national mind, which is now very fully alive to the 
 influence of Europe on the well-being of the " Middle kingdom." 
 
 Many such translations have already been made within the last few years. 
 Improved versions of the Holy Scriptures, and of standard religious publica- 
 tions, have been issued in China. Valuable treatises on astronomy, algebra, 
 arithmetic, and geometry, natural philosophy and political economy have 
 been turned into Chinese recently *. Many more are however needed, espe- 
 cially on the subjects of European history, the science of mind and the laws 
 of thought. 
 
 * Such are Hersckel's Astronomy and De Morgan's Algebra, and works on Arithmetic 
 and other subjects translated by A. Wylie, Esq. ; works on Geography, the History of 
 England, by the Rev. William Muirhead ; several works on Anatomy, Physiology, and 
 Medicine by Dr. Benjamin Hobson ; treatises on Electricity, the Laws of Storms, and 
 other subjects by Dr. Macgowan ; and various educational works by the Eev. W. Lobscheid.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. CHINESE GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. I. ETYMOLOGY. 
 Sect. I. Articulate sounds and their symbols. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . i. Elementary sounds and their orthography 1 
 
 .2. Syllables and their intonation 4 
 
 . 3. Words and their composition generally 12 
 
 . 4. The characters, and how to write them 14 
 
 . 5. Arrangement of characters in books, punctuation, &c 34 
 
 . 6. On writing the characters 36 
 
 Sect. II. The forms of expression. 
 
 . i. Preliminary remarks 40 
 
 .2. On nouns and their formation 41 
 
 . 3. On adjectives and their formation 55 
 
 . 4. The numerals 60 
 
 . 5. The pronouns 63 
 
 .6. The verb 69 
 
 . 7. The substantive verbs 77 
 
 . 8. Mood and tense 79 
 
 . 9. The adverbs 84 
 
 . 10. The prepositions 91 
 
 . ii. The conjunctions 93 
 
 . 1 2. The interjections and other particles 95 
 
 CHAP. II. SYNTAX. 
 Sect. I. On simple constructions. 
 
 . i. Preliminary remarks 97 
 
 . 2. General rules relating to the position of words 97 
 
 .3. The construction of simple terms 99 
 
 da
 
 xxviii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 4. The principles involved in the grouping of words 102 
 
 . 5. The uncommon use of certain words in phraseology 103 
 
 . 6. The modifications and relations of the parts of speech 105 
 
 . 7. Thebyntax of the particles 142 
 
 I. Attributive particles 142 
 
 II. Connective particles 147 
 
 III. Affirmative particles 152 
 
 IV. Negative particles 158 
 
 V. Adversative particles 162 
 
 VI. Causative particles 165 
 
 VII. Conditional particles 1 67 
 
 VIII. Illative Articles 169 
 
 IX. Interrogative particles 1 69 
 
 X. Dubitative particles 173 
 
 XI. Intensitive particles 174 
 
 XII. Exclamatory particles 175 
 
 XIII. Euphonic particles 176 
 
 Sect. II. On sentences. 
 
 . I. Preliminary remarks -. 180 
 
 . 2. The forms of the simple sentence 183 
 
 . 3. The noun sentence 184 
 
 . 4. The adjective sentence 184 
 
 . 5. The adverbial sentence 185 
 
 . 6. On complex sentences 187 
 
 .7. On compound sentences 188 
 
 . 8. On figures of speech 1 88 
 
 .-.9. On varieties of style 1 89 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 I. Examples of antithesis, repetition, &c., and select phraseology 191 
 
 II. A list of the Chinese family names (Pe-kid sing) 201 
 
 III. A list of the dynasties, and the emperors, with dates 205 
 
 IV. A list of the characters in the nien-hcw, with a table of the men-liarf, ... 2 1 2 
 
 V. A comparison of some of the Chinese dialects 225 
 
 VI. Tables of weights, monies, measures, and times 230
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. CHINESE CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 A short introduction to Chinese literature. 
 
 Preliminary notices on the character, extent, and wants of Chinese literature. 
 Division of Chinese literature into (i) classical, (2) historical, (3) pro- 
 fessional, (4) miscellaneous. Another classification into ancient and modern 
 literature. The Wu-Tang or " Five classics." The Ti-klng, the Shu-Tang, 
 the Shl-klng, the Ll-Jd, and the CTian-tsiu. The Sz-shu or " Four books." 
 The Td-hi6 of Tsdng-tsz. The Chung-yung of K'ung-tsz. The Ldn-yu 
 ofK'ung-ts&. The Mdng-tsz (first and second). The commentator Chu-fu- 
 tsz. The Cheu-ll. Hiau-klng. Tsu-tsz. Shdn-hai-klng. Sz-mci-tsien. 
 Tau-te-klng. The Shl-tsz. (i) Lau-tsz. (2) Chwdng-tsz. (3) Siun- 
 tsz. (4) Li-tsz. (5) Kw&n-tsz. (6) Hdn-fl-tsz. (7) Hwai-ndn-tsz. 
 (8) Ydng-tsz. (9) Wdn-chung-tsz. (10) Ho-kw'&n-tsz Pages 3-8. 
 
 List of Chinese works arranged in classes: (i) Ethics, politics, and mental 
 science. (2) Mathematics and astronomy. (3) Language and the meanings 
 of words. (4) Jurisprudence. (5) Medicine and materia medica. (6) His- 
 tory and statistics. (7) Biographical notices. (8) Geography, topography, 
 &c. (9) Mythology. (10) Poetry, (n) Painting, engraving, &c. (12) 
 The drama. (13) Works of fiction. (14) Agriculture and weaving. (15) 
 Encyclopaedias and compilations Pages 918. 
 
 The various styles of composition, the Ku-wdn, the W$n-chdng. Metrical 
 composition in Chinese. The different kinds of poetry Pages 19, 20. 
 
 List of the passages in the native character Page 21. 
 
 Extracts from native authors, in Roman letter, with English translations : 
 
 The Shu-king (text, pp. i, 2) Pages 22-27. 
 
 Epitaph of Kl-tsz (text, p. 2) Pages 26-29. 
 
 Sz-shu (text, pp. 3, 4, 5), Ldn-yu, Shdng-mdng, Hid-mdng . . . Pages 28-35. 
 
 Shing-yu (text, pp. 6, 7) Pages 36-41. 
 
 Hau-Uiu chuen (text, pp. 8-12) Pages 40-51. 
 
 Shwul-hb, chuen (text, pp. 13-16) Pages 50-57- 
 
 Sdn-kwd chl (text, pp. 17-20) Pages 5866. 
 
 ^Esop's Fables, translated (text, pp. 21,22) Pages 66-70. 
 
 Lin's letter to Queen Victoria, translated (text, pp. 23, 24) ... Pages 70-76.
 
 xxx CONTENTS. 
 
 Supplementary treaty, translated (text, p. 2 5) Pages 76-78. 
 
 A notice and a petition, translated (text, p. 26) Pages 78-80. 
 
 Mandarin dialogues, translated (text, pp. 27-30) Pages 80-86. 
 
 Extract from the Ching-yln-tsiii-yau, translated (text, p. 31)... Pages 86-88. 
 
 Epistolary style, translations (text, p. 3 2) Pages 88-90. 
 
 Poetical extracts, translated (text, p. 33) Pages 90-94. 
 
 Proverbs, translated (text, p. 34) Pages 94-96. 
 
 Extracts from the Ching-yln-tsiii-yau, translated (text, litho. pp. 9, 10) 
 
 Pages 96-98. 
 
 Extract from the San-kw6 chi, translated (text, litho. pp. 1 1-13) Pages 98-103. 
 vEsop's Fables, translated (text, litho. p. 1 4) Pages 1 04, 1 05.
 
 PAET I. 
 
 CHINESE GRAMMAR.
 
 CHAP. I. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 SECT. I. ARTICULATE SOUNDS AND THEIR SYMBOLS. 
 
 . i. Eletnentwry sounds and their orthography. 
 
 1. THE Chinese language does not possess, like the European languages, a 
 series of letters with which to express elementary sounds; nor are figures 
 employed to represent syllables merely, as in the syllabaries of the Japanese 
 and Manchu languages. It is therefore necessary in the outset to lay before 
 the student a clear system of orthography, in order that he may acquire as 
 speedily as possible a correct pronunciation of the Chinese characters; and 
 we propose making use of the Roman alphabet for this purpose. 
 
 2. The articulate sounds of the human voice are produced by the united 
 action of the breath and the organs of speech, the lips, the tongue, and the 
 larynx. As these organs are the same every where, the articulations of every 
 language must partake of many sounds in common; and though they may be 
 modified by the shape of the organs and other circumstances, they are funda- 
 mentally the same. It follows, therefore, that in learning a foreign tongue 
 a consideration of the elementary sounds of the human voice, and the exhi- 
 bition of them in that tongue, will facilitate the progress by placing the 
 subject from the first upon a reasonable basis. 
 
 3. There are three primary vowel sounds, a, i, u, and from these the other 
 vowels and the diphthongs spring *. This fact has been proved by the ab- 
 sence of the e and 6 in the Sanskrit, and by the vowels of the Hebrew in its 
 ancient form being only aleph, ~> yod, and 1 vav. These primary or funda- 
 mental vowels, with the vowel-sounds derived from them, are thus exhibited : 
 
 ait, 6, o 
 
 a) By the union of a and i the diphthong ai is produced, as ai in aisle; 
 then by gradually closing and contracting the organs we form the German d, 
 the flattened a in shame, and the open French e in foret, meme; to these 
 may be added a with a dot beneath to represent the obscure sound like ir, er, 
 and o, in Sir, her, son, respectively. 
 
 /3) By the union of a and u the diphthong au is formed, as ou in plough 
 or au in Eaum (German); then by contraction we have o long in no, nos 
 (French); to which may be added o with a dot beneath to represent the 
 
 * It should be understood from the first that the pronunciation of these vowels is the 
 German or Italian ; ah, ee, oo in English. 
 
 B
 
 2 MODIFICATIONS OP VOWEL SOUNDS. 
 
 sound of o in order or au in clause. In the ancient Arabic, ai and au were 
 used instead of e and o. So in the Greek and Latin, Kalo-ap became Caesar, 
 duviia in the Ionic dialect was #/xa, a case exactly similar to that which takes 
 place in Chinese, and which will be found noticed under the Comparative 
 Table of Dialects. The modern pronunciation of the French words lait, mais, 
 aussi, illustrates the same facts, as does also the vulgar German och for auch. 
 y) By uniting i and u we produce ew in yew, Jiew, new, &c. ; and in like 
 manner any variety of simple vowel sound or diphthongal compound may be 
 formed with the three vowels a, i, u *. 
 
 4. We shall employ the letters of the Roman alphabet to express Chinese 
 sounds; and the student should make himself thoroughly acquainted with 
 the system of orthography given below. An absolutely true pronunciation 
 can only be attained by long and regular practice, by imitating a teacher, and 
 by a residence among the Chinese; yet, by careful attention to the advice 
 here given, considerable advance may be made with the aid of books alone. 
 
 T. T. Meadows, Esq., one of H. B. Majesty's Consuls in China, proposed a 
 new orthography several years ago, and made some very just remarks on the 
 obscure vowel sounds, with especial reference to their delicate modifications in 
 the Pekin dialect. (See Desultory Notes on China. London: Allen, 1847.) 
 
 The variations however in the pronunciation of native scholars speaking 
 the same dialect are many, whilst all are sufficiently correct. Just as dis- 
 tinctions may be drawn between the pronunciation of individual scholars in 
 this country and considerable difference be found to exist in their pronuncia- 
 tion of single words ; but to alter the spelling of English words because the 
 letter a is sounded somewhat broader or made a little longer by one than 
 by another, would lead to endless changes. To illustrate this point the 
 German a is not the same as the English a in shame or ay in play, nor is 
 the German eu accurately expressed by oy in joy, toy; yet these examples 
 may stand in a Grammar for Englishmen, because each answers so nearly to 
 the foreign sound as to be a sufficient guide to the pronunciation, though the 
 French e in meme and the eui in feuille correspond more nearly to the 
 German d and eu. 
 
 5. The quantity of each of the vowels in the following table is long in nil 
 positions which allow of it ; that is to say, in some rare positions they will be 
 short; as, for instance, when affected by the jl-shing (902, 2291) or 'entering 
 tone,' which is always designated by the ordinary mark ^ for a short vowel. 
 
 The pronunciation of the short vowels is exemplified by the words enclosed 
 in brackets. 
 
 The short 6, which should correctly be written with the dot beneath, will 
 be without the dot, as the corresponding short of o long rarely, if ever, occurs. 
 
 The equivalent of each vowel is also given according to Dr. Morrison's 
 system of spelling, as the student will have to refer to his Dictionary. 
 
 * For further information on this subject the student may refer to Karl F. Becker's 
 Organism der Sprache ; Jacob Grimm's Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache ; and Wilhelm 
 von Humboldt's work, I'cbcr die Kau-i Sprache, vol. I. Einleitung.
 
 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY BY ROMAN LETTERS. 3 
 
 
 
 The system of orthography adopted. 
 
 
 
 I. The vowels, simple and combined. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Morr. 
 
 The value of each illustrated by examples. 
 
 i I 
 
 e eih 
 
 i in police; i in wir (Germ.); i in aussi (Fr.); (bU.) 
 
 e e 
 
 ay Ih 
 
 a in lame; d infdhig (Germ.); e in meme (Fr.); (bet.) 
 
 a & 
 
 a ah 
 
 a V& father; a in darf (Germ.) ; a in pas (Fr.) ; (bat.) 
 
 a a 
 
 d uh 
 
 a in organ; e in haben (Germ.); ue in que (Fr.); (but.) 
 
 o 6 
 
 o 6 
 
 o in no; o in oder (Germ.); 6 in cote (Fr.); (ndt.) 
 
 o 
 
 aw 
 
 (Canton D. and Shanghai D.) o in order; aw in law. 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 (Shanghai D.) o in Lowe (Germ.) ; nearly ceu in sceur (Fr.) 
 
 u u 
 
 oo uh 
 
 u in rule; u in du (Germ.); ou in vous (Fr.); (bull.) 
 
 U u 
 
 eu ue 
 
 u in lune (Fr.); u in M'iihe (Germ.); (eu in peut-etre.) 
 
 ie ie 
 
 eay ee 
 
 ie in pied (Fr.); yea (Eng.); (ye in yesterday.) 
 
 ia id 
 
 ea ed 
 
 ia in lia, plia (Fr.); ja (Germ.) ; (yd in yankee.) 
 
 io id 
 
 eo 
 
 io in million (Fr.); (Shanghai D.); (yd in yacht.) 
 
 iu iu 
 
 ew euh 
 
 ew in hew, yew; (ju mjuchhe! (Germ.)) 
 
 ei 
 
 ei 
 
 ei in sein (Germ.); ie m pie (Eng.) 
 
 eu 
 
 ow 
 
 e -f u, peculiar. French MSS. would have eou. 
 
 ai 
 
 ae 
 
 ai in aisle; so iai=eae in Morr. 
 
 au 
 
 aou 
 
 ow in cow; au in Frau (Germ.); so iau=eaou in Morr. 
 
 oi 
 
 oy 
 
 (Canton D.) oi in voice. 
 
 ui 
 
 uy 
 
 (Canton D.) u + i; ui in ruin. 
 
 iii 
 
 uy 
 
 eui infeuille (Fr.); eu in Beute (Germ.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. The consonants, single and combined. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Morr. 
 
 The value of each illustrated by examples. 
 
 b 
 
 _ 
 
 as in English, not in Mand. D. (in Shang. D. and Hok. D.) 
 
 ch 
 
 ch 
 
 ch in hatch; chw in hatchway; chh in catch him. 
 
 d 
 
 - 
 
 (Shang. D. Ningpo D. &c.) as in English; t?/=Eng. j. 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 f in Jit. The tone in some dialects changes it to v. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 g in good always, never g in gin. 
 
 h 
 
 h 
 
 h in heart ; before i and u it is a strong aspiration, nearly sh. 
 
 3 
 
 j 
 
 j injeune (Fr.); z in azure (Eng.); ju or jw. 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k in king; kw as qu in queen. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I in line; Iw as in bulwark. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 m in mine; mw as in homeward. 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n in nine; nw as in inward; ng in anger. 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p in pine. 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 r in run; rather more rolling than the English r. 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s in see; sw as in swain. 
 
 sh 
 
 sh 
 
 sh in shine; shw as in a rash wish. 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 t in tiny; tw as in twist; ts as in wits; tsw as in Cotswold. 
 
 i 
 
 - 
 
 v in vine (Shang. and King. D.) 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w in way, or v in vine. 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 y in you. 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 z in squeeze, sz=s + z, i. e. the hissing sound of 8, then the 
 
 
 
 buzzing sound of z, and in tsz=ts + z. 
 
 B 2
 
 CHINESE MODE OF SPELLING SYLLABLES. 
 
 6. Exercise for reading. 
 
 Ts'lng tsdu k'l lat, kidu Jiai-tsz-mdn, sau-sau ti, kiau-kiaw hwd, gau 
 shwui si lien, pau wdn hau ctid k'i-k'i; mu-yiu sz ti shi-heu, k'dn-k'dn shu 
 sie-sie tsz; sdn-lidng-ko sz-wdn pdng-yiu, ts6 ko shl, hid ko wei-kt, kidi-kidi 
 indn-dr. tsiu k'o-i kwo-tl ji-tsz liau. 
 
 .2. Syllables and their intonation. 
 
 7. After having thus considered elementary sounds and the symbols suited 
 to express them, we naturally proceed to view them as they are united to form 
 syllables. The characters of the Chinese do not represent elementary sounds 
 or articulations, but each character stands for an entire syllable. The syllable 
 then in Chinese is simply the name given to a symbol ; that is, each character 
 is expressed by a syllable, the sound of which cannot be discovered from the 
 composition or formation of the character. In fact, the same characters 
 have different names in the different provinces in which they are read, just as 
 the Arabic numerals are called by different names in the various states of 
 Europe and Asia. 
 
 8. Every syllable in the Court dialect ends with a vowel or nasal, but 
 commonly with a vowel. The dialectic peculiarities may be seen in the 
 Comparative Table. 
 
 9. The Chinese divide the syllable into two parts, the initial and the final ; 
 and they define the pronunciation of characters by a process called fdn-tse 
 
 /$/ ~fef7 ' to cut off in opposite directions ;' thus the initial of the syllable 
 
 ke may be taken and the final of the syllable mung, and they together constitute 
 the syllable kung. In K'anghi's Dictionary the pronunciation of characters 
 
 is always explained in this way; e. g. the sound of the character |p is 
 
 explained thus : chi shing tse, chi and shing being cut in the above way 
 into ch-ing, which is the pronunciation of the character ching. 
 
 10. The number of different Chinese syllables is between four and five 
 
 hundred. In the Mandarin or Court dialect the Kwdn-hwd / E" ^3b 
 
 there are four hundred and ten syllables, besides those with aspirates, as 
 thien or t'ien. They are here arranged in alphabetic order, and the student 
 will do well to read them as an exercise in orthoepy. 
 
 Table of the syllables in the Kwdn-hwd. 
 
 1 a 
 
 '3 che 
 
 2 5 chiii 
 
 37/z* 
 
 49 g6 
 
 61 hid 
 
 73 hiun 
 
 2 an 
 
 J 4 chen 
 
 2( > chung 
 
 3/tf 
 
 50 hai 
 
 62 hiai 
 
 74 hiung 
 
 3 qr 
 
 '5 cheu 
 
 2 7 chwa 
 
 39 funrj 
 
 5 1 han 
 
 6 3 hiang 
 
 75 ho 
 
 4 au 
 
 16 chi 
 
 2 ^ chwai 
 
 4 gai 
 
 5 2 hqn 
 
 6 4 hiau 
 
 rtht 
 
 5 cha 
 
 '7 chi 
 
 2 9 chwang 
 
 4 1 gan 
 
 53 hang 
 
 65 hie 
 
 77 AM 
 
 6 cM 
 
 '8 chin 
 
 3/ 
 
 4 2 gqn 
 
 54 hang 
 
 6(5 hien 
 
 78 AM 
 
 7 chai 
 
 J 9 ching 
 
 3 1 fan 
 
 43 gang 
 
 55 hau 
 
 6 7 hin 
 
 79 hu 
 
 8 clian 
 
 20 clrt 
 
 3*fqn 
 
 44 gang 
 
 &he 
 
 6 8 hing 
 
 8 hung 
 
 9 chqn 
 
 21 chu 
 
 33 fang 
 
 45 gau 
 
 57 heu 
 
 6 9 hit 
 
 81 hwa 
 
 10 chang 
 
 22 chu 
 
 Mfeu 
 
 4 6 geu 
 
 58 hi 
 
 7" hiu 
 
 82 hwd 
 
 11 chau 
 
 2 3 chu 
 
 ^fi 
 
 U gl 
 
 59 hi 
 
 7i hiu 
 
 83 hwai 
 
 12 che 
 
 *4 chuen 
 
 ^fo 
 
 48 go 
 
 60 hia 
 
 7 2 hiuen 
 
 8 4 hwan
 
 SYLLABLES OF THE COURT DIALECT. 
 
 8 5 hwqn 
 
 8 6 hwang 
 8 7 hwqng 
 88 Awtf 
 
 9 hwui 
 
 9 2 jqn 
 93 Jang 
 
 95je 
 9 6 je 
 97 jen 
 
 99 ft 
 
 lol jing 
 iozj$ 
 
 l 5juen 
 
 106 jui 
 l 7jung 
 
 108 kai 
 
 10 9 kan 
 
 1 10 kan 
 
 1 J J kang 
 Il2 kqng 
 
 I 3 2 kiun 
 
 116 ki 
 
 118 &ta 
 
 Il 9kid 
 
 I20 kiai 
 
 121 kiang 
 
 I22 kiau 
 
 '23&te 
 
 4&& 
 
 I2 5kien 
 
 I2 7 king 
 
 I2 9 Kw 
 '3oitf 
 
 139*5 
 
 1 4 &ww<7 
 H 1 &wa 
 
 H3 &t0at 
 J 4+ kwan 
 '45 kwan 
 '4 6 kwang 
 47 kwqng 
 
 J 49 kwo 
 
 l 5-la 
 I 53la 
 
 161 Jew 
 
 l6 5liau 
 
 16 7 tew 
 
 168 Zm 
 
 16 9 Kwgr 
 
 1 70 lid 
 
 '79 to 
 
 180 tot 
 
 181 Zwwgr 
 
 l8 3 ma 
 l8 4ma 
 
 18 5 mat 
 
 186 maw 
 
 18 7 maw 
 
 188 mang 
 l8 " mang 
 
 '93 
 
 I 95mi 
 '96 mt 
 '97 mtat* 
 
 i C.Q 
 7 QWlfi 
 
 '99 miew 
 
 200 min 
 
 20 1 
 
 202 
 
 20 7 mung 
 208 mwan 
 20 9na 
 
 21 5 waw# 
 216 
 
 21 7 Ttew 
 
 218 /wV 
 
 220 niang 
 
 221 niau 
 
 222 yj,^g 
 
 22 3 mew 
 
 22 5 wtw<7 
 
 233 WWt 
 
 234 nung 
 
 2 35 nwan 
 
 238 
 
 242 ^?a. 
 
 243 ^>aw<7 
 
 *45 pau 
 
 246 p g 
 
 W pei 
 ^ peu 
 249 pi 
 
 1 S 1 piau 
 
 2 5 2 pie 
 2 53 pien 
 
 2 S5ping 
 2 S 6 piu 
 2 57po 
 
 2 59pu 
 
 260 pu 
 
 261 pung 
 
 262 pwan 
 
 2<5 4 sat 
 
 26 5 saw 
 
 266 saw 
 267 , ' 
 268 
 
 26 9 sau 
 *7se 
 
 2 7 1 seu 
 
 2 7 2 sha 
 
 2 75 s/iaw 
 76 ^Aa, 
 2 77 shang 
 shau 
 
 280 sAe 
 
 281 sAew 
 
 282 sAew 
 
 28 3 shi 
 
 284 s/w 
 
 28 5 sAt'w 
 shing 
 
 2 88 ^Aw 
 
 28 9 shu 
 2 9 shwa 
 
 2 9 1 shwa, 
 
 2 9 2 shwai 
 
 293 shwang 
 
 2 95 shwiii 
 
 2 97 si 
 298 
 
 3 O1 sie 
 32 siew 
 33 siw 
 34 sing 
 35 sto 
 
 70< 
 
 3" SlU 
 
 308 
 
 39 stttw 
 
 3' 7 
 3 l8 sltt 
 
 3 '9 swan 
 
 3 2 8Z 
 
 3 2 3 tai 
 
 325 tow 
 
 326 tang 
 
 327 tang 
 
 3 2 8 tau 
 
 330 tew 
 
 331 ti 
 
 333 
 334 *t'e 
 
 336 tien 
 
 337 ^twgr 
 
 7 -,Q , 
 
 339 to 
 34 #J 
 
 34 1 te<Z 
 
 342 teai 
 
 343 teaw 
 
 344 teaw 
 
 345 tsang 
 
 347 
 
 34 8 tee 
 
 349 teett 
 35 tet 
 35 z tet 
 
 35 2 tsiang 
 
 353 teiaw 
 
 354 tete 
 
 355 tsie 
 
 35 6 tetew 
 
 357 tetw 
 
 35 8 teiw^r 
 
 359 tsid 
 
 3 61 tsiuen 
 
 362 
 
 363 teo 
 
 364 te<5 
 
 365 tew 
 
 366 tew 
 
 367 tew 
 
 3 68 tew 
 
 369 tewt 
 
 370 tewwgr 
 
 37 1 tswan 
 
 372 fe^; 
 
 373 w 
 
 374 M 
 3 7 S t/U'L 
 
 376 famgr 
 
 377 <iwaw 
 
 37 8 wwgr 
 
 379 wa 
 
 382 t^7j 
 -o, 
 
 384 wang 
 
 ->&r 
 
 30 s '3/je^, 
 
 3 86 M>t 
 
 3 8 7 WO 
 
 39 1 ya 
 
 392 ya 
 
 393 ?/at 
 
 394 yaw 
 
 395 yang 
 
 39 6 yaw 
 
 397 ye 
 39 8 ye 
 
 399 yew 
 
 400 yX 
 
 401 ym 
 
 402 y^ 
 
 43 yiw 
 404 yd 
 45yu 
 
 407 y% 
 4 8 ywew 
 49 yww 
 4 10 yww^ 
 
 ii. The syllable $?* (No. 3. of the preceding list) is variously spelt by 
 Morrison and others urh, eul, 'II, irr, ri. It represents a peculiar sound, 
 probably of modern origin, as it is not found in the Imperial Dictionary of 
 K'anghi Jjjj: JED . The characters it expresses are called i in the Canton and 
 some other dialects, and it rhymes with i in the Shi-king =j: tjjj^ or Classic Odes.
 
 6 NATURE OP THE ' TONES.' 
 
 12. The articulate sounds in every language must have preceded the 
 written character. There is no positive proof that the syllabic sounds in 
 present use in China are of very great antiquity, though this may be 
 inferred from one or two facts. a. The two hundred and fourteen ele- 
 mentary characters called Radicals, contain one hundred and fifty of the 
 above-mentioned four hundred syllables ; and this is a large proportion unless 
 we suppose that they had those sounds attached to them in a very early 
 stage of the language, when, as yet, but few other characters had been 
 invented. 
 
 b. The Primitives, one thousand seven hundred in number, another set of 
 elementary characters, which, with the Radicals, make up the body of material 
 out of which the thirty or forty thousand characters have been constructed, 
 contain nearly every syllable found in the language. 
 
 c. Ancient poetry also goes to prove the antiquity of the present oral 
 system, by the rhymes in the Shi-king. Some of these odes are very ancient. 
 One of them, on the marriage of Wdn-wdng ^ -p* , a celebrated emperor, 
 father of the Cheu Tpjl family, and which was without doubt written at 
 
 that period, leads us back three thousand years, or about two hundred years 
 before the reputed date of Homer *. 
 
 13. Every syllable in Chinese is uttered with a certain intonation or 
 modulation of the voice, which is commonly called its 'tone' by Europeans; 
 
 by natives the tone is called Shlng-yln fejf- ~\=\, i. e. tone-sound (v. 2291). 
 
 14. The tones are of essential service in adding distinctness to the expres- 
 sion ; in many cases a phrase would be quite unintelligible without its proper 
 tones, and often convey an entirely different idea from the one intended. 
 
 15. The difficulty of learning these tones has been much exaggerated, and 
 the published opinions of some who had a right to be heard on subjects 
 connected with the Chinese language, have tended to confirm misconceptions. 
 We shall here endeavour to state clearly their nature, and give directions for 
 their acquirement. 
 
 1 6. In the first place, the tones are not mere accents or the elevated 
 utterance of syllables in words, nor accent, as when we speak of the French 
 accent, Scotch accent, a point in which every language differs, nor the way- 
 ward and uncertain intonation of words and phrases as we hear frequently in 
 animated dialogue and oratory ; but they are certain fixed intonations, pecu- 
 liar to each character when uttered, and they change only when euphony 
 would be disturbed by their accustomed sound being retained. 
 
 17. The Chinese Shlng-yln are from four to eight of these latter in- 
 tonations proper to the language of the orator, and they add as much force 
 and vigour to the Chinese tongue as they do to our own. Only one of them 
 is peculiar and uncommon, and this is a sort of whine or drawl ; but in union 
 with others in the same word it assimilates in some degree to the general or 
 predominating tone, and so loses its unpleasant sound. 
 
 * V. Marshman's Clavis Sinica, pp. 83, 84, etc.
 
 EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE ' TONES.' 7 
 
 1 8. The number of the tones appears to have been four in the first 
 instance, but in the various dialects of China they rise to seven and eight. 
 They are as follows : vJ ft eM. 
 
 i. The ping-slung -^p- (2291) 'even, level tone.' I 
 
 ^ 2. The shdng-shlng p (2291) 'rising tone.' ^ 
 
 X'' 3- The Jcii-shmg -^- (2291) ' departing tone.' (\ 
 
 V^ 4. The ji-shlng /\^ (2291) ' entering tone.' 
 
 By uttering these four at a low pitch of the voice and then at a higher, eight 
 different intonations are produced; those pitched high being denominated 
 shdng p" ' upper,' and those pitched low being called hid K ' lower.' 
 
 19. The Mandarin dialect, or Kwan-hwd, acknowledges five of these 
 tones, the whole of the upper series and the first of the lower. In common 
 parlance they are called, i. P'ing, 2. shdng, 3. k'u, 4. jl, and 5. hid-p'ing. 
 
 20. The SJidng-p'ing-shlng is the 'upper even tone,' and may be illustrated 
 by the sound of calling to a person at some distance, thus : ' John, fetch my 
 horse,' the syllables in Italics expressing the tone. 
 
 21. The Shdng-shdng-shing or 'upper rising tone' agrees nearly with our 
 tone of the final syllable in an interrogation with surprise, ' Will he say that 
 now ? ' ' Can he come, eh ? ' The voice is first depressed and then suddenly 
 raised. 
 
 22. The Slidng-k'u-shlng or 'upper descending tone' is well illustrated by 
 a phrase of exclamation with scorn or reproach. 
 
 23. The Shdng-jl-shlng or 'upper entering tone' is equivalent to the short 
 abrupt utterance in such a phrase as ' tit for tat,' without pronouncing the 
 final letters. In the Peking dialect this tone is changed into the k'u-shing. 
 
 24. The Hid-p'ing-shlng or 'lower even tone' is similar to the correspond- 
 ing upper one, but is pitched lower, as in the tone of a direct reply to a 
 question, ' Yes,' 'No,' 'Who fetched it?' 'John.' 
 
 25. The Hid-sJidng-shlng or ' lower rising tone' is very much like the 
 Scotch accent, the voice is depressed and quickly raised again. This tone 
 and the remaining three are not recognised in the Mandarin dialect, and will 
 therefore not be explained here. The student is referred for further informa- 
 tion on the subject of the tones to the works of Dyer, Medhurst, Bridgman, 
 and Edkins, all of whom have taken great pains to elucidate them. 
 
 26. The diacritical marks used by the early Jesuits to distinguish the 
 tones we shall employ in this work. They are as follows: ~ N ' ~ A i. P'ing, 
 2. shdng, 3. k'u, 4. jl, 5. hid-p'ing ; placed above the vowel of the syllable to 
 be intonated thus, td, td, td, td, td. 
 
 27. The following passages are intended to illustrate the character of 
 tones. The numbers attached to the words, and the diacritical marks also, 
 refer to the tones employed in the pronunciation of them. 
 
 I. " There I saw Rhadanianthus (5), one of the judges of the dead, seated
 
 8 CHANGES OF THE ' TONE.' 
 
 at his tribunal (5). He interrogated each separately. ' Madam' (i), says 
 he, to the first of them, ' you have been upon the earth above fifty years ; 
 what have you been doing there all this while?' 'Doing!' (2), says she, 
 ' really I don't know what I've been doing!' " Guardian, No. 158. 
 
 II. LEAR. But goes this with thy heart 1 ? (2) 
 
 CORDELIA. Ay, good my lord. 
 
 LEAR. So young, and so untender? 
 
 COR. So young, my lord, and true (5). 
 
 LEAR. Let it b6 so. Thy truth then be thy dower ; 
 
 For, by the sacred radiance of the sun ; 
 
 The mysteries of Hecate, and the night; 
 
 By all the operations of the orbs (3), 
 
 From whom we do exist and c6ase to be; 
 
 Hre I disclaim all my paternal care, 
 
 Propinquity and property of b!6od, 
 
 And as a stranger to my heart and me 
 
 Hold thee, from this, for ever. 
 
 KENT. Good my liege 
 
 LEAR. Peace, Knt! 
 
 Come not betwixt the dragon and his wrath : 
 
 I lov'd her most, and thought to set my rest 
 
 On her kind nursery. He"nce, and avoid my sight. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE, King Lear, Act I. Sc. 2. 
 
 28. The Chinese sometimes distinguish the tone of a syllable by a mark 
 placed at the corner of the character, but not generally. As each character 
 is inscribed in a square, the four corners serve as positions for tone-marks in 
 
 3 
 
 the order shown here : 
 i 
 
 29. The tone of a character is sometimes changed to show that it has an 
 uncommon meaning or that its relation to the sentence is altered; thus 
 nouns become verbs, and adjectives become nouns, but not by any constant 
 rule: chu ".it 'a lord' becomes chu 'to rule;' 6 or go 5JL 'bad' be- 
 comes wu or hu 'to hate;' sliang p 'upper' becomes sJidng 'to go up, 
 ascend ;' chung m ' heavy' becomes chung ' to repeat.' In such cases a 
 small circle called kiuen (1282) is placed at one corner of the character to 
 intimate the change. 
 
 30. The Chinese aspirate many of their syllables very strongly, and the 
 absence of the aspiration nearly always renders the phrase unintelligible. 
 For example, kai : ^y* ' ought,' but k'al RJ ' to open.' We shall express 
 the aspiration by the Greek spiritus asper ( c ). When the letter h is used it 
 will be understood to be a very strong aspiration; thus Jial V'^ 'the sea' is 
 pronounced as if written with the German guttural ch, chal.
 
 'TONES' IN SUCCESSION. 9 
 
 31. The Chinese are accustomed to arrange the characters in Dictionaries 
 according to the final sounds of the syllables which they represent ; thus, 
 sien, lien, mien, kien, &c., come together as they rhyme with each other, and 
 then they follow according to the tones, p'tng, shcbng, k'u, jL In the Canton 
 dialect there is a Dictionary of this kind, in which the syllables are arranged 
 in thirty-three classes according to their terminations. The first of the series 
 is sien; and the syllables which rhyme with this are taken through the four 
 tones of both upper and lower series. The practice of reading these syllables 
 after a native instructor, in the order of the tones, will be advantageous to 
 the student: thus, sien, sien, sien, s'ie; and then, as a second exercise, he 
 should select dissyllabic and trisyllabic combinations whose sequences as 
 regards tone are similar. 
 
 32. The following table will show what we mean by sequence in tone, and 
 the accompanying exercises will serve to accustom the student to practical 
 intonation. 
 
 P'ing Shd,ng K'u Jl Bidding 
 
 P'tng 
 
 Sh&ng 
 
 K'u 
 
 Jl 
 
 Hid-p'ing 
 
 3 
 - r 
 
 6 
 
 V - 
 
 12 
 
 r \ 
 
 13 
 r r 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 A A 
 
 From this it appears that twenty-five combinations of tones may be formed, 
 though some occur more frequently than others. We shall now give several 
 combinations intoned according to the numbers in the table : 
 
 1. kln-t'ien 'to-day;' ab Tmng-fu 'work;' cd sidng-kung 'Mr., Sir.' ef 
 
 2. to-shau 'how many?'g h t'ien-chu 'God*;' bi gan-tien ' favour.' J k 
 
 3. sdng~i 'trade, business;' 1 " 1 chi-tau 'to know;' 110 l-kiu 'as before.'P^ 
 
 4. 1-fA 'clothes;' 18 sheu-shl 'to collect together ;' tu sang-jl ' birthday.' lv 
 
 The word used by the Romanists.
 
 10 
 
 EXERCISES IN THE ' TONES.' 
 
 5. shu-fdng 'a library ;' ab sz-wdn 'polished, refined ;' cd kan-tsting 
 
 'to follow.' ef 
 
 6. tti-sau 'to sweep ;'s h td-t'lng 'to listen ;'g tien-hidng 'to kindle 
 
 incense.' J k 
 
 7. lau-tsz 'the old one, father ;' lm yln-tsiu 'to drink wine;' no fu-chdn 
 
 'land produce.' Pq 
 
 8. Jid-ki 'an assistant ;' r 8 tsau-fdn 'morning rice, breakfast ;' 4 u tfcfcra/- 
 
 Aet* 'to wait for.' vw 
 
 9. wei-kiu ' hardship ;' x y td-fd 'to send;'s z yen-mu 'the eyes.' a ' b ' 
 
 10. tau-ch'd 'to pour out tea;' c/d ' wdng-nien 'last year;' e/f/ tien-fed 
 
 'to nod.'Js' 
 
 11. wai-pien 'outside;' 11 ' 1 ' chung-hwd 'to plant flowers ;'J' k/ pau-cfu 
 
 'to inform.' 1 ' 111 ' 
 
 12. cAe-& 'here;' n ' ' si-siting 'to think of carefully ;'p'q' shdng-md 'to 
 
 mount a horse.' 1 ' 8 ' 
 
 13. fi-yting ' expenses ;' t/u ' yti-jn 'to prepare beforehand ;' v/w/ kati-sti 
 
 'to inform.' x 'y' 
 
 14. lung-sha 'to kill;' z ' a " heti-shl ' liberal ;' b " c " k'i-K 'strength.' 4 " 6 " 
 
 15. pi-man 'shut the door;' f "g" hid-k'i 'to play at chess;' 11 " 1 " sz-tsing 
 
 ' affair.' J"k" 
 
 1 6. tu-shu 'to study;' 1 " a fd-chl 'to be mad;' zm " chti-sdng 'domestic 
 
 animals.' 11 " " 
 
 17. tsS-chit 'to act as master ;'p"q" kl-kwo 'to bear fruit ;' r " s " jS-fes 'a 
 
 18. td-ying'to answer;' u " v " shwd-hwd 'talk;' w " x " 
 
 blame. 'y" w ' 
 
 p 
 
 d " 
 
 t" 
 
 e " -ft 
 
 * 71 
 
 f " 
 
 P 
 
 Mi 
 
 fi '^ 
 ^ i- s > 
 
 rtS 
 
 
 s' npr t' 
 
 1," 
 
 T r ffi 
 
 k"
 
 EXERCISES IN THE ' TONES.' 1 1 
 
 19. ts6-ji ( yesterday ;' ab tsi-k'e ' forthwith ;' cd yu-fd 'so much the 
 
 more.' ef 
 
 20. ch'u-lai 'going in and out;'s h hi5-fdng 'a schoolroom ;'ij yi-fting 
 
 ' together.' kl 
 
 21. ndng-kdn ' power ;' mn jti-kln 'now;'P nien-kdng 'age'l r (of a 
 
 person). 
 
 22. wdn-ll 'elegance of composition ;' s * jti-tsz 'thus;' ou yati-sheu 'to 
 
 wave the hand.' vw 
 
 23. ming-tsz 'name and title ;'*y y ting-man ' countenance ;' za ' k'i-kwai 
 
 ' marvellous. ' b/c/ 
 
 24. ndn-shwo 'difficult to say;' d/e ' fdng-u 'a house ;'J f ' mlng-jl ' to- 
 
 morrow. 'S* 1 * 
 
 25. hwiii-lai 'to return;' 11 ' 1 ' ch'd-hu 'tea-pot j'J' k ' fid-Is ai 'a slave.' 1 '' 
 
 33. The following may serve as an exercise for reading the different tones 
 with the same syllable aspirated as well as unaspirated : 
 
 Chang n ' ' chapter ;' cliang ' ' long ;' chang P' ' palm of the hand ;' cMng q' 
 *a curtain;' chdng 1 ' 'constant;' ch'dng 3 ' 'to reward;' chi*' 'to know;' 
 chl^' 'to point out;' ch'l v ' 'to begin;' cM w/ 'to come;' cM x/ 'slow;' 
 chungn' 'middle;' cJiung' 1 ' 'insect;' chung*" 'to plant;' fan^" 'to divide;' 
 fd,n c " 'flour;' fdn^" 'all;' fan e " 'to reverse;' fl f " 'not;' fis" 'to spend;' 
 y h " 'fat;' hd 1 " 'fire;' JioY' 'what?' hiung^" 'an elder brother;' kiting \" 
 'a bear;' hwa m " ' a flower ;' hwd n " ' to change ;' Tiwd " ' flowery ;' HP" 'a 
 foundation;' &i<l" 'self;' H r " 'to remember, record;' k'i*" 'he, that;' k'l*" 
 ' to insult ;' k'l u " ' to begin.' 
 
 0_ 
 
 1! 
 
 D *L- C I " 
 
 .X y >,. 
 
 |H | 
 
 h' 
 
 _ 
 
 r^ s^ t^ ( u^_ 
 
 a" -f- 
 
 r"-"- >*T^ I IT TTI 
 
 jm n^l I'd 
 
 C 2
 
 12 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 These will afford practice for the student in the regular sequences of ping, 
 shang, JcU, and some others : 
 
 ts'ien-li-Mng -4-~ ffi 4?W ' thousand-mile-mirror a telescope.' 
 
 I _ - ^"Xw 
 
 chau-slwu kiau jin jK -=p- pit yl 'beckon with hand call man.' 
 gan-tien t&tii td r^ jiti. -RT? ^T his ' favour very great.' 
 
 t'dn-tsiii kw6 to |5f yffij -})pj "^^ ' desire wine passover much he is 
 too fond of wine.' 
 
 It remains for the student to collect phrases with the same consecutive 
 tones, and to practise reading them aloud. Such short sentences may be 
 found already marked with the proper tones in the body of this work. 
 
 . 3. Words and their composition generally. 
 
 34. Up to this point we have considered only the sounds and syllables of 
 the Chinese, independent of any meaning that might be attached to them. 
 We next turn to words as the expression of ideas. By a word is here meant 
 one or more syllables, which, on being pronounced, convey but one significa- 
 tion ; e. g. jin yl ' man,' t'ie-tsidng Wfjj! \Jj* ' a blacksmith.' 
 
 35- A word in Chinese may consist of one syllable, but from the want of 
 grammatical inflexions, and from the limited number of syllables in use, a 
 monosyllable is rarely intelligible when alone; it generally requires some 
 adjunct to limit or strengthen its meaning. To illustrate this; ti \H[ signi- 
 fies 'earth;' ti *ffj 'ruler;' ti ffl 'younger brother:' the syllables and 
 
 tones of all these being alike, there is nothing to distinguish them when 
 uttered, and it is only by some syllable or syllables being attached to them, 
 that any notion is to be acquired from them. Thus in the phrase t'ien-ti 
 
 TF I ' heaven and earth,' the meaning of the syllable ti becomes known by 
 its juxta-position with the syllable t'ien. In ti-fang | ~Tr ' a place,' the 
 
 syllable ti 'earth' is limited by fang 'a square,' making the compound to 
 
 signify ' locality, region ' merely. Again, ti ' ruler,' as a general term, is 
 
 ._! 
 
 limited in the spoken language to ' emperor' by prefixing hwdng -^j- ' em- 
 peror,' and is made to signify 'God' by prefixing shang p 'upper.' Then 
 again, ti 'younger brother' is made intelligible at once to a Chinese by the 
 addition of hiung h? 'elder brother;' hiung-ti meaning 'brethren.' 
 
 36. When two or more syllables come together in the above way to form 
 one word or phrase, though each syllable may have a distinct meaning of its 
 own, the compound becomes in many cases a perfect word with a new mean- 
 ing, varying according to the nature of the relation existing between the 
 syllables of which it is composed. These syllables either represent (n) syno-
 
 EFFECT OF RHYTHM. 13 
 
 nyms, as yen-mu HP( H 'the eye,' chung-sin ttt jt 'middle-heart the 
 
 centre', mu-wl 7!^ jjjj^ ' end-tail the end,' where each is as much a dissyllable 
 as workhouse, washstand, &c., in English ; or they form (j3) a phrase, as in t'ien- 
 ti ' heaven and earth,' k'ung mdng ~j\ ~r" ' Confucius and Mencius,' which 
 
 amounts to enumeration of objects; or (y) words of opposite meaning are 
 united to form the general or abstract term implied by each, e. g. hiung-tl 
 
 ' elder brother, younger brother brethren *,' to-shau ^^ J J? ' many, few 
 quantity, or how many ? ' or (8) one of the syllables stands as an attribute of 
 the other, e. g. shlng-jin ^j& yl 'holy-man a sage, a philosopher,' td-hwdng 
 ~7T yf 1 'great-yellow rhubarb,' k'u-nien -^t- xFl 'gone year last year;' 
 
 or (e) the two are in apposition, e. g. shi-tsz /f-i *^* ' shi, the character the 
 
 I I ~~r~" f , 
 
 character shi' (stone), jm-kid^A ^^ 'man-family a person,' k'l-jln ^zr /\^ 
 
 'guest-man a guest.' Similar unities may be formed by joining verbs 
 which are synonymous or antithetical in meaning; and innumerable phrases 
 of two and three syllables are constituted, by conventional usage, perfect 
 words, their elements being inseparable. This subject will be found further 
 explained in the section on the formation of nouns and verbs. The following 
 English words and phrases will lead the student to anticipate what he may 
 find in Chinese compounds : (a) wire-worker, silver-smith, tin-man, plum-tree, 
 craw-fish, load-stone, the three kingdoms (for the whole country), church- 
 warden, feather-bed, sea-port, fox-hound; (b) to injure a man, to kill a man, 
 to obey an order. 
 
 37. From the above, however, it must not be inferred that Chinese words, 
 thus formed, always remain in their original form when brought into con- 
 struction in the sentence. The rhythm often causes the exclusion of one 
 syllable from a word when the sense is unaffected by its absence. Thus 
 mu^-tsln^ is 'mother-relation mother;' d,r c -tsz& is 'son-child son;' 'to die' 
 is sz e , and sz e -liau f means 'die-finish died:' but in the expression 'The 
 mother and son died together,' tsln and dr and liau would be omitted for 
 the reasons just given, and the expression would be mu & tsz& liangS-ko^ yl l - 
 t'ungJ sz e , or liau f might be also attached. 
 
 38. The same principle of rhythm, which leads to the elision of one of 
 two syllables in a word, under certain circumstances, also leads to the addi- 
 tion of a meaningless particle when the sound of the whole would be 
 improved thereby. This fact is shown most clearly in the local dialects, 
 each of which has euphonic particles peculiar to it. 
 
 * Cf. the phrase ' The long and the short all.' 
 a .UT. b *tf c :t d ~T e TTT" f ~P" S 
 
 -f 
 
 f
 
 14 ORIGIN OP THE WRITTEN CHARACTER. 
 
 39. Although Chinese words are not built up from roots by the addition 
 of terminations, nor modified by changes of the vowels in them, there are 
 certain syllables which take the place of terminations, and these give nominal 
 and verbal forms to the words they thus affect. "We have called such sylla- 
 bles formatives. Among them are, $r a ' child,' tsz* ' son,' t'ed c ' head :' 
 thus, t'sidd-Qr* 'sparrow-child a sparrow, or any small bird;' sidng e -tsz b 
 'box-son a chest;' jit-fed* 'sun-head the sun.' The subject will be found 
 further explained in the next chapter. 
 
 . 4. The characters, and how to write them. 
 
 40. We now come to the consideration of the symbols employed to express 
 the sounds and syllables of this language. They are not merely arbitrary 
 figures, but ideographic characters; they express notions rather than sounds. 
 They are very ancient, and are unique in every point of view. 
 
 41. The inventor or originator of the characters is said to have been 
 Fu-hi, or, with his proper title, Tai-hau Fu-hi ~rC r~- MX ii*> ' the most 
 
 illustrious Fu-hi.'' He was born in Shen-si h^JR T/kJ Prov., circ. B. C. 2200, 
 and was the fii-st of five ancient emperors (v. Table of Dynasties and Em- 
 perors, Appendix A.), and successor of the three mythical sovereigns. He 
 built his capital, K'ai-fung-fu J4fl 3r>r tp in Hu-nan Yjw til Prov., on 
 theHwang-ho "pf VOI or 'yellow river *.' Fu-hi taught his rude subjects the 
 arts of domestic life; and he invented the eight diagrams, pa-lewd fi^ rpp, 
 
 or combinations of whole and broken straight lines, as a substitute for the 
 knotted cords used for recording events by one of his predecessors, Siii-jin t 
 
 7>ll s\*.' -Fii-hi also subsequently invented the Lti-shu -~ -lljs or six 
 
 classes of characters given below (44). 
 
 t^ __^ 
 
 42. Another account is, that Hwomg-ti |B" fff, the 3rd Emperor from 
 Fu-hi, ordered Tsang-hie ipT Q|| , a man of extensive genius, and president 
 
 of the Board of Historians, to work at the composition of the characters, and 
 to follow the six rules of Fu-hi. One day, while walking by the river-side, 
 he perceived some traces of birds' claws on the sand, and sat down to ponder 
 on the Emperor's command. Some of the marks he copied on slips of 
 bamboo with a pencil dipped in varnish. On his return home he multiplied 
 the forms, always keeping in view the foot-prints of the birds, and thus pro- 
 
 duced five hundred and forty characters, which were called niau-tsz-wqn 
 .-* i | . 
 
 =?, *=r* *\t or 'bird-mark characters.' 
 jv ~r^ >> 
 
 * A colony of Jews settled in this city in later times. 
 
 t Siii-jin is said, by the Chinese, to have first discovered the use of fire. 
 
 c d e & 
 
 E3 b V c 5 
 
 7Q . "T fifl
 
 SIX CLASSES OP CHARACTERS. 
 
 15 
 
 43. But the father of letters in China was Pati-shi jjfc &$. ' a scholar in 
 the reign of Ching-wdng jp -H of the Gheu Pfl dynasty, circ. B. C. noo. 
 In his work it is stated that the greater part of the characters were originally 
 hieroglyphic ; but that for the sake of appearance and convenience they were 
 gradually changed. See Morrison's Dictionary, vol. I. Introduction; Marsh- 
 man's Clavis Sinica, pp. 15, 16; and Kang-klen 4>mj| $F?, or the translation 
 
 I I v *^11U J 
 
 of this work by Pere Mailla Histoire Generate de la Chine, torn. I. pp. 19, 20. 
 
 44. The Lu-shii, mentioned above (41), deserve some notice. The names 
 of them, with explanations, are here given in a tabular form. 
 
 No. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Meaning of name. 
 
 Technical name. 
 
 No. in each. 
 
 I 
 
 lUc Fl'/ Sidng-hing 
 
 Similar-figure 
 
 Hieroglyphic 
 
 608 
 
 2 
 
 ts ^ ^-^ 
 
 Indicating-thing 
 
 Significative 
 
 107 
 
 3 
 
 Jll" JE=T Hwiii-i 
 
 Combining-ideas 
 
 Ideographic 
 
 740 
 
 4 
 
 mM ^i Cfmen-chti 
 
 Inverting-signification 
 
 Antithetic 
 
 372 
 
 5 
 
 jg >ff JTtft-tott 
 
 False-borrowed 
 
 Metaphorical 
 
 598 
 
 6 
 
 Kg^ if ^ Shlng-Mng 
 
 Sound-form 
 
 Phonetic 
 
 21,810 
 
 45. The following are illustrations of the above-mentioned six classes of 
 characters. The modern forms are given as well as the ancient, that the 
 student may be learning a few characters in every day use, while he sees the 
 change which has taken place in the ancient hieroglyphic. 
 
 CLASS I. HIEROGLYPHIC. 
 Ancient J ^ 
 
 Meaning, 'sun' 'moon' 'mountain' 'eye' 'child' 'horse' 'fish' 'tree' 'teeth' 
 Modern. ^ [Jj g 
 
 Sound. ji 
 
 yu 
 
 shan 
 
 mu tsz 
 
 met 
 
 y& mti chi 
 
 J ting represents 'a nail;' 1=3 Jcung 'a bow;' dip tslng 'a well;' fa 
 
 and Ijj cKuen 'a stream;' |~| k'eti, 'a mouth;' iftl hd 'fire;' and V shwul 
 ' water.' 
 
 46. The second class includes those which indicate the meaning by their 
 very form or composition.
 
 16 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SYMBOLS. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 CLASS II. SIGNIFICATIVE. 
 
 Jb .- T A 
 
 'middle' 
 
 Meaning. 'dawn' 'evening' 'above' 'below' 'unite' 
 Modern. H I A? 2 [-* ~T> /&* 3 
 
 .i_j ./ ~ 1 I 
 
 Sound. &n s? Mw# Ai4 M ch&ng 
 
 7* cAe represents a plant springing from the ground, ' to come out,' 
 the common character for this is ch'u J 'to go out;' /K. p&n '& root 
 beginning;' I ~| yu, something in the mouth, 'to say.' 
 
 47. The next class includes those which are formed by the union of two 
 figures belonging to class I ; and which together give rise to an idea, some- 
 times of an abstraction, sometimes the name of a real thing. 
 
 CLASS III. IDEOGRAPHIC. 
 ^-\T\ 3 ^ ** (2) /I/ XVtf 
 
 ^ /*\ tt Fi it nn 
 
 Meaning. 'brightness' 'obstruction' 'forest' 'to see' 'to sit' 'to follow' 
 
 Modern. H^j * ffl ' 
 
 Sound. ming hien tin Men ts6 tsdng 
 
 ^? pai (two hands) ' to salute' the Chinese clasp their hands together 
 in salutations also 'to visit ;' 'Pjjfl siu (heart and blood) 'pity;' A& ye (roof, 
 man, dark) ' night.' 
 
 48. The following are specimens of the fourth class; they show by the 
 inversion of the figures the antithetic significations which are attached to 
 them. These inversions are, however, not so apparent in the modern cha- 
 racters as in the ancient hieroglyphic ; and whenever the original elements 
 of a compound are sought for, the ancient forms must be consulted *. 
 
 I. The sun above the horizon. 
 i. The moon beginning to appear. 
 
 3. The common character is ^Q- hS 'to unite.' 
 
 4. The sun and moon together, suggesting the idea of brightness. 
 
 5. A tree in a doorway, obstruction. 
 
 6. A man with a large eye, seeing. 
 
 7. Two men on the ground, sitting. 
 
 8. Two men following, following. 
 
 * An idea of the number of ancient forms for the same character may be obtained by 
 reference to M. Callery's "Systema Phoneticum." Introduction, pp. 31 34. He there 
 gives from twenty to forty different forms in the ancient character.
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OP THE SYMBOLS. 
 
 17 
 
 CLASS IV. ANTITHETIC. 
 
 Ancient. f^ 
 
 Meaning, 'right-hand' 'left-hand' 'to cut off' 'to continue' 'body' 'body turned' 
 
 * i f-* i - 1 * i \&& t* 2 
 
 Modern. ]Xj. "X- |/| 
 
 Sound. ym tsd twdn kl shin yln 
 
 B3 
 
 shin 
 
 49. The fifth class is more numerous than the preceding, as well as more 
 important. All particles and proper names are included under this class. 
 The usages with respect to these and the figurative meanings of words will 
 be explained in the syntax and in the dictionary. 
 
 CLASS V. METAPHORICAL. 
 
 Ancient. Vj) fS] f^U 
 
 Meaning, 'mind' 4 character' 'to imprison' 'peace' 
 
 Modern. jfc 4 *^* s PH 6 ^ 7 
 
 Sound. sin tsi ts'itt gdn 
 
 # 
 
 ' the world ' ' ancient ' 
 
 ill 8 _J_9 
 
 TEL T-J 
 
 sM && 
 
 So 'T~f t i'$%<7 < a hall' is used for ' mother;' p^y s/i? ' a house,' for ' wife ;' 
 .^i, shing 'the sun ascending,' for 'tranquillity;' j|U. /wwt/ f to raise,' for 
 * to flourish.' 
 
 CLASS VI. PHONETIC. 
 
 50. The sixth class, under which the great mass of characters are found, 
 has been called Phonetic; because, in the characters classed under it, one 
 part gives its own sound to the whole figure, and thus acts as a symbol of 
 sound merely. This part does sometimes convey also its symbolic meaning 
 as well as its sound. The number of really useful phonetic characters amounts 
 to about one thousand and forty. These, when united to the two hundred 
 
 r. The |_| and _ were not represented in the ancient form, but the figures for hand 
 were reversed. 
 
 i. The modern character for this idea is twdn, with an axe by the side of the silk 
 threads divided. 
 
 3. The modern character Tel has silk added to strengthen the meaning. 
 
 4. Sin is the common word for heart in nearly all the senses in which this word is used 
 in English ; mind, disposition. 
 
 5 . This is a child under a roof, it means properly, to produce, but commonly, a character. 
 
 6. A man in an enclosure, in prison, to imprison. 
 
 7. A woman under a roof, sitting quiet at home, peace, tranquillity. 
 
 8. Three figures for ten, thirty years, a generation, this generation, the world. 
 
 9. Ten and mouth, through ten generations, ancient. 
 
 D
 
 1 8 THE PHONETIC ELEMENTS. 
 
 and fourteen elementary figures (the Radicals), produce from fifteen to twenty 
 thousand derivatives (cf. 12 and 53). 
 
 sP 2 fe 3 S 4 $P 5 are all called B, after 1 ' the common part. 
 
 Hl_l 5 /v^? j il_*_k* j rl-_i > I _ . 
 
 f5tf //A ^/J Jlf are a ^ ca H e d ./ rc#, after ~77 the common part. 
 
 are a11 called M ' after *" the common 
 
 51. The Chinese division of the characters into classes has now been 
 given and illustrated. The figures in the margin of the table (44) show the 
 number of characters under each class. It will be seen that the ordinary 
 process of forming new symbols is the sixth; by adding to a character a 
 figure, to convey a sound merely, a new symbol is formed, which has a name 
 
 corresponding to its phonetic element. Thus the figure \ ting being added 
 to the character <f* kin 'metal,' a new symbol, Jfj ting 'a, nail' is pro- 
 duced; so, also, being added to p hie 'a head' the symbol Jp ting 'a peak,' 
 
 or ' top of any thing,' is formed. By this ingenious plan any number of new 
 characters might be created ; one part of which would designate the generic 
 notion of the new name, and the other would indicate the sound by which 
 to call it. As an illustration of this : A newly discovered insect or fish 
 might be called ling by certain rude tribes who had never expressed the 
 sound in writing, some character having this sound ling would be taken by a 
 Chinese scholar and united to the generic word chting ' insect,' or yu ' fish,' 
 as the case might be, and the new character, thus formed, would ever after be 
 used as the proper name for that particular insect or fish *. 
 
 52. The hieroglyphic element in the Chinese characters is not of frequent 
 occurrence, that is to say, we find but a very limited number of characters 
 whose meaning can be gathered from their formation out of simple signifi- 
 cant rudiments; and though the hieroglyphic element may have prevailed in 
 many characters under their primitive forms, it is now seldom to be traced 
 through the changes which the characters have undergone. An enquiry into 
 this branch of the Chinese would be very interesting, and would perhaps 
 throw some light upon the acceptations of words at the present day, but as it 
 is not of a directly practical nature it would be out of place here. The 
 
 following is an example; the character -^fc kid 'a family' is composed of 
 f ""^ 
 
 'a. roof placed above, and ^^ shi '& pig' beneath; and these con- 
 
 1 fci 'self,' 2 with words = to remember, 3 with walk = to rise up, 4 with heart = 
 to fear, 5 with iiOc = to record; 6 fang ' a square,' 7 -wiih words to enquire, 8 with 
 a blow = to set free, 9 with earth = a dwelling, or a street, 10 with dwelling = a room; 
 11 M 'ancient' (cf. 49, note 9), 12 in an enclosure =firm, constant, 13 with grass = 
 'bitter Jierbs, meton. for trouble, hardship, 14 with wood=a rotten tree, withered, 15 with 
 woman = a matron, a lady. 
 
 * The phonetic system of arrangement for lexicographical purposes has been adopted 
 by M. Gallery in his work entitled " Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae." 8vo. 
 Macao, 1841.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 19 
 
 stituent parts would lead to the erroneous impression that pigs under a roof 
 was the original notion to be conveyed; but a Chinese authority, noticed by 
 Dr. Schott, makes the figure below to consist of the character jin yv 'man' 
 placed in three different positions, and this would at once suggest the idea of 
 a family t. 
 
 53. The elementary figures or characters are technically termed radicals 
 and primitives. The radicals, which were formerly about five hundred in 
 number, are now reduced to two hundred and fourteen; the primitives 
 amount to about one thousand seven hundred in common use. These, with 
 the radicals and the characters compounded with both classes, include nearly 
 all the characters existing in Chinese. 
 
 54. The radicals have been sometimes denominated keys; but the term 
 radicals is very suitable when we consider their meaning and use. They 
 include the names of simple objects, natural and artificial, and serve as 
 generic heads for classes of characters; and, in the absence of an alphabet, 
 they are employed as an index to the whole language, just as an alphabet is 
 used in European tongues. 
 
 55. The Chinese term for the radicals is ts-pu -^ ^j|) ' character-class 
 or classifier.' They are arranged according to the number of strokes required 
 to form them. We have given them below under this arrangement, and 
 recommend the student to use his best efforts to acquire them so as to write 
 them correctly. 
 
 TABLE OP THE RADICALS. 
 
 Note. Of the two numbers given after each radical, the former represents 
 the number of characters extant under that radical, and the latter the num- 
 ber of those in common use. The words in brackets show the position of the 
 radical in its derivatives. (Com.) means that the radical is in use as a com- 
 mon word. The asterisk marks those radicals which are frequently found in 
 compounds. 
 
 Formed with one stroke. 
 
 1. yl* 'one, the same' (various). 44. 16. 
 
 2. I kwan 'perpendicular' (through). 22. 2. 
 
 This radical is used as a sign of the repetition of a character. 
 
 3. ^ chil 'a point,' also called tien |E| when used as a stop or dot. n. 2. 
 
 4. / pi 'a curve, a sweep to the left' (various). 24. 8. 
 
 5. (_ yi 'a crooked line, one;' a horary character. 42. 8. 
 
 6. 4 ku 'a hooked stroke' (various). 20. 3. 
 
 t See Dr. Schott's " Chinesische Sprachlehre." 4to. Berlin, 1857, p, 22. 
 
 D 2
 
 20 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 
 
 Formed with two strokes. 
 7. ^ <$r 'two' (com.) (encloses, above, below). 31. 9. 
 
 8. -I ted, no signification is given of this radical, (above). 39. 10. 
 
 9. yl Jfo * ' a man' (com.) (above). Its contr. form 4 on the left always. 
 
 800. 141. 
 
 I0 ' / L fi n ' & man wa lkmg' (obs.) (below). 52. 14. 
 u. /\fi 'to enter' (com.) (above). 29.5. 
 
 12. /\P& 'eight' (com.) (below). 45. 12. 
 
 13. [ "J &mn<7 'a desert, an empty space' (obs.) (encloses). 51. 5. 
 
 14. *~~* mi 'to cover' (obs.) (above). 31. 2. 
 
 15. ^ ping* 'an icicle' (obs.) (left). 51. 16. 
 
 1 6. n, ^* <a table, a bench' (encloses, right, below). 40. 4. 
 
 17. I J Jean 'a receptacle' (obs.) (encloses). 24. 3. 
 
 18. /Jtau* 'aknife; a sword '(corn.) (below, or right in this form JJ). 378.33. 
 
 The hook should be written first. 
 
 19. j\ l$* 'strength' (com.) (below or right). 163. 19. 
 
 The hook should be written first. 
 
 20. /"t pan 'to wrap up, to envelop' (obs.) (encloses). 66. 4. 
 
 The dash should be written first. 
 
 21. K* pi 'a spoon' (right). 20. 2. 
 
 22. [_ fang 'a chest' (obs.) (encloses). 65. 4. 
 
 23. f ^ hi 'to hide' (obs.) (encloses). 18. 3. 
 
 24. J-* shi 'ten' (com.) (various below). 56. n. 
 
 25. p pti 'to divine' (above, right). 46. 4. 
 
 26. ~Jj tsi 'a seal' (obs.) (right, or below in this form P). 39. 7. 
 
 27. J hdn 'a shelter' (obs.) (hangs over). 128. 8. This is often inter- 
 
 changed with radical 53. 
 
 28. ^ meu 'crooked, perverse' (obs.) (above). 41. 2. 
 
 29. J(^ yiti 'the hand; again' (com.) (right, below). 92. 12.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 21 
 
 Formed with three strokes. 
 
 30. t [J k'eit* 'a, mouth' (com.) (left, below). 1047. 128. 
 
 31. I I hwiil* 'an enclosure' (obs.) (encloses). 119. 16. 
 
 32. -4- t'u* 'earth, soil' (com.) (left, under). 579. 56. Sometimes radicals 
 
 170 and 150 are used instead of this. 
 
 33. -j^ s 'a scholar; a statesman' (com.) (above, right). 25. 4. 
 
 34. // chl 'to follow' (obs.) (above). 12. i. 
 
 35. 25<c shul 'to walk slowly' (obs.) (below). 24. 2. 
 
 36. <y? si 'evening; darkness' (com.) (various). 36. 6. 
 
 37. -fir* td* 'great' (com.) (above or below). 133. 23. 
 
 38. If nu* 'a woman' (com.) (left or below). 690. 61. 
 
 39. -+- ts&* 'a son' (com.) (below, left). 87. 17. 
 
 40. *-*-* mien* 'a roof (obs.) (above). 249. 52. 
 
 41. ""Jr 1 tsdn 'the tenth of a chl 7? or Chinese foot' (com.) (right or 
 
 below). 41. n. 
 
 42. J\\ siau 'small' (com.) (above, combined). 32. 4. 
 
 43' /C Jt, 7C ./Lj ^^ or 2/*^ 'crooked-leg' (obs.); yiu 'still more' 
 (com.) (left). 67. 2. 
 
 44. j* sin* 'a corpse' (above). 149. 20. 
 
 45. jr cA'e 'a sprout' (obs.) (above). 39. i. 
 
 46. I I 1 shan 'a mountain' (com.) (left, above). 637. 17. 
 47- m or Jl| ch'uen 'a stream' (com.) (combined). 27. 4. 
 
 48. ^ Atwz^r 'work' (com.) (various). 18. 5. 
 
 49. H&* 'self (com.) (below). 21.5. Distinguish this from p * and P sz. l 
 
 50. m kin* 'a napkin' (com.) (left, below). 295. 19. 
 
 51. f-* Jean 'a shield' (com.) (combined). 18. 6. 
 
 52. ^ yau 'young' (left, doubled). 21. 4. E. G. 5^ kl 'several.' 
 
 53. j"yen* 'a covering' (obs.) (covers). 287.29. 
 
 1 I signifies 'already;' sz is a horary character, '9-11 o'clock A.M.'
 
 22 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 
 
 54. 5 ying ( & long journey' (obs.) (left). 10. 5. Used for radical 162. 
 
 55. ^ff"* kung 'folded hands' (below). 51. 2, 
 
 56. - yl 'a dart' (right). 16. 2. 
 
 57. p4 kung * 'a bow' (com.) (left, below). 166. 15. 
 
 58. EEl ki, r=l* or /7, 'a pig's head' (obs.) (above). 26. 2. 
 
 59. -^ sfom 'long hair' (right). 53. 7. 
 
 60. 4 chi* 'to walk' (obs.) (left). 227. 26. 
 
 Formed ivith four strokes. 
 
 6 1. ;[V* swi *, contr. |', 'the heart' (com.). (The contr. form on the left; the 
 
 full form, below or elsewhere). 1077. 142. 
 
 62. HF" ko* 'a spear' (com.) (right), in. 15. 
 
 63. S M 'a one-leaved door; a family' (com.) (above). 45. 5. 
 
 64. -==p- sheil*, contr. i, 'the hand' (com.). (The contr. form on the left; the 
 
 full form, below). 1092. 46. 
 
 65. " = & chl 'a branch' (com.) (right). 27. 2. 
 
 66. ~&pu*, contr. jfr, 'to touch' (right). 296. 21. 
 
 67. "-^f ?$w, contr. fy, 'to paint letters' (com.). Contr. form seldom used. 
 
 (below). 23. 2. 
 
 68. 2J- && < a dry measure, the North Star' (com.) (right). 33. 5. 
 
 69. fr kin 'an ax; a Chinese pound' (com.) (right). 56. 8. 
 
 70. J^ fang 'a square, a place' (com.) (left). 83. 9. 
 
 71. ^P w*2, in comp. *, 'wanting, not.' 13. 2. 
 
 72. p| ji* 'the sun; a day' (com.) (left, and elsewhere). 455. 51. 
 
 73. t^l 2/5* 'to speak' (com.) (below, and elsewhere). 38. 13. 
 
 74. H yu* 'the moon; a month' (com.) (left). 70. n. 
 
 75. 7]^ mil* 'wood' (com.) (left, below). 1358. 17. 
 
 76. fo Jc'ien * 'to owe, to want' (right). 236. 1 8. 
 
 77. Ji|- chl 'to stop at a point' (com.) (various). 91. 9.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 23 
 
 78. fy tal* 'a rotten bone; bad, putrid' (com.) (left). 232. 12. 
 
 79. -^ shu 'to kill' (right). 84. 8. 
 
 80. -ffr wti 'not, without' (com.) (below). 17. 5. 
 
 8 1. H" pi 'to compare' (com.) (various). 22. i. 
 
 82. rr. man 'hair (not human), fur, feathers' (com.) (left.) 212. 4. 
 
 83. ft* sM 'a family' (com.). 15. 3. Jjjj?- rafo 'the people' is under ski. 
 
 84. '"^ k'i 'vapour' (obs.) (right, above). 18. i. The character in use is :S^. 
 
 85. VJ^ shuwl *, contr. ^ , 'water' (com.) (contr., on the left ; full form, below). 
 
 1586. 148. 
 
 S6. '/^ ho*, contr. J)^1, 'fire' (com.) (contr., below; full form, left). 639. 43. 
 
 87. IK chati, contr. ^"*, 'claws' (com.) (above). 37. 7. See radical 97. 
 
 88. "^Ifu 'a father' (com.) (above), n. 2. 
 
 89. -j Aid% 'to imitate' (left). 17. 3. 
 
 90. -M chwdng ' a couch' (obs.) (left). 50. 2. 
 
 91. H" pterc 'a splinter' (left). 78. 4. 
 
 92. ^p ?/<$ 'molar teeth' (com.) (left). 9. 2. Cf. radical 211. 
 
 93. ffc. m$ *, contr. ft , 'an ox' (com.) (contr., on the left ; full form, below). 
 
 232. 12. 
 
 94. -Jr- k'iuen, contr. ^, 'a dog' (com.) (contr., on the left). 445. 28. Inter- 
 
 changed with radical 153. 
 
 formed with five strokes, 
 
 95. S/^ hiden 'colour of the sky ; dark' (com.) (combined). 7. 2. E. G. 
 
 96. ^t yu* 'a jewel' (com.) (left). 473. 25. 
 
 97. ITT kwa ' fruit of the melon kind' (com.) (right or left). 56. 2. 
 
 98. ~~jt web 'tiles, bricks' (com.) (right, below). 173. 2. Interchanged with 
 
 radicals 32, 108, and 112. 
 
 99. ~tr kdn 'sweet' (com.). 23. 2. 
 
 100. /t sang 'to be born, to live' (com.). 23. 2.
 
 4 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 
 
 101. Ji| yting. 'to use' (com.) (combined), n. 2. E. G. |if /& 'great.' 
 
 102. j| t'ien* 'a field' (com.) (left, below). 193. 26. 
 
 103. 7^ pl 'a piece of cloth; a foot' (com.) (below). 16. 5. 
 
 104. Jj nl* 'disease '(left). 527. 25. The common character is /JHt ping. 
 
 105. y^pu 'to stride' (above). 16. 3. 
 
 1 06. Q ^ 'white; clear' (com.) (left, above). 109. 8. 
 
 107. jj^jp'2 'skin; bark' (com.) (right, left, below). 95. i. 
 
 1 08. JU^mlw<7* 'dishes' (com.) (below). 129.16. 
 
 109. tl mu* 'the eye' (com.) (left, or contr. form tml above). 646. 29. 
 no. ^* me4 'a barbed spear' (left). 66.3. 
 
 in. -^P shl 'an arrow' (left). 65. 8. 
 
 112. .'pi sA$* 'a stone, a rock' (com.) (left, below). 489. 23. 
 
 113. TT]' shi*, contr. 1, 'an omen from heaven' (com.) (left, below). 
 
 214. 25. The contr. form is similar to the contr. form of 145. 
 
 114. tAJ jed, ' the print of an animal's foot ; a trace' (below). 13. 2. 
 
 115. -^jr- hd* 'grain' (com.) (left). 433. 31. 
 
 i-* I w 
 
 1 1 6. /t hiu 'a cave, a hole' (com.) (above). 300. 18. 
 
 117. ) f U 'to stand, to establish' (com.) (left). 102. 7. 
 
 Formed with six strokes. 
 
 118. /pr chu*, contr. /^V, 'bamboo' (com.) (above). 954. 45. 
 
 119. ^j^" ml* 'rice (uncooked)' (com.) (left). 321. 16. 
 
 120. -^ m?*, also written 2S and -^ , 'silk, (threads)' (com.) (left, below). 
 
 821.71. This radical has also been called sz; prob. for sz ! 
 
 121. vN* feu 'an earthenware vase' (left). 78.2. 
 
 122. [XXj wclng, contr. j~jj|, PXI, and \~K\, 'a net' (above). 164. 15. E. G. 
 
 rare. 
 
 123. rfcr. ydng 'a sheep' (com.) (left, above). 157. 9. 
 
 124. J\l\ yu 'wings' (com.) (various: above, below, right). 210. 9.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 25 
 
 125. 5g lati' old '(com.) (above); contr. into ^ in ^^ and ^| . 23.5. 
 
 126. fflj dr 'whiskers; and, yet' (com.). 23. 3. 
 
 ^ 
 
 127. -^F^ liti ' a plough handle' (left). 85.3. 
 
 128. " H $r * 'the ear' (com.) (left, below). 172. 16. 
 
 129. ipi yti 'a pencil' (left and below). 20. 2. 
 
 130. j^J jti,*, contr. H, 'flesh' (com.) (left, below). The contr. form is 
 
 printed like yu ' the moon.' 675.56. 
 
 131. f|5 chin 'a subject; a statesman' (com.) (left). 17. 4. 
 
 132. EJ tsz 'self; from' (com.) (various). Sometimes used for tl pe 'white.' 
 
 35- 2. 
 
 133. jp cA? 'to come to' (com.) (below, and elsewhere). 25. 3. 
 J 34- r* "j[ ^'*^ <a niortar' (various). 72. 7. 
 
 135. "gT sM 'the tongue' (com.) (left). 35. 6. 
 
 136. ^4" ch'iten 'to turn the back on; to oppose' (obs.). 11.3. 
 
 137. -Ct cheu 'a boat' (com.) (left). 198. 3. 
 
 138. ^^ Tcdn ' disobedient ; limits' (right). 6.2. 
 
 139. T& si 'colour; appearance' (com.) (right). 22. 2. 
 
 140. JrjJ 1 tsait*, contr. -^-4-, 'grass; plants' (com.) (above, in the contr. 
 
 form). 1902. 95. 
 
 141. )Ip Mb 'a tiger' (obs.) (above). 115. 9. 
 
 142. f+[ chdng* 'an insect; a reptile' (com.) (left, below). 1067. 22. 
 
 143. mt hiu 'blood' (com.) (left). 61. 3. 
 
 144. >4~rhing 'to walk]; to do' (com.) (encloses). 54. 8. 
 
 145. ^Z i*, contr. , 'clothing; covering' (com.) (contr. form on the left; 
 
 full form below ; sometimes half above and half below). 611.36. 
 
 146. tm yd, also written nu , 'to cover over' (obs.) (above). 30. 3. 
 
 1 k'ati 'aged/ com. 'to examine.' 2 c h& 'this, he who, &c.' 3 s i 'the west.'
 
 26 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 
 
 Formed with seven strokes. 
 
 M < 
 kien* 'to see' (com.) (right, below). 162. 14. 
 
 148. HJ ki& 'a horn; a corner' (com.) (left, below). 159. 5. 
 
 149. |=j yen* 'words; to speak' (com.) (left, below). 861. 105. 
 
 150. Q M 'a valley' (left). 55. 2. 
 
 151. t^? teti 'a wooden sacrificial vessel; beans' (below, left). 69. 5. 
 
 152. .?& shl 'a pig' (left or below). 50. 3. 
 r 53- ^ chl 'reptiles' (left). 141. 5. 
 
 154. EJ pei* 'a pearl shell' (com.) (left, below). 278. 46. 
 
 Z 55- Jjj* cM 'flesh colour' (com.) (left). 32.2. 
 
 156. ;^r tseit* 'to walk, to run' (com.) (left). 236. n. 
 
 157. Jnl teti*, contr. 3, 'the foot, enough' (com.) (left, below). 581. 30. 
 
 158. J^ shin 'the body; trunk' (com.) (left). 98. 4. 
 
 .,_< .. 
 
 159. IB ku* 'a carriage' (com.) (left). 362.22. Sometimes called che. 
 
 1 60. 3fe fin 'bitter,' H. C. (com.) (doubled, right). 37. 7. 
 
 t -^ 
 
 161. h& s^w'time; an hour,' H. C. (com.) (various). 16.3. Cf. radical 1 68. 
 
 162. ^^ ch6*, contr. i , 'motion' (obs.) (left). 382. 59. 
 
 163. p^ /?*, contr. I), 'a city' (com.) (right c. contr. form). 351. 27. 
 
 Cf. radical 170. 
 
 I ^4- Iffi yi^* 'new wine,' H. C. (com.) (left). 291. 20. 
 
 165. -^j^pien 'to distinguish' (left). 14. 2. 
 
 1 66. Jl ^ 'a Chinese mile; a village' (com.) (below). 14. 5. 
 
 formed with eight strokes. 
 
 167. -ggr km* 'gold; metal' (com.) (left). 803. 46. 
 
 1 68. -^ ch'dng, contr. E, 'long, old' (com.). 56. 2. 
 
 169. I T mdn* 'a door' (com.) (encloses). 249. 27. 
 
 170. /ei*, contr. jl, 'an artificial mound of earth' (left c. contr. form). 
 
 347. 38. Cf. radical 163.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 27 
 
 J, 
 
 171. ij tai'to reach to' (right). 13. i. 
 
 172. / fcg chul* 'short-tailed birds' (right). 234. 17. 
 
 173. Hm yii* 'rain' (com.) (contr. form jgfg* above). 298. 18. 
 
 -- | -s 
 
 174. Tnj* tsing 'azure, sky-blue' (com.) (left). 18. 3. 
 J 75- ^F /* <n t so, false' (com.). 26. 3. 
 
 Formed with nine strokes. 
 176. j|[j mien 'the face' (com.) (left). 67. i. 
 
 *^ 
 
 177- .p. &e 'untanned hide, without hair' (left). 307.5. 
 
 ^ - 
 
 178. fet, we* 'tanned hide' (left). 101. 2. 
 
 179. :[fr H& 'leeks' (various). 21.1. 
 
 . 
 1 80. jrqf 2/m 'sound, tone' (com.). 43. 3. 
 
 181. E! 2/e* 'the head' (com.) (right). 373. 30. 
 
 182. jffil fung 'wind' (com.) (left). 183. 3. 
 
 183. 4]^ fl 'to fly' (com.). 13. i. 
 
 184. X E' shl*, contr. g, 'to eat' (com.) (contr. form on the left). 395. 38. 
 
 185. fej sheii 'the head; the chief (com.). 20. i. 
 1 86. "5& hidng 'fragrance' (com.). 38. i. 
 
 Formed with ten strokes. 
 I ^1- nm w^* 'a horse' (com.) (left, below). 473. 28. 
 
 188. * ku* 'a bone' (com.) (left). 186. 4. Interchanged with radicals 
 
 130 and 181. 
 
 189. .8. kau 'high' (com.). 35. i. 
 
 190. ^ piau 'long hair' (above). 245. 7. 
 
 teu 'to fight' (obs.) (encloses). 24. i. 
 
 192. Ipl chdng 'fragrant plants' (below). 9. i. 
 
 193. p| ll 'a tripod with crooked feet' (left, below). 74.7. 
 
 194. J^jl kwel 'a departed spirit, a ghost' (com.) (left). 142. 4. 
 
 E 2
 
 28 THE ELEMENTARY CHARACTERS. 
 
 Formed with eleven strokes. 
 
 195. ftf yu 'a fish' (com.) (left). 572. 10. Interchanged with radicals no 
 
 and 205. 
 
 196. j^ niau 'a bird ' (com. ) (right). 761.21. Interchanged with radical 1 80. 
 
 197. |$|t lu 'salt' (left). 45.1. 
 
 198. Iffi lu 'a stag' (com.) (above). 106. 9. Interchanged with radical 120. 
 
 199. ^S me 'wheat' (com.) (left). 132. i. 
 
 200. jwifr nid 'hemp' (com.) (above). 35. 3. 
 
 Formed with twelve strokes. 
 
 201. ~pf hw&ng 'yellow, colour of earth' (com.) (left). 43. i. 
 
 202. "/^K shti 'millet' (com.) (left). 47. 2. 
 
 2O 3- JE ^ 'black' (com.) (left, below). 173. 4. 
 
 204. ^ffji chi 'to sew, to embroider' (left). 9. none in common use. 
 
 Formed with thirteen strokes. 
 
 205. t|j raitogr 'a frog' (com.) (below). 41. 2. Interchanged with radicals 
 
 140, 195, and 212. 
 
 206. IfM ting 'a tripod' (com.). 15. i. 
 
 207. * kit 'a drum' (com.) (above). 47. i. 
 
 208. |nl shu ' a rat' (com.) (left). 103.2. Interchanged with radical in. 
 
 Formed with fourteen strokes. 
 
 ~* - 
 
 20 9- SL P* '* ne nose' (com.) (left). 50. i. 
 
 210. ife tit 'to adjust, to adorn' (com.) (above). 19. 3. 
 
 Formed with fifteen strokes. 
 
 211. |||f chi 'front teeth' (com.) (left). 163. 3. 
 
 Formed with sixteen strokes. 
 
 212. o3 Mng 'a dragon' (com.). 25. 2. 
 
 213. life &M?ei 'a tortoise' (com.). 25. i. Interchanged with radical 205. 
 
 Formed with seventeen strokes. 
 
 214. ijjiyo'ei flute with three holes' (left). 20. i.
 
 MEANINGS OP THE RADICALS CLASSIFIED. 29 
 
 56. The meanings attached to the above elementary characters have been 
 thus classified ; we give them here because they may be useful both to the 
 general reader, to show the kind of words denoted by the elementary figures, 
 and to the student to test his knowledge of the radicals themselves. 
 
 Parts of bodies. Body, corpse, head, hair, down, whiskers, face, eye, ear, 
 nose, mouth, teeth, tusk, tongue, hand, heart, foot, hide, leather, skin, wings, 
 feathers, blood, flesh, talons, horn, bones. 
 
 Zoological. Man, woman, child; horse, sheep, tiger, dog, ox, hog, hog's 
 head, deer ; tortoise, dragon, reptile, mouse, toad ; bird, fowls ; fish ; insect. 
 
 Botanical. Herb, grain, rice, wheat, millet, hemp, leeks, melon, pulse, 
 bamboo, sacrificial herbs ; wood, branch, sprout, petal. 
 
 Mineral. Metal, stone, gems, salt, earth. 
 
 Meteorological. Rain, wind, fire, water, icicle, vapour, sound; sun, moon, 
 evening, time. 
 
 Utensils. A chest, a measure, a mortar, spoon, knife, bench, couch, clothes, 
 crockery, tiles, dishes, napkin, net, plough, vase, tripod, boat, carriage, pencil ; 
 bow, halberd, arrow, dart, axe, musical reed, drum, seal. 
 
 Qualities. Colour, black, white, yellow, azure, carnation, sombre-colour; 
 high, long, sweet, square, large, small, slender, old, fragrant, acrid, perverse, 
 base, opposed. 
 
 Actions. To enter, to follow, to walk slowly, to arrive at, to stride, to 
 walk, to reach to, to touch, to stop, to fly, to overspread, to envelope, to 
 encircle, to establish, to overshadow, to adjust, to distinguish, to divine, to 
 see, to eat, to speak, to kill, to fight, to oppose, to stop, to embroider, to owe, 
 to compare, to imitate, to bring forth, to use, to promulge. 
 
 Parts of the world and dwellings; figures ; miscellaneous. A desert, cave, 
 field, den, mound, hill, valley, rivulet, cliff, retreat. A city, roof, gate, door, 
 portico. One, two, eight, ten, eleven. An inch, a mile. Without, not, false. 
 A scholar, a statesman, letters ; art, wealth, motion ; self, myself, father ; a 
 point; wine; silk; joined hands; a long journey; print of a bear's foot; 
 a surname, a piece of cloth. 
 
 57. Some radical appears in every symbol, and the Chinese classify the 
 characters under that radical, which is easily distinguishable from the rest of 
 the figure. In some cases, however, the selection appears to have been arbi- 
 trary, for occasionally we find characters classified under a radical which is so 
 intermingled with the remaining part of the figure that it is only by practical 
 experience that it can be recognised. The student will find a list, taken 
 from K'ang-hi's Dictionary, of all the characters whose radical is difficult to 
 discover, in Dr. Morrison's Dictionary, part II. vol. II. 
 
 58. When the radical is found, we proceed to count the number of strokes 
 in the remaining part, often called the primitive. The primitive is composed 
 of strokes, from one to twenty and upwards; these strokes are made in one 
 consecutive order, which depends upon the figure itself, and this order can 
 only be learnt by practice. (The rules in Art. 76. may be consulted.) As
 
 30 
 
 ALPHABETIC ARRANGEMENT OF THE RADICALS. 
 
 examples: the character ~K hid 'below' is under rad. - yi, with two 
 strokes in its complement; -pip shi 'an age' is also under rad. yi, 
 with four strokes; /j nal 'it may be, it is, but,' is under rad. J pi, with one 
 stroke ; JB s& is under J kiu, with seven ; 7t wu ' five,' under _^ d,r 
 ' two,' with two ; ip tsing ' a well,' under the same rad., with two ; 
 ^ w hwdng 'more,' under the same rad., with five strokes; nb d or yd 
 ' second,' under the same rad., with six strokes ; I/I I ' to use ' is under the 
 rad. /\^ jln ' a man,' with two strokes. If, while learning the radicals, the 
 student will write them with 'the rules in Art. 76. before him, he will have 
 little difficulty in counting the number of strokes in them, or in any character 
 compounded with them. As the number of the radical is rarely known, even 
 by advanced students of Chinese, the following table of the Tsz-pu is ar- 
 ranged alphabetically to assist the beginner in referring to his Chinese -English 
 Dictionary. 
 
 An alphabetic arrangement of the Radicals. 
 
 dr 7 
 dr 126 
 dr 128 
 
 S', chdngi$2 
 chau 87 
 che 159 
 
 cheu 137 
 
 * chl 34 
 ' chl 65 
 
 it chl 77 
 ^ chi 133 
 
 ^f cAi 153 
 
 chl 204 
 chl 211 
 
 chi 60 
 > chi 155 
 chin 131 
 id 162 
 
 182 
 
 j han 27 
 - chu 3 l:p? he 203 
 
 /pr chu 118 A 23 
 
 }Y^ cJiuen 47 ~ZSihidngi86 
 &O[- ch'uen 136 ~t> hidu 89 
 
 / /. ^ ; ^ 
 
 / R C/AW* 172 I X'T Aw?# 144 
 !-*-* I J 
 
 tp chung 142 yt Am * 1 16 
 M chwdng 90 ][[| Am 1 43 
 
 70 
 
 S 121 
 I7O 
 175 
 
 Ad 86 
 * h6 115 
 hu 63 
 Az^ 141 
 
 -y 1*^ 
 
 "^f hwdng 201 
 Aw?m 31 
 
 114 
 
 ^ 72 
 yl Jiw 9 
 
 Mw 51 
 
 "tt* kdn 99 
 
 I * 
 
 U/ccin i / 
 
 
 /t^w 138 
 kau 189 
 A;e 177 
 A/ a>u 3 
 
 ^ 1 6 
 [^^49 
 
 Td 58 
 ^; c ? 84 
 
 Hew 147 
 fjl km 50 
 
 ^;m 69 
 Kin 107 
 H<5 148 
 
 134 
 179 
 r* k'iuen 94 
 
 fco 02 
 M 159 
 
 Also called yii. 
 
 f Also called yuSn.
 
 ALPHABETIC ARRANGEMENT OF THE RADICALS. 
 
 31 
 
 
 J ku 6 
 
 kit, 207 
 
 KU 150 
 
 - ku 1 88 
 kung 48 
 55 
 57 
 
 kwa 97 
 kwan 2 
 
 213 
 a& 125 
 U 166 
 
 U 193 
 
 lu 197 
 ?w 198 
 Zw* 127 
 
 212 
 
 mcfc 187 
 m<2 200 
 mdn 169 
 82 
 
 me 199 
 meu 28 
 
 119 
 
 m? 14 
 
 40 
 
 176 
 i i 
 
 TTTj ming 108 
 
 7fc m& 75 
 
 109 
 
 ^ 104 
 pi maw 196 
 dj^. m^ 93 
 
 /\ pd 12 
 /~\ pau 20 
 h^j jt?e 106 
 F| ^et 154 
 
 ^ 107 
 209 
 
 / pi 
 
 / /fei j9 c ? 103 
 
 E-^ piau 190 
 
 UU -, 
 
 l-p pwn 91 
 
 165 
 15 
 25 
 66 
 105 
 
 100 
 
 J J | shdn 46 
 
 / 
 
 ^ sAaw 59 
 
 ^p* sJieu 64 
 "S" sheu 185 
 J-^ s/w 44 
 
 3<. sAl 152 
 J shl 24 
 
 112 
 
 -J3j sM 135 
 
 shl 184 
 
 yi Ski III 
 
 sAm 158 
 161 
 i*79 
 u 202 
 
 1^ sA ^ 2 8 
 
 2fiC Am 35 
 
 7^ ^37 
 /7 ^ 78 
 ^f tai 171 
 
 -T-t 
 
 / / tau i o 
 _| . ted 8 
 ^J- <et^ 68 
 ^ teu 151 
 I iew 191 
 
 l-p] ^'e. 1 02 
 
 .t^t. 
 
 206 
 
 f 
 
 P 
 
 36 
 
 ; 139 
 J\) siail 42 
 
 ;[_^ sln 6l 
 3A sin 1 60 
 
 / s 28 
 
 f 
 &~ 33 
 
 -t- 
 
 
 4i 
 140 
 ii 156 
 
 '* 2IO 
 ? 26 
 
 174 
 
 tsu 157 
 
 ** 39 
 
 tsz 132 
 w 32 
 wet 98 
 
 67 
 
 43 
 96 
 
 * 178 
 
 80 
 
 ffl] 
 
 ff 
 
 52 
 
 81 
 
 53 
 
 > 149 
 
 l6 3 
 
 v*. 
 
 tzit 2/ i 
 
 54 
 
 43 
 7C 2/*^ 43 
 
 |/fcy 2/tw 164 
 
 ^ 2/ 5 214 
 M 124 
 
 ^EJ yu J 95 
 r~J 2/^ 73 
 
 | 2/^ 74
 
 32 ANCIENT AND OTHER FORMS OF CHARACTER. 
 
 59. Various forms of character have been used at different periods, and 
 some of them are still employed for certain purposes. The sheet facing this 
 page will show six of these forms. Beginning on the right hand and reading 
 downwards we have in the first column shu & yiu b lu c t*i&; yu e , chuen* ; 
 yu e , l$S; yu e , kial^; yu e , hing 1 ; yu e , tsaiii; yu e , sung^; i. e. 'There 
 are six forms of writing, viz. the seal character, the so-called official, the 
 pattern, the cursive, the grass (or abbreviated cursive), and the Sung dynasty 
 character.' 
 
 60. i) Of the Chuen-shu f& (col. i.) there are several varieties, from the 
 stiff straight lines used on seals and stiff spike-like strokes cut on brazen 
 vessels, to the rounded angles as seen here and upon porcelain, cakes of 
 ink, &c. 
 
 2) The Li-shuS* (col. 2.) was invented by officials under the Tsin 
 dynasty ; it is often employed for inscriptions, titles and prefaces to books, 
 and was formerly used for official papers. 
 
 3) The Kial-shu'h* (col. 3.) is the model for good writing; works are 
 sometimes printed in this form, but not commonly. 
 
 4) The Hing-shui*- (col. 4.) or running hand is frequently used in pre- 
 faces, and for business purposes. Many varieties of it may be seen in Morri- 
 son's Dictionary, part II. vol. II. 
 
 5) The Tsau-shui 9 - (col. 5.) or grass character is an abbreviated form of 
 the ffing-shu. These abbreviations are so various, according to the whim 
 of the writer, that sometimes they can scarcely be read even by educated 
 natives. This form is employed in prefaces, manuscripts, and shop-ledgers, &c. 
 
 6) The Sung-shu^ 9 - (col. 6.) or as it is also called the Sung-pan^ 1 was 
 first used, under the Sung dynasty, for printing from wooden blocks ; an art 
 which was invented about that time (A. D. 900). This form has continued in 
 use for letter-press ever since. 
 
 6 1. In addition to these six forms, the Chinese indulge their taste and 
 fancy in ornamental writing. They have, for example, the wheat-ear, the 
 dragon-head, the tadpole, the bamboo-sprout, and other forms of character. 
 The Emperor K'ien-lung's^ Poem on Shing-Mng,V the city of Moukden, 
 the metropolis of Manchuria, has been printed, both in Chinese and Mandchu, 
 with every variety of fanciful character. A very beautiful copy of this work 
 may be seen in the Library of the British Museum. 
 
 62. Many characters have undergone a series of changes at different 
 periods, and some are frequently used for others. The various descriptions 
 
 / . 
 
 -J3 
 
 d jjjjtt e | i f /M* g 
 
 BE F3 ^ 
 
 <z J *--*- k *-* 
 
 'IT v=1 -*- ^[V pan means 'a board, plank or 
 
 block.' The common word for a boat of small dimensions is San-p&n 'three planks.' 
 
 ** P 
 nn. /ft 
 
 n P
 
 H 
 
 13 
 
 A 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 r 
 
 55 
 
 ft 
 
 B 
 
 s 
 
 Q 
 
 /k^ 
 
 <il3 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 
 B
 
 j 
 
 ^R 
 
 4t [ 
 & 
 
 9H 
 
 Ef 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 ' i *-, 
 
 B 
 
 ' ""'Mfc.^ > 
 
 TC t^ 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 I f . 
 
 L 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 

 
 VULGAR AND ABBREVIATED FORMS. 
 
 have been classified under the following designations : i. The Ching-ts,*^ or 
 'correct character,' without variations; 2. T'dng-tsz,^ those having 'cor- 
 responding forms,' duplicates and triplicates; 3. T'ung-tsz,^ those conveying 
 a corrresponding signification though differing in form; 4. Pun-ts& eb and 
 Kil-tsz^ the 'original' and 'ancient forms;' and 5. Su-tsz,S b 'vulgar forms' 
 of characters. Abbreviated forms are called Sdng-tsz^ and spurious ones 
 
 Wei-tsz;"* e.g. 3 for sz 9 'to think.' 
 
 8 tii> >tvj> 
 
 63. The standard works in Chinese literature are generally printed with 
 the full form (Ching-tsz) of the characters, but some works contain a few 
 abbreviations (Ku-tsz or Su-tsz) ; and books in the lower style of composi- 
 tion such as novels, ballads, &c. contain numerous contracted forms. The 
 list here given should be learnt by the student, as the forms in it are likely 
 to occur frequently. Many more will be found in the Dictionaries oiK'dng-hl 
 (in Chinese), of Drs. Morrison and Medhurst (in English), and in that of Pere 
 Gougalves (in Portuguese). 
 
 List of abbreviated forms in common use. 
 (N. B. They are arranged according to the number of strokes in the abbreviations.) 
 
 ^ *--* 
 
 1) mi 
 
 fL 1 
 
 8/T 
 >$ 
 
 .0 
 
 If 
 
 26 33 
 
 16 Jj; m 
 
 is /fa ^ 
 
 21 
 
 2 3 
 
 i* 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 3 2 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 
 37 
 38 ^ 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 44 
 45 
 
 46^ 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 
 2379 
 
 49 
 
 5o 
 
 5 2 & 1A 
 
 54 vrJ 6al* 
 
 55 9} 
 56^| 
 
 57 10 
 
 58 & 
 
 59 
 
 f 1 
 
 IE 
 
 * These numbers refer to the sheet of characters. 
 F
 
 34 SIMILAR FORMS. ORDER OF READING. 
 
 64. Besides the use of these abbreviations and vulgar forms of characters 
 in the lower class of compositions, when expressing purely local idioms, collo- 
 quial or provincial phrases, characters well known, but of an entirely different 
 meaning from that which is to be conveyed, are sometimes employed; and 
 the reader is supposed to understand that the character used, is so used 
 merely on account of its sound, that is both syllable and tone. At other 
 times characters are made by the addition of the radical / | jin 'man,' as in 
 the phrase -j^ / jyf' kid-ho 'utensils, implements, furniture,' or the radical 
 P k'eit 'mouth,' to some common character. All the local dialects, the" 
 Canton, the Amoy, the Fucheu, and the Shanghai especially, contain such 
 characters, which are often not to be found in the Dictionaries. 
 
 65. It will be desirable here to point out some characters which, though 
 similar in form, or with a very slight variation, differ in sound and meaning. 
 pi kl ' self ;' jJ I ' to stop, finished, now, already ;' P si, ' 9 o'clock to 
 u A. M. :' kl and I are often written and printed interchangeably for each 
 other. -j+ y& 'to give' and J-- tsz 'son' are confounded by beginners, 
 the former requires four strokes, the latter only three. -~F~' kdn ' a shield.,' 
 ~~r* yd 'in, at, with respect to,' and --p- ts'ien 'a thousand,' are similar. 
 Compare also 7!^ wi 'not yet' and ^n^ mu 'the end;' J liau 'finished' and 
 
 "V ? f t "f 
 
 I yd or chd 'forked;' td y^ 'great,' t'ai -TT* 'very great, very,' and j^Jciwn 
 'a dog;' ~fct'ien 'heaven' and ~7^fu ' & man, a person.' 
 
 66. The Dictionary edited by the Emperor. K'dng-hl contains about forty- 
 four thousand characters ; but of these, six thousand five hundred are obsolete 
 forms, four thousand two hundred are without name or meaning, and, of the 
 remainder, about twenty thousand are very rarely met with, being either 
 duplicate forms, names of unimportant places and persons, or found only in 
 rare and ancient works. From ten to twelve thousand is understood to be 
 the number employed in Chinese literature, but a much smaller number suf- 
 fices for ordinary purposes. The manual native Dictionary, the Fan-yun 
 
 .-t JL | 
 
 '7J 0^! ' divided rhymes,' in use in the province of Canton contains seven 
 thousand three hundred and twenty-seven characters. Even this number 
 includes many characters not in common use. Four, five, and six thousand 
 have been mentioned as an approximation to the number of characters in 
 general use. The manual Dictionary appended to this work contains nearly 
 three thousand five hundred, and these will be found sufficient for all ordinary 
 purposes. 
 
 . 5. Arrangement of characters in books, pwnctuation, &c. 
 
 67. The characters are arranged in native works in columns, and are read 
 from the top of the page downwards, always beginning on the right hand 
 side and proceeding column by column towards the left. This arrangement
 
 SIZES AND DIVISIONS OF BOOKS. 35 
 
 renders it necessary to begin at, what appears to us to be, the end of the 
 volume, as is the case in the Hebrew, Arabic, and some other languages. 
 Two pages only are printed at a time, and these upon the same side of the 
 paper. The leaf is folded with its blank sides placed together, and on the 
 folded edge, which remains uncut, the general title, the running title, the 
 chapter, section, page, and often the designation of the edition, are printed 
 parallel to the other columns. When the characters are arranged in horizontal 
 lines they are read from right to left. 
 
 68. The sizes of books vary from folio and quarto, which are uncommon, 
 to imperial octavo for the classics and history; duodecimo, designated 'sleeve' 
 editions, alluding to their portability, are taken for novels ; and various smaller- 
 sizes are in use for popular poetry, ballads, and works on arithmetic : but, 
 although these sizes predominate in, they cannot be said to be confined to, the 
 above classes of literature. Various qualities of paper are used ; works being 
 sometimes printed on white paper ; large paper copies are also found. Poems 
 and other works are occasionally printed in white letters on a black ground. 
 Vermillion coloured characters are a mark of Imperial design or patronage. 
 The yellow title-page with the dragon depicted on the margin indicates the 
 Imperial editions. 
 
 69. The divisions of a work are commonly p&n /fc or kiu^n * -jxjZ. ' vo- 
 lumes,' hwut * jpj 'chapters,' the latter especially in novels; twdn Py 'section,' 
 chdng tt ' chapter,' tsie gvj ' section,' used for ' verse,' are also found. In 
 extensive works the characters used in the cycle and for the time of day 
 are employed for divisions of the kiuen. The first four characters of the 
 Yi-klng JpL p are sometimes used for works in four parts (v. Numerals). 
 Works in three volumes or parts are distinguished by the characters 
 
 p shctng ' upper,' l+f chung ' middle,' T> hid ' lower.' 
 
 70. To the text of the classics, ancient history and poetry, there is gene- 
 rally attached some note, comment, annotation, or paraphrase. These are 
 
 always distinguished by the size of the character, and often by the characters 
 
 ju > h~jy 
 
 ^Ip dm 'comment' or p-a^ kial 'explanation.' The comments are mixed 
 
 up with the text, or they are placed above it, after it, or at the foot of the 
 page. Interlinear translations of the old classics are also common ; the phrase 
 /^ pdng-hd is then used in the title-page, and =jj|| ^|j| hiun-Mang is 
 the expression applied to general explanations of the text. 
 
 71. It is not usual to punctuate the sentence in any way. The paragraph 
 is marked by a large circle, or the first character of it is placed at the top of 
 the column. When the period is shown, it is by a small circle, in the place 
 of our full-stop; a dot, called chit or tien Hr||, takes the place of our comma 
 
 * Kiv&n and htciit both signify 'something rolled up,' 'a scroll.' 
 F 2
 
 36 THE MATERIALS USED IN WRITING. 
 
 or semicolon. The sentence or clause is called kti /fat ; a smaller division 
 is stopped by a point, called ten * ^M , equivalent to our comma. Small 
 
 Wi^H 
 
 circles are placed on the right of the characters when the passage is deemed 
 important or worthy of notice, and black dots are used when the passage 
 is less important; the characters so pointed take the place of italics in 
 English. The names of books quoted are enclosed by a line. Names of 
 places, when marked at all, have two parallel lines on the right; names of 
 nations are sometimes surrounded by a line ; names of persons have one line 
 only on the right. The names of emperors and others deemed worthy of 
 honour are always made to begin a new line, and to project above the tops 
 of the other columns, to the extent of one, two, or three characters. 
 
 . 6. On writing the characters. 
 
 72. The Chinese write the characters with great care, and make it their 
 study to give them an elegant form. The importance to the student of 
 writing them correctly is self-evident ; the practice of writing them will give 
 accuracy, and will help the memory ; while, as an eminent writer on the 
 subject has said, " no man can properly be considered to learn the language 
 who does not devote a portion of his time to this important branch of the 
 subject t." 
 
 73. The materials for writing were in early times of the rudest kind; but 
 the varnish, the style, and the bamboo slips have given place to the w&n-fdng- 
 8&-pau : \f fpf 1/M %lgf ' the four precious implements of the study,' viz. 
 
 "^^^ /*'* I * _5^i 
 
 pencil, ink, paper, and ink-stone. The pencil, .= pi, is made of the hair of 
 
 the sable, the fox, the deer, the cat, the wolf, or the rabbit; a small bundle 
 of it, properly adjusted, is secured in a piece of bamboo, about the length and 
 thickness of an ordinary lead pencil. The hair of which the best pencils are 
 
 made is that of the hwAng-shu-ldng ~pf tyj, ^R , a kind of squirrel : it 
 is sent from the Northern provinces to Hd-cheu VfiB Wl in Che-kiang 
 Prov., where the pencils are manufactured. A noted shop for this article 
 
 bears the name of sdn-pin-tsai - *EJ ;*&. The pencil generally has 
 
 " ""* ^^ fcp_ 
 
 some inscription, the name of maker, &c. The ink, -v me, which is a 
 
 . " - 
 
 compound of fine soot and some glutinous liquid, is cast in oblong cakes, with 
 inscriptions, stanzas of poetry, and the maker's name impressed thereon. The 
 use of ink became general about the seventh century. About A. D. 400. ink 
 was made from soot obtained by burning millet or fir. In the T'ang 
 dynasty, A. D. 650, ink was an article of annual tribute from Corea; this 
 
 * Commonly pronounced t& ' to read.' 
 
 t See Eugraphia Sinenyis, Art. XIX. in Transactions of the Eoyal Asiatic Society, 
 vol. I. part II. p. 306, by Sir John F. Davis, F. K. S., &c. &c. The lithographed copies, 
 which are the same as those on the sheet given in this work, are well worthy of the 
 student's attention.
 
 THE ELEMENTARY STROKES IN WRITING. 37 
 
 was made from the pine soot. In the Sung dynasty, A. D. 1085, CJiang-yu 
 tj|=f W. made ink from soot produced by burning oil, he scented it with 
 
 JJ-V Ai_i 
 
 musk, and called it 'dragon-composition*.' The best ink comes from 
 ffwiii-cheu, ab in the Prov. of Gan-hwui, the native place of Chu-fu-tsz, the 
 philosopher ; hence the impress on the ink Chu-tsz-kia-hiun y^ -4-- ^fe 
 glfl 'the family teachings of Chu-tsz;' 1 an extract from which appears upon 
 the reverse side of the cake. Chinese pa/per, #Hr cM, is made of bamboo 
 fibre ; it is soft, absorbent, and smooth, commonly of a yellowish tint, and 
 well suited to the Chinese pencil and ink. There are various qualities of it; 
 a large proportion of the best for writing purposes is manufactured in 
 K'U-cheti, cb in the Prov. of Che-kiang. Paper was first made in China in 
 the first century of our era. Ink-stones, ftP yen, are small oblong slabs of 
 
 stone, or hard brick ; they should be hard and smooth, and should not absorb 
 water quickly. Various forms of ink-stone are in use; some of these stones 
 are very ancient, and are elaborately carved in fantastic shapes, with orna- 
 mental cells for water. The price varies from a hundred Chinese cash (four- 
 pence) to several hundred dollars; these latter are valuable as relics of the 
 past, and are seldom found in the shops. 
 
 74. The two characters 7!^ ydng 'eternal' and ~7^ I 'clothing' contain 
 every stroke used in forming characters. The character ydng is thus formed : 
 
 The common designations and forms of these strokes are here given. They 
 should be copied frequently, and their names should be learnt by the student, 
 as his Chinese tutor will frequently employ them in explaining the formation 
 of characters. 
 
 * ^ ee Morrison's Dictionary, vol. I. p. 546.
 
 38 RULES FOB WRITING CORRECTLY. 
 
 The strokes used informing Chinese characters. 
 
 \ J 
 
 |i[|j tien p^ hwd jj|j chl tfZj keu 
 
 a point, a horizontal line, a perpendicular line, a hook, 
 
 tiab jQple % pa ku 
 
 a spike, a sweep, a dash, an angle. 
 
 75. It is of the first importance that the student should regard the order 
 of making the strokes when forming a character, as correctness in this will 
 facilitate his reading the cursive hand. A few rules will be given below; 
 and by comparing the various examples of cursive forms, given in Dr. Morri- 
 son's Dictionary (vol. II. part II.), he will see which stroke to make first. 
 
 76. The following rules may be observed: i. Begin either at the top or 
 n the left-hand side. 2. When a perpendicular or dash cuts a horizontal 
 line or one leg of an angle, the latter are to be written first, (cf. radicals 19, 
 24, 29, 32, 33, 41, 43, &c.) 3. An angle at the top on the right side is made 
 with one stroke, and unless pi (rad. 4.) or kwan (rad. 2.) is affixed to the left 
 of it, the angle is made first. In radicals 1 8, 19, 26, 29, 39, 44, 49, 105, 124, 
 129, 178, 183, it is made first. In radicals 13, 20, 34, 35, 36, 76, 122, 130, 
 the angle is made second. 4. An angle at the bottom on the left is also 
 made with one stroke, if it be alone, or be joined to a perpendicular on the 
 right, leaving the top or right side open, (cf. radicals 17, 22, 23, 28, 38, 45, 46, 
 
 49, 90, 206.) The characters in which fjr (five strokes) occurs are exceptions 
 to this rule ; the angle on the left is made first ; then the angle on the right ; 
 the points, next; and the horizontal, last. 5. The angles "7 and L. in 
 mdn 'a door' are made first on each side respectively. 6. Horizontal 
 lines precede perpendiculars, when these cross each other; but should the 
 perpendicular terminate with the base line, then the base line is final. 7. In 
 such characters as the radicals 42, 85, 77, 141, 197, 204, 211, the perpendi- 
 culars above, or in the middle of the symbol, are made first. 8. In such 
 characters as k'eit Lj 'mouth' (rad. 30.) the perpendicular on the left is to 
 be written first; and the interior of such characters as \W kw6 'a kingdom,' 
 HA! yuen ' a garden,' is filled up before the base line is written. 
 
 77. The style of writing usually taught in schools is the Kial-shU (cf. 60. 
 3.), the copies for which are after the writing of Shau-ylng Sf) J_ttt.> a noted 
 caligraphist. The characters on the fly-leaf facing this page are Shau-ylng's 
 copies. It will be observed that they are arranged by fours, beginning with 
 the first column on the right-hand side. To these the author has appended 
 observations, some of which we shall now give as briefly as possible.
 
 RULES FOR WRITING. 39 
 
 78. Observe: i. The upper part covers the lower*. 2. The lower sup- 
 ports the upper. 3. The left exceeds the right in size aud elevation. 4. The 
 right exceeds the left. 5. The horizontal through the middle is extended. 
 6. The perpendicular is perfectly straight. 7. The hook should not be too 
 crooked or too short. 8. The hook should not be too straight or too long. 
 9. The horizontal, short; the sweep, long. 10. The horizontal, long; the 
 sweep, short, n. The horizontal, short; the perpendicular, long; the sweep 
 and dash extended. 12. The horizontal, long; the perpendicular, short; the 
 sweep and dash diminished. 13. The horizontal, long; the perpendicular, 
 short. 14. The reverse of rule 13. 15. The horizontal above, short; at the 
 base, long. 16. The perpendicular on the left shorter than on the right. 
 
 17. The sweep on the left is shorter than the perpendicular on the right. 
 
 1 8. The perpendicular on the left is shorter than the sweep on the right. 
 
 19. The points of the dots converge towards the centre of the character. 
 
 20. Several horizontal lines should not be made of equal length. 21. When 
 both sides contain nearly the same number of strokes they are written of 
 equal size. 25. If the left portion be small, it should be level with the top 
 of the right. 26. If the right be small, it should be level with the bottom of 
 the left t. 
 
 79. The preceding information on the sounds and characters, with their 
 proper pronunciation and formation, should be accurately learnt by the 
 student before he proceeds with the next section on the forms of words, as 
 far as they can be distinguished. Dialectic peculiarities would be out of 
 place here, though it may be observed with regard to the pronunciation of 
 words in the Peking dialect, that various modifications are necessary. In the 
 northern parts of China aspirated syllables are pronounced very strongly, and 
 letters which partake of the nature of aspiration have increased aspiration, 
 which changes their orthography in a slight degree : e. g. kia, kiang, k'u and 
 Jciun change into chia, chiang, chii and chiun; tsiang, &c., in the same way. 
 The rule may be given thus : All syllables having for their initial k or ts 
 followed by i or it change k and ts into ch; and it may also be observed that 
 after ch or sh the i, if final, is not sounded at all. This latter rule may be 
 said to be common also in southern Mandarin. It ought also to be observed, 
 that the u after ch and sh is pronounced more like the u in French, that is u; 
 so that the syllables ku and chu in this work ought to be pronounced as if 
 written chii in both cases. After all that can be said upon the subject of 
 orthography, correctness in speaking lies more in the tones than in the utter- 
 ance of the syllables. Various other modifications take place in the Peking 
 dialect; but attention to the above rules and explanations will enable the 
 persevering student to pronounce with sufficient correctness to be intelligible, 
 though he may fail in acquiring the exact accent of the capital. 
 
 * Each of these rules refers to four characters in the sheet. 
 
 J* The remainder of these rules, some only of which are important, will be found in 
 Dr. Bridgman's Chinese Chrestomathy, in the Canton dialect.
 
 40 CHINESE NOTIONS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 SECT. II. FORMS OP EXPRESSION. 
 . i. Preliminary remarks. 
 
 80. The Chinese do not analyse the sentence, or classify their words and 
 expressions in any way at all approaching to the exact method pursued in 
 European tongues ; their language is therefore wanting in those grammatical 
 terms, which are necessary for this purpose. They do indeed distinguish 
 between nouns and verbs : the noun they call sz-ts ^/p ^-5* ' dead word ;' 
 and the verb, Tiw6-ts& | *^ ' living word.' Again, they divide words into 
 two classes; ||fj* *^ shl-ts& 'real words,' and fij *^b* hti-t8&' empty words;' 
 the former class includes nouns and verbs, the latter particles, in which they 
 include all except nouns and verbs. A native author has however recently 
 treated the subject with considerable care ; and has made other distinctions, 
 not heretofore noted by the Chinese *. 
 
 8 1. As a compensation for the want of grammatical rules on ordinary 
 construction, Chinese scholars study wdn-fd ^/ Y^- ' the laws of style,' 
 and strive to bring their compositions into accordance with wdn-li ^/ JFP 
 
 'the rules of style.' "We shall do well also to follow their example; and, 
 after commencing with an exact knowledge of the shing-yln, ' the tones and 
 syllables,' and the characters and words, we may proceed to the syntax of 
 the language, in which lies the whole of its grammatical significance and 
 force. 
 
 82. It is however necessary to acquire words before we can, as a native 
 would, examine the structure of the sentence; and, therefore, though all 
 Chinese words cannot be classified under European denominations, yet many 
 may be placed in grammatical categories and be distinguished by the re- 
 spective terms for the parts of speech. This method will be more convenient 
 for our purpose of analysis ; but it will be necessary to forewarn the foreign 
 student of the fact that Chinese words have really no classification or in- 
 flexion, and that the distinctions of case, number, person, tense, mood, &c., are 
 unknown to natives of China. 
 
 83. The meaning of a character or word and its position in the sentence 
 will generally determine to what category it belongs. Auxiliary syllables 
 and particles do however frequently distinguish the parts of speech. The 
 sentence may often be broken up into groups of syllables, and each group 
 will then form one expression. It will be the object of this portion of the 
 grammar to show upon what principles these groups are formed, to enable 
 the student to realise the various classes of expressions which will come under 
 his observation. 
 
 84. The syllables, which are appended to strengthen the original notion 
 conveyed by the prime syllable, are such as denote the agent, an object; the 
 
 * See Grammar of (he Shanghai Dialect by J. Edkins, B. A ., Lond. i imo. Shanghai, 1853.
 
 VARIOUS FORMS OF NOUNS IN CHINESE. 44 
 
 completion or the expansion of the idea conveyed by the word to which they 
 are joined; or they are purely formative in character, and produce nouns or 
 verbs, adverbs or adjectives, as conventional usage has determined. 
 
 . 2. On nou/ns. 
 
 85. Chinese words which may be placed in this class may be considered, 
 either with reference to general usage or to their derivation, as, 
 
 1. Nouns primitive; i. e. such as are monosyllables bearing their primi- 
 tive signification, and being most commonly used in their monosyllabic or 
 crude form. 
 
 2. Nouns derivative; i. e. such as are formed by the addition of some 
 formative syllable, and in this connection, as dissyllables or trisyllables, are 
 always used as nouns. 
 
 3. Nouns composite; i. e. such as are formed by the union of two sylla- 
 bles bearing one of the following relations to each other: 
 
 a) The appositional relation, when synonymes or words conveying accessory 
 
 notions are joined together. 
 /3) The genitival relation, when the former of the two may be construed as 
 
 if in the genitive case, 
 y) The datival relation, when the former may be construed as if in the 
 
 dative case with the words to or for. 
 8) The antithetical relation, when words of an opposite signification are 
 
 united to form a general or abstract term. 
 
 86. No fixed rules can be laid down with respect to any of the above 
 distinctions; and it must be borne in mind that in the colloquial generally, 
 and in some dialects more particularly, combinations of two, three, and four 
 syllables, to form nouns, are very common, while the same notions would in 
 
 the books frequently be conveyed by one syllable only. 
 i 
 
 87. Primitive nouns, or those which are monosyllabic, and are generally 
 
 understood to be nouns, are such as the following: 
 
 jin ' man,' p n7 fdn ' rice,' ^^, ch'd ' tea,' 
 fung 'wind,' jfrj hu 'blood,' ffit ma 'horse.' 
 
 This class is not a large one, and the monosyllable is not intelligible to a 
 Chinese when pronounced by itself, it must have some ' syllable or syllables 
 with it : e. g. ' a man' must be called yl-ko (one) jin; fdn, ' rice,' must enter 
 into some phrase, as k'l-(chl}-fdn ' to eat rice,' ' to dine,' or tsau-fdn ' early 
 rice,' 'breakfast,' or wdn-fdn 'late rice,' 'dinner;' ch'd 'tea,' 'the infu- 
 sion,' must be distinguished from the leaf, by such phrases as yln-ch'd 'to 
 drink tea,' or ch'd-yl ' tea-leaf.' Nouns which designate objects that may 
 be numbered take with them a word in apposition with the number prefixed ; 
 e.g. ma, 'horse,' takes yi-pi (1988), 'one,' before it, yl-pl-ma 'a horse,' 
 sdn-p'i-ma ' three horses.' 
 
 G
 
 42 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 88. Derivative nouns, or such words as have acquired the form of substan- 
 tives by the addition of a formative syllable, are much more numerous than 
 primitive nouns, or monosyllables. These always remain nouns, while some 
 primitive nouns may be used as verbs. This class of words belongs chiefly to 
 the colloquial and the lower style of composition. 
 
 89. Formative syllables, or those used as such, being similar to termina- 
 tions in European languages, may be classified thus : 
 
 a) Those which generally indicate an agent : e. g. jin /\^ ' man ;' nu ~lf 
 ' woman ;' sheu -=p- ' hand ;' fu -^ ' man, person ;' tsz ^- ' child.' 
 
 /3) Those which refer to a class, and form appellatives relating to position 
 or gender: e. g. &, 'ftV ' a ruler;' nu JJ ' a woman.' 
 
 7) Those which imply a round shape : e. g. t'eu Rpj 'head.' 
 
 8) Those which relate to objects of various forms and combinations : e. g. 
 
 kwei -f$| 'a lump;' tsz -j 'child.' 
 
 90. Many characters are used as formative syllables, like the words man, 
 boy, in herdsman, handicraftsman, footman, stable-boy, post-boy, errand-boy. 
 The characters of this class, which generally indicate an agent, are sheit -=+^ 
 ' hand,' jin A. ' man,' tsidng \J-f~ ' workman,' or kung ' artisan,' ^F fu 
 ' fellow,' J=i M ' householder,' tsz ^ ' son,' dr ^ ' child.' This latter 
 dr is used especially in the north of China : J p| t'eti ' head,' /t sang 'born, 
 
 J.*S\ ! - 
 
 produced, a performer.' 
 
 91. Of those formatives which generally indicate a person or agent, the 
 following examples illustrate the use of sheu ' hand :' 
 
 shwul-sheh Vj^ , 'water-hand,' 'a sailor.' 
 yid-sheu yj~f , from yid 'to wander,' 'a vagrant.' 
 pati-sheu 'tffl , from pati ' a cannon,' ' a gunner.' 
 k'iaii-sheu ~X? , from k'iait 'skilful,' 'an adept.' 
 
 Examples of the use of jin ' man.' 
 
 fu-jin Do ' a woman, a matron.' 
 
 . t 
 'g-jin sv ' a guest.' 
 
 fu-jin ^ ' a lady.' 
 
 kung-jin 'a workman.' 
 ch'al-jin ^& 'a messenger.' 
 
 pati-jtn B 'a reporter' (of news &c.). 
 
 92. Nouns formed with tsidng 'woi-kman,' kung 'artisan labourer,' and 
 fu ' a man a fellow,' are such as these :
 
 FOBMATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 mu-t&idng yj^ , from wii, ' wood,' ' a carpenter.' 
 yln-tsidng ^^, from yin 'silver,' 'a silversmith.' 
 
 t..l-1-ft 
 
 fie-tsidng -fig]; , from t'ie ' iron,' ' a blacksmith/ 
 
 ^J^/H 
 
 h'wd-kung , from h'wd ' to sketch,' ' a painter.* 
 
 fu-kung -4-* , from t'u 'earth,' 'a husbandman, a gardener.' 
 
 md-fu fijt, from met, 'a horse,' 'a groom.' 
 
 t'iau-fu TtfK, from t'iau 'to carry on the shoulders,' 'a porter.' 
 
 kiau-fu jpS, from kiau 'a sedan-chair,' 'a chair -bearer.' 
 
 ki6-fu \\ , from kid 'a foot,' 'a courier or messenger' (1246). 
 
 nung-fu MS , from nung 'to cultivate the ground,' ' a husbandman.' 
 
 93. !Tsz 'child' and dr 'infant' are very common formatives for designa- 
 tions of persons and agents, though they frequently help to form names of 
 things, and often form diminutives. 
 
 Examples of the use of tsz ' child.' 
 
 nidng-tsz fl 
 
 'a mother' (1823). 
 
 kwan-tsz to 
 
 'a cudgel' (1434) 
 
 chdng-tsz -g 
 
 |r 'the eldest son.' 
 
 kwo-tsz 
 
 'a fruit' (1468). 
 
 t'wn-tsz y^" 
 
 'the son of heaven,' 
 
 v AJ3 
 yiti-tsz $\& 
 
 'money.' 
 
 
 i. e. 'the emperor.' 
 
 s_ 
 
 shln-tsz jx 
 
 ' ' the human body.' 
 
 san-tsz \^\ 
 
 ' a grandchild.' 
 
 z^. 
 
 
 
 
 sidng-tsz -4^ 
 
 y 'a box.' 
 
 Idng-tsz y' 
 
 ' a fop, a rake' (i 498, 
 
 > . 
 
 i 
 
 
 'wave'). 
 
 chu-tsz Ztr 
 
 'the master.' 
 
 ^^M 
 
 chu-tsz jpfr 
 
 'a cook.' 
 
 
 
 hai-dr j r, 
 nu-dr "(/ 'a girl.' 
 jin-dr l ' a ma 
 
 Examples of the use of dr ' infant.' 
 
 a child.' 
 
 mlng-dr ^ 'a name' (of any thing). 
 
 hwd-dr pjgj' 'a word.' 
 
 hwu-dr KM 'a thing' (esp. antique &c.). 
 
 94. T'vti ' head' and kid (chid) ^ ' family' also designate persons and 
 agents, but fed often means things of a round shape, or all in a piece, and 
 places; and kid frequently denotes a whole class, -faculty, sect, &c. 
 
 G 2
 
 FORMATION OP NOUNS. 
 
 Examples of the use of t'ed ' head.' 
 
 yd-t'ett J 'a servant-girl*.' 
 
 tui-t'ett 4AT 'an enemy*.' 
 lail-t'ed 5rr 'a gaoler.' 
 fdn-t'ed fa ' a cook.' 
 
 sJti-t'eA TJ& 'the tongue.' 
 
 jl-t'ed 
 
 the sun.' 
 
 M-t'eti, ** ' a bone.' 
 
 pie-fed W\ ' a nose,' met. ' a servant' 
 
 Examples of the use of kid ' family.' 
 
 jin-kid /^ 'people.' 
 
 lau-jin-kid 3%* _A 'an old man, gentleman.' 
 
 pd,n-kid ~]K 'a clansman.' 
 tung-Jcia ^R ' a master.' 
 tien-kia Cb ' a shopkeeper/ 
 
 95. Some other words, as hu F3 'a house-door,' for 'householder,' ti 
 'a ruler,' 'a prince,' nu ~Kf 'a woman,' and M# Ol 'born,' form nouns 
 
 i-kia 'the medical faculty.' 
 
 tau-kid 
 
 'the Tauists.' 
 
 cftuen-kia flff 'ship-owners.' 
 fit-kid ^ 'the rich.' 
 
 . - 
 
 kwei-kia -Hi 'the noble.' 
 
 in a similar way to the preceding, though some of these may perhaps be con- 
 sidered to be in apposition to their prime syllables : e. g. 
 
 ^ 'beggars.' i-sdng 'a medical man' (8 48, as above, 
 
 , line 7). 
 
 Udng-hu ^^ ' a tax-collector,' */},_*? J^l << 
 
 j 'the poor.' 
 gwn-sang -4r* 'a teacher.' 
 
 cfiu-sdng 
 
 domestic animals.' 
 
 hwdng-ti -qp- 'an emperor. 
 
 shdng-ti p 'God.' 
 
 yA-ti tf* ' God,' ace. to Budd.* religion, 
 
 chl-nu fyQ 'a niece.' 
 tung-nu m 'a virgin.' 
 
 ' a y un g lad y not y et intr - 
 
 y duced to society.' 
 
 heti-sdng 4J&'& young man.' 
 M6-sdng /ip? 'a student.' 
 
 Here also we may notice those nouns formed with s& FJHJ 'a teacher,' 
 
 v \* - 
 
 chil Ztr 'a lord,' and sheit "jS 'a head, a chief:' e. g. 
 ch'd-8& ^.j. 'a tea-inspector.' 
 
 twn-chb, tt ' a shopkeeper.' 
 
 cJiuen-sheu | ' a captain' (of a ship). 
 
 ^ 
 
 hwiii-sheil M" 'the principal '(of a society). 
 
 * The more common words are ydng-jtn ]r 
 ch'ed-jtn ]Jlj Xv 'enemy.' 
 
 'servant, male or female,' and
 
 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 96. The designations of agents are very commonly formed by the periphrasis 
 of an active verb and its object with the addition of the genitive particle tl jg , 
 which throws the whole into the form of a participial expression similar to the 
 Greek form 6 irpdrrav, 6 Trpayfiara irpdrTwv, &c. 
 
 tci-yu-tl J \ ft I , lit. 'strike-fish (sub. person), one who takes fish,' =a fisherman. 
 nd-yu-fi, fr. nd ja ' to take,' has the same meaning. 
 tso-sdng-l-tl / |JM7 /IT "f^T 'make trade (person)? = a tradesman. 
 k'dn-chal-tt fj'T ^K 'cut fuel (person),' =a woodcutter. 
 tsdng-ming-tt j|la| Hfj 'clear-bright (/?ersow),'=an intelligent person. 
 ndng-kdn-tl tjH Y^ 'able to transact affairs,' = an able man. 
 pdn-sz-tt iMf jfi. 'manage business (person)," '=a manager. 
 
 Nouns formed in this way are very numerous, but they are not often used in 
 the presence of the individual whose calling or character they signify. 
 
 ' one who reads books, a scholar, a learned man.' 
 - ' one who teaches book-lore, a teacher.' 
 
 tii-shH-tl gjj 
 kiati-shti-ti, 7 
 
 97. In addition to the above names of persons, others will be found under 
 the articles treating of composite nouns. We will now consider those deriva- 
 tive nouns which designate objects and localities. Besides the use of tsz and 
 dr 'child,' and t'e-A 'head,' for general objects, we have t'eti 'head,' k'eu 'mouth,' 
 and mdn ' door,' as formatives for designations of places. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 tau-tsz T7 ' a knife.' 
 
 mtng-dr ^^ ' a name.' 
 
 yin-tsz y^rr} 'silver, money.' 
 
 hwd-dr Sg 'a word.' 
 
 kln-tsz /OR- 'gold.' 
 
 shi-fed Tt" ' the tongue.' 
 
 tie-tsz IpA ' an invitation card.' 
 
 ku-t'ed ^tot 1 ' a bone.' 
 
 shen-tsz Jjjt ' a fan.' 
 
 mu-t'efi, ~fc ' a piece of wood.' 
 
 jl-tsz M 'a day.' 
 
 chl-t'ed' JM ' a finger.' 
 
 tlng-tsz * j 'a nail.' 
 
 shdn-t'e-A \ [ 1 ' a mountain-top.' 
 
 tien-dr ||A ' a little.' 
 
 ch'uen-t'ed ]| 'aroadstead'(324,'ship'). 
 
 mdn-dr f 1 ' a door.' 
 
 md-t'ed 5^ 'a jetty, a landing-place.'
 
 46 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 ch'wang-k'eu r^i 'a window.' 
 shdn-Jceu Ml 'a mountain-pass.' 
 
 _* - 
 
 lu-k'eu Jfx>- 'a thoroughfare.' 
 
 yd-mdn -JST ' magistrate's office.' 
 lau-mdn j*+ ' a gaol.' 
 wu-mdn 4p ' the ante-rooms.' 
 
 98. Composite nouns are such as are formed by the union of two or three 
 syllables, each preserving its individual signification when in composition. 
 They have been divided into four classes according to the relations which 
 these syllables bear to each other. We now proceed to consider the first of 
 these classes, namely, that in which the appositional relation predominates. 
 
 Observe. We understand by the term apposition, words, identical or 
 cognate in meaning, placed together and explanatory of each other; e.g. 
 Victoria Queen of England, Cicero orator, Urbs Roma, &c. 
 
 99. One division of this class consists of words formed by the union of 
 two syllables identical in signification or synonymous, one syllable standing as 
 the exponent of the other. And, in the first place, those which are identical 
 are simply repetitions of the same word : thus 
 
 t'ai-t'ai "Jr* 'aged lady,' used in addressing or speaking of a mandarin's lady. 
 
 nal-nal iuTj ' married lady of rank,' with similar usage. 
 
 Jco-Jco -Si ' elder brother, Sir,' in speaking to one of inferior rank. 
 
 100. In the next place, synonymes are united to form common nouns: 
 thus 
 
 fdng-u fjj l ' a house.' 
 
 yen-tsing p 'the eye.' 
 
 ' clothing.' 
 
 "fc 1 1 ~ 
 
 sln-chdng ; n> H|| 'the heart, the feelings.' 
 -6,r 1 TT ' an infant.' 
 
 ying 
 
 U-li ^j& ^ 'statute-law.' 
 
 101. Two verbs are sometimes united to form nouns : e. g. 
 htng-wei X~T Jjjh ' actions,' both verbs meaning to do (synonymes). 
 fi-yung ^pp JJJ ' expenses,' lit. to expend to use (cognate). 
 shw6-hwd Q^" gg 'conversation,' lit. to talk to say (synonymes). 
 fan-lwdn K/ ^[ ' revolution,' lit. to reverse to rebel (synonymes). 
 
 Nouns expressing the abstract notion of verbs are generally formed in this 
 way, just as the infinitive is used in German and Greek; das Leben, das 
 Haben, TO rv\tiv, &c. 
 
 102. Two adjectives are united to form nouns : e. g. 
 
 chin-pah ' precious -precious a jewel' (216).
 
 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 47 
 
 jin-t'sz A^ Ktj ' benevolent-kind kindness.' 
 yiu-mun mfc R^n 'sad-sorrowful sorrow.' 
 
 103. Two nouns of a series are used to form the name of the class which 
 the series expresses : e. g. 
 
 kung-heu //\ 'ite 'a nobleman,' lit. duke marquis; the series being kung- 
 heu-pe-tsz-ndn ' the five degrees of nobility.' 
 
 kid-tsz B? -f-~ 'the cycle;' these two characters being the signs of the ist 
 year of the cycle. Cf. Alphabet. A. B. C. 
 
 104. Many nouns are formed by placing generic terms, the equivalents for 
 tree, stone, flower, fish, &c., after the special object : e. g. 
 
 S @ 'the carp.' 
 ,, .1 . ^)^ 
 
 sung-shu ^vV Tfm 'the fir-tree.' 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 kwei-hwa liit "Trt 'the flower of the cassia.' 
 ylng-shi _si, -t 'limestone.' 
 
 105. Under the appositional relation we must also consider the very large 
 class of nouns formed by the use of what have been called numeratives or 
 classifiers. These correspond to our words gust of wind, flock of sheep, cup 
 of wine. The words gust, flock, cup, are not in the genitive or possessive 
 case, but in apposition to the words wind, sheep, wine *. The Chinese, in 
 conversation, extend the use of such words to every object; they say, for exam- 
 ple, ' one handle fan' for a fan, ' one length road' for a road. They are here 
 called appositives, a term more appropriate than numeratives or classifiers. 
 We shall now give a list of these appositives, and point out those which claim 
 our first attention, and the classes of words to which they are prefixed in order 
 to form nouns. 
 
 1 06. List of appositives, with the nouns and classes of nouns to which 
 they are united in composition. 
 
 1. ko 'fffil, \^E\ or .-TV, is the most common app.; it is used with almost 
 
 I ** I M^JJ I 
 
 all objects : thus, yi ko jin ' a man. 
 ^f f -* 
 
 2. chl Jp^ ' an individual thing, single ;' with names of animals, ships, and 
 
 things that move. 
 
 3. kien M^P ' a division ;' with things, affairs, clothes. 
 
 4. k'wei j9| 'a clod, a lump;' with dollar, land, stone, and things of an 
 
 irregular shape. 
 
 5. t'iau 1|3 'a twig, a division;' with long things, roads, fish, snakes, &c., 
 
 laws, &c. 
 
 6. tso Pp> 'a seat;' with house, hill, clock, of things fixed in a place. 
 
 7. p&n 3 'root, origin;' with book. This is a borrowed character. 
 * Compare Lat. Urbs Roma, Ger. ein Glas Wein.
 
 48 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 8. pa jP 'a handle;' with knife, chair, things that may be held. 
 
 9. kcm /BR. 'a root;' with tree, pole, club, &c. 
 
 10. chang tji| 'a sheet;' -with paper, table, bow, &c., things spread out. 
 
 11. chl fiigr 'a branch;' with pencil, branch, &c. 
 
 12. p'i [/L 'a piece or a pair;' with horse, ass, <kc. 
 
 13. tut 5J 'a pair;' with shoes, or any thing in pairs. 
 
 14. shwang l|ffi 'a couple;' used as the above (13). 
 
 15. kien n n 'an interval, a space;' with house, and buildings generally. 
 
 1 6. fung zfrn' 'to seal;' with letters, &c. 
 
 J- v 
 
 107. The above are the appositives in most general use. A list of those 
 characters which are less frequently used in this way is now given. The 
 student may by reference to Mr. Edkins' Grammar of the Mandarin Dialect 
 find a more particular notice of each. 
 
 t. chdn Rtli 'a gust of wind.' 
 
 2. ch'ing or shi/ng 5Jb" 'a carriage. 
 
 3. chu Jaffa ' an axle.' 
 
 4. chu KJ ' a place.' 
 
 5. fu fpH ' a fold, a piece.' 
 
 6. kdn ii-P ' a pole.' 
 
 -j^rj 
 
 7. kid ^2 'a frame, a stand.' 
 
 8. k"eu M 'a mouth.' 
 
 9. kiuen ^S; ' a roll.' 
 
 n. ko ^>il ' rank, examination.' 
 
 12. kwan >TJ 'a pipe.' 
 
 13. ling 'Q|| 'a collar.' 
 
 Mtf 
 
 1 4. mdn r l ' a door. 
 
 i i 
 
 15. met Mf 'a stem.' 
 
 1 6. mien j?fl 'the face.' 
 
 17. ping 
 
 'a handle.' 
 
 1 8. p'u jtg 'to spread out.' 
 
 19. pu jjjr 'a pace.' 
 
 20. sd JyV 'a place.' 
 
 21. t'eu ff p 'a head.' 
 
 22. ting T p 'a top.' 
 
 23. to qi 'a bunch.' 
 
 24. tu ^?jt 'a low walk.' 
 
 25. ts'dn 'a meal' (2786). 
 
 26. te'<fo$r )^r 'a layer, a story.' 
 
 27. tsl gM 'a joint.' 
 
 28. <r(n jff^ ' a piece of cloth, &c.' 
 
 ^f^~ 
 
 29. tsun 'JSI| 'honourable.' 
 
 30. won X/ 'the tenth of a copper cash.' 
 
 31. wet 'a tail' (3121). 
 
 32. wet 1 tf* 'a person.'
 
 FORMATION OF NOUNS. 49 
 
 Besides the above, many words are used as appositives, especially such words 
 as express quantity of any kind, a collection or a class of objects *. 
 
 1 08. The second class of composite nouns includes all those whose first 
 part may be said to stand in the genitive case, and which expresses the origin 
 or cause of the second part, or that person or thing to which the second part 
 belongs or has reference. Under this class also will come such compounds as 
 have an attributive attached to them, whether an adjective or a verb in its 
 participial form. 
 
 109. Examples of nouns of two syllables, the former of which is in the 
 genitive case: 
 
 t'ii-chctn -r- tap lit. 'soil's produce,' = produce. 
 t'ien-ki F f lit. 'heaven's breath,' = the weather. 
 
 shdng-hdng |M| /f-f 'a merchant's house and premises.' 
 
 IJ-w I J 
 
 mdn-k'eti p | |~| lit. 'door's mouth,' = door. 
 
 tien-chit Lfc HE. lit. 'shop's lord,' = innkeeper or shopkeeper. 
 
 niil-j& ^tl 1^1 lit. 'cow's flesh,' = beef. 
 
 no. Examples of nouns of two syllables, the former of which is an adjec- 
 tive or a participle : 
 
 T ">T"j |-T^~ 
 
 td-m$ -/r ^5 lit. ' great-corn,' = wheat. td-hwdng |EJ" '(yellow) rhubarb.' 
 
 tsS-jl 0T: M 'yesterday.' tsd-ye Mr 'last night.' 
 
 wAn-y6 -J/ j|f 'a written agreement.' 
 
 chung-sln tft y |V* lit. ' middle-heart,' = centre. 
 
 Ja-siing gP ji lit. ' recording-faculty,' = memory. 
 
 Jdai-fd ]fja- V 1 ^ lit. ' explaining-method,' = explanation. 
 
 hi-yen ^j/ ^ lit. 'sporting- words,' = a joke. 
 
 ming-fien 0H T^ lit. 'bright-heaven, or when the heaven becomes bright,' = 
 
 to-morrow. 
 hien-shw6 f ] i Sy" ' idle-talk.' siati-sz >h fflj ' a waiter or valet.' 
 
 chau-p'ai J3 FtS lit. 'calling -board,' = a sign-board. 
 fi-k'iad 4|^ fcjj: lit. 'flying-bridge,' = drawbridge. 
 
 i IT. Sometimes designations of place and time, which are commonly used 
 as prepositions or adverbs, enter into the composition of nouns : e. g. 
 
 * See Grammar of the Mandarin Dialect by Rev. J. Edkins, pp. 129, 130. 
 
 H
 
 50 FORMATION OP NOUNS. 
 
 sien-fung ^T~ $?j lit. 'forward-point, van,' = the van of an army. 
 kln-Ji ,^ Fj lit. ' now-day,' = to-day. Cf. uses of vvv and nd\ai. 
 tsab-fdn Hj"l |^ lit. 'early-rice,' = breakfast. Cf. Ger. FrilJ^stilck. 
 wdn-fdn [\W \ lit. 'late-rice,' = the evening-meal. Cf. Ger. Abend-brod. 
 
 112. The third class of nouns is much smaller than the preceding, but it 
 includes many idiomatic expressions. The first syllable of the two stands to 
 the other in what we shall call the datival relation to its associate. The 
 examples will show what is meant by this expression : 
 
 hi6-fdng /P fjj lit. 'learning-room,' i. e. a room for that purpose, = a school- 
 room. 
 
 tsiu-lidng Vt|t ftS lit. ' wine-measure,' ' the capacity for drinking.' 
 ch'd-hd ^l! *% ' a tea-pot, a pot for tea.' 
 
 r** ^ I J- 
 
 ping-U LI. -J3T lit. ' soldiers -law,' 'discipline.' 
 ytn-k'u g[r} M|' lit. ' silver-store,' ' treasury.' 
 
 X >\ / i * 
 
 113. In addition to the names of agents mentioned already, the expression 
 **-/& EJm |^ <a t eac ^ er j' a id the verb ts6 it 'to make,' are used to form 
 nouns : e. g. 
 
 ni-ku-sz-fti J^ "A lit. ' pure-lady,' = nun. 
 
 ^ f |1 "TT 
 
 t'i-t'eA-sz-fu ml Rpl lit. 'shave-head,' = a barber. 
 
 /\-f V ^- f \ 
 
 shi-tsS -f-j lit. 'stone-make,' = a stone-mason. 
 
 shtoul-tsS lit. ' water-make,' = a confectioner or baker. 
 
 1 1 4. A verb and its object are sometimes used as a noun with and sometimes 
 without the particle H-7 ' e. g. 
 
 k'i-t'ed jjwl ^p lit. ' begin-head,' 'beginning.' 
 hwui-sUn jm 'j ^ lit. ' return-letter,' ' a reply, 1 to a letter. 
 
 115. The verb sometimes stands in the second place with a noun before it, 
 without any apparent construction existing between them : e. g. 
 
 ehl-mo /H| ^ lit. 'stone-grind,' = a grindstone. m6-sM too is used. 
 shii-lung 1in4 i\m lit. ' tree-grind,' = a wooden mill for grinding grain.
 
 FORMATION OP NOUNS. 
 
 51 
 
 1 1 6. Many of the appositives are placed after words, and they then help to 
 form general terms : e. g. 
 
 wwl-pl rcfn T/L 'horses.' pti-pi -ftj J/L 'piece-goods.' 
 
 ch'uen-che jf& Jpp"- 'ships.' shi-kwei ^-\ -flfi 'stones.' 
 
 117. Nouns formed by uniting words antithetical in meaning are very 
 common, and they generally signify the abstract notion implied by these 
 extremes : e. g. 
 
 Jcing-chting m^ "fif lit. ' light-heavy,' = weight. 
 
 to-shad, :% j}? lit ' many-few,' = quantity, which is the common phrase 
 for 'how many?' or 'how much?' 
 
 ch'ang-twan -^ ^rj lit. 'long-short,' = length. 
 kau-fi E? j lit. 'high-low,' = height. 
 
 1 1 8. The union of syllables of an opposite signification gives rise to a 
 general term : e.g. 
 
 hiung-ti yt ttj lit. 'elder brother and younger,' = brethren. 
 chi-mel 64j Jjrfc lit. 'elder sister and younger,' = sisters. 
 
 ., 
 
 119. The student should notice the class of abstract nouns which are formed 
 by the addition of such words as lei :al? ' breath/ fung )|Ji( ' wind,' sin ;[V 
 ' heart,' sing Ttfc ' nature, disposition, faculty :' 
 
 'integrity.' 
 'anger.' 
 
 i-k'i '3 
 nti-k'i 
 k'e-k'i ^_ 'etiquette.' 
 
 : climate.' 
 mdn-k'i Ry^l 'sadness.' 
 
 wei-fung W 'dignity.' 
 min-fung R^ 'nationality.' 
 
 wdn-fung ^7 ' literary taste.' 
 siau-sln /h ' attention.' 
 chung-sln fp ' the centre/ 
 Hang-sin In. 'conscience/ 
 kit-sin ifg 'fear/ 
 kl-sing j|P 'memory/ 
 sin-sing Jr 'disposition/ 
 
 1 20. Other abstract nouns are formed upon the same principle as those 
 noticed in the foregoing articles; viz., (i) by uniting synonymes, (2) by 
 placing one noun in the genitive case before another, (3) by joining two 
 verbs or (4) an adjective and its noun : 
 
 H 2
 
 52 PROPER NAMES AND DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 (1) jin-ngai /\^ ^EF 1 ' benevolence, philanthropy.' 
 gan-tien \j\ Jffl. ' favour, grace.' Ger. Gunst. 
 chung-kien EH ml 'the midst.' 
 
 (2) chh-i ^ j|r 'the will,' lit. 'the idea of the master.' 
 ming-shlng fC Bf ' reputation,' lit. ' sound of the name.' 
 
 I " f^\ 
 
 tau-ti 5Jf Jtt! ' doctrine,' lit. ' the rule of reason.' 
 
 (3) mai-mai 'Si' 'trade,' lit. 'to buy, to sell.' 
 siau-hwd ;nsr. gQ 'joking,' lit. 'to laugh, to talk.' 
 wdn-td Kjj "ja/ ' dialogue,' lit. ' to ask, to answer.' 
 f$n-pl ^V Ti'l ' difference,' lit. ' to divide, to distinguish.' 
 kung-lad jit t^. ' merit,' lit. ' to merit, to labour.' 
 
 (4) siait-sln vh ^fr* ' attention,' lit. ' small heart.' 
 phn-fdn 7K. Q ' duty,' lit. ' own part.' 
 
 ~tt* xf S 
 
 kau-ming , ^& ' celebrity,' lit. ' high name.' 
 
 121. Proper names may be mentioned appropriately here. Chinese names 
 proper are always significant. Foreign names are put into Chinese form by 
 simply representing the syllables of which they are composed by Chinese 
 characters. There are about five hundred characters used as the names of 
 families. (See Appendix.) In addition to this sing iwT. , ' surname,' each 
 individual has several designations, the principal one, which follows the sing 
 immediately, is the ming or common ' name,' and sometimes a ts& ^ or 
 'title.' In addressing a person the sing is used with some polite expression 
 suffixed, such as sien-sang ' elder-born,' sidng-kung ' Mr.' A few of the most 
 common geographical and other proper names will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 122. Diminutives are formed by means of certain words, signifying little, 
 small, prefixed; siau-ydng 'small sheep,' = a lamb, siatt-md, 'small -horse,' = a 
 colt; or by the word tsz ' child,' $r ' infant,' suffixed, hal-Ar ' a little boy.' 
 
 123. The distinctions of gender and number are made in a similar way 
 by prefixes or suffixes : 
 
 ndn HJ 'male' and nu ~tf 'female' are prefixed to jin, ' man,' to express 
 the gender; so also are Jcung & 'male' and mit 'mother,' to names 
 of animals, to distinguish the gender.
 
 GENDER AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 53 
 
 fu -V 'father' and mil 'mother,' tsz 'son' and nu 'daughter,' are em- 
 ployed with the names of relations; as, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece. They 
 
 are however suffixed. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 ndn-jin 
 
 HR * a man.' 
 
 kung-chU \ 
 
 'ji 'a boar*.' 
 
 nu-jin 
 
 fr 'a woman.' 
 
 mu-keu ^ffl 
 
 'a bitch.' 
 
 pe-fH \ 
 
 -| 'uncle.' 
 
 1 
 
 chi-nu y^ 
 
 'a niece.' 
 
 pe-mu 
 
 ' aunt.' 
 
 san-nu \~& 
 
 'a granddaughter.' 
 
 The Chinese ascribe certain genders to various objects of nature, according 
 as they belong to the male and female principles, the ydng BII and the 
 yln f)^, the dual powers of the universe. The 'sun/j'2, is masculine, the 
 
 ' moon,' yu, is feminine. But this does not affect the form of the words or 
 their construction. Frequently the gender is shown by a distinct appellation ; 
 as, tsz ' son,' nu ' daughter.' 
 
 124. A proper name may be used as a common noun either by itself or 
 
 /-Z- 
 
 with the addition of tctng Ij^. ' sort, class ;' instead of saying " He was a 
 
 perfect Confucius," the Chinese would say " He is of the Cenfucius sort." 
 But this form of expression is scarcely ever used ; the notion would be con- 
 veyed in some other way, especially in the colloquial style. 
 
 125. When the plural is expressed in Chinese it is done in several ways, 
 each having reference to the extent of the notion of plurality. The simplest 
 form of the plural is the reduplication of the syllable, a method common to 
 Japanese as well as to Chinese t. It expresses all in a general sense, in some 
 expressions indefinite, but in others limited by locality or the nature of the 
 
 subject ; e. g. jin-jin /^ signifies either ' every body' (but not without ex- 
 ception) or ' all men,' if the nature of the case or sense of the passage require 
 it ; just as we say, most men. The same may be said of ji-ji H ' daily,' 
 which is an adverb. 
 
 126. The following are the syllables commonly prefixed to express plu- 
 rality : those common to the conversational form are marked thus (c.); the 
 others are only used in the books : 
 
 chung (c.) 'all;' either 'every,' or merely 'all' the party in a certain 
 place, generally of persons, followers, attendants. 
 
 g?5 chti (c.) 'all,' in a more general sense applied to smaller classes. 
 
 I T r 
 
 Joi: shil ' all,' chiefly in the books. 
 
 * Cf. rCs Kdirpos of Homer. 
 
 t In Japanese fito is 'man,' fito-bito 'men.'
 
 54 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
 
 ^j, to (c.) 'many, or much, or often,' of men or things. ~ 4 1 hu-to or -[- hail-td 
 are stronger colloquial forms. 
 
 H ./Sn (c.) 'all/ of number or quantity; also td-fdn. ^jk dtau ' all, gene- 
 rally' (seldom). 
 
 / ft en as ai adverb. 
 
 is used both before and after the noun, but only in books. 
 
 127. These below are placed after the noun, and are emphatic, and com- 
 monly imply universality as well as mere plurality : 
 
 >|j kiai (c.) 'all,' in company, in universum, it comprehends the whole 
 
 class. 
 
 t'u (c.) ' all, entirely, altogether.' This is also used as an adverb, to in- 
 tensify ; and then gives the sense of, at all, quite. 
 I p & ' all,' chiefly in books and the higher colloquial. 
 
 hien 'all,' also uncommon in speaking. 
 ^- ku ' all,' lit. ' to raise up,' confined to the books. 
 =3 kun 'all, equally.' -Sty tswn 'all,' in books especially. 
 
 jt-^. tang (c.) 'a class, sort.' This is common in books too. 
 
 "rt.1 .' t~-"t 
 
 jj^ pel (c.), as in chctng-pel -^- ' elders, superiors.' 
 xy> ts'uen (c.) ' complete,' also used in the books. 
 
 mdn (c.), the common mandarin particle for 'all;' it may be looked 
 upon as a formative particle. 
 
 128. The most common method is to employ some number or expression 
 which sufficiently defines the plurality of the noun to which it is attached ; 
 just as the vulgar expression 'three foot' for 'three feet,' and in German 
 drei hundert mann, &c. The numeral determines the plurality; and fre- 
 quently in Chinese a special number prefixed serves to form a general or 
 universal notion : e. g.-^ 
 
 si-hal 1J| j^I 'the four seas,' i. e. the world. 
 
 pa-kwdn | if Bj ' the hundred mandarins,' i. e. the officials. 
 
 lA-fdng -^ pjj ' the six rooms, departments,' i. e. the six boards of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 wdn-min til Pr 'the ten thousand people,' i. e. all the people, kl Hf>} 
 and tt $0?j ' severa V an d some other syllables deter- 
 mine the plural. Cf. the use of pvptos in Greek.
 
 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 55 
 
 1 29. Those relations of words to each other, which are shown in the clas- 
 sical languages of Greece and Rome by the cases of nouns and by the persona 
 and tenses of verbs, are exhibited in Chinese by the arrangement and sequence 
 of the words themselves. The consideration therefore of the cases of nouns 
 must be referred to the syntax of the language. 
 
 130. The only case which can be distinguished by the form of the expres- 
 sion is the genitive. The particles which show this are tl H^T and ^ chl; 
 the former in speaking, the latter in the books. They have the nature of 
 demonstratives, and stand for the with an apostrophe 's or a'. 
 
 . 3. On adjectives. 
 
 131. Adjectives in Chinese may be divided, as the nouns have been, into 
 three classes. Some syllables are used exclusively as adjectives, and are but 
 seldom employed in the other grammatical relations; they may therefore be 
 looked upon as primitive : e. g. hau, ' good,' is most commonly used as an 
 adjective, although sometimes, with a change of tone hau, it means 'to love.' 
 Others seem to require the genitive particle to form them into attributives, 
 and may be considered as derivatives. Others again are formed by the union 
 of two or more syllables, and may be called compounds. Examples of this 
 classification are to be found in the following articles. 
 
 132. The common formative particles, which strengthen the attributive 
 force of the adjective, are tl H^ in the mandarin and chl ^/ in the books. 
 When these must be used depends in a great measure upon the rhythm of 
 the expression : e. g. we may say fu-kwei-jin *!=}* -f^|' /I or fu-kwei-tl-jin 
 ' a rich man,' but li-hai-jin jJjHJ -gji would not pass, because it might signify 
 ' to injure a man,' hai being a verb ' to hurt,' but li-hai-ti-jin is ' a hurtful 
 man,' 'a fierce, bad person.' The tl is required generally when a verb 
 enters into the composition of the adjective, therefore especially after verbal 
 adjectives and participles. 
 
 133. Adjectives of cognate signification come together and strengthen 
 each other : e. g. 
 
 t'sien-p5 Yieji pfl 'shallow thin,' = poor, weak. 
 k'iau-miau ~f] fyy 'clever marvellous,' = ingenious. 
 kien-ku "yC j^j 'firm strong,' = firm. 
 
 134. A substantive sometimes stands before an adjective, as one noun 
 stands before another in the genitive case, and thus intensifies the adjective : 
 e.g. 
 
 plng-lidng ^O 'ice's cold,' = icy-cold. 
 
 su-pd g&\ CT 'snow's white,' = snowy- white.
 
 56 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 135. A noun and an adjective combined sometimes form an epithet, which 
 is used as an adjective: e. g. 
 
 td-tcin-tl yr H0 lit. 'great-liver ,'= brave. 
 
 kung-tati-tl /\. M|f lit. * just-doctrine,' = just. 
 Such compound adjectives always require W^(ti. ^ 
 
 136. An adjective or a noun is prefixed to an adjective with an adverbial 
 force, and it is sometimes doubled to intensify the meaning : e. g. 
 
 tslng-si-ti jjjfij jjjffj ' fine-small,' = fine. 
 
 tsing-tsing-sl-tl 'very elegant.' 
 
 wdn-yA-ti ~\f yjtt ' letters-elegant,' = of literary elegance. 
 
 wdn-ya-ya-ti ' of a very fine style of composition.' 
 
 b 137. The addition of k'o pT 'can,' or hait /(jf4- 'good, much,' to a verb 
 ?' forms adjectives which terminate in -able in English; they must always be 
 \ followed by tl : e. g. 
 
 Jco-lien-tl |25 lit. 'can-pity ,'= pitiable, miserable. 
 
 Kb-yiing-t\ Hj lit. ' can-use,' = that may be used. 
 hail-yung-ti, lit. ' good-use,' = useful. 
 hafo-siau-tl r^r. lit. ' good-laugh,' = laughable. 
 
 138. The quality of a verb may be attributed to a noun by a participle 
 formed by suffixing ti to the verb itself: e. g. 
 
 hwan-hl-tl ||T || lit. 'to be pleased with,' 'pleasant.' 
 hw6-tung-tl y3t Hljf| lit. 'to live and move,' 'lively, active.' 
 
 139. The quality or possession of the quality of a noun may be attributed 
 to another noun by prefixing yiu ^tj" ' to have,' and suffixing tl to the noun 
 whose quality is concerned : e. g. 
 
 yiit-tdng-tsien-ti jjly jpigf lit. 'has -money,' =monied, rich. 
 yih-ll-lti-tl ~/J ^m_ lit. 'has-strength,'= strong. 
 yih-ti&ng-iiin-tl H jr> 'conscientious.' 
 yiit-haii-i-s^-tl t^T l"9 ' with a good meaning or intention.' 
 
 140. Many adjectives are formed from nouns, especially when they are 
 descriptive of the shape or material of which any thing is made : e. g.
 
 FORMATION OP ADJECTIVES. 57 
 
 s&-fang-tl |/J jpj lit. ' four-square,' = square. 
 
 chl-tl Ff- 'of paper.' kln-tl '4^ 'of gold,' = golden. 
 
 These latter sometimes take the verb ts6 qjW or ts8 ']>, 'to make,' between 
 the noun and the particle tl : 
 
 mu-ts6-tl ThC I t ' made of wood, wooden.' 
 
 Such are however to be regarded as the participles from compound verbs, 
 corresponding to the German compound verb handhdben. 
 
 141. Some adjectives with an intransitive or passive signification are formed 
 by prefixing jin, ' man,' to the verb : e. g. 
 
 jin-hdn-ti /JR. lit. ' men-hate,' = hated. 
 j <-\. 
 
 jin-ngai-tl ^5* lit. 'men-love,' = esteemed. 
 
 Such adjectives as wolfish, hateful, &c., are sometimes expressed by con- 
 ventional terms, sometimes by circumlocutions : e. g. 
 
 yiu-chal-lang-fi sing-tsing, lit. 'has-wolf's-disposition,' = wolfish; or, 
 
 sidng-chal-lang-H, lit. ' like-wolf,' = wolfish. 
 
 jin-k'o-hdn-ti, lit. ' men-can-hate,' = hateful. 
 
 142. Adjectives formed in European languages by means of a privative 
 syllable are made by prefixing pu ^R , ' not,' to the simple word, and adding 
 tt, the genitive particle : e. g. 
 
 pu-sidng-kdn-tl ^Ej -p 'unimportant.' 
 pu-shw&ng-kufai-ti 3|5 'J'l?' ' unwell' or ' unwholesome.' 
 pii-hd-mu-tl ^u Ho5 'inimical.' 
 
 143. In this way many adjectives are formed in Chinese as equivalents 
 for adjectives not produced by means of a privative syllable, but of a more 
 emphatic power : e. g. for bad, ugly, hearty, the Chinese would frequently say 
 pu-hau-ti, 'not good,' 'bad,' instead of 8 i^. All such require tl, the 
 genitive particle. 
 
 144. There is no form of the adjective which expresses the degree of 
 intensity or comparison. Words which may be mentioned in this connection 
 as affording a means of expressing the comparative and superlative are, 
 kang J^ ' more,' chi 3i ' to come to (the extreme point) :' e. g. 
 
 kang-hau-fi, lit. ' more good,' ' better.' 
 kang-yung-i-tl tj*^, Jl lit. ' more easy,' ' easier.' 
 
 i
 
 58 THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 chi-kau-tl ~JE*i lit. ' extremely high,' 'highest.' 
 
 chi-jin-ngai-ti ^^ 'y^' lit. ' extremely benevolent,' ' very benevolent.' 
 
 145. The verb kid j 'to add' is sometimes joined to kang : e. g. 
 
 kang-kid-k'i-kw'ai-tl *- j r4 'more wonderful.' 
 kang-kid-pau-pei-tl viM | 'more precious.' 
 
 146. Several words are used to express the superlative or the intensity of 
 the attribute, such as ting Jg 'the top,' kl ypfy 'the extreme point,' h&n flK. 
 'to hate,' ts'u jjjjS 'to cut off,' hail fy+ 'good,' t'ai -Jr* 'great, very, too,' 
 shin -J^L 'very,' tsui -HF? 'very.' 
 
 Examples. 
 
 tlng-siati-ti A) 'very small,' 'the smallest.' 
 ting-hah-ti W 'the best.' 
 kl-td-tl -Jr 'very great,' 'the greatest.' 
 h&n-to-ti ^ 'very many,' 'the most.' 
 tsu-miati-ti z/Jp 'most wonderful.' 
 
 A/ 
 
 haii-to-d -^ 'very many*.' 
 t'ai-ts'ien-tl Vr& 'very shallow.' 
 shin-k'il-tl ^/Y 'very bitter.' 
 tsui-yati-kln-ti utf Eg^* 'very important.' 
 
 ~5^ :f=^ 
 
 147. The relations expressed by the forms of comparison, and by what is com- 
 monly called the superlative, are often produced by syntactical arrangements ; 
 the consequence is that the simple adjective must often be construed into 
 European tongues by the forms of comparative and superlative : e. g. In 
 choosing long articles a person might say, ' This is longer by a foot ;' the 
 Chinese would say, ' This is long by a foot,' i. e. longer than some others, or ' this 
 is a good one' for ' this is a better one.' This is syntactical ; the duration and 
 the extent being expressed after the word to which they respectively refer. 
 
 148. There are certain words with which it may be well to make the 
 student acquainted here, because they are employed to state the comparison 
 of the adjective in circumlocutions : e. g. pi JT" ' to compare,' thus ' you 
 compared with him are tall' for 'you are taller than him.' 
 
 * Cf. the English phrase, a good many.
 
 THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 59 
 
 yiu *}7 'again, still,' tsal 55. 'again, more.' Cf. the use of encore in 
 French and noch in German : encore mieux, noch mehr. 
 hwdn Jjf^r" 'still, again, beside;' pron. hat in coll. 
 
 yu jjffi ' to pass over,' and yu-fd , which is more colloquial, in such 
 phrases as ' the more, the better.' 
 
 yu rcjfr ' to exceed, more,' used as yu. 
 
 149. Sometimes verbs are used to express the idea of adding to or lessening 
 the force of the adjective : e. g. 
 
 kid TJJJ 'to add,' e.g. kid-to 'add-many,'= greater. 
 
 kien ^Jpjy 'to subtract,' e.g. kwn-siaw ' reduce-small,' = smaller. 
 
 150. The particle yu "fc. 'in, at,' which is used chiefly in the book-style, 
 is also employed in conversation in the sense of 'in comparison with,' 'than.' 
 Likewise several other words and expressions which signify ' a little.' These 
 are placed after the adjective, as adverbs, and induce the notion of com- 
 parison : e. g. 
 
 che-k6 shi td yi-tien-dr ' This is great a little,' 
 jjj| .^ Jg -^ - Ijj^ for, ' This is a little greater.' 
 
 151. Another very common way of forming the superlative is by prefixing 
 the ordinal number ti-yl FF? - > ' first,' or the expression shl-fdn -4-- -y-f- 
 ' ten parts,' to the adjective in its simple form. Both these expressions give 
 the notion of entirety, completeness. The Chinese employ the decimal system, 
 and therefore ten parts means the whole. The word mdn "raj ' ten-thousand, 
 all,' is also used as an intensifier. 
 
 152. When the verb tl f|L 'to obtain' is employed after the adjective, 
 and is itself followed by some word which signifies limit, extremity, urgency, 
 severity, &c., as ;^rd h&n, )[)j|jj M, g3^ kin, ^k\\ *d$a li-Jiai, the superlative 
 is formed by the whole expression, which denotes a very high degree of the 
 quality signified by the adjective : e. g. 
 
 kwai-lo-tl-h&n v& ^jfc 'very glad indeed.' 
 
 sin-sien-fi-ki q6[f fjJEE ' very fresh indeed.' 
 'J /I K>>i 
 
 k'u-ndn-tl-kin r-- ||tt 'very hard to bear.' 
 hiung-tl-li-hai D\J 'very fierce indeed.' 
 153. The following expressions are often suffixed to show the degree of
 
 60 THE NUMERALS. 
 
 the attributive: pu-kwo ^K -^pj 'not pass-over,' pu-sMng ~j HS 'not 
 
 , - _~. I ^ ^+ ,___ _ *- 
 
 over-come,' ^K TT* pu-wdn 'not finish;' also /^ 'f a liau-pu-tx 'finish 
 
 not obtain,' i. e. extremely. The characters V^T 8 ^u 'to kill,' fern 3t or ^^ 
 . ^ 7/ l^ nn. I DM. 
 
 ' to complete,' k'i ^& ' strict,' k'al tf JT ' excellent,' tsung -i It 'to follow,' 
 ' to kill,' san *^ ' abundant,' are also used in this connexion. 
 
 154. Certain other words, which signify great, upper, good, are used for 
 the same purpose : e. g. 
 
 tdrfan-pl 'very different.' 
 
 sh&ng-Jcu-tl H "i* HM 'most ancient.' 
 lictng-kiii-tl FJ /yf Fjcj ' of a very long time ago.' 
 
 . 4. The numerals. 
 
 155. The cardinal numbers are, 
 
 - H E. ^ -b A /L + 
 
 y?, dtr, aw, ^, urit, lu, ts\ pa, kiu, shi. 
 one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten. 
 
 156. The remaining numbers are formed thus : 
 
 i, ii ; shl-dr, 12; shi-sdn, 13; shi-s^ 14: 
 i, 20; dr-shi-yi, 21; dr-shi-dr, 22: 
 
 kiu-shi-kiu, 99; yl-pe ^1 , 100: 
 
 yt-ts'ien -' , 1000; yi-wdn tg , 10,000. 
 
 157. The ordinal numbers are formed by prefixing ti "HT? ? 'order,' to the 
 cardinal numbers ; and up to the tenth, ch'u %J] , ' to begin,' may be prefixed 
 instead of tl. In expressing the days of the month, the cardinal numbers 
 may be used alone for the ordinals. 
 
 158. Fractional parts are expressed by the character fan 'to divide, a 
 part ;' the half by pdn ^. , and the quarter by ke 
 
 Examples. 
 pdn-ji d|?. Q ' half a day.' 
 
 jl-pdn y 'a day and a half.' 
 
 san-fan-chi-yi -O* "^^ ' one of three parts,' = 1. 
 kiu-fqn-chl-8% ~i\ yj> ^* I/O 'four of nine parts,' =4. 
 159. Many characters not propei'ly numerals ai - e used as numerals in
 
 THE NUMERALS. 61 
 
 Chinese as in Hebrew and Greek. The characters in passages from noted 
 authors are employed as numerals. Such are the first four characters of the 
 Yi-klng ; viz. yuen ~7f" , hing ^ , U ~kj\, chmg F|, which serve for the 
 numbers one, two, three, four, for volumes of books &c. The characters 
 slicing h ' upper,' chung fft ' middle,' and hid K ' lower,' are used for works 
 in three parts or volumes. The three months of each season are designated 
 by mdng ?, chiing / jm, and Id fP . 
 
 1 60. The characters commonly used for the purposes of higher calculation 
 and chronology &c. are two series, one consisting of ten, the other of twelve 
 characters; viz. 
 
 W , ., ft T, JTft, tL. J, *, I, & d 
 
 kid, yl, ping, ting, wh, kl, hang, sin, jin, kwel, 
 
 <w =-, ft, &. 0P. Jg, E, t-, *, #, E rl 
 
 fe, cA'eii, 2/Cw, maii, cA'ew, s, wil, wi, shin, yiw, su, hal. 
 
 The principal use of these is for the production of the names of the sixty 
 years of the Chinese cycle, which is called Hwd-kia-tsz A\? m -4 . The 
 
 t M h* I'XJ * * 
 
 number of the cycle must be determined by the xEL *^ nien-hau ' year's de- 
 signation,' by the title of the reign, or by the name of the emperor, and then 
 the two characters from the two series given above will show the number of 
 the year in the cycle. A list of the nien-hau and of the emperors will be 
 found in the Appendix. The date is frequently noted both by means of the 
 emperor's title and the year of his reign, and by the characters of the cycle 
 for that particular year : thus, K'ien-lung sZ-shl-dr-wien, siii-tsz tlng-yiu 
 shi-dr-yu shi-kiu-ji; that is, 'The forty- second year of K'ien-lung, the year 
 ting-yu (A. D. 1778), in the twelfth month, on the nineteenth day.' 
 
 1 6 1. The following diagram and dates of the first year of each cycle since 
 the birth of Christ will be of use to the student. 
 
 A. D. 4. was the first year of the 45th cycle. 
 
 A.D. 64. 
 
 46th. 
 
 A.D. 664. 
 
 56th. 
 
 A.D. 1264. 
 
 66th. 
 
 124. 
 
 47th. 
 
 724. 
 
 57th. 
 
 1324. 
 
 67th. 
 
 184. 
 
 48th. 
 
 784. 
 
 58th. 
 
 1384- 
 
 68th. 
 
 244. 
 
 4pth. 
 
 844. 
 
 59th. 
 
 1444. 
 
 69th. 
 
 34- 
 
 5oth. 
 
 904. 
 
 6oth. 
 
 1504. 
 
 7oth. 
 
 3 6 4- 
 
 5 1 st. 
 
 964. 
 
 6 1 st. 
 
 1564. 
 
 7ist. 
 
 424. 
 
 52nd. 
 
 1024. 
 
 62nd. 
 
 1624. 
 
 72nd. 
 
 484. 
 
 53rd- 
 
 1084. 
 
 63rd. 
 
 1684. 
 
 73rd. 
 
 544- 
 
 54th. 
 
 1144. 
 
 64th. 
 
 1744. 
 
 74th. 
 
 604. 
 
 55th. 
 
 1204. 
 
 6sth. 
 
 1804. 
 
 75th. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1864. 
 
 76th.
 
 THE CHINESE CYCLE. 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Pj 
 
 T 
 
 $ 
 
 a 
 
 ft 1 
 /A. 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
 & 
 
 T 
 
 i 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 49 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 5 
 
 3* 
 
 51 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 40 
 
 m 
 
 41 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 i7 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 54- 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 30 
 
 J 
 
 31 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 '9 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 20 
 
 * 
 
 21 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 10 
 
 $ 
 
 II 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 le 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 60 
 
 162. The distributive form of the numeral is expressed by a circumlocu- 
 tion; thus ' one a-piece' might be translated k6-yi-ko yiu yl-ko, lit. ' each one 
 has one.' The phrases ' by ones, twos, threes,' are turned into yl-ko, yl-ko; 
 li&ng-ko, li&ng-ko; sdn-ko, san-ko. Repetitions of the words or expressions 
 have a distributive force; thus, yi-ts'dng, yl-tsdng |fi> ' in layers' or 'by layers,' 
 ' each article.' 
 
 163. Proportionals which answer to the question 'How many times as 
 much or as great?' are expressed by adding the vrordpei / f to the cardinal 
 number, and placing both after the adjective; thus, to-sM-pei ^S -I 'l-^ 
 'ten times as great:' and if a fractional part, by adding the word fan; 
 to-wu-fan '3j^. 7-7 4V 'five-tenths greater.'
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 63 
 
 .5. The pronouns. 
 164. The personal pronouns commonly used in the Mandarin dialect are, 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 ngo or wd ytt ' I,' 
 
 >f{jj 'he.' 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ngd-mdn / ]rn 'we 
 
 ni-mdn 'you or ye,' 
 
 t'd-mdn ' they.' 
 
 In the dialects these syllables change or are replaced by others : e. g. In 
 Peking, ts& P^J 'I.' In Shan-tung, ngcin -f5| 'I.' In Shanghai, nung ^^ 
 'you,' and no, 'jfljl 'ye or you,' and I -j^ 'he.' While the plural 
 is formed by adding nl to the ist person, making ngo-nl 'we;' and led to 
 the 3rd, making l-kd 'they.' In Fu-kien, Idn and gwa 'I,' U 'you.' In 
 
 Canton, k'u jr-P; or 'fu 'he.' 
 ^^^ i . 
 
 165. There are besides many characters used as pronouns in the books, 
 which are seldom found in the conversational style; e. g. 
 
 , y& 4-*, y& ~T"*J for ist person, 'I.' 
 
 ju jyf, $r |jRJ, ju -^, (also dr j^J and nal jH sometimes,) for 2nd 
 
 -H - - tsE person, ' you.' 
 
 k i pi . and kiii ImT are used for the 3rd person, ' he.' 
 
 The plural is formed by tctng Ap. 'series;' ch'ai 'f 3S& and tsatt H. 
 
 1 6 6. The Chinese have no possessive pronoun, but its place is supplied by 
 the genitive case of the personal pronoun : e. g. ngo-ti ' my or mine,' nl-tl 
 'thy or thine/ t'd-tl 'his/ ngo-mdn-tl 'our or ours/ nl-mdn-ti 'your or 
 yours/ t'a-mdn-tl ' their or theirs.' No difference is made between the pos- 
 sessive pronoun when used as an attribute to a noun and when used as the 
 predicate to a sentence : e. g. 
 
 'This is our house/ = che-fa shi ngd-mdn-tl fdng-tsz ; 
 
 'This house is ours/ = che-kien fdng-tsz shi ngo-mdn-t%. 
 
 Sometimes the particle tl Q ^j is omitted when the euphony of the expression 
 would be injured by its presence. 
 
 167. For the reflexive pronouns self, own, &c., tsz El 'self/ ki pi 'self/ 
 and their compounds tsz-kl and tsz-kid ^|\ are used after the personal 
 pronouns : e. g. 
 
 ngo-tsz-kl ' I myself/ or tsz-kl alone ; 
 nl-tsz-kl ' you yourself.' 
 
 When the subject of the proposition is well known, tsz-kl may stand for any 
 person, but it usually is employed for the first person only, tsln *P ' dear,
 
 64 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 related,' is used for 'self;' as well as shin f^( 'body' and H't! kung 'body:' 
 also the compounds tsln-tsz, kung-tsln *. 
 
 1 6 8. The most common pronoun is the demonstrative, and of this class 
 the Chinese possesses a large number ; some of these are peculiar to the 
 books, others to the colloquial style. They may almost all be used as pro- 
 nouns of the third person (see Art. 165). Such are, (a) tsz m-" ' this, = hie,' 
 
 H- ^T* -\ f" _ -H C 
 
 and (/3) k't Pi. 'that, = ille.' Under (a) may also come tsz %y, sz H/F, 
 
 -** "^ _j^. . ^^ . ~r*l 7\ 
 
 shi Jp-, and che ^fj, (coll.) Under (|8) are also -jj7 pi, y^ fit, ^^ che*, 
 KF kiu, HFj I) nd, and ^W\\ ko, (coll.) The Chinese have no demonstrative 
 for the second person, like iste in Latin. The student should remember that 
 the appositives (Arts. 106 and 107) will be required after these pronouns: 
 e. g. 
 
 che-che-ma ' this horse.' 
 
 k'i-pd-tau 'that knife' or 'his knife.' 
 
 tsz-fung-sln 'this letter.' 
 nd-ko-jin 'that man.' 
 
 169. Our English word &uch, for that or this sort, considered as a demon- 
 strative pronoun, would be rendered into Chinese by any of the above pro- 
 
 * ^_f^ 
 
 nouns followed by ydng Till f sort, fashion :' e. g. 
 
 * i ~ i : 
 che-ydng ti sin-tsing T\ T'jrt 'such a disposition.' 
 
 na-ydng ti tsidng-kiun M^ ^F 'such a general.' 
 
 170. The plural of these demonstrative pronouns, when not shown by the 
 context, is expressed by the addition of sie lit* , ' a few,' to them : e. g. 
 
 che-sie-kwo-tsz ' these (few) fruits.' 
 
 171. The want of relative pronouns in Chinese is supplied partly by the 
 demonstratives and partly by the interrogatives, to which they are correlative : 
 e. g. na-k6, ' that,' is also ' which 1 ' interrogative, and ' which,' the relative ; 
 shut ~ f j: ' who ? ' interrogative, is also ' who,' the correlative of it ; so P/i 
 ' that which,' ' what,' which seems to be a relative, is in its nature, first, 
 indicative of place, and, secondly, an adjunct to a demonstrative expression, 
 and is frequently a substitute for che :, i. e. the definite article. The 
 method of expressing relative clauses must be referred to the syntax, where 
 examples will be found. 
 
 172. The interrogative pronouns most common in Mandarin are the fol- 
 lowing: shut ^fj: 'who?' na-ko IjR '[[j'fj 'which?' shm-md 4pf JWJJJT , pron. 
 shimmo, ' what ? ' also written shl-md ^~T \ . l Who ? ' may also be 
 expressed by shimmdjin, lit. 'what man?' shui-ti 'whose?' or shimmo-jtn-ti ? 
 
 So the old English adjective sib, for 'self,' meant 'related.' Cf, Key's Lat. Gr. p. 49.
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The book word ho -1FJJ l what' is sometimes used in the colloquial style : e. g. 
 ho-jin 'what man?' for shui-jin 'who?' Kl 3J& ( several' is used as an inter- 
 rogative in such phrases as 3?p |^3p kl-shi 'what time?' for when? Some 
 other characters and phrases having reference to this subject will be found 
 under the adverbs. 
 
 173. The interrogative pronouns used in the books may here be mentioned. 
 Such are, shu ^JJ 'who?' cheu JQS 'who?' ho S, k'l p|', and yen jE= 
 sometimes take the place of ho '[PM in the books. See the articles 
 on the interrogative particles. 
 
 174. The indefinite pronouns are sometimes merely the interrogatives used 
 as correlatives: shut 'who?' used for any body; shimmd 'what?' used for 
 any; meit S 'a certain,' for some. None is expressed by 'not any,' there- 
 fore by mu-shimmd Y'r?, i. e. 'not what.' So also kl SP} 'several,' for some, 
 is an indefinite pronoun, as well as an interrogative. Ling ~^f and pi /ijj 
 express 'other' and 'another:' ko ^ 'each,' mel W; 'every;' to ^^. 'many, 
 much ;' sw LfJ^ ' a few, a little,' and su mv ' several.' 
 
 175. Whoever, whatever, whichever ^ and wherever are formed by prefixing 
 sut-pien h^ '[ ffl lit. ' follow convenience,' pu-lun ^f^ sjnj lit. ' not talk of,' 
 
 r pu-kwan 3^ >^ lit. 'not control,' or pu-k'ti 7^ iffl lit. 'not prevent,' 
 who 1 ?' shimmd tung-sl St pfcj 'what thing', or shimmd s-tsing 
 ' what affair;' or to 5) R JM nct-ll ' where :' e. g. 
 
 (1) sui-pien shimmo=' whatever' or 'whichever.' 
 
 (2) sui-pien shimmd-jin =' whoever.' 
 
 (3) sut-pien shimmd-tung-sl =' whichever thing.' 
 
 (4) pti-kwan shimm6-s-tsing = ' whichever affair.' 
 
 (5) pti-k'ti na-ll = ' wherever' (properly an adverb). 
 
 176. When these expressions take a general sense and mean 'all,' one of the 
 following words is employed: fdn M , td-fdn ~jc M , chti SS, chung /&, 
 td-kai -^ Wjf , and several others. The whole is very often expressed by 
 the numeral ' one' with a word signifying to complete, to cut off, and the like : 
 e.g. yi-tsung j|, yl-t'ung SIT, yi-isl tyl . The words meaning 'all' are 
 
 I t\ mj j ' ' ' u ' ^v 
 
 too numerous to mention here; reference may be had to Articles 126, 127, 
 and to the Dictionary for the rest. 
 
 177. Both is expressed by liang-kd jxjxj IjjjjJ, 'two,' after the personal 
 pronouns ; and neither by kd < or H: m &i ' each,' followed by a negative : 
 e.g.
 
 66 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 llang-ko ' both of us' or 'we two ;' 
 ko-jin or mel-jin mu = ' neither of them.' 
 
 Only or alone is expressed by tu-yi-ko yjmj /f^~ 'one alone.' 
 
 178. Before leaving the present section, upon the pronouns, we must 
 notice some of the nouns which the Chinese employ when in European 
 tongues the pronouns would be used. These expressions arise out of the 
 desire to excel in politeness and courtesy, and some of them are of very 
 ancient origin ; they correspond to our terms Sire, Sir, your worship, your 
 honour, and other titles of respect. Their terms of humility are not used 
 among us, except in the close of a letter, your humble servant, &c. 
 
 179. The substitutes for the personal pronoun 7 and my are, 
 
 siau-ti Jr> ffl lit. ' small younger brother,' for 7. 
 siau-k'iuen \ -4~- lit. ' small dog,' for my dog. 
 
 yu Sv^ lit. 'stupid,' for /, especially in letters, chin H5p 'I, the emperor.' 
 A merchant calls himself ' trader,' shdng JTCJ or pun-shang 2| ; and this 
 word phn 'own' is frequently prefixed to the names of offices and profes- 
 sions, in edicts especially, in which the personal pronoun is never used ; e. g. 
 pun-hien ui%> 'I, the district magistrate,' and pun-chlng ffi^ '!> the assistant 
 magistrate.' In addressing the emperor various titles are used; a tributary 
 prince says kwd-jin iju /y^ or Jcu-jin J Ijl , yu-yi-jin -j^ or yu-siau-tsz 
 W Hp; a minister of state calls himself chin K 'your subject;' if a 
 Manchu, nu flj 'your slave.' The people in writing to superiors call 
 themselves tsui-jin 5= ^ 'sinners,' and i jj& 'ants.' 
 
 <f 
 
 1 80. The characters which most commonly enter into such phrases are 
 siau J^\ 'small;' tsien |[g 'mean, poor;' Jtdn |ffj 'cold, chilly;' pi ragj? 
 'bad, vulgar;' ts'au jp 'grass, coarse.' The characters she <g" 'cottage' 
 and kid tjfe 'family' are often used for my. 
 
 Examples of the above. 
 pi-sing i^ ' vulgar surname,' for my name. 
 hdn-she ^j? ' chilly cottage,' for my house. 
 hdn-mtyn p 1 ' cold door,' for my home. 
 siau-i'u ^ 'little scholar,' for 7. 
 ts'au-te$ *Y* ' coarse title,' for my title. 
 kia-fu 'p ' family father,' for my father.
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 67 
 
 she-ti tE ' cottage younger brother,' for my younger brother. 
 ts'ien-fu-jin ^^ J\^ ' mean lady,' for my wife. 
 
 1 8 1. Substitutes for the second personal pronoun are commonly the names 
 or titles of honour of the individuals addressed ; and the possessive pronouns 
 corresponding to thy, your, <fec., are such expressions as the following, made 
 with the words Jewel "& 'noble,' tsun jST 'honourable,' kaM Jj, 'high,' 
 ling ^A. ' good,' 4- lain, ' old,' td ^r ' great,' &c. 
 
 Examples with kwel "HI" ' noble, generous, honourable.' 
 kwei-sing ML 'your noble surname.' 
 kwei-kwo j^J ' your noble country.' 
 
 g_. ^ 
 
 kwei-kang Jj^ 'your noble age.' 
 
 kwei-fh Jffi ' your noble palace,' for your house. 
 
 kwel-t'l |Q 'your noble body.' 
 
 lUf _, . 
 
 182. Examples with tsun ST. 'honourable,' kau jj. 'high,' ling 
 'good,' and td -fc 'great.' 
 
 tsun-ming r$ l y ur honourable name.' 
 
 tsun-kid ^^ ' your honourable carriage,' for you, Sir. 
 
 Jkk 
 tsun-pl ^tj. ' your pencil,' for your handwriting or your composition. 
 
 kau-sheu ^jj* ' your high age.' 
 
 kau-kien M^ 'your high opinion.' 
 
 ling-ldng p[|J 'your good son' * (ldng= pavilion). 
 
 ling-t'dng '^ 'your good mother' ('d#=hall). 
 
 Ung-ngai *jj& 'your good daughter' (ngai = love). She is also called 
 tsien-kln = ~ /^ (lit. '1000 gold pieces') 'your treasure.' 
 
 td-hau 7w^ 'your great title/=your literary designation. 
 td-mtng ' your great name.' 
 
 The same words are applied to form other designations and forms of address, 
 but chiefly in letters, in novels, and in the language of etiquette. 
 
 * Cf. Monsieur votre fils in French and Liebe Mutter in German. 
 K 2
 
 68 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 183. Examples with lain ;r 'old.' 
 
 lau-ye j|r? p ' old father,' for Sire or Sir. 
 lau-hiung y% ' old elder brother/ for you. 
 
 So also td-hiung - ('great'), t'al-hiung "** ('eminent'), jin-hiung ^ 
 ' (benevolent'), hien-hiung (' wise'), in addressing superiors,* for you. 
 
 td-jin, lau-td-jin, and lau-td-fu -^r are used in addressing people of rank 
 and position in society. And instead of the personal pronouns, the name of 
 the individual, or of his office or his title, is substituted in speaking or 
 writing : e. g. 
 
 - | . ^^ 
 shin-fit jjjffl *V ' spiritual father,' for 7, you or he. 
 
 td-lau-ye -^ ^K- tfrj 'your Excellency' or 'your Highness.' 
 t'ai-sz ~T^ BtW ' great general,' to military mandarins, for you. 
 wdn-sui-ye m IgFJ wr? 'Sire of 10,000 years,' of or to the emperor. 
 
 t'ai-hwdng-ti -^ ^^- ffi^ 'great emperor,' of or to the emperor. 
 pi-hid pJjM K 'your Majesty' (pt= steps to a throne). 
 tsu-hid nL "!>" ' you,' especially in letters and documents. 
 
 184. The characters fan & 'a pattern, a rule,' yen ffl 'the counte- 
 ^M_ . , . <.*"'i 
 
 nance,' in conjunction with t'al ~= 'exalted' or ^j(* t'ai 'a high tower or 
 
 I - * '- 
 
 terrace,' are used in elegant writing for you : e. g. 
 kwdng-fdn ~J^ l bright pattern,' for you. 
 k'u-fdn ^f-j- ' earnest rule,' for you. 
 l-yen ' / j||j| 'polite figure,' or t'al-yen 'exalted face.' 
 t'alfu ^H 'your honoured name,' when asking a person's name. 
 m-fu fa- ' you,' used for Confucius. 
 
 t'al-tlng U Vj ' lofty tripod,' when addressing high officers of state. 
 fo-wei yjj 'Tjf ' distinguished persons,' = Gentlemen ! 
 
 185. A few other expressions of this kind are formed with pan 'pre- 
 cious, valuable,' shdng p ' upper,' and hid ~K ' lower :' e. g. 
 
 " 
 
 pau-Miig Y"T ' valuable line of buildings,' for your shop.
 
 THE VERB. 69 
 
 pau-clieu ^H- ' precious barge/ for your boat. 
 
 fu-shdng W 'up in your palace,' for your house. 
 she-hid 3j ' down in my cottage,' for my house. 
 kd-hid l^lj ' under your pavilion,' for you. 
 Also t'al-shdng or t'al-hid for you. 
 
 . 6. The verb. 
 
 1 8 6. Some syllables in Chinese are the representatives of characters, which 
 are commonly used as verbs; these are simple and primitive: many others 
 however are formed into verbs by their connexion with certain auxiliaries 
 and adjuncts ; these may be designated compound or derivative. 
 
 187. Although monosyllables are sometimes found to express a verbal 
 notion, they are almost always assisted by some word of cognate signification, 
 or by some syllable which completes the crude notion expressed in the primi- 
 tive. This is most general in the spoken language of China, and makes it a 
 polysyllabic rather than a monosyllabic tongue, as it is commonly supposed 
 to be. The stems in all languages are monosyllables in the same way. 
 
 1 88. Moods and tenses, as such, are quite unknown to the Chinese. No 
 distinction is made between active and passive verbs ; nor are the persons or 
 numbers noticed at all by them. The context and the circumstances under 
 which any thing is said are the chief guides to the exact sense of any passage. 
 Time and mode are very clearly shown by the meaning of the whole sentence, 
 or by the conditions under which it has been uttered. 
 
 189. The composition of verbs may be considered under nearly the same 
 heads as the composition of nouns. "We have compound verbs formed (a) by 
 repetition, or by the union of synonymes or words bearing a cognate mean- 
 ing; (/3) by joining to the primitive an auxiliary verb, without which the 
 former would convey only a general notion; (y) by prefixing to one verb 
 another, denoting power, origin, fitness, desire, intention, obligation, &c. ; 
 (8) by placing certain verbs before or after others, to give the idea of inten- 
 tion or completion to the action ; () by uniting two verbs, similarly to those 
 mentioned above (/3), but which when united give rise to a notion different 
 from the meanings conveyed by the parts separately, or one of them is equiva- 
 lent to a preposition ; and () by adding the proper object to the verb, like the 
 cognate accusative in Greek, and thus forming a new verb, (cf. Art. 36.) These 
 are general heads merely; it will be necessary to notice other formations below. 
 
 190. Verbs of the first class are very common, and are such as the fol- 
 lowing : * 
 
 (a) k'an-kien E \ fel lit. 'look-see,' i. e. see! or seeing. 
 
 * The Chinese verb, when standing alone, must be construed into the imperative mood, 
 or the infinitive mood as a substantive.
 
 70 THE COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 
 
 k'an-k'dn ^jf ^jjr lit ' look-look,' i. e. look ! 
 hwan-h'l ||^ !M lit. ' rejoice-joy,' i. e. being pleased with, 
 k'l-hung ||^ flit lit. 'cheat-deceive,' i. e. cheat, 
 hmn-kiau gj|j |v lit. 'instruct-teach,' i. e. teach, 
 ying-kal nm = > 1& ' should-ought,' i. e. ought. 
 
 > VJL* II i^^ 
 
 191. One verb follows another as an auxiliary to limit or perfect the 
 notion of the primitive : e. g. 
 
 (0) Mng-sha ^ 3&jr lit. ' do-kill,' i. e. Jdll. 
 
 lung-hwai JLE: -fSE lit. ' do-injure,' i. e. spoil. 
 
 kwei-pai ftF; ^ lit. ' kneel-worship,' i. e. prostrate. 
 
 tie-sZ j|^ ^P lit. 'fall-die,' i. e./a# down dead. 
 
 kt-chtng ^Q fA? lit, 'unite-complete,' i. e. knot and become, or clot. 
 
 192. The following verbs, denoting power, origin, fitness, &c., require 
 another verb as a complement : 
 
 k'o pj* 'can, may' (morally). 
 Jcu -^g* ' go ;' cf. Hebrew idiom. 
 yau jJLt < will^ intend.' 
 kai ~~yl ' it is proper.' 
 tdngtt 'ought.' 
 
 (y) ndng tjfe ' able, can' (physically). 
 
 k'l ^Q ' arise, begin.' 
 yu $& 'long for, wish.' 
 ying ffifl ' it is fit' 
 ' it is right' 
 
 193. Examples of the above with their complements are, 
 
 ndng-fl 
 ndng-sie 
 ndng-ts6 
 k'u-tso 
 
 'can fly.' 
 <can write.' 
 'able to do.' 
 'go to do.' 
 
 yau-tu g0 * will read,' fut. ' read ! ' 
 or ' wish to read.' 
 
 ying-t'ing |pp ' should listen.' 
 Jcd-k'U ^~ 'may go.' 
 k'o-tsb ^M 'may do (it).' 
 k'l-tso | ' begin to do.' 
 wish to die.' 
 
 kai-tdng ffi* ' ought to bear,' = ought. 
 
 EEJ 
 
 194. The common auxiliary verbs which stand before or after the principal 
 verb and determine the tense into which it must be construed are, (i) for the 
 perfect tense, liau *j ' to finish,' kwb !$} ' to pass over,' yiu sf ' to have,'
 
 THE COMPOSITION OP VERBS. 71 
 
 or wdn yr- 'to finish,' placed after the other verb; and I M 'already,' ki ffi 
 ' finished,' and tsdng 1S* ' already done,' placed before it. (2) For the future 
 tense, yau 33 'will,' yuen J5JJ 'desire,' k'&ng tjjT 'shall' or 'will,' tsidng jj^P 
 ' to approach,' or pi ji/\ ' certainly, must,' placed before the verb. 
 
 195. Compounds of two of these are also formed in the colloquial style, 
 and thereby the particular tense is more clearly defined : e. g. 
 
 (8) eZ-liau j/p 'is or was dead.' k'u-liau ^- 'is or was gone.' 
 tu-kwo g|P or tu-kwo-liaii 'has read or studied.' 
 sie-kw6 ^^> or sie-kw6-liau ' has written.' 
 k'i-wdn PX* or k'i-wdn-liau 'has eaten.' 
 yiu-shd Ztj" -fay or yiu-shd-liait ' has killed.' 
 
 IV ^* ^ 
 
 i-chi ^^ or i-king &S chi-liau ' has arrived.' 
 tsdng-shl '& or tsdng -king shl-liau ' has eaten.' 
 te<2ft# @* is more commonly found with a negative prefixed : e. g. 
 pu / * not,' or wi y& ' not yet.' wi-tsdng-lai ' not yet come.' 
 
 ch'dng E^ ' to taste, to try,' is also prefixed occasionally to the verb to form 
 the past tense; thus, ch'dng-tsS / | / fc 'already done.' 
 
 196. Examples of the forms by which the future tense is expressed : 
 yau-k'u S3 ^f- lit.'vriBh-go,'=wittorshallgo. tsiang JWr may be prefixed. 
 
 tsidng-ts6 TJf / |M lit ' approach-do,' = shall do, or about to do. 
 
 v / s~~ 
 
 pl-Mng jrA 'fT lit. 'certainly- walk,' =shall walk, or must walk. 
 
 The distinction of tense is often shown in the context by some adverb of 
 time: e.g. 'to-morrow I shall go' would be expressed in Chinese by 'to- 
 morrow I go;' 'yesterday I came' would be expressed by 'yesterday I come.' 
 These peculiarities do not belong to this part of the grammar, but will be 
 found treated of in the syntax, under the section on tenses. 
 
 197. The next class of verbs is formed by the union of two verbs, the 
 latter of which is supplementary to the former ; and from the union of their 
 separate notions a third verbal notion is formed. The adjuncts which serve 
 for this purpose are very numerous. The most common are mentioned here : 
 
 'to obtain.' 
 
 J cJiu ' to go out' (cf. aus-). 
 
 jiffij k'ai ' to open.' 
 p shdng ' up' (cf.
 
 72 
 
 THE COMPOSITION OP VERBS. 
 
 UL.MI 
 
 m 
 
 k'4 'to go away' (cf. -, weg-). 
 7 sdn ' to scatter' (cf. die-, zer-). 
 
 kien ' to see.' 
 
 pd ' to cease.' 
 
 ch6 ' to take effect.' 
 in ' to enter in' (cf. hineiri). 
 
 M 1C chu ' to rest in, to fix.* 
 K Ato" ' down' (cf. KOTO-). 
 
 ' to come' (cf. s-). 
 
 'to collect' (cf. zusammen-). 
 k'l ' to arise, to begin ' (v. Art. 192). 
 ' to fix.' 
 
 .}|pj[ kwo ' to pass over or by,' y^ wdn, -w.- p$, St tsin, ' to finish,' and 
 some others are used as the above, and occupy the place of inseparable pre- 
 positions in the compound verbs of some languages. 
 
 198. As examples of the uses of the above we may give the following : 
 (e) kl-fft gP lit. ' record-obtain,' ' to remember.' 
 t'lng-tl |JS lit. ' listen-obtain,' ' to hear.' 
 nd-ch'u ^ lit. 'take-go out,' 'to bring out.' 
 t*au-ch'u jfffc lit. ' run-go out,' ' to escape.' 
 fqn-k'al <y^ lit. ' divide-open,' ' to separate.' 
 tseit-k'al ^p lit. ' walk-open,' ' to walk away.' 
 tseh-shdng \ lit. ' walk-above,' ' to walk up.' 
 tiu-k'ti ^^t lit. ' throw-go away,' ' to throw away.' 
 fd-sdn %js lit. ' shoot out-scatter,' ' to expend (money &c.).' 
 wdn-kien R|J lit. ' hear-see,' ' to hear of.' 
 yd-kien jffi lit. ' meet-see,' ' to meet with.' 
 ts6-pd 'jM lit. ' make-cease,' ' to finish making.' 
 shui-chd Iff lit. ' sleep obtain,' ' to go to sleep.' 
 pah-fain Sffl lit. ' walk-enter,' ' to walk in.' 
 k'au-chu Jrjl lit. ' rely on-rest in,' ' to depend upon.' 
 dn-hid 3i(/r lit. 'lay-down,' 'to deposit.' 
 Id-lung iA" lit. 'drag-collect,' 'haul up.* 
 chdn-k'l uf j lit. ' stand-arise,' ' stand up.'
 
 THE COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 73 
 
 shwo-ting g't? lit. ' say-fix,' ' decide.' 
 yau-kwd Jap lit. 'row pass over,' 'row past.' 
 yung-wdn I5j lit. ' use-finish,' ' use up.' 
 t'dn-pl tjjp lit. ' harp-finish,' ' finish playing.' 
 
 hing-tsln ~r lit. 'walk-complete,' 'go through entirely.' 
 
 lal ^|* 'come,' k'ii -^- 'go,' or Uati, | 'finish,' are added to these compounds 
 to express that the action of the verb has taken effect. 
 
 199. Other syllables of like meaning are sometimes used instead of the 
 above ; e. g. tau 5*|J , ' to arrive at,' is used for lai /M^ , ' to come,' in some 
 expressions : and many other words, which signify to complete, end, die, kill, 
 conquer or spoil, help to strengthen the verb; such are, ch'ing M/, yl -:[ , 
 shd ^=^X or shd ^/KTJ, sz for , shing H;fc, ytng )flit shu jjjjlv, andpai p|V. 
 
 200. Another class of verbs is formed by the addition of the cognate object, 
 or that on which the action of the verb naturally falls. This object is not 
 often added in English, but it is in Chinese, and it increases the perspicuity 
 of the expression. The following are examples : 
 
 (0 tu-shu gQ lit. 'read-book,' for read, (for study.) 
 
 sie-tsz ^jL gr lit. ' write-character,' for write, (for practice.) 
 
 kl or chl-fdn ^Y HR7 lit. 'eat-rice,' for eat, (any meal.) 
 
 she-tsui nW ^t lit. ' forgive-sin,' for pardon. 
 
 t'ing-ming Hffi ^> lit. 'listen to order,' for obey, (cf.obedio, fr.ob-audio.) 
 
 k'iuen-jtn 2H/7 yl lit. ' advise-man,' for exhort. 
 
 201. Adjectives sometimes enter into the composition of verbs to intensify 
 or limit the meaning of the pi'imitive : e. g. 
 
 lln-kin Pici -)/ lit. ' come-near,' 'approach.' 
 chang-td -f^r -fc lit. 'increase-great,' 'enlarge.' 
 
 pal-ching I-4jfci |r lit. 'place-correct,' 'arrange.' 
 J Ult. -jJ-~ 
 
 T I ^* J * t 
 
 wa-k'ung jp, /?\*. lit. ' scoop-hollow,' ' excavate.' 
 
 202. There are a few idiomatic verbal compounds made by the union of a 
 verb and an adjective or a noun : e. g. 
 
 tl-tmi ^f JH lit. ' obtain-fault,' ' offend.' 
 
 clmng-i K^ ll^ir lit. 'hit the centre idea,' 'please, suit.'
 
 74 THE COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 
 
 203. In addition to the above, the following idiomatic forms of expression 
 may come under the head of compound verbs : 
 
 i. Those formed with ta J T 'to strike;' e. g. 
 
 tct-swdn l^p, lit. 'strike-calculate,' 'plan, reckon.' 
 ta-M |jij lit. 'strike-knot,' 'tie.' 
 ta-shul ^ fl| lit. ' strike-sleep,' ' go to sleep.' 
 ta-t'lng |p5| lit. ' strike-listen,' ' listen.' 
 ta-sau J'jT* lit. 'strike-sweep,' 'sweep.' 
 
 ta-sh^oul *flf lit. 'strike-water,' 'draw water.' 
 
 2. Impersonals and phrases in which the subject follows : e. g. 
 hid-yu ~~p KM lit. 'falls-rain,' 'it rains,' (or 16-yti jfe.) 
 hid-su | lit. ' falls-snow,' ' it snows.' 
 
 fan-fung gffl/J Jffil lit. ' change- wind,' ' the wind is changeable.' 
 
 204. Many nouns are used as verbs, though they do not differ from them 
 in form; such being always monosyllables, the context only can determine 
 the part of speech to which they belong : e. g. 
 
 tien gMj 'a point, a dot;' also means 'to punctuate, to blot out, to light, to nod.' 
 tau Mf| 'a road, reason;' also means 'to say,' (cf. \6yos=ratio and oratio.) 
 shwo-hwd gj =j3: 'conversation;' also means 'to talk.' 
 
 205. Frequentatives, or verbs which express the repetition or continuation 
 of an action, are formed in Chinese by repeating the primitive syllable : e. g. 
 
 md-md Jpp ' to go on rubbing.' 
 
 t'iau-t'iau jiyk ' to jump about.' 
 
 h6-h6 pfrt ' to keep on drinking.' 
 
 cfiti-ch'u k'i j df^ ' giving off steam constantly.' 
 
 t'dnrt'dn siau-siati ~^ =3^ 'keep talking and laughing.' 
 
 The repetition of the verb does not always give it the frequentative force, but 
 only intensifies the meaning of the simple primitive. 
 
 206. Iteratives, that is, verbs which express the reiteration of the action, 
 as in English when the phrases bachvards and forwards, again and again,
 
 THE COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 75 
 
 up and down are used, are formed in the following manner with lai 
 ' come,' k'u -^fc- ' go,' shdng p ' above,' and hid ~K ' below :' e. g. 
 
 tseu-lai-tseu-k'u ^p ' walk backwards and forwards.' 
 fi-shdng-Ji-hid 4jj> ' fly up and down.' 
 siang-lai-siang-k'u ^M ' think again and again.' 
 
 207. Inceptives, or verbs which indicate the beginning of an action, are 
 formed by adding k'l-lai ~j$L ^4^, ' begin-come,' to the primitive : e. g. 
 
 hwd-shw6-k'l-lai =|3r ~i? 'begin to talk.' 
 
 ni I o AJ 
 
 k'u-k'l-lai fy^i 'begin to cry.' 
 tu-k'l-lai =j|| 'begin to read.' 
 liu-ch'u-k'l-lai ^tff I j 'begin to flow out.' 
 
 k'l-lai has not always this force; sometimes it stands as the complement to 
 another verb : e. g. 
 
 U-k'l-lai )/ ' stand up ! ' or ' stood up,' as the context may require. 
 
 208. Desideratives, or verbs which express the desire or wish to do any 
 thing, are formed by prefixing yau 3 ' to want,' yu <&& ' to wish,' yuen J0 1| 
 ' to desire,' followed by tso 'JM 'to make,' or wei ^f^ ' to become,' to the pri- 
 mitive, if it be a noun, but without tso or wei if it be a verb : e. g. 
 
 yau-k'i P^*. 'wish to eat.' 
 yu-tso Jw 'wish to sit.' 
 yuen-hing .4~f 'wish to do.' (B.) 
 yau-tso-wdng -P- 'wish to be a king.' 
 yuen-wei-chu ZTT ' wish to be master.' 
 
 209. Diminutives, or verbs which indicate the diminution of the action ex- 
 pressed by the primitive, are formed by adding yi-tien-dr ^A J^F* 'a 
 little,' or by the repetition of the verb with yl 'one' placed between : e.g. 
 
 tttf 
 
 k'al-yl-tien-dr Rfj ' open a little.' 
 
 shau-yt-tien-$r ^ 'lessen a little.' 
 tang-yi-tang =*f. 'wait a little, delay.' 
 
 'walk a little, promenade.' 
 
 L 2
 
 76 THE COMPOSITION OP VERBS. 
 
 210. Verbs which express being provided with are formed by prefixing 
 yiu sf=t 'to have' to some noun. These verbs are mostly employed as 
 
 participles (cf. Art. 139) : e. g. 
 
 . , / i 
 yiu-k6-tl Jt^ R^7 'having horns.' 
 
 yiu-yen-tsing-tl Rpi j^m ' having eyes.' 
 
 211. Causative verbs are formed by prefixing kiau \\zi 'call,' kiau zFV 
 'teach,' shi 1JJJ? 'cause,' ling ,-^. 'command.' kiau ^/* is used for J^v incor- 
 rectly; and je J&t 'provoke' is also used in the colloquial style: e. g. 
 
 kiau-lat z& %L ' cause to come.' 
 The object of the verb always comes between the two parts of it. 
 
 kiau-ngo-ts6-kwdn 5ro* / | jw fj[ ' cause me to be a magistrate.' 
 kiau-ngd-pu-ndng-kidng X^ tlH gg 'prevented my speaking.' 
 
 shi-t'a-sheu-k'u / ||W >^ ^r-- 'caused him to be miserable.' 
 
 212. The passive form of the verb is produced by prefixing one of the fol- 
 lowing verbs to the active form, which may be then considered as a dependent 
 noun ; thus with 
 
 Mtfi^. 
 ' to see,' kien-siau SS ' to be laughed at.' 
 
 sheu >^p* 'to receive,' sheu-k'l Hr 'to be insulted.' 
 k'l or ch'i P ~f 'to bear,' Jcl-kwel lfw 'to be reduced.' 
 ling 'Qpj 'to receive,' Ung-kiau ^v 'to be instructed.' 
 ts'au iW 'to meet with,' ts'au-k'ln i^T 'to be seized.' 
 
 -v__i, J !_',/ 
 
 wei jjjfr ' to become,' wei-jin-so-han A^ fifr I'm ' to be hated.' 
 
 213. Several auxiliary verbs are also used with some primitive verb and a 
 noun to express the passive, by which form they must generally be translated : 
 such auxiliary verbs are, 
 
 pei or pi |jH/ 'to suffer, to reach to,' usually translated 'by.' 
 nd / & 'to take, to use;' also yung HEI 'to use.' 
 yal Jsl 'to rest upon, depend on,' (seldom.) 
 tsiang Mff 'to take, to seize;' with I PJ 'to use.' (B.) 
 Also yu "fc(v or -f^ 'in, by,' and mung 'favoured by' (in books).
 
 THE SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 77 
 
 214. The following are examples of the uses of these auxiliary verbs, 
 showing how they help to form the passive : 
 
 pi-hu-shl-liau ^ jjr R? -J^" ~j ' was eaten by a tiger.' 
 pi-t'd-hwd-ngd | / | Wl H^t ;TJ7 ' I was told by him.' 
 na-sU-t'eu-ta-ti-tl ^ 2J g| J"J" ~ty& Qj < was killed by a stone.' 
 
 tt^V ~ I j- *^Cft> / / 
 
 tsiang-tau-tsz-sha-tl jrfj- /I -4-~ TT/ Fj^ 'was killed with a knife.' 
 yung-pien-tsz-ta-tl Hj Sup -4-* i T | ' was beaten with a whip.' 
 Kl-yu-jm-che ||^ ij!^ J\^ ^jjf 'one hated by men.' (B.) (Cf. Art. 212.) 
 mdng-k't-pau-hu ^^ jT. -1 ^ g'g ' protected by him.' (B.) 
 
 215. Two other modifications of the verb, the refleodve and the reciprocal, 
 which in Greek are effected by the middle voice, are produced in Chinese by 
 the syllables tsz EJ 'self and siting Tip] 'mutual' being placed before the 
 verb : e. g. 
 
 tsz-shd-tsz-kid O ^Prr jrrj ^t ' to kill one's self.' 
 
 sidng-lun to El =|fij ' to discourse together.' 
 
 ' *ffl 
 
 siang-yu i 'to meet with any one.' 
 
 ^* V 
 
 sidng-hait | fl-P ' to be on good terms with.' 
 
 . 7. .7%e substantive verbs. 
 
 216. Of these there are several, which vary according to the nature of 
 the case in which they are used, and the connexion of the subject with the 
 predicate in a sentence. The logical copula, 'is,' is expressed by the verb 
 shi -^p- . It denotes either that the predicate is, or, that it is generally sup- 
 posed to be, an attribute of the subject by nature; it corresponds to the 
 original use of <u<, ntyvKa in Greek, from which come fui, fuerim &c. in 
 Latin, used as tenses of esse ' to be.' Shi in the ku-wdn ?t V ^/ ' ancient 
 style,' i. e. the language of the classics, is used as a demonstrative. 
 
 With sM, tsiu tt& 'then,' ye ^ 'also,' and tu ^fj 'all,' are united; 
 thus tsiu-shi, lit. 'there-is,' 'that is;' in Peking dialect sometimes k'o-tsiu or 
 k'd-chiu (l5f): ye-shi, lit. 'also-is,' 'besides it is:' tu-shi (S[), lit. 'all-is,' 
 ' completely is,' ' is quite.' These are recognised phrases in the colloquial 
 mandarin dialect. 
 
 217. The verb wei jjjfr 'to do, to exist, to become,' is also used as a sub- 
 stantive verb, but only when the notion of becoming something by some
 
 78 THE SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 
 
 conventional arrangement is implied, not as is the case with ski -Ipr, when 
 the relation between the subject and predicate is a natural consequence. In 
 " Fire is hot" use ski. In " The Yellow River is the boundary" use wei. Also 
 especially before designations in the predicate : " He is (wei) a slave." This 
 distinction may be said to apply more particularly to the style of the books 
 than to that of conversation. The adjuncts used with wei will also serve to 
 indicate its meaning in some passages : e. g. 
 
 ndng-wei ftH jjjh ' able to be' or ' to become.' 
 l-wei J/7 ^ ' consider to be, take to be.' 
 
 M!^ pf0 ^^ If fjit usi shi-hwdn-chi-nU wei pi 
 ( Servant women are called pi,' i. e. slaves. 
 
 ' The son of heaven considers (all within) the four seas to be (his) family.' 
 218. When the substantive verb implies location, the verb tsai 3X 'to 
 exist or consist in' is used; and when the possession of some attribute, the 
 verb yiu /* 'to have;' e. g. in "he is here" use tsai, in "this is polite" use 
 yiit: thus 
 t'd tsai che-ll 'frfl ifc 3if ffl 'he is here.' 
 
 X " * T ^-~ j> vtt 
 
 che-ydng yiik U ig fttt stn iB lit. 'this has politeness/ i.e. this is polite. 
 t'd-tsai-kid 'in] fa* ^^ lit. ' he is in family,' i. e. lie is at home. 
 tsz-yiu-ll ifK /pjf jB lit. ' this has reason,' i. e. this is reasonable. 
 
 219. The verb tsai 1-t refers to place or position, and means to be in or 
 to consist in; the verb yih /fit" means ' to have some quality? as an acquired 
 possession, or as an accident, so ' to happen to be ;' and consequently in the 
 beginning of the sentence it always means 'there is' or 'there was,' like the 
 use of avoir in French (cf. il y a, U y avait). 
 
 Examples. 
 tsai sin min fa. *^ Jj^ * ' consists in renovating the people.' 
 
 yiiijin shw6 tt ^^ g^ 'there are men (who) say,' on dti. 
 
 220. The word nal ~Tj (rar. ^(j), which was originally demonstrative, and 
 
 * This is from the Td-hiS ~/^ *-? ' The Great Science,' the first of the " Four 
 books," a work belonging to the Chinese classics. It begins with the sentence, "The 
 principle of the great science consists in renovating the people, in perfecting the original 
 virtue (in self), and in resting only in the summit of excellence."
 
 MOOD AND TENSE. 79 
 
 signified 'there' as a designation of locality, and afterwards as a mark of time 
 ' then? seems to take the place of the substantive verb occasionally, especially in 
 the book-style. It is found with all the preceding substantive verbs, and may be j 
 said to partake of the meaning of each. It denotes also 'to wit, it may be.' In j 
 the following example J j and -^p- are in parallel clauses of the same nature : 
 
 'til 75 X il t!j. / A ^tlnalt'itn-fysh 
 'Virtue is heaven's order, vice is man's lust.' (v. Diet. 3311. 
 The word hi \ & 'belong to, is, am,' which is used in the books and in the 
 Canton dialect, corresponds in force to shi jp: and na\ Tj. 
 
 221. The words tso "fty 'to do,' ts8 \fc 'to make,' and tang 'jjf* 'to 
 
 ' r?^ I \^ \ i 
 
 bear, to meet with,' are also used in the senses of the substantive verb. The 
 two former are used as wei ' to be called, to become ;' the latter conveys the 
 notion of a definite article, or of a demonstrative pronoun, like ille in Latin ; 
 e. g. tdng-ch'u \ -ft/I ' that early time,' i. e. ' in the beginning :' tdng-ch'al-ti 
 | =jf=^ Rw 'that sent one,' i. e. 'he who is (or was) sent.' And when tang 
 is used in this way, it serves to point out the subject or predicate, and so 
 renders the use of a positive copula unnecessary ; (cf. the use of shi jr; in the 
 ku-wdn, v. Art. 216.) 
 
 222. Very frequently the verb substantive is understood in consequence of 
 the form of the sentence, or when an adverb or conjunction follows : e. g. 
 
 sung nl tsi hau ^^ ^^ j|p fJ- ' to present it to you will be good.' 
 mai-mai pu t'ung 1 g|f fe* ^3^ $ft ' commerce cannot be carried on.' 
 
 .8. Mood and tense. 
 
 223. A Chinese verb when uttered by itself expresses (i) the notion of the 
 verb in the imperative mood ; e.g. tseu-Jcal ^jr p^j 'walk away!' lal ^ 
 'come!' or (2) the abstract notion of the verb as given in the infinitive 
 mood ; it then stands as a substantive : e. g. tseu-k'al ' to walk away, walk- 
 ing away,' lai 'to come, coming,' are virtually nouns; so t'ad-ch'u ffil jjj 
 ' to run away,' i. e. ' the act of running away,' is either a noun or simply the 
 imperative 'run away!' When however we construe t'ad-ch'ti, 'running 
 away,' something more is expected, it is then only the subject to a sentence. 
 It might for example be said, t'ad-ch'u pti-hau ' running away (is) not good.' 
 So that in truth a Chinese verb can only be construed properly into the 
 imperative when it stands alone. 
 
 224 The indicative mood has no special sign. When the subject, a noun 
 or pronoun, precedes a verb, that verb is generally in the indicative mood, 
 but not always, for it may be a verb which is a mark of some other mood, or
 
 80 MOOD AND TENSE. 
 
 it may be in the imperative; e. g. nl lai, lit. 'you come,' may be (i) you 
 come (ind.), (2) come! (imp.), or (3) when you come; in the first and third 
 cases being entirely dependent upon the context : thus ' you come here twice 
 a-day' would be nl lai che-ll yl t'ien lidng-ts&; and 'when you come, I shall 
 go,' nl lai wo tsiu k'u. 
 
 225. We have seen that the subjunctive mood is only distinguished from 
 the indicative by the context ; and the discussion of some peculiarities of this 
 mood may be reserved for the syntax, by which alone they are to be distin- 
 guished. Certain particles however require that the verb following them 
 
 should be in the subjunctive : such are, j6 and jo-shi "^t |r- 'if (si); hw6 
 and hwS-che py :% 'perhaps' (si forte); t'dng f p 'if and t'ang-jen j ^R. 
 
 ""X'Ai r 4 I I J I J^il * 9 4 
 
 226. The potential mood is designated by the verbs may, can, would, 
 should, must being prefixed, and by the addition of certain particles and 
 auxiliary words to the primitive : e. g. 
 
 k'o-tu pj =j|| 'you may read' (permissive). 
 
 ndng-ld Hg i^f 'I can pull it' (potential, physically). 
 
 hwiii-tso Tjjr 'I iff 'I can do it' (potential, intellectually). 
 yau-k'dn ntl Ipp <I would look' (optative). 
 yau-k'dn ffl ^j* 'you should look' (hortative). 
 
 V / V- g 
 
 pl-kl jt/\ P 'you must remember' (obligatory). 
 pl-s ;?/. ^p 'he must die' (necessarily.) 
 
 227. The following particles and auxiliary words affixed to the verb also 
 show that some tense of the potential mood will be required : 
 
 ti -f|L 'obtain' is suffixed, and followed by lai 'come,' k'l 'arise,' or ch6 
 ' take effect,' or some other auxiliary to mark the direction or completion of 
 the action (see adjuncts, Art. 197). Examples will be found in the syntax. 
 
 k'd-l pj I// , lit. 'can-use,' is prefixed commonly to indicate the potential, 
 either of permission or capability. 
 
 hau W4- ' good ' is used before verbs for the potential : e. g. hau-k'u ' it is 
 well to go,' i. e. go ! (hortative), or 'it is well (for you) to go,' i. e. you may go 
 (permissive). The word pd ' to cease, it is enough,' is put after the verb in 
 this latter sense : e. g. k'u-pd, lit. 'go, and that is sufficient,' for you may go*. 
 
 228. The injmitive mood, that is, the verb without an adjunct, which is 
 construed into English with 'to,' is always appended to some word, which 
 expresses capacity , fitness, readiness, goodness, facility, difficulty, and the like, 
 
 * Cf. Naaman's reply to Gehazi, "Be content, take two talents," 2 Kings v. 23.
 
 MOOD AND TENSE. 
 
 81 
 
 |jjfe 
 
 and by this it is governed. It also follows such words as require the infini- 
 tive of purpose or result, just as in English. The position alone shows the 
 infinitive mood : thus 
 
 (1) ngo ndng-ts6 tsz J| 
 t'd k'd-l tseu 'fjjj pj" 
 nlywg-kaik'u 
 yu-pi hing-wai 
 hau-k'an i-plng 
 yung-l si$-ts vo 
 nd-ydng ndn-tso fl jl 
 
 (2) t'd-lai kien-ngd 'jlfj 
 ngd-mqn lai k'l-fdn 
 
 'f 
 
 I am able to do this.' 
 
 'he is able to walk.' 
 
 g ' you ought to cry.' 
 r ?J ' prepared to travel.' 
 | JCC 'it is good to look at the volunteers.' 
 
 * 
 
 *=b* ' it is easy to write characters.' 
 
 in that manner it is difficult to do.' 
 <he came (or is come) to see me.' 
 we are come to dine.' 
 
 229. The participles are generally shown by the genitive particle tl H^T 
 or chi ^^ being suffixed to the verb in one or other of its tenses; by a 
 preposition being prefixed ; or by the position of the verb after certain words 
 denoting like or dislike : e. g. 
 
 (a) pien-tl ^s%: 'discussing' (pres. part.). 
 
 T A I - 1 tt3j 
 
 hwui-tl m I 'returning. pal-tl 33: ' paying respects.' 
 pien-liau-tl yjjjfi: J| 'discussed' (past part.). 
 hwwl-liau-ti Im J^ ' returned.' pi-liau -ffi^ ' escaped, fled.' 
 (/3) tsai-k'ait 13" ~^^' 'in examining' or 'in being examined' (gerund). 
 
 tsal-mung \ ^S. 'in or whilst dreaming.' 
 
 t ^ >^t^ * 
 
 (y) hau-yau tt+- 4^ 'fond of rowing.' hau-lun Hmj 'fond of arguing ' 
 
 hdn-tu ^^ g^ 'hates reading.' 
 
 hau-yau might be, 'good to row;' and with ft, ' well -rowed.' 
 hwdn-hl pien-liin W 
 
 ?& 'fond of arguing.' 
 
 230. The participles thus formed by the verb and some appended particle 
 hold a very important place in Chinese construction, the syntax and the 
 context however determine the precise meaning in each case : e. g. The above 
 (a) pien-tl, in ngd pien-ti, makes, 'what I am discussing,' or pien-tl 'he who 
 
 discusses.' The preposition tsai TC , ' in,' must be prefixed, if the sense of 
 
 M
 
 82 MOOD AND TENSE. 
 
 the present participle is to be given; thus, tsai-pwn-ti 'discussing/ or 'in the 
 discussion of.' (See the constructions with tl Ret in the syntax.) 
 
 231. The tenses of the verb can be distinguished only by the various 
 adverbs of time or by the context j and all that can be done here is to give 
 the auxiliaries, which may be said to form the principal tenses, the present, 
 the past, and the future. The numerous modifications of the time of an 
 action are produced by the arrangement of the words and the form of the 
 sentence, for which the student may refer to the syntax. It will be necessary 
 even here to follow the synthetical rather than the analytical method, and to 
 show the student how the exact meanings of the tenses found in European 
 languages are conveyed in Chinese. 
 
 232. Pronouns and adverbs of time must be used in order to show the 
 true state of the verb. If the verb tu g 'read' be taken, the forms of 
 the present tense are, 
 
 'I read (habitually or constantly)' ngb chdng-sM tu ('* pi 'always'). 
 'I am reading (now or periodically)' ngb in-tsai tu ( J^r* tt. 'now'). 
 ' I do read (truly) ' ngb shl-tsai tu ( |l" /t 'truly'). 
 
 233. The past tense with liau J., kwo -jjj?f , &c. 
 
 'I read (last year)' k'u-nien ngb tu-liau (-^ xE 'last year'). 
 
 ' I have read (at some former time) ' sien-shi ngb tu-kwo-liaii ( *& ^ ' before 
 
 time'). 
 'I have read (what you wrote)' ni siS-fi, ngb tu-liau. 
 
 The past tense is sometimes formed by the auxiliary verbs yiu sE\ ' have,' 
 and wan ^? , I p3 , M , ts&ng "*, &c. (v. Art. 194) : thus 
 
 ' I have written (the thing in hand)' ngb yiii-sie-liau Jjj 
 'I have passed over (this river before)' ngb tu-Jcwo-liail 
 ' (We) have known (the contents &c.)' chl-tau-liau 4^p ^W 
 
 'He once said (so and so)' yiu-shi t'd kiang-liah /jrt" ^^ -iffj g|]l j 
 Without liau it would be ' sometimes he says or speaks.' 
 
 234. The rule about the past tense appears to be, that when the perfect with 
 ' have' is required, and refers to an action recently performed, it is sufficient 
 to add liau, kwb-liau, wdn, or wdn-liaii to the simple verb; but when the 
 past indefinite is meant, either the context must show it, or some word such as 
 
 * This is the phrase written by the emperor in vermilion on the documents which are 
 presented to and perused by him.
 
 MOOD AND TENSE. 83 
 
 sien jf\ 'before,' sien-shi \ FjS 'formerly,' ts'ung-ts'ien 4)1. Ef|j must be 
 used as well as the above auxiliaries, and if the action refer to a definite 
 time, and that time be mentioned, the auxiliaries may be dispensed with, if 
 the rhythm permit : e. g. 
 
 'I loved her most' (past indef.) sien nqai t'a tlnq-to * 
 
 ~ * 
 
 'He wandered ever' (past indef.) t'a ts'ung-ts'ien yvA-h&ng xj'f. /f~T 
 'We learnt too late' (past indef.) ngd-mdn t'ai-cM hio liau -^ ^Ip jP; 
 ' Last night I heard it' (past def. ) tso-ye ngd t 'mg-liau tsz j^T] M? HM T iI-P 
 ' To-day I forgot' (past def.) kln-t'ien ngo wdng-kl -Hah A* ^C \2JP gp ( 
 
 I / ^* ^ ^ i * LJ v 
 
 235. The perfect tense of impersonal verbs is formed by adding Imit J : 
 e. g. 
 
 hid-liait-yu K J j^fel ' it rained,' (occ. in replies.) 
 Probably the following expression may be referred to this form : 
 
 tseti liait shwiii liau jj T 7]^ T ' it has been run with water,' i. e. water 
 has been fetched: (v. Mr. Wade's Hsin-tsing-luh, Cat. of t'ien.) 
 
 236. Tsang or ts'dng 1" (i) 'to add,' (2) 'already past,' prefixed to the 
 principal verb, denotes the past tenses, often the pluperfect, but this depends 
 upon the sense of the passage and the sequence of clauses : 
 
 ti-nien t'a tsdng-yu .... jtn-ski ^ ^ \ fa *jjj~ jjjj ^ ^ =|g |jj| 
 ' In former years he had formed acquaintance with ---- ' 
 
 tsh-shdng ts'dng-ts6-kwo jj(l[ J-- Ijjr 'JM .|^ 
 ' Among his ancestors there had been . . . . ' 
 
 237. The expression of future time is effected by the words yau ^, 
 tsidng TJ^ , or pi ; rA being prefixed to the verb : 
 
 yau gives the force of will, shall, should, or must, and is frequently used in 
 compounds ; e. g. with k'u -i- ' to go,' 
 
 ' I shall go (to-morrow) ' ngo yau k'ii. 
 
 'You shall go' or 'you must go (to-morrow)' ni yau k'ii. 
 
 ' Go ! ' or ' Do you go (now) ! ' nl yau k'u. 
 
 ' He must go (any time)' t'a yau k'u. 
 
 &.T Jvtft "Sat 
 
 * These examples are from the HAng-leti-mting ip_L ^| 5^' 'Dreams of the Red- 
 chamber/ a modern work in the Peking dialect. 
 
 M 2
 
 84 THE ADVERBS. 
 
 tsidng is used with yau, and gives the force of about to; e. g. with lai 
 ' to come,' 
 
 ' I am about to come,' ngo tsidng lai. 
 
 e He is about to come,' t'd tsidng-yau lai. 
 
 pi is also joined to yau, and then the force of the compound is must, 
 certainly shall or must; e. g. with t'au .$[} 'to run away,' 
 
 ' I must run,' ngo pi t'au. 
 
 ' You must certainly run,' nl pl-yau t'au. 
 
 The addition of an adverb of future time always compensates for the absence 
 of these special words : e. g. 
 
 'To-morrow I shall go,' ming-t'ien ngo Tcu (~H "AT ming-t'ien ' to-morrow'). 
 'In the afternoon you will go,' hid-wu nl k'u ( J> ^-p- hid-wu 'this afternoon'). 
 'By and by he will come,' mdn-mdn t'd lai (TE? | mdn-mdn 'by and by'). 
 
 . 9. The adverbs. 
 
 238. Monosyllables commonly used in an adverbial sense are primitive (a); 
 those of two or more syllables formed by the addition of a distinctive or 
 formative particle are derivative (/3); and those formed by a locution, and 
 which may be resolved into their separate parts, are compound (y) : e. g. 
 
 (a) Primitives are not very common in the colloquial dialect, but are 
 i frequently met with in the books. 
 
 I 
 
 I j ' ' already,' Jtin A- ' now,' heu A7J} ' after,' sien -^P ' before.' 
 () Derivatives are such as the following, formed by adding ju y$\ ' as,' 
 
 r 7 
 
 .,> 
 
 
 hwu-jen ^^ 
 
 | ' suddenly.' 
 
 Jcwd'ien Ifi 
 
 /|V 
 
 | ' certainly.' 
 
 twdn-jen j^/ 
 
 ' | ' decidedly.' 
 
 chd-jen j^f 
 T"l 
 
 .1 ' immediately.' 
 i 
 
 (y) Compounds are such as are made up of two primitives, or of two or 
 more syllables which constitute a phrase : e. g. 
 
 l-kmg pi |j$ lit. *already-now,'=w<tt0. 
 
 ch'd-pu-to ZjE? T^ -^ lit. 'error not much,' = almost. 
 
 tsung-tsien ^IL "ttjf lit. 'from-before,'==/brmer??/. 
 
 t'ien-t'ien '^F yF lit. 'day-day,' = daily. 
 
 tsidng-lai yffir ^4^ lit. ' about to come,' = afterwards or hereafter.
 
 THE ADVERBS. 85 
 
 mdn-mdn-ti tiB | Hy lit. ' slow-slow,' = slowly, 
 td-kicl -fr jtfe lit. ' great-family ,'= altogether. 
 yi-ts * 2^* lit. ' one-series,' =once. 
 
 239- It will be seen that nouns, adjectives, and verbs enter into the 
 composition of adverbs, and that the same principle of formation is fol- 
 lowed as was observed with respect to the other parts of speech. Syno- 
 nymes are united or syllables are repeated to intensify the meaning; or the 
 repetition implies the continuation of the prime notion ; or the words are in 
 construction, viz. as subject and verb, as adjective and substantive, or as 
 attributive genitive and the word which it qualifies; or the compound is an 
 idiomatic locution. 
 
 240. Before giving lists of the adverbs, it will be well to classify them 
 with regard to their meanings and uses in Chinese. 
 
 1. Adverbs of time; in reply to the questions 'when?' and 'how long?' 
 
 2. Adverbs of place; replying to 'where?' 'whence?' and 'whither?' 
 
 3. Adverbs of manner; in answer to 'how?' 
 
 4. Adverbs of intensity and frequency ; in answer to 'how often?' 'how much?' 
 
 5. Adverbs of quantity; in reply to 'how great?' or 'how much?' 
 
 6. Adverbs of quality ; in reply to 'of what sort?' 
 
 7. Adverbs of affirmation, of doubt, and of negation. 
 
 8. The interrogative adverbs are the correlatives of the above. 
 
 241. The common adverbs of time, simple and compound, which answer to 
 the question 'when?' are the following: 
 
 1. The simple or primitive adverbs. 
 
 kin sO*. 'now' (nunc, vvv). hien Tj/r 'now' (jam, 9877, a present). 
 
 fang J^t ' now, just now' (nunc or tune), kdng mjjlj ' recently, just now. 
 
 pien \ jp 'then' (tune). tsiu en/-' 'then' (turn). 
 I vs. 'JVL 
 
 sien yp 'before' (antea). heu 4i 'after' (postea). 
 ch'u -"K/7 'at first' (dpxrjv). si -S 1 'formerly' (olim, pridem). 
 ku 'i* 'of old' (TO TraXni'oj/). hidng ml 'hitherto' (adhuc). 
 chdng *T=i* 'always' (semper). wi 7^; 'not yet' (nondum). 
 
 2. The compound adverbs of time. 
 kln-t'ien nF 'to-day.' hwn-kln J)f 
 
 now' or 'at present.' 
 
 tsd-t'ien (^^t 'yesterday.' tdng-Jdn 
 
 ming-t'ien 'jjrj 'to-morrow.' ju-kln
 
 86 ADVERBS OP TIME AND PLACE. 
 
 ts'ien-t'ien "g|f ' day before yesterday.' hitn-tsai ? ^ ' ifc ) , 
 
 "J -J/U \T. I 'now or 'at 
 
 fang-tsai ~^j ||| ' then, just now.' l-Jdng pi |^ J present.' 
 
 pien-shi ^ 'then.' tsiu-shi nj? 'then.' to?-#X lip "fell ' immediately.' 
 /C <JVu /c. FI >f'J 
 
 tsai-swn "j^ ^ 'formerly.' s?-sM ^ 'in ancient times.' 
 chdng-sM ^j^p 'always,' or sM-shi \ 'at most times.' wA-shi 4fff: 'never.' 
 yib-sM AJ1 ' sometimes.' 6-sA2 ^^ ' often.' tsaii Si ' early.' 
 vn-ts&ng ^F "@* ' not yet.' heu-M ^^ ' afterwards.' chi |^ ' late.' 
 haii-kiit (+ //\^ 'a long time ago.' mii-hid Ej ~T^ 'at present.' 
 shdng-Jch Jr* "i" 'in high antiquity.' wdn-shdng ft W p 'in the evening.' 
 tsien-san-jl H|J O ' three days ago.' kwai-Jcwal ijfl- 'soon.' 
 
 kw6-s-t*ien ]jj^ [7E| ^ 'four days hence.' 
 ts'Ung-tsien 'j'fu |||J 'formerly, from of old.' 
 
 tsiing-yiij, |}p|J xp|" lit. 'generally ha ve,'= always. 
 ' 'Lj) rj 
 
 Duration of time is shown by fee peittiaa of the adverb a/fer the verb. 
 
 242. The common adverbs of place, which answer to 'where?' are the 
 following: 
 
 che-fa iff jiBB lit. 'this interior,' for tsal che-l\ 'in this interior,' =.here. 
 nd-H jFJI) j lit. 'that interior,' for tsai nd-ll 'in that interior,' = there. 
 
 The syllables ti ^jl^, kw'ei j;^, fed H^ c h'u J^, fang ~fy f mien j^j, 
 and pien ^jS.*, which all denote place, are used with the demonstrative (cf. 
 
 "22- 
 
 Art. 1 68), often preceded by the preposition tsai -H 'in:' thus 
 
 tsai-tsz-ti, lit. 'in this place,' =here. 
 tsai-che-pien, lit. 'on this side,'=Aere. 
 tsai-nd-t'ed, lit. 'on that head (for place), 1 '= there. 
 tsai-pi-ch'ti, lit. 'in that place,' = there. 
 
 yti-tsz ~k!\> IJ;K and tsai-tsz j\Y^ lit. 'in this,' = 
 
 tsai-pi ^H? lit. 'in that,' and nd-so-tsai flH ^/T lit. 'that place,' = there. 
 
 243. It will be seen that almost all the adverbs are produced by the con- 
 struction of words with one another. Many of the prepositions are used as 
 adverbs in construction with verbs, as we say 'he is gone before,' Ca-tsien-k'u. 
 
 Examples of adverbs of place (' where?'). 
 che-ll 'here' (hie). nd-li 'there' (ibi).
 
 THE ADVERBS OF PLACE. 87 
 
 ni-pien-che-fi, lit. 'your side here,' 'here by you' (isthic). 
 t'a-pien-nd-ll, lit. 'his side there,' 'there by him' (ittic). 
 tsai-yi-ydng-ti-fdng, lit. 'in the same place' (ibidem), 
 tsai-lidng-pien, lit. 'in two (for the two) places,' 'in both places' (utrobique). 
 cfiu-cJiu* or kS-ch'u ' every where' or 'in each place' (ubique). 
 pu-hiau-ti-tsal-nd-ll, lit. 'not know in which place,' 'in some place' (alicuhi). 
 sui-pien-tsai-nd-ll ' anywhere you please' (ubivis and usquam). 
 tsai-pl-ti-ti-fang, lit. ' in other's place,' ' elsewhere' (alibi). 
 pu-Ml-shimmd-tl-fdng 'wherever' (ubicunque). 
 pti-tsa/i-nd-li 'no where' (nusquam). 
 
 244. The adverbs of place, which express direction from a place, are formed 
 
 fM 
 by prefixing tsting 1* ' to follow' to the simple adverb of position : e. g. 
 
 ts'dng-che-ll 'hence' (hinc); 
 ts'dng-nd-li 'thence' (inde); 
 tsdng-nl-pien-che-ll 'from your place' (isthinc) : 
 and so of all the others. 
 
 245. The adverbs of place, which express to or towards a place, are formed 
 by prefixing tau 35 JJ 'to reach to' or hidng JpjJ 'towards' to the simple 
 adverb of position : e. g. 
 
 tati-cke-ti 'hither' (hue). 
 tau-nd-U 'thither' (eo). 
 tati-wi-pien-nd-1/i 'to your place' (isthuc). 
 tau-ko-pien-nd-fa 'to that place' (illuc). 
 hidng-che-fc 'towards this place.' 
 
 246. Adverbs of manner are generally derivatives formed by the addition 
 of jen *x to some adjective or verb. Such are, hwti-jen 'suddenly,' twan-jen 
 ' decidedly,' in Art. 238. 
 
 Other examples of adverbs of manner are, 
 che-ydng Jg |j| 'thus' (coll.). J0-to& %$ fy 'thus' (B.). 
 Like is expressed by the form 
 
 jd *P yi-ydng - \ or yi-pwan jjj-^ 
 
 pi-ydng TJ]\ \ lit. 'other fashion, '=otherivise, (or lidng-ydng.) 
 
 247. The repetition of the adverb or adjective forms an adverb of manner 
 frequently : e. g. 
 
 ping-ping-an-an P- | ~& \ 'peacefully, comfortably.' 
 hwan-hwan-hi-h\ 2|T | E./>. \ 'gaily.' mdn-mdn-tl T)W 'slowly.' 
 
 * The notion conveyed by repetition is most, a good deal, and never seems to mean 
 absolutely all or every.
 
 88 THE ADVERBS OF INTENSITY. 
 
 248. Adverbs of intensity and frequency are such as the following; they 
 are sometimes called adverbs of comparison : 
 
 Icang f-f ' to change,' adv. ' more, again.' 
 
 tsai .jlj. ' again,' also yiu ^^ . 
 
 ting j ^ 'the top,' adv. 'very.' 
 
 M /jijjjijj 'the extreme point,' adv. 'very.' 
 
 hwdn SJif' 'moreover.' fu -fig 'again.' 
 
 Some other syllables, used to form the comparative and superlative of adjec- 
 tives, are adverbs (v. Arts. 146, 148). Words denoting ' to pass over, exceed,' 
 and the like, are used adverbially: e. g. kwo ^j, yu fc$, &c. 
 
 t'ai ~fi~ and t'l jjjJv denote 'too.' 
 
 to 3j^ 'many or much' is used adverbially. 
 
 pH-Jcwo ^K j^f lit. 'not pass over,'=(w^y- 
 
 shl-fan -4 4-r lit. 'ten parts,' = very, 
 
 td-fdn -^ /*[ lit. 'great, general,' =zmostly, generally. 
 
 yt-sie '/^ lit. 'one few,'=a little. 
 
 shau ^ 'few' and lid >v 'an outline' are also used for little. 
 
 'rather' is less frequent in conversation. 
 shdng-hid [- ~K ' ahnost.' td-y& y^ &j ' nearly, about.' 
 
 249. The adverbs which express frequency, and answer to the question 
 'how often?' are such as, 
 
 fi-ji F | <> r t'ien-t'ien "^ | 'daily.' 
 
 nien-nien ttL ] or sui-sui ~jjjfc \ 'yearly.' 
 
 to-shi ^^ P^p 'often.' yiu-sM >fct | 'sometimes.' 
 
 250. Several adverbs of quantity have already been given, and others are 
 formed by the following constructions : e. g. 
 
 che-ydng-to lit. 'this manner much,'=o much (tantum). 
 t'a/i-to or t'e-to -^* ^^ ' too many,' or ' too much' (nimium). 
 tau j|j 'to arrive at,'=o much as, or up to. 
 Especially after pu X^ ' not :' e. g.
 
 THE AFFIRMATIVE ADVERBS. Ol) 
 
 che-ko ydng-ts'ien pu-tau sdn pe kwel, ' these dollars do not reach to 
 three hundred pieces.' 
 
 251. The adverbs of quality are generally formed by uniting an adverb 
 of manner to an adjective ; e. g. 
 
 che-ydng-hau-jin ' so good a man.' 
 
 yl-ydng-hau-jin ' an equally good man.' 
 
 pe-pwdn |_i| Jfj'Tt ' all kinds of,' lit. ' a hundred classes.' 
 
 252. The adverbs of affirmation, of doubt, and of negation are the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 Affirmative adverbs. 
 
 shi -^ 'it is/=yea; e. g. in 'Is there?' 'Yes.' hi j^ for 'yes,' is pecu- 
 
 liar to the Canton dialect ; e. g. hai-ld ' yes.' 
 jen j*^ denotes acquiescence; it is especially used in the books. 
 
 yiit xtt* ' there is,' after appropriate questions ; e. g. ' Have you ? ' ' Yes.' 
 
 kwo-jen EH | 'certainly.' shi-tsai ~jj Tf- 'truly.' 
 
 ^~ 
 
 _ * 
 
 tsi-jen Hf | 'certainly.' cJiing-jen Sw/ | 'surely.' 
 
 sin x J7=f> ku Igj, ching*, ko sL, shin -S^ are all used in the books, 
 
 but not in the colloquial style, except in compounds. 
 
 The affirmative is also expressed by pu-ts'o /j\ $p| lit. 'not mistake,' or 
 wu-tso ffl 'without mistake.' ch'a =f^- often stands for tso. 
 
 253. Adverbs of doubt are such as the following : 
 hwd-che m/ ^^ < perhaps.' che-p'd JJT\ 'I'pl 'perhaps.' 
 shu-Jd^ *jt ' perhaps' (B.), and wi-pi -^ ^ (B.). 
 k'ung-p'd ^^ ^W 'lest perhaps' (coll.). 
 
 254. The negative adverbs are these : 
 
 mu ^^ 'to be without,' = no or not; opp. to yiu fa 'to have,' =yes, there is. 
 pu yj^ , ' not,' is the most commonly used negative, and it has no other use. 
 /i 4fe 'not to be, false,' =it is not; opp. to shi yp: 'to be,' '= yes, it is. 
 
 wu $BL 'not to have,' ' =without,mu-yiu \& /j|t', which is also common. 
 TSTV ^>v rj ^ . 
 
 The negative of possession is expressed in Canton dialect by mo 
 m& "M* ' not, do not,' is a synonym of pu /K ' not.' 
 
 --A_i 
 
 m PS (in the Canton dialect) = mo and pu of the books.
 
 tsd-md-ydng * 
 tsat-na-fa 
 tsdng-nd-U 
 tati-nd-li 3 
 
 90 THE ADVERBS. 
 
 : wA *fij whng T~, wdng m , wi W&, w& ^7j, f& IjfP , u6 7^;, Kndfeit 
 
 are used in the books, and some of them in local dialects, but seldom in 
 the Mandarin, except in compounds. 
 
 255. The interrogative adverbs correlative to the above classes are: 
 fa-shl i||? g^f 'at what time?' when? 
 
 kl-ch&ng-yuen \ -^ ^^ 'how long? htfw far?' 
 
 Jd-to-t'i^n | ^^ ^F 'how many days?' "1 
 
 . > =how long? 
 
 kl-to-nien \ \ fflp. 'how many years?' j 
 
 stin-ki-nien ^p | ^P. 'how many years ago?' 
 
 shimmd shi-heu ^^ Jftft gi YjS: 'at what time?' =wfien? 
 
 ' how ? in what way ?' 
 'where?' 
 | | 'whence?' 
 | 'whither?' 
 
 'how many times? how often?' 
 
 I 
 'how many fold?' 
 
 ' how much ? ' ki-td ' A ' ' how great ? ' 
 
 i s ^ 
 
 h&-ydng ^Pf ^^ 'of what sort?' 
 ' J I Tiv 
 
 sidng-shimmd 4^ \ \ 'like what?' 
 shi-pH-shi -^ X^ -^ ' is it so or not ? ' 
 yih-mti-yih xfcjf V-^ /pt 'have you or not?' 
 
 256. ^ew pS, A5 / jPj, ^tt A V, and several other words are used in the 
 books as interrogative adverbs or particles. They are prefixed generally. 
 
 wei-h& ^^ / fn| 'why?' (coll.) or wei-shimmo ? 
 
 an or gdn ^& is interrogative, chiefly in books ; dn-tsai >ft = where ? 
 
 Jcl B* at the beginning of a sentence is interrogative, (guomodo.) 
 
 The interrogative particles will be found further on (Art. 272), and the forms 
 of the interrogative sentence in the syntax. 
 
 * Tsa, is also pronounced tsdn, tstng or ts&ng, and formerly it was called tslm : v. Edkint' 
 Grammar of the Mandarin Dialect, p. 153.
 
 THE PREPOSITIONS. 91 
 
 . 10. The prepositions. 
 
 257. The relations expressed by the prepositions are shown in Chinese 
 partly by prepositions properly so called, and partly by the union of these in 
 construction with postpositions. The former are generally verbs j the latter, 
 commonly nouns. 
 
 The following are words used as prepositions : 
 tau -jJJ 'to reach to,' to (ad), and up to (usque ad). 
 
 tsai Tp ' to be in a place,' in (locative) (in) or on. 
 ts'ung 'jjL 'to follow,' -from (de or per) or through, 
 hidng JpjJ ' to go towards,' towards (versus). 
 % J^[ ' to use, to take,' with (instrumental) (de or ex) (B.). 
 fa ^5 ' ^ arr ive at,' with (cum), 
 lien IM ' to connect,' with, united with (cum). 
 ^ ' to act as a deputy,' instead of (pro). 
 
 ' to give,' -for or to (pro or ad) (B.). 
 t- 4 A 
 
 rn lve > ~f or r t (p r r a d). 
 
 t*r" 
 
 ^ J J 'to strike,' -from, but only in colloquial, and especially in the Shanghai 
 
 dialect, in which it is pronounced tang. 
 
 tang |g 'to meet with,' in, at (cf. Art. 221); it occupies the place of tsai 
 ' in,' mentioned above. 
 
 wei 'jjj, ' to do, to become,' -for, on account of (propter). 
 
 tui JAT 'to be opposite to,' towards, opposite to, and^br. 
 
 t'ung |p[j ' the same, together with, in company with' (cum). 
 
 ho ^fj ' concord,' along ivith. 
 
 ts& Ej 'self,' -from (B.), used with ts'ung 'from.' 
 
 t'l ij$ ' for, instead of;' also to or for (ad). 
 
 yln j"H 'because of (propter). 
 
 yiu ttl * origin,' -from, by (ex and per). 
 
 yu ~hj\. and yu "p are equivalents of tsai, 'in,' and several other prepositions, 
 but they are used only in the books. 
 
 258. The words used to express the relations of place in construction with 
 
 N 2
 
 92 THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 the preposition tsai TC are treated as nouns, and may be called postpositions. 
 The most common are these : 
 
 niii y\\ (pron. nei occ.) 'interior,' tsai-fdng-taz nui 'within the house.' 
 
 wai yV ' exterior, 1 tsai-fdng-tsz wai ' outside the house.' 
 
 ft kFR ' interior,' is used similarly with tsai for within. 
 
 ghdng \-~ ' above,' tsai-shdn-shdng ' upon the mountain.' 
 
 hid J> ' below,' tsai-mct-hid ' under the horse.' 
 
 chung tp ' middle,' tsai-ti-chung ' in the middle of the house.* 
 
 tsien Hj] 'before' (coram), tsai-mdn-ts'ien 'before the door.' 
 
 heU \1& 'after,' tsai-ngo-heti 'behind* me.' 
 
 259. The same words may stand after nouns without tsai being prefixed : 
 e.g. 
 
 ch'ing-nui jtjjb JAJ 'within the city.' 
 Icwo-wai 1^1 y\* 'outside the kingdom,' = abroad. 
 shdn-hid { I | T> ' at the foot of the mountain.' 
 mct-shdng ffit p 'upon a horse,' =on horseback. 
 heu -i^, ' after,' is also used as a preposition; heti-ngd ' after me/ 
 
 260. Some explanatory locutions and phrases, such as the following, supply 
 the place of prepositions : e. g. 
 
 mti-yiu V'-r? /t lit. 'not to have,' = without (sine). 
 pti-yting X^ j5J lit. 'not use,'=wriAot^ (sine). 
 pti-tsai^jf^ |i. lit. 'not present,' = without (postposition). 
 vxti-t'etf, fy\- Hp lit. 'outside head,'=6e^owc? (extra or ultra). 
 o-k'ti jjtt[ -j^ lit. 'pass over go,' =beyond (extra). 
 
 Examples of the above in construction. 
 mti-yiu U-k'i \ xpf "Tj ^t ' without strength.' 
 pti-yung f$n-hidng j Hj ^j2^ ?& 'without incense.' 
 t'a-mdn pH-tsai 4[ 'W 'without them' (they being absent).
 
 THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 miau-mdn wai-t'eu fgf.j P^ <y|> 0p| 'outside the temple-gate.' 
 
 /Tr'I/ * I ' I *" 
 
 Mei-ting kwo-k'u tt ^ ^f = ' beyond the Jfei &#' (M*.). 
 
 . ii. The conjunctions. 
 
 261. Copulative conjunctions are of rare occurrence in Chinese, but dis- 
 junctive and adversative conjunctions and those with the hypothetical and 
 illative force are frequently found. 
 
 The ordinary copulative conjunctions are: 
 
 Icl ^ 'with;' hd ^f fj 'with;' ping 7$> or ping +4"- 'together with;' 
 ye, the final particle of the books, is used in colloquial style for and, 
 especially in the phrases ye-yiu 'also have' and ye-shi 'also is;' hwdn .jf?" 
 (occ. hai in coll.) 'still, moreover,' is used in the same sense, yi 7fK 'also,' 
 yiu y[^ 'again,' ts'ie Jrj 'moreover,' and Tjft 1 dr-ts'ie are found in books; 
 so also is lien $jti 'to connect,' =urith, through, kien ^Hr, 'together with,' 
 is seldom used in coll. The copulative conjunction is frequently omitted. 
 
 262. The disjunctives are such as the following: 
 
 hwo-che m/ 3j . . . hwd-che, lit. ' perhap . . . perhaps,' = either ... or. 
 
 yi ill] . . . yi are used in the same way for either ... or. 
 
 pu-shi ^5^ -ip: . . . shi, lit. ' not is ... is,' = either ... or. 
 
 pu-shi pu-kw6 ^X | Y % -J^[ 'not only' (non solum),=fl-tu 5B ^4rj (B.). 
 
 tdn-shi "JP | or hwdn-shi fig \ 'but is' or 'also is' (sedetiam),=tsiu-8hi. 
 
 yi-mien |m . . . yl-mien ' on the one side ... on the other side ' (turn . . . turn). 
 
 yi-shl ' pS" ... yi-sM 'now . . . then' (modo . . . nunc). 
 
 263. The concessive conjunctions are these: 
 
 sul-jen ft 'although' (etsi). 
 
 jen-dr \ Tffl 'although, yet' (not often in colloquial style). 
 
 264. The adversatives are principally, 
 
 tdn-shi '[Q H ' but' or tau-ti \ Jj| ]^ ' yet, but.' 
 
 pu-tdn ^ | 'not only,' Qr-tsie ]j^ j[ 'but also.' (B.) 
 
 tan |j|j, tdn ^, wet or uti '|'| or ; |||, and nal ^JTJ are used in 
 books, both singly and in composition with dr jj^J and jen J^A.", for but, 
 only, &c. chl f|^P and ti ^jjr? are used for but, only, in edicts.
 
 94 THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 265. The conditional or hypothetical conjunctions in common use are, 
 j6 ?, j8-shi | -1^, a.ndjd'-shi \ w 'if;' hw6-ch p\7 3 'if ' (si forte); 
 che-pd Jf\ T|t 'suppose, if;' t'dng "jjpf 'if,' and t'ang-jen | | ; 
 Ji-ju H Jfl 'suppose, if,' or pt-ju J #P (coll.) or tiftjtt jg ^ (B.); 
 she-jti =jvV -7*-p 'if;' cMng-jo gjfw | 'if indeed' ($wi vero); 
 shu-kl Jffi: 2v^ ' if perhaps ;' keu "^j ' if;' and many other words are used 
 
 in the book-style. 
 
 266. The causal conjunctions are, 
 
 yln |x| and yln-wei rH ^K 'because' (coll.). 
 
 M ffiP and Td-jen 'since' (B.). 
 
 \ j^J and i-w?eC J^J ^ 'on account of (B.). 
 
 yuen --3(, 2/ wew > ** rx an( *" > x' an( a * are common 
 
 to the literary style. 
 
 267. The conclusive or illative conjunctions are, 
 
 sd-l fifc yj and M-sd-l A^ jjfr |^| ' therefore,' and tewZ wfr 1 ' then.' 
 ku-tsz Av tfr' an( l yln-tsz i^j MT' are less common. 
 
 268. The^wa^ conjunctions are these : 
 $ j/J ' in order that, so as to' (ut). 
 
 ft tinged ^H M 1 ^ ' lest, so that not' (ne). 
 
 269. The temporal conjunctions are expressed by the adverbs and the 
 form of the sentence : e. g. 
 
 Before he came (prius quam), t'd wi-ts'dng lai, lit. ' he not yet come.' 
 After he was gone (post quam), I &c., t'd k'u-liau, ngo tsiu, lit. ' he being 
 
 gone, I then.' 
 
 As soon as he came, I &c., t'd lai, ngo tsiu, lit. 'he comes, I then.' 
 So long as he reads, I &c., t'd-tu-ti-sht-Jieu, ngd &c., lit. 'while he reads, I &c.' 
 As often as he eats, he sleeps, t'd-k'i, tsiu chdng-shi shut, lit. 'he eats, then 
 
 always sleeps.' 
 Whilst I am here, ngd che-li, i. e. ' I, being here.' 
 
 The position of words and clauses affects the nature of their connection very 
 considerably. In the syntax this will be further elucidated.
 
 THE INTERJECTIONS AND PARTICLES. 95 
 
 . 12. The interjections and other particles. 
 
 270. The interjections, which are the involuntary expressions of feeling, are 
 rather numerous in Chinese. The following are among the most common : 
 
 al-ya P;P* P/l 'ah!' is an expression of joy or surprise (cf. eja in Latin). 
 
 -*>*' * * 
 tsdng-t'ien! tsdng-tien -igr ~/r 'heavens!' 
 
 Ted-lien pj '|'2| or & e o-<s? pf ^Br 'alas! mercy!' 
 k'u-pd ^f- ^e, 'away! be off!' 
 kiu-jin wv y^ ' help ! help ! ' lit. ' save man.' 
 wdn-Jiau rr\' B-p 'very good! beautiful!' 
 ki-miau }- uA> 'wonderful!' 
 
 271. Besides the ordinary interjections of surprise, admiration, &c., there 
 are in the Chinese colloquial style a great number of expressions in imitation 
 of the various sounds heard in nature (onomatopceia), as the fatting of water, 
 jingling of crockery, bursts of laughter, &c. &c. Such are, 
 
 al-ai J& * 'Oh! oh!' (to indicate pain.) 
 hl-hl ^y. .EM. 'Hi! hi!' (to resemble laughter.) 
 
 fan-fan jdng-jdng %/rf sp4V p^ P, to express the noise of business 
 in a market-place. 
 
 272. The euphonic and interrogative particles remain to be mentioned. 
 They vary in the different dialects. In the Mandarin the following are the 
 most common : 
 
 fo fl, ma p, Id juf, yd j, and 16 P are final euphonic particles. 
 
 md Jjjjfc is a final interrogative particle. (Mandarin.) Contr. /. 
 
 nl plp^ is a final interrogative particle. (Canton D.) 
 
 6 RPJ and al P^S*. In replies for ' Oh,' ' very well,' <fec. 
 
 273. The following particles should also find a place here as they are used 
 in the ordinary colloquial style : 
 
 yu$n-lai J M lit. 'originally come,'=fo/ just then! This is used at 
 the beginning of clauses as an exclamation. 
 
 uh 7T and tih-ti is a sign of the vocative case, especially in the Plays of 
 the Yuen dynasty.
 
 96 THE INTERJECTIONS AND PARTICLES. 
 
 pd-pu-ti /ft 'would that!' (utinam,)=I hope, I desire; and 
 
 with a change of tone it applies alternately to the speaker and the person 
 addressed, e. g. ' would that I were &c. !' or 'would that you were &c. !' 
 
 ni-twu, q^K ^|ff lit. 'you speak/ = speak! tell me! introduces a question. 
 
 \\~ff > > '- 
 
 ndn-tau ||tt ^R lit. 'difficult to say,' also introduces a question, gene- 
 rally followed by whether, that is, a dependent question. 
 
 P'* FJ J? or PQ > P ar ticles use d a t the beginning of a sentence, are expres- 
 sive of contempt or irony. 
 
 nai-fdn jntr *j^J lit. 'bear trouble,' and nai-hd ^. 4 pjj lit. 'happen 
 what,' may be regarded as particles. They occur in many phrases, sometimes 
 as an exclamation ; e. g. 
 
 nai-hd! nai-Jw & -J0T | | 'what shall we do!' 
 
 The remaining particles, more common to the books than to the colloquial 
 idiom, will be found treated of at the end of the syntax. % 
 
 274. We have now reached the end of the first division of the grammar, 
 in which has been noticed, ist, the sounds and syllables, the characters which 
 represent the syllables, and the manner of writing the characters; zndly, 
 the formation and grouping of the words and syllables, which enables the 
 student to analyse the sentence with greater ease than he can when each cha- 
 racter and each syllable is considered as a separate word. The fact that the 
 Chinese generally put two and three syllables together to form a simple 
 notion is enough to show that the term monosyllabic is not applicable to 
 this language. 
 
 275. The first object of the student should be to group the words or sylla- 
 bles in the sentence so as to be able to say as nearly as possible to what cate- 
 gory each group belongs ; the more complete and certain classsification of the 
 words cannot be made until their relations to each other in the sentence are 
 viewed in accordance with the rules given in the syntax.
 
 CHAP. II. SYNTAX. 
 
 SECT. I. OPT SIMPLE CONSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 . i. Preliminary remarks. 
 
 276. BY etymology we intended to describe the forms of Chinese words, 
 with their true meaning and classification under those forms, in so far as they 
 are distinguishable by the prefixes and suffixes attached to them; by syntax 
 we mean to denote that arrangement of the words which expresses the rela- 
 tions existing between them, and the various forms of the sentence by which 
 simple and complex ideas are exhibited. 
 
 277. The words of the Chinese language being without inflexion, the 
 external form of the word cannot be introduced as an element to be con- 
 sidered in the construction of sentences. The case of the Chinese is similar 
 to that of the English language in this particular, that the position of a word 
 shows to a great extent its grammatical relation to the other words of the 
 sentence. We have to consider then as we proceed to analyse the Chinese 
 sentence; (i) the relative position of the words, (2) the relative position of 
 clauses, and (3) the presence of certain particles, or words used as such. 
 
 278. It is assumed that the student is able to recognise in the sentence 
 the particles and other words which help to form nouns, verbs, adverbs, &c. 
 In order to do this he must have an accurate acquaintance with the earlier 
 sections of this work, especially with Arts. 89, 90, 106, 107, 126, 127, and 
 130, for nouns; and Arts. 192, 194, 197, 211, 212, and 213, for verbs; also 
 the Arts, on the adverbs and prepositions. The student will also do well to 
 refer again to Arts. 35 and 36, on the composition of words, for the same 
 general principles, there noticed, hold good with respect to the syntax of 
 words and sentences. 
 
 .2. General rules relating to the position of words. 
 
 279. The expression of the time when of an action generally stands first 
 in a sentence ; e. g. 
 
 4--I-- 
 kln-nien kwd-tsz to A. 4fe HL -?- ^ 'this year there is much fruit.' 
 
 kln-t'ien hail <^ TF iff- ' to-day it is fine.' 
 
 t'ienrt'ien wdn-shdng \ \ |]$ J-^ ' every day at eventide.' [122.]* 
 
 hien-tsai kd-chti-dr &c. 'now in every place <fec.' [r 25.] 
 
 * The numbers in brackets refer to Mr. Wade's Hsin-tsing-lii, (Peking dialect.) 
 
 o
 
 98 THE POSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 280. The designation of place follows the expression of time; e. g. 
 tso-t'ien tsai Pe-king &c. j^ "j^ "^ H-" 13 ' yesterday in Peking <kc.' 
 
 281. The subject of a sentence, when it is expressed, is placed before its 
 verb, though not always immediately before it, for sometimes adverbial ex- 
 pressions come between it and the verb ; e. g. 
 
 ji wi cliu M 7j^ J J ' the sun not yet being out.' Chrest. p. 8. a. 13. 
 
 t'u tsal Kw&ng-tung pti hau \ jjj ["-. jrjjpj- 1st j D-p ' ho was not 
 
 well in Canton.' 
 ji-yu tsai-t'ien cheu-Mng R ^J Tp ^F ijnj Y~T ' the sun and moon 
 
 revolve in the sky.' [90.] 
 
 282. The subject is often understood from the previous clause, and then it 
 is generally a pronoun of the first person ; e. g. 
 
 kiu nl ki ngb ts6 che-ko ^ j^' |^ ^ ^ JH JE) '/ beg you 
 to do this for me :' cf. Dialogues in Mandarin. Chrest. p. 27. a. 17. 
 
 283. The adjective precedes its noun always; when it appears to follow it, 
 it should be looked upon rather as the predicate of a sentence, in which the 
 noun that it qualifies is the subject, as in the example above, the literal ren- 
 dering would be, ' this year the fruit is much :' e. g. 
 
 hau-jin rj-p A^ 'a good man.' \ che-ko jin hau ' this man is good.' 
 
 284. Words and phrases, which qualify other words and phrases, regularly 
 precede them; thus the attributive genitive is shown by its position before 
 the noun : e. g. 
 
 kwan-fu tl che-ts% *& tj^jp |^ j| ^ 'the mandarin's sedan.' 
 tsiu-t'ien tl klng-$r && y^~ | -gj- hfp 'the aspect of autumn.' 
 t'ien lidng ti slii-heti | >' | j;) 'p 'the time of sunrise.' 
 
 285. In accordance with this rule the relative clause, being a qualifying 
 expression, is thrown into the form of an attribute to the noun, which would 
 otherwise be its antecedent : e. g. 
 
 nl chu ti ti-fdng f^tj / j X Rg ji|| ~Tj ' the place, in which you live,' 
 lit. ' you dwell's place.' 
 
 kiau M p'l tl na-ko-jin M^ S I flP iS A: <that man> wh 
 
 was struck with lightning.' 
 liit, lit. 'thunder,' p'l 'to rend by lightning.' kiau here=^ei, v. Art. 213. 
 
 286. Adverbs generally precede the words they qualify, but they sometimes 
 follow them ; e. g.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 99 
 
 yl-sz wA tad - f^ 4ft #& ' without the least mistake.' 
 '|V|' "iv y-H 
 
 che-tl yi-ko ^{ ^ - /^ ' only one.' 
 
 shln-t'i* p'6 gdn ?f SB/ Jfrfj S* ' I am pretty well.' 
 
 lien-lien ta-kung .jljl .wi Jj Jit 'repeatedly bowing.' 
 
 287. The expression of length, height, or duration is placed after the 
 phrase to which it belongs ; e. g. 
 
 kau lu ch'l jE*. ^ 7? < six cubits high.' 
 
 tau-lu sz-ll ;jff P& I/O JH < the road is four miles long.' 
 
 ^ fr~* ,-f. * 
 
 htd-yii san-tien n IvKj ' ~/r 'it has rained three days.' 
 
 3- The construction of simple terms. 
 
 288. When two nouns come together, the former of them is in the genitive 
 case, or they are one of the following constructions; viz. (i) an enumeration 
 of two objects, and being understood between them; (2) in apposition to 
 each other ; (3) the former is the subject, the latter, the predicate of a sen- 
 tence; (5) the latter of them is an adverbial expression of time, place, or 
 manner : e. g. 
 
 chun t'ien ^5c ~^~ lit. 'spring's sky,' 'the sky in spring;' cf. Art. 109. 
 kwdn-fu shing-ming iff Jwp J$jj- ^\ 'the mandarin's reputation.' 
 
 (1) yu, su j^ftj as-* 'rain and snow.' 
 
 ji, yu, slng-su R pj fip- ,fe* 'sun, moon, and stars.' 
 
 (2) chu-tsal ^p -^ 'lord or master;' cf. Art. 100, &c. 
 
 (3) fu hal, sheu shdn jjjS ^0 -^^ Ml 'his happiness be it a sea, his 
 
 age, a mountain.' 
 
 jin-shdn, jin hal /\^ [ I 1 /V y fi^. ' men as many as mountains and 
 seas.' 
 
 (4) kiuen ye sheu kid -7^* M? ~i~ ^^ 'the dog by night keeps the house.' 
 
 ye, ' night,' is here an adverb of time. 
 
 289. A noun before an adjective is either (i) the subject of a sentence of 
 which the adjective is the predicate, or it is (2) construed as an adverb; e. g. 
 
 (i) sin chd _,[V STL l his heart is narrow.' 
 
 * shin-t'l 'body/ cf. the use of corpus for the personal pronoun in Latin. 
 
 O 2
 
 100 THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 
 
 ctii-tsdn pu-tui Tr^ ^j X^ ^?T ' the measurement is not the same.' 
 yu-lidng hail j^J i^ W4- ' the moonlight is beautiful.' 
 (2) ping lidng ,7J ^Jj? 'cold as ice;' v. the first example in Art. 297. 
 fung kw'ai, pi chl Iflll V fr Jjtt- jgj 'sharp as a needle, straight as a wall.' 
 
 290. A noun after an adjective is qualified by that adjective, or it forms 
 an adverbial expression in composition with the adjective; e. g. 
 
 (1) shing-jin *j& /\^ 'a holy man, a sage.' 
 
 wel-fung ti mien Jcung Jfej/ jjfil Rg tm /C^. 'a dignified countenance.' 
 
 (2) ming-nien Wj :r. lit. 'bright y ear,' = next year. 
 gdn-ti-fo Pg" JHJ Jj&. lit. 'dark place within,' = secretly. 
 
 291. A noun before a verb is either (i) the subject of that verb, or (2) an 
 adverbial expression of time, place, or manner, formed by the two words; 
 e. g. 
 
 (1) K'ung-tsz shwS-tau J~f -Jp g 
 pdng-yiu hwul-lal JBH ~^i jm 
 
 (2) hiau-king fd-mu ~?j fflv *V 
 
 dience :' pron. also fu-meit. 
 m&p'autikwai ffa Rffl Pg 
 
 292. A noun after a verb is either (i) the object of that verb, or (2) an 
 adverbial expression of time, place, or manner, formed by the two words; 
 e. g. 
 
 (i) 16-liah shin-fan l^/ J f^f /4V 'lost his position.' 
 
 ta-fd liaii jtn-chai ; J $c J yl ^^ 'sent a messenger.' 
 
 (2)fdng-smshw8-pd! ^ ^ |^ ^| 'freely speak!' 
 lien-ye t'd k'it ^^[ |^ ^if^ ^^' 'all night she cried.' 
 
 fang-sin is literally, 'release heart;' cf. Chrest. p. 27. a. 13. 
 lien-ye is literally, 'connect night,' =' all night,' sometimes, 'day and night;' 
 cf. San-kwd-chi, Chrest. p. 17. a. 24, 25. 
 
 293. When two adjectives come together they follow the same rule in 
 several particulars as that in Art. 288 with respect to two nouns; viz. (i) 
 the first is an attributive to the second, and qualifies or intensifies it; or (2) 
 
 ' Confucius said,' 
 'my friend is returned.' 
 ' reverenced his parents with obe- 
 
 ' as quick as a galloping horse.'
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 101 
 
 they express simply an enumeration of two qualities; or (3) they are in 
 apposition, and form a compound adjective; or (4) they form an adverbial 
 expression of time, place, manner, or degree : e. g. 
 
 (1) ctidng-yvien -F5" i^i ' long-distant,' = distant. 
 ts'ing-ts'u Jw 3rp ' clear-distinct,' = distinct. 
 
 (2) fang, yuen ~hr IMj ' square and round.' 
 
 kau, tl .&', -jff- 'high and low.' 
 (3)Mn-sau |f fctjj} 'dry.' Cf. Art. 136. 
 tsung-ming fllfl ^ 'intelligent.' 
 
 (4) yln-yln ya-ngcti Htf | 7 ft *^' 'most affable and courteous.' 
 
 yin means ' full, complete.' 
 tsi ts'u siau 'A$K Q^ zac:. ' respectfully and heartily laughing.' 
 
 294. An adjective before a verb either (i) qualifies it as an adverb; (2) 
 it is used as an abstract noun, and is then the subject to the verb ; or (3) 
 they form an adverbial expression : e. g. 
 
 (1) t'd kw'ai tseu-liau 'JHJ r ^ ^& J 'he walked fast.' 
 to yung sin sz *&, J^\ y fV> ^^ ' he thinks much.' 
 
 (2) 6 pit tl gdn 5.3. ^yj ^w. ^* <the wicked cannot obtain peace.' 
 shen yiu shen pau ^\ ^fcj" ^K. ^R ' virtue has a good reward.' 
 
 (3) ts'id-dr shati-tl hati-t'ing ^ ^P^I^^T 'the birds sing 
 
 sweetly,' lit. 'good to hear.' 
 
 295. An adjective after a verb follows a similar rule; either (i) it is used 
 adverbially, or (2) as an abstract noun, and is then the object of the verb; 
 e. g. 
 
 (1) t'd kidng hah ^HJ gpl h-+~ 'he speaks well.' 
 shwft ming ~j^ op) ' to speak plainly.' 
 
 pal ching J^ej Jp ' to arrange properly.' 
 
 (2) ts% pi yiu i iw' ^fW ^tt" ttz 'there is a difference between this and that.' 
 hiS hau wei shen jiP; l\\ JE i>fe. 'to learn goodness is a good thing.' 
 
 296. When two verbs come together they are in composition or in con- 
 truction either (i) as a compound word, or (2) the second is the natural
 
 102 THE GROUPING OF WORDS. 
 
 complement of the first, or (3) they are used as an adverbial or attributive 
 expression ; e. g. 
 
 Examples for (i) and (2) will be found in Arts. 190 198. 
 
 (2) ngo pu-ndng tseu 5y /r\ EJi> ~jjp ' I am u t & ^ e t walk.' 
 
 tsz jin k'o-l tu \\Y A p| I/I =;19 ' this man can read it.' 
 J J>U / * J ^% R 
 
 <tM yau shl U &ft~ S kffi jjjS 'then he was about to go through 
 the rites,' or ' to make the proper greetings.' 
 
 (3) tsi ts'u siau ha ha ^^ $2} -^ P^ | 'respectfully-heartily laughing.' 
 
 S_I_ * K-* | t- 1. 1 f 
 
 lien-lien ta kung kung Jg3 | i J ^^ jtt 'repeatedly bowing reverently.' 
 
 . 4. 2%e principles involved in the grouping of words. 
 
 297. Besides the ordinary formation of the parts of speech by the union 
 of two, and sometimes of three syllables, the Chinese are fond of grouping 
 together syllables, which form a rhythmical expression, and which are attached 
 to each other upon principles often different from the primary rules, but which 
 accord with the less common rules of composition and construction : e. g. 
 
 f ii5 "~*f T T ^* | * , 
 
 tsiii-t'ien sln-k'ii P-w^j rntf A -rtr ' n the lip sweet, in the heart bitter.' 
 
 * - * y i ii| 
 
 td-t'dng siait-i ~fc~ jp?j J\) .f-f. 'in a great degree the same, in a small 
 degree different,' = nearly alike: cf. Arts. 289 (2) and 293 (4). 
 
 298. The first important principle of grouping is the appropriate selection 
 of words having an opposite meaning, or which are generally connected in dis- 
 syllabic phrases : e.g. t'ien-ti y\^ j||] 'heaven and earth;' wdn-wu '\/ TlV 
 ' civil and military.' These are separated, and compounded with two other 
 words to form a set phrase or group : e. g. 
 
 t'dn-t'ien shw6-ti g^ ~^" g|V -J-H1 'to talk about every thing, to gossip.' 
 tuna tau si wal "l*J a ?|| Utf 2^ ' to fall in all directions,' lit. ' eastward 
 
 ' I V ' *^J i I " 
 
 and westward.' HoM-k'iu-chuen, p. 12. h. 16. 
 
 299. Another leading feature in the grouping of words is repetition. This 
 is extremely common, and has the effect of intensifying the meaning of the 
 single syllable, and gives the notion of a good many, often all, every, to the 
 single noun. It is true, however, that it gives occasionally a meaning some- 
 what at variance with the original notion conveyed by the word : e. g. 
 
 kd,n-k&n kw'dn lid ^S | Jr4^ # 'to detain as a guest with importunity.' 
 
 ti teiii-hiun-hiun 'fji jlM $\m I 'intoxicated completely.' 
 ITT HT Hist ' 
 
 hau-haii sung ngo ux \ j^ $ 'conduct me properly.' Chrest. p. 12. 1.23.
 
 THE UNCOMMON USB OP WORDS. 103 
 
 jtn-jin tu shw6 /^ | ||[I g^ 'every body says.' 
 
 che-che sdng-plng Jj^ | ffi jml 'each (animal) is sick :' (cf. Arts. 106. 2.) 
 
 shi-shi k'o-lien tl|f I pT 1'S 'truly to be pitied.' 
 
 V"*, -f ' A*r 
 
 300. These repetitions must be construed according to the sense of the 
 passage, sometimes as nouns, sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as expres- 
 sions of plurality, and very often as the imitation of natural sounds : e. g. 
 
 yiu wdn-wdn yj-f J-Tf* | ' to roam for pleasure.' 
 
 mwdn-t'ien tii shi sing-sing ^jSg ~^? ?hji |p Jp \ 'the whole sky is starry.' 
 
 siau ha-ha tl -T~. Q& | Rg 'laughing with a Ha! ha!' 
 
 301. Words expressing cognate notions or commonly associated ideas are 
 placed together, and become phrases in groups of two, three, and four cha- 
 racters each. These are virtually nouns or verbs, general terms, or special 
 designations of objects : e. g. 
 
 k'al-t'ienp'i-ti Rfl '^ j-{jj, lit. 'open heaven, split earth,' = creation. (1997.) 
 
 yen, Mng, tung, tsing, =f -fr Wj liph 'words, ways, and deeds,' =. conduct. 
 \ i-i j?-i lit 
 
 wb-hd st-halTi V'gB j/LJ yEt lit. 'the five lakes and the four seas,' = the world. 
 hiad-chdn wan-chan B:f 015 ?IM 3^ lit. 'the food and cups,' '= the feast. 
 
 F" W F*-* ( ' v- liil- 
 
 wdng-heii wdng-heti ^^ 'li^ <^P \ lit. 'to look and -wait,' = to visit friends. 
 
 . 5. Uncommon use of certain words in phraseology. 
 
 302. The employment of single words in Chinese is very various, and fre- 
 quently is quite exceptional, and to be explained only by reference to con- 
 
 ventional usage ; e. g. in 
 
 . j 
 
 ho-pa JA" ip , ' a torch,' we have the noun fire and the verb to hold united 
 
 to form a conventional term for torch. 
 k'eu-wi JZJ PTT 'taste,' from mouth and to taste. 
 
 k'eit-Mng [ \ / JIL ' evidence,' from mouth and to declare. 
 
 fung-p'i if J& ' the government confiscation paper posted on the front- 
 
 door,' from fung ' to seal,' and pi ' skin, bark.' 
 ahi-sheit J~^ "H* ' a corpse,' from corpse and head. 
 pujln yen k'u /j^ j& ftp -^ 'cannot bring himself to speak of going,'
 
 104- THE UNCOMMON USE OP WORDS. 
 
 lit. 'not suffer to say to go,' where leu 'to go' stands as the object to 
 the verb yen ' to speak, talk of.' 
 
 sheu-i ia ^A lit. 'long-life's garments,' or 'the apparel of old age,' '= shroud. 
 
 303. Phrases are often affected by ellipsis, and would according to the 
 ordinary rules of composition appear to be absurd, but, when the customs of 
 the people of China are considered, these phrases become intelligible, and 
 frequently display elegance and vigour of expression : e. g. 
 
 pai-sheu 3^F s lit. 'to bow to, or worship age, long life,' = to pay com- 
 pliments on a birthday, 
 pai-nien ifp lE lit. 'to worship year,' = to pay compliments at the new year. 
 
 304. So also many technical and legal terms are formed by an extra- 
 ordinary use of words, for which the student should be prepared : e. g. 
 
 ho-pd,n jf=| "A* 'goods for a beginning,' = capital, funds. 
 tung-si 13-1 JTJLJ lit. 'east-west,' = thing, any thing. 
 yu&n-kau Rlf 5z lit. ' origin-accuse,' =plaintiff. 
 pi-kau -KK? | lit. 'one being accused,' = defendant. 
 
 305. The student of Chinese must also expect to meet with very many 
 designations formed by the metaphorical use of words. Such are, 
 
 siu-ts'ai ^T?J yT lit. 'sprouting talent,' = B. A., the first degree in scholarship. 
 
 ._ - . 
 
 yun-nge ^ &$ lit. 'cloud-forehead,' = a headband. 
 ~^\ " ^ 
 
 306. In like manner the names for many officers of government are formed 
 by metonomy, using the name of the place, or of the employment : e. g. 
 
 Idng-chung mK t lit. 'pavilion centre,' = gentleman usher. 
 
 t'ung-chl {^jjj 4;P lit. ' with-know,' but chl is here put for 
 
 chl-hien 4cD Pr-f! lit. 'knows the hien (town)' or 
 /r ^-|> 
 
 chl-fu 4;p pM- lit. 'knows the^t (city),' therefore t'ung-chl means 'an assist- 
 
 ant of the chl-hien or chl-fu? And these are equivalents for 'prefect' 
 or 'mayor.' 
 
 307. Many expressions are purely foreign, and, although represented by 
 Chinese characters, those characters are not to be taken in their ordinary 
 sense, but simply as the equivalents for certain foreign sounds : e. g. 
 
 ya-pien ^j| B" 'opium.' 
 
 po-li Jj | ' glass/ ace. to Mr. Edkins, from the Sanskrit sphatika.
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 105 
 
 The words referred to in this section are to be employed as compounds, 
 excepting in such a case as chl-hien, when the eld may stand in another 
 compound for chi-hien. This habit of eliding a syllable is common in 
 Chinese *. 
 
 .6. Tlie modifications and relations of the parts of speech. 
 
 308. The meanings of words are modified by their connexion with other 
 words. A noun may be the expression for a general notion, or an 
 abstract term; or it may be used to designate an individual only. In the 
 expressions ' man is mortal,' 'what will a man give for his life?' ' the man 
 came again,' the word man stands in different relations; in the first case it 
 means mankind; in the second, any man or every man; and in the third, 
 some particular man. In Europe, grammarians call the words prefixed to 
 the noun, by which the definite and indefinite or general notions are indi- 
 cated, articles. These articles are in their nature demonstrative pronouns; 
 and accordingly the Chinese use such pronouns when they desire to circum- 
 scribe the notion of the noun : e. g. 
 
 jin=man, mankind; ko-jin 'that man,' = the man; yi-k6-jin 'a man.' 
 
 ma-pi 'horses;' ch'uen-che 'ships,' (cf. Art. 116.) 
 
 Jco-che-ma 'the horse;' na che ch'uen 'the ship.' 
 
 nu-jin 'woman;' ko-nu-jtn ' the woman ;' yi-ko-nu-jin ' a woman.' 
 These are in the colloquial idiom; in the books various words (cf. Arts. 168 
 and 174) are employed to limit or to render indefinite the substantival 
 notion. For the general term the simple monosyllable is often sufficient in 
 classical composition. 
 
 309. It must hoAvever be borne in mind that these distinctions in the 
 meaning and use of words are not confined to the noun. Chinese verbs are 
 used in a general sense or with a special application according to the form of 
 the sentence or to the circumstances of their position and the addition of 
 certain particles or adjuncts. If the student will refer to Arts. 189 &c. on 
 the verb, and will compare them with the examples here given, he will obtain 
 a clearer idea of these remarks than by the following examples alone. In 
 Art. 301. yen-Mng-tung-tsing, 'words, ways, and deeds,' for the whole con- 
 duct, illustrates this remark. The words mean literally ' to speak, to act, to 
 move, to rest.' Tung-tsing especially is an expression for a general term, 
 the scope of which is indicated by the two opposite terms of moving and 
 resting implied by its component parts. In epistolary correspondence, and 
 in the style of the classics, such forms of expression are common : e. g. in the 
 preface to the Shing-yil or 'Sacred Edict' we have 
 
 I - chi - yu kdng-sang tso - si chl kien 
 
 ' Even to that which concerns the culture of the laud and the mulberry 
 and labour in general.' 
 
 * As the examples, which will be given in what follows, will be made up generally of 
 words previously used in this work, the characters belonging to them will not be printed, 
 excepting those not likely to be known by the ordinary student. 
 
 P
 
 106 THE SYNTAX OF THE CASES. 
 
 310. Verbs formed in the manner described in Art. 200, belong to those used 
 in a general sense, or as abstract terms, and they may stand as the subjects of 
 simple sentences, or as the result or purpose in a compound sentence : e. g. 
 in the expressions tu-shu ski yau-kln-tl 'to read is important,' nl k'd-l tu-shu 
 mo ? ' Can you read 1 ' the word read is used in a general sense independent 
 of any special act of reading. Again, in t'd lai tu-shu, ' he comes (or came) 
 to read,' the word tu-shu expresses a purpose; and in yung sin tsiu k'd-l tu 
 shu, ' take pains and then you will be able to read,' it expresses a result. 
 When such expressions as tu-shu ' to read,' sie-tsz ' to write,' ki-fdn ' to eat 
 rice,' k'al ch'uen ' to sail,' hai-jin ' to injure,' she-tsui ' to forgive,' are used in 
 construction in the sentence, except in cases such as the above, the nouns 
 compounded with them are dropped or separated from the verbal element. 
 Thus: t'd tu-liau sdn-pd,n-(shu) 'he has read three volumes.' But tu is also 
 a special word for studying books : nl tu-kwo S-shu mo ? ' Have you read 
 the Four books'?' that is, 'Have you studied them thoroughly]' To read 
 simply is, k'dn 'to look at.' The uses of such words will be found exemplified 
 in the exercises, which follow the grammar. 
 
 311. The union of opposite terms has already been referred to in 
 Arts. 117, 1 1 8, and there it was shown that two nouns of opposite significa- 
 tion form a general term ; and that two adjectives in a similar way form an 
 abstract noun. The same may be said of two verbs which represent two 
 opposite notions; e. g. to labour, to rest, gives the general or indefinite 
 notion of labouring, working. 
 
 312. The position marks the nominative case of the noun. Any word 
 which stands before the verb may be the subject of that verb, unless it be 
 inconsistent with the sense of the passage to construe it as such. In any 
 other case it would be an adverbial expression, or as it were the accusative 
 case placed absolutely, denoting the thing or part affected by the verb : e. g. 
 (cf. Arts. 91, 92, 93, and 198, for the characters; and Horn. Od. a, 274, for 
 ace. abs.) 
 
 k'e-jin tseu-k'al, pu chung-i k'i-ch'd 
 
 ' The guest walked away, he was not pleased to drink tea,' 
 
 hwd-kung wdn-kien cKai-jin tl shwti-hwd, tsiu pu hwdn-hl 
 
 ' The painter heard the messenger's words, and (then) was displeased.' 
 
 ^-fu, yd tdng-wdn-liau ' clothes, even they were pawned.' 
 
 313. The genitive case is also shown in most cases by the position of the 
 word before the noun to which it belongs, and very frequently by the pre- 
 sence of the particle tln^t between them, or chl / /^ if it be in the literary 
 style : e. g. 
 
 t'ie-tsidng tl nu-$r ' the blacksmith's daughter.' 
 
 kia-fu ti kwqn-tsZ ' the courier's cudgel.' 
 
 ma-fu ti sidng-tsz ' the groom's box.' 
 
 md-kid or ma chl kid ' the horse's foot.' 
 
 sien-sdng chl hiung 'the teacher's brother/ or 'the gentleman's brother.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF CASE AND NUMBER. 
 
 314. The dative case is shown by the use of certain verbs which signify to 
 
 give, to offer. Such are kl 4j^ and sung ?& and yu J^fjf., the two first 
 
 i ^ 
 
 being used in the colloquial idiom, the other in the book style * : e. g. 
 ki nlfdn k'l ' give rice to you to eat.' 
 ki ngd tsS cM-k6 ' do this for me.' 
 
 sung yii t'd yl-kwel ydng-tswn ' to present a dollar to him.' 
 kiting yu jm-jln 'to speak to every body.' 
 
 315. Other words, which are commonly used as prepositions, supply the 
 want of case in the noun. Article 257 contains almost all the words which 
 are employed for this purpose. But as they are to be regarded as preposi- 
 tions or postpositions, we must refer the student to the syntax of that part 
 of speech. 
 
 316. The accusative, case is shown merely by the position of the word 
 after its verb, or between the parts of a separable verb : e. g. 
 
 ngd kiau-liau k6 jin lal ' I have called the man here.' 
 
 k'e-shdng pu yau mal ch'd ' the merchant does not wish to buy tea.' 
 
 sien-sdng ch'lfdn Had, 'the teacher has eaten the rice,' (has dined.) 
 
 317. The vocative case is distinguished by being cut off from the rest of 
 the sentence, either by the addition of a particle of exclamation, by the 
 repetition of the word or the appropriate pronoun, or by the sense of the 
 passage and the context : e. g. 
 
 Lau-ye-ya I k'o-lien ngd, ' O Sir ! pity me ! ' 
 siau-dr ! nl pu-yau k'u, ' Boy ! weep not ! ' 
 Chdng-ngo! Chdng-ng6 ! nl, 'O Luna! Luna! you &c.' t 
 Cf. Mr. Wade's Hsin-tsing-lu, Category of T'ien, [5.] 
 
 318. The ablative and the locative and instrumental cases will be found 
 fully exemplified under the Articles on the syntax of the prepositions. Two 
 or three examples may here be given : 
 
 From (a place) is expressed by tsung, 'to follow,' or tsz; e. g. 
 
 t'd shi tsung SJtdng-hal lai tl ' he is from Shanghai.' 
 With (instrumental) is translated by yung, 'to use,' or I; e. g. 
 
 ngd yung niau-ts'idng, ta t'a, 'I struck him with a gun,' i. e. 7 shot him. 
 By or through (causal) is expressed by yln-wel or wei-tsz 'on account of;' 
 
 t'd tau-k'ii, yln-wei yiap'd, 'he fled through fear,' lit. 'because he had fear.' 
 
 319. The modifications of the noun Avith regard to gender and number are 
 seldom made. When this is done, special words are employed to mark the 
 gender of the noun, and certain adjuncts are used to show the plurality. 
 Some of these words will be found in Arts. 123 128. The following are 
 examples of the use of such words : 
 
 * tl and tal \\ i are used to translate for, (instead of.) 
 
 t Vide J. G. Bridgman's translation of Premare's Notitia Linguce Sinictx, p. 19. 
 
 P 2
 
 108 EXPRESSION OP PLURALITY. 
 
 yiu ndn-jin, yiu, nu-jln shdng-hid sdn-pd-ko, 'there were men and there 
 
 were women, about three hundred.' 
 ni ti chi-nu lai mo ? ' Is your niece come?' 
 
 kln-t'ien td-lie, td-shd yi-che kung-chu, ' to-day in hunting, (we) killed a boar.' 
 K'ung-tsz tdng mu-yih lidng-ko, or mu-yiu, lidng-ko K'ung-tsz, 'there are 
 
 not two of the Confucius sort.' 
 
 320. Examples of the use of the plural particles and adjuncts, given in 
 Arts. 126 and 127, now follow: 
 
 chung-jin hwdn wi-ki td-ylng ' before the men had replied ;' v. Chrest. Hau- 
 
 k'iu, p. ii. b. 10. 
 chil-wel sien-sdng ! ' Gentlemen !' 
 shii-min (B.) = pd-sing-mdn (coll.) 'the people.' 
 chu-sien-sdng kial wu ping 'none of the teachers are ill.' 
 hu-to jin pu k'o-i td-ho-ts'idng 'many men cannot shoot.' 
 che-ti-hiung-mdn 'your brothers' (often); v. Jfsin-tsing-lu, Shing-yil. [19.] 
 ni-mdn ping-min-mdn 'you, soldiers and people.' [39.] 
 chung-shin k6 yiu so kwHn tl sz-tsing ' each of the gods has his own affairs 
 
 to manage.' [358.] 
 pd-sing-mdn so pal tl kd-chti-dr, pti t'dng, 'the places where the people 
 
 worship are various,' lit. ' each place not the same.' 
 plng-min-jin tdng ' soldiers and people all.' 
 
 321. Further examples to illustrate the plural particles in Arts. 1 26, 1 27 : 
 jtn-kial chl tsz ' all men know this.' 
 
 kiun-chln kial ku 'the prince and the minister both wept;' v. San-kwo, 
 
 p. 1 8. d. 12. 
 
 k'fi-kd t'iing-k'u 'all and each wept bitterly;' v. San-kwd, p. 18. k. 25. 
 jd-hien tating chl 'the scholars all followed him.' 
 
 shii-hwdn-cKdifi-shwo 'all obstinate detractors;' v. Shu-king, p. i. i. 23. 
 nung-fu, kung-tsidng tdng ' husbandmen and artisans.' 
 shi yiu hwdn-kwdn Tsad-tsl tdng ' at that time there were the eunuchs of 
 
 Tsau-tsl's party;' v. San-kwS, Litho. p. n. g. 13. 
 
 Tdng & , pel b , lui c , tsi&, tsati, 6 , and cheu f are all used after nominal notions 
 to express plurality, a class or party : e. g. 
 6-pel ' the wicked ;' tsien-pel ' predecessors ;' Jkeu-pel ' successors.' 
 wdngS-t chl pel 'those who forget right principle.' 
 t'-Ang-pel chljin ' men of the same class,' i. e. equals. 
 kwdn-tsad, ' officers, mandarins,' (not commonly used.) 
 fl^-hti orfl-t'u 1 'vagabonds;' wti-tsi, 'we,' belongs to the literary style. 
 cfiU-fdn wu-kien ' the universe of things/ all things. 
 
 yiu-ad-tsz-vou k'u pu shtu 7& ffi tyjjj fyn] ^M. ^ ^ lit. 'the 
 
 things that were given, all he did not receive,' i. e. he received none 
 of the things that were given. 

 
 MODIFICATION OP THE ATTRIBUTE. 109 
 
 To ^^ , ' many,' sometimes follows the noun to which it belongs : c. g. 
 Chung-kw6 jin to ch'u wai-fdng 'many Chinese go abroad.' 
 
 322. A few of the ordinary phrases denoting plurality, or the whole group 
 or collection of objects, may here be given. The Chinese in naming certain 
 classes of things have attached a number to the generic term, according as 
 they conceived the genus to be divided into more or fewer species; and these 
 expressions have come to mean the whole class accordingly : e. g. they say 
 
 sdn-kwang 9 - ' the three lights,' i. e. sun, moon, and stars. 
 
 sdn-tsai b ' the three powers,' i. e. heaven, earth, and man. 
 
 sdn-kiau c ' the three religions,' i. e. ju d , shl e , tau f , ' Confucius, Buddhist, 
 
 and Tauist.' 
 s-Ms 'the four seasons,' i. e. chun, hid, ts'iu, tung, 'spring, summer, autumn, 
 
 and winter.' 
 wu-hing 'the five elements,' i. e. kin, mu, shwul, ho, Co, 'metal, wood, water, 
 
 fire, and earth.' 
 wit-lun ' the five relations of life,' i. e. between kiun and chin, fu and tsz, 
 
 fti and fu, hiung and ti, pdng and yiu, ' i. Prince and subject, 2. 
 
 father and son, 3. husband and wife, 4. elder and younger brothers, 
 
 and 5. friends.' 
 
 wu-k'u ' the five kinds of grain ;' wu-tsi6 ' the five degrees of nobility.' 
 wu-wi ' the five tastes,' i. e. sour, sweet, bitter, acrid, and salt. 
 wu-cJidng ' the five virtues,' jin, i, ll, chi, sin, i. e. benevolence, justice, pro- 
 priety, prudence, and truth, 
 lu-i 'the six arts,' ll, yd, slie, yu, shit, su, i. e. etiquette, music, archery, 
 
 driving a carriage, writing, and arithmetic, 
 tsl-tsing 'the seven passions or emotions,' hi, nu, gal, 16, ngai, wu, yu, i. e. 
 
 joy (external), anger, grief, delight (internal), love, hatred, desire, 
 pd-kwa ' the eight diagrams,' the theme of the Yi-king. 
 kiu-t'ien ' the nine heavens ;' and kiu-cheu ' the nine islands,' for the world, 
 wdn-ti ' all the virtues,' and wdn-slvi 'all ages.' 
 
 They also sometimes express multitude by using adverbially such terms as 
 swarms of insects, vast forests, oceans, seas, mountains, &c. : v. Art. 288. (3.) 
 
 323. The modifications of adjectives, in respect of degree, are very various, 
 and are effected by the addition of certain words and particles to the adjective. 
 No alteration however can be made in the adjective to show the distinctions 
 of gender, number, and person. It stands generally before its noun, either 
 immediately, or it is connected with it by the particle ti Q^ (c.) or chl ^^ 
 (B.) being placed between them. Some adjectives seem to require these 
 particles, either to avoid ambiguity in the expression, or for the sake of the 
 rhythm ; e. g. shen-jin ( a virtuous man,' not shen-chl-jin, but kang-tau tl jin
 
 110 COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 'a just man.' The rule given in Art. 132 should be observed, that when a 
 verb enters into the composition of the adjective, the ti or chl is required. 
 
 324. Examples of the construction of adjectives *. 
 che-H, tsien-shwul, ' here it is shallow water.' 
 
 t'd-tl kien-shl a , ts'ien, ' his knowledge is superficial.' 
 llng-ll-tl jin or ts'ung-ming-tl jin ' a clever man.' 
 k'iau-miau-ti tsidng-kung ' a dexterous artisan.' 
 su-pd-tl chl ' snow-white paper.' 
 plng-lidng-tl shwul ' icy-cold water.' 
 td-tdn-ti hau-ki b ' a brave hero.' 
 kung-tau-tl hwdng-ti 'a righteous emperor.' 
 wdn-yd ti sien-sdng ' a scholar of great attainments and polish.' 
 che-k6-ts tslng-si-tl sie 'these characters are written with elegance.' 
 k'd-lien-ti jin-kid 'a miserable individual.' 
 k'd-yung-tifd-tse^ ' a method which may be used.' 
 hau-yung-ti niau-ts'idng d ' a useful fowling-piece.' 
 hau-siau-tl si-tsing e ' a laughable affair.' 
 che-ll hwdn-hl-tl ti-fdng ( this is a pleasant place,' 
 che-ko siau-dr Jiwti-tting-ti ' this boy is active.' 
 t'd yiti, yiu-t'Ung -ts'ien ti pdng-yiu 'he has rich friends.' 
 tszjin yiii U-lci-tl 'this man is strong.' 
 mti-yiu licLng-sln-tl 'a, man without a conscience.' 
 shi yiil-haii-i-si-ti 'he is a well-intentioned person.' 
 che-ko tung-si shi chl tl 'this thing is made of paper.' 
 pti shi, shi mti-ts6-ti, ' no, it is made of wood.' 
 shi jin-hdn-ti kwdn-fu 'he is a hated mandarin.' 
 ts% si shijin-k'o-hdn-ti 'this affair is hateful.' 
 pti-sidng-kdn-tt 'it is of no consequence,' ' n'importe.' 
 kin-t'ien t'd pu shwdng-kwai-ti ' to-day he is unwell.' 
 
 Chung-kw6, Ying-kwo, pu-hd-mii-tl, ' China and England are inimical to each 
 other.' 
 
 325. The comparison of the adjective can best be shown by means of 
 examples. For the auxiliary adjuncts the student may refer to Arts. 144, 
 145, and 148 150. 
 
 che-ko hau-ti, na-ko kang-hau-tl, ' this is good, but that is better ;' and 
 
 nd-ko kang-kid-hail ' and that is better still.' 
 
 ngo tso-t'ien mai kang-kid-pati-pei-tl tung-sl 'I bought a still more precious 
 
 thing yesterday.' 
 
 nl pi t'd kau 'you are taller than he is.' 
 t'd pujd-nl kau 'he is not so tall as you,' or 
 t'd mu-yiu nl-kau 'he has not your height.' 
 
 * For the words the student may refer to Arts. 133 142, p. 55- 
 c
 
 COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. Ill 
 
 nd-ko haft, rii 'this is better!' lit. 'this is good!' We must suppose some 
 .one making a selection, and taking up one article, which he con- 
 ceives to be superior to the rest. 
 
 pu hail tl to, hau ti shau, lit. ' the not good are many, the good, few,' which 
 is equivalent to ' there are more bad ones than good ones.' 
 
 326. The expression of the comparative degree is further effected by 
 means of the words yiu ' again, more,' and tsai ' again,' hwdn ' still, besides,' 
 yu ' to pass over/ yu ' to exceed,' and some others of a similar meaning : 
 cf. Art. 148. 
 
 Examples. 
 yu-tsau-yu-hau 'the earlier the better;' yu is used in the same way, but 
 
 not often in speaking. 
 hd k'ai-liau k'eu-tsz, hid-yu yiu to, 'when the river had overflowed its 
 
 banks, the rain fell still more.' 
 mu-yiu tsai si-ti ' there is no finer.' 
 pu ndng pi che-ko si-ti ' you cannot get finer than this.' 
 yau-ch'uen hwdn yau kwai ' row faster.' 
 ngo k'dn t'd pi pi-jin tu chung ( I look upon him as certainly more honest 
 
 than other men;' chung =' heavy,' 'well-principled.' 
 fu td lidng td ' the greater his fortune, the greater his bounty.' 
 
 nge wai kid siu & \\ y h Tip 'fl^. ' give a higher salary,' lit. ' allowance 
 
 beyond add recompense.' ffsin-tsing-lu, Part III. 22. 
 kang k'i chung-liau Sfi ^o^f Ogf J^ 'the more inflamed it swells.' ffsin- 
 
 teing-lu, P. III. 29. The chung-liau in this place is like the imper- 
 sonal in Latin. 
 
 Most of these sentences might be otherwise translated in respect of form, but 
 
 no difference in meaning would arise therefrom. 
 
 327. The form for the limitation of the quality of the adjective is the 
 following. Various words may be used for rather. 
 
 mal kwel yl sie 'bought it rather dear.' 
 
 ta-lidng tien dr 'a little more generous.' 
 
 nd yl-k6 twan yl ch'i ' that one is shorter by a foot.' 
 
 328. The word in Chinese forms of comparison which seems to take the 
 place of than in English is yd ~k^. : e. g. 
 
 tsiti hau yu shwul ' wine is better than water/ or 
 
 tsiu pi shwul kang hail would express the same, although it is not so exact 
 as the former, for in it the goodness of both is implied, which might 
 not be true of some other articles under comparison. 
 
 shin yu hai ' deeper than the sea' (B.). 
 
 jinfeti yu si 'men more than workybr them' (B.); feu 'to float/ 'to exceed.' 
 
 yu has the sense of ' with respect to/ and so ' in comparison with ;' v. 
 Arts, on the particles, and the examples in the exercises.
 
 112 DEGREES OF THE SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 329. In Arts. 146 and 151 154 the student will find the forms of the 
 superlative degree, and it remains only to give here a few examples of their 
 usage. The various degrees of the superlative are shown by the same words, 
 which must be translated by most, very, too, according to the sense required 
 by the context : e. g. 
 
 t'a ti Mng-wei tlng-pu-hau ' his actions are very bad.' 
 hail k'i-kw'ai ye (Hi) 'very wonderful' (B.). 
 
 hait pti k'u ye 'very much afflicted;' this expression, in which pit ~%\, 
 *not,' intensifies, is equivalent to shl-fan k'u ti; and mu J&, 'to be without,' 
 is sometimes substituted for pit in such phrases. The adjective with the 
 negative before it must be looked upon as one word, and the negative particle 
 then stands as a privative particle ; e, g. hau mu-liang-sln is ' very wanting 
 in conscience,' not 'well may he have no conscience,' as translated after 
 Premare by Bridgman *. The other examples given by Premare prove this 
 view to be correct, for wu ffit , ' without,' is used occasionally in the same 
 sense: thus 
 
 nl hau mu-tau-ti ' you are very unreasonable.' 
 
 hau wu-pd & -pi b 'entirely without method,' or 'very unmethodical.' 
 k'i ts'ung-ming shin pu shing c ' his intelligence is quite unsurpassable.' 
 ti-mu t'ai ch'u yung-i ' the theme turns out to be a very easy one.' The 
 ch'u here belongs to the yung-i; ti-mu is the subject, the remainder the pre- 
 dicate of the sentence. 
 
 330. It may be observed that the particles which form the superlative 
 are very frequently suffixed instead of being prefixed, and this is especially 
 the case in the books, and in the higher colloquial style ; e. g. 
 
 mel shl shin kl 'a very beautiful countenance.' (1700, 1071.) 
 Jco-gai shin I (-5?-) 'very amiable.' 
 
 331. Examples of the superlative with t'ai yr', t'e JJV?, and kw6 -jjpj 
 are the following : 
 
 pii yau t'ai Jcien d ' do not be too modest.' 
 
 che ki t'ai hien e * this plan is too dangerous.' 
 
 hid sheu t'e hd,n-liau ' it is struck too much,' this is the impersonal form, 
 
 but it is equivalent to 'you struck me too hard.' 
 t'e tslng-si liau 'it is too delicate.' 
 nl ye t'e to sin ' you are a person of too much heart.' 
 tsiu t'e k'l kl liau 'the wine it was drunk too quickly.' (1068, 1074.) 
 wdn-fo pu shin t'ung-t'eu f ' in learning not very profound.' 
 sing-ts'ing kwo ngau 'he is too proud;' 8ing-ts'ing=' temper, mind.' 
 
 JE 
 
 Vide Bridgman's translation of Premare's Notitia Linguce Sinicce, p. 83
 
 DEGREES OF THE SUPERLATIVE. 113 
 
 332. The following expressions illustrate the use of Bjfijf^, tsu %&, tiiii 
 and h&n 
 
 che-ko shi k'o-siau-ki-liau ' this is most laughable.' 
 
 ki-td yi-tso-miau ' a very large temple.' 
 
 ki-k'iau-tl hwd-kung 'a most clever painter.' 
 
 ki-mu-k'iau^-ti hwd 'most unintelligible language.' k'iau (1129). 
 
 tsu wu kl-hwui^, lit. 'entirely without opportunity.' Mr. Bridgman has 
 
 rendered it 'exceedingly unfortunate.' 
 tsiii-kau sheu-twdn c 'very skilful.' kau 'high.' 
 miau pu-k'd-yen ' wonderful, unspeakably.' 
 hdn-shln-ti tslng ' a very deep well.' 
 tsu-miau, tsu-miau, ' very good ! very good ! ' 
 shi ko tsu-miau-tifd-tsz'it is a most admirable plan;' v. SMng-yu,p. t j.'h,24,&c, 
 
 333. The phrases sTn-fan and ti-yi,pu-sJiing,pu-kwd, and liau-pu-ti (v. Arts. 
 151 and 153) should be remembered as adjuncts to form the superlative notion : 
 e.g. 
 
 sdng-ti shi-fan tslng-siu^ 'born very well-favoured.' 
 
 pu td-shi-fan-hau ' not very very good.' 
 
 ti-yi miau 'very wonderful:' cf. Americanism t /ir'stf-rae. 
 
 * shl-dr-fan jin tsal e ' very beautiful in countenance ;' so 
 
 wu-fan haii, means ' five parts good,' ' pretty good/ and 
 
 kl-fan hau 'several parts good,' 'in some degree good.' 
 
 pu-sMng hl-hwdn, lit. 'not conquer joy,' 'extremely glad;' or 
 
 hi pu-ts-shing, lit. 'joyful not conquer himself,' like eWrao-ts. 
 
 hl-hwdn liau-pu-tl ' most joyful,' lit. ' cannot end his joy.' 
 
 hwdn-hl wu-so-pH-kl^, lit. 'joy interminable.' 
 
 tsui k'u pu-kw6 'most miserable beyond compare.' 
 
 kung-tau pu-kw6-tl ' surpassing just.' 
 
 kufai-suS m<5 h kw6 yu tsz ' insurpassably swift.' (B.) 
 
 cheu-6 shm-pu-shing 'desperately wicked.' 
 
 tsdn-niowuyuyutszlJiIji FlT ffiF: {tib ~+* IK 'incomparably cruel.' (B.) 
 
 334. There are other phrases and words used for the purpose of intensify- 
 ing the attribute, but these will be found under the section on the particles 
 and in other parts of this work. The following however must come in here 
 (cf. Arts. 152 and 153 for the characters used) : 
 
 hiung fi li-hai 'most cruel;' (tl 'to obtain,' or tl the gen. pa.) 
 
 nl ye shd lau-shl liau 'you are too honest;' (ye 'also,' the fin. pa.) 
 
 t'dn tsiu kw6-to ' he is too fond of wine.' 
 
 * shi-fan meaning 'ten parts,' which is like saying the whole of any thing, shl-dr-f 
 would mean 'twelve parts,' and be a stronger intensifier than shl-fan.
 
 114 THE MEASURE OP TIME AND SPACE. 
 
 ctiau-kiun ~jjffi lit. ' to surpass the common herd.' 
 
 f-* f 
 
 ch6-ll Kp )/ lit. 'to establish as pre-eminent.' 
 
 ch6-tsu | |jp lit. ' to surpass exceedingly. 1 
 chS-yu | JJOT lit. ' surpassing excellent.' 
 chu-lul \ 3]n lit. ' to stand out from his class.' 
 
 M-l ~77l 
 
 sai-kwo 7?p: -Jfpj lit. 'to excel and overpass.' 
 
 sai-shing \ HS lit. 'to excel and conquer.' 
 
 tsui-kwei St 7Jf4 lit. ' sm ' s chief/ ' chief of sinners.' 
 
 6-kwel ^- | lit. 'wicked head,' 'the most wicked.' 
 
 kai-shi 3r ^r lit- 'cover age,' 'the most eminent of his age.' 
 
 These expressions do not occur in common conversation, but are used with 
 elegance in literary composition. 
 
 335. The measure of a thing, as regards number, is denoted by the numeral 
 being placed before the noun, with the proper appositive between them, or by 
 placing the numeral and the appositive after the noun, thus san-pi-md, or met 
 san-pl is 'three horses,' s-che-ch'uen or ch'uen-s-che 'four ships,' yl-kien ku- 
 kwai tl si-tslng 'a strange affair ;' and when it refers to quantity it is expressed 
 by the numeral and some special word denoting the measure of quantity, and 
 these are placed after the noun to which they apply (cf. 287) : e. g. 
 
 8an~s-k6-jin yln-liau sdn-wu-pei-tsiu ' three or four men drank from three 
 
 to five cups of wine.' 
 
 ngd yau mal l-chdng san-t'au ' I wish to buy three suits of clothes.' 
 tiu-pl & san-nien, yl-tan t'ung-ti^ 3 , 'separated for three years, on a sudden 
 
 we are united.' (Prov. and Epistolary.) 
 
 336. The following examples will show how numbers are constituted and 
 modified : 
 
 sdn-si-kC) ' three or four ;' shl si-wu ko ' fourteen or fifteen ;' 
 wu-lu-shi ko ' fifty or sixty ;' lu tsl ts'ien ' six or seven thousand ;' 
 tsi pd mdn ' seventy or eighty thousand.' 
 
 337. It should be noted that a point of time is placed first generally, but not 
 before the subject of the sentence, and especially if this be a pronoun ; and that 
 duration of time is placed after the expression to which it belongs : e. g. 
 
 ngd tso-t'ien tu-shu liau ' I read yesterday.' 
 t'd tu-shii sdn-t'ien ' he has read for three days.' 
 
 I is) 79
 
 THE SYNTAX OP PROPER NAMES. 115 
 
 nl ts'ien-ji pu lai ' you did not come the day before yesterday.' 
 ts'ien-sdn-t'ien t'd pu-shl che-ydng ' three days ago he was not so.' 
 ts'ien-sdn-t'ien t'd pu k'l-fdn ' three days ago he would not eat.' 
 t'd pu k'l-fdn yiu s-t c ien ' he has not eaten any thing for four days.' 
 ts'ien-sdn-t'ien t'd s^-liau ' he died three days ago.' 
 t'd sz-liau sdn-t'ien ' he has been dead three days.' 
 
 338. The measures of length or breadth, weight or quantity of any kind are 
 put after the verb : 
 
 ko-tse p'au-ch'u sin ll liau 'the robber ran ten li*.' (2826, 1919.) 
 che yi-tiau-hd k'wdn-ti yi-li-lu ' this river is one li wide.' 
 nl lai-ti-cKi yi-tien-chung ' you came late by an hour.' 
 che-yi-tso-t'd kau-ti shi chdng'thia pagoda is ten chdng* high.' (2529.) 
 
 339. Many measures of time, space, weight, &c., are used as appositives, 
 and then stand in the place of the appositive, between the numeral and the 
 noun : e. g. 
 
 lu tsi men t'ien 'a six or seven acre field.' (1710.) 
 yi tan mi 'a pecul of rice.' (2559.) 
 wil t'ien ski-hen 'a period of five days.' (584.) 
 t'd k'l-liau sdn-wan-fdn 'he has eaten three bowls of rice.' 
 See Appendix for the tables of times, weights, and measures. 
 
 340. The syntax of proper names and their relative positions may here be 
 noticed, and the student may refer to Art. 121 for the same subject. 
 
 The name of an individual consists of his sing, the name of his family (gens), 
 which is commonly but one syllable, and is placed first; and then follows his 
 ming (cognomen), which is generally dissyllabic : e. g. in 
 T'ang Hio-hiun, T'ang is the name for the whole gens, and ffiS-hiun, the 
 name (cognomen) for the individual of that gens. 
 
 Sometimes in books the word shi ft* , ' family,' is added after the sing, but 
 only when the ming is omitted. In asking a person's name we should always 
 enquire what his sing is, and then address him by that name with the appro- 
 priate addition of sien-sdng or sidng-kung, &c. : e. g. 
 Sien-sdng, kau sing d ? ' Sir, your eminent name 1 ' 
 siau sing Li ' my insignificant name is Lee.' 
 Li sien-sdng k'd hau md ? ' How do you do Mr. Lee 1 ' 
 
 No distinction is made by the Chinese between the name of the clan (gens} 
 and the name of the family (familia), but the name of the whole gens is attri- 
 buted to each individual. It will be seen that the Chinese and the Roman 
 order of announcing the names is similar; first the nomen, then the cognomen; 
 first the sing, then the ming. In his writings the author uses his ming by 
 way of humility, but in addressing any one worthy of respect the sing is 
 
 invariably used. The ts * z j^ or 'title' is taken by every youth of education 
 
 * A li = 1897^ feet English, or 27^ li = 10 miles English; and a chdng = 10 ch'%, or 141 
 inches English. 
 
 Q 2
 
 116 THE SYNTAX OP PROPER NAMES. 
 
 on attaining his majority. In writing this follows the other two names. 
 In addition to these there is a name given to honour the dead, this is called 
 the hwui Hi ('to respect') ; and if it be in honour of a great man, or of an 
 emperor, the expression is miau-hau Wj Tife- ' temple designation,' because 
 the memorials of such persons are preserved in the temple of ancestors, like 
 the images of the Roman ancestors in the atrium *. 
 
 341. All the titles of honour and of office precede the sing, which is used 
 alone in such cases : e. g. Kln-ch'al, Td-chln, Plng-pu Shdng-shu, LicLng-Hu 
 Tsang-tu, Lin, i. e. lit. ' Imperial Commissioner, Minister of State, a President 
 of the Board of War, and Governor of the Two-Hu ('lake') Provinces, Lin:' 
 (cf. the notes upon the Chinese text in page 23 of the Chrestomathy.) This 
 rule does not however hold good with respect to the terms sien-sang 'teacher,' 
 siang-kung ' Sir,' and such expressions of civility ; these invariably follow the 
 sing. 
 
 342. The names of places in China are all significant, although, as with 
 European local names, the meaning is seldom thought of: e. g. Kiang-sl 'the 
 river's west,' Hu-ndn ' the lake's south,' are names of provinces. But the 
 names of foreign places and persons are given in a changed form, according 
 as the Chinese are able to pronounce them t : e. g. Ying-ka-li for ' England ;' 
 Fa-lan-si for Trance;' Ngo-lo-sz for 'Russia;' Lqn-tqn for 'London.' 
 'Alexander' would be A-ld-shan-ta-qr in Chinese; 'Elgin,' E-qr-kin. But 
 foreigners in China generally choose a Chinese family name (sing), which is 
 like the first open syllable of their own surname, and they adopt this for 
 their surname: e.g. 'Mr. Hobson' might use Ho; 'Mr. Cave,' Ka or Kai; 
 ' Mr. Brown,' Lau or Lo. 
 
 343. The names of cities and towns are simply the names of the provinces 
 or districts of which they are the chief places : e. g. Shun-t'ien-fu, i. e. ' chief 
 place of the department of Shun-t'ien is Peking.' The word Pe-klng means 
 the 'northern capital,' just as Ndn-klng means the 'southern capital.' Kwang- 
 cheu-fu, i. e. ' chief place of the department of Kwang-cheu is Canton,' a word 
 which is a corruption of Kwang-tung, written by the Portuguese in former 
 times Can-ton. 
 
 344. The names of countries, islands, rivers, mountains, are followed by 
 the words kwd & 'kingdom;' t'au b or cheu c or s d 'island;' kiang e or ho f 
 1 river;' sMnS or ling h 'mountain or peak:' e.g. Ji-pqn kw6 'Japan;' 
 Ying-ka-ll-kw& or Ying-kwd or Td-ying-kw6 ' England,' put for ' Great 
 
 * M. Bazin says, in his Grammaire Mandarine, p. i, that there are two thousand three 
 hundred different family names given in the "Universal Biography." This is a large 
 Chinese work called the Shi-sing-p'ti, i. e. 'Records of families/ a copy of which is pre- 
 served in the Royal Asiatic Society's Library. 
 
 t This is similar to the French pronunciation of foreign words : e. g. Grenvish for 
 Greenwich.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OP PRONOUNS. 117 
 
 Britain;' Kiau-i-cheu commonly called 'Green Island' (near Hongkong); 
 Tdng-lung-cheu, i. e. ' Kellet's Island ;' Chu-su ' Bamboo Island ;' He-shdn 
 ' Black mountain;' Mel-ling ' Plum-peak or ridge' (to the north of Canton). 
 
 345. The construction of pronouns now claims our attention. In their 
 isolated state, without the addition of any grammatical particle, their position 
 alone will show the case to which they belong : e. g. in t'd t'ung-nl yau k'u, 
 ' he wants to go with you,' the pronoun t'd must be in the nominative case, 
 and the pronoun nl in the accusative after toting : 
 
 t'd pu hwdn-hl nl 'he does not like you:' t'd is nom.; nl, ace. 
 
 346. The personal pronoun is frequently omitted in Chinese : when it is 
 expressed its position shows the case in which it must be construed ; if before 
 the verb, it will almost always be in the nominative case; if after the verb, in 
 the accusative. The words used for the pronoun of the first person vary 
 according to the style of the composition in which they occur. Some of these 
 distinctions will be seen by referring to Arts. 164, 165, and 179, where the 
 characters will be found. 
 
 ngo yau nl t'ung-ngd k'u ' I want you to go with me.' 
 
 pu yau t'ung-nl k'u ' I will not go with you.' 
 
 nl td ngo, pu-hau ' you strike me and do wrong,' or ' in striking me, you do 
 
 wrong.' 
 
 In the books the student may expect to find the pronoun occasionally placed 
 before the verb as the object of the verb, not the subject ; e. g. in the Lun-yu 
 of Confucius 
 
 pu ngu chl ]X^ 3*" -Ml lit. ' not me know,' ' when I am unrecognised.' 
 ngo shut k'l ^ftr" gtt Hr lit. 'I whom insult,' 'whomsoever I insult.' 
 
 347. The nature of the expression enables the Chinese sometimes to dis- 
 pense with the pronoun ; e. g. 
 
 kaii sing d ? ' Your great name Sir ? ' 
 kiu wdn tai-hiung '/ have long heard of you Sir.' 
 
 kl si yi-hwui 'I have ardently desired a meeting with youf v. Hau-k'iu- 
 chuen (i), p. 8. h. 20 and 28. 
 
 348. The designation of the person is frequently used for the personal 
 pronoun: 
 
 Li sien-sdng k'o hau md? 'Are you well, Mr. Lee?' (v. Art. 340.) 
 chu-kung tsie sil pi chl ' My lord you should avoid him ;' v. Sdn-kwd-chi (4), 
 
 p. 20. d. 13. 
 k'&n-k'lu td-ye che k6 gan-tien '/ beg of your excellency to grant me this 
 
 favour;' v. Dialogues &c. (i), p. 27. b. i. 
 wai-shdng fu t'ai - jin tal tsien, fu - ki chui - ku p&n-shdng 
 
 9\ i3 it ;fc A U I? ft f Jr H II $: gf 
 
 '/, the foreign merchant, hasten to your excellency's tribunal, and humbly 
 beg you to bestow a glance on me, a merchant.'
 
 118 THE CONSTRUCTION OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 aiau-ti tsS-ji tsin-ye '/ (lit. 'younger brother') yesterday proceeded to wait 
 upon you/ v. Hau-k'iu-chuen (i), p. 8. d. 13. 
 
 349. As the Chinese have no possessive pronoun in form, they use con- 
 stantly the personal pronouns with the particle ti Fjy attached to them, and 
 this is equivalent to the genitive case, which answers the purpose for which 
 the possessive pronoun is commonly used : e. g. nl-ti fu-mu ' your parents ;' 
 t'd-ti hiung-ti 'his brother;' ngo-tifdng-u 'my house.' 
 
 350. In questions and commands or invitations the pronouns are frequently 
 omitted : e. g. 
 
 tslng-tsd 'pray be seated;' yau shimmd ? 'what do you want?' 
 
 yau chifdn '/want my dinner;' pu pi to-fo 'do uot be extreme in etiquette.' 
 
 yau ngo tsd shimmd ? ' what do you wish me to do ? ' 
 
 351. The reflexive pronoun ts-kl regularly follows the personal pronouns, 
 but it is often used alone when the other pronoun is understood : e. g. 
 
 ngo ts-kl pu-k'dng k'u ' I for my part will not go.' 
 rii tsi-ki shwS-tau-liait che-ko 'you said that yourself.' 
 t'd tsi-kl pu hwdn-hi 'he himself is not pleased.' 
 But other words are used for the reflexive pronoun, such as shin 'body,' <kc. 
 
 352. The demonstrative pronouns follow the same rules as the personal 
 pronouns, but the syntax of the relative pronoun, or rather of the demonstra- 
 tive used for the relative, will require further elucidation : e. g. 
 
 net ta ngo ti ' the man who struck me.' 
 
 ngd so shw6 ti ' what I said.' 
 
 nl so tu ti shu ' the book, which you are reading.' 
 
 yiu pu ts'ung che, chan-chi, ' if there are any who will not follow, cut them 
 
 down;' v. San-kw6-chi (3), p. 19. b. 15. 
 shdn-ngd che, sang; yi ngd che, s, ' those who obey me, shall live; those who 
 
 oppose me, shall die;' v. Sdn-kw6-chi (3), p. 19. i. n. 
 gai-fu-mu-che ' those who love their parents ;' v. the Arts, on the particles 
 
 ch$ ::$ and so 
 
 353. Sometimes there is no sign for the relative, but the context shows 
 that the words must be construed with a relative pronoun in English : e. g. 
 
 tso-shdng yi-jin t'ui-gdn 'one man, of those who were sitting, pushed the 
 table;' v. Sdn-kwS-chi (3), p. 19. g. 7. 
 
 354. The use of the shut, ' who,' and shimmd, ' what,' for any body and any 
 thing may here be exemplified : thus, a master speaking to his servant might 
 say, lai ti shi shut 1 ' who is that come ? ' the servant might reply, mu yiu 
 shut lai ' there is not any one come.' Nl yau shimmd, ngd tsiu tso shimmd, 
 'If you want any thing, then I will do it (any thing);' v. Mandarin Phrases, 
 p. 27. d. 6.
 
 THB CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 119 
 
 355. The characters in Art. 174 are further illustrated by the following 
 examples : 
 
 meu-jin kau-su-liau ngd ' a certain man told me.' Chrest. p. 28. a. 20. 
 
 nl yiu kl-to yln-tsien ? ' how much money have you ? ' 
 
 ngd mu yiil shimmd ' I have not any.' 
 
 che-kl-t'ien hid-yu-liau ' it has rained for some days.' 
 
 fangji tsai i 'another day again consult;' v. Sdn-kw6-chi (4), p. 20. b. 18. 
 
 pA yau hai pi-jin ' do not injure others.' 
 
 nl k'd-l pl-ydng tso ' you may do it another way.' 
 
 pi-ydng mu yiu ' there is no other kind.' 
 
 su-pejin met 'several hundred men and horses ;' v. Sdn-kwo-chi (2), p. 1 8. d. 4. 
 
 mel-jl k'o tu ' you may read every day.' 
 
 mu-yiu yl-sie ' I have not even a little (or a few).' 
 
 kd-jin yiu yin-ts'ien to ' each man has much money.' 
 
 356. The forms for whoever, &c., given in Art. 175, need further exempli- 
 fication. A few examples of their uses may be given here, and an exercise 
 upon them will be found in the third part of this work. 
 
 nl sui-pien shwd 'say whatever you like.' 
 
 pu-kwan shimmo jin kiting ( whoever speaks.' 
 
 pu-k'ii ho jin shwd tsz 'no matter who says this.' 
 
 pu-k'ti to-shau yln-tsien ' whatever quantity of money,' or ' no matter how 
 
 much money.' 
 
 jin pu-k'u tau na-ll ' wherever a man goes,' 
 tu yau kiang li-sing l he ought to speak common sense.' 
 
 Some of the forms used in the books are occasionally employed in the higher 
 colloquial style. 
 
 pu-lan hd shi ^ pjj& 'jPf P^ 'whenever.' 
 
 mel yi nien ^f/ ; * j7y 'whenever I think.' 
 
 TI^O mel-tsi tau t'd ncL-U k'u, ki ngd mng-fo ' every time I go to his place, he 
 gives me presents.' 
 
 ' t"? */ -* * trf j, iti** T T 
 
 sui yii, che ch'au ).|f -Jffi IH[ j4> ' whenever I met with any, I at once 
 
 copied them.' 
 
 Sui, lit. ' to follow,' conveys the signification of ' as often as, according to, in 
 consequence of:' cf. sequence from sequor, Germ. Folge, folgend from folgen, 
 yu ' to meet with.' The other words which mean to follow, to use, to take, 
 to meet with, correspond with the usages of Greek words : cf. aKo\ov6a>s ' in 
 accordance with,' 6 TVX<*>V = Lat. quivis, and the use of xpe!yiej>oy, f\ u>v ) fopw, 
 \afav. See I J/J, yung JrfJ, yiu TJjf, nd &, pa JP. Cf. also ts'ung ^jf 
 and su > ' to accord with, to cause to follow, to lead,' in the phrase td-su 
 'generally, on an average.'
 
 120 THE CONSTRUCTION OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 357. The expressions td-fdn and fdn alone, td-kai, yi-tsung for the whole, 
 often convey the sense of whoever, whatever, &c., especially when followed by 
 so (cf. Art. 176): e. g. 
 
 td-fdn sd shwo ti ' whatever is said.' 
 
 fdn yiil t'ien-hid chl kwo ' every country of the world,' or, if in a dependent 
 sentence, ' whatever country of the world.' 
 
 yi-tsung ti tsiii tu kwel yu kau-gau ' all sin is reducible to pride,' i. e. 'what- 
 ever sin, or every sin which is committed :' cf. iras, for any one. 
 
 358. It has already been remarked that the designation of the person is 
 put for the personal pronoun (v. Art. 348). The use of the title and the 
 various substitutes for the pronouns may now be exemplified. The characters 
 are given in Arts. 179 185. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 siau-ti ts6-ji tsin ye ' I yesterday proceeded to wait upon youf v. Hau-k'iu- 
 chuen (i), p. 8. d. 13. 
 
 siau-ti yl pu-jin yen-k'u ' I cannot bring myself to speak of going ;' v. Hau- 
 k'iu-chuen (i), p. 9. a. 26. 
 
 che shi ming-k'i siau ti 'this is plainly to insult me;' v. Hau-k'iu-chuen (i), 
 p. 10. o. ii. 
 
 yii-ti meu-meu-ts tan ' your humble servant so-and-so bows ;' v. Epistolary 
 style, p. 32. o. 19. 
 
 p&n tang ling Mart, ' I ought to receive your commands ;' v. Hau-k'iu-chuen 
 (i), p. 8. k. 6. 
 
 chin sien-chau sz-td ....'/ (lit. ' your subject') am the Minister of Instruction 
 of the late dynasty's. . . .;' v. Sdn-kwo-chi (i), p. 27. 1. 18. 
 
 sing-shin ming-shui, lit. 'surname what, name who?' 
 shdng-sing kau ming, lit. ' superior surname, exalted name ? ' 
 kau-ming yd-hau, lit. ' exalted name, elegant designation ? ' 
 These expressions are all equivalent to, ' Will you favour me with your name?' * 
 
 wi st & kwei-pu^, lit. 'not yet acquainted with your honourable position.' 
 This is used by classmen when unknown to each other. Pu, lit. ' a place for 
 planting trees' (2084), is elegantly used for place or position in the list of 
 prizemen, for which fu c , 'eminent,' is used; e. g. 
 
 t'ai-fu ho ming =' Pray what is your name Sir?' 
 The following is employed by ordinary scholars or passmen : 
 
 wi wdn tsan-hau, lit. 'not yet heard of your honourable designation.' 
 
 And this by merchants and others for ' I have not the pleasure of knowing 
 you:' 
 wi-chi tsti-hid, lit. ' not yet know you Sir.' 
 
 * See Bridgman's translation of Premare's Notitia Linguce Sinicce, p. 143.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 tsien mung-ju tin pi-yl ski ' when on a former occasion you condescended to 
 
 come to my poor place;' v. Hau-k'iu-chuen (i), p. 8. i. 2. 
 kwel-kwo sui tsai chung-ydng d,r wdn ll wai 'although your honourable 
 
 kingdom is in the great ocean above two myriads of miles away;' 
 
 v. Official papers, Lin's letter, p. 23. d. u. 
 yih Jci wei ling-ldng ' there are how many of your sons 1 ' v. Dialogues &c. 
 
 (2), p. 28. j. 10. 
 
 359. Many other designations of persons are used for the personal pro- 
 nouns. The signification and use of each will be indicated in the Dictionary. 
 (Part IV.) Some are more commonly used than others; each province and 
 place has its own peculiar words of this kind ; and the language of etiquette, 
 the rank of the persons speaking, and various other conditions determine the 
 particular epithet to be employed. The following dialogue may exemplify 
 this: 
 
 Q. Ling-tsan hau-m6 ? ' Is your respected father well 1 ?' 
 
 A. Kid-fu hail, lit. ' the paterfamilias is well ;' v. Dialogues, Chrest. p. 30. 1. 5. 
 
 Q. Yiit kl-wei kwel-nu ? ' How many young ladies (for daughters) have you ?' 
 A. Yiu sdn-ko ku-nidng 'I have three girls' (for daughters); v. Dialogues, 
 Chrest. p. 28. j. 15. 
 
 The following may be noticed here as they were omitted above : 
 hdn-klng ^^ W\> ^- 'cold-thorn,' is used for my wife: (cf. Chr. 9. j. 19.) 
 siau-kiuen Vr> -7^ , lit. ' little dog,' for my son. 
 siau-t'u Jj^ X f7p> lit. 'small scholar,' for /, your pupil. 
 tsau-ts& \=\ ^y* , lit. ' grass title,' for my name. 
 jln-hiung /T^ W , lit. ' benevolent elder brother,' for you, Sir. 
 lau-shln 3& *^fi lit. ' old body,' for 7, used by old women in the novels. 
 
 360. In treating of the modifications which the verb undergoes, we may 
 begin by considering those simple verbs which stand between the subject and 
 predicate of a sentence to express that the subject is, has, becomes, makes, 
 exists in or happens to be something. They are commonly called substantive 
 verbs, because they express the reality or the assumed reality of the predica- 
 tion. But this reality may exist under various conditions or modes of existence, 
 for example : ' Victoria is (by nature) a woman, she has a crown, she becomes 
 a queen, she makes a good queen, she exists in her palace, and she is (but not 
 by nature) an accomplished lady.' Some languages express more definitely 
 than others these distinctions. In Chinese they are each marked by a sepa- 
 rate word, and the syntax of these may be here noticed in addition to the 
 remarks given in Arts. 216 222. 
 
 R
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 
 
 361. The substantive verbs may be arranged thus: 
 
 1 . shi -*pr ' to be, is, was,' that is a being by nature, or at least apparently so 
 
 being. The verb hi V&, 'is,' is used in the Canton dialect for shi, 
 and in the books in this sense, and in a manner similar to the use of 
 nal Jj, which is also employed occasionally where we might expect 
 to find shi. 
 
 2. yiu ygt ' to have,' which implies the possession of some object or quality 
 
 by the subject. Instead of saying, ' he is rich,' the Chinese would say, 
 ' he has wealth.' 
 
 3. wei Jj ' to become/ which indicates that the subject was not naturally 
 
 such as the predicate asserts, but that it was made or became such. 
 ' He was king,' would be, ' he became king.' 
 
 4. tsai |I. ' to exist in.' This refers especially to the location of the subject. 
 
 Instead of saying, 'the master is at home,' the Chinese would say, 
 ' the master is in the house.' 
 
 5. tso '[jra 'to do' or ts6 \fc 'to make,' which both stand as the verb to be 
 
 in the sense of makes, acts as, or means. When we say, ' that man is a 
 good magistrate,' the Chinese idiom would require, 'that man makes (or 
 
 acts as) a good magistrate.' The character tang 7^X*> ' to bear,' is used 
 
 Hn 
 in a similar way : cf. ffsin-tsing-lu [I. i and 2]. Kiau ' to call,' 
 
 swan ' to reckon,' sang ' to be born,' all stand in the same category 
 with this ; see the examples below. 
 
 6. nal ~Tj 'to wit, it may be,' which often takes the place of shi (i), but it 
 
 seems to differ in this, that it is most correctly used in sentences where 
 the predicate is not so positive an assertion as in those in which shi is 
 used. It occurs also for yiii (2) in the kii-wdn, when that character 
 would signify 'there is, there happens to be.' 
 
 It must be observed that all these verbs partake more or less of the nature of 
 the demonstrative pronouns, especially shi, tang, and nal, which are commonly 
 used as such in the literary style of composition *. Shi and nal, wei and tso 
 (ts6, tang, &c.) form pairs ; wei and nal are more common in books than in 
 the colloquial style. 
 
 362. These substantive verbs come invariably between the subject and 
 
 * This curious fact, that the demonstrative pronoun and the substantive verb are of 
 cognate origin is clearly shown in Chinese, but it seems to exist in almost all languages. 
 Cf. the pron. i and the verb esse in Latin ; and see Becker's Organism der Sprache, p. 223, 
 where he says: " Wenn man die Laut verbal tnisse des Aussagewortes und die ganze Art 
 seines syntaktischen Verhaltens in den bekannten Sprachen naher betrachtet ; so kann 
 'man kaum mehr bezweifeln, dass das Aussagewort, wie das Pronom, ein ursprunglichei 
 Formwort, und mit dem Pronom urspriinglich sehr nahe verwandt isk"
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 123 
 
 predicate in a sentence, and not at the end of the clause or at the beginning 
 unless the subject or the predicate be omitted : e. g. 
 che-ko shi lau-jin-kid ' this is an old man.' 
 yiu yl chdng-kau ' it is one foot high.' 
 tsz-jin yiu td-tan ' this man is brave.' 
 
 tsz-ti yiu hu-to ye-sJieu ' there are many wild beasts about here.' 
 wei chung so sin ' he was believed of all,' lit. ' whom all believed.' (B.) 
 t'a tsdn & ngo wei shen-jin 'he praised me, as being a virtuous man.' (B.) 
 si tsai rtiu tsien ' the business is before your eyes.' 
 hi6 kwdn-hwd, yau tso kwan-fu, ' learn the mandarin dialect, in order to act 
 
 as a mandarin.' 
 
 ngd ts6 Chi-hien^, n\ tang-ping, ' I am the Chi-hien, and you are a soldier.' 
 t'a nal hid-che ' he then was dismounting from the carriage,' i. e. ' it so 
 
 happened that &c.' 
 wu nal wdng ti, Chin-lid Wdng ye, ' I am the prince's brother, Chin-liu, the 
 
 prince.' (17. 1. 3.) 
 hwdn pu chl-tau shimmo kiau c yiu-fu-ki tl jin ' I do not yet know what is 
 
 a happy man.' 
 
 che-ko pti swan& chan-t'wn 'this is not spring weather.' (29. n. 7.) 
 sheu hi sing Ll ' the chief is surnamed Li.' 
 
 363. The negation and intensification of these verbs is effected by placing 
 the negative and intensive particles before each respectively. But it will be 
 necessary to show which particles accompany the different verbs by giving a 
 few examples of the usage in each case. 
 
 The verb shi Jp;, 'to be,' takes pu ^^ , 'not,' before it to form the negative, 
 and also the antithetical wordy? ^F? <no ^ ^ ^ e >' occasionally in the same 
 sense ; e. g. pu shi cM-ydng ' it is not so.' 
 
 ko tsidng-kiun pu-shi td-tct,n ti 'that general is not brave.' 
 
 fl before shi, to negative it, is an idiom which belongs to the book-style. 
 fl-shi BE -^p- or shi-fl is a phrase which means 'true and false.' 
 
 364. The modification of this verb, as far as regards the intensification of 
 its meaning, is effected by means of such words as yiu ~tf ' again,' ye J-fT 
 'also,' pien 'j W 'then,' tsiu en/' 'then,' tsi Pjl 'then,' che y\ 'only,' and 
 other particles of similar meaning : e. g. 
 
 t'd yiu shi pu hau 'he is still bad.' 
 
 tsi shi tsln-hiung ' he is forsooth my own brother.' 
 
 ye-shi nl sd shw6 ti ' it is just what you said.' 
 
 y>ien-shi Tl Chung-yti 'I am indeed Ti Chung-yu:' cf. Chrest n. e. 16. 
 
 B 2
 
 124 THE CONSTRUCTION OP SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 
 
 tsiu-shi ta-ji Hwdng-kung ft ' it is the very same who broke into the Impe- 
 
 rial palace:' cf. Chrest. 10. d. 14. 
 
 ji-t'eu tsiu-shi t'ai-ydng 'ji-t'eu is the same as t'ai-yang (the sun).' [I. 57.] 
 tdn che-shi tslng-shln &c. ' but it is just this, that in early morning &c. :' cf. 
 
 Chrest. 9. c. n. 
 
 365. The verb yiu ~\ ", ' to have,' takes the place of the substantive verb, 
 when the notion of the attribution is accidental or acquired, or at least to be 
 considered as such : e. g. t'd yiu ping ' he is sick/ which is an abnormal state ; 
 the regular phrase is t'd sdng-ping-liau ivft Ol jmi ~J , lit. 'he has pro- 
 duced disease.' T'd yiu ts'ien ' he is rich,' lit. ' he has money,' which is an 
 attribute acquired. Instead of saying, ' what is your plan,' the Chinese would 
 say, ' you have what plan,' ni yiu shimm6 fd-tsz a . This verb yiu is the 
 common word for 'there is' at the beginning of a sentence : e. g. yiu yi che- 
 ^ydng-oh'uen tau-liau ' a foreign vessel is arrived,' or ' there is a foreign vessel 
 arrived ;' but before numerals it means ago, as the Fr. il y a. 
 
 Further examples to illustrate the use of yiu. 
 
 kd-chu kd-ti yiu ching-klng jln 'every where there are upright men.' 
 ts'ien-jl yiu k'e-jin lai pai ' the day before yesterday there was a gentleman 
 
 (lit. 'guest') who came to make a call.' 
 
 cfie-ko yiu shimmo fan-pi c 'what difference is there in this?' 
 yiu shing-jin, yiu kwel-shin, ' there are saints, and there are spirits.' [I. 2.] 
 This verb is used also as an auxiliary to form the past tense with liave : e. g. 
 yiu tu-kwo-liau ' I have read it.' yiu sie-kw6-liau ' I have written it.' 
 
 > /-* 
 
 366. There is a special negative for yiu, the opposite of it, mu j^y 'to 
 be without,' just as fl, ' not to be,' is used as the negative of shi ' to be :' 
 e.g. 
 
 k'dn-pu-ch'u-lai, mu-yiu Jcwdng-liang d , 'I cannot see, there is no light.' 
 che-ko ch'd mu-yiu y en-si e 'this tea has no colour,' or 'there is no colour 
 
 in this tea.' 
 nl shw6 tso liau, mu-yiu shimmd kwdn-hi f , ' if you make a mistake, it will 
 
 not be of any consequence.' 
 lau-t'ien-ye mu-yiu pu-pau-yiuZ tl 'heaven will not be wanting in protect- 
 
 ing him.'' [I. 31.] 
 
 fl 3JE: also occurs as the negative of yiu : e. g. 
 
 fl yiu so Jciu ye 'there is nothing else to ask;' v. Hau-k'iu-chuen, Chrest. 8. 
 0.30. 
 
 " 
 
 89 "76
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 125 
 
 It will be seen in the Arts, on the forms of interrogation that mu-yiu at the 
 close of a sentence often means, 'or not?' And this compound verb mu-yiu 
 1 there is not, not to have,' also helps to form the perfect tense : e. g. 
 
 kin-jl mu-yiu fan shl ' there is no rice to eat to-day.' 
 
 ji-t'ed mu-yiu ch'u-shdn ' the sun has not arisen.' 
 
 367. The modifications of the verb yiu ^fcj', 'to have,' are effected by 
 means of the following particles among others : ye {ft , which means, ' also,' 
 hwdn .)T|r < moreover,' tsai ffl. ' again,' yiu ^7 ' again,' tu ?j I) ' all,' die Jr^ 
 'only,' pi-ting //. ^p 'must, certainly.' And in the style of the classics 
 words of similar meaning are used : e. g. yl TfK for ye {ft , kial fjjjf for 
 tu f5|). Examples of these latter will be found under each particle re- 
 spectively. 
 
 t'd pu sz, ngo tsiu-yiu i-kau, ' if he had not died, I should have been sup- 
 
 ported.' 
 
 tsai-yiu t'ung-ts'ien ' I have more money ;' cf. Fr. fai encore de V argent. 
 ye yiufu-kwel ti mo ? ' are there any more rich ones?' 
 hwan-yiu shimmd kiang-ti? 'what more have you to say 1 ?' 
 lidng-min pl-ting-yiu lidng-sln ' good people always have a good conscience.' 
 
 These particles may also precede mu-yiu : e. g. 
 
 tsai-mu-yiu cM-md wa/i & -tl 'there never was such a dwarf.' 
 yd-mii-yiu che-ko ndng-U ' I have not indeed such strength.' 
 
 368. The verb wet ^ Ho do or make,' as a substantive verb, is used to 
 signify that the subject holds the office of, or becomes what the predicate 
 expresses : e. g. 
 
 Chang ye pu wet li ' but Chang was not polite,' or ' did not perform the 
 
 salutations;' v. Ifau-k'iu-chuen, Chrest. n. f. 6. 
 
 k'i weijin ye to-tsai to-ndng 'this is a man of great talent and ability.' 
 shln^ wel k'i-kwai c 'truly it is wonderful;' shin is lit. 'deep.' 
 wei jin yi-shi& pu-tso sqn-jin 6 ll-kl ti sz 'should a man all his life do no 
 
 injury to others for his own advantage, &c.;' v. 366. for the apodosis. 
 
 This verb is most frequently used in the style of the books. It corresponds 
 to tang |^, tso / |SJ/, &c., in the style of conversation. 
 
 369. The substantive verb tsai ~tC , 'to be in,' comes next. There are a 
 few idiomatic uses of it, but generally the notion of the locality of the subject 
 in the sentence will indicate the case in which it must be used. 
 
 pu chl tsai ye pu tsai ' I do not know whether he is there or not.' 
 lau-ye tl mau-tsz tsai cJw-ll ' your cap, Sir, is here.' 
 
 d ttf 
 lii*
 
 126 THE CONSTRUCTION OP SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 
 
 nl tlfu-mu tu tsai m6? 'are your parents alive?' v. Dialogues &c., Chrest. 
 
 p. 28. i. 13. 
 jl, yu, sing-su tu tsai na-ll, ' the sun, moon, and stars are there' (in heaven); 
 
 cf. Hsin-tsing-lu. [I. 10.] 
 
 370. The common negative which is used with tsai is pit X^ ' not :' e. g. 
 t'd pu tsai ' he is not in' (=.not at home). 
 
 mu-tsin pu tsai shi ' my mother is not in the world,' for, is deceased. 
 
 371. The verbs tso 'jij/ 'to make,' ts6 / jfc 'to do or make,' tang '* 
 
 'to bear the office or act the part of,' \\ kiau 'to call or be called,' tMl. swan 
 ' to reckon, to count,' sang fjj~l ' to be born,' are used as substantive verbs, the 
 various accessory notions implied in them being understood. Kiau is fol- 
 lowed by tso or tso sometimes, and the two may be translated 'is said to be' 
 or ' is called :' e. g. 
 
 nl kiau-tso shim/mo ming? 'what is your name?' cf. Hsin-tsing-lu. [75.] 
 h6-ku tso tsis t'au-yen? 'what reason is there for these formal expressions?' 
 
 cf. Hau-k'iu-chuen, Chrest. p. 9. f. 24. 
 
 nd sdn-ko tsidng-kiun tang nu-tsai ' took three generals and made them 
 slaves:' cf. also sdng-ping 'to be sick,' and sdng-k'i 'to be angry.' 
 
 These are negatived by the usual word pu ~%^ ' not.' 
 
 372. The verb nal ~Jj 'to wit, is,' remains to be noticed. It is more 
 common to the books than to the conversation; it sometimes corresponds 
 with shi, and sometimes with yiu. 
 
 hau sJien dr wu-6 nal jin chl chdng-tsing ' to love the good and hate the 
 evil is man's common disposition.' 
 
 373. Two of these substantive verbs are often united to strengthen the 
 expression: e. g. 
 
 yi-hau* kia~tsie b shi mu-yiu ti 'there is not a particle of fiction in it.' 
 (Pre"ni. Brid. p. 51.) 
 
 374. Shi J|p: is often redundant, and wei 'j is used at the beginning of a 
 sentence sometimes, where it is hardly wanted, and where some expression for 
 'if would seem to be needed. Thus when we say, 'if such a thing were to 
 happen,' the Chinese might say, ' it being so and so :' and the modifying par- 
 ticles are used with the verb; e. g. 
 
 hwdn-shi lau-td-jin shwS-te t'ung-kw'ai ' of a truth, the old gentleman speaks 
 
 very shrewdly.' Chrest. 9. m. i. 
 shi t'd pu shi hau jin 'he is not a good man.' 
 
 375. In simple sentences, in which the predicate is the natural attribute of 
 the subject, the substantive verb is generally understood: e. g.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 127 
 
 na-ko yun-isaJi* kau 'those clouds are high.' [157.] 
 t'ien yln-liau 'the sky is cloudy.' [147.] 
 
 376. When a description of the subject forms the matter of the predicate 
 then shi seems invariably to be used : e. g. 
 
 lu shi he-hid t\ ch'au-k'i, hwd-ch'u-lal-ti shwui, ' dew is the damp vapour 
 of night changed into water.' [247.] 
 
 377- For the expression of tense and mood as regards these substantive 
 verbs very few rules can be given. The ordinary auxiliary particles, which 
 distinguish tense and mood, are not employed with these verbs, but the 
 circumstances of time and manner, either expressed or understood, define the 
 relations of tense and mood : e. g. 
 
 wang-nien ngo shi fd-kwel-tl 'last year I was rich,' or 
 
 wang-nien ngo yiu ts'ien ' last year I had money.' 
 
 lai-nien ngo tso fu-kwel-tl 'this year I shall be rich.' 
 
 tso-t'ien t'd pu-tsai ' yesterday he was not at home.' 
 
 yiu-shi-heu ngd shi yiu tung-ts'ien-ti 'I have been rich,' lit. 'there was a 
 time (when) I was a person who had money.' 
 
 378. The pluperfect and future perfect tenses will be dependent upon some 
 circumstance : thus 
 
 t'd wi-tsdng lai che-li, ngo sdng-ping, 'before he came here, I had been sick.' 
 ts'ien-sdn-nien ngd tso sang-i tsai Chung-kwo ' three years ago, I was doing 
 
 business in China.' 
 
 nl mmg-t'ien led tl t'eu-li, t'd tso wdng, 'before you shall have arrived to- 
 morrow, he will have been made king.' 
 
 379. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are expressed by k'd-l pT -I// 
 and k'd, and certain particles, such as j6 ^--" ' if/ hwo-che m/ ;zv 'perhaps' 
 (cf. Arts. 263, &c.), followed by the substantive verbs just given : e. g. 
 
 k'o-l tso che-ydng ' it may be so.' 
 
 Hwang-ti s-liau, hwo-che shi che-ydng, ' when the Emperor died, it might 
 
 perhaps have been so.' 
 n\ ye*-li mdn-wai shiii, k'o-l sdng-ping, ' if you sleep out of doors at night, 
 
 you may be ill.' 
 pH yau k'l che-ko, K'ung-p'd nl swan ho-sdng, ' do not eat this, lest you 
 
 should be taken for a Buddhist priest.' 
 
 380. So much information has already been given upon the formation of 
 the kinds of verbs, in Arts. 189 215, that it remains to notice here only the 
 same in construction, and to point out the form of the sentence, which affects 
 the tense or mood of the verb ; and the remarks will have reference to the 
 words and forms given on pp. 70 76. 
 
 The various modifications of the verbal notion are produced in four ways : 
 i. By a change of the tone or the syllable; 2. By the position of the word in
 
 128 THE CONSTRUCTION OP SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 
 
 the sentence ; 3. By the juxta-position of some particle or auxiliary word, or 
 4. By the circumstances under which the expression occurs. 
 
 The changes of voice, mood, tense, and person in construing a Chinese verb 
 frequently leave the word unchanged ; the conditions under which it is uttered 
 being a sufficient guide to the limitation of its meaning. Adverbial expres- 
 sions of time, and indeed a whole clause in which a certain time is indicated, 
 force the construing of the simple verb into particular moods and tenses ; 
 while the subject of the verb (often understood) shows the person which must 
 be construed with the verb unchanged. 
 
 381. By a change in tone, the voice or kind of the verb may be altered, 
 an active verb may become passive, a transitive verb may become neuter or 
 causative : e. g. 
 
 ^) wet 'to make, to do' (trans, v.), changes into wei 'to be made, to be 
 
 considered as' (pass. v.). 
 **-t chen 'to seize upon' (trans, v.) becomes chen 'to divine' (neut. v.). 
 
 2f-r Mng 'to baste, to beat' (trans, v.), becomes king 'to walk, to act' (neut. v.). 
 |||i t'ing 'to hear' (trans, v.) becomes t'ing 'to hearken, to obey' (intrans. v.). 
 
 382. The position of the verb in the sentence may determine its relation 
 to the other parts of the same, according to the following general rules : 
 
 1. A verb standing alone or as the first word in a clause is commonly in 
 the imperative mood; e.g. lai che-ll 'come here!' tslng-tso 'please to sit:' 
 or it is intended to express the general notion of the verb, which is about to 
 be spoken of, and is consequently the subject of the sentence; e. g. 
 
 tu-shu shi ski-fan yau-kln-ti ' to study is a very important thing,' 
 t'ing-ming shi nl tl pan-fan ' to obey is your duty :' 
 
 or the verb belongs to an absolute clause, the expression of some circum- 
 stance connected with the principal clause ; e. g. 
 
 tau tsz-jl 'having arrived at the next day,' = when the next day had come; 
 cf. Hau-k'iu-chuen, Chrest. p. 8. a. 10. 
 
 2. A verb between two nouns belongs to the former as its subject, and to 
 the latter as its object (cf. Arts. 291, 292, and 296); or the first noun being 
 put for an adverbial expression of time or place, the verb stands with the 
 subject understood in the present or past tense, according as the other condi- 
 tions of the clause will allow ; e. g. 
 
 ye, pu yau hing-lu, ' in the night do not travel ;' the fuller colloquial form is 
 
 ye-fa ' in the night.' 
 
 Pe-klng, tseu pu hau, ' in Peking it is bad walking.' 
 ji-ji ki-fdn Hdng-ts ' every day he eats twice.' 
 
 3. One verb following another directly or indirectly, without a particle being 
 between, must be considered as expressing a purpose or a result : e. g.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 1J29 
 
 fa lai, k'dn, ' he is come to look.' 
 
 ngd king M to, sdng-ping, ' I walked much and fell sick.' 
 In these rules we cannot take cognizance of the auxiliary verbs as such, because 
 they are often attached to the simple verb, and become part of a compound 
 with it. 
 
 383. The auxiliary verbs and particles which are used to modify the verbal 
 notion have been given in Arts. 192, 194, 197, and 199. And here it may 
 be remarked, that the verbal notion may be viewed under two aspects : ist, 
 as expressing the entire and general notion of the verb as an abstract idea, 
 and independent of any positive act; 2ndly, as entering into relation with 
 some real transaction. Two expressions therefore commonly occur, which 
 correspond to this distinction ; one, general, the other particular. 
 
 384. Verbs which express a general notion are such as those given in 
 Arts. 200 and 203 : e. g. 
 
 (Gen.) tu-shU, sM nl-ti pdn-fan, 'to study is your duty.' 
 
 (Par.) t'd pu-k'dng tu S&-shti ' he will not learn the /SZ-shti.' 
 
 (Gen.) kl-fdn, shi jin-jin pi-ting tso ti, 'to eat, is what all men must do.' 
 
 (Par.) tau-tl ngd mu-yiu shimmd fdn k'% 'but I have no rice to eat.' 
 
 (Gen.) nl k'o-i td-swdn md? 'can you calculate?' 
 
 (Par.) tsiti swan che-ki su-mu ' then reckon up these numbers.' 
 
 (Gen.) Man siau hai-dr, td-sau, ' call the little boy to sweep.' 
 
 (Par.) t'd sau-liau che-ko ti-fdng ' he has swept this place.' 
 
 (Gen.) td-fd yi-ko-jin, td-t'ing, 'send a man to listen!' 
 
 (Par.) ngd t'ing-kien-liau t'd-ti hwd 'I have heard what he said.' 
 
 Those compounds with td, ' to strike,' do however frequently keep the td when 
 particular acts are mentioned : e. g. 
 
 hid-fdng td-sau-liau ' the schoolroom is swept.' 
 
 But with such compounds as td-shwill, ' to draw water,' shunil, ' water,' would 
 
 be dropped in construction : e. g. 
 
 ngd yau nl ki-ngd td-shwui ' I want you to draw water for me.' 
 shwul td-liau ' the water is drawn,' or td-liau ' it is drawn.' 
 
 385. It will be well to show, by a few examples, how each of the auxiliary 
 words affects the principal verb when it is joined with it. 
 
 The character liaii, ~J , 'to finish,' is very commonly used after verbs, to 
 indicate that the action of the verb is accomplished, and the expression may 
 therefore be construed in one of the perfect tenses or by the perfect participle. 
 The following examples will show its use : 
 
 che-te t'ed-liau ming-tl 'he only presented his card.' (8. f. 23.) 
 
 li-ke tsiu-yau hing-liau 'at once I should be on my journey.' (8. k. 18.) 
 
 che-kien Skwiil-yuen, hwu tseu-liaii, tsin-lat, ' who should they see but Shui- 
 
 yun, having suddenly walked up, enter.' (9. g. 4.) 
 k'dn-liau yiu k'dn 'having looked, he looks again.' (u. f. 13.) 
 
 s
 
 130 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 yau yl-chdng dr ch\, shl k'^- siau-ti -liau, lit. ' wishing to take one cup and 
 
 then stop, is to have insulted me.' (n. 1. 13) 
 pu kal lai ts-ku-liau, lit. 'ought not to come, to have taken notice of me.' 
 
 (8. n. 28.) Of. 10. n. 4. also. 
 
 In oblique narration liau must sometimes be construed into the pluperfect 
 tense : e. g. 
 ' The attendants announced, that the second son of academician Li (lai-liau) 
 
 had arrived' (or 'to have arrived'). (10. h. 15.) 
 
 This character often means ' has become ;' e. g. hung-liau ' has become red ;' 
 pe-liau 'has become white;' ming-pe-liau 'has become clear,'=As under- 
 stood. Thus an adjective is changed into a verb when followed by liau. 
 
 When liau is repeated, the first liau must be taken as the verb ' to finish,' 
 and the second as the auxiliary particle to express the perfect tense or the 
 participle. It is however seldom found thus, though Premare gives one or 
 two examples of it. 
 
 sheu-wdn-liau ts'ien Jj5 y^ J^ 4j2i ' having received the money.' 
 
 chdng kwo-liau Bi Jfpjl J^ 'having tasted.' 
 
 Liau is very commonly used in the court dialect, and in the mandarin 
 generally ; also in the ordinary novels, but seldom in the Sdn-kwo-chi and 
 the better class of books. 
 
 Sometimes the object of the verb is placed between the verb and the 
 auxiliary liau J : e. g. k'l- siait-ti -liau ' you have insulted me.' 
 
 386. The addition of kwo -ffifc, ' to pass over,' as an auxiliary verb, is very 
 common ; it regularly forms the perfect tense when used in this way : e. g. 
 
 nl t'ung-te t'd shw6-kw6-tl 'you understood what he said." 1 (28. d. 24.) 
 kien-kw6 t'd kl-ts&l 'you have seen him, how many times'?' (28. g. 10.) 
 
 Liau is frequently superadded to kwo in the same sense of completing the 
 action of the verb. Kwo sometimes enters into the composition of a word, and 
 then it cannot be looked upon as an auxiliary verb, but the verb J^ seems 
 to be used to form the perfect tenses in that case : e. g. 
 
 nd-kw6-lai 'bring over;' nd kwo-lai liau 'it is brought over.' 
 
 387. The verb yiu vpt , 'to have,' also occurs as an auxiliary verb, like 
 have in English, but this use of it is not common in Chinese. When used in 
 this sense, it must stand immediately before the verb to which it belongs: 
 e.g. 
 
 yiu kl-fdn ' I have eaten rice (i. e. dined).' 
 
 tsung mu-yiu-k'dn-kien c/te-ydng-tl yi-ko-tsz ' I never yet have seen such a 
 
 character as this.' (30. i. 16.) 
 hwdn mu-yiu-td sdn-hid 'it has not yet struck three o'clock.' (29. k. 19.)
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OP AUXILIARY VERBS. 131 
 
 388. The verb wdn yr* , ' to finish,' is also set after the verb to form the 
 perfect tenses with the other auxiliary verbs and particles : e. g. 
 
 t'd sie-wdn che-yl-slieu-shl 'he has written this ode.' 
 
 Sl-cJian pu td,ng t'd shwS-wdn ' Sl-chun did not wait until he had done 
 
 speaking.' 
 ngo wi-tsdng tso-wdn che-ko s-tsing 'I have not yet finished this business.' 
 
 Kl Y' ' to stop speaking,' pi m. ' to finish,' and some other words have a 
 similar force and usage in the books, where they will present no difficulty. 
 
 389. The particle I M , 'already/ is used as an adjunct to form the perfect 
 and pluperfect tenses : e. g. 
 
 l-fu hid-jin tsai hid-chu 'he had hidden a menial in the lower room.' (8. b. 25.) 
 na Ll kung-tsz l-tseu tali sl-ts'ien ' this Mr. Li had walked up to the festive 
 board.' (10. h. 29.) sl-ts'ien is 'before the mat,' by met. 'feast.' 
 
 hing siil tsdn dr sin i-sz ff-^ Butt in? Itfj ; tV p j/p 'the body 
 
 indeed may remain, but the soul is departed.' 
 
 This word is however more frequently used as a book-particle than in the 
 colloquial idiom. It is used with adjectives like liau, but prefixed, and then 
 it signifies had become : e. g. 
 
 t'ien-sl a i-wan t'ui-plng b ' when the day had become late he withdrew his 
 soldiers.' 
 
 And in phrases it often loses its grammatical force, or, to say the least, the 
 value of the word is hidden by the figure ellipsis: cf. 9. f. 12. 
 
 390. Ki |SjP 'finished, to exhaust,' is employed in a similar way, and is 
 placed before the verb to form the perfect and the pluperfect tenses, or the 
 past participle of the verb, according as the circumstances require each form 
 of translation respectively : e. g. 
 
 ki mung ts'z-ku ' having favoured me with this regard.' (8. o. 4.) 
 
 kl Wdng Ll dr-hiung k'u-lien sdn-shdng ' having taken with our two friends, 
 
 Mr. Wang and Mr. Li, three cups in succession.' (i i. k. 30.) 
 ki yau-hing, ho pu tsau-k'ii ? ' if you wished to go, why did you not go earlier 1 ' 
 
 (10. n. 21.) 
 ki s& t 'ai-hiung, pu I pAng-yiu wei ts'ing, ' it being thus, Sir, that you make 
 
 no account of friendship as a motive.' (9. b. 18.) 
 
 391. Tsdng TJ|r , 'already done,' stands before the principal verb as an 
 auxiliary to form the perfect tenses and participles : e. g. 
 
 tsu-shdng Isdng-tso-kwo yi-ko-siau-siau Klng-kwan ' one of their ancestors 
 
 had been an insignificant official at the Capital.' (Hung-leu-mung.) 
 tsdng-klng k'l-ch'ing c ' he has already set out on his journey.' 
 
 S 2
 
 132 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 392. It must be observed too, that particles such as tsiu tnjf*, pien 'IP* , 
 kio ^P, tsau tp, yln r/n, each of which means 'then,' commonly throws 
 the succeeding verb into the past tense, the past participle or the future tense. 
 They occur naturally in the apodosis of a sentence where the perfect or future 
 tense is often required : e. g. 
 
 ji^wi-ch'u, tsiu k'l-lai, 'before the sun came out, (then) he arose.' (8. a. 13.) 
 Kwo tsiu sung tso ' Kwo then having invited his guests to sit.' (9. n. 15.) 
 tsaufl pau-yu Kwo kung-tsz ' then he hastened to inform Mr. Kwo.' (8. c. 1 1.) 
 yln lien-lien ta kung-kung ' tlien he continuously bowed profoundly.' (8. e. 4.) 
 yln kwn shln-ts'ing heu-mau ' when he saw the deep feeling and generous 
 
 manner displayed.' (19. e. 15.) 
 
 tsiu-yau hing-liau ' I am about to proceed on my journey.' (8. k. 20.) 
 wang-wai tsiu-tseu ' he went out, being about to depart.' 
 But in parallel clauses, or those joined with and understood, the verb which 
 follows these particles must be construed like the verb in the corresponding 
 clause preceding. And when the protasis is a hypothetical proposition, the 
 verb in the apodosis will be in the future tense : e. g. 
 
 393. Several verbs which are placed before the principal verb may be con- 
 sidered as belonging to the class of auxiliaries, since they serve to define the 
 notion of time more clearly. For the future tenses and future participles, 
 yau S, tsidng-yau ffjfr \ , and tsiu-yau ttff \ are used. The following 
 examples will show how they are employed : 
 
 ngb ming-t'ien yau leu 'to-morrow I shall go.' 
 lai nien nl tsidng-yau lai ' next year you will come.' 
 k'l-fdn-liau, tsiu-yati Jcu, 'having eaten his rice, he was about to go.' 
 But after nl, ' you,' yau would signify should or must : e. g. 
 nl ming-t'ien yau lai ' to-morrow you must come.' 
 
 394. Many words are used to modify the notion expressed by yau, as well 
 as other words employed to mark the future time, and to change the expression 
 so as to mean must, should, would, &c. ; as, for example, pi ;fA ' must, cer- 
 tainly ;' and adverbs of intensity, with certain verbs of like signification : e.g. 
 
 t'a pl-yau tu-shii ' he must study.' 
 
 hwAng-ti ye yau sz ' the emperor must also die.' 
 
 kiau-fu shi-tsai yau-lai 'the chair-bearer will really come.' 
 
 nl kwo-jen yau-k'l-fdn ' you certainly will dine.' 
 
 sien-sdng pu-lc&ng lai tu 'the teacher will not come to read,' (won't.) 
 
 395. The verbs given in Art. 197 will need some further exemplification, 
 as they play an important part in the modification of the verbal notion. We 
 will take each in order, ist, tl ^|L , ' to obtain,' follows verbs whose significa- 
 tion requires some such supplementary notion to complete their sense : e. g. 
 
 ngb tung-te nl-tl shwo-hwd ' I can understand your language.'
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 133 
 
 nl k'u-te, k'o-l, ' you may go,' where k'd-l is redundant, but idiomatic. 
 The negative pu j comes between the verb tl and its associate, and denotes 
 that the action of the principal verb does not or cannot take effect ; and this 
 is common with all these auxiliary verbs : e. g. 
 
 che-yl-t'iau-lu kw'dn-pu-tl ' this road cannot be widened.' 
 
 ko yung-jin k'u-pu-tl ' the servant may not go.' 
 
 Ti also forms, with certain verbs, an expression equivalent to utinam in Latin, 
 in wishes, 'would that!' e.g. hdn pu-tl 'j'S 'annoyed at not getting,' = 
 
 ' would that /' but the more common phrase in conversation is pd-pu-tl or pa- 
 pu-tt, which signify respectively, ' would that I ' and ' would that you,' i. e. 
 with one tone it refers to the subject who speaks, with the other, to the object 
 spoken of, or to the person addressed. Pu-tl enters into a variety of phrases, 
 as liau-pu-tl, 'finish not obtain,' for an intensitive, = ver?/; and sometimes for 
 'it will not suffice:' cf. Chrest. 30. e. 21. 
 
 396. The verbs k'u -^ 'to go,' ch'u H-J 'to go out,' k'al Rfcl 'to open,' 
 
 . ** 
 
 and san Jy v ' to scatter,' have a good deal in common. They express the 
 
 present or the perfect tenses of the indicative mood; the imperative mood; 
 
 or the potential mood, with can as the sign in English : e. g. 
 Icdnpu cfiu-lal, mu-yiu kwdng-lidng, 'I cannot see, there is no light.' 
 t'd nd-ch'u yl-kwel ydng-ts'ien 'he took out a dollar.' 
 shwiil ts'ung shdn-li liu-ch'u lai ' water flows out from the mountains.' 
 t'au-ch'u, pu-yau tang che-ll, ' Flee ! do not tarry here.' 
 ngb pi-k'al yi kwel mu-t'eu ' I split a log of wood.' (Indie.) 
 nl pl-k'al y\ kwel mu-t'eu ' split a log of wood !' (Imper.) 
 jo t'd chen-mei nl, li-k'al t'd yuen, ' if he flatters you, keep at a distance.' 
 na-kien ml-s A lu-cliu^ lai-liau 'that secret has come out.' 
 ngo pien-yau nl kl-liau-k'u ' I am determined you shall drink it :' (now, so 
 pres.) (12. a. 2.) 
 
 397. The verb pd StJ, 'to cease,' corresponds in force to liau j , 'to 
 finish,' as an auxiliary verb. But it very commonly has the effect of turning 
 the sentence either into an imperative sentence, or it gives to it a hortative 
 force. The following examples will show both these uses of pd: 
 
 Tl kung-tsz ch'd pd ' Mr. Tl /laving done tea.' (8. j. 20.) 
 shwo-pd, yiu wai tseu, 'having spoken, he again made for the door.' (8. m. 19.) 
 siau-ti klng-tsiu tso-pd 'I am already seated, (10. i. 15.) 
 fang-sin shwo pd! 'speak freely!' (27. a. 12.) 
 
 tsd-mdn tu yl-kwel-dr tseu-pd ! ' let us all walk together!' (30. b. 17.) 
 ngo-mdn shdng-ching pd ! 'let us go up into the city!' (28. 1. 19.) 
 Ho-ki, nl tal ngo kwo ho pd! ' Friend ! carry us over the river !' (28. n. TO.) 
 Cf. also 28. 1. 5. and 27. 1. 28.
 
 134 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 After a conditional clause, referring to the second person, or after an absolute 
 clause, it will generally give the sense of may, or some tense in the potential 
 mood, or be construed into the imperative: e. g. 
 nl pit yau tang, k'o-i leu pd (or tsiu k'u-pd), ' if you will not wait, then 
 
 you may go.' 
 
 k'l-fdn heu, tsiu k'u pd! 'after dinner, then you may go!' (or 'then go.') 
 tang-yl-tdng ngo che-ydng tsd pd! 'wait a little, I will do it so!' which 
 would be also, 'let me do it so.' (27. k. 5.) 
 
 398. The verb chu / |IC 'to rest in, to stay,' partakes of the same nature 
 and grammatical force as the preceding verb. It may be said to attach itself 
 to the verb in almost every mood and tense, to show that the action of its 
 associate, which always precedes it, has taken effect : e. g. 
 
 Kwo Idn-chu tau 'Kwo opposed him and said.' (8. 1. 8.) 
 
 Kwo yl-sheu chl-chu tau ' Kwo with one hand stopped him and said.' (8. m. 25.) 
 
 chl-te chu-hid 'he stayed there.' (9. c. 26.) 
 
 \-tseu tau sl-ts'ien chl-chu tau 'he had walked in to the banquet and stopped 
 
 them, saying.' (10. h. 29.) 
 pien ll-chu td-ying tau 'then he arose and answering, said.' (n. e. 8.) Of. 
 
 also (12. c. i) and (12. f. i). 
 
 In its own proper sense we have chu in (10. b. 15) yiu chu-sheu chl-i 'he had 
 the idea of desisting (from drinking).' 
 
 399. The verbs lai M^ 'to come,' tsln ,ra| 'to enter,' and lung J| 'to 
 collect,' may be classed together as auxiliaries, being allied in meaning and 
 use, and being often united in the same phrase. All three convey the notion 
 of direction towards the subject, just as Jcu 'to go,' ch'u 'to go out,' and k'al 
 ' to open,' express the direction from the subject of the sentence. Lai pre- 
 cedes liau when it helps to form the perfect tenses of neuter verbs, but when 
 an object comes in between, liau goes with the chief verb, and lai is suffixed 
 after the object mentioned : thus 
 
 nd-liau tl-tsz lai 'he took his card.' (8. b. 10.) 
 
 ngo hwdn mu-yiu k'l lai ' I have not yet arisen? (30. o. 18.) 
 
 Ts\n and lung precede liau in the sentence, and come immediately before it : 
 e. g. 
 
 tsln-lai 'to come in' (cf. hineinkommen), or 'come in!' 
 
 lung-lai 'to collect together' (cf. zusammenhaufen). 
 
 t'd t'i-k'i pi lai ' he takes up his pencil.' 
 
 t'd t'i-k'l pi lai-liau 'he took up his pencil.' 
 
 ho-lung na-ko tung-si lai ' collect those things.' 
 
 h6-lung-liau 'they are collected.' 
 
 The student must learn to distinguish between words which stand as gram- 
 matical adjuncts from the same when used as principal verbs : cf. ngo-fu dr lai, 
 ng6-f& dr k'u, 'to come fasting,' 'to go fasting.' (9. c. 16.)
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 135 
 
 Many of these auxiliary verbs form the various tenses, or stand for the pre- 
 positions found with the verb in some European languages. The Chinese may 
 be said to correspond with the idiom of the English in this respect. We may 
 say either, 'he offered up tea, or he presented tea.' In colloquial Chinese, 
 ' offered up ' is the form of more correct phrase : cf. Chrestomathy. 
 
 yi-mien hien-shdng ch'd lai 'while they offered up tea.' (8. h. 10.) 
 
 400. The verbs shdng r~ 'to go up' and k'i j& 'to arise' are similar in 
 
 1_ r***, , 
 
 their grammatical use, for they both signify the beginning or raising of the 
 action of the chief verb ; but they do not seem to have any effect in forming 
 the tenses of the verb, although they assist in producing the perfect tense 
 sometimes : e. g. 
 
 tsiu ll-k'l shin lai ' then he arose.' (8. j. 25.) 
 
 yl-mien hien-shdng ch'd lai 'while they were offering up tea.' (8. h. 10.) 
 
 pu to-shi pei-shdng tsiu lai ' not long after they prepared and brought up 
 
 wine.' (9. n. 8.) 
 yiu yiu Hwii/i-ts^ tsS-lwdn-k'l-lai-liau ' there were also the Turcomans who 
 
 had rebelled.' Gom;. Arte China. 
 
 yln nd-k'l na-pei-tsiu lai ' then he took that cup of wine.' (12. a. 9.) 
 kiau tso-yiu chin-til liang-chdng ' he called the attendants to pour out two 
 
 goblets.' (n. j. 24.) 
 
 K'\ is used sometimes to form the inceptive verb, even with a verb of an 
 opposite signification, e. g. with hid ~K ' down, to descend,' while k'l means 
 ' to arise :' thus 
 
 hid-k'l td-yii 'it began to rain heavily.' 
 
 This is exceptional usage, for the auxiliary is commonly suited to the action 
 of the verb to which it is joined; hid K is generally used for a downward 
 movement and shdng p for an upward movement : e. g. 
 
 hid k6-wei-ki 'to play the game of siege (a kind of chess).' Chrest. litho. p. 9. c. 4. 
 nl tu-shdng to-shau 'how much will you wager 1 ?' (lit. ' bet-up,' =Eng. lay.) 
 
 ( 2 7- g- 9-) 
 
 pa sidng-shdng yi siang, lit. ' touching enter upon thinking ! ' 
 
 (6. m. 22.) = ' with regard to take a thought !' 
 
 401. Many other verbs are used in senses similar to the preceding, and 
 assist in forming the tenses or in conveying the notion of direction implied in 
 the verbs to which they are attached. From the preceding articles the 
 principle involved will be seen ; but many additions to the examples may be 
 given by the student as he proceeds in his reading. The following expres- 
 sions must suffice to exemplify these remarks : 
 
 yen-hid pR] K 'to swallow down,' = coll. t'an-hid ~^5^ \ . 
 
 , * f ' f 
 
 jl A ' to enter' is used for tsln .Vg: ' to enter,' and both are occasionally 
 / x. u~^-
 
 136 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 used together; e.g. tsln-jl 'enter!' tsm-lai 'come in!' tsbn-k'ti 'go 
 in!' and shdng-tf&n-k'u, lit. ' ascend-in-go,' for 'go in!' 
 kan-shdng-k'u ' to pursue after.' 
 
 Each of these adjuncts is affixed to some verbs, just as prepositions are to assist 
 in forming compounds in European languages. The student of the Greek will 
 at once perceive the analogy between Chinese and that language on this point, 
 as he will too in many other Chinese forms of construction and usages of words. 
 (Compare trpos with lai; OTTO with k'u; eg with cKu; > with tsiln, <fec.) 
 Thus nd-lai 'bring!' nd-k'u 'take away!' 
 ts'u-kw6 Jfi7 ' to bring over :' e. g. 
 
 kiau-jin tsu-kwo pi lai ' tell a man to bring a pencil over here ;' so 
 ts'u-ch'u 'to take out,' ts'u-k'u 'to take away.' 
 
 402. When verbs compounded with these auxiliary adjuncts are negatived, 
 the negative particle is placed either between the principal and the auxiliary, 
 and they then generally signify cannot do what the verb expresses, or 
 before the two verbs as a compound, when they mean does not, has not, or 
 will not : e. g. 
 
 a nd-pu-lai ' cannot bring it.' nd-pu-k'u ' cannot take it away.' 
 
 sie pu shdng lai ' cannot go on writing.' tail pu ch'u lai ' cannot speak.' 
 
 b Jcl-pu-tl ' cannot eat it.' c t'au-pu-ch'u ' cannot escape.' 
 
 pu nd-lai ' does not bring it, has not brought it,' or ' will not bring it,' 
 
 according as the circumstances of the case require. 
 
 t'd pu tsin-lai 'he will not enter.' nl pu tsin-lai 'you, do not enter !' (Imp.) 
 hd-pu-Mng-lai ' cannot be brought together.' 
 nl tsln-pu-lai 'you cannot enter.' ngd tu-pu-tl ' I cannot read it.' 
 ngd pu k'l-tl ' I do not eat it,'=/ will not eat it. 
 d kiang-pu-ting e ' cannot be settled by discussion.' 
 ngd t'lng-pu-kien ' I cannot hear.' ngd pu t'lng-kien ' I do not hear.' 
 f mal-pu-lai ' I cannot buy it.' Smai-pu-k'u ' I cannot sell it.' 
 
 403. After these remarks upon the value of the above-mentioned auxiliary 
 verbs, the explanation of such phrases as the following will present no dif- 
 ficulty. 
 
 tseu-lai tseii-k'u ' to walk backwards and forwards.' 
 
 shw6-lai shwo-k'u ' to say again and again.' 
 
 sidng-lai siang-k'u 'to think of this and that,' = to keep on thinking, in 
 which form all such expressions may be construed. They cannot however be 
 affected by the auxiliaries for the past and future tenses as the simple verb 
 can ; they signify merely the general notion in the infinite mood. 
 
 404. The imperative mood in Chinese is marked by certain verbs, which 
 signify to invite or beg, to yield, to cause, to call, to exhort, and the like, 
 being prefixed to the principal verb; but very frequently the command is
 
 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 137 
 
 conveyed simply by the verb alone; e.g. led 'come!' k'4 'go!' k'-dn 'see!' 
 
 or with the subject only placed before it ; e. g. 
 nl pu-yaii-k'd 'do not go!' (Lat. noli ire.) 
 t'd pu-yau-k'ti would be ' he will not go' or ' he may not go.' 
 
 The verbs just referred to are, tsing j^'fii 'to invite,' k'iti ^fc* ' to beg,' jdng =|| 
 'to yield,' shi TJW 'to cause' or ling ^^ 'to cause,' Jciau pil 'to call,' 
 TdtMn SS fl ' to exhort,' of which the following examples will show the use in 
 this connection : 
 
 ts'lng nl tse maii-tsz 'take off your cap,' lit. ' invite you to remove the cap.' 
 hiu / |7r[ is prohibitive; e. g. hiu-shwo 'do not say!' 
 
 405. In pursuing the method of European grammar, and seeking equi- 
 valents for the voices, moods, and tenses, we may wander from the proper 
 sphere of the grammar of Chinese: in the analysis of this language we 
 ought rather to confine ourselves to the physiology of it, and leave the consi- 
 deration of the method of expressing moods and tenses until we come to the 
 third part (the Exercises), which may be looked upon as the synthetical portion 
 of the grammar. 
 
 It remains however to mention the verbs which act as auxiliaries in forming 
 the passive voice. They have been already given, but a few more examples 
 may be of service to the student. The verbs referred to are, kien fel ' to see,' 
 sheu *-~^ 'to receive,' Jcl P/ 'to eat/ ling /fjft 'to receive,' tsau j|!/ 'to 
 meet with,' pei I^K/ 'to suffer,' &c. : (cf. Arts. 212 and 213.) 
 
 pi Tt che yi-tiXl tall : 'by Tl he was pushed away, with these words :' (i 2. f. 29.) 
 ll-wei ! pu-yati kien-siati, y j] 'jiV ^^ EJ ^V-. ' Gentlemen ! Do not 
 be inclined to smile,' a phrase made use of when a scholar reads his 
 own essays before the learned: (v. Prem. under fel , p. 61.) 
 
 Kien 'to see, to seem, to be affected by,' forms the passive here just as in 
 other cases, although we do not so express the sentence in English, for we 
 may say, ' do not smile ! ' It is literally, ' do not be seen to smile ! ' 
 
 t'd pu kien-hwdn-hl ' he was not pleased.' 
 
 sul-jen ngo k't-tien-kw'ei ffi tt ;*^ ft P/' Hrf IftV ' although I shall be 
 
 L* *ii x'V L^ n^t ' i\^-t 
 
 a loser. 
 pi tse-jin kie-k'u v$r $W /V^ J--JJ -^- ' was carried off by robbers.' 
 
 406. The student may refer to Arts. 211 213 for several auxiliary or 
 formative verbs and examples, and seek for further examples under the follow- 
 ing section on the meaning and use of the particles. 
 
 Few precise rules can be given for construing verbs into certain moods and 
 tenses, beyond those already noticed, because the mood and tense often 
 depend upon the circumstances of the action, or upon the previous sentence.
 
 138 THE CONSTRUCTION OP VERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Examples of both will be seen in the passages given in the Chrestomathy. 
 We must now proceed to the consideration of the syntax of the verbs and 
 nouns, which serve to supply the place of the prepositions. 
 
 407. The verbs which are used as substitutes in some sense for the preposi- 
 tions are given in Art. 257, p. 91. Examples of their use is all that is needed 
 here. 
 
 i. tati Jl, 'to arrive at,' implies motion towards and arrival at: e. g. 
 
 t'd tau-che-ti lai-liau 'he has arrived here,' 'at this place.' 
 
 ngo yau tau-Pe-klng k'ti ' I wish to go to Peking.' 
 
 nt kl-shi tau-Kwdng-tung lai 1 ' When did you come to Canton?' 
 
 t'd-m&n shd tail t'ien ming 'they went on killing until break of day.' 
 
 yu 16 tau pwan yd 'the rain fell until midnight.' 
 
 Phrases: lai-tau fi 'come, arrived.' tsi-tau ijjc 'received.' 
 
 tau-chu Wj ' every where.' tau-ti m^ ' but, still, after all.' 
 
 2. tsai ' JX" , ' to be in a place,' implies position, rest in a place : e. g. 
 
 tsai-Kwdng-tung tso sdng-i hau ' trade is good in Canton.' 
 tsai-kid-1/i pu-hait ' it is not pleasant in the house.' 
 
 Phrases : tsai-kid ^fr ' at home.' tsi-tsal EJ ' to be without absence of mind.' 
 tsai-hti W- 'to consist in,' (B.) 
 
 3. tsung -ill , 'to follow,' implies motion from, through, or out of: e. g. 
 t'd tsung Pe-klng lai liau 'he is come ./row Peking.' 
 
 t'd tseil tsung ching-ll kwo-k'ti ' he walked all through the city.' 
 
 tsung hwdng-shdng tau hid-min 'from the emperor down to the lowest 
 
 of the people.' 
 
 tsung fdng-tsz ch'u 'he went out of the room:' (cf. 27. 1. i.) 
 tsung yuen Qr-lai ' come from a distance.' 
 With a negative preceding, it implies means from or by which : cf. ts& (15) below. 
 
 4. hidng jpjj, 'to go towards,' implies motion towards, but it is not so com- 
 
 monly used as tau (i). 
 hidng-ngo lai f come towards me ! ' 
 pu yau tau-ngo lai 'do not come to me.' 
 kd-che-niau fl hidng-t'ien leu 'that bird flies towards heaven.' 
 
 Phrases : hidng-ndn nfe ' southward.' hidng-tsien H)J ' forward.' 
 hidng-shdng r* 'upward.' 
 
 Hidng ml and yang q H] are sometimes used for yu "fc(v ' to, at :' e. g. 
 
 hidng pang-yiu shw6 'to speak to a friend.' 
 
 wei-tez-shi ydng k6-kwo ch'uen-che 'by this notification we address our- 
 selves to the ships of all nations.'
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OP VBRBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 139 
 
 Wdng Irffi and yang ^H], 'to look towards/ are alao used like kiting. 
 
 5. i J/^J ' to use, to take,' implies the means by which, and it precedes the 
 
 instrument by which any thing is done, or the cause or motive for an 
 action. 
 
 Yung JiJ, ' to use,' is more commonly employed in this sense in the colloquial 
 style; and as i is looked upon generally as a book particle, the student 
 is referred to the section on particles for examples of its grammatical use. 
 
 ngd yung-tau-tsz shd-t'a, ' I killed him with a knife.' 
 
 yln yung-sheu chi-ch6 Ti, tau, ' then with his hand he pointed to TI, and said.' 
 
 NA ^f, 'to take,' is also used in the same sense as yung, for by or with. 
 
 6. ki J$, 'to arrive at or reach to,' is used for with, and, until, and with 
 
 reference to; but this word is more common in the books than in the 
 colloquial style. 
 
 k'l-cha md kl jil i'e $& jLg[ fc yV 'the examination has no refer- 
 ence to you.' 
 ki dr yu 7& ^j ' until the second month.' 
 
 It also has the sense of about in some phrases : e. g. Idn-kl Snt* A7 ' to talk 
 about;' a book is 'about' (Idn-ki) a certain subject. In this sense it agrees 
 with that of pa jPl 'to take,' which often means taking, touching, concerning. 
 
 7. lien Iffi, 'to connect,' is used in the sense of and, with (like cum or avv) ; 
 
 and at the beginning of a clause it often means in addition to. 
 
 lien ho-ki mau sz Sj *?, jEj~r t=jj /frp 'he braved death with his com- 
 panions.' 
 
 The verbal signification of lien admits of its being construed by several words, 
 such as both, and, &c., and it often appears to be redundant at the head of a 
 sentence : e. g. 
 
 lien l-fu sheu-sM a tu pu kwn-liail ' she found neither her clothes nor her 
 head-dress.' 
 
 Ken n\ ye-mu ching-klng Iffi q ^ -n\ i& "JT- |ii ' you too are with- 
 out right principle.' 
 Phrase : lien-yd 2,j|j M? ' day and night.' 
 
 8. tai 4 ~r, ' to act as a deputy,' is equivalent to the prep, instead of: 
 
 tai-tl t'ung-hiang-jinb sheu-k'u 'he suffered trouble in the place of his 
 townsmen.' 
 
 "t t* h is) PA 
 
 T 2
 
 140 THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 t l d tai-jin shu-tsui-liau ( he, instead of men, made atonement for sin.' 
 
 9. yli ]KW, 'to give,' involves the notion of the dative case with the prep, to 
 
 or for. But more examples will be given of its use under the section 
 on the particles. 
 
 tsau fl pau-yu Kwo-kung-tsz ' then he hastened to give information to 
 Kwo-kung-tsz. ' (8. c. n.) 
 
 # % i & 'fc >L f \\ 1 1*f yungtiau-tik'u 
 yujin-hiung ts6-fd ju-hd ? ' allow me to go for you, Sir, and negotiate 
 the marriage, will you 1 ?' 
 
 10. ki jp^j, 'to give,' is more commonly used in the conversational style for 
 
 yu, as the mark of the dative case. 
 
 kiH nl Tci ngo tsS che-ko ' I beg of you to do thisybr me :' (cf. 27. a. 25.) 
 sung che-ko ki t'd k'u-liau 'presented this to him.' 
 tsai a ki-ngo yi-pu-k'dn b ' give (to) me another copy to look at.' 
 
 11. wei ~JIJft 'to do, to become,' is used for the prep, on account of, for, and 
 
 it enters into several phrases in this sense : e. g. 
 yln-wei 'because,' wei-shimmd 'for vf\i&t,'=why. 
 
 wet nl lau-Tu ngo kau che-ko 'on your account, Mr.Yu, I will change this.' 
 wei shimmo lai liau? 'why are you come?' 
 
 i-hd wet kiai -1^/ YPJ jK Js^ 'taking the river for the boundary.' 
 wei t'ien-hid siau 'to be a laughing-stock for the world.' 
 
 1 2. tui ;!?T, ' to be opposite to,' makes the prep, towards, opposite to (ad- 
 
 versus), &c. : 
 
 nl tui t'd shwd ' speak to him ! ' 
 tui t'ien shwd-shi 'he swore by heaven.' 
 
 *-y 
 
 Phrase : tui-mien mj ' on the opposite side.' 
 
 1 3. t'ung I i^j , ' the same,' stands as the prep, together with (cum) : 
 
 ngo pu-yau t'ung-nl k'u ' I do not wish to go with you.' 
 shi t'ung na-ko yl-ydng ' it is the same as (with) that.' 
 
 1 4. ho ^T P, ' concord,' is commonly employed as the prep, with, in company 
 
 with,-=Cung (q. v. 13. above) : 
 TI^O yau h6 nl hing-lu ' I wish to walk with you.' 
 lien-jin h6 ma 'both men and horses.' 
 ho hiung-ti yl-k'i hidng-ll-mien tseu ' with my brother I went in.' 
 
 15. tsi ^J , commonly 'self,' has the same force and usage as ts'ung (q. v. 3.
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OP VERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 141 
 
 above) 'to follow,' and therefore signifies 'from.' This is more fre- 
 quently the case in the book style than in the colloquial idiom; and 
 will be exemplified under the particles. 
 
 1 6. t'l Vq 'for, instead of,' is a more frequent colloquial expression than tai, 
 
 mentioned above (8). T'l also corresponds with yu ' for, to,' as a mark 
 of the dative (9). 
 
 nqo kid t'l nl siu ttr ^13 IS / | / /T! T*L < we n j am ashamed of you I ' (Hsin- 
 j\i v pi \'~l xfHr 
 
 ching-tu III. 76.) 
 
 t'l-jtn ch'u-ll | /^ y7 'to exert one's self for people.' 
 
 ydnq-jin t'l t'd dr-tsz ts6-fd -f^t' A I -frfl *jj* -4 4fc qv 'he 
 
 * v *^ ^ / ^ I I 11*1 XJ / J I I I If/ 
 
 solicited a person to negotiate a marriage for his son.' 
 
 17. yin jxj 'because of and yiu ttj ' origin' are both used for on account 
 
 of, by or through, although the manner of using them varies : e. g. 
 yin tau-tsz, sz-liau, 'he died by the sword.' 
 yin nl pu-nl rfcl M/p '[^' -iW 'because of your obstinacy.' 
 yin wei p'd, pu k'l-fdn, 'he could not eat through fear.' 
 yiu tsz mdn tsln ' enter by this door \ ' 
 yiu yuen jl u ' by the garden enter the house \ ' 
 yiu wu-kwdn chlng-pdn 9 - 'transacted by the military officers.' 
 
 408. The forms of construction, which stand as equivalents for the relations 
 of time and place, commonly expressed by prepositions in European tongues, 
 need some elucidation: (cf. Art. 258.) 
 
 Any general term for a relation of place or time may be used in construc- 
 tion, as a noun, with the preposition tsai ^tC 'in' or ts'ung -4JI. 'from,' 
 (according as the notion of rest in or motion is implied,) placed before the 
 noun to which such relation of place or time refers; the expression then 
 becomes equivalent to a preposition with its case in Latin or English: e. g. 
 
 ngo kti tsai-ching-ll 'I reside in the city,' lit. 'in the city's interior.' 
 
 t'd tsung-ching-li k'ii 'he went through the city.' 
 
 nl tseu tsai-cMng-wai 'walk outside the city,' lit. 'in the city's exterior.' 
 
 409. It is of great importance for the student to be able to divest his mind 
 of the idea of a Chinese word being a noun or a verb, and to be able to treat 
 
 any word as a noun or a verb, according as the case may require. The value 
 of this is especially observable in the construction of words to express the rela- 
 tions of time and space, where we use adverbs and prepositions. Instead of 
 saying ' upon the table,' the Chinese would say ' in the table's upper part,' tsai 
 chS-tsz shdng. Several examples of this form of expression have already been 
 
 &W .
 
 142 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 given in Arts. 258 260, and to these the student may refer. When the 
 phrase thus formed, as an adverbial expression, stands as the nominative case, 
 or the subject of a sentence, tsai need not be used : e. g. cKing-nui yiu ml 
 niai ' in the city there is rice to sell,' lit. ' the city's interior has rice to sell.' 
 But the method of expressing these relations will find its appropriate place in 
 Part III, where the exercises will necessitate a number of rules for turning 
 English into Chinese. One caution should be always remembered, that the posi- 
 tion of the words alone can determine how the expression must be construed. 
 A noun may become a verb, simply from its position, and a noun may so 
 stand with another noun, as to form a preposition in signification, although it 
 is not prefixed (prcepositum). Thus hid-shdn ' descend a mountain,' but hid- 
 fdng 'lower room,' and shdn-hid 'at the foot of the mountain.' Wai-Jcw6 
 'foreign countries,' kwo-wai 'out of the country,' = abroad. Shang-ma 'to 
 mount a horse,' ma-shdng ' on horseback.' 
 
 410. The adverbs do not admit of any modification of a grammatical nature, 
 excepting their intensification, either by being repeated, or by an intensifying 
 particle being prefixed to them. (Cf. Arts. 238 256, p. 84.) 
 
 It will be necessary to notice, in the next place, the particles which affect 
 words and sentences, and thus modify them, but in a manner so peculiar as to 
 call for a separate section, and a distinct analysis of their uses as attributive, con- 
 nective, affirmative, negative, adversative, causative, conditional, illative, inter- 
 rogative, dubitative, intensitive, exclamatory, and euphonic particles. 
 
 . 7. The syntax of the particles. 
 I. Attributive particles, jg tl, ^? chl, :& che, and Vn 8( 5. 
 
 411. The very first principle of Chinese construction is, that the qualifying 
 words and clauses precede those which they qualify, and though there is fre- 
 quently nothing to show the point at which the attribute ends and where the 
 object of that attribute begins, several particles do exist, which, under certain 
 circumstances, show this. They have been referred to above in Arts. 130, 
 132, and 313. 
 
 As the effect of these particles is to throw that which precedes them into 
 the form of a qualifying or attributive expression, that is, either the genitive 
 case of a noun, the adjective, or the relative clause, we shall call them attri- 
 butive particles; and here it will be well to illustrate their use by several 
 examples. They were all originally demonstratives, excepting so, and the two 
 first may be looked upon as equivalent to our s with an apostrophe, which 
 appears to be only a contraction of his, its, or hers * ; the last so contains 
 the notion of ' place.' 
 
 * Since the above was written we have met with the following extract from a native 
 author on the subject: F&n yin chl chd 'Whenever chi is expressed,' b w& yiu sd chi 
 'there is a thing pointed out,' c sz' yiu sd shft 'there is an affair connected with it,' 
 
 1
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 143 
 
 H is used only in mandarin and in the novels. After a noun it pro- 
 duces the genitive case, after a verb it makes the participle, and after a sen- 
 tence it must be construed into the form of the relative clause : e. g. 
 
 hwdng-ti-tl ' of the emperor,' hwdng-ti ti ma ' the emperor's horse.' 
 
 hwdng-shdng ' imperial,' hwAng-shdng-ti ' that which is imperial.' 
 
 che-ko shi ngo ts6 ti 'this is what I made.' 
 
 yiit tseh-ti, yiu fi-ti, ' there are those which walk and those which fly,' or 
 ' some walk, others fly.' 
 
 nd-ko shi ts6 ji lai ti jin ' that is the man who came here yesterday.' 
 
 kang-tang-ti 'just waiting,' or 'who was just waiting.' 
 
 412. With respect to the particle chl "^ , Dr. Morrison says, that in the 
 ancient books it occurs in the sense of yti ~hQ, shi -fpr, tsz AY, * tg> 
 chi 35, and pien |i$. (See these words in the dictionary.) Its original 
 meaning was the same as chi 35 ' to proceed, to go to,' or as a demonstrative 
 particle, ' that' or ' this.' The meanings of all these words run into each other. 
 Compare the notion in chi ^& as a particle to form the superlative ; it signifies 
 ' to proceed to the extreme,' or ' that ;' e. g. chi-hah ' that good thing or person,' 
 par excellence, therefore ' the best.' Although the characters ', (By -^ , 
 Ulr. are different, the ideas first attached to them were probably the same, 
 and perhaps the sound too, for chi, tsz, shi, chi are all cognate in sound. As 
 the Chinese language became more analytic, the characters were invented and 
 diversified, and words (by which syllables merely are intended), which had at 
 first but one primitive meaning, came to receive special significations in cer- 
 tain connections, and, as a matter of course, distinct characters to represent 
 them. Examples of the uses of chl * : 
 
 jin chl k'i so tsin-gai A / j^" pjr ^^ ^&* ' men, as to those things 
 which they love.' (Ta-hi6.) Here chl=yti 1j!\. 'with respect to.' 
 Cf. Classics, vol. I. p. 233. 
 
 chl tsz yH kwel 3' ^?*- p ga/ ' this girl is on the return to her husband's 
 house? (Shi-king.) Here chl=shi -IP:. Cf. Classics, vol. I. p. 236. 
 
 d ti yiu sb wdmg ' there is a place which is visited ;' e Ittn shU chl tsz yb, it is an expres- 
 sion of connection and relation. See Dr. Morrison's Dictionary, vol. I. p. 34. See also 
 the extract given in the Introduction, p. xxi. 
 
 * The references are to vol. I. of Dr. Legge's recently published work : The Chinese 
 Classics, with a translation, critical and exegetical notes, &c. Roy. 8vo. Hongkong, 1861. 
 The author here wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to this first volume, and to 
 recommend it to the student of classical Chinese. The student may compare also the 
 classic usage of cM { ' these,' com. ' only,' and tsU s ' to go to,' com. = ' then.'
 
 144 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 M&ng-tsz chl Ping-lu ~H -4 T/' 4i K2G 'Mencius went to Ping-lu.' 
 (Chung-yung.) Here chl=chi 'to proceed to.' 
 
 wi chl yiu ye -^ ^/ fa f|X ' there never was such a thing,' where chl 
 is merely euphonic, though in such a position it sometimes appears 
 to represent the object of the verb yiu. 
 
 413. Chl /< X frequently stands after a verb, as a pronoun, the antecedent 
 for which is either expressed or understood; e. g. <p? 7m 03p ^3 / 
 hid dr shi si chl 'to learn and constantly to practice it,' viz. 'what you learn,' 
 (Lun-yu, ad init.) Here chl is objective, and occupies the same place as tsz -J-- , 
 in the Shanghai dialect, after verbs. There tsz is looked upon as a euphonic 
 particle, and chl in the books, when in this position, is probably nothing more, 
 or merely like it in some English phrases (cf. " Thu' es heute" in the Prologue 
 to Goethe's Faust). The following is an example of two uses of chl; ist, as 
 a verb ; 2nd, as a euphonic particle, as that just referred to : cf. kiu-chl /A \ 
 
 ' a long time past.' 
 
 yiu shi dr chl-yen-chl wei tau to -^Pr Tnf | p=^% | g tj Mlf ' from 
 this place proceeding is called tau' ('road'). The yen is put in to 
 separate the former chl from the latter more clearly, and to make 
 the expression more rhythmical. 
 
 Chl, used as the object, has also the effect of making tsz Ej , which precedes 
 the verb, the subject, and prevents it from being the reflexive pronoun and 
 object, which is commonly the case : e. g. 
 
 ch'dng tsz she chl ^|* trl &T | 'he always shot them,' but 
 
 ym tau tsz king U I J\ Ht mj] ' with a sword he killed himself:' v. Schott. 
 Chin. Sphr. p. 80. 
 
 414. Chl ^? is also subjective, and used as such in the ku-wqn for 
 che :tt ; e. g. ku-chl ~jjT | ' the ancients ;' and it has the same effect as che 
 
 ^ j 
 
 (i. e. as a formative), and then it corresponds with tsz -j in the colloquial 
 idiom. In this way it occurs very frequently, and it must be considered either 
 as a formative or as a rhythmical or euphonic particle. 
 
 415. Che ^jj: is also an attributive particle, for it unites the whole sen- 
 tence which precedes it, and makes the noun or verb to which it is affixed an 
 attributive: thus, shwS-che ==& | 'he who speaks, the speaker or speakers ;' 
 ku-chd ~i" | ' those of ancient times, the ancients.' But although the 
 attributive force may generally be referred to this particle, it will be needful 
 to notice the other more common explanations of it.
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 145 
 
 Che : is frequently to be regarded as a demonstrative pronoun, and stands 
 after words, as the article 6, 9, TO, in Greek, stands before words, to individualize 
 or make special, particular persons, things, or expressions ; and most commonly 
 where an explanation is about to be given of the object thus specified. This 
 explanation which succeeds, determines not only the meaning of that which 
 precedes, but also the grammatical value of the word itself; e. g.jin-che 4^ | 
 would be either 'benevolence' or 'the benevolent,' according to the definition 
 which followed : thus, 
 
 jin-chd jin ye A^ ?5 A. 3n\ ' humanity is man,' (i. e. ( to fulfil all the 
 
 demands involved in the human relations is to act as a man,') but 
 jin-che 16 shdn /T^ | :^5p I | 1 'the benevolent delight in the mountains.' 
 
 So also the addition of the particle ye ift or chl ^/_ , between the verb and 
 che, separates the verbal notion, and causes the whole to form an abstract 
 noun: thus, 
 
 sang-che /J^. \ ' those which are born or which grow, the living.' 
 sang-ye cM 'that in which growth is or consists, life.' 
 
 416. When in an explanatory sentence the subject is marked by che being 
 attached, and the explanation consists of several words, or includes a relative 
 clause, another che often precedes the final particle ye M\ . It would be so 
 in a sentence like this : " God is the all-wise and beneficent creator and pre- 
 server of all things." 
 
 fa - tsz cM tsal Jd k'i shin che -yd 
 
 *H itb i % S It * i & 
 
 ' He who does so will bring evil upon himself.' 
 
 Pre"mare says that Ngau-y&ng VJjkt he used chd-ye \ IK for che-yd, and 
 L f . I * ' "* i* 
 
 also shi-ye -^p- W\ for the same, in common with writers of the first class ; and 
 he gives one example which goes to prove that che ^j and shi it alike mean 
 this or is, as we choose to render the sentence *. 
 Jcfc chl jin yiu Mng chl che, Wu-wdng shi ye, 
 
 $% i A :f ff i % Bfe 3E i fi 
 
 ' Among the ancients there were those who did it, Wu-wang was one of them' 
 
 417. When che is placed after a complete sentence the whole will form an 
 abstract notion, or it will represent some particular action in an abstract point 
 of view : e. g. after the sentence ' the soldier braves death,' che would make 
 the whole to signify ' the soldier's braving death,' which might form either the 
 
 * Cf. note on page 122. 
 U
 
 146 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 subject or the predicate of a new sentence. ' Alexander went to India/ fol- 
 lowed by che, would become, ' Alexander's going to India.' Sometimes die 
 follows two clauses, as in this example : 
 t'iau-che lwan-p'6 che, ho? Siun-tsz. 
 
 ' The cracking of the reed, and the breaking of the egg, how is it?' 
 (The nest was well formed and strong, but the support was infirm : cf. The 
 house built on the sand.) 
 
 Yau-Shan sing cJie, T'dng Wu fdn chl, 
 
 * ft t4 %!%&%., 
 
 1 The principles of Yau and Shun were perverted by T'ang and Wu.' 
 chl - chl - che, pu ju hau - chl - che, 
 
 ^ Z, I * *n S 
 
 ' Knowing it is not like loving it,' or ' those who love it are better than those 
 who know it.' 
 
 418. Che frequently serves only to mark the subject of the sentence, and 
 to separate it from the predicate : e. g. 
 
 kiun-tsz tau che, sdn. Cf. Chrest. 3. e. 13 23. 
 ^*T IL *1 I "ZI 
 
 4=1 T * ^B I . 
 
 ' The principles of the superior man are three.' 
 
 k'o-che, yu chl; k'i pu k'o-che,k'u chl, 
 
 W i Hi Z, * pT i *M Z, 
 
 * With those who are worthy, treat ; those who are unworthy, reject.' 
 
 419. Che appears to stand like chl / /' , for the object of the verb, and after 
 the predicate, in the following examples (cf. Art. 413) : 
 
 fu, hd-wet cJie? ^ 'fpf ^ | 'but how are you to do it?' 
 Chung-nl pit - wel I shin che* 
 
 w rt TN n E. a? i 
 
 ' Chung-ni never went to excess.' 
 
 420. The use of che ?5 does not date so early as that of chl J/. It is 
 
 rarely, if at all, to be found in the Shu-king and the most ancient classics, but 
 it is very common in the Si-shu and all later classical writings. It is some- 
 times difficult to give any definite signification to die, but if the student will 
 bear in mind that it unites the whole clause and makes it participial, as when 
 the is prefixed to a clause in English, or 6, ^ r6 in Greek, he cannot be very 
 far from apprehending the notion which the passage conveys. 
 
 421. The remaining particle so JyT, which originally signified 'place,'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 147 
 
 perhaps ' that place/ has been classified with attributive particles, because it 
 often has the force of the relative pronoun, and the relative clause is undoubt- 
 edly an attributive clause. The common rendering of so is ' that which, what ;' 
 nl sd yiu \fc Jyf 'jpt 'what you have.' This character, like che, appears 
 to have been seldom, if ever, used in the ancient books, though common 
 enough in the later classics of Confucius and his disciples : e. g. in the S-shu 
 (4. c. 23), so wei ku-kwS che 'the kingdoms which are called ancient,' or, as 
 is said in English, ' what is called an ancient kingdom is &c.' Again (4. 1. 15), 
 -fofin so ndng ye ' . . is not what men are able to do,' and (4. d. 17) si-che so 
 tsm, kin-ji pu chl k'i wdng yd, ' the former ministers whom you advanced, 
 to-day you are not cognizant of their loss.' 
 
 so-wel hd s? ffi " 'JMf j| lit. 'that which he is doing is what busi- 
 ness?' = what is he doing ? (B.) 
 so-kien pu shu J^h' fel J^ /&^r ' our opinions (the views which we take) 
 
 are not diverse.' 
 pi k'i so-pu-wei \ iff* JiL ffl' ^\ Jjjjj ' to slander is what he will not do.' 
 
 422. There are several phrases into which this particle enters; e. g. so-l 
 n\ *J> ' ^ ne means by which,' is commonly translated ' therefore :' ^ HJr 
 kl-so ' several which, a good many, some.' The following formula should be 
 remembered, and the classical scholar may observe that it accords with he 
 Greek expression for the same form with two negatives : 
 
 wu so-pu-ndng ffif: ffi' ^^ pj9 lit. 'there is nothing which he could 
 
 not do, ,'= omnipotent. 
 wA sd-pu-sung p[E | | ^&~ 'there is nothing which they would not 
 
 have given,' or 'which they would not give;' and this corresponds 
 exactly with the Greek of Demosthenes, ovK-eo-0' o-n OVK edidoo-av : 
 v. Dem. de Coron&, Eeiske 261. 
 
 II. Connective particles, 7/TJ yl, |Yjl dr, ^J yiu, 4-4- ping, &c. 
 
 423. Characters which may be called connectives in Chinese are rather 
 numerous, but they cannot be designated as simply copulative, for they gene- 
 rally convey some accessory notion. The above however are the common 
 equivalents for ' and, also ;' and they imply an addition of something to the 
 previous clause. We must consider each separately. 
 
 424. Yl TfK, f also,' generally comes second in the clause, and then, like 
 Kai in Greek, it means 'even' or 'indeed:' e. g. 
 
 pu yi yu hd ? ,X ^/J i |j V" iti. ' is it not indeed pleasant 1 ' (shw6 is here used 
 for r^t yu.} Chrest. 3. d. 17. 
 
 pu yi 16 hu ? | TfK ^JjK :tj^. 'is it not indeed enlivening?' Chrest. 3. d. 25. 
 
 u 2
 
 148 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 j$n, Ghlng wdng, Tsz yi yiu pu ll yen, 
 
 $ m c ^ * w * M m 
 
 ' Yea, if Ching were lost, Tsz indeed would not have any advantage.' 
 
 And in many expressions it is simply intensitive : e. g. 
 pi pit hau, tsz yi pu hau, 
 
 ft * 0, lib ft X ft 
 
 ' That is not good, this too is not good.' 
 Phrases yl-k'o ;jh pj and yl-hau \ fyJT- are terms of assent, = Well! Good! 
 
 425. [j^J dr 'and, and yet, and then, but, and consequently,' is commonly 
 used as a connective particle, but sometimes it has an illative force, and some- 
 times it is merely euphonic. It should be observed, however, that it never 
 connects substantives : e. g. 
 
 hd I shi k'i pu tsai dr she chl 
 
 f? n m s i t I & 
 
 'Whereby shall I know his want of talent and reject him?' Chrest. 4. e. i, 
 also 3. e. 26. and Art. 439. 
 
 king sing dr 111 chl ^^ raJp ffn ^b / ' he awoke in a fright, and then 
 played with him.' (Chrest. 21. g. 19.) 
 
 pu 16 shen - tau, dr wdng k'i kwd, 
 - .>* M/ -i^- > - 1 y t * ~~r~ -v * - -J-I ttst 
 
 ^ I If 5 rffi u fi- PI 
 
 ' He delighted not in virtuous principles, and so he lost his kingdom.' 
 It is joined with tsie in the following example : 
 
 dr-tsie jl pin Tm FJ ^jjt 'and moreover he daily grew poorer.' 
 
 And it is euphonic in the following apodosis : 
 . . dr-hwctng yiijin M ! j ^JT f^ /\^ 5&~ '.. much more as regards man !' 
 
 426. The difference between yiu " and yi 7n^, each of which means 
 'also,' seems to be that the former has a more purely connective force, and 
 often stands at the beginning of a clause, though it does sometimes take the 
 second or third place with the signification ' again :' e. g. 
 
 yiu wi wei pu k'd *7 ^P ^* ^K pT ' and it is not yet considered 
 impossible.' 
 
 k'iing-p'd yiu shi chl - tung-hwd - si 
 
 SB ta z ^ m * is w 
 
 ' I fear that he will again say one thing and mean another,' lit. ' point to the 
 east and talk about the west.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 149 
 
 yiu che - shi siau, ping pu shwti - cKu ch'dng-tw&n, 
 
 X K % % & % it HI S fa 
 
 ' Again he only smiled, and uttered nothing for or against,' (lit. 'long or short.') 
 
 In the following example, which is purely idiomatic, yiu is repeated, and may 
 be rendered 'then' or 'and then:' 
 
 md - liaia yiu tct, tct - liait yiu md, 
 
 t 11 * ~T i FT 4T T i I* 1 * 
 
 ml i iJ, rJ I I mi 
 
 ' Having scolded, then he beat ; having beaten, then he scolded.' 
 This form of expression is admired by the Chinese. Of. Chrest. litho. Sdn-kwd, 
 ii. c. 7, fan-kiu pi h&, M> kiu pi fan. 
 
 An intensifying form is k'dn-liail yiu Jean ^tFt* J | ^tV 'having looked 
 he looked again :' v. Hau-k'itt chuen, n. f. 13. 
 
 427. Yiu 3RC is also used where yiu /& or shi ^pr might be looked for, 
 as in the two following examples : 
 
 t'u-chung yiu kl; sin - kid yiu k'i, 
 
 flt/F i i! -d- T i M 
 
 ' In his belly he had hunger; in his heart he had wrath.' 
 
 ts'z, yiu tsz - pu - te; tsiu, yiu tsiu-pu-te, 
 
 m I if ? 11, Wt i ft I 1i 
 
 'As for refusing, he could not refuse ; as for accepting, he could not accept.' 
 Yiu must here be left untranslated, but it corresponds precisely with the col- 
 loquial usage of sM ' to be,' which means ' it was this' in such expressions. 
 kwdnyiu kau, kid yiti fu, 
 
 t~n ~t^* * i-* i *-i * 
 X tWj, ^ i m 
 
 ' His office was high, his family was wealthy.' 
 
 428. When yiu 3<C is repeated thus in two parallel clauses, it may occa- 
 sionally be construed by ' neither' and ' nor :' e. g. 
 
 tso yiu pu gdn, li yiu pu ning, 
 
 4* 2 *_.,_ iT. I i * 
 
 ' He could neither sit nor stand with comfort.' 
 
 For several examples of the use of this particle the student may refer to the 
 Chrestomathy : 9. i. 8 ; 9. k. 2 ; 10. j. 2; 10. h. 6; and elsewhere. 
 
 429. Ping 4-t- (also very commonly ijp, and formerly j/^), which 
 
 properly signifies 'two standing together,' 'together with, in union with,' 
 is used as a simple copulative conjunction in the style immediately above the 
 ordinary colloquial. In the Sdn-kwS chi, for example, ping and yiu are used 
 together : (see also the first example on this page, where pu follows ping.)
 
 150 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 yiu ping ji yH Hcln \ | 7\. ~j yffl 'and together united in Han:' 
 
 v. Sdn-kw6 chi, Chrest. litho. n. d. 9. , 
 
 And on the same page at c. 21. ping is used alone in a similar sense. 
 
 Ping is used as an intensifying particle before a negative; it then signifies 
 'even, indeed, forsooth' (cf. the use of KOI in Greek): ping-pu-shi 'no, 
 forsooth ! ' 
 
 ping wu-wdng TJ> ffil: Epp ' utterly hopeless.' 
 
 430. Ping sometimes means ' both,' as in these two examples : 
 
 tsie-mi ping met Dj^ frfe TTp ^S 'the (elder and younger) sisters were 
 
 both alike beautiful.' 
 lau - yiu ping-kiai nd - hid 
 
 ' The old and the young were both alike seized.' 
 
 Like many other words in the same category, ping enters into several phrases 
 to signify the whole; e. g. yi-ping ' one and all.' 
 
 Phrase: ping-kien v[P ffr 'together with.' 
 
 431. Kien ^i&j- is commonly used in official papers for ' and, together with :' 
 e.g. 
 
 Plng-pu, Shdng-shu; kien Tu-chd-yuen, yiu Tu - yu - shl, 
 
 ' Of the Board of War, President ; and of the Metropolitan College of Cen- 
 sors, an Imperial officer.' 
 
 The following belong to a higher style of composition : 
 
 kien Qr yiu chl Iff tm sfa ^/* ' altogether to have them.' 
 
 f T " -V"-' 
 kien tsx dr I \ iK ^ ^| 'both these meanings.' 
 
 432. K'i ^3i, 'together with,' is used like kien in the official style of 
 composition for ' and,' and generally as a copulative conjunction : e. g. 
 
 Hien-llng k'i Hie-tal l^.| , A | i^ ^'i ' the Worshipful the Mayor, 
 and His Excellency the Commandant.' 
 
 433. Tsie t ' moreover, and,' is used as a conjunction, and also means 
 sometimes ' now ' or ' anon,' and ' still, then,' &c. It also enters into several 
 adverbial phrases. But it is not frequently found in the colloquial style. 
 
 rii che sie hwd tsid mdn shwS 
 
 1* *f s 3 i mm 
 
 ' If you say this, then speak deliberately.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 151 
 
 tsid k'ti tsie tseti J i 5 H jfe ' anon visiting and running.' 
 
 yu, tsid lait) mat tien ^f \ 5pr ^3 ffj ' I, being then an old man, 
 bought a field.' 
 
 434. Tsie also seems to be a common prefix to the imperative sentence: 
 e.g. 
 
 Siting -kung! tsie pu yati k'u! 
 
 IB & i i 3? $3 
 
 ' Sirs ! do not weep ! ' 
 
 tsiit, tsie fang-hid ^jjy | ~Hv ~T> 'as for the wine, do desist.' 
 
 tsie k'dn hid-hwui fdn-kial 
 
 i fi' T # 8? 
 
 'Just look at the following chapter for explanation.' 
 
 435. Tsie is frequently redundant at the beginning of a clause : e. g. 
 tsid k'dn t'd tsang-ti J [^ ^jj? 'j Ml ^f^ |<j ' behold, how he is.' 
 
 tsid m6 shw$ t'd! \ ^j g^ -JHJ 'now, do not speak to him!' 
 tsie che-p'd \ Jr\ TW 'I only fear indeed.' 
 
 Phrases: hwdng-tsie ^^T | 'so much the more:' dr-tsie mt | 'but yet, 
 and besides:' che-tsie Jf\ \ , at the end of sentences, 'only' or 'alone' 
 (B.) : tsie-shwo is the regular phrase at the beginning of a new chapter 
 in novels for, ' the story goes on to say' (cf. Chrest. 17. a. 6) ; and 4^p | 
 kiti-shwft, 'to return to the story' (cf. Chrest. 17. m. 22) : JOtt | ku-tsie, 
 
 * __ i^ 
 
 I kiuen-tsie, both mean ' then, the case being so :' keu-tsie ^ 
 
 , _ j- t ^V 
 
 'carelessly;' tsie-fu | ^ ' now, further ;' tsai-tsie* .ffl. | 'again.' 
 
 * " - 
 
 436. .* /^ and Kew .|W, which have been spoken of in Art. 407. 6, 7, 
 
 as verbs acting the part of prepositions, also stand frequently as conjunctions. 
 This might indeed be expected, inasmuch as with frequently stands for and 
 in our own language : e. g. 
 
 lienjin ma JSl /S^ Oil <m en and horses.' 
 
 ngo lien nl 5fv 4ffi \ /Ft ' I an d you' or ' I with you.' 
 
 -J-^Vi ^V_^- I -,J 
 
 ngdkijti | ^ ^ ' I and you.' (B.) 
 
 klfung Chau-sien.. J& .r ^H ^M 'and being appointed governor of 
 
 *^*^^ J- J "~ff'J in i I 
 
 Corea,' . . 
 Other examples may be seen in page 139, Art. 407.
 
 152 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 Rung it, 'together with,' is also used in the same sense and manner. 
 
 437. The particle ye -fft , which will be more fully discussed in another 
 place as a final particle of assertion, is used very frequently in the style of 
 conversation for and, also, and stands at the beginning of the clause ; or for 
 even, indeed, as an intensifying particle, and then it stands immediately before 
 the word which it affects : e. g. 
 
 ngo ye t'ung nl k'u r7 j^j ' I also will go with you.' 
 
 tsiu yl-k3 ye-pu^ndng liu ! jj - 3 \ ' then you could 
 
 not even stay ten minutes!' Chrest. 10. o. 4. Comp. Art. 364. 
 
 438. The particle fu yr is used at the beginning of the sentence for now, 
 as a particle of transition, like then (cf. fj8r) in Greek) : e. g. 
 fu Tsz chl k'iu-chl y^.-Jr -+- ^^ ,>P | HI ' now the Master's seeking,'. . 
 
 * T - 
 
 fujin-che, tsz ye \ A^ :^^ -^4 | ' now benevolence is just kindness.' 
 
 fu hiau-che, t'ien chi king, ti chi i, min chl hvng ye, 
 
 * #_ i X Z ffi if& I 1 K- I <f? 4 
 
 ' Now filial piety is (what accords with) the order of heaven, the sentiment 
 of earth, and the conduct of the people.' 
 
 fu jin yiu $r hid chi,chwdngdr yu hingchi,.. 
 
 * A X I * Jft I m 1 7 I 
 
 ' Now when a man has learnt any thing in his youth and being grown wishes 
 to practise it,'. . (Cf. Chrest. 4. h. 25.) 
 
 439. At the end of a sentence fu is merely expletive, or a mark of ex- 
 clamation : e. g. 
 
 md" ngo chl ye-fu! |^L TO 4pp jfr\ ^ 'no one knows me!' 
 ndng kau k'i mu dr hid Jcl $r cM, fl t'ien ye-fu! 
 
 ft * 8 S i T K ft X 4 * 
 
 ' He who can exalt his eye and depress his ear is no other than heaven ! ' 
 
 HI. Affirmative particles, ^ shi, fj/t jen, ||t ye, .^ i, &c. 
 
 440. The common form of affirmation in Chinese is the repetition of the 
 principal verb used in the question : e. g. 
 
 Q. nl lai m6 ? ' are you coming?' A. lai ' I am coming.' 
 Q. t'lng ngo tl shwd-hwd mo? 'do you hear what I say?' A. t'lng-kien- 
 liau ' I have heard.' 
 
 The simple assertion or affirmation of any fact is generally expressed by shi Ip 
 'it is so, it is the truth.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 153 
 
 441. But in the book style the particle of acquiescence or affirmation is 
 jen ^"S which may stand at the beginning of a sentence or alone. At the 
 beginning of a sentence jen may mean ' it was thus :' e. g. 
 jen Sung-jin yiik mln J v^ ti^ J\^ V5* EH < it was thus that a man in 
 the Sung dynasty was grieved.' 
 
 When jen follows an adjective or a verb it is a formative particle, and helps to 
 make an adverb. (Cf. Art. 238. /3.) 
 
 Phrases : jen-heti \ 'f g ' afterwards, then.' (Chrest. 4. f. 30.) 
 ki-jen tj?f | 'since it is thus.' (Chrest. 9. b. 18.) 
 tsi-jen Ef | 'certainly.' 
 sill-jen ffijl | 'although it is so.' 
 wi-pi-jen '^K^ ;!/ | ' not necessarily so.' 
 taz-jen dr-jen Ej | 7m | 'of itself,' ' sud sponte? 
 
 442. Ye M is a very common particle of affirmation, and stands at the 
 end of sentences with the sense of ' forsooth, it is true,' attached to it : e. g. - 
 I - wei ndng shing k'i jin yd 
 
 ' Because you would consider it sufficient for the purpose.' (Chrest. 4. h. 2.) 
 f% jin sd ndng ye ^E /^ PJT pig | 'it is not indeed what man can 
 
 do.' (Chrest. 4. 1. 5.) 
 Meit U w&n - cKH - chi, tsl tsl ye ! 
 
 ' M. with force dragged it out, and behold it was his wife ! ' 
 wdng-ydng pd - lad, wi wei chi yd, 
 
 ' Though the sheep is lost, it is never too late to mend the fold.' 
 
 Ye seems to be used in sentences conveying an assertion, whether affirmative 
 or negative, and it helps to affirm the truth of each respectively. 
 
 443. Sometimes ye merely creates a pause in the sense of the passage, 
 or makes a division of the members of the sentence itself : e. g. 
 
 k'i yen ye shen Jq. f=? m Jtt. 'his words are good.' 
 hiati -ti - ye - eke k'i wei jin chl phn yu ! 
 
 % % 1 % n ^ -t * It!- 
 
 ' Filial piety and fraternal love, these are the sources of benevolence!' 
 
 x
 
 154 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 Phrases : wi chl yiu yd ^ ^^ >fct Jn\ ' there never was such a thing.' 
 tsz chi wei yd ifp ^ ~FJ Hi 'this is the meaning.' 
 
 444. Ye is sometimes used after proper names, especially when the name 
 consists of a monosyllable, and when it seems to require some expletive to 
 support it. It also stands as an expletive at the end of an answer to a 
 question : e. g. 
 
 Yiu yd jit jfy, K'iu ye ^>P jfy, < Yiu, K'iu (names of philosophers).' 
 k'd-hu? pti-Vo-ye! pj* Vj/.^ 7j^ pf {f^, 'May he? He may not!' 
 yiu-M? wi-yiu-ye ! '/& Jj/. ^jF; s\ | , 'Is there any? There is not!' 
 
 Ye is found as an adjunct with che ^jj:, che-ye and ye-chd (cf. Arts. 415 and 
 416); also with fu y^, yd-fu (cf. Art. 439); and with teal pa/, ye-tsal; 
 with yu Jpfaj ye-yu; with i f ' , ye-i; and with ye HJi, ye-ye. 
 
 .-** * 
 
 445. Yen ^j=jj is found either at the beginning, in the middle, or at the 
 end of sentences. At the beginning it is an interrogative particle; in the 
 middle it marks a pause in the sentence ; and at the end it has an affirmative 
 or assertive force, and has sometimes the value of a mark of admiration. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 fu yen yiu sdl? : ^ ^s ^&" Jffi 4& 'now what was there to rest upon?' 
 shti, kl yen yung niu tan ? H^ S$ ft jP^ Hj ^. 'Tl ' in killing a fowl 
 
 why use an ox knife ? ' 
 pu ndng k'dng shin, yen ndng k'ang tsung ? 
 
 ' Not being able to screen myself, how can I screen my kinsmen?' 
 
 kiun ts& chl kw6 ju jl - yu chl shl yen! 
 33* "?- "^ ^f*t -tin tnl Ft -5^ /^ i 
 
 ^ "T <~ .1 3?P tl n Z~ ft I 
 
 ' The good man's errors are like the eclipses of the sun and moon ! ' (i. e. they 
 are but partial obscurations.) 
 
 446. The particle \ Si is commonly Jmal, either at the end of a clause or 
 of a sentence. 
 
 sictng pi jen I J/. ^R. \ f I think it must be so.' 
 
 fin i $r-i-l /J^ j^j pi | 'humanity and justice, and nothing else.' 
 
 wA wi chl-chl I - ^P | ' I do not yet know it.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 155 
 
 tau - chl pu - king yd wu chl - chl I 
 
 ' That principles are not followed I know it,' (i. e. the reason) = 
 ' I know why right principles are not acted upon.' 
 
 447. The particle I closes the predicate of an affirmative or of a negative 
 sentence, but it most commonly ends an affirmative clause or sentence. 
 Ye H| seems to be preferred for closing a negative sentence, though it is often 
 
 found at the end of an affirmation. The following two examples will illustrate 
 this : (i) JCi wei-jin yd hiau-ti dr hau-fdn-shdng-che, sien-1, ' those who, with 
 respect to men, show themselves dutiful, both as sons and as younger brothers, 
 and yet like to resist their superiors, are few.' (2) Pu hati-fdn-skdng dr hati 
 tso-lwdn che, wi-chl-yiu ye, ' men who dislike resisting superiors, and yet like 
 creating rebellion, are not to be found:' (v. Chrest. S-shti, Ldn-yu, 3. d. 13. 
 et seq.} This particle i stands in the following affirmative sentences with the 
 force of the Greek particle rrep, implying the reality of what is asserted : 
 
 wti pi wei chl hid I 2?. 3/^ =ja ^ jjpL | 'I must call him learned.' 
 
 (Chrest. 3. j. 24.) 
 a si h,r-\ l^fj Hf ]^T | 'not merely to be aimed at.' (Chrest. 5. h. 13.) 
 
 . . dr Jcw6 wet I Ijff Q "Tp" | ' . . and the country will be in danger.' 
 yung-chl w& tu dr tsai U kwet I 
 
 ffl z t & if n ii. R i 
 
 'Use them without measure and your means will soon be exhausted.' 
 yl yiii, jin - i dr - I - I! 
 
 ^ -fa fc il W E. i 
 
 ' Surely there are benevolence and justice, and they are sufficient!' 
 wtf, wi chl h6 ye - I - I 
 
 ' I have nothing more that I can do.' 
 
 448. The combinations of the particle I ;>fe with other particles are many, 
 
 and the signification and force of each particular combination must be sought 
 for in the passages where they occur. They will generally assist in strength- 
 ening the assertion, or in intensifying the expression if it be an exclamation. 
 Such are the following : 
 
 Combinations : 1-hA 1 \ >|/. . jen-l ^"^ \ . 
 
 l-fu! | 
 
 X 2
 
 156 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 449. The two last examples in Art. 447 will serve to illustrate the use of 
 I j 1 as a particle of affirmation, or rather of assertion. It properly signifies 
 'already done' (cf. Art. 194); and, as a particle, it adds to the force of the 
 statement to which it is appended : e. g. 
 
 ten, yl dr-i |E{J] 7m | 'just one and no more.' 
 
 wi chl ye-l | ^ rfj | ' do not go there at all.' 
 
 pu tsu kwan ye-l ~j /p. f{|P | I ' no * a * a ^ worthy of notice.' 
 
 450. But in the following example I conveys its own proper meaning 
 simply: e.g. 
 
 l-Jv& ! l-hti ! | 5t/- | $ ' Have done ! have done ! ' or 
 
 l-dr ! l-Ar ! \ Tiff \ Iffl ' Enough ! enough ! ' or ' No more ! no more ! ' 
 
 Combinations: l-l | . Also ye-l nj | . 
 
 l-M | , and 
 
 or 
 
 ' * *J J 
 
 l-l-fu | | yC- 
 
 451. Particles are accumulated with I in the two sentences following: 
 wd wi chl hd ye - I - I 
 3? j& v' 'jriT rfj | | 
 ' I have not indeed any thing left that I may do.' 
 jl - yu chi yen dr I I 
 
 B J3 Ji I 1iJ I i 
 
 'They continue for a day or a month, and no more.' 
 
 dr-l produces the equivalent for the English expression 'nothing else to do 
 but,' in some sentences : e. g. 
 
 wet fang-sin dr-l V& Tjv lV> mj |-J 'but only take courage' (lit. 'let 
 go heart'), which might signify, 'you have nothing else to do but to 
 banish sorrow from your heart,' &c. 
 
 Chu-hi yl-jin dr-l/ * /\^ | | 'Chu-hi, a man, and 
 
 that's all!' (See Schott's Chin. Sprach. p. 132.) 
 
 452. The double negative forms of expression m5-fl 
 and vy&-fl wt | , each give the force of an affirmative particle, and therefore 
 the examples to illustrate them may come fitly in this place. They usually 
 bear the signification of 'surely.' Compare the following examples :
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 157 
 
 mS-fl tsiu-sJii ta-jt yang-hien-t'dng tl Tl t' 'ing-sang m6 1 l Why, surely, it 
 is the very Ti who forcibly entered the summer palace!' Hau-k'iu 
 chuen, Chrest. 10. d. 12. 
 
 ngo m6 - fl shwS-hwdng pu-cJiing! 
 
 ' 
 
 'I surely do not lie at all!' 
 
 m6-fl shi t'a kien-liau kwel! 
 E3. AA< 
 
 /E idi 
 
 . 
 
 /E i 
 
 ' Surely he has seen a ghost ! ' 
 
 t'ien-hid md-pu chi k'i kiau ye! Mdng-tsz. 
 
 X T i * *P K & di 
 
 ' In the empire there was not one unconscious of his beauty ! ' 
 wA - fl hiati - chi t'ien - hid chi i 
 
 ' Filial piety alone he considered to be the means of ruling the empire.' 
 Chrest. Shing-yu, 6. b. 17. 
 
 jtjftf ju& 
 
 453. The expression ndn-tau ffi jt ^W> ^*- ' nar ^ * Sa 7>' nas a force similar 
 
 to the preceding. Ndn-tati is however common only to the lower style, 
 while m8-fl, mo-pu, and wA-fl belong especially to the higher class of com- 
 positions. In the Hati-k'i'A chuen and the Shwui-hu chuen we find ndn-tati 
 frequently, and it is generally followed by a negative. The negative in ndn-tati, 
 with this negative particle, combine to form a strong affirmative : e. g. ndn- 
 tau pu-jH Ttu-jln! ' Surely they are as good as the ancients !' Chrest. 9. 1. 8. r 
 ndn-tati tai-hiung hiodn-pu-k'&ng fu-tsting 1 ' Surely, Sir, you are not still 
 unwilling to comply with my request!' Chrest. 9. e. i. 
 
 ndn-tau tsiupd-liau! tfijj: 5j|f CW ^& \ ' Surely this is not all though !' 
 
 454. Pu-cliing ~j M/ is added as a particle at the close of sentences 
 
 which begin with any of the above combinations mo-fi, m8-pu, wti-fl, and 
 ndn-tau. If pu-ch'ing were added to the last example, it would mean, 'Surely 
 this will not be the end of it !' (See an example with pu-ch'ing in Art. 452.) 
 ndn-tau sM & kia-tl pu-ch'ing! 'Surely it cannot be all false!' 
 ndn-tau shi ngo t'ing-ts'6 -liau^ pu-ch'ing 1 ' Surely I did not hear incorrectly ! ' 
 m8-pu kl-liait c ngd pu-ctiing ! ' Surely he will not exactly eat me ! ' 
 
 Nl-shwS ifa =& and nl-tau a^K ^JM may be regarded as initial particles 
 of the same kind, and may be construed in a similar way.
 
 158 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 IV. Negative particles, 3^\ pu, 9T/ fa, y/j wu> feu, &C- 
 
 455. Negative particles in Chinese are numerous and of distinct classes ; 
 there are direct or absolute negatives, such as pu andfu, &c., ' not;' and there 
 are prohibitive and conditional negatives, such as wu, mo, &c., 'do not;' and 
 others, which imply a negation, such as wu and mu, &c., 'without.' 
 
 456. The particle pu /ft stands before the word which it negatives. It may 
 
 be placed before a verb, an adjective, or a noun. Before a verb it is a direct 
 negative, but occasionally prohibitive, and often means 'cannot;' before an 
 adjective it has the same effect as un-, in-, in unkind, insincere; before a noun 
 it denies the existence of the object, or the amount of duration, if it be a noun 
 of time. It also enters into several adverbial phrases. The force of two such 
 negatives should also be noticed. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 pu \pdng-yiu wei tsing 'you do not take friendship as a motive.' Chrest. 9. b.2 2. 
 
 siau-ti yl pu jen yen Jcu 'I cannot bring myself to speak of going.' Chrest. 
 9. a. 26. 
 
 pu Jed pu hwui ^^ pj yj\ ^* ' you could not dispense with meeting 
 
 him,'= ought not to miss meeting him. Chrest. 10. d. 6. 
 So also pu-ti-pu signifies ' cannot be avoided,' = must: e. g. 
 pu-ti-pu Tcu ^X ^ |L /K -^F> ' I cannot avoid going.' 
 
 pu-yung-pu ju-tsz \ tg? \ "Wft iH^ 'it cannot be otherwise.' 
 
 This force of two negatives exists only when an auxiliary verb accompanies 
 the principal verb. When two different verbs are each affected by pu, the 
 expression means ' neither ,' ' nor :' e. g. 
 
 pu-kl pu-hdn ^K JT ~j =jjfc ' neither famished nor starved.' Mdng-tsz. 
 
 But pu wei pu-to I \ '^ | -^ | signifies ' cannot be considered few,' 
 pu-to, ' not many,' forming an adjective, in one word, few. 
 
 457. The position of pu in many colloquial expressions, in which it nega- 
 tives the verbal notion, is between the principal verb and its auxiliary or the 
 word which conveys the notion of its action having taken effect : e. g. t'ing- 
 pu-kien ' I do not hear' (i. e. so as to understand); mien-pu-liail (28. k. 27) 
 ' cannot avoid,' lit. 'avoid not finish;' pu-tui (29. 1. 24) is a complete sentence, 
 'it does not agree,' =it is not right, said of a time-piece. 
 
 458. After some words it enters into adverbial phrases, and may be occa- 
 sionally construed by ' without :' e. g. 
 
 sidngfung pu-yln . . |> j^j .M| ^K i* 'for good friends to meet without 
 drinking . .' Chrest. 8. 1. 12. 
 
 siau-ti sul pu-tsai .. J\\ tfi Si jj: | "JC ' although I am without talent . .' 
 Chrest. 4. e. 5.
 
 Phrases : pu-siau 
 
 (10. i. n.) 
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 >/ /l^ 
 
 needless.' 
 
 pu-siau [ T3 'degenerate.' 
 
 nsncere. 
 
 pu-chung \ 'i 
 
 (3. g. 20; 6. j. 19.) 
 
 soon. 
 
 pii-k'i | |:[P ' no great time' 
 (before or after). (8.b. 20.) 
 
 pu-jl | W 'not a day,' or 
 ' not many days,' soon. 
 
 pu-fd | ^ 'lawless.' 
 
 pu-JdS 
 
 pu-wei 
 
 159 
 
 ' unexpectedly.' 
 (8Tn.i.) 
 
 ffi ' not only,' in op- 
 position to yi-tsie 
 El 'but also.' 
 
 pu-pien | a IP ' inconvenient.' 
 
 pu-kwo | 
 pu-yau | 
 shau-pu-tf, 
 
 (8. g. 20.) 
 
 'only.' 
 
 Boon. 
 
 (9. o. 18.) 
 
 459. ^tt ffi is a synonym of pti, X\ and, like that particle, precedes the 
 word which it affects, but its use is less general than that of the latter. It 
 occurs, however, frequently in classical writings. The following are two exam- 
 ples from the Chung-ydng : 
 
 fu wet chll! ^ ^ jfe'I will not do it !' 
 ehi chl $r fu Men; t'ing chl dr fu w$n, 
 
 E ^ ffi ft a ii & i M 
 
 ' To look at them and see them not ; to listen to them and hear them not.' 
 I fu mwtin k'i chl shi yiu 
 
 yj. * m K w * 9 
 
 ' Because he had not fulfilled his duty he was grieved.' 
 
 460. Wu 5?) is a prohibitive negative, and stands generally at the head 
 of the sentence. It is found less frequently in the colloquial style than in 
 that of the books : e. g. 
 
 wu wei yen chl pu tsau y%! 
 
 . 
 
 ' Do not say that I did not speak early about it ! ' 
 fl li; wu - shi, wu-t*ing, wu-yen, wu-tung ! Ldn-yu. 
 
 ' If improper, do not look at, or listen to, or speak of, or do it!' 
 wu wdngwu tsu ch&ngye! Chrest. 4. m. 18. 
 
 * t ft fl* S til 
 
 ' Do not forget ! do not help things to grow!'
 
 160 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 wu she kl yun jin \ <g" H^ ^' /^ * don't neglect yourself and weed 
 
 out other men's faults.' Canton Proverb. Cf. also Chrest. 22. n. 23. 
 461. Feu A, which is also read pe\ and ^ c i with the significations ' wicked, 
 bad/ and 'to obstruct' (cf. the meanings of fl 3p)> i g a negative particle, 
 equivalent to 'no!' 'it is not so,' and is sometimes used interrogatively as a 
 final particle. It is undoubtedly allied to fl in the ancient language. The 
 examples of its use and its occasional meanings prove this. Thus shi-fl j^: | , 
 lit. 'is, not is,' =' truth falsehood,' or 'good bad;' an expression which 
 might also signify ' is it so or not?' But we find shi-feu Ip A is also used in 
 this latter sense, ' is it true or false?' Other examples of its use as a negative 
 particle are the following : 
 
 so yen wi chl shi feu 
 
 'What I say, I know not whether it be true or not.' 
 ke, tsi chlng chl, yung chl; feu, tsl wel chl. Shu-king. 
 
 If they repent, recommend them and employ them; if not, overawe them.' 
 Chrest. i. k. i. 
 
 462. The word fl =^\z ' it is not' (opp. to shi Ip ' it is') is a strong negative 
 particle, and often stands, just as pu /ft, like inseparable prepositions in com- 
 pound words, in which a negative is implied : e. g. fl-ll-tl ' unreasonable ;' 
 fl-li-tl 'irrational;' fl-chdng-ti 'uncommon.' 
 
 fl t'ung yung-i \ |pj 35 ^. < no t alike easy.' 
 
 fl-fd m& ts6 | y^- S 4 fc ' do not unlawful things.' 
 
 (Cf. Art. 442 ; the second example. Compare also Chrest. 6. j. 5. et seq. ; and 
 9. 1. 22.) 
 
 463. Fl goes with pu in the same sentence, and unites with wu and m6 
 to form strong affirmatives. (Cf. Art. 452 ; three examples.) 
 
 fl t'd pu k'o | M^ | Pj ' cannot do without him.' 
 
 464. Wu 5nt, which commonly means 'without,' is frequently used as a 
 negative particle, and sometimes as a prohibitive ' do not.' 
 
 t'ien-shdng yiu, ti-shdng wu ~^T r" ^fct" jm p | 'in heaven there 
 
 is, on earth there is not.' 
 wuju Sung-jlnt \ " 'do not like the man of Sung!' 
 
 wu I i 2 tt | ' there is no difference.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 161 
 
 Phrases: wu-jl JJB; \~\ 'not for a day at a time.' Mdng-tsz. = (pu-ji.) 
 wu-i! \ rtfc ' wonder not ! think it not strange !' 
 
 465. Md \^\ ' do not ! ' when it stands alone, is prohibitive, and when 
 joined with adjectives and yH 'Jj!\. it enters into several expressions for the 
 superlative degree : e. g. 
 
 mo-siau 1 'do not laugh!' md-shwd! ' do not speak!' 
 
 md wclng md-lai ! M ^3T M M* 'have no intercourse with!' 
 md shin yti sz \ ~ffc '~K^ JB^Jr 'nothing could exceed this.' 
 md td yti t'ien \ -4^ ~fc^, "j^ 'nothing greater than heaven.' 
 md td chl kung \ ^-* ^S J TJ ' excellent merit.' 
 
 466. Wi - ' not yet, never yet,' supplies the place of the negative parti- 
 cle in many expressions: v. examples in Arts. 412 (wi chl yiu ye), 426 (yiu 
 wi wei pu-k'o), and 451 (wA wi chl ho ye-l-l}. And sometimes wi at the close 
 of a sentence produces an interrogation : e. g. 
 
 shwd liaii ye wi? =& ~j JnT -^ 'have you spoken, or not yet 1 ?' 
 
 467. Hiti a^r, 'to cease,' and hiti-yau | M are prohibit! ves, as are also 
 pi n\\> ' * separate,' and pi-yati. And ml jjjfc, a synonyme of wd W[, 
 
 / <J v _ _ c^"r " ~J"^^~ 
 
 and fl J5P, a synonyme ofy^ 3p, are direct or absolute negatives : e. g. 
 
 ming ml chdng-chdng '&f Bp *Ey / J3* ' destiny is not constant.' 
 ku te ml chdng Wfc ^S ^ ^ 'his virtue is not constant.' 
 ngo slnfl shl ;& jt \ Jr-\ 'my heart is not stone.' 
 
 With md,fl=nisi, unless, but: e.g. 
 md chlfl hu ^^ A\\ M^ ^IjT 'nothing is a purple red, if not wolves.' 
 
 md he fl wu \ p. ] J^^ 'nothing is black, if not crows.' 
 
 468. Wu J05; very commonly has the force of the preposition 'without' 
 (sine): e.g. wu-tsl }jj| || (sine uxore) = i a widower ;' wu-tsz ^| -4- (sine 
 prole) =' childless;' wA-fH \ ^2 (sine patre) = ( fatherless.' These expres- 
 sions are all classical, and are to be found in the " Four books." So also 
 
 wu-jln fijfc A , which = 'nobody.' 
 Jn> / v 
 
 469. Several other words are found which serve the purpose of the negative 
 
 Y
 
 162 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 particle. Such is wu jf\ the negative of existence, which is a synonyme of 
 wu p : e. g. 
 
 k'i yi wufdng J4. >> | ~Tj ' the increase of it has no bounds.' Yi-klng. 
 
 470. Wdng [ , ' to lose/ is also occasionally used in opposition to yiu sEt , 
 as the negative of existence, but this use of wdng is by no means common : 
 
 h6 yiu, M wdng? 'fST !3=jf 'fPj T*~[ 'what had I, and what had I not 1 ?' 
 Shi-king. 
 
 471. Wdng Jg is more common as a negative, and it is frequently found 
 as such in the Shu-king : e. g. 
 
 heu fl min, wdng ski; min fl heu, wdng s. Shu-king. 
 
 . *>. pin * JB n * 
 
 ' If the prince be without people, he has no service ; if the people be without 
 a prince, they have no duty to perform.' 
 
 wdng yiu tsz sz jg xj=f m'' jB ' there is no such thing.' 
 chiju wdng wdn! ~2 ^^ | R|| 'act as if you did not hear!' 
 
 472. In the following example it is followed by a negative, and then a 
 strong affirmative is produced : e. g. 
 
 fdn-min wdng pu tiii I*f B^ |] ,^\ g W ' among all the people there 
 is no one who hates him not,' = every body hates him. 
 
 V. Adversative particles, Jj^J dr, 4Q tdn, JFs che, 'r^ shdng, <fec. 
 
 473. The adversative particles include all words which, being used as con- 
 junctions, imply opposition, or the addition of something to the previous 
 clause. The most common particle of this kind in the books is dr jj^j] , which, 
 
 however, has several other uses: (v. Art. 425.) Examples of its use as an 
 adversative particle are very numerous. Thus in the Chrestomathy : fl t'u wu- 
 yi, dr-yiu hai chl (5. a. n), 'not only is it profitless, but indeed it injures it.' 
 Again, hiau-ti dr hau-fdn-shdng-che, sien-i (3. e. 17), 'those who are dutiful 
 and kind, and yet are fond of rebelling against superiors, are few.' And 
 pan li, dr tau sang (3. 13), 'let the first principles be established, and then 
 practical principles will arise.' In the Epitaph of Ki-tsz, hwdn dr wu-sie, 
 t'iii dr pu-si (2. k. 20), ' in obscurity, yet he was not depraved; in ruin, yet 
 he sighed not in despair.' 
 
 The particle dr, as such, does not appear to have been used in the ancient 
 books, but only in those in and after Confucius' time. 
 
 thu dr pu ts6 5l| Tj^J ^/K 4fc 'to compile, but not to compose.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 163 
 
 tan dr pu yen */4 1m ~j^ 11? 'tasteless, but not loathsome.' 
 
 pit s dr tl J?C IS Tj^t ^M: 'he does not think, and yet he obtains it.' 
 
 pu - shdng dr min kiuen, pu nu dr mtn wel, 
 
 * m w m I* * & w m & 
 
 ' He gives no reward, and yet the people praise him ; he shows no anger, and 
 yet the people fear him.' 
 
 474. Tan 'fj^j 'but yet, but especially,' is a common adversative particle 
 both in the books and in the higher style of conversation. In the latter it is 
 often joined with shi -IP-:, and it frequently stands at the beginning of an 
 independent clause, like but in English, as an expletive. In this sense it is 
 joined with che t* ' only,' and it means ' simply.' It appears to be equivalent 
 to dock, 'yet,' in German, in such phrases as, Setzen sie dock! e. g. 
 
 tan ts6 pu fang I \ <5p ~^ iTft ' but sit down ! don't fear ! ' and 
 
 tdn shwo pufdng! 'but speak! there's no objection!' 
 
 In the Chrest. (9. b. 3), tdn chwdng l-su ' but (or only) every thing is packed.' 
 And again (9. c. n), tdn-che-shi . . stands for 'but' or 'but only:' 
 tdn che wu pdng-yiu Ted ts'lng 'but he had no friends whom he could invite.' 
 
 Tdn BJ 'only, single,' and tdn I'M are frequently used for the above tdn 
 ' but, only : ' e. g. 
 tdn che kwan hu-shw6 ppj y-\ /^^ A fj gir ' but he only talks nonsense.' 
 
 475. Che M, 'only,' comes also into the category of adversative particles, 
 It is often followed by shi ^ in the lower classes of composition, in which 
 it is more commonly found than in the classics. 
 
 ^* ^H^ P& fQ; Jcwan pi, and hau iH- also follow che and intensify it 
 or add something of their own meaning to it. 
 
 Examples. 
 shw6 - lai che - p'd nl pu sin 
 
 m * B te 1* * is 
 
 ' I would speak, but I fear that you would not believe.' 
 dr - jin mu - fd che - tl Jean t'd 
 
 il A yg & B II m it 
 
 ' The two men had no alternative but to follow him.' 
 
 che san-jl ts'iii lai \ ^ pj tn ^ 'but in three days he will come.' 
 
 Y 2
 
 164 THE SYNTAX OF THR PARTICLES. 
 
 yen - k'al yen - k'al, che tso pu chl, 
 
 1 His eyes were open to it, but he feigned not to know.' Cf. Chrest. 8. k. 10; 
 9. c. ii. 
 
 47 6. Che-p'd is the common phrase for ' I suppose, perhaps,' in certain 
 clauses, and it is often used in ironical passages : e. g. 
 t'len-hid che-p'd pu sang tsai-tsz! 
 
 x T i ta * 1 ^ 
 
 ' I suppose there never was a man of genius in the world ! ' 
 che-p'd rii kien-liau kwel-liau ! ' perhaps you have seen a ghost !' 
 
 477. Chl jh , ' to come to a point and stop,' is often used like che, or per- 
 haps for it, though sometimes chl is the more appropriate particle : e. g. 
 
 gai chl, ju shin, pu chl ju tsz, 
 
 ft- Z. #H % X it: 3n = 
 
 1 He loves him as himself, and not merely as a son.' 
 
 478. Wei 'I'fj: (variously written Ptf: and H: ) 'only, but,' and nal~Tj 
 1 then, but,' and shdng tpj ' yet,' are also used as adversative particles. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 wei kl wei Mng ! '|'|| ^) ^fa Jjj: 'but be exact and firm!' (i. e. 7.) 
 In 2. n. 2. and 6. wei seems to be used in its original sense, 'to consider.' 
 nalcKutd-faTJj H ! -7^ VJ 'then he issued his great law.' (2.!. 20.) And 
 
 nal pi k'u-Jcii yu sh/i-su ... (9. 1. 1 5) ' but if one must needs scrupulously 
 
 comply with the world's custom . . .' 
 
 shdng yiu yuen-lce tsai tsz (10. i. 23) 'but we have a guest here from a distance.' 
 nien sul lain, - mai, shdng ndng ch'i - met, 
 
 ' Though aged and infirm, yet he can ride on horseback.' 
 
 479. In addition to the above, many words are used as adversative particles 
 in the various classes of composition, and each class often has its own peculiar 
 words for this purpose. Examples of the uses of the following will be found 
 in the Chrestomathy : yln Rj for 'then' (8. e. 4; 10. e. 25): tsau Ep 'then' 
 
 . - a * " _T-T% 
 
 (S.c.u; 8.0.29); pien \ W 'then'(9.m.i8; io.a.2i); tsiu tn> 'then' (8. a. 1 6); 
 sili ^^ 'forth with, then' (17. g. 27; i7.n.2o); tsi ^Ilj 'then' (2i.d.8; 2i.d.i4): 
 also (3. k. 23; 4. a. 29); kid ^PJJ 'then, in the next place, but' (8. b. i; 
 17. m. 22; 14. b. 3). Cf. also tir-tsi [fjj |p 'and then' (9. c. 18).
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 165 
 
 480. Fang ~Tr , ts'ai $f|, and siuen ffe (in official papers especially), 
 
 / \/ _*, ^&t '* f**r 
 
 with m JT/J , Bwgr W , and tow / [ |jj , are all found in the sense of ' then,' or 
 ' but then,' and may be looked upon as adversative particles. The exact mean- 
 ings of these words may be found in the Dictionary (Part IV) ; and reference 
 be made to the following passages in the Chrestomathy : (8. h. 2. 6. e. 9. 
 n.k. 15. 12. o. 18.) Compare also the uses of jing 'fjj and jen -vA', as 
 adversative particles. 
 
 VI. Causative particles, J/Jf I, ~tj ^ M, J^f yln, ttj yiu, <fec. 
 
 481. The causative particles take different positions, being either first or 
 last in the sentence, according as they are in construction or not with the 
 other words of the sentence; for sometimes the original signification of the 
 word is considered, and then it is held in construction, though the rendering 
 in English must be by a causative conjunction: e. g. in the Chrest. 9. b. 22. 
 pit, I p&ng-yiu wet tslng ' for that friendship is not your feeling,' or ' since you 
 have no friendly feeling ;' I commonly means ' to take, to use,' as it does in 
 this passage. 
 
 482. The word I J/J 'to use, to take, by,' is less commonly employed 
 alone as a causative particle than as a verb to stand for the preposition ' by, 
 with.' As a causative particle it is often joined with some other word. 
 
 It also shows the purpose or intention, the instrument, the means or cause by 
 which, and the reason why : e. g. in the Chrest. I U yu shi (2. h. 15) 'in order 
 to establish them in the world.' Again, tsin sz I ping-ming (2. i. 23) 'to 
 proceed to death by being regardless of life.' And wel-shin I tsan sz (2. j. 10) 
 ' to bow down in order to preserve the ancestral rites,' and sang-jin I ching 
 (2. 1. 1 6) 'that the living might become upright.' In the following example 
 from the Ldn-yu, i may be translated 'the reason why' or 'the cause where- 
 fore;' e. g. 'our master's affability, good-nature, courtesy, moderation, and defer- 
 ence are the cause of his obtaining it' (I ti-chi) : (v. 3. m. 7 14.) 
 
 H 6-1 shl lei pu-ts'ai? (4. e. i) 'by what means shall I know that they afe 
 without talent?' H6-1 ^Hj J/J (4. j. 21) means 'for what cause or reason?' 
 = 'in how far?' 
 
 Coupled with shi -^p- (v. 4. k. 28) it signifies ' for this reason.' 
 Followed by wei ^| (v. 4. o. 20) it means 'because.' 
 
 In yu \fl-ti (19. b. n) 'declared his intention of deposing and setting on 
 the throne? In 6. a. 7. and 8. j. 14. I signifies 'in order to;' in 6. c. 2. and 
 17. f. 4. it means 'with.' And numerous examples will be found of its use 
 with the above meanings in different parts of the Chrestomathy. 
 
 483. Yiil to ' origin, source,' when it forms the equivalent for a causative 
 particle, is found at the end of the clause : e. g. chul k'i ching-lwdn chl yiu
 
 166 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 'if we examine into the causes of this disordered state of the government:' 
 (v. Chrest. litho. n. e. 19.) But at the beginning of a clause it often means 
 simply 'from.' 
 
 Examples. 
 
 pd chl k'i yid j\ ^J ^Fl. to ' I know not the reason.' 
 
 yid kin i-kiy lien rrl -j^r J/J ^ ^^ 'from the near even to the remote.' 
 
 yid Tail Shdn chi-yd T'dng \ ilk- *j& r|i "jfcAw yj| 'from Yau and 
 Shun down to T'ang.' 
 
 l-ki and chi-yd are the regular phrases for ' up to, even to ' (usqite ad). 
 Phrases : yidn-yid ;p;|? jfl or tsing-yid TH | ' the causes by which,' 
 yid-nl ttj 4 fa ' I permit you.' 
 
 484. Tin HJ ' a cause, a reason,' is variously used for ' because, therefore, 
 
 when, and then:' e.g. yln jl-shdn ts'al-yti (litho. 12. b. 7) 'in consequence 
 of that he went to the hills to collect medicinal herbs.' Tin p&n-chd sin 
 had, i shi ling-jin (litho. 13. h. 20), 'as, in his native place, there was an 
 influential military man, who, trusting in his great power, had ill-used people.' 
 Tin kien sM-chdng-tai mai kwan (17. 1. 30) 'when (or because) he saw that 
 the ten Constant Attendants were selling the offices of state.' Che yln led (i 
 tsait (10. m. 1 6) 'only as I came early.' 
 
 485. When yln By , 'because,' stands at the beginning of the protasis, sd-3, 
 //f J^l or ^ MA' ' th ere f re >' i g th e corresponding word to begin the apo- 
 dosis : e. g. yln-wei t c a lai tl ch'i, sd-l md t'd, ' because he came late, therefore 
 he scolded him.' Tin t'd pd lai, kd-tsz ngo pu-hwdn-hi, ' as he did not come, 
 on account of this I was displeased.' 
 
 Phrases: yln h6 yuen-yid ? hO "iPj jp^ tt| 'for what reason and cause?' 
 
 ylntszchlkd \ w> /? A V 'for this reason.' 
 
 yln-wei \ ^^ ' because.' yln-yuen \ &;& ' cause or reason.' 
 
 yiu-yln yiii-yuen /& Q ;* jffi ' ^ ^ providential.' 
 
 It is joined with sidn 415 'to revolve, to go in a circle,' and jing 4 y\ 'as 
 before,' in the sense of ' to continue ;' thus, yln-sidn and yln-jlng mean ' to 
 act as before, to be remiss, to follow routine merely ;' and are found in the 
 Peking Gazette with these significations. 
 
 486. It will be seen by the articles just preceding that yuen &j& also 
 performs the part of a causative particle. It is similar in use to yuen J|p 
 and the other causative particles, to which it is frequently united : e. g. 
 
 yuenp&n isili 6 \ ^ HS |S 'on account of our sin and wickedness.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PAETICLES. 167 
 
 yuen-tsz pti yw-sln \ ij^k ~J?^ T|T f\> ' on this account he was unhappy.' 
 yuen-lal jd-tsz ]ljp[ 7S* T(|] i J-K f and this was its original state.' 
 yin pu ku tsln - tsi chl yuen 
 
 H ^ II jfcJSS i 
 
 ' Because no regard was given to relatives.' 
 Phrase : yuen-ku \ A V ' reason, cause,' used as a noun. 
 
 487. Kdi ^r or ~^ 'for, because,' must also be placed in this category. 
 It always begins the clause to which it belongs. It introduces something to 
 confirm or explain a declaration, like nam in Latin. 
 
 Jeai shdng-shi chdng-yiu pu tsdng k'i tsln ch2 
 
 i Ji tH; W W ^ 11" K ffi ^if 
 
 ' For in ancient times they never buried their relatives.' 
 kai p&n Idng-sdng chi pu wdng 
 
 ' For their origin, being born of a wolf, they never forgot.' 
 Kai-l | yl is found as a phrase, 'for this reason.' 
 
 488. Ki, Kf , which is an auxiliary verb for the past tenses (cf. Arts. 194, 
 
 195), frequently marks the notion of causation, though the proper construing 
 would be with being or having ; and this may be turned into a clause beginning 
 with since (quoniam, or si quidem) (cf. Chrest. i o. n. 2 1 . and Art. 491): e. g. 
 
 Id ming tsie che &/jr OFJ ?5 ' since he is enlightened and become 
 
 wise.' Shl-klng. 
 
 The absolute form of the sentence often necessitates this mode of construing : 
 thus che-tclng ' this rank,' che-ydng ' this sort,' when put absolutely, or as the 
 protasis of a sentence, convey either the hypothetical or the causal notion, 
 and must be construed by ' if this is the state of things,' or ' since this is the 
 case.' (Cf. 2i.l. i 12.) 
 
 VII. Conditional particles, "fet j6, T(P j4, 4 |S t(f| kia-jd, &c. 
 
 489. Conditional or hypothetical particles are such as introduce a condi- 
 tional or hypothetical clause ; as, jti ^zj- l if, as/ j& ^|J ' as,' kia-jd \ "Wfl 
 ' supposing :' e. g. 
 
 j8-shi k6 chi-ctitng laii-shl t\ jin . . (14. a. 7 15) 'if he were an upright 
 and honest man . . ' 
 
 j8 tsai ts'6 wd ^~ |^. |^ |H 'if he again err.' 
 
 j6 t'a pti, lai, ngd tsiu pu k'u, ' if he does not come, then I shall not go.'
 
 168 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 490. Shi -r or jen 7\ is added toy<3 to strengthen it : e. g. 
 
 jin jd-shi, k'dn-kien tse-sing f \-kwb, kan-chS pet, k'd-yau-tai ta-cJiing kl-ko 
 sz ko-td, tsiu, k'd-l kial-ch'ti pit-siting, ' if when a man sees a shooting 
 star (lit. 'a rebel star') flying over, he quickly, with his girdle, ties 
 several sure (lit. ' dead') knots, he will destroy the evil omen :' 
 (v. Wade's Cat. of t'ien, No. 130.) 
 
 491. Ki ffijp often has the same force as the conditional particle jo, and 
 they are sometimes joined in one expression : e. g. 
 
 ki yau hing, ho pit tsau k'4 (10. n. 21), ' if he wanted to go, why didn't he go 
 
 before?' 
 jS-kl ' it being so, if it is so,' implying that it really is so. 
 
 In the books jd-che | ;:pr is employed for ' if,' when the conditional particle 
 is placed prominently forward. 
 
 492. Kia-ju '[Eb "5(fJ is found most commonly in scientific works, on 
 mathematics, &c. Pi- fa J3^ | and pi-fang \ ~~ht or pi-yti \ p^/ 
 more commonly occur in the language of conversation. Kia-jd generally 
 introduces a case for comparison : e. g. 
 
 kia-jd yiii jin, pu-sin ling-hwdn pu-nii, ' suppose a man does not believe 
 that the soul is indestructible,' 
 
 493. Hw5 m/> which is used for either and or, and implies doubt, may 
 also fill the place of a conditional particle, and be construed by 'if or 'whe- 
 ther;' it corresponds in some respects to the particle av of the Greek : e. g. 
 
 hw6 yi - shi fung - cho hiung . . 
 
 ' If once perchance you should meet with evil . .' 
 
 494. Keii, fat, shl 41&, &ng -JH, t'cbng-jd \ J7, and several other con- 
 ditional particles are employed in literary composition (cf. Art. 2 65, p. 94) : e. g. 
 
 keb, pit hid, h6 wei jin ? San-ts& king. 
 
 *-* ~7~ M XffT ^5^ A 
 /^/ A\ Ep 1 q J E'j A 
 
 ' If he do not learn, how can he become a man?' 
 
 shl mu fl shi wii yti kien. Siun-tsz. 
 
 1* B ft ^ 1 ft M 
 
 ' If the eye be evil, it is useless to try to see with it.' 
 
 495. But the conditional notion is very often implied without any condi- 
 tional particle being expressed. The absolute nature of the protasis of a sen- 
 tence often implies a condition, the result of the carrying out of which is 
 expressed in the apodosis: (cf. Wade's Cat. of t'ien, 68, 99, 183; but in 130, 
 jS-shi, 'if,' is inserted.)
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 169 
 
 VIII. Illative particles, A V kti, Or/ tsiu, ~~J I nal, JElll tsl, &c. 
 
 496. The illative particles correspond to the causative particles; the latter 
 mark the cause or the reason, the former the consequence or the inference 
 (cf. Arts. 484, 485) : e. g. 
 
 yln t'a shi pu tsung-ming, Jcu pu hiau-te, 'because he is wanting in intelli- 
 
 gence, therefore he does not understand.' 
 yln-wel ngo sang-ping, tsiu pu lai, ' because I was taken ill, therefore I did 
 
 not come.' (Cf. also tsl 2. j. 5. and 2. j. 20; 3. k. 6, 10, 23.) 
 
 Some causative particles indeed are used for both purposes; as, yln rH, 1 yj. 
 (Cf. yln for 'then, therefore,' in Arts. 479 and 484.) 
 
 Very frequently the illative particle is not expressed in the apodosis, but it 
 must be supplied in translation : e. g. 
 
 t'a pu tso Hwdng-ti, ngd pu tso Sheu-siang, ' if he does not become Emperor, 
 then I shall not become Prime Minister.' 
 
 497. It will be seen that the illative particles keep their illative force most 
 clearly in those sentences in which the protasis may be construed as a cause. 
 If the protasis begin with an equivalent for when or if, the illative particle is 
 then, and simply marks the sequence or the result of the condition. 
 
 Examples. 
 heu ts'ung Jden tse shing j 4 Ji. ~i|? m ^JR ' when the prince follows 
 
 good counsels, then he will become wise and good.' 
 wei shing jin tse chl kl 'btt He? /I pjl] 4tP ^j& 'but being a sacred 
 
 sage, then he will know how to time things.' 
 hien-che tse ndng chl l|y ^- j^jjl ttH T/* 'when a man is wise, then 
 
 he can do it.' 
 ki yiu ta, pi yiu s g^- ^" J A. ^r/^ ^gt" 4 ' as there is a pagoda, there 
 
 must be a monastery.' 
 keu pu hid, sing nal ts'ien ~^t Tj^ j^ ; j'/tr Jj J^ ' if one does not 
 
 learn, then nature changes for the worse? 
 
 IX. Interrogative particles, .vp. hu, M) ye, 4w ho, 9% shu, &c. 
 
 498. The interrogative particles are very numerous. Some are initial, as 
 regards position, as hd 'fnj, skul -In, shu ffif , etc.: others are final, as 
 hu -tj^o y& t HJ ^ a * O\/) e ^ c - The former correspond to wJiat and who; the 
 latter to mere marks of interrogation which have a pronunciation (cf. Arts, 
 255,256): e.g. 
 
 k'ik'o hd tsai? ^M". p}" | | ' how will this do ?'
 
 170 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 &r chl-tau hu? fa -j^P ^j|f 5j/. 'do you know it?' (^ contr. for 
 yiu jin hu tsal ? m A^ Jl/. \ ' does this come from men?' 
 
 499. H6 W ' what, why,' is most common in phrases and expressions for 
 why ? or how? e. g. 
 
 tsiju-chi hd? (4. b. 5; 4. c. 5) 'then how will you act?' (B.) 
 
 tsl hd li yu . . ? (4. j. 20) ' how is that different from . . ?' (B.) 
 
 ho-kti tsd tsz t'au (9. f. 24) 'why do you make this formal expression?' 
 
 It an shiju-hd? (n. h. 13) 'what do you think of it?' 
 
 nl ju-hd pu Jcl (u. m. 13) 'why don't you take (eat or drink) it?' 
 
 d,r hwdm hd ping ye? fa J 'I Pj ^Rj tjji ' with what disease are you 
 
 afflicted?' 
 yd, ching jin hd ? "#P 7p .A | 'how can he correct others?' 
 
 500. Some of these interrogative particles are indeed the same as interro- 
 gative pronouns (cf. Arts. 172 174)) and, as such, are capable of standing for 
 the correlative notions, which correspond to the several forms of interroga- 
 tion; e. g. hd 'what?' may stand for 'any' or 'some,' so may shiii 'who?' or 
 shu 'who?' e.g. 
 
 shiii yau shiii lai? ? ^p Tyfc 'who wishes any one to come?' 
 
 HP- ^S M P 1 - /\^- 
 
 shu yuenshu chi? ^ft, Jlap | ^5 'who wishes any one to come?' 
 
 In reply to the question t'ien-tsz ho-tsai (17. n. 3) 'where is the Emperor?' 
 we have pu chl hd wang (17. n. 15) 'I know not where he is gone.' And in 
 the phrase wd-nai-hd ' without any other resource,' hd is used as the correla- 
 tive of hd 'what?' (Cf. n. j. 2. and often.) 
 
 wet-hd?^ t \ 'why?' 
 
 /^Ui/ ' 
 
 yln-hd? \ffl \ 'for what?' 
 
 'how?' 
 
 hd-tsai? \ TC 'where?' 
 
 Phrases: hd-ku? \ JM7 'for what reason?' 
 hd-kti? | jjlj- 'wherefore?' 
 hd-wei? | ^^ 'on what account?' 
 ho-jin? | \ 'who?' (18. h. 23.) 
 
 501. The interrogative particles shiii gtt and shu =X,, like hd, partake of 
 
 the nature of pronouns rather than of particles, because they generally require 
 pronouns for their equivalents in the translation ; but they belong also to the 
 class of particles, for they are often merely marks of interrogation, which is 
 sometimes effected without them. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 shi shui chl kwd yu? -Jg || ^ ^ jj| 'whose fault is it?' 
 tsft t'ing die shiii? ^ jsl | ' who made the pavilion?'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 171 
 
 shuweihauhiti? \ ^. u+ <Jjl ' which of you love to study?' 
 
 shu yuen shu chi ye ? \ M | :S fl I) ' what does he desire which he 
 does not obtain?' 
 
 it 
 
 502. The interrogative particle tsal j{/ is used as a final particle, and often 
 
 one of the other interrogative particles, or a word used as such, is placed at the 
 beginning of the same clause. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 M yiu yu tsz tsal? \ ~stjt *!$. J-K | 'what is this to me?' 
 
 lei yiu kid yil tsz tsal ? ej' 'faf TlP 'fj^ I jr* | ' how can any thing be 
 added to this ? ' 
 
 hi k'o tsal ? j^S. pT | ' is it possible?' or ' how can it be?' 
 
 wu tsu tau tsal? jljffv Jp ^W | 'how can we speak of it enough?' 
 
 503. The particle hu $ is joined with tsal at the end of clauses : e. g 
 wei jin yiu kl dr yiu jin hu-tsal? 
 
 ^/ -t E^ cL nfr nti A -^ i 
 
 'As for virtue, is it a matter for myself or for others?' 
 
 "* f -. 
 
 jin yuen hu-tsal ? /T" ^& \ \ 'is virtue so far away?' 
 
 504. The particle M $ itself, when final, is interrogative, or a mark of 
 exclamation or commiseration ; but in other positions it generally stands for 
 yu "(v. ' in, with respect to,' and ' than ;' and sometimes it is a mere expletive. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 chl yu hu chl she hu? Sf <i^$\ W- gpf H'T | 'shall I drive the chariot 
 or wield the spear ? ' 
 
 | -3S | 'is it right or is it not?' 
 
 heu - shi chl shing che, m8 shing hu Hdn yu T'dng, 
 
 ' The glory of later times does not eclipse the glory of the Han and the T'ang 
 (dynasties).' 
 
 ydng-yAng hu! ^E V'M | 'how vast!' (lit. ' ocean-like.') 
 
 505. Ye t|K (sometimes written ye /]U) ^ s another interrogative final par- 
 ticle, and, like tsal and M, often has an auxiliary particle at the beginning of 
 the clause : e. g.
 
 172 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 k'i tai yiu ping dr heu t'au ye? 
 
 &: ft ^ m M ft m f 
 
 'Why wait until you are sick and then pray?' 
 
 tsz Jcl kin yu jtn ts'ing ye? Chwdng-tsz. 
 
 A H 3fi tt A tft 5IP 
 
 'How does this accord with human feelings'?' 
 hd I chl k'i jen ye? 
 
 i VI W S IIP 
 
 'How can I know that it is thus?' 
 
 506. Some of the interrogative particles imply a negation. Such are, 
 h6 5g*' 'why not?' (quwre non}; mo-fl . . |a j^C 'surely, not otherwise 
 than . . ? (certe); and few <?; 'or not?' (nonne ita est), like a particle of 
 d&uht. Ho and m6-f1 are placed at the beginning, but feu at the end of 
 sentences. 
 
 ho Tc6 yen &r chi 1 ^jj* A ^* pfej it" ' why do not you all speak your 
 minds?' 
 
 Ho W- (usu. pron. hai 'to injure') appears to be used for the above hS: e.g. 
 ho pU wet? ^ ~X^ jg-^ 'why do you not resist?' 
 
 feu yu mwctn nien? A jfe Yaj T^. ' is he indeed of full age?' 
 t8ii - hid chl wii sin yu feu ye? 
 
 I T ^' ^ & II & 
 
 'Do you, Sir, indeed know my intention?' 
 Several examples of mo-fi will be found in Art. 452, and of feu in Art. 461. 
 
 507. K'l tfj 'how?' is also an interrogative particle in common use in 
 books and in some colloquial phrases: e. g. k'l-kctn \ ||v 'how dare I?' 
 which is an equivalent for ' I thank you ! ' ' I do not deserve the honour ! ' 
 Wu M-, hd 2Ja } hu j4t H, hi ^^. , yen p=^, and gdn ^5c, as well as k'l, are 
 interrogative particles when placed at the beginning of clauses. 
 
 Examples. 
 k'l wet Iceu - fu yiu kl - ke chl hai? (Cf. ex. in Art. 501.) 
 
 S ttt P M % H ?8 
 
 ' Do only the mouth and the stomach suffer from hunger and thirst ? ' 
 stil to yi hi i-wei? SiS ^, 7/K &( J-^jf ^JS 'though many, yet what 
 use are they?'
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 173 
 
 wu hA Kb? ^Ltt. | pT" 'what can be done?' 
 
 wu ndng tang chl? IS.. t|J2 f| /* 'how could I bear it?' 
 
 wu hu ch'ing ming ? \ \ M/ ^pj 'how will he perfect his reputation?' 
 
 ho chl yung? || ,^ j^J 'what use is it?' Tl-klng. 
 
 wu-tszhupitlihu? S'- ^+~ "AH ^ }J | 'why not establish yourself?' 
 
 yen k'i ts'ung chl ? ^^ .Ml ^jt S* 'should he follow him?' (See also 
 
 the first example in Art. 445-) 
 yen U jin yu 1? p=i ^jffi XT* Wf, 'why forsake benevolence and 
 
 justice?' 
 dw <e few *. M? & '-|Mi !^ j[V | 'how can you be content?' 
 
 an ndng tu ye? pf fl^ 1 f 'how can we escape?' 
 
 508. There are various particles, or interrogative adverbs, used in the col- 
 loquial style for the question as Jti ^> 'how many?' na 5] 1) 'which?' tsdng ^ 
 'how?' (Cf. Arts. 255 and 256, and read pp. 27 30 in the Chrestomathy.) 
 
 509. The affirmative expressions n-dn-tau and pu-ch'ing (see Arts. 453 and 
 454), the former at the beginning, the latter at the end of the clause, also 
 indicate a kind of question, which always expects the answer yes in reply to 
 it. Wdn-tati, lit. ' hard to say,' is in some respects similar to the German 
 expression viel-leicht, vielleicht for sehr leicht 'probably, perhaps, doubtless;' 
 and pu-ch'ing, lit. ' not perfect,' like nicht wahr ? (See Schott's Chin. Sprach. 
 p. 134. note.) 
 
 1-* ^F* f 
 
 510. To the above yu ^. or yH Sir must be added as an interrogative 
 particle : e. g. 
 
 jen tsi Shdn pu kin yu ? ~$k J3JJ ij& ^^ 7 ~1 \ ' if so, then why did not 
 Shun resist?' (Cf. Chrest. 3. 1. 29.) 
 
 X. Dubitative particles, m/ hwo, p(f. yu, &c. 
 
 511. By dubitative particles are meant such words as give a character of 
 doubt to the clause or sentence in which they occur; and according to this 
 definition several of the conditional and interrogative particles might come 
 under the same category. Several adverbs of doubt have already been given 
 in Art. 253. It remains to give a few examples of their use here. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 hwd pii chl Jdau-hau m? X^ ^P flit *j^ 'probably they knew not the 
 cries out of doors'
 
 174 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 hwS yiil kidng-hd m/ stj Y'T YftH 'perhaps you have rivers and lakes;' 
 
 hw6 yiu wdng heu \ \ T -j^. 'perhaps you have kings and 
 
 nobles ;' which may be construed either &c. or &c. 
 hw6 jen hwo pu-jen m/ '^Cx py ~Y^ ^K ' perhaps it is so, perhaps not.' 
 
 (Cf. Art. 493-T 
 k'iti chl yu yl yu chl yu? /M^ ^/ Jfti JW | /<_. \ 'does he ask for 
 
 it or do they give it him (without asking)]' (Cf. Chrest. 3. 1. 27.) 
 
 The following sentence from Chwdng-tsz is worth inserting here to illustrate 
 the uses of dubitatative and interrogative particles : 
 
 Kid yu Yl shu shi dr shu fl hd? 
 
 f gf &..f .Iff i ft i 
 
 ' Does Kia or Yl speak the truth ? ' 
 
 XI. Intensitive particles, ~J\^ t'ai, j^V &> /f'P tsw, &c. 
 
 512. The intensitive particles are words which are used to strengthen the 
 assertion or negation in respect of some particular quality. They are gene- 
 rally verbs according to their primary signification, but as intensifiers they 
 retain only so much of the verbal notion as will serve the purpose of empha- 
 sising the word or sentence in which they occur. We shall take each sepa- 
 rately, with one or two examples. 
 
 513. T'ai -TT* and te ^T are very commonly used for too, too much. 
 
 Examples. 
 che Td t'ai hien ^fg g+ "Jr" jifjn 'this project is too dangerous.' 
 
 t'ai Ickng tsdng sie ~fc YTJ m^' - - 'a little too cold' (of a person or a place). 
 
 hid sheu te h&n-liah ~K ^- | y\& j^ ' you struck me with too much 
 
 violence.' 
 kid" te tsau liau sie ^p | SL, J J 'but too early rather.' 
 
 nl ye te to sm 4 fa ifl | ^^ J\> 'to take it too much to heart.' 
 
 514. Shin -ffif 'very,' tsu $$ 'decidedly,' let /hjh 'extremely,' are all used 
 
 as intensitive particles. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 w&n-ll pH-shin t'ung-t'eu ~-^ jM ^ ^ ^ffil g): ' his scholarship is 
 not very profound.' 
 
 shin shi k'i-kwai -&- 'W- -^V vQ- 'it is strange indeed.'
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 175 
 
 tsu wu ki-hwiii fp5 $11 iifpi ^ ' decidedly unfortunate.' 
 
 TLi t> I /% ^* 
 
 few w$ jin-ku | ^H: /I J3y ' utterly without inhabitants.' 
 
 che ye-k'o siau-ki-liau if^ flT pj :=e t . iifj^ J 'this is indeed ex- 
 
 tremely ridiculous.' 
 
 raw &raw ti hwd /jijjj^ 1 r? r%/ nH gg ' language quite unintelligible.' 
 
 M k'iaii tl hwd-kung \ IC?t Qg 'a most clever artist.' (Of. Arts. 
 
 331 and 334.) 
 
 Various other words are used as intensitive particles, such as hau ' good,' sin- 
 fan ' the whole,' &c. 
 
 515. In literary compositions several words of intensifying power occur, 
 which correspond to the expressions much more, much less, &c. Such are 
 , and hwdng )j 
 
 Examples. 
 
 tsz yu kin pi yti yuen jj^ ^ -]7f ' ' the nearer this ap- 
 
 proaches, the farther that recedes.' 
 
 k'u shing yi yuen dr yi po -^fc- j!0** /"\ | Jm A /ff| ' the farther we 
 
 depart from the sacred wisdom, the meaner we become.' 
 yung chi dr mi ming, su - chi dr mi chwdng, 
 
 Ia".| ~7' ml tiM Hf I /fe* J/ Int ->il 
 
 /i3 'C*- I'" Jl*rJ -^* IH ^ "" ' /IJ- 
 
 'Use it and the brighter it becomes, confine it and the greater it will grow.' 
 chin te pu tai yu s, hwdng yu yen hu! 
 
 ' True virtue does not expect great deeds, much less does it wait on great words !' 
 
 516. Shin 4-M is used in a similar way to hwdng, but it is far less com- 
 mon: e. g. 
 chi ching kan shin, shin tsz yiu Miau, 
 
 ' The highest integrity influences the gods, much more the Miau people.' 
 (Cf. Premare, Not. Ling. Sin. p. 215.) 
 
 XII. Exclamatory particles, P 7j yd, /> hi, |b tsai, &c. 
 
 517. The particles of exclamation are very numerous in Chinese, and they 
 vary according to the style of composition, its antiquity and its peculiarities 
 of literary and colloquial usage. In the books the exclamatory particles have
 
 176 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 
 
 an important value. They serve to express in the language, with the written 
 characters, those niceties of construction and expressions of feeling for which 
 sounds and gesticulations are employed in oral communications. 
 
 518. Yd p and a |)j are very common. They denote wonder or astonish- 
 ment : e. g. 
 
 yd cM-sheu sM, ping pu-shi ngd-tso-tl ! ' Ah ! this ode was not of my 
 composing ! ' 
 
 They are sometimes joined as one exclamation : e. g. 
 d-yd kln-ye Jd6 mu-liau tang I ' Ah! to-night we are again without a lamp !' 
 
 519. Hi <Q- is a particle of exclamation, used most commonly in poetry, 
 in the Shl-klng, and in all ancient poems. 
 
 plmeijinhi! -Rr Jf^ ^^ 4 'that beautiful person!' 
 
 520. P'l Hip and pi p are used to express contempt or defiance, and are 
 
 ' ''w 
 
 often equivalent to 'begone!' e. g. 
 
 pi ! tu-shi ni pei-heu lung-kwel ! ' Ah ! all this confusion behind one's back 
 
 was all through you!' 
 pi! nl ski to td tl kwdn-dr! ' Ah ! you are indeed a very distinguished officer !' 
 
 521. In the plays of the Yuen dynasty, u ~J\^ is used as an exclamation or 
 call to an inferior : e. g. 
 
 u-nd fu-jln pu-yau ti-k'u! ' O woman! do not cry and weep!' 
 wu-ti pu-shi ngo hiung-ti? 'Ah! is it not my brother?' 
 
 ki-sM-tl ! . 'Halloa! Postman!' 
 
 XIII. Euphonic particles. 
 
 522. Particles which may be called euphonic are such as serve merely to 
 make a clause sound well. It has been the practice however to denominate 
 euphonic many of the particles which we have placed under different classes. 
 It is seldom that a particle is purely euphonic, it generally denotes some feeling 
 or desire in the mind of the speaker. Many of the words which we call inter- 
 jections come under this class. In every dialect there are sounds of this kind 
 peculiar to the locality, and when these sounds are expressed in writing, it 
 must be done by some well-known character, which for the time is divested 
 of its ordinary signification, and by the addition of keu, ' mouth,' it becomes an 
 interjection or a euphonic particle. This usage has given rise to the euphonic 
 particles of the books, for they were the interjections of ancient times, and 
 indeed some of them remain in use, as such, unto the present hour. 
 
 523. Thus I ^S, ye 3(\\ , and hi ^ are said to be euphonic, while they 
 also denote an affirmation (cf. Arts. 447, 448) : e. g.
 
 THE SYNTAX OP THE PARTICLES. 177 
 
 siang pi-jen I ! jfH ;?/ "^ Fr- ' I imagine it must be so ! ' 
 k'd chl chl I! pT ^P ^^ jl 'it may be known!' 
 
 he-M! hiuen-hi! Jrmj <Q pH ^ ' how splendid ! how glorious !' 
 
 * 
 
 hi ! ^tr El jA | ' happy and fortunate ! ' 
 sin yiit yd eke, pit - k'd tsu ye! (Of. Arts. 415, 416, and 442.) 
 
 16 4 % TN p}' Ifi & 
 
 ' Faithful friendship may not be dispensed with ! ' 
 t'ien-hid k'd-kiun ye; tsiS lu k'o-ts'z ye; 
 
 X T P}" *4l fc K It "I f^ & 
 
 ' One may tranquillize the empire ; one may refuse titles and office ;' 
 pe jin k'd- tali ye; chung-yting pH - k'd ndng ye ! 
 
 ' One may tread on a naked sword ; and not be able to keep the " golden 
 mean ! " ' 
 
 * ^ 
 
 524. Tsal ^u and hO, ^f. are used as euphonic or exclamatory particles, 
 
 A< } 
 
 besides being used as interrogative particles : e. g 
 fu tsal yen ye ! *= \ =y JnT ' how rich the language ! ' 
 hien tsal Hwiil ye ! *jjjjf \ mj JjT ' how worthy is Hwiii ! ' 
 
 kiun-tsz to hti tsai ! yK -4- ^^ jj^ | ' has the great man so many 
 (wants) ! ' 
 
 525. The final particle ye M] also frequently occurs in the classics of the 
 Chinese as a euphonic particle, and it then serves the purpose of a comma, by 
 separating the characters, which precede it, from the rest of the sentence, as 
 the following examples will show : 
 
 kin ye tsi wdng .&* rfj ||j T~ 'the present is, then gone for ever.' 
 wit sang ye yiu yai dr chl ye wA yal 
 
 &. tii =t m w w & & m 
 
 'My life has bounds, but knowledge, forsooth, is boundless.' 
 sang ki ye; sz kwel yd 
 
 'Life is a trust; at death we resign it.' 
 
 A a
 
 178 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 
 
 Fu also sometimes goes with ye, when ye is simply euphonic : 
 
 m8 ngo chl ydfu!}j* ^v j$ rfj y^ 'no one understands me!' 
 
 526. Li HE! is used in novels and in the colloquial style as a euphonic 
 particle or as a particle of exclamation ; e. g. 
 m6 ahw6 md, hwdn yau tcb ll! 
 
 ' Not to speak of scolding, I shall beat him as well ! ' 
 
 527. Pre'mare gives these other particles of exclamation: nl H|p, po 
 wa fl K ; and the student will find others in the course of his reading, but 
 they are seldom used, therefore they need not be given here. 
 
 cU-konl? if! / f|3 I 'is it this?' 
 
 ^*"j f l"l I 
 
 k'o pu-shi po ! pj j -|p- YH? ' is it not thus ! ' 
 T'ien-na! 'O Heaven!' 
 
 j^ _>> 
 
 528. Il Plpf 'Ah!' tsie Os '0!' in calling the attention of persons, but 
 sometimes to incite or encourage ; and in the Shl-klng, with other particles, as 
 an exclamation arising from pain : hu-hu / ' oh ! alas ! ' shln-l 4|jC ^^ ' indeed ! ' 
 pfo-h&ng ^& | 'unfortunately!' g6 SA 'wretch!' or 'hold!' (Lat. nefas!) 
 yti ~ff^. ' ah !' are all found in the classics at the beginning of sentences, but 
 they are rarely to be met with elsewhere. 
 
 529. Words formed by the imitation of natural sounds are very numerous 
 in Chinese ; e. g. kiau-kiau ' the crowing of a cock,' siau-siau ' the noise of 
 wind and rain.' (See Dr. Morrison's Dictionary, vol. L, under the radical 
 k'eii ri 'mouth,' for many expressions of a similar kind.) 
 
 530. Among the particles which the Chinese denominate hti-ts% are included 
 all words which do not come under the category of nouns, or under that of 
 verbs, but simply denote the relations which the nouns and the verbs of the 
 sentence bear to each other, or the feelings which exist in the mind of the 
 speaker at the time the sentence is uttered. Some of these occur always at 
 the beginning, some always at the end of the sentence ; others are found in 
 both positions in different sentences. Some particles affect nouns and single 
 words, some affect the whole clause, others bind together the whole sentence. 
 These facts have been noted under each particle, but there still remains much 
 to be learnt, from careful observation, by the student himself. The following 
 resume of the particles may, however, be of service. 
 
 i. Attributive particles are Qcj (411), ^^ (412), :^ (415)* ' )y\ (4 2I )> 
 because they make the words which they affect attributive,
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLES. 179 
 
 2. Connective, ^ (424), "jfjj (425), ^ (426), ^f (429), 7$> (430), 
 
 (43iX H (432), J[ (433), 2? (436), -H (436), {? (437), 
 (438). 
 
 3. Affirmative, ^ (440), %%. (441), ^ (442), ^ (445), ^ (446), 
 
 2. (449), S| ^f 1 - and &l j^f: (452), ||p Jj|" (453), ^ jFj^ 
 (454). 
 
 4. Negative, ~^ (456), ^ (459), <^7j (460), ^g (461), ^ (462), ^j 
 
 (464), ^ (465), ^ (466), fa ^|J, |^ (467), ^ (469), 
 (47o), |Sj (47 1 )- 
 
 5- Adversative, J^J (473), jg (474), ^ (475), jj; (477), 'f ^, 
 IR] (478). 
 
 6. Causative, fy (482), ^| (483), |J| (484), 
 
 {j|f (486), ^ (487), ^ (488). 
 
 7. Conditional, ^zjr, y$ (489), KP (491), 
 
 ^/' ^' f ( 4 94)- 
 
 8. /toiw, jff^, gf (496), Tjf, ^l] (497). 
 
 9. Interrogative, Jzjj^, J-t/. (498 and 502 4), "jFJj (499), gtt, ^f (50), 
 
 fyitr / \ = 3^' ~^F- tt -it- , ,, t-li TTCI" Ed i U -^Tu* 
 TIP (55)> S ^' 1' IP < 5 6) ' M' ^ W' AS' ^' 
 
 ^, ^ (507), ^, f)p, ^ (508), ^, ^ (510). 
 
 10. Dubitative, m/, Mj. (511)- 
 
 11. Intensitive, -fc, rff (513), If, |^, 
 
 (485), , 
 (492), (493), 
 
 12. Exclamatory, fl^|> P^f (5i8), /^ (519), P^, P^ (5 20 ) Jt (5 : 
 
 13. Euphonic, ^, {j^, ^ (523), nj^, ip. (524), p^ (525), P)fr 
 
 A a 2
 
 180 THE SYNTAX OP SENTENCES. 
 
 SECT. II. ON SENTENCES. 
 
 . i. Preliminary remarks. 
 
 531. The first section of this chapter relates to the various forms and 
 modifications of words and phrases, which enter into the composition of sen- 
 tences, and these simple formations have been there designated simple con- 
 structions; but, beyond the occasional use of the terms sentence, subject, pre- 
 dicate, attribute, and object, nothing has been said of the form of Chinese 
 sentences. And, before examples are given, it will be well to explain the 
 meaning intended by the different terms which will be employed. 
 
 532. A sentence expresses by the words which it contains not merely a 
 number of separate notions, but a thought, or an assertion, which is ascertained 
 by the relations which those separate notions bear to each other ; e. g. 'the wind 
 blows cold to-day' indicates a belief on the part of the speaker ; but the words of 
 which this sentence is composed are only the materials with which the thought 
 is expressed; and the same words in a different construction would mean 
 a very different thing, e. g. (i) 'the son loves the father' is one thing, (2) 'the 
 father loves the son' is another. Td-fung is a 'great wind,' but fung td 
 means 'the wind is high.' It is important to bear this in mind, for in the 
 structure of sentences we have no more to do with the words themselves, 
 whether simple or compound, but with the relations which exist between them. 
 Relations which, in some languages indeed, are regulated by the inflections of 
 the words themselves, but in Chinese, and in some other languages, they are 
 shown by the relative position of the words and clauses. 
 
 533. Every sentence consists of two members only; (i) the subject, or that 
 thing about which something is said or predicated, and (2) the predicate, or 
 that action or attribute which is asserted of the subject. These are indeed 
 sometimes united by a small word, called the copula, which is one of the sub- 
 stantive verbs ; but more frequently this is wanting : the principal verb, which 
 contains the predicate, being sufficient of itself to show its relation to the sub- 
 ject. And in Chinese very often the copula is omitted; e.g. t'ien lang 'the 
 weather is cold;' ngo pu-hau 'I am unwell.' 
 
 534. There are, moreover, three relations which may exist in the sentence. 
 First, the predicative relation, or the relation of subject and predicate 
 simply; secondly, the attributive relation, or the relation of some qua- 
 lifying expression to the subject or object of the predicate; and thirdly, the 
 objective relation, or the relation of the object (or supplemental expres- 
 sion) to the predicate. These terms are used to distinguish clauses in sen- 
 tences. Thus a clause which contains subject and predicate simply, is a 
 predicative clause, and in this the verb is the principal word. An attribute 
 appended to a subject forms an attributive clause, and in this the adjective or 
 attribute is the chief word. A clause added as an object to the predicate is 
 an objective clause, and in this the object is the principal word, and if it relate 
 directly to the predicate, it is the chief word in the whole sentence. The 
 predicative clause conveys a definite and independent thought, and so may
 
 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 181 
 
 stand alone; e. g. 'the rose is red.' The attributive clause cannot stand 
 alone, because it does not express a complete thought, but only one of the 
 elements of the sentence; e. g. 'the red rose,' 'the benighted traveller.' And 
 the objective clause too is incomplete when standing alone, when the object is 
 united to the predicate of a sentence ; e. g. ' black with smoke,' ' withered this 
 morning.' But these three elements of the sentence may be united to form 
 a complete sentence; e. g. 'the red rose withered this morning.' 
 
 535. The attribute may be, (i) an adjective, (2) the genitive case of a noun, 
 (3) a noun in apposition, or (4) a noun with a preposition; e. g. (i) 'a, cold 
 day;' (2) 'the king's horse;' (3) 'William, the Conqueror;' (4) 'a man with- 
 out bravery / and (5) a relative clause, which is explanatory, maybe regarded 
 as an attribute of its antecedent *. 
 
 536. The object may be (i) the thing, or person, which the principal verb 
 of the sentence affects, or (2) it may be the circumstances of time, place, 
 manner or causality, which serve to modify the action of the verb. 
 
 537. The simple sentence consists of only one clause, in which there is a 
 subject and a predicate, but these may be enlarged and modified to a great 
 extent. The subject in Chinese may consist of one word or of many; e. g. 
 Ti yu (i. a. n) 'the Emperor said:' fdn td-ytn chl tau yiu san 'the prin- 
 ciples of great men generally are three:' (cf. Art. 541.) 
 
 538. But sentences in Chinese are seldom simple, they are most frequently 
 complex or compound. A complex sentence is one in which there is a prin- 
 cipal clause and one or more subordinate. The subordinate clause stands to 
 the principal clause in one of the following relations, either (i) as its subject, 
 (2) as an attribute of its subject or its object, or (3) as a modification of the 
 whole principal clause. In each case respectively it is a noun sentence, an 
 adjective sentence, or an adverbial sentence. 
 
 539. A noun sentence in English begins with such words as that, wJiat, 
 who, when or where; and in Chinese it is recognisable by certain marks and 
 the presence of certain particles, as so ph' and che 3j: and (i Fj ^7 : (cf. 
 Arts. 411 422.) 
 
 540. An adjective sentence, which is also an attributive clause, or a relative 
 sentence, is introduced in English by who, which, and words of that class, as 
 that, how, wherein, whither, why, wherefore; and in Chinese it is distinguished 
 by ti, but very often no particle is present. 
 
 541. Adverbial sentences are such as specify the conditions of time, place, 
 manner or causality. Adverbial sentences of time show (i) the point of time, 
 (2) the duration of time, or (3) the repetition of the circumstance, and are 
 introduced respectively by (i) when, (2) whilst, (3) as often as, &c. Adverbial 
 sentences of place relate to (i) rest in, (2) motion to, or (3) motion from a 
 
 * Since writing the above the author has seen an admirable little work on the "Ana- 
 lysis of Sentences" by Dr. Morell, one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, in which 
 the subject is explained and applied to the English language with a clearness sought for 
 in vain in grammatical treatises generally.
 
 182 THE SYNTAX OP SENTENCES. 
 
 place, and in English they are introduced by (i) where or wherever, (2) where 
 or whither, and (3) wJtence. Adverbial sentences of manner show (i) similar- 
 ity, (2) proportion, or (3) consequence, and are introduced by (i) as, (2) the 
 comparative degree of the adjective, or as after a negative in the principal 
 clause, or by (3) that, or so that. Adverbial sentences of cause show (i) a 
 reason, (2) a condition, (3) a concession, or (4) a purpose, and in English they 
 are dependent upon the words (i) because, (2) if or except, unless (which=i/" 
 not), (3) although or however, and (4) that or in order that. The infinitive mood 
 alone is in English frequently used to express a purpose, and it then consti- 
 tutes a distinct clause. 
 
 542. Compound sentences differ from complex sentences in that the clauses 
 of which they consist are not mutually dependent, but are co-ordinate, and 
 simply connected, with each other. This co-ordination may be considered as 
 being under three relations. Thus when one clause is supplemental to the 
 other, e. g. ' the ladder fell and the monkey ran away,' it may be called the 
 copulative relation ; when one clause is opposed to another, e. g. ' John is clever, 
 but he is not profound,' it may be called the adversative relation; and when 
 one clause contains the reason for the other, e. g. ' his army was disorganised, 
 hence his despair,' it may be denominated the causative relation. 
 
 543. The copulative relation may exist in three degrees: (i) when equal 
 stress is laid on both clauses, each clause being distinct from the other; (2) 
 when more stress lies on the second than on the first, as in clauses in English 
 with not only, but; (3) where the stress increases from clause to clause, as 
 in the figure climax, each clause being introduced by some particle of sequence, 
 first, then, next, finally, &c. 
 
 544. The adversative relation may exist in two forms : (i) where the second 
 clause negatives the first (in English by not, but}, or (2) when the second 
 clause limits the first; as, 'you may read it, only read it without stammering.' 
 
 545. The third, or causative relation in co-ordination, may have two divi- 
 sions : (i) where the latter of two clauses expresses an effect, the former being 
 the moral or physical cause, or (2) where the latter expresses a reason or 
 motive, the former representing the result. This appears to be a simple inver- 
 sion, which may be effected by the use of different particles of connection. 
 
 546. Compound sentences often suffer contraction by referring the same 
 subject, the same predicate, and the same object to different co-ordinate clauses. 
 Two or more subjects may go to one predicate ; two or more predicates to 
 one subject; two or more objects to one predicate; and several circumstances 
 or limitations may be joined together in the same compound sentence, and 
 may belong to the same word in that sentence. 
 
 547. Thus much has been said on the analysis of sentences, because with- 
 out analysis of language in general, we can never arrive at the true analysis 
 of the Chinese, and it is by a ready appreciation of the elementary forms and 
 the scientific terms of grammar that clear, definite, and constant rules can be 
 evolved from the study of Chinese. It is not the knowledge of a vast number 
 of words which constitutes a real knowledge of any language, but it is the
 
 THE SYNTAX OF SENTEXCES. 183 
 
 right apprehension of its genius and idiomatic differences, (which is to be 
 attained only by a careful analysis of its forms and constructions,) that 
 will enable the student, with a fair knowledge of words, to read, speak, 
 and translate correctly. 
 
 . 2. The forms of the simple sentence. 
 
 548. A simple sentence may convey (i) a command, (2) a wish, (3) a, judg- 
 ment, i. e. an assertion, (4) a question, or (5) an exclamation. We have there- 
 fore to enquire what are the forms in Chinese for imperative, optative, assertive, 
 interrogative, and exclamatory sentences. The imperative sentence will be 
 dealt with first, because the simple force of the verb, without adjuncts, conveys 
 this sense, and there is a close connexion between the imperative and the 
 optative, at least in meaning. In the same way the root or crude form of the 
 Latin verb expresses a command. (Cf. es ' be thou,' ama ' love thou,' and cf. 
 Arts. 223 and 404.) Then after the assertion comes the question naturally, 
 and these are often similar in form. The exclamation is often only to be dis- 
 tinguished from the question by the manner of its enunciation. 
 
 549. The form of the imperative sentence is simple and natural. The simple 
 verb expresses the command, and the subject is generally understood; but 
 when expressed, it stands before the verb and never, as a rule, after it, as it 
 may in the English, ' come thou here ;' e. g. led che-ll, 'come here,' or nl led che- 
 II, but not led nl che-U. Ju yi chdng yen (i. a. 16) ' do you also throw light 
 on the subject;' kw'ai kwdn-mdn, pu yau tseu-liau (12. d. 20), 'quickly shut 
 the doors, and let none go forth :' (cf. 12. i. 22.) 
 
 550. When the subject of an imperative sentence is a proper name, or the 
 designation of a person, and not a mere pronoun, it sometimes stands after the 
 verb; e.g. led, Yu ! (i. a. 13) 'come, Tit!' but the verbs ts'lng ^trj andjdng =|H 
 are used commonly before the subject, when that is expressed; e. g. ts'lng-ni 
 led che-U 'please to come here;' jdng t'd k'u pd ' let him go away.' 
 
 551. The form of the optative sentence differs but little from that of the 
 imperative. It is introduced by a verb which signifies to desire or to wish; 
 e. g. yuen nlping-dn ' may you be happy ! ' The expressions pd-pu-te and h&n- 
 pu-te (cf. Arts. 273 and 395) should be remembered in this connexion. In the 
 following passage in the Sdn-kwo (litho. p. 13. c. 21 24) we have a noun 
 governed by hcln as a verb ; thus, h&n U pu ndng ! ' would that my strength 
 were adequate ! ' or ' would that I were able ! ' (lit. ' regret strength not able.') 
 
 552. Every assertive sentence in Chinese consists of a subject which stands 
 first, and a predicate which follows it. Circumstances of time and place may 
 stand before the subject, and circumstances of manner, of cause, and of effect 
 generally stand before the predicate. The subject must be a noun or a word 
 used as such, or it may consist of a sentence used as a noun: (cf. 7. a. 10, 
 ii ; 7. f, 15 18; 2. g. 12 16; 8. d. 13 18, which all form subjects.) 
 The subject may be explained, parenthetically as it were, by a word or words 
 in apposition, or by a participial phrase: (cf. 8. o. 16 19; 9. b. 22 27;
 
 184 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 
 
 2. h. 22 24.) The subject may consist of two nouns, the former being in 
 the genitive case, to express the origin, cause, or relationship of the latter : 
 (cf. 2. 9. 12 16; 7- b- 2 9 c - I > 2. h. 2O 2 ^-) The same remarks refer 
 to the predicate when that is a noun. 
 
 553. The predicate generally requires one object, and sometimes two, to 
 complete it; the first is called the direct object, the other the indirect object; 
 e. g. che yl-kan-shu lo-liau ye-tsz ' this tree has shed its leaves;' k'o-l yung t'd 
 tsai-Jcid ch'u-ji (14. a. 16) ' I can employ him in the family to go in and out.' 
 
 554. Interrogative sentences have various forms in Chinese. Sometimes 
 they are to be distinguished by the particles which are present in them, at 
 other times the position of the clause, and of the words in it, shows the inter- 
 rogative. 
 
 (1) When the particles are present, if they are final particles, the subject and 
 predicate remain in the same position as they would in an assertive sentence ; 
 e. g. nl yiu tung-tsien ' you have some cash ;' nl yiu tsien mo ? ' have you any 
 cash?' che yl-che-ma shi kdn-ts'au 'that horse eats hay;' che yt-che-ma shi 
 shimmd? 'what does that horse eat?' (cf. Arts. 498 509.) 
 
 (2) When no interrogative particle is present, the form of the sentence may 
 show that the sentence is interrogative. Two expressions are enunciated, one 
 positive, the other negative, this leaves the mind in doubt, and shows that an 
 enquiry is being made, just as to-shau, lit. ' many-few,' give rise to the abstract 
 notion of quantity, and also to a question how many ? e. g. t'd tsai-kid pu tsai- 
 kid, lit. 'he is at home, not at home?'='is he at home?' By a reference 
 to the articles on the interrogative particles the student will obtain many 
 examples of interrogative sentences. 
 
 555. The forms of the exclamatory sentence scarcely differ at all from those 
 of the interrogative. They are generally introduced by an interrogative par- 
 ticle or some word clearly of the nature of an exclamation. (See the Arts, on 
 the exclamatory particle; and cf. i. 1. 14 17 ; n. 1. 9 17.) 
 
 .3. Tlie noun sentence. 
 
 556. The noun sentence is one which occupies the place of a noun, and in 
 Chinese may consist of a verb and its object ; e. g. haijin pu hau 'to injure 
 people is bad.' The particles che, ti, and so generally mark the noun sen- 
 tence. 
 
 557. The verb alone, or with adjuncts of time, may constitute a noun sen- 
 tence, and be the subject of a sentence; e. g. k'ung yln fl k'i shi ye (9. o. 5), 
 lit. 'I fear, to drink is not this time;' Tl sien-sdng k'U shi yau k'u kiu-liail 
 (10. o. 25), lit. 'Mr. TVs going is this, he wished to go long since.' Again, 
 hid dr shi si chi (3. d. 10) is a noun sentence, and the subject to the verb yu, 
 which follows. Also yiu pdng tsi yuen-fdng lai (3. d. 19) andjm pu chl dr 
 pu-wdn($. d. 29) are noun sentences: (cf. 9. b. 18 27.) 
 
 . 4. The adjective sentence. 
 
 558. The adjective sentence is any set of words which explains or qualifies
 
 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 185 
 
 a noun. A relative clause in English (and in Chinese often a clause in apposi- 
 tion) does this ; but generally some particle, as tl n-3, sd Wf, or ch$ ^jfer , throws 
 
 the whole into the form of an adjective clause, the subject of which is repre- 
 sented by the particle ; this makes the adjective sentence often to assume the 
 character of a noun (cf. 3. e. 13. etc.); e.g. kang-tdng-tl Tl kung-tsz tau- 
 mdn (8. c. 1 8) is an adjective sentence or relative clause, as it were in apposi- 
 tion to Kwo kung-tsz its antecedent : it means literally, ' the one just waiting 
 for Mr. Tl to arrive at the gate.' 
 
 . 5. The adverbial sentence. 
 
 559. Adverbial sentences are such as express the circumstances of time, 
 place, manner, and cause. They are sometimes introduced by particles in 
 Chinese, but frequently they are without any distinctive mark of this kind ; e. g. 
 swan-Id ting-liau (8. a. 6 9), tau tsz-jl (8. a. 10 12),^ wi-cJiu (8. a. 13) are 
 three adverbial sentences of time to the principal sentence k'l-lai ' he arose :' 
 tsiu, ' then,' is really not wanted, but in Chinese it is idiomatic to insert it ; 
 it sums up, as it were, the three clauses just mentioned. 
 
 560. But adverbial sentences of time are often shown by some particle or 
 phrase being present in the sentence; e. g. yl-kien Tl kung-tsz lal-pai (8. c. 4), 
 ' as soon as &c.,' is marked by yl-kien; and clauses beginning with yl and a 
 verb will always mark an adverbial sentence of time. Again, hwu-kien 
 (8. e. 28), 'on suddenly seeing,' introduces a similar expression. Phrases 
 beginning with yl, ' as soon as,' would sometimes, when followed by then, mark 
 the repetition which is implied in expressions beginning with whenever in 
 English ; e. g. yl shi h6 ch'd, tsiu kiang Ylng hwd, lit. ' one time drink tea, 
 then speak English,' i. e. ' whenever he drinks tea he talks English :' (cf. 8. i. 2 ; 
 16. d. 2.) 
 
 561. Duration of time is expressed by an adverbial sentence, by putting 
 shl, ' time,' or shi-kien, ' time-interval,' in construction with the sentence ; e. g. 
 nl tdng tsal che-ll tl shi-heii, ngo pu-yau tu, ' while you are staying here, I 
 will not read;' Kau-k'iu k e dn-shi (16. a. 1 1) ' while Kau-k'iu was looking on :' 
 (cf. Art. 337.) 
 
 562. Adverbial sentences of place may refer to position in or motion to or 
 from a place ; e. g. sui-pien tau nd-ll, ngd-t'ung ni k'u, ' whenever you like to 
 proceed, I will go with you ;' ngd pu k*&ng tau nl tl ti-fdng lai ' I will not 
 go to your place ;' tsung che-ll tau nd-ko ti-fdng, ngo pu k'o k'ii, ' I cannot 
 go from hence to that place;' ngo k c u-tl ti-fdng, nl pu k'd-i lai, 'where I 
 go you cannot come.' The student will observe that such adverbial clauses 
 require certain words, as tsung ' from,' tau ' to,' and the word ti-fdng, ' place,' 
 in construction, just as shi and shi-heu are generally necessary in adverbial 
 sentences of time. 
 
 563. Adverbial sentences of manner, which relate to likeness, proportion or 
 effect, are introduced by prepositions or appropriate particles, as ju T(p, 
 
 & , sz 'iff, Jin 1-^, chau ^' which mean 'as, like as, similar to, 
 
 Bb
 
 186 THE SYNTAX OP SENTENCES. 
 
 according to,' <fec. ; or by verbs and particles combined, as pi jr" ' to com- 
 pare,' yti Tjl^ 'than,' &c. ; or causative verbs, as ling ;&>. 'to cause,' pi i\$. 
 'to give,' <fec.: (cf. the adverbs of manner, Arts. 246 251; also Arts. 211, 
 213, and 144 150.) 
 
 564. Adverbial sentences which refer to likeness are such as the following: 
 t'd, sidng fu-tsin, tso sdng-i, 'he carries on trade, as his father did;' nal pi 
 k'u-k'H yu shi-su ju-tsz, shin fi-i ye (9. 1. 1 5), ' but, thus strictly to confine 
 ourselves to the world's customs, would certainly not be right:' (cf. 4. m. 25; 
 8. k. 12 ; 9. b. 22 ; 21. e. 24.) 
 
 565. Adverbial sentences which relate to proportion, intensity, equality are 
 such as yi-nien shdng-sheu, pien tsin-tsin yiu wi (10. a. 17), lit. 'one take raise 
 hand, then relish it more and more,' which would seem to make the first clause 
 an adverbial sentence of time (cf. Art. 560), but the sense of the passage would 
 lean rather to the version 'as they drank (or 'the longer they drank') they 
 relished it the more ;' t'd, pu ju nl, tu-shU-ti, ' he is not so learned, as you,' or 
 ' he is not such a scholar, as you.' 
 
 566. Adverbial sentences which relate to effect are such as are introduced 
 by pa ip ' to take,' I J^Jf ' to use,' ling ^^ ' to cause,' &c. ; e. g. che-k6 jin 
 sie-ts&, pa nl pu k'o tu, ' this man writes, so that you cannot read it;' t'd 
 kidng che-ydng to, ling ngo pu ndng kiting, ' he spoke so much, that I could 
 not speak at all:' (cf. i. j. i 8.) 
 
 567. Adverbial sentences of cause, which relate to the ground or reason, 
 condition, concession, purpose or consequence, require separate treatment, 
 because they are generally dependent upon particles, or words used as such, as 
 yin r^j 'because,' I J/| 'by,' sui Sffi 'although,' jd -^ 'if,' tsiu ttw 
 ' then,' &c. 
 
 568. Adverbial sentences which express the ground or reason are some- 
 times without, and are sometimes accompanied by, distinctive particles ; e. g. 
 yin kien Kwo shin tslng . . (9. e. 15) 'as he saw Mr. Kwos deep feeling . .;' 
 che-ko jin pu-hau, yin-wei t'd md ngo, ' that is a bad man, because he abused 
 me ;' nl tso-ji pu-lai, ngo tsiu pu tu-shu, ' I did not read yesterday, because 
 you did not come' (cf. 4. h. 2. and 18). There should be a causative particle 
 present in the protasis, or an illative particle in the apodosis. 
 
 569. Adverbial sentences which express a condition are sometimes, but not 
 always, introduced by a conditional particle (cf. Art. 265); e. g. pu sung ngo 
 yi kwei ydng-ts'ien, ngd pu pa nl cJiu-k'u, ' if you do not give me a dollar, 
 I will not let you go;' jo-shi t'd pu-tseu, pi-ting ta t'd, 'if he does not go 
 away, I must beat him ;' pu ts6 hau shu, tsiu pu-k'o-l kiau t'd, tu-shu-ti, ' if 
 he had not made a good book, we could not call him a scholar :' (cf. 4. g. 24 
 28. and 4. h. 9 14.) 
 
 57- Adverbial sentences which express concession are nearly always intro- 
 duced by a particle such as sui ' although ;' e. g. sui-jen ju-kln pu-k'u, heu-
 
 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 187 
 
 lai I'd k'u te to, ' although now he does not cry, afterwards he will weep much ;' 
 kwel-kw6 sill tsai chung-ydng dr-wdn-li . . (23. d. ri) 'although your honour- 
 able nation is in the vast ocean twenty thousand miles away ;' nl shwo-hU sui- 
 pien to, ngo sin-pu-te nl, 'however much you promise, I cannot believe you.' 
 57 1- Adverbial sentences which express a purpose are sometimes introduced 
 by a particle ; e. g. tdn hiau tl I chung jin-ldn (6. a. 4) ' give practical weight 
 to filial piety and fraternal love, in order to strengthen the relative duties.' 
 But when the purpose is contained in two or three syllables, it may be adjoined 
 without a particle, like the English infinitive when it expresses a purpose. 
 
 57 2. Adverbial sentences which relate to consequence would seem to be 
 similar to those under Art. 560, but these express rather the consequence 
 which follows the principal sentence as a cause ; e. g. ' he talks, so that he is 
 unintelligible,' contains an adverbial sentence of manner; ' he runs so fast, that 
 he will be sure to get there in time,'' contains an adverbial sentence of effect. 
 In this latter case, one clause contains the cause, the other the effect; but in 
 the former case, the second clause simply qualifies the verb ' talks.' Examples 
 of these distinctions in Chinese can hardly be given. So much is done by infer- 
 ence from the sense of a passage, that too subtle a distinction would only mis- 
 lead. But a careful study of the causative and illative particles will be bene- 
 ficial, and reference should be made to the exercises in Part III. 
 
 . 6. The complex sentence. 
 
 573. The complex sentence differs from the compound sentence in this, 
 that the clauses of which it is composed are mutually dependent. There is 
 in a complex sentence one principal and one or more subordinate clauses, 
 which come under one of the above-mentioned classes, viz. (i) the noun sen- 
 tence, (2) the adjective sentence, or (3) the adverbial sentence. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 hid ar shi si chl 'to learn and constantly to dwell on the subject,' (noun s.) 
 pu yl yu hu? 'is it not a pleasure 1 ?' (principal s.) (3. d. 10, 19, 29.) 
 I Kl-tsz kwel ts5 hung-fan 'by Kl-tsz restoring the great plan,' (noun s.) 
 fa sheu shing ye ' he gave an example to the sacred sages,' (principal s.) 
 (2. m. 13 : cf. also 8. 1. 12. and 9. 1. 15 27.) 
 
 574. The adjective sentence is an accessory sentence, in apposition frequently 
 to the word which it qualifies ; and with the person or thing, for which that 
 word is understood to stand, the adjective sentence may be said to be precisely 
 similar to the noun sentence. 
 
 Examples. 
 yi-kien Tl kung-tsz lai-pai ' as soon as he saw Mr. Tl coming to call,' (an 
 
 adverbial s. of time.) 
 
 tsau fl pau yii Kwo kung-tsz ' he hastened to inform Mr. Kwo,' (prin- 
 cipal s.) 
 
 kang-tflng-ti Tl kung-tsz tau-mdn ' who was just then waiting for Mr. Tl to 
 arrive at the gate,' (adjective s. qualifying Kwo.} 
 B b 2
 
 188 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 
 
 .7. The compound sentence. 
 
 575- Compound sentences contain two or more co-ordinate clauses, each 
 being independent of the other, though they are connected either actually by 
 particles or virtually by the sense of the passage. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 t'ien wel chl tung pu ndng Mai, shing-jin chl yen wu-so-yung. (2. i. 9.) 
 nal cKu td-fd, yung wei shing-sz. (2. 1. 20.) 
 nl yl-pei ngo yl-chdn, pien pufu tui-ts'z. (10. a. 26.) 
 sdnjin che-te t'ing-pl tsi-kien, Kw6 tsiu gdn tso tau. (10. c. 4.) 
 
 576. The three states or relations which may subsist in the compound 
 sentence are, (i) the copulative, (2) the adversative, (3) the causative. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 (1) ti-sln yl yiu pu-gdn, kin yl pu kan kiu liu. (9. c. 26.) 
 k'iu lio-t'ing ni-sM, shau tung y\ ts'an. (9. d. 9.) 
 
 kin hlng yiu yuen, yiu te sidng pel. (9. i. 4.) 
 
 (2) k'i ji-ye chl so si &c. (5. n. 29 o. 30.) 
 
 siau-ti yl pu jin yen k'u, tdn chwdng l-su &c. (9. a. 26.) 
 
 Again in 9. c. n, where an adversative clause comes in parenthetically, 
 
 but may be said to be co-ordinate with the previous sentence, 
 
 which is complex. 
 
 (3) tan hiau-ti, i cliung jtn-ldn. (6. a. 4.) 
 
 sdng-jin pu ndng y$-j% dr wu yung, tst pu-k'o yl-jl ar wu ts'ai. (7. a. 10.) 
 shl kii tsz tau, i U yu sM. (2. h. n.) 
 wu yi wu sz, ku pu wei. (2. j. i.) 
 
 577. Under the copulative relation a subdivision may be said to exist, 
 which relates to clauses presenting an alternative, as in English clauses begin- 
 ning with the particles either and or. Hw6 m/ or hwo-che m/ ^^ and 
 hwdn ^j', repeated at the beginning of each clause, mark such sentences. 
 
 Examples. 
 hwdn shi tang chin, hwdn shi tang shwd? 
 
 ' Are you in earnest, or are you joking?' 
 
 hw6-ch t'd-lai, hwd-che t'd sz-liatt, ' either he will come, or perhaps he is 
 dead.' (Cf. 3. 1. 27, where yl is used for or, as a connective.) 
 
 .8. Figures of speech. 
 
 578. Under this comprehensive expression much is included, but we pur- 
 pose noticing only a few of those peculiar forms which in language take this 
 denomination : such as ellipsis, the leaving out of words; pleonasm,
 
 THE SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 189 
 
 the redundant use of words; antithesis, the appropriate use of words of 
 opposite significations ; and the repetition of a word or phrase to give emphasis 
 to the expression. 
 
 579. By the figure ellipsis many expressions in Chinese become intelligible, 
 which appear, at first sight, to be in accordance with no particular rule. Such 
 are the terms chl-l (9. 12) ' old friends ;' pai-sheu ' to make a visit on a 
 person's birthday :' pai-nien ' to pay compliments at the new year ;' kau-lau 
 ' to plead age,' kau-pmg ' to plead sickness' (as a reason for retirement from 
 office). 
 
 580. It is a very common thing to leave out the personal pronouns when 
 they are the subjects of sentences, and when no difficulty would arise in sup- 
 plying them from the context or from the conversation. Pu-yau alone might 
 be either 'do not!' i. e. noli, or 'I do not want;' but pu-yau che-ko lung- 
 si must be, ' I do not want this thing,' and pu-yau tung-sheu must be, 
 'do not move!'='be quiet!' So also sie-sie 'thanks!' for 'I thank you;' 
 but this expression is similar in the English, ' thank you.' 
 
 581. The obscurity which might sometimes veil the meaning of a sentence 
 in Chinese is removed by the redundancy of repeating the same idea by nega- 
 tiving its opposite term : thus, ngo yau k'u, pu yau tang, ' I wish to go, and 
 do not wish to stay ;' nl yau shwd chin, pu yau shwo hwdng, ' do you speak 
 truly, and do not speak falsely ;' tsin-yen k'dn-kien ' I saw it with my own 
 eyes.' 
 
 582. The Chinese delight in forming antitheses, for which their language 
 affords great facility, every important attribute and object having its appro- 
 priate opposite term. A list of the most common of these will be found in 
 Appendix I. Antithesis occurs frequently in proverbs and old sayings ; 
 e. g. yiu t'eu wei, md wi chin, 'in front there is dignity, but behind no 
 troops ;' and shdng yiu t'ien-t'dng, hid yiu Su ffdng, ' above there is heaven, 
 and below Su-(cheu) and Hang-(cheu) :' (cf. 19. i. n.) 
 
 583. Repetition has already been referred to as being a common method 
 of forming words and phrases and for intensifying adjectives and adverbs (cf. 
 Arts. 99 and 136), but it is often merely for the sake of the rhythm that 
 words and syllables are repeated. A few select expressions of this kind may 
 be seen in Appendix I. 
 
 584. Almost all the other figures of speech which are used in European 
 tongues are to be found in Chinese. Climax is especially common in this 
 language. But it is needless to multiply examples of these figures, for they 
 will easily be recognised by the advanced student. 
 
 . 9. The varieties of style. 
 
 585. The differences of style in Chinese authors, and the marks of the period 
 in literary works, are very great and distinct. The language of the most 
 ancient authors is very brief and sententious, while the meaning is pregnant 
 and expressive. There is a majesty and dignity of style, which have never 
 been surpassed by later writers. The style of the King (cf. Part II. pp. 5, 6)
 
 190 THE SYNTAX OP SENTENCES. 
 
 stands foremost in antiquity and sublimity. The Sz-shu, the Ll-Jd, the Tau- 
 te-klng, the Tau-tsz, and the Shdn-hai-klng come next in order (cf. Part II. 
 pp. 6, 7), and to these may be added the great commentators and writers of 
 elegant compositions, such as Chwdng-tsz and the Shl-tsz, or 'Ten scholars,' 
 mentioned in Part II. pp. 7,8. To these must be added Mdng-tsz, who, though 
 nearly equal to ICung-tsz in Chinese estimation as a philosopher, has a diffuse 
 style of composition. Ts6-shi, the author of the Tso-chuen and the Kw6-yu } 
 Sz-md-tsien and the Tsai-tsz, or ' men of talent,' come next, with the later 
 authors, Hdn-yu (who lived in the T'dng dynasty), Gau-ydng Siu, Su Tung- 
 po, Chu-hl, and many others, fragments of whose works are preserved in the 
 Ku-wdn yuen kien (cf. Part II. pp. 14, 36). 
 
 t^ j. 
 
 586. The distinctions drawn by the eminent writer Tdng-tsz %^\ f (cf. 
 Part II. p. 8) between the different varieties of style are as follows : si shing ts'z 
 tsik'dng; ts'z shing sztsifu; sztszchlng tsiklng. When the subject is greater 
 than the power of expression, it is denominated k'dng 1'rt ' unevenly matched;' 
 when the expression exceeds the subject, it is called y^ RfpT 'poetical style;' 
 and when the subject and the expression are equally matched, it is called 
 king $S ' classic style.' 
 
 587. Gau-ydng Siu says : Yen I tsai sz, dr w$n I shl yen; si sin yen wdn, 
 tsl Jcu king pu-yuen, 'let the words contain the theme or subject, and let 
 elegant style adorn the words ; let there be the subject truthfully, and the 
 words elegantly set down, and the style will not be far from that which is 
 called king.' In which passage the four characters 3j. as |=p ^X 
 sz sin yen wdn contain the marks of the highest style of literary composition. 
 
 588. No positive rules can be given for composition, but the length of the 
 ku, or clauses, should be somewhat diversified. Though clauses of four cha- 
 racters, which form phrases, are frequent in the best authors, the style will 
 be stiff and bald, unless occasionally a clause of five, six, or seven charac- 
 ters be introduced. It is usual to accumulate ideas in an opening sentence, 
 and then to display them separately in the sequence. The admired style of 
 Chinese compositions may be compared to the elegant style of Cicero rather 
 than to the nervous argumentative style of Demosthenes. (Cf. Premare's 
 Notitia Linguae Sinicce, where examples of style will be found.)
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 List of antithetical words. 
 
 on 
 
 shdng 'a wholesale merchant.' 
 sh&ng ' to reward.' 
 
 - shen ' good, virtuous.' 
 sJieii 'to collect together.' 
 sheu ( the head.' 
 
 sAe?Z ' to give.' 
 T sAi ' a wild animal.' 
 
 * cAl ' the beginning.' 
 : sAC ' it is so, true.' 
 
 kit ' a retail trader.' 
 
 < to punish.' 
 - (5 'bad, vicious.' 
 
 r 
 
 v 
 
 'to scatter abroad.' 
 &<5' the foot.' 
 sAet* ' to receive.' 
 cAtt ' a tamed animal.' 
 chung 'the end.' 
 5^ jr. yi ' it is not so, false.' 
 
 shin ' deep (of water).' 
 shin ' to extend the body.' 
 shin 'the body,' 
 * shlng 'to ascend.' 
 ' to rise,' 
 'to flourish.' 
 ti shwdng ' a pair.' 
 shdn 'to obey.' 
 'to let go.' 
 
 T& tsien ' shallow.' 
 
 ku ' to bend the body.' 
 shin ' the spirit.' 
 kidng 'to descend.' 
 to float.' yjT cA2n 'to sink.' 
 
 3:3? shwal ' to decay.' 
 cAe ' an individual.' 
 
 fung 'abundant.' 
 
 5C 
 
 w? ' to disobey.' 
 sheii 'to take up.' 
 ^ ho ' misery.' 
 hwdng ' sterile.' 
 pin ' poor.'
 
 192 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 gai ' to love.' 
 au 'proud.' 
 
 " C\ 
 
 T| |p gdng ' hard.' 
 
 Jj^j hdn ' cold.' 
 
 374- hau ' good.' 
 
 JM hed ' thick, generous.' 
 
 1^. Al 'to be glad.' 
 
 ty^ hien 'a wise man.' 
 
 )^ hti ' empty, vain.' 
 
 king 'the form, substance.' 
 
 hwo 'alive.' 
 
 hwui ' to meet together.' 
 
 ye ' the father.' 
 
 : yen 'the banquet.' 
 
 > 
 
 "" yiili, ' a friend.' 
 
 
 ' to hate.' 
 ' humble.' 
 'soft.' 
 shin, ' heat.' 
 toi or US. o ' bad.' 
 
 )t> V* 
 
 ^ 'thin, mean.' 
 
 'to be sorrowful.' 
 ' a fli s h man.' 
 ^^(" sM 'solid, true.' 
 Ij^/ ylng ' the shadow.' 
 tiV sz ' dead.' 
 jh\\ pi ' to separate from.' 
 wffl nidng 'the mother.' 
 s? ' a common feast.' 
 chert, 'an enemy.' 
 
 ! yln 'the female principle in nature, j)^ 
 darkness, obscure. ' 
 
 
 yin ' good words and actions.' Js. ko 'the reward of them' (Budd.). 
 
 'the male principle in nature, 
 light, clear.' 
 
 /^ Icing 'cold.' 
 
 rp hiung 'unfortunate.' 
 
 ki 'fortunate.' 
 
 -j 
 
 ^_* 
 
 ? kau 'high.' 
 
 t 
 
 v A;ai ' to cover.' 
 
 T A;an ' sweet;' 
 
 JL* 
 
 f Ai<i 'to marry (of the woman).' 
 
 to teach.' 
 r to bind fast.' 
 ' ancient times.' 
 >' birds.' 
 
 ;u 
 
 HEf 
 
 Rfj A; c at 'to open.' 
 
 swan 'sour.' 
 
 tsui ' to marry (of the man).' 
 ffi* Ai3 ' to learn.' 
 HJab Aiai 'to loosen.' 
 ^v kin ' the present time.' 
 
 L 
 
 'beasts.'
 
 
 hiung ' the male (of birds).' 
 kin ' to forbid.' 
 k'iu 'crooked.' (wan 
 'classic text.' 
 ' public.' 
 kung ' merit.' 
 k'ung ' empty.' 
 kl 'hungry.' (nul j 
 ' raw, green.' 
 
 distant.' 
 
 -i. k'u 'to go away.' 
 ^ii kiun 'the prince.' 
 TT* kwdng 'brightness.' 
 
 
 4 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 ji tsz 'the female (of birds).' 
 g^t- hiu ' to allow.' 
 jgj eA2 ' straight.' 
 'fly chuen 'the commentary.' 
 
 %Lsz ' private.' 
 
 .. \ - 
 
 j|^ pau 'reward.' kwo 
 
 mwan ' full.' 
 />& 'satisfied.' 
 shu ' cooked, ripe.' 
 &m 'near.' 
 lai ' to come near.' 
 
 : the vassal.' 
 
 darkness.' 
 
 fault.' 
 
 ; 'the spiritual essence, the <<^ k'i 'the material essence, the 
 principle which arranges.' matter which is arranged.' 
 
 'profit or interest.' 
 {ffi lift ' to detain, to keep.' 
 Vsr lift 'to flow, to roam.' 
 
 ' to manifest pleasure.' 
 
 fierce.' 
 mdn ' the outer door.' 
 
 v% wtt ' anger.' 
 
 . ^ t 
 
 J||j ^ww 'the guest.' 
 
 a H p?X 'a man-servant.' 
 p&n ' the beginning.' 
 kw'el ' to lose.' 
 
 'ghost inferior, the active 
 principle of yin.' 
 
 pd,n 'the original capital.' 
 chu ' to throw away.' 
 chl 'to stop, to rest in.' 
 pel 'to express sorrow.' 
 lidng ' gentle, good.' 
 
 1=1 hu 'the inner door;' mdn-hu= 
 ' family.' 
 
 Wo J ln ' P atience -' 
 chu 'the host.' 
 pi 'a maid-servant.' 
 mu ' the end.' 
 yi 'to gain.' 
 
 sAm 'spirit superior, the active 
 
 principle 
 c c
 
 194 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 i tsien 'mean.' 
 
 
 kwei ' noble.' 
 
 ?^x< 
 
 kwdn ' to look at from below, or p tjt tin ' to look at from above, or 
 from a distance.' while approaching.' 
 
 & t 
 
 shl 'damp, humid.' 
 
 su ' secular.' 
 
 k'u 'to cry.' 
 
 heu ' behind or after.' 
 
 kiu ' old.' 
 
 * ' to doubt.' 
 
 sau ' dry.' 
 sang 'religious.' 
 r. siau 'to laugh.' 
 
 V 
 
 4p sien ' before.' 
 ~ rf sm ' new.' 
 
 sm 'to believe.' 
 
 sing ' the name of the clan.' Fr* sA* ' the name of the family.' 
 
 ri sing 'natural disposition.' 3jj; si 'practice.' 
 
 sung 'to give.' 
 
 sung ( to bid adieu.' 
 
 s& ' a tutor.' 
 
 tdn 'single.' 
 
 "" ' covetous.' 
 
 i/\ 
 
 r \ ( 
 ' simple, moderate.' ^ 
 
 TJ <aw 'a sword with one edge.' ffifl k'ien 'a two-edged sword.' 
 wdn 'to ask.' yO f<2 'to replv.' 
 
 xpy - 1 
 
 m 'not yet.' 
 
 chdng 'to stretch the bow.' 
 
 *ij* chlng 'the art of weighing and 
 measuring.' 
 
 \ ^ 2/*^* ' a ma ^ e performer.' 
 
 ?* ' to receive.' 
 
 to welcome.' 
 At 'a pupil, a disciple.' 
 
 shwdng ' double.' 
 
 lien 'liberal, not avaricious.' 
 
 nting 'strong.' 
 
 M i 'already.' 
 
 z ' to relax the bow.' 
 
 chdng ' the art of counting.' 
 
 ch'dng ' a female musician.' 
 ch'dng ' long.' 
 ch'dng ' constant.' 
 
 short.' 
 ' changeable.' 
 
 
 'the leader in the song.' ^rfl A6 'the singer who replies.' 
 
 H cAaw 'morning.' 
 
 mt 'evening.
 
 che 'to ascend.' 
 ch'i 'slow.' 
 ^* chi 'prudent.' 
 * m 'true.' 
 
 'to perfect.' 
 HJifr ching 'sincere.' 
 |p ching 'straight.' 
 
 IP* ching ' upright.' 
 
 H~~t 
 
 irvi chung 'faithful and truthful.' 
 
 - j ctiu ' to go out.' 
 tjp tsau 'early.' 
 
 ^f fo T ' "Wlfp 
 
 .4 | ^ . _ _ . 
 
 *^3. t&wtu sad. 
 
 f*M 
 
 MS 1 feie 'to borrow.' 
 
 tsi 'hastily.' 
 
 tsl ' to collect.' 
 
 tsie 'elder sister.' 
 
 tern ' to advance.' 
 
 is ing 'clear.' 
 
 tsing ' serene weather.' 
 
 fed ' the left hand.' 
 
 tso 'to sit.' 
 4 'JL. tsdng ' to follow after.' 
 
 tsii ' coarse.' 
 
 tsii ' ancestor.' 
 " M 'honourable.' 
 'to preserve.' 
 
 pi 'that.' 
 
 fl 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 1)35 kidng 'to descend.' 
 kw'ei ' quick,' = ^W. , 
 yu 'foolish.' 
 kid, 'false.' 
 
 ' to ruin.' 
 wei ' deceitful.' 
 wei ' crooked, awry.' 
 sie 'depraved.' 
 ning ' a flatterer.' 
 ji ' to enter in.' 
 
 1 w&n 'late.' 
 
 t 
 
 tsi 'concubine.' 
 IS 'joyful.' 
 
 hwdn ' to pay again.' 
 ch'i' 
 
 sdn ' to scatter.' 
 mei ' younger sister.' 
 tui 'to retreat.' 
 chu ' muddy.' (hw&n ] 
 yti 'rainy weather.' 
 yiu ' the right hand.' 
 ll 'to stand.' (k'\ 
 wei 'to oppose.' 
 si 'fine.' 
 sdn ' descendant.' 
 
 195 
 
 ,' = i su 'leisurely.' 
 
 pi ' mean. 
 > " wdng ' to lose.' 
 
 tsz 'this.' 
 c c 2
 
 196 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Examples of antithesis in sentences. 
 yiu ts'ai vn - pi yiu watt, yiu mail wi - pi yiu ts'ai, 
 
 ^ t % & ^i IK ^ i ^ & it i 
 
 ' There may be talent without beauty, and there may be beauty without 
 talent.' 
 
 mau ctilng k'i - ts'ai, ts'ai fu k'i mail, 
 
 m m K t i. go K i 
 
 ' His beauty equals his ability, and his talents enhance his beauty.' 
 I pu clie shin, shl pu ch'ung k'eu, 
 
 ft X t> * ^ ^ ft P 
 
 ' Not clothing to cover his body, nor food to fill his mouth.' 
 ho - chii pu - mi, shin - chu pu - sin? 
 
 I J >fefe ^r* '^^' "P^* JjtQ -^P* ^^ 
 'Where have I not looked, where have I not sought?' 
 
 yau - k'l wd lui, yau - yen wu - yu, 
 
 K ?L SI ?R x ^ I pa 
 
 ' He wished to weep, but he had no tears, to speak, but he had no words.' 
 t'a wei ngo sz, ngo pi wei - t'a wdng, 
 
 ' As he died for me, I must sacrifice myself for him.' 
 shdng-t'ien wu - lu, jl - ti wu mdn, 
 
 ^ ^ 5& A tft i P 6 ! 
 
 ' If he would rise to heaven there is no way, or enter earth there is no door,' 
 = 'he cannot escape.' 
 
 ni yl - yen ngo yl - ku. rii yl - chung ngd yl - chan. 
 
 ' They are well matched at gossipping.' ' They are well matched at drinking.' 
 yl pwdn - dr tsz, yl pwdn - dr k'&ng, 
 
 - & % it i k f 
 
 ' He half refuses, and is half willing. ' 
 
 Examples of repetition of characters. 
 
 yuen-yuen tsiati kien 15^ | ft^ ^J ' to look at from a long distance.' 
 gal-gal t'ung-k'u J*** \ '|*^ ^^ ' to weep bitterly.'
 
 APPENDIX I. 197 
 
 yl-ku-ku tu t'ing-te liau /ol \ sK Bffl fj^ T ' I heard every word. ' 
 
 yi-pu-pu m6 shdng-shdn lai -j& | ^J^i j- IN %fr ' step by step, 
 feeling his way, he ascended the mountain.' 
 
 king-king ti shwS 
 t'ing-t'ing tang-tang -I 
 ch'e-ch'e ye-ye \ \ \ \ 
 
 * JLM+ 
 
 ming-mlng pe-pe 0^ 
 twan-twdn ching-ching 
 ts'i-ts'i ching-chlng ^^ 
 hwan-hwan mei-mei S 
 su-su t'au-t'au 
 
 g jt? 'to speak very softly.' 
 Hf* | 'in a fixed and proper manner.' 
 ' to carry off by force.' 
 [ 'very clearly understood.' 
 
 _- 
 
 jp j ' elegant and correct.' 
 \ 'precisely arranged.' 
 I ' dull and bewildered.' 
 pTJ | 'to reiterate vociferously.' 
 
 Phrases formed wpon a similar principle. 
 pu-chi pu-kio ^fc ytP | ' he knows not nor perceives.' 
 
 pu-ming pu-pe 3K &H \ 
 yuen-sdng yuen-sz M^ 
 
 i^J"*^~i 
 
 k'i-sdng lei sz ^f /fc 
 k'o-hdn k'o-nait, pT 'j' 
 s A; c ? s k'iait \v\ S^ 
 pwdn k'al pwdn yen jp> 
 pwdnjinpwdn kwel <+*. 
 lung-shin lung kwel 
 lung-lai lung k'u 
 
 hu-yen hu-yu 
 ww-fcf md-siau 
 td-tsiu td-ju 
 k'iau-mu k'iau-ydng 
 k8-m$n kd hu 
 
 ' quite unintelligible.' 
 
 <rea( ly to live or die.' 
 ' desperately angry.' 
 'extremely annoying.' 
 ' apparently very clever.' 
 
 ' half revealed and half concealed.' 
 'half man and half ghost.' 
 'to play the ghost.' 
 | -^> 'to be eager at business.' 
 =S 'to talk very foolishly.' 
 ^h 'to abuse all alike.' 
 'a great feast' 
 
 'in a haughty manner.' 
 J=l ' each in his own way.'
 
 198 
 
 kl-sin kl-k'it \\f 
 yiu-ping yiu-ku /pt 
 mu-yuen mu-ku Y'r? 
 
 V . 
 
 mu-tsung mu-ylng Y'I 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 ^rr 'greatly afflicted.' 
 | jjH ' there is full proof of it.' 
 | AV 'there is no ground at all for it.' 
 R I Isf-y 'without trace or shadow.' 
 
 ? Ym ' to love cleanliness.' 
 -J-i- 
 ^ ' to honour and respect guests.' 
 
 'alike happy and troubled.' 
 
 Examples ofsynonymes used in phrases, 
 hau-ki gai-ts'lng i)+- Y 
 
 t'ung kdn kung k'u |^J 
 
 tS(fl 'ft'UYb KiVYtQ rCC ^^^ /I 
 **J J 
 
 tf 
 r 
 
 shi-t'ien ming-ti ^ 
 shi-pdng tsiu-yiu g 
 pau cKeu su yuen ; 
 ling yd li ctil I^S 
 hu si Iwdn siang * 
 jit kl si h'6 "ftn ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 [ 
 
 'to rejoice exceedingly.' 
 'to swear by heaven and earth.' 
 'friends of the Muse and the wine.' 
 ( ' to revenge an insult.' 
 
 ' clever at speaking.' 
 
 .1 
 
 'to think confusedly.' 
 
 'like hunger and thirst.' 
 
 lu wel 
 
 shdn chin hal tso Ml J 
 tiu ch'd fan fan 
 mei-lai yen-k'U J 
 mei-hwd yen-siati ^ xr/ 
 hwai-tsai pati-hi8 >lf 
 tslng-t'ien pe-ji ^H 
 nl-shdng ngd-lidng 
 m-tung ngd-sl 
 
 Select idiomatic phrases. 
 
 J3? ' to hide the head artd expose the tail.' 
 ~7j J& ' y ears increased, strength decayed.' 
 /S 3?H ' sumptuous fare.' 
 
 FH7 'tasteless tea and rice, poor fare.' 
 'glancing now and again.' 
 r. 'arched eyebrows and laughing eyes.' 
 ^ 'devoted to learning.' 
 R 'in open day.' 
 fpr ' let us mutually advise.' 
 ' we are mutually opposed. '
 
 APPENDIX I. 199 
 
 pe-jl hi y$ p^l n p[ /Mr 'from noon to midnight, day and night.' 
 
 I I I I JTVk is^- 
 
 tsl-szpd-hw6 4-~ tyV /\ V'rt 'more dead than alive.' 
 tsl-p&n pa-fa -+-' 2|. ^\^ Tr|J 'the profit just saves the capital.' 
 pe-ling pe-li jfj M^ pi| 4 %\\ ' very shrewd and clever.' 
 
 Elegant phrases, idiomatic and poetic. 
 
 Shl-yun g^E 5B? 'the Shi-Tang says,' or Shti-yun \ ' the ShU-klng says.' 
 
 Tsz yH -4 | ^| ' for K'ung-tsz (Confucius) says.' 
 jtin-pl J'KJ ^|j., lit. ' to moisten the pencil, to commit to writing.' 
 
 r*-| J-|-^ 
 
 fhng-fu ~\?fc HM 'to laugh immoderately,' like " Se tenir les cotes de rire," 
 ^ ~i 'J^x, 
 
 or "Laughter holding both his sides." Milton. 
 keu-ming i&5\ t^t, lit. ' to fish for a name, to hunt for a reputation.' 
 
 mii-sung til i^"> lit. ' with the eye to accompany, to watch until out 
 of sight.' 
 
 ft -\ f 
 r y ;V, lit. ' to drink tears, to weep bitterly.' 
 
 shl-yen / ^^ ==f , lit. ' to eat words, -to break a promise.' 
 
 Confucius denied himself in respect of four things, which are referred to in 
 the following expressions : 
 
 wA-i, fflr 'iff ' ne did not bind himself to his own opinion.' 
 
 wA-pl | /fA ' ne did not hold any thing to be of necessity absolute.' 
 
 wA-ku | ||^'[ ' he was not perverse and obstinate in his views,' 
 
 voti-ngd \ J]b ' he held no feelings of private interest.' 
 
 T'ai-yuen Tfc* ~7T") lit- 'the exalted origin of things, heaven.' 
 
 Tung-klun ijjf ^K> lit- 'the prince of the east, the sun.' 
 
 T'ai-ydng -4^- |$|| 'the great light, the sun.' Sol. 
 
 P2-k'& Q Km, lit. 'the white colt, the morning.' Aurora. 
 
 I -ho W ^f p ' the charioteer of the sun.' Phaethon. 
 
 T'ien-hdn ~fc yw^ 'a star of evil omen.' 
 
 Sien-h6 ^|ffi PP| ' the charioteer of the moon,' also called Chdng-ngd.
 
 200 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Ti-kung ffiT J-^j ' the rainbow,' also called Ti-tung 'JjSy |j|j|j. 
 Nu-i ~VT a(i ' the Spirit presiding over flowers.' 
 Wdng-hwd ^P / f-j 'the royal flower,' the Mau-tdn ff-r 4^. 
 Tsang-yiu ^H- yjr 'the water-lily,' Lung-yd t|p *T* 'the K-cAz ^ 
 Ll-chv-nu \ \ w V, lit. 'slave of the ^-cAt' = the lung-ye ('fruit'). 
 
 chul-fiing 5]S Ijfil 'pursuer of the wind,' or chiil-tien : tff tj* 'a pursuer of 
 
 the lightning,' a name for a fine horse. 
 shdn-kiun | | 1 ^&', lit. 'prince of the mountains, the tiger.' 
 
 The 'sheep' is called JeA-mau jr*. ::H; the 'goat,' jen-ldng ^^ Rp; the 
 ' swallow,' t'ien-nu ^? ~fr ; the ' parrot,' yen-niau ^ fjjL ; the 'tortoise,' 
 "SX yC Hiuen-fu; the ' ant,' hiuen-k'u; the ' vine,' Hung-yiu *T ^^, 
 Hwdn-pe ^r qpj, Sdng-ldng ^^ | or Ldn-sdng ^\ /JT. Ts6-tsiu 
 is ' the wine for a journey.' Chung-tsiu \+f \ 'half drunk.' C%m- 
 
 W 'ink.' Fung-wi JM p4^ or Mng-un g3 IS. 'aninkstone.' 
 | 'the pencil.' Yu-pdn ^P fi]^' paper.' Shu-t'ing y^F T^- 
 
 'palace of the immortals.' Shi-kid -m" .^^ 'a man of rank.' Ftt-sAi ^P fjj 
 'choice food.' Nien-sheu ^A. "g" a term for 'men.' Yu-t'l -re S0 ' a very 
 
 fair person.' Kau-ts @| ^^ 'passing rich.' Kau-sdng tit /t or tdng- 
 i F** .^^^ ' * ' * 
 
 saw<7 ^3- | 'an old man.' Td-tsidng -^ [j-p- or chi-chS jflt rf^fr 'a worker 
 in wood.' Tsidng-kwei JWj ~^' 'to fly after honours.' Ts'iuen-tai .^p .^?* 
 'a sepulchral mound, a tomb.' Shen-p'dng j)jB3 ^^ 'a bier.' Wu-ku 
 frfy Ay 'dead.' Wdng-ydng t~ j~{Vi 'free from disease.' Tsien-K k'u 
 
 ~\ \ SP/ ' ls ' a ^ ne y un S horse.' Shi-chung-hu gi tp R? is 'a 
 poet.' Jin-chung-lung ^A ffJ ^g is 'an illustrious man.' Kia\-yu-hwd 
 
 ' = * '- and hwd-kien-siu ^i, ^1 ^5* and ydng-liu-chi ijfe 
 
 ^ 'the seat of 
 
 mean ' a beautiful woman.' Sz-ts&-ts6 
 ^' 
 
 Buddha.' Kiung-fd tp^ S^t is ' a barren soil.' Kwel-tlng "S* Mt{ ' some- 
 thing very precious.' Wu-ting-sht j-t IvU T^" 'the five kinds of flesh.'
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 A list of Chinese family names (Pe-kid sing) arranged according to 
 the Radical characters. 
 
 (Rad. i 44.) 
 
 1 ~J" Ting 
 
 2 ~JFj Wdn 
 
 3 J-- Shdng 
 
 4 I-T* Kiu 
 
 5 \ Jj -^z* 
 
 6 ^p- F# 
 
 7 rfp ^rajr 
 
 8 ^ i/fo 
 
 9 fa Kiit 
 
 10 x^. Ling 
 
 1 1 4 Jj] Fdwgr 
 
 1 2 'jm Chung 
 
 13 q^ ^/i 
 
 16 
 z 7 iPf 
 
 18 
 T 9 
 
 Yd 
 
 21 "j ^ O2 
 
 aa>fgjfl 
 
 24 1^ (7Aw 
 
 25 "TT* Fwew 
 
 26 if CJiung 
 
 27 ^ 
 28 
 29 
 
 3 
 3i 
 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 3 
 
 37 
 38 
 
 39 *" t r :; 
 Jy tt 
 
 40 
 
 Tsiuen 
 Kung 
 
 Jin 
 
 Pie 
 
 4i @ 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 ~ 
 
 44 h ^ 
 
 45 
 
 46 tl I Fm 
 
 47 
 48 
 
 49 
 5 
 5i 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 
 S* 
 
 Cheu 
 
 61 
 62 
 
 63 ^ Jftatf 
 
 64 " 
 
 65 
 66 
 
 H-^ 
 
 6 7 {g SF* 
 
 68 ^ AS%^ 
 
 69 " 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 76 
 
 77 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 Leti 
 
 San 
 
 Siu&n 
 Hwdn 
 
 Tsal 
 Kia 
 
 81 
 82 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 86 
 
 87 
 88 
 
 89 
 90 
 
 9i 
 93 
 
 95 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 
 98 Fid 
 
 99 ^3' Yin 
 
 100 
 
 Dd
 
 202 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 (Rad. 44 107.) 
 
 101 Jw K'u 
 
 102 j|| Tti 
 
 103 1 1 | Shan 
 
 104 ^ Tsin 
 105 
 
 106 
 107 
 1 08 
 109 
 
 
 in 
 
 Si 
 
 114 p* Kan 
 
 116 
 
 118 |B 
 
 119 JjjiLiad 
 
 121 
 122 
 123 
 
 126 
 
 155 yj^Ch'ad 
 
 tT sting 
 
 130 
 
 '31 
 
 132 
 
 133 
 
 134 
 
 136 rjfc & 
 
 137 
 
 141 
 142 
 
 143 
 
 144 
 
 Fang 
 
 M7 
 
 148 ~Tj Fang 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 
 151 |i^ GKang 
 
 152 
 
 154 Tsan 
 
 157 :gp Yen 
 
 a 
 
 158 IT 
 
 '59! 
 
 161 
 162 
 163 
 164 
 165) 
 
 167 
 
 I Tsati, 
 ' Tsang 
 
 Li 
 
 Oa 
 
 Liu 
 
 176 
 
 177 
 
 182 ^ Yd 
 
 187 
 188 
 
 189 ^ 
 
 191 
 192 
 
 196 
 197 
 
 199 
 
 200 
 2OI 
 
 2O2 
 
 2O4 
 205 
 2O6 
 
 2O7 
 208 
 
 c% c i 
 
 Wti 
 
 Fan 
 
 209 
 
 211 
 212 
 
 213 '/m 
 
 216 
 
 218 
 219 
 
 221 
 
 Niati 
 Mu 
 
 222 
 
 22 3 -p Wang 
 
 224 ^Ir Pan 
 225 
 
 227 
 
 229 ft|** Ning 
 230 
 
 232 Jj|. PI 
 233 
 
 235
 
 (Rad. 108163.) 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 203 
 
 2 37 
 
 2 3 8 
 
 ing 
 Lu 
 
 Shi 
 
 Tsiu 
 
 241 
 243 
 
 245 
 246 
 
 247 
 
 249 
 
 250 |j| Mu 
 
 251 
 
 252 
 
 253lif 'Chang 
 
 254 
 
 255 
 
 257 rg. 
 
 f^t 
 
 258 <& Kien 
 
 2 59 1 Tsl 
 260 
 
 261 \ftft 
 
 rTS 
 
 263 
 264 
 
 267 fe 
 
 268 gj| 
 26 9 ^: 
 
 270 5+. 
 
 <->7T ^" 
 
 5F3 
 
 273 tt' 
 
 275 
 
 276 
 
 277 
 278 <l 
 
 281 5 
 
 282 ^?1 
 
 283 X, 
 
 284 "m 
 285 
 286 
 
 287 1 
 
 288 ~y 
 
 289 /trt 
 
 ttl 
 
 292 ai.Chwang 
 
 +-h 
 
 290 yg7 
 
 291 
 
 Si 
 
 293^ 
 
 294 5| 
 295 1^ 
 2 9 6 fe! 
 
 2 97 ^: ^ 
 
 298 ^ jr 
 
 299 
 300 
 
 Mting 
 
 + 4- 
 
 *4- 
 
 302 a 
 
 303 ^ 
 
 304 j 
 
 305 t 
 36 j 
 
 37 1 
 
 Tsdng 
 Kai 
 
 39 
 
 312 
 
 3U 
 3i5 
 316 
 
 318 
 
 
 320 
 321 
 322 
 
 323 
 324 
 325 
 326 % 
 
 Hdng 
 
 JB 
 
 328 
 329 
 
 330 n 
 
 331 p 
 
 333 
 
 334 
 335 
 33 6 
 337 
 338 
 339 
 340 
 
 342 
 
 343 
 
 Fdn 
 
 Pi 
 
 Zal 
 
 344 
 
 345 
 
 346 
 
 347 
 
 348 
 
 34 9 f 
 
 35 
 
 35i 
 
 352} 
 
 353 JH 
 
 3544 
 
 35 6 i 
 357^ 
 
 360 
 361 
 
 3 6 3 
 
 3 6 5 
 366 
 
 367 
 368 
 
 369 
 
 37 
 
 Chati, 
 Lu 
 
 Pien 
 
 Tal 
 
 H6 
 
 Kid 
 
 D d 2
 
 204 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 (Rad. 163212.) 
 
 374 
 375 
 
 . 
 
 37 6 
 
 377 
 
 378 
 
 379 
 
 380 
 38i 
 
 382 
 
 385 
 386 [ 
 
 387 pi 
 
 388 
 
 390 
 391 
 
 392 P 
 
 394 
 395 
 396 
 397 
 
 398 p^ Yung 
 
 399 Win Shwdng 
 
 Kin 
 
 401 
 
 402 
 tl 
 
 403 
 
 405 
 
 406 
 
 407 Wei 
 
 408 
 409 
 410 
 411 
 
 412 
 
 413 
 414 
 
 4 i8Hj 
 
 4i9]| 
 
 420 || 
 
 421 1? 
 
 4 22^ 
 
 424 Qw Paw 
 
 425 
 
 426 
 
 428 |g Hwdny 
 
 430 
 
 433 
 434 
 
 436 
 437 
 
 Note 64 is also called sAew. 305 should have 'grass' above it. 314 should have 'door' 
 with 'grass' above it. 389 should have 'a door' over it. 
 
 The following are family names of two syllables. 
 
 Ch'dng-san (384, 79). 
 Chen-yu (64, 6). 
 Chti-k6 (331, 298). 
 Chung-ll (383, 400). 
 Chung-san (12, 79). 
 Gau-ydng (186, 395). 
 Hid-heti (69, 19). 
 Zfe-?ww (343, 354). 
 Hwn-yuen (348, 349). 
 Hwdng-fu (214, 228). 
 Kung-ye (29, 32). 
 Kung-san (29, 79). 
 Kung-ydng (29, 269). 
 Ling-hd (34, 222). 
 Mti-yting (133, 91). 
 
 Pu-ydng (214, 395). 
 Shln-t'tf, (231, 102). 
 SJidng-kiodn (3, 85). 
 Shdn-yu (204, 6). 
 Sz-Jcung (53, 251). 
 ASz-rad (53, 416). 
 z-A2(53, 128). 
 TVZ-c&J (70, 50.) 
 Tdn-t'ai (213, 281). 
 Tsung-ching (84, 145). 
 Tung-fang (167, 148). 
 Yu-wdn (80, 147). 
 Wdnytn (275, 8). 
 
 (2, 2l). 
 
 '^ (96, 356). 
 
 The numbers refer to the previous list.
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 A list of the dynasties, the emperors, and the nien-hau. 
 
 I. San-hwang ^ T*- ' the Three emperors.' 
 
 Under this title are included the names of six persons, whose history is 
 pure myth, but whose names ought to be known to the Chinese student. 
 
 i. Pwdn-kit t -* (v. Part II. p. 104). 2. T'ien-hwdng 
 3. Ti-hwdng jWJ | . 4. Jin^-hwdng A^ | . 5. YiH-cIiad stjf m. 6. 
 
 jtj A- 
 
 These rulers are said to have reigned myriads of years, and to have invented 
 all the ordinary arts of life. 
 
 II. Wit-ti 2 } ' the Five emperors.' [B. C. 2852 2204.] 
 i. Fu-hl -T (115)- 2 - Shin-nting j| S (140)- 3- Hwdng- 
 
 "jg" w* (100). 4. Shah-hau ^ =^\ (84). 5. Chwrtr-hie ffiM 
 (78). 6.Ti-Jcuf Sorj^S). I.T'dng-tiYauJjl \ (102). 8. 
 
 Of this early period tradition alone renders an account. Eight sovereigns 
 ruled, and instituted many useful methods of providing for the wants and 
 comforts of their subjects. Ploughing, fishing, writing, keeping records of 
 events, and the best modes of governing mankind formed the subjects of their 
 invention. During these times K'al-fung fit, on the Hwdng-hd in Ho-ndn, 
 was the metropolis. The first cycle began in the 6ist year of Hwdng-tl. 
 
 III. Hid-chau gTJj 'the Hia dynasty.' [B.C. 2205 1767.] 
 
 i. Trf F ^ H (2205 8). 2.TiK'l\ ||(2i97 9). 3. rat 
 
 * The characters kwdng & , wdng*, ti c , t'ai & , tsd e , tsung r , and some others will not be 
 repeated frequently in this list. The numbers in brackets give the date of the commence- 
 ment and the length of each reign. 
 
 * b 3E tf "^ *ifl
 
 206 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Kdng -fc Jjfe (2188. 29). 4. Chung Kdng ^ \ (2159. 13). 5. Ti 
 sidng | |Q (2146. 28). 6. Shau Kang >]? \ ( 2 u8. 61). 7. Ti 
 Chu (2057. 17). 8. Ti Hwai \ |jj| (2040. 26). 9. Ti Mdng 
 
 | i (2014. 1 8). \o.TiSe \ (1996.16). ii. Ti Pu-kidng 
 
 ^ [^(1980.59). i2.TiKiung \ ^(1921.21). 13. Ti Kin \ 
 f|t (1900. 21). 14. Ti K'ung-kid \ J7 ^(1879.31). 15. Ti Kau 
 
 | |l (1848. n). 16. Ti Fa \ %js (1837. 19). i>j.KiKwel 
 (1818. 52). (Cf. Part II. p. 22, note for a notice of Yu.) 
 
 IV. Shdng-chau |3j' H ' the Shang dynasty.' [6.0.17661122.] 
 
 I W / "~7* V 
 
 i. Ch'ing-t'dng J^ y^ (1766. 13). 2. raC-Aia -^ ^ (1753. 33). 
 3. TT^mgr ^ "J (1720. 29). 4. T'ai-Jcang \ J^t> (1691. 25). 5. 
 Siati-kid >K | (1666. 17). 6. Yung-kl ^ ^ (^49. 12). 7. T'aC- 
 I J)L ( l6 37- 75)- 8> Chung-ting ^fP j (1562. 13). 9. TFafy'Sw 
 (1549.15). 10. ffd-tdn-kid J'Pj g | (1534-9). ii. Tsu-yl 
 ( T 5 2 5- J 9)- 12. T^-sm | 3J (1506. 16). 13. TTw-te 
 (i49- 2 5)- 14- Tsu-tlng \ J (1465. 14). 15. Ndn-kang j 
 (M33- 2 5). J 6. Ydng-kid |5J^ | (1408. 7). 17. Pwdn-kang $ 
 
 (1401.28). 18. Siau-sin fy \ (1373). 19. Siati-yi \ ^(1352.28). 
 "" 
 
 20. Tfti-^r^ jg| "J" (1324. 59). 21. Tsit-kdng \ j^f- (1265. 7). 22. 
 
 - ^ 
 ( I2 5 8 - 33)- 23. Lin-sin Jmf | (1225. 6). 24. Kdng- 
 
 tlng | "J" (1219. 21). 25. Wti-yi J^| | (1198.4). 26. Tai-tlng ~}^ 
 
 \ (1191.37). 28. CheH-sUn | | (1154.32). 
 
 V. Cheu-chau j^J |[Jj 'the Cheu dynasty.' [B.C. 1122249.] 
 I. mt-KXtiy ||]^ J (1122. 7). 2. Ch'ing-wdng fy \ (1115.37). 3. 
 
 . | ^ 
 
 Kang-wdng Jjfc \ (1078. 26). 4. Chati-wdng |JS | (1052. 51). 5. 
 
 Mu-wdng^z^ \ (1001.55). 6. Kung-wdng It | (946.12). 7. 1-wdng 
 ^ I (934. 7)- 8. Hiau-wdng ^ | (909. 15). 9. 7-w?^ | 
 
 (894. 16). 10. Li-wdng j | (878. 51). n. Siuen-wdng
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 207 
 
 22. Kien-wdng 
 i 
 
 King-wdng -t*r 
 Yuen-wdng Jr* 
 
 (827. 46). 12. Yiu-wdng j|j | (781. n). 13. P'ing-wdng 
 
 (77- 5 1 )- I 4- Hwdn-wdng Iij | (719. 23). 15. Chwdng-wdng MI | 
 
 ^\ J_* 
 
 (696. 15). 16. Li-wdng $j \ (681. 5). 17. Hwiii-wdng j^t | (676. 
 25). 18. Slang-wdng ^tt | (651. 33). 19. Klng-wdng |-^[ | ( 6l8 - 6 )- 
 20. Kwdng-wdng |3\ | (612. 6). 21. Ting-wdng ^ | (606. 21). 
 | (585.14)- 23. Z^gr-w^g | (571-27)- 24. 
 (544- 25). 25. King-wdng ^ | (519. 44). 26. 
 (475- 7)- 27. Chmg-ting-wdng 
 | (440. 15). 29. Wei-li-wdng 
 | (401. 26). 31. Ll-wdng fW 
 (368. 48). 33. Shin-tsmg-wdng 'j'| 
 
 28. Kau-wdng 
 30. Gdn-wdng 
 Hien-wdng M 
 
 | (468. 28). 
 | (425. 24). 
 (375. 7). 32. 
 P | (320. 6). 
 
 (314. 59). 35. Tung-cheu-kiun 
 
 34. Nctn-wdng 
 (255- 6). 
 
 During this period several great men flourished, whose names and works 
 have come down to the present time. Such was Wdn-wdng, ' the prince of 
 letters,' who at the end of the Shang dynasty had been imprisoned for hia 
 upright conduct. In confinement he wrote the Yi-klng or ' Book of changes,' 
 and was afterwards liberated through the intercession of a lady whom his son 
 (afterwards Wu-wdng, the first monarch of the Cheu dynasty) had sent to the 
 emperor. Wu-wdng and his brother Cheu-kung were both eminent men of let- 
 ters. Lau-tsz, the founder of the Tauist sect, K'ung-tsz (Confucius) (B. C. 5 1 9), 
 and Mdng-tsz (Mencius) were all born during the Cheu dynasty. The doc- 
 trines taught by these worthies of antiquity were called wdng-tau, ' the royal 
 doctrines,' a term which is equivalent to the term "philosophy" in Europe. 
 The country was divided into many petty states in these times. At one time 
 there were 125, at another they were reduced to 41. The terms Chen- 
 
 were the designations of these 'contending' 
 
 kw8 FSu |jM and Li-kw8 -yjj 
 or 'confederate' states. 
 
 VI. Tsin-chau ^& tfjj 'the Tsin dynasty.' [B. C. 249 246.] 
 
 J f ^ ffff "' fr * 
 
 i. Chwdng-sidng tvdng yj. iH -p (249. 3). 
 xU. >* l * 
 
 VII. Heu Tsin chau 
 i. Chi Hwdng-ti 
 
 'the Latter Tsin dynasty.' [B.C. 246 202.] 
 (246. 37). 2. Ar-shi Hwdng-ti (209. 7).
 
 208 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Ch'l Hwdng-ti was the most celebrated ruler China ever had. He built the 
 great wall, and destroyed all existing records, as far as he could do so, and put 
 many of the learned to death, because he feared their influence to incite the 
 people to rebellion. He was undoubtedly a great monarch, his power ex- 
 tended throughout China, and he called himself the ' First emperor.' 
 
 VIII. Hdn-chau i 'the Han dynasty.' [B. C. 202 A. D. 25.] 
 
 i. Kau-tsh jEJi | (202. 8). 2. Hwiii-ti IB | (194. 7). 3. Lu-Jieu 
 (187. 8). 4. Wdn-tl J$ | (179. 23). 5. Klng-ti fr | (156. 
 16). 6. Wu-ti^ | (140.54)- 7- Chau-tl^ \ (B. C. 86. 13). 8. 
 
 Siuen-ti ^ \ (B.C. 73. 25). 9. Tuen-ti j | (B. C. 48. 16). 10. 
 CKing-ti jfy \ (B.C. 32. 26). n. Gai-ti ~jj*+ | (B.C. 6. 6). 12. 
 
 Fing-ti 2f- | (A. D. i. 5). 13. M-tsz ying J|| ^ vgi (A. D. 6. 17). 
 14. Hwai-ydng-wdng V J5^ | (AD. 23. 2). 
 
 IX. TungHdn " 'the Eastern Han dynasty.' [A. D. 25221.] 
 
 i. Kwang-wu ^ gj^ (25. 33). 2. Ming-ti ty] \ (58. 18). 3. 
 Chdng-ti^ | (76.13). 4. H6-tl^\ \ (89.17). 5. Shang-ti ^ | 
 (106. i). 6. Gan-ti ^ \ (107. 19). 7. Shdn-ti J|)| | (126. 19). 8. 
 Chiing-ti^m \ (145.1). 9. Che-ti ^j | (146.1). 10. Hwdn-ti iiQ | 
 (147. 21). ii. Ling-ti \ (168. 22). 12. Hien-ti ]|j[ | (190. 31). 
 
 At the end of this dynasty the empire was divided into ' Three kingdoms,' 
 SM, Wei, and Wd. 
 
 X. Heti Hdn ^ ^|| ' the Latter Han.' [A. D. 221265.] 
 i. Chaii-U ti jg ^0 | (221. 2). 2. ffeu-ti ^ | (223. 42). 
 
 XL Tsinrchau ^ J9 'the Tsin dynasty.' [A. D. 265 317.] 
 i. Wu-tij^ | (265.26). 2. Hwiii-ti SI | (290.17). 3. Hwai-ti 
 
 (307. 6). 4. Mln-ti KX | (313. 4 ). 
 
 XII. rwwflr 2Wn W 'the Eastern Tsin.' [A. D. 317420.] 
 
 \ (317.6). 2. Ming-ti \ (323.3). 3. Ch'ing-ti 
 
 I (326.17). 4. Kang-ti j$: \ (343-2). S.Mu-ti
 
 APPENDIX III. 209 
 
 6. !-*{ Tgf^ (362. 4). 7. Ti-yl ^ ^(366.6). Z.K 
 
 (371. 2). 9. Hiau-wu ^: jjj^ (373. 24). 10. aw-^ | (397. 22). 
 
 u.Xung-ti^fe | (419. i). 
 
 The literary degree of Siu-ts'ai was introduced A. D. 286. 
 
 XIII. Pe Sung rU- A 'the Northern Sung.' [A. D. 420479.] 
 
 i. Kau-tsh f=jL | (420. 3). 2. Shati-ti >\? \ (423. i). 3. Wdn-ti 
 3 | (424. 30). 4 . TFft-ii g^ | (454- 10). 5. ^-tf JH | (464. i). 
 
 6. Mlng-tl Hft \ (465. 8). 7. Tsang-wit-wdng 
 8. Mw-tf || | (477. 2). 
 
 XIV. Tsi-chau ^ HjJ 'the Tsi dynasty.' [A. D. 479502.] 
 
 .Kau-ti^ | (479-4)- a. 1RWI Jjjj | (483.11). 3. Ming-ti 
 | (494. 5). 4. Tung-hwan-heti |J^ gi -j^ (499. 2). 5. #-# 
 I (5oi. i). 
 
 XV. Lidng-chau ^; fl 'the Liang dynasty.' [A. D. 502 557.] 
 
 "' 
 
 | (502. 48). 2. Ktin-wAn j" (550. 2). 3. 
 
 (552. 3)- 4- Ktng-ti ^ | (555- 2). 
 
 About this time the people began to use chairs for seats. Wh-ii became a 
 Buddhist monk, and observed the rules of the order. 
 
 XVI. CU^chau P|f 1| )] 'the Chin dynasty.' [A. D. 557589.] 
 
 jl | (557-3)- z.Wdn-ti \ (560.7). 
 (567. 2). 4. Siuen-ti | (569. 14). 5. Heu-chu T (583. 6). 
 
 XVII. Sui-chau |^ SB 'the Suy dynasty.' [A. D. 589620.] 
 i. Kau-tsb "j|g | (589. 1 6). 2. Ydng*ti ^ \ (605. 13). 3. Kting-ti- 
 )- 4- KUng-ti-t'Ang \ \ -j| (619. i). 
 
 XVIII. Tdng-chau ^ ljj[jj 'the T'ang dynasty.' [A. D. 620 907]. 
 i. Kau-tsh "j^ | (620. 7). 2. T'ai-tsung -fa \ (627. 23). 3. Kan-
 
 210 APPENDIX III. 
 
 tsung .H. | (650. 34). 4. Chung-tsung ffJ | (684. 26). 5. Jui-tsung 
 '%j I (7 10 - 3)- 6. Hiuen-tsung ~^^ \ (713.43). 7. Su-tsung |g|j | 
 (756. 7). 8. Tai-tmng <\\ \ (763. 8). 9. Te-tmng ^g. | (780. 25). 
 10. Shdn-tsung J|jp | (805.1). n. Hien-tsung f|V | (806.15). 12. 
 Mtirtmng 7^j& \ (821. 4). 13. King-tsung CTV | (825. 2). 14. TFdw- 
 ^ | (827. 14). 15. Wh-tsung jar | (841. 6). 16. Siuen-tsung 
 | (847. 13). 17. I-tsung ^^ | (860. 14). 18. Hl-tsung ^^ | 
 
 (874.15). 19. Chau-tsung 0S | (889.15). 20. Chati-siuen-ti pS g | 
 (904- 3)- 
 
 XIX. #etf Xt<i7^ 'the Latter Liang dynasty.' [A. D. 907 923.] 
 
 I x^ ^>H > W 
 
 i. T'cti-tsk -4~- | (907. 6). 2. Lidng-chu-tien "^^ li: Tlfl^S- IO )- 
 
 x^ *^ ^Tw L -^ ^> 
 
 XX. #etf r c <% 4^ ' 'the Latter T*ang dynasty.' [A. D. 923936.] 
 
 i. Chwang-tsung u \ \ (923. 3). 2. Ming-tsung HH | (926. 8). 3. 
 Min-ti Ig | (934). ' 4 . /4f )4 | (934- 2). 
 
 XXI. Heti Tsin ^ g 'the Latter Tsin dynasty.' [A. D. 936947.] 
 i. Kau-tsu "j^ | (936. 8). 2. Ch'tirti ^Jj | (944. 3). 
 
 XXII. Heu Hdn ^ v'H 'the Latter Han dynasty.' [A. D. 947951.] 
 i. Kau-tsit ^ | (947. i). 2. Yin-ti P|| | (948. 3). 
 
 XXIII. Heti CheH ^ jp] 'the Latter Cheu dynasty.' [A. D. 951960.] 
 
 i. T'ai-tsu -fc | (951. 3). 2. Shi-tsung |^ | (954. 6). 3. Khng-ti 
 ' 
 
 XXIV. Sung-chau -*- 00 ' the Sung dynasty.' [A. D. 960 1127.] 
 
 i. fai-tsti - | (960. 1 6). 2. Tai-tmng - | (976. 22). 3. 
 
 | (998. 25). 4. Jtn-tsung /j~_' \ (1023. 41). 5. Tlng-tsung 
 
 f! | (1064. 4). 6. SMn-twng [jj | (1068. 18). 7. Che-tmng 
 
 (1086. 15). 8. Hwm-tsung 4J[ | (1101. 25). 9. Kln-tsung d 
 (1126. i).
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 XXV. Nan Sung pfel tt* 'the Southern Sung.' [A. D. 1127 1280.] 
 
 i. Kau-tsung & | (1127. 36). 2. Hiau-tsung ^1 \ (1163. 27). 3. 
 
 Kwdng-tsung yr" \ (1190. 5). 4. Ning-tsung \ (1195. 30). 5. 
 
 Ll-tsung jffl | (1225. 40). 6. Tu-tsung J& \ (1265. 10). 7. Kung- 
 
 tsung ^^ | (1275. i). 8. Twdn-tsung )]ffi | (1276. 2). 9. Ti-ping 
 fff 0j^j (1278. 2). 
 
 XXVI. Tuen-chau JT\ |lj 'the Yuen dynasty.' [A. D. 1280 1368.] 
 
 i. Shi-tsu -ttf | (1280. 15). 2. Ch'ing-tsung R/ | (1295. 13). 3. 
 
 Wu-tsung jp^ | (1308. 4). 4. Jin-tsung /r^ | (1312. 9). 5. Fmgr- 
 
 | (1321.3). 6. T'ai-ting-ti ^ ^! | (1324.5). T. Ming- 
 
 tsung M^ | (1329. i). 8. Wdn-tsung -\f \ (1330. 3). 9. Shan-tsung 
 )l|| I (1333-35). 
 
 XXVII. Ming-chau ^F\ Qfj 'the Ming dynasty.' [A. 0.1368 1644.] 
 
 i. Tai-tsii -)^ | (1368. 30). 2. Kien-wdn-ti ^' ^ | (1398. 5). 
 3. T'ai-tsung TT | (1403.22). 4. Jin-tsung -^ | (1425.1). 5. Siuen- 
 
 tsung g | (1426. 10). 6. Ylng-tsung rft' | (1436. 21). 7. Klng-ti 
 S- | (1457. 8). 8. Hien-tsung 9f | ( J 465. 23). 9. Hiau-tsung 
 
 Hsl | (1488. 1 8). 10. TT^-fewwg' jtr [ (1506. 1 6). it. Shi-tsung 
 
 -[H* | (1522. 45). 12. Mu-tsung *|| | (1567. 6). 13. SMn-tsung 
 
 I ( J 573- 47)- J 4- Kwdng-tsung yr' \ (1620. i). 15. Hi-tsung 
 
 | (1621.7). 16- Hwal-tmng <|'l | (1628.16). 
 
 XXVIII. Td-tslng-chau ^ |Pa H|J 'the T^-ts'Ing dynasty.' 
 [A. D. 16441862.] 
 
 i. Shi-tsu-chdng m \ 'iW (1644. 18). 2. Shing-tsu-jin Jjt?. \ /f^ 
 (1662. 61). 3. Shi-tsung-hien \ \ ^^' ( J 7 2 3. T 3)- 4- Kau-tsung-shdn 
 iWj I liJC^S 6 - 6o )- 5- Jin-tsung-jui /f^ | ^(1796.25). 6. Tau- 
 Jcwdng ^W ^LJ ( I ^ 21 - 3)- 7- Hien-fung fijt? Jffl. (1851. 9). 8. Tung chl 
 
 ]^ (1860). 
 
 E e 2
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 THE NIEN-HAU. 
 
 (i.) List of the characters occurring in the nien-hau, arranged 
 alphabetically. 
 
 ^ chdng ' luminous.' 
 3 - chdng 'splendid.' 
 ch'dng ' constant.' 
 ch'dng 'extensive.' 
 chau ' bright.' 
 I che ' large, wide.' 
 Tjfc? cAi 'beginning.' 
 cAi ' extreme.' 
 chi 'ruling.' 
 chi 'the utmost.' 
 
 C chi ' carnation.' 
 lUf cAw ' true.' 
 
 conquering 
 ={[ cAwujr ' virtuous.' 
 ' aiding.' 
 ' perfect.' 
 'upright.' 
 |r \X ching ' regulating. 
 
 | gf ching ' pure.' 
 
 
 
 tf ' extending.' 
 
 - .- 
 
 /B chdn ' pleasant. 
 FP chung' middle 'or 'second.' 
 [ chdng 'renewed.' 
 
 assistance.' 
 jjjH/M 'happiness.' 
 affluent.' 
 /MI funq ' omen of good.' 
 
 PI*' 
 
 \fung 'affluent.' 
 peace.' 
 
 yH hdn 'milky- way.' 
 
 ^6fc 7 
 
 ' adjusting.' 
 ' success.' 
 heu ' second.' 
 
 eu 'hunting.' 
 H^. hi 'pervading.' 
 MEL hi 'rejoicing.' 
 JElI hi 'prosperity.' 
 j|g At ' bliss.' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^T Ara^ 'pious.' 
 
 ?A 
 
 Aiew 'complete.' 
 ' illustrious.' 
 'flourishing.' 
 'instruction.' 
 hd 'peace.' 
 hd 'harmony.' 
 hd 'the river.' 
 vast.' 
 vast.' 
 vast.' 
 
 4Jf hwd 'reforming.' 
 W 1 hwdng 'yellow.' 
 J^=j- hwdng 'emperor.' 
 
 sAt 
 
 'f E7 hwiii ' excellent.' 
 il>^ 
 
 W" hwtii ' united.' 
 i 'justice.' 
 
 1 1E i ' correct.' 
 
 humane.' 
 man.' 
 ( opening.' 
 
 A**' 
 
 S13
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 213 
 
 kdn 'sweet.' 
 k'dng 'firm.' 
 kdng ' more.' 
 kl ' arranging.' 
 Elv kl 'instructing.' 
 kl 'extreme.' 
 kid 'increasing.' 
 
 kien 'firm.' 
 Sx kien ' controlling.' 
 
 1JK kien ' establishing.' 
 
 i _| 
 
 king illumined.' 
 
 ' investigating.' 
 'good.' 
 ' princes.' 
 'residing.' 
 'honouring.' 
 'uniting.' 
 kwdn ' to see.' 
 *7r* kwdng 'brightness.' 
 l||f kwdng 'vast.' 
 jiK rCTcet tortoise. 
 Pq kw6 'kingdom.' 
 jjjffl U ( ceremony.' 
 /M 1 U 'heavenly signs.' 
 tt&ft<0tag.' 
 
 'joy. 
 
 m 
 
 -*2 lu 'manifest.' 
 ?T 
 
 j& lu ' happiness.' 
 Mng ' dragon.' 
 
 ' glorious.' 
 ' people.' 
 'bright.' 
 ie 'inheritance.' 
 ien ' year.' 
 ning 'peace.' 
 pd,n 'origin.' 
 ' precious.' 
 'protecting.' 
 ' peace.' 
 ' general.' 
 'obedient.' 
 'continuing.' 
 ' superior.' 
 she ' directing.' 
 sheu 'taking.' 
 sheu 'receiving.' 
 she'd 'aged.' 
 shi 'behold.' 
 shin ' divine.' 
 
 'ascending.' 
 'ascending.' 
 ' sacred.' 
 abundant. 
 
 p 
 
 1=3 
 
 ft 
 
 Ji|S shwiil ' good omen.' 
 |JM si ' royal seal.' 
 
 idng 'elephant.' 
 
 ien 'first.' 
 
 
 extending.' 
 
 w M s5 'restoration.' 
 
 ' /^ 
 
 't-fr siil 'tranquil.' 
 >s 
 
 ^ swC'year.' 
 
 s^ 'succession.' 
 
 td ' great.' 
 7T i e C 'extreme.' 
 : t'ai 'vast.' 
 
 %ng ' ascending.' 
 [f| tau 'reason.' 
 ^ te ' virtue.' 
 
 tl 'earth.' 
 w? 1 <? 'ruler.' 
 glS t'iad 'regulating.' 
 
 t'ien ' heaven.' 
 
 ting 'security.' 
 
 ting 'fixed.' 
 
 tse ' plan.' 
 |1|\7 teai ' containing.' 
 ^|fc te<i?i 'praising.' 
 2 tee 'dwelling.' 
 gEE tsidng 'felicitous.' 
 
 teie ' partition.'
 
 214 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 l^j! tsiti 'noble.' 
 j& tslng 'azure.' 
 \w tslng 'pure.' 
 )Jpj tslng 'quiet.' 
 'K/J tsu 'beginning.' 
 tsu ' blessings.' 
 ' general.' 
 ' ancestor.' 
 
 t^ tsung 'revered.' 
 
 Ff? * 
 
 %W\ tsung 'general. 
 
 *& ' bestowing.' 
 itjj 2 c tm<7 'thorough. 
 
 'same.' 
 
 *ff < c ^w^ ' complete.' 
 
 I / L 
 
 J,O4 -I., 
 
 ji|?S itoaw upright. 
 j^^ u ' a crow.' 
 
 "t^i ' wdw 'myriad.' 
 rJkj 
 
 w^n 'literary.' 
 jj wii 'five.' 
 
 ' military.' 
 vast.' 
 
 ' glory.' 
 yen ' spread.' 
 jfe yen 'luminous.' 
 HffT; ylng 'replying.' 
 ]Tf/h yiu 'assistance.' 
 
 / 1 1 l-l 
 
 /* 'prepared.' 
 'clouds.' 
 'revolving.' 
 ' beginning.' 
 
 
 TT 
 
 ; yung ' harmony.' 
 eternal.' 
 
 Note. All these characters are significant when they are present in the 
 designation of a year or a reign, and the meanings here attached to them are 
 intended to guide the student in rendering such designations into English. 
 In some cases the translation of the character will not suit the English expres- 
 sion, and some words are used figuratively, or they refer to a well-known 
 story. The expression generally runs in the usual grandiloquent phraseology 
 of the Chinese, and intimates that " Peace and prosperity have arisen ;" that 
 " Blessings are going to be universally diffused ;" or that " All things are 
 beginning again to prosper." 
 
 The following list of the nien-hau, in which they are arranged according to 
 the English alphabet, will be of immense service to the student of Chinese 
 history. The absence of the native characters will be of little consequence, 
 as the names of the emperors, the dynasties, and the years of the cycle are 
 given, and one of these is generally mentioned by native authors who use 
 the nien-hau.
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 215 
 
 (2.) List of the nin-hau arranged alphabetically. 
 
 Nieri-haTi. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Chdng-hd 
 
 2 
 
 Chang -ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 tlng-hal 
 
 
 8 7 
 
 Chang-wu 
 
 2 
 
 ChaH-li-ti 
 
 Shu-Hdn 
 
 kdng-ts& 
 
 
 221 
 
 Ctidng-sheu 
 
 2 
 
 T'ien-heu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 692 
 
 CJidng-gdn 
 
 4 
 
 T'ien-heu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 sln-ch'eu 
 
 
 7OI 
 
 Ch'dng-king 
 
 4 
 
 Mu-tsing 
 
 T'dng 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 
 821 
 
 Ch'dng-hing 
 
 4 
 
 Ming-tsung 
 
 Heu-T'dng 
 
 kang-yin 
 
 
 930 
 
 Che-tu 
 
 6 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 tung-yiu 
 
 
 1057 
 
 Chl-yuen 
 
 6 
 
 Chau-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 86 
 
 
 Chi-kien-kw6 
 
 5 
 
 Wdng-mang 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ki-s& 
 
 
 9 
 
 Chi-kwdng 
 
 4 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti, 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-ts& 
 
 
 424 
 
 Chi-te 
 
 4 
 
 Ch'dng-cMng-kung 
 
 Chin 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 583 
 
 Chi-te 
 
 2 
 
 Sx-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 756 
 
 Chi-tau 
 
 3 
 
 Chmg-tslng 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 995 
 
 Chi-h6 
 
 2 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 1054 
 
 Chi-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Ylng-tsting 
 
 Sting 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 1064 
 
 Chi-ning 
 
 I 
 
 Chu-yung-tsi 
 
 Kin 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 1213 
 
 Chi-yuen 
 
 3 1 
 
 Shi-tsil 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 1264 
 
 Chi-yuen 
 
 6 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Yuen 
 
 yi-kwei 
 
 
 1335 
 
 Chi-td 
 
 4 
 
 Wii-tsung 
 
 Yuen \ 
 
 wit-shin 
 
 
 1308 
 
 Chi-chi 
 
 3 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 1321 
 
 Chi-hd 
 
 i 
 
 T'ai-ting-ti 
 
 Yuen 
 
 wit-shin 
 
 
 1328 
 
 Chi-shdn 
 
 3 
 
 Wdn-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kang-wu 
 
 
 !33 
 
 Chi-ching 
 
 28 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Yuen 
 
 &in-s 
 
 
 i34i 
 
 Chi-u 
 
 13 
 
 Td-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 238 
 
 Chin-yuen 
 
 3 
 
 Tl-lidng 
 
 Kin 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 "53 
 
 Ching-ho 
 
 4 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ki-ch'eu 
 
 92 
 
 
 Ching-kwdn 
 
 23 
 
 T'ai-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ting-hai 
 
 
 627 
 
 Ching-yuen 
 
 20 
 
 Te-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yi-cKeu 
 
 
 785 
 
 Ching-yiu 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 1213 
 
 Ching-ming 
 
 6 
 
 Chu-t'ien 
 
 Heu-Lidng 
 
 yi-hai 
 
 
 9 r 5 
 
 Ching-kwdn 
 
 13 
 
 TsUng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 1102 
 
 Ching-shing 
 
 3 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 552 
 
 CMng-ming 
 
 i 
 
 ffiau-wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 476 
 
 CMng-kwdng 
 
 i 
 
 Yiti-chu-lidng 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 ting-yiu 
 
 
 577 
 
 Ching-gdn 
 
 5 
 
 Chdng-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 1196 
 
 Ch$ng-hwd 
 
 23 
 
 Hien-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 yi-ping 
 
 
 1465 
 
 Ohing-cM 
 
 9 
 
 Chu-fdng 
 
 Wei 
 
 kdng-shin 
 
 
 240 
 
 Ching-yuen 
 
 j 
 
 Chu-ma/ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 254 
 
 Ching-mtng 
 
 2 
 
 Ch'dng-ching-kung 
 
 Chin 
 
 ting-wu 
 
 
 587 
 
 Ching-ping 
 
 I 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 sin-mau 
 
 
 45' 
 
 CMng-chl 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 504 
 
 Ching-kwdng 
 
 5 
 
 Hicvtirming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kang-ts& 
 
 
 520 
 
 Chmg-t'ilng 
 
 14 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 i43 6 
 
 Ching-hd 
 
 7 
 
 Hwul-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sin-mau 
 
 
 mi 
 
 Ching-td 
 
 8 
 
 Gal-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 1224
 
 216 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 NiSn-hati. 
 
 Dura 
 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Ching-te 
 
 8 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 ting-wi 
 
 
 1127 
 
 Ching-te 
 
 16 
 
 Wu-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 1506 
 
 Ching-lung 
 
 6 
 
 Ti-lidng 
 
 Kin 
 
 yiu-ts%, 
 
 
 1156 
 
 Chili-kung 
 
 4 
 
 T*ien-heu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 
 685 
 
 Chung-yuen 
 
 6 
 
 Klng-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 149 
 
 
 Chung-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Hwdng-wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 56 
 
 Chung-p'ing 
 
 6 
 
 Ling-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 184 
 
 Chung-hing 
 
 i 
 
 Hd-ti 
 
 Tsi 
 
 sin-si, 
 
 
 501 
 
 Chung-td-t 'ung 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 ki-yiu 
 
 
 529 
 
 Chung-td-t 'ting 
 
 i 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 546 
 
 Chung-hlng 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-ldng 
 
 Wei 
 
 sin-hai 
 
 
 53i 
 
 Chung-ho 
 
 4 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 
 881 
 
 Chung-t'ung 
 
 4 
 
 Shi-tsu 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 1260 
 
 Chung-hd 
 
 I 
 
 Hwul-tsung 
 
 Sing 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 1118 
 
 Chung-hi 
 
 24 
 
 Hlng-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 1032 
 
 Fu-shing-ching-tau 
 
 4 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kwei-8& 
 
 
 1053 
 
 Fung-hwdng 
 
 3 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 272 
 
 Hdn-gdn 
 
 2 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ji-wu 
 
 
 142 
 
 Heu-yuen 
 
 7 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 163 
 
 
 Heu-yuen 
 
 3 
 
 King-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-su 
 
 T 43 
 
 
 Heu-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-8& 
 
 88 
 
 
 Hirp'ing 
 
 6 
 
 Ling-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 172 
 
 Hi-ping 
 
 2 
 
 Hiau-ming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 5i6 
 
 Signing 
 
 10 
 
 SMn-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1068 
 
 Hiau-kien 
 
 3 
 
 Hiau-wu-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 454 
 
 Hiau-chdng 
 
 4 
 
 Hiau-ming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 yi-si 
 
 
 525 
 
 Hien-fung 
 
 10 
 
 
 Td-tsing 
 
 kdng-su 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Hien-hi 
 
 2 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 264 
 
 Hien-ning 
 
 5 
 
 Hwui-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 275 
 
 Hien-M 
 
 9 
 
 GMng-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 plng-su 
 
 
 326 
 
 Hien-k'dng 
 
 8 
 
 Ching-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 yi-un 
 
 
 335 
 
 Hien-gdn 
 
 2 
 
 Hin-wdn-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 sin-wi 
 
 
 37i 
 
 Hien-hdng 
 
 4 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kang-wu 
 
 
 670 
 
 Hien-t'ung 
 
 14 
 
 Yi-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 860 
 
 Hien-p'ing 
 
 6 
 
 Ching-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 998 
 
 Hien-shd,n 
 
 10 
 
 Tu-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-ch'eu 
 
 
 1265 
 
 Hien-yung 
 
 10 
 
 Tau-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 yi-s& 
 
 
 1065 
 
 Hien-tsing 
 
 6 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Li-Liau 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 1136 
 
 men-King 
 
 5 
 
 Kau-tsUng 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 656 
 
 Hien-te 
 
 6 
 
 Shi-tsung 
 
 Heu-cJieu 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 954 
 
 Hlng-pxng 
 
 2 
 
 Hien-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 194 
 
 Hlng-ning 
 
 3 
 
 Gal-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kwei-hai 
 
 
 3 6 3 
 
 Hlng-gdn 
 
 2 
 
 Wdn-chlng-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 452 
 
 Hing-kwdng 
 
 I 
 
 Wdn-ching-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 454 
 
 Hlng-ho 
 
 4 
 
 Hiau-tsing-ti 
 
 Tung-wei 
 
 ki-wi 
 
 
 539 
 
 H^ng-yuen 
 
 i 
 
 Te-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 784 
 
 Hing-ting 
 
 5 
 
 Siuen-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 ting-ch'eu 
 
 
 1217 
 
 Hd-tsing 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ching-ti 
 
 Pe-Tst 
 
 'in-wu 
 
 
 562 
 
 ffd-ping 
 
 6 
 
 W$n-ching-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 :ang-tsz 
 
 
 460 
 
 lib-ping 
 
 4 
 
 Ching-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 'twei-s 
 
 28 
 
 
 H6-ping 
 
 i 
 
 Hwdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 :ang-yin 
 
 
 150
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 217 
 
 Nien-hau. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Hung-kid 
 
 4 
 
 Chmg-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-cJieu 
 
 20 
 
 
 Hung-tau 
 
 I 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 683 
 
 Hung-wu 
 
 31 
 
 Tai-tsu 
 
 Ming 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1368 
 
 Hung-hi 
 
 I 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 yi-si 
 
 
 1425 
 
 Hung-chi 
 
 18 
 
 Hiati-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1488 
 
 Hung-kwdng 
 
 I* 
 
 Fu-wdng 
 
 Ming 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 1644 
 
 Hwang-lung 
 
 i 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 49 
 
 
 Hwdng-ts'u 
 
 7 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 220 
 
 Hwdng-wu 
 
 7 
 
 Td-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 jin-yin 
 
 
 222 
 
 Hwdng-Mng 
 
 3 
 
 Td-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 ki-yiu 
 
 
 229 
 
 Hwdng-chl 
 
 2 
 
 Tau-wii-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 396 
 
 Hwdng-hing 
 
 4 
 
 Hien-wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ting-wi 
 
 
 467 
 
 Hwdng-kien 
 
 2 
 
 Chau-ti 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 560 
 
 Hwdng-yiu 
 
 5 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 ki-cKeu 
 
 
 1049 
 
 Hwdng-kien 
 
 2 
 
 Sidng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kdng-wu 
 
 
 I2IO 
 
 Hwdng-t 'fang 
 
 9 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 II4I 
 
 Hwdng-k'ing 
 
 2 
 
 Mn-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 1312 
 
 Hwiii-chdng 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-tsung 
 
 Tdng 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 841 
 
 Hwiii-t'ung 
 
 10 
 
 T'ai-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 938 
 
 I 7 hi 
 
 14 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 yi-sz 
 
 
 45 
 
 I-ning 
 
 i 
 
 Kung-ti 
 
 Tsi 
 
 ting-ch'eu 
 
 
 6l7 
 
 t-fung 
 
 3 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 676 
 
 Jin-sheu 
 
 4 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Sili 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 601 
 
 Jin-King 
 
 5 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 1144 
 
 K'ai-hwdng 
 
 20 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Sili 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 
 581 
 
 K'ai-yau 
 
 I 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 sin-sz 
 
 
 68 1 
 
 JCai-yuen 
 
 2 9 
 
 Hiuen-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 
 7i3 
 
 K'ai-ching 
 
 5 
 
 Wdn-tmng 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 836 
 
 K'ai-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 T'ai-tsu 
 
 Heu-Lidng 
 
 ting-mau 
 
 
 907 
 
 ICai-yun 
 
 3 
 
 Tsi-wdng 
 
 Heu-Tsin 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 944 
 
 K'ai-pau 
 
 9 
 
 T'ai-tsu 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 968 
 
 K'ai-hi 
 
 3 
 
 Ning-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-cJieu 
 
 
 1205 
 
 ICai-k'ing 
 
 i 
 
 Ll-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 ki-wi 
 
 
 1259 
 
 K'ai-t'ai 
 
 9 
 
 Shing-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 IOI2 
 
 Kan-lH 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 53 
 
 
 Kan-W, 
 
 4 
 
 Chu-mau 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-tsz 
 
 
 256 
 
 Kdng-ting 
 
 i 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kdng-shin 
 
 
 1040 
 
 Kdng-hl 
 
 61 
 
 SMng-tsu 
 
 Tsing 
 
 jin-yin 
 
 
 1662 
 
 Kang-chi 
 
 2 
 
 Hwai-ydng-wdng 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 *3 
 
 Kid-ping 
 
 5 
 
 Chu-fdng 
 
 Wei 
 
 ki-sz 
 
 
 249 
 
 Kid-h6 
 
 6 
 
 Td-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 232 
 
 Kid-hlng 
 
 4 
 
 Mln-ti 
 
 T&in 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 313 
 
 Kid-yiu 
 
 8 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 1056 
 
 Kid-t'ai 
 
 4 
 
 Ning-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 I2OI 
 
 Kid-ting 
 
 17 
 
 Ning-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1208 
 
 Kid-hi 
 
 4 
 
 Li-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 ting-yiu 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Kid-tslng 
 
 45 
 
 Shi-ts'ting 
 
 Ming 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 1522 
 
 Kid-k'lng 
 
 24 
 
 
 Td-ts'ing 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 1796 
 
 Kien-yuen 
 
 6 
 
 Wu : ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 140 
 
 
 Kien-ming 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-yin 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 560 
 
 Kien-fung 
 
 2 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ping-yin 
 
 
 666 
 
 pf
 
 218 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 Ni6n-hau. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A..D. 
 
 Kien-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Si-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 WU-SU 
 
 
 758 
 
 Kien-ju 
 
 6 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-wit 
 
 
 874 
 
 Kien-ning 
 
 4 
 
 Chau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid -y in 
 
 
 894 
 
 Kien-hwd 
 
 4 
 
 Ghii-tien 
 
 Heu-Lidng 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 9!3 
 
 Kien-yiu 
 
 3 
 
 7 ln-ti 
 
 Heu-Hdn 
 
 wit-shin 
 
 
 948 
 
 Kien-te 
 
 5 
 
 T'ai-ts'it 
 
 Sung 
 
 kwei-hal 
 
 
 9 6 3 
 
 Kien-hlng 
 
 i 
 
 Ghlng-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 jin-sii 
 
 
 IO22 
 
 Kien-tati 
 
 9 
 
 Hiau-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 
 1165 
 
 Kien-hang 
 
 4 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Liati 
 
 kl-maii 
 
 
 979 
 
 Kien-t'ung 
 
 10 
 
 T'ien-tsu-ti 
 
 Liau 
 
 sln-s& 
 
 IIOI 
 
 Kien-tati 
 
 2 
 
 Hwui-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 wu-shln 
 
 
 068 
 
 Kien-yiu 
 
 2 4 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kang-yin 
 
 
 170 
 
 Kien-ting 
 
 4 
 
 Hien-tsung 
 
 Hid. 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 223 
 
 Kien-lung 
 
 60 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 Td-ts'lng 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 736 
 
 Kien-chau 
 
 5 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 38 
 
 
 Kien-chi 
 
 4 
 
 Ching-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kl-cKeu 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 Kien-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Gal-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yl-mau 
 
 6 
 
 
 Kien-wu 
 
 31 
 
 Kwang-wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yl-yiu 
 
 
 25 
 
 Kien-ts'u 
 
 8 
 
 Chang-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 76 
 
 Kien-kwdng 
 
 i 
 
 Gan-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sln-yiib 
 
 
 121 
 
 Kien-k'dng 
 
 i 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 144 
 
 Kien-ho 
 
 3 
 
 Hw&n-ti, 
 
 Hdn 
 
 tlng-hal 
 
 
 147 
 
 Kien-ning 
 
 4 
 
 Ling-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-shln 
 
 
 168 
 
 Kien-gdn 
 
 25 
 
 Hien-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 196 
 
 Kien-hlng 
 
 15 
 
 Heu-chu 
 
 Shu-Han 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 223 
 
 Kien-hlng 
 
 2 
 
 Chu-lidng 
 
 Wti 
 
 jin-shln 
 
 
 252 
 
 Kien-hdng 
 
 3 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 kl-ch'eu 
 
 
 269 
 
 Kien-win, 
 
 i 
 
 Mln-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 tlng-ch'eu 
 
 
 3 J 7 
 
 Kien-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 K'dng-ti 
 
 Tsln 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 343 
 
 Kien-yuen 
 
 4 
 
 Kau-ti 
 
 Tsl 
 
 kl-wi 
 
 
 479 
 
 Kien-wu 
 
 4 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Tsi 
 
 kid-sii 
 
 
 494 
 
 Kien-ming 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-ye 
 
 Wei 
 
 kang-sU 
 
 
 53 
 
 Kien-te 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Cheu 
 
 kqng-yin 
 
 
 572 
 
 Kien-chung 
 
 4 
 
 Te-ts-dng 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kang-shln 
 
 
 780 
 
 Kien-lung 
 
 3 
 
 T'ai-ts'u 
 
 Sung 
 
 kdng-shln 
 
 
 960 
 
 Kien-chung tslng-kw6 
 
 i 
 
 Hwuis-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sln-sz 
 
 
 IIOI 
 
 Kien-y$n 
 
 4 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 1127 
 
 Kien-wdn 
 
 5 
 
 Hwui-tt 
 
 Ming 
 
 kl-mait 
 
 
 1399 
 
 Klng-tsu 
 
 2 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 tlng-sz 
 
 
 237 
 
 Klng-yuen 
 
 4 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 260 
 
 King-ping 
 
 i 
 
 Yung-ydng-w&ng 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 kwei-hal 
 
 
 423 
 
 Klng-ho 
 
 i 
 
 Fi-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 yl-sz 
 
 
 465 
 
 Klng-ming 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 500 
 
 King-lung 
 
 3 
 
 Chung-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 tlng-wi, 
 
 
 707 
 
 Klng-yun 
 
 2 
 
 Siii-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kdng-sii 
 
 
 710 
 
 Klng-fu 
 
 2 
 
 Chau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 892 
 
 Klng-te 
 
 4 
 
 Chlng-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 IOOi 
 
 Klng-yiu 
 
 4 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 1034 
 
 King-ting 
 
 5 
 
 Ll-tmng 
 
 Sung 
 
 kdng-shln 
 
 
 1260 
 
 King-yen 
 
 2 
 
 Twdn-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 plng-sz 
 
 
 1276 
 
 Klng-t'ai 
 
 7 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 kdng-wu 
 
 
 1450
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 219 
 
 Niln-hau. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 King-ning 
 
 I 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 WU-tsz 
 
 33 
 
 
 King-yau 
 
 5 
 
 Heu-chu 
 
 Shu-Hdn 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 258 
 
 K'ing-li 
 
 8 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sin-si 
 
 
 1041 
 
 K'ing-yuen 
 
 5 
 
 Ning-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yl-mau 
 
 
 "95 
 
 Kiu-shi 
 
 i 
 
 T'ien-heu 
 
 Tdng 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 700 
 
 Ku-shie 
 
 2 
 
 Shu-ts^-ylng 
 
 Hdn 
 
 pmg-yin 
 
 
 6 
 
 Kung-ti 
 
 4 
 
 Kiing-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kia-su 
 
 
 554 
 
 Kung-hwd 
 
 5 
 
 Ying-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 1063 
 
 Kwdng-ho 
 
 6 
 
 Ling-ti, 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wii-wu 
 
 
 178 
 
 Kwdng-hl 
 
 i 
 
 Hwul-tl 
 
 Tsm 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 306 
 
 Kwdng-td 
 
 2 
 
 Ltn-hal-iodng 
 
 CMn 
 
 tmg-fial 
 
 
 567 
 
 Kwdng-tse 
 
 I 
 
 T'ien-heti, 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 684 
 
 Kwdng-k'i 
 
 3 
 
 H%-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yi-sz 
 
 
 885 
 
 Kwdng-hwd 
 
 3 
 
 Chau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 898 
 
 Kwdng-ting 
 
 r 3 
 
 Shin-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 sln-wi 
 
 
 I2II 
 
 Kw&ng-te 
 
 2 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 763 
 
 KwcLng-ming 
 
 I 
 
 Hi-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 880 
 
 Kwdng-shdn 
 
 3 
 
 T'ai-ts'u 
 
 Heu-Cheu 
 
 sin-hai 
 
 
 951 
 
 Kwdng-yun 
 
 2 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 1034 
 
 Lin-te 
 
 2 
 
 Xau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 664 
 
 Lung-M 
 
 I 
 
 Gal-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 jin-su 
 
 
 362 
 
 Ldng-gdn 
 
 5 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Tsm 
 
 ting-yiu 
 
 
 397 
 
 Lung-hwd 
 
 i 
 
 Heu-chii-wei 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 576 
 
 Lung-sd 
 
 2 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 661 
 
 Lung-kl 
 
 1 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ki-yiu 
 
 
 889 
 
 Lung-tS 
 
 2 
 
 Chu-t'ien 
 
 Heu-Lidng 
 
 sin-sz 
 
 
 921 
 
 Lung-hlng 
 
 2 
 
 Hiati-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 1163 
 
 Lung-King 
 
 6 
 
 Mu-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 tmg-mau 
 
 
 1567 
 
 Lung-^wu 
 
 i 
 
 T'dng-wdng 
 
 Ming 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 1646 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 2 
 
 Mlng-ti 
 
 Cheu 
 
 tlng-ch'eu 
 
 
 557 
 
 Ming-tad 
 
 2 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 1032 
 
 Ming-chdng 
 
 6 
 
 Chdng-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 kdng-su 
 
 
 1190 
 
 Ning-k'dng 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 373 
 
 Pdn-chi 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-tl 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-shln 
 
 73 
 
 
 Pdn-ts'u 
 
 i 
 
 Chi-ti, 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 146 
 
 Pau-ting 
 
 5 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Cheu 
 
 sin-sz 
 
 
 561 
 
 Pau-ylng 
 
 i 
 
 Sl-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 jin-yin 
 
 
 762 
 
 Pau-ll 
 
 2 
 
 King-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yi-sz 
 
 
 825 
 
 Pail-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-yln 
 
 
 1038 
 
 Pau-k'ing 
 
 3 
 
 Ll-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 
 1225 
 
 Paii-yiu 
 
 6 
 
 Li-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kwei-cKeu 
 
 
 !253 
 
 Pau-td 
 
 5 
 
 T'ien-tsu-ti 
 
 Liau 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 
 II2I 
 
 Pau-ning 
 
 10 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 ki-sz 
 
 
 969 
 
 Pau-tmg 
 
 3 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 266 
 
 P f u-t'ung 
 
 7 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 520 
 
 Shdn-chi 
 
 18 
 
 Shi-tsil 
 
 Td-ts'ing 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 1644 
 
 Shdn-yiu 
 
 12 
 
 Ll-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sin-ch'eu 
 
 
 1241 
 
 Shdn-hwd 
 
 5 
 
 T'al-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kang-yin 
 
 
 990 
 
 Shdn-hl 
 
 16 
 
 Hiau-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 1174 
 
 Slidng-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 674 
 
 Slidng-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Sl-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 760 
 
 F f 2
 
 220 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 NiSn-hati. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Shau-t'ai 
 
 I 
 
 King-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 yl-hal 
 
 
 555 
 
 Shau-shing 
 
 4 
 
 Che-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 1094 
 
 Shau-hlng 
 
 32 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 sln-Jial 
 
 
 1131 
 
 Shau-hl 
 
 5 
 
 Kwdng-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kang-su 
 
 
 1190 
 
 Shau-ting 
 
 6 
 
 Ll-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 uw-tsz 
 
 
 1228 
 
 Shau-hlng 
 
 12 
 
 Ching-t'ien t'o/i-heti 
 
 Sl-Liau 
 
 jin-sii 
 
 
 1142 
 
 Shau-wu 
 
 4 
 
 Fii-wdng 
 
 Ming 
 
 plng-su 
 
 
 1646 
 
 Sheu-kwd 
 
 2 
 
 T'ai.-tsu 
 
 Kin 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 1115 
 
 Sheu-Mng 
 
 6 
 
 Tati-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 yl-hal 
 
 
 1095 
 
 Shin-tsi6 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 61 
 
 
 SMn-shwul 
 
 2 
 
 Ming-yuen-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 414 
 
 Shin-kid 
 
 4 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 428 
 
 Shin-kwel 
 
 2 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 518 
 
 Shin-kung 
 
 I 
 
 T'ien-heu 
 
 T&ng 
 
 tlng-yiu 
 
 
 697 
 
 Shin-lung 
 
 2 
 
 Chung-tsiing 
 
 rdng 
 
 yi-s& 
 
 
 75 
 
 Shin-tse 
 
 6 
 
 T'ai-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 916 
 
 Shlng-ming 
 
 2 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 tlng-sz 
 
 
 477 
 
 Shlng-p'ing 
 
 5 
 
 Mu-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 tlng-sz 
 
 
 357 
 
 Shing-ll 
 
 2 
 
 Fien-heii 
 
 T'dng 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 698 
 
 Sien-t 'ien 
 
 I 
 
 Hiuen-tsung 
 
 TAng 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 
 7i3 
 
 Siuen-ching 
 
 I 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Cheu 
 
 urii-su 
 
 
 578 
 
 Siuen-h6 
 
 7 
 
 Hwill-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kl-hal 
 
 
 1119 
 
 Siuen-te 
 
 10 
 
 Siuen-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 plng-jin 
 
 
 1426 
 
 Sui-h& 
 
 2 
 
 CMng-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 8 
 
 
 Sz-shing 
 
 21 
 
 Chung-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 684 
 
 Td-ming 
 
 8 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 tlng-yiu 
 
 N 
 
 457 
 
 Td-t'ung 
 
 2 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 527 
 
 Td-t'ting 
 
 II 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 yl-mau 
 
 
 535 
 
 Td-pau 
 
 2 
 
 Kien-wdn-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 kang-wu 
 
 
 550 
 
 Td-sidng 
 
 3 
 
 Tsing-ti 
 
 Cheu 
 
 kl-lial 
 
 
 579 
 
 Td-nie 
 
 12 
 
 Ydng-ti 
 
 Sui 
 
 yi-ch'eu 
 
 
 605 
 
 Td-U 
 
 14 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 plng-wu 
 
 
 766 
 
 Td-chung 
 
 !3 
 
 Siuen-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 847 
 
 Td-shdn 
 
 2 
 
 Chau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 890 
 
 Td-chung tsiang-fu 
 
 9 
 
 Chmg-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-shln 
 
 
 1008 
 
 Td-kwdn 
 
 4 
 
 Hwiil-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 tlng-hal 
 
 
 1107 
 
 Td-k'dng 
 
 10 
 
 Tau-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 yi-mau 
 
 
 i75 
 
 Td-gdn 
 
 10 
 
 Tau-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 yl-ch'eu 
 
 
 1085 
 
 Td-k'ing 
 
 2 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 pmg-tsz 
 
 
 1036 
 
 Td-gdn 
 
 10 
 
 Hwiii-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 1076 
 
 Td-te 
 
 5 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 yi-mau 
 
 
 H35 
 
 Td-k'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 1140 
 
 Td-ting 
 
 29 
 
 Shi-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 sln-sz 
 
 
 1161 
 
 Td-gdn 
 
 3 
 
 Chu-yung-tsi 
 
 Kin 
 
 kl-sz 
 
 
 1209 
 
 Td-te 
 
 ii 
 
 Ching-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 tlng-yiu 
 
 
 1297 
 
 T'ai-chdng 
 
 i 
 
 Kwdng-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 1620 
 
 T'ai-ting 
 
 4 
 
 T'ai-ting-tl 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 i3 2 4 
 
 T'ai-p'ing hmg-kwd 
 
 8 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 976 
 
 Tai-tsu 
 
 4 
 
 Wu-tl 
 
 Hdn 
 
 tlng-cJieu 
 
 IO4 
 
 
 T'ai-chl 
 
 4 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yl-yiu 
 
 9 6 
 
 
 Fai-M 
 
 6 
 
 Mtng-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 227
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 NiSn-hati. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 T'ai-yuen 
 
 I 
 
 Td-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 Sin-wi 
 
 
 251 
 
 T'ai-p'ing 
 
 2 
 
 Chu-lidng 
 
 Wu 
 
 ping-tsb 
 
 
 256 
 
 T'ai-shl 
 
 IO 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 yl-yiu 
 
 
 265 
 
 T'ai-k'dng 
 
 IO 
 
 Hwiii-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 ka,ng-tsz 
 
 
 280 
 
 T'ai-gdn 
 
 2 
 
 Hwiil-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 jin-su 
 
 
 302 
 
 T'ai-hing 
 
 4 
 
 Mln-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 wu~yin 
 
 
 3i8 
 
 T'ai-ho 
 
 8 
 
 CJiang-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 1201 
 
 T'ai-ki 
 
 * i 
 
 Sui-tsung 
 
 Tdng 
 
 jin-ts& 
 
 
 712 
 
 T'ai-ning 
 
 3 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 323 
 
 T'ai-p'ing 
 
 9 
 
 Hwui-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 sln-hal 
 
 
 291 
 
 T'ai-h6 
 
 5 
 
 Hal-sl-kUng 
 
 Tsin 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 3 66 
 
 T'ai-yuen 
 
 21 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 376 
 
 T'ai-yuen 
 
 I 
 
 Kung-ti 
 
 /S'iii 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 618 
 
 T'ai-chl 
 
 7 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 
 
 475 
 
 T'ai-yu 
 
 i 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 472 
 
 T'ai-tsing 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 547 
 
 T'ai-hd 
 
 9 
 
 Wdn-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ting-wi 
 
 
 827 
 
 T'ai-p'ing 
 
 i 
 
 King-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 556 
 
 T'ai-p'ing 
 
 ii 
 
 Shing-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 sin-yiu 
 
 
 IO2I 
 
 T'ai-kien 
 
 14 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Chin 
 
 ki-ch'eu 
 
 
 569 
 
 T'ai-clidng 
 
 8 
 
 Ming-yuen-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 416 
 
 T'ai-yen 
 
 5 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 yi-hai 
 
 
 435 
 
 T'ai-p'ing ching-kiun 
 
 12 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kang-shm 
 
 
 440 
 
 T'ai-gdn , 
 
 5 
 
 Wdn-ching-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 455 
 
 T'ai-hd 
 
 2 3 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ting-si, 
 
 
 477 
 
 T*ai-t'ung 
 
 i7 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 yi-mau 
 
 
 535 
 
 T'ai-ning 
 
 i 
 
 Wu-ching-ti 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 sin-sz 
 
 
 561 
 
 Tdng-kw6 
 
 IO 
 
 Tau-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 386 
 
 Tau-kwdng 
 
 3 
 
 
 Td-ts'ing 
 
 kang-shin 
 
 
 1820 
 
 Te-yiu 
 
 i 
 
 Kung-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 yi-hai 
 
 
 1275 
 
 Ti-tsie 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 96 
 
 
 Ti-hwdng 
 
 3 
 
 Wdng-mang 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kdng-shin 
 
 
 20 
 
 T'iau-hi 
 
 i 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ki-mau 
 
 
 679 
 
 T*ien-Jidn 
 
 4 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-sz 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 T'ien-fung 
 
 6 
 
 Wdng-mang 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 14 
 
 T*ien-tse 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 275 
 
 T'ien-sl 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 
 276 
 
 T'ien-kl 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 ting-i/iu 
 
 
 277 
 
 T'ien-kien 
 
 18 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Lidng 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 502 
 
 T'ien-kid 
 
 6 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Chin 
 
 kdng-shin 
 
 
 560 
 
 Tien-k'ang 
 
 i 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Chin 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 566 
 
 T'ien-hlng 
 
 6 
 
 Tau-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 398 
 
 T'ien-s 
 
 5 
 
 Tau-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 404 
 
 Tien-gdn 
 
 i 
 
 ffien-wdn-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 pmg-wu 
 
 
 466 
 
 T'ien-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Tsing-ti 
 
 Tung- Wei 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 534 
 
 T'ien-pau 
 
 10 
 
 Wdn-siuen-ti 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 kang-wu 
 
 
 55o 
 
 T'ien-t'ung 
 
 5 
 
 Heu-chu-wei 
 
 Pe-Tsi 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 
 565 
 
 T'ien-M 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Chau 
 
 plng-sii 
 
 
 566 
 
 T*ien-she& 
 
 2 
 
 T'ien-Jieu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kang-yin 
 
 
 690 
 
 T'ien-tse-wdn-sui 
 
 I 
 
 Tien-lieu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 6 95 
 
 T'ien-pau 
 
 U 
 
 Hiuen-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 742
 
 222 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 NiSn-had. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Tien-fu 
 
 3 
 
 Chau-tsung 
 
 Tdng 
 
 ln-yiu 
 
 
 901 
 
 Tien-yiu 
 
 4 
 
 Chau-siuen-ti 
 
 Tdng 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 904 
 
 Tien-ching 
 
 4 
 
 Ming-tsung 
 
 Heu-Tdng 
 
 plng-su 
 
 
 926 
 
 Tien-fti 
 
 8 
 
 Kau-tsu 
 
 ffeu-Tsin 
 
 plng-shln 
 
 
 936 
 
 Tien-fa 
 
 i 
 
 Kau-tsu 
 
 Heu-Hdn 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 947 
 
 Tien-hl 
 
 5 
 
 Chlng-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 tlng-s 
 
 
 1017 
 
 Tien-shing 
 
 9 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kwei-hal 
 
 
 1023 
 
 Tien-tsdn 
 
 4 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 jln-wu 
 
 
 922 
 
 Tien-Men 
 
 12 
 
 Tai -tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 plng-su 
 
 
 926 
 
 Tien-lu 
 
 4 
 
 SM-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 947 
 
 Tien-k'ing 
 
 10 
 
 Tien-tsu-ti 
 
 Liau 
 
 sln-mait 
 
 
 mi 
 
 Tien-hl 
 
 34 
 
 Chi-lit-kti, 
 
 Sl-Liau 
 
 wu-tsz 
 
 
 1168 
 
 Tien-yiu-chui-shing 
 
 3 
 
 Ymg-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kdng-yin 
 
 
 1050 
 
 Tien-sz-ll-shing-kwo-k'ing 
 
 6 
 
 Hwui-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kdng-su 
 
 
 1070 
 
 Tien-gdn-ll-ting 
 
 i 
 
 Tsdng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 ping-yin 
 
 
 1086 
 
 Tien-i-chi-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Tsdng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 1087 
 
 Tien-yiu-min-gdn 
 
 8 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 sln-wi 
 
 
 1091 
 
 Tien-shing 
 
 21 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 rC?/~S& 
 
 
 1149 
 
 Tien-k'ing 
 
 13 
 
 Hwdn-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 1194 
 
 Tien-fit 
 
 7 
 
 Tai-tsti 
 
 Kin 
 
 tlng-yiu 
 
 
 1117 
 
 Tien-hwiii 
 
 i5 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 1123 
 
 Tien-kiuen 
 
 3 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 1138 
 
 Tien-te 
 
 4 
 
 Ti-lidng 
 
 Kin 
 
 kl-s& 
 
 
 1149 
 
 Tien-hlng 
 
 3 
 
 Gal-tsung 
 
 Kin 
 
 jin-shin 
 
 
 1232 
 
 Tien-U 
 
 2 
 
 Wdn-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1328 
 
 Tien-shdn 
 
 8 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 tlng-cJieu 
 
 
 M57 
 
 Tien-k'l 
 
 7 
 
 Hi-t&ting 
 
 Ming 
 
 sln-yiu 
 
 
 1621 
 
 Tien-ming 
 
 ii 
 
 Tai-tsu 
 
 Tslng 
 
 plng-shln 
 
 
 1616 
 
 Tien-tsung 
 
 9 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 Tslng 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 1627 
 
 Tsidng-hlng 
 
 2 
 
 Ti-ping 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 1278 
 
 Tslng-lung 
 
 4 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 
 233 
 
 Tslng-t'ai 
 
 3 
 
 Lu-wdng 
 
 Heu-Tdng 
 
 kid-wii 
 
 
 934 
 
 Tsing-k'dng 
 
 i 
 
 K'in-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 ping-wu 
 
 
 1 126 
 
 Tslng-ning 
 
 9 
 
 Tau-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 i55 
 
 Ts'u-yuen 
 
 5 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 48 
 
 
 Tsu-chi 
 
 i 
 
 Shii-tsz-ymg 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wit-shin 
 
 
 8 
 
 Ts'u-p'ing 
 
 4 
 
 Hien-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kang-wu 
 
 
 190 
 
 Tsung-hiun 
 
 i 
 
 Kung-ti 
 
 Heu-Cheu 
 
 kdng-shln 
 
 
 960 
 
 Tsung^ning 
 
 5 
 
 Hwul-t&ting 
 
 Sung 
 
 jin-wil 
 
 
 1102 
 
 Tsung-fu 
 
 M 
 
 CMng-t'ien-t'ai-heu 
 
 Sl-Liau 
 
 kid-su 
 
 
 H54 
 
 Tsung-k'ing 
 
 i 
 
 Chu-yung-tsi 
 
 Kin 
 
 jin-shln 
 
 
 1212 
 
 Ts-Ang-te 
 
 8 
 
 T'ai-tsung 
 
 Td-tslng 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 1636 
 
 Tsting-ching 
 
 17 
 
 S&-tsung 
 
 Ming 
 
 wu-shin 
 
 
 1628 
 
 T#ilng-chdng 
 
 2 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 Tdng 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 668 
 
 T'Ang-kwdng 
 
 3 
 
 Chwdng-tsung 
 
 Heu-Tdng 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 924 
 
 T'dng-chi 
 
 
 
 Td-Tslng 
 
 sln-yiu 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Tung-M 
 
 29 
 
 Shing-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 kwei-wl 
 
 
 983 
 
 Twdn-kung 
 
 2 
 
 Tai-tmng 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-tsz 
 
 
 988 
 
 Twdn-p'ing 
 
 3 
 
 Ll-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 1234 
 
 Wdn-sui t'ung-t'ien 
 
 i 
 
 T ien-heu 
 
 Tdng 
 
 plng-shln 
 
 
 696 
 
 Wdn-li 
 
 47 
 
 Shin-tsung 
 
 Ming kwei-yiu 
 
 
 T 573
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 Nin-hati. 
 
 )ura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Vdn-te 
 
 I 
 
 Hl-tsung 
 
 T'dng wu-shln 
 
 
 888 
 
 Vu-fung 
 
 2 
 
 Chu-lidng 
 
 Wu kid-su 
 
 
 254 
 
 Vu-ting 
 
 8 
 
 Tsmg-ti 
 
 Tung- Wei 
 
 kwei-hal 
 
 
 543 
 
 Vu-fung 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 57 
 
 
 Vu-p'ing 
 
 6 
 
 Heu-chu-wei 
 
 Pe-Tsl 
 
 kdng-yln 
 
 
 570 
 
 Vu-ching 
 
 2 
 
 Iftng-ti 
 
 Chau 
 
 kl-mau 
 
 
 559 
 
 Vu-te 
 
 9 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 618 
 
 Ydng-s6 
 
 4 
 
 Ghing-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 (ing-yiu 
 
 24 
 
 
 ^dng-kid 
 
 4 
 
 Shan-tl 
 
 Hdn 
 
 'in-shin 
 
 
 132 
 
 Yen-ping 
 
 i 
 
 Shdng-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 p\ng-wu 
 
 
 106 
 
 Yen-kwdng 
 
 4 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kl-wi 
 
 
 122 
 
 Yen-hl 
 
 9 
 
 Hwdn-tl 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-su 
 
 
 158 
 
 Yen-Til 
 
 20 
 
 Heu-chu 
 
 Shu-Hdn 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 2 3 8 
 
 Yen-hing 
 
 i 
 
 Heu-chii 
 
 Shu-Hdn 
 
 kwei-vn 
 
 
 263 
 
 Yen-M 
 
 3 
 
 T'ai-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 'In-shln 
 
 
 43 2 
 
 Yen-hing 
 
 5 
 
 Wdn-tl 
 
 Wei 
 
 sln-hal 
 
 
 47i 
 
 Yen-chdng 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 'in-shin 
 
 
 512 
 
 Yen-tsai 
 
 i 
 
 T e ien-heu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 694 
 
 Yen-k'ing 
 
 ii 
 
 Te-tsung 
 
 Si-Liau 
 
 yl-s 
 
 
 1125 
 
 Yen-tsu 
 
 ii 
 
 Klng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 1038 
 
 Yen-s-ning-kwd 
 
 i 
 
 Ylng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kl-ch'efo 
 
 
 1049 
 
 Yen-yiu 
 
 7 
 
 Jin-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 '3M 
 
 Ylng-shdn 
 
 i 
 
 Min-ti 
 
 Heu-Tdng 
 
 kid-wu 
 
 
 934 
 
 Ying-li 
 
 18 
 
 Mu-tsung 
 
 Liau 
 
 sin-hal 
 
 
 95i 
 
 Ylng-t'ien 
 
 4 
 
 Sidng-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 1207 
 
 Yuen-nien 
 
 7 
 
 King-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 156 
 
 
 Yuen-kwdng 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ting-wi 
 
 J 34 
 
 
 Yuen-s6 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-tl 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 128 
 
 
 Yuen-heu 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 jin-su 
 
 122 
 
 
 Yuen-ting 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yi-clieu 
 
 116 
 
 
 Yuen-fling 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sln-wi 
 
 no 
 
 
 Yuen-fung 
 
 6 
 
 Chau-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-cJieu 
 
 80 
 
 
 Yuen-ping 
 
 i 
 
 Chau-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ting-wi 
 
 74 
 
 
 Yuen-k'dng 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ping-shin 
 
 65 
 
 
 Yuen-yen 
 
 4 
 
 Ching-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kl-yiu 
 
 12 
 
 
 Yuen-sheu 
 
 2 
 
 Gfal-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ki-wi 
 
 2 
 
 
 Yuen-chi 
 
 5 
 
 P'lng-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-yiit 
 
 
 i 
 
 Yuen-ho 
 
 3 
 
 Chdng-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 84 
 
 Yuen-hlng 
 
 i 
 
 Hd-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 y1-s& 
 
 
 105 
 
 Yuen-ts'u 
 
 6 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kid-yin 
 
 
 114 
 
 Yuen-kid 
 
 2 
 
 Hwdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 sin-mau 
 
 
 i5i 
 
 Yuen-hlng 
 
 I 
 
 Chu-kau 
 
 Wu 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 264 
 
 Yuen-hlng 
 
 3 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 jin-yin 
 
 
 402 
 
 Yuen-hl 
 
 i 
 
 Kung-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kl-wi 
 
 
 419 
 
 Yuen-kid 
 
 30 
 
 Wdn-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 kid-ts& 
 
 
 424 
 
 Yuen-hwul 
 
 4 
 
 Tsdng-yu-wdng 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 kwei-ch'eu 
 
 
 473 
 
 Yuen-tsidng 
 
 i 
 
 Tsing-ti 
 
 Tung- Wei 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 538 
 
 Yuen-h6 
 
 15 
 
 Hien-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 ping-su 
 
 
 806 
 
 Yuen-fung 
 
 8 
 
 Shin-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 1078 
 
 Yuen-yiu 
 
 8 
 
 Che-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 1086 
 
 Yuen-fti 
 
 3 
 
 Che-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 109!
 
 224 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 Nien-hau. 
 
 Dura- 
 tion. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Dynasty. 
 
 Year of 
 the cycle. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Yuen-te 
 
 7 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kdng-tsz 
 
 
 II2O 
 
 Yuen-kwdng 
 
 2 
 
 Siuen-tsUng 
 
 Kin 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 1222 
 
 Yuen-chlng 
 
 2 
 
 Ching-tsung 
 
 Yuen 
 
 yl-wi 
 
 
 1295 
 
 Yuen-t'ung 
 
 2 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Yuen 
 
 kwei-yiu 
 
 
 J 333 
 
 Yung-hl 
 
 4 
 
 T'ai-tsung 
 
 Sung 
 
 kid-shin 
 
 
 984 
 
 Yung-ning 
 
 5 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 yi-wi 
 
 
 1115 
 
 Yung-ching 
 
 !3 
 
 Shi-isung 
 
 Td-tslng 
 
 kwei-mau 
 
 
 1723 
 
 Yung-kwdng 
 
 5 
 
 Yuen-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 43 
 
 
 Yung-shl 
 
 4 
 
 Ching-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 y\-si 
 
 16 
 
 
 Yung-ping 
 
 18 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 wu-wu 
 
 
 58 
 
 Yung-yuen 
 
 16 
 
 Hd-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 ki-ch'eu 
 
 
 89 
 
 Yung-ts'u 
 
 7 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 107 
 
 Yung-ning 
 
 i 
 
 Gdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kdng-shln 
 
 
 1 20 
 
 Yung-Men 
 
 6 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 plng-yin 
 
 
 126 
 
 Yung-ho 
 
 6 
 
 Shdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 plng-tsz 
 
 
 136 
 
 Yung-kid 
 
 i 
 
 Chung-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yi-yiu 
 
 
 145 
 
 Yung-hlng 
 
 2 
 
 Hwdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 kwei-sz 
 
 
 153 
 
 Yung-sheu 
 
 3 
 
 Hwdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 yl-wi 
 
 
 155 
 
 Yung-k'dng 
 
 i 
 
 Hwdn-ti 
 
 Hdn 
 
 tlng-wi 
 
 
 167 
 
 Yung-gdn 
 
 7 
 
 King-ti 
 
 Wu 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 258 
 
 Yung-hl 
 
 i 
 
 Hwui-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kdng-su 
 
 
 290 
 
 Yung-k'dng 
 
 i 
 
 Hwiii-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kdng-shln 
 
 
 300 
 
 Yung-ning 
 
 i 
 
 Hwui-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 sln-yiu 
 
 
 301 
 
 Yung-hlng 
 
 2 
 
 Hwiii-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 kid-tsz 
 
 
 304 
 
 Yung-kid 
 
 6 
 
 Hwai-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 tlng-mau 
 
 
 307 
 
 Yung-chdng 
 
 i 
 
 Mln-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 322 
 
 Yung-h6 
 
 12 
 
 Mu-ti 
 
 Tsin 
 
 yl-sz 
 
 
 345 
 
 Yung-feu 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Pe-Sung 
 
 kwei-shln 
 
 
 420 
 
 Yung-ming 
 
 ii 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Tsi 
 
 kwei-hal 
 
 
 483 
 
 Yung-t'ai 
 
 i 
 
 Ming-ti 
 
 Tsi 
 
 wu-yin 
 
 
 498 
 
 Yung-yuen 
 
 2 
 
 Tung-hwan-heu 
 
 Tsi 
 
 kl-mau 
 
 
 499 
 
 Yung-ting 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Chin 
 
 tlng-ch'eu 
 
 
 557 
 
 Yung-hlng 
 
 5 
 
 Ming-yuen-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 kl-ping 
 
 
 409 
 
 Yung-ping 
 
 4 
 
 Siuen-wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 wu-tsz 
 
 
 508 
 
 Yung-gdn 
 
 2 
 
 Chwdng-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 wit-shin 
 
 
 528 
 
 Yung-hl 
 
 3 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 jin-tsz 
 
 
 53 2 
 
 Yung-ping 
 
 2 
 
 Fi-ti 
 
 Wei 
 
 jin-shln 
 
 
 552 
 
 Yung-hwui 
 
 6 
 
 Kau-tmng 
 
 Tdng 
 
 kdng-sii 
 
 
 650 
 
 Yung-lung 
 
 i 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kdng-shin 
 
 
 680 
 
 Yung-shdn 
 
 i 
 
 Kau-tsung 
 
 Tdng 
 
 jin-wu 
 
 
 682 
 
 Yung-chdng 
 
 i 
 
 T'ien-heu 
 
 T'dng 
 
 kl-clieu 
 
 
 689 
 
 Yung-t'ai 
 
 i 
 
 Tai-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yl-sz 
 
 
 765 
 
 Yung-chlng 
 
 i 
 
 Shdn-tsung 
 
 T'dng 
 
 yl-yiu 
 
 
 805 
 
 Yitng-gdn 
 
 3 
 
 Tsung-tsung 
 
 Hid 
 
 kl-mau 
 
 
 1099 
 
 Yung-Id 
 
 22 
 
 Ghing-tsu 
 
 Ming 
 
 kwei-wi 
 
 
 1403 
 
 Yung-ll 
 
 15 
 
 Kwei-wAng 
 
 Ming 
 
 tlng-hal 
 
 
 1647
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 A comparison of some Chinese dialects with reference to their 
 pronunciation. 
 
 The Chinese divide their syllables into two parts, the initial and thefinat. 
 They do not understand how to analyse the syllable into its component letters, 
 and therefore it often happens that they are unable to distinguish slight 
 changes in the pronunciation of certain words. Hence arises a difficulty to 
 the student, who is frequently unable to catch the articulations of his Chinese 
 tutor. And if the Chinese tutor is unable to discern the difference between 
 certain letters, much less is he able to say how or why changes in various 
 dialects have taken place, and he is also less expert at speaking various dialects 
 of his own country than a well practised foreigner. 
 
 The want of an alphabetic system, by which articulations may be accurately 
 expressed, is the cause of this. And the foreigner has this advantage over 
 the untutored Chinese, who has nothing to guide his pronunciation but the 
 ear, while the European has the sound written down for his eye, and the letters 
 are the symbols of an analytic process. We have only to call to mind the 
 vulgar provincialisms of our own country, and the transformation of words, 
 produced by the unlettered rustic, to understand the value of our alphabet, 
 in aiding us to escape the most chaotic differences of pronunciation, which 
 would make English a Babel of dialects, were they allowed to pass from one 
 to another by the ear alone without being written down. 
 
 Now although we cannot start a theory as to which dialect represents the 
 original and true pronunciation of Chinese with much chance of proving it, 
 we may for the sake of convenience assume that that which presents us with 
 the clearest and most definite pronunciation is the nearest to that original, 
 and to what Chinese pronunciation should be. It is an undoubted fact that 
 changes have taken place in some syllables, but the great mass of Chinese 
 sounds is most ancient and simple. If then we could ascertain exactly what 
 this ancient pronunciation was, we should be in a better position to show how 
 or why the subsequent changes have occurred. 
 
 The Chinese, as was said, do not write down the sounds of their syllables ; 
 but we do so to assist our memory, and to define clearly what those sounds 
 are. What we value in our own language, among other things, is the ortho- 
 graphy which shows the etymology in many words ; and we obstinately refuse 
 to entertain the new principles of the " Fonetik Nuzf and we persist in 
 keeping our ancient spelling of words, because we delight to see the remains 
 which exist of their parentage and origin. 
 
 Gg
 
 226 APPENDIX V. 
 
 China has numerous dialects with a common origin; these ought all to be 
 represented by the Konian alphabet, and they ought to follow in a certain 
 degree the primary and the purest pronunciation. Slight changes should be 
 explained with the old spelling, instead of a new orthography being invented 
 for each dialect. 
 
 Dialectic changes affect either the consonantal sounds, or the vowel sounds, 
 or both, there is the elision of a letter, the addition of a letter to the syllable, 
 or a change of tone. The regular changes which we find in European lan- 
 guages occur in Chinese. (Cf. Art. 3. Parti.) The Mandarin dialect(i . e. the 
 Kwan-hwd), spoken in the central provinces, preserves the primary vowel 
 sounds (a, i, u) and the simple combinations of these (ai, au, iu, ia, ui, ua), 
 while the provincial dialects modify these latter considerably, and produce 
 such sounds as those which are represented in this work by e (a), o (o), Q (aw), 
 o (German), u (French), and the primary vowels a, i, u are pure, and with 
 the Italian sounds. 
 
 It is well known that the vowel sounds affect the consonantal sounds with 
 which they are united. In Spanish, in Italian, in Swedish, and in Polish what 
 are called the hard vowels (a, o, u) and the soft vowels (i, e, a, u) affect the 
 pronunciation of the preceding gutturals g, k, c, ch. 
 
 Thus in Polish c is generally pronounced ts, but before the vowel i, which 
 is occasionally written above the letter (c), it is like the Germ, tsch, but some- 
 what softer, as in the Italian ci or the Spanish ch in chupa. In this language 
 consonants are said to have a hard or a soft pronunciation, according as they 
 are followed by y or i respectively. The vowel i is the regular indication of 
 a soft pronunciation for the preceding consonant. Thus in smierc (shmiercfi) 
 ' death,' and siano (shiano) ' hay,' s is pronounced like sh nearly, only softer. 
 The hs of Mr. Wade's orthography is evidently this sound. 
 
 In Swedish k before i, e, y, a, and o, is softened in the same way; thus, 
 kdrlek (charlek) ' love,' kif (chif) ' strife :' so also sk before a, o, u is hard, 
 but before i, j, e, soft ; thus, skjuta (shiuta) ' to shoot :' t is hard excepting 
 when followed by j; thus, tjena (chena) ' to serve,' like the Germ, dienen; 
 but the spelling is not changed, or this relationship would be well-nigh lost 
 sight of. 
 
 Thus much has been said in anticipation of the time when the Chinese 
 dialects or languages will be written by means of the Roman alphabet alone. 
 It will then be easy to observe the connexion between the dialects, to see the 
 radical syllable in each word, and to learn to read, if but one system of 
 spelling be used for all the vernacular dialects. 
 
 Dialectic differences of pronunciation relate to the changes and modifica- 
 tions of single letters. In Chinese the initial letter in Roman type is modified 
 or entirely changed, the final letter is changed (as n to ra or ng\ or a 
 letter is added either before the initial or after the final (as n before y or j 
 in the dialects about Shanghai, and before g in some Canton varieties); k, 
 p, or t is added after the syllables affected by the "entering tone" in the 
 Canton and the Hakka dialects, and n is not unfrequently transformed into
 
 APPENDIX V. 227 
 
 ng. The regular compounds (ai, au, iu) of the Mandarin are modified in the 
 provincial dialects ; ai becoming e (i. e. a or a), au becoming o or Q (i. e. aw 
 in law), iu becoming iau or i$. The Mandarin keeps the pure and sharp 
 sounds of the consonants k, p, t the flat and heavy sounds of these letters 
 (g, b, d) are not found in its pure pronunciation, but in the Peking and in 
 some local patois they creep out. 
 
 The letters k, p, t are however aspirated, and hence arise k', p', and t\ 
 When k is very strongly aspirated it approximates to ch, and ch is often con- 
 founded with ts, especially in syllables in which an i follows the initial sound 
 of ch or ts. The liquids I, m, n are very often interchanged in Chinese, 
 but in southern Mandarin they are kept comparatively without alteration. 
 In the south of China the initial s is used for sh in some vulgar dialects. 
 
 In treating of dialectic changes, the open syllables those ending with a 
 vowel must be chiefly considered, for the short vowels which are produced 
 by the closing of a syllable are very undefined, and are really very unimportant, 
 being hardly distinguishable by a native. They may be compared to the 
 Hebrew sheva and its compounds. 
 
 General changes in vowel and consonantal sounds. 
 
 1. The primary vowels a, i, u remain in open syllables in almost all the 
 dialects of China. The Hokkien or Auioy dialect presents a few exceptions 
 to this rule, and in some dialects the syllables made up with a consonant and 
 one of these vowels admit another vowel between the two letters ; e. g. ka 
 changes to kia, ku to kiu, and ta to toa; but as a rule these letters are constant. 
 And even in many closed syllables they remain in the different dialects. This 
 is especially the case with the vowels i and u, king in one dialect never 
 changes to kung or kang in another, but being in a closed syllable it is 
 shortened, and from the imperfect articulation it is difficult to determine its 
 exact quality, in the Hokkien dialect it would seem to be like a short e. 
 So also in the Peking dialect, ching of southern Mandarin becomes cheng; 
 the difference however is hardly perceptible to a native. If the phrase and 
 tone be idiomatic the slight variation in the quantity of a vowel is over- 
 looked. 
 
 2. But although these vowels (a, i, u) in their simple state are unchanged 
 in the various dialects, they are generally altered when in Mandarin they are 
 found together in the same syllable, thus kiang of the Mandarin becomes 
 keung, and kiung becomes kung in the Canton dialect. Their regular com- 
 pounds ai, au, and iu in open syllables are almost always changed into 
 their proper modifications e, o (o or a), and u in the dialects. The closed 
 syllables in ang in Mandarin change it into eung in Canton, and those in ien 
 change into in. Sometimes a nasal ng is added where only n existed, e. g. 
 fin, ' man,' in Mandarin is yan in Canton and nyqng in Shanghai. The y is 
 dropped and the n changed to I in Fucheu, and it then makes lang. Thejw 
 is changed to nyin in Ningpo, and in Japanese the y is dropped and nin 
 becomes the word for ' man.' 
 
 Gg 2
 
 228 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 These principal changes serve to show the uniformity which exists in 
 Chinese dialects ; the diversity being always in accordance with some well 
 established law of euphonic change. 
 
 The following simple system of finals in Chinese may serve as the standard 
 of comparison. They are nearly all found in Mandarin. The vowels i and u 
 may precede any of these finals and coalesce with them, forming often the 
 initials y and w. 
 
 (i) a, (2) i, (3) u, (4) ai, ei, e, and a, (5) au, eu, (6) iu, 
 
 d I it e & o and o, 8 u 
 
 cm in un(oon) en an oi on U 
 
 ang ing ung eng ang ong un 
 
 Hence by prefixing i and u (y and w) ia, id, ian, iang, ua, ua, uan, uang, 
 iai, ieu, ien, io, id, (fee. &c. are produced. Some dialects employ these vowels 
 between the proper initial and the final, others omit them. Sien in Mand. 
 becomes sin in Canton. The presence of such additional vowels in Mandarin 
 may lead the student to expect considerable variation in the provincial dialects 
 in those particular syllables. 
 
 Comparative table of changes in some finals. 
 
 Mand. D. 
 
 Cant. D. 
 
 Shang. D. 
 
 Amoy D. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 Qa, e 
 
 a 
 
 at, ap 
 
 a 
 
 
 cm 
 
 am, an, bji, un 
 
 aft, o n 
 
 ea n , am 
 
 ang 
 
 eung, ong, ang 
 
 ang, ong 
 
 aft, ieng, ong, uP, ieng 
 
 i 
 
 ai 
 
 i and yi 
 
 o.e, e, ui, oa, i 
 
 2 
 
 op, ik 
 
 
 it, ip, ek 
 
 in 
 
 am 
 
 ang, eng, ing 
 
 im 
 
 ing 
 
 ang, ing 
 
 ing 
 
 tenet 7n ia^ 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 iu, 6 
 
 u 
 
 ak 
 
 u 
 
 ok, ut 
 
 ung 
 
 ung 
 
 ung 
 
 ieng, eng, iong, ong 
 
 ai 
 
 oi, ai 
 
 e, i, a 
 
 ai, oe 
 
 ei 
 
 ei, i 
 
 ei 
 
 
 e 
 
 ak 
 
 a 
 
 ap 
 
 en 
 
 in, im, un 
 
 a n , o 11 , e n 
 
 am 
 
 an 
 
 an 
 
 a n 
 
 ng 
 
 ang 
 
 
 ang 
 
 in 
 
 au 
 
 iu, o, u 
 
 0, 
 
 6, o, a 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 
 eu 
 
 eu 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ok 
 
 6 
 
 6, ap 
 
 iu 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 yu 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ut 
 
 
 e 
 
 un 
 
 
 un 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 e 

 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 229 
 
 3. The modifications of the consonants are similar in character. Mutes 
 change into their corresponding letters, a t may change to d, a p to b, a k 
 to ch or g, a ch to ts, and occasionally to ah, a chang may become a tsiang or 
 a ahang in different dialects. 
 
 Comparative table of changes in some initials. 
 
 Hand. D. 
 
 Cant. D. 
 
 Shang. D. 
 
 Amoy D. 
 
 h 
 
 / 
 
 h 
 
 h, k, or dropped 
 
 hw 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 h 
 
 s 
 
 8 or sh 
 
 s or z 
 
 ch 
 
 sh 
 
 sh or s 
 
 8, z, or I 
 
 ti 
 
 shw 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 ts 
 
 sh and ts 
 
 s 
 
 ch or k 
 
 ch 
 
 ts occ. 
 
 ts 
 
 ti or s 
 
 chw 
 
 ch 
 
 ts 
 
 chi 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 9 
 
 kw 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 j 
 
 y 
 
 ny 
 
 3 
 
 y 
 
 yor dropped 
 
 dropped 
 
 h, g, or dropped 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 
 h, p, or b 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 b 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n or I 
 
 lor g 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p or b 
 
 b 
 
 w 
 
 v, m, or ng 
 
 w 
 
 b or g 
 
 qr (ear) 
 
 ni 
 
 nyi 
 
 hi 
 
 mu (eye) 
 
 muk 
 
 mu 
 
 bak 
 
 y~i (one) 
 
 yat 
 
 nyl 
 
 chit 
 
 chit (bamboo) 
 
 chuk 
 
 chu 
 
 tiek 
 
 kwang (light) 
 
 
 kwo n s 
 
 kng 
 
 mien (face) 
 
 min 
 
 mi n 
 
 bien 
 
 yu (in) _ 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 hq 
 
 sham, (hill) 
 
 san 
 
 80P 
 
 soa n 
 
 shin (spirit, body) 
 
 sqn, shqn 
 
 zqng, sqn 
 
 sin, sieng 
 
 shang (upper) 
 
 sheung 
 
 lang or zong 
 
 tieng 
 
 nan (south) 
 
 nam 
 
 naP 
 
 lam 
 
 These attempts to compare the dialects of Chinese may serve to lead the 
 way for an extensive comparison of them, which the author hopes some one iu 
 China may undertake and carry out more completely than he has done here.
 
 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 On the weights, monies, measures, and times. 
 
 The Chinese weigh every thing that can be weighed, money, wood, and 
 liquids. Their chief circulating medium is Spanish dollars, which go by 
 weight. The Ferdinand dollar is at a premium of i i^ per cent. The 
 Carolus dollar at a premium of 7 8 per cent. Those bearing the stamp G 
 are only received at a discount. Mexican and U. S. A. dollars are taken at 
 par by foreigners. 
 
 The highest weight in money is a tael (liang); then come the mace (tsien), the 
 candareen {/an), and the cash (li). 3 taels=4.i6 dol., but the equivalents 
 vary; about 720 taels make 1000 dollars. 
 
 tael. 
 
 mace. 
 
 cand. 
 
 cash. 
 
 oz. troy. 
 
 gr. troy. 
 
 sterg. 
 
 dottars. 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOOO 
 
 1.208 
 
 579-84 
 
 6s. Sd. 
 
 1.389-1.398 
 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 57.984 
 
 8d. 
 
 138- .139 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 
 5-7984 
 
 .8d. 
 
 
 The common coin the cash of China is composed of 6 parts of copper and 
 4 of lead. Bullion is rated by its fineness, by dividing it into 100 parts 
 called " touches." Sycee is cast into ingots, by the Chinese called " shoes," 
 and these are stamped with the mark of the office that issues them, and the 
 date of their issue. They are of different sizes, from \ a tael to 100 taels. 
 Gold ingots of 10 taels =cir. 22 23. 
 
 In measures for dry and liquid goods, the pecul (tan), the catty (kin), and 
 the tael (liang) are used. 
 
 pecul. 
 
 catty. 
 
 tael. 
 
 Ibs. a/o. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Ibs. troy. 
 
 i 
 
 IOO 
 
 1600 
 
 133^ 
 
 1.0.21^ 
 
 162.0.8.1. 
 
 
 i 
 
 16 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 i ton = 1 6 pec. and 80 catt. i cwt. = 84 catt. i Ib. av.=f catt. In long 
 measure the covid (che), the punt (tsan) are used. The covid varies in the 
 measurement of clothes, distances, and vessels; by the Mathematical Board in 
 Peking it was 13.125 Eng. inches; in the Canton trade, 14.625 Eiig. in.; by 
 engineers of public works, 1 2.7 Eng. in.; and for distances, 1 2. i Eng. in. nearly. 
 The li or Chinese mile =316^ fathoms = 1 8 9 7 Eng. feet : 1 9 2 & = i deg. of 
 lat. or long., according to the Chinese, but the Jesuits made 250 li=i deg., 
 each Ij, being = 1826 ft. or T ' ff of a French league.
 
 APPENDIX VI. 231 
 
 In land measure 1200 covids= i acre or meu, which contains 6600 sq. feet. 
 
 The Chinese measure time by dividing the 24 hours of the day and night 
 into twelve watches, and they begin to reckon from midnight. The twelve 
 horary characters tsz, cheu, yin, meu, &c. (see Parti, p. 61) are employed 
 for the purpose of indicating their watches. Tze being used for the two hours 
 from ii p. m. to i a. m.; cheu from i 3. 
 
 The character ching [p prefixed to any horary character makes it signify 
 the even number between the two hours ; e. g. ching-tsz would be 1 2 o'clock at 
 midnight, and kiau ? being prefixed would make it mean 1 1 p. m. 
 
 But foreigners speak generally of yl-tien-chung ' one stroke on the bell,' 
 for ' one o'clock,' tir-tien-chung ' two o'clock,' and the Chinese understand 
 
 these expressions. Ke ^]\ means ' a quarter of an hour/ and pwdn 
 tien-chung ' half an hour.'
 
 PART II. 
 
 A CHINESE CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 PART II.
 
 A SHORT INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 CHINESE LITEKATUEE. 
 
 THE literary works of the Chinese are very extensive, and relate to very 
 many of the subjects on which the mind of man has been engaged at all 
 periods of his history; the higher subjects, however, of mental science, logic 
 and philology, have met with but little attention among them. The writers of 
 China have drawn less from the works of foreigners than the writers of almost 
 any nation ; and this has arisen from the very nature of their position, cut off 
 as they were at an early period from the great nations of the west of Asia, 
 surrounded by wild tribes, who were unacquainted with letters, and proud of 
 their superior cultivation, they rejected improvements of every kind from 
 abroad. But if the mania for foreign notions and theories was unknown 
 among them, the imitation of ancient models of their own became so morbid 
 as to prevent the proper development of their mental strength and the 
 improvement of the natural growth of their minds. The power of mental 
 production consequently became limited to their own narrow sphere of expe- 
 rience; and- although the rules of their ancient sages inculcated no such 
 contracted maxims, their minds narrowed by continual imitation of old models 
 (well enough suited to the periods in which they had their origin) began to 
 look upon these models as simple embodiments of truth. Facts, however, 
 compel the admission that great diversities of style in the prose, and of metre 
 in the poetry of the Chinese have characterised different periods of their 
 history. Their works have been remarkable rather for their extent than for 
 the originality of thought or the acuteness of judgment displayed in them. 
 
 The Chinese themselves divide their literature under four general heads; 
 viz. I. King ?(_, II. S* ^, III. Tsz ^, IV. Tsi |j|. 
 
 I. The works placed under the first head we may call classic. They come 
 under the following divisions : a) All sacred writings and the commentaries 
 on them ; b) All ritualistic writings and music ; c) All works of a philological 
 nature, as dictionaries and tone-books. 
 
 II. The historical writings of all kinds come under the head of Sz, and 
 also narrative and descriptive works, but not works on natural history. 
 
 III. Under the head Tsz come, a) The writings of the ten sages of anti-- 
 quity; b) All religious and moral works of the Tauists or Buddhists; c) All 
 scientific works, and those upon the fine arts and trades ; d) All encyclopsedic 
 works. 
 
 B 2
 
 4 A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 IV. The character Tsi signifies ' collection,' and under this head are collected 
 works of the imagination and poems, but not novels. 
 
 This classification is that given in the Catalogue of the Imperial Library of 
 Peking, but for the benefit of the student who will wish to be directed in his 
 reading, the following arrangement of the different Chinese styles of composi- 
 tion will be found useful. 
 
 The most ancient and most concise style is that called, 
 
 I. KiL-w&n ~ji/ J^ ' ancient literature,' and this includes 
 
 1. Klng-sM, & l||-. 'ancient classics, and works composed after their 
 
 model ;' 
 
 2. Ku-shl ~ir g3f 'ancient poetry, and modern poetry after that model.' 
 
 II. Shi-wdn ^J5 ~-\f 'modern literature,' and this includes 
 
 1. Wdn-chdng ^/ j||[ 'fine writing' or 'elegant essays;' 
 
 2. Shl-fA jEjif Pjjr 'odes and epics;' 
 
 3. Tu-kl ~S/ jj?. 'edicts and official papers;' 
 
 4. Shti-chd =|-' II 'epistles and letters of every kind;' 
 
 5. Chuen-cM Ett "i^ 'stories and romances;' 
 
 6. Tsd-lu 'miscellanies, plays, &c.' 
 
 The spoken language, the Kwdn-hwd g g^| ' mandarin language,' is also 
 divided into 
 
 1. Pe Jcwdn-hwd M** ^JT gpt: or Klng-hwd tf | 'the language of 
 
 Peking' or 'the northern mandarin;' 
 
 2. Ndn kwdn-hwd n?j g | ' the southern mandarin,' which is also 
 
 *^ "~T* -> 
 
 called the CMng-yln J p ^j" ' correct sound ;' and the 
 iS- '"fT H^/ I T'ung-hing-fi hwd, i. e. ' the language of uni- 
 versal circulation.' 
 
 The student will find in the following extracts passages to exemplify nearly 
 all these different styles of composition, and in the study of them with the 
 notes he will find much that differs, and very much to admire, in the rhythm 
 that pervades each piece. 
 
 In the Wit-king, ' the five classics,' are contained the most ancient monu- 
 ments of Chinese poetry, history, philosophy, and jurisprudence ; and portions 
 of these are probably among the most early records of history extant. 
 Confucius, in the sixth century before Christ, collected them from different 
 som-ces, and edited them without diminishing their correctness or originality. 
 They usually stand in the following order :
 
 A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE LITERATURE. 5 
 
 i. The Yl-klng EL %5i, or Classic of Changes, is a work on Cosmogony, 
 based upon a theory of the combination and transmutation of certain figures 
 formed by straight lines, sometimes entire and sometimes broken. Beginning 
 with two figures, a broken straight line, and an unbroken one, the author, 
 
 . ^ -JiS- 
 
 Fu-hi -JTT &&> proceeded to form a number of combinations, until he made 
 eight diagrams. They are thus given with their names : 
 
 1234567 
 
 &4' <L> !*ffi: t: ^' Ba ]-/r+ ^ 4-th 
 
 6 M IP M H *A K ifP 
 
 k'ien tiii It chin sin kan kdn kwan 
 
 These are commonly called the pd-kwd, and represent some of the primary 
 objects of nature, as heaven, earth, fire, water, &c. From these eight figures, 
 sixty- four were constructed; and so by a regular system of combination and 
 ever varying mutation, representative diagrams or figures have been formed 
 for all the objects of nature *. The Chinese cannot give a very definite and 
 clear account of the subject of this book t. 
 
 2. The Shu-king |ij- | , of which pages i and 2 of the Chrestomathy 
 afford a specimen, is the Historical Classic, being fragments of ancient history. 
 It contains many excellent maxims on moral philosophy and political economy ; 
 as well as lessons of practical wisdom, based upon truth and humanity +. 
 
 3. The Shl-klng g^X | , or Classic of Odes, is a collection of ancient hymns 
 and odes or ballads. They were collected by Confucius, and commented on by 
 various writers . 
 
 4. The Ll-ki jjjp j^P, Book of Ceremonies, is a compilation of laws relat- 
 ing to the manners and customs of life in the most ancient times, from which 
 the Chinese of the present day derive many of their rules of conduct. 
 
 5. The Chun-tsiu Sc TJiyT', or Spring and Autumn Annals, is a work 
 by Confucius himself. It contains the history of his native country, 
 Lu-kw6 AV, ||M. 
 
 * A Latin translation of this work, "ex lat. P.Regis interpretation e," was edited by 
 Dr. Mohl, Stuttgard, in two vols. in 1832. 
 
 f V. Entwurf einer Beschreibuny der Chinesischen Litteratur, Schott: read in the Academy 
 of Sciences in Berlin, 1850, and published in the " Abhandlungen" of the Academy, p. 302. 
 
 J The following translations of this work have appeared. In French by Gaubil Le 
 Chou-king. Paris, 1770. This was revised by De Guignes. It is said to be too free, and 
 in many respects faulty. Another translation exists in Pauthier's Livres sacres de V Orient. 
 Paris, 1841. And a good English translation by Dr. Medhurst with the native text 
 interspersed. Shanghai, 1846. 8. 
 
 There is a Latin translation of the Shi-king, "ex lat. P. Lacharme interpretatione," 
 edited by Dr. Mohl. Stuttgard, 1830. And also a German translation into verse by 
 F. Ruckert. Chi-king, Chinesischen Liederluch. Altona, 1833.
 
 A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 These are the five classics. The style in which they are written is broken 
 and rude, unlike the compositions of later times, and this is internal evidence 
 of their antiquity. 
 
 Next in estimation are the following : 
 
 i. The Sz-shu VQ : plf > r Four Books, a collection of writings, by various 
 persons, on moral and political subjects. The names of the separate works 
 comprised under this title are, i. The Td-hio y^ tJjb, or the Study for 
 the Adult, the Great Study, is a short work on political science by 
 Tsang-tsz 'fej ~j- *. 2. The Chung-yung t+t |p", or the Due Medium, is 
 a work on avoiding extremes in life by means of philosophy and virtue, like 
 the doctrines of the great Greek philosopher of old, Aristotle. This 
 portion was written by TSZ-S& --J-- .l^, a grandson of Confucius t. 3. The 
 
 A ._ jr _._- ~ VT --T. j, f 
 
 Ldn-yil '^& Sg. or Dialogues and Discourses of Kung-fu-tsz 4-7 ~r^" -J 
 (Confucius), written down by two of his disciples after the philosopher's 
 death |. 4. Shdng-mdng p Hr* and Hid-mdng K | , The first and 
 second portions of the works of the philosopher Mdng (Mencius), who lived 
 B. C. 350. The subject of this work is of a moral and political nature, and 
 in the form of dialogue and exhortation . Passages from the Four Books 
 are given in the Chrestomathy, pp. 3, 4, 5 ||. 
 
 All the above works are largely annotated and commented on by native 
 writers, and by some of them with excellent style and ability. Among the 
 chief commentators was Chu-fu-tsz ^*^ yr T-, who lived in the thirteenth 
 century. His writings are held in great estimation. 
 
 In the next rank comes the Cheu-ll Jpfl jjjPJJ or Ceremonies of tlie Cheu 
 Dynasty; then the Hiau-king ^; ii or Book of Filial Piety; Ts'u-tsz 
 Ap t%T a Collection of Poems; and the Shdn-hal-king Ml i& i or 
 Book of Poetical Fictions, a sort of mythology, from which the poets of China 
 draw some of their allusions. 
 
 * An English translation of the Ta"-hi5 was appended, with the native text, to 
 Dr. Marshman's Clans Sinica. Serampore, 1814. 4. A Latin and French translation 
 exists by Pauthier, with the native text, Paris, 1837; and an English translation by 
 G. B. Hillier, Hongkong, 1850. 
 
 T" The Chung-yung was translated into Latin and French, accompanied by the native 
 text, by Abel-Bdmusat, in the Notices et Extraits: (vol. X.) Paris, 1817. 4. 
 
 J The Lun-yii was translated by Dr. Marshman into English, and published with the 
 native text, under the title of, Works of Confucius at Serampore, 1 809. 4. 
 
 Tlie writings of Mencius were translated literally into Latin by M. Stanislaus Julien, 
 and published with the native text at Paris, in 3 vols. 1 824. 
 
 || The Sz-shii have been frequently translated; into Latin by Intorcetta; Paris, 
 1687: and by Noel also into Latin; Prague, 1711; into English by Collie; Malacca, 
 1828. 8.; into German by Schott; i vols. Halle, 1828; into French by Pauthier; 
 Paris. 1841.
 
 A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE LITERATURE. 7 
 
 In addition to these there are three ancient commentaries upon the Ghun- 
 tsiu, which belong to the style of the Ku-wan; and the works of Sz-ma- 
 tsien |jj M lib tlie celebrated historian (B. C. 100), and those of several 
 other noted writers in a similar style. 
 
 Contemporary with Confucius was Lau-tsz :?& -j or Lau-kiun 
 4^ fS" B. C. 604. * He was the founder of a school of philosophy, 
 
 C"^A f\ 1 
 
 and took tau M|| 'reason,' 'Xoyor,' as the foundation of his system; he 
 discoursed about II jffl, the 'principle of order' in the universe, and was the 
 originator of the Tauist sect. He composed a work called Tau-te-klng 
 3jf| 4'2S | ' Book of Reason and Virtue,' which has been translated into 
 French, under the title of, " Le livre de la voie et de la vertu," by Professor 
 Julien. Paris, 1842. 8. For an account of his miraculous birth, &c., see 
 Morrison's Dictionary, part I. vol. I. p. 707. 
 
 There were ten eminent writers of antiquity, who are associated together 
 by the title Shl-tsz -I -4 - . Lau-tsz was the first of these. The second 
 was Tj^tT -+ Ghwdng-tsz, also a Tauist, and the most celebrated disciple of 
 Lau-tsz. He flourished about B. C. 368, in the reign of the Emperor Hien- 
 wang. He was the author of the work Ndn-hwd-kmg, and two satirical 
 pieces against the Confucianists. His originality and independence of cha- 
 racter are shown in his works and in the following anecdote : A powerful 
 Chinese prince wished him to take office in his government, and offered him 
 rich gifts, but Chwdng-tsz replied : " I would rather be a solitary pig and 
 wallow in my own sty, than be a decorated sacrifice and be led by the 
 guiding strings of the great." According to the Sz-ki 5p gP of Sz-tna- 
 tsien there was nothing that he had not looked into, wu sd pu kw'ei 
 
 / ___ , "*!'* "* jr" >-A~* 
 
 4Ut: Pn' X-^ -4-s| , though his maxim seems to have been : " Our life has 
 limits, but knowledge is without limits." 
 
 . ^ j. 
 
 The third philosopher was Siun-tsz y3j -j , who belonged to the 
 Ju-kid 'j^ ^^, 'the Confucian school.' He lived about B.C. 230, and was 
 counted worthy of having his name associated with that of Mdng-tsz 3? *J-~ 
 for a long period. His style is perspicuous and his knowledge correct, but 
 he differed from Mdng-tsz (Mencius) in his ethics. Mdng-tsz held that the 
 natural disposition of man is towards virtue; Siun-tsz, that it is towards vice. 
 His writings were of a politico-moral nature. 
 
 The fourth philosopher was Li-tsz y|J 3^, a Tauist, who was contem- 
 porary with Lau-kiun (B.C. 585). His style is lucid and sublime, but he 
 
 * The proper name of this philosopher was Li-pi-jany "^T | M
 
 8 A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 prefers the lofty to the true. Chwdng-tsz is said to have written out a com- 
 plete copy of his works. 
 
 >*>** ** 
 The fifth philosopher was Kwdn-tsz *^ -+*, who belonged to the 
 
 Ping-kid .&* ^3^, < the military school.' He flourished in the third century 
 B. C. His works are on the subjects of war and government. 
 
 The sixth philosopher was Hdn-fl-tsz M-5S ^rp ~f"^> called Han-tsz, who 
 lived about B. C. 200. He belonged to the Fd-Jdd V^p ^f<> 'the law 
 school.' Jurisprudence was the subject which he chiefly considered. His 
 works commence with the aphorism: pu chl dr yen, pu chl; chl dr pu yen, 
 pu chung, ^ .JCJJ jfjj -=JZ ^ H^ ^fj ]fij ^ =JS ^ tf t 
 ' not to know and yet to speak is imprudent ; to know and yet not to speak 
 is unfaithful.' 
 
 The seventh philosopher was Hwai-ndn-tsz |tt n?J ^f-, who belonged 
 to the Tsd-kid ^itf fc> 'writers on various subjects.' He was the grandson 
 of .US. *ff? Kau-ti of the Han dynasty, B. C. 189. He wrote upon the 
 origin of things. 
 
 The eighth philosopher was Ydng-tsz At%L -I- , a Confucianist, who lived 
 in the reign of Chlng-ti jw ^j, B. C. i. He is said to have spoken little, 
 for he had an impediment in his speech, but he was a great thinker and 
 reader. He did nojt write much, but his works have received the commenda- 
 tion of a great authority, for Md-twdn-lin, when comparing him with Siun-tsz, 
 says : " Siun-king had great talents, but many failings ; Yang-hiung was a 
 man of limited abilities, but made few mistakes." The names of his two prin- 
 cipal works are; Fa-yen Y^p =j 'on laws,' and T'ai-hiiten-fnng -4r* ~y^ |;^, 
 which is devoted to an explanation of the Yi-klng. 
 
 The ninth philosopher was Wdn-chung-tsz ~"\f rf^ -f-*, one of the best 
 ancient writers of the Confucian school. His proper name appears to have 
 
 , . . . *T. 
 
 been Wdng-t'dng -P ^g. 
 
 The tenth philosopher, H6-kwdn-tsz -fetR jrk ~p was a Tauist. He 
 obtained this name % the Hd-capped philosopJier, from the fact of his wandering 
 about the mountains with the feathers of this bird in his cap or in his hair. 
 His writings were first brought to light during the T'ang dynasty. 
 
 The works of these ten scholars, who are commonly called the SM-tsz, are 
 
 collected in a work called Shi tsz tsilng-mu -4 ^7 ||lfl E3 ' General Index 
 
 I ' 4Sr^r~r 
 
 of the Ten Philosophers.' Cf. Dr. Morrison's Dictionary, part I. vol. I. 
 
 .pp. 707, 708.
 
 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 9 
 
 In addition to these general remarks on the higher class of Chinese lite- 
 rature we may content ourselves with a list of some of the principal works in 
 the several departments which are likely to be more especially interesting to 
 Europeans. The Chinese language is very rich in Buddhistic literature, as 
 well as in works on jurisprudence, topography, history, and statistics. It 
 possesses large encyclopaedias and anthologies ; researches in natural history, 
 the healing art, and the fine arts ; treatises on language and the meanings of 
 words ; on mathematics and the various applications of numbers, with works 
 on the art of war. Poetry and the drama occupy a large place too, as do also 
 works of fiction in the various grades of the romance and novel style. The 
 industrial arts and trades, and the processes of manufacture extant among 
 the Chinese are explained in detail in separate works *. 
 
 I. Ethics, politics, and mental science t. 
 
 i. - JT^ ^3 Sdn-tsi-klng, 'The three-character classic,' by Wang Pl-heu, 
 a Confucianist of the Sung dynasty (isth cent.). Annotated by Wang 
 Tsin-shing : " The language is simple, the principles important, the style 
 perspicuous, the reasoning clear." 
 
 a. -r" *q\ ^ Ts'ien-ts-wdn,' The book of 1000 characters,' by CheuHing- 
 tsz, A. D. 550. This is a common school-book. The 1000 characters 
 were collected by Wang he-che, by command of an emperor of the Liang 
 dynasty. The emperor gave them to Cheu Hing-tsz, and asked him 
 to form them into an ode. He did so in a single night, and his hair 
 turned gray in consequence. Various translations of this work exist in 
 European languages; also in Japanese, Manchu, and Corean. 
 
 3- / V7 *YT fi~3- Yiu-hid-shl, ' Odes for the young.' A translation of this 
 by Dr. Bridgman appeared in the Chinese Repository for Oct. 1835. 
 
 4. )[\ JP* Siau-hid, ' The learning for children,' was composed by ^jp -4- 
 
 Chu-tsz, who is held in estimation second only to Confucius himself. 
 The opening sentence of the work shows its subject and tendency : " In 
 ancient times the Siau-hi5 taught children every thing which concerned 
 their daily life and conduct to parents, elders, superiors, teachers, and 
 friends ; in order to a due consideration of the fundamental laws which 
 govern the person, the family, the state, and the universe." 
 
 5. j& xjj-S J~& Kia-pau-ts'uen-tsi, ' A complete collection of family 
 
 jewels.' Miscellaneous moralities, instructions, and advice, in 32 vols., by 
 
 * Large collections of Chinese books fire deposited in the Libraries of the British 
 Museum, the Royal Asiatic Society, the University College, London, the Bodleian Library, 
 Oxford, the East India House, and King's College, London. The magnitude of these col- 
 lections is in the order here given ; from the British Museum, which contains upwards of 
 30,000 vols., to King's College, which possesses about 1200 vols. Almost all good works 
 in ordinary Chinese literature will be found in one or another of these institutions. 
 
 t To these may be added several works already mentioned among the classics. 
 PART II. C
 
 10 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 T'ien-ki-shl ^F IH- j, published in the time of K'ang-hi. An 
 
 extract from this work was given by Thorn in his Chinese Speaker, with 
 a translation. 
 
 6. jy: j~ jfi g Shing-yu kwdng-hiun, 'Amplification of the sacred 
 edict.' Sixteen maxims by the emperor K c ang-hi, amplified by his son, 
 the emperor Yung-ching, and paraphrased by a mandarin. The Rev. 
 Dr. Milne made a translation of this work. 
 
 7- =<. JJQ. glfi: gpff Kia-t'lng-ki^ng-Iiwd, 'Discourses for the family hall.' 
 These are in good mandarin style, and are very suitable for practice in 
 reading. (King's Coll.) * 
 
 8. ~TT* r' fprti |fgi |j JEi T'ai-shdng kctn-ying-pien't, 'The book of rewards 
 
 and punishments.' This is a very celebrated Tauist tract. T'ai-shdng, 
 'the sublime,' is an epithet of Lah-kiun; see p. 7. of this Introduction. 
 The work consists of a number of sayings on the duties of man, with a 
 list of the rewards and the punishments connected therewith. 
 
 9' IvK |wjlj $ Kln-kang-klng, 'The diamond classic.' A Buddhist work 
 
 in i vol. 
 I0 ' HJ/X jff -RK Kiny-tin-lti, ' The book of the revered faith.' A collection 
 
 of sayings and exhortations of the chiefs of the Tauist and Buddhist 
 
 f-t ---*- j 
 
 religions. The praises of Kwan-yln 5gu p=T, the merciful goddess, 
 
 are given in rhyme to be sung by the faithful. Its precepts are said to 
 act on the human mind like a clock at midnight, they awaken the devout 
 soul, and its doctrines enlighten the darkened eye of the mind. 
 
 tt t~f ^ t-^+ 
 
 ii. H/^ |V | M ing-sln-pail-kien, ' The precious mirror for enlighten- 
 
 ing the heart.' This work consists of elegant extracts from the moral 
 writings of the Chinese. A translation appeared in Spanish by P. Nava- 
 rette; Madrid, 1676. A notice of the work may be seen in the Chinese 
 Repository. 
 
 1 2. j^j. jr- & Hwd-y en-king. A noted Buddhist work on the holy books 
 
 or sutras. A copy is preserved in St. Petersburg in 8 1 books, which is 
 said to have been printed in 1419. The translator was a monk from 
 Turkistan, according to Dr. Schott : see " Entwurf, &c.," p. 333. 
 
 13. TOT Tip ~7^ ,&- Sing-ti td-ts'uen, 'A complete exposition of the 
 
 principles of nature.' A metaphysical work, in 20 vols. The subject 
 of it is the Chinese philosophy respecting the dual powers, which enters 
 into all works of this nature. 
 
 * When the name of a Library ia noted, it is not to be inferred that the work is to 
 be found in that collection alone. 
 
 t A translation of this work was made by Prof. Julien, and published under the title 
 of, "Le livre des Recompenses et des Peines" par Julien, 1841.
 
 SOME OF THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 1 1 
 
 II. Mathematics and astronomy. 
 14. iS 'jnj JO ~jk Kl-hd yuen-p^n, 'The first principles of quantity,' 
 
 is a translation of Euclid's Elements of Geometry, by Paul Seu, a 
 high mandarin, and P. Ricci, the Jesuit missionary, in 4 or 6 vols. 
 The original work is very scarce, but copies exist in manuscript, and a 
 new edition has recently been printed by the Protestant missionaries at 
 Shanghai. (Bodleian.) (King's Coll.) 
 
 I 5* F^' ^^ -^*r M/ Lie-siting k'aii-ch'ing, ' Mathematical tables for astro- 
 
 nomical purposes.' (Bodleian.) 
 1 6. aW TIE jfjjj| ;p 13 $w-& tslng-yun. A treatise on mathematics, con- 
 
 taining the science of Europe in the i8th century. (Bodleian.) 
 17. -fEff wf V'EJ y'lji Lu-U yuen-yuen, ( The original sources of music and 
 
 number,' in 100 vols. This is a work by the first Jesuits who resided 
 in China. In it are explained the theory of music and the European 
 system of notation ; mathematics, including trigonometry, and the method 
 of calculating eclipses, with all the necessary tables of logarithms, &c. 
 A list of ninety-two stars is given in vol. 31, with their right ascension 
 and declination, which are measured upon the equator. (Bodleian.) 
 
 III. Language and the meanings of words. 
 
 1 8. pj^i ~"\7 Shwo-w&n. A dictionary of the ancient characters, arranged 
 under 540 elementary characters, which was published during the 
 Hdn Vffi dynasty, B.C. 150. The author's name was HU-shln =4-- T|F=l, 
 
 ' official government.' (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 >^r/-* 
 19. -4^ x|.; Yu-pien. A dictionary of the characters, arranged according 
 
 to 542 radicals, in 30 books, by Ku ye-wang. It was published in the 
 Liang dynasty, A. D. 530. It is the basis of the Chinese- Japanese Dic- 
 tionary used in Japan. The pronunciation of characters is according to 
 thefdn-tsl system. 
 
 f ? PJ T '** - > 
 
 Bp gfij Tffrj Wti-kU yiin-sui, 'The tonic dictionary, called the 
 Wh-ktiJ in 32 vols., by Chin Sien-sang. This is one of the best diction- 
 aries on the " tones" which exist in Chinese. Dr. Morrison made it the 
 basis of his Syllabic Dictionary, and gives some particulars respecting it 
 in the preface to Part II. of his dictionary, q. v. 
 
 fci. |p W^ ^m Ching-ts-t''Ang, 'Explanation of the correct characters.' 
 A dictionary according to the radicals. (King's Coll.) 
 
 22< iltt. ^^. Q^ nO" P^-^^'y^'f^j' Thesaurus of literary phrases,' com- 
 piled by order of the emperor K c ang-hl. Seventy-six of the literati were 
 engaged in preparing it, and it took them seven years to complete it. 
 It was published in 1711, in 131 vols. This Thesaurus is perhaps the 
 
 c 2
 
 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 most extensive collection which exists of the words and phrases of any 
 language. M. Gallery commenced working this mine in 1842, and pub- 
 lished the first part of an encyclopaedia of the Chinese language in 1846. 
 The work was to consist of about ten large volumes, and it was expected 
 that sixteen years would be occupied in 'the execution of his project, 
 which he was unfortunately obliged to relinquish. (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 23. JH jE *^t Si. ICang-hl-ts-tien, ' The dictionary of K'ang-hl/ the 
 
 first emperor of the present dynasty. It is generally in 32 vols. The 
 meanings are very good. The work is universally used in China, and 
 constitutes the great national work of reference for the language. Dr. 
 Morrison commenced his dictionary by translating K'ang-hi's lexicon. 
 
 24. yp ~y[ W&^ Ts'ing-wdn-kien, 'Mirror of the Manchu-Tartar language/ 
 
 in 26 vols. (Several works of this kind are in the Brit. Mus.) 
 
 25. ml zv '(/} gS Hwui-kiau-su-yu, ' Mahommedan Proverbs (in Ara- 
 
 bic and Chinese).' 
 
 2 ^' ^1 ^$\ T^L fill ^77 H !: l Kwng-hu chi-tu Jun-ydn, ' The rivers and 
 lakes, papers and rhymes *.' This is the title of a popular work on 
 letter writing &c. for travellers ; and it is a sort of dictionary of phrases 
 proper to be used in epistolary correspondence. It is in 6 vols. 12. 
 
 2 7- yll 3I ClX ^^0. CKo-tsi ki-mung, ' Explanations for beginners,' in 20 
 vols. It contains definitions of the terms employed by the student of 
 Wdn-chdng ('elegant essays'). 
 
 IV. Jurisprudence. 
 
 28. ^ j'jfj ^ ^J Td-ts'lny lu-li, 'The laws of the Ti-ts'Ing dynasty/ 
 
 i. e. the penal code of the present or Tartar dynasty of China, in 40 vols. 
 A translation of this work was made by Sir George T. Staunton, Bart., 
 F. R S. 4. London, 1810. 
 
 29. 'TiiL "];& IPS -l^lj Ko-chdng-t'iau-li, ' The laws and regulations of the 
 
 Examination Hall/ in 18 vols. It is published every ten years, and its 
 contents will supply the best phrases which are employed with reference 
 to the literati. 
 
 30. -^ 7ttt" IM JDL Td-tslng hurtii-tidn, ' Official details relating to the 
 
 civil code and the statistics of the Ta-ts'mg dynasty/ in 260 vols. An 
 interesting account of this work is given in Sir John Davis' work on the 
 Chinese. See Knight's edition of 1836, vol. II. pp. 180, 181. 
 
 V. Medicine and materia medica. 
 3 1 - TpL ij3* $ro|j I Pqn-tsau kdng-mu, 'General outline of natural his- 
 
 * The term 'rivers and lakes' means the 'provinces' of Kiang-si, Kiang-nan, Hu-pK, 
 and Hu-rfan, which are noted for beautiful scenery and commerce.
 
 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 13 
 
 tory' with a view to medical practice. The author of this work was 
 Li-sM-chln ^^ |jj * ?^>. It was published under the supervision of 
 his son, and for the benefit of his family, in 1596. It contains very con- 
 cise accounts of various animals, plants, and minerals ; in a word, the mate- 
 riel medico, derived from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. 
 
 There are many other works on medicine, but their contents are uninter- 
 esting to Europeans, because they are wanting in science. 
 
 VI. History and statistics. 
 
 The affairs of each dynasty have been recorded by the imperial historio- 
 graphers, and these state papers are the sources whence the various histories 
 of China have been derived. 
 
 32. ^pf jifL T'Ung-tien, 'A complete directory to history and politics,' in 
 200 chapters, by T6-yiu Ti-p '[yFj of the T'dng jpj dynasty. It was 
 this work that Ma Twan-lin proposed to complete in his Wdn-hien-t'ung- 
 kiau, which may be looked upon as a continuation of the T'dng-tien. 
 
 33- -tffil ;f$v I F-| T'ting-kien-kang-mu,' The comprehensive mirror with 
 a complete index,' in 120 vols. The history of China, edited by Chu-hi, 
 the philosopher and annotator of the Canonical Books, who lived about 
 the middle of the i3th century. This work is not so much an independ- 
 ent production as a convenient form of the T'ung-kie'n, which appeared 
 above a century before, by the renowned Sz-ma-kwang. The emperor 
 
 Ylng-tsung JHHU -=pl (A. D. 1064-67) had commanded the royal historio- 
 
 grapher Sz-ma-kwang to compose a succinct history of China with correct 
 chronology, making use of the historical works extant, and especially the 
 annals. Sz-ma-kwang finished his work in 1084, and laid it at the feet 
 
 of Ying-tsung's successor, SMn-tsung jjjffl trp , who gave it the title of 
 
 T'ung-kien/ comprehensive mirror' (of events). It begins with the earliest 
 historical period, and comes down to the beginning of the 2nd Sung dynasty, 
 including a period of 1362 years. Facts only are related, the reader is left 
 to form his own judgment upon them. Impressed with the worth of the 
 T'ung-kien, and wishing to increase its usefulness, Chu-hi prefaced the 
 accounts given in detail with a summary, but without altering the sense. 
 These summaries, which are printed in large characters, are followed by the 
 detailed account and a commentary ; thus the work is, as it were, enclosed 
 in a network, and on this account it obtains the name of Kang-mii (v. 31). 
 
 34. ^ -4- Ep A r-sM-yi-shi, s The twenty-one historians.' A complete 
 history of China, in 282 vols., from the highest antiquity down to the 
 end of the Yu&n ~JT~ dynasty. This is the work of twenty-one imperial 
 historiographers, whose duty it was to note down the events of each reign 
 as they occurred, preparatory to publication in the succeeding reign.
 
 14 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 =* 
 
 35. Cfl j=jY* Shi-ki, ' Records of history,' in 130 chapters, by Sz-ma-tsien, who 
 flourished B. C. 104. This book contains the history of about 3000 
 years. It begins with Hwdng-ti "jijf "m^, ' The yellow emperor,' and 
 ends in the year B. C. 122, in the Han dynasty. 
 
 36. zb" ^v* jiff Ku-wdn si-i, ' The meanings of ancient literature dis- 
 
 criminated,' in 1 6 vols. 8. This work consists of historical fragments 
 
 in an elegant and much admired style, with explanatory notes. 
 /*/-~ 
 
 37. |jmj| | |^" ^L* Kdng-kien-hwui-tswan, ' Mirror of history,' by 
 
 ^r } | - 1 |i| 
 
 Fung-cheu sien-sdng JM1 Vwj (surnamed Wang), in 34 vols. (v. 2994). 
 
 38- I I M 7>n Kdng-kien l-chl, ' History made easy,' is an abridg- 
 ment of the T'dng-kien-kdng-mu (33). It was the work of three 
 scholars of the present dynasty, and was finished in 1711, in 36 vols. 
 
 39- P*r \\, I %P_ Li-tai kien-shi, ' Mirror of history through successive 
 
 ages.' 
 
 Tung-hwd-lu, ' Chronicles of the flower of the east.' The 
 
 official history of the Imperial house at present reigning in China. The 
 last edition was published in 1820, in 16 vols. 
 
 VII. Biographical notices. 
 
 41. Hfcfc \\, ^tii fcp 3^? S Li-tai ming-chln tseti-i, 'Memorials of 
 
 the celebrated statesmen of successive dynasties,' in 350 chapters. 
 
 42. ~i* ylj ~tT qSJ Kit ll-nu chuen, 'An account of distinguished women 
 
 of ancient times,' in 7 chapters, by Liu-hiang of the Han dynasty. 
 
 43. Ipj- /T -4-* 'jlfi T'dng tsai-tsz ch'uen, ' An account of the men of genius 
 
 of the T'ang dynasty,' by Sin Wan-fang, in 8 vols. M. Prof. Bazin says 
 of this author, that he has a very good style of composition; that he 
 adds to each biographical notice proper observations and criticisms ; and 
 that when he examines the qualities and the faults of the poets, he is 
 always in the right *. 
 
 44. jP jp jr Hiti-t'ung, ' A general view of learning,' in 1 2 vols. It contains 
 
 memoirs of the leading members of the sect of Confucius and extracts 
 from their works, with a view to combating the errors of the Tauists 
 and Buddhists. 
 
 45. jT g|^ -\-Pe-kid-8ing, ' All the family names.' 1068 characters are 
 
 * V. Sitcle de TouSn, p. 58. 
 
 t Although the word pg, ' 100,' is used, it stands for 'all,' just as pZ-]cwan means 'all 
 the officials.' This work contains 454 surnames.
 
 SOME OF THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 15 
 
 contained in it, of which 510 are different. This work contains the 
 ancient surnames of the Chinese, many of which are still in use. In 
 some editions the origin of these names is given in notes. It is a school- 
 book, and uninteresting to foreigners. 
 
 VIII. Geography, topography, and statistics. 
 
 46. y^ v/flF $3r jT>t Td-tslng yi-t'ung-chi, ' A complete account of 
 the Ta-ts!ng (the present) empire.' A geographical work of great import- 
 ance and value. It consists of 500 chapters in 240 vols. It contains 
 various matters connected with topography and statistics. Each pro- 
 vince has its own descriptive work of this kind. (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 47- YH |i*j (Hi pj-f ffal-kwS t'u-chi, ' Geography of the world,' in 24 vols., 
 by the late Commissioner Lin, who caused the " Opium War" by burning 
 all that drug then in port at Canton. 
 
 48. -||$ "i ^* Ylng-hwan chi-lio, 'A compendious description of 
 
 the world,' in 6 vols. imp. 8., by the Lieutenant-Governor of the province 
 of Fii-kien. It contains very good maps of the various countries of the 
 world, and the descriptions are tolerably correct. His Excellency was 
 assisted by a European in making the compilation. (King's Coll.) 
 
 49-jpU @f. Jill sP Kwang-yu-t'ti-Tti, 1 Geographical descriptions with maps,' 
 by Lti-ylng-ydng R^G mf- Rffi; i n 2 4 kiuen or books. It was composed 
 during the W^J Ming dynasty, when China was divided into 15 pro- 
 vinces, not into 1 8 as at present. The 2 5th book contains some account 
 of the 'outside barbarians,' wai-l ^j> Ha, and these include Japan, 
 Korea, Liu-kiu, Si-fan or Tangutia, Mongolia, Tonquin, Cochin-China, 
 and Siam. 
 
 'Jo- \ iffi ^ sP Fu-kw6 kl, 'An account of Buddhist countries,' by V H 
 l/|i p-t HU ZA TJn^' 
 
 Fa-hien, a Buddhist of the earlier Sung dynasty (A. D. 422). He set 
 out from CKdng-dn -fpr ^p in the year 405, during the Tsin ?| 
 dynasty, and traversed thirty countries on his way to India : (v. Imperial 
 Catalogue, large copy, kiuen 71. p. 4.) 
 
 IX. Mythology. 
 5 1 - Jliffl 'fill iitfi? Shin-sien-kien, 'Mirror of the divine immortals.' It 
 
 I* i 1 1 I "^ _LLll. 
 
 contains the myths relating to the Tauist deities and deified saints. The 
 story of Shakyamuni is told in the 5th chapter, and the work contains 
 other matter which is interesting on account of the bold independence 
 with which the stories are related.
 
 16 SOME OF THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 X. Poetry. 
 
 52. /Q- )!? ~5 Ts'uen T'dng shi, 'The poetry of the T'ang dynasty,' in 
 
 900 chapters. (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 53. ; j yj TT* U3 B' LI T'ai-pi tsl, ' Li-t'ai-pi's collection of poetry,' by 
 
 Li-t'af-pi of the T'ang dynasty *. 
 
 54. 1*1 j}j? Q JF^ Tung-po ts'uen-tsi, ( A complete collection of Tung-po's 
 
 odes,' in 15 chapters, by Su-shi of the Sung dynasty *. 
 
 XI. Painting, engraving, &c. 
 
 55- f t T^f" pfj #3j? P6-ku-t'u-lu, ' Investigation of antiques with plates,' 
 in 1 6 vols. This work affords valuable assistance in deciphering the 
 inscriptions upon metal and earthenware vases, some of which date 
 from very high antiquity. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 
 contains specimens and translations taken from this work. 
 
 XII. The drama. 
 56. ^r* yl TEf ^m Yuen-jin pe-chung, 'The hundred plays of the Yuen 
 
 dynasty.' A celebrated collection of dramas. The style is antiquated 
 colloquial, but clear. Several of these have been translated by Prof. Bazin, 
 Prof. Julien, and Sir John Davis. See Theatre Chinois by Prof. Bazin. 
 
 > T*^f ^/ ~_^ -fA -" 
 
 57' vM. S :!& Chul-pi-k'iu, 1 A collection of dramas,' in 43 vols. (Brit. Mus. 
 and R. A. S.) (For k'iu, v. sheet, 1263.) 
 
 XIII. Works of fiction. 
 
 The following names of novels are worth inserting. It is by reading such 
 works that the student will form a more lively conception of the genius of 
 the Chinese people, their customs, manners, and principles of action. The 
 romances are classified by the Chinese according to the quality of the com- 
 position and the nature of the story. They distinguish especially between 
 siau-shwo jh ~jy, lit. 'small talk,' '= novels of the lower order, pure fic- 
 tions; and hien-shu nJj j-, lit. 'leisure book,' = romances founded on 
 stories from real life and history. These they classify under the ten grades 
 of talent (tsai, /r) exhibited in their composition. The first or Tl-yi-tsai 
 shu is the 
 
 58. . |jM "IIV Sdn-kwti-chi, ' History of the three kingdoms,' a work in 20 
 
 small volumes. The style, which is terse, is very much admired for its 
 classic elegance. The story is founded upon the history of the three 
 
 * Li T'al-pl and Su Tung-po are the two great and popular poets of China. Their 
 surnames are LI and Su ; T'ai-pl and Tung-po are their names.
 
 SOME OP THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 17 
 
 kingdoms and the civil wars in China, which lasted nearly a century, from 
 A. D. 1 68 265. The author's name was Lo Kwan-chung, who founded 
 it upon a real history by Chin-sheu of the Tsin dynasty. See pp. 17 20, 
 of the native text, for a specimen of this work. A translation of a 
 portion of it has been made into French by M. Theod. Pavie, from the 
 Tartar version. 
 
 59- 71^ /pi T fffi Shwui-hu chuen, 'History of the shores' or ' History of 
 the robbers,' by Shi Nai-gan, in 20 vols. 12. This appeared originally 
 in the time of the Mongol emperors, and was reprinted in 1650. It is 
 a romance of the comic kind, and a good specimen of the style of 
 language used two or three centuries ago; it is therefore somewhat 
 antiquated, and the style is very prolix, a proof probably of its being 
 in the colloquial idiom. A specimen is to be found in the native 
 text of the Chrestomathy, pp. 13 16. 
 
 60. A/Hp }^f / f|u Hau-Jciu chuen, ( The story of the fortunate union,' 
 
 in 4 vols. 12. The style and contents of this work are admirable. 
 A translation of it was published in England, edited by Bishop Percy 
 in 1761, under the title of " The Pleasing History." But in the 
 elegant translation of it by Sir John F. Davis in 1829, the English 
 reader may find a really pleasing and instructive story, and on the 
 accuracy of the translation he may rely: pp. 8 12, of the native text, 
 afford a specimen of its style, which abounds in good colloquial expres- 
 sions, though some of them are perhaps antiquated. 
 
 6 1. T yfcm ^3. Hung-leu mung, ' Dreams of the red chamber,' in 20 vols. 
 
 I *- | >>S *^ 
 
 12. This is a popular work in the Peking dialect. A portion of it 
 was published in Thorn's Chinese Speaker in 1846. 
 
 62- -ft '&\ ^V. Tu-kiau-li, 'The two cousins,' in 4 vols. 12. This was 
 
 translated by M. Abel-Remusat in 1826. Like the Hau-k'iu chuen, it is 
 very good reading for the beginner and the general student of Chinese. 
 
 63. yjj llM ~^t* Li-kw6-chi. A history of the kingdoms into which China was 
 
 ^ "^ fltTt 
 
 divided in the Cheu jpj dynasty, worked up into the form of a romance. 
 It begins in the year B. C. 1 148, under the last emperor of* the Shdng |zc.t 
 dynasty, and ends B. C. 258, about the beginning of the Tsin ^j& dynasty. 
 It consists of 8 books. (B. M., R. A. S., Bod.) 
 
 XIV. Agriculture and weaving. 
 
 64. |f|| TPfr x5s fir Nung-ching ts'uen-shu, ' A complete work on 
 
 f^^ U.'\ . I.. * ' t"f|~ff 
 
 agriculture,' in 60 chapters, by Shii Kwang-hi of the Ming Ufj 
 dynasty. (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 PART II. D
 
 18 SOME OF THE CHIEF WORKS IN CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 65- Jfl 1 jiffy l^fj pj ~ Kang-chi t'u-shl, ' Plates and odes on agriculture 
 and weaving,' by Leu-chau of the Sung ^r*. dynasty. 
 
 XV. Encyclopaedias and compilations. 
 
 66. ^ ~/T |j||j ijjr San-tsal tu hwui, ' Plates and explanations on the three 
 powers' (i. e. heaven, earth, and man),in 60 vols. -An encyclopaedia illustrated 
 with woodcuts. It was composed under the Ming Wj dynasty, after the 
 arrival of Europeans in China. The author's name was Wdng-kl -p j rr. 
 He finished the work in 1607. (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 ^ Wdn-hient'dng-k'au,' Thorough examination into anti- 
 
 quity,' by Ma Twdn-lin , jj^ ja , who lived A. D. 1275. It con- 
 
 sists of 348 chapters; about no vols.; and includes articles upon ancient 
 government and tenures, ancient literature and writing, and many sub- 
 jects not even noticed in other works. A large amount of discrimination 
 is displayed in the book, and it will well repay the patient student's toil *. 
 (Brit. Mus.) 
 
 6%' yfe| 3?F? Zpp UM Yuen-kien-lul-hdn, in 139 vols., compiled by order 
 of the emperor K'ang-hi. This is an encyclopaedia, and contains a very 
 full account of subjects which come within the sphere of Chinese experi- 
 ence. It would afford a very large number of phrases for a good dic- 
 tionary of the Chinese language. (E. I. Comp.) 
 
 69- YIP $W 4^P fit Ts'ien-kid-lm-shu. This is an encyclopaedia, like 
 the preceding. It contains a full account of various matters connected 
 with the antiquities of China. (E. I. Comp.) 
 
 70. 7J^ jj ^ jfe. Yung-16 td-tien, 'The great classic of Yung-lS,' the 
 3rd emperor of the Ming dynasty, whose reign commenced A. D. 1403. 
 He was the reviver of literature. It consists of 22,877 chapters, and 
 contains many entire works, the original editions of which are lost. 
 
 7 1 ' ral 5?J l%! F^J Shdng-ku-pien-lan, 'A convenient index for mer- 
 chants,' in 6 vols. This small work is calculated to prove of use to the 
 merchant and the traveller. 
 
 72. |7| Ij|t A Ip'' jplfl El Si-ku ts'uen-shu tsung-mu, 'A general 
 
 catalogue of all the books in the four departments,' published by impe- 
 rial authority, in 112 vols. 12. There is an abridgment of this in 8 
 vols., which was published in 1774. (Both in Brit. Mus.) 
 
 * M. R^musat calls this work, in the Appendix to his Grammaire, " Le plus beau 
 monument de la litteYature chinoise, vaste collection de me'moires sur toutes sortes de 
 sujets, tre"sor d'eYudition et de critique, ou tout ce que 1'antiquit^ chinoise nous a laisse 1 
 de mate"riaux sur les religions, la legislation, 1'e'conomie morale et politique, le com- 
 merce, &c. &c. &c., vaut a lui seul toute une bibliotheque."
 
 CHINESE LITERARY COMPOSITION. 19 
 
 The above list will guide the student in his purchase of books and in his 
 study of Chinese literature. It remains for us to notice the different styles 
 of composition which will be met with, and to say a few words on the metres 
 of Chinese verse. 
 
 The style of the ku-wdn requires a separate study; there is a massive 
 grandeur about it, which is wanting in the lower orders of prose composition. 
 The term itself, ' ancient literature, 1 is peculiarly appropriate, for the cha- 
 racter of this style bears the stamp of antiquity. 
 
 The modern style of elegant essay writing, wdn-chdng, by expertness in 
 which the government officials attain their position and their literary rank, 
 may be characterised as the antithesis of the ku-wdn; the latter being terse 
 and expressive, pregnant in meaning and swelling with the thought, while the 
 former is diffuse and expansive, rhythmical and smooth, but barren of fresh 
 ideas, and elaborate only in the mode of expression. The ku-wdn labours to 
 exhibit the idea succinctly in a few words; the wdn-chdng repeats the idea, 
 and shows it under many forms of expression; the former is the sterling 
 gold, the latter is the same changed into the cumbrous equivalents of copper 
 and brass; and the genuine pearl is often hidden among the spurious imita- 
 tions which accompany it. Specimens of the wdn-chdng, as well as of the 
 other styles, are given in Goncalves' Arte China. Of the ku-wdn, the extracts 
 given in the Chrestomathy, from the Shu-king and the Sz-shu, will afford 
 specimens. 
 
 The style of ordinary books on history, topography, &c., is a medium 
 between the ku-wdn and the wdn-chdng. Less desire for elegant composition 
 prevails in this style; and it approaches what has been called the business 
 style, which is the idiom of the government papers, edicts, and official docu- 
 ments. There is a simplicity, but at the same time a stiffness and precision 
 about it. The Letter of the Commissioner Lin to the Queen of England and 
 several other papers will be found in the text of the Chrestomathy to exem- 
 plify this style. 
 
 The literary composition in novels varies very much ; some novels, such as 
 the Sdn-kwo chi, are classical. The style of this work, however, is less terse 
 than the ku-wdn, and dispenses in a great measure with the particles employed 
 in that style, while it approaches the ku-wdn in vigour of expression, although 
 the subjects treated of are very different. The romance style thus varies from 
 the high classical novel, down to the common story expressed in every day 
 colloquial. The extracts from the Sdn-kwo chi, the Hau-Jciu chuen, and the 
 Shwul-hu clmen will exemplify these remarks. But the language of conversa- 
 tion will form the first object of attention, for it is by this that the student will 
 communicate with his learned sien-sdng. This style it is which it has been 
 our object to elucidate. The pages of mandarin dialogues and phrases display 
 a great number of specimens of the mandarin or kwdn-hwd, in which, with all 
 its variations, (and it has many distinct phases,) great simplicity of style and 
 construction will be found to prevail. 
 
 The style and metre of modern verse among the Chinese differ materially 
 
 D 2
 
 CHINESE POETRY. 
 
 from those of ancient poetry. The common metre of the Shl-kmg, ' Book of 
 Odes,' is four syllables, and the style is cognate with that of the ku-wdn. 
 Chinese verse consists sometimes of four, sometimes of Jive, and sometimes of 
 seven or eight syllables ; they are regulated by the tones, which, when in this 
 connection, are divided into even and deflected. If we suppose a to represent 
 the even tone, b the deflected tone, and c the one or the other (common), the 
 verse of four lines and seven or eight syllables would run thus : 
 
 c-a-c-b-b-a-a c-b-c-a-b-b-a 
 
 c-b-c-a-a-b-b c-a-c-b-a-a-b 
 
 c-b-c-a-b-b-a c-a-c-b-b-a-a 
 
 c-a-c-b-b-a-a. c-b-c-a-b-b-a. 
 
 " There are six different sorts of poetry : ist, Fung JM , which contains the 
 principles of ancient sages for the promotion of social order. 2nd, Fu Pjr, 
 which contains a plain statement of virtues and vices. 3rd, PI Jr", which 
 satirizes by allusions, when the poet is afraid to speak plainly. 4th, Ring JJJ'H , 
 figurative allusion to encourage those who dislike flattery. 5th, Td /jg, which 
 contains correct rules and sentiments for posterity. 6th, Sung fi pj, which con- 
 tains direct praise of virtuous deeds *." 
 
 On the subject of the various styles of prose and metrical compositions, the 
 student may refer to Mr. Consul Meadows' "Desultory Notes on China;" 
 Allen, London, 1847; and "The Poetry of the Chinese" by Sir John Davis, 
 Bart., &c. &c., which appeared in the Transactions of the Koyal Asiatic 
 Society. 
 
 The passages printed in native character may now be read by the help of 
 the dictionary, notes, and translations. 
 
 The sounds of the characters and all the other aids have been given sepa- 
 rate from the text, because we think that, while all needful help should be given, 
 the textus nudus should be distinct, to enable the student to test his acquire- 
 ments; and, as a College text-book, it is necessary that the text, without 
 notes, should be read in class. 
 
 * See Dr. Morrison's Diet., Part III. p. 324.
 
 21 
 
 The following is a list of the passages in native character in the 
 Chrestomathy , which are also given in Roman type, with trans- 
 lations and notes. 
 
 Index to the native text. 
 
 1. Extract from the Shu-king (i) and (2) . . Pages r and 2 
 
 2. Epitaph of K'i-tez 2 
 
 3. Extract from the S-shti (i), (2), and (3) . . . . 3 5 
 
 4. Extract from the Sliing-yu (i) and (2) . . . 6 and 7 
 
 5. Extract from the ffau-k'iu chuen (i), (2), (3), (4), and (5) . 8 12 
 
 6. Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (i), (2), (3), and (4) . 13 16 
 
 7. Extract from the San-kwo chi (i), (2), (3), and (4) . . 17 20 
 
 8. Selections from ^Esop's Fables, translated (i) and (2) . .21 and 22 
 
 9. Official Papers (Lin's Letter to Queen Victoria) . -23 and 24 
 10. Official Papers (a Notice and a Petition) .... 25 
 n. Official Papers (Supplementary Treaty, 1844) . . . 26 
 
 12. Dialogues and Phrases in Mandarin (i), (2), (3), and (4) . 27 30 
 
 13. Extract from the Ching-yln tsui-yau . . . . 31 
 
 14. Epistolary Style ........ 32 
 
 15. Poetical Extracts (Ancient and Modern) .... 33 
 
 1 6. Proverbs ......... 34 
 
 17. Six pages lithographed come under the above heads thus : 
 
 pp. 9 and 10 under 13; pp. n, 12, and 13 under 7 ; p. 14 under 8. 
 
 Note The translations of the passages are in some parts free, because it was impossible 
 to make them literal ; in other parts the English may have suffered from a literal render- 
 ing. In every case the wants of the young students have been kept in view ; and the 
 author hopes that, with the aid here given and the assistance which may be derived from 
 the dictionary, all the passages in Chinese text will be rendered clear to his intelligence.
 
 22 KU-WAN. SHU-KING. [l.a. h. 4.] 
 
 1. Extract from the Shu-king (i), v. native text, page i. 
 
 a. 2. Shu-king. Yu-shu. Yl Tsi. Ti yu: "Lai Yu! ju yl ch'dng yen." 
 
 a. 19. Yii pai, yu: " Tu Ti ! yu lid yen? yu si jl tsz-tsz." Kau-yau yu : 
 
 b. 5. " Hu! ju-hd?" Yuyu: " Hung-shwul t'au t'ien hau-hau, hwai-shdn 
 
 b. 18. sidng-llng, hid-min hwan-tien, yu shing sz-tsai, sui-sJidn kan-mu; ki 
 
 c. 3. Yl tseu shu sien shl, yu kiu kiu-ch'uen, k'u sz-hai, siun k'iuen Jewel k'u 
 
 c. 19. ch'uen; ki Tsi po tseu shu kien-shl sien shl, mau ts'ien yiu wu, hwd 
 
 d. 4. ku; chlng mm nal ll, wdn pdng ts6 i." Kau-yau yu : " Yu! sz ju 
 
 d. 19. ch'dng yen" Yu yu : (l Tu Ti ! shin nal tsai wei." Ti yu : " Yu /" Yu 
 
 e. 3. yu: "Gan ju chl, wei kl wei kdng, k'i pi chi; wei tung pel ying i chi, 
 
 e. 20. I chau sheu Shdng-ti, t'ien k'i shin ming yung hiu." Ti yu: " Hti! 
 .4. Chln-tsal! Lin-tsal! Lin-tsal! Chln-tsal!" Yuyu: "Yu!" Tiyu: 
 
 f. 17. " Chin ts6 chin ku-kwdng d,r-mu: yu yu ts6-yiu yiu min, jil yl; yu 
 
 g. 3. yu siuen-ll sz-fdng,ju wei; yu yu kwdn ku-jin chl sidng,jl, yu, sing, 
 g. 20. shin, shdn, lung, hwd, ch'ung ts6 hwui tsung-i, tsau-ho f&n-ml fu-fu 
 
 The Shu-king is the most ancient record possessed by the Chinese, and is consequently 
 very fragmentary. It is said to have consisted originally of 100 ., forty- two of which 
 are lost ; and some of those which remain are considered to be spurious. All the copies 
 which could be found were burnt by the Emperor Chl of the Tsm dynasty (B.C. 220), 
 because this work kept alive the desire to return to the ancient regime. But on the 
 revival of literature under Wan-ti of the Han dynasty (B.C. 178), the text was reco- 
 vered from an old blind man who could repeat it from memory and understood its 
 meaning. This imperfect restoration was afterwards improved on Kung-wang finding 
 in the ruins of the house of K'ung-tsz (Confucius) a copy of the original, written in the 
 ancient (tadpole) character. These are the sources of the present editions. The style 
 is very quaint, and the meaning compressed into few words. This renders the sense 
 obscure in many passages ; the commentators are at a loss to explain it sometimes, and 
 few of the Chinese care to understand its meaning, though the book itself is held in 
 great veneration by them. The first book is called "the Book of Yu," because it con- 
 tains some account of the affairs of the Emperor Shun, who took the designation Yu on 
 coming to the throne. 
 
 This section is called Yl-Tsl, because Yu mentions the names of these two men as 
 having helped him in his great works. 
 
 Ti (a. 1 1) ' the Emperor,' i. e. Shun* (B.C. 2200 ?). The commentary from which these notes 
 are derived was written during the Sung dynasty (A. D. 1200). This passage is evidently 
 a continuation of the last section. Kau-yau had been counselling the Emperor on the 
 knowledge of mankind and on giving peace to the people, and then the Emperor asked 
 Yu to speak. Yu replies: "What can I say more? I always strive to do my duty to 
 the utmost." Kau-yau asks how he does that. Hung-shwul (b. 10) 'the flood.' This 
 has led some to think the Flood of Noah was intended, but there is no evidence to prove 
 it; great inundations have at different times devastated China. Sd-tsai (b. 27) 'the 
 four vehicles,' by which is meant boats, carriages, sledges, and spiked-shoes. Sien-shl (c. 6) 
 'fresh food' or 'fish and flesh to eat.' This includes fish and fowl, and the flesh of the 
 tortoise and of other animals. The term kiu-ch'uen (c. 10), 'the nine streams,' means 'all 
 the rivers.' 
 
 Yu exemplified the meaning of daily exertion by showing how he had persevered to
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. HISTORY. 23 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shu-king (i), v. native text, page i. 
 
 The Shu-king or Classic of History *. The book of Yii. TJie section catted 
 Yl and Tsl. The Emperor said : " Come Yu ! You also throw light on the 
 subject !" Yu bowed and said : " Good, my liege ! what can I say in addition ? 
 but I aim daily to do the utmost." Kau-yau exclaimed : " Well, how is that?" 
 Yu replied : " When the mighty waters rose to the skies with a swelling inun- 
 dation, encompassing the mountains and overtopping the hills, and the poor 
 people were sinking in despair, I adapted for the occasion the four methods of 
 conveyance, and all along the mountains I cut down wood, and, with Yl, I 
 introduced the various kinds of fish and flesh to eat; I formed the nine 
 streams, and led away the waters to the four seas ; I deepened the ditches and 
 brooks, and led away their waters to the streams. With Tsi I sowed seed, and 
 brought all this into notice ; as it was difficult to get food, fresh food of ani- 
 mals was given to eat. I exerted myself to promote the exchange of goods 
 and to convert things into money. All the people then had food to eat, and 
 all the nations were well governed." Kau-yau said : " Very good ! Instructive 
 are your excellent words ! " Yu proceeded : " Yes ! my liege ! Cautious should 
 those on the throne be ! " The Emperor replied : " Right ! " Yu continued : 
 " Rest in the judgment your mind comes to; only be exact, tranquil, and firm; 
 the ministers should be upright, then whenever any action of state arises, the 
 result will fully answer to your expectations and schemes, and so it will be 
 clearly shown that you are receiving God's command, and Heaven, in making 
 known its will, will employ great blessings." The Emperor said : " Right ! 
 Ah ! ministers and attendants ! How important they are /" Yu remarked again: 
 " Quite right ! " The Emperor proceeded : " You ministers are my legs and 
 arms, my ears and eyes : when I desire to assist my people, you help me ; 
 when I wish to extend my power every where, you act for me ; when I wish 
 to behold the models descended from the ancients, the sun, the moon, the 
 stars, the mountains, the dragon, the variegated insects, which were painted, 
 the sacred vases (with the monkey depicted upon them), the water-plant, the 
 fire, the white rice, the hatchet, the double-hook, which were all embroidered 
 with the five colours upon the five kinds of silk to make the clothing, you 
 
 carry off the waters of the deluge, and so he communicated the admonition to care and 
 industry, as pre-requisites to success in government. Gdnju* chl (i. e. 4) 'rest where you 
 arrive,' i. e. 'be satisfied with the judgment your mind naturally comes to, and let it not 
 be affected by sinister motives afterwards.' Jl, yu", <fcc. (i. g. 17), 'sun, moon, &c.' 
 These figures were worked in colours upon the court dresses, as symbols of the deities, 
 and of the qualities of filial piety, cleanliness, decision, and discrimination. The first six 
 were painted on the robe, the second six embroidered on the skirts of the dress ; the moun- 
 tains were the representations of the gods of the country, the dragon was employed as an 
 emblem of change, and the 'variegated insect' or animal, which was a beautiful bird, was 
 an example of variety in colour. The five colours were all used on each kind of silk. 
 For pictures of these objects, the reader may refer to the Shu-king by Dr. Medhurst, p. 71. 
 
 * The words in Italics are not translations from the text,
 
 24 KU-WAN. SHD-Kma. [1. h. 5. 2. c. 10.] 
 
 h. 5. chl-siu, I wit ts'di chdng shl yu wit si ts6fu,ju ming; yd yu wdn lu- 
 ll. 23. liu, wu-shlng,pd-yln, tsai chi hwu, I ch'u nd, wu yen, ju t'lng; yd wei, 
 i. 10. fa pi; jit wu mien tsung, t'ui yiu heu-yen, kin sz-lln! shti hwdn chdn 
 i. 26. shw6, j6 pu tsai sM, heft I ming chl; td I ki chl. Shu yung shl tsai ! yu 
 j. 14. ping sang tsai! kung I nd yen, sM dr ydng chl; kd tsl chlng chl, yung 
 j. 30. chl; feu, tsl wei cJii." Yu yu: "Yu-tsal? Ti-kwdng t'ien chl hid, 
 k. 14. chi yu hal yu ts'dng-sdng ; wdn pang ll hien, kung wei Ti chin; wei 
 k. 29. Ti shi ku,fu-nd \-yen, ming-shti l-kung, ku-fu \-yung ; shut kdn pu- 
 1. 17. jdng, kdn pu-klng-ying ? Ti pu shi, fu t'ung jl tseu kdng-kung; wu 
 m. 2. ju Tdn-chu gau, wei mdn yiu shi hau, gau-ni6 shi-ts6, kdng cheu ye 
 m. 18. ge-ge; kdng shwul hing cheu, pang yin yu kid, yung t'ien kiu shi; yu 
 n. 3. chwdng ju-shi, tsui yu T'u-shdn hing jin kwal kid; Ki ku-ku dr kl, yu 
 n. 20. fu tsz, wei hwdng to t'u kung; pi ching wufu, chi yu wu ts'ien; cheu 
 o. 6. shl yiu d,r sz, wai p6 sz-hal; hdn kien wu chdng, ko tl yiu kung ; 
 o. 22. Miau hwdnfA tsl kung, Ti k'i nien tsai." 
 
 2. Extract from the Shu-king (2), v. native text, page 2. 
 
 a. i. Ti yu : " Tl chin te, shi nal kung wei su ; Kau-yau fang k'i 
 
 a. 15. ku su, fang shi sidng hing wei ming." Kw'ei yu : "kid-kl ming- 
 
 a. 28. k'iu, twdn-fu k'in-se I yung ; tsu k'au lai kd, yu pin tsai wei, 
 
 b. 13. kiiin heu te jdng ; hid kwdn t'au-kit, h6 chl chu-yu, sang yung \ kien; 
 b. 29. niau-sheu ts'idng-ts'idng ; siau shad kiu ching, fung-hwdng lai i." 
 
 .... Ch'u-na (i. i. 2, 3) 'odes and ballads.' Ctiu 'odes' from superiors; na 'songs' from 
 inferiors. Their respective characters were displayed in their compositions. HeiJt 
 (i. j. i) 'the target.' This relates to a custom mentioned in the Cheu-ll^ 'the cere- 
 monies of the Cheu dynasty.' This and the other modes of trial were probably similar in 
 spirit to the ancient ordeal practised in other countries. The T'-A-shdn 'the mountain 
 Tu' was situated in Lat. 32*. 34' N. Long. o. 16' E. of Peking. The scene of these events 
 was in the country now known by the name of Shan-tung c , a province in the north of 
 China. 
 
 The five tenures here mentioned are the divisions of land made in those early times ; 
 their names were Tien*, lleu e , Sut { , Yati*, Hwang*. The people here called Miau are 
 the Miau-tsz, a distinct tribe, supposed to be the aborigines of China. They still exist as 
 a clan in the west-central provinces, and lead a wild life in the mountains. An account 
 of forty-one tribes of these people is given in the Chinese Repository, vol. XIV. p. 105. 
 
 Ming-k'i'A (2. a. 27, 28), 'the sounding stone,' means the sonorous gem which was 
 formed of a piece of jade stone, which, being suspended in a frame, emitted a pleasant 
 sound when struck. T'ad-ku (2. b. 19), 'the tambour,' was like a drum, but smaller; it 
 was furnished with a handle, and, on being shook, the balls which were attached struck the 
 instrument. ChO-yiP (2. b. 23, 24), ' the rattle,' was a tub, two cubits and four inches in 
 diameter, and two cubits and eight inches deep. A hammer was fitted to it, by which it 
 was struck. 'The stopper' was in form like a crouching tiger, on the back of which were 
 twenty-seven indentations. When the music was to begin they shook the rattle, and 
 when it was to stop they drew a style made of wood along the tiger's back.
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. HISTORY. 25 
 
 clearly set them before me. When I wish to hear the six notes, the five sounds 
 and the eight tones of music, in what consists right government or the contrary, 
 as concerns the odes of the higher classes and the ballads of the lower classes, 
 each of five syllables, you listen for me. When I depart from the right way, 
 you help me to return. You do not in my presence be complaisant, and on 
 retiring have a different expression. Thoughtful should the four attendants 
 be ! All those who rudely misrepresent things, if they do not alter in time, 
 test them by archery, in order to enlighten them ; punish them with whips, so 
 as to remind them of their duty. The Record, how useful to know it * ! We 
 wish, too, to preserve their lives ! The chief musician will receive the words 
 appointed, and constantly inspire these men with them. If they repent, 
 recommend them and employ them; if not, overawe them." Yu said: "Is 
 that right? Your majesty's glory should be spread through all the empire, 
 even to the corners of the ocean, and the blue distance that arises, the 
 myriads of nations, and the virtuous of your own people, would then become 
 your subjects. But let your majesty ever raise these 'men; when they report, 
 receive their words, and declare each according to his merits, by giving 
 chariots and robes to render them constant. Who then would presume not 
 to yield, and reverently to comply 1 ? If your majesty do not so, they will all be 
 corrupt alike, and there will be daily reports of unworthy proceedings. Do 
 not, as Tan-chu, be proud, who, while only rambling about, delighted to insult 
 and oppress, doing evil day and night continually. Where no water was, 
 he wished to sail, and he corrupted those at home; and so he caused his 
 succession to be cut off. I was admonished by this, and having married at 
 Tu-shan, only four days I remained there. When my child Ki fretted and 
 wept, I did not caress him, but I considered the important duty of levelling 
 the land. I assisted in completing the five laws of tenure, to the distance 
 of five thousand II. In every district I appointed twelve officers. Beyond 
 these districts, even to the four seas, I established the five elders, each of 
 whom has some merit; but the Miau people are stubborn and will not go 
 to work. May your majesty bear this in mind ! " 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shu-king (2), native text, page 2. 
 The Emperor said : " As respects walking after my virtuous rules, it is ever 
 to your merit alone that the arrangement of it is due. Kau-yau then took 
 with respect that arrangement of yours, and thereupon added the forms of 
 punishment, being very discerning." Kw'ei said : " When they struck the 
 sonorous stone, and swept across the harp and lyre to make their chord with 
 the chant, then the manes of our ancestors and progenitors came near; the 
 guest of Yu was presiding, and the multitude of nobles bravely gave homage. 
 Below were pipes and tambours, which accompanied or ceased in accordance 
 with the rattle and the stopper; the organ and the bell were used for the 
 interludes. The birds and beasts were set in motion, and when they played 
 the nine airs of Shun music, the Fung birds came and acted the rites." 
 
 * A book was kept in which the conduct of officials was noted down. 
 PART II. E
 
 26' KU-WAN. KI-TSZ PI. [2. C.I I . 2. 0. 1 1 .] 
 
 c. ii. Kio'ei-yu: " Yu yu kl-shi fu-shl, pd-shati su wu, shu yun yun hiai." 
 
 c. 27. Ti yung tso ko, yu: " Che t'ien chl ming, wei ski, wet kl;" nal ko 
 
 d. 12. yu : " Ku-kwdng hi tsal! yuen-sheu k'i tsal! pe-kung hi tsal /" 
 
 d. 25. Kau-yau pai-sheu k'l-sheu ydng-yen yu : "Nientsal! su-tso hlng s, 
 
 e. 10. shin nal hien ! Kln-tsal! lu sang nai ching; kln-tsal!" Nal kdng tsai 
 
 e. 24. ko yu : " Yuen-sheu ming tsal ! ku-kwdng lidng tsal ! shU si kdng 
 
 f. 7. tsal!" Yiu ko yu: "Yuen-sheu ts'ung-ts'6 tsal; ku-kwdng to tsal! 
 
 f. 20. wdn-sz to tsal!" Tipaiyu: "Yu! wdng kln-tsal!" 
 
 2. Epitaph of Kl-tsz, v. native text, pages 2 and 3. 
 
 g. 2. Kl-tsz pi. Liu Tsung-yuen. Fan td-jin chl tau ylu sdn : yi yu, 
 g. 21. ching mung ndn; dr yu,fd sheu shing; sdn yu, hwd kl min. Yin yiu 
 h. 6. jtnjin, yu : Kl-tsz. Shi k-d tsz tau, I U yu shi. Ku K'ung-tsz shu lu-klng 
 h. 25. chl chl, yiu yln-kln yen. Tang Cheu chl shi, td tau pei-lwdn, t'ien-wel 
 i. ii. chl tung pu^ndng kiai, shing jln chl yen wu-so-yung; tsin-sz i ping- 
 i. 27. ming, ching jin 1. Wu-yl wu-sz, ku pu-wei; wel-shln I tsan-sz, ching 
 j. 14. jin 1. Yii-wdng wu-kwS, kupu-jln; tsie shi d,r tau, yiu hing-chl-che-ye*: 
 k. 2. Shi yung pau k'i ming-che, yu chl fu-ydng ; hwiii shi mu-fdn, ju yu 
 k. 18. tsiu nu; hwan dr wu sie, t'ui dr pu si: ku tsai Yl yu: "Kl-tsz chl 
 1. 5. ming i" ching mung ndn ye. Kl t'ien-ming kl-kal, sdng-jin I ching, 
 1. 20. nal ch'u td-fd, yung wei shing sz. Cheu jin tl i sti l-ldn dr ll td-tien, ku 
 m. 10. tsai /ShU yu: "I Kl-tsz kwel ts6 hung-fdn,fd sJteu shing ye;" klfung 
 m. 26. Chau-sien, t'ui tau hiun-su; wei tl wu leu, wei jin wu yuen; yung 
 n. ii. kwdng yln sz, pi i wei hwd; hwd kl min ye. Su shi td-tau, tsu yii 
 n. 28. ku kung; t'ien-t'i pien-hwd, ngo tl k'i ching, k'i td-jin yu ! 
 
 Ki-ts was a relative of the tyrant Ched-sln^ (B. C. 1 1 12), and was obliged to save his life 
 from the Emperor's anger, on being reproved, by feigning madness. The greatest enormities 
 were perpetrated by this monarch and his queen Tdn-kl e , who had been taken captive by 
 him after a victory. To please her he invented the most extravagant methods of torture, 
 immoral songs and dances, with the worst abominations of heathen lands. Pi-kan (2. o. 24) 
 was the first martyr for reproving the king. Wu-w&ng (3. a. ii), 'the martial king,' at 
 last rid the world of this monster. He made a solemn appeal to heaven, imposed an oath 
 on his nobles, and proceeded to battle. Cheh sent 700,000 men against him, but they had 
 no will to fight; and Che&'g army being routed, he himself retired to the stage, which 
 he had erected for other purposes, and burnt himself in sumptuous robes and jewels. 
 Tdn-kl was slain by Wu-wdny, the victorious general. 
 
 The style of this passage is very classical and elegant ; for the arrangement of the words, 
 and the antithesis to be observed in some sentences, the original text must be studied. 
 See Medhurst's Shoo-king, p. 363, and Morrisons View of China for Philological Purposes, 
 Chronology, p. 53. 
 
 Shing A (i. g. 28), which means the highest qualities of goodness and vrisdom, may often 
 be translated ' saint' or ' sacred,' and is frequently translated ' sage.' As it can apply only 
 to those who stand apart from the rest of mankind, either on account of their virtues or 
 their wisdom, and generally for both reasons, the rendering 'sacred sages' seems appro- 
 priate in this epitaph.
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. KI-TSZ's EPITAPH. 27 
 
 Kwei went on to say : " While I was striking and jingling the sonorous stones, 
 all the beasts came forth to play, and all the officials were sincerely cordial." 
 The Emperor composed an original ode, to wit : " that men should be careful 
 about heaven's commands, be constant, and be exact." Then he sang, saying : 
 " When statesmen (arms and legs) are glad to serve, the head of the state 
 arises to action, and all public undertakings flourish." Kau-yau bowed with 
 his hands and bent his head, and murmured out, saying : " Bear in mind this ! 
 The sovereign begins the affair, let him be careful about his regulations ! Be 
 careful, and often search into the end of affairs ! Be careful ! " Then he joined 
 and completed the ode, saying : " When the head of the state is intelligent, 
 the statesmen will be virtuous, and all affairs will be prosperous." Again 
 he sang, saying : " If the head of the state be very stringent in his demands, 
 the ministers will be careless, and every thing will fall into ruin." The 
 Emperor bowed and said : " Very right ! Go ! and be careful !" 
 
 Translation of the Epitaph of K'l-tsz, v. native text, pages 2 and 3. 
 Ki-tsz' s epitaph, by Liu Tsung-yuen. Great men generally have three prin- 
 ciples of action; first, they act correctly in adversity; secondly, they give an 
 example to the sacred sages ; thirdly, they reform the people. In Yin there 
 was a pious man named Ki-tsz; he was fully furnished with these principles 
 for an example to the world. For this reason K'ung-tsz, in compiling the six 
 classics, took care diligently to notice these points. In the time of Cheu, these 
 great principles were so utterly perverted, that the power and majesty of heaven 
 was not sufficient to restore them to order. The words of the sacred sages 
 were without good effect ; to rush into death and to be regardless of life was 
 then true piety. There being no profit in keeping the sacred rites, they kept 
 them not ; but to bow and reverently to preserve those rites was true piety. 
 To give himself up to die for his country, he had not the courage ; but he had 
 two virtues; by the preservation of his intelligence he bestowed it upon all 
 ranks, through concealing his counsels and plans he was disgraced to imprison- 
 ment and bondage ; in obscurity he was without depravity, and when ruined 
 he did not sigh in despair. Therefore in the Yi-(king) it is said : Ki-tsz's illus- 
 trious quality was contentment, he acted correctly in adversity. The decree 
 of heaven being changed, that the living might turn to righteousness, he issued 
 his great law, as a model to the sacred sages. The men of Cheu succeeded, 
 by arranging in order the invariable law of the human relations, in establishing 
 the great civil code. Therefore in the Shu-(king) it is said : Ki-tsz restored 
 the great plan, and thus he gave an example to the sacred sages. And being 
 appointed to Chau-sien (Corea), he promoted virtue and taught good manners. 
 He considered virtuous principles without reference to rank, and he regarded 
 men without reference to distance of abode. By using widely and diligently 
 sacrificial rites, he made the barbarians to become civilized Chinese ; thus he 
 proceeded to reform the people. He followed these great laws, and united 
 them in himself. Amid the changes and transmutations of the universe, if one 
 succeed in upholding the right, that will be to act the great man indeed !
 
 28 KU-WAN. SZ-SHU. LAN-YU. [2. O. I 2. 3. j. 29.] 
 
 o. 12. Yu hu! Tang k'l Cheu-shl wl chl, Yin si wl t'ien, Pl-kdn I sz, 
 
 0. 28. Wel-tsz I k'u, hidng shi Gheu 6 wl jln dr tsz pi; Wu kdng nien Iwdn 
 
 a. 22. I t'u tsdn, kw6 wu lei jln shut yu hlng-ll, shi ku jin sz chl hwo-jen- 
 
 b. 10. che ye, jen tsi sien-sdng yln-jln dr wel tsz. K'l yiu chl yu sz hu! 
 b. 26. T'dng tneu nien, men yu, meuji ts6 miau kl kiun sul shi chl sz. 
 
 3. Extract from the Sz-shti (i), Ldn-yu, v. native text, page 3. 
 
 d. 2. Sz-shu. Ldn-yu. Tsz yu: " Hid dr shi si chl, pu yi yu hu! Yiu 
 
 d. 20. pdng tsz yuen-fdng lai, pu yi Id lift ! Jin pu chl dr pu wdn, pu yi 
 
 e. 7. kiun-tsz hu!" Yiu-tsz yu : " K*i weijin ye hiau ti dr hau-fdn-shdng- 
 
 e. 23. che, sien 1. Pu-hau fdn-shdng dr hau-ts6-lwdn-che, tvi-chl-yiu ye. 
 
 f. 9. Kiun-tsz wu p&n, ph,n li dr tau sang. Hiau-ti-ye-che, k'i wet jln chl 
 
 f. 26. pan yu!" Tsz yu: " Kiau yen ling si, sien I jln." Tsdng-tsz yu: 
 
 g. 10. "wuji sdn sang, wu-shln wel-jln meu dr pu-chung hu? yu pdng-yiu 
 g. 26. kiau dr pu-sln hu ? ch'uen jw-si hu?" Tsz yu : " Tau ts'ien shing chl 
 h. ii. kw6, king si dr sin, tsi yung dr ngal jln, shl-mln I shi." Tsz yu: 
 h. 27. " Ti tsz ji, tsi hiau; cKu,tsltl; kin dr sin,fdnngai chung, dr tslnjln: 
 
 1. 14. hlng yiu yu li, tsi I hid-wdn." Tsz-hid yu: " Hien hien yi shi; sz 
 i. 30. fu-mu, ndng ki k'l li; sz kiun, ndng chl k'l shin; yu pdng-yiu kiau, 
 j. 16. yen dr yiu sin; sul yu : ' wl hid? wu pi wel chl hi6 I." 
 
 The character jtn* (2. h. 6), which is commonly translated 'benevolence, humanity/ &c., 
 might be rendered 'piety' or 'virtue.' It signifies the practice of those virtues which 
 constitute a good citizen, a kind father, a dutiful son, an affectionate husband, a loving 
 brother and a faithful friend ; characters which are involved in the five human relations 
 (wd-llm), according to the Chinese. In the first case here jtn (2. i. 29) would stand for 
 ' patriotism,' in the second (2. j. 14) for 'filial piety.' 
 
 The following notices of Pi-lean, Wei-tsz, and Tan-ki, which are given in Goncalves'^rfe 
 China, translated by Sir John Bowring, may interest the reader : v. Chinese Repository, 
 vol. XX. p. 96. i. Pi-kan*, ' the living one without a heart' (B. C. 1 140), was the elder 
 brother of Ched-sln, by a concubine. He was a saint, and esteemed so by his brother, but 
 being hated by his sister-in-law Tdn-kl, on account of his admonitions, she said to Che& it 
 would be easy to ascertain whether he was a saint or not, for if so he would have seven 
 holes in his heart. Moved by curiosity, Che& ordered his heart to be extracted, and seven 
 holes were found in it ; but as the saint had secured himself against death, he went to 
 another country. Here meeting a man who was selling onions, he asked him what 
 vegetable it was, and the man answering that it was a vegetable without a heart, he 
 remembered that he himself had none, and died in a swoon. 2. Wei-tsz >c , ' the astronomer' 
 (B. C. 1150), brother of Pl-kdn, seeing the tyrannical acts of Che&, fled in alarm, and 
 carrying with him the astronomical books in which he was well versed, went to the west, 
 to whose inhabitants he communicated his knowledge ; hence it is that Europeans obtained 
 treasures of science which China lost. 3. Tdn-kl A , ' the lovely sporter' (B. C. 1 130), one of 
 the four beautiful wives of tyrant CheH e . She was fond of lighting the alarm watch-houses, to 
 see the soldiers in movement, but when the enemy really came, and the watch-house was 
 lighted, the soldiers did not appear ; so the tyrant lost his head, and she being burned, was 
 transformed, some say into a guitar, which she had been before, others say into a fox.
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. " THE POUR BOOKS." CONFUCIUS. 29 
 
 Alas ! The time of the CJieu (dynasty) not yet being come, the sacrificial 
 rites of Yin not yet being done away, Pi-kan being dead, Wei-tsz having 
 departed; all tended towards the fall of Cheu (the tyrant) in death before his 
 wickedness reached its height. While Wu was thinking on revolution as a 
 means for the kingdom's preservation, had this man been absent, who would 
 have assisted in restoring order ? It was assuredly this man's work doubtless ! 
 Yea ! this scholar, concealing himself patiently, worked thus ; he had intended 
 this very thing ! 
 
 In the T'ang (dynasty) in a certain year, in a certain month, on a certain 
 day this temple was raised to lead the city annually to perform the sacrifice. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from theSz-shu (i), Ldn-yu, v. native text, page 3.) 
 
 The Master * said : " To learn, and constantly to dwell on the subject, is it 
 not a pleasure ! To have friends, come from a distance, is it not enlivening ! 
 The man who is misunderstood, and who is yet free from indignation, is he 
 not a superior man!" Yiu-tsz said: "Those who, as men, show themselves 
 dutiful, both as sons and as younger brothers, and yet like to resist their 
 superiors, are few; men who dislike resisting superiors and yet like creating 
 rebellion are not to be found ! The superior man busies himself with funda- 
 mentals; the foundation being laid, then, as a consequence, good principles of 
 action are produced. The duties of sons and younger brothers ! these surely 
 form the foundation of all reciprocal virtues." The Master said: "Crafty 
 words and a specious exterior are seldom found with virtue ! " Tsang-tsz said : 
 " I daily on three points examine ; viz. Have I, in acting for others, devised 
 any thing unfaithfully? Have I, in my intercourse with friends, been insincere? 
 Have I delivered instruction which I have not practised?" The Master said: 
 " In ruling a country of a thousand chariots, let there be respect for industry 
 and honesty ; let frugality be coupled with benevolence ; and, in engaging the 
 people, let the seasons be considered." The Master said : " As for young 
 men, while they remain at home, let them be obedient to their parents ; when 
 they go out, let them act in submission to their elders. Let them be diligent 
 and sincere, show love to all, and make friends of the virtuous. If, after busi- 
 ness is done, there is any surplus strength, then let them use it in the cultiva- 
 tion of learning." Tsz-hid said : " By giving the virtuous their due, and so 
 obtaining an equivalent for vicious desires ; in serving parents, to be able to 
 use the whole strength ; in serving the prince, to be able to devote the life ; 
 in communicating with friends, to be sincere in word ; although a person who 
 does this may be deemed unlearned, I must call him learned indeed." 
 
 * The term ' master,' which is here adopted from Dr. Legge's translation, seems very 
 appropriate as the translation of ts a , which in this passage, and often, means ' the great 
 teacher,' Confucius himself. It accords with the use of the word in our translations 
 of the Gospels for 5jSa<r/coXos, excepting that this term ts is used by itself to mean ' the 
 r,' par excellence, and is never so used for any other of the philosophers. 
 
 a ^
 
 30 KU-WAN. SZ-SHU. SHANG-MANG. [3.J.3O. 4. g-3-] 
 
 j. 30. Tsz yu : " Kiun-tsz pu chung, tsi pu wet; M6, tsi pu ku; chu chung 
 
 k. 15. sin, wti yiu pu ju I che; kwo, tsi wu tan kal." Tsdng-tsz yu: " Shin- 
 
 1. i. chung chiil-yuen, min te kwel heu I." Tsz-k'in wdn yu Tsz-kung yu: 
 
 1. 16. " Fu-tsz chi yu shi pang ye, pi wdn k'i ching; k'iu chl yu, yi yu chl 
 
 m. 3. yu 1 " Tsz-kung yu : "'Fu-tsz wan, lidng, kung, kien,jdng, i te chl; fu-tsz 
 
 m. 19. chl k'iil chl ye, k'i chu-i hu jin chl k'iu chl yu!" Tsz yu: " Fu tsai, 
 
 n. 6. kwdn k'i chi; fu mu, kwdn k'i hing : sdn nien wu kal yu fu chl tau, 
 
 n. 23. k'd wei hiau I." Yiu-tsz yu: " Ll-chl yung ho wet kwel; sien wdng 
 
 o. 7. chl tau, sz wet mel : siau td yiu chl, yiu so pu htng. Chl-Ji6 dr ho pu I 
 
 o. 26. II tsi chl, yl pu-k'o hing ye" 
 
 4. Extract from the Sz-shti (2), Shdng-mdng, v. native text, page 4. 
 
 a. 2. Mdng-tsz wei Tsi Siuen-wdng yu: " Wdng chl chin yiu t'6 k'i ts'l- 
 
 a. 1 6. tsz yu k'i yiu, dr chl Ts'u yiu che; pi k'i fan ye, tsi tung-nui k'i ts'l-tsz, 
 
 b. 5. tsi ju chl ho?" Wdng yu: "K'i chl." Yu: " Sz-sz pu ndng chl sz, tsi 
 
 b. 21. juchlhd?" Wdngyu: "ichl." Yu: " Sz-kmg chi niii pu chi,tsiju 
 
 c. 7. chl h6?" Wdng ku tsd-yiu dr yen t'd. Mdng-tsz yu: " /So wei ku- 
 0.26. kw6che,flweiyiuk'iau-muchiweiye,yiushi-chinchlweiye. Wdng 
 
 d. 13. wu ts'ln-chin i; si che so tsin, kln-ji pu chl k'i wdng ye" Wdng yu: 
 
 d. 30. " Wu hd t shi k'i pu tsai dr sh chl ? " Yu : " Kwo kiun tsin Men ju 
 
 e. 1 6. pu-te-l, tsidng-shi pi yu tsan, su yu tsi, k'd pu shin yu! Tsd-yiu kial 
 .4. yu: 'Men,' wi-k'o ye; chu td-fu kial yu: 'Men,' wi-k'o ye; kw6-jin 
 
 f. 20. kial yu: ' Men,' jen-heu ch'd chl kien: Men yen,jen-heu yung chl" 
 
 Sd-shii (3. d. 2), 'the Four Books,' may be looked upon (like the Penteteuch with the 
 Jews), as containing the moral and political principles of the Chinese. This passage is 
 taken from the L&n-yii, ' the Dialogues ' or discourses of Confucius and his disciples. 
 Yu a (3. d. 1 7) is here represented by the character shw8 b . It expresses the internal 
 feeling of pleasure induced by thinking over something in which the mind delights. In 
 opposition to W c (3. d. 27), which means the external manifestation of pleasure, cheerfulness, 
 gladness. C% d might have been looked for after chi (e. i) or hwun (e. 4); but the form 
 of the sentence agrees with that of the two previous clauses, in which che~ is omitted. 
 Observe the change of tone in hati (e. 20), which here means ' to like, to love.' Sien-ljtn e 
 (3. g. 4), ' few pious,' is an unusual construction. Jin is in apposition here, as frequently, 
 and this will explain the form of expression. Sien-l is the predicate of the sentence, and/Jra 
 is added, as it were by apposition, and makes a relative clause like an attributive, ' who 
 are pious.' For a critical history of the text the student may refer to Dr. Legge's Chinese 
 Classics, vol. I. Prolegomena, p. 1 2. Dr. Legge translates Z/un-yu by ' Confucian Analects." 
 
 The subjects of the work are very various ; filial piety is held to be the prime duty and 
 the foundation of all virtue. The fragmentary nature of the work precludes any analysis 
 of its contents. The Chinese have made two great divisions of it into Shdng-lun, ' upper 
 or first lun,' and Hid-lun, 'lower or second lun.' From the terseness of the style and the 
 necessity, in translations of this kind, of giving the meaning as literally as possible, the 
 entire sense cannot well be conveyed, it would indeed need a paraphrase to make the full 
 idea clear to the English reader. The first passage here given, for example, would be repre- 
 sented in a paraphrase in some such phrase as this : ' What agreeable sensations arise in our 
 minds when we think again on that which, by constant reiteration and practice, we have
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. " THE FOUR BOOKS." MENCIU8. 31 
 
 The Master said : " If the superior man * be not grave, then he will not 
 command respect ; let him study and then he will not be vulgar, let him esti- 
 mate in the highest degree fidelity and truth, let him be without friends except- 
 ing those like himself; when in error then let him not be afraid to change." 
 Tsang-tsz said : " If care be taken about the last rites for parents, and they be 
 repeated for the departed souls, the virtuous principle of the people will return 
 to its original goodness." Tsz-k'ln asked Tsz-kung, saying : " When our 
 Master comes to this or that country, he needs must get information about its 
 government; does he ask for it, or is it given to him?" Tsz-kung replied : 
 " Our Master, by affability and goodheartedness, by courtesy and moderation, 
 coupled with a polite yielding to others, obtains it. Our Master's mode of ask- 
 ing it is all different from other men's modes." The Master said : " While the 
 father is alive, look at the son's intentions ; when the father is dead, look at 
 his actions. If in three years he be without change as respects his father's 
 principles, he may be called ' filial.' " Yiu-tsz said : " In acting with propriety t, 
 to use cordiality is of importance. In the principles of the kings of days gone 
 by, this was considered excellent. As respects following them in little things 
 and in great, there are some which cannot be done. If any one know cordiality 
 and do not moderate that cordiality with propriety, it should not be done." 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Sz-shti (2), Shdng-mdng, v. native text, page 4. 
 
 Mqng-tsz, talking with Siuen, the king of Tsi, said : " Should one of your 
 majesty's ministers, who had committed his wife and children in trust to a 
 friend, while he made an excursion into Tsu, on his return find that he had 
 starved them both outwardly and inwardly, then what should be done?" The 
 king replied : " Cast him off." Mqng-tsz said : " Should the chief of the 
 officers of justice not be able to govern his subordinates, then what should be 
 done?" The king said: "Deprive him of office" Mang-tsz said: "Should 
 the interior of the four boundaries (i. e. the kingdom) not be governed aright, 
 what should be done then 1 ?" The king looked left and right and spoke of 
 another matter. Mqng-tsz, at an interview with king Siuen of Tsi, said : " The 
 reason why a country is said to be ancient, is not because it is said to have 
 tall trees, but because it is said to have patriotic ministers. Your majesty 
 is without the affection of your ministers. Those who formerly entered 
 your service, to-day you know nothing of their loss." The king replied : 
 " How shall I know of those without talent, and reject them?" Mqng-tsz 
 answered : " When the ruler of a kingdom advances the prudent, he cannot 
 be too cautious in employing mean men more than the honourable, or strangers 
 more than relatives. When the attendants all say, ' he is prudent,' that is not 
 sufficient ; when the chief officers all say, ' he is prudent,' that is not sufficient ; 
 when the people of your kingdom all say, ' he is prudent,' then examine into 
 the opinion of his prudence, if correct then employ him." 
 
 * Here Kiun-tsz' means rather he who studies to be a superior man. 
 h The chi after II shows that the word II is used as a verb, i. e. to act according to ll, 
 fitness, propriety, ceremony, etiquette.
 
 32 KIT-WAN. - SZ-SHU. SHANG-MANG. [4. g. 6. 5. d. 2 1 .] 
 
 g. 7. Mdng-tsz Men Tsi Siuen-wdng yu : " Wei ku sM, tsi pi shi kung-sz 
 
 g. 23. k'iu td mu; kung-sz te td-mu, tsi wdng hi, l-wei ndng shing k'i jin ye. 
 
 h. 10. Tsidng-jin ch6 dr siau chl, tsi wdng nu, i-wei pu shing k'i jin I. Fu-jin 
 
 h. 28. yiu dr his chl chwdng dr yu hing chl. Wdng yu : ' Ku she ju sd hio dr 
 
 i. 14. ts'dng ngoj tsi ho?" Ju kin yiu p'o-yu yu tsz, sul wdn-yl, pi shi yu-jin 
 
 j. 2. tiau-ch6 chl. Chi-yil chl kwo-kid tsi yu : ' ku she jit so hio dr ts'ung ngo' 
 
 j. 20. tsi hoii yU kiau yu-jin tiau-cho yu tsal! Ld-ching-tsz kien Mdng-tsz 
 
 k. 10. yu: " K'e-kau yu kiun, wei lai kien ye; pi-jin yiu Tsdng-ts'dng che tsu 
 
 k. 26. kiun; kiun shi-l pu kwo lai ye." Yu : " hing, hwo shi-chl; chl, hwo nl- 
 
 I.i2. chl: hing, chl, fljin so ndng ye. WuchlpuyuLu-heu,t c ienye. Tsdng- 
 
 1. 29. shi chl tsz, yen ndng shi yu pu yu tsal //' Pi yiu sz yen dr wu ching 
 
 m. 1 7. sin wu wdng, wu tsu cluing ye, wu ju Sung jin. Jen Sung jin yiu im.n 
 
 n. 3. k'i miau-chl pu chcing dr yd-chl che ; mdng-tndng-jen kwel wei k'ijin, 
 
 n. 19. yu : " Kln-jl ping I, yu tsu miau chcing i" K'i tsz tsu dr wdng shi chl 
 
 o. 6. miau tsi kaii I. T c ien-hid chl pu tsu miau chdng che kwd-l, i-wei wu yl 
 
 o. 24. dr she chl che,pu yun miau che ye, tsu chl cJidng che, yd miau che ye; 
 
 a. n. fl t'u wu yl dr yiu hai chl. 
 
 5. Extract from the Sz-shu (3), Hid-mdng, v. native text, page 5. 
 
 b. 2. Mdng-tsz yu : " Pl-i shing chl tslng che ye. I-yun shing chl jin 
 
 b. 17. chd-ye. Liu ffid-hwiii shing chl h& che ye. K'ung-tsz shing chl shi 
 
 c. 2. che-ye. K'ung-tsz chl wei tsi td ching, tsi td ching ye -che. Kin shing 
 
 c. 18. dr yu chin chl ye kin shing ye-che, ch'l t'iau-ll ye; Yu chin chl ye che, 
 
 d. 6. chung t'iau-ll ye. Ctil-t'iau-ll-che, chi chl sz ye. Chung-t'iau-ll-che, 
 
 once thoroughly learnt ! the present thought associates itself with the past, and produces 
 pleasure in the mind ; but only the scholar can experience this. Again, what cheerful joy 
 arises when a friend comes from a distance to visit us again!' The former joy is sub- 
 jective, it is enkindled by our mental associations: the latter is objective, it dwells with 
 pleasure on the external object which comes from afar. 
 
 Shin-chung chiii-yu$n (3. k. 29). This sentence refers to the practice of reverencing 
 the manes of ancestors and attending to the funeral rites of parents. Tl (3. 1. 5), com- 
 monly translated 'virtue,' is rather the 'natural conscience.' The Chinese teachers say 
 it is the good principle implanted in the heart of man by heaven. Hed (1. 7), 'thick,' is 
 here put for 'original goodness,' and it is often used for 'generous,' in opposition to pS & , 
 'thin,' which is used for 'meanness.' Shi (3. 1. 20) is here put for 'the, this, any' 
 (3. m. 7 1 6). Observe the character of Confucius here given; by doing his duty to 
 others, he obtains from them what he wants. Gentleness, goodness (or sincerity), meek- 
 ness, moderation, and courtesy were his characteristics. Chi (3. n. 8), the 'intention' or 
 'inclination' not yet brought into action, but only sufficiently to show a tendency: after 
 his parents' death, then he will act (hing, n. 13). 
 
 Mdng-tsz (4. a. ?). This celebrated philosopher was born in the kingdom of Ts'fi b 
 (now the province of Shdn-tungc), where he lived about B. C. 350. He was left fatherless 
 at an early age, but his mother took great care of his education and the choice of his 
 youthful companions. He first studied under Ts2-s* A , one of Confucius' descendants, and 
 finally obtained a post under the king of Tsi, Siwn-wdng. But as the king did not con- 
 form to Mdng-tsz's doctrines, he entered the service of the king of Lidng e , Hwui-wdng. 
 
 I I I 
 
 U-l
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. " THE POUR BOOKS." MENCIUS. 33 
 
 Mang-tsz, at an interview with king Siuen of Tsi, said : " To make a great 
 palace, you must employ a master-builder to seek out great trees. If he 
 find large trees, then your majesty will rejoice, because you will consider 
 them quite fit for the purpose. But if the workman in hewing them down 
 make them small, then your majesty will be angry, because you will consider 
 them unfit for the purpose. Now, if a man in his youth learn manly prin- 
 ciples, and wish in manhood to practice them, and your majesty say, 'Just 
 abandon what you have learnt and follow me,' how is that? Suppose now your 
 majesty had an unpolished gem here 1 Although it is only twenty taels in weight, 
 you must employ a lapidary to cut and polish it. And when, with reference to 
 the government of a country, you say, ' Just abandon what you have learnt 
 and follow me,' then how does this differ from instructing a lapidary how 
 to cut and polish precious stones'?" Lo-ching-tsz, at an interview with 
 Mang-tsz, said : " I have represented it to our prince, who was about to call 
 upon you, but his favourite Tsang-tsang prevented him, on this account our 
 prince is not come." Mang-tsz said : " When one is promoted to office, it is 
 some one who causes it; when one is not promoted, it is some one who pre- 
 vents it. Promotion and non-promotion are not in the power of man. If I 
 do not meet the prince of Lu, heaven prevents it; how could a son of the 
 Tsang family prevent my meeting him*!" You must labour at your busi 
 ness and not forget to regulate the heart, and do not assist growing things. 
 Be not like the man of the Sung dynasty ! There was a man of Sung who 
 when he grieved at his grain not growing, pulled it up a little to assist its 
 growth, and hurrying home fatigued, he said to his people : " I am unwell to- 
 day, I have helped the corn to grow." His sons hastened to go and look 
 at the corn, and behold it was withered away ! There are few in this world 
 who do not assist the corn to grow. Because there is little profit arising, 
 those who abandon it, and do not weed their corn, but help it to grow by 
 pulling it up a little, do not only no good, but positive harm. 
 
 Translation of the, Extract from the Sz-shu (3), Hid-mdng, v. native text, page 5. 
 Mang-tsz said : " Pi-i was the pure one among the sages ; I-yiln was the 
 trusty statesman among the sages ; Liu Hia-hwui was the peaceful one among 
 the sages; and K'ung-tsz was the seasonable one among the sages. K'ung- 
 tsz is called completely perfect. This being completely perfect, is like the 
 sound of gold and the jingling of precious stones. The sound of gold is the 
 commencement of harmony, the jingling of precious stones is the termination 
 thereof. To begin harmonious arrangement is the work of wisdom, the 
 completion of the same is the work of sanctity. Wisdom may be likened 
 
 Afterwards he performed various services at the courts of the petty princes of those times. 
 He attained the age of 94. Divine honours are paid to his memory, and twice every year 
 sacrifices are offered at his tomb. 
 
 * This Ping, prince of Lu, had been prejudiced against Mang-tsz by his favourite, who 
 said that he was a bad man because he had attended more carefully to the funeral cere- 
 monies of his mother than to those of his father. Though the fact was, he was in affluence 
 when he buried his mother, but at an earlier period when his father died he was in poverty. 
 
 PART II. F
 
 34 KU-WAN. 8Z-SHU. HIA-MANG. [5. d.22. 5.0.30.] 
 
 d. 22. shing chl sz ye. Chi pi tsi k'iau ye; shing pi tsi li ye. Yiu site yu 
 
 e. 9. pd pu chl wai yd, k'i chi dr li yd, k'i chungfl dr It ye." 
 
 f. 2. Ts'i-yln chl sin, jin-kial yiu-chl; siu-u chl sin, jin-kial yiu-chl; 
 
 f. 1 8. kung-king chl sin, jin kial yiu-chl; shi-fl chl sin, jin-kial yiu-chl. 
 
 g. 4. Ts'i-yln chl sin, jin ye; siu-u chl sin, i-ye; kung-king chl sin, II yd; 
 g. 22. shi-fl chl sin, chi yd. Jin, i, II, chi, fl yiu wai 16 ngo ye. Ngd ku 
 h. io. yiu chl yefu s& dr I. Ku yu: ' k'iu, tsi ti chl; she, tsi shi chV Hwo 
 h. 28. sidng p'el sz dr wu swdn che, pu ndng tsin k'i tsai che ye. Shi yu : 
 i. 14. " T'ien sang chlng min, Yiu wii yiu tsi, Min-chl i, Hau shi i-te." 
 \. 30. K'ung-tsz yu : Wei tsz-shl che, k'i chi tau hu ? ku yiu^wu pi yiu tsi 
 j. 17. min chl ping i ye. Ku hau shi i-te. 
 
 k. 2. Mdng-tsz yu: " Niu shdn chl mu chdng mei I; I k'i kiau yu td kw6 
 k. 1 8. yd, fu-kln fd chl, k'o-l wei mei hu? Shi k'i ji-ye chl so si, yu-lu chl 
 1. 8. so jiin, fi-wu ming-ni chl sang yen! Niu-ydng yiu ts'ung dr mu chl, 
 1. 24. shi-l ju p'i cho-chd ye. Jin kien k'i cho-chd ye, l-wei wi-chdng yiu 
 m. 12. ts'ai yen! Tsz k'i shdn chl sing ye tsal? Sui tsan hu jin che, k'i wu 
 m. 28. jin-i chl sin tsal ? K'i so-l fdng k'i lidng-sln che, yi yiu fu-kln chl 
 n. 1 6. yu mu yd : tdn-tdn dr fd chl, k'o-l wei mei hu ? K'i ji-ye chl sd s%, 
 o. 5. ping tdn chl k'i, k'i Jiau-wu yu jin sidng-kin ye-cJte, kl hi tsi k'i tdn- 
 t>. 23. cheu chl so wei yiu ku-wdng chl." 
 
 Shi-chtn (4. d. 7). The commentator Chu-hi explains this expression by lul-shi hiun- 
 Jcifi chl chin* ' statesmen who are loyal and patriotic when affairs are in a confused state.' 
 Ts'ln-chtn (4. d. 14) 'ministers who are attached to, have an affection for, their prince.' 
 Mang-tsz was arguing, that if a country was to be considered ancient (that is, worthy of 
 respect on account of its venerable and well-tried institutions) by reason of the loyalty 
 and patriotism of its statesmen, then, where affection for the prince was wanting, such 
 ministers could not exist long, but would depart, and consequently the kingdom would 
 lose this mark of honour. The commentator adds : " Being without attached ministers 
 (i. e. ts'm-chin), much more would the state be without those patriotic men who are equal 
 to troublous tunes" (i. e. shi-chiri). The king's idea is, that such ministers go away because 
 they have not ability equal to the work. His majesty assumes, that he cannot tell their 
 capacities before he engages them, and so he may make a mistake ; he therefore asks how 
 he may guard against error in this point, and so reject them. The excellent reply of 
 Mang-tsz needs perhaps a little explanation. He cautions the king against promoting 
 relations and honourable men who are without prudence, and neglecting the mean man and 
 the foreigner who may have this quality. He then proceeds to supply the case in which the 
 man of reputed prudence may be tested in order to employment. He warns the prince 
 against the peculiar bias of particular classes, and points to the vox populi as worthy of 
 his regard, on account of its comparative freedom from party feeling and prejudice. 
 
 (4. g. 7 i. 17). In this passage Mang-tsz insinuates that the learning of the sages is 
 great, and that the king seeks to reduce their principles to his own practice. Fdn-slii, an 
 eminent scholar and commentator, says on this passage : "The ancient sages ever grieved 
 that princes could not follow their doctrines, and the princes lamented that the sages 
 could not conform to their desires, wherefore the agreement of prince and minister was 
 ever a matter of difficulty. K'ung-tsz and Mang-tsz seldom agreed with the princes of their 
 times." In (4. 1. 5) M&ng-tsz recognises a Supreme Euler, whom he calls Heaven, as the 
 governor of human affairs. Mdng-mdng (4. n. 12) is explained to mean 'the appearance 
 of stupidity ;' Mdng-mdng signifies ' much fatigued,' according to Dr. Williams' Dictionary. 
 
 8 ra ffl: Sir H Z. ES
 
 ANCIENT LITERATURE. " THE FOUR BOOKS." MENCIUS. 35 
 
 unto ingenuity in its practice, and sanctity may be compared to strength. 
 Thus, the archer, who shoots at upwards of a hundred paces, reaches the target 
 merely hy his strength, should he strike the centre it will not be merely 
 by his strength." 
 
 All men possess compassionate hearts ; all men have hearts open to shame ; 
 all men have hearts inclined to reverence; all men have hearts to distinguish 
 between truth and falsehood. A compassionate heart leads to benevolence ; 
 a heart ashamed of vice acts with justice; a reverent heart produces pro- 
 priety of manners ; a heart which knows truth from falsehood gives wisdom. 
 Now, we are not imbued with benevolence, justice, propriety, and wisdom 
 by things external ; we assuredly possess them innately; they are not to be 
 aimed at only. Therefore it is said : " Seek them and you obtain them, 
 forsake them and you lose them." Some lose manifold, times without number, 
 and are unable to perfect the capacity they possess. The Shl-(king) says : 
 "Heaven produced all people, they have things to do and ways to do them, 
 the people are ever constant in loving this beautiful virtue." K'ung-tsz 
 has said that he who made this ode knew right principles ! For if there is 
 business to do, there must be a method of doing it, and that which the people 
 constantly maintain is esteem for this beautiful virtue *. 
 
 Mdng-tsz said: " The forest of the Niu mountain t was once beautiful; but 
 since its borders verge on a great state, the axe has felled it : can it be called 
 beautiful still ? Yet with the silent growth by day and night, and the genial in- 
 fluence of rain and dew, surely the tender sprouts will shoot again ! Nay ! but 
 the oxen and the sheep have been there, and have eaten them up ; so that now 
 it is a wilderness ! When people see its naked barrenness, they will think it 
 never supported a forest. But was this the natural state of the mountain? 
 Supposing the preservation of it in man, is there not a heart of kindness and 
 justice there? But the means by which man loses his uprightness is like the 
 operation of the axe on the forest. If you fell wood every morning, can it 
 appear beautiful? By the daily and nightly growth of virtue, the spirit which 
 each dawn revives, makes all men similar in their love and hate; but the 
 deeds which each day brings to pass, wither and destroy it." 
 
 Pt-t (5. b. 5); I-yun (5. b. 12); Lid Hid-hwui (5. b. 19). The virtues of these three 
 worthies of antiquity are mentioned in order that the chief, K'ung-tsz, might be mentioned 
 as combining the whole united in his character. Slung (5. b. 7) is explained by the com- 
 mentator as being ft chi so tsiti ye ' that which proceeds from the virtuous principle,' it 
 corresponds therefore with sanctity among us. 
 
 (5. g. 1 6. 17) k'Ung-king. The commentator has explained this, which is a colloquial 
 expression, and means 'to reverence,' by saying that k'ung is the external expression of 
 king, and king is the principle in the heart from which k'ung arises. Here we have an 
 example of the scientific form of some Chinese words ; the objective and the subjective being 
 united to form a general term. 
 
 * This 'beautiful virtue' (shl i-tl, 5. j. 25) is called in the Td-hiS, mtng-tt!, 'bright 
 virtue,' and explained in the commentary to be the virtuous principle implanted in the 
 heart by heaven, by which man may direct both his spirit and his conduct. 
 
 + The Niu mountain was on the south-east frontier of the kingdom of Tsi, the domain 
 of the king to whom Mang-tsz was speaking. 
 
 F 2
 
 36 SHI-WAN. KWAN-HWA. SHING-YU. [6. a. I. 6.1. 29.] 
 
 6. Extract from the Shing-yU (i), v. native text, page 6. 
 
 a. i. Shing-yu. (i.) Tqn hiau-ti I chung jin-ldn. 
 
 a. ii. Ngd Shing-tsu Jin Hwdng-ti lin-yii lu-shl-yl nien,fd-tsu tsan-tsln 
 
 a. 27. hiau sz pu kwei, kin ting Hiau-klng yen-i yl-shu; yen-shl king- 
 It, iz. wdn, i-li ts'idng-kwdn; wu-fl hiau chi t'i en-hid chl i. Ku Shing-yu 
 
 b. 28. shi lu t'iau sheu I hiau-ti k'al k'i twdn. 
 
 c. 8. Chin pel ching hung nie chill wei wdng hiun ch'iil kwdng U kiau 
 
 c. 21. chl si sien shin hiau-ti chl i, yung shi yii qr plng-min-jin tang, siuen 
 
 d. 8. shi chl. Fit hiau che ; t'ien chl king, ti chl i, min chl hing yd. Jin 
 
 d. 24. pu chl hiau fu-meu, tu pu sz fu-meu gai-tsz chl sin h-A! Fang k'i wi 
 
 e. 12. li hwai-pau; kl pu ndng ts-pu; hdn pu ndng tsz-i. Wei fu-meu die 
 
 e. 29. shin yln-shlng, cha hing-sl siau, tsl wei chl hi; ti, tsl wei chl yiu; 
 
 f. 15. hing-tung, tsi kwel-pu pu li; tse-t'ung, tsl ts'ln-shl k'u-fi I ydng i kiau 
 
 g. 3. chl yu ch'ing jin fu wei sJieu kid-shi meu, sdng-li pa ki king ying sin 
 g. 20. li k'ti tsiii. Fu-meu chl te shi t'ung hau-t'ien-kang-ki ; jin-tsz yu 
 h. 6. pau-tsln gan yu wdn yl, tang nui tsin k'i sin wai kie k'i li kin shin 
 h. 24. tsi-yung I klnfu lau I lung hiau ydng ; wu po pien yln tsiu; wu hau 
 i. n. yung teu hdn; wu hau ho-tsai sz ts'l-tsz tsung shi i wdn wi pi dr 
 i. 28. ching Jcio yiu yu ch'ul dr kwdng chl. Ju Tsdng-tsz so wei ku-chu 
 j. 13. pu-chwdng fl hiau sz; kiun pu, chung fl hiau; li kwdn pu king fl 
 j. 28. hiau; pang-yiu pu sin fl hiau; chen chin wu yung fl hiau : kial 
 k. 12. hiau tszfan nui chl sz ye. 
 
 k. 20. Che ti sdn twdn shi tdn shw6 hiau tl tau-li, ni-mdn t'ing-cJiti! 
 1. 5. Hiau-sliqn tie-nidng, che yl kien sz shi t'ien-ti kien chdng-tsan tl tau- 
 1. 21. fa, pd-sing^mdn tsui-td tl tl-hing. 
 
 The Shing-yu, 'Sacred Edict,' was issued by the emperor K'ang-hi, the first great 
 emperor after the Tartar invasion and conquest of China in A. D. 1644. It consisted of 
 sixteen maxims, bearing upon social and political duties. They include admonitions to 
 filial and fraternal duties (i); to regard for kindred and neighbours (2, 3); to husbandry 
 and economy (4, 5) ; to honour learning and preserve orthodoxy (6, 7) ; to understand the 
 laws and cultivate politeness (8, 9); to form a habit of determination in your calling (10); 
 to instruct youth (i i) ; to refrain from false accusations and from hiding deserters (12, 13) ; 
 to pay up taxes (14) ; to form corporate bodies in order to suppress theft (i 5) ; and to settle 
 animosities in order to avoid bloodshed (16). These maxims, each of seven characters, 
 were written on slips of wood, and are still exposed in the public offices. They were ampli- 
 fied by Yung-ching, K'ang-hi's son and successor. This he ordered to be read in public on 
 the rst and i.sth of each month, a custom which is still continued. The style is classical, 
 and difficult for the lower classes to understand. But Wang Yu-po, an officer of govern- 
 ment, paraphrased the whole in colloquial style of composition. 
 
 Laws in China were first explained to the people in the Cheu* dynasty (cir. B. C. 1000), 
 on the ist day of the month. At the present readings, the civil and military officers in 
 uniform meet in a public hall. The Li-sdng exclaims: "Stand forth in file!" which 
 they do according to rank : then he says ; " Kneel thrice and bow nine times ! " They 
 all kneel and bow towards a platform, where a board stands with the emperor's name on 
 it. Then he exclaims: "Rise and retire!" They then proceed to a hall where the law
 
 MODERN LITERATURE AND MANDARIN. " THE SACRED EDICT." 37 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shing-yu (i), v. native text, page 6. 
 
 The Sacred Edict, (i.) Give practical weight to filial piety and fraternal 
 love in order to strengthen the relative duties. 
 
 Our canonized ancestor, the emperor Jin, reigned sixty-one years, and 
 followed the ways of his fathers in honouring his parents and in aiming unre- 
 mittingly to observe the duty of filial piety. His majesty himself revised and 
 amplified the meaning of the Hiau-king (' Book of filial piety'). He amplified 
 and explained the text of the woi'k, arranging consecutively the arguments 
 which it contained ; considering filial piety alone, and nothing else, to be the 
 means of governing the empire. For this reason the sixteen articles of the 
 Sacred Edict start with filial and fraternal duties as their leading principles. 
 
 We, having succeeded to this vast inheritance, have investigated thoroughly 
 his former instructions; and, having studied the object he had in view in 
 establishing the doctrine every where, we have, in the first place, reiterated 
 the meaning of filial piety and fraternal affection, in order that you soldiers and 
 people all may know it. Now filial piety exists in the law of heaven, in the sen- 
 timent of the earth, and in the conduct of the people. If a man does not know 
 how to obey his parents, he does not bear in mind their heart of affection ! 
 For before he was separated from their parental arms : when hungry, he could 
 not feed himself; when cold, he could not clothe himself. To act as parents do, 
 is to judge by the sound of the voice, to notice the appearance of the face; if 
 the child laugh, then to be pleased ; if he cry, then to be grieved ; when he 
 moves about to support his footsteps and not leave him; when he is in pain, 
 through sickness, then to be regardless of sleep and food, in order to rear 
 him and to teach him until he arrive at man's estate *. 
 
 And then they give him a home, they plan about his livelihood by a hun- 
 dred schemes, they deliberate for him until their whole heart and strength are 
 both expended. The good principles of parents are like the vastness of high 
 heaven ! The son who would fain requite his parents' kindness only in a ten- 
 thousandth degree, must, whether at home or abroad, exercise to the utmost 
 his whole heart and strength ; be careful about himself, be frugal, serve them 
 with diligence, and dutifully provide for them. Let him not gamble nor 
 drink, neither be fond of feats of daring and trials of strength, nor hanker 
 after riches to expend secretly on his wife and children. Although to perform 
 outward ceremonies he may not be prepared with means to accomplish all 
 that he might intend, sincerity of purpose should abound, and increase it. As 
 Tsqng-tsz has said : Unseemly conduct is not filial ; in serving the prince to 
 be traitorous is not filial ; in the office of magistrate to act in an undignified 
 manner is not filial ; with friends to be insincere is not filial ; in battle to be 
 cowardly is not filial. All these belong to the duty of an obedient son. 
 (Paraphrase.) These three sections treat on the doctrine of filial piety alone. 
 Do you listen ! This one article of obedience to parents is the principle which 
 is constantly preserved in the universe, and is the greatest act of virtuous 
 practice amongst mankind. 
 
 * Cf. Xenophon's Memorabilia of Socrates, Bk. II. i, 5, 6.
 
 38 SHI- WAN. KWAN-HWA. SHING-YU. [6. 1.3O. 7. k.l6.] 
 
 1. 30. Nl-mdn ts'ung-pu-chl hiau-shdn tie-nidng, tsd-mo, pu-pa nd tie 
 
 m. 15. nidng gal-dr-tsz tl sln-didng, suing shdng yl siting? Tang nl-mdn 
 
 m. 29. tso Jiai-tsz tl shi-Jieu, tie-nidng hwal-pau-ch6 ; Idng-liau, pu hwiii tsz- 
 
 n. 15. kl ch'uen-i; kl-liau, pu-hwiii tsz-kl k'l-fdn ; k'dn-cho nl-mdn yen-si, 
 
 n. 24. nl siau-liau, t'd pien hi: nl tl-liau, t'd pien tsiu; nl hing-tung-liau, 
 
 0. 10. t'd tsiu kdn-tlng-liau nl pu pu 11. Nl jo yiu-liau tse-ping, t'd pien 
 0.27. shnl pu ndng an. 
 
 7- Extract from the Shlng-yu (2), v. native text, page 7. 
 
 a. 2. (5.) Shdng tsl-kien I si tsai-yung. 
 
 a. 10. Sdng-jin pu-ndng yl jl dr wu yung, tsi pu-k'o yl ji dr wti tsai. 
 
 a. 27. Jen pt liu yiu yil chl tsal dr lieu k'o kUng pii shi chl yung. Ku tsi- 
 
 b. 14. kien shdng yen! Fu tscti yiu shwiil ye ; tsi-kien yiu shwul chl cJiu 
 
 b. 28. yd. Shwul chl liu pu ch'u, tsi yi-s% vyd, yu dr shwiil ll ho 1. Tsal 
 
 c. 15. chl liu pu tsi, tsi yung-chl wu tu dr tsal ll kwei I. Ngo Shing-tsu, 
 
 d. 2. Jin Hwdng-tl, kung hing tsi-kien, wei t'ien-hid sien, hiu yang-sdng sti 
 
 d. 17. hal-niii. Yin fu yiu king king I si tsai, yung shi hiun kai. Tsz ku 
 
 e. 3. min fung kial kwel hu kin kien. Jen kin dr pu kien, tsi shi fH chl 
 
 e. 19. ll pu~tsu kung yl fu chl yung. Tsi sul so tsdng pu-tsu kung yl jl 
 
 f. 6. chl sii. K'l Jwti nal kang shin ye. Che t'eu yl twdn shi shwo. 
 
 f. 21. Shlng-tsu, Jin Hwdng-ti, yln-yln chiii-hiun tl yuen-yiu. Tdfdnjin 
 
 g. 6. sang shi-sJidng pu ndng yi-jl mu-yiu fl, tsiu pu k'o yl-jl mu-yiu yen- 
 g. 24. ts'ien. Jen pi ting tsl-cJiu-hid sie yen-ts'ien, tau na hwu-jen shi t'd 
 h. 10. tl shi-lieu, ts'ai tl tsi-kl ; so-l shw6 tsl-kien yl-cho. Shi-ko tsii-miau- 
 h. 28. tl fd-tsz! Tsid che yen-ts'ien, tsiu ju shwul yl-pdn; jin tsl-kien t'd, 
 
 1. 14. tsiu sidng tsu-shwul-tl yl-pdn. Liu tl shwiii pu tsu-chu sie yiu to- 
 i. 30. sliau liu to-sJiaUy tsiu yau kdn-ho-liau. Yung tsal ju liu shwiil jo pu, 
 j. 1 6. tsal-si-chd-sie, jin ts'ung to-sJtau yen-ts'ien chuen yen ye-tsiu k'ing- 
 k. i. liau. Fu plng-tlng ts'ien-lidng yiu yl ting chl su, nal pu-chl tsan 
 
 is usually read. Here the people are assembled to listen. The Ll-sany then calls out : 
 "Respectfully begin!" The Sz-kiany-sdng, or orator, kneels before an altar of incense, 
 takes a board with a maxim, and ascends a pulpit or platform. An old man then pre- 
 sents the board to the people, calls for silence with a rattle, and, kneeling, reads the 
 maxim. The Ll-sang next demands the explanation from the Sz-kiang-sang, who stands 
 up and gives the meaning. See Dr. Milne's Preface to his Translation of the Sacred 
 Edict. 
 
 The original preface by Yuny-chiug is in elegant classical style, and worthy of careful 
 perusal. We will give a version of a portion, which may be of assistance to the young 
 student. " The 8hu-(king) says : ' Every year, in the ist month of spring, a herald with 
 a bell went round on the roads.' The Li-(ki) says : ' The Sz-tu prepared the six ceremo- 
 nies to chasten the dispositions of the people; and illustrated the seven doctrines in 
 order to exalt their virtue ! ' All these, by giving proper weight to first principles, and 
 reverence for realities, became the means of enlightening the people and awakening 
 the age. A plan the very best! An idea the most noble! Our canonized father, the 
 emperor Jin, for a long time taught the doctrine of complete renovation. His virtue 
 was wide as the ocean, and his favour extended every where. His benevolence 
 nourished every thing, and his justice regulated all people. For sixty years, morning
 
 MODERN LITERATURE AND MANDARIN. " THE SACRED EDICT." 39 
 
 If you do not at all understand obedience to your parents, how can you, 
 unless you consider your parents' heart of affection towards their child,- give 
 it a thought 1 ? At that time when you were a little fellow, and in your parents' 
 embrace, being cold, you knew not how to clothe yourself; being hungry, 
 you could not feed yourself *. They beheld the colour of your countenance. 
 When you smiled, they were pleased; when you wept, they were sorrowful. 
 When you moved about, they, at your heels, supported your steps and remained 
 with you. If you were sickly, they could not sleep in peace. 
 
 Translation oftJie Extract from the Shing-yii (2), v. native text, page 7. 
 
 (5.) Attend carefully to frugality so as to spare the waste of your means. 
 
 Mortals cannot exist for a day without expending something, and con- 
 sequently they may not exist for a day without the means of doing so. 
 Well then, they must lay up their superfluous money, so that bye and bye 
 they may apply it to future necessities. For this reason let frugality be exer- 
 cised ! Now money is like water, and frugality is like the accumulation of 
 water. If the flowing away of water be not stopped, then the water will leak 
 out and be completely exhausted. And if the flowing forth of money be not 
 limited, then the expenditure of it will be lavish and your means will fail. 
 Our canonized ancestor, the emperor Jin, himself practised a frugal economy, 
 for a leading example to the empire ; while he aimed at making provision for 
 the people and giving prosperity to the state t. In times of abundance he 
 was so careful to spare the wealth of the country, that he used to issue pro- 
 clamations to instruct the people to lay up store. From olden time all the 
 feelings of the people were in favour of industry and frugality. But if we 
 suppose industry without frugality, then ten men's labour would not suffice to 
 supply one man's wants. The store which comes of a year's hoarding is 
 insufficient for one day's need. The harm which arises is greater still than 
 the loss. (Paraphrase.) This first section tells the reason why our canonized 
 ancestor, the emperor Jin, gave us such careful instructions. All men in 
 general born into the world are unable to live for a day without expense. 
 Therefore they cannot exist for a day without money, so they must determine 
 to store up and accumulate a little money, to meet sudden emergencies. Then 
 they will be able to relieve the embarrassed ; on this account he speaks of fru- 
 gality. It is an uncommonly good plan of his ! Now as for money, it is just 
 like water; and if people take care of their money, it is just as if one collected 
 a quantity of water together. Now, if flowing water be not confined and 
 stopped, a good deal will escape, and then all will be dried up. Using money 
 is like letting water flow, if you do not employ a little care as to the quantity, 
 then your money will by little and little be exhausted. Now the amount of 
 the soldier's pay is fixed, but he does not know how to be frugal. As to his 
 
 * It will be observed that several characters, which are wanting in the native text, 
 have been supplied in the Roman character. 
 
 t This passage is rather obscure, but the translation given above appears to convey 
 the meaning intended. The expressions 'within the seas' and 'below the skies' are 
 translated by ' the state ' and ' the empire.'
 
 40 SHI- WAN. KWAN-HWA. HAU-K'lU CHTJEN. [7. k.lj. 8. k.9.] 
 
 k. 17. tsi; i hau sien-li, shl Kid kdn-mel. Y'i yu fi, su yu chl lidng shin, 
 1. 4. chl chlng t'al, I sili k'i yu, Tsz-mu sidng kiuen; jl fu yi j%, chai 
 1. 20. shin lui-chung, kl hdn pu mien. Che tl-dr-twdn shi shw6 ping pu-chl 
 m. 7. tsi-kien-ti ; nl-mdn ping-ting tl ts'ien-lidng, yuen yiu yi-ting chl su- 
 ra. 23. mu, j6-shi pu chl-tau tsan-tsl; l-fu yau hwd-li, fdn-shl yau niel-k'eu, 
 n. ii. kwo yl-ko yu jl-tsz, tau hwdfi kl-ko yu ts'ien-lidng, die ts'ien-lidng 
 n. 28. tsdng-tl keu fi. Shln-tsie yiu pu gdn-sdng-tl. Hw&n yau kie sie 
 
 0. 13. chaijin i hwul-shd, che ku yl-shi kw'al-hwS. 
 
 8. Extract from the Hau-k'iu chuen (i), v. native text, page 8. 
 
 a. 2. Hau-Tciu chuen. Swdn-ki ting-liau, tau ts&-ji, ji wi-ch'u, tsiu Jet 
 
 a. 1 8. lai, klau /Siaii-tdn sheu-shl hing-ll, td-tien k'l-shln; ts-kid chuen-ydng 
 
 b. 4. tien-shdng yl-kb-siau-sz, nd-liau ti-tsz lai, hwui-pal Kwo kung-ts&. 
 
 b. 20. Pu-k'i Kwo kung-tsz l-fu hid-jin tsai hid-chu td-t'ing; yl-kien Tl 
 
 c. 7. kung-tsz lai-pai, tsau fl pau-yu Kwo kung-tsz kdng-tdng-tl T% kung- 
 
 c. 23. tsz tau mdn. Kwo kung-tsz tsau t-kwdn tsi-ts'u siau-hd-hd ti ying- 
 
 d. 9. tsidng-ch'u-lai tau : " Siau-ti ts6-jl tsin-ye, pu-kwo liau-piau-ydng- 
 
 d. 24. mu chl ching ; Ti kdn lau tai-hiung tsz-ku;" yln lien-lien td-kdng- 
 
 e. 9. kung tslng tsin-k'u. Ti kung-tsz yuen td-chdng, che tau mdn t'eu yl- 
 
 e. 24. ming-tl, pien tseu. Hwu-kien Kwo kung-tsz chl ch'u-mdn ying-tsl, 
 
 f. 8. shi-fan yln-kin, yi-tw'dn-hd-k'i, pien-fdng pu-hid Idng-lien lai, che-te 
 
 f. 25. t'eu liau ming-ti, lidng-sidng-yl-jdng tau t'lng. Ti kung-tsz tsiu yau 
 g..io. shl-ll. Kwo kung-tsz chl-chu tau : " Tsz-kien pu-pien ts'lng kiau." 
 
 g. 24. Siii tsidng Tl chl-yau tau heu-t'lng; fdng-ts'ai shl-ll su-tso. Yl-mien 
 h. 10. hien-shdng-clid-lai, Kwo kung-tsz yln shw6-tau: "Kiu wdn tai-hiung, 
 h. 24. ylng-hiung chl ming, ki-sz yl-hwili; ts'ien mung-ju lin pi-yi shi, tsi 
 \. 10. meu tsin-ye dr yiu ts'ung-ts'ung fd-kid, pau-hdn chi-kln; kln-hlng 
 
 1. 25. tsai-lin, yiu chlng chiii-ku, ching yiu kw'ai-sz! Kdn pan-tso ping- 
 j. 9. yuen shl-jl chl yln, I wei ki-ke chl hwai?" Tl-kung-tsz ch'd pd, tsiu 
 j. 26. li-k'l-shln-lai, tau: "Chlng chdng-hiung heu-gai, pdn tang llng-kiau; 
 
 and evening, even while eating and dressing, his only concern was to excite all, both 
 within and without the empire, to exalt humanity ; to speak with deference to each other ; 
 to put away meanness and keep faith with one another perfectly ; that by cultivating 
 the spirit of kindness and humility, they might for ever enjoy a reign of universal peace. 
 Therefore with this intention he gave these superior instructions, consisting of sixteen 
 articles, to acquaint the Bannermen (i. e. the Tartars), together with all descriptions of 
 men and soldiers throughout the provinces, of the bounds of their common and uncom- 
 mon duties, of the culture of the ground and of the mulberry tree, of working and 
 resting, principles and results, of fine and coarse, public and private, great and small, 
 and whatsoever else the circumstances of the people called on them to practice, these 
 are the things which his sublime intelligence aimed at. He affectionately treated you, 
 his subjects just as his own children ; he issued his sacred instructions, clearly aiming at 
 your certain protection, every age should observe them, they cannot be changed." 
 
 Shing (6. a. 12) here means 'canonized' or 'sacred.' It is the custom in China to 
 place the names of great men in the temple of ancestors, they thus become canonized 
 and receive the prefix shiny. The temple of Confucius is called the Shiny -miati, (Cf. 
 note on page 26, Part II.)
 
 MODERN LITERATURE AND MANDARIN. " THE FORTUNATE UNION." 41 
 
 clothes, he likes to have them fine; as to his food, he seeks for what is nice 
 and good. One month's expenditure amounts to several months' pay, until 
 he borrows to follow out his wishes. The child and the mother become of 
 equal size. Every day adds to the burden of debt, and hunger and starvation 
 become inevitable. (Paraphrase.) This second section speaks about the 
 soldier's ignorance of frugal economy. The pay of you soldiers is a regularly 
 fixed amount. If you don't know how to be economical, but as far as your 
 clothes are concerned you wish for finery, and as respects your food you have 
 a dainty mouth; when a month is passed, you find that you have spent 
 several months' wages ; how can your pay be sufficient ? Moreover you cannot 
 live happily, but you must run into debt, in order to carry out your habits of 
 dissipation, and you regard only the pleasures of the moment. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Han-Kid chuen (i), v. native text, page 8. 
 
 The Story of the Fortunate Union. 
 
 His plans being determined on ; the next day, before the sun was up, 
 he arose and called Siau-tan to collect the luggage, and to prepare him- 
 self for departure: while he himself, on the other hand, having solicited the 
 services of a boy from the inn, took his card to return the visit of Mr. Kwo. 
 Without intimation Mr. Kwo had set a menial to play the spy in the lower 
 room. Directly this man saw Mr. Ti going to visit, he hastened to give 
 information to Mr. Kwo, who was just waiting for Mr. Ti to arrive at the 
 gate. Mr. Kwo, ready dressed, came out to receive him, smiling, and with a 
 respectful but cordial ' Ha ! ha ! ' he said : " I, your humble servant, in wait- 
 ing upon you yesterday, intended merely to show a slight mark of the sin- 
 cerity of my respect. You Mr. TT,, I fear, have troubled yourself, Sir, to take 
 notice of it." Then repeatedly he bowed respectfully and invited him to enter 
 in. Mr. T\ at first intended only to go to the door and present a card, and 
 then to walk away. But on seeing all at once Mr. Kwo straightway coming 
 out to receive him, very urgent and full of cordiality, (then) he did not lay 
 aside his reserve, but merely presented his card, and the two gentlemen kept 
 bowing to each other until they reached the reception room. Mr. Ti was 
 then about to perform the salutations, but Mr. Kwo stopped him, saying : 
 "This place is inconvenient to invite your commands;" and forthwith he 
 invited Tl into the inner hall, where they saluted each other, and sat down 
 in due form. Tea having been served up, Mr. Kwo then said: "/ have 
 long heard of you, Sir, you have a hero's name, ardently have I looked for- 
 ward to an interview. When, on a former occasion, you condescended to 
 come to our poor place, I then planned to wait upon you, and in a hurried 
 manner to pay my compliments; but you were absent, and I have felt the 
 annoyance up to the present time. Now that happily you are again come, 
 and have once more condescended to regard us, it is assuredly a significant 
 circumstance ; may I presume to engage you in a ten days' entertainment to 
 make even my original plan, and to gratify our feelings of hunger and thirst 1 ?" 
 Mr. Tl, however, having finished his tea, then arose and said : <f In return, Sir, 
 
 PAET II. G
 
 42 SHI- WAN. SIAU-8HWO. HIAU-K'lU CHUEN. [8. k . I O. 9. i. 1 7 ] 
 
 k. 10. ch2-shi ' kwei-sin-sz-tsienj kin-ji li-k$ tsiu-yau hing-liau, pa pi chi 
 
 k. 27. hwdn, liu-tai i-ji, k'o-ye /" Wang^wai tsiu tseu. Kwo Idn-chu tau : 
 
 1. 12. " Sidng-fung pu-yln, chin ling l fung-yu siau-jin.' Jin shi hing-ki, yd 
 
 1. 27. yau ku-liu sdn-ji." Ti tail: ll Siau-ti shi-shi yau-hing, pu-shi ku-tsz, 
 
 m. 14. lei chdng-hiung sidng-lidng." ShwS-pd, yiu wang wai tseu. Kwo yi 
 
 m. 27. sheu chi-chu, tau : "Siau-ti siii pu-tsai, ye t'ien wei hwdn-kid tsz-ti; 
 
 n. 13. t'ai-hiung pti-yati k'dn-te shi-fan k'lng-liau j6 ko k'dn-k'lng, tsiu pu- 
 
 n. 29. kal lai ts-ku-liau; ki-mung tsz-ku, pien yau sw&n ts6 pin-chu; siau- 
 
 0. 15. ti k'u-k'it sidng-liu, pii-kwtt yu shau tsin pln-chii chl i d,r, fl 
 
 9. Extract from the Hau-k'iu chuen (2), v. native text, page 9. 
 
 a. T. yiu so k'iu ye; pu-shl tal-hiung hd kien k'u-chl shin ye." Ti k'ung- 
 
 a. 17. tsz tau: " Mung ch&ng-hiung yln-yin yd^ngai, siau-ti yi pu jln yen 
 
 b. 2. k'ii; tdn chwdng-i-su; hing-si kung-ts'ung, shi pu yung hwdn d,r." 
 
 b. 1 6. Kwo tau: "Ki-shi, t'ai-hiung, pu i pdng-yiu wei ts'ing, kw'ai-i yau- 
 
 c. i. hing ; siau-ti k'idng-liu, ye tsz-kid hwdng-kwei; tdn che-shi ts'ing- 
 
 c. 15. shin ng6-fu dr lai, yiu ling ng8-fu dr k'u, ti-sin shi yiu pu-gdn: 
 
 d. 2. kin yi pu kan kiu liu, che k'iu lio-t'ing-ni shi, shau tung yi-ts'an, dr 
 
 d. 19. tsi t'ing k'u-che tsiu tau, shu-kl jin-ts'ing liang tsin. Ndn-tau t'ai- 
 
 e. 4. hiung hwdn pu-k'ang fu-tsung /" Ti p&n pu-yu liu, yin kien Kw6 
 
 e. 1 8. shin-ts'ing heu-mau, k'd,n-k'd,n kw'an-liu, chi-te-chu-hid tau: " Tau- 
 
 f. 2. ts'ai tsin-pai ts&ng-pien hau siang-jau!" Kwo tau: "Chi-i sidng-fung, 
 
 f. 16. tang wdng pu-ngb ; t'ai-hiung kw'ai-sz, ho-ku tso tsz t'au-yen?" Giving 
 
 g. i. shw6 pu-liau, che-kien Shwui-yun hwu tseu-liau tsin-lai. K'dn-kien 
 g. 15. Ti, mdng-shi-kwo-ft, mwan-lien t'ui siau, tau : " Ts6-ji she-chi-nu 
 g. 30. kan Ti sien-sdng yuen lai kau-i, te to ngd-hid-sdng ku-kien, fung-ku 
 h. 1 7. shau-piail wi shin, pu shi Ti sien-sdng ho-ku kien wai k'u-k'u tsz-liau. 
 
 1. 4. Kin hing yiu yuen, yiu te sidng-pei." Ti tau: " Ngo-hiti-sang lai 
 
 The Hia/&-lclng (6. b. 3) 'the Classic of Filial Piety,' is a collection, in sixteen chapters, 
 of sentences by Confucius and his disciple Tsang-tsz', upon duty to parents and superiors. 
 The author's name is unknown. A translation by Dr. Bridgman appeared in the Chinese 
 Repository, vol. V. 
 
 W4-fi i (6. b. 17 25). Here are two negatives to intensify an assertion. The 
 
 whole may be construed : ' By nothing else but filial piety he considered that the empire 
 could be governed.' (See Art. 450 of Part I.) Chl t'ien-hid chl I = 'the idea (or thought, 
 or purpose) for governing the empire,' i. e. 'he considered that the empire could be 
 governed,' wd-fi hiati, 'only by filial piety being inculcated.' 
 
 Pu hia-H-chd yd (6. d. 10 22) is an elegant passage, which cannot be literally 
 
 translated ; it contains an allusion to the three great powers of the universe, sdn-ts'at a as 
 the Chinese call heaven, earth, and man. It is intended to convey the idea that filial 
 piety is that duty which contains the germ of all good principles and virtuous conduct, 
 and the fulfilment of which produces harmony in the universe. 
 
 Chi tl-sdn-tw'an (6. k. 20). This annotation might have referred to an earlier portion, 
 but here begins the subject of filial piety, and the author having but a limited space, he 
 deemed it right to omit the first two sections of notes.
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " THE FORTUNATE UNION." 43 
 
 for your generosity and kindness, I ought to receive your commands, but 
 the fact is this, ' My heart returns like arrow fleet,' to-day, and at once, 
 I am about to proceed on my journey; as regards the enjoyment of your hos- 
 pitality I will remain to receive it another day, that will do." Going towards 
 the outer door he was about to depart, when Mr. Kwo stopped him, saying : 
 " For good friends to meet without drinking, would truly cause the wind and 
 the moon to smile (at men) ! Admitting that you are in haste to travel, still 
 you ought to yield, and remain three days." Ti said : " I am really about to 
 travel, it is not a mere refusal, I beg of you, Sir, to excuse me." Having 
 spoken, he again turned to the door; but Kwo with one hand took hold of 
 him and said : " /, although I, your humble servant, am without talent, yet 
 you should consider that I am the son of an official family, you, Sir, should not 
 look upon me very lightly, if indeed you do despise me, then you ought not 
 to have come to take notice of me. Having obliged me with your kind 
 regard, then you should look upon me as your host; and I, in thus urging 
 you to remain, only wish in a slight degree to fulfil a host's friendliness and 
 nothing more. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Hau-k'i'A chuen (2), v. native text, page 9. 
 I have nothing else to ask. I do not know what you can see to oppose so 
 much." Mr. Tl said : " Being under obligation, Sir, for your extreme kindness, 
 I, for my part, can hardly allow myself to speak of going ; but as every thing 
 is packed, and my face is set (homewards) like a running stream in haste, the 
 circumstances will not permit me to delay at all." Kwo said : " It being so, 
 Sir, that you take not friendly feeling as your disposition, but are in a hurry 
 to depart ; if I were to urge your stay, I should be ashamed of myself. But 
 the fact is just this, early in the morning you come fasting, and if I were to 
 allow you to depart without breakfast, my mind would be truly ill at ease. 
 As it is I would not presume to detain you for long, only a very little time, 
 to take a slight meal, and then we may hear of your departure, and it may be 
 said that all those human feelings of ours are mutually satisfied. You cannot, 
 Sir, still be unwilling to remain." Tl, who as far as he was concerned did not 
 wish to stay, when he saw the deep feeling and generous behaviour (of his 
 host) entreating him to wait, abode where he was, and said, " In a mere visit 
 why should ^trouble you so much?" Kwo said: "When good friends meet, 
 then they forget personal feelings; you, Sir, are a shrewd man of learning, 
 why do you make use of this formal expression?" Just as he was speaking and 
 before he had finished, who should they see but Shwiii-yun walking up and 
 coming in. On seeing Ti, he rapidly went through the salutations, and with 
 his face all smiling he adressed him and said : " Yesterday my little niece 
 being moved by your coming so far Mr. Tl to honour us with your compli- 
 ments, deputed me to present a card, and to offer an invitation, as a slight 
 indication of our cordial feelings. We could not understand what reason you 
 had Mr. Tl for objecting and so decidedly refusing. Now happily we have 
 had the good fortune to meet again to-day." Tl said : " I came in great haste, 
 
 G 2
 
 44 SHI-WAN. SIAU-SHWO. HAU-K*IU CHUEN. [9- i. 1 8. 10. h. 1 6.] 
 
 i. 1 8. shu tsau-tsau, k'ufu ts'ung-ts'ung ; yu II yuen-wu ch'eu-tsS, M king td 
 
 j. 4. shi-chd tsz-sie; tsl kln-jl chl lai, yl pu-kwd yuen yl shl-klng, ye dr 
 
 j. 22. mung Kwo-hiung, tsl cMn-chan t'eu-hid; yu-liu, k'ungfl II; yu k'u, 
 
 k. 2. yiu k'ungfl ts'ing ; cMng tsal-tszfi ch'eu-ch'u, fang laii-ung yiu I kiau- 
 
 k. 18. chl." Shwiil-yun tau : "Ku-chl hau pdng-yiu, k'lng kaljuku; Tlsien- 
 
 1. 3. sang yu Kwo she-ts'ln, ndn-tau tsiu pu-ju ku fin! nai pi k'u-k'u yu 
 
 1. 20. shl-sii ju-tsz, shin fl-i ye!" Kwo siau tau: " Hwdn-shi lau-td-jin 
 
 in. 6. shivo-te t'ung-kw'ai!" Tl klen dr jin hu-sidng kufan-liu, king pu kl 
 
 m. 21. tsien tsmg, cM jin-tsb liau-i, pien siau-yl-siau ts6-hid, pufu yen k'ii. 
 
 n. 8. Pu-to-sM pei-shdng tsiu lai. Kwo tsiu sung ts6. Tl tau : " Yuen 
 
 n. 22. mung lien chau-kl dr shea ts c an, wei-hd yiu lau tsz-tsiu? k'ung ylnfl 
 
 o. 8. k'i shi ye!" Kwo siau tau: " Mdn-mdn yln k'u, shau-pu-te yu-cho 
 
 o. 23. yin-shi." San-jin ku-ko td-siau tsiu tso dr yln. 
 
 10. Extract from the Hau-k'iu chuen (3), v. native text, page 10. 
 
 a. 5. Yuen-lai sdn-jln yu kiu-pl-sdng, k'u sM hau-yiu; yl-nien shdng 
 
 a. 20. slieu, pien tsln-tsln yiu wi; ~n\ yl-pel, ngo yl-chan? pienpufu tul-tsz. 
 
 b. 7. Yln-liau pwdn-shdng, Tl chlng-yiu kd chu-sheu chl I, hwu-jen tso-yiu 
 
 b. 22. pau Wdng, Plng-pu tl, sdn kung-tsz lai-liau. San jin che-tl t'ing-pel 
 
 c. 8. tsl-kien. Kwo tsiu gdn-tso tau : " Wdng-hiung lal tl shln-miau ! " 
 
 c. 21. Yln yung sheu chl-chd Tl tau: " Tsz wei Tl-hiung, hau-kl sz ye! 
 
 d. 6. Pu-k'o pu-hwui ! " Wdng tau : "Md-fl tsiu-shi ta-jl Td-gdn-heu yang- 
 
 d. 22. hien-tdng tl Tl T'lng-sdng mo?" Shwul-yiin mdng td-tau: " Chlng- 
 6.5. shi! ching-shi!" Wdng yln chung-fu ku sheu-tsu kung-tau : " Kiu- 
 
 e. 1 8. ydng 1 kiu-ydng ! Shl-klng ! shl-klng!" Yln mwan Chin yl-kti-slidng, 
 
 f. i. sung-yu Tl tau: " Tsie Kw6-hiung chl tsiu, liau-piau siau-ti ydng- 
 f. 15. mu chl sz." Tl tsi-liau ye chin yl-shdng hwui-klng tau: " Siau-ti 
 
 f. 30. ts'u hau, ho-tsu tau tai-hiung, ju kin, ju ju." Fdng-tl wdn-p'ln chl 
 
 g. 1 6. ching, pl-tsz kiau-tsdn. Yl-lien tsiu-shi sdn-ku-shdng ; Tl ching 
 g. 30. yau kau chl, hwu tso-yiu yiu pau LI, Hdn-lin tl dr kung-tsz lai-liau. 
 
 The maxim on page 7 is the 5th of the sixteen original maxims. 
 
 The pages 8 12 of the Chrestomathy contain a passage from the ffali-k'i'fl chuin, a 
 notice of which will be found on page 17 of Part II. In this work, a perusal of the 
 whole of which we would recommend to the student of Chinese, we see, as Sir John 
 Davis aptly says, "portrayed by a native hand this most singular people in almost every 
 variety and condition of human life. 
 
 " Quicquid agunt homines votum, timor, ira, voluptas, 
 
 Gaudia, discursus nostri est farrago libelli." 
 See the Preface to his admirable translation, "The Fortunate Union." 
 
 The student will observe that the absolute clause, which may be translated by a clause 
 beginning with having or being, is of very frequent occurrence in Chinese composition. 
 The first thing to do is to unite the characters and syllables which form phrases or gram- 
 matical words, nouns, verbs, or attributive expressions. Such are swan-lei (8. a. 6, 7)> 
 which, though verbs generally, are here united to form a noun, ' plans.' Then ting-liati 
 is a verb, ' being fixed ;' tsz-jl (a. 1 1, 1 2) is a phrase, ' the next day,' just as in English, ' he 
 came next day ' for ' he came on the next day,' the word on being omitted in Chinese, as in
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " THE FORTtTNATE UNION." 45 
 
 and I am going again without delay ; with respect to greetings, for my own 
 part, I have no politeness, therefore respectfully relying upon you Sir, the 
 messenger, I must decline with thanks; for my coming to-day was only to 
 acknowledge a visit and to render my obligations to Mr. Kwo, who most 
 assiduously invited me to stay. Should I wish to stay, I fear it would be 
 improper; should I wish to go, I also fear lest it might not be kind: just at 
 this troublesome juncture of my embarrassment, fortunately you, respected 
 Sir, are come to direct me." Shwui-yun said : " Good friends of the olden time 
 were inclined to conceal such reasons ; you Mr. Ti and my relation Mr. Kwo 
 are forsooth as good as the ancients ! but to confine yourselves strictly to the 
 world's customs in this manner, would certainly not be right." Kwo laughed 
 and said : " Of a surety my old friend speaks with an acute shrewdness." Ti 
 seeing that they both were alike wishing to detain him as a guest, now forgot 
 his earlier dispositions, and feeling well disposed in mind, (then) he smiled, 
 sat down, and spoke no more of going. Soon after this, wine was served up ; 
 Mr. Kwo then showed him a seat. But Mr. Tl said : " I am much obliged 
 indeed for your consideration of my morning fast, and for giving me refresh- 
 ment, but why do you also trouble yourself to bestow wine on me; I suspect 
 this is not a time to drink." Kwo, laughing, said : " Go on drinking a little, 
 and presently we shall find it is drinking time." All three laughed outright, 
 and sat down to their cups. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Hati-Jciu chuen (3), v. native text, page 10. 
 
 Now the three happened to be good friends with the wine, and directly 
 they raised their hands to drink, (then) they felt an increasing relish 
 for it ; and when they had once pledged each other, (then) they did not 
 again decline drinking. After drinking three horns, and just as Mr. Tl 
 thought of stopping, all at once the attendants announced that the third 
 son of Wang, of the Board of War, had arrived. The three gentlemen 
 had merely put down their glasses to receive him, when Kwo proceeded 
 to seat him comfortably, saying : " Mr. Wang it is a good thing that you 
 are come." Then with his hand he pointed to Tl, saying : " This gentle- 
 man, Mr. Ti, is a hero and a scholar, you ought to make his acquaint- 
 ance." Wang replied : " Surely it is no other than that Tl t'ing-sang, who 
 forcibly entered the Pleasure palace of Td-gdn-heu?" Shwill-yun, hastily 
 replying, said : " Quite so ! quite so ! " Wang then renewing his salutations 
 with respect said : " I have looked forward to this pleasure ! I was ignorant 
 of the honour!" Then, filling a large wine-cup, he presented it to Ti,, saying: 
 " I borrow Mr. Kwos wine to show in a small degree my private feelings of 
 respect." Tl received it, and having poured out a cup in return, politely said : 
 " I am a common person, what have I worthy of mention ; but your qualities, 
 Sir, may be compared to gold and jewels." Then after reciprocal praises on 
 degree of scholarship and rank had been passed between them, and three cups 
 had been drunk in succession, just as Tl was about to say he must stop, on a 
 sudden the attendants again made an announcement that the second son of
 
 46 SHI-WAN. SIAU-SHWO. HAU-K*IU CHUEN. [10. h.lj. ll.j.28.] 
 
 h. 17. Sz-jin ching yau k'l shin sidng-ying; net LI kung-tsz l-tseu tau sl- 
 
 i. 3. ts'ien chl-chii tau : " Sidng-shu hiung -ti, pu siau tung-shln, siau-ti 
 
 i. 17. king tsiu tso pd!" Kwo tail: " Shdng yiu yuen-k'e tsai-tsz." Tl t'ing 
 
 j. i. shwS, yiu tl II si yau tso II. Nd, LI tsie pu ts6 ye, sien k'dn-chS Tl 
 
 j. 19. wdn tau: " Hail ylng tsiun jin-wiil" Tsie tslng-kiau chdng-hiung-ti 
 
 k. 2. sing tai-hau ? Tl tau : " Siau-ti nal td-ming, Ti Chung-yu." LI tau 
 
 k. 17. che-t&ng shw6 shi, Ti Tu-hien tl chang kiun-tsz; lien-lien tsd-yi tau: 
 
 1. 3. " Kiu-wdn td-ming, kln-jl yiu yuen-hinghwui!" Kwo-tsiu yauji-tsft. 
 
 1. 18. Tl tsz-shi tsiu-i-pwdn-Jidn, yiu siang yau-hing ; yln tsz shw6-tau: 
 
 m. 4. " LI hiung ts'ai lai, siau-ti p&n-pu-kai tsiu yau k'u, che yln lai tl tsau, 
 m. 21. t'au yln kw6 to, hwdng hing si kung-tsung, pu ndng kiu-chu; che-tl 
 
 n. 6. yau sien pl-liou." LI yln ts6-sl tau: " Tl-hiung ye t'ai-k'l jin ! kl- 
 
 n. 22. yau-hing, hd pu tsau k'u? Wei-hd siau-ti kang tau, tsiu yl-k'e y& pu 
 
 0. 9. ndng liu? che-shi ming k'l siau-ti! Pu tsu yu yln-liau!" Shwul-yun 
 0.24. tau: " Tl sien-sdng k'u, shi yau k'u-kiu-liau !" 
 
 11. Extract from the Hau-tiiu chuen (4), v. native text, page n. 
 
 a. 5. Tl wu-nai che-tl yiu fu ts6-hid, yii LI tui y\n-liau sdn-ku-shdng. 
 
 a. 22. Yin-ts'ai-wdn, hwu tso-yiu yiu pau-tau Chang kang-k'i& tl td kung-tsz 
 
 b. 8. lai-liau. Chung-jin hwdn wi kl ta-ying, cM-kien nd Chang kung-tsz 
 
 b. 23. wal-tai-chS yl-tlng fang-kin yd sie-chS lidng-che si-yen, tsau-pau-ch6 
 
 c. 10. yl-ko ma-lien, tsau k'l-tl tsiii hiun-hiun, yl-lu kiau tsidng-tsin-lai tau : 
 
 c. 27. " Na yl-wei shi Tl hiung, ki yau tau ngo ll ch'ing-hien lai, tso hau-kl, 
 
 d. 14. tsang pu-hwui ngo yl-hwiii?" Ti ching ll-k'l shin lai ta-chdng yu t'd 
 
 d. 30. shi fa, kien t'd yen-yu pu-sdn, pien li-chii td-ying tau: "Siau-ti pien- 
 
 e. 17. shi Tl t'ing-sdng, pu-chl chdng-hiung yau hwui siau-ti, yiu hd tsz- 
 
 f. 2. kiau?" Chang yd pu-wei ll, cKlng-cho ydn lean Tl, k'dn-liau yiu-k'dn, 
 
 f. 17. hwu td-siau shwo-tau: " Ngo che-tau Tl-hiung shi tsl-k6 t'eu pd-ko 
 
 g. 3. tan ti hau Hdn-tsz ! K'i6 yuen-lai ts'lng-ts'lng mei-mu, pe-pe mien- 
 g. 1 8. k'ung ! wu-i yu nu-tsz! si&ng-shi Tsin-heu! heu tso-liau sz yu, tsi 
 h. 4. mdn-ki&ng; tsi^ sien kiau-yl-kiati tsiu-lidng, k'dn shi ju-ho ? " Chung- 
 h. 1 8. jin t'ing-liau, k'u tsdn-mel tau: " Chdng-hiung miau-ldn td-tl ylng- 
 
 1. 2. hiung p&n-sl!" Tsie ts'lng yl-shdng yl-yin dr kdn tsz kdn-liau, siil 
 i. 17. ku k'ung-shdng yau chau-kdn. Tl kien t'd kdn-tl shwdng-kw'ai, wu- 
 j. i. nai-hd yd che-tl mien-k'idng k'i-kdn-liau. Chdng-tau : " Ts'ai sidng 
 j. 15. ko pdng-yiu yl-mien!" Yiu kiau tsd-yiu chln-k'l lidng-shdng. Tl 
 
 English. Observe that words expressing 'then' as a mark of sequence are often used in 
 Chinese, where in English we should omit them : e. g. tsiti (8. a. 16), taait (8. c. 14), fang-tsal 
 (8. h. i, 2), and often. Several expressions occur in this extract, which are set phrases for 
 particular occasions, and partake of the nature of proverbs or common sayings, and, as 
 such, cannot be explained by the ordinary rules of grammar : e. g. 
 kwel-nn sz-lsin (8. k. 12) 'returning heart as arrow (fleet).' 
 fung-yii siaii-jtn (8. 1. 18) 'the winds and moon would smile at man.' 
 htng-sl kung-tt'ung (9. b. 7) 'my face is set like running stream to go.'
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " THE FORTUNATE UNION." 47 
 
 Li, Fellow of the Imperial Acadamy, had come. Just as the four gentlemen 
 were rising to receive him, this Mr. Li had walked into the festive scene, and 
 stopping, said : " Old friends like us will not take up time in moving, I am 
 already seated." Kwo said: "But there is a guest here from a distance!" 
 When Tl heard this said, he left the table, and sought to make the salutations. 
 The aforesaid Mr. Li did not make any bow, but he first looked at Tl and 
 said : " A fine superior sort of man ! Be so good, Sir, to tell me your surname 
 and name (eminent designation)." Tl replied: "My proper name is Tl 
 Chung-yu" Li said as follows : " It is Tl, the Censor's eldest son." Repeat- 
 edly bowing, he went on to say : " I have long ago heard of your great name, 
 to-day by some good providence we have happily met." Kwo then invited 
 him to be seated. Tl at this time being half-overcome with wine, and besides 
 that thinking of taking his departure, (then) declined with these words: 
 " Since Mr. Li is just come, I properly ought not to go, but I came early, 
 and I feel ashamed of having drunk so much, and much more for this reason 
 that I am in great haste to travel, and cannot remain long, indeed I wished 
 before to go." Li then changed countenance and said : " Mr. Tl is very insult- 
 ing, if he wished to go, why did he not go sooner? Why just when I came, 
 then all on a sudden he could not stay? this is clearly an insult to me; I am 
 not good enough to drink with!" Shwul-yiin said: "Mr. Tl wished to leave 
 a good while ago." 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Hau-lciu chuen (4), v. native text, page 1 1. 
 
 Tl had no other alternative but to sit down again, and with Li to drink 
 three large cups. When they had finished drinking, suddenly the attendants 
 announced that the eldest son of Chang, a person of distinction, had arrived. 
 Before any one had time to reply, they see Mr. Chang, with his dress all awry, 
 with his eyes askant, and with a rakish air, having made himself drunk 
 betimes, come rolling in, crying: "Which is Mr. Tl, who is come to our 
 ancient city and place to play the hero? how is it he did not favour me with 
 a visit?" Tl was just then standing up, preparing to salute him, but when he 
 saw that his expressions were uncivil, he drew himself up and replied : " Your 
 humble servant's name is Tl t'ing-sang, I was ignorant that you, Sir, wished 
 to meet me ; pray what are your commands ? " Chang still made no bow, but, 
 looking straight at Tl, he stared and stared again ; then, bursting into a loud 
 laugh, he said : " Why I expected to find Mr. Tl a seven-headed and eight- 
 hearted Chinaman, and behold he has fine blue eyes and a pale countenance, 
 just like a girl. I believe he is a mere effeminate, and bye and bye we will 
 say more about it, but first let us try his capacity for wine and see what it is." 
 They all heard and praised the plan highly, saying : " Mr. Chang speaks well, 
 with the real spirit of a great hero ! " Then they proposed a bumper to be 
 drained, and when it was drained they raised the empty oup to show that it 
 was dry. Tl, seeing that they drained theirs without being the worse for it, 
 had no alternative but, perforce, to drink off his own. Chang said : " Come 
 now, that's friendly ! " and called the attendants to refill the cups. But Tl
 
 48 SHI-WAN. 8IAU-SHWO. HAU-K*IU CHUEN. [ll.j.29. 12. 1. 9.] 
 
 j. 29. tau: " Siau-ti tso-kiu tl yiu pel Wdng-hiung sdn-shdng, Ll-hiung 
 
 k. 13. sdn-shdng, fang ts'al yiu k'u p'el chdng -hiung y'i-shdng. Tsien-lidng 
 
 k. 26. yiu hien." Chdng-tau : " Ki Wdng, LI, dr-hiung k'u lien sdn-shdng, 
 
 1. 9. hd tii siau-ti yau yl shdng dr chl? shi k'l siau-ti liau! ts'-Ang-pu 
 
 1. 25. shed jln chl k'l!" Chang pien mwdn-lien t'dn-nu tau: " K'idng- 
 
 m. 7. mlng tiii-yln ngo k'l-liau, nl ju-hd pu-k'l ? mo-fl nl I k'idng k'l ngd 
 m. 25. m6 ? " Tl yl-shl tsui-tl shin tu yuen-liau, kau-ch6 l-tsz, che yau-t'eu 
 
 n. 12. tau: " K'l-d-pien, k'%; Jcl-pu-ti-pien, pu-k'i; yiu shln-m6 k'idng?" 
 
 n. 27. Chdng-tau: " Che pel-tsiu, nl kdn pu k'l mo ? " Ti tau: "Pu-k'l!" 
 
 o. ii. Chang td-nu tau: " Nl tsang kdn tau ngo Shdn-tung lal chwdng- 
 
 0. 24. k'idng. Nl pu-k'l ngo chi-pel-tsiu ngo pien yau n\ k'l liau k'u!" 
 
 12. Extract from the Hau-k'iu chuen (5), v. native text, page 12. 
 
 a. 9. Yin nd-k'l nd pel tsiu lal chau cho Tl kid-t'eu kid-lien, che yl-kiau. 
 
 a. 26. Tl, siil-jen tsiii-liau, sln-shdng kio-wdn ming-pd. Yl-kl kl-tl ho-slng 
 
 b. 13. Iwdn-plng ; yln tsidng-tsiu tu kl-slng-liau; wdng-t'iau k'l-shln lal, 
 
 b. 27. tsidng Chang yl pd chau elm jau liau lidng jau tau: " Tsang kdn tau 
 
 c. 1 1 . hu-t'eu shdng lal, sing s& ! " Chang td kiau tau : " Nl kdn td ngo m6 ? " 
 
 c. 26. Tl pien yl-chdng tau: " Td nl pien tsdng-m6?" Kwo ts'al hwd-tau: 
 
 d. 10. " Hau-l liu yln, nal kdn l-tsiu sd ye! kwai kwdn mdn pd-yau tseu- 
 
 d. 26. liau/ tsie td t'd kd tsiu-slng /" Tsau lidng sidng tseu-cliu ts'l-pd-ko 
 
 e. ii. td-hdn. Tl siau-yl-siau tau : " Yl-k'iun fung keu ! tsang -kdn lal k'l 
 
 e. 26. jin!" Yin yl-sheu chu-chu Chang pu-fdng, yl-slieu tsidng tal-tsz yl- 
 
 f. 1 1. hien nd sie hiau-chdn wdn-chdn, td-fdn yl-tl. Shwiil-yun kdng tseu-tau 
 
 f. 27. shln-pien, p'l Tl che yl-t'ul tau: " K'dn Shwiil siau-tsie fan-shdng, 
 
 g. ii. jau nl; td tsau t'ul-tl-k'u, yiu chdng yuen-kln tl-tau tl shdng; pd 
 g. 28. pu-k'l-lal. Tl tsidng Chdng t'l tsidng k'l-lal che yl-sJieu sau-tl chung- 
 h. 15. jin tung-tau-sl-wal. Chdng yuen-shi ko sl-li, nill hwd tsiu hiung hu 
 
 1. i. tl mwdn-k'eu kiau-tau: " Td-kid pu-yau tung-sheu! yiu hwd hau- 
 i. 15. kidng /" Tl tau: " Mu shin hwd kidng ; che hau-hau sung ngo ch'u 
 i. 28. k'u, pien wdn si tsiuen hiu. Jo yau kiuen-liu, kiau nl jln-jln tu sz" 
 j. 14. Chdng lien-lien ylng-chlng tau : "Ngd sting nl! Ngo sung nil" Fdng 
 j. 27. Tl tsidng Chdng fdng-plng, chdn wdn-liau yl-sheu t'i-cho tsz-pti-liau 
 k. 12. ch'u-fai, chung-jln yen tsang-tsang k'dn, cho-k'l tl-pe-t'lng, yiu pu kdn 
 k. 28. shdng-ts'ien, che-Jiau tsai-p'dng shwo-ngdng-hwd, tau : " Kdn tsang 
 
 Kiti-pl-sang (10. a. 10) is a cake used in the fermentation of wine. Pl-sdng refers pro- 
 bably to the sprouting of the grain from which the liquor is made ; and this whole expres- 
 sion seems to be used here, by metonomy, for the wine itself, just as John Barleycorn is 
 employed in our own language for ale or beer. 
 
 Nl yl-pei, ngd yl-chan (10. a. 26) is a graphic form of expression, perhaps the proper 
 form for inviting another to take wine, in pledging one another. Pwdn-shang (10. b. 9), 
 lit. 'half the forenoon,' consequently 'three hours.' Observe that ching, when used for 
 'just as,' takes the second place when the subject of the sentence is mentioned (cf. 10. b. 12). 
 The polite expression in 10. e. 17 24. is hard to translate into English, but the version 
 we have given conveys very nearly the signification intended in the original.
 
 MODERN LITERATUEE. NOVELS. " THE FORTUNATE UNION." 49 
 
 exclaimed : " Your humble servant has been sitting a long time, and has just 
 now taken three cups with Mr. Wang, three cups with Mr. Li, and now one 
 cup with you, Sir ; my shallow capacity has a limit." Chang replied : " Having 
 taken three cups with each of our brethren, Wang and Li, why with me, only 
 one cup and then stop? This is to insult me ! I have never yet been insulted 
 by any body ! " He then swelled with suppressed rage, and said : " Apologise 
 by drinking in reply to me! Why don't you drink? Surely you intend to 
 insult me excessively, don't you?" Tl now being nearly overcome with what 
 he had drunk, leaned back in his chair and, shaking his head, exclaimed : 
 " When it is convenient to drink, then I drink ; when it is not convenient to 
 drink, I won't drink ; where is the excessive insult?" Chang said: "This cup 
 of wine will you dare not to drink it?" Tl said: "I won't drink it!" Chang, 
 in a great rage, cried : " Why do you dare to come to our Shan-tung to show 
 these airs; if you will not drink this cup of wine of mine, I will make you 
 drink it." 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Hati-Jciu chuen (5), v. native text, page 1 2. 
 
 He then took up the cup of wine and dashed it completely over the head 
 and face of Ti, who, although in a state of intoxication, yet had his wits about 
 him. Suddenly his ardent temper was roused, and all confusion of mind was 
 dissipated; and, as far as the wine went, he was sobered. He jumped up in 
 an instant and, having seized CJiang with a firm grasp, he swung him round 
 twice, saying: " How dare you venture to come, seeking death, with a tiger?" 
 Chang, with a loud voice, cried: "Do you dare to strike me?" T$, then 
 giving him a slap, replied: "If I strike you, what then?" Kwo then put in a 
 word : " A fine idea to stay drinking, and then, relying on the wine, to make 
 a disturbance ! quickly shut the door and let no one go out ! Then beat him 
 until he is sober!" At once from two adjacent rooms came forth seven or 
 eight strong fellows. But Tl, with a smile, said : " You pack of mad dogs, 
 how dare you come to insult a man ! " Then with one hand he gripped tightly 
 hold of Chang and with the other he lifted the whole table of refreshments 
 and scattered them on the ground. Shul-yun just then having approached 
 him, was pushed by Ti with the words : " Having a regard for your niece I 
 spare you a little :" as he hurled him several feet away, where he fell sprawling 
 on the ground unable to rise. Tl then took Chang, and with one hand sweep- 
 ing him round, he scattered them all in every direction. Now Chang, who was 
 a man of vicious habits and was enervated with wine and debauchery, cried out 
 with all his might : " Every one be still ! we will hold a parley ! " Tl replied : 
 " There is no need of that ; only show me out, and then a host of troubles 
 will be avoided; but if you should force me to remain, I will be the death of 
 every one of you ! " Chang then repeatedly answered : " I'll show you out ! 
 I'll show you out ! " Then Ti took Chang and set him up, and having placed 
 him firmly upon his legs, with one hand he held him and marched out, while 
 the rest fiercely looked on and angrily stood forward, but not daring to 
 advance, they merely uttered aside their boasts, saying : " How dare he thus 
 
 PART II. H
 
 50 SHI-WAN. SIAU-SHWO. SHWUI-HU CHUEN. [12. 1. IO. 13.J.2O.] 
 
 1. 10. ju-tsz hu wet, tsie jau t'd k'u, shau-pu-tl yau kien ko kau hid!" Ti 
 1. 27. che tso-pu-t'ing-kien, t'i-ch6 Chang chl t'ung tseu-ch'u td-mdn chl wat, 
 m. 13. fang tsidng-sheii fang k'al tau: " Fdn Chdng-hiung ch'uen yu chu- 
 rn. 25. hiung; ngo, Ti Chung-yu, jo yiu tsan tl tsai sheu, tsien-kiun wdn-md 
 n. 10. chung, ye pu-k'd ctiu-jin, hd hivdng sdn-wft ko tsiu-sl chl t'u, shi su 
 n. 27. ko Hdn chl-wdng-yau liu mdng hu chl pin! Ho k'i yii ye!" Tsidng- 
 0.12. sheu yl-ku tau : " Tslng-liau!" King td-td pu-hwiii hid-chu lai. 
 
 13. Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (i), v. native text, page 13. 
 
 a. i. Shwul-hu chuen. Hwd-shw6 kfo Sung Che-tsung Hwdng-ti tsai- 
 
 a. 14. shi. K'l-shi Sung Jin-tsung T'ien-tsz I yucn, Tung -king, K'al-fung 
 
 a. 28. fu Pien-lidng, siuen-wu-kiun pien yiu yl-ko feu-ldng p'6-lu-hu tsz-ti, 
 
 b. 15. sing, Kau; p'ai-hdng, ti-dr; tsz-siau pu-cKlng kid-nl; che Jiau tsz- 
 
 b. 30. ts'idng shi-p'ang, tsiii-shi t'l-te-hau kid-k'i-k'iu. Klng-sz jin k'eu-sJidn 
 
 c. 1 6. pu-kiau Kau-dr, kid tu kiau t'd tso, Kau-k'iu. Heu-lai fa-tsl pien 
 
 d. 2. tsidng k'i-k'iu na-tsz .k'u-liau mau p'dng t'ien tso-ll jin pien-kal-tsS 
 
 d. 1 8. sing, Kau; ming, K'iu. Che jin ctiul, t'dn, ko, wu, tsz-tsidng, shi- 
 
 e. i. p'dng, sidng-po, wdn-shwa; yihu-lwdn hid shl-shu ts'z-fd; jo Idnjin- 
 
 e. 17. i-ll-chi-sin-Mng-chung-lidng, kio-shi pu hwiii ; che tsai Tung-king, 
 
 f. 2. ctiing-ll ch'ing-wai pang-Men. Yin pdng-liau yl-ko sang, Tl-wdng 
 
 f. 1 6. yuen-wai dr-tsz, shi-ts'ien. Mel-jl sdn-wa lidng-she, fdng-hwd-su- 
 
 g. i. yii; p'l t'dfu-tsln K'al-fung fu-li kau-liau yl-chi wdn-chwdng fu-yiin 
 g. 1 8. pa Kau-k'iu twdn-liau dr-shl kiuen chdng shi p'ei ch'u-kial fd-fdng 
 h. 3. Tung-king, ch'ing-ll jin-min pu hu-yung t'd tsai kid su-shl. Kau-k'iu 
 h. 19. wu-t'au nai-ho, clie-te lai Hwai-sl Lin-hwai cheu t'eu-pdn yl-ko k'al 
 i. 6. tu-fdng tl hien Hdn Liu Td-ldng, ming-hwdn Liu Shi-kiuen. T'd 
 i. 20. ping-sang chuen hau si k'e ydng hien-jin clmu nd sz-fdng yu kd lau 
 j. 6. Hdn-tsz. Kau-k'iu t'eu to-te Liu Td-ldng kid yl-chu sdn-nien. 
 
 Liad-piau (10. f. 10) and yang-mti (10. f. 14), 'a slight mark of respect,' seem to be the 
 formal expressions for these notions. They are united in one expression in 8. d. 21 26, 
 and are in both places thrown into the position of an attribute ; and, though the form of 
 the sentence cannot be preserved, the force of it will be easily seen in each case. 
 
 Hati ylng tsifin jin-wiil (10. j. 21) is a combination of irony and contempt. CM in the 
 description of Mr. Chang (i i. b. 25 ; c. 2 ; and c. 9) is the proper auxiliary verb (cf. Art. 
 197 of Part I) to form the past tense or past participle; it is, however, frequently used 
 where, in some languages, no past tense would be employed, but only the ' historical ' pre- 
 sent. The above passages may be translated by having, or being so and so, as in an 
 absolute clause. 
 
 Shwiil-hti chuen {13. a. i 3). The student may refer to page 17 of the Introduction to 
 the Chrestomathy for a few notes on this work. The title of it does not clearly indicate 
 the nature of its contents, which are of a very varied character ; but it conveys an allusion 
 to a story in the Shi-king, where a certain ancient prince is said to have escaped with some 
 of his loyal followers from a horde of Tartars. The events narrated in this novel are so far 
 similar to his adventures in, that they treat of the troubles which arose out of the wars which 
 happened in China at the end of the Sung dynasty (A. D. 1281). (Cf. Bazin, Le Si&cle da 
 YouSn, p. in.) The style of this work is peculiar, and cannot be deemed a good specimen 
 for imitation. The construction of the sentences however, and the use of appropriate par-
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " STORIES OF BANDITTI." 51 
 
 to act violently? but let him go, we shall soon see his loftiness brought down ! " 
 Ti only made as though he heard them not, but keeping fast hold of Chang 
 he walked with him out at the front door ; then, having loosed his grasp of 
 him, he said : " I will trouble you, Mr. Chang, to return and tell your friends, 
 that, with an inch of steel in my hand, I, Tl Chung-yu, even though amidst 
 troops of cavalry, would not permit any one to stop my exit, how much less 
 likely is it that three or four drunken and profligate rascals, with the help of 
 a dozen fellows, should beard the tiger in his fury! What a piece of folly!" 
 So saying, he raised his hands, ceremoniously bowed, and then strode home- 
 wards. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (i), v. native text, page 13. 
 History of the River's banks, or Stories of Banditti. 
 
 It said that in the time of the Emperor Che-tsung of the ancient Sung 
 dynasty, at a period remote from the days of his celestial majesty Jin-tsung, 
 there lived in the eastern capital, Kai-fung fu in the Pien-liang garrison, a 
 dissipated youth belonging to a decayed family, of the name of Kau. He was 
 the second son, and consequently he had not for himself any of the family fortune, 
 but he was clever in the use of the spear and the cudgel, and very expert at 
 kicking the foot-ball. The men of the metropolis did not call him Kau-ur 
 (his proper name), but, with freedom of speech, they all called him Kau-Jciu 
 ('foot-ball'), hence we see the cause of this character Jciu ('ball') being 
 attached to this man's name ; so that it was changed thus : surname Kau, 
 name K'iu. This man could play on wind instruments and stringed instru- 
 ments ; he could sing and dance, fence and cudgel, and was fond of trifling 
 amusements ; he had * also studied in a desultory manner the Shi-king, 
 the Shu-king, and both prose and poetry; but as for deeds of kindness, 
 justice, propriety, prudence, and fidelity, he knew just nothing about them. 
 He merely spent his time within and without the city, aiding idlers in 
 their pursuits; and he formed a connection in this way with the son of an 
 officer of superior rank, named Wang, and helped him to spend his money. 
 Every day brought with it a round of dissipation. But Wang's father wrote an 
 accusation against him to the chief magistrate of the capital, and Kau-k'iu was 
 sentenced to twenty strokes on the back, and, besides that, to go into exile. 
 All the inhabitants of the metropolis were forbidden to receive him into their 
 houses to board or to lodge. Kau-k'iu having no other resource, just proceeded 
 to Hwai-si; and having come to Lin-hwai cheu, he repaired at once to a certain 
 vagabond Chinaman, Liu Ta-lang, who had opened a gambling-house, and went 
 by the name of Liu Shi-kiiien. He took pleasure in receiving and feeding all 
 idle loungers; and had also invited, from all sides, the Chinamen engaged in 
 the dykes and drains. Kau-k'iu found a home in Liu Ta-lang's family, where 
 he remained three years. 
 
 * Cf. Pr^mare's Notitia Linguw Siniccf, p. 140. 
 H 2
 
 52 SHI-WAN. SIAU-SHWO. SHWUI-HU CHUEN. [13.J.2I. 14.k. 14.] 
 
 j. 21. Heu-lai Che-tsung T'ien-tsz, yln pai Ndn-kiau kan-te fung t'iau 
 
 k. 5. yu shdn fdng kwdn yln td she t'ien-hid; net, Kau-k'iu tsai, Lin-hwal 
 
 k. 20. Cheu, yln te-liau she-yiu tsui-fdn, sz-lidng yau hwiii Tung-king. Che 
 
 1. 5. Lid Shi-kiuen kid hd Tung -king ch'ing-ll Kln-lidng k'iau-hid k'al- 
 
 1. 20. yS-pu-ti, Tung Tsidng-sz shl tsln-sl sie-liau yl-fung-shu-chd slieu-shl 
 
 m. 7. sie jtn-sz pw'dn-ch'en tsl fa Kau-k'iu hwiii Tung-king t'eu-pdn Tung 
 
 m. 22. Tsidng-sz kid kwo-hwo. Tdng-shi Kau-k'iu ts'z-liau Liu Td-ldng pel 
 
 n. 7. shdng pau &, ll-liau Lin-hwal cheu l-ll hwui-tau Tung-king king-lai 
 
 n. 23. Kln-li&ng k'iau-hid Tung-sang yo-kid, hid-liau che-fung-shu. Tung 
 
 0. 7. Tsmng-s& yl-kien Kau-k'iu k'dn-liau Liu Shi-kiuen lai-shu, ts-t'u-li 
 0.23. 8in-s& tau: "Che Kau-k'iu ngo kidju-hd gdn-ch6-te t'd? 
 
 14. Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (2), v. native text, page 14. 
 
 a. 7. J6-shl 7c6 chi-ch'ing lau-shl ti jin, k'd-l yung t'd tsai kid ch'u-jl, ye 
 
 a. 25. kiau hai-dr-mdn hio sie hail; t'd kio-shi k6 pdng-hien ti p'6-ld-hu, mu 
 
 b. 13. sin-hing ft jin; yi-tsie tdng-ts'u yiu kwo-fdn-lai, pi-twdn-p'ei tt jin, 
 
 b. 30. kiu-sing pl-pu-k'dng kal. Jo liu chu tsai kid-chung, tau-ye-te hai-dr- 
 
 c. 1 7. mdn pu-hi6 hau-liau, tai pu-sJieu liu t'd yiu p'l-pu-kwo Liu Td-ldng 
 
 d. 4. mien-p'i." Tdng-shi che-te k'iuen tsie hwdn-t'ien-hl-ti sidng-liu tsai kid 
 
 d. 20. su-hl; mel-jl tsiu-sht, kwdn tai chu-liau shi suji, T'ung Tsidng-s& s&- 
 
 e. 7. lidng-ch'u yl-ko-lu su-tsidng ch'u yl-t'au i-fu, sie-liau yi-fung shu- 
 
 e. 24. Men, tiii Kau-k'iu shwo-tau : " Siau-jin kid-hid, ' ying-ho chl kwdng, 
 
 f. 8. chaujin pu lidng,' k'ung heu wu-liau tsu-hid ngd chuen tsien tsu-hid 
 
 f. 23. yu Siau-su Hio-sz, chu; kiii-lieu ye te-ko cJiu-shln. Tsu-hid i^nui 
 
 g. 10. ju-hd?" Kau-k'iu td-hl, sie-liau Tung Tsidng-sz. Tung Tsidng-sz 
 g. 24. shi ko-jin tsidng-chd shu-kien yln-ling Kau-k'iu king-tau Hi6-sz fu- 
 h. 10. nui. Mdn-li chuen pau Siau-su Hio-sz. Ch'u-lau kien-liau Kau-k'iu 
 h. 25. k'dn-liau shu, chl-tau Kau-k'iu yuen-lal shi pdng-hien feu-ldng tijin, 
 
 1. 1 1. sin-hid sidng-tau : "Ngo che-llju-lid gdn chd-te t'd ? -pu-ju tso ko jin- 
 i. 29. ts'ing, tsien t'd kufu-md, Wdng Tsin-liu fu-ll, tso ko-tsln siii-jin; 
 j. 15. tu hwdn t'd ts6 Siau-wdng Tu T'ai-wei t'd pien hl-hwdn che-ydng-tl 
 A. i. jin" Tdng-shi hwui-li-au Tung Tsidng-sz shu-chd liu Kau-k'iu tsai 
 
 tides, as marks of the sequence of clauses, are good and worthy of the student's observation : 
 (cf. p. 14. a. and b.) He should also notice the frequent union of two syllables, of like 
 signification, to make one word, even among the particles: (cf. 13. c. 27; 14. b. 17; 
 14. 1. 17; and often.) 
 
 PUn-lidng (13. a. 29) was the ancient name of Kai-ftvng fu. 
 
 Jin-i-ll-chi-sln (13. e. 16 20), 'kindness, justice, propriety, prudence, and fidelity,' are 
 the cardinal virtues among the Chinese. 
 
 YuSn-wal (13. f. 16) is the title of an officer of the fifth rank. 
 
 The advanced student will observe that many phrases in the Shwul-JtH differ from those 
 in use at present: (cf. shi-ts'iSn 13. f. 20.) The use of pet or pi (13. g. 2) to make a passive 
 form of the verb is not unfrequent : (cf. 14. b. 25.) 
 
 The expression san-ica liany-sh (13. f. 24) cannot be literally translated so as to convey 
 the sense, which is a sort of euphemism for a dissolute way of life. The following phrase 
 cd -riih-yiih (13. f. 28) has also a similar signification, for the words 'wind, flowers,
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " STORIES OF BANDITTI." 53 
 
 After a time his celestial majesty, Che-tsung, when he worshipped in Nan- 
 kiau, being moved with gratitude for the propitious winds and the genial rain, 
 then extended his favour, and sent a general pardon throughout the empire. 
 Our Kau-k'iu, in Lin-hwai cheu, took advantage of the amnesty, and contem- 
 plated returning to the capital. Now this Liu Shi-kiuen had, in the metro- 
 politan city of Tung-king, at the foot of the Kin-Hang ('Golden-beam') bridge, 
 keeping an apothecary's shop, a relative named Tung Tsiang-sz. So, having 
 written a letter of introduction, he collected a few things, with some money 
 for the journey, and presented them to Kau-k'iu, bidding him on his return 
 to Tung-king to seek a home in the family of Tung Tsiang-sz. Then Kau- 
 k'iu, having taken leave of Liu Ta-lang and shouldered his bundle, departed 
 from Lin-hwai cheu, and by easy stages returned to Tung-king. He drew 
 near to the foot of the Kin-Hang bridge, and when he had arrived at the 
 apothecary's shop belonging to Tung, he presented his letter of introduction 
 to Tung Tsiang-sz. Directly Tung saw Kau-k'iu and had glanced over Liu 
 Shi-kiueris letter, he thought within himself, saying : " How can I receive this 
 Kau-k'iu into my family ? 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shwui-hu chuen (2), v. native text, page 14. 
 
 If indeed he were an honest man and sincere in purpose, he might be 
 useful in going in and out of the house, and also in teaching the children some 
 good things ; but the fact is, he has been an associate of idlers, he is of a bankrupt 
 house, and a man of no principle ; and besides, those who have been offenders, 
 and have been cut off from society, certainly will not change their former dis- 
 positions. If he remain in my family, he will subvert the good principles 
 of my children, and teach them nothing good; and if I do not treat him 
 civilly and keep him, it will be about equal to brushing the skin off my 
 friend Liu Ta-lang 's face." Then he just considered within himself, and, by 
 way of pleasing both parties, he received Kau-k'iu into his family to take up 
 his abode, daily gave him wine and food, and treated him well for a fortnight. 
 At last Tung Tsiang-sz meditated a way out of this awkward business; 
 he took out a new suit of clothes ; and, having written a letter, he addressed 
 himself to Kau-k'iu, saying : " My poor family, like the light of the glow- 
 worm's fire, cannot make any body illustrious; and I am afraid that bye 
 and bye it will be injurious to you, Sir. But I will recommend you, Sir, to 
 Dr. Siau-su, and after a time you will obtain promotion. What do you think 
 of this, Sir 1 ?" Kau-k'iu was much pleased, and thanked Tung Tsiang-sz. The 
 latter then sent a messenger to take the letter and to direct Kau-k'iu to the 
 Doctor's mansion. The porter announced his arrival to Dr. Siau-su, who 
 came forth to see him. But when he had read the letter, and knew that 
 Kau-k'iu was originally an idle vagabond, he communed with himself, thus : 
 "How shall I manage in treating this man? but it will be best to appear 
 friendly, and I can recommend him to go to the palace of the Emperor's son-in- 
 law Wang Tsin-liu, to be a private attendant on the Governor Siau-wang; he 
 is fond of such men." He then replied to Tung Tsiang-sz s letter, and kept
 
 54 SHI-WAN. SIAU-SHWO. SHwui-HU CHUEN. [14. k. 15. 15. m. 24.] 
 
 k. 15. fu-li chu-liau yl-ye. Ts'z-ji sie-liau yl-fung shu ch'ing, shi kien kdn 
 
 1. 2. jin, sung Kan-Kid k'u net, Siau-wdng Tu T'ai-wei chu. Che T'ai-wei 
 
 1. 17. ndi-shi, Che-tsung Hwdng-ti mi-fu, Shin-tsung Hwdng-ti tl fu-md. 
 
 m. 2. jP'a hi-gai fung-liu jin-wu, ching yung che-ydng tljin; yl-kien Siau- 
 
 m. 1 8. su Hio-sz chai-jin ch'i shii, sung die Kau-k'iu lai, pal kien-liau, pien- 
 
 n. 4. hi, sill tsl sie hwiii-shu, sheu-liu Kau-k'iu tsai fu-nui tso ko tsln-sui. 
 
 n. 21. Ts-tsz Kau-k'i'A tsad-tsi tsai Wdng Tu-wei fu-chung cliu-ji fa t'-Ang 
 
 o. 7. kid-jin yi-pdn; Tsz-kfo tau jl yuen ji su ji ts'ln jl kin. Hwu yi-ji 
 
 0. 25. Siau-wdng, Tu T'ai-wei, k'ing- 
 
 15. Extract from the Shwm-hu chuen (3), v. native text, page 15. 
 
 a. i. tdn sdng-shin fqn-fu fu-chung dn-p'ai yen-yen chuen tslng siau-kiu 
 
 a. 1 6. Twdn-wdng. Che Twdn-wdng nal-shi Shin-tsung T'ien-tsz ti shi-yi 
 
 a. 30. tsz, Che-tsung Hwdng-ti yu ti, kien chdng tung kid, p'ai hau kiu td- 
 
 b. 15. wdng ; shi ko tsung-ming tsiun-siau jln-wu, feu-ldng tsz-ti mdnfung- 
 
 b. 30. pdng-hien chi sz, wu yi-pdn pu-hiau, wu yl-pdn pu-hwiii, kqng wu yi- 
 
 c. 17. pan pu-gai, ju kin-kin shu-hwd wu-so-pu-t'ung ; ti-k'iu, ta-tdn, pln- 
 
 d. 4. chu t'iau-sz; ch'iu, tdn, ko wu, tsz pu-pt-shw5. Tdng-jl Wdng Tu-wei 
 
 d. 21. fu-chung, hwai pi yen-yen, shwui lu ku-pi tslng Twdn-wdng ku-chung 
 
 e. 6. tso-ting, T'ai-wei lui-si sidng-p'ei; tsiu tsin su-pei, shi-kung lidng 
 
 e. 21. t'au, nd Twdn-wdng k'l-shln tsing-sheu, gau-lal shu-yuen-ll; shau-kl 
 
 f. 6. mdng-kien shu-kid-shdng yl tui dr-ydng chi yu nien ch'ing. Chin-chi 
 
 f. 22. sz-tsz kl-shi tso-tl hau si-k'iau ling-lung. Twdn-wdng nd-k'l sz-tsz 
 
 g. 9. pu-16 sheu, k'au-liau yi-liwul, tau hau. Wdng Tu-wei, kien Twdn- 
 g. 23. wdng sln-gai, pien shwo-tau : " Tsai yiu yi-kf> yu-lung pi-kid, ye-shi 
 h. 9. che-ko tsidng-jin yl-sheu tso-tl, kio pu tsai sheu-t'eu; ming-ji tsii hai 
 h. 26. yl-ping sidng-sung." Twdn-wdng td-hi tau sin sie heu-i sidng, nd pi- 
 
 1. 12. kd pi-slii kqng-miau. Wdng Tu-wei tau: fi Ming-ji tsu-cKu-lai, 
 i 26. sung chi kung-chung, pien kien Twdn-wdng yiu sie-liau lidng -ko, 1- 
 j. 10. k'iu jl si yln-yen chi mu tsin tsui fang sdn. Twdn-wdng sidng-pl, 
 j. 26. hwiil kung k'u-liau. Tsz-jl Siau wdng, Tu T'ai-wei ts'u-ch'u yu-lung 
 k. ii. pi-kid h6 Hdng-k6 chin-chl yu sz-tsz, cho yl-ko siau-kln ho-tsz ching- 
 k. 29. liau, yung hwdng-ld pau-fu pau-liau, sie-liau yl-fung shii ch'ing, kio 
 1. 14. shi Kau-k'iu sung-k'u. Kau-Jciu fing-liau Wdng Tu-wei kiun-chl 
 1. 28. tsidng-cho lidng-pdn yu wdn k'i hwai-chung, ch'm-chd' shu-ctiing, king- 
 ra. 12. t'eu Twdn-wdng kung-chung, lai; pd mdn-hwdn-li chuen-pau yu 
 
 snow, moon," frequently hnply ' an unrestrained and gay career of pleasure :' (cf. 14. m. 5. 
 and feti-ldny 13. b. 8.) 
 
 The word Hdn a is frequently used to designate 'natives of China/ especially such as 
 are brave and manly, like the word Briton in English: (v. 13. j. 6; also 12. e. 12.) 
 
 Fu-md, (14. j. 3), ' son-in-law of the Emperor,' appears to be used as a title (cf. 15. n. 24), 
 and tsid-fu (16. g. 28), 'brother-in-law,' is used in speaking of another in the third person, 
 for mi-fu (14. 1. 23). 
 
 a v4
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " STORIES OF BANDITTI." 55 
 
 Kau-k'iu in his mansion for the night. The next day he wrote a letter of 
 recommendation, and sent it by a business-like man, who was to guide Kau- 
 Jciu to the mansion of the Governor Siau-wang. Now this Governor was a 
 brother-in-law of the Emperor Che-tsung, and a son-in-law of the Emperor 
 Shln-tsung. He was very fond of elegant and rare men and things, and espe- 
 cially of such men as our hero. As soon as he saw Dr. Siau-su's messenger 
 bearing a letter and introducing Kau-Jciu, he bowed and was pleased; and, 
 having at once written a reply, he received Kau-k'iu into his house as a private 
 attendant. From this time forward Kau-ltiu was treated in Governor Wangs 
 mansion just as one of the family, and thus on all occasions. Now it hap- 
 pened one day that the Governor, 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (3), v. native text, page 1 5. 
 
 Siau-wang, on the occasion of the celebration of his birthday, ordered a ban- 
 quet to be held in his palace, to which he invited his brother-in-law Prince Twan. 
 Now this Prince Twan was the eleventh son of the Emperor Shin-tsung, and 
 the younger brother of the Emperor Che-tsung. He had the supervision of the 
 chariots and the standards of war, and he had the title of viceroy. He was a 
 man of intelligence and beauty, and was acquainted with all the gay and 
 frivolous people of the age ; for gallantry and knowledge of the world there 
 was not his equal. Music, literature, and painting he had thoroughly investi- 
 gated, and it would be superfluous to speak of his powers in kicking foot-ball, 
 playing on the guitar, carving, netting, and the other accomplishments of 
 singing and dancing. On the appointed day, the Prince came to the Governor's 
 mansion, where the feast was prepared. Having invited Prince Twan to be 
 seated at the head of the table, the Governor took the opposite end. After 
 the wine had gone round several times, and ten courses had been despatched, 
 Prince Twan, on rising to wash his hands, accidently entered the library, 
 where, on a book-shelf, suddenly his eye fell on a pair of beautifully wrought 
 ornaments representing two lions in jade-stone. They were ornamental paper- 
 weights, very finely carved and curiously figured with dragons. Prince Twan 
 took up the lions and held them in his hands, while he kept admiring them, 
 and saying that they were beautiful. Siau-wang, seeing that Prince Twan 
 liked them, (then) said : " I have besides these a pencil-stand in jade wrought 
 with dragons, made by the same artist, but just now it is not at hand; to- 
 morrow I will find it and send it to the palace." Then Prince Twan having 
 thanked him again and again, they returned to the saloon, where, after further 
 carousal, they separated. Twan-wang having departed, returned to his palace, 
 and on the following day Siau-wang, the Governor, took out the ornamented 
 pencil-stand of jade and, with the two paper-weights, the lions of the same 
 material, he placed it in a little silver casket; and, having wrapped the 
 whole in a handkerchief of yellow gauze, he wrote a letter, which he sent Kau- 
 k'iu to deliver. Kau-Jciu, having received Governor Wang's orders, took the 
 two precious articles, and with the letter in his pocket, he proceeded to Prince 
 Twan's palace. The keeper of the gate announced him to the steward, who
 
 56 SHI- WAN. SIAU-SHWO. SHWUI-HU CHUEN. [15. 111.30. 16. 0.23.] 
 
 m. 30. yuen-kung. Mu to-shi yuen-kung ch'u lai, wdn: ({ Nl-shl na-kb fU- 
 n. 10. II lai-tijin?" Kau-k'iu, shi-ll-pd, td-tau: " Siau-jin shi Wdng fu-ma 
 n. 27. fu-chung, te-sting yu-wdn-k'i lai-tsin td-wdng." Yuen-kung tau: 
 o. ii. " Tien-hid tsai t'ing-sdn-ll hd siau hwdng-m$n ti-k'i-k'iu, nl tsz kwo- 
 
 0. 27. k'ii." Kau-k'iu tau: 
 
 16. Extract from the Shwul-hu chuen (4), v. native text, page 16. 
 
 a. i. " Sidng-fdn yln-tsin." Yuen-kung yln-tau t'ing-mdn. Kau-k'iu 
 
 a. 13. k'dn-shi kien Twdn-wdng t'eu tai juen-shd T'dng-kin, shin ch'uen 
 
 a. 26. tsz-siu-lung p'au-yau hi wdn-wu chwdng siii t'iau pd, siu-Mng p'au 
 
 b. ii. ts'ien k'ln i chd k'l ch'ul tsai tiau-dr pien, tsu ch'uen yi-chwdng kdn- 
 
 b. 26. kln-sien fl-fung hiu, sdn-wu ko siau hwdng-mdn sidng-pwdn chS- 
 
 c. 10. ts'u k'i-k'iu. Kau-Jciu pu-kan kwo k'u ch'ung-chwdng, Ii tsai 
 
 c. 24. tsung-jtn pei-heu s-heu yd. Sz Kau-k'iu h8-tdng fd-tsi shi yun tau 
 
 d. ii. lai nd-k6 k'i-k'iu t'dng t'i k'l-lai, Twdn-wdng tsi-ko pu-chd hidng-jin 
 
 d. 28. ts'ung II chi kwan tau Kau-Jciu shin-pien. Na Kau-Kiu kien k'i- 
 
 e. 12. k'iu lai, ye-shi yi-slii ti tdn lidng shi-ko yuen-ydng kwai ti hwdn 
 
 e. 28. Twdn-wdng. Twdn-wdng kien-liau td-hl, pien wdn tau: " Nl shi 
 
 f. ii. shin jin?" KaH-Iciu hidng-ts'ien kwei-hid tau: " Siau-ti shi Wdng 
 24. Tu-wei tsln-siii, sheu tung-jln shi ling tsi sung lidng pan yu-wdn-k'i 
 
 g. 10. lai tsin-hien Td-wdng, yiu shu-ch'ing tsai-tsz pai-shdng." Twdn- 
 g. 23. wdng t'ing-pd, siau tau: " Tsie-fu chin jil-tsz kwd-sin." Kau-k'iu 
 h. 7. ts'u ch'u shu-ch'ing tsin-shdng. Twdn-wdng k'ai hd-tsz k'dn-liau 
 h. 20. wdn-k'i tu ti yu t'dng heu kwdn sheu-liau k'u. Nd Twdn-wdng tsie 
 
 1. 5. pu-ll yu-k'i hid-18; kiS sin-wdn Kau-k'iu tau: " Nl che-lai hwiii-tl 
 i. 22. k'i-k'iu, nl hwdn ts6 shin-mo?" Kau-k'iu yiu sheu kwei-feu tau: 
 j. 6. " Siau-ti kiau-tso Kau-k'iu, hu Iwdn ti te kl pal." Twdn-wdng tau: 
 j. 21. "Hait! nl pien hid ch'dng lai ti yl-hidng shwd." Kau-k'iu pal tau: 
 k. 5. " Siau-ti shi ho tdng-ydng jin, kdn yu gdn Wdng hid kid!" Twdn- 
 k. 19. wdng tau: " Che-shi ts'i-yun she ming wei t'ien-hid yuen, tdn t'i hd 
 1. 4. shdng ? " Kau-k'iu tsai pal tau : " Tsang kdn ! " Sdn-hwiii wu-ts'z kau- 
 1. 17. tsz. Twdn-wdng ting-yau t'd t'i. Kau-k'iu che-te k'eu-t'eu sie-tsiii, 
 m. 2. kial-si-hid, ts'ai t'i kl-kid. Twdn-wdng h5 ts'al; Kau-k'iu che-te pa 
 m. 19. ping-sang pdn-sz tu shi ch'u-lai fung-fung. Twdn-wdng nd shin-Jan 
 n. 4. mu-ydng, che k'i-k'iu yi-sz p'iau-kiau nien tsai shin-shdng ti Twdn- 
 n. 19. wdng td-hl nd-li k'dngfdng Kau-k'iu hwuifu k'u, tsiu liu tsai kung- 
 o. 5. chung kwo yi-ye. Ts'z-jl p'ai ko yen-hwui chuen ts'lng Wdng Tu-wei 
 o. 20. kang-chung fu yen. 
 
 The use of tang*, for 'that,' is frequent, especially in the phrases tdng-jl 'on that day' 
 and tdng-sht 'at that time:' (cf. 13. m. 27; 14. k. 2 ; 15. d. 16.) 
 
 The accumulation of attributes and epithets for nouns is a characteristic of the style of 
 the Shwul-hH; e. g. feti-ldng p'6-l8-h& tsz-tl (13. b. 8 14) : (cf. 13. i. 23 27 ; 13. 1. 14 21 ; 
 and chl-ch'tng la.ti-shl fljtn 14. a. 10 15.)
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. NOVELS. " STORIES OP BANDITTI." 57 
 
 soon came out and asked, "From whose mansion do you come?" Kau-Jciu, 
 having paid his respects, replied : " I am from Son-in-law Wang's house, and 
 arn come to present some precious articles of vertu to His Highness." The 
 steward said : " He is down in the court of the palace, kicking foot-ball with 
 other members of the imperial family; go over there." Kau-Jciu said: 
 
 Translation of the Extract from tlie Sliwul-liu chuen (4), v. native text, page 16. 
 
 " I will trouble you, Sir, to show me the way." Then the steward showed 
 him to the door of the court. While Kau-Jciu was looking on, he saw Prince 
 Twan, having a turban of the T'ang dynasty, made of soft gauze, upon his head; 
 he wore a nankeen vest embroidered with dragons^and adorned with streamers 
 of fine muslin, with embroidered lappets turned down in front, but loosely 
 adjusted on the side of his dress. On his feet were boots elegantly adorned 
 with gold thread and the flying phoenix. Three or four members of the 
 imperial family were assisting him to play at foot-ball, and therefore Kau-Jciu 
 dared not to cross over to him, but he stood waiting behind the attendants. 
 Now it happened that Kau-Jciu had some experience at foot-ball, and 
 when the ball arose from the ground and Prince Twan failed to receive it 
 well, it fell towards the crowd at the side of Kau-Jciu. As he saw the ball 
 coming, in a moment he boldly gave it a magnificent kick and sent it back 
 again to Prince Twan. When Prince Twan saw it, he was greatly pleased, 
 and at once asked, saying: "Who are you?" Kau-Jciu came forward and, 
 kneeling, said : " Your humble servant is Governor Wang's private attendant, 
 I have received some precious articles to present to Your Highness, and I have 
 a letter also with reference to these things." When Prince Twan heard this, 
 he smiled and said : " My brother-in-law has truly great consideration for me ! " 
 Kau-Jciu then took out the letter and presented it, and Prince Twan having 
 opened the casket and looked at the precious articles it contained, committed 
 them unto an attendant; but before they were gone from his hand, he asked 
 Kau-Jciu, saying: "You know how to kick foot-ball, what is your name?" 
 Kau-Jciu again made obeisance and said : " Your humble servant is called 
 Kau-Jciu, and has had some inconsiderable experience in kicking foot-ball." 
 Prince Twan replied : " Very good ! Come down to the ground and have a 
 game." Kau-Jciu bowed and said : " Your humble servant is a person of no 
 rank, how can he presume to engage with Your Serene Highness ? " Prince Twan 
 replied : " That is, by classifying the clouds and associating great names, to 
 make the world harmonise, but what objection is there to your kicking?" 
 Kau-Jciu again bowed and said : " How can I presume?" and after declining 
 several times, Prince Twan insisted on his playing. So Kau-Jciu just bowed 
 his head and asked pardon, and then, rising from his knees, he went down to 
 the playing ground and took a few kicks. Prince Twan called to the people to 
 stand back. Kau-k'iu only used his ordinary skill, but he displayed a refined 
 and elegant deportment. Prince Twan was pleased with his manner, and 
 requested him to stay at his palace. The next day he prepared a great feast, 
 to which he invited Governor Siau-wang. 
 
 PART II. I
 
 58 SHI- WAN. HIEK-SHU. SAN-KWO CHI. [17. a. 2. 17. m.2-4..] 
 
 17. Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi (i), v. native text, page 17. 
 
 a. 2. Sdn-kwo chi. Tsie-shw5 Chdng-jdng Twdn-kwel kie-yung shau-ti, 
 
 a. 1 6. kl Chin-lid Wdng, inau-yen-t'u-ho, lien-ye phn-tseu Pl-mdng shdn. 
 
 b. r. Y6 sdn kdng shi-fdn, heu-mien hdn shlng td ku jin-md, kdn eld tdng- 
 
 b. 17. ts'ien Ho-ndn Chung-pd ch'uen-li Mln-Mng, td ha: " Yl-tse hiu 
 
 c. i. tseu!" CMng-jdng kien sz kl, siii t'ed ho dr sz. Ti yu Chin-lid 
 
 c. 1 6. Wdng, wi chl hu-shl, pd kdn kau-shlng,fu yu ho pien, Iwdn-tsau chl 
 
 d. 2. nui. Kiun-md si sdn k'u kdn, pd-chl Ti chl so-tsai. Ti yti Wdng 
 
 d. 1 8. fu-chi s-kdng, lu-shwiil yiti hid,fu chung kl nu\, sidng-pau dr k'u, ylu 
 
 e. 5. p'd jin chi-kio, t'an-shmg ts'au-mdng chl chung ; Chin-lid Wdng yu : 
 
 e. 19. " Tsz kien pu-k'o kiu-lwdn, sH-pl sin hwo-lu. YH-shi dr jin I i sidng- 
 
 f. 7. kl, p'd shdng gdn pien, mw&n-ti klng-ki, he-gdn chl chung, pit-Men 
 
 f. 22. Mng-lu; ching wu-nai-hd, hwu yiu liu-ying ts'ien-pe ctiing-k'iun, 
 
 g. 6. kwdng tndng chau yau, che tsai Ti-tsien fl-chucn Chin-liu Wdng 
 g. 1 9. yu : " Tsz t'ien tsu ngo hiung-ti ye, siii siii ying-ho dr hing tsien-tsien 
 h. 5. kien-lu, hing chi wu kdng, tsu t'ung pu-ndng hing, sJidn kdng pien 
 h. 19. kien yi-tul. Ti yu Wdng ngo yu tsau-till chl chung. Tsau-tui 
 i. 4. ts'ien-mien shi yl-so chwdng-yuen, chwdng-chu shi ye mung lidng 
 i. 1 7. hung ji, chiii yu chwdng lieu. IClng-kio pl-i ch'u-hu, sz hid kwdn 
 j. 2. wdng-kien chwdng-heu ts'au-tul-shdng hung-kwdng ch'ung t'ien. 
 j. 13. Hwdng-mdng wdng shi, ki6-shi dr-jin ngo yu tsau-tiil-pwdn. Chwdng- 
 j. 27. chu wdn yu: " Ar shau-nien shiii-kid chl tsz?" Ti pu-kdn ylng ; 
 k. ii. Chin-liu Wdng chl Ti yu: "Tsz shi tdng-kln Hwdng-ti; tsau Sht- 
 k. 25. chdng-shi chl Iwdn, t'au-ndn tau tsz; Wu nal Wdng ti, Chin-liu Wdng 
 1. io. ye." Chwdng-chu td King tsai pal yu : " Chin sien-chau Sz-t'u, Ts'iil- 
 1. 24. ll chi ti, Ts'iil-l ye. Yin kien Shi-didng-shi mai-kwdn tsl-hien, ku yin 
 m. ii. yu-tsz." Siii fu Ti jl chwdng, kwel tsin tsiu-shi. Ki6-shw6 M In- 
 
 The appositional form of construction is more frequent in the Shwiil-hu than in the 
 Hau-l'iti. By the appositional form we mean to denote the aggregation of clauses, begin- 
 ning with verbs which have no apparent subject, but they proceed (without any connective 
 particle being used) to explain something in the preceding clause, and on this account we 
 have designated them appositional. 
 
 The San-kwti chi, or 'History of the Three Kingdoms,' has been referred to in p. 16. of 
 Part II. Sir John Davis speaks of the same work, in his book on the Chinese, as being 
 " the only readable Chinese Chronicle ;" and he considers that it contains matter as likely 
 to be genuine as the stories detailed in Livy. The style of this work is remarkable for its 
 classic terseness, but it is without the adornment of particles to any great extent. A few 
 are used ; but the sequence of clauses, which are generally of four or five characters, 
 suffice to show the connection and the mutual dependence of ideas. Absolute clauses are 
 of frequent occurrence, and there is a general absence of pronouns and particle?. Nouns 
 and verbs form the staple material, by the different position of which the grammatical 
 relations are expressed. 
 
 Tsit-skwo (17. a. 6) is the regular phrase for the beginning of a new chapter, and kio- 
 shwtt (17. m. 22) for the resumption of a subject which was previously mentioned. Shau 
 (17. a. 14), 'few,' here means 'young,' the word niSn, 'year,' being understood, or rather 
 the shati, being put for the full phrase shati-nten (i 7. k. i) ; a part being used for the whole, 
 which is a common rule in Chinese phraseology. This fact should be born in mind,
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. ROMANCES. " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 59 
 
 Translation oftJie Extract from the San-kwo chi (i), v. native text, page 17. 
 
 The History of the Three Kingdoms. 
 
 The story goes on to say, that Chang-jang and Twan-kwei, having with 
 violence laid hands upon the young Emperor and the Prince Chin-liu, rushed 
 blindly through the smoke and fire ; and, under cover of the night, fled to 
 the Pl-mang mountain. About the third watch, voices were heard behind 
 them, and a great multitude of horsemen pursued them. In the fore-front was 
 Min-kung, an official of the second class, from Ho-nan; with a loud voice he 
 cried: "Ye obstinate rebels cease to run!" Chang-jang, seeing that the crisis 
 had arrived, immediately plunged into the river and died. The Emperor 
 with the Prince Chin-liu, unconscious of the real state of things, and not 
 daring to speak aloud, hid themselves among the tangled grass on the river's 
 bank. The cavalry dispersed in all directions in the pursuit, without becom- 
 ing acquainted with the Emperor's whereabouts. But the Emperor and the 
 Prince concealed themselves until the fourth watch, when, as the dew was 
 falling, and they felt the cravings of hunger, they embraced each other and 
 cried ; but fearing lest any one should find them out, they stifled their voices 
 in the jungle ; tJien Prince Chin-liu said : " In this place we cannot long beguile 
 the time, we must seek for a means of saving our lives." Thereupon, having 
 girded up their clothes, they crawled up the side of the bank. The ground was 
 all thick with prickly brambles, and, in the darkness, they could not see to walk 
 on the road. Just when they had no other resource, all at once there appeared 
 an innumerable swarm of fireflies streaming past; the light shone splendidly, 
 and they wheeled in their flight only before the Emperor. Prince Chin-liu 
 exclaimed : ""This is indeed Heaven assisting us, my brother ! " and forthwith 
 they followed the fireflies' light and proceeded until shortly after they saw the 
 road, and travelled upon it until the fifth watch. Then being footsore and 
 not able to proceed, and seeing on a mountain side a heap of grass, the 
 Emperor and the Prince lay down in the midst of it. Now in the front of 
 the heap was a farm, and the farmer was dreaming in the night that two red 
 suns had fallen at the back of his farm. Awaking in a fright he threw on 
 his clothes, and, issuing from the house and scanning every side of it, he saw 
 at the back of the farm, on the heap of grass, a red light shoot upwards to 
 the sky. In a state of trepidation he went to look, and behold, there were the 
 two little fellows on the side of the grass heap. The farmer asked, saying : 
 "You two youngsters, whose sons are you?" The Emperor not daring to 
 reply, Prince Chin-liu, pointing to the Emperor, said : " This is the present 
 Emperor, who, when the revolution of the ten Chang-shi broke out, fled, and 
 with difficulty reached this place. I am the Prince junior, Prince Chin-liu." 
 The farmer, in alarm, bowed twice and said : " I am Tsuir-i, the younger bro- 
 ther of Tsili-H, the Minister of Instruction during the late reign. Because I 
 saw the ten Chang-shi selling office and envying good men, therefore I withdrew 
 in private to this place." He then supported the Emperor to enter the farm, and 
 on his knees presented wine and food. But to return to the story : Min-kung 
 
 I 2
 
 60 SHI- WAN. HIEN-SHU. SAN-KWO CHI. [1 7. m. 25. 18. 1. 1 0.] 
 
 m. 25. kung kdn-sftdng Twdn-kwel, nd-chu wdn : " T'ien-tsz M-tsaiV Kwel 
 n. 8. yen i tsai pwdn-lu sidng-shl, pu-chl ho wang, kung siii shd Twdn- 
 n. 23. kwel, hien t'eu yu md hidng-hid, fan ping si sdn sin-mi. Tsz kl ki6 
 o. 9. tu shing yi-md sm la chill-sin. Ngeu chl Ts'iil-i chwdng; kien sheu- 
 
 0. 25. kl, w$n chl. Kung shw6 tsidng-sl. 
 
 18. Extract from the Sdn-kwS chi (2), v. native text, page 18. 
 
 a. 2. Tsui-i yln Kung kien Ti. Kiun-chin t'ung-k'u. Kung yu : 
 
 a. 14. " Kwo pu-k'd yi-ji wu kiun, ts'lng Pi-hid hwdn Tu." Tsui-i chwdng- 
 
 a. 29. shdng chl-yiu seu-mcb yl-pl; pi yu Ti shing. Kung yu Chin-liu Wdng, 
 
 b. 15. kung-shing yi-md,, li chwdng dr king. Pu-tau sdn-ll, Sz-t'u Wdng- 
 
 b. 30. yun, T'ai-wei Ydng-piu, Tso-kiun Kiau-wei, Shdn Yu-k'iung : 
 
 c. 12. Yiu-kiun Kiau-wei, Chau-ming ; Heu-kiun Kiau-wei, Pau-sin; 
 
 c. 24. Chung-kiun Kiau-wei, Yuen-sJiau; yl-hingjinchung,8u-pejin-ma; 
 
 d. 8. tsi-chft kil-kid, kiun-chin kia\-k c u. Sien shijin tsidng Twdn-kwel sheu- 
 
 d. 23. ki, wang klng-sz hau-ling ling-hwdn hau-ma yu Ti kl Chin-liu Wdng 
 
 e. 9. k'i-tso. Tsu-ti hwdn king, sien shi Lo-yang siau-dr yau, yu: " Ti 
 
 e. 24. fl Ti, Wdng fl Wdng ; Tsien shing wdn-k'i tseu Pe-m&ng" chi-tsz 
 
 f. 8. ko ying k'i tsin. Ku-kid hing pu tau su-ll, hwu-kien tslng-k'i pi-jl 
 
 f. 25. ctiin-tu che-t'ien, yi-chl jin-ma tau-lai. Pe-kwdn shl-si, Ti yl td- 
 
 g. 12. king. Yuen-shau tseu-ma cJiu wdn: "H6-jtn?" Siu-k'i-ylng-U, yl- 
 g. 26. tsidng fl-ch'u, li-shlng wdn: " T'ien-tsz ho-tsai 1 " Ti chen-ll pu-ndng 
 h. ii. yen. Chin-liu Wdng le-ma, hidng-ts'ien cJil yu: " Lai-che hd-jin?" 
 h. 25. Ch6 yu: " Sl-lidng Tsz-li, Tung-cho ye" Chin-liu Wdng yu: "Jit 
 \. 8. lai pau~kid ye ? Ju lai kie-kid ye ?" ChS ying yu: " Tl-lai pau-kid." 
 
 1. 24. Chin-liu yu : " Ki-lai pau-kid, T'ien-tsz tsai-tsz, Jio-pu hid-md ? " Ch6 
 j. 10. td king hwdng-mdng hid-md, pal yu tau-tso. Chin-liu Wdng i yen 
 j. 25. fu-wei Tung-ch6. Tsz-tsu-chi-chung, ping-wu shi-yu; Ch6 gdn ki- 
 k. 10. chl, i-hwai fl-ll chl i. Shi jl hwdn kung, kien ho t'ai-Jieu, ku-kS 
 k. 27. t'ung-Ku kien-tien kung chung pu kien liau ch'uen-kwu-yu-si. Tung-cli6 
 
 because by this rule only can many expressions be understood which defy a literal 
 rendering. 
 
 Liin-yi (17. a. 24), lit. 'connecting night,' i. e. 'joining night to day,' becomes equiva- 
 lent to our adverbial expression, day and night. The translations of titles of officers men- 
 tioned in this work cannot, in all cases, be considered satisfactory. The changes which 
 have taken place in the Chinese political world at different periods, and the whimsical 
 alterations in the names of offices, present great difficulties to an English translator. 
 
 The use of yu A (17. c. 16; 17. m. n) or yw b (17. e. 30. and h. 27) for tsai c , 'in,' and 
 chl A (17. d. i. and e. 13) for tl e the genitive particle, with dr f as the mark of result, are 
 peculiarities of this style, and in which it approaches that of the ancient classics. 
 
 IHng-lti (17. f. 22), 'to walk on the road,' is an expression which would mean literally 
 'to walk the road,' but it must be explained either as we have translated it, 'to walk on 
 the road,' or be understood to make a phrase, or, as it were, one word, meaning ' to travel, 
 to proceed on their way.''
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. ROMANCES. " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 61 
 
 overtook Twan-Jcwei, seized him, and demanded where the Emperor was; 
 Kwei said that he had missed him when half-way on the road, and that he did 
 not know where he was gone. Kung forthwith killed Twan-kwei, and hung 
 his head from his horse's neck. Having divided his soldiers to scour the 
 country in every direction; he himself mounted a horse, and, following the 
 road, went alone in quest of the fugitives. By chance he arrived at Tsiii-i's 
 farm. /, seeing the head, asked about it. Kung having explained minutely, 
 
 Translation oftlie Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi (2), v. native text, page 18. 
 
 Tsui-i led Kung to see the Emperor. The Sovereign and his minister both 
 wept bitterly, and Kung said : " The state cannot exist for a day without a 
 prince, I beseech Your Majesty to return to the Capital." Now at Tsiii-i's 
 farm there happened to be a lean steed, which they prepared for the Emperor 
 to mount, while Kung and Prince Chin-liu rode together upon one horse, and so 
 left the farm and proceeded on their way. Before they had gone three short 
 miles, the Minister of Instruction Wang-yiin, the Governor Yang-piau, the 
 Governor of the Army of the left Chun Yu-kiung, the Governor of the Army 
 of the right Chau-mang, the Governor of the Army of the rear Pctu-sin, 
 and the Governor of the Army of the centre Yuen-shau, with a crowd of 
 people and several hundreds of horsemen, met them. The Prince and ministers 
 all wept aloud; and, as a first measure, they sent a man with Twan-kwei 's 
 head to the city, with the command to expose it, and to bring back some 
 suitable horses for the Emperor and the Prince to ride. These being obtained, 
 they proceeded towards the city; and thus was fulfilled the former saying of 
 the children in L6-yang : " The Emperor is not an emperor, the Prince is not 
 a prince ; a thousand chariots and a myriad of riders come in from Pl-mang." 
 Before the cavalcade had moved many furlongs, what should they see but a 
 host of people coming to meet them, with banners and flags darkening the sky 
 and marching amid clouds of dust. The officers changed colour, and the 
 Emperor also was exceedingly afraid; but Yuen-shau, putting spurs to his 
 horse, rode forward and demanded who they were. From behind an em- 
 broidered flag, a general burst forth and, with a stern voice, asked : " Where 
 is the Emperor?" The Emperor himself, in a state of fear, dared not to 
 speak; but Chin-liu urged his horse forward and shouted: "Who is this 
 coming 1 ?" Clio replied: "The overseer of Si-liang, Tung-chd." Chin-liu 
 said : " Do you come to protect His Majesty, or do you come to seize His 
 Majesty?" Ch6 replied: "I am come on purpose to protect him." Chin- 
 liu then said : " As you are come for that purpose, why do you not 
 descend from your horse?" Clio, in a state of fear and confusion, at once dis- 
 mounted, and made the salute on the left side of the road. Prince Chin-liu 
 then spoke to him and calmed his troubled mind. Tiing-ch6 from first to 
 last carefully observed his expressions, and secretly cherished the desire of 
 making him Emperor. On the same day they returned to the palace and saw 
 the dowager Empress, and they all wept together; but on searching in the 
 palace they were unable to find the imperial seal. Tung-chd had stationed
 
 62 SHI-WAN. HIEN-SHU. - SAN-KWO CHI. [18. 1. 1 I . 1 9.J. I 2.] 
 
 1. ii. tun-ping ch'ing-wai; mei-jl tai ti-kid md-kiun, jl-ching hwdng king 
 
 1. 26. kial-shi; pe-sing hwdng-hwdng pu-gdn. Cho ctiu-ji kung-t ing lid wu 
 
 m. ii. ki-tdn; Heu-kiun Kiau-wei, Pau-sin, laikien Yuen-shau yen: "Tung- 
 
 no.. 25. ch6 pi-yiu i-sln su cliu chl." Shau yu : " Chau-t'ing sin-ting, wi-k'o 
 
 n. ii. klng-tung." Paw-sin Men Wdng-yun, yl yen k'i-sz. Yun yu: " Tsie 
 
 n. 25. yung shdng-i." Sin-tsz yin pan-pu kiun-plng Ceu Tai shdn k'ii-liau. 
 
 o. i o. Tung-cho ch'au-yiu Ho-tsin hiung-ti pu-hid chl ping, tsin kwel c/tdng- 
 
 o. 25. M; sz wei Ll-jd yu : 
 
 19. Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi (3), v. native text, page 19. 
 
 a. i. " Wu yufi Ti, Ii Chin-liu Wdng ho-ju 1 " L\-ju yu : " Kln-chau-t'ing 
 
 a. 17. wu chu, pu-tsiu tsz-shi Mng-sz, chl tsi yiu pien 1. Lai-ji yii Wdn-ming 
 
 b. 5. yuen-clmng, chau-tsi pe-kwdn, yu Ifl-li; yiu pu tsung che, chan-chl; 
 
 b. 21. tsi wel-k'iden chl hing, ching tsai kln-ji." Ch6 hi; tsz-ji td p'ai yen- 
 
 c. 7. hwiii pien, tslng kung-hidng. Kung-hidng kial kii Tung-ch6, shui 
 
 c. 19. kd,n pu-tau. Ch8 tai pe-kwdn tau-liau, jen-heu su-sii tau yuen-mdn hid- 
 
 d. 6. md,, tai-kien jl si; tsiit hing su siun, Cho kiau t'ing tsiu chl yd; nal 
 
 d. 22. li-shlng yu: "Wu yiu yl yen, chung kwdn tsing-t'ing." Chung-kwdn 
 
 e. 5. tse dr. Ch6 yu: " T'ien-tsz wei wdn-min chl chu, wti, wel-l, pu k'o-l 
 
 e. 22. fung tsung-miau shi-tsl; kin SJidng n6-yd, pu-ju Chin-liu Wdng, 
 
 f. 6. ts'ung-ming hau-hio, k'o chlng td-wei, wu yufi Ti U Chin-liu Wdng; 
 
 f. 22. chu td-chln i-wei hd-ju?" Chu kwdn t'ing pa, pu kdn ch'u shing. 
 
 g. 7. T so-sliding yi jin t'ul gdn, chi cfio U yu yen-ts'ien, td hu : " Pu k'd ! 
 g. 21. pu k'd! Ju-shi h6-jin? kdn fd td-yu? T'ien-tsz nal sien-Ti te tsz, 
 h. 10. ts'u wA kwo-shi; ho te wdng-i fl-li ; ju yu wei tswdn-nl ye?" Clio shi 
 h. 28. chl, nal Klng-cheu Ts'z-li, Tlng-yuen ye. Cho nu ch'i-yu: " Shdn- 
 i. 12. ngo-che, sang! nl-ngo-clt^, sz!" Sui chi pel-kien yu chdn Tlng-yuen. 
 i. 27. Shi Li-ju kien Tlng-yuen pei-lieu yi-jin sdng-te k'i-yu hien-gdng, 
 
 Very few connective particles are employed in the Sdn-kicS chi for 'and' or 'with:' yii* 
 is found (17. h. 24); but kiun-chln (18. a. 8. and d. 12), 'prince and ministers,' is without 
 any connective: (cf. Part I. Art. 288. i.) 
 
 Pii-k'd yl-jl wA (18. a. 15), 'cannot be a day without,' seems to be a usual form for the 
 expression 'cannot dispense with.' Compare Chrest. 7. a. 10. et seq. and pu-k'd pti-hwui 
 'you could not dispense with meeting him.' (10. d. 6.) 
 
 Observe that cAi b (18. a. 30) is used for, and is similar in meaning to, chS c 'only.' Yu A 
 (18. b. 7) is used appropriately for the datival sign ' for,' as it means ' to give ;' but a little 
 farther on it is used for the conjunction 'and' ( = to cum 'with'), and it is followed by 
 Mng e (i 8. b. 15). 
 
 Kl l (18. e. 5) is here used for 'and,' because perhaps yu had been just employed for 
 the mark of the dative ; and its original meaning suits better the idea of union than does 
 that of yii (' to give '). 
 
 LS-ydng ( 1 8. e. 17) was an ancient city in Ho-nan, the capital of the ancient monarch 
 Fu-hi. 
 
 & " Jh c H
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. ROMANCES. " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 63 
 
 his troops outside the city, and every day he marched them, heavily armed, 
 through the streets and markets, causing terror and uneasiness to the people. 
 Moreover, he went in and out of the palace without the least concern. This 
 being the state of things, Governor Pau-sin, of the Army of the rear, paid a 
 visit to Yuen-shau, and said : " Tung-cho certainly has some sinister intention 
 which he will carry out if he is not removed." Shau replied : " The govern- 
 ment is but recently become settled, we must not lightly make any move." 
 Pau-sin went to see Wang-yun, and repeated his thoughts on the state of 
 affairs. Yun replied : " It will be well to hold a consultation about it." Sin 
 himself thereupon led away the troops under his command to the Tai moun- 
 tain, where they encamped. Tung-cho induced also the soldiers under the 
 command of Ho-tsin and his brother to give him their support, and he then 
 privately consulted Li-ju and said : 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Sdn-kwo chi (3), v. native text, page 19. 
 
 " I wish to depose the Emperor and to set up Chin-liu, the Prince. What think 
 you 1 " Li-ju said : " The present government is without a head, surely this is the 
 time to execute the business, if you delay there will be some change of course. 
 To-morrow, in the Wdn-ming garden, summon all the high officials, and pro- 
 claim your intention of causing an abdication; those who do not follow you, 
 kill; for the present is just the time to impi'ess them with your power." 
 Cho was gratified, and the next day he had a great feast, and an assembly, 
 and invited the nobles and gentry. Now the nobles and gentry all feared 
 Tung-cho; who then might dare to stay away 1 ? Cho waited for all the officials 
 to arrive, and afterwards leisurely riding up to the gate, he dismounted, and 
 came in to dinner, wearing his sword. When the wine had gone round several 
 times, Cho bade them to cease drinking, and to stop the music, and then in a 
 stern tone he said : " I have a word to say, let all the officers present quietly 
 listen." Then they all inclined the ear, while Clio said : " The Emperor 
 is the lord of all people, if he has not a dignified appearance he cannot per- 
 form the rites in the temple of ancestors and to the gods of the land. Now 
 his present majesty is timid and weakly, not like the Prince Chin-liu, who is 
 intelligent and fond of learning, and may well succeed to the great throne. I 
 wish therefore to depose the Emperor and to set up Chin-liu, the Prince, what 
 do you think of it, my lords'?" All the ministers, when they had heard it, were 
 afraid to utter a word. But among those who were seated was a man who 
 arose, pushed away the table, and standing erect before the assembly, with a 
 loud voice said : " It cannot be ! It cannot be ! Who are you that you should 
 dare to utter such great words'? The Emperor is the son of the late Empe- 
 ror's lawful queen. From the first he has been without fault or error, why 
 take traitorous measures to dethrone him ? Do you wish to become a usurper 
 and a rebel 1 ?" Clio beheld him, and saw that it was the Ts'z-li of King-cheu, 
 Ting-yuen by name. Ch6 in a rage shouted out : " Those that obey me, 
 live ! those that are adverse, die ! " Forthwith grasping the sword at his girdle 
 he wanted to destroy Ting-yuen, when Li-ju, on seeing behind Ting-yuen 's
 
 64 SHI-WAN. HIBN-SHU. SAN-KWO CHI. [19J.I3- ~0. 
 
 j. 13. wel-fung pin-pin, sheu chlfdng-t'ien hwd kl, nu mu dr shi. Ll-ju kl 
 
 j. 30. tsin yu : " Kin jl yln yen chl chii,, pu k'o t'dn kwd-ching, lai-jl hidng 
 
 k. 1 6. Tu-t'dng kung-ldn" Wi chl chung-jm kial kiuen Tlng-yuen sJtdng- 
 
 k. 29. md dr k'u. Clw wdn pe-kwdn yu : " Wu so-yen h6 kung-tau feu ? " 
 
 1. 14. Lu-chl yu: "Ming kung chd I; si T'ai-kid pu inlny, I-yiln fang 
 
 1. 29. chl yu T'ung-kwdn; Ctidng-yl wdng tdng wei,fdng dr shl tslji, tsau 
 
 m. 14. 6 sdn shl yu t'iau; ku Hd-kwdng kau T'ai-miau drfl chl. Kln-shdng 
 
 m. 30. sill yiu, tsung-ming jin-chi, ping-wufan hau kwo-shi ; kung nal wai 
 
 n. 15. kiun Ts-ll, su wi is an yii kw6 ching yiu wu I-H6 chl td tsal. Ho 
 
 o. 2. k'o kidng chu fl-ll chl s& ? Shing-jin yun yiu I-yiln chl chi, tse k'o 
 
 o. 19. wu I-yun chl chi tse tswdn ye." Clw td nu pd * 
 
 20. Extract from the Sdn-kwo chi (4), v. native text, page 20. 
 
 a. i. kien hidng-ts'ien yu shd chl; I-ldng, P'dng-pl kien yu: " Lu 
 
 a. 14. Shdng-shu hal nui jin wdng, kin sien hai chl k'ung t'ien-hid chin-pu." 
 
 a. 29. Chd nal chl; Sz-t'u Wdng-yun yu: " Tl-ll chl si pu k'o tsiu-heu 
 
 b. 1 6. sidng-shdng, llng-jl tsai-l." Yil-shi pe-kwdn kial sdn. Chd gdn-kien 
 
 c. i. ll yii yuen-mdn. Hwu-kien yl jin yo md ch'i ki, yu yuen-mdn wai 
 
 c. 17. wdng-lai. Ch6 wdn Ll-ju : " Tsz ho jin ye?" Ju yu: " Tsz Tlng- 
 
 d. i. yuen i-dr, sing, Lu; ming, pu, tsz, Tung-sien che ye. Chu-kung tsie- 
 
 d. 1 6. su -pi chl." Chd nal jl yuen ts'ien-pl. Tsz ji ji pau Tlng-yuen yln- 
 
 e. 2. kiun ching-wdi nl-chen. Chd nu yln-kiun t'ung Ll-ju ch'u-ying ; 
 
 e. 1 6. lidng-chin tiii yuen, che kien Lu-pu, ting su-fd kln-kwdn, p'l pe-hwd 
 
 f. 2. chen-p'au hwdn t'dng-mau k'ai-kid, ki sz-lwdn pau-tai, tsung md ti kl, 
 
 f. 18. sui Ting Kien-ydng, ch'u tau chin tsien. Kien-ydng chl Chd md yu: 
 
 g. 2. " Kwd-kid pu hlng, yen-hwdn lung-kiuen, l-chi wdn-min t'u-t'dn. 
 g. 16. Ar wu chl-tsan chl kung; yen kdn wdng-yen fl-ll, yu Iwdn chaii- 
 
 Pati-Jcid (18. i. 22) 'to protect His Majesty.' Here kid, 'an imperial carriage,' is 
 employed, by metonomy, for royalty itself: (cf. Part I. Art. 182.) 
 
 Hing Icial-shl (18. 1. 25), 'to walk the streets and markets,' is a use of the verb king, 
 already referred to in the case of Jdng-lti ' to proceed on the way, to travel :' (cf. 18. f. 22.) 
 Kiin (18. m. 20) 'to see,' in the sense of 'have an interview with,' is very classical: (cf. 
 Chrest. 4. g. 8. and often in the Sz-shii.) Y&n (18. m. 23) with the signification 'to speak, 
 to deliberate,' is a mark of classic style, and is different from wel (18. o. 27), which means 
 simply 'to tell:' i-sln (18. m. 28), lit. 'another heart,' or a ' different mind ' from that which 
 he manifested, here means, 'sinister design.' Wi-k'd (18. n. 9), 'cannot as yet,' is a very 
 elegant expression : indeed the whole reply of Shau is worthy of careful notice. 
 
 The rapid transition from the narrative of Pau-sin's interviews with Yuen-show, and 
 Wang-yiin to his placing himself at the head of his troops is a characteristic of the style 
 of the Sdn-kwS. 
 
 Tsiti, (19. a. 20) is used here in an uncommon sense, with the negative p% before it; it 
 assimilates in meaning toj'd 'as.' The whole expression in this passage means, 'There is 
 no time like the present for action.' 
 
 * ChS td nH pa* ' ChS in a great rage drew his sword. ' These characters were inad- 
 vertently omitted in the native text.
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. ROMANCES. " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 65 
 
 back a man of great ability, of a bold and upright figure and a dignified 
 deportment, holding in his hand a long ornamented spear, and looking round 
 with earnest eyes, came forward and said : " To-day this is the place of 
 feasting, we cannot parley about the affairs of state; to-morrow in the 
 Imperial Hall we may publicly discuss." Soon afterwards all present exhorted 
 Ting-yuen to mount his horse and go. But Cho asked the officers, saying : 
 "Is that which I have said in accordance with justice or not?" Lu-chl 
 replied: "Your Excellency is in error; in ancient times the Emperor T'ai- 
 kid was of weak mind, and I-yiin dismissed him to Tang-kung ; and when 
 the Prince Chang-yl ascended the throne, and in twenty-seven days did 
 more than thirty acts of wickedness, Hu-kwang accused him in the Great 
 Temple and deposed him. But although the present Emperor is young, he is 
 intelligent, humane, and prudent, and he is without the least fault of any 
 kind; and you, my lord, are the Tsz-li of a foreign state, and have hitherto 
 had no concern in this government, moreover you have not the great talents 
 of / and Ho; how then can you take on yourself the business of deposing and 
 raising to tlie throne ? A sacred sage once said : ' Those who have the mind 
 of I-yun may act as Jie did; those who have not his mind will act like 
 rebels.'" 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the San-kw$ chi (4), v. native text, page 20. 
 
 Ch6 was enraged, and, grasping his sword, he sprang forward wishing to 
 kill Chi; but the councillor P'ang-pt restrained him, and said : " President 
 Lu is looked up to by all the people, and if you should begin by injuring 
 him, it is to be feared that there will be a commotion in the empire." Cho 
 then stopped, and the Minister of Instruction, Wang-yiin, said : " It is not con- 
 venient to discuss public affairs after wine, another day we will talk about it." 
 Upon this all the ministers departed. Now as Cho was leaning on his sword, 
 standing at the entrance to the garden, he chanced to see a mounted horseman 
 prancing up and down in front of the place and flourishing his lance. Ch6 
 asked Li-ju who the man was. Ju replied : " He is Ting-yuen s illegitimate 
 son, his surname is Lu, his name is Pu, and his title is Fung-sien, your lord- 
 ship should avoid him." Clio then re-entered the garden, and so got out of 
 the way. The next day it was reported that Ting-yuen was at the head of 
 troops outside the city and challenging to battle. Ch6 in a rage went forth, 
 accompanied by Li-ju, leading troops to meet him. The two lines in semi- 
 circles stood opposite to each other, and there was Lu-pu, having a golden 
 band round his hair, and having on a military cloak beautifully embroidered, 
 armour also of the T'ang period, and a girdle wrought with lions and gems. 
 He spurred his horse, raised his lance, and following Ting Kien-yang, came 
 out to the front of the line. Kien-yang pointed to Ch6, and upbraided him, 
 saying: "The government is in misfortune, and the eunuchs are managing 
 affairs to the ruin and desolation of the people and the country. While you, 
 who have not an atom of merit, are desirous of creating rebellion. How dare 
 you traitorously attempt to cause an abdication 1 ?" Cho had not time to reply 
 
 PART II. K
 
 66 SHI- WAN. I-SH1 YU-YEN. [20. h. I . 21 . g. 1 9.] 
 
 h. i. t'ing." Tung-chd wi-kl hwiii-yen, Lu-pu fl-ma shd-kwo-lai. Tung- 
 h. 1 6. cho hwdng-tseu. Kien-ydng su kiun yen shd. Cho ping td-pai, till 
 h. 30. sdn-shl yu ll hid-cJiai. Tsu chung slidng-i. Ch6 yu: " Wit, kwdn Lii- 
 i. 15. pu fl ctidng-jin yd. Wu, j6 te tsz-jin, hd lu t'ien-hid tsai?" Ch'dng 
 j. i. ts'ien yl-jln ch'u yu: " Chu-kung wu yiu, men yu Lu-pu t'ung hidng, 
 j. 1 6. chl k'i-yung dr tod-men, kien-ll wdng-i; men ping sdh-tsan pu-ldn- 
 k. 2. chl-shl shwo, Lu-pu kung-sheu lai kidng : k'o hu?" Ch6 td-hl, kwdn 
 k. 1 7. k'i jin nai Hu-fdn Chung-ldng tsidng, Ll-su ye. Ch6 yu : " Ju tsidng 
 1. 2. hd-l shwo chl?" Su yu : " Meu wdn Chu-kung yiu ming-mct yi-pl, hau 
 1. 18. yu : " Chi-t'u" jl-Mng tsien ll; su te tsz-md, tsai yung kln-chu, l-ll ki k'i 
 m. 7. sin; ineu kdng tsin shwd-ts'z, Lu-pu pi fdn Tlng-yuen, lai t'eu Chu- 
 rn. 22. kung i" Ch6 wdn Ll-ju yu: " TsZ-yenk'o hu?" Ju yu: " Chu-kung 
 n. 7. yu-tsu t'ien-hid , ho-si yi-md,?" Ch6 hien-jen yu-chl, kdng yu hwdng- 
 n. 23. kin yi-ts'ien-licing, ming-chii su shi-kd, yu-tai yi-t'iau. Ll-su tsi-liau 
 o. 10. ll-wu, t'eu Lu-pu chat lai fu-lu, kiun-jin wei-chu. Su yu: "K'o su- 
 o. 27. pau Lu Tsidng-kiun." 
 
 21. Selections from ^Esop's Fables, translated (i), v. native text, page 2 1. 
 a. 2. Su-mu klng-yu. 
 
 a. 7. Si yiu welfu-che, ngo-ping tsai ch'wdng tsidng-tsu, chung-tsz hwdn 
 
 a. 21. t'ing fdn-fu, k'i-fu yu: " Wu yiu yl-wu, ju-tdng shi chl; siii chl mu- 
 
 b. 8. t'iau yl-su, ling k'i-tsz che chl, shi ndng-twdnfeu ?" Chung-tsz ju-ming 
 
 b. 24. chl-chl, pu ndng-twdn. Fuhwuichlyu: " Jutsie chu-t'iau ch'eu-ctiu, 
 
 c. 9. ts'z-tifan-che, shi ndng-twdn feu?" Yu-shi mS-pu sili-sheu dr twdn. 
 
 c. 25. Fu yu: " Ngo sz chl Jieu, ju-t&ng pu-ifdn-li; ho, tsl pit sheu jin-k'l, 
 
 d. 13. fan, tsl i yu che -twdn. Tsz-mu tsu x-wei ching i" Su-yu yun : " Shdn 
 
 d. 30. clil sidng-i; lien, tsl wdn wu yl-shl; jo fan-chl, shdn wdng, tsl chl 
 
 e. 1 6. hdn, wu-yiu pu-shl ye." Shin chl! Ju I yl-kw6 dr Idn; k6-ku yl-fdng- 
 
 f. 4. che, sien yiu pu-pai, fdn pu-ju ho-ll sidng-lien chl wei mei yd. 
 
 g. 2. Pau gan shu. 
 
 g. 6. Sz-tsz shu-shwui yu kiau-wai, siau-shu tsai-pdng wdn-t'iau, klng- 
 
 ia& (19. d. 16), commonly 'to teach,' is here used, like Iciau* 'to call," for 'to command, 
 to bid ;' and the next words, t'tng-tsiti chl-yS, which are the object of this kiati, are exactly 
 in accordance with the use of the figure metonomy in the construction of phrases ; e. g. 
 tsiti, 'wine,' is here put for 'drinking the wine.' The whole phrase must be taken as the 
 object of kiati, in one expression. (Cf. Parti. Art. 211.) 
 
 Observe the use of the qualifying expression It-shing (19. d. 22), 'stern voice,' before the 
 verb yu 'to say,' meaning 'in a stern tone he said,' or 'he said sternly.' A language like 
 the Chinese, which is wanting in marks for the different cases, admits of great variety in 
 translation without inaccuracy, but good judgment is requisite to an idiomatic version 
 from or into this language. The words of Tung-cliti (19. d. 25) exemplify the remarkable 
 terseness of the style of the San-kwti ; here we have literally, ' I have one word, all officers 
 quietly listen,' 'all officers incline ear.' (See the translation on page 63.)
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. A VERSION OP JESOP's FABLES. 67 
 
 before Lii-pu, at a flying speed, darted across. Chd at once withdrew in a 
 state of trepidation, but Kien-yang followed him with his troops also in pur- 
 suit, and Cho's soldiers were completely routed. After retreating for about 
 thirty furlongs, they threw up a stockade, and a council of war was held. Ch6 
 said : " I perceive that Lu-pu is no ordinary man ; if I could obtain him, what 
 need should I have to be anxious about the empire 1 ?" A man then came out 
 and said : " My lord, be not concerned, I am a fellow-townsman of Lu-pu, 
 I know that he is brave, but without much sense, he looks at gain and forgets 
 right principles ; I can, with a very small amount of fine talking, cause Lu-pu to 
 come and pay his respects to you. Will you allow it ?" Ch6 was much pleased, 
 and observed that the man was the veteran adjutant-general Li-seu. Cho 
 said: "But how will you speak to him 1 ?" Sen replied : "I have heard that 
 your lordship has a celebrated horse, named the ' Purple-hare/ which can go 
 a thousand furlongs a day, I must have this horse, and with gold and pearls 
 obtain possession of his heart ; and I will so manage to address him that he 
 shall turn against Ting-yuen and come over to your lordship." Ch6 asked 
 Li-ju, saying: "Will this do?" Ju replied: "Your lordship wishes to take 
 the empire, why should you have any concern for a horse?" Ch6 then gladly 
 gave it up, together with gold, a thousand ounces, several tens of bright pearls, 
 and a jewelled girdle. Li-seu took the presents to give to Lu-pu in the 
 entrenched camp. While hiding himself in the road, the soldiers surrounded 
 him, but Seu said : " I have a message to general Lu-pu." 
 
 Translation of the Selections from ^E sop's Fables (i), v. native text, page 21. 
 
 The comparison of the bundle of wood. 
 
 Once upon a time there was a father laid in sickness upon a bed, and, being 
 about to die, all his sons stood around to hear his dying commands. The 
 father said : " I have something which I wish you to attempt," and forthwith 
 he threw down a bundle of sticks, bidding his sons to break them, and to try 
 whether they could snap them in two or not ? All his sons did as they were 
 bidden, but they were unable to break them in two. The father then instructed 
 them, and said : " Do you now pull out each stick ! and snapping them one 
 after the other, try if you can break each in two or not?" Upon doing this, 
 there was not one which remained unbroken. The father said : " After my death 
 you should not separate ! If you are united, you will not be insulted by others ; 
 if you divide, then it will be easy to break and disperse you, just as this bun- 
 dle of sticks shows. The proverb says : ' When the lips and teeth are alike 
 united, not one in ten thousand will be lost ; but separate them, and then the 
 lips are dead and the teeth grow cold, and every thing is lost.' Pay attention 
 to this ! Like as in a kingdom where each man considers his own house alone ; 
 there are few who are not destroyed; but there is nothing so desirable as 
 united strength !" 
 
 The rat that returned a kindness. 
 
 While a lion was soundly sleeping in a wild region, a little rat came 
 playing near him. The lion having awoke in a fright began to play with him. 
 
 K 2
 
 68 SHI-WAN. I-SH1 YTJ-YEN. [21 . g. 2O. 22. 6. 2J .] 
 
 g. 20. sing dr hi-chl. Sz sui I chaufeu-chl, shu pu-ndng tu, gai-mlng chau- 
 
 h. 7. hid, Sz nien siau shti kti-kti chl t'l, slid chl wd-yl, pu-ju she-chl. Shu 
 
 h. 25. te-mien, heu yu sz-tsz wu-t'eu ll-che chl wang, shi pu-ndng tu. Shu 
 
 i. 12. nien chau-hid chl gan, sui tsiang wang yau-p'o, sz-tsz chl te-tu-shln. 
 
 i. 28. Ju shi sd^wei: " Shl-dr t'iau lidng, pu-chi hd t'iau te-li!" Yiu yun: 
 
 j. 14. " Te jfdng-sheu-shi, su fdng-sheu; te jau-jm-chu, tsie jau-jin ; tsl wu 
 
 j. 30. klng-shi jin siau. Ch'ing k'ung kin-jl chl siau-jin, shi tsiang-lai chl 
 
 k. 15. gan-jin, yl wi-k'd ting ye?" 
 
 1. 2. Che-fu k'iu Fu. 
 
 1. 7. Ti-fi che-fu tsiang che-ldn hien yti siait-k'ang, pu-ndng k\ Che-fu 
 
 1. 23. k'iu kill yu A-mi-to Fu. Fu ko kidng-lin wdn yu: " N\ yiu ho-sz 
 m. 10. siang-k'iu?" Fu yu: " Ngd che U-Tcang k'iu Fu-ti pd-kiu." Fu yu: 
 m. 25. " Jii tang kien kdng k'i che, dr pien k'i ma; tsz-jen tdng-ch'u tsz k'ang, 
 n. ii. jo-jit chiii slwu dr tai, ngo yi wu-ndng wei i" Ju shi-jin, kl-shi k'iu 
 n. 29. Fu, yl tdng-sien tsin k'i-tt, nal k'd. Jin &r sung Fu wdn-shlng, pu-jd 
 o. 1 6. tsz-hmg mien-tt. 
 
 22. Selections from ^Esop's Fables, translated (2), v. native text, page 22. 
 
 a. 2. Ldng twdn ydng-gdn. 
 
 a. 7. Ku yiu hiung-kiuen, ku-pln yu Idng, wei ydng fu-l, ku-lidng su-h6, 
 
 a. 23. tsung pu-k'ang hwdn, k'iu Idng tsd-chu. Ldng tsl ch'u-ch'al, tsiang 
 
 b. 6. ydng nd-hwS, sin yu: " Ar k'ien meu-kiuen ku-lidng ; ji-kiii pu- 
 
 b. 20. hwdn, shi ho tau-ll 1 }" Ydng yu: " Ping^wd tsz-sz, nal kw'dng-kiuen 
 
 c. 4. wu-kau ye." Ldng wdn kiuen yu: " Tdng pu-k'qng chau, &r yiu 
 c. 1 7. pmg-ku feu ? " Kiuen yu : " Ting, kiu, kial k'd tsti-ching." Ldng tsl 
 
 c. 30. chuen-lai ylng, kiu, mien-mien sidng-chl. Ylng, kiu, ch'lng chln-sz! 
 
 d. 13. ydng k'ien kiuen lidng, ngo-t&ng mu-kl; ping-fl wu-kau, kl gan tsiang 
 
 d. 28. ydng, gdn-liU chi tsui" Ldng tiii ydng yu : " Hien yiit tl-ching, d,r 
 
 e. 12. shdng lai hu?" sili shd-chl. Yu-shi kau-chl-kiuen, yu shln-sz-chl 
 
 Shl-tsfi, (19. e. 25) should be sh^-tsl 'the gods of the land and the grain,' which are 
 worshipped by the Emperor and his suite, in person, on particular occasions. Tsdng-miaH 
 (19. e. 23) is the 'Temple of Ancestors,' which also receives a periodical visit from the 
 Emperor. 
 
 SJidng (19. e. 28) ' upper' for ' superior,' and is here put for the Emperor, as the highest 
 individual of all the superior classes. 
 
 Tsung-mtng (19. f. 6), 'intelligent-bright,' is here put as an attribute to Chin-lid, but 
 after instead of before it, and where we should use a relative clause. It may be looked 
 upon as an apposition to the previous word, and its position is worthy of attention. 
 
 Ting-pd (19. g. i) ' having heard,' in which pa, ' to cease,' gives the force of the perfect 
 tense in European tongues: (cf. Part I. Art. 197.) Tso-shdng (19. g. 7) 'among those 
 sitting ;' shdng ' upon, upper,' stands for several ideas in different constructions. Compare 
 tie"n-shdng (8. b. 4) 'at the inn,' as we say, "on 'Change" for "at the Exchange." 
 
 T8-tsz (19. h. 8) means the legitimate son of the Emperor, the son of the principal wife, 
 the Queen, who is called Ching-shl*. 
 
 a IE
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. A VERSION OP AESOP'S FABLES. 69 
 
 The lion with his paw covered him, so that the rat, being unable to escape, 
 cried piteously from beneath the claws. The lion bethought himself that the 
 rat had a very small body, and that if he killed him no profit would accrue, 
 so he deemed it best to let him go. The rat was therefore let off, but on 
 another occasion he met with the lion caught by mistake in the hunter's net, 
 and with all his strength he could not get out. The rat remembered the 
 favour while under the claws, and at once set about gnawing the net through 
 with his teeth, and at last he gave the lion his liberty. Just as in the world 
 we say: "Of twelve beams of wood, we know not which is the strongest." 
 And again they say : " When you can deliver any one, you should do so ; when 
 you can spare any one, you should spare, and on no account look upon others 
 as insignificant. Lest indeed the mean man of to-day should be our benefactor 
 to-morrow, who knows 1 ?" 
 
 The coachman praying to Fu (Buddha for Hercules). 
 
 One day a coachman got his carriage wheel sunk into a little pit and was 
 unable to raise it out, so he begged for assistance from Amida Buddha, who 
 really descended and enquired, saying : " What do you want 1 ?" The man said : 
 " My carriage has fallen into this pit, and I pray for the power of Buddha to 
 pull it out." Buddha replied : " You ought with your shoulder to raise the 
 vehicle, and lash your horses, then assuredly it will arise from this pit; but if 
 you let your hands hang down and wait, even I shall be powerless to help 
 you." Thus it is in the world ; when affairs are urgent, men pray to Fu; but 
 they ought first to exhaust all their energy, and then they would be able to 
 manage them. For if you call on Fu ten thousand times, it will not be so 
 good as using your own exertions. 
 
 Translation of the Selections from jE sop's Fables (2), v. native text, page 22. 
 
 The sentence of the wolf in the suit about the sheep. 
 
 In former times there was a savage dog, who petitioned a wolf, saying that 
 a sheep owed him several measures of corn, and that he would on no account 
 pay, and he begged the wolf to act as arbiter. The wolf sent out a bailiff to 
 seize the sheep, and having caught him, he examined him, saying : " You have 
 owed a certain dog some corn for a good while, and have not paid, what sort 
 of principle is that?" The sheep replied: "It is no such thing, but that mad 
 dog has accused falsely." The wolf asked the dog, saying : " The sheep is 
 unwilling to confess, have you any proof against him?" The dog replied: 
 " The eagle and the kite can both bear witness." The wolf then summoned 
 the eagle and the kite to appear before his face and to testify. They de- 
 clared that it was all true ; that the sheep owed the dog the provision, " We 
 have seen it," said they, " and he is not falsely accused, we beg you graciously 
 to take the sheep and deal with him as the law directs to cure him of this 
 crime." The wolf then took the sheep and said : " Now we have strong proof, 
 do you still persist 1 ?" and forthwith killed him. Thereupon the dog which 
 had at first accused him, with the wolf which had adjudged the affair, together
 
 70 SHI-WAN. KUNG- WAN. [22. 6. 28. 23. (1. 1 .] 
 
 e. 28. Idng-kwdn, ping kdn-ching-chi ying-kiu, (she-hie yi-wo,) kung fan k'l 
 .13. yang. Ju shi-jin, jo yiu tsz-tsai, mei chau hwdng-ho ! yiu; yut'dn 
 
 f. 28. Idng chi kwdn, yuen-kau ju kiuen, kdn-ching ju ying-kiu; tsi pu-pi 
 
 g. 13. wdng k'i ping-kdng twdn-sz I! Yen yun: " Sidng yiu ch'i,fdn k'i 
 g. 27. shin" K'l pu hu1 
 
 h. 2. Tii-she yau tso. 
 
 h. 7. Si yiu tu-she, yuen-ji ti-p'u; yu wu, tsi yau; shi yiu U-ts'o tsai-ts'ien; 
 
 h. 25. she tsi ch'en dr yau-chl. ICeu chu tso ch'l, hu-tl k'o-kien, \-wei yau 
 
 i. 1 2. sJidng tsz-ts'6, fu tsai yau-chi. Tso yu : " Ju sin kiuen-tu, pu-ndng 
 
 i. 27. hai jin,fdn hai ts-kl." Ju shi yiu Idng-sln-che, chdng tsai gdn-ll, I 
 
 j. 14. yen-yu hwul-jin, dr pu-chi shi tsz hwul. Shin chi! 
 
 k. 2. Fu-t'eu k'iu ping'. 
 
 k. 7. Si yiu fu-t'eu, siil jiii dr wu-yung, ts-s pi-te yi-ping, fang k'o 
 
 k. 24. kien-yung yii-shi; nal k'l k'i shu yu: " Sien-sdng, tsi ngd yi-mu, pu- 
 
 1. 10. kwo kin-wei yl-ping tsul; t'd-ji tsi-tdng t'u-pau." K'i shu ts-ku chi-ko 
 
 1. 29. fdn-shing; " Ho-si yi-ping ? " JK'ai-jen yu-chi. Futek'iping; so-yiu 
 
 m. 15. shu-lin, tsin p'l fd-k'ii! If 6 k'i shu-chl yu tsal! Ju shi-jin so wei: 
 
 n. 2. " Tsu, hu t'ien yV Yiu yun : " Ti-tau, ki-ming ;" shi ye ! Fdn-jin 
 
 n. 1 6. pi-su ko sheu k'i fan tsi, wu chi-ts'dn yu jin, ch'ing-k'ung (yiu juju 
 
 o. 3. ping), tsi hwai chi wdn i 
 
 23. Official Papers (Lin's Letter to Queen Victoria (i)), v. native text, 
 
 page 23. 
 a. b. i. Kin-ch'ai, Td-chin, Ping-pu Shdng-shu, Lidng-Hu Tsung-tu, Lin, 
 
 a. 17. Ping-pu SJidng-shu, Lidng-Kwdng Tsung-tu, Tang, 
 
 b. 17. Ping-pu Shi-ldng Kwdng-tung Siun-fu, /, 
 
 c. i. hwui-t'ung clwu-hwui Ying-ki-ll kwo wdng, wet ling-kin d-pien 
 c. 15. yen-si; chau-te t'ien-tau wu-sz pu-yung hai-jin, I fa kl; jin-ts'ing 
 
 Kw6-shl (19. h. 12) is a union of two verbs, ' to pass over' and ' to fail,' put for ' trans- 
 gression' or 'fault.' (Cf. Part I. Art. 101.) 
 
 Hidng (19. k. 15), 'towards,' is used here for 'at:' (cf. Parti. Art. 407. 4.) Kung 
 (19. k. 18) here means 'public,' as often; e. g. ~kung-w6.il (24. d. 15) 'public despatch,' but 
 in Icunrj-hiang (19. c. 10) it means 'nobles,' and Icung-tau (19. 1. n) means 'just,' because 
 justice is founded on the common rights of mankind. Again, kung (19. n. 12) is 'you, 
 my lord :' (cf. 20. d. 13, 14.) Tsiu-heu (20. b. 14) ' after wine.' Here tsiu, 'wine,' is put for 
 'drinking wine.' 
 
 Observe the ellipsis of the substantive verb in tsz h6 jtn yd (20. c. 23 26). 
 
 The description given of the dress of great men and heroes in Chinese romances is 
 generally elaborate, as is that of Lil-pu (20. e. 24 f. 13), who played an important part 
 in this story of the San-kwS. 
 
 Fi-md (20. h. 10), lit. 'flying-horse,' is an example of the use of the verb to qualify the 
 noun ; but in such cases the qualifying verb or participle has often to be translated by an 
 adverbial expression ; and here we must construe, 'his horse going at full speed,' Shd 
 (20. h. 12), ' to kill, 1 is here used to intensify the expression, to imply that he darted across 
 the intermediate space. The use of hid (20. i. 4) 'down,' or 'lower,' for 'throwing up' a 
 stockade, or 'entrenching themselves,' is very idiomatic. In fact shdng and hid, as will
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. OFFICIAL PAPERS. LIN'S LETTER. 71 
 
 with the false witnesses, the eagle and the kite (a nest of birds of the same 
 feather), divided the sheep among themselves. Thus it is in the world, if a 
 man possess wealth, it will daily bring crosses and woes upon him, and should 
 he cross the path of a magistrate who is greedy like the wolf, and an accuser 
 like the dog, and false witnesses like the eagle and the kite, then he must not 
 expect to have it decided according to any justice in the case. So the proverb 
 says : " The elephant has tusks of ivory, and we burn his body for them, is it 
 not so?" 
 
 The venomous snake bites the file. 
 
 Once upon a time a venomous snake wound itself into a blacksmith's shop, 
 and every thing which fell in its way it gnawed. Now it happened that a 
 sharp file came in its way, so the snake coiled itself round it and began to 
 gnaw it, but his mouth suddenly coming in contact with the sharp teeth of the 
 file, drops of blood were to be seen ; he thereupon thought that these were 
 from the wounds inflicted on the file, so he went on gnawing it. But the file 
 said : " Your heart is very venomous, you are not able to hurt others, but, on 
 the contrary, you may injure yourself." 
 
 Just so in this world, those who have the hearts of wolves are constantly 
 in secret slandering others, but they unwittingly defame themselves. Beware 
 of such ! 
 
 The axe-head begs for a handle. 
 
 There was once an axe-head, which, although sharp, was useless, so he 
 thought within himself that he must obtain a handle, and be useful in the 
 world. Then he besought a tree, saying : " Sir, give me a piece of wood, only 
 sufficient to make a handle, and some other day I will, as in duty bound, 
 reward you." The tree on seeing his branches so abundant, thought, 'Why 
 should I grudge a handle?' And so generously gave him one. The axe now 
 having obtained a handle, cut down completely all the trees which were in the 
 forest. What stupidity it was in this tree ! So the men of the world have the 
 saying : " Help the tiger by adding" wings." Also they say : " Present a knife 
 and beg your life ;" and so it is. Let every one keep his own share and on 
 no account give to others, lest truly (as in the case of the axe handle) he may 
 repent of it too late ! 
 
 Translation of Official Papers (Lin's Letter to Queen Victoria (i)), v. native 
 
 text, page 23. 
 
 Imperial Commissioner Lin, a Minister of State, a President of the Board 
 of War, Governor-General of the Two Hu (Hu-nan and Hu-pe provinces), 
 
 President Tang, of the Board of War, Governor-General of the Two Kwang 
 (Kwang-tung and Kwang-sl provinces), and 
 
 Vice-President /, of the Board of War, and Lieutenant-Governor of Kwang- 
 tung, 
 
 unite in making a communication to the Ruler of the English nation, in 
 order to cause the prohibition of the opium traffic; showing that Providence 
 does not allow any private arrangements soever to be injurious, so that they
 
 72 SHI-WAN. KUNG-WAN. [23. d. 2. 23. 0.30.] 
 
 d. 2. pii-yuen. Shu ft wu-shd dr hau-sdng ? Kwei-kw&, siil tsai chung-ydng 
 
 d. 17. dr-wdn ll wai; dr t'ung tsz t'ien-tau, t'ung tsz jin-ts'ing, wi-yiu pu- 
 
 e. 3. ming, yu sdng-sz ll-hai che yd. Ngd t'ien-chau sz-hai wei kid; td 
 
 e. 19. Hwdng-ti,ju t'ien chljin,wu-sd-pu-feu,dr hid-hwdng tsil-yi, yi tsai ping- 
 
 f. 7. sang, ping-yu chl chung. Kwdng-tung, tsz k'al hdi-kin l-lai, liu-t'ung 
 
 f. 22. meu-yi; fdn Nili-ti min-jin, yii wai-laifdn-ch'uen sidng-dn,yu 16-U che, 
 
 g. 10. yiu su-shl nien yu-tsz 1. Tsw yu td-hwdng, ch'd-ye, hu-sz, tqng-lui, 
 g. 27. kial Chung-kw6 pau-kwei chl cKan ; wai-kwo j6 pu-te tsz, tsi wA i-wei 
 h. 14. ming; dr t'ien-chau yi-sM t'ung fin, hu k'ifdn-mai ch'u-ydng, tsu pu 
 h. 30. kin-si, wu-fl t'ul-sz wai fit i t'ien-ti chl sin wei sin ye. Nal yiu yi 
 i. 19. chung kdn % chi wei d-pien kid-tai fdn-mai, yiu-hwo yu-min, I hai k'i 
 j. 7. shin, dr meu k'i II, ts'ien hi-shl che. Shdng shau kin tsl hu-sidng 
 j. 22. ch'uen jen liu-tu jl-shln tsai chung yuen, fu shu fdn ch'dng, sill tsal- 
 k. 7. tsz-tqng yu-min t'dn-k'eu-fu, dr ts'idng k'i sang, yi shu nl yiu-tsz ts'u 
 k. 24. hd-pl wei gai-sl ye jen 1. Td-ts'lng yi-t'ung chl t'ien-hid, wu tsai 
 1. ii. twdn fung-su I ching jin-sln, k'l-k'qng shi hal-nui sdng-ling kdn-sln 
 1. 27. chin-tu, shi-i Men tsidng Niii-ti fdn-mai d-pien, ping hl-shl chljin, yi- 
 m. 15. t'l yen-hing chi tsiii yung kin liu ch'uen; wei-si tsz-tqng tu-wu hi 
 n. i. kwei-kwd so-shu, kS-pu hid-nui kwei-yi kdn-jin sz-hing tsau-tsfi; tsz-fl 
 n. 19. kwei-kwS wdng, ling k'i chi-tsau tsz-wu ping-fl chu-kwo kial jen-yiu 
 o. 5. wdn kwei-kwo yi-pu chan min-jin hi-shi fdn-chd, pi ch'ing : tsz hi chl 
 o. 22. k'i hai-jin, kit ti-wei chi li-kin. 
 
 have been seen, enter into many pure Chinese idioms. Wu (20. j. 8) 'not, do not,' being 
 employed for pU-yaA a , is one of the characteristics of the terse style of this work. Tdng- 
 hiang (20. j. 14), 'of the same village,' is another example of the predicate being of 
 pregnant meaning, and like the attribute only being placed after the noun which it quali- 
 fies. This form is common in the San-kwS. We have chS td-hi (20. k. 13). 
 
 Mark h6-l (20. 1. i) 'by what means?' and compare this use of I with l-wei hd-jfi? 
 (19. f. 25) 'how do you consider this?' or 'what do you think of it?' (cf. 4. j. 20. and 
 4. e. i.) I often has the force of the final particle 'that, to the end that,' or 'for the pur- 
 pose of:' (cf. 19. e. 21 ; 23. 1. 14; and Parti. Art. 482.) 
 
 F-ii-lii (20. o. 1 7) ' to hide on the road.' In this expression the noun lu follows the 
 verb 'to hide' directly, without any particle to show the relation; but the sense of the 
 passage compels the above rendering, just as in hing-lti above (17. f. 22). This form is 
 frequent. We have a case in the next page; ng6-ping (21. a. 12) 'lying in sickness.' 
 
 Pages2i and 22 of the native text contain extracts from a work entitled: " Esop's Fables 
 written in Chinese by the learned Mun MooySeen-tthang, and compiled in their present form 
 (with a free and literal translation) by his pupil, Sloth," an allusion to which will be found 
 in the Preface to this work, page viii. The style is quaint, easy, and well adapted for the 
 expression of fable. It cannot be considered, however, as a very good model for compo- 
 sition, though it may serve as a stepping-stone to something better, and to familiarise the 
 student with the expression of native modes of thought. But these fables abound in good 
 colloquial phrases, to which the student will be directed by the hyphen in many cases. 
 And here it may be observed, that the hyphen in this work is often placed between sylla- 
 bles which are merely grammatically united, and not absolutely, as is the case in com- 
 pound words; e.g. the negatives ptt 'not,' wH 'without;' some verbs, as sui 'to follow,'
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. OFFICIAL PAPERS. LIN's LETTER. 73 
 
 may serve the interests of individuals; and that the feelings of all men 
 are similar, (for who is there that does not hate death and love life?) And 
 although your honourable nation is two myriads of li across the vast ocean, 
 yet you acknowledge the same Providence and the same human feelings, and 
 there is not one of you ignorant respecting life and death, profit and loss. 
 Now the Celestial dynasty looks upon all within the four seas * as one family, 
 and the benevolence of our great Emperor (like that of heaven) comprehends all ; 
 even desert places and disconnected regions alike receive their life and nurture 
 from thence. There has existed at Canton, from the time of the removal of the 
 restrictions on maritime communication up to the present, regular commercial 
 dealing, and the people of China, generally, have held a peaceful and profitable 
 intercourse with those who came from abroad in foreign ships during a period 
 of several tens of years until now. Moreover, with reference to rhubarb, teas, 
 and the silks of the Lake provinces and such other commodities, which are 
 the valuable and rich productions of China ; were foreign nations unable to 
 procure them, they would be without the means of enjoying their lives; but 
 the Celestial court, looking with benevolence towards all alike, has permitted 
 trade to be carried on with foreigners, without the least stint or grudge, and 
 has in this course undoubtedly had no other aim in view than to imitate 
 the beneficent principles which unite heaven and earth. But there is a 
 class of unprincipled Barbarians, who manufacture opium, and bring it here 
 for sale. And thus, in order to contrive profit for themselves, they tempt the 
 common people of our land to the injury of their bodies. Formerly the con- 
 sumers were only a few, but latterly the habit has spread its contagion, while 
 it extends more deeply every day towards the centre of the land, with its 
 rich, fruitful, and flourishing population. But although, among the common 
 people, there are many who gratify their appetites at the expense of their 
 lives, and as this is the origin of the evils resulting from the habit, their 
 case does not call for pity. Yet, when we consider the empire as a whole, 
 under the rule of the Td-tsing (' Great Pure') dynasty, it is a matter of import- 
 ance that the minds of men should be directed in the formation of correct 
 customs. How then can we be willing to cause the inhabitants of the world 
 to take with pleasure this deadly poison 1 Therefore from henceforth both those 
 in the Inner land (China) who deal in opium, and also those who eat it, shall 
 alike be liable to the severest punishment ; and a perpetual prohibition against 
 it shall be enacted and be made known every where. We have considered 
 that this poisonous article is the secret production of artful and designing 
 people within the boundaries of your honourable nation's tributary kingdoms, 
 and that neither the sovereign of your honourable nation has caused it to be 
 made, nor that even all these kingdoms manufacture it ; yea, we have heard 
 that your honourable nation does not allow your own people to consume 
 it, and that offenders will surely be reproved. It is certainly from knowing 
 its evil effects that these severe prohibitions have been made. 
 
 * The expression ' four seas' sometimes means ' China,' at other times ' the win-Id.' 
 PART II. L
 
 74 SHI-WAN. KUNG-WAN. [24. a. i . 24. m. 1 1 .] 
 
 24. Official Papers (Lin's Letter to Queen Victoria (2)), v. native text, 
 
 page 24. 
 a. i . Jen kin k'i ki-shi, h6-j& kin k'i fdn-mai, ping kin k'i chi-tsaii ? 
 
 a. 1 7. nal wei ts'lng-yuen chl tau. Jo tszpu-shl, dr-jing kan chi-tsau fdn-mai 
 
 b. 4. yln-yiu Nui-ti yu-min; tsi-shi yu-kl chl sang, dr hien-jin chl sz; yu-kl 
 
 b. 23. chl II, dr i-jin I hai. Tsz-kialjin-ts'ing chi so t'dng-hdn, t'ien-tau chl so 
 
 c. 1 2. pu-ydng. II T'ien-chau, ll-chinHwd-Ii; hd-ndn ll-chi k'i ming? dr ydng- 
 
 c. 29. fl shing-ming kwdn-td, tsz I kau-kial yu sien; tsie ts'ung-ts'ien wi yung- 
 
 d. 15. kung-wdn, i-hwiii kwei-kw6 Wdng; yl-tdn kin-yen, tsi yid te-yiu wei 
 
 e. 2. pu-chl. Kin yu kwei-kw6 Wdng y6 tsidng tsz liai-jin chl d-pien, 
 
 e. 18. yung-yuen twdn-tsu; ngd Nui-ti kin-jin ki-shi, yi shu-kwo kin-jin 
 
 f. 4. cM-tsaii; k'l ts'Ang-tsien l-klng tsau-tsd-che, kwei-kw6 li-tsi pan-ling 
 
 f. 20. Mng seu tsm-t'ed chl hai-tl; twdn pu-hu t'ien-ti kien kang-yiu tu-wu. 
 
 g. 7. Fl-tH Nui-ti min-jin pu-sheu k'i hai, tsi kwei-kwo min-jin (ki-yiu 
 g. 24. tsau-tso, an chl k'i pu ki-shi) kwo ping tsau-tsd shdng kin chl, tse kal- 
 h. ii. kwo y~i pu-sheti k'i hai. K'l pu-kd hidng t'ai-ping chlfu! Yl-chau 
 h. 27. kwei-kwo kung-shdn chl chin,ju-tsz tse ming yu t'ien-ll, dr Shdng-t'ien 
 i. 1 4. pu-chi kidng tsal. Hi hd jin-ts'ing dr shing-jin. Yi-pi chl hu, hwdng 
 i. 29. Niii-ti ki-klng yen-kin, wd-shi ki-shi, tsi-shi kal-kw6 chi-tsau, tsung- 
 j. 1 6. yi wu-chti k'o-mai, wA-li k'o-t'u. Yu k'i kw'el-pdn t'u.-lad, Iw-pu ka\ 
 k. 4. t'u pl-nie? Hwang Nui-ti seu-cJiu d-pien tsin-hing fu-ho yiu shau- 
 k. 20. wei, tsai yiil li-cJiuen kid-tai d-pien, ts'ien-lai pu-ndng-pu y Y t-t'\ shau- 
 1. 7. wei. K'ung (cJiuen niii so tsai t'd h6) ndn mien yu-shi, k'ufdn. Shi li- 
 1. 23. pu-te dr hai i-hing, yu hai-jin dr sien hai-ki y$. T'ien-chau chl so-l 
 
 I ' to use,' which are employed as prepositions (then meaning ' with' or 'by') ; and auxiliary 
 verbs, as ndng 'to be able,' k'o 'can, may;' and demonstratives, as tsz 'this' and k'i 'his ;' 
 and the reflexive particles tsz 'self,' siting 'mutual,' are generally united by the hyphen 
 to the words which they affect. Very much might be done in this way to make Chinese, 
 even the terse, classical style, intelligible in Roman letter ; and it is devoutly to be wished 
 that the various dialects may, before long, be represented by the Latin alphabet, and be 
 freed from the cumbrous characters, which, for the masses, clog the path to knowledge. 
 
 Sui-i (ti. g. 25), lit. 'follow, use,' forms a redundant expression for 'with.' We have 
 nut alone in siii-sheH (21. c. 21) 'with the hand.' 
 
 There is a great mixture of classical and colloquial terms in the style of these fables ; 
 e. g. (in 21. a. 10) we have/ft-cA instead offd-tsm, which is the colloquial term. Again, 
 "the lion was sleeping in (yu 21. g. 10) a wild region;" "the mouse was playing in 
 (tsal 21. g. 15) (or at) his side." Here different words are employed for 'in,' perhaps to 
 avoid tautology, but yii is not often used in colloquial style. Fan-fu (21. a. 22) 'com- 
 mand, bidding,' is the common expression for commanding an inferior. 
 
 The expression pti-jti, (21. h. 20) has occurred several times. It signifies literally, 'not 
 as' or 'not like,' and must be explained to mean 'there is nothing like' or 'the best thing 
 to do is:' (cf. 14. i. 24. and 21. o. 14.) 
 
 Tsidng* (21. i. 18) in the sense of 'to take' is not very common; it corresponds in use 
 to pa* 'to take,' meaning 'referring to, touching, concerning,' it refers to the object 
 mentioned, and helps to form an expression, like the " accusative of closer specification "
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. OFFICIAL PAPERS. LIN's LETTER. 75 
 
 Translation of Official Papers (Lin's Letter to Queen Victoria (2)), v. native 
 
 text, page 24. 
 
 But though you forbid the eating of it, what is that compared with the pro- 
 hibition of its sale and the restriction on its manufacture 1 ? this latter would be 
 the rational means of cleansing the source. If you do not eat it yourselves, 
 yet by continuing presumptuously the manufacture and the sale of it, you tempt 
 the lower orders of the Inner land (China), you truly desire to live yourselves 
 and to overwhelm others in death, you seek your own profit, and bring loss 
 upon other men. All these things are what the common feelings of humanity 
 hold in abhorrence, and what Divine Providence will not tolerate. And since 
 the power of the Celestial dynasty moves both Chinese and Barbarians, what 
 difficulty would there be in establishing regulations respecting their fate ? 
 But having regard to propriety, sacred honour, and magnanimity, it is cer- 
 tainly proper, in the first place, to issue commands; and, as heretofore no 
 public despatch has been sent to the Sovereign of your honourable kingdom, 
 if the matter be the subject of rigid prohibition on a sudden, then some may 
 be tempted to plead ignorance as an excuse. But as the case stands, we 
 would with the Sovereign of your honourable nation, covenant to abolish for 
 ever this hurtful opium drug, we should forbid the consumption of it in the 
 Inner land (China), and the tributary kingdoms also should forbid the manu- 
 facture of it. As for that which has already been made, your honourable 
 government should issue commands for its collection from every quarter, and 
 for its complete destruction in the bottom of the sea, nor let any more of the 
 poisonous article exist any longer in the world. Then not only will the people 
 of the Inner land (China) not be injured by it, but also the said people of your 
 honourable nation (who being the makers of it certainly know how to eat it), 
 when the manufacture is forbidden, will of necessity be also uninjured by it. 
 Will not each party then enjoy the happiness of peace 1 And in addition to this, 
 by your honourable nation's respectful and sincere obedience, you will show a 
 clear apprehension of divine principles, and Heaven will not bring down 
 calamities upon us. This will be in harmony with the feelings of humanity 
 and with those of the sacred sages. Also let it be remembered besides, that 
 the people of the Inner land (China), being under severe prohibitions against 
 the eating of it, if the aforesaid nations still manufacture it, there will 
 assuredly be no market for it, and no device will cause profit to arise there- 
 from. Thus, with the prospect of losing the capital and labouring in vain, 
 will it not be better to change your plans for another employment? 
 
 Furthermore, all the opium which can be found in the Inner land (China) 
 has been delivered over to be consumed by fire, and if in future there happen 
 to be any Barbarian ships conveying opium hither, the whole must be 
 destroyed by fire. But we fear (as there will be other goods in the same ships) 
 it will be difficult to distinguish the jewel from the stone, and all must be burnt 
 alike. Thus, not obtaining any profit, and injury taking a substantial form, in 
 wishing to hurt others, you will hurt yourselves first. The Celestial dynasty's 
 
 L 2
 
 76 SHI-WAN. KUNG-WAN. MING-YOH a . [24. m.I2. 25.1.33.] 
 
 m. 12. chin fu wdn-kwd eke, ching yiu pu-ts'e chl shin, wel wu wei, yen chl 
 
 m. 28. pu-tsau y. Kwei-kwo Wdng tsl-tau tsz^wdn, tsl tsidng k6 ha\-k'eu 
 
 n. 13. twdn-tsu, yuen-yiu su-hing i feu hing. Wu-hwdng shl chl t'ing 
 
 n. 27. ch'u tsl. 
 
 o. 3. Tau-kwdng shl-kiu nien dr yu ft, i-hwiii Ylng-kw6 chl 
 
 o. 21. chau. 
 
 25. Official Papers (From the ' Supplementary Treaty of 1844'), v. native 
 
 text, page 25. 
 
 a. i. I. Yl so-yiu Kln-ch'al, Kung-shi, Td-chin hwd-yd k'ien-yin, tsin 
 
 a. 15. ch'u-k'eu ho-wu shwiii-hidng, tsl-li fu-nien chl tse, si-lieu Kwdng-cheu, 
 
 b. i. Fu-cheu, Hid-mdn, Ning-po, Shdng-hal, wu kidng-k'eu, kiun fung \- 
 b. 15. wei shl. 
 
 b. 1 8. II. Yl so-yiu Kln-ch'al, Kung-shi, Td-chin hwd-yd k'ien-yin sln- 
 
 c. 2. ting meu-yl chdng-ch'ing fu-nien chl kien, sz-heu wu kidng-k'eu, kiun- 
 c. 17. fung l-wei shl. 
 
 c. 22. III. Yl sin-ting meu-yl chdng-ch'ing ti-sdn t'iau, ho-ch'uen tsin 
 
 d. 5. k'eu pau kwdn yl-kw'dn, nui so yen fa yin j6 kdn yuen, kl ho-wu ch'd 
 
 d. 22. ch'au jl kwdn tdng yu, tsz yin lien ho ying-kwel Chung -hwd kwo nu, 
 
 e. 8. I ch'ung kung-hidng. 
 
 e. 13. IV. Yl Kwdng-cJteu, Fu-cheu, Hid-mdn, Ning-po, Shdng-hal, wu 
 
 e. 25. kidng-k'eu, k'al kwdn chl heu, k'i Ylng-shdng meu-yl chu-so, che chdn 
 
 f. 10. wu kidng-k'eu. Pu-chdnfu t'd-chu kidng-k'eu, yl pu-hu Hwd-min tsai 
 
 f. 26. t'd-chu kidng-k'eu, ch'uen t'ung sz sidng meu-yl, tsidng-lai Ylng-kwd 
 
 g. 10. Kung-shi yiu yu-shi ming, pu-hu t'd-wdng, dr Ylng-slidng ju hwd pel 
 g. 26. y6, pu-fu kin-ling, kl tsidng Kung-shi kau-shi chi j6 wdng wan, slien 
 h. 12. wdng t'd-chu kidng-k'eu, yiu pien fdn-mai jin p'ing Chung-kwo yuen- 
 h. 26. pien, lien-ch'uen lien-ho yl-ping ch'au tsu jl kwdn, Ylng-kwdn pu-te 
 i. ii. tsdng-ldn, t'dng Hwd-min tsai t'd-chu kidng-k'eu, yu Ylng-shdng sz 
 i. 25. ch'uen meu-yl, tsl Kw6fd kit tsai, ying-chau li pdn-ll. 
 
 j. ii. V. Yl tsien tsai Kidng-ndn nie-klng i-ting, l-heu shdng k'ien, twdn 
 
 j. 25. pu-k'd kwdn wei pau kiau, yiu sin ting meu-yl chdng-ch'ing ti-sz t'iau, 
 k. ii. Ylng-s/idng yu Hwd-shdng kiau-yl yl-kw'dn, nui-fu tsidng pu-ndng 
 k. 25. chl ydng-Jidng tai p'ei-chl kiu li, ch'ing chu ch5 p'ei. Tsl shl shlng 
 
 1. 10. ming tsai gdn. Sz-heu pu-k'u Hwd-shdng k'ien Ylng-shdng, kl Ylng- 
 
 in Greek: (cf. Parti. Art. 407. 6.) There is another example of this use of tsiang in 
 21. 1. ii. 
 
 A-mi-to FU (21. 1. 26). This is the common name of Buddha in China. The name 
 which serves for all the various forms of calling upon the deity, whether in oaths or 
 in prayers. 
 
 Observe the use of siang* in sidng-k'iu (11. m. 10), in which expression it corresponds 
 to the use of the middle voice in Greek. It implies two parties : (cf. Parti. Art. 215.) 
 
 Hn $ J ' a treaty ' (between two nations). v pj
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. OFFICIAL PAPERS. TREATY. 77 
 
 means of holding the myriads of nations in subjection is unfathomable and 
 divine, and produces reverence beyond the power of words to tell ! Let it not 
 be said that early warning was not given ! When Your Majesty receives this 
 despatch, then take measures for seizing all the opium at every sea-port, and 
 send us a speedy reply. Do not, by false embellishments, evade or delay ! 
 Earnestly reflect on these things, and earnestly observe them ! 
 
 In the nineteenth year of Tait-kwang, in the second month, on the 
 
 day. A communication addressed to England. 
 
 Translation of Official Papers (From the ' Supplementary Treaty of 1844'), 
 v. native text, page 25. * 
 
 Art. 1. 1 The tariff of export and import duties which is hereunto attached, 
 under the seals and signatures of the respective plenipotentiary and commis- 
 sioners, shall henceforward be enforced at the five ports of Canton, Fu-chau fu, 
 Amoy, Ningpo, and Shanghai. 
 
 Art. II. The general regulations of trade which are hereunto attached under 
 the seals and signatures of the respective plenipotentiary and commissioners 
 shall henceforward be in force at the five afore-named ports. 
 
 Art. III. All penalties enforced, or confiscations made, under the third clause 
 of the said general regulations of trade, shall belong, and be appropriated to, 
 the public service of the government of China. 
 
 Art. IV. After the five ports of Canton, Fu-chau, Amoy, Ningpo, and 
 Shanghai shall be thrown open, English merchants shall be allowed to trade 
 only at those five ports. Neither shall they repair to any other ports or 
 places, nor will the Chinese people, at any other ports or places, be permitted 
 to trade with them. If English merchant vessels shall, in contravention of this 
 agreement, and of a proclamation to the same purport, to be issued by the 
 British plenipotentiary, repair to any other ports or places, the Chinese 
 government officers shall be at liberty to seize and confiscate both vessels and 
 cargoes ; and should Chinese people be discovered clandestinely dealing with 
 English merchants at any other ports or places, they shall be punished by the 
 Chinese government in such a manner as the law may direct. 
 
 Art. V. Formerly in Kiang-nan it was agreed that the government could 
 not be responsible for the debts of merchants, and according to the 4th clause 
 of the newly established regulations concerning ' commercial dealings between 
 English and Chinese merchants,' it is no longer allowable to ask for the repay- 
 ment of debts by appealing to the old laws, which required the Hong mer- 
 chants to pay the debts of each. This is truly and clearly declared in the 
 records. Henceforth, whether a Chinese merchant owe any thing to an 
 English merchant, or an English merchant owe to a Chinese merchant, if the 
 
 * Page 25 of the native text was erroneously headed 'a notice and a petition,' which 
 should have been the heading for page 26. 
 
 + The version here given is that published as the English treaty, which was in fact the 
 original, and of which the Chinese text in the Ohrestomathy is the translation.
 
 78 SHI-WAN. KUNG-WAN. KAU-PEH a . [25.1.24- 26. h. 2.] 
 
 1. 24. shdng k'ien Hwd-shdng chl chai, ju ko chdng-ku k'iS-tsd, jin tsai ch'dn 
 
 m. 9. ts'dn, kiun ying yiu ffwd Ying kal kwan-sz-kwdn, yl-t'l tsung kung- 
 
 ra. 23. chii kl, l-chau ping-yun. Jing-chau yuen-yd pi-tsz tai-wei chS-chul, 
 
 n. 9. kiun pu tai-wei pau-clidng. 
 
 n. 1 6. VI. Yi Kwdng-cheu t&ng wu kidng-k'eu, Ylng-shdng, hwo chdng 
 
 n. 27. ch'uen ku-chu, hw6 pu-shi wdng-lai, kiun pu-k'd wting tau hidng-kien, 
 
 o. 12. jin-i yiu-hing, yiu kang pu-k'o yuen-jl nui-ti meu-yl. 
 
 26. Official Papers (a notice and a petition), v. native text, page 26. 
 
 a. 2. Kin ye-hing y6. 
 
 a. 7. Ll kin y6 jin men-men tting, wei yen kin ye-hing, I tsing ti-fdng 
 
 a. 23. sz. Kwd-kidch^ng-mdnki-s^,yu-taihupau-ke,hidng-mint'i-ling/iau- 
 
 b. 10. pang, klnfdng k'i tau-tse. Kia/i yiu ming kin. Shui kdn weifdn. Kin 
 
 b. 25. kien ti-fdng fan-lwdn, tau-tse cfidng-kw'dng, tsung yiu ye-hing pu-kln. 
 
 c. jo. Hi pien Jci-chd? Shi i shing-ki gdn tau, shin chi ming-ho ki'dng-kie, 
 
 c. 26. ts'ln pu-gdn chin, kid pu-liau sang. Hai mfi tsl I ! Ho shu td yen ! Wei- 
 
 d. 13. tsz she tsiu hwtii, chung, yen she kin-y6. Yi yu hwdng hwan, tsl kin 
 
 d. 28. jin hing, chi chi wu-kdng sdn-tien, fdng k'o-jin k'i lai-wang. Mel-jl 
 
 e. 14. Idn-liu siun 16, ju yiu fdn-kin-che, ming-lo wei hau, ko-kd sheu-cht 
 
 f. i. ts'iang, tau, nu, ch'ung, shd-sz wu-ldn, t'dng ming-lo shi, cJid tien yl 
 
 f. 16. ming pu-tau, lai-jl ts 'ing -shin, hwiii-chung kung-fd, kiu pu k'lng tai. 
 
 g. i. Ti sie li su chl, shd chu chdng-kwd, shu p'l sing tai yu chl jin, chl so 
 g. 19. kiai: tyr kl-ming keu-tau chl jin te ch'lng I. Kln-yS. 
 
 The pronoun k't b 'he, his,' in the expressions Ic'i-che (21. m. 29), k't-mct (21. n. 3), is used 
 like our definite article 'the,' for the second person ju (21. m. 25) has just been used, 
 therefore k'i could not be construed as ' his * in this place. 
 
 Yu c frequently means ' with reference to ;' so in to beg something of somebody, it signifies 
 'of or 'from,' as in 22. a. 13. 
 
 Tso-chii (22. a. 29), lit. 'to be the master,' is 'to act as judge:' (cf. Parti. Arts. 221, 
 361. 5, and 371.) Tsti is again used for the verb to be in 22. c. 26. Tati-ll (22. b. 23) 
 ' law of reason, rule of right,' is the general term for ' good principles' of justice, taste, 
 feeling, or judgment. It is to a Chinese that indefinable standard of right and wrong, 
 which suits his own peculiar habits, tastes, or feelings : (cf. Mr. Commissioner Yeh's dia- 
 logues with his interpreter, Mr. C. Alabaster, given in the Times during the war of 1856.) 
 Mu-ld (22. d. 19), lit. ' eyes struck at,' must here mean ' happened to see.' 
 Tl-ching (22. e. 9), lit. 'iron evidence,' means 'strong testimony.' 
 Lin, the author of the paper addressed to the Queen of England, which is to be found 
 on pages 23 and 24, was, like Yeh of recent notoriety, a good representative of the exclu- 
 sive policy of the Chinese. He was an able writer, and a sincere upholder of the govern- 
 ment which he served. He was the tool of the then dominant party in Peking, whose 
 plan was to suppress the opium trade and to humble foreigners. His great literary work, 
 the Ifal-kwS t'H-chi, has been noticed on page 15 of Part II. Many errors exist in those 
 parts of it which relate to foreign nations, but a good deal of information is to be found 
 in it upon other subjects, which relate to China and the neighbouring countries.
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. OFFICIAL PAPERS. A NOTICE. 79 
 
 accounts and vouchers be well authenticated, the persons present and the 
 property still existing shall be dealt with by the Chinese and English authori- 
 ties, according to the principles of justice, so as to manifest impartiality. 
 And, according to the original stipulations, both these authorities shall prose- 
 cute in behalf of creditors, but in no case shall they be made responsible for 
 them *. 
 
 Art. VI. It is agreed that English merchants and others, residing at or 
 resorting to the five ports to be opened, shall not go into the surrounding 
 country beyond certain short distances, to be named by the local authorities 
 in concert with the British consul, and on no pretence for purposes of traffic. 
 
 Translation of Official Papers (a notice and a petition), v. native text, page 26. 
 
 A prohibition against walking out after nightfall. 
 
 It has been agreed upon to forbid strictly any person walking out after 
 nightfall, in order that the state of the neighbourhood may be peaceful. 
 
 When the city gates of the kingdom have been shut, the night watches 
 shall be rung with the bell, to warn off persons of bad character ; the country 
 people shall sound little bells and strike the watchman's bamboo, diligently to 
 keep in check thieves and robbers. These all are definite prohibitions. Who 
 will dare to oppose and transgress ? Of late the land has been in much confu- 
 sion, thieves and robbers have been ungovernable, generally going out by 
 night without restraint. Such being the case, how can they conveniently be 
 taken up for examination 1 ? Thus, availing themselves of the darkness, they 
 contrive to go on plundering until the morning dawns, while the people 
 cannot sleep at peace on their pillows, and the lives of the household are in 
 danger. Evils, how immeasurable ! calamities, how great ! This is the reason 
 why, having called a meeting of the whole body, it has been determined to 
 issue this strict prohibition. As soon as the dusk of evening comes on, it is 
 forbidden for persons to walk abroad, until three quarters after the fifth 
 watch, when they may go to and fro as they list. Every day, by turns, per- 
 sons shall go the rounds, and, if they find any one transgressing this prohibi- 
 tion, they shall strike the gong as a signal, and whoever is found with a spear, 
 a sword, a cross-bow, or a musket, shall certainly be punished, whoever he be. 
 If, at the striking of the gong, any person does not come to seek out the 
 matter, on the next day, in the morning, he shall be punished before all, and 
 he shall not lightly be pardoned. Let, then, several copies of this notice be 
 written out and posted up every where, that all passers by may know of 
 this prohibition, and that those thieves, who crow like cocks (to get the gates 
 opened) and who steal like dogs, may not presume too much on their powers. 
 Respect this agreement. 
 
 * The 5th clause is not given in full in the English copy, we have therefore consulted the 
 student's benefit by taking another version, which follows the Chinese text more closely. 
 (Cf. a version of this treaty given in the Chinese Kepository, vol. XIII. p. 143.)
 
 80 KUNG-WAN. PIN-TSZ. KWAN-HWA T8Z-YU. [26. h. 5. 27.1.19-] 
 
 h. 5. Tslng chi-ch'u pin. 
 
 h. ii. Shln-Jcln Meu-meu kin-pin. 
 
 i. i. Pin wei shl-tau lien-p'ung, kan tslng chi-cliu, I shin ho-tsal-sz. 
 
 i. 1 6. Chau-te ho-ydng yi-sz, siil yu: " T'ien-ming," k'l-fl jin-sz! Tang- 
 
 j. i. chu pu-shin, tsu-jen hd-k'l siau-tsidng ; lu-tsau su yu, sill ar ydng kl 
 
 j. 1 8. ch'i yu. J6 pu-yil wei fdng yu, k'i hai tsidng yiu pu-k'o shing yen. 
 
 k. 4. P*i shl-tau-shdng, tiding pdng lien-p'ung hai-m/i, t'dng yiu hd-chu, 
 
 k. 1 8. tsui yi ye-ch6, tsie pung hi y\n-ho chl wu, hing-tau-chl jln, yen-ho 
 
 1. 5. wu kl, tsi hing fdn liau. Hwhng kin Mng-tung chl tsl, wdn-wu 
 
 1. 19. tswjO-kdn, sill shdn-tsau yi wei ch/i ch6-hd, d,r shin pung chl su i wei 
 
 m. 6. ll hu ? T'ctng pu ch'i, k'u, shin wei pu-pien, ll-hS pin ts'lng. li-kial. 
 
 m. 23. Chl-ch'al ch6 ling huriii ctil, mien wei ho tsai. Tsz k'l tu meu-tqng sheu 
 
 n. 9. k'i yl, shd p'i tsz k'u-te sidng an d,r. Wei-tsz pin k'au-fu wei chili 
 
 n. 26. kien, chen gan tsifu lau-ye tai ts'ien she hing. 
 
 27. Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (i), v. native text, 
 
 page 27. 
 
 a. i. Ngo yiu yi-kien-sz-ts'ing k'iu nl. Shimmd si-tsing ? Fdng-sln shwd 
 
 a. 1 6. pd! K'iu-nl ki-ngo yl-pd-tau-tsz. Kz-ngo ts6 che-ko. Kh,n-kiu Td- 
 
 b. 4. ye che-k6 gan-tien. Han tsing-yuen To-sie. Hau-shw& ! Sheu-liau 
 
 b. 1 8. nl-tl gan wdng-pu-liau. Nl hqn chi-ll. Ngd kien-wei nl. Yuen-i 
 
 c. 4. shimmd ? Pu-pl to-li. Ngd hwdn-hl nl. Pu kal-tdng. Ll-tdng. 
 
 c. 19. Nl ndng-keu i-kau ngd. Kiau ngo tsd shimmd? Nl yi-shwo, ngo tsiu 
 
 d. 5. tsd. Nl yau shimmd, ngo tsiu tso shimmd. Pu-kdn. Kiu-nl ti-ngo 
 
 d. 21. wdn Chdng sien-sdng hau *. Shi ngo tl hau pdng-yiu. Liu-hid chc- 
 
 e. 5. md-sw-ko ll-mau. Kiau ngo shi-ti md ? Pu-yau. Clie-ydng hau. 
 
 e. 20. Ngo yau shw6 yi-kU-hwd, k'ung-p'd ti-tsui nl. Sui-pien shwd. Nl 
 
 f. 5. ts ing-fan td. Shi pu-shi ? Shi-tsai shi. Ngd shwo lau-shi hwd. 
 
 f. 20. Kwo-jen shi che-ydng. Shili i-hwd ? Ngo sidng shi. Ngd shwo pu-shi. 
 
 g. 5. Ta-tu pa. Nl tu-shdng to-shau ? Yt lidng yln-tsz. ShwS-chln. 
 g. 19. Shwo-hwdng. Kid-hwd. Shwd hu-hwd. Ngdfd-shi. Yi-ting ti hwd. 
 h. 3. Yl-ko-jin shwd-liau yl-tsz hwdng, heu-lai sul-jen shw6 shz-hwd, mu- 
 h. 19. yiu jin sin. Fdn-jin sd-hwdng, tsiu tiu-liau lien. Pu-yau sui-k'eu 
 i. 5. td-ying. Che-ko hwdn-yiu jin-sin md ? Che-ko shi wdng-hwdng yen. 
 
 Tswng-tti, (23. a. b. 12), lit. 'general-leader' or 'guide of all,' is the title given to the 
 supreme governor of one or two provinces, and is nearly equivalent to our term viceroy. 
 
 Sitin-fti (23. b. 23) is the title of the deputy governor of a province ; the word itself 
 would seem to imply that his duty was to see that peace was preserved, siun means ' to 
 go round' and/w ' to tranquillize.' 
 
 The Two Hu provinces are Hii-p^ (north) and ffu-ndn (south), and the Two Kwang pro- 
 vinces are Kwang-twng (east) and Kwang-sl (west). 
 
 Jlwiii-t'dng (23. c. i), 'to unite together,' is also expressed by hwili-h8*. 
 
 Chati-hwui (23. e. 3) 'communicate.' In the treaty which was negotiated by Lord 
 Elgin, an article is inserted to render the use of this term obligatory when communications 
 
 * This character should be hcti \ w : (cf. p. 32. native text.) 'py
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. PHRASES IN THE MANDARIN DIALECT. 81 
 
 A petition asking for the removal [of old houses]. 
 M. M , Gentleman, respectfully petitions. 
 
 He makes a representation respecting the mat-sheds in the market-place, 
 and earnestly begs that they may be removed, in order to guard against the 
 calamity of a conflagration. Although the misfortune of fire is indeed said 
 to be "a judgment from heaven," still it is assuredly the work of man. If lamps 
 and candles be not taken care of, on a sudden misery arises among the 
 wretched screens; and if the cooking stoves be not looked after, presently 
 misfortune comes, even the fish in the ponds (will not escape). If we do not 
 prepare and guard against (fire), the evils arising therefrom will be beyond 
 the power of words to tell. 
 
 The mat-sheds on both sides of the market-place are covered thickly together, 
 and if they should take fire, there would be disastrous consequences. The 
 matting is, moreover, a material easy of combustion, and passers by who were 
 smoking would endanger it, and might set the whole on fire. Besides, now 
 on the approach of the winter quarter, every thing is in a dry state, and the 
 mountain grass, with which the sheds are thatched, might take fire, to which 
 the latter have always been liable. And if they are not taken away, it will be 
 very inconvenient indeed. This is the reason why I petition, and beg of your 
 worship to order the officers to pull them down, in order to avoid the calamity 
 of fire. This will assuredly not only benefit individuals, but it will truly avail 
 in preserving the peace. Therefore this petition has been presented; and 
 should you deign to consider it, a great favour will be conferred. We hasten 
 to present this to your worship for approval and execution. 
 
 Translation of Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (i), 
 v. native text, page 27. 
 
 I have something to ask of you. What is it ? Speak freely ! I want you to 
 give me a knife. Do this for" me. I beseech you, Sir, to do me this favour. 
 Gladly ! Many thanks ! Very well ! If I receive your favour I shall never 
 forget it. You are very polite ! I am troubling you. What do you want 1 ? Do 
 not use so much formality. I like you ! Nonsense ! It is not ! You may 
 depend upon me. What do you want me to do 1 ? Directly you speak I will act. 
 Whatever you want I will do it. I could not think of it. I beg of you to give 
 my compliments to Mr. Chang. He is a good friend of mine. Lay aside so 
 much of this etiquette. Do you wish me to forget my manners ? No, indeed ! 
 This is a good way. I want to speak a word, but I fear that it may offend 
 you. Say what you like ! You are very kind. Is it so or not 1 ? It is indeed so ! 
 I speak honestly. Certainly it is so. Who doubts it ? I think so. I say it is 
 not so. Let us bet. How much will you bet 1 ? A dollar (lit. ( an ounce'). To speak 
 the truth. To speak falsely. Untruth. To speak nonsense. I swear. It is 
 positively asserted. If a man speak once falsely, afterwards, although he speak 
 the truth, nobody will believe him Every man who tells a lie, throws away 
 his reputation. Do not answer without thinking. Are there any who still 
 
 PART II. M
 
 82 KWAN-HWA TSZ-YU. [27. 1. 2o. 28. n. 13.] 
 
 i. 20. Ngd wdn-Qr. Ngd pd-kwd shw6 sid-hwd. Shi-ti. Kal-tdng tsd 
 
 j. 4. shimmd? Yiu shimmd Jed ts6 tit Ju-kin ngo-mdn tso shimmd haul 
 
 j. 20. Nl ki-ngd shimmd chu-i ? Che-kd tsqng-md-ydng pdn-fd-dr. Thng- 
 
 k. 6. yi-tqng, ngo che-ydng tso pd. 2? I siting che-yi-kien-si-tsing tsqng- 
 
 k. 21. md-ydng? Tu-shi yi-kd-ydng. N\ ts'ung na-li lai? Wang nd-ll k'u. 
 
 1. 10. Ngo k'il Pe-king. T sting chau-fa lai. Ts'lng tsin-lai. Kin ngo lai. 
 
 1.24. Li-k'ai! Tseii-pd ! K'u-pd ! W&ng-heu t'ui yl-twn-dr. Lai che-fa. 
 
 m. 9. T&ng yl-liwui-dr. Tang ngo led. T'd-mdn yi-tsi k'u-liati,. Pw-yau 
 
 m. 24. che-m6 k'wai tseu. Nl tseu-tl t'ai-k'waz. Pu-yau tung-slieu. Tsai 
 
 n. 8. che-li tso. Mdn kwan-liau. ICal-mdn. Tsting cJie-ll kw6, Xw6- 
 
 n. 21. pu-k'il. Nl tiu-Uail shimmo 1 Ngd mu tin shimmo. Wei-shimmd? 
 
 o. 6. Yln-wei ngo shi-liau yi-kien-tung-sl. Kau-shlng shw5. Tlrshlng 
 
 0. 21. shwo. Nl shwo-tl t'ai-k'wai, pu-ndng tdng-tl. 
 
 28. Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (2), v. native text, 
 
 page 28. 
 
 a. i . Nl hwiii-shwo Chung-kwo hwd mo 1 Nl shwo-liau mo ? Tsung mu- 
 
 a. 15. yiii t'ing-kien che-ko. Meu-jin kau-su-liail ngo. Heu-lai ngo kau- 
 
 a. 30. su t'd. Nl shw6-liau che-ko mu-yiil ? Mu-yiu. Tslng-wdn cM-kd 
 
 b. 15. shi shimmd ? Chl-tau che-ko mo ? Shwo-te. Shwo-pu-te. Wei- 
 
 b. 29. shimmo nl pu td-ying ? Nl t'ing-kien ngo shw6 mo ? Ngo t'ing-pu- 
 
 c. 15. kien. Shw6 tsing-tsu yl-tien-dr. Lai che-ll t'ing. Ngo li nd-ko-jin 
 
 d. i. yuen, t'ing-pu-kien t'd-ti-hwd. Chin-lung-liail ngo-tl ttr-to. Nlt&ng- 
 
 d. 1 8. te tslng t'd-ti-hwd mo? Nl tdng-te, t'd shwo-kwo-ti ? Ngo shw6-ti, 
 
 e. 4. nl tu tting-te mo ? Nl shwo-ti, ngo ts'iuen tdng-te. Tu tting-te. Tu 
 
 e. 20. pu-tdng-te. Ming-pe-liau mu-yifo ? Che-ko shin-mo i-si; Tsqng-m6- 
 
 f. 6. ydng kial-shwo. Ngd tsai-nl-t'ed-ll chi-tau. Pl-fdng pu chi-tau, yiu 
 
 f. 22. shimmd kwdn-hl ? Che-ko ngo pu-kwo sidng shi che-ydng. Jin-te t'd 
 
 g. 9. md ? Kien-kw6 t'd ki-tsi nl ? Pit ki-te tsi-su. Wdng-liau ngo mo ? 
 g. 25. Ngo ki pu ts'ing-ts'u. Ki-te hdn-ts' ing. t Sidng-pu-k'l-lai : Sidng-k'l- 
 h. 10. lai-liau. Nlklsui? Sien-sdng kwel-kang? To-td nien-ki? Yiu dr- 
 h. 25. shi sui. Nl pl-ngo td. Nl td-kal lu-shi to sui. Ts'u-liau-tsin mu 
 
 1. 12. yiu? Nlfu-mu tu tsai mo? Sien-fu s-liau yiu liang-nien. Mu-tsin 
 1.28. tsai-kid-liau yiu sdn-ko-yu. Yiu Jd-ko dr-tsz? Yiu kl-wei ling-ldng ? 
 j. 15. Yiu kl-wei kwel-nu ? Sdn-kd ku-nidng. Hiung-ti kl-ko ? Tsai-ti tdn 
 k. i . ngo yl-ko, pi-ti tu si-liau. Nl shw6 che yi-ku-hwd, ngo k'l-liaii yi-ko- 
 k. 20. nien-t'eu. Siang-k'l-liah, shimmd ? Mien-pu-liaii si. T'ien-k'i Jiqn- 
 1.4. hau; ngo-mdn ch'u-k'u, kwdng-yi-kwdng pd. Ngo-mdn k'u lidng-kw'ai 
 1. 17. lidng-kw'ai. Ngd-mdn shdng-ch'ing pd! Lu pu-pien; -pu fdng- 
 1. 29. pien; -pupien-i. Yau tsd-che mo ? Ngo shin-slidng juen-jo, mu-yiu li- 
 m. it,, lidng tseu. Ngo tseu-pu-tung. Yau hing kdn-lu, yau hing shwul-lu 
 in. 29. ni? Yau sJtdng-ch'uen md? Yau kl-ts'idng-ti cJiuen? Hd-ki! nl tai 
 
 are held between superior officers of each nation. ChaH-tH (23. e. 17) means 'whereas, 
 according as,' and is a common phrase in official papers. T'ien-tati, (23. c. 29), lit. 'the 
 
 way of heaven,' means 'Divine Providence.' T'Ang (23. d. 22), 'together with,' appears 
 liere to signify ' with reference to ' or ' as for. '
 
 PHRASES IN THE MANDARIN DIALECT. 83 
 
 believe in this 1 ? This is a falsehood. I was playing. I was only joking. Truly! 
 What ought I to do ? What can I do 1 If we should do this well, what opinion 
 should you have of us 1 ? How shall we manage this? Wait a while, let us do it 
 in this way. How do you think this thing is? It is quite the same. Where 
 do you come from? Where are you going? I am going to Peking. I am 
 come from Court. Please to come in. Come near to me. Stand further off. 
 You may go. Go away ! Go behind j fall back a little. Come here ! Wait 
 a little while. Wait until I come. They went all together. Do not walk 
 so fast. You walk too fast. Be quiet ! Sit down here. The door is fastened. 
 Open the door. Come over here. I cannot come over. What have you 
 thrown away? I have not thrown any thing away. Why? Because I have 
 picked up something. Speak loud! Speak low! You speak too quickly, I 
 cannot understand. 
 
 Translation of Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (2), 
 v. native text, page 28. 
 
 Do you know how to speak the Chinese language? Have you spoken? I 
 have not indeed heard that. A certain man told me. Afterwards I told him. 
 Did you say this or not? If you please, what is this? or, Allow me to ask 
 what this is. Do you know this ? I can say ; I cannot say. What ! do not 
 you reply? Do you hear what I say? I cannot hear. Speak a little more 
 distinctly. Come here and listen. At a distance from that man, I cannot 
 hear what he says. It has deafened my ears. Do you understand clearly 
 what he says? Do you understand what he said? What I said, did you quite 
 understand? What you said I perfectly understood. I quite understood. I 
 did not understand at all. Were you clear about it or not? What is the 
 meaning of this? How do you explain it? I knew before you. Suppose I do 
 not understand, what would be the consequence ? I only think this is so. Do 
 you know him ? How many times have you seen him ? I do not remember 
 the number of times. Have you forgotten me? I cannot recollect distinctly. 
 I remember very well. I cannot think or recollect. I have just remembered. 
 How old are you? What is your honourable age, Sir? How great is your age? 
 or, How many are your years ? I am twenty years (old). You are older than 
 I am. You are (I should say) above sixty years (old). Are you married or 
 not? Are your parents alive? My late father died two years ago. My 
 mother married again three months ago. How many children have you? 
 How many young gentlemen? How many young ladies? Three daughters 
 (lit. 'misses'). Brothers, how many? I am by myself alone, the others are dead. 
 When you uttered that expression, a thought arose in my mind. What did 
 you think of? One cannot avoid death. The weather is very fine, let us go 
 out to take a walk. Let us go to take the air. Let us go into the city. 
 The road is bad, (lit. 'not convenient,') not in a good state, not good for 
 walking. Do you wish to ride ? I am weak, I have not strength to walk. 
 I cannot walk. Do you wish to go by land .or by water? Will you go in 
 a boat? What sized boat would you like? (lit. 'how many oared-boat?') 
 
 M 2
 
 84 KWAN-HWA TSZ-YU. [28. n. 14. 30. 0.4.] 
 
 n. 14. ngd kwo h6 pd?\ Kdn-sin! Che-yl-che-cJiuen mu-yiu wet md? Yau- 
 
 n. 29. ts'idng-tseu, yiu ni-fung, yiu tlng-t'eu-fung. Yau tsai nd-ll slidng- 
 
 0.13. gdn? Tsai td-md-t'eu nd-ll. Lin-kln-liau hd-pien, hid-mau. Che-ll 
 
 0. 29. hail yd ! 
 
 29. Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (3), v. native text, 
 
 page 29. 
 
 a. i. Al-ydt cM-ko-ti-fdng hdn-hau-k'dn; wdn-ho-ti, lidng-shwdng-ti ? 
 
 a. 1 6. 1C an shu tu k'al-liau hwd-dr. Che-yl-kan 16-liau ye-tsz. Me-tsz shu- 
 
 b. 4. liau. Nl fd-liau md ? Shi-tsai kwdn-ki^n-liait. Tsai-che-ko tsing- 
 
 b. 1 8. tsah-slidng t'l-chS, hau. Tsin nd-ko shti-lin. Tsai che-sie slm-ti-hid 
 
 c. 4. hdn-hau-tl yin-lidng. Kln-nien kwo-tsz to. Shu to kl-liau kwo-tsz. 
 
 c. 20. Kln-nien, nien-fung. Kiu-nien sin hwdng-nien. Che-li, yiu hdn- 
 
 d. 3. Jiau-ti pin-kwd, shd-li, ll-tsz, ying-Cad. Ngd nlng-yau he-t'au, hw6- 
 
 d. 19. shi li-tsz. Ngd hdn sidng-k'l t'ad-dr, ku-tsz, kdn-tsz, tsdng-tsz. Che- 
 
 e. 7. sie mei-tsz kang hail. Yiil pu-fa'A mai mo ? Chi to-shau ts'ien yl-kln ? 
 
 e. 23. Mal-te sz-shi-ko td-tsien y\ kin. Mai shi-kl kin pd ! T'len wdn-liau. 
 
 f. 10. Ji-t'ed yau 16-shdn. Tdng-yl-hwui t'ien tsiu he liau. Kwai tseu pd; 
 
 f. 25. n\-fd-liau. K'l wdn-fdn. T'ien-k'i tsting-md-ydng-hau ? T'ien-k'i 
 
 g. 9. Idng. T'ien yln-liau. Che-ko wdn-shdng hail t'ien-k'i. Yiu ch'au- 
 g. 22. k'i. Yiu yiin-tsal, k'dn-pu-kien slng-su. Lwdn-k'i-fung lai-liau. 
 h. 6. Shi yl-ko pau-fung. T'ien-k'i cJidng-pien. Hau hid-yu. Hid 
 h. 19. po-tsz. Hid-su. Su-hwd k'al liau. Td-liii. Lui-hidng. Td-shen. 
 i. 3. Lui td-sz-liau yi-ko-jin. Fung-chul. Fung-td. Pau-fung kwo-k'ii- 
 
 1. 18. liau, k'dn-te-kien t'ien-hung. Shi ko hau t'ien-k'i ti p'ing-k'u. Yiu- 
 j. 3. wu. Jl ch'u mdn-mdn-ti, tsiu sdn-liau. Hid-lu. Hid-shwdng. 
 j. 17. Shimmd shi-heu ? Kl-hid-chung ? Pu-wdn. Hwui-kid k'u pd 1 
 j. 30. Hwdn yiu-shi-heu, tsai shdng-wu. Chd-pu-to yi-hid-chung. Td- 
 k. 14. liau yl-hid sdn-ka. Hwdn mii-yiu td sdn-hid dr-kd. Nl tsqng-mo 
 k. 30. chl-tau ? T'lng-kien chung td-liau. Ngd sidng pu-shi che-ydng ch'i. 
 1. 14. K'dn n\-tl piau. Ngd-tl piail tseu-tl-k'wai pu-tui. Piau man ki- 
 1. 29. fan. Shdng-k'dn jl-kwel. Shd-tsz-piau tsai nd-ll ? Nl hwdn-hl 
 m. 14. nd-k6 shi-heu ? Chan-t'ien shi tsili-hau-tl. Che-k6 t'ien-k'i wdn- 
 m. 29. M-tl, yd pu-jl, yd pu-ldng. Che pu-swdn cJidn-t'ien, swdn shi tung- 
 n. 15. t'ien. Shu tu mu-yiufd-yd. Che hid-t'ien ji-te-lidn. Ngd cliu-liau 
 o. i. hdn, yau jl-sz. Tsung mu-ki6-te cM-ydng ji. Kai-tdng hit-to tl 
 o. 17. mu-su-tsau. Yau sheu chwdng-kid; k6-wdn-liau chwdng-kid. Tsiu- 
 o. 30. t'ien. 
 
 30. Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (4), v. native text, 
 
 page 30. 
 
 a. 2. Shdng-hi6. Nl che-ydng kw'ai wdng nd-fa pau. Ngd shdng-hid. 
 
 a. 15. Ngd ye wdng nd-U k'u. Tdng yi-clien-yen. Pu-yau mal-tal. Tsai 
 
 a. 30. ngd-mdn t'eu-ll tseu-tt nd-yl-ko shi shut ? Shi ngd-mdn t'ung-hid-ti. 
 
 b. 17. Tsd-mdn tu yi-kwei-dr tseii pd! Nl wei-shimm6 lai-tl che-md ch'i.
 
 PHRASES IN THE MANDARIN DIALECT. 85 
 
 Friend! Take us over the river! Gladly! Has this boat no masts'? We 
 must row ; there is a contrary wind, the wind is right a-head. Where do you 
 want to go ashore 1 At that great jetty there ! When you have approached 
 the shore let go the anchor. Here is a good place ! 
 
 Translation of Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (3), 
 v. native text, page 29. 
 
 Ah ! this country is very pretty ! pleasant and cool ! See the trees have all 
 blossomed. This one has shed its leaves. The corn is ripe. Are you spent? 
 I am indeed tired. To fling ourselves down on this green grass will be 
 pleasant. Enter that forest. Under the trees it is very shady. This year 
 there is plenty of fruit. Many trees have borne fruit. This year was an 
 abundant year. Last year was a year of scarcity. Here there are very good 
 apples, pears, plums, and cherries. I prefer walnuts or chestnuts. I am very 
 fond of eating peaches, small oranges, or large thin-skinned oranges or coolie 
 oranges. Those plums are better. Have you any grapes to sell? They cost 
 how much a pound 1 ? I can sell them at forty large cash a pound. Buy a few 
 pounds ! The day is very fine. The sun is going to set. Wait a while, it 
 will soon be dark. If you walk fast, you will be wearied. Eat your evening 
 meal. How is the weather 1 ? The weather is cold. The sky is overcast. 
 This evening it is fine weather. It is damp. It is cloudy; I cannot see the 
 stars. The wind has risen in gusts. It is a gale. The weather is ever 
 changing. It rains hard. It hails. It snows. It is snowing in flakes. It 
 thunders. The thunder roars. It lightens. The thunder (bolt) has killed a 
 man. The wind blows. The wind is high. The storm is past, we can see 
 the rainbow. It is a sign of fair weather. It is misty. The sun will come 
 out by-and-by, then it will be dispersed. The dew is falling. The hoarfrost 
 is falling. What time is it ? What o'clock is it 1 Not late. Let us go home ! 
 There is time (enough) yet, it is still forenoon. It is nearly one o'clock. It has 
 struck one and three quarters. It has not yet struck three and two quarters. 
 How do you know? I heard the clock strike. I do not think it is so late. 
 Look at your watch. My watch goes fast, it will not agree. Your watch is 
 slow, how many minutes ? Go and look at the sun-dial. Where is the sand- 
 glass? Do you like this season? Spring is the best. This weather is pleasant; 
 it is neither hot nor cold. This is not like spring; it is like winter. The 
 trees have not yet budded. This summer it is very hot. I am perspiring, I 
 shall die of heat. I never experienced such heat. We ought to have a large 
 crop of millet. You should reap. I have reaped. Autumn. 
 
 Translation of Dialogues and Phrases in the Mandarin Dialect (4), 
 
 v. native text, page 30. 
 
 On going to school. Where are you running so fast? I am going to school. 
 I am going there too. Wait a minute. Don't loiter. Who is that walking 
 in front of us? It is our school-fellow. Let us all walk together! Why do 
 you come so late? I was up late last night, and could not rise early. At what
 
 86 KWAN-HWA TSZ-YU. [30. C.$, 31. g. l8.] 
 
 c. 5. Ngo ts6-jl ngau-liait ye, pu-ndng tsau k'l-lai. Nl shl kl-hid-chung 
 
 c. 21. k'l-lai-tl? Nl hau-ldn-to. Wei-shimmo ts'ien-jl pu lai? Nd yl-jl-sz- 
 
 d. 9. ts'ing hdn-mdng, pu-te k'ung-dr lai. Liau-ll shi-su tl sz-ts'ing 
 
 d. 24. sJidng-t'ed yiu-tl wei-hien pu-sJiau. J6 pl-jin ming-nl pd-liau, tau- 
 
 e. 10. ti nl-tl sz-fu ming-nl, pu-t'ing, che-kS Hail pu-te; hwdng-tsie nl tdn- 
 
 e. 28. ko-liaijt, nl-tl sz-ts'ing yiu td kwdn-hi. Sui-pien t'd td, pu-wti you 
 
 f. 15. liau nl-tl pdn-fdn. Che-sdn-t'ien nl pu nien-shii, pu-ha'tl. Tsai pu- 
 
 g. i. you cM-ydng. Tsien yi-tsz n\ lai che-li, ngo fan-fu-liau nl shimmo ? 
 g. 1 8. K'u ni-tl fdng ts6. Tai nl-ti mau-tsz. 'dn-nl-tl shti. Yu-pi nl 
 h. 5. you pei-ti-shu. T'ing-ming! Nien-wan-liaM mu-yiu? Hwdn mu- 
 h. 1 8. yiil. Nl pl-me-yen tu yiu-liaii mo? Che-Tco mai tsz shimmo shlng- 
 i. 4. yvn ? Tin mal. Tsdng-md kial-shwS ? Yiil tsdng tl i-sz. Tsung 
 i. 17. mu-yiu k'dn-kien che-ydng-tl yi-ko-tsz. Che-yl-pctn-shti ndn-t'Ang. 
 j. 3. Ngo mu-yiu hii-to tl kung-fu. Yln-wei ngo kal-tdng kdn-k'u mal 
 j. 19. tung-si; llng-wal hwdn yiu pl-li sz-ts'ing kal-tdng pan. Nl siau-sln 
 k. 5. mel-jl nien-tl-shu; llng-wai yi-ko-yu hwdn yau-tso lidng-pien wdn- 
 k. 21. chdng. Nl hau yd? Hqn-hau. Ni yung-liau fan mo? ICl-liau. 
 1.5. Ling-tsan liau? Kid-fuhau. Nl tl k'iu-k'iu tsdng-md-ydng ? T'dju- 
 1.20. klnplt'eu-llliau-te-to. M ing-jl tsai-kien ! Ngo kal-tdng sung-hing. 
 m. 7. T'ien tsidng-he. Tau-liau shiii-kio tl shi-heu. Ho-ki, nl t'ung ngo lai. 
 m. 23. P'd-kwel mo ? Pu-p'd. Fdng-hid wdn-ch'dng. Liu-hid tdng. Ml- 
 n. 6. tdng. Ming-t'ien tsau-sie k'l-lai, kiau-ngd. Ngd kal-tdng tslng-tsau 
 n. 20. k'i-lai. Yl-ting kl-te mo ? Yl-ting kl-te. Td-ho. Tien-tang. Mu- 
 o. 6. yiu hd-shl. Ho-mei-dr. Shui td-mdn ? Shi shut ? Ngo hwdn mu- 
 o. 21. yiu k'l-lai. Tsait sing-liau. T'ien td-lidng-liau. 
 
 31. Extract from the Ching-yln tsui-yau, v. native text, page 31. 
 
 a. i. Yl-ko-jin hid Kwdn-hwd lai, tso shimmo tl nl? T'eu-yi-kien yu-pe 
 
 a. 18. tsz-kl tsidng-lai ch'u-shln tso-kwdn, sz-Jieu shdng-sz, lin-ll shu-yuen, 
 
 b. 4. yau tso yl-ko yiu-pdn-sz-tl Kwdn yd ! K'i-tsz, tsiu tso td-k'e-shdng, 
 
 b. 21. hw6 k'al hdng-tien, hwd wdng wai-sdng tseu shwiil, yau-tso yl-ko md- 
 
 c. 6. fa-tl k'e-shdng. Tsai k'i-tsz, tsiu-shi ku-kid pd-tse, nl shi ko yiu- 
 
 c. 23. l-shl-tl jin, yiu-t'l-mien-tl jin, tsai hidng-tsu-chung, nien-ch'dng yu- 
 
 d. 9. ch'dng, hidng-ts'ing tsu-sz, shau-pu-liau ; ye yiu kienpd sz-dr, yau t'e 
 
 d. 25. jin-kid liau-ll liau-ll; ye te kien-kien ti-fdng, pd sz-dr shw6 ko tl-si 
 
 e. 14. ts'ing-tsl, yl-tse wei-ku hidng-tsu, dr-tse pau-hu mdn-mei; yuen-shi wei 
 
 f. i. che sdn-mdn k'l-kien, ping pu shi shwo kl-ku Kwdn-hwd, tsai td-kial 
 .17. shdng, nau-wdn i-dr, siau-hwd jin-kid, he-hung jin-kid, hwdn-hiun 
 
 g. 2. jin-kid, tsiu swdn-liau sz-16. Sd-l nl-mdn tsung-yau pa td-fdng tl 
 
 Jin (23. e. 24) 'benevolence, kindness;' see note on p. 28 of Part II. 
 
 Wfi sd-p&-fe& (23. e. 26) 'it overshadows every thing:' cf. Art. 422 of Part I. 
 
 The repetition of piny (23. f. 6. and 8) means 'both' 'and,' or 'at once' 'and.' In 
 classical compositions, the Chinese are fond of using chung 'centre' (23. f. n) and sin 
 ' heart' (23. i. 1 2) for the origin or the moving principle of that with which it is joined. 
 
 Ttz l-lat (23.1 14), 'from to the present time,' is a good example of this form 
 
 of construction.
 
 PHRASES IN THE MANDARIN DIALECT. 87 
 
 o'clock did you rise 1 ? You are very lazy. Why did you not come the day 
 before ? On that day I had to do some very urgent business and I could not 
 find time. To managing affairs in the world there are obstacles not a few. 
 If any one else command you, you are content ; but if your tutor bid you do 
 any thing, you do not obey. This will not do. Besides, if you shirk your 
 work, great consequences will result. No matter whether he beats you or 
 not, you do not hasten to your duty. You have not learnt any thing for these 
 three days; this is bad. Don't do it again. Once, on a former occasion, 
 when you came here, what did I order you to do? Go to your room and sit 
 down ! Take your cap ! Look at your book ! Prepare your lesson to repeat. 
 Obey! Have you learnt your lesson or not 1 ? Not yet. Have you your pencil, 
 ink, and inkstone? What is the sound and tone of this (mai) character 1 ? The 
 sound is mai. What is its meaning? It has the meaning of burying. I have 
 never seen such a character as this. This book is difficult to understand. I 
 have not much time, because I have to fetch many things ; and besides, I have 
 other things to do. You take care and learn your book every day ; besides 
 every month write two chapters of elegant composition. Are you well? 
 Very well! Have you dined? I have. Is your good father well? My father is 
 well. How is your uncle? He is much better than he was formerly. I shall 
 see you again to-morrow. I will see you out ! It is getting dark. Bed- 
 time has arrived. Friend! Come with me! Are you afraid of ghosts? No! 
 Put down the mosquito curtains. Set down the lamp. Put out the lamp. 
 Get up rather early in the morning and call me. I must get up early. Will 
 you be sure to remember ? I will certainly remember. Strike a light. Light 
 the lamp. I have no flint. Coal. Who is knocking at the door? Who is it? 
 I am not up yet. Awake quickly, it is broad day-light. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the Ching-yin tsiii-yau, v. native text, page 31. 
 
 When a man learns the Mandarin dialect, what is it for? In the first place, 
 it is to prepare himself for future advancement as a Mandarin, so as to be 
 able to attend on his superiors and to superintend his subordinates, and to be an 
 officer of ability. In the next place, if he would be a mercantile man of the 
 first class, whether he open an establishment (at home), or travel abroad in 
 the provinces by land and water, he ought to be a shrewd and clever merchant. 
 And again, even if a man must stay at home and do nothing much, being a 
 man of independence and respectability, still among his country relatives, in 
 the course of months and years, their affairs will not be a few, and each of 
 these he will have to consider for them. And, if he see clearly his ground, 
 he may take each matter and speak of it in detail and with much acuteness, 
 then he will at once have a regard for his kinsmen's interests, and, at the same 
 time, protect his own door. Now it is for these reasons, and lest also you be not 
 able to speak a few sentences of Mandarin on the great thoroughfares, of a noisy, 
 joking character, to make fun of people, or to deceive and make fools of them, 
 that you must make it your business to learn Mandarin. Therefore you should 
 take language of a liberal character, language suitable for receiving and waiting
 
 88 SHU-SIN KW'AN-SHIH. [31. g. 1 9. 32. g-5-] 
 
 g. 19. hwd-dr, tsi-tai chdng-shdng tl hwd-dr, ying-cheu pdng-yiu tl hwd-dr, 
 
 h. 5. kind-tail wdn-pei tl hwd-dr, shl hwdn ti-hid-jin tl hwd-dr, tau-liau 
 
 h. 22. wai-t'eu, yiu kiau-kwdn tsl-fd ti hwd-dr, tui cJw mal-mai jin tl hwd- 
 
 i. 9. dr, ydng-ydng tu-yiu ko kw'dn-shl. Yau tsai die shdng-t'eu liu-sln- 
 
 i. 24. ts'ai-shi ching-klng tl yd! T'sai pu-wdng-liau hid Kwdn-hwd ti che 
 
 j. 9. yl-fdn kung-fu yd! 
 
 k. 2. Nl tso hiij-sdng ti jin, shdng shu-fdng nien-shu, shlinmo-tu-yau 
 k. 17. yiu ko kwel-kii; ts'lng-tsau k'i-lai, si-liau lien, Ji6-liau ch'd, pm-kau 
 1. 3. tie-tie md-md, hal-dr wdng shu-fdng k'u-liait, shwd-kwo chl heu, pau 
 1. 19. k'l shu-pdn, ch'u td-mdn-k'eu, twdn-twdn cJung-ching, chin-chin chung- 
 m. 3. chting ti k'u, lidng-che-kid pu yau hwdn-ti'au, lidng che yen-is ing pu- 
 na. 1 8. yau hwdn-tsiau tung-sl, yi-chi tseu tau shu-fdng ll-t'eu, pd shu pdn 
 n. 4. fang-hid, wdng Shing-jin shdng-t'eu, tso ko ye, yiu t'l sien-sdng ts6 
 n. 19. ko ye, jen-heu tso-cho nien-shu, pd shu pei-te shu-shu dr ti, ts'al sung 
 o. 7. tau sien-sdng cho-shdng ; pei-shii shi-heu, yiu yau yi-ku-ku llng-yd li- 
 o. 24. ch'l,pu-yau hdn hu tso-leu! 
 
 32. The Epistolary Style, v. native text, page 32. 
 
 a. 2. Wdn-heu. 
 
 a. 5. Kiu ts'i chen Hdn, wi hu ju yuen; kin wdn i tslng Kidng yiu, te 
 
 a. 21. hwd ji sin, yin-sien chl sz, kdng shin wu-mei. Hdn pu-ndng ch'd-ch'i 
 
 b. 6. dr fl-ts'idng tso-yiu, kwdn shing hwd dr ling te yen ye ! Kin yuen 
 
 b. 21. hung-pien, ti tsie yi-hdng, \ shin tsi-kwdn. Kien tslng kin gdn; Ju 
 
 c. 6. wei kien nien. 
 
 d. 2. Td. 
 
 d. 4. Shing ming kwdn dr, fl yi-jl i Hwai I jin dr pu-kien, ching 
 
 d. 19. tslng ts'i yu kien-kid, nai hwd hdn hid pan, yuen-ju tl mien. Tdn kiai 
 
 e. 5. sdng-ping chl kl-ke. Ho hingju chl ! Wei shi sien shl chl yd, chuen shu 
 
 e. 22. jin jin, wi mien p'i-ye tsan-fu, tsz-tsang niii-kw'ei dr. T'dng yiu 
 
 f. 7. lidng-yuen, te yau hwili ku, tsl ts'dn tsiu Idn wdn. ICo pu-ling ku-jin 
 f. 23. shen mei yu ts'ien 1. Shi wdng ! Shi t'aii ! King tsz ts'aifu. 
 
 The English are variously characterized in this composition either as fan (23. g. 2) 
 'foreign,' (a word used originally for the inhabitants of the southern frontier of China, 
 the southern barbarians,) or as t (24. c. 20. and 24. k. 23) 'the western barbarians,' a tribe 
 on the western frontier of China. Foreign nations are generally called wai-kwS (23. h. 4) 
 'outside kingdoms,' and si-ydng-kwti 'western ocean kingdoms.' 
 
 The Supplementary Treaty, a part of which is given on p. 25 of the Chrestomathy, was 
 published at Hongkong, in July 1 844, by Sir John F. Davis, who was then Governor of 
 Hongkong. It contains the very important provisions that the five ports of Canton, Amoy, 
 Fu-cheu, Ningpo, and Shanghai should be opened to British trade, and for the resort and 
 residence of British merchants ; by it the close system of the Hong merchants at Canton was 
 broken up, and free-trade allowed with any native merchants. This treaty was supple- 
 mentary to the treaty of Nanking, which is indeed referred to in it : (cf. kidng-ndn &c. 
 
 15-j. ii.) 
 
 Hdn (32. a. 8) or Hdn Klng-cheu was an eminent statesman, whose friendship reflected 
 his own bright fame on those who enjoyed it. Intercourse with him ennobled the recipient
 
 SPECIMENS OP THE EPISTOLARY STYLE. 89 
 
 upon seniors and superiors, phrases for polite intercourse with friends, the 
 expressions appropriate for instructing young people, and language for calling 
 upon inferiors. And when you go out of doors you will require expressions to 
 use to mandarins, and others to address to merchants. There are models for all 
 these (kinds of expression). You should pay attention to what has been said 
 above : then it will be all right ! Then you will not have wasted your time in 
 studying the Mandarin dialect. 
 
 If you are a young student, you go up to school to study ; now every thing 
 has a rule. Rise early; and having washed your face and drunk your tea, 
 announce to your parents that their son is going to school. Having said that, 
 wrap up your book, go out at the front door, and proceed (to school) in 
 a becoming manner. Your feet should not be skipping disorderly, nor your 
 eyes be listlessly gazing at every thing. But proceed straight into the school- 
 house, take your book and lay it down, reverently look up to the sage above 
 and make a bow, then make a bow to the tutor, and afterwards sit down to 
 study. Having learnt off your lesson perfectly, then present it to your tutor 
 and lay it on his desk. When you say your lesson, you should repeat every 
 sentence distinctly and fluently, you should not mumble or leave out any 
 words. 
 
 Translation of the Passages in the Epistolary Style, v. native text, page 32. 
 
 A letter of greeting. 
 
 For a long time I have looked reverently to Han, but have as yet not 
 attained my desire. Recently I heard that you had removed your banner to 
 the River's right, and that your virtue increases, and is renewed daily; my 
 private feelings of joy become deeper, whether awake or asleep. Would that 
 I were able to put on wings and fly to hover on your right and left ! To 
 behold your abounding progress, and to listen with delight to your gracious 
 words ! At present I am fortunately able to despatch a letter, and I just em- 
 ploy one line, in order to manifest my accumulated feelings of respect, and to 
 wish you wealth and happiness. Humbly I bow, considering that you know 
 my thoughts. 
 
 Reply. 
 
 Your flourishing reputation is ever sounding in mine ears, and that daily. 
 I cherish kind regards for him whom I do not see. My feelings are just like 
 those towards a distant relative, and in the favours conferred by his flowery 
 pencil, I seem to see him face to face. I respectfully salute you with gratifi- 
 cation on the fulfilment of my longings for peace. What fortune like this ! But 
 the praises which you have lavished upon me are simply such as belong to a 
 really good man, and not to an insignificant and rude countryman ; and they 
 only increase my confusion. If a convenient opportunity should arise, pray 
 accept my invitation, and favour me with your regard, that we may decant 
 our wine and chat about literature. Let not our past differences stand in the 
 way of our former esteem. This is my hope ! This is my prayer ! Respect- 
 fully I offer this in reply. 
 
 PART II. N
 
 90 SHU-SIN KW'AN-SHIH. KU-SHI. [32. 11.3. 88.0.4.] 
 
 h. 3. Kwei-wu. 
 
 i. i. Lidng-pdng kiu-kw'u, yln mail tsiuen-wd, kidng-Jial chl tsujin t'al 
 
 i. 15. shin. Id te yun yuen tsai yl-fdng hu? Wei sM tsz sin wdng Mng, 
 i. 30. tang pufu tsdn m-hwui wu tsz chl tsie, chi kwal hdn ydng. Hwdng- 
 j. 15. lieu hwiii yiu k'i, pu-tsai yu ski, yuen tsai yu t'ien; It I k'i Tto-isz nu 
 k. 2. ll k'o dr. Tsz yuen hung-pien, fd-sMng sheu-kln yl-fdng, siau-tau 
 k. 17. licing-pct; sie wi hiu-wu, pd,n pu-tsu tang mu II chl t'eu, dr ts'ien ll 
 1. 4. ngo-mail. Wu-hlng tsing chting, lidng pi tu-tsz dr yl-lien yu-lu chl 
 1. 20. Iti-jln \. Chu wel chi-che, me t'ail niii, wu k'i p'ien Ice liu-shin. 
 m. 7. Kin tsz yuen-tcl, shdn-tslng fu-gdn, ping heu kin chl, ping heti 
 ra. 20. kdng ning. Shdng 
 
 Meu-meu ffiung-t'ai Td-jin wdn-M, 
 
 Yu-ti Meu-meu tsz tan. 
 
 33. Poetical Extracts (Ancient and Modern), v. native text, page 33. 
 a. 2. Ku-shl. i. Td-fung ko. 
 
 a. 5. Td-fung k'l hi! Yun fl ydng ! 
 
 a. 1 6. Wel kid hal-niii hi! Kwel kit hidng ! 
 A. 24. Gdn te mdng sz hi ! Shefo sz fdng ! 
 
 b. 5. 2. Chan-kung kiu. 
 
 b. 9. Tso-ye fung-k'al lu tslng-t'au, Wi-ydng ts'ien tien yu Idn kau, 
 
 b. 2.3. Ping -ydng ko-wu sin chlng ch'ung, Lien-wai chan-hdn tsz mien-p'au. 
 
 c. 9. Wu-yen. 3. Yiu-ku. 
 
 c. 15. Kwei-tsien siil i-tang, Ch'u mdn kial yiu ying; 
 
 c, 25. Tu wu wai-wu kien, Sui tsz yiu-ku ts'ing! 
 
 d. 5. Wi yu ye lai-kwo, Pu-chl cJian ts'au sang! 
 d. 15. Ts'lng-shdn hwu l-shu, Niau-tsi8 jau she ming. 
 d. 25. Shi yu tau-jin ngau, Hw6 sui ts'iau-che hing. 
 
 of his favours, and his approbation was held to be a great recommendation for honourable 
 employment: (cf. Gonsalves' Arte China, Historical Extracts, No. 130.) This name is 
 used therefore, by way of praise, and in honour of the person's reputation, to whom the 
 letter is addressed. Such allusions in letters sometimes make the epistolary style difficult 
 to be understood, and they always defy a literal rendering. 
 
 li-tslng (32. a. 15), 'remove-banner,' here means to 'change your residence.' 
 Kiang-yiti (32. a. 17), ' the River's right,' is put for the city of Nan-king, which is situ- 
 ated on the right bank of the Great River, the Ydng-tsz (' son of the ocean'). 
 
 The student will observe the peculiar terseness and formality of the phraseology in the 
 epistolary style, which abounds also in allusions of various kinds. This does not imply, 
 however, any great degree of learning in the writer, for the phrases suitable for fashion- 
 able letter-writing are set down in a book, which is known to all educated persons : (cf. 
 Part II. p. 12. 26. Kiang-lvd, chl-tU fdn-yiin.) 
 
 Yw-sin or hin-sidn (32. a. 23) 'joyful expectations.' 
 
 Ch'a-ch'i (32. b. 4), 'to insert wings,' is a phrase peculiar to this style.
 
 EPISTOLARY STYLE. POETRY. 91 
 
 A letter sent with a present. 
 
 My good friend, you have been long absent, not the slightest sound of you 
 has reached us. The navigation of the river has been much interrupted. 
 How can it be said that we are living in the same country ? But I think 
 myself that we should forget the present aspect of our affairs, and not be again 
 careful about stemming the torrent with vain regrets about those who have 
 forgotten us. How much more when we know that a meeting time will arrive, 
 not indeed in this world, but, we hope, in heaven. Let us each console ourselves 
 thus, and use our best endeavours to this end, and it will be well. By this oppor- 
 tunity I beg to send you, by the bearer, a pocket-handkerchief and two small 
 knives, things valueless in themselves: they are not worthy to be sent as pre- 
 sents, but they are foreign curiosities, and though insignificant things, they 
 show my good feelings. I can well suppose that in viewing them you will pity 
 the poor stupid little travellers. After due reverence to your lord, I hope 
 you will remember me, and in your prayers bear me for a moment in mind. 
 Respectfully at this distance I communicate, wishing you tranquillity and 
 happiness, as well as present good fortune and perfect peace. 
 
 To be placed upon the desk of my honourable and worthy elder 
 brother M. M., 
 
 With the salutations of his humble servant M. M. 
 
 
 
 Translation of the Poetical Extracts (Ancient and Modern}, v. native text, 
 
 P a ge 33- 
 
 Ancient poetry, i. The song about the high wind. 
 A high wind arises ! The clouds come flying along ! 
 Majestic heaves the ocean ! We return to the old abode ! 
 Peace we possess, and heroes ! to keep us on every side ! 
 
 2. The ballad about the Spring-palace, by Wang /tang-ling. 
 Last night the peach tree by the well bloomed forth 
 In the temple before Wi-yang, when the moon was at her full, 
 Ping-yang danced and sang with ever-increasing grace, 
 Or without the porch-screen in cool of spring she wore a quilted robe. 
 
 Verses of five syllables. 3. The hermit, by Wei Ying-wti. 
 The noble and the mean, although they differ in rank, 
 Alike proceed from home, and have their plans for gain. 
 Here by myself no outward things disturb me. 
 Freely am I come to dwell in this retirement. 
 The small rain by night falls all around, 
 The grass buds forth in spring I know not how, 
 The blue mountain, anon, gleams with the rising sun, 
 The little birds keep singing as they fly about my cot, 
 Oft-times I join the traveller on his way, 
 Oft follow, perhaps, the woodman in his. rounds^
 
 SHI-TI KW'AN-SHIH. [33. 6.5. 33. 11.30.] 
 
 5. Tsz tang an kidn-liu, Shut wei p6 shi-yung ? 
 
 e. 1 7. 4. Kwo tsiu kid. 
 
 e. 21. Tsz-jl clidng hwan yln, Fl kwdn ydng sing ling! 
 
 f- i Yen lean jln tsin tsill, Ho jln tu wel sing ? 
 
 g- 2. Liu-shl. Wu-yen liu. 5. Yiu-cheu ye yln. 
 
 g. 14. Lidng-fting ctiiil ye-yu, Siau-se tung hdn-lin, 
 
 g. 24. Chlng yiu kau-tdng yen, Ndng wdng ctii mu sin, 
 
 h. 4- Kiun-chung I kien wu, Se-shdng chung kid-yln: 
 
 h. 14. Pu-ts6 pien ch'ing-tsidng, Shui chl gan yu shin. 
 
 i. 2. 6. Sting Hdn-lin C Jiang Sz-ma Ndn-hal le-pl. 
 
 i. 13. Kwdn-mlen t'ung ndn-kl, Wdn-cJidng 16 shdng-t'ai, 
 
 i. 23. Clum tsttng sdn tien k'u, Pi tau pe indn k'al. 
 
 j. 3. Ye-kwdn n-Ang hwd-fd, Chan-fan si yu lal. 
 
 j. 13. Pu-chl tsdng hal-shdng, T'ien-k'ien kl-shi hwili. 
 
 k. c. Tsi yen liu. 7. Yiu-cheu sln-sul ts6. 
 
 k. 15. K'u-siil Klng-n&n met sz su, Kln-nien Kl-pe suju mei. 
 
 k. 29. Kung chljin-sz M clidng-ting, Tsie hi nien-hwd k'ufu-lal. 
 
 1. 13. Pien-chln-shu ko lienyi tung, Klng-ch e lng liau-ho ch'e mlng k'al 
 
 1. 27. Yau-yau si hidng Chang-dnjl, Yuen shdng ndn-shdn sheu yl pel. 
 
 m. 12. Wu yen pal liu. 8. Pe-tl hwai ku. 
 
 n. i. Jl-lo ts'dng-kidng wan, T'lng-jau wdn t'ii-fung. 
 
 n. ii. Oh' ing lin Pd-tsz kw6, T*ai mu Hdn-wdng kung. 
 
 n. 21. Hwdng fu jlng Cheu tien, Shin shdn sluing Yu kung. 
 
 . b. 9) must here mean literally 'on the right and left,' not 'attendants' or 
 ' officers ' as the phrase commonly signifies. 
 
 fffiny-pien (32. b. 21) is the regular phrase, in letters, for 'sending a letter.' Hting 
 means literally 'a swan or wild goose,' and is applied figuratively to a 'letter-carrier.' 
 Pi6n commonly signifies ' convenience, opportunity.' 
 
 FH wet Ici6n-nitin (32. c. 5) 'I bow and consider that you know my thoughts.' Kien 
 ' to mirror back, to reflect.' 
 
 Kl-kS (32. e. 8), lit. 'hunger and thirst,' expresses 'intense longing,' and here stands as 
 a npun. It is qualified by sang-ptng (32. e. 5) 'the growth of peace;' then the whole 
 expression forms the object of the verb kial 'to dissipate, to dissolve.' 
 
 Ts'dn-tsiu Idn-wdn (32. f. 14), lit. 'bottle-wine discourse-letters,' which has been trans- 
 lated, 'decant our wine and chat about literature,' might have been, 'take a glass of 
 wine together and discuss the subject of letters.' 
 
 Ts'ien-ll ngd-maft (32. 1.2), lit. 'thousand miles goose feathers,' appear to be put for 
 ' foreign curiosities.' 
 
 The specimens of ancient and modern poetry, which are given on page 33, present in 
 some parts even greater difficulties than the epistolary phraseology. The ancient poetry 
 of the Chinese was irregular; each verse consisted of an equal number of syllables, and 
 assimilated in rhyme and ending. But this was not always according to strict rule, or at 
 equal distances. The metre of modern verse consists commonly of five (w&-y$n ski, 33.
 
 SPECIMENS OF CHINESE POETRY. 9' 
 
 I am happy in my fortuneless and humble lot, 
 Yet who can say that I mock at the world's glory? 
 
 4. The man too fond of wine, by Wang Tsi. 
 This day till evening let us drink, 
 Nor care for our reasoning souls ! 
 Our eyes see that all love wine, 
 Why then should we alone abstain? 
 
 Stanzas of eight verses. Verses of five syllables. 
 5. The nocturnal banquet at Yiu-clieu, by Chang Shw6. 
 The cold blast blows, the night rain comes down, 
 A desolate moaning shakes the wintry woods, 
 But here in the high hall there is feasting, 
 It makes me forget that my evening of life draws on. 
 Among those soldiers it is meet to flourish the spear. 
 In that gay crowd they repeat the flageolet's note : 
 He who has not been the governor of a state 
 Can never know the depth of favour given. 
 
 6. To the Academician Chang S-ma going to Nan-hal to erect an epitaph. 
 Chaplets and wreaths extend to the southern pole, 
 Fair words are scattered on the elevated cross, 
 Commands by three high officers are sent, 
 An epitaph for the southern barbarians is revealed. 
 On the hostleries of the wild thick flowers shoot forth, 
 On the white sails in spring-tide the small rain falls. 
 We know not when, from the vast ocean, 
 The messengers of the throne may return. By Tu Fu. 
 
 Verses of seven syllables. 7. Made in Yiu-cheu at the new year. 
 Last year the plum-tree blossoms in King of the south were like snow, 
 This year the snow in Ki of the north was like the plum blossom. 
 Thus may we perceive the inconstancy of human affairs. 
 And we rejoice though the varying year goes and returns. 
 The officers in the garrisons sing the live-long day. 
 In the capital there are illuminations until the morning dawns. 
 The distant west longs for the sun of Chang-an. 
 Let us drink to the long life of the southern mountain. 
 
 Verses of five syllables. 8. The antiquity of Pe-ti, by Chin Tsz-gang. 
 The sun sinks into the vast river; it is night; 
 The oars rest ; and the dialogue turns on the customs of the land. 
 The city (Pe-tl} looks down upon the kingdom of Pa-tsz. 
 Its high towers eclipse the palaces of the Han kings, 
 Its barren wastes were brought under culture by Cheat. 
 Its great mountains do honour to the merits of Tu.
 
 94 SUH-YU. SUH-YBN. [33. 0. 1 . 34. j . 2 1 .] 
 
 o.i. Gdn-hiuen ts'lng-pl twdn, Ti hien pi lid t'ung, 
 
 o. ii. Ku mu sang yun tsi, Kwel-fdn ch'u wu-chung. 
 
 o. 21. Chuen t'u k'u wA hien, K'e si tso ho-k'iung. 
 
 34. Su-yu, Proverbs, v. native text, page 34. 
 
 a. 4. i. Yi-ku lidng-te. 2. Sdng-t'iail ts'ung siau-jeu. 3. Shdn-fung pu- 
 
 a. 1 6. k'l Idng. 4. Tsai-kid king fu-mu, hd-pi yuen shau-hidng ? 5. Sui- 
 
 a. 29. fung tail t'd, shdn-shwiil t'ul ch'uen. 6. Ho-shdng t'ien-yiu. 7. K6- 
 
 b. ii. jin tsz-sati mdn-ts'ien su; mo-kwdn t'd-jin wa-slidng shwdng. 8. Te 
 
 b. 25. miau-wdn wu-shi. 9. Jinpien: ju-tsz! ju-tsz! T'ienll: wi-jen! wi- 
 
 c. 12. jen! 10. Shii kau ts'ien chdng, ye 16 kwel Jean, ii. Kiun-tsz yi-yen, 
 
 c. 25. kw'ai-md. yi-pien. 12. Kwdng-yln sz tsien, ji-yu j-A so. 13. Kung- 
 
 d. 10. king pu-ju tsting-ming. 14. Pu-tdng shdn, pu-chl t'ien chl kau; pu- 
 
 d. 25. lin Jcl, pu-chl, ti chl heu; pu-wdn sien-wdng chl wet yen, pu-chl 
 
 e. ii. hid-wdn chl td. 15. King ming, tse ch'in-gal pu-jen, chi-ming, tse 
 
 e. 25. sie-o pu-sdng. 16. Shwui tl yu, t'ien pien ylng-kau k'd; she, tl k'o- 
 
 f. 12. tiau; wei yiu jin-sln pu-k'd liau. T'ien k'o-tu, ti Tco-lidng, wei yiit 
 
 f. 28. jin-sln pu-k'd fdng. Hwd-hu hwd-p'i, nan hwd-kiu; chl jin mien 
 
 g. 14. pu-chl sin, tui mien yu yu, sin Jed ts'ien shdn. 17. Kwd-yen tse- 
 g. 28. kiau, k'd-l wu hwui-lin, k'd-i wu yiu-ju. 18. Yu Jewd, tslng-shin 
 h. 13. shwdng; sz to, hu-k'i shwal. 19. Ts'iu-chl mung she, k'd-chl mung 
 h. 26. tsidng. 20. Tsiu pu tsui jin, jin tsz-tsui. 21. Hung-yen p6 ming. 
 i. 8. 22. F? k'e pu-fdn dr chu. 23. Tso yl-jl hd-shdng, chwdng yi^ji chung. 
 i. 23. 24. Yu ml tsl, dr tseu su chung. 25. Shu tail wu yin. 26. Kiun-tsz 
 j. 7. pu-nien kiu o. 27. Tdn-sz pu-ch'ing sien. 28. Yau chl sln-fu sz, tdn 
 
 c. 9) or seven syllables (tsl-ySn shi, 33. k. 5), but there are verses of three, four, six, and 
 nine syllables. These syllables are regulated by the tones of the words, which are formed 
 into two classes, viz. the ping* 'even' and the tse^ 'deflected.' The ping tones are the 
 upper and lower even tones (shdng-ptng and hid-ping) ; the tsS tones are the rising, the 
 departing, and the entering tones (shdng, leu, and jt). In verses of five syllables, the first 
 and the third are subject to no rule, the second and fourth must vary between the ping 
 and the tsS tones ; and in the second and third verses these two (2nd and 4th syllables) must 
 be the converse of the first, and the fourth verse must be like the first in this respect. 
 In verses of seven syllables, the first, third, and fifth are subject to no rule, the tones of 
 the second and the fourth must vary, and that of the sixth must be like that of the second. 
 In verses of five or seven syllables, three of the four final syllables must have the same 
 class of termination and accent. As a general rule the final syllable of the third verse 
 does not rhyme, and in the other verses rhyme is often dispensed with. The student can 
 make out for himself a table of the metres by using an open circle (Q) * represent the 
 ping tones, and a black circle ( O for the tse 1 tones. In some verses the third syllable in 
 five-syllable verses and the fifth in seven-syllable verses are called the eye of the verse, 
 which corresponds to the caesura or the ictus in the poetry of European languages, and this 
 ' eye ' must always be a noun or a verb, i. e. a word of full meaning (shl-tsz c ), not a parti- 
 cle, and it must either rhyme or alternate with the following verse. Above forty different
 
 PROVERBS. COMMON SAYINGS. 95 
 
 But the ancient green walls are cut down. 
 
 The dangerous places are made accessible. 
 
 The ancient trees grow to the limits of the clouds. 
 
 The returning sail shoots out from the midst of the mist. 
 
 The trace of that stream goes on without a limit. 
 
 The traveller sits gazing on the scene without being wearied. 
 
 Translation of Proverbs (Su-yu), v. native text, page 34. 
 
 i. At one lift to obtain two. " To kill two birds with one stone." 2. The 
 mulberry branch follows the (direction of the) small bend. " As the twig is 
 bent the tree's inclined." 3. A fair wind raises no waves. 4. If at home you 
 respect your parents, there will be no need of humbling yourself abroad (lit. 
 ' going to a distance to burn incense'). 5. To sail with wind and tide. 6. To 
 pour oil in the fire. "To add fuel to the flame." 7. Let every man sweep 
 the snow from his own door-way, and not concern himself with the frost on 
 other men's roofs. "Let every man mind his own business." 8. Virtue 
 requires no colouring. 9. Man's convenience (says) : thus and thus ! Heaven's 
 order (replies) : not yet! not yet! "Man plans; but heaven disposes." 10. 
 Though a tree be a thousand chang high, its leaves fall and return to the root. 
 1 1. One word to the superior man and one lash to the good horse (are enough). 
 " A word to the wise is sufficient." 1 2. Time flies like an arrow : days and 
 months like a weaver's shuttle. 13. To feel reverence is not so good as to 
 give obedience. "Obedience is better than sacrifice." 14. If you do not 
 ascend the mountain, you cannot know the height of heaven ; if you descend 
 not to the stream of the valley, you cannot know the depth of the earth. If 
 you do not listen to the wise words bequeathed by the ancient kings, you 
 cannot know the greatness of true learning. 1 5. If the mirror be bright, then 
 the dust will not defile it; if the intelligence be clean, then licentiousness will 
 not grow up. 1 6. The fishes at the bottom of the stream, and the birds in 
 the sides of heaven, may both be reached with the arrow and the hook ; but 
 man's heart is beyond conjecture. Heaven may be measured, and earth may 
 be surveyed, but man's heart is without bounds. In drawing the tiger, you 
 may paint his skin, but it is hard to depict his bones. In acquaintance with 
 a man, you may know his face, but you cannot know his heart. Though you 
 converse tete-a-tete, his heart is separated from you as by a thousand moun- 
 tains. 17. If your words be few and your acquaintance select, there will be 
 no need for repentance, sorrow, and shame. 18. If desires be few, good spirits 
 will abound; if aims be many, cheerfulness will languish. 19. The prisoner 
 dreams of pardon; the thirsty of a cordial. 20. The wine does not intoxicate 
 the man; the man makes himself drunk. 21. A fair countenance is a poor 
 inheritance. 22. A single guest does not require two lodgings. 23. To be 
 one day a priest and the next a bell-ringer. 24. He wishes to hide his track, 
 and yet he walks on the snow. 25. When the tree falls there is no shadow. 
 26. The superior man thinks not on old evil deeds. 27. A single thread is 
 not enough to make a rope. 28. If you wish to know the thoughts which
 
 96 CHING-YIN TSUI-YAU. [34.J.22. Lith.9.1.2.] 
 
 j. 22. t'ing k'eu-chung yen. 29. Jo yau twdn tsiu-fd, sing-yen k'dn tsuijin. 
 
 k. 6. 30. Tsz yu: "Jin wu yuen lu, pi yiu kin yiu." 31. Yu chl k'i kiun, 
 
 k. 20. sien-sM k'i cMn; yu shl k'i-jin, sien-shi k'i-yiu; yu chl k'i-fu, sien 
 
 \. 7. slii k'i-tsz. 32. P c ing-fung sul p'6, kwu-ke yiu tsdn; kiun-tsz sul p'in, 
 
 1. 22. ll-i chdng tsai. 33. Pe-yu i yu wu-ni, pu-ndng chin-she k'i-se; kiun- 
 
 m. 9. tsz chu yu chu-ti, pii-ndng jen-lwdn k'l-sln; sung-pe k'd-l nai su- 
 ra.. 26. shwdng, mtng-chi k'd-l she kien-wei. 34. Jl-yu sul m/ing, pu-chaufu- 
 
 n. 12. pw'dn chl hid: tau-kien sill kw'ai, pu-ch&n wu-tsiii chl jin; fl tsal 
 
 n. 27. hung ho, pu jl shin-kid chl mdn. 35. Jin-sdng, chi wi sang; chi-sdng, 
 
 o. 14. jtn i lau; sin chi yi-tsi sang, pu-ki6 wu-chdng tau. 
 
 9. Extracts from the Ching-yln tsui-yau, v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page 9. 
 
 a. 2. Ti-yi twdn. Jl-chdng. 
 
 a. 8. Tslng-tsau k'l-lai, kiau hai-tsz-mdn, sau-sau ti, kiau-kiau hwd, gau 
 
 a. 23. shwul si lien, p'au wan hau did k'l-k'l. Mu-yiu sz tl shi-heu, k'dn- 
 
 b. 14. k'dn shil, sie-sie tsz, sdn-lidng-ko sz-wdn pdng-yiu tso-k6 shl, hid ko 
 
 c. 6. wei-k'l, kiai-kial mdn-dr, tsiu k'd-l kwo-ti ji-tsz liau. Tau-liau hid- 
 
 c. 23. wu, Id kl pdng-kung, she kl t'iau tsien, pd che-shln kln-kwii, hwo-tung 
 
 d. 14. hwo-tung. Jin yiu yiu tslng-shin, yiu chdng-king ; che-tu shi hau 
 
 e. 3. sz. Pu-yau wdng wai-t'eu t'dn-tvdn, pu-yau teu-k'i, pu-yau td-kid 
 
 e. 1 8. pien-tsiil, pu-yau to-sz, pu-yau nau-tsiu, pu-yau kwo-kid. Wu shwo 
 
 f. 9. tl hwd yi-tien dr tso-ti tu mu-yiu d! Nl yau t'ing-cho, pu-yau wdng- 
 
 g. 2. ki liau d! Tien ko tang-dr lai d; he-ku ylng-tsz, tsang-mo ts'iau ti 
 g. 20. kien nl ? 
 
 h. 2. Ti-qr twdn. Tse-kiau. 
 
 h. 8. Yi-ko-jin ch'u-lai, sidng-yu pdng-yiu, tsung-yau tai shwdng yen- 
 
 h. 22. ts'ing, kien-liau nd-sie ching-klng jin, kidng ll-i-tl, kien-ho-tl, lau-shi- 
 
 i. 14. tl, tung-tl kwel-ku-tl yiu lidng-sln-tl, kien-kwo shi-mien-ti, yiu tsai- 
 
 j. 6. ts'ing-tl, yiu ptin-sz-tl, k'd-l kau-te-chu-tl, nl tsal hau t'l-t'd sidng- 
 
 j. 24. yu, kan-chd t'd tseu, kung-king t'd, pu-hau t'al-mdn t'd; yiu-shen 
 
 k. 14. sidng-kiuen, yiu-sz sidng-pang; pien td-kid yiu yl liau. Jo ts'iau- 
 
 kinds of poems are enumerated, but many of these are inconsiderable in extent and im- 
 portance. The best specimens are full of metaphorical and allegorical expressions, ancient 
 and obsolete words, allusions to history and fiible, with references to customs and opinions, 
 known only to the learned. This renders Chinese poetry very difficult for foreigners to 
 understand. 
 
 The specimens given on page 33 are, with the exception of the first, to be found in the 
 Ku T'dng-shl hS-kial, 'the poetry of the ancient T'ang (dynasty) explained,' a work in 
 5 vols. 12. 
 
 Wi-yang (33. b. 16) was the name of a royal palace in Ch'dng-dn K , during the Han 
 dynasty, which ended A. D. 260.
 
 PHRASES IN THE PEKING DIALECT. 97 
 
 occupy a man's heart, just listen to the words of his mouth. 29. If you want 
 to break through drunken habits, look at a drunken man when you are sober. 
 30. Confucius said : " If a man will not care for the future, he certainly will 
 have present sorrow." 31. If you wish to know the character of a prince, 
 first look at his ministers ; if you would understand a man, first look at his 
 friends; if you would know a father, first look at his son. 32. Though the 
 screen be broken, its frame is still preserved; though the superior man be 
 poor, propriety and rectitude still remain. 33. Though the white gem be 
 cast into the dirt, its purity cannot be sullied : though the good man live in a 
 vile place, it cannot taint and disorder his heart. The fir and the cypress can 
 endure snow and frost; and bright wisdom can walk through difficulty and 
 danger. 34. Though the sun and moon are bright, they cannot shine beneath 
 an up-turned bowl : though the sword (of justice) be swift, it cannot decapi- 
 tate the innocent, nor can unlooked-for calamity, with its evil genius, enter 
 the dwelling of the prudent. 35. Man is born, but knowledge is not born (with 
 him) ; when knowledge is acquired, man soon grows old ; when his mind has 
 obtained a fulness of knowledge, before he is aware, the great change comes 
 over him. 
 
 Translation of the Extracts from the Ching-ym tsui-yau, v. native text 
 (lithograpJied\ page 9. 
 
 First section. On every-day affairs. 
 
 Rise early and call the servant-boys to sweep the floor, to water the flowers, 
 to warm water for washing the face, and to make a cup of good tea to drink. 
 When you have nothing to do, look at a book, or write some characters, or with 
 two or three literary friends make a verse (or two), or play a game at chess 
 (lit. 'conquest' or 'siege'), to dissipate sadness, thus you will be able to pass 
 the day. When noon is come, pull a few twangs of the bow, and shoot a few 
 arrows ; as for that body of muscle and bone of yours, exercise it well. Thus 
 a man will get good spirits, and will grow strong : all these are good things 
 to do. But don't go abroad hankering after amusement, don't create disturb- 
 ances, don't fight and brawl, don't be a busy-body, don't be noisy over your 
 wine, don't wander from house to house. What I have said is perfectly cor- 
 rect, there is no mistake in it. Do you listen and don't forget it. 
 
 Light the lamp and bring it here, it is as dark as midnight, how can I see ? 
 
 The second section. On selecting acquaintances. 
 
 When a man goes out to hold intercourse with friends, he should carry a pair 
 of eyes in his head; and when you see those who are men of rectitude, or those 
 who speak with propriety and justice, the cordial and honest men, and those 
 who understand customs, those who have a conscience, and those who have seen 
 the world, those who have natural talent and good sense, on whom you may 
 rely, do you then seek their acquaintance, and walk in their footsteps, respect 
 them and do not slight them ; if you have any good project in hand, consult 
 with them, and in matters of business mutually assist one another, thus both 
 
 PART II. O
 
 98 SAN-KWOH cm. [Lith. 9. 1-3- 1 1. f- i ] 
 
 1. 3. kien-liau nd-sie pu-haa jin, yl tien-$r pdn-sz, tu mu-yiu; yl pd 
 1. 20. kwdng-kw'dn tsiii, hung-p'ien jin-kid, 
 
 10. Extracts from the Ching-yin tsui-yau, v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page 10. 
 
 a. 2. yiu pA-hau pl-k'i, ts'iuen-kdn sie hwan-chdng tl sz, yiu pu- 
 
 a. 1 6. tung yen, yiu pu-ku lien, yiu t'au jin hien. Jin-kid mot, t'd, t'd ye 
 
 b. 7. pu-hai sail; che-ydng tljin, ngd ts'iau-kien-liau, tsiu nau-liau t'd, nl 
 
 b. 23. tsien-wdn pu-yau t'l-t'd tseu-lung, t'd tsiu kwal-p'ien nl-ti yin-tsz 
 
 c. 21. ts'ien: hwdn pu td-kln, t'd hwdn yau wu nl-ti s&, sdng-ctiu hu-to sz 
 
 d. 13. lai. Yiu sMmmd pien-i nl? Ts'ung-km-4-heu ni yau td chu-i, ts'ai 
 
 e. 5. hail yd! 
 
 f. 2. Ti-sdn twdn. Tsd-hwd. 
 
 f. 8. Jin tsiii yau-kln sM shwd-hwd. Ni ts'iau nd-sie yiu ming-se tl jin, 
 
 f. 24. fan-wai pu-t'ung, t'd shwo-cKu ti hwd, tsung-shi ch'u-klng ji-tien, yiu 
 
 g. 15. wdn-yd, ts pu-yung shwb 16. T'd tsiu siii-k'eu shwd kupd ts'in-ch'dng 
 h. 7. tl hwd-dr, ye kio-te td-fdng, yiu t'l-kiii, -pu-kiau-ngau, pu-Md-tso. 
 h. 24. Jin-kid t'ing-liau, tsz-jen kw'd-t'd hwui-shw6 hwd liau. Jen dr 
 i. 13. ching-klng hwd, ku^jen yau-t'ing, tsiu-shi sM-tslng-shdng, nd-sie hien- 
 j. 3. tsdjin-tdng tl hwd, ye yau fdng ch'dng-dr-to t'ing-t'ing. Siii-jen pu- 
 j. 19. pi hid t'd, ye yau chl-tau, ko-chti fung-su; tsang-md shi tsan-hwd, 
 k. 10. ts'u-hwd, yd-hwd, nio-pS hwd, fung-ching jin tl hwd, siau md jin tl 
 1. i. hwd; jin-kid shwd-ch'u-lai, ni pu-tung tl, tsiu ch'ing-liau ko tsU- 
 1. 1 6. t'iau-tsz liau. 
 
 11. Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi, chap. I, v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page ii. 
 
 a. 2. Ti-yl hwiii. 
 
 a. 7. Yen t'au-yuen hau-kl sdn kl i. 
 
 b. 7. Chan Hwdng-kln ylng-hiung sheu li kung. 
 
 c. i. Hwd-shwo t'ien-hid td-shi; l fan-kiu pl-hd, h6-kiu pi-fan? Gheu 
 
 c. 1 6. mu tsl-kw6/an-tsang, ping jl yu Ts'in; kl Ts'in ml chi heu Ts'u Han 
 
 d. 7. fan-tsang, yiu ping jl yu Hdn. Hdn chau, tsz Kau-tsu chdn pe-she 
 
 d. 22. dr k'i i, yl-t'ung t'ien-hid. Heu lai Kwdng-wu chung-hlng, ch'uen 
 
 e. 1 1. chi Hien-ti, siiifan-wei Sdn-kwo. Ch'iil k'i chi Iwdn chi yiu, t'ai-ch'i 
 
 Kwel-tsin (33. c. 15), 'the noble and the mean,' both have their plans of aggrandise- 
 ment ; the former at court, the latter in the market. The poet wishes to show that the 
 noble man and the mean man are alike different from the ascetic, who alone can retire 
 from the world and its projects for getting gain. He alone can enjoy the outward things, 
 the soft rain, the bright grass, the blue mountain, and the singing birds, which arise 
 without his arrangement and yield him pleasure.
 
 " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 99 
 
 parties will be profited. But you will see those bad men, who have not the 
 slightest particle of good sense, a set of sharpers, who deceive people, 
 
 Translation of the Extracts from the Ching-yln tsul-yau, v. native text 
 
 (lithographed), page TO. 
 
 who are of a quarrelsome disposition, entirely taken up with questionable 
 affairs,. men who will not take hints, and who have no regard for appearances, 
 who draw down upon themselves the displeasure of others ; and when they are 
 scolded, they do not feel ashamed. When I see such men, I directly give them 
 a scolding. You should on no account whatever have any thing to do with 
 them. If you associate with them, they will swindle you out of your money : 
 but that would be of little consequence, if they did not prejudice your affairs 
 and produce a great deal of trouble. Then what benefit will there be in 
 that? From the very first do you be decided, and then all will be well ! 
 
 The third section. On miscellaneous phrases. 
 
 The most important thing for a man is to speak well. Now when you see men 
 of note, different from the common herd, you will find that their language has 
 a classic elegance about it, and an air of refinement, of which it is needless to 
 speak. Even when they utter the first expression which comes to their lips in 
 ordinary parlance, you may perceive a liberality of sentiment and a regularity 
 about it, it is neither haughty nor mean. When people hear them, they, of 
 course, praise them highly, as being able to speak properly and classically. 
 Assuredly you should listen to them. Then there is the language of the mar- 
 ket-place and the well, and the talk of loungers and of various classes of men ; 
 you must stretch your ears to catch these; for although you need not learn 
 them, you should know them, as well as the customs of every place ; what is 
 village talk, coarse language, elegant language, cruel, insulting language, the 
 language of flattery, ridicule, abuse, &c., for when men utter such, and you do 
 not understand, you will seem exactly like a country clown. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the San-kwo chi, chap. I, v. native text 
 (lithographed), page n. 
 
 Chapter the first. 
 
 At the banquet in the peach-garden three brave men form a righteous league. 
 By exterminating the Yellow-turbans the heroes raise their reputation. 
 
 It is a common saying with respect to the state of nations, that ' the long- 
 divided must unite, the long-united must divide.' At the end of the Clieu 
 dynasty the empire was divided into seven kingdoms ; these contended together 
 and were finally united in the Tsin dynasty; and after the extinction of the 
 Tsin family, the houses of Tsu and Han strove together and were at last 
 merged in the Han dynasty. The universal dominion of the Han commenced 
 with the Emperor Kau-tsu, who destroyed the white serpent and raised a 
 body of patriot soldiers. Afterwards Kwang-wu arose as his successor, and 
 he in turn transmitted the throne to Hien-ti. The power of the state was 
 then divided, and became Three Kingdoms. If we proceed to investigate 
 
 o 2
 
 100 SAN-KWOH CHI. [Lith. 11. f.2. 12. i.3.] 
 
 f. 2. yu Hwdn-Ling, or ti. Hwdn-ti kin-ku shen-lui, tsung-sin hwdn-kwdn, 
 17. kl Hwdn-ti p'dng. Ling-ti tsi wei ; Td-tsidng-kiun, Teu-wu; T'ai-fu, 
 
 g. 7. Chin-fan, kung-sidng fu-tso. Shi yiu hwdn-kwan Ts'au-tsl tang lung- 
 g. 21. k'iuen; Teu-wu Chin-fan men chu chl; kl-sz pu-mi, fan wei so hoi; 
 h. 12. Chung-kiuen tsi tsz yu hung. Kien-ning dr-nien, sz-yu, wdng-jl, Ti 
 i. 2. yu Wan-te tien,fdng shlng tsd; tien-k5 kwdng-fung tseu-k'l, che-kien 
 i. 17. yl-t'iau ts Ing-she, ts'ung lidng-shdng fl tsidng-hid-lai, fan yu i-sJidng. 
 j. 8. Ti king tail, tso-yiu kl kiuji-kung, pe-kwdn k'u pan pi, su-seu she pu- 
 k. i. klen-liau. Hwu-jen td-lui td yu, kid I plng-pd, 16 tau pwd n-ye, fdng- 
 k. 1 8. chl; hwai k'iti fdng-u wu-su. Kien-ning s-nien dr-yu, L8-ydng tl 
 1. 8. chin, yiu hal-shwm fdn-yl, yuen-hal ku-min, tsin p'l td Idng Tduenfi 
 1. 24. hoi chung. 
 
 12. Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi, v. native text (lithographed), page 12. 
 
 a. i. Shi Kii-lu kiun yiu hiung-ti sdn-jin; yi ming, Chang-kid; yi ming, 
 
 a. 17. Chdng-pau; yl ming, Chdng-lidng. Nd Chdng-kio pqn-shi ko pu-ti 
 
 b. 5. Siu-ts'ai, yln jl-shdn ts'al-y6; yu yl laii-jin, pi-yen tung-yen, sheu 
 
 b. 22. chl li-chdng, hwdn Ki6 chi yl tung chung, \ t'ien-shu sdn kiuen sheu 
 
 c. ii. chl, yu: "Tsz ming, 'T'ai-ping yau-shuj ju te chl, tang tai T'ien 
 
 c. 25. siuen hwd pu kiu shi-jin, j6 ming i-sln, pi hu go pau." Kio pal, 
 
 d. 1 6. wdn sing ming. Lau-jinyu: " Wu na\ Ndn-hwd lau-sien ye." Yen- 
 
 e. 5. kl hwd chin-tslng-fung dr k'u. * * * * 
 
 6.13. Tsing yu: " Tse-plng chung, ngo-plng kwd, ming-kung i ts6 su 
 
 f. i. chau-kiun ying-tl." Liu-yen jen k'i shw6, siii tsl ch'u pdng, chau-mu 
 
 f. 1 6. i-plng. Pdng-wdn hing tau Cho-hien yln ch'u Ch6-hien chung yl-ko 
 
 g. 6. ylng-hiung. Nd jin pu shin hau tu-shu, sing kwdn-h6, kwd yen yu, 
 g. 21. hl-nu pu hing yu se, su yiu td chi, chuen hau kl-kiau t'ien-hid hau-kl, 
 h. 14. sdng-te shln-chdng pd-che, liang-dr chui-kien, shwdng-sheu kwo yu si, 
 
 Kl-p% (33. k. 24) here means Yiu-cheu itself, which was the name of Shing -Icing*, 
 (Moukden, the capital of Manchuria,) under the ffdn dynasty. 
 
 The city of PS-ti (33. m. 17) was in Kwei-cheu, fa. 
 
 The lithographed pages (9 14) which follow here, were printed in London from the 
 author's handwriting, but they are not so satisfactory as the 34 pages of letter-press which 
 were done in Hongkong. This accounts for the absence of pages i 8, page 9 having 
 been printed first to suit the convenience of pupils who did not need the earlier pages, 
 which were extracts from the Ancient Classics &c., and which were subsequently 
 printed in Hongkong. The extracts from the Ching-yln tsui-yati are likely to prove 
 very serviceable to the student, they present him with a good many expressions in the 
 Peking dialect, though not of the extreme kind, and they would easily pass current 
 in the southern provinces. Among the general characteristics of the Peking dialect is 
 the freqnent use of the perfect particle Ziaii b and the formative particle dr c . There is a 
 redundancy of expression, and, in pronunciation, an uncommon sharpness of utterance in 
 the case of all letters which admit it (ki, tsi, chi, si, hi). 
 
 JUl. 
 
 T
 
 " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 101 
 
 the cause of this revolution, we shall find that it began with the two Emperors 
 Hwan and Ling. When the Emperor Hwan died, Ling came to the throne. 
 The marshal Teu-wu and the guardian Chin-fan became coadjutors in the 
 government. Now it happened that when the eunuch Ts'au-tsi and his party 
 were intriguing for power, Teu-wu and Chin-fan formed a counter-plot to 
 exterminate them; but the scheme was discovered, and turned out injurious 
 to themselves ; and the eunuchs from this time increased in audacity. 
 
 On the 1 5th day of the 4th month of the 2nd year, Kien-ning ('tranquillity 
 established') the Emperor proceeded to the Hall of Audience, and just as he 
 was ascending the throne, a violent wind suddenly rushed from a corner of 
 the Hall, and what should they see but a great green snake, seeming to fly 
 down from the beam above, which coiled itself up upon the imperial seat. 
 The Emperor fell down in terror, but the attendants quickly rescued him and 
 carried him into the palace. The mandarins, one and all, hastened away; 
 and, in a moment, the serpent itself vanished. On a sudden it began to 
 thunder loud and to rain heavily, accompanied with hail stones. This con- 
 tinued until midnight, and laid in ruins an immense number of dwellings. 
 
 In the 2nd month of the 4th year of this same Emperor, an earthquake 
 was felt in Lo-yang, the sea inundated the lands, and the inhabitants of the 
 coasts were washed away. 
 
 Translation qftfte Extract from the Sdn-kwS chi, v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page 12. 
 
 At this time there lived in the district of Kii-lu three brothers, named 
 Chang-kitt, Chang-pau, and Chang-Hang. Now this Chang-kid did not take the 
 degree of Siu-tsai (B. A.), but proceeded to the hills to gather medicinal herbs. 
 There he met one day an aged man with a fair and youthful countenance, 
 who held in his hand a staff of cane. He called Kio into a cave, and gave 
 him three sacred volumes, saying : " These are called, ' The Arts necessary for 
 producing Peace.' Take them, and in the name of Heaven proclaim the doc- 
 trine of reform, that the world may be saved. And should contrary thoughts 
 arise in your mind, you will suffer the reward of the wicked." Ki6 bowed and 
 enquired his name and surname. The old man said : " I am the aged genius 
 of Nan-hwaf and having uttered these words he vanished into thin air and 
 was gone. * * * * 
 
 Tsing said: "The rebel soldiers are many, our soldiers are few; your 
 Excellency should at once raise an army to oppose the enemy." Liu-yen 
 acquiesced in this advice, and immediately issued a placard, calling upon 
 patriots to enlist. This document reached the town of Ch6, and a brave man 
 of the place responded to the call. He was not much of a scholar, but his dis- 
 position was magnanimous and kind, and his words were few ; the feelings of 
 anger and pleasure were rarely visible in his countenance, and he was a man 
 of a strong will. He loved to form friendships with the brave men of the 
 empire. His height was eight che (near seven feet); his two ears hung 
 clown on his shoulders ; his hands reached down to his knees ; he was able to
 
 102 SAN-KWOH CHI. [Lith. 12. i. 4. 13. 1. 25.] 
 
 i. 4. mu ndng tsz ku k'i d,r; mien jd kwdn-yu, shdn ju t'u chl; Chung- 
 
 i. 19. shdn Tsing wdng Liu shing chl heu, Hdn King-ti Kid-hid hiuen san; 
 
 j. 8. sing Lid, ming Pei, tsz Hiuen-te. 
 
 j. 17. Tdng-ji kien-liau pang-wdn, k'ai-jen ch'dng-t'dn, sui-heu yi-jin li- 
 
 k. 7. shing yen yu : " Td-chdng-fu pu-yii kwS-kid ch'u-li, ho-ku ch'dng- 
 
 k. 22. t'dn?" Hiuen-te hwiii shi k'i jin, shin pd-che, shing fa ku-liu, shi ju 
 
 1. 13. p&n-ma. Hiuen-te kien t'd hing-mau i-chdng, wdn k'i sing-m/ing. 
 
 13. Extract from the Sdn-kw6 chi continued, v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page 13. 
 
 a. i. J'i-jin yu: "Men Sing Chang, ming Fi, ts& Yi-ti. Shi kU Cho- 
 
 a. 15. kiun, p'o yiu chwdng-t'ien, mai-tsiu t'd-chu, chuen hau ki-kiau t'ien- 
 
 b. 5. hid hau-ki; kid-ts'ai kien kung k'dn pang dr t'dn, ku-tsz sidng-wdn." 
 
 b. 20. Hiuen-te yu: " Ngo pdn Hdn-shl tsung-tsln, sing Liu, ming Pel; 
 
 c. 8. kin wdn Hwdng-kln ch'dng-lwdn, yiu chi yu p'6-tse gdn-min. Hdn li 
 
 c. 23. pu-ndng! Ku ch'dng-t'dn d,r." Fl yu: " Ngo p'6 yiu tsz-tsai, tdng 
 
 d. 12. chau-mu hidng-yung, yu kung t'ung kii td-s&. Ju-hd?" Hiuen-te 
 
 e. i. ahin-hi, sui yu t'ung ji ts'an-tien chung yln-tsiu. Ching yin kien, 
 
 e. 15. kien yi td Hdn, tui-ch6 yi Hang che-tsz, tau tien mdn-sheu hie-liau. 
 
 f. 6. Jl tien tso-hid pien hwdn tsiu-pafo : " Kw'ai chin-tsiu-lai k'i, ngd tai- 
 
 f. 21. kanji-cJiing-k'u t c eu-kiun." 
 
 g. 2. Hiuen-te k'dn k'i jin, sidng-mau t'dng-t'dng, wei-fung pin-pin, 
 g. 15. tsiu yau t'd t'ung tso, t'au k'i sing ming. K'i jin yu: "Wu sing 
 h. 4. Kwdn, ming Yu, tsz Sheu-ch'dng, heu kai Yun-ch'dng, Hd-tung Kiai 
 h. 17. lidng jin ye. Yin pfin-cku shi-hau, i-shi ling jin, pei wu shd-liau, 
 i. 8. t'au ndn Kidng-Hd wu-lu nien i. Kin wdn tsz chu, chau-kiun p'o- 
 i. 23. tse, ti-lai ying-mu." Hiuen-te sui I ki chi kau-chi. Yun-ch'dng td-hi, 
 j. 15. t'ung tau Chdng-fl chwdng shdng, kung -I td-sz. Fl yu: "Ngo 
 k. 4. chwdng heu yiu t'au-yuen, hwd-k'al ching shing, ming-ji tdng yu 
 k. 1 6. yuen chung tse kau t'ien-ti; ngd sdn-jin ki-wei hiung-ti, hie li t'ung- 
 1. 7. sin, jen-heu k'd t'u td-sz." Hiuen-te, yun-ch'dng tsi-shing ying yu: 
 1. 22. " Ju-tsz shin hau." 
 
 The passages given on pages n 13 are from the San-lcwV, with which the student is 
 already acquainted (v. Chrest. pp. 17 20). The 'Yellow-turbans' (HwAng-kln, n. b. 8) 
 were rebels under the leadership of Chdng-lciS (12. a. 13), who, besides being a general, 
 pretended to perform cures by charms and exorcism. He raised an immense army, which 
 he organized and allotted to subordinate generals. At the close of the Hdn dynasty 
 (A. D. 226), after the reign of the last Emperor Hien-ti (u. e. 12), the division of the 
 country into three kingdoms took place. The two Emperors Hwdn and Ling (n. f. 3, 4) 
 were weak and lax in their government, and this brought on a rebellion, which assumed 
 larger proportions under Tung-chS, a man of great strength and military ability. His 
 career of cruelty, during which he slaughtered vast numbers of his enemies, was brought to 
 an early close, for Lil-pu (v. 20. d. 5, 7) destroyed him and all his family. The Imperialist 
 cause was upheld by the generals Lu-pi (13. c. 5, 7) a mat-seller, Kwan-yu (13. h. 4, 6) a 
 seller of sour-curds, and Chang-fl (13. j. 17) a pork-butcher. These were the three brave
 
 " THE THREE KINGDOMS." 103 
 
 see his own ears; his face was like the jewel on a crown; and his lips were 
 ruddy like rubies. He was a descendant of the ninth generation from King- 
 ti of the Han dynasty; his clan name was Liu, his surname Pei, and his title 
 was Hiuen-te. 
 
 When he saw the above-mentioned placard, he heaved a deep sigh, and 
 immediately behind him a man exclaimed with a loud voice : " When a fine 
 fellow does not exert his strength for his country, why does he sigh so deeply?" 
 Hiuen-te turned round and beheld a man about seven feet high, having a voice 
 like thunder, and a physique like that of a vigorous charger. When Hiuen-te 
 saw this extraordinary figure, he enquired his name and surname. 
 
 Translation of the Extract from the San-kw6 ch% continued, v. native text 
 (lithographed), page 13. 
 
 The man replied : " My name is Chang, my surname Fl, and my title Yi-te. 
 For generations we have dwelt in this district of Ch6, and we have a small 
 landed property here. I deal in wine and slaughter pigs. I am fond of forming 
 the acquaintance of the brave men of the empire. When I saw you just now 
 looking at the placard and sighing, I could not help speaking to you." Hiuen- 
 te said : " I am descended from the house of Han, my name is Liu and my 
 surname Pei. When I lately heard that the Yellow-turbans were in rebellion, 
 the wish arose in my mind to break their power and to give peace to the 
 people. Would that my strength were adequate to it ! It was for this reason 
 that I sighed." Fl replied : " I have some small means, let us call out our 
 brave countrymen, and with you, Sir, begin to put the great affair into execu- 
 tion, what do you think of that?" Hiuen-te was much pleased, and they 
 forthwith entered the village inn to take some wine. Just as they were 
 drinking, they saw a fine son of Han (a Chinaman), pushing along a hand- 
 cart, who, coming up, stopped at the door of the inn. Having entered the 
 inn, he sat down and called to the waiter : " Pour out quickly some wine for 
 me to drink, I am in haste to reach the city to join the army." Hiuen- 
 te, seeing that the man had a noble aspect and a dignified bearing, invited 
 him to join them, and then enquired his name and surname. The man 
 replied: "My name is Kwan, my surname Yu, and my title Sheu-ch'ang, 
 which has been altered to Yun-cKang. I am a native of Kiai-liang in Ho- 
 tung. When a man of influence in my native place, relying on his power, had 
 insulted and oppressed the people, I killed him ; and, having escaped with 
 difficulty, for five or six years I have been in the River and Lake provinces. 
 Having recently heard in this place that an army is being raised to subdue 
 the rebels, I am going (to the city) on purpose to enlist." Hiuen-te at once 
 told him of his own project. Yun-cJiang was much pleased, and they went 
 together to Chang-fl's farm to consult about the matter. Fl said : " At the 
 back of my farm there is a peach garden, the flowers are just in full bloom. 
 Let us to-morrow in that garden sacrifice to Heaven and Earth, and we three 
 men will unite as brethren, with all our hearts, and then we may plan about 
 this great matter." Hiuen-te and Yiin-ch'ang with one voice exclaimed: 
 "That is very good."
 
 104 I-SHIH YU-YEN. [Li th. 14. a. a. 14. 1. 25.] 
 
 14. From ^Esop's Fables, by Kobert Thorn, Esq., v. native text (lithographed), 
 
 page 1 4. 
 
 a. 2. Ch'ai pang ydng. 
 
 a. 6. Pw'dn-ku ts'ii, niau-sheu kial ndng yen. Yl-jl ctiai yu ydng, t'ung 
 
 a. 20. kien yin-shwul; ch'ai yu pang k'i ydng; tsz-nien wu I tsie ts'z, nal 
 
 b. 10. kidng tse chl yu: " Ju hwdn-chu tsz shwm, shi lau-fu pu-ndng yln, 
 
 b. 25. kal shd. Ydng tiii yu: " Td-wdng tsai shdng liu, ydng tsai hid liu; 
 
 c. 14. sui dm wu gal." GKalfu tsi yu: " Ju k'u-nien meu-ji ch'u-yen te- 
 
 d. 5. tsiii yu ngd, y~i kal, shd." Ydng yu: " Td wdng wu \; k'ii nien tneu- 
 
 d. 20. jl ydng wi ch'u-shi, gdn-ndng te-tsui td-wdng ? " Ch'ai tsi pien-siu wei 
 
 e. ii. nu, tsi chl yu: "Ju chlfu-mu te-tsiii yu ngd, ylju chl tsui ye." Sui 
 
 f. 4. pang chi. Yen yun: " Yu kid chl tsm, ho hwdn wu tsz ?" Tsi tsz 
 
 f. 1 8. chl wei ye. 
 
 g. 2. Ar shu. 
 
 g. 5. Ts'qn-ld chung yiu dr shu, pd,n-shu tsln-i, yi tsai klng-sz kwo-hwo. 
 
 g. 21. Hwu yi-jl lai ts'qn t'dn-kid, ts'qn-shu liu dr kw'an chl. So ch'u chl 
 
 h. 12. shl tsu-cheu pu-k'dn. Klng-shu yu: " Ju ku wu hwd, u-shl wu mei- 
 
 \. 3. wi, h6-pu sui ngd tau king, yi-kien shi-mien ?" Ts'qn-shu hln-jen, 
 
 i. 1 8. t'ung wdng kl tau king, kwo-jen shl-ying kial i yi-jl dr shu t'ung 
 
 j. 9. cho me I Lai yi-hiung kiuen, kl tsidng ts'qn-shu hwo k'u! Ts'qn-shu 
 
 j. 23. td hiai, wdn yu: "Tsz chu ch'dng yiu tsz hai hu ?" Yu: "Jen." 
 
 k. 1 1. Ts'qn-shu ts'z, yu : " Fl ngd chlfu ye, yu k'i pdng-hwdng dr kdn-chl; 
 
 1. 2. shu j6 gdn-tsing dr tsau-k'dng ? " Su yun : " Ning shi k'al mei-chii, 
 
 1. 1 6. md-sM ts'iu mei-fdn /" Tsi tsz chl wei ye ! 
 
 men who are mentioned in the opening stanza (Hati-lcl sdn, 1 1. a. 10). They united with 
 a solemn oath to retrieve the fortunes of the Han family. They associated with them- 
 selves Lil-pu, Kung-ming, and Yu&n-xhau, and finally established the kingdom of Shit B . 
 Another famous general, Tsau-tsau, succeeded in forming the kingdom of Wei b , and Sdn- 
 lciu$n raised for himself the kingdom of Wti c : these were the Sdn-JcwS, ' the Three King- 
 doms,' which form the subject of this, the best historical romance of the Chinese. 
 
 Pw'dn-Tcu, (14. a. 6) is a mythical personage, who is described in Chinese books as .the 
 first man, who, though not the creator of the world, had the Herculean task allotted to 
 him of bringing the chaos into a cosmos, of making order and beauty out of confusion. 
 The Rationalists of China, commonly called Tauists, have proceeded to particularise the 
 acts of this individual ; they describe his work of splitting the heavens and chiselling the 
 rocks. His efforts, they say, were continued eighteen thousand years. On his death his 
 head became a mountain, his breath the winds, and his voice thunder, with other ridiculous 
 stories, similar however to the Scandinavian myths on this subject. For a long account 
 of this myth see Dr. Williams' Middle Kingdom, vol. VI. p. 196, where a curious picture 
 is given of Pw'dn-Tcu at work.
 
 A VERSION OF .ESOP's FABLES. 105 
 
 Translation of ^E sop's Fables, by Robert Thorn, Esq., v. native text (litho- 
 graphed], page 14. 
 
 The wolf devours the sheep. 
 
 In the primitive times of Pwan-ku, when all the birds and beasts could 
 speak, one day a wolf and a sheep were drinking at the same stream. The 
 wolf wished to devour the sheep, but, thinking within himself that he had no 
 excuse, he reproached him sternly and said: "You are making this water 
 muddy, so that I, your superior, cannot drink, I must kill you." The sheep 
 replied : " Your Honour is at the upper part of the stream, and I am at the 
 lower; though the water is muddy it is no obstacle to your drinking." The 
 wolf again reproached him and said : " Last year on a particular day you said 
 something offensive against me ; I ought to kill you." The sheep said : 
 " Your Honour is under a mistake, for last year on that particular day I was 
 not born. How could I offend against Your Honour 1 ?" The wolf then, instead 
 of being ashamed, became angry, and, reproving him, said : " Your parents 
 offended against me, and it is your fault too," and forthwith devoured him. 
 The proverb says : " If you want to impute a crime to any one, why distress 
 yourself at the want of an excuse V This is what is meant. 
 
 The two mice. 
 
 In a retired village were two mice, who were both relatives and friends. 
 One of them went to live in the city, and one day unexpectedly she came to 
 the village to visit her old friend. The country mouse begged to be allowed to 
 entertain her. But the provisions which she brought out were coarse and foul, 
 and were not good enough for the city mouse, who said : " Your abode is not very 
 beautiful, and your household food is neither fine nor savoury, why not come 
 with me to the city and take a look at the world 1 " The village mouse gladly 
 went with her, and on arriving at the city she found certainly that the food 
 was very different. But one day, as the two mice were together drinking, a 
 fierce dog suddenly made his appearance, and was nearly seizing upon the 
 country mouse and carrying her off. The country mouse, in great alarm, 
 enquired, saying: "Are these evils always here ?" If er friend replied : "Yes." 
 Then the country mouse begged to be excused, and said : " This is no happi- 
 ness to me, with all this terror and good victuals. There is nothing like peace 
 and coarse husks." The common saying is : " It is better to drink rice-water 
 with pleasant feelings, than to eat the rice that produces sorrow*." This 
 is just what it means. 
 
 * Lit. 'opening eye-brow rice-water' than 'sorrowing eye-brow rice.' 
 
 PART II.
 
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 DATE DUE
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 A 000 753 685 7