illlllli llillM;^;^^^ 
 
 
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ANTHROPOLOGY LIBBARY 
 
 WILLIAM DILLER MATTHEW 
 
GIFT OF 
 Prof, V/.D. I/Iatthew 
 
ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN 
 
Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 BY 
 
 G. FREDERICK WRIGHT 
 D.D.,LL.D., F.G.S.A. 
 
 Author of '*The Logic of Christian Fvidences.' 
 Scientific Aspects of Christian "KviileMces,' *', / 
 '' The Ice Age in North America," " Ma^n , 
 and the Glacial Period/' * 'Asiatic • •^ ' 
 Russia," ''Scientific Confirma- 
 tions of Old Testament 
 History," etc. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 OBERLIN, OHIO, U. S. A. 
 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA COMPANY 
 
 1912 
 

 
 COPYRIGHTED 1912 BY 
 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA COMPANY 
 
 THE NEWS PRINTING CO., OBERLIN, OHIO 
 

 To 
 
 JfroffBHor iFrrbmr Hlarb J^utuam 
 
 Honorary Curator of Peabody Museum, Harvard Univer- 
 sity, in recognition of his invaluable service to Amer- 
 ican Archaeology and of the great personal 
 stimulus afforded by his encourage- 
 ment even when not endors- 
 ing all the author's 
 . conclusions, 
 
 This volume is affectionately dedicated 
 
 730288 
 
PREFACE 
 
 I NEED make no apology for the space given in this 
 volume to a fresh presentation of the facts of the 
 Glacial epoch, for they continue to be the center 
 about which the most important evidence of the an- 
 tiquity of man gathers. Besides, as it has been the 
 subject of my special study for forty years, new 
 aspects of its bearing on the question at issue are con- 
 stantly forcing themselves upon my attention. 
 
 While I cannot speak with equal authority upon 
 the other lines of evidence along which we reach con- 
 clusions relating to prehistoric times, I think I have 
 followed them sufficiently to reach conclusions that 
 are probably correct, or, at any rate, so nearly so that 
 they cannot be altogether ignored by those who think 
 it worth while to make a comprehensive study of the 
 subject. 
 
 Upon one point I would lay special emphasis, that 
 is, the importance of giving just weight to the evidence 
 presented of the occurrence of particular facts. Ap- 
 parently, many experts in narrow lines of investiga- 
 tion are lamentably deficient in abilitv^ to appreciate 
 the evidence with which ordinarily we have to be 
 content in the establishment of particular facts. Many 
 experts assume that when a discovery cannot be du- 
 plicated it is unworthy of attention, no matter how 
 well it may be authenticated by evidence such as sat- 
 
viii Preface 
 
 isfies In all ordinary affairs. As instances we may 
 adduce the discovery of the Nampa figurine detailed 
 on pages 265 to 272, and of the Newcomerstown 
 implement detailed on pages 226 and 228. The gen- 
 tlemen endorsing these discoveries form a jury un- 
 excelled in capacity for judging evidence, and in 
 opportunity for deciding on the sufficiency of that 
 on which their conclusions were based. Furthermore, 
 the circumstantial evidence supporting their conclu- 
 sions is ample and convincing. To ignore such testi- 
 mony because others have not found similar things 
 in the same place is not creditable to the pretentions 
 to scientific knowledge made by those who do it. 
 Again, we are bound to say plainly that the habit 
 which many anthropologists have of ruling out all 
 evidence which does not support some special theory 
 of development is unworthy of scientific investigators. 
 All the facts must be faced and be permitted to take 
 their place in the theories which we promulgate. 
 
 Unfortunately there are some who will attribute to 
 theological prepossessions the moderate estimates which 
 we have made of the antiquity of man. With more 
 reason we might attribute to " anti-theological " pre- 
 possessions, the extreme estimates of man's antiquity 
 which are recklessly made by many with little regard 
 to the facts in the case. We can only ask for a can- 
 did and careful consideration of the facts which are 
 here presented in detail, and to the inferences drawn 
 from them. 
 
 In conclusion I wish to acknowledge special indebt- 
 
Preface \\ 
 
 edness to Dr. Herbert W. Ma<z;oun for suggestions 
 relatiii<z; to the chapter on language, and to Dr. Mel- 
 vin G. Kyle relating to the archaeology of Egypt and 
 Babylonia. 
 
 G. Frederick Wright. 
 Oberlin, Ohio, August, 191 2. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter I 
 Methods of Scientific Approacli i 
 
 The solar system not eternal — Limitations to the 
 possible existence of life en the earth — The moon 
 not more than one hundred million years old — 
 Life not possible on the earth fifty million years 
 ago — Probably limited to twenty-four million 
 years — Post-Tertiary time relatively very short — 
 Lines of positive evidence — Written history — 
 Archaeological evidence — Ethnological evidence — 
 High mental capacity of prehistoric man — Incor- 
 rect theory of uniformitarianism — Evolution in- 
 cludes catastrophes — Sundry geological catastro- 
 phes — The Glacial epoch a catastrophe — Destruc- 
 tion of species connected with it — No royal road 
 to conclusions concerning man's antiquity. 
 
 Chapter II 
 The Historical Evidence 28 
 
 General considerations — Antiquity of Babylonian 
 civilization — Of Egjptian civilization — Of civil- 
 ization in Central Asia — Concluding remarks. 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 The Linguistic Argument 71 
 
 Language already well developed six or seven 
 thousand years ago — The inflectional languages 
 — The monosyllabic languages — The agglutinative 
 languages — Antiquity of the Aryan languages — 
 Possible rate of linguistic development. 
 
xii Contents 
 
 Chapter IV 
 Origin of the Races of Europe 102 
 
 Historical evidence gives little help in untangling 
 the problem — The stone age — The complexion of 
 the races — The skulls — The Cro-Magnon race 
 — The Basques — The Slavs — Mental and artis- 
 tic ability of the neolithic race. 
 
 Chapter V 
 The Origin and Antiquity of the American Indian 128 
 
 No written records from which to reconstruct the 
 history — Their language, culture, and customs — 
 Their mode of reckoning blood relationship — 
 Probable lines of migration from Asia, and in 
 America — The Mound Builders — Antiquity of 
 the Indian race. 
 
 Chapter VI 
 Significance of the Glacial Epoch 157 
 
 It establishes the antiquity of palaeolithic man — 
 Extent in Europe — Extent in America — Effect on 
 drainage — ^Effect on land levels — Date — Rate of 
 the withdrawal of the ice — The length of the 
 epoch — The epoch in South America. 
 
 Chapter VII 
 Man in the Glacial Epoch 218 
 
 Gravel terraces of the Glacial epoch — Implements 
 in the terrace at Trenton, New Jersey — Discover- 
 ies of Dr. Abbott and Mr. Volk confirmed — The 
 Newcomerstown implement — Discoveries at Little 
 Falls, Minnesota — Skeletons below the loess of 
 Lansing, Kansas — Water action in the deposition 
 of loess — Age of the Missouri loess — Human re- 
 
Contents xiii 
 
 mains in the loess near Omaha, Nebraska — Prim- 
 itive condition of glacial man in America — lie 
 probably succumbed amid the catastrophes which 
 closed the epoch — Extent of these catastrophes — 
 Probably an emigrant from Asia — Lines of mi- 
 gration from the western coast of America — 
 Changes of land level accompanying the Glacial 
 epoch — Extent of the floods connected with the 
 close of the Glacial epoch — Glacial man in South 
 America. 
 
 Chapter VIII 
 Man and the Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 248 
 
 Extent of these lava beds — Period of their deposi- 
 tion — Influence upon the drainage — Formation of 
 Table Mountain, California — Human remains dis- 
 covered underneath it — Evidence collected by Pro- 
 fessor Whitney — By Professor Wright — By Mt. 
 George F. Becker — By Mr. J. F. Kemp — Final 
 decision regarding the Calaveras skull — The 
 Nampa figurine — Comparison with the Venus im- 
 pudica from a prehistoric cavern in France — De- 
 tails of the discovery — ^Extent and age of the lava 
 flows in Idaho — Debacle connected with the burst- 
 ing of Lake Bonneville — Ample explanation of the 
 deposits at Nampa — Complicated problems of ero- 
 sion in the mountains of Central California — Late 
 date of the lava flows in that region — Stage of the 
 development of prehistoric man on the Pacific 
 Coast. 
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 Remains of Glacial Man in Europe 290 
 
 Evidence not so clear as in America — Remains in 
 
 France — In England — In Germany — In Bel- 
 
xiv Contents 
 
 gium — In Russia — In Siberia — In Switzerland 
 
 — Erroneous interpretation by early investigators in 
 the Somme — Enlargement of the land areas of 
 Europe during the glacial elevation — Increased 
 facilities for migration cf man and animals — Lo- 
 cal origin of the European gravels — Uncertain- 
 ties of the rate of accumulation — Penck's error in 
 
 _. estimating length of glacial episodes — Rapidity of 
 changes in the Alaskan glaciers — Cave man in 
 England — In Germany — In Belgium — In France 
 — Character of the oldest skeletons — Classifica- 
 tion cf prehistoric races — Prehistoric man com- 
 pared with modern races — Prehistoric art — Ani- 
 mals associated with prehistoric man in Europe. 
 
 Chapter X 
 Supposed Evidence of Tertiary Man 334 
 
 Importance of the question — Discoveries of Abbe 
 Bourgeois at Thenay — Of M. Ribeiro in the Ta- 
 gus Valley — Of Rames in Auvergne — Of Harri- 
 son and Prestwich in the valley of the Thames — 
 Of Rutot in Belgium — Artificial character of 
 eoliths disproved by Warren, Commont, and Boule 
 
 — The existence of Tertiary man "not proven." 
 
 Chapter XI 
 
 Glacial Man in Central Asia . 343 
 
 Distribution cf species in the Northern Hemisphere 
 
 — Former land connection between North Amer- 
 ica, Asia, and Europe — Geographical effects of 
 Pliocene land elevation — Migration of Pliocene 
 species — Most highly specialized animals origin- 
 ated in Southern Asia — 'Many lines of evidence 
 pointing to Southern Asia as the place of man's 
 origin — Evidence of language — Of ethnology — 
 
Contents XV 
 
 Importance of the irrigated regions of Central Asia 
 
 — Former glaciers in the mountains of Central 
 Asia — Man and the mammoth in Northern Asia 
 
 — The Extinction of the mammoth — Enlargement 
 of the habitable areas cf Central Asia during the 
 Glacial epoch — Contraction of the area during the 
 decline of the epoch — This correlated with the 
 opening of Northern Europe and America during 
 the withdrawal of glacial ice — Favorable climatic 
 conditions in Central Asia during the Glacial 
 epoch. 
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 The Physiological Argument 37^ 
 
 Unity cf the human race now generally acknowl- 
 edged — Possible rapidity of physiological changes 
 effected by natural selection — Darwinism not a 
 theory of inevitable upward progression — Man's 
 mental powers predominant over physical condi- 
 tions — Classification of man with the Quadru- 
 mana — Anatomical resemblances — Brain capacity 
 of man and apes — Relative anatomical rank of 
 man — Striking differences between man and the 
 apes — No connecting link between man and apes 
 yet found — Pithecanthropus erectus not a connect- 
 ing link — Brain capacity of prehistoric skulls equal 
 to that of some races and highly developed indi- 
 viduals of the present age — Rate at which phys- 
 iological changes may take place under the opera- 
 tion of natural selection — Man's production must 
 have been by a paroxysmal process — Man some- 
 thing more than a mere product of nature. 
 
 Chapter XIII 
 
 The Psychological Argument 406 
 
 Science cannot solve the mvsterv of man's origin 
 
xvl Contents 
 
 — The processes of evolution demand a Creator — 
 A mechanical theory of the universe impossible — 
 The theory of divine immanency incomplete — The 
 Creator's supervision of nature — Divine interven- 
 tion necessary to supplement the mechanical the- 
 ory — 'Spontaneous generation inconceivable — The 
 gap between plant life and animal life naturally 
 impassable — Man's capacities compared with these 
 of animals — Limitations of animal intelligence — 
 Marvellous range of man's mental capacity — 
 Man's mental and moral faculties divine gifts 
 rather than natural products — Progressive capa- 
 bility of the lowest races — The progress of civil- 
 ization largely due to the rise of leaders of great 
 capacity — Theological difficulties similar to those 
 of science. 
 
 Chapter XIV 
 
 The Biblical Scheme 437 
 
 Science cannot ignore the Biblical documents — But 
 the language of the documents must be properly 
 interpreted — Professor William Henry Green's 
 discussion of Biblical chronology — The .genealog- 
 ical tables in Genesis not designed to teach chron- 
 ology — Nothing in Biblical chronology to prevent 
 any extension of prehistoric chronology of which 
 there is proper evidence — The remarkable table 
 of nations in Genesis x. — Influence of the Glacial 
 epoch on the conditions of prehistoric man in Asia. 
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 Summary and Conclusion 477 
 
 Exaggerated estimates of geological time by Lyell 
 
 and Darwin — Moderate estimates of George H. 
 
 Darwin, Wallace, and Walcott — Small ratios of 
 
Con tints xvii 
 
 Tertiary and Post-Tertiary time — Activity of 
 present geological forces — Tendency of species to 
 increase in geometrical ratio — Tremendous re- 
 sults cf the Malthusian law in prehistoric times — 
 Changes of land levels in the transition from Ter- 
 tiary to Post-Tertiary time — Effect of the accu- 
 mulation of ice on these changes — Present rate of 
 changes in land levels — Present rate of glacial 
 movements — Briefness of post-glacial time — His- 
 tory begins with a highly civilized condition of 
 man — Tendency to degeneration — This counter- 
 acted only by acceptance of outside intervention — 
 Man's origin inconceivable by purely naturalistic 
 agencies. 
 
 Appendix 497 
 
 Implements Deemed to be of Great Age from Study 
 
 of the Patinated Surfaces 524 
 
 Index 529 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Theatral area, Kncssos 32 
 
 Map of Babylonia 38 
 
 Pre-Sargonic tablet (4500 B.C.) 41 
 
 Archaic arch of Nippur 43 
 
 Prehistoric mound in Turkestan 60 
 
 Prehistoric monoliths at Aksur, Abyssinia 124 
 
 Cahokia Mound 142 
 
 Fort Ancient 144 
 
 Mound at Miamisburg, Ohio 147 
 
 Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio 150 
 
 Serpent Mound, Warren County, Ohio 151 
 
 Southern face of the Temple of the Plumed Serpent, 
 
 Xochicalco, Mexico 153 
 
 Section of Fort Ancient 156 
 Map showing glaciated areas in North America and 
 
 Europe 161 
 Preglacial scenery in New York Harbor 169 
 Land areas at the close of the Tertiary period 173 
 Bird's-eye view of Miuir Glacier in 1906, shewing a re- 
 cession of seven miles 203 
 Map showing stages in the recession of the North Amer- 
 ican ice sheet 209 
 Chipped implement from the Trenton gravels 221 
 Palaeoliths from Newcomerstown and Amiens 227 
 The Nampa image 268 
 The Venus impudica, from a prehistoric cavern in 
 
 France 269 
 
XX 
 
 Illustrations 
 
 Map of the Quaternary lakes, Bonneville and Lahontan 276 
 Map shewing Pocatello, Nampa, and the valley of 
 
 Snake River 277 
 
 Esker terrace on Miami River 294 
 
 Typical Chellean palasolith, called by Sollas " boucher " 295 
 Geography of Northwestern Europe in late Pleistocene 
 
 age 302 
 
 Gravel pit at Mauer 307 
 
 Side view of jaw found at Mauer 310 
 
 Muir Glacier, Alaska 3^5 
 
 Man of Spy . 322 
 
 Man of La Chapelle aux Saints 329 
 
 Mammoth and bison on walls of the grotto at Bernifal 331 
 
 Eolith from Puy Courny 33^ 
 Associated fragments of flints from the Thanet sands 
 
 of Belle-Assize 339 
 Naturally formed flint flakes from the Thanet sands of 
 
 Belle-Assize 34' 
 Horse on walls of the grotto at Bernifal 342 
 Mammoth from Siberia, in the Museum at St. Peters- 
 burg 363 
 Comparative anatomy of the Primates 382 
 Pithecanthropus erectus, Dubois 394 
 Map of supposed post-glacial submergence in Asia 470 
 Kansas palaeolith 527 
 
ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN 
 
Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC APPROACH 
 
 In the light of modern science it takes but a mo- 
 ment's reflection to see that the human race has had 
 a limited period of existence in the world, and is 
 destined to extinction sometime in the future. The 
 earth may be compared to a transcontinental railroad 
 train, and man a passenger boarding it at one interior 
 station only to leave it at another far short of its 
 ultimate destination. 
 
 According to the teachings of astronomy, the solar 
 s)^stem consists of centers of matter and force which 
 are slowly, but surely, parting with their heat, and 
 tending to dead uniformity in their various modes of 
 motion. The earth upon which we live is but one of 
 these cooling planetary masses, and has become fit for 
 the habitation of man only during recent geological 
 ages. A few million years ago the heat upon the sur- 
 face of the earth was so great that it would have been 
 impossible for man with his present physical constitu- 
 tion to have endured it. A few million y^ars hence,. ar.d 
 
2 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the rigors of an arctic climate will have settled down 
 over all ; for, the sun is losing his pristine vigor, and 
 finally, instead of being, as now, a source of life- 
 giving power, will himself need to be warmed at the 
 fireside of some longer lived and more fortunate 
 luminar}^ 
 
 The limits set by astronomers and physicists to the 
 conditions essential to the existence of man in the 
 world are not very definite in either direction. From 
 the rate at which the sun is at the present time part- 
 ing with its heat, many modern astronomers are 
 ready to assert that no forms of existing life could 
 have been possible upon the world 20,000,000 years 
 ago. They would compel us to bring not only the 
 history of the human race, but all palaeontology, 
 within the limits of that period. Indeed, Sir George 
 H. Darwin maintains, Avith the genius of his father, 
 that it is not more than 50,000,000 or 100,000,000 
 years ago that the birth of the moon took place, com- 
 ing verily out of the ribs of "the earth (as, in Hebrew 
 story, Eve is said to have come from man), having 
 been thrown ofF from the rotating mass of the earth, 
 as water is thrown from a grindstone, by accelerated 
 centrifuoal force. At {\r.-X the earth and moon were 
 in close proximity, and .their period of united rota- 
 tion diJ not exceed three- .hours. In short, the earth 
 
The Methods of Seieritifie Apf>ro(ieh 3 
 
 aiifl its satellite loiiLi; since passed through those stages 
 of development wliich we are now permitted to wit- 
 ness at a distance in the systems of Jupiter and 
 Saturn. 
 
 Of course at such a time organic life like that 
 with which we are familiar was entirely out of the 
 question. Everything was in an incandescent state. 
 There v.as no solid earth, and there was no water 
 either on the earth or above it ; but everything was 
 in a molten or gaseous condition. Gradually the heat 
 was dissipated, and the volume of matter contracted, 
 and the rotary motion of both the earth and the moon 
 commenced to be reduced, until the present happy 
 medium condition of affairs was reached which ren- 
 dered organic life possible. 
 
 How life began upon the earth, it is not our 
 province to ask. Whether, as some suppose, it was 
 spontaneously generated in the effervescent turmoil 
 of the cooling elements ; or whether, as others have 
 suggested, it was brought to the earth by the for- 
 tunate collision with some more fortunate planet ; 
 or whether it was brought into being by the creative 
 fiat of the Almighty, are questions which we will 
 leave for other times and opportunities of discussion. 
 Here we will simply say that those who take the last 
 alternative certainlv cannot be charged with choosing 
 
4 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the most difficult hypothesis. Even^ supposable hy- 
 pothesis makes extravagant demands upon the rea- 
 soning powers of the human mind. 
 
 In the present condition of the moon we have an 
 illustration of the ultimate condition of the earth it- 
 self, when it shall have parted with the most of its 
 rotary motion, and, like the moon in its relation to 
 the earth, shall continue its revolution about the sun 
 in substantially the same period of time as at the 
 present, but vdth a revolution upon its axis occupy- 
 ing fifty or sixty times as long a period as that now 
 required. All this is shown by the mathematicians to 
 follow through the influence of the tides, caused by 
 the attraction of the moon. The moon, being the 
 smaller body, and hence more amenable to retarding 
 influence, has already gone through this phase of its ex- 
 perience; so that it now has a solar day equal to 28^ 
 of our solar days. It is not difficult to see that, when 
 the earth shall have made but a partial approach to 
 that condition, human life — and indeed almost every 
 other kind of life — will become impossible upon it. 
 With the sun alternating a month above and a month 
 below the horizon, or indeed a week below and a 
 week above, everything would be scorched to death 
 at noon and frozen solid before morning. But long 
 ere this period arrives, the sun itself will have parted 
 
The Methods of Scientific Approach 5 
 
 with so much of its heat that even, with the present 
 rotary movement of the earth, the tijenial currents of 
 life must cease to flow. Taking a long look into the 
 future, we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that the 
 solar system is running down, and the earth is mov- 
 ing to a condition of universal glaciation. In this 
 vast secular movement, the post-glacial period is but 
 a temporary episode. 
 
 Between these dim horizons it is evident that all 
 forms of life upon the earth must have their limits, 
 while human life is possible only in a still more 
 transitory stage of the world's history. Beyond ques- 
 tion, man has been one of the latest additions to the 
 forms of life inhabiting the world ; and, while able 
 to survive the destruction of many of his companions 
 among the higher members of the animal kingdom, he 
 must also disappear long before the reign of eternal 
 winter shall have set in. It is our present purpose 
 to bring to bear upon the problem of man's origin 
 and antiquity, so far as it is possible within moderate 
 limits, all the light from all quarters that is now 
 accessible. Leaving the future of the race upon the 
 earth to the tender mercies of philosophers and theo- 
 logians, we will set about the humbler task of en- 
 deavoring to interpret the footprints which man, in 
 his progress thus far, has already left upon the sands 
 
6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of time. It will be profitable, however, at the outset, 
 to take a brief survey of the field, and to consider the 
 nature of the evidence upon which w^e must rely. 
 
 The astronomical evidence already presented dis- 
 tinctly limits our historical horizon, and brings the 
 advent of the simplest forms of life down to a period, 
 probably not more distant than 24,000,000 years; 
 while that of the higher forms of life, and of man, 
 must be indefinitely more recent.^ 
 
 Another distinct approximation may be made by 
 considering the general argument and evidence sup- 
 porting the doctrine of man's evolution in connection 
 with, if not from, the higher animals with which he 
 is associated. There are tw^o forms of evolution 
 maintained by m.en of science. The one assumes a 
 genetic connection between man and the original form 
 of life in the world. According to this, man has 
 slowly developed from an earlier form of life, and 
 that, in turn, from one earlier still, and so on, until 
 we see him emerging from the potencies involved in 
 primordial life germs. But even on this theor^^ which 
 may be either agnostic or theistic, man is the latest 
 stage of that development, and the larger part of the 
 24,000,000 years allotted to the biologist for his 
 forces of evolution to work out their results, must 
 have been absorbed in the preliminary stages of de- 
 
The Methods of Scientific Approach 7 
 
 velopment, which furnished the basis for its hiu;hest 
 attainments in the marvellous mental and moral char- 
 acteristics of man. 
 
 The bearing of the theory of evolution upon the 
 date of man's appearance in the world will depend 
 upon our conception of its -gradualness. If in our 
 scheme we adhere strictly to the arbitrary philosoph- 
 ical postulate, " Nature makes no leaps, but in every- 
 thing moves by infinitesimal steps of progress," we 
 might at once arrive at the conclusion that man's 
 antiquity w^as immensely great; for the gap which 
 separates him. from his nearest allies in the animal 
 kingdom is indeed a wide one. But on closer con- 
 sideration, it will be seen that no system of evolution 
 can be maintained which does not provide for a rate 
 of progress rapid enough to cover the whole distance 
 between protoplasm and the man of the nineteenth 
 century in, probably, 24,000,000 years, and it would 
 not seem possible to rule periods of paroxysmal prog- 
 ress entirely out of the question. 
 
 Even the most extravagant claims for the antiquity 
 of man put him late in the geological development of 
 the earth. The wildest enthusiasts would not place 
 his advent earlier than the middle of the Tertian' 
 period. But the continuance of the Tertiary and 
 Post-Tertiary periods was not more than one-sixteenth 
 
8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of geological time; so that, if life began upon the 
 earth 24,000,000 years ago, the Tertiary period could 
 have been but little more than 1,500,000 years in 
 duration. According to the estimates of Dana and 
 Winchell, the ratios of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cen- 
 ozoic times are, respectively, 12, 3, and i ; ^ while 
 Professor Henry S. Williams w^ould estimate them 
 as 15, 3, and i.'^ If we take 24,000,000, on Dana's 
 ratio we should have 18,000,000 for Palaeozoic time; 
 4,500,000, Mesozoic; and 1,500,000, Cenozoic. Cen- 
 ozoic time includes the whole period since the ap- 
 pearance of Mammalia, beginning with the Tertiary 
 period. If man is limited, as we think he is, to Post- 
 Tertiary time, considerable progress is made in our 
 approximate calculations of antiquity; for, as plaus- 
 ibly estimated by Warren Upham, Post-Tertiar}^ time 
 is not more than one-fiftieth and perhaps not more 
 than one one-hundredth of Tertiar}^ time, which, on 
 the present basis of 24,000,000, would make the limit 
 30,000 years. If geological time is extended to 48,- 
 000,000 years, the Glacial limit would be only 60,- 
 000; and if to 96,000,000 years, it would still be only 
 120,000. On the other hand, if it be taken as less 
 than 24,000,000, Post-Tertiary time will be corre- 
 spondingly diminished, as it would be on the second 
 estimate of Upham.* 
 
The Methods of Scientific A pproacli 9 
 
 Those who do not believe in a physical bond of 
 connection between man and the lower species are 
 still accredited with believing that the Creator has 
 pursued a line of ideal development in the creation 
 of species, corresponding to the development of the 
 physical conditions into w^hich the species were from 
 time to time to be ushered. According to this class 
 of reasoners, also, the date of man's creation was late 
 in the geological period. This they would infer, both 
 from the nature of the geological development of the 
 earth's surface, and from the character of the animals 
 that were introduced in the various stages of its 
 progress, — the animals and plants most nearly allied 
 to man, and upon which he is most dependent, being 
 clearly confined to the later stages of the earth's his- 
 tory. 
 
 So far, therefore, in our reasoning, the general 
 considerations derived from both astronomy and ge- 
 ology will limit the possibility of the existence of the 
 human race upon the earth to a period, at the very- 
 utmost, of a few hundred thousand, and probably less 
 than 100,000, years in length. With this general 
 limitation of the field, we will apply ourselves to the 
 task of examining the more definite lines of evidence 
 bearing upon the question in hand, dealing, first. 
 
TO Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 with the specific evidence determining a minimum date 
 of his arrival. In doing this v^e shall consider: (i) the 
 evidence derived from ordinary historical documents; 
 (2) the evidence derived from linguistic differences; 
 and (3) the geological evidence. We shall then be in 
 position to consider fairly what extension of time may 
 be demanded by both the physiological and psycho- 
 logical evidence supposed to sustain the doctrine of 
 man's development from some lower order of the 
 animal creation. Here, however, it is important to 
 pause a little to ascertain what we mean by some of 
 the terms employed. Man himself needs definition. 
 What is the specific element which differentiates man 
 from the rest of the animal creation? With some, 
 this is thought to be the power of self-consciousness 
 and of carrying on sustained processes of inductive 
 reasoning. With others, the specific character of the 
 human race is thought to be the use of articulate 
 speech. According to these, the first grammarian was 
 the first man. But if these are indeed the determin- 
 ing elements of hvmianity, some more specific form 
 of manifestation is required to provide the evidence 
 needed to prove his past existence. For the rational 
 mind can reveal itself only as its acts receive material 
 embodiment. Such an embodiment is found most 
 clearly in written language, whether inscribed on the 
 
The Methods of Scientific Approach i i 
 
 rocks, stamped on clay tablets, or scrawled with per- 
 ishable pigments upon equally perishable paper. 
 
 But the art of writing involves a still more fun- 
 damental material embodiment of thought, namely, 
 the use of tools; for paper and ink and pen are ma- 
 terial instruments requiring a high order of inventive 
 genius. One of the simplest and most descriptive 
 definitions of man, therefore, is " a tool-using animal." 
 Without fear of fundamental error, we may say that 
 the point at which the animal begins to make use of 
 tools, and to combine with their use that of the more 
 subtle instrument fire, marks his passage to manhood. 
 Whether by evolution or creation, this step marks 
 the real beginning of a human race with all its tri- 
 umphs over nature. It is not strange, therefore, that 
 the heathen philosophers of Greece and Rome looked 
 upon the production and preservation of fire as a 
 divine gift. But we -find that primitive man ever>'- 
 w^here produces it at will by friction. Even thus, 
 however, it may well be regarded as a divine gift, 
 since the ingenuity to produce it can scarcely be 
 thought of as less than a direct inspiration from above 
 So also in the use of tools and clothing there is in- 
 volved a power to dominate nature, of the ver>' high- 
 est significance. 
 
 Fortunately for science in these later days, the prim- 
 
12 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ftlve use of both tools and fire, has left indestructible 
 marks of man's earliest occupation of the earth. In 
 the caverns to which primeval man resorted for pro- 
 tection, both against the elements and against his 
 enemies of various sorts., the fires he lighted changed 
 the color of the soil upon which they were built, and 
 left other indelible marks of man's presence. Rough 
 stone implements seem at first sight indicative of a 
 low order of intelligence, but it is fortunate for the 
 historian of later times that early man was limited to 
 the use of tools which rust could not corrupt. For 
 it may be seriously questioned, whether the age of 
 iron will leave any such permanent records as are fur- 
 nished by the rough stone implements which primitive 
 man used during the River I^rift period in Europe 
 and America, and which have been preserved in the 
 original position in which they were lost in the grow- 
 ing gravel banks of the Glacial epoch. 
 
 Nor are we permitted to assign too low a stage of 
 development to those primitive men who successfully 
 prevailed over nature with implements more primi- 
 tive than the bow and the arrow. For we must dis- 
 tinguish between the development of the individual 
 and the development of the race. Division of labor 
 is a necessary condition of the highest progress of the 
 race considered as a whole; but this division dooms 
 
The Methods of Scientific /lf>proacli l^ 
 
 the lar*^er part of the race to a one-sidul and imperfect 
 development both of body and of mind. Both the 
 eyes and the ears of the civilized man are less acute 
 than those of the savage; while it is only the favored 
 few who can secure symmetrical physical development 
 and broad mental training. The modern artisan, lim- 
 ited by his occupation to spending his days in making 
 the fiftieth part of a shoe, has small chance to become 
 a highly developed individual. 
 
 We shall certainly do primitive man a great injus- 
 tice if we measure his individual advancement by 
 comparing his tools with those which are turned out 
 from a modern cutlery shop. For to make a palaeo- 
 lithic implement involves more individual skill than 
 is required by the ordinary workman to make a 
 watch. The chief difference in the product is that 
 in the making of a watch we have the combined skill 
 of successive generations of inventors. Successive 
 generations had slowly learned to separate the iron 
 from the ore, and to temper it and fashion it into the 
 delicate hairspring and the complicated cogwheels of 
 the modern timepiece. All this skill was a bequest 
 to the modern workman. But the palaeolithic imple- 
 ment was made by one man, and each chip struck off 
 from the original core of flint was the embodiment of 
 a far-seeing design. Nor did the production of the 
 
14 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 implement end the matter of individual development. 
 To get one's living with such a tool would be beyond 
 the power of a civilized man. Any of us would be 
 slow to venture into the presence of a gigantic ani- 
 mal of the River Drift period without a more effect- 
 ive weapon of attack than was furnished by the stone 
 hatchet of the River Drift man. 
 
 In endeavoring, as we shall be compelled to do, 
 to arrive at conclusions concerning the antiquity of 
 man by the use of circumstantial evidence, we shall 
 at the outset meet a serious difficulty in fixing upon 
 a standard of progress by which to measure the rate 
 of the succession of events. Whether in geology, biol- 
 ogy, or in history, we shall be confronted with the 
 questions which separate both the men of science and 
 the historians into three classes, according as they 
 adopt a theory of uniformitarianism, catastrophism, or 
 evolutionism. As the question of man's antiquity is 
 partly historical, partly geological, and partly biolog- 
 ical, it is essential at the outset, to form an opinion 
 concerning the constancy and regularity of the causes 
 at work to produce the changes which we see to be 
 in progress. 
 
 In geology before the publication (in 1830) of 
 Sir Charles Lyell's epoch-making " Principles of Ge- 
 
The Methods of Scientific Apf^romh i5 
 
 ologjs" the accepted theory of progress had been that 
 of catastrophism. It was supposed that all the great 
 mountain systems of the world had been upheaved by 
 sudden impulses in brief periods of time; that all 
 mountain gorges had been formed by instantaneous 
 displays of force, suddenly rending the mountains 
 asunder, and that all the vast thicknesses of sediment 
 which characterize geological periods had been depos- 
 ited by floods and tidal waves with a rapidity defying 
 all calculation. At every point this theory of changes 
 was " prodigal of force and parsimonious of time." 
 The words of Scripture were applied in a literal sense, 
 and the mountains w^ere made to skip like rams, and 
 the little hills like lambs; and geological forces, like 
 leviathan, were thought to have made the sea boil like 
 a pot continually. 
 
 But with Lyell came in the spirit of quietism. The 
 present was set up as the perfect standard of the past, 
 and an effort was made to explain all geological phe- 
 nomena by the action of forces of the same intensity 
 with those which are known to be productive of ex- 
 isting geological changes. This hypothesis, as pushed 
 by many of its advocates, was justly open to the taunt 
 of being '' prodigal of time and parsimonious of 
 force," and was not inaptly dubbed " the Homeo- 
 pathic theory of dynamics." 
 
1 6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 With our present survey of facts, however, the 
 strict doctrine of uniformitarianism seems little less 
 than absurd ; for reallj' there is no such thing as exact 
 uniformity in nature. There is continuity ; there is 
 connection of cause and effect ; but there is always 
 progress and development; and, in justice to Sir 
 Charles Lyell, it should be said, that his doctrine of 
 uniformitarianism, by which he made the forces of 
 the present a measure of the geological activities of 
 the past, has been much misunderstood. Sir Charles 
 Lyell's " present time " was not the present of to- 
 day, nor of a single centur}^ nor. indeed of a millen- 
 nium: his "present" comprehended a w^hole cycle of 
 observation and inference. His work consisted not 
 so much in diminishing our conception of the intensity 
 of past geological forces, as of increasing our concep- 
 tion of the intensity of present geological agencies. 
 His great book is largely a record of earthquakes and 
 volcanic eruptions and of the knov/n changes of level 
 in continents and islands, joined with a vivid presen- 
 tation of the vast effects finally produced by the cumu- 
 lative action of slow causes operating through long 
 periods of time. 
 
 The work of Lyell in checking crude theories of 
 catastrophisni has led to a more reasonable theory, 
 comprehended in the single but verv elastic word 
 
The MeihoJs of Scientific Jpprodcli i? 
 
 •' evolution." The :j;eolo<^ists of to-day are neither 
 catastr()phist> nor iiniformitarians, hut evohitionists. 
 When we say that they are evolutionists, however, 
 we do not mean that they have adopted a material- 
 istic theory of the universe, but that, in their study 
 of the facts of nature, of the proi2;ress of natural 
 events, and of the interaction of natural causes, they 
 find that every combination of natural forces is sub- 
 ject to change; that, while there is continuity of 
 development, there is never uniformity; that to-day 
 is not as yesterday, and that they have no reason to 
 expect that to-morrow will be exactly like to-day. 
 Still, within narrow limits of time, they can, from a 
 study of the present, forecast with reasonable proba- 
 bility a considerable portion of the future, and infer 
 the condition of a considerable portion of the past. 
 But they cannot fail to see that the slow moving; 
 causes which reveal themselves in the phenomena of 
 to-day by no means disclose in those phenomena their 
 full power. The wise evolutionist leaves the field 
 open for catastrophes, both those which are calcula- 
 ^ ble and those which are incalculable, both seen and 
 unseen. For example, the strain of natural forces 
 upon the crust of the earth is like the action of a 
 force which bends a bow. Up to a certain linu't, ad- 
 ditional increments of force mav be applied without 
 
1 8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the production of a catastrophe; but there comes a 
 point when the limit of resistance is reached, and the 
 bow must snap, and the strata of the earth must be 
 ruptured, and in each a catastrophe is produced. 
 
 There is no end to illustrations which might be ad- 
 duced to show that the course of nature never runs 
 smoothly for any great length of time. The forces 
 of nature are, indeed, evolving, but it is by a parox- 
 ysmal process. The elder Agassiz when he died was 
 preparing for the press a series of articles in which 
 he promised to show, first, that the geological record 
 of America was more nearly perfect than that found 
 anj^where else in the world; and, secondly, that it 
 recorded a series of catastrophes which were so de- 
 structive of life as to necessitate as many creative in- 
 terventions for the living species as there had been 
 catastrophes. It is the general opinion of geologists 
 that he exaggerated the suddenness of these catastro- 
 phes and the completeness of the destruction of life 
 in connection with them. But the best informed 
 geologists maintain with increasing confidence that 
 the siow development of the geological conditions of 
 the plains and mountains west of the Mississippi 
 River has been marked by successive periods or epochs 
 of rapid changes both in the geological conditions and 
 in the forms of life dependent upon them. 
 
Till' Methods of Sr'nntific Apl^rodch i <; 
 
 In the \\or(ls of Le Coiitc, \\hcn spcakinjj; of the 
 transition from the Silurian to the Devonian forma- 
 tion, " it is impossible to overlook the compdrative 
 suddenness of the appearance of a new class (fishes) 
 and a new department (Vertebrates) of the animal 
 kingdom. Observe that at the horizon of appearance 
 in the uppermost Silurian there is no apparent break 
 in the strata, and therefore no evidence of lost 
 record; and yet the advance is immense. It is im- 
 possible to account for this, unless we admit parox- 
 ysms of more rapid movement of evolution — unless 
 we admit that when conditions are favorable and the 
 time is ripe for a particular change, it takes place 
 with exceptional rapidity, perhaps in a few genera- 
 tions." Again, the Permian formation represents a 
 period of transition between the Palaeozoic and the 
 ATesozoic system of rocks. The greatest change of 
 organisms in the whole histon- of the earth appar- 
 ently took place in the midst of the conformable strata 
 of this period. From this he reasons, as before, that 
 the transition must have been comparatively rapid. 
 Again, between the Alesozoic era, or age of reptiles, 
 and the Cenozoic, or age of mammals, there is a 
 great break in the life system, and m Europe, in the 
 rock system, — the strata there being universally un- 
 conformable, — whereas in America " the record seems 
 
20 Ori(rin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to be continuous," — "conformable rocks connecting 
 the two ems. . . This it seems impossible to explain 
 on the theor}^ of evolution, unless we admit periods 
 of rapid evolution." ■' 
 
 Some of the headlines in Dana's " Geology " serve 
 to emphasize this point. The formation of the moun- 
 tains bordering the eastern part of the United States 
 he refers to as the "Appalachian revolution." For a 
 long period the whole Mississippi basin, extending to 
 the eastern limit of the Appalachian range, was an 
 area of subsidence. Slowly and regularly the bottom 
 of the shallow sea which covered it sank, keeping 
 pace with the accumulation of sediment and of vege- 
 table material which when hardened into rock con- 
 stitute the vast Coal Measures of the United States. 
 But at a well-defined point of time the reverse pro- 
 cess began. These beds w^ere lifted above sea level, 
 and the eastern portions of them wrinkled up into 
 the folds of the Appalachian Mountains, carrying the 
 coal beds to their very summits. At 'the same time, 
 this movement was connected with profound changes 
 in the animnl and vegetable life of the continent. 
 
 Indeed, this is the story which is told in all the 
 fields where are displaj^ed the facts pertaining to the 
 most recent epochs of geological history. The great 
 mountain-buihling eras of the world's history have 
 
77/<- Methods of Scientific .IpM-onch l\ 
 
 been it'w and far between. The earh'est mountains 
 have loivj since virtually disappeared from the world 
 through the ever-active agencies of denudation. It 
 asked why the Andes, and the Rocky Mountains, and 
 the Alps, and the Himalayas are so lofty, it v.ould 
 be correct to answer, Because they are so youni^. 
 The last crreat m.ountain-buildinp; era of the world's 
 history is, geologically speaking, very close to us. The 
 mountains all along the western portion of North 
 America have been raised to their present lofty ele- 
 vations mainly in late IVrtiary and Post-Tertiary 
 tim.es. Middle Tertian- strata crown the summit of 
 the Alps 13,000 feet above sea level, and there is 
 equally conclusive evidence that the Himalaya IVIoun- 
 tains have been raised even to a greater elevation 
 since the middle portion of the Tertiary period. 
 
 In the Glacial epoch we have another illustration 
 of the cumulative effect of slowly acting causes, lead- 
 ing at length to the production of catastrophes upon 
 the grandest scale. During the long stretches of time 
 which marked the different portions of the Tertiary 
 period, r.othing could have seemed more unlikely than 
 what subsequently occurred in the great Ice Age: 
 for, during the greater part of the Tertiary period 
 a genial, subtropical climate prevailed without inter- 
 ruption over the northern part of British America, 
 
22 
 
 Oriir'in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Nova Zcm- 
 bla. Meanwhile the great plains of America west 
 of the Mississippi River were covered with vast lakes 
 into which were pouring sluggish streams of fresh 
 water from alm.ost every side, entombing in their 
 sediment vast herds of animals like the camel, the 
 elephant, and the hippopotamus, which are adapted 
 to a warm temperate climate. 
 
 But this genial condition of things was brought to 
 a close by the changes which introduced the Glacial 
 epoch. Gradually the northern part both of Europe 
 and America was elevated to a height that in connec- 
 tion with other causes brought on the rigors of what 
 we now call an arctic climate. But if we had lived 
 before the Glacial epoch the word " arctic " would 
 have had a very different meaning from that w^hich 
 it now possesses ; for the arctic zone was then tem- 
 perate. At the same time the axis of the Rocky 
 Mountains was elevated some thousands of feet, so 
 as to tilt the plains upon the east and empty out the 
 water from the great Tertiary lakes, and prepare 
 them for the habitation of man, — a drainage enter- 
 prise of Nature in comparison with which all human 
 schemes seem insignificant. 
 
 Considered in themselves the changes introducing 
 the Glacial epoch w^ould have seemed to proceed 
 
The Methods of Scietitific Jpproaeh 23 
 
 slowly. It man had been living at that time, it is 
 not probable that in any single generation he would 
 have been able to perceive and mark the change. 
 Nevertheless, geologically speaking, it was so rapid as 
 to constitute a series of catastrophes. The physical 
 conditions, which for hundreds of thousands of years 
 had been comparatively uniform, now^ underwent a 
 change so rapid as to lead to the extinction of a large 
 number of the species of plants and animals which 
 then existed. The plants and animals of the present 
 day are, indeed, without doubt, descendants of the 
 plants and animals of the Tertiary period. But they 
 are descendants that have adopted habits and forms 
 peculiar to themselves. They are survivals from the 
 extrem.e variations of that period. Most of the 
 genera to which modern species belong, existed in the 
 latter part of the T^rtmrj^ period; but the species are 
 different. There were, indeed, then in North America 
 vast herds of camels, horses, elephants, rhinoceroses, 
 hippopotamuses, tapirs, and various other animals re- 
 sembling modern types. But none of these survived 
 in America, the only remnants of the genera being 
 preserved in portions of the Eastern continent. Rela- 
 tively, therefore, to the tenacity of life in species, the 
 change introducing the Glacial epoch was so rapid 
 as to merit the name of a catastrophe. 
 
24 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 In the natural development of things, the closing 
 scenes of the Glacial epoch Involved catastrophes of 
 a still more striking character. The gradualness with 
 which the refrigeration culminating in the Glacial 
 epoch proceeded, Is witnessed to bj^ the gradual dis- 
 placement of warm-water species of shells by arctic 
 species over the area of sea bottom which was event- 
 ually^ covered by ice. On the eastern shore of Eng- 
 land, for instance, the gradation from subtropical 
 species of shell-fish to arctic species Is complete In 
 the beds of Cromer.^ But as the events connected 
 with the breaking up of winter are much more 
 striking than those connected wnth Its beginnings, so 
 the final breaking up of glacial conditions w\as a series 
 of catastrophes. All the lines of drainage leading 
 outw^ard from the vast mass of the accumulated ice 
 became periodically gorged with floods and choked 
 with floating ice upon an enormous scale. At the 
 same time the morainic debris, brought in many in- 
 stances from distant regions, and which had been 
 held In an Icy grasp, was set at liberty, to become 
 the prey of the swollen floods, and to combine with 
 the loose fragments of ice still further to choke the 
 water courses and partially obstruct the lines of drain- 
 age. Thus with great rapidity there wTre built up 
 those vast lines of gravel deposits which mark the 
 
7V/r Methods of Scientific Af^proach 2S 
 
 course of all the streams which How outward from 
 the ,^hiciated rei^ion in North America. The ter- 
 races along these streams at the present time repre- 
 sent simply what is left from that period by the 
 streams which are slowly reoccupying and reeroding 
 the \alle\s which were choked up by the debris during 
 the Hoods of the Glacial epoch. As we shall see later, 
 it is in deposits connected with these closing catastro- 
 phes of the Glacial epoch that we chieliy find the 
 earliest relics of the lumian race. 
 
 In estimating the antiquity of such relics, we shall 
 have to be on our guard both against extending un- 
 duly the analogies of the present time and against 
 exaggerated views of the briefness of time occupied 
 by such a series of geological catastrophes as were 
 evidently connected with the close of the Glacial 
 epoch. For, as we can see, such catastrophes as arc 
 connected with the annual breaking up of the ice 
 upon our northern rivers every spring, and which are 
 limited to a few days, would in the movements of 
 the Glacial epoch be represented by many centuries. 
 
 From this brief discussion of the conditions con- 
 tributing to, and attending, the physical changes 
 which have taken place in the geological history of 
 the world, it will be seen that estimates of geological 
 
26 Oris^in and Ajitiquity of Man 
 
 time cannot safely be made offhand. The significance 
 of finding the evidence of man's antiquity connected 
 with that of important geological changes is not so 
 great as at first sight it might appear to be, for 
 there is abroad a mistaken impression that whatever 
 is geological is also ancient; whereas geological forces 
 are now at work with a considerable degree of in- 
 tensity, and geological changes of great importance 
 may be very recent as W£ll as very ancient. The 
 determination of the length of time required to ac- 
 count for the geological changes which have taken 
 place since man left the indications of his presence 
 in the world w^ill require a definite study of each 
 instance and of all attending circumstances. 
 
 So, also, there is no royal road anyw^here to the . 
 knowledge of man's antiquity. Especially will it be 
 necessary to bear this caution in mind when consider- 
 ing the argument for antiquity drawn from the 
 physiological changes which have taken place since 
 man's original appearance in the world, and from his 
 diversification into the various races which are now 
 scattered over the surface of the earth. For the 
 present stability of races may be, and probably is, 
 correlated to the stability of the physical conditions 
 now existing; while the paroxysmal clianges through 
 which the race may have been called to pass in the 
 
The Methods of Siicnlific Apf^roach 27 
 
 early staizcs of its liistory may have resulted in a 
 correspoiuliiiLily more rapid rate of chanize in man 
 himself while becoming adapted to new conditions. 
 
 Most of all shall we find these cautions necessary 
 in drawing inferences concerning the time required 
 for the development of the various stages of civiliza- 
 tion. Necessity is the mother of Invention, and a 
 prolonged subjection of the race to conditions in 
 which mental development Is of special advantage 
 will be sure to quicken the pace of that development ; 
 so that here, also, we shall not find any ready-made 
 rule by which to gauge the rise of the culture of an- 
 tiquity and to estimate our distance in time from it. 
 
 Finally, a glance at the vicissitudes through which 
 animals and man have been called to pass in their 
 struggle to maintain existence will make It easy for 
 us to believe that there has been a divinity shaping 
 the ends of life, and determining the course of its 
 tortuous development. The maintenance of organic 
 life in continuity of development, especially of the 
 higher forms of life, is dependent upon so many del- 
 icate adjustments that we are not at liberty to believe 
 that it has been secured without design. Especially Is 
 the argument from design convincing when we see 
 coming into existence man, the supreme and most 
 exquisite flower of the course of nature. 
 
28 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Properly enough, we attempt to distinguish be- 
 tween history and natural history, but it must be con- 
 fessed that it is somewhat difficult to draw the divid- 
 ing line. By some, history is limited to inquiries 
 concerning the origin and life of nations, thus rele- 
 gating to natural history the whole period previous 
 to that of written records; for it Is scarcely possible 
 to conceive of any extensive development of national 
 life without the aid to organization furnished by 
 written language. 
 
 It might be thought that a code of laws could be 
 transmitted by memory, as the Rig- Veda Is transmitted 
 even at the present time and as the Talmud was trans- 
 mitted for about five centuries ; but, although this may 
 have been done to some extent, the natural perversity of 
 human nature is such that it fails to remember what 
 Is not to Its advantage, and a fixed code would be 
 rendered Impossible by conflicting Interests. In the 
 case of the sacred writings mentioned above, super- 
 stition was a powerful ally In maintaining the purity 
 
The Historical Evidence 29 
 
 of the text. Men did not dare to change it. A 
 code of laws would have no such backiivj;, ami only 
 a written or inscribed text would be able to furnish 
 a positive and unchanging basis of procedure, since a 
 ruler's memory would dominate the situation other- 
 wise and the code would change to suit his fancy 
 at the moment. A favorite might thus warp the 
 laws, and anarchy would soon follow. 
 
 Written records are found not only in books, but 
 on monuments and coins, and furnish us the most 
 copious and important information concerning the 
 past; but their value depends in great degree upon 
 the proximity of the historian to the facts he pur- 
 ports to record. Tradition loses its value after three 
 or four generations. Still, with the present length 
 of human life, a pretty correct account of leading 
 events can be preserved by tradition for a period of 
 130 or 140 years. A person who is seventy-five 
 years old can easily transmit from memory some very 
 definite facts related to him by those whose memory 
 goes back to events which occurred 130 years before. 
 Perhaps in earlier times, before the art of writing 
 was generally practised, tradition may have pre- 
 served a credible account of the events for a much 
 loniier period, but the tendency to the conversion of 
 story into legend through the increments of subjec- 
 
30 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 tive speculation is probably so nearly irresistible at 
 all times as to make tradition valueless for historical 
 purposes after the third or fourth generation, except 
 where it has been held in check by written documents, 
 by inscriptions, or by national or social observances. 
 According to Sir W. Muir, out of 600,000 tradi- 
 tions current 200 years after the death of Mahomet, 
 not more than 2,000 could be deemed to have the 
 slightest claim to be regarded as authentic. 
 
 Bearing these considerations in mind, we shall 
 find that written history conducts us but a small 
 portion of the distance back into the vistas of time 
 during which man has existed upon the earth; while 
 many of the most important earliest records either 
 will present difficulties of interpretation or will be of 
 doubtful authenticity. For instance, the Chinese 
 records carry back the authentic history .of the em- 
 pire only to the founding of the dynasty of Yaho, 
 in the year 2357 R-C, from which time regular his- 
 torical records have been preserved. Previous to 
 that time the accounts are too evidently mythical to 
 be of any value. 
 
 The classical literature of Greece carries us back 
 only a short distance into the early history of the 
 human race. It is not until the fifth century before 
 the Christian era that systematic historians like He- 
 
The Historical Ivridcncc 3 1 
 
 rodotiis and Thucxdidcs arose, and cvidnitly tlu'ir 
 opinion upon the remote antiquities of the nation is 
 of slii2;ht value. The poems of Homer had been re- 
 duced to writing perhaps four hundred years before 
 Herodotus made his memorable contribution to the 
 history of the world, that is, at about the year 850 
 B.C. ; and the Trojan War, which they commemorate, 
 occurred only three or four hundred years earlier, 
 or possibly about 1200 B.C. Beyond this period we 
 are left to inference from very uncertain data for the 
 construction of Grecian histor}- ; while Roman history 
 begins nearly five hundred years later than that of 
 Greece. 
 
 A new chapter in Grecian histor^^ however, has 
 been opened by the explorations of Evans, Murray, 
 Burrows, and others in the Island of Crete/ where, 
 at Knossos, there has been uncovered the Labyrinth 
 which Daedalus is reputed to have built for Minos, 
 who is no lonj^er considered a mere fabulous mon- 
 ster. In this remarkable palace evidence is brought 
 to liidit of a pre-Grecian civilization connecting it- 
 self with the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt between 30t>o 
 and 4000 years before Christ. Here have been found 
 numerous statues, paintings, and architectural designs, 
 rivalling in excellence the products of the classic 
 period of Grecian art, but antedating them by three 
 
llic Historical Evidence 33 
 
 niillcnniums. liulecel, the ruin which ovcrwhchiicd 
 the capital of the Sea Kinjj;s of Crete occurred as 
 early as 1400 B.C., coeval with the Dynasty of Am- 
 enhotep III, at the time when luxury was under- 
 minins: Egyptian civilization, and two hundred years 
 before the siege of Troy. Furthermore, beneath the 
 foundations of the palace, twenty-five or thirty feet 
 of debris were excavated, containing relics of the 
 stone age, such as are found extensively all over Eu- 
 rope. But the data for estimating the rate of the 
 accumulation of this debris are so uncertain that one 
 is not warranted in allowing for it more than a few 
 centuries, or at most one or two thousand years. 
 
 It is only when we turn to the valleys of the Nile 
 and the Euphrates that we get back any appreciable 
 distance towards the origin of the human race 
 through written records. It is the more important 
 to get clearly before our minds the trustworthy teach- 
 ing of the earliest records of these nations, since it 
 is from their histories as a starting point that we set 
 out upon the more difficult problem of tracing the 
 progress of human events in earlier times by the 
 vague and obscure data afforded by geology, by the 
 science of language, and by natural- history. The 
 main problem immediateK" before us will, therefore, 
 
34 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 be to give a reasonable account of man as we find 
 him in the stage of civilization to which he had ar- 
 rived according to the records on the earliest Egyp- 
 tian and Babylonian monuments. 
 
 From the evidence found in the literature and the 
 monuments of these early empires in the valleys of 
 the Nile and the Euphrates of the progress already 
 attained by the human race in art and science and 
 literature, and from the indications of the extent to 
 which the peculiarities of race and language had then 
 already become fixed, we may get a standard of some 
 value with which to measure the preceding ages. 
 Indeed, if we might assume that the progress of the 
 human race had been in all times uniform, it would 
 seem to be an easy matter to determine the date of 
 its origin by a simple rule of three. Given, for ex- 
 ample, the amount of physical change which has 
 taken place in the races of the world since the be- 
 ginning of Egyptian history, and, given the progress 
 which has been made in the mental and moral devel- 
 opment of man in that time, the question would be, 
 How far would the line of progress have to ex- 
 tend to reach the point where mankind first emerged 
 from the lowest level of his primitive condition? 
 Hut unfortunately, as we have already seen, the prob- 
 lem is not so simple as this would make it appear. 
 
The Historical Evidence 35 
 
 The doctrine of uniformity in the progress of 
 events, either in nature or in human history, is hy no 
 means established, and is not involved in any rational 
 doctrine of evolution. As already stated, there are fre- 
 quent paroxysms in nature, when slowly accumulating 
 forces display themselves suddenly, and reveal effects for 
 which previous observation could have done little to 
 prepare us. The geologist has learned to recognize 
 catastrophes in nature as well as the infinitesimal 
 steps which mark the more quiescent stages of prog- 
 ress. 
 
 But especially are we compelled to recognize these 
 paroxysmal stages of progress in human history. It 
 is indeed true that a great leader is dependent for 
 success upon his environment, or, in other words, 
 upon the preparation for his work which he finds 
 around him. Luther could have accomplished noth- 
 ing without the German people ; but, on the other 
 hand, the German people would have accomplished 
 little in t!ie way of reform without their Luther. 
 Alexander and Caesar are worthy of all the honor 
 bestowed upon them for their militan' and political 
 accomplishments; even though it be true that, with- 
 out the peculiar material and moral conditions sur- 
 rounding them they would have made little mark in 
 the world. In all such movements there are the lead- 
 
36 Origin and Atit'iquity of Man 
 
 ers and the led. When the preparation is made and 
 the requisite moral and phj^sical forces are in exist- 
 ence, a genius can change the face of history in a single 
 decade. But without the timel}^ appearance of the ge- 
 nius all these accumulated forces would be dissipated. 
 We cannot, therefore, reasonably escape the con- 
 clusion that history is naturally divided into epochs 
 which are marked by rapid stages in their develop- 
 ment. No one, for example, can deny that the ap- 
 pearance of Jesus Christ introduced transforming 
 agencies which rapidly changed the whole course of 
 human events. Mohammedanism, too, arose suddenly 
 through the influence of Mohammed's remarkable 
 personality. So, also, the discovery of America would 
 not have been accomplished without the agency of a 
 personality like that of Columbus. For thousands of 
 years Europe and Asia had waited for it. But vvhen it 
 came, a new order in the world's history rapidly de- 
 veloped. And so through the discovery of steam and 
 electricity, the whole world has been transformed, 
 superficially, in a single century. Indeed, more 
 progress has been made in the forms of material civ- 
 ilization during the past century than was made in 
 the preceding four thousand years. In America a 
 new order of political development was made possible 
 by the exalted personality of Washington. It is use- 
 
The Historical FA'idince 37 
 
 less to say that the American Revolution was inevit- 
 able from slow workini:^ causes. W^ithout such a 
 leader as Wa^hini^ton the whole movement would 
 have been futile. With incapacity and personal am- 
 bition in command the ship of state would have been 
 beached on the surroundinp^ shoals or broken to 
 pieces on the hidden rocks of a tempestuous sea. The 
 same is true concerning the outcome of the civil war 
 in the United States when slavery was abolished. It 
 was the unique personality of Abraham Lincoln 
 which held the forces of the North together and made 
 them effective. So it has always been. Without ex- 
 ception the turning points in the world's history have 
 been marked by the appearance of great leaders whose 
 personal characteristics are not accounted lor by any 
 known law of natural causes. Geniuses do not spring 
 spontaneously out of the ground. 
 
 With these cautions in mind, we will turn to the 
 immediate task in hand, and attempt to follow back 
 the thread of history as brought to light by the litera- 
 ture, the inscriptions, and the monuments preserved 
 in the ruins of Babylonia and Egypt. 
 
 AXTIOUITY OF RABVLOXIAX CIVILIZATIOX 
 
 Inscriptions in the Euphrates Valley easily carr\' 
 us back to about 3000 B.C., and probably to a con- 
 
The Ilistoricfil Evidence 39 
 
 sidernhly cnrlicr date. Some time duriiifi; tliat in- 
 definite period, Semitic bands apparently from the 
 plateaus of Eastern Arabia entered the valley of the 
 Euphrates, and took possession of various cities of 
 an indigenous race (the Sumerians) that had already 
 acquired a written language and attained a high de- 
 gree of civilization. Among these cities, beginning at 
 the south, were Eridu, Ur (Mugheir), Lagash 
 (Telloh), Larsa (Senkereh), Nippur (Nuf^ar), 
 Uruk (Warka), Babylon, Sippar (Abu Hobba), 
 Ninevah, and Haran. Ur of the Chaldees, spoken 
 of in Biblical history as the birthplace of Abraham, 
 still exists in the ruins of Mugheir. 
 
 But strange changes have passed over the region 
 since that early time. When Terah and Abraham 
 left their native land (Gen. xi. 31), Ur was a mari- 
 time city, with harbor and docks. The Euphrates 
 and the Tigris then entered the sea by separate out- 
 lets, and Ur was not far from the mouth of the 
 Euphrates. But the ever-present sediment of these 
 mighty rivers has long since silted up the upper part 
 of the Persian Gulf until now these ruins are 150 
 miles from the mouth of the river. Ur was then the 
 seat of an active intellectual life. The other cities 
 mentioned contained numerous public buildings and 
 
40 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 libraries, which show that the cuneiform system of 
 writing had already attained its full development. 
 Irrigation was practised so as to develop the resources 
 of the country to their fullest extent; while religious 
 differences appeared which indicate a long previous 
 historic Ur was the center of the worship of the 
 moon-god, Larsa of the sun, Uruk of Ishtar, and Nip- 
 pur of Bel. 
 
 At a still earlier date we have the records of Sar- 
 gon and Naram-Sin, his son, the former of whom 
 styles himself " king of Agade, (Accad)" a city forty 
 or fifty miles north of Babylon. Sargon was a great 
 warrior, extending his conquests to the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, a distance of a thousand miles. The 
 following inscription is the account he gives of his own 
 deeds: "For forty-five years I have ruled the king- 
 dom. The Accadian race I have governed. In multitudes 
 of bronze chariots I rode over rugged lands. I gov- 
 erned the upper countries. Three times to the coasts 
 of the sea I advanced." Sargon's date (about 3800 
 B.C.) is now pretty definitely settled, through an in- 
 scribed cylinder of Nabonidus, the last king of Baby- 
 lon (.550 B.C.), who, speaking of repairs which he 
 made upon one of the temples, says, that beneath the 
 foundations, or as we should say in the cornerstone, 
 he found an inscription, deposited by the great Sar- 
 
77/(' Historical Evidence 41 
 
 uon's son, '' which for thrice thousand and twice 
 hiiiulred years none of tlie kiii;j;s that had lived hefore 
 him had seen." - This would give, as stated above, 
 to Naram-Sin, Sargon's son, the date of 3750 B.C., 
 and to his father 3800 B.C. Other independent doc- 
 uments corroborate this statement on the cylinder of 
 Nabonidus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pre-Sargunic Tablet (4500 B.C.)- (CV)uitesy of the S. S. 
 Times Co.) 
 
42 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 By another route we are brought to an equally 
 early date in the history of the same region. The 
 Assyrian king Assurbanipal was the founder of a 
 great library at Nineveh. For a long time he was 
 at war with the Elamites, in the lower part of the 
 valley, and at length captured its capital, Shushan (or 
 Susa). This was in 645 B.C. In the inscriptions he 
 records that he found in the temple at Susa the statue 
 of a Chaldean goddess which had been carried away 
 from the city of Warka by the king of Elam 1635 
 years before. The Assyrian king says that he restored 
 this statue to its own sanctuary in Warka. Adding 
 together the dates above given, we are carried back 
 to the year 2280 B.C. The condition of civilization 
 implied by this Elamite conquest in 2280 indicates, 
 according to ordinary experience, a long preliminary 
 stage, which would very probably coincide with the 
 date already given for the founding of Accad.^ 
 
 Efforts have been made to discredit this inference 
 of Nabonidus but at most Sargon's date is only 
 brought down a thousand years, to 2800 B.C. There 
 is, however, probably no good reason for disputing 
 the higher estimate. But even if it should be reduced, 
 the argument for the great antiquity of the human 
 race in the Euphrates Valley is by no means discred- 
 ited ; for there is abundant evidence of a long period 
 
The Iltstoricdl Evidence 
 
 43 
 
 of civilization in Babylonia prcccdinf^ the clays of Sar- 
 gon and Naram-Sin. 
 
 In the exxavations by the Philadelphia Expedi- 
 tion at Nippur, Mr. Haynes found thirty feet of 
 debris below the pavement of Naram-Sin. This 
 debris represents the slow accumulation which takes 
 place in Eastern cities built of sun-dried bricks, where 
 
 Archaic arch of Nippur (about 4000 B.C./. 
 the S. S. Times Co.) 
 
 ( C (>UI lC>\ (U 
 
44 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the street slowly rises above the level of the house 
 floors until the easiest way to remedy the growing 
 inconvenience is to fill up the houses and start on a 
 new level. It is thus that the mound marking the 
 site of Nippur in the Euphrates Valley reached such 
 an elevation that still in ruins it averages sixty feet 
 above the plain, and at one point, where the temple 
 tower originally stood, a height of ninety feet. 
 
 While there is no certain means of telling the rate 
 at which this accumulation proceeded at all times, 
 it is significant that the sculpture and the inscrip- 
 tions discovered in these lower strata, below the pave- 
 ment of Naram-Sin, are of such a high order that 
 they indicate a long lapse of time to account for the 
 progress which had already been made in arts and 
 civilization. Twelve feet below Sargon's pavement 
 there was found a vaulted arch of burnt bricks, built 
 in a wall to protect pipes which passed beneath; indi- 
 cating a high state of progress in mechanical skill. 
 
 Among the other objects of special significance dis- 
 covered in this thirty feet of debris below Naram- 
 Sin's pavement are fragments of a white stalagmite 
 vase, bearing inscriptions of a dynasty which pre- 
 ceded Sargon by several centuries. These inscrip- 
 tions show a well-established language and a high 
 degree of skill in the formation of the letters. 
 
The Historical Evidence 4S 
 
 Moreover, the P>ench explorers at Telloh, a nei;j:h- 
 borlng city, clearly established a line of rulers belong- 
 ing to this period, extending far into the past. Among 
 the art treasures discovered by them were two votive 
 slabs covered with cuneiform inscriptions and figures 
 of men and animals, showing remarkable skill in giv- 
 ing lifelike appearance to li\ing forms. 
 
 Again, the character of the vv'riting in this pre- 
 Sargonic period shows an advanced stage in the art, 
 since the letters have already lost to a large extent 
 their original hieroglyphic or pictorial outlines. In- 
 deed, the language of this pre-Sargonic period is 
 nearly the same as that which was still in use in 
 Babylonia four thousand years later, and was already 
 differentiated from the other Semitic tongues. 
 
 This high state of art and culture, it is agreed, 
 could not have been attained in a short time. Of the 
 seal cylinders of this age the work is so delicate as to 
 call forth admiration from all competent judges. In 
 the words of Professor Clay, " The lapidist must 
 have possessed delicate saws, drills and other tools. 
 The tact is that the skill manifested in their execu- 
 tion was never equaled in subsequent Babylonian his- 
 tory, and can scarcely be surpassed in the present day 
 with all our modern improvements." ^ 
 
 The same facts are expatiated upon b}- Winckler, 
 
46 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 who writes: "The numerous monuments of this period 
 evince technical skill of the highest order. . . . The 
 inscriptions of Sargon and Naram-Sin are distin- 
 guished by a beautiful script, and so excellent is the 
 technical execution of Gudea's statues that archaeolo- 
 gists once thought it necessary to assume a Greek 
 Influence. 
 
 "... Owning to the statements of classical writers 
 the invention of the arch has hitherto been attributed 
 to the Etruscans, but the Babylonians made use of It 
 in their most ancient buildings In Lagash, or Telloh. 
 Their technical skill rested on scientific principles no 
 less unattainable In modern architecture than the 
 Grecian idea of beauty In the plastic art. The build- 
 ings which they constructed with brick must have 
 been built according to rules and laws unknown to 
 modern architecture, which views many of these an- 
 cient works with the same astonishment as Is evoked 
 by the Pyramids of Egypt." ^ 
 
 We may also note again the significance of the fact 
 that the development of writing, justly regarded as 
 the greatest of all intellectual feats, was made thus 
 early in Babylonian history. It is worthy of note, 
 also, that In astronomy and mathematics we still pay 
 tribute to the Babylonians of that remote period. 
 From their astronomical observations we have bor- 
 
VV/c Ilisforiral Evidence 47 
 
 rowed our calendar. We continue to use their month 
 and weeic, to name our days after theirs and to divide 
 them, as they did. into twelve double hours, as the 
 faces of our clocks and watches would remind us. 
 
 ANTJQUITY OF EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 The valley of the Nile vies with that of the Eu- 
 phrates in the antiquity of its records, but in Egypt 
 the difficulties of obtaining exact chronological data 
 are even greater than in Mesopotamia. The chief 
 reliance for dates in Egyptian history anterior to the 
 eighth century before the Christian era are the lists 
 of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived during 
 the third century before the Christian era, during the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and wrote a histor>' 
 of Egypt in Greek. This history itself has been lost, 
 but the lists were copied by Josephus,'^ and are pre- 
 served in two or three other v.orks v/ritten early 
 during the Christian era.' Still by the aid of the 
 monuments we can go back with reasonable certainty 
 to an antiquity of three thousand or four thousand 
 years before the Christian era; and the revelations 
 made concerning the advancement of the nation m 
 arts, science, and literature in those early periods are 
 the significant facts upon which we need to fix our 
 attention in the present inquiries. 
 
48 Grig}?! and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Among the dates pretty definitely fixed is that of 
 the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt 
 after the deatli of Rameses II. (about 1300 B.C.), a 
 little before the Trojan War. Four hundred and 
 thirty years before this, which is the generally ac- 
 cepted time for their sojourn in Egypt, would carry 
 us back to the year 1730 r>.c., when Joseph became 
 prime minister under the Pharaohs. It was some- 
 thing more than 250 years before this that Abraham 
 in his wanderings from Ur of the Chaldees was com- 
 pelled by famine to share the hospitality of Egypt. 
 But at this early period he found there a highly de- 
 veloped civilization considerably in advance even of 
 what he had left behind him in the fertile plains of 
 Shinar. The pyramids were even then monuments 
 of great antiquity. In Napoleon's address to his sol- 
 diers in Egypt, his ignorance of Egyptian chronology 
 weakened the force of his celebrated reference to these 
 ancient structures. Instead of " forty centuries," he 
 would probably have been within the truth if he had 
 said. The shadow of sixty centuries look down upon 
 you from these lofty piles of stone. For even accord- 
 ing to the more moderate calculations, the great 
 pyramids were constructed thirty-seven hundred years 
 before Christ. More probably, however, they were 
 built some centuries earlier than 4000 B.C. 
 
TJic I lis/oricdl Evidence 49 
 
 \\q shall ilo wt'Il to consider what the existence of 
 such nionumcnts at that early date implies. The 
 larLicst of the three pyramids of Gizeh covered an 
 area of more than thirteen acres, having a base of 
 seven hundred and sixty-four feet upon each side. 
 Its height was a little over four hundred and eighty 
 feet, — six feet higher than the dome of St. Peter's 
 at Rome, and two hundred feet higher than the Cap- 
 itol at Washington. The weight of its mass was 
 7,000,000 tons. Some of the basement stones of this 
 huge edifice are thirty feet long by about five feet in 
 their other dimensions, and v.'ould weigh from fifty 
 to sixty tons. In general, the blocks upon the out- 
 side of the pyramids are larger than modern build- 
 ers venture to handle. The interior blocks w^re 
 quarried from limestone ledges near at hand, but the 
 surface was covered with huge blocks of syenite, 
 brought from a quarry in the vicinity of Assouan, 
 near the first cataract, five hundred miles distant. 
 This granite, sprinkled with black and red, harder 
 than iron, and shining beautifully when polished, 
 was quarried in enormous quantities, and brought 
 down to Lower Egypt for building and monumental 
 purposes. The labor of quarrying so hard a stone 
 was not only immense, but required a high degree of 
 skill. " The traces of this labor and severe work are 
 
50 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 still left visible from those ancient times. Here are 
 seen the sharp stroke of chisel; there the mining hole 
 may be clearl)' distinguished; here we meet with 
 the outline of a colossal statue, like a form in a 
 mould; there the whole length of a fourth side of 
 an obelisk still hangs in the rock, as if it had grown 
 there and was waiting for the master to loosen it 
 from its bed." ^ 
 
 Nor are the marks of Khufu's energy limited to 
 Egypt. Rock tablets in the w^adies of the Sinaitic 
 desert bear testimony to his victorious sway in that 
 region, where doubtless he was attracted by the mines, 
 which were so early worked for their hidden treas- 
 ures. And all this, four thousand years before the 
 Christian era, and three thousand years before the 
 earliest gleams of Grecian history glance to us from 
 the poems of Homer. A modern silver-tongued ora- 
 tor found abundant opportunities to expatiate upon 
 the lost arts when contemplating the enormous works 
 undertaken and carried through In Egypt in those 
 dim ages of the world's h^stor^^ 
 
 Astronomical data also furnish us important evi- 
 dences of Egyptian antiquity. The Egyptians did 
 not observe leap-year. Hence In every 1460 years 
 there occurred a complete shift of the nominal months. 
 But the actual progress of the seasons always con- 
 
Tlw U'lstorical Evidence 51 
 
 tornied to the pro2;ress of the sun in the ecliptic. The 
 iniiiuhition of the Nile he.^an with the visible rising 
 of the doii-star (Siriiis). The name of this star in 
 Ivj;ypt was Sethis. The revolution of the nominal 
 year, which, as we have seen, occurred once in \,^bo 
 natural \ears, was called the Sothic period or the 
 Sothic year. One of these periods we know began 139 
 A.D. This enables us to reckon back to the recorded 
 beginning of a Sothic period in the reign of Merenp- 
 tah and through others to earlier dynasties. From 
 these astronomical data, Petrie fixes the commence- 
 ment of the first dynasty at 4777 B.C., the fourth 
 dynasty at 3998, the sixth at 3410, the eleventh at 
 2985, the twelfth at 2778, the thirteenth at 2565. 
 the eighteenth at 1587, the nineteenth at 1327.^ 
 
 Nor was it alone in the arts of material civiliza- 
 tion that Egypt excelled in those early days. In 1847 
 a papyrus w^as discovered in Thebes, and presented 
 to the National Library in Paris by Monsieur Prisse; 
 hence known as the Prisse Papyrus. On examina- 
 tion, this proved to contain a treatise on Manners, 
 wiitten by Kakimna in the reign of Senoferu, the 
 last king of the Third Dynasty, and a treatise on 
 Morals, by Ptah-Hotep, of the Fifth Dynasty. Ac- 
 cording to the best authorities, therefore, the first of 
 these would date back to 4450 B.C., and the second 
 
52 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to 3950 B.C. All unite in calling this the oldest 
 book in the world, written according to the most 
 trustworthy of these estimates more than six thou- 
 sand years ago, and having for ages profoundly influ- 
 enced the noble people in the valley of the Nile who 
 offered a refuge to all the world in times of distress 
 and trouble. We may profitably examine these doc- 
 uments for the sake of getting some adequate impres- 
 sion of the stage of development to which a portion 
 of the human race had at that time attained. 
 
 In Kakimna's treatise on manners ^*^ we find cau- 
 tions against gluttony which remind us of the prov- 
 erbs of Solomon, some of which may indeed be the 
 source from which the latter w^re drawn. This, for 
 example: " If thou sittest down to eat with a glutton, 
 to keep up with him in eating will lead afar." " If 
 thou sittest down to eat with a number, despise the 
 dishes which thou lovest. It is but a short time to 
 restrain thyself; and voracity is something degrading, 
 for there is bestiality in it." " He wdio is drawn 
 away by his stomach when he is not on the watch 
 is a worthless man. With such people the stomach 
 is master." 
 
 Among these maxims, also, we find this in com- 
 mendation of good manners: "As for a man lacking 
 good manners . . . who wears a surly face towards 
 
7V/C Ilisforicdl Evidence 53 
 
 till' advances of a livacious heart, lie is an affliction 
 to his mother and his rehitivcs." The interest of 
 Kakimna in the instruction of children is worthy of 
 special note: " Do not," he says, "harden the hearts 
 of thy children. Instruct those who will be in thy 
 place. . . . Let the chief talk to his children after he 
 has L;ained experience. They will i^ain honor for 
 themselves by increasing in well-doing, starting from 
 that which he has told them." 
 
 Most instructive of all in this most ancient relic 
 of human literature is the noble conception of the 
 Deity appearing In It. God Is referred to In the 
 singular number, as bringing to pass events which 
 cannot be foreknown by man. 
 
 In like manner the larger collection of precepts 
 made by Ptah-Hotep In the Fifth Dynasty reveal a 
 highly cultivated, gentle, generous, and virtuous man 
 enforcing on the court of Pharaoh the precepts which 
 he himself practised, and this nearly three thousand 
 years before the beginning of Grecian history. From 
 this single treatise, the translation of wluch would 
 occupy about twenty pages of a duodecimo volume, 
 one Is led to form a very high estimate both of the 
 progress In civilization already attained and of the 
 standard of public morals which was cherished and 
 inculcated. We do Indeed learn that then, as now, 
 
54 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 " there are people who take all sides when they speak, 
 so that, by not replying, they may not grieve the one 
 who has made a statement." But this Is not the 
 course of conduct commended, for elsewhere he says, 
 " When thou speakest, know what objections may 
 be made to thee. ... To speak In counsel Is an art, 
 and speech Is criticised more than all other work; 
 It Is contradiction which puts It to the proof." 
 
 Of the desirability of controlling one's temper 
 Ptah-Hotep speaks as follow^s: "If thou hast to do 
 with a disputer while he Is In his heat, and If he Is 
 superior to thee In ability, lower the hands, bend the 
 back, do not get Into a passion with him. As he will 
 not permit thee to spoil his speech, it is ver}^ wrong 
 to interrupt him; that shows thou art not able to be 
 quiet when thou art contradicted. If then thou hast 
 to do with a disputer while he is in his heat, act as 
 one not to be moved. Thou hast the advantage over 
 him, if only In keeping silent when his speech is bad. 
 ... If thou hast to do with a disputer w^hile he is in 
 his heat, do not treat him with contempt because thou 
 art not of the same opinion. Do not be provoked 
 with him when he is wrong. ... He is fighting 
 against his very self; do not ask him to flatter thy 
 views. Do not anuise thyself with the spectacle 
 which thou hast before thee; this is odious, small. 
 
The llhtorical Evidence 55 
 
 and of a contemptible spirit." And yet ajzain, " If 
 thou aimest at haviivj; polished manners, do not ques- 
 tion him whom thou meetest. Converse with him 
 alone so as not to annoy him. Uo not dispute with 
 him until thou hast allowed him time to impregnate 
 his mind with the subject of the conversation. If he 
 displays his ignorance, and if he gives thee an oppor- 
 tunity to put him to shame, rather than that, treat 
 him with consideration; do not keep pushing him on, 
 do not reply in a crushing manner; do not finish hmi ; 
 do not worry his life out, for fear that he for his 
 part will not recover, and that men will leave thee to 
 the benefit of thy conversation." 
 
 Especially interesting are the instructions given 
 concerning the proper treatment of one's wife and of 
 his neighbors. " Do not," he says, " give way to thv 
 temper on account of what occurs around thee; do 
 not scold except about thine affairs. Do not be in a 
 bad temper towards thy neighbors; a compliment to 
 him who gives offense is better than rudeness. It is 
 wrong for a man to get in a passion with neighbors, 
 so that he knows not how to manage his words. 
 Where there is only a little difficulty, he creates an 
 affliction for himself at a time when he should be 
 cool." 
 
 " If thou art wise, take care of thy house, love 
 
56 Origin (ind Jfitir/uity of III an 
 
 thy wife purely. Fill her stomach, clothe her back; 
 these are the cares to her body. Caress her, fulfill 
 her desire during the time of thine existence; it is 
 a kindness which honors its master. Be not brutal ; 
 consideration will lead her better than force. . . . 
 This establishes her in thine house ; if thou repellest 
 her, it is an abyss. Open thine arms to her for her 
 arms; call her, show her thy love. ... If thou takest 
 a wife, may she be more content than any other of 
 her fellow-citizens. She will be doubly bound if the 
 chain is sweet to her. Do not repulse her; grant 
 that which pleases her; it is when contented that she 
 will value thy guidance." 
 
 All this, and much more equally good and inter- 
 esting, was written by a w^ise man living under the 
 dynasties that built the pyramids, — probably not far 
 from two thousand years before Abraham went down 
 to Egypt to share the hospitality of its rulers during 
 a time of famine. But even then this was ancient wis- 
 dom ; and Ptah-Hotep commends it as such, "which 
 if his readers heed, their wisdom will be ever incrcas- 
 ing." 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF CIVILIZATION IN CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Though written records are absent we have such 
 indications of the rise of civilization in Turkestan 
 
77/r Ilistor'icdl Evidence 57 
 
 even earlicM- x\vm\ tliat in I)ab\l()nia and Iv^\pt, that 
 this is the hcst place to pause and consider it. Indeed, 
 here, in the ;j:reat landlocked basin of the Aral and 
 Caspian seas would seem to be the center from which 
 there have radiated to all parts of the world most 
 of the arts and practices which are fundamental to 
 civilization. Fully to appreciate the evidence, how- 
 ever, the general physiop;raphic features of the re^zion 
 must be kept in mind. 
 
 The Aral-Caspian depression occupies an area in 
 Western Asia about as large as the United States, 
 receiving the drainage of the Volga River from the 
 plains of Central Russia and of the ancient Oxus and 
 the Jaxartes which come down from the Pamir — the 
 roof of the world in Central Asia. Upon the south 
 it is bounded for more than three thousand miles by 
 the highest mountain ranges of the world over which 
 passes are few and difficult to traverse. The northern 
 face of these mountain ranges presents a steep slope 
 to plains which extend without important elevations 
 to the Arctic Ocean more than two thousand miles 
 distant. Mt. Demavend in the Ararat range is 
 18,600 feet above the sea; while the bottom of the 
 Caspian Sea only one hundred miles distant is 2,300 
 feet below ocean level, making a descent of 21,00c:) 
 feet in two himdred miles. The rainfall over this 
 
^8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 area is so slight and the evaporation so rapid that 
 there is no surplus water to flow from it into the 
 ocean. Large areas east of the Caspian Sea are now 
 deserts almost entirely devoid of life; but, extending 
 out for a considerable distance north from the base 
 of the southern mountains, there is a fertile belt of 
 soil which only needs a bountiful supply of water to 
 make it extremely productive, and a partial supply of 
 water is furnished by the innumerable streams large 
 and small which descend from the snowxlad moun- 
 tains on the south. 
 
 From the earliest times this belt of irrigated land 
 which forms the southern border of Turkestan has 
 been densely populated by man, and has been the 
 habitat of a greater variety of plants and animals 
 than can be found in any other single section of the 
 world. In this area was the ancient city of Merv, 
 reputed to have had 1,000,000 inhabitants in the 
 time of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in the third 
 century before Christ. Here was Maracanda (the 
 modern Samarkand), of equal size, which was the 
 limit of Alexander's conquests in that section ; and 
 Balk, another city of equal size, containing the tomb 
 of Zoroaster and reputed to be the center where the 
 Parsec religion originated. In later times the hordes 
 of Genghis Khan moved from Eastern Asia through 
 
llic flisforirti/ Kv'idcnrc 59 
 
 this irriizatcd belt to tlicir conquest of the hir;^a'r part 
 of the western world ; while under Timur the Tar- 
 tar Samarkand arose with a splendor of architecture 
 and a wealth of learning that still dazzle the his- 
 torian and the traveller. 
 
 Throup;hoiit its entire length this arable border be- 
 tween the mountains and the desert is dotted with 
 mounds which cover the ruins of prehistoric cities and 
 villages. But until recently none of these has been 
 excavated with any reasonable care or thoroughness. 
 
 In 1903 and 1904, however, Professor Raphael 
 Pumpelly with an ample corps of expert assistants 
 was commissioned by the Carnegie Institute at Wash- 
 ington to excavate one of the most conspicuous groups 
 of mounds and to throw upon the results what light 
 he could from a general study of the geological, 
 physiographical, and biological facts connected with 
 them. The mounds, or " Kurgans," investigated were 
 two, near the recently abandoned city of Anau not 
 far from the city of Askabad, about three hundred 
 miles east of the Caspian Sea. Anau owed its exist- 
 ence to a fertile oasis watered by a perennial stream 
 which descends from the heights of the Kopet-Dagh 
 not many miles to the south. Owing to the shifting 
 course of the irrigating stream, the center of the 
 oasis has migrated some distance to the westward, so 
 
llic I lisforical Evidence ()\ 
 
 tliat the city, whicli i"n its turn was ilcscrtcil by the 
 stream about the niicKlle of the nineteenth century, is 
 a mile or more distant trom the two prehistoric Kur- 
 gans which ^^•ere invcstiii;ated. 
 
 The city of Anau was founded about 370 a.d. 
 when irlazed notter\ was first introduced into the 
 region. The mound which represented the site of the 
 ancient city is an accumulation of soil and debris 
 arisinij; from the disintegration of the sun-dried brick, 
 out of w4iich all the houses ot that region have been 
 built from time immemorial. The summit of the 
 mound is thirtv-eight feet abo\e the original ivase but 
 only about twenty feet above the present level of the 
 plain, which has been built up by the sediment of the 
 irrigating stream and the dust brought in by the 
 winds, until the base is now buried to a depth of from 
 fifteen to twenty feet. But the beginning of the 
 accumulations which formed the mound of the re- 
 cently deserted cit}' dates only from the time of the 
 abandonment of the later of the two older Kurgans 
 referred to, each of which now rises about forty feet 
 above the plain and seventy above its original base. 
 
 By elaborate and careful estimation of the rate at 
 w^hich these accumulations, both artificial and natural, 
 occur, the conclusion is reached that the older Kur- 
 gan was first occupied by man about eight thousand 
 
62 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 years before Christ. Examination of the successive 
 superincumbent strata of accumulation sheds interest- 
 ing light upon the character of the successive civiliza- 
 tions that prevailed and upon the date of the various 
 inventions and discoveries which have spread from 
 this center, and which, in all later times, have formed 
 the principal basis of human comfort and progress. 
 
 In the lowest strata, the bones of wild animals 
 only were found, which it would seem had been 
 hunted without the assistance of even stone imple- 
 ments. A little higher up, there begin to appear the 
 bones of the domesticated ox and pig which accom- 
 panied civilized man over the whole Northern Hemis- 
 phere throughout all the succeeding centuries. In 
 still higher strata there appear the bones of domesti- 
 cated sheep and an occasional object of copper and 
 lead, and soon after the bones of short-horned cattle, 
 of the dog, the camel, and of the hornless sheep and 
 goat. All these indications occur in the older of the 
 Kurgans, representing the accumulations of about 
 3,000 years when it was abandoned and the founda- 
 tions of the south Kurgan were laid about a quarter 
 of a mile distant. The beginning of this accumula- 
 tion is estimated to be fifty-two hundred years before 
 Christ, but it is not until forty feet of accumulation 
 had taken place and fifteen hundred years had elapsed 
 
The Historical Evidence 63 
 
 that stone arrow points appeared in the debris and 
 various implements indicating progress in agriculture. 
 According to Pumpelly's ^^ summar>^ of results, 
 during the growth of the north Kurgan extending, as 
 he estimates, from 8cxx) B.C. to 5000 B.C. the in- 
 habitants cultivated wheat and barley, made use of 
 numerous implements of bone, used straightedged 
 flakes of flint, and stones for grinding meal, had 
 hand-made painted pottery with only geometrical de- 
 signs, and had succeeded in domesticating the long- 
 horned ox, the pig, and horse, and two breeds of 
 sheep, while they practised the burial of children in 
 a contracted position beneath the floor of their dwell- 
 ings. But they were not familiar with the dog, the 
 camel, or the goat, and they made no use of spear 
 points, either of stone or metal, until near the close 
 of the period. 
 
 In the south Kurgan arrow points of stone and 
 obsidian appear, together with pivoted door stones, 
 and weapons and implements of copper. The pot- 
 tery indicates the use of the potter's wheel and fur- 
 nace. There were also found terra cotta figurines of 
 a goddess and cow. but there was no iron or burnt 
 brick or bronze. Hie terra cotta figurines indicate 
 a religious cult like that which prevailed later m 
 Babvlonia and among the Phcrnicians. 
 
64 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Between this era characterized by the use of cop- 
 per, closing about two thousand years before Christ, 
 and the age of iron introduced shortly before the 
 Christian era, there intervenes a mysterious gap in 
 the evidence, during which the Kurgan was evidently 
 unoccupied. 
 
 Everything seems to indicate an independent ori- 
 gin for the arts and usages of domestic life in this 
 locality, and the spread of domesticated plants and 
 animals from this center westward throughout Eu- 
 rope during the neolithic period ; while the diminution 
 of the domestic animals in size and the introduction 
 of the camel would seem to indicate the general 
 desiccation of the region, of which there is abundant 
 other evidence from geological indications. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 But here we may well pause In the presentation of 
 the direct historical evidence. The facts presented 
 are certainly most surprising and significant. At the 
 first dawn of history, and earlier by thousands of 
 years, than the classic era of Greece, we find in Crete, 
 Egypt, Babylonia, and Central Asia military, polit- 
 ical, and social organizations w^orthy of the highest 
 regard and in many respects fit to be an example to 
 all subsequent ages. We shall be fortunate If we 
 
The Il'istoricdl FA'idcncc 65 
 
 succeed in restorin<x the irriizatiiijj; systems in opera- 
 tion six thousand or >^even thousand years a^o in the 
 valleys of the MurLi;ab, the Kuphrates, and the Nile. 
 We find in Kp;ypt at that early period a conception of 
 the Deitv nobler than that to which Plato and Aris- 
 totle attained, an appreciation of the family scarcely 
 less commendable than that of modern times, and in 
 all these centers a progress in the arts only lackinj^ 
 inventions of steam and electricity to make it equal 
 to that of the present time. 
 
 The questions, pertinent to our present discussion, 
 arisins: in connection with these facts, are, How came 
 this civilization to appear so early in the history of 
 the race? Why has there been so little progress 
 since? In the natural course of events, how long a 
 time would be required for man to attain the point 
 in civilization reached in these countries six thousand 
 or seven thousand years ago? A brief answer to 
 these inquiries will suffice. First, there is no evidence, 
 but on the contrary it is against all evidence, that the 
 road to this earliest attainment of high civilization 
 was that of an extremely slow and gradual evolution. 
 It is true, for example, that the way had been pre- 
 pared, by the increase of population and the cultiva- 
 tion of numerous social virtues in Kg\pt, for the 
 rapid progress which began with the establishment at 
 
66 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Thenis of the P'irst Dynasty. But the real secret of 
 the progress beginning with Menes is, that Menes 
 was a great man : he had the necessary wisdom and 
 foresight and organizing ability to make the culti- 
 vation of the arts of civilization among his subjects 
 a matter of advantage to them. In the realm of 
 politics and social order he did for Egj'pt what Peter 
 the Great did for Russia, and Watt and Stevenson 
 for the industrial systems of the nineteenth century. 
 The wonder is that the wisdom of Egj^pt did not 
 speedily fill the world. The same may be affirmed 
 of the unknow^n promoters of the earliest civilization 
 in Babylonia and Turkestan. 
 
 This leads us to an answ^er to the second question, 
 namely, that there is no invariable law of progress 
 in human history. The various elements at work in 
 societv tend m all directions. As a matter of fact, 
 degeneration and disintegration seem as likely to 
 take place as real progress and advancement. Among 
 the common people in Egypt there has been no prog- 
 ress for six thousand years, and the same is true re- 
 specting most ancient centers of civilization. Neither 
 in the valley of the Euphrates nor in China has there 
 been any progress since the very dawn of histon^ As 
 Dr. Brugsch has observed, the Fellahin of Lower 
 Egypt *' preserve to this day those distinctive fea- 
 
The IJisiorical Kvidcncc 67 
 
 turcs of physiognomy, and those peculiarities of man- 
 ners and customs, ^vhich have been handed down to 
 us by the united testimony of the monuments and the 
 accounts of the ancient classical writers as the heredi- 
 tary characteristics of this people." ^'- It would re- 
 quire a prophet's vision to tell, whether, in the natural 
 course of events if things were left to themselves, 
 there would be any more progress in that region in 
 the next six thousand years. 
 
 Evidently the progress of the human race has not 
 been by spontaneous and uniform evolution. The 
 civilization of Europe and America lighted its torch 
 from the altars of the decaying civilization of Greece 
 and Rome, and they, in turn, lighted theirs from 
 altars of Babylonian and Egyptian wisdom. But 
 whence did Egypt and Babylonia derive the fire 
 with which to kindle the flame upon their altars? 
 This mystery is so great that ue are forbidden to 
 speak with derision of those who insist that the wis- 
 dom of Egypt was given by direct inspiration from 
 heaven or was handed down from a prior original 
 direct revelation. We prefer, however, to say that 
 its mystery is that which surrounds all the great 
 geniuses whose careers have swayed and blessed or 
 cursed the world. As already remarked, a candid 
 study of history will compel one more and more to 
 
68 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 recognize the dependence of the race upon a few 
 great leaders in thought and action. It is often said, 
 as already intimated, that if there had not been an 
 Alexander to lead the forces of Greece against the 
 Persian borders, a man of some other name would 
 have led them into corresponding victories. But for 
 this assumption there is no just ground. When Alex- 
 ander died, his kingdom went to pieces. The Egyp- 
 tian sovereigns were a long line of illustrious men. 
 It is easier to account for the continued propagation 
 of their plans and purposes than it is to explain either 
 their origin or their final decadence and transporta- 
 tion to other lands. 
 
 To the third question, How long a time would be 
 required for a primitive race to rise to the height of 
 progress existing, for example, in Egypt at the be- 
 ginning of the first dynasty? it must be answered that 
 there is no known law of progress sufficiently uni- 
 form in its operation to afford a basis for calculation. 
 The being that has capacity to invent the use of fire, 
 that is able to make flint implements (and what is 
 more to make a living with them alone) and that 
 has created an elaborate language for the communi- 
 cation of ideas, is not far separated from the men w^ho 
 can build pyramids, convey their thoughts by hiero- 
 glyphs, and organize their companions for home de- 
 
The TJistorical Kvidcucc 69 
 
 fense and forci<:;n conquest. It requires but the 
 accident of their possessing anion^ their number a 
 genius, to determine whether the hij^her civih'zation 
 shall be within their reacli. An impressive fact re- 
 specting the early civilization of Egypt and Baby- 
 lonia is that it already had been preceded by the 
 discovery of a method for the smelting and hardening 
 of iron, which is probably the most far-reaching and 
 important invention ever made by man. Among the 
 earliest enterprises in which the monarchs of the first 
 Egyptian dynasty engaged was that of conducting 
 expeditions into the wadies of the Mount Sinai dis- 
 trict for the purpose of working in the mines of that 
 now desolate region. 
 
 The civih'zation of P^gjpt and Babylonia may pos- 
 sibly have been preceded by many tliousand years of 
 uneventful human history, or, on the other hand, if we 
 are left to judge simply from the record of human 
 progress directly within our knowledge, it may have 
 been preceded only by one or two thousand years of 
 man's more primiti\-e state. For it is quite possible, 
 as a simple calculation in geometrical progression will 
 show, for the race, starting from a single pair, to 
 have so multiplied and covered the earth in a thou- 
 sand years as to furnish all the population of which 
 the written record of Egypt gives any indication in 
 
yo Origin and Jnfiquify of Man 
 
 the time of the First Dynasty. There may, indeed, 
 have been many thousands of years of weary prepara- 
 tion for the incoming civilization of the Pharaohs; 
 but the study of history furnishes us no trustworthy 
 data for such an inference. The inference cannot 
 rationally be based upon a few high-sounding phrases 
 such as the " doctrine of evolution," " the law of 
 progress," and " the principles of development." Ours 
 is the more difficult, but at the same time more pleas- 
 ing and satisfactory, duty of investigating the evi- 
 dence buried in the geological strata in which man's 
 earliest remains have been found, and of considering 
 the inferences drawn from the facts which ally man 
 in his physical and mental development w^ith that of 
 the rest of the animal kingdom. But before venturing 
 upon these inquiries, we must pause, to consider the 
 evidence concerning man's origin and antiquity which 
 may be derived from the diversity of languages which 
 has characterized the human race since the very 
 dawn of history. 
 
Tlir lAiii^iiislic /hi^Nffirnt 71 
 
 CflAPTER III 
 
 THE LINGUISTIC ARGUMENT 
 
 Ix the preceding chapter, our study of the earliest 
 historical records has carried us back to a point of 
 time four or five thousand years before Christ, or 
 from six to seven thousand years ago. At that time 
 we found a highly developed civilization in the val- 
 leys of the Nile and the Euphrates. In these coun- 
 tries the art of writing was already in use, and the 
 language had entered upon that stage of systematic 
 and orderly development which is secured by the 
 conservative influence of literature. 
 
 In the valley of the pAiphrates a branch of the 
 Semitic language appears in full development in 
 the earliest monumental records. Just what relation 
 there Is between the cuneiform Inscriptions upon the 
 tablets and m.onuments of Babylonia and the rich lit- 
 erature that appeared at a later date in Palestine, we 
 cannot now determine; but though the form of the 
 letters Is different the grammatical structure of the 
 Inscriptions upon the monuments Is closely related to 
 that of the Hebrew language. Many of their root 
 words are identical, and their mode of inflection is 
 
72 Oriorin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 similar; so that there is no greater difficulty in sup- 
 posing them to be descendants from the same mother 
 tongue, than there is in crediting the well-known 
 historical fact that Italian, Spanish, and French are 
 variations of the Latin. 
 
 To the Phoenicians upon the shore of the Mediter- 
 ranean we have generally given the credit of the in- 
 vention of the modern alphabet, and they in turn are 
 supposed to have been largely indebted to Egypt. 
 Whether Abraham brought with him from Mesopo- 
 tamia the Hebrew letters as well as the Hebrew lan- 
 guage has not yet been determined. The more probable 
 theory is that he found both the dialect and the 
 rudiments of the literature, already developed among 
 the cultured Canaanites that had so long inhabited 
 the land, and who had been in close contact with the 
 adventurous and enterprising people inhabiting the 
 cities of Tyre and Sidon.^ There are also other rea- 
 sons for reaching the same conclusion. The Elamite 
 king Kudur-Mabug calls himself Adda Martu, or 
 "Prince of the Land of Amurru " (Palestine and 
 Syria), and an inscription of Lugal-zaggisi, about 
 4000 B.C., shows that he conquered the land from 
 the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. The in- 
 scription is in the Museum of the University of 
 Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia. Such intimate con- 
 
The Liniriiis/ic Ari^iuiiciit 73 
 
 tact tor two thoiisaiul \cars as this implies, coiiKl 
 hai\ll\- tail to involve kno\vletl;j;e of the dialect and 
 literature of the dominant country, and the Tel-cl- 
 Amarna tablets seem to iridicate clearly that that was 
 the case. 
 
 The affinities of the lanjc^uage found upon the early 
 monuments of Egypt cannot be wholly made out ; but 
 it is evident that they had at least a remote relation- 
 ship to the Semitic languages of Palestine and Baby- 
 lonia; for, though the words are mostly different and 
 formed upon a different plan, the inflections are 
 somewhat similar. At any rate, they are much closer 
 in their analogy to the Semitic than they are to any 
 other group of languages, except it be to some of the 
 more obscure tongues of Africa.- The language was 
 long preserved in the Coptic, which has become ex- 
 tinct only within the last two or three hundred years, 
 and which produced considerable literature in the 
 early part of the Christian era. 
 
 The divergence between the language of Egypt and 
 that of Babylonia, found to exist at the earliest dawn 
 of history, is very significant in its bearing upon the 
 subject of our present discussion. For, these lan- 
 guages probably are not lineally descended the one 
 from the other, but are both variants from some 
 earlier form of speech that had been lost from the 
 
74 Orifr'm and Antiquity of Man 
 
 face of the earth for a longer time than that which 
 separates us from the period when Latin was a living 
 tongue. The relation between the Egj^ptian and Se- 
 mitic languages may more properly be compared to 
 that between the English and the Greek, where the 
 divergence is so great that it points to a mother 
 tongue far back in the vistas of time. We shall 
 therefore be able to draw some inferences concerning 
 the antiquity of man from the extent of this diver- 
 gence of language which appears on comparing the 
 cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria and Babylonia with 
 the hieroglyphics which abound on Egyptian monu- 
 ments and in Egyptian tombs of the earliest date. If 
 these monuments are six thousand years old, how 
 much earlier must have been the dawn of that civili- 
 zation which led two nations so far apart in their 
 forms of expression as we find the Babylonians and 
 Egyptians already to be four thousand years before 
 the Christian era. This is the problem. 
 
 THE INFLECTIONAL LANGUAGES 
 
 But we are able to get upon a still higher mount 
 of vision, and look across a still ^^■ider chasm separ- 
 ating the Semitic languages from that branch of the 
 human speech which the principal civilized nations 
 now employ to convey their thoughts. The Greek 
 
The Linguistic Argument 75 
 
 the Latin, the German, the Russian, and the En<j;lish 
 lanG;iiages (together with some others in FAirope, sueh 
 as the Gaeh'c and the Scandinavian), the Sanscrit 
 (the dead cLassic Language of India, rich in an an- 
 cient literature), and the Persian, constitute what are 
 called the Ar^an or Indo-European tongues. In one 
 respect the Aryan languages and the Semitic are simi- 
 lar; and, in the great threefold division into which the 
 languages of the world have sometimes been classi- 
 fied, they are capable of being joined together. Both 
 are what are called " inflectional " languages. The 
 ideas of person, number, and tense, are conveyed by 
 slight changes in the form of the word itself, and by 
 affixes and suffixes which are made integral parts of 
 the words to which they are joined. But the mode 
 of inflectional development is so diflFerent in the Se- 
 mitic tongues from that in the Aryan, and the root 
 words themselves are so distinct, and formed on 
 such a separate principle, that they seem as far apart 
 as the poles. 
 
 For example, in the Semitic languages the verb can 
 alwa3's be traced back to a root, containing three con- 
 sonants. \\hich conveys the essential, abstract idea of 
 the action or state. The vowels which are introduced 
 constitute the inflection, and determine the relations 
 of the actions to the various persons or things con- 
 
76 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ccrned. P'or instance, the familiar word upon which 
 Hebrew students commonly he^in their study of the 
 language is one signifying '* to kill," qatal. The con- 
 sonants are q-t-1. Qatala means " he killed " ; qutila, 
 "he was killed"; qiitiiu, "they were killed"; uqtul, 
 the imperative, "kill"; iqtal, "cause to kill"; etc., 
 the three consonants appearing in every form and the 
 change in the vowels indicating the relational aspects 
 of the verbal idea. So important are these conso- 
 nantal elements of Hebrew words, that the whole 
 idea can be expressed to the ej^e without vowels; and 
 for ages the Hebrew writing was composed entirely 
 of consonants, — the vowel points in our Hebrew 
 Scriptures having been added far down in the Chris- 
 tian centuries. In consequence of these characteristics 
 of the Semitic languages, they present a uniformity 
 of structure quite different from the inflectional lan- 
 guages derived from the Aryan which now prevail in 
 Europe. The all-prevailing triliteral Semitic roots 
 doubtless have a history, and represent a long pre- 
 vious development, but that development occurred so 
 far back in the past as completely to batfle tlie efforts 
 of philologists to trace its course or arrive at its sig- 
 nificance. In itself it is an evidence of an antiquity 
 far higlier than that of the oldest monuments in the 
 valley of the Euphrates. 
 
llir Li monistic Jn^uiiniit 77 
 
 In other portions of its structure, also, the verhs 
 of these two classes ol lani2;ua<z;c differ greatly. In 
 Semitic the verbs in the second and third per>.o!is in- 
 dicate by their forms distinctions of gender, while the 
 indications of time are confined to an imperfect inti- 
 mation of the differences between the completed and 
 the uncompleted action, and each tense is employed 
 to represent action past, present, or future. Of what 
 we call mode the Semitic languages know little, while 
 of conjugations they are exceedingly prodigal. They 
 have a form of the verb to express the simple transi- 
 tive tense, as "he killed"; another form to indicate 
 that "he killed with violence"; another, that "he 
 tried to kill"; another, that "he caused to kill"; 
 and another, that " he killed himself," these all being 
 expressed by special conjugations of one root. In the 
 Arabic there are twelve or more such conjugations of 
 the verb. 
 
 In these, also, as well as in some other respects the 
 Semitic languages differ so radically from the Aryan 
 that if they had a common origin, all signs of it have 
 been so completely lost that it has seemed to most 
 people hopeless to search any further for the mother 
 tongue.'^ 
 
 In contrast with the simplicity of Hebrew words. 
 It is mteresting to notice a single case illustrating the 
 
78 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 capability of an Aryan language to accumulate ideas 
 by prefixes and suffixes. Our word inapplicabilities is 
 built up around the simple root " plic," which ap- 
 pears in its simpler form in the word " plicate," mean- 
 ing to fold. But " inapplicabilities " contains two 
 prefixes and three suffixes, while in other words this 
 root itself forms a suffix, as in " triple," meaning 
 threefold, etc. 
 
 But, passing from the divergencies between the 
 different branches of the inflectional tongues, we find 
 a still more radical division of language in the so- 
 called monosyllabic and agglutinative forms of speech, 
 of the first of which the Chinese is a tj^pical example, 
 and of the second the language of the American In- 
 dians. 
 
 THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES 
 
 In many respects the Chinese language corresponds 
 more closely than any other to what one would nat- 
 urally suppose to be the original form of human 
 speech, but it is now the representative of merely a 
 class of languages limited to the southeastern portion 
 of Asia. So sharply defined is the boundary of this 
 class of languages that it is difficult to resist the con- 
 clusion, not only that they are of common origin, but 
 that they have been kept together by local historical 
 
The Linguistic Ar^^iuiuiit 79 
 
 inrtuences, while contrary to ordinary experience, they 
 have remained practically without change from the 
 earliest period of our knowledge of them. Like the 
 Chinese themselves, their literature and their language 
 have long been In a fossilized condition. The words 
 of these languages have no inflections, and the same 
 word may be used for almost any part of speech, — 
 which part it is, ha\ing to be gathered from the con- 
 nection. 
 
 We have in English a few such words. For instance, 
 *' love " may be either a verb, a noun, or an adjec- 
 tive; while the word "better" may be an adjective, 
 an adverb, a noun or a verb. But such instances are 
 exceptional in the Aryan languages, while in the 
 Chinese they are the rule. Schleicher ^ represents a 
 Chinese sentence in English as follows: "King 
 speak: Sage! not far thousand mile and come; also 
 will have use gain me realm, hey?" which, being 
 translated, means, "The king spoke: 'O sage! since 
 thou dost not count a thousand miles far to come, 
 wilt thou not, too, have brought something for the 
 weal of my realm?'" This sentence in itself shows 
 the advantage in clearness of the Aryan system of 
 inflections w-hich brings out clearly the relation to 
 each other of the words used. To us the Chinese 
 language sounds like baby talk, and so does what is 
 
8o Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 called " Pidgin English " (pidgin being a Chinese 
 corruption of "business") which we instinctively use 
 in talking to a Chinese. 
 
 Ijut the Chinese language existed in substantially 
 its present form tw^o thousand years before the Chris- 
 tian era, from which time some of the odes in the 
 Chinese book of songs claim to date. Their annals 
 and traditions carry the history of the nation several 
 centuries farther back; and certainly the great dif- 
 ference between this language and the languages of 
 the Aryan and Semitic races would imply a very 
 high antiquity. The separation between the nations 
 must have taken place long before the earliest his- 
 toric records which are found upon the monuments 
 of Egypt or Babylonia; for, the language of the 
 Egyptians and Babylonians was already inflected, and 
 was composed of roots w^iich have only the slightest 
 similarity to the Chinese. If a long period is re- 
 quired to accovmt for the separation between the 
 Aryan and Semitic tongues, it would seem that a far 
 longer period must be allowed to account for the 
 rise and development of the whole inflected class of 
 languages. It should be remarked, however, in pass- 
 ing, that the original language in Bab5donia was 
 probnbly not a Semitic but an agglutinative tongue. 
 The Scnu'tic invaders seem to have adopted both the 
 
TJic L'liii^ii'istic Ari![iiniciit ' 8 1 
 
 letters .uid tlie cixili/ation of the Sumerians, who 
 were the oriuinal inhahitants of Hahyh)nia, while re- 
 taim'n'j; their own iiiHccted language. 
 
 THE AGGLUTINATIVK LANGUAGES 
 
 Midway between the monosyllabic and the inflected 
 languages stand the agglutinative. This is by far the 
 most numerous class and apparently the one most 
 subject to variation. To this class belong most of 
 the languages of Africa, America, and the Islands of 
 the Pacific Ocean, to which may be added that of the 
 Japanese, the Coreans, the Dravidians (in the south- 
 ern part of India), the Tartars, the Finns, the Turks, 
 the Basques, and some others. In these languages, 
 some of which have a few inflected forms, the sub- 
 sidiar\' elements of the sentence, or concept, are 
 gathered about the central idea without that close 
 articulation with it that is found in the inflected lan- 
 guages. The words are segregations rather than or- 
 gmiizatinns. As Whitney ^ remarks, " Everything [in 
 the American languages] tends to verbal expression: 
 nouns, and adjectives, and even adverbs and preposi- 
 tions, are regularly conjugated ; nouns are to a great 
 extent verbal forms." For example, according to the 
 representation of Rev. S. G. Wright, a venerable 
 m.issionary among the Ojibway Indians, the word 
 
§2 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 " father " is not used by itself in the simple form, but 
 is conjugated in all the m.oods and tenses, and is com- 
 pounded with the possessive pronoun. Every father 
 must be the father of somebody, — of him, you, or 
 me. The root word seems to be os, but ordinarily it 
 occurs in a verbal compound ; mn-do-yo-si, " I have a 
 father"; ki-do-yo-yi, "thou hast a father"; o-yo-si, 
 " he has a father." In the subjunctive we have kic- 
 pui-o-yo-si-yan, " if I have a father," etc. In the 
 optative mood it becomes klc-ptn-ge-o-yo-si-wd-nen. 
 There is even a double and twisted optative, as klc- 
 pln-ge-o-yo-si-wdm-ba-nen, '' if I shall should have a 
 father, as I shall should have " — conditioned on 
 something, such as that the truth has been told. 
 
 The number of words which can be formed from 
 a single root is almost unlimited, and the length of 
 some of the compounds is astonishing. Rev. Mr. 
 Hurlbut estimates that in Algonquin 17,000,000 
 verbal forms may be made from a single root. Mr. 
 Trumbull informs us that m Eliot's Massachusetts 
 Bible the phrase " kneeling down to him " had to be 
 translated by a single word of eleven syllables, ivut- 
 (ippes-ituqussun-nooiveht-unk-quoh, which when drawn 
 out in full means, " He came to a state of rest upon 
 the bended knees, doing reverence unto him." « Cor- 
 responding illustrations may be drawn from the 
 
The Lini^uist'u Argument Sj 
 
 Basque ]anij;iiage of Southwestern France, where " the 
 lower field of the hio;h hill of Azpicuelta " is ex- 
 pressed in the one word /izpilciiclagaraycosdroyaren- 
 herecclarrca, and from the Eskimo, \\ho express the 
 sentence " he goes hastily away and exerts himself to 
 write " by the word Aglckkig'iartorasuarnipok, and from 
 the Sanskrit, in which the word bha/z^/apur/^akumb- 
 hakarama//^/apikaikadecc means, " in one corner of a 
 little-shop of a jar-maker (which was) filled with 
 earthen-pots." ' All the American languages are con- 
 structed essentially on this agglutinative, or, what 
 has been called by some polysynthetic plan; but they 
 differ greatly in their roots, and are subject to rapid 
 changes. To such an extent is this true, according 
 to Whitney, that " there are groups of kindred 
 tribes whose separation is known to be of not very 
 long standing, but in whose speech the correspond- 
 ences are almost overwhelmed and hidden from sight 
 by the discordances which have sprung up. In more 
 than one tongue it has been remarked that books of 
 instruction prepared by missionaries have become an- 
 tiquated and almost unintelligible in three or four 
 generations." ^ 
 
 The multiplicity of linguistic stocks in America is 
 especially noticeable on the Pacific coast, particularly 
 m those portions where subsistence is most easily ob- 
 
84 Origin and Anliquity of Man 
 
 taincd, and isolation of tribes most readily secured. Mr. 
 Horatio Hale ^ when he made the first ethnological 
 survey of Oregon, found no less than twelve linguis- 
 tic stocks in that limited area; while Mr. Stephen 
 Powers, of the United States Ethnological Bureau, 
 found sixteen additional linguistic stocks in California, 
 making, with others that have been added, no .less 
 than thirty distinct stocks of language among the 
 American Indians in a territory no larger than France. 
 In a subsequent chapter evidence of an independent 
 character will be adduced to show that the Indian 
 races of America and the Tamils of Southern India 
 branched off from a common parent stock, which had 
 already come to differ largely in their social customs 
 from the Aryan and Semitic races. But here it is 
 worth while to note that in the community of struc- 
 ture evident in the languages of these people, we have 
 additional evidence of a common origin of these 
 races, and that their separation dated back to a time 
 subsequent to the beginning of that linguistic devel- 
 opment which reveals itself In the three great classes 
 of language, the monosyllabic, the agglutinative, and 
 the inflectional. The agglutinative tendency, which 
 finally became the main characteristic of many lan- 
 guages, may indeed have served as a stepping-stone, 
 or a transitional stage, from the monosyllabic to the 
 
inHectional toni^iics so that it may jet be proven that 
 the Semitic and Ar^an lan^uaires are in a sense sis- 
 ters of the a.Li^lutinative; hut at an}' rate the ch'strihu- 
 tion of people spcakinjj^ the a;j;;j;lutinative languages 
 is such as to indicate an antiquity far exceeding the 
 earliest historical records of the human race. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF THE ARYAX LANGUAGES 
 
 From the words common to the various branches 
 of the Aryan language it is possible for us to get a 
 pretty clear conception of the advancement already 
 made by the race before the diversification of the 
 primitive Aryan speech had proceeded far. By com- 
 paring its various branches we learn that the tribes 
 who spoke the mother tongue had made much progress 
 in many things, and had really laid the foundation 
 of the civilization already attained by their remote 
 descendants. As a common heritage from this mother 
 tongue, various early but widely separated descend- 
 ants received the same words to express the idea of 
 settled habitations and fortified places, and of various 
 things connected with the possession and rearing of 
 cattle and of cultivating the earth. All of these de- 
 scendants used variations of the same root word in 
 naming the horse, the ox, the sheep, the goat, the 
 sv.ine, the do;r. the hear, the wolf, the mouse, the 
 
86 Oricr'iTi and Antiquity of Man 
 
 dove, and probably the goose. They all had a com- 
 mon name for night and winter, and for wheat, bar- 
 ley, wool, and flax (probably also for hemp), clothing 
 and the art of weaving. Their language show^s that 
 their common ancestors used the short sword, or 
 heavy dagger, the spear, the bow, and probably the 
 shield, and that they manufactured boats to be moved 
 by oars. They all had a fixed mode of designating 
 blood relationships to the third degree. They also 
 had a common word for hundred, and the language 
 shows that their comm.on ancestors already had a 
 name for the moon and one for the stars, and that 
 they worshipped the powders of nature probably with- 
 out the intervention of a priesthood. 
 
 It is important to note in passing, that be^^ond 
 reasonable doubt, the original center of the Aryan 
 languages is to be found in the irrigated belt bounding 
 the southern limit of the Aral-Caspian depression 
 from which have come, through Mr. Pumpelly's in- 
 vestigations, the early indications of civilization de- 
 scribed in the preceding chapter. The civilization of 
 Anau is that of the early Aryans. 
 
 POSSIBLE RATE OF LINGUISTIC DEVELOPMENT 
 
 In reasoning upon the data thus presented, so as 
 to draw safe conclusions from them concerning the 
 
llic Lini^ii'istic Ar'j^iimi'tit 87 
 
 antiquity of man, the problem is to obtain a rate of 
 development \\hich may serve for a divisor. In the 
 changes already evident in lin^^iuistic development at 
 the earliest dawn of historic evidence, we have our 
 dividend. Supposing the human race to have set out 
 from a common center to distribute themselves over 
 the surface of the earth with the simplest form of 
 speech, the question is, How long would it take them 
 to attain that linguistic divergence and development 
 which we find to exist already at an indefinite period 
 preceding the earliest historical records in the valleys 
 of the Nile and the Euphrates? How long would it 
 take wandering tribes to make the progress indi- 
 cated by the language of the original Aryan-speaking 
 people ? 
 
 In order to get the rate of progress we naturally 
 turn to the changes of language which have taken 
 place within the historical period and more especially 
 m modern times. That changes are continually go- 
 ing on in language is evident upon slight reflection. 
 Even with all the conservative influence of literature 
 such as has been in the possession of the European 
 nations since their conversion to Christianity, a cer- 
 tain class of changes has proceeded with considerable 
 rapidity. It is with difficulty that the ordinan^ Eng- 
 lish student of the present time reads the writings of 
 
88 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Spenser and Chaucer. Even the standard English 
 version of the Bible contains so many archaisms that 
 a new translation has been demanded. 
 
 But the most familiar example of modern linguistic 
 changes is to be found in the varieties of the Latin 
 language now spoken in different parts of Europe, 
 and in the colonies that have carried these dialects 
 with them to the New^ World. The Latin of the 
 classical period died of formalism and propriety. The 
 main currents of national life flow^ed outside of the 
 literary channels. The men who spoke the homely 
 dialects of the provinces, and of the busy marts of 
 trade and common life, conquered by sheer force of 
 numbers ; so that now, instead of one form of speech, 
 we have the Latin and eight or nine other tongues 
 closely allied in form and structure to the language 
 of Rome in her palmy days, yet differing so much 
 from one another that each has to be learned as a 
 separate language; viz., Portuguese, Spanish, French, 
 Provencal, Italian, VVallachian, Rheto-Romanic, and 
 Roumanian. 
 
 The most natural theory concerning the origin of 
 these languages is that they are the modifications of 
 the Latin which became prevalent in these various 
 localities during the loti^ reign of the Roman Em- 
 pire. While the presence of the Roman legions, and 
 
Tin- Liri'^uistic .1 m^ittucnt 8<; 
 
 of the Roman colonists of various kinds, disscniinatt'il 
 and made popular the lan;4ua<j;e of the capital, the 
 numerical predominance of the native populations leil 
 to such modifications of it as spoken in the various 
 localities that when the Roman lei^ions were with- 
 drawn, and there was no literary standard left, there 
 was great freedom for development, which has shown 
 itself in the so-called Romance languages of Europe. 
 — each having a literature of its own, and each having 
 a character naturally impressed upon it by the national 
 peculiarities and the national language which it had 
 supplanted. All this seems to have been the work 
 of the first two or three centuries after the fall of the 
 Roman Empire. If we knew the histon^ better, how- 
 ever, we should doubtless find that it had been going 
 on in the speech of the common people during all the 
 preceding centuries of Roman occupation. 
 
 But it is difficult to obtain a quantitative measure 
 from any observations devoted to languages with a 
 living literature. There is, first, the retarding eliect 
 of the literature itself, which it is impossible fully to 
 measure; and, secondly, there is the fact that all the 
 linguistic changes known to have taken place within 
 historic times fall short of affecting the essential 
 structure of the language itself. No language has 
 ever been observed in historical times to pass from 
 
go Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 one of the great classes enumerated above into any 
 other. The monosyllabic languages have satisfied the 
 people speaking them; the agglutinative tongues have 
 offered the widest range for variation, but the people 
 using them have never ventured out of the agglutina- 
 tive fold; while the Inflectional languages have con- 
 stantly tended to variation, but always within the 
 limits of their class. 
 
 Probably, however, we shall have to acknowledge 
 that the rate of progress in the established order of- 
 things may be very different from that In the Inchoate 
 condition of the human race. Uniformity may not 
 be the word which expresses the truth with respect 
 to the development of language any more than It is 
 in physiology and geology. Parox5^smal evolution may 
 be the law of language, as doubtless it has been the 
 law of the development of species. Certainly the sta- 
 tionary physical condition of the adult Individual is 
 no measure of the development in childhood and 
 youth, and we may be as far from the truth In 
 endeavoring to reach the primitive state of man by 
 projecting the nearly parallel lines of linguistic de- 
 velopment open to our study, as we should be In rea- 
 j^onlng In a similar manner from the condition of the 
 adult to tlie condition of the embryo before its birth 
 into the outward world. 
 
77/r Linf^uistic Ar^ununt 9 1 
 
 It lias been iii<2;t*nic)usly su^L!;cstccl by Air. Horatio 
 Hale tliat our safest analogies from whicli to reason 
 concerning the ori;2;in of the v.'irioiis forms of human 
 speech, may be drawn fr(jm the linijjuistio develop- 
 ments of those children, who, from one cause or an- 
 other, have for a time isolated themselves from the 
 rest of the world, and have independently framed a 
 language of their own through which to communicate 
 with one another. In several recorded cases this 
 isolation has taken place voluntarily, not by compul- 
 sion ; and the study of such instances affords a clue 
 to what might take place, either in the infancy of the 
 race, or at any time when a family of small children 
 should by accident have become isolated amid condi- 
 tions where life could be supported without parental 
 care. 
 
 Man has been properly defined as " an animal that 
 speaks." Articulate language is a necessity of his na- 
 ture, and he makes use of the organs for producing it 
 as instinctively as the bird does of his wings. Proba- 
 bly, every one is cognizant of families of children who 
 have framed a language of their own, the full mean- 
 ing of which was known only to themselves, — in- 
 venting names of their own for the various utensils 
 of the house and the various tools used in the house- 
 hold*. Such experiences will give the greater force to 
 
92 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 several detailed reports which have been made con- 
 cerning the progress in language-making, where chil- 
 dren have been permitted to proceed to considerable 
 lengths. Of course this is not a field in which we 
 can freel)^ experiment; for, principles of humanity 
 forbid any extended experiments in this direction. 
 Valuable as is such truth, it is not of so much worth 
 that \^T could stand by and permit experiments which 
 would sacrifice the future development of any of our 
 fellow men by shutting them off from the ordinary 
 approaches to the full storehouses of the world's 
 knowledge and wisdom afforded by established forms 
 of speech. 
 
 The following instances seem to be the most in- 
 structive that have yet been made public. The first 
 is an account published, in 1878, by Miss E. H. 
 Watson, ^^ of Boston, telling of the progress made by 
 two children, some years before, in the construction of 
 a language of their own. These children were twins, 
 born in the suburbs of Boston in i860. Their mother 
 was of German descent, and, though able to speak 
 the language of her father, never did so in her own 
 household. The children looked so much alike that 
 it was impossible at first for any one but their 
 parents to tell them apart. Being constantly to- 
 gether they developed, as such children frequently do, 
 
TJic L'nii^iiistic .1 n^/nnrnf 
 
 9^ 
 
 an intense and exclusive interest in each other, and 
 at the usual aire when children commence to talk they 
 hcL^an to manufacture a lan<2;uage of their own, and 
 could not he persuaded to use any other. Their older 
 sister could not induce them to utter a syllable of 
 English. Not even the w^ords ** papa " and " mamma " 
 could be extorted from their unwilling lips. They 
 had a name for their mother, but it was one of their 
 own devising. While playing and talking together in 
 their own speech, they exhibited all the liveliness and 
 volubility of common children. They had regular 
 words for various objects which the family came to 
 distinguish, but which, unfortunately, had for the 
 most part been forgotten before Miss Watson wrote 
 her account. Of these the word for " carriage " seems 
 to be the only one that has been rescued. It was nJ-.^i- 
 brjfj-a, which they would cry out when hearing the car- 
 riag-e pass in the street, and then run to the window. 
 A more systematic series of observations was made 
 by Dr. E. R. Hun,^i of Albany, N. Y.. upon a lan- 
 guage invented by two children in that city. In this 
 case the two children were a boy and a girl, the one 
 being eighteen months older than the other. The 
 older one of the children began to use words of her 
 ov.ii inxcntion soon after she was two years old, and 
 these words uere adopted by the younger one as he 
 
94 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 came to feel the need of language, and were used by 
 him in preference to those which his parents endeav- 
 ored to teach him. The parents were cultivated peo- 
 ple, using only the English language, and the domes- 
 tics employed spoke only English. But the children 
 continued to talk with great rapidity and fluency to 
 each other in an unknown tongue. Some of their 
 words evidently imitated the sounds of the objects 
 designated, that is, were onomatopoetic ; but others 
 showed no traces of the working of that principle. 
 The word mea which closely resembled the mewing of 
 the cat, was made to represent both cat and fur. But 
 some of their words were evidently formed from the 
 mere love of jingle, which is prominent in both chil- 
 dren and poets. Migno-miirno signified indifferently 
 " \\ater," '' wash," " bath." Go-go signified " sugar," 
 " candy," and other delicacies. Waia-ivaiar signified 
 " black," " darkness," or a " negro." Gurnmigar was 
 a generalized concept of all the substantial dishes of 
 the table and at the same time was applied to the 
 cook. Of miscellaneous words gar meant " horse " ; 
 deer, "money" of all kinds; beer, ** literature," 
 " books," or " school " ; peer, " ball " ; hau, *' soldier," 
 or "music"; odo, "to send for," "to go out," and 
 "take away"; pn-ina, "to go to sleep," "pillow," or 
 " bed." Of compounds we have from odo (which 
 
Till' LuiiTuislic Ari^iiincnt 95 
 
 means, as \vc have said, " to send for," " to go out," 
 or " to take away ") ma odo. meaniiifj; " I want to go 
 out"; i^ar odo, "send for a horse"; too odo, "all 
 gone." Gadn signified " God," and we are told that 
 when it rained the children would often run to the 
 window and call out, Gadn odo /niirno-migno, feu odo, 
 meaning, " God take way the rain and send the 
 sun"; — odo before the object meaning "to take 
 away " while after the object it meant " to send for." 
 While the word for soldier was bau they applied it 
 also to the bishop when they saw him in his miter and 
 vestments, and while, also, «■«;• odo meant " send for 
 the horse," it was also used for a noun to designate 
 the pencil and paper used in making a written order 
 for the horse. 
 
 In these illustrations we have brought to light the 
 fact that language is so much a necessity to the social 
 nature of man, and his organs of speech and his in- 
 stincts are such, that persons with a strongly linguis- 
 tic bent can make a language almost as easily, in case 
 of need, as they can learn one; so that there is no 
 great mastery about the origin of language, when 
 once we have man. It appears to be the most nat- 
 ural thing in the world for him to designate objects 
 and actions by some vocal sound, and any two chil- 
 dren who have a well-developed linguistic faculty and 
 
q6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 have not been previously taught a language would 
 soon begin to communicate with each other by vocal 
 utterances, and would speedily come to an agreement 
 upon the names of the things about them, and upon 
 expressions indicating the relations of things to one 
 another. A language with all its essential elements 
 might thus be formed, in some instances, in the same 
 time that children now learn one from their parents 
 and teachers. Indeed, it is a question if it would not 
 be as easy for some peculiarly gifted children to make 
 up their own language as to adopt that of their eld- 
 ers, except for the greater convenience which they find 
 in the use of the existing language in interchanging 
 ideas with the larger circle of their fellows. 
 
 With these facts in mind it is easy to see how 
 diverse languages might arise in a short period of 
 time if only we can imagine children to be isolated at 
 an early age ; and this is not difficult to conceive when 
 we take into account the various vicissitudes of human 
 life, and the facilities which certain regions afford for 
 the sustenance of life with little forethought and ex- 
 ertion upon the part of the individuals. It is in such 
 favored portions of the earth's surface that we are 
 naturally led to suppose the human race had its ori- 
 gin and early development, where the climate was 
 mild and equable and where food was accessible dur- 
 
The Lint^uistic Ati^uiiicnt 97 
 
 '\n^ all portions of the year. The ability to cope witii 
 the hardships of winter and with prolonged droughts 
 of the summer months, we might suppose to have been 
 accjuired at a later stage of human development. As 
 to the ability of early races to develop along these 
 lines, we have no direct evidence; but Paheolithic 
 skulls show, as we shall see, a remarkable brain ca- 
 pacity, equaling in some cases that of the greatest of 
 modern scholars and savants, and it therefore seems 
 likely that they possessed in a high degree this lin- 
 guistic faculty. 
 
 As Air. Hale has observed, it is a significant fact 
 that the regions where languages are most numerous 
 are those, where conditions favor the isolation of fam- 
 ilies of children, such as we have supposed. In Amer- 
 ica it is in Oregon and California, on the Pacific 
 coast, where we find the greatest number of lan- 
 guages; — there being, as already said, no less than 
 thirty in that single region, and each one of the lan- 
 guages is spoken by a comparatively small number of 
 persons. The significant fact in this connection is 
 thnt here we find the conditions most favorable for 
 the preservation of a helpless family. In the lowlands 
 of California snow and ice are rarely formed; more 
 than half of the days are cloudless; roses bloom 
 throughout the year; "strawberries, blackberries, cur- 
 
qS Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 rants, raspberries, and salmon-berries are indigenous 
 and abundant. Large fruits and edible nuts " are 
 within easy reach. The horse-chestnut also provides 
 abundant fruit, much used by the Indians. Wild 
 cherries and plums abound, and there are various 
 kinds of nutritious roots, maturing at different sea- 
 sons, while fish crowd the streams, and earthworms 
 are ever within reach of the starving; and, as already 
 intimated, the climate is such that clothing is scarcely 
 necessary, and shelter is well-nigh superfluous. In 
 these Edenic conditions it is easy to see how^ it is pos- 
 sible, in the vicissitudes of savage life, for a family of 
 small children whose father and mother have perished, 
 to grow up in isolation, and be compelled to -develop 
 a language for themselves; or as Mr. Hale suggests, 
 if only one of the parents had perished, the remaining 
 one might find it easier to adopt the linguistic inven- 
 tions of the children than to impose all of his own 
 upon them, when, how^ever, it would be likely that 
 the structure of the parent's language would remain, 
 even though new w-ords had been devised and adopted. 
 On this view of the origin of various isolated Ameri- 
 can languages, we can readily account for the striking 
 resemblances which still characterize some that are in 
 general far apart; as, for example, the common word 
 for " foot " (si or sit) found in the Algonquin, Iro- 
 
The T/uKj^n'istic .hi^iinunt 
 
 n<) 
 
 quois ami Dakota, — a souiul, sa\s Mr. llalc, so sim- 
 ple that even a youiii: chihl who haJ once lu'aiil it 
 miiiht he expected to retain it in ilesiii;natiii<^ the oh- 
 ject to which it was originally applied. 
 
 The same tendency to extreme variations in lan- 
 guage observable in California is also said to exist in 
 tropical Brazil, where also the conditions are most 
 favorable for the preservation of families of children 
 that might happen to become isolated. Baron von 
 Tschudi estimates that there are hundreds of such 
 languages in South America.^ - 
 
 In striking contrast to the multiplicity of lan- 
 guages in California and l^razil is the uniformity of 
 language in Australia, where the conditions are such 
 as to insure the destruction of any family of 3'oung 
 children that shoidd become separated from their nat- 
 ural protectors. Here, though the climate is warm, 
 the drought of summer interposes as serious an obsta- 
 cle to the spontaneous existence of the human race as 
 the cold of winter does in the higher latitudes. 
 
 As every consideration would point to a country 
 blest with a mild climate and with abundant sponta- 
 neous fruits of the field, as the natural habitation for 
 primitive man, we can readily see that the diversifica- 
 tion of languages may have been the work of a com- 
 paratively short time. In those conditions, isolation 
 
lOO Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of families was the most likely to occur. With the 
 present preoccupation of the whole earth and the gen- 
 eral spread of civilizing agencies, however, it is almost 
 impossible for isolation to take place. As with the 
 criminal in the palmy days of the Roman Empire, 
 there is now no opportunity for flight. Wherever 
 the culprit w^ent he was still in the Roman Empire, 
 for Rome w^as the world ; so now wherever a family 
 of children should become isolated, the isolation could 
 remain but the briefest period before the all-pervading 
 influences of the swarming nations w^ould close in 
 around them and absorb them in the great mass. 
 
 It is thus easily evident that present rates of linguis- 
 tic development are no measure at all of the rates 
 that may have prevailed in primitive times. There is 
 an old age to the race as well as to the individual. 
 After certain stages of progress, the conservative in- 
 fluences of society into w^hich wt are born and in 
 which we are reared, become so predominant, that 
 changes in language must be very slow, and must pro- 
 ceed in well-defined lines. We cannot, therefore, in 
 this case draw long conclusions backw\ard from the 
 point at which history first rises from the misty depths 
 of the past. The evidence of an extremely great an- 
 tiquity of the human race drawn from the diversity 
 of language at the dawn of historv is far from con- 
 
The l.ini^itistic Ari^unicnt 
 
 lOI 
 
 elusive. It docs not, indeed, forbid the supposition of 
 .ereat antiquity, hut it does not carry the positive 
 weight of evidence which has often been cLaimed for 
 It. It is pecuh'arly one of those reahns of inquiry 
 where the present is not a measure of the past.^^ 
 
I02 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE RACES OF EUROPE 
 
 Historical evidence gives little help in untangling 
 the problems presented by the conglomerated popula- 
 tions of Europe. While, for thousands of years the 
 light of civilization was brightly burning in North- 
 eastern Africa and in Western Asia, a dense night of 
 barbarism rested over all the principal centers of 
 modern culture. Rom.e's earliest legends reach back 
 only a few hundred years before the Christian era. 
 Adventurous Phoenician navigators had, at a some- 
 what earlier period, ventured bej^ond the pillars of 
 Hercules, and extended their traffic to the shores of 
 Britain. But they left no permanent influence upon 
 the tribes with which they interchanged commodities. 
 There are also a few other signs of extended lines of 
 traffic between the earlier centers of civilization and 
 the plains of Northern Europe during their long se- 
 clusion in the night of primeval barbarism. I was 
 much impressed a few" years ago, while crossing the 
 Alps, to encounter a party of excavators under direc- 
 tion of .^he Italian government, who had just uncov- 
 ered near the summit of the St. Bernard Pass the 
 
Or'ii^rj,, of flic Races of Europe 1 03 
 
 toundations of an ancicMU temple which had been laid 
 loiii^ before the walls of Rome were built. Here vo- 
 tive offerint^s were found whose date could fairly be 
 assigned to a period as early as 800 B.C., showing 
 that, from very early times, the lines of traffic across 
 the Alps had been the same as they now are. 
 
 It is evident that a civilization of a high order de- 
 veloped in Northern Italy about one thousand years 
 before Christ, and became the foundation of the later 
 civilization of Rome. Hie relics of Etruscan art 
 which have come down to us reveal a skill that was 
 scarcely excelled in any later 'time in Italy. But even 
 this civilization was not indigenous. It had come 
 from the East, either from the Mediterranean shore 
 where the first rudiments of Grecian culture flour- 
 ished, or from the valley of the Danube which had 
 received cultured immigrants from the more distant 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Archrpologists are now inclined to trace important 
 elements of the Etruscan civilization to one whose 
 center was at Hallstatt, a little Alpine village in 
 upper Austria near the border of Salzburg, where 
 discoveries have been made marking an epoch in 
 archaeological research. Here, a long distance from 
 any present great center of population, a prehistoric 
 cemetery was found where were excavated more than 
 
I04 Orii^in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 three thousand graves containing a great variety of 
 weapons, implements, and ornaments, none of which 
 were Greek or Roman. Both bronze and iron appear 
 at Hallstatt, indicating the advent of influences from 
 an advanced stage of PZastern civilization. The date 
 is certainly as early as that of the "IVojan era cele- 
 brated by Homeric song, and its influence can be 
 traced over a large part of Central and Southern Eu- 
 rope, being specially marked in that of the Etruscan 
 era and through them in the later Roman. Great 
 artistic skill is shown at Hallstatt in ornamental work 
 in bronze. Large numbers of situUr, or metallic pails, 
 have been found, ornamented with figures worked in 
 repousse. The figures both of men and animals in 
 these designs are wrought with a skill worthy of the 
 classical age of Greek art.^ 
 
 But preceding the period when bronze and iron 
 were in use in Europe, there stretches out into the 
 dim recesses of the past an age when stone was the 
 only material from which implements, weapons, and 
 ornaments were made. This period is subdivided into 
 the palaeolithic (ancient stone) and the neolithic 
 (newer stone) eras — the pal.Tolithic, as the word 
 indicates being the older. Moreover the pahrolithic 
 implements arc all worked into shape by chipping, and 
 so are often referred to as rough stone implements. 
 
Or'a^'ut of the Races of Kit rope lo^ 
 
 whik' tlu" hitcr neolithic iiiiplciiicnts arc tashioncd liy 
 nihhinLi; and so arc appropriately tailed smooth stotu- 
 iniplcnuMits. In Kiirope Lieoloizical evidence shows 
 that the pahuolithic a<2;e long antedates that of the 
 neolithic. We will, therefore, first detail the essen- 
 tial tacts conccrnini: neolithic man in luirope. 
 
 Prominent amoniz the relics of neolithic man in 
 Europe are the kitchen midtlcns, or slicll heaps, of 
 Denmark and Sweden — • places where successive gen- 
 erations of primitive men have thrown the refuse of 
 their favorite camping places. In these refuse heaps 
 are to be found the shells and bones of the animals 
 which served for their food, intermingled with va- 
 rious implem.ents that had been either broken or lost. 
 These implements consist of flint hatchets and other 
 utensils m.adc of stone, horn, wood, and bone, to- 
 gether with coarse pottery, while charcoal and cinders 
 abound. The stone implements have usually been 
 polished and sharpened by rubbing; this justifying 
 their assignment to the " smooth stone age." 
 
 The mounds formed by these kitchen refuse heaps 
 arc sometimes as much as ten feet high, and stretch 
 along the shore for a thousand feet, and extend back 
 one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet. Usually 
 they are within a few feet of the level of the sea, 
 and in all cases were originally upon the shore of the 
 
I06 Oris^in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 sea or upon some inlet. In some instances, however, 
 through the silting up of the inlet, the refuse heaps 
 are now several miles from the shore. 
 
 But extensive as are some of these refuse shell 
 heaps, we are not compelled to assign to them extreme 
 antiquity. The animal remains here associated with 
 the neolithic implements are all of existing species, 
 showing that there has not been any great change in 
 the physical conditions since their deposition. Tlie 
 shell-fish are sometimes larger than those now^ exist- 
 ing in the same region, which is owing probably to 
 the greater saltness of the Baltic at that time^ due 
 perhaps to a freer influx of ocean water, which has 
 subsequently been prevented by the silting up of some 
 of the passages between the many islands of Den- 
 mark. 
 
 The evidence from a succession of forests is more 
 suggestive of great age, and yet by no means conclu- 
 sive. As far back as history or tradition can carry us, 
 Denmark has been covered with beech forests, and 
 they continue to flourish there at the present time 
 with great luxuriance. Eighteen centuries have 
 passed without sensibly modifying the character of 
 the forests. How long before this the beech w^as 
 enabled to displace the oak, we have no means of 
 telling. Yet during the continuance of the bronze 
 
Orii^iu of the Races of Euro/^e 107 
 
 age, oak was tlic prevailing forest; while in the stone 
 age, which is that of the kitchen middens, the pine 
 forests had not heen displaced hy deciduous trees. 
 The age of. stone was the age of the pine and fir. 
 Something of a clue is given to the date of these 
 older forests hy the growth of peat, which is found 
 to overlie both prostrate trunks of the pine and scat- 
 tered implements of the stone age. Steenstrup, one 
 of the most careful observers, estimates that we are 
 carried back by these calculations at least tw^o thou- 
 sand years before the Christian era. 
 
 In the lake dwellings of Switzerland we meet with 
 another class of relics of the smooth stone, or neo- 
 lithic, age.- These are dwellings built upon piles 
 extending out into the shallow^ portions of the vari- 
 ous lakes, where it was easy to obtain protection both 
 from the incursions of v.-ild beasts and the sudden at- 
 tack of human enemies. Such dwellings in actual occu- 
 pation had come to the notice of Herodotus as late as 
 the sixth century before Christ, in some of the moun- 
 tain lakes of what is now modern Roumelia. From 
 recent explorations much has been learned about the 
 conditions of life among the lake dwellers. Some- 
 times these settlements were large enough to contain 
 a population of a thousand, and a single village is 
 believed to have been found which had three hundred 
 
lo8 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 houses fn it. Forty thousand piles are estimated to 
 have been necessary for the construction of some of 
 these villages. The villages existed in great num- 
 bers throughout the lake region of Switzerland, and 
 belonged to different periods, — some to the bronze 
 and some to the stone age. Naturally the larger and 
 best preserved viTre those belonging to the bronze 
 period. In one of those of stone age, near Berne, the 
 flint employed must have come from outside the 
 bounds of Switzerland, but the chippings w^ere so 
 numerous as to suggest that the place was fixed upon 
 as a manufactory. Implements of jade also were 
 found, — a material which probably had to be brought 
 from the shores of the Baltic or from Central Asia. 
 Thus in the early part of the neolithic age an exten- 
 sive commerce among the tribes of Europe is indi- 
 cated ; while in the bronze age of the lake dwellers 
 the indications of an extensive commerce are still more 
 numerous. In the lake dwellings of the stone age, 
 grains of carbonized wheat and barley, and round 
 cakes of bread, have been found, besides bones of the 
 dog, tlie ox, the sheep, and the goat. 
 
 Like the animal remains of the Danish refuse heaps, 
 those of the Swiss lake dwelh'ngs are all of species 
 that have survived to the historical era. A change In the 
 predominant animals is noticeable, however, in passing 
 
Orii^hi of tJic Races of Europe 109 
 
 from the lake d\vcllin<2;s of the stone ai2;e to those of tlic 
 hronze niic. In the earh^ a^c the remains of the sta^ 
 and roe are more abundant than those of domestic cat- 
 tle and sheep, and those of the wild boar more frequent 
 than those of the tame pig, and those of the goat than 
 those of the sheep ; while in the later dwellings the 
 proportions were reversed. The bones of the fox are 
 vev}' common in the lake dwellings of the stone age, 
 but give place in the bronze age to those of the hunt- 
 ing dog. But the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the dog 
 existed during the earliest period of the lake dwell- 
 ers. The domestication of animals proceeded through- 
 out the period with considerable regularity, and they 
 gradually took the place of wild animals for food. 
 The existence of domestic animals in the earliest sites 
 of lake dwellers would seem to indicate that the 
 first occupation of this kind of dwellings w^as later 
 than the period represented by the refuse heaps of 
 Denmark, where the remains of domestic animals 
 have not been found with the exception of the dog, 
 and where there are no remains of cultivated cereals. 
 Hut all archaeologists now admit that the development 
 of the races of Northern Europe lagged far behind 
 that in Central and Southern Europe. 
 
 The most elaborate attempt to determine the age 
 of any of the lake dwellings was made by Morlot 
 
no Oj'ifr'ui and Antiquity of Man 
 
 through calculations drawn from the details of the 
 Tiniere, which flows into Lake Geneva near its up- 
 per end. Morlot's calculations would make the re- 
 mains of the stone age from five to seven thousand 
 years old. But these calcidations were based upon 
 assumptions respecting both the amount and rate of 
 deposit which are uncertain. Dr. Andrews, after go- 
 ing carefully over the ground, concluded that the 
 earliest human remains found in the delta of the 
 Tiniere were probably not more than three thousand 
 years old." 
 
 .Thus it appears that no geological facts earn,- neo- 
 lithic man farther back in P^urope than to the period 
 in which historical evidence reveals a high state of 
 civilization in the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates. 
 Some further light, however, may be shed upon both 
 the date of neolithic man's entrance into Europe and 
 the stage of his culture, by attending to the more 
 general ethnological problems which recent investiga- 
 tions are attempting to solve. 
 
 At first sight it would seem impossible to untangle 
 the ethnological problem that is presented by the 
 coexistence of so many varieties of the human race 
 as exist in Europe and adjoining regions. In color 
 the blond type prevails in the north and the brunct 
 in the south. I^ight hair and blue eyes prevail almost 
 
Orii^rj/i of the Rdci's of Europe I I I 
 
 universally in Scandinavia and Northern Germany, 
 and amunij; the Slavs of Russia. On the other hand 
 black hair and eyes and dark skin prevail increasino;ly 
 as we ^o south in Europe and into Northern Africa, 
 with intermediate types over Central Europe. But it 
 is to be noted that while the color of the hair varies 
 through all extremes from blond to brunet, the form 
 and texture of the hair of all the European races is 
 the same. There are in Europe no races with the crisp 
 and curly hair of the African Negro, nor any with 
 the stiff, wiry, straight hair of the Asiatic and the 
 American aborigines. It is worthy also of note that 
 this latter peculiarity in the structure of the hair pre- 
 vails in Hindustan where the Sanskrit branch of the 
 Ar>'an languages had spread. 
 
 The curly hair of the Negro has a " flattened rib- 
 bon-like form in cross section, as examined micro- 
 scopically; while cut squarely across, the straight hair 
 more often inclines to a fairly rounded or cylindrical 
 shape." * On the basis of texture of the hair, the Eu- 
 ropean races would be classed as intermediate between 
 the African and the Asiatic races. Whatever be the 
 color of the hair of a European race, it is fine in 
 texture and inclines to be wavy, rather than curly or 
 
 sua. 
 
 These peculiarities in the color of the skin and in 
 
112 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the structure of the hair of the European races would 
 seem to indicate cither that they are crosses of the 
 other two varieties, or that color and peculiarities of 
 hair structure are more variable elements than some 
 otliers in the determination of race. 
 
 But of the more permanent racial characteristics 
 the form of the skull seems to be the most important. 
 On this basis races are divided into broad-headed and 
 long-headed varieties, or in technical terms brachyce- 
 phalic and dolichocephalic. In the brachycephalic, or 
 broad-headed, varieties the breadth of the skull above 
 the ears is more than eighty per cent of its length 
 from forehead to back. When the breadth falls below 
 seventy per cent of the length it is called dolichoce- 
 phalic, or long-headed. In Europe there is a curious 
 intermingling of long-headed and broad-headed races. 
 Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Great Britain, Ice- 
 land, Spain, and Southern Italy are occupied by long- 
 headed races, as are Africa, Arabia, Hindustan, and 
 Australia. But broad-headed races are thrust in be- 
 tween them, occupying the Alpine regions and the 
 regions bordering the Adriatic Sea on the east and 
 eastward through Russia, and Central and Northern 
 Asia. 
 
 An important fact bearing on our subject is that 
 the remains so far discovered of prehistoric man in 
 
()ri<rj/i of the Racis of Europe 113 
 
 Europe show that he was of a remarkahly long- 
 headed variety. This appears from the measurement 
 of all available skulls which have come down to us 
 from the stone age. It seems, therefore, to be well 
 established that Europe was originally occupied by a 
 long-headed race resembling in that respect both the 
 present inhabitants of the Mediterranean area and 
 those of Great Britain and Scandinavia. 
 
 But, as already said. Central Europe is now prin- 
 cipally occupied by broad-headed races, — this being 
 specially true of the Alpine region. " In the high 
 Alps of northwestern Italy are communes with an 
 average index of 89, an extreme of roundheadedness 
 not equalled anywhere else in the world, save in the 
 Balkan Peninsula and in Asia Minor. This type of 
 head prevails all through the Alps, quite irrespective 
 of political frontiers." ^ 
 
 Formerly it was supposed that the original Eu- 
 ropean race was of the broad-headed variety so char- 
 acteristic of the Asiatic Continent. But more care- 
 ful analysis of the facts leads to the conclusion that 
 the broad-headed races were invaders who partially, 
 and only partially, crowded out the original long- 
 headed race which had preoccupied the whole area. 
 Coming in, apparently, with a higher civilization the 
 broad-headed people penetrated to all the more at- 
 
114 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 tractive portions of the country and dispossessed the 
 long-headed stone age people of the best of their 
 lands. But time wrought its accustomed revenges. 
 Primitive man of Europe in due time learned the arts 
 of his more civilized conquerors, and possessed him- 
 self of his heritage, and in turn drove his conquerors 
 to the wall, crowding them to the more inaccessible 
 regions of the m.ountainous districts where they have 
 maintained themselves ever since in comparative purity. 
 That the prehistoric culture of Europe was not indig- 
 enous, hut was derived from the East, is ably argued 
 by Professor Sophus Miiller ^ of Copenhagen, who 
 shows that the stone axes, the pottery with its peculiar 
 ornamentation, the species of cereals, the dwellings, 
 the graves, and the habits of agriculture of prehistoric 
 Europe came into the region from the East and the 
 South where we find the earliest seats of ancient civ- 
 ilization. An interesting confirmation of this theory 
 of Mr. Ripley^ (to whom we are indebted for many 
 of the facts in this chapter) is found in the present 
 existence of a long-headed race in Southwestern France 
 in the vicinity of Perigueux and Limoges. 
 
 The continued existence of this long-headed race 
 in the midst of broad-headed races receives special 
 significance from the fact that it is just here that we 
 find positive evidence that the prehistoric man of 
 
Ori'^in of flic Races of pAiropc 115 
 
 France vvms of an extremely lon^-headed variety. For 
 ft is here that the numerous skeletons of the so-called 
 Cro-.Magnon race, of neolithic age, have been found. 
 In 1858 workmen in the valley of the Vezere un- 
 earthed six complete skeletons, three of men, two of 
 women, and one of a child. This w\as near the little 
 village of Les Eyzies, and the excavation w^as that of 
 the celebrated Cro-Magnon Cave, from which the 
 name of the race has been derived. Later, similar 
 discoveries were made near Saint-Gaudens in the val- 
 ley of the Garonne, in the cave of Aurignac; at 
 Laugerie Basse In the Vezere Valley and in the cave 
 of Baumes-Chaudes in Lozere. Altogether, according 
 to Ripley, nearly one hundred skeletons were found 
 in the caves of this vicinity, w^hile others of similar 
 character were found in several localities more or less 
 distant. • 
 
 '' The prehistoric antiquity of the Cro-Magnon 
 type in this region is attested in two distinct ways. 
 In the first place, the original people possessed no 
 knowledge of the metals; they were in the same stage 
 of culture as, perhaps even lower than, the American 
 aborigines at the coming of Columbus. Their Im- 
 plements were fashioned of stone or bone, although 
 often cunningly chipped and even polished. They 
 were Ignorant of the arts, either of agriculture or the 
 
Il6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 domestication of animals, in both of which they were 
 far below the culture of the native tribes of Africa at 
 the present day. Additional proof of their antiquity 
 was offered by the animal remains found intermingled 
 with the human bones. The climate must have been 
 very different from that of the present; for many of 
 the fauna then living in the region, such as the rein- 
 deer, are now confined to the cold regions of north- 
 ern Europe. To be sure, the great mammals, such as 
 the mammoth, m.astodon, the cave bear, and hyena, 
 had already become extinct. They were contempora- 
 neous with the still more ancient and uncultured 
 type of man, whose remains occur in a lower geolog- 
 ical stratum. This Cro-Magnon race is not of glacial 
 antiquity, 5^et the distribution of mammals was mark- 
 edly different from that of to-day. Thus of nineteen 
 species found in the Cro-Magnon cave, ten fto longer 
 existed in southern Europe. They had migrated with 
 the change of climate towards the north. The men 
 alone seem to have remained in or near their early 
 settlements, through all the changes of time and the 
 vicissitudes of history. It is perhaps the most striking 
 instance known of a persistency of population un- 
 changed through thousands of years." ^ 
 
 It should be added that the Engis skull of Belgium, 
 SO fully described by Huxley, was of this type, as 
 
Origin of the Races of Europe 117 
 
 have been several others from caves in widely separ- 
 ated regions in Central and Western Europe and bor- 
 dering regions. But from nearly all other regions it 
 had apparently disappeared. 
 
 Closely adjoining the region occupied by the Cro- 
 Magnon race is that of the Basques, who by their 
 language would seem to be related to the oldest races 
 of the world. The Basques occupy a small area in 
 Southwestern France and Northwestern Spain, on 
 both sides of the Pyrenees, yet they speak a language 
 entirely different from the Aryan languages every- 
 where surrounding them now in Europe. To find 
 their linguistic affinities we have to go to the Finns 
 of Northern Europe or to the Hungarians who are 
 known to be immigrants from Asia. The Basque 
 language is agglutinative like that of the Tartars of 
 Asia and the Indians of America. Their words ex- 
 press concrete conceptions rather than abstract ideas. 
 There is no regular inflection, but rather an agglu- 
 tination of concepts in one word, instances of which 
 are given in a preceding chapter. In language, there- 
 fore, the Basques would seem to belong to the most- 
 primitive stock of the human race. 
 
 But when considered from the point of view of 
 skull measurements the problem is more perplexing; 
 for the Basques are partly long-headed and partly 
 
Il8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 broad-headed. Those living south of the Pyrenees in 
 Spain are long-headed; \vhile those living north of 
 the rriountains in France are mostly broad-headed. 
 Apparently the linguistic and the anatomical evi- 
 dence contradict each other. Careful attention to all 
 the facts, how^ever, bring, them into harmony. The 
 Basques of Spain are probably the original unvaried 
 stock, and those on the north of the mountains a 
 mixed stock, vvhich has been produced by contact with 
 the broad-headed Alpine race that penetrated to that 
 part of the mountainous region. But though inter- 
 marrying w^ith the broad-headed race the Basques have 
 preserved their language, and at the same time greatly 
 modified the physical features of their mixed descend- 
 ants. For the French Basques do not have the round 
 face of the Tartar, but the pointed chin and narrow 
 face of the Spanish Basque. 
 
 It seems therefore probable that in this curious 
 relic of people speaking an agglutinative language in 
 these isolated parts of France and Spain, and living 
 close to the former home of the Cro-Magnon race, 
 we have additional evidence that a long-headed people 
 originally occupied Europe, and that the Aryan-speak- 
 ing peoples are Asiatic invaders, w^ho brought with 
 them the higher civilization which they had developed 
 in Central Asia. But, having conquered the country, 
 
Oric^in of tJic Races of Europe 119 
 
 they eventually yielded to the superior force of the 
 native population, when it had become possessed of 
 their arts of war and domestic culture. The Basques 
 are like the silent letters in archaic words. Their 
 anomalous character gives irresistible force to their 
 testimony. 
 
 To the theory that the original inhabitants of Eu- 
 rope were a long-headed, dark-skinned race, affiliated 
 with the Negroes, additional likelihood is given by 
 careful study of the existing races in Russia and Scan- 
 dinavia. Recent investigations show that the Slays 
 are a broad-headed race — the cephalic Index rising 
 progressively as w^e go southwest from Moscow^ to the 
 Adriatic Sea, where the extreme of broad-headedness 
 Is reached in Bosnia. But the Baltic Sea Is bordered 
 by long-headed races upon both sides, — the Swedes 
 and Norwegians being the best types of a robust, fair- 
 haired, long-headed race. Measurements of the skele- 
 tons found in the barrows and tumuli which are 
 frequent In Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, show that 
 the prehistoric people who erected them belonged also 
 to a long-headed race. 
 
 Another Interesting confirmation of the possibility 
 of determining past movements of population from its 
 present distribution Is to be found In Great Britain 
 in the distribution of dark-haired communities speak- 
 
I20 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ing the Celtic language. These are to be found in 
 Western and Southern Wales, where there is a large 
 proportion of brunets among the people and the Kym- 
 ric Celtic is generally spoken. This is also true in 
 Inverness and Argyle, Scotland, and all over the west 
 and south of Ireland, where there is the same pro- 
 portion of brunets and the Gaelic Celtic is spoken. 
 Now though nearly all the races in Great Britain be- 
 long to the long-headed variety, there is little doubt 
 that a dark-haired, Celtic-speaking people were the 
 original occupants of the Islands. Their present iso- 
 lation on the western sides of the Islands show that 
 they were crowded out by invaders from the east. 
 Scandinavian and German varieties of the long-headed 
 race took possession as wo. know of the more accessible 
 portions of the country, and left these peculiarly iso- 
 lated groups of Celts in the extremities and more 
 inaccessible portions of the land. 
 
 According to Ripley, " The anthropological history 
 of northeastern Europe is now clear. Leaving aside 
 the question of the original centre of dispersion of 
 the Slavic languages, generally placed somewhere 
 along the upper Dnieper, it would seem that the 
 Slavs as a physical type penetrated Russia from the 
 southwest, where they were physically an offshoot 
 from the great Alpine race of central Europe. In so 
 
Oris;iri of tJic Rdccs of Europe 12 1 
 
 doinu; the}' forced a way in over a people primitive in 
 culture, laiiL^ua^e, and physical type. This aboriginal 
 substratum is represented to-day by the Finns, now 
 scarcely to be found in purity, pushed aside into the 
 nooks and corners by an intrusive people, possessed 
 of a higher culture acquired in central Europe. Yet 
 the Finn has not become extinct. His blood still 
 flows in Russian veins, most notably in the Great 
 and White Russian tribes. The former, in colonizing 
 the great plain, has also been obliged to contend with 
 the Asiatic barbarians pressing in from the east. Yet 
 the impress of the ^Mongol-Tartar upon the physical 
 type of the Great Russian, which constitutes the ma- 
 jor part of the nation, has been relatively slight; for 
 instead of amalgamation or absorption as with the 
 Finn, elimination, or what Leroy-Beaulieu calls ' se- 
 cretion,' has taken place in case of the iMongol hordes. 
 They still remain intact in the steppes about the Cas- 
 pian ; the Tartars are banished to the eastern govern- 
 ments as well, save for those in the Crimea. The 
 Asiatic influence has been perhaps more powerful in 
 determining the Great Russian character than the 
 physical type. A struggle for mastery of eastern 
 Europe with the barbarians has made the Great Rus- 
 sian more aggressive; vigour has to some degree de- 
 veloped at the expense of refinement. The result has 
 
122 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 been to generate a type well fitted to perform the 
 arduous task of protecting the marches of Europe 
 against barbarian onslaught, and at the same time 
 capable of forcefully extending European culture over 
 the aborigines of Asia." ^ 
 
 The m.ental capacity of neolithic man has been too 
 much underestimated. Until recently it was sup- 
 posed that his development was very meager. But 
 recent discoveries have show^n that there was an indig- 
 enous culture of no mean order among the neolithic 
 inhabitants of Western Europe. Among the con- 
 spicuous evidences of the civic organization and me- 
 chanical skill of neolithic man the dolmens and other 
 prehistoric stone monuments of great size abounding 
 in Western Europe are worthy of prominent mention. 
 
 Dolmens in their simplest form consist of from 
 three to five upright stones of large size, five or six 
 feet high, set up on end, and covered by a capstone of 
 still larger size. The dolmen at Kit's Cotty House, 
 between Rochester and Maidstone in England, has a 
 capstone measuring eleven by eight feet. The me- 
 chanical problem of balancing such a capstone, weigh- 
 ing many tons, upon three upright stone pillars is 
 an extremely difficult one, and has greatly puzzled 
 students of these remarkable structures. Probably, 
 however, it was accomplished by first piling a mound 
 
()ii<^'ui of the Rdccs of Europe 123 
 
 of earth arouiul the piUars, and then moving; the 
 capstone along the inclined plane thus formed until it 
 \\'as properly centered and afterwards removing the 
 earth so as to leave the covering in its present poised 
 position. All this is easily enough said, but not so 
 easily done. Its accomplishment implies keen fore- 
 sight and strong mechanical imagination, combined 
 with a considerable power in organizing and utilizing 
 the work of his fellow men. 
 
 For the most part these dolmens evidently belong to 
 the neolithic period, and so are evidence of the ad- 
 vancement of man in Western Europe during that 
 prehistoric epoch. They abound in Northern Africa, 
 Western Europe (especially in Brittany and in Great 
 Britain) and in Northern Germany, Denmark, South- 
 ern Sweden, Southern Russia, and the Crimea, and 
 thence on tlirough Central Asia into India where 
 they are widely distributed. In India and Africa 
 these singular structures have been erected in com- 
 paratively recent times, but in Europe they are evi- 
 dently remnants of prehistoric hum.an effort and 
 accomplishment. It is noticeable that these dolmens 
 follow lines of Aryan emigration and Aryan race 
 location, for the most part. They do so in India and 
 on the way thither. Northern Africa is the only 
 possible exception, and it is easily accounted for by 
 
Prehistoric Monoliths at Aksur, Abyssinia. (Courtesy of 
 Records of the Past.) 
 
Orii^in of the Races of Europe 125 
 
 lateness of the usage there. It may be a borrowed 
 art obtained from Aryan centers of culture or it may 
 have been carried there by late Aryan immigrants, 
 who followed traditional fashions in these monuments. 
 
 Even more remarkable are some of the monoliths 
 which have been erected in many places by prehistoric 
 man in Western Europe. Two of large size rising 
 fifteen or twenty feet above the ground may be seen 
 near the road running from York, England, to Aid- 
 borough, the ancient capital. These must have been 
 brought several miles across broken country; for they 
 are not the rock of the immediate vicinity. At Car- 
 nac in Brittany, France, a monolith of prehistoric age 
 is sixtv-three feet high and fourteen feet in diameter 
 and is estimated to weigh two hundred and sixty tons. 
 
 Nor was neolithic man wholly devoid of artistic 
 capacity. The stone implements fashioned by him are 
 often symmetrical and beautiful and \try difficult of 
 manufacture. In the Scandinavian kitchen middens 
 are found chipped flint daggers of exquisite form, 
 ministering to a high sense of beauty as well as to 
 direct utility. The smooth stone implements are 
 often of even greater beauty and difficulty of manu- 
 facture. To fashion a hard diorite mass into a sym- 
 metrical axf' with a hole bored in the middle for a 
 handle, requires a very high degree of skill. Yet 
 
126 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 implements of this sort are the rule and not the ex- 
 ception in the shell heaps of Denmark and Scandi- 
 navia. 
 
 Carvings upon ivory and bone are also by no 
 means infrequent in the abandoned dwelling places of 
 neolithic man. Several described by Bertrand and 
 Reinach from the grotto of Mas d'Azil, in the ex- 
 treme southwestern corner of Europe, give evidence 
 that man in those primitive conditions had there 
 domesticated the reindeer, the horse, and the ox ; 
 while, as already remarked, in the lake dwellings of 
 Switzerland there is revealed in the relics found, a 
 knowledge of agriculture, of the manufacture of pot- 
 tery, and of the domestication of animals, long before 
 the inhabitants of the region had any contact with 
 the higher civilization w^hich developed in the East. 
 A carving on bone from Thayngen, reproduced by 
 Heim, represents a reindeer, with an artistic skill 
 that would do credit to a modern craftsman. 
 
 The lake dwellings of Switzerland give abundant 
 evidence, however, that the broad-headed race did not 
 at the outset bring with them into Europe the culture 
 of the bronze age. For the skulls of the lake dwel- 
 ers were as broad as those of the inhabitants of the 
 Alpine region at the present time; while the culture 
 revealed in the lowest strat!a oi the pile dwellers' 
 
Orii^ifi of /he Races of Europe 127 
 
 refuse is only that of the stone age. Tlie use of 
 bronze and iron came in gradually as well as tliat 
 of domestic animals. 
 
 The tinal conclusion concerning these questions is 
 well stated by Ripley as follows: 
 
 " The nearly contemporaneous appearance of the 
 Alpine race and the first knowledge of metals, indica- 
 tive of Oriental cultural influences in western Eu- 
 rope, is more or less a coincidence. The first civilized 
 peoples of the Hallstatt period seem to have been 
 closely allied, both in physical type and culture, wnth 
 the Greeks and other peoples of the classic East. 
 Among them, perhaps over them, swept the representa- 
 tives of our broad-headed Alpine type who came froVn 
 the direction of Asia. These invaders may have been 
 the Scythians, although the matter is incapable of 
 proof. Pressure from this direction set both culture 
 and population in motion toward the west, in much 
 the same way that the fall of Constantinople in the 
 fifteenth centurv induced the Renaissance in Italv." ^ 
 
 / 
 
128 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE 
 AMERICAN INDIAN 
 
 America has no written records previous to its 
 discovery by Columbus in 1492. In reconstructing 
 the history, therefore, we must be content with such 
 light as is thrown upon the subject by various natural 
 sciences, especially philology, comparative anatomy, 
 geology, sociology, and archaeology. 
 
 At the outset, however, it is important to note that 
 the Red Indian of America is sharply separated in 
 many wmvs from the Eskimo of the Arctic region. So 
 that, for the present, we will confine our attention to 
 the Red Indian who at the time of the discovery of 
 America by Columbus, was spread over the continent 
 from sea to sea and from Alaska to Patagonia. Not- 
 withstanding their diversities in dialect and civiliza- 
 tion, their resemblances are so many and so striking as 
 to separate them from the other races of the world, 
 and to gather them into a unity by themselves. The 
 best informed students of the subject affirm that physi- 
 ologically, linguistically, and politically the races of 
 North and South America betray a common origin 
 
Ori'^in (uul Anti'iiiil\ of the Amcricdti Indian 1 29 
 
 with onl}' such diversities as the conditions of life 
 and the lapse of time might naturally produce. 
 
 1. The lan'^uage of the native races of America is 
 what has already been described as agglutinative or 
 " polysynthetic," abounding in combinations and re- 
 finements of grammar which throw into shade even 
 the language of classic Greece. Thus, w^hile differ- 
 ing in many minor particulars, the grammatical struct- 
 ure of all the Indian languages is so much alike as to 
 indicate a common origin at some time in the distant 
 past. Old words have dropped out and new ones 
 have come in, but the structure of the language re- 
 mains essentially the same. In the Ojibway language, 
 for example, one can but be impressed with the dis- 
 criminations which appear in the inflection of the 
 verb. An instance appears in the first person plural 
 which has a form expressing a " we," meaning you 
 and I, and a "we," meaning //zrv and I. Among 
 moods they have not only a form to express the sim- 
 ple subjunctive, as, // / see him: but one to express 
 the additional idea, //' / see him, as I probably do. 
 With two words they express the idea, // / understand 
 you, OS I probably do, rve li'ill finish ivhat we wished 
 to do. Kic-pim-ne-si-to-nin-o-ni-mo-gul-o-gwen ki-ga- 
 gi-dji-to-min-wa-i-dji-tci-gc-yung. 
 
 2. Again, there was^ at the time of its discovery 
 
130 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 by Columbus, from the Arctic Sea to Patagonia, a 
 remarkable similarity in the arts and customs of all 
 the inhabitants of America. The Indians had no- 
 where advanced, except perhaps to a limited extent 
 in Peru, beyond the culture possible in an age of 
 stone implements. The copper implements found in 
 North America are insignificant, and were merely 
 hammered, cold, from the native metal. The arts 
 of making pottery, of weaving, and of tanning skins, 
 were at a pretty uniform stage oi development all 
 over the continent. 
 
 3. With wonderful patience of research, and with 
 a great wealth of illustration, Mr. Levvis H. Mor- 
 gan ^ has shown that the domestic, social, political 
 and military customs of the village Indians of New 
 Mexico, and probably of the Indians of Mexico and 
 Central America in their highest state of development, 
 are substantially one with those of the Iroquois of 
 New York and of the purely roving tribes farther 
 north. According to Mr. Morgan, it is the vivid 
 imagination of the Spanish historian which applied 
 the title *' king " or " emperor " to Montezuma. The 
 Mexico subdued by Cortez was not a despotic power 
 under the control of hereditary rulers, but was 
 merely a remarkable confederacy of Indian tribes, 
 like that of the Six Nations in New York. The won- 
 
Origin and Antuiuiiy of the A nicr'niin Indian \ },\ 
 
 derful palaces of Mexico described by the Spanish 
 historians arc likewise declared by Mr. Morgan to be 
 largely the product of their imagination. These his- 
 torians transferred the conceptions of European archi- 
 tecture to the communal houses of the Aztecs m 
 Mexico, which were but improvements upon the 
 pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona, which also are, 
 in turn, but modifications of tlie " long bark houses 
 of the Iroquois, designed for twenty families." The 
 social organization and mode of government pervad- 
 ing all America at the time of its discovery, was a mili- 
 tary " democracy, based upon communism in living." 
 The Indian, nowhere, ever had a title in fee simple 
 to a solitar)^ foot of land. 
 
 All this arises from the mode of reckoning blood 
 relationship among the Indians of America, which is 
 so characteristic, so complicated, and so uniform that 
 it could not have arisen by accident, but must have 
 had its origin in community of descent. P'urthermore, 
 these peculiarities of reckoning affinity, show that the 
 ancestors of the American Indians must have been 
 one with the ancestors of various nations in Asia 
 speaking the Turanian language, prominent among 
 which are the Tamils of India, classified as Dravid- 
 ians. Still further the facts seem to prove that the 
 ancestors of the American Indians and of the Tu- 
 
132 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ranian race of Asia had separated from the common 
 stock previous to the spread of the so-called Aryan 
 civilization over India and Europe. 
 
 Mr. Morgan's researches upon this point are so 
 Interesting and instructive that we may profitably de- 
 vote a few paragraphs to them. 
 
 European nations inherit from the earliest times a 
 descriptive mode of expressing consanguinity. This 
 mode is specially adapted to a state of society in which 
 Individual rights to property are recognized and 
 where estates are to be distributed. In this plan it 
 Is Important to recognize the degree in which blood 
 relations are separated from each other. If an es- 
 tate is to be distributed among all the descendants of 
 Its original possessor, it Is important for the surviv- 
 ing relatives to know how large a number there may 
 be to claim a portion. Our third cousin, for exam- 
 ple, is the great-grandchild of our great-great uncle. 
 With our mode of calculation, blood relationship is 
 made to appear so slight that at a few degrees re- 
 moved it ceases to be of any account. The number 
 of fourteenth cousins which every person ought to 
 have. Is, according to Blackstone's computation, not 
 less than sixty-seven millions. The number of a per- 
 son's ancestors, as we recede in time, likewise in- 
 creases with striking rapidity. Each one of us has 
 
()ri<^in diid Jntiqiiity of the Aincricdn I/idian 133 
 
 four 2;randparcnts, cii2;ht great-grandparents, and so 
 on. If there had been no Intermarriage of relatives 
 for twenty generations back, each person would find 
 himself the possessor of more than a million ancestors, 
 living at the time of the Crusades. 
 
 With our system of classification we attempt to 
 describe the exact degree of relationship, as in the 
 terms grandfather, great-grandfather, grandson, great- 
 grandson, uncle, great-uncle, nephew, great-nephew, 
 and cousins to any required degree. But the mode 
 of reckoning relationship common to the Indian tribes 
 and the Turanian races of Asia is based on an entirely 
 different conception. The Indian, in common with 
 the Tamil, did not recognize the relationship of 
 cousin, but he reckons the children of his brothers as 
 his own sons and daughters, and as brothers and sis- 
 ters of his own children, who are all classed in one 
 family. I^he children of his sister, who is likely to 
 have married out of his tribe, are indeed nephews and 
 nieces. But all the others whom we would call our 
 cousins would be reckoned as the grandsons of our 
 father, and as our own sons and daughters. Thus 
 we at once see in this mode of reckoning relationships 
 a partial similarity to that used by the Jews, which 
 has led to so much misunderstanding in efforts to ob- 
 tain chronology from the Biblical records. 
 
134 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 In view of the suggestions just made as to the 
 Asiatic origin of the American Indian, it will be 
 profitable to dwell upon the facilities afforded even 
 in present geographical conditions for a migration 
 from Eastern Asia to Western North America. Behr- 
 ing Strait being less than fifty miles wide, and having 
 an island half way across, affords abundant opportu- 
 nity for the migration of Asiatic tribes to the milder 
 climate of Alnska. The Eskimo now frequently cross 
 in their small boats. The Aleutian Islands, several 
 hundred miles farther south, afford frequent and reg- 
 ular landing places, inviting emigration by easy stages 
 from Kamchatka to the southern part of Alaska. 
 Such, also, is the course of the ocean currents in the 
 Pacific as to favor a line of migration pretty well to 
 the south, and the wrecks of Japanese ships are fre- 
 quently cast upon the American coast even in the 
 vicinity of Puget Sound. Mr. C. W. Brooks, of 
 San Francisco, gives forty-one instances of such 
 wrecks occurring during the past century, twenty- 
 nine of which contained a portion of the crew alive. 
 These facts show that there was more than one feas- 
 ible route for emigration from Asia to North Amer- 
 ica, and that there is no insuperable difficulty in the 
 way of supposing such an emigration at a very early 
 period of human history. 
 
()ri<^in (uul Anti<in'i1y of the A mcricdii IikI'kui 1.5 5 
 
 To xMr. Morgan, also, \vc are indebted for tlie 
 clearest presentation of the considerations which pjive 
 supreme importance to the country about the mouth 
 of the Columbia River as a center for the dispersion 
 of Indian tribes. In the islands of Puget Sound and 
 in the lower valleys of the Fraser and Columbia riv- 
 ers we find the most perfect paradise in the world for 
 savage tribes. Here are forests for their protection 
 and fish in boundless quantities for their sustenance. 
 The crowds of salmon which press up the Columbia 
 River during the two or three summer months are 
 beyond all calculation. During the spawning season 
 these powerful and noble fish ever head up stream, 
 leaping waterfalls many feet in height, and urging 
 their way onward to the fastnesses of the Rocky 
 Mountains. In such numbers do they come that 
 oftentimes those crowding behind push great quan- 
 tities of their fellows out upon the dry land, and at 
 every rapid and waterfall they can be caught in the 
 most primitive manner with the greatest ease. 
 
 With salmon as the basis of their diet the aborig- 
 ines were also supplied in this region with much small 
 game and with two or three most valuable esculent 
 roots, the most important of which is the kamash, 
 which is found in great quantities, and which after 
 being baked makes a palatable and nutritious flour. 
 
136 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 There is also an edible moss growing upon pine trees, 
 which may serve an important purpose as vegetable 
 food. Nuts and berries also abound, while oysters and 
 clams were ever within reach. No place probably in 
 the world furnishes equal facilities with this for the 
 maintenance of life among savage tribes. This would 
 naturally make of the region a breeding place where 
 population w^ould increase until an overflow was 
 necessary; and so we find that from the first discov- 
 ery of this region there was in it, for savage tribes, 
 an unusual density of population, and it becomes of 
 interest to study the natural lines leading out from 
 this region to the other portions of the continent. 
 
 Following the fish up Fraser River and the main 
 branch of the Columbia, the advance guard of the 
 immigration would be brought in close proximity to 
 the headwaters of the Saskatchewan and Missouri 
 rivers, along whose courses they would eventually be 
 brought to the central portion of the continent and 
 to the occupation of the whole region covered by the 
 basin of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley. 
 Most significant, however, would have been the line 
 of migration extending up the south fork of the Co- 
 lumbia; or what is now called Snake River. This 
 course would bring the migratory tribes into close 
 proximity to the headwaters of the streams which flow 
 
Oriirln and rJ/iti^/uity of the Anicricdii Indian 1.^7 
 
 to the south and lead into the region where some of 
 the important discoveries of domestic plants have been 
 made. 
 
 Of these that of Indian corn, or maize, is perhaps 
 the most important. This was found by the whites 
 almost as widely dispersed as were the aborigines 
 themselves upon this continent. Yet it could not 
 have originated in New England or the Mississippi 
 Valley on account of the difficulty of keeping the seed 
 from one year to another. Everything points to the 
 more tem.perate and arid regions in New Mexico 
 or Arizona as the place where the conditions were 
 favorable for the spontaneous development of this 
 most useful plant. Here doubtless it was that In- 
 dian corn was discovered and utilized by man. In 
 the same region and farther south other most im- 
 portant plants capable of domestication were also 
 encountered. Among the most important of these 
 were species of beans and squash. 
 
 But agriculture w\as never carried to a high degree 
 by any of the tribes of America. Their corn fields 
 were little more than garden patches. Indeed, with 
 their stage of development it could not be otherwise, 
 since they were confined to the use of implements 
 made of wood and stone with which to cultivate the 
 soil. Nor could they with these implements clear 
 
138 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the countr}^ of forests, but must be limited for the 
 m.ost part to such areas near the streams as were free 
 from timber. 
 
 Considerint.'; these lines of migration in their order, 
 it is thought that they can be traced in the results as 
 they appeared upon the first exploration of America 
 by the whites. First, there were the Algonquin tribes 
 which occupied the region north of the Great Lakes 
 and had pressed southward into the Mississippi Val- 
 ley to Tennessee and along the Atlantic seaboard to 
 the Carolinas. These had naturally passed from the 
 Fraser and Columbia rivers into the Saskatchewan, 
 and so to the Red River of the North and the regions 
 east and south. The whole disposition of the tribes 
 imph'es such a center of distribution. 
 
 Second, there were the tribes most closely affiliated 
 with the present Sioux, or Dakotah, Indians, includ- 
 ing the Assiniboines, the Winnebagoes, the Man- 
 dans, and the Iroquois. From their distribution they 
 would seem to have penetrated the Mississippi Val- 
 ley through the Platte River and to have spread north 
 and south from its mouth. 
 
 Third, the Pawnees can with considerable certainty 
 be traced up the Arkansas River to the same center 
 and they are distributed from the mouth of the Arkan- 
 sas as though that had been their line of movement. 
 
Orii^in and Antifjiiity of the J nicriaui Indian 139 
 
 Fourth, the Shoshone migration, which is still in 
 progress, is from the same center southeastward by 
 the Arkansas into Texas and southwestward into 
 Lower California. 
 
 The persistency with which these migrations fol- 
 lowed the lines of the rivers is not surprising when 
 we consider the disabilities under which savage races 
 maintain their existence. Originally the Indians were 
 without horses, and so could with difficulty contend 
 with the buffalo of the plains. Indeed, the w^ide 
 prairies and plains would seem to present insuperable 
 barriers to savage migration. Savages need the pro- 
 tection of the forests. They need also its game, and 
 exist with difficulty when out of the reach of fish. It 
 is only after the advent of the horse that the savage 
 could even partially contend against the difficulties of 
 existence upon the prairies. 
 
 So far we have spoken only of Roving Indians. In 
 some respects a more significant migration, naturally 
 traced to the same source, is that of the Village In- 
 dians, who, by some happy accident, on reaching the 
 warmer climate of New Mexico and Arizona, dis- 
 covered and i:)egan to utilize the domestic plants to 
 which we have already referred, namely, Indian corn, 
 beans, and squash, to which may be added cotton and 
 tobacco, and at a later time the potato. With regard 
 
 / i 
 
I40 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to these Village Indians Mr. Morgan has clearly 
 shown that their organization is not essentially differ- 
 ent from that of the roving tribes, and that their 
 advancement in the arts is extremely limited, while 
 their form of government is such that none of them 
 were ever consolidated into a strong nation. From 
 the necessities of the case the areas of land cultivated 
 by them were small and from the comparative isola- 
 tion of their villages and the feeble bond of their 
 political alliances they were constantly subject to 
 incursions from the north. Of this there was even 
 traditional evidence existing at the time of the con- 
 quest of Mexico by the Spaniards. The Aztecs were 
 from the north, and their advent into Mexico had 
 been so recent that the particulars of it were retained 
 in considerable detail, and it is pretty certain that 
 thev had not been in possession of the country more 
 than three or four hundred years. 
 
 Of the population of South America wt can speak 
 with less confidence, though there can be little doubt 
 that they entered the continent from the north. This 
 we should infer from the extreme difficulty, if not 
 impossibility, of reaching South America from any of 
 the islands of Oceanica, with only the savage's means 
 of navigation. They would be more likely to reach it 
 from Africa, but the Indians of South America do 
 
Orli^ln and AntKin'ity of the Jiiicii((ui Ind'uin 141 
 
 not belonc; to the same race witli the Polynesians or 
 the Negroes of Africa. There are, indeed, reports 
 of some isolated communities of Negroes which n ay 
 thus have reached the continent. But, for the most 
 part, the aborigines of South America are so nearly 
 of the same race with those in North America, as to 
 justify the inference that they had at a very early 
 period been pushed across the Isthmus of Darien by 
 the constant pressure of the roving tribes behind, 
 which, from time to time, had emerged from the val- 
 ley of the Columbia. Following down the Andes 
 upon either side these spread over the continent, pen- 
 etrating on one hand to the wilds of Patagonia and 
 on the other hand to the more congenial islands of the 
 Caribbean Sea. 
 
 This part of the subject is not complete without a 
 word concerning the Mound Builders - in the valley 
 of the Mississippi and the Ohio. On the earliest 
 exploration of this interior region the attention of the 
 explorers was attracted by vast earthworks which 
 seemed to be the remnants of an earlier civilization 
 that had wholly disappeared. These earthworks con- 
 sisted of mounds, truncated pyramids, vast circular 
 enclosures, and fortifications. Hie size of some of 
 these is very impressive. One of the mounds near 
 Wheeling is seventy feet in height and one thousand 
 
142 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Cahokia Mound restored. 
 
 feet in circumference at the base. The Cahokia 
 Mound in Illinois, just east of St. Louis, covers a 
 space of twelve acres, and rises by four terraces to 
 a height of ninety feet. The cubical contents of it 
 may be estimated at 600,000 cubic yards, and its con- 
 struction would occupy a thousand Indians for a 
 period of eight years. In the same vicinity were also 
 sixty other mounds, several of which are from thirty 
 to sixty feet in height. 
 
 In other places there are elaborate systems of forti- 
 fications as at Marietta, Ohio, on the banks of the 
 Ohio, where there were two enclosures of forty and 
 twenty acres respectively, surrounded by embankments 
 five or six feet in height by twenty at the base. In 
 
Origin and Antiquity of the J nwrinin Indian 143 
 
 the vicinity of Newark, Ohio, there originally existed 
 a network of embankments measuring all together 
 many miles in length, and there still remain a circu- 
 lar enclosure of thirty acres, a square enclosure of 
 twenty, and an octagonal one of fifty acres. The 
 embankments of the circular enclosure are no less 
 than fifteen feet high, and near the entrance they are 
 fully thirty feet in height, while on the inside there 
 is a continuous ditch five or six feet in depth. Of the 
 fortifications, the one in Highland County called Fort 
 Hill consists of an embankment around the summit 
 of one of the highest eminences. It encloses thirty- 
 five acres, is more than a mile and a half in length 
 and contains upwards of 50,000 cubic yards of ma- 
 terial. Upon the Little Miami River, about thirty 
 miles above its mouth, there is found the largest of 
 all these fortifications known as Fort Ancient, where 
 a position of great natural strength is surrounded by 
 an embankment four miles in extent, rising to a 
 height of eighteen to twenty feet above the surface. 
 The total amount of earth contained in the pro- 
 tective wall is estimated to be 172,000,000 cubic 
 ieet. 
 
 Near Chillicothe in the Scioto Valley, and in the 
 valley of the Little Aliami below Fort Ancient there 
 are remarkable clusters of mounds and earthworks of 
 
Plan of Fort Ancient. (Courtesy of the Ohio Archaeological and 
 Historical Society.) 
 
(^'■i<{i.'i and .1 ni'ifjii'tly of flic J nu'iiitin l/ulia/i 145 
 
 which it is possible, for \\-aiit of room, to speak only 
 of two or three irroups, and of these only to mention 
 the witness which their contents bear to the wide 
 commerce of the period. From a single mound in 
 the Flopeweli group near Chillicothe, Ohio, Pro- 
 fessor Moorehead reports that 8,185 flint disks, each 
 one weighing on an average one pound, were taken. 
 I'hese had been brought from the southern part of 
 Indiana, or Illinois, and were only roughly trimmed, 
 evidently having been *' cached " to await a con- 
 venient opportunity to make the material up into 
 perfect implements. In other mounds of the group 
 there was a large number of obsidian arrowheads 
 and spearheads. The material from which these 
 implements were made is not found nearer than the 
 Rocky IMountains, two thousand miles distant to the 
 west. Many copper implements and ornaments were 
 also found here. These had all been hammered, the 
 material being the native copper of the Lake Su- 
 perior region, several hundred miles to the north. 
 On the other hand there occurred large quantities of 
 mica, some oi it in sheets from fifteen to twenty inches 
 in diameter, which must have come from the east 
 as far away as North Carolina. Shells from the 
 Gulf of Mexico also were found side by side with 
 the other material from such far-separated regions. 
 
146 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 indicating a commerce almost as wide as the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 In a neighboring group of mounds (the Baum) 
 Professor W. C. Mills, Curator of the Ohio Archae- 
 ological and Historical Society, has found, in addi- 
 tion to many objects similar to those discovered by 
 Professor Moorehead, interesting indications of the 
 Mound Builders' love of ornaments and their in- 
 genuity in gratifjing their taste. In one mound there 
 was found a great number of carefully selected pearls, 
 which had evidently been fastened together upon a 
 string. Upon showing these to one of the most 
 prominent experts in estimating the value of precious 
 stones and gems, he was assured that if these pearls 
 had been fresh they would have a market value at 
 the present time of ten thousand dollars, and that it 
 would probably require several generations of Indians 
 to collect them. Another discovery alongside of this 
 revealed the fact that the supply of pearls was not 
 equal to the demand. Therefore the Indians had re- 
 sorted to making artificial pearls. Clay was molded 
 into the shape of pearls and hardened in the fire, 
 when they were skillfully covered with a malleable 
 mica, whose luster closely resembled that of a genuine 
 pearl. 
 
 From the Turner group of mounds, in the Little 
 
nop 
 
 o 
 ^ O 
 
 ^2 
 
 > 
 
 3-_ 
 
 
 (TP 
 
 or 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 w 
 
 n 
 
 
148 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Miami V^alley, a few miles below Fort Ancient, arti- 
 cles were found from an equally great range of local- 
 ities, mica, obsidian, copper, and what has been found 
 in no others, meteoric iron, and small quantities of 
 
 gold. 
 
 In Wisconsin were numerous mounds imitating the 
 shape of various animals, among others the elephant; 
 while in Ohio these animal forms were fewer, but 
 equally remarkable. At Granville, Ohio, there is a 
 mound in the shape of an alligator, and in Adams 
 and Warren counties mounds in the shape of a ser- 
 pent, the total length of whose body is in each case 
 more than a thousand feet. These serpent mounds 
 are both in conspicuous situations, suitable for the 
 performance .of religious ceremonies in the presence 
 of a vast concourse of people. That they were con- 
 structed for religious purposes cannot reasonably be 
 doubted. They are near the most thickly settled 
 areas occupied by the Mound Builders, yet evidently 
 they were not located for any utilitarian purpose. 
 The serpent, however, has been almost universally 
 employed as a religious symbol from the earlier 
 times, appearing on the monimients of Egypt, China, 
 India, Mexico, and Central America. The serpent 
 also enters largely into the mythology of the Greeks, 
 and is not absent from early Bible history. In view 
 
Or'i'jirt (111 (I Antiquity of the Am eric (in Indian 149 
 
 of these facts it Is difficult to reject the conclusion 
 that the reliijious reLi;ard for the serpent indicated in 
 these symbolic mounds is an inheritance from the Old 
 World, and points with so man}' other things to an 
 Asiatic origin of the aborigines of America. 
 
 In speculating upon the history of the race that 
 constructed these mounds and earthworks w^e have 
 but a few data to go upon, \et they are of consider- 
 able value. In the first place, the tribes of Indians 
 occupying the region when first explored by the 
 whites made no use of them and were ignorant of 
 their origin. In the next place, from the growth of 
 single trees in the forests over the embankments it 
 seems evident that they had been disused for several 
 hundred years. Thirdly, there is In many respects 
 a close analogy between these various collections of 
 earthworks and the pueblos of New^ Mexico, Ari- 
 zona, and the regions farther south, that Is, they 
 seem to have been the work of Village Indians who 
 lived by agriculture and chose their places of resi- 
 dence on the river banks where there was much fer- 
 tile soil easllv tilled. The existence of fortifications 
 would Indicate, without much doubt, that they were 
 compelled to maintain an attitude of defense, and 
 indeed It \\ as shown by Colonel Whittlesey long ago 
 that over a large part of Southern Ohio, what 
 
^^W^I^M 
 
 i^mr^.. \\::^i 
 
152 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 seem to be signal mounds, were erected in such sit- 
 uations that communication and warnings of danger 
 might be almost instantaneously spread from point to 
 point. 
 
 The vv'hole appearance of the system of mounds is 
 that they are the work of Village Indians, who had 
 spread northward from the region of New Mexico and 
 brought with tliem what few arts they possessed to 
 the Ohio Valley, and endeavored to transfer to that 
 region the modes of life which had developed in the 
 more favorable conditions of a dryer and warmer cli- 
 mate. Whether they finally retreated because of the 
 incursions of the roving tribes from the north, or 
 quietly withdrew because of the unsuitability of the 
 conditions to their mode of life, wt may never know. 
 But at any rate we have no grounds for attributing 
 an extreme antiquity to them. Their arts, as shown 
 by the ornaments and utensils found in the mounds, 
 were not nuich in advance of those of the roving 
 tribes. They vrere essentially in the stone age, but 
 to them probably the roving tribes are indebted to 
 the lasting and priceless heritage of Indian corn and 
 the art of preserving and cultivating it. 
 
 Lenving for the present the Eskimo out of consid- 
 eration, a few remarks may properly be made upon 
 the bearing of the facts already presented upon the 
 
:x 3 
 
 o o 
 
 l-t-> M-, 
 
 
 
 ■^^ife!-^ 
 
 
 
154 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 antiquity of the Indian occupancy of America. An 
 antiquity of some thousands of years would seem to 
 be indicated by the ver\^ fact that every nook and 
 corner of the continent was occupied. It must have 
 been a slow process by which the waves of emigra- 
 tion succeeded each other, and, passing through the 
 constricted channel of Darien, spread to the farther- 
 most end of Patagonia. The diversities of language, 
 and of habits of life, indicate also a long lapse of 
 time between their first occupancy of the country and 
 their discovery by the whites. Or, if one should take 
 the other alternative, and regard the Indians not as 
 having descended from a single stock, but as having 
 arrived upon the continent by different lines of emi- 
 gration and consisting originally of different races, as 
 would then necessarily be the ' case, an enormous 
 lapse of time must have occurred before they could 
 have so commingled as to secure the present degree 
 of similarity. But this supposition verges so nearly 
 upon the incredible that we cannot be expected to 
 give it much place in our thought. 
 
 Another indication of the great antiquity of the 
 Indian race is that already referred to as derived from 
 the methods of expressing degrees of consanguinity. 
 From this we saw that the separation of the Indian 
 races from the parent stock of mankind was previous 
 
Ori'^in and Antiquity of the American Indian 155 
 
 to tlie rise of the Aryan civilization. This would 
 throw the oriu;in of these races on the Eastern conti- 
 nent far back of the oldest historical monuments of 
 E^ypt and Babylonia. - It would not, however, de- 
 termine the time of their entrance into America. But 
 it should be remarked that the descendants of the 
 first imnnigrants would dominate and determine the 
 character of all the subsequent racial developments, 
 for in a short time the increase of numbers from the 
 first migration would be such that all subsequent mi- 
 gration would be insignificant in its relative amount. 
 This we see to be the case even at the present time. 
 The descendants of those who came to America in 
 the early part of the seventeenth century are still 
 forming the national character, notwithstanding the 
 enormous emigration made possible by present modes 
 of travel. Amid the conditions of prehistoric times 
 this result wmdd have been still more apparent and 
 necessary. 
 
 So far we have considered only the races and their 
 progenitors who are m the present occupancy of the 
 continent. But recent investigations have brought to 
 light the remains of what we may well believe to be 
 an earlier race that became widely spread over the 
 continent before the Glacial epoch closed, and it will 
 be necessary, therefore, for us to discuss at consider- 
 
1 56 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 able lenj^th the facts connected with the changes 
 accompanying that, in order to form some intelligent 
 opinion on the question whether glacial man in Amer- 
 ica became extinct in connection with the catastro- 
 phe, or whether his descendants may still survive in 
 the American Indians or in the Eskimo. 
 
 Section of Fcrt Ancient. 
 
Si,cnifiniucc of fhc Glac'ud Epoch 1 57 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH 
 
 While the tacts concerning the neolithic age, 
 combined with those of an anthropological character, 
 carry us no farther back in Europe than two or three 
 thousand years before Christ, those concerning pale- 
 olithic man indicate a much earlier antiquity. For 
 evidently he was an inhabitant of Europe amidst 
 physical conditions far different from those which 
 prevailed during neolithic time. At this point geology 
 assumes the role of the principal w-itness; for w^hen 
 once the existence of man during the Glacial epoch 
 was established, his antiquity became a geological 
 question. More light, therefore, seems likely to be 
 shed upon the primitive chronology of the human race 
 from glacial geology than from any other source of 
 evidencve. In fact, no studies bearing upon Post- 
 Tertiary geology can now be reckoned as foreign to 
 our subject. The student must be prepared, there- 
 fore, for extensive excursions into the geological 
 f^eld. 
 
 Apparently tlie palTolithic age is separated from 
 the neolithic bv a wide geological chasm repre- 
 
f 
 
 158 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 senting great physical changes both in Europe and 
 America. Our reliance in determining the age of 
 palaeolithic implements is not so much upon their 
 rudeness, as upon the conditions of life in the midst 
 of which the fabricators spent their days. We must 
 content ourselves with the briefest possible statement 
 of the data upon which trustworthy conclusions can 
 be based. 
 
 To get the evidence clearly before our minds it is 
 necessary- briefly to outline the facts concerning the 
 Glacial epoch. Evidence of the most startling char- 
 acter continues to accumulate, proving that at a com- 
 paratively recent date arctic conditions of climate 
 extended far down into Central Europe and into 
 the valley of the Mississippi In America. The gla- 
 ciers which now are confined to the Alps, the Scan- 
 dinavian highlands, Greenland, and Alaska formerly 
 extended until all the higher latitudes in Europe and 
 America were enveloped in glacial ice as Greenland 
 is at the present time. The evidences of this are 
 indubitable. Scandinavian bowlders, such as can be 
 carried only by glacial ice, are found around the arc 
 of a circle whose radius is seven or eight hundred 
 miles. From Scandinavia as a center the ice moved 
 eastward beyond Novgorod, southeastward beyond 
 Kiev in Russia, and southward over Northern Ger* 
 
Significance of the Glacial Epoch 159 
 
 many, and Saxony to the base of the Erzgeblrge. 
 Northern Holland was covered by the ice sheet, as 
 was Great Britain as far south as the Thames. Scan- 
 dinavian bowlders are frequent all along the eastern 
 shore of England from Hull southward, and inland 
 to the vicinity of Cambridge. 
 
 Some of the bowlders transported by this move- 
 ment are truly enormous. A mass of chalk near 
 Malmo in Southern Sweden has been described by 
 Dr. Hoist ^ that is three miles long, one thousand 
 feet wide, and one or two hundred feet thick. This 
 has glacial deposits both below^ and above it, show- 
 ing that it is a true glacial bowlder. Its limits have 
 been determined by efforts to quarn' its valuable con- 
 tents for commercial purposes. Masses of chalk of 
 nearly equal size, which have been transported a con- 
 siderable distance, are found in Eastern England. In 
 one case a village was found to have been built upon 
 such a bowlder. The depth of the glacial deposits 
 over Northwestern Russia and Northern Germany 
 are estimated to be 135 feet, while the ice itself, where 
 it met the Harz Mountains, was fully fourteen hun- 
 dred feet thick; for northern glacial debris is depos- 
 ited on their flanks up to that height. In Sweden 
 and Norw^ay the thickness of the ice is estimated to 
 have been at least seven thousand feet. 
 
l6o Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 The ice sheet was not continuous over Central 
 Europe. There were, however, centers from which 
 it spread long distances towards the northern field, 
 but failed to meet it. The most important of these 
 was that upon the Alps, where glaciers of consider- 
 able size are still found above the five thousand foot 
 line. During the Glacial epoch, however, they ex- 
 tended down the valle)^ of the Rhone as far as 
 Lyons, and of the Rhine 150 miles to Thiengen, and 
 of the Danube to Ulm. Upon the south side the gla- 
 ciers extended 120 miles to the vicinity of the river 
 Po, at Turin, and Ivrea, At Ivrea the moraine hills 
 are fifteen hundred feet thick. A bowlder near So- 
 leure, which must have been transported 115 miles, 
 would weigh 4,100 tons. One near Neuchatel, which 
 must have been carried clear across the valley of 
 Switzerland from the Alps to the Jura Mountains, 
 measures fifty by forty by twenty feet; while an- 
 other near Monthei contains 60,840 cubic feet. The 
 depth of the ice, over the central part of Switzerland, 
 must have been more than three thousand feet; and 
 the valley filled is fifty miles wide. From the Pyre- 
 nees, also, glaciers of considerable extent came down 
 into France throughout nearly their whole extent, 
 tliat into the upper valley of the Garonne attaining 
 a length of forty-five miles. Altogether the ice fields 
 
1 62* Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of Europe during the Glacial epoch covered an area 
 of two million square miles, and must have had an 
 average depth of fully one mile. This represents so 
 much water abstracted from the ocean and locked up 
 over an elevated area, to be let loose in tremendous 
 floods when the climatic conditions changed. 
 
 In America during this epoch the area covered by 
 ice was fully twnce that in Europe, amounting to 
 about four million square miles, w^hile its depth is 
 variously estimated to have been from one to three 
 miles. The ice certainly was more than one mile 
 deep over New England, for marks of the movement 
 are found on the summit of Mt. Washington, w^hich 
 is more than six thousand feet high. The centers ot 
 dispersion east of the Rocky Mountains w^re froni 
 Keewatin west of Hudson Bay, and from Labrador. 
 West of the Rocky Mountains there was a separate 
 center about half way between Alaska and British 
 Columbia. It is estimated by Professor Chamberlin - 
 that there was an actual movement transporting ma- 
 terial fully fifteen hundred miles from wTst of Hud- 
 son Bay to Southern Illinois. Certainly there is an 
 immense amount of transported material near the 
 Ohio River at Cincinnati, w^hich must have been 
 brought from Canada a distance of seven or eight 
 hundred miles.^ In places in Southern Ohio the gla- 
 
Si'^niifji/incc of flic Glacial Kporli 163 
 
 cial debris Is hundreds of feet thick. A Canadian 
 bowlder seven hundred miles from its source rests 
 upon the highest land near Lebanon, Ohio, which 
 measures twenty, by twelve, by eight feet out of 
 ground. Many others of nearly equal size are to he 
 found in other parts of the state. 
 
 The southern boundary of this glaciated area in 
 North America runs along the southern shore of New 
 England, through Long Island, the northern part of 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania, Southeastern Ohio, the 
 southern portion of Indiana and Illinois, and Central 
 Missouri to Northeastern Kansas, where it turns 
 north near Topeka and keeps, for two or three hun- 
 dred miles, nearly parallel with the Missouri River, 
 and about one hundred miles west of it. Finally it 
 turns west again and follows an irregular course to 
 the Pacific Ocean, in the northern part of the state 
 of Washington. 
 
 Contrary to former suppositions, it was found that 
 Northern Alaska and the larger part of Siberia were 
 not covered by glacial ice. The soil in these regions 
 is, however, even yet frozen to a great depth. At 
 Irkutsk the frost penetrates the soil six hundred feet 
 below the surface."* In Northeastern Siberia above 
 the sixtieth degree of latitude there are indeed evi- 
 dences of extended glaciation, but not in the central 
 
164 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 portion, which borders on the Arctic Ocean. The 
 vast mountain s5'Stems of Central Asia still support 
 great glaciers in their higher elevations. But though 
 they are in the latitude of the Alps, they never sent 
 glaciers down to the plains at their base as did the 
 mountains of Europe. Still the former glaciers in the 
 Asiatic mountains were far larger than the present 
 ones. In the Tian Shan Mountains, which separate 
 Eastern Turkestan from Siberia and Western Turke- 
 stan, it is found that glaciers formerly extended down 
 to the level of seven thousand feet, but no farther. 
 The mountains, however, are much higher and larger 
 than the Alps. Some of the peaks run up to twenty- 
 three thousand feet, and several to seventeen thou- 
 sand. The Glacial epoch in this region may have 
 had, as we shall see, a most important part in influ- 
 encing the early development and distribution of the 
 human race. 
 
 The anomalous facts of the Glacial epoch and the 
 extent of the disturbances which it introduced into 
 the history of species cannot be fully appreciated with- 
 out going somewhat further into details concerning 
 its influence upon changes of land levels, upon drain- 
 age systems, and upon the survival and migration of 
 plants and animals. Both in its inception and in its 
 
Sii^nificnnre of the Glacial Epoch 165 
 
 close the Glacial epoch was a catastrophe of the most 
 impressive order. Throughout, its conditions were 
 abnormal. No reasonini^ from present conditions can 
 applv to the Cdacial epoch without jjreat reservation. 
 It requires hut a iilance at the map of the glaciated 
 region to see that eiiects were produced upon the 
 drainage systems of both continents which baffle the 
 imagination. All the northerly flowing streams both 
 of Europe and America were obstructed at their 
 mouths and their currents reversed, w^hile the south- 
 erly flowing streams, whose headwT.ters were jn the 
 glaciated region, had their volumes indefinitely m- 
 creased by the augmented precipitation characterizing 
 the epoch in general, and by the enormous amount of 
 water set free by the melting of the ice during the 
 closing stages. This result is more readily seen in 
 America than in the Old World, for there the valleys 
 are better defined and are on a nuich larger scale than 
 in Europe. The obstruction of the St. Lawrence by 
 the advancing ice turned immense floods of water 
 through the Champlain and Hudson valleys; then, 
 a little later, over the passes from the Great Lakes 
 into the valley of the AL'ssissippi. The outlets to 
 these great floods of glacial water are clearly trace- 
 able through the pass at Fort Wayne, Indiana, lead- 
 ing from the drainage basin of the Maumee River 
 
1 66 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to that of the Wabash, and so on into the Ohio and 
 Mississippi; also through the line of the Chicago 
 Drainage Canal into the Illinois River, the elevations 
 above the sea being respectively eight hundred and 
 six hundred feet. In both these cases the abandoned 
 channels are as distinct as though they had been occu- 
 pied but yesterday, and in both cases are as broad and 
 deep as the channel of Niagara where it leaves Lake 
 Erie. 
 
 At a still later stage, when the ice had filled the 
 basin of the Great Lakes the increased volume of 
 water flowed directly into the northern tributaries of 
 the Ohio, and through the higher passes leading from 
 Central New York into the Susquehanna, while six 
 thousand square miles of the upper basin of the Del- 
 aware River was deeply buried in ice to augment its 
 floods during the seasons of rapid melting. 
 
 Most astonishing results were also produced far- 
 ther north in the valley of the Red River, in Canada. 
 Here the floods which now pour into Hudson Bay 
 were confined in a vast enclosed basin forming a lake 
 covering an area of more than one hundred thousand 
 square miles and held up to the level of the pass 
 leading into the Minnesota River at Brown's \'alley, 
 and thence into the Mississippi at St. Paul. Of 
 course these channels were opened and occupied in 
 
Siifnifinincc of the Glacial Epoch 1O7 
 
 reverse order upon the melting of the ice duriivj; the 
 closinii staLj;es of the period. As a result of thr;e 
 floods all these south flowing streams are hordcred hy 
 izravel terraces from fifty to one hundred and fifty 
 feet above the present high-water mark. These ter- 
 races are composed largely of pebbles of the hard 
 Canadian rocks, w^hich were first brought over the 
 watershed by the glacial ice, and then distributed by 
 the streams which flowed over and in front of the 
 retreating mass. The extent of the floods is almost 
 incomprehensible. In the Missouri Valley' the an- 
 nual rise of the river during a considerable portion of 
 the closing stages of the period was fully two hun- 
 dred feet during the latter part of the summer. In 
 the Ohio, at Cincinnati, they were probably twice that 
 height; though, perhaps, they were augmented by a 
 glacial dam. or by ice gorges which obstructed the 
 
 flow.« 
 
 According to an estimate based on several seasons' 
 study of Alaskan glaciers by Professors R. S. Tarr 
 and O. D. von Engeln,' the water supplied to the 
 Mississippi River by the melting of the glacial ice 
 sheet durincj the closing stages of the ice age was 
 annually sixty times that carried off by the present 
 flow. My estimate for the ^Missouri was only 
 twentvfold. 
 
1 68 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 The epoch was also characterized by abnormal 
 changes of land levels, both in its inauguration and 
 in its closing stages. The Tertiary period closed 
 with a great elevation of land over all the northern 
 part of the Northern Hemisphere. There is indu- 
 bitable evidence that the northern part of the Miss- 
 issippi Valley, the Atlantic coast from Chesapeake 
 Bay upwards, and the Pacific coast in corresponding 
 latitudes, were elevated at the beginning of the Glacial 
 epoch fully two thousand feet above the present level. 
 This evidence is found in the deeply buried or 
 drowned preglacial channels which have been brought 
 to light all over the areas mentioned. For example, 
 a drowned channel, or rather caiion, reaching to a 
 final depth of two thousand feet can be traced out 
 from New York Harbor across the shallow sub- 
 merged shelf which borders the continent to the deep 
 water one hundred miles from the present shore. This 
 could only have been formed when the land stood 
 two thousand feet higher than now, and when the 
 shore was at the present border of the deep water of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 Interesting confirmation of this fact has recently 
 been brought to light in the construction of an aque- 
 duct under the Hudson River above West Point to 
 convey water to New York City from the region of 
 
1 70 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the Catskills. For security it was necessary to go 
 down to the rock bottom of the river for a foundation 
 to support the conduit. On doing this it was found 
 that at that point this was 800 feet below the present 
 bed of the stream. In preglacial times, therefore, 
 the present striking scenery of the Hudson would 
 have been augmented by cliffs rising half a thousand 
 feet higher than those which now give such grandeur 
 to it. Channels buried in a similar manner by gla- 
 cial debris are abundant in Central New York, Ohio, 
 Indiana, and Illinois. Other drowned canons like 
 that projecting out from New York Harbor can be 
 traced from the shore all along both the Atlantic and 
 the Pacific coasts of America. Such are specially 
 marked for hundreds of miles from the mouth of the 
 St. Lawrence across the Banks of Newfoundland, and 
 opposite the Columbia River and Puget Sound on the 
 Pacific coast. The deep fiords of Southeastern Alaska 
 are probably depressed valleys of streams eroded dur- 
 ing the elevated period preceding the Glacial epoch. 
 Similar evidence of a great elevation of land in 
 late Tertiary time, just preceding the Glacial epoch, 
 is found in Northern Europe and along the Atlantic 
 border of Western Europe. Professor Hull ^ has 
 traced from the Admiralty surveys of the waters sur- 
 rounding Great Britain and along the western coast 
 
S'lsnificdncc of the Gldcial Epoch 17I 
 
 of France and Portugal drowned channels similar to 
 that just described south of New York Harbor. 
 
 The fiords of Norway are also important evidences 
 of the former elevation of the land surface of that 
 region. They bear every mark of bein^^ drowned 
 river fj:or2;es, like those referred to in Alaska. They 
 were mainly eroded by water action during a period 
 of elevation in Tertiary times. But in the Glacial 
 epoch thev were filled with moving ice which en- 
 larged and deepened them and deposited morainic ma- 
 terial a short distance out at sea, rendering the water 
 shallower there than it is in the fiords themselves 
 where the ice prevented solid material from accumu- 
 lating. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that at the close of the 
 Tertiary period the coast lines both of Europe and 
 America were considerably outside of the present ones. 
 On both continents the present coast is bordered by 
 a shelf of shallow water not over five or six hundred 
 feet deep, which is terminated by a plunge into wa- 
 ter which is several thousand feet deep. 
 
 This nreglacial elevation of the land of the Xorth- 
 ern Hemisphere has great significance with reference 
 to the problem of the distribution of plants and ani- 
 mals, including man. An elc\ation of a few hundred 
 feet would establish land connection between Asia 
 
172 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 and America and laj^ bare the whole bed of Behring 
 Sea, together with a wide strip all along the west 
 coast of North America as far down as Mexico. In 
 Europe it would make dr}^ land' of the whole German 
 Ocean, unite the British Isles to the continent and 
 add a wn'de margin to the whole western coast of 
 Europe. It would also cut off connection between 
 the Mediterranean Sea and the Ocean, and very 
 likely make of it an interior basin like that of the 
 Caspian Sea at the present time. It requires but 
 slight inspection of the map to see that during this 
 period of elevation man and many animals could go 
 back and forth from Asia to America and could reach 
 the islands in the neighborhood of Europe, and at the 
 same time find ample space for obtaining sustenance 
 even while the ice of the Glacial epoch prevailed to 
 its greatest extent over the interior. Ready connec- 
 tion would also be established from Europe to Africa, 
 not only across the Strait of Gibraltar, but through 
 Sicily and the shallow bed of the sea extending south- 
 ward from that island. 
 
 While it is clear that there was an extensive ele- 
 vation of land all over the glaciated area and over 
 the adjoining areas of the Northern Hemisphere dur- 
 ing the Tertiary period, it is equally evident that a 
 widespread depression of these areas accompanied and 
 
174 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 followed the accumulation of glacial ice. In America 
 this glacial depression amounted to six hundred feet 
 below the present level at Montreal, and to one thou- 
 sand feet farther north. In Europe the shore lines 
 of this depression run from near sea level in the 
 south of Sweden to a thousand feet in the northern 
 part of the country. On the shore of the Black Sea 
 at Trebizond clear evidence exists that there was a 
 post-glacial depression of the land in that region to 
 the extent of 750 feet. 
 
 Such is the close correlation, of these changes of 
 level with the w^axing and waning of the Glacial 
 epoch, that it is difficult not to believe that there is 
 in it a relation of cause and effect. The preglacial 
 elevation of land would seem sufficient to produce 
 the epoch, while the accumulation of ice w^ould seem 
 equally sufficient by its own weight to depress the 
 land and thereby partially restore the original condi- 
 tions which preceded the advent of the arctic climate. 
 
 At this point we can profitably consider the ques- 
 tion of the date of the Glacial epoch. So astonishing 
 are the events of the period, and so prodigious are the 
 forces set in motion that we are likely to make an 
 exaggerated estimate of the time necessary for their 
 production. Under the influence of Croll's astro- 
 
Sii^rfiificcicc of fill' Glacial Kpocli 175 
 
 noniical theory of the cause of the epoch it was for- 
 merly confidently stated that it be^an with a period of 
 high eccentricity of the earth's orbit around the sun, 
 240,000 years a;j;o, and closed with the beginning of 
 the present period of small eccentricity, 80,000 years 
 ago. Hut subsequent investigations have led geolo- 
 gists to give less heed to astronomical theories and 
 more to the terrestrial facts which directly bear upon 
 the subject. Among these are prominent ( i ) the 
 recession of post-glacial waterfalls; (2) the enlarge- 
 ment of post-glacial river valleys; (3) the filling up 
 of post-glacial lakes and ponds; (4) the oxidation of 
 glacial deposits; and (5) the subaerial erosion of gla- 
 ciated rock surfaces. 
 
 (i) It is an interesting fact that nearly all the 
 waterfalls in the world are post-glacial, and that 
 with few striking exceptions there are no waterfalls 
 in the unglaciated regions. The reason of this is that 
 in the unglaciated regions the eroding agencies have 
 been at work so long that they have worn back the 
 gorges to the headwaters of the streams; while in the 
 glaciated region the old gorges are generally filled 
 up with glacial debris, and new drainage lines have 
 been established which are hence so young that the 
 recession of their waterfalls has been slight. Post- 
 glacial gorges arc short because thev are ^•oumz. 
 
176 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 One of the most instructive and convenient of gla- 
 cial chronometers is the gorge below the Falls of 
 Niagara. That this is post-glacial is evident from 
 the fact that there is a buried preglacial channel lead- 
 ing from. Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, some distance 
 west of the present river. Preglacial time had been 
 so long that the stream connecting the lakes had worn 
 a channel completely through from one lake to the 
 other at the level of the lower lake. This was after- 
 wards so filled up b}^ glacial deposits that, on the 
 recession of the ice, the drainage was turned to the 
 present course, and a new gorge began to be cut. The 
 time at which this renewed activit}^ of the stream be- 
 gan, however, was not at the end of the Glacial 
 epoch, but a long time before, namely, when the ice 
 first melted of^ from the valley of the Mohawk River 
 between the Adirondack and the Catskill mountains. 
 At that time only could the eastward drainage of the 
 Great Lakes have been resumed, after the long period 
 of reversal caused by the obstruction of the conti- 
 nental glacier. For some time after the recession of 
 Niagara Falls, therefore, all the lower valley of the 
 St. Lawrence was enveloped in glacial ice. 
 
 The gorge worn by the recession of the Falls of 
 Niagara is. in round numbers, only seven miles 
 long, extending to the abrupt escarpment of rocks 
 
S'.i^nificancc of ihc Gl-Jchd Epoch 177 
 
 at Queenston, more than three hundred feet h'v^h, 
 which borders the southwestern part of the valley of 
 [.ake Ontario. The rocks throuj^h which the gorge 
 is worn are \ery uniform in their character. At the 
 surface throughout the whole district there is a solid 
 stratum of compact Niagara limestone, seventy or 
 eighty feet thick at the Falls, but thinning out to 
 fifteen or twenty at the mouth of the gorge. Un- 
 derneath the Niagara limestone is a deposit of shale 
 about seventy feet thick, which is easily eroded 
 by the backlash of the cataract, preserving thus the 
 perpendicular face of the fall. Underneath the Ni- 
 agara shale is a compact stratum of Clinton lime- 
 stone, from twenty to thirty feet thick, which, again, 
 is underlaid by shaly deposits sixty or seventy feet 
 thick. Underneath this is a deposit of Medina sand- 
 stone, thirty or forty feet thick, and underneath that 
 an indefinite thickness of Medina shale, reaching be- 
 low the water's edge at the mouth of the gorge. 
 These strata, resting upon each other like the layers 
 in a layer cake, dip gently to the south, so that, com- 
 bined with the gradient of the river, all, except the 
 Niagara limestone and shale, are made to disappear 
 at the cataract. No geological conditions could be 
 more uniform and calculated to yield more definite 
 results to careful study. 
 
178 Oriv'm and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Taking this gorge as the dividend, we search for 
 a divisor in the annual rate at which the Falls are 
 receding. When Sir Charles Lyell visited them in 
 1842, he made a random guess that the recession 
 could not be more than one foot a year, and probably 
 not more than one foot in three years. This would 
 make the minimum age of the gorge 35,000 years, 
 and the maximum 100,000 or more. Unfortunately 
 this random estimate has been extensively published 
 as the mature opinion of a most distinguished author- 
 ity in geology. But Lyell himself did not so regard 
 it. On the contrary, he urged Dr. John Hall of the 
 New York Geological Survey to make an accurate 
 trigonometrical survey of the Falls, so that there 
 would be a basis of comparison for future survey's 
 w^hich should give definite and positive results. Sev- 
 eral such surveys have been made, the last after sixty- 
 five years, in 1907, which shows that the average rate 
 of recession of the Horseshoe Falls during this period 
 has been a little over five feet a year; so that, if the 
 same forces had been at work continuously in the past 
 that are operative at the present, Niagara River 
 would have eroded the whole gorge in seven thousand 
 years. 
 
 With great confidence we can locate the position 
 of the Falls at different past historical epochs. For 
 
Si^nificanci' of the Ghicuil Epoch 1 7<j 
 
 cxHrnjilc, at the time of the Crusades the cataract was 
 about one-third of the way down to the head of the 
 rapids. At the time of the birth of Christ it was 
 two-tliirds ot the way down to tlie rapids. When 
 the Falls had receded to the head of the rapids, Rome 
 was being founded and Greece was just entering 
 upon her classical career. When the Falls were at 
 the whirlpool, Israel was just entering Egypt, while 
 the beginning of the Falls at Qiiecnston occurred 
 only a short time before the building of the great 
 pyramids, and the expedition of Sargon from Baby- 
 lonia to the shores of the Mediterranean about 
 3800 B.C. 
 
 I'his amount of space has been given to Niagara 
 Falls, not because it is the only, or indeed, the most 
 important chrop.ometer of the period, but largely be- 
 cause it is the most spectacular timekeeper, and the 
 ore with which the public is most familiar. The 
 Falls of St. Anthony, at ^linneapolis, Minnesota, are 
 equally important and interesting. Here, too, under 
 the prolonged and careful study of Professor N. H. 
 Winchell, similar results have been attained. The 
 post-glacial gorge below the Falls of St. Anthony 
 requires only seven thousand years for its erosion by 
 the forces which are known to have been in action 
 during the past two hundred }ears. Numerous other 
 
l8o Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 post-glacial Avatcrfalls might be cited from which 
 approximately the same results are obtainable. 
 
 (2) Calculations from the enlargement of post- 
 glacial river valleys yield similar results. In thou- 
 sands of places over the glaciated areas streams are 
 flowing in channels w^holly composed of unconsoli- 
 dated glacial debris. In all these cases the streams 
 are enlarging their valleys by methods that are open 
 to observation. At first their channels were no wider 
 than the current of the streams. But as time went 
 on the sides were undermined and made to fall down, 
 when the material was carried away by the current 
 and so the trough was enlarged and a flood plain 
 formed. This enlargement of the trough and increase 
 of the flood plain have gone on from the inception of 
 the stream to the present time. If only we can get a 
 reliable estimate of the rate at which the enlargement 
 proceeds, it will be easy to get an equally reliable 
 estimate of the time required to produce the enlarge- 
 ment now apparent. 
 
 Professor Hicks,^ of Granville, Ohio, made some 
 most valuable and instructive calculations based on 
 observations on the post-glacial valley of Raccoon 
 Creek, Licking County, Ohio, near the glacial bor- 
 der. Estimates from that latitude, three or four de- 
 grees further south than Niagara, would of course 
 
S'lf^nificducr of flir Glacial Epnrh i8l 
 
 carry us back to a much earlier time than the begin- 
 niiiiZ of the Niagara epoch. The glacial terraces of 
 gravel which border this small stream are fifty feet 
 in height and the width of the trough eroded since 
 their deposition is easily obtainable, so that the num- 
 ber of cubic yards of gravel which have been removed 
 by the stream along a definite length can be accur- 
 ately determined. But it was not so easy to obtain 
 a rate of removal. 
 
 It has been found, however, from the observations 
 of Humphreys and Abbott that every 2,610 cubic 
 feet of flowing water in the Mississippi River, trans- 
 ports to the Gulf of Mexico, one cubic foot of silt. 
 Knowing the si/e of the drainage basin of Raccoon 
 Creek, and the amount of rainfall, and making the 
 proper reduction for the evaporation, we can read- 
 ily get the amount of water which annually flows off 
 through the bed of the creek. Estimating the silt at 
 the rate found in the Mississippi and making that 
 the divisor, it was found that even at that rate of 
 erosion Raccoon Creek could not have been at w^ork 
 enlarging its trough for more than fifteen thousand 
 years. The probability, however, is that the rate at 
 which Raccoon Creek has been at work is much more 
 rapid than that of the Mississippi; for the gradient 
 of the great river is only a few inches per mile, while 
 
1 82 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 that of the creek is several feet per mile, making its 
 current immensely more effective as an eroding agent. 
 About the sam.e time I made estimates from data 
 derived in a similar manner from the post-glacial val- 
 ley of Plum Creek, a small stream running through 
 the village of Oberlin, in Northern Ohio, and with 
 similar results.^" During the last few years, however, 
 there has been offered a much more reliable opportu- 
 nity for calculations upon the valley of this stream 
 through the turning of its course incident to the con- 
 struction of a reservoir in the village. This has per- 
 mitted definite estimates of the rate of erosion in the 
 cut-off during twelve years. As the result of these 
 observations and measurements it appears that from 
 the new channel, five hundred feet long, the stream 
 has removed 8,450 feet of solid material annually; 
 while measurements of a section of the trough a 
 little below, where there has been no interference by 
 artificial means, show that through a length of five 
 thousand feet, the total amount removed by the 
 stream since it began to flow, upon the retreat of the 
 ice, is 34,000,000 cubic feet. The length of the bank 
 through this section exposed at the present time to 
 the direct impact of the current of the stream as it 
 meanders from one side of the flood plain to the 
 other, is sixteen hundred feet. Throughout this 
 
Sisrni/icancr of the Gldcial /'.pocli 18,^ 
 
 leiiijth the action of the stream is essentially under 
 the same conditions as in the cut-off. As in the cut- 
 off there is one thousand feet of bank exposed, the 
 exposure in tlic section of the main trouiz;h under 
 consideration is sixteen-tenths as ^reat, hence at the 
 same rate the stream is removing; from this section 
 13,568 cubic feet annuallw At this rate the pres- 
 ent stream would produce the trough in 2,505 years. 
 Hut, doubtless the present rate is excessive on ac- 
 count of the removal by civilization of certain well- 
 known retarding influences, the chief of which is the 
 former existence of a dense covering of forest. This 
 retarding element, however, can scarcely have been 
 sufficient to increase the time more than tenfold ; for 
 the obstructions to the current by fallen timber were 
 only temporary, and even they would set in motion 
 eddies and counter currents that would be effective 
 in considerable degree, and after a few decades the 
 fallen timbers would decay, so that if a period of a 
 few hundred years is taken into view the movement 
 of the stream would be closely analogous to that at 
 the present time. It would seem impossible, there- 
 fore, for any one conversant with the conditions to 
 assign more than 25,000 years to the period (which 
 implies a rate only one-tenth that of the present), 
 even at the present proportion of the exposure of the 
 
184 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 I 
 bank to the direct action of the stream. But, when 
 the creek first began its work there was no forest to 
 retard its activity, and it was then at work on both 
 sides of the trough as in the cut-off now. The aver- 
 age proportion of the bank exposed to the direct 
 action of the stream would therefore be twice vv^hat 
 it is now. The result, therefore, is that our first 
 quotient must be divided by two, which gives 12,500 
 years as the extreme limit, and that to be consider- 
 ably reduced by the increased activity at the outset 
 owing to the freshly uncovered surface of the coun- 
 try, and to the increased precipitation while the front 
 of the retreating ice w^as in the vicinity. The fact is 
 that a period of twelve thousand years is more than 
 can be reasonably allowed for the post-glacial erosion 
 of Plum Creek. Even ten thousand years is a severe 
 strain upon the credulity of any one who is familiar 
 with the facts. But the date of the withdrawal of 
 the ice from Northern Ohio is considerably earlier 
 rlian that of its withdrawal from Central New York, 
 which marked the beginning of the erosion of the 
 Niagara gorge. 
 
 At this point, it will be profitable to consider the 
 evidence bearing on the rate at which the ice with- 
 drew upon its final retreat. For it is from some 
 
Sii^nificancc of the Glacial Epoch 1 85 
 
 facts connected with this that attempts are made to 
 prolong the time required for the production of the 
 Niagara gorge. 
 
 It is well known that upon the melting of the ice 
 from the valleys of the St. Lawrence and of the Red 
 River of the North, the land over those areas was 
 depressed below its present level, and that this de- 
 pression increased in a northerly direction. In the 
 Champlain Valley it was but three hundred or four 
 hundred feet, while at Montreal it was six hundred 
 feet, as evidenced by terraces, and the skeletons of 
 whales and other aquatic animals, in the post-glacial 
 deposits of the region. These facts are beyond question. 
 
 An irresistible inference from this is, that, for a 
 time after the withdrawal of the ice from Canada, 
 the drainage which now passes over Niagara Falls, 
 was diverted into the Ottawa River. For, at North 
 Bay, on the water parting between the Great Lakes 
 and the Ottawa the elevation is less than one hun- 
 dred feet above that of the head of Niagara River. 
 While, therefore, the land to the north was depressed 
 to that extent the water of the lakes \\'ould be di- 
 verted in that direction and little work would he done 
 in the Niagara gorge. The date of that gorge, must, 
 therefore, he extended to take in this period of di- 
 verted drainage. 
 
1 86 Ori}^in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 But these facts have not been overlooked in our 
 general calculations.^^ Indeed, as long ago as 1892, 1 
 was the first to discover and report definite evidence 
 of this diversion of drainage across from Lake Hu- 
 ron at North Bay into and through the Mattawa River 
 to the Ottaw^a at Mattawan. But from the condition 
 of the immense delta formed at the junction of the 
 streams, it was apparent that two or three thousand 
 years was ample time to allow for the continuance of 
 this drainage line, so that there is no occasion greatly 
 to enlarge our estimate of the age of Niagara on this 
 account. 
 
 Moreover, as the continuance of this diversion of 
 the drainage was dependent upon the continuance of 
 the northerly depression it would seem possible to 
 obtain from this source evidence of the duration of 
 the diversion of the water from Niagara to the Ot- 
 tawa. The absolute amount of this post-glacial eleva- 
 tion has been, as already remarked, six hundred feet 
 in the latitude of Montreal, and one thousand feet 
 farther north and east. At the southern end of Hudson 
 Bay it was several hundred feet. From the fact that the 
 depression of land was evidently greatest towards the 
 main centers where the glacial ice accumulated, it has 
 been regarded as a reasonable supposition that the 
 weight of the ice has had something to do with caus- 
 
Sii^'/ii/icd/iiC of fill' Clacial /■Ipocli 187 
 
 itiiz the depression, and its removal with effecting the 
 reelevation. If this were indeed a real cause, it would 
 be natural that the elevation would proceed with 
 greatest rapidity immediately after the ice had melted 
 a\\ay from the depressed area. 
 
 Even now this reelevation is going on at a slow 
 rate. Mr. Gilbert,^- of the United States Geolog- 
 ical Survey estimates that the rate of elevation is 
 about six inches a century faster at the head of Ni- 
 ngara River than at the head of the Chicago Drainage 
 Canal, so that after 3,500 years the whole drainage 
 will be diverted from Niagara and turned into the 
 Mississippi basin, through the Illinois River. But 
 Dr. Warren Upham, who for many years was en- 
 gaged by the state of Minnesota, the United States 
 Geological Survey, and that of Canada, in surveying 
 the valley of the Red River of the North, has ad- 
 duced most convincing evidence that upon the removal 
 of the ice the rise of the land to the northward w^as 
 much more rapid than this. 
 
 The Red River rises in Lake Traverse, in Minne- 
 Fotn, at an elevation of one thousand feet above the 
 sea. After flowing north for several hundred miles 
 it empties into Lake Winnipeg, whose waters find 
 their way to Hudson Bay through Nelson River. As 
 already noted the ice obstruction extending across this 
 
1 88 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 valley at the north produced a vast temporar\' lake, 
 which was held up to the level of the lowest pass into 
 the Mississippi Valley, which is through the head- 
 waters of the Red River in Lake Traverse to a con- 
 tinuation of the trough in Big Stone Lake, the source 
 of the Minnesota River, which joins the Mississippi 
 between Minneapolis and St. Paul. The evidence of 
 the existence of this outlet is as clear as day, the 
 gravel terraces marking the height of the stream, 
 eighty-five feet above the level of the lakes, being 
 plainly marked at the present time. The temporar}^ 
 body of water held up by this ice obstruction and 
 having its outlet through the channel described has 
 been named Lake Agassiz, and during its largest ex- 
 tension, just before the ice barriers to the north broke 
 away, covered an area of not less than 100,000 square 
 miles. It is the sediment in this vast lake that fur- 
 nishes the soil of the most important wheat-producing 
 center of America, if not of the w^orld. 
 
 It fell to the lot of Mr. Upham ^'^ to survey the 
 shores of this great lake, which are marked by a line 
 of gravel ridges a few feet high thrown up by the 
 waves during its continuance. Near its south end 
 there arc also areas of dune sand which was blown 
 outward from the high-water accumulations during 
 storms and piled up into gentle knolls and ridges. 
 
S'lc^niftcance of the Glacial Epoch i Hq 
 
 Furthermore, at various places streams of greater or 
 less size pour into the valley from the higher land 
 on either side, especially from the west. Among these 
 are the Saskatchewan, the Assiniboine, the Qu'Ap- 
 pelle, the Souris, the Pembina, and the Sheyenne. 
 Those streams now enter the Red River itself, but 
 during the existence of Lake Agassiz they terminated 
 at its shores and deposited deltas at those elevations. 
 These remain as mute but irresistible witnesses to the 
 brevity of the time during which the water remained 
 at that level. The small extent of these deltas bears 
 indubitable evidence to the fact that the conditions 
 under which they were formed existed only a few 
 centuries. The small size of the lines of beach gravel 
 surrounding the basin also bears testimony in a gen- 
 eral \\'ay to the same limitation of the continuance of 
 the lake at that level. 
 
 But, more definite still, is the witness of the dunes 
 near the south end of the enclosed body of water. 
 For, these are analogous in their origin to those 
 which border the south shore of Lake Michigan. In 
 both cases we have a vast body of water practically 
 closed at the south end, with corresponding erosion 
 of the shores by the waves, and transportation of the 
 debris to the head of the basin at the south end, and, 
 through the action of the wind, the piling up of the 
 
I go Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 sand in dunes. In the case of Lake Michigan the ac- 
 cumulation has been going on during the whole time 
 since its southern end was freed from ice, which from 
 various estimates can be shown to be not more than 
 ten thousand years. Accepting that estimate, the 
 dunes at the south end of Lake Agassiz would have 
 been accumulated in one thousand years, for they are 
 not more than one-tenth as great in amount as those 
 south of Lake Michigan. 
 
 Now, these shore lines around Lake Agassiz rise 
 as you go north, until finally they are three or four 
 hundred feet higher than at the south end. All this 
 differential elevation must have taken place during the 
 lattei part of the retreat of the ice from the Cana- 
 dian border to Hudson Bay, therefore, in a period of 
 about one thousand years. 
 
 This discovery makes it certain that the elevation 
 of the col at North Bay, regulating the diversion 
 of the water from Niagara, need not have occupied 
 more than one thousand years to be in analogy with 
 the rate of elevation in the region of the Red River. 
 There is no ground, therefore, for any great modi- 
 fications of the date assigned to the Niagara gorge 
 from calculations made from the present rate of the 
 recession of the cataract. 
 
 (3) A third line of evidence demonstrating the re- 
 
Si<rnific(i)ici' of the Glac'uil Epoch 191 
 
 cency of the Glacial epoch, is derived from the small 
 extent to which post-2;lacial lakes, ponds, and kettle 
 holes have hcen filled up and ohliterated since their 
 formation. All the lakes, both large and small, which 
 are so numerous in the northern part of the United 
 States and Canada, as well as throughout Ireland, Scot- 
 land, Nonvav, Sweden, Finland, and Northern Russia, 
 are of glacial origin. Either they are in old river basins 
 which have been dammed by abnormal glacial accu- 
 mulations across their outlets, or they are in smaller 
 basins which were formed when great masses of ice 
 melte.l away and left hollows surrounded by glacial 
 debris. Technically these are called kettle holes, 
 from their resemblance in shape to the potash kettles 
 that were in common use when the country districts 
 of America were first settled, and until the forests 
 had been removed. 
 
 The number and freshness of these bodies of water 
 in the glaciated region have attracted the attention of 
 glacialists from the beginning of observations upon 
 them. It is evident at a glance that two powerful 
 and ever-active forces are at work to obliterate these 
 depressions. First, there are at work the agencies 
 which tend to fill them with solid matter of various 
 kmds. The rains wash down the soil from the sides 
 of the basins and deposit it over the bottom; m the 
 
1 92 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 larger bodies of water, the waves erode the shores 
 and distribute the material far and wide, — while 
 streams bring in material gathered from the whole 
 drainage basin and add it to the sediment that comes 
 from nearer localities; and in the smaller basins, peat 
 accumulates often with great rapidity and transforms 
 the lakelet into morass or quagmire. 
 
 At the same time that this process of sedimentation 
 is going on. the stream of w\ater carrying off the sur- 
 plus drainage is engaged in lowering the outlet and 
 thus reducing the size of the enclosed body of w^ater. 
 It is impossible for any one who gives attention to 
 these facts not to be impressed w^ith the youth of the 
 whole topography of these lake districts, both in Eu- 
 rope and America. The lakes exist because the coun- 
 try is young. Since their formation there has not 
 been time enough for their outlets to drain them or 
 for the winds and rains and waves to fill them with 
 sediment, even with the aid of peat-forming vegeta- 
 tion. No one has been able to find a flaw in the 
 calculations made in the early period of glacial inves- 
 tigations concerning the age of certain typical kettle 
 holes in Andovcr, Massachusetts.^* 
 
 Upon measuring one of these typical enclosed ba- 
 sins It was found that the enclosure was a rim of 
 gravel, the highest part of which was seventy-seven 
 
Sigfii,fii(inci' of the Glacial Epoch 193 
 
 feet above the bottom of the enclosure. The average 
 height of the rim above the present bottom of the de- 
 pression was fifty feet. Tlie width of the basin at the 
 upper rim was 372 feet. The slope of the sides was 
 such that they would meet at seventeen feet below the 
 present bottom. From the nature of the material, it 
 is impossible for the sides ever to have met much 
 deeper down. A calculation will show that the total 
 amount deposited in the bottom of this kettle hole, 
 by wind, water, and vegetable growth, is equal to only 
 eight feet in thickness over the present bottom. If 
 we bring the date of the formation of the basin down 
 to 12,500 years, we allow 125 years for the accumu- 
 lation of one inch of sediment, which is about as far 
 as credulity can go. More recently (1908), Baron 
 de Geer,^^ of Sweden, has reported observations on 
 a post-glacial lake bed in Sweden, from which he 
 reaches the conclusion that the ice did not retire from 
 that region until about five thousand years ago. 
 
 (4) Another striking indication that the retreat of 
 the ice from the main centers of accumulation oc- 
 curred ver>' recently, is found in the small amount of 
 subaerial disintegration of glaciated rock surfaces, 
 which has taken place since exposure upon the re- 
 treat of the ice. Every'where this has been noticed 
 on glaciated surfaces upon which bowlders are rest- 
 
194 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 fng. In the places protected by the superincumbent 
 bowlders the original glaciated surface is preserved, 
 but in all the surrounding area the surface has been 
 lowered by subacrial disintegration, so that the bowl- 
 ders stand upon slight pedestals. These are even- 
 where so low, especially in limestone districts, that a 
 maximum date of a few thousand j'ears must be as- 
 signed to withdrawal of the glacial ice. 
 
 More striking still are the facts reported by Pro- 
 fessor Geo. F. Becker, and the late Professor I. C. 
 Russell, two of the most careful members of the? 
 United States Geological Survey. Mr. Becker saj's, 
 " No one who has examined the glaciated regions of 
 the Sierra [in California] can doubt that the great 
 mass of the ice disappeared at a very recent period. 
 The immense areas of polished surfaces fully exposed 
 to the severe climate of say from 7,000 to 12,000 feet 
 altitude, the insensible erosion of streams running over 
 glaciated rocks, and the freshness of erratic bowlders 
 are sufficient evidence of this." ^'^ In similar strain 
 Professor Russell, speaking of the region farther 
 north, in Nevada and Utah, remarks that " The 
 smooth surfaces are all scored with fine, hair-like lines, 
 and the e>e fails to detect more than a trace of dis- 
 integration that has taken place since the surfaces 
 received their polish and striation. ... It seems rea- 
 
Sif^nificancc of the Glacial Epoch 195 
 
 sonablc to conclude that in a severe climate like that 
 of the hiirh Sierra, it (the polish) could not remain un- 
 impaired for more than a few centuries at the most." '" 
 Sir William Logan and Dr. Robert BelP" of the 
 
 Canadian Geological Survey report many similar in- 
 stances. 
 
 The combined effect of all this evidence from so 
 many different sources is irresistible. Large areas in 
 Europe and North America which are now principal 
 centers of civilization were buried under glacial ice 
 thousands of feet thick, while the civilization of 
 Babylonia was in its heyday. The glib manner in 
 which many, not to say most, popular writers, as well 
 as many observers of limited range, speak of the Gla- 
 cial epoch as far distant in geological time, is due to 
 ignorance of facts which would seem to be so clear 
 that he who runs might read them. 
 
 In view of the fact that the human race had 
 spread all over the Northern Hemisphere before the 
 close of the Glacial epoch, it is important to consider 
 the probable length of the whole period and the vi- 
 cissitudes connected with it. For it would seem that 
 both man and a number of extinct animal species 
 must have passed from Asia to America during the 
 continuance of land elevation connected with the ac- 
 
196 Origin find Antiquity of Man 
 
 cumulation of the continental ice sheets. It seems 
 impossible to account for the spread of the mastodon 
 and mammoth from Northern Asia into North Amer- 
 ica, except on the theory that it took place Vvhile 
 there was an extensive land connection between the 
 two continents over the area now^ occupied by the 
 shallow water of Behring Sea. We shall find it 
 profitable, therefore, to enter somewhat in detail into 
 the general question of the time necessary to account 
 for the entire accumulation of glacial ice, together 
 with the various interglacial epochs that are supposed 
 to have existed. 
 
 We are so profoundly ignorant of the causes which 
 produced the Glacial epoch that great freedom of 
 speculation is allowable, and at the same time spec- 
 ulative conclusions of any sort can have little weight 
 in overcoming the witness of actual observations 
 bearing upon glacial dates. If, as we are inclined, and 
 have much evidence to believe, the Glacial epoch was 
 brought on by the elevation of land known to have 
 occurred during the latter part of the Tertiary period 
 and by consequent changes in the course of the oceanic 
 currents which do so much to distribute the excessive 
 heat received from the sun over the tropics, the com- 
 ing on of tlie Glacial epoch would naturally have 
 been vcrv gradual. But when the climax of the 
 
Siiinifuancc of the Glacial Epoch 197 
 
 period approached, it is easilj' shown that forces of 
 izreat relative activity would be set in motion. The 
 rapidity with which the ice may have accumulated, 
 and that also with which it may have been melted, 
 can be inferred both theoretically and from actual 
 observation. 
 
 The beginning of the Glacial epoch was not so far 
 distant as is popularly supposed. The whole epoch 
 was one in which forces were at work at an abnormal 
 rate, while it is estimated that even now the ice float- 
 ing away from Greenland as icebergs is sufficient, if 
 accumulated on a land surface, to extend the borders of 
 a continental glacier about 450 feet a year, or one mile 
 in twelve years, one hundred miles in twelve hundred 
 years, and seven hundred miles (about the limit of 
 transportation of bowlders in America), in less than 
 ten thousand years. It is not surprising, therefore, 
 that so eminent an authority as Sir Joseph Prest- 
 wich ^■' should conclude that 25,000 years is ample 
 time to allow to the reign of the ice of the Glacial 
 epoch. Certainly there is no need to enlarge this 
 estim.ate more than two- or threefold. 
 
 This will be evident if one will reflect upon the 
 enormous forces temporarily brought into play during 
 the epoch. 
 
 The movements of the earth's crust are even now 
 
198 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 considerable in extent, amounting in many places to 
 two or three feet a century. But at the culmination 
 of the Glacial epoch several million cubic miles of 
 ice had accumulated over the glaciated area in North 
 America and Europe. This is probably sufficient 
 greatly to disturb the equilibrium of forces which pre- 
 serves the present land levels. With the weight of 
 several million cubic miles of water removed from 
 the ocean beds and the same amount set down in ice 
 over a definite area of the Northern Hemisphere the 
 land would naturally sink with a rapidity which is 
 out of all analogy to present changes in level. When, 
 later, this ice melted and returned to the ocean these 
 forces would again be liberated to reverse the process 
 and cause an elevation whose rate would naturally 
 exceed anything which comes under present observa- 
 tion. Moreover, the floods consequent upon this rapid 
 melting of the ice would hasten the work of stream 
 erosion to a degree that is almost incomprehensible. 
 With an annual rise of two hundred feet in the Mis- 
 souri and Minnesota rivers, and perhaps of five hun- 
 dred feet in the Ohio, the results both in erosion and 
 in deposition may well beggar description. 
 
 Theoretically it cannot be regarded as at all im- 
 probable that, when the Glacial epoch had fnirly set 
 in, ice bc<;an to accumulate over the center of the 
 
Si'^nif'udncc of the Glacial Epoch 199 
 
 illaciated area at the rate of one foot a year. THh 
 need not necessitate an increase of precipitation to 
 that amount, hut merely that twelve or fourteen 
 inches of the precipitation w h.ich had heen in the form 
 of rain was now in the form of snow. In (ireenland 
 It would seem now that the entire precipitation over 
 the most of the interior is in the form of snow. At 
 the same time it is well known that there is a con- 
 siderahle amount of direct condensation of frozen 
 moisture upon the surface of the [glacier. If now we 
 suppose the accumulation of ice on the surface of the 
 incipient continental glacier to have been at the rate 
 of one foot a year, it would require, in round num- 
 bers, only ilve thousand years for it to reach a thick- 
 ness of one mile. Supposing this to have been over 
 an area of 500,000 square miles (about the present 
 area of the Greenland ice field) the simple overflow 
 of ice from this area would extend the border so that 
 in another five thousand years 1,000,000 square miles 
 would be covered, to say nothing of the snow that 
 would accumulate directly over this added area. By 
 the same process during another five thousand years 
 the margin would be so extended that 2,000,000 miles 
 would be co\ered with glacial ice. We have to con- 
 ceive the process as continued only another five thou- 
 sand years (amounting in all to twentv thousand 
 
200 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 3Tars) to have the glaciers reach their full extent 
 during the Glacial epoch in North America. Esti- 
 mating the deflation of the ice and the retreat of the 
 ice border to have gone on at a corresponding rate 
 during the decline of the Glacial epoch, we should 
 have 40,000 years as sufficient to cover the entire 
 epoch. But as evidently there were various episodes 
 of temporary advance and recession, this estimate of 
 time must be considerably enlarged. If, however, we 
 double each half of the epoch to allow for intergla- 
 cial episodes, which would seem to be ample, this 
 would extend the epoch only to 80,000 years. 
 
 That this estimate of the rapidity with which the 
 forces causing both the accumulation and the dis- 
 appearance of the ice of the Glacial epoch is not 
 excessive is shown by a variety of observations upon 
 existing ice fields and upon the permanent glacial de- 
 posits that were left behind. 
 
 The icebergs which float down through Baffin's 
 Bay and are dissolved on meeting the warm currents 
 of the Atlantic Ocean represent the surplus ice of the 
 great Greenland ice sheet, whose motion has been 
 aptly compared by Helland to that of an inundation. 
 From this great ice field there is a general movement 
 from the central regions towards the sea. The move- 
 ment concentrates in the ice fiords, through which 
 
Si^ni/icdficc of the Glacial Epoch 201 
 
 individual glaciers are constantly pushing out to the 
 deep sea, where their fronts are hroken off and swept 
 away by the southward flowing current. 
 
 These glaciers are of immense size, many of them 
 two or three miles in width, and one, the great 
 Humboldt Glacier, more than sixty miles; while 
 their velocity has been found to average between 
 thirty and fifty feet a day throughout the year. The 
 great glacier near Upernavik moves at the rate of 
 ninetj'-nine feet per day. Taking the average move- 
 ment (determined by the Danish surveyors as from 
 thirty to fifty feet), and estimating the proportion of 
 glacier front to rock front on the coast of Greenland 
 to be as one to twenty, it would appear that the ice 
 carried off by these glaciers annually would amount 
 to a fringe of one-eighth of a mile along the entire 
 coast; that is to say, if it were not for the transpor- 
 tation of icebergs away from the front of the glaciers, 
 the border of the Greenland ice field would extend 
 itself one mile every eight years. At the same rate, 
 were the continent unobstructed by Baffin's Bay, the 
 ice would extend five hundred miles in four thousand 
 years; or, if we suppose the ratio of ice front to rock 
 front to be as one to thirty, the ice front would then 
 extend itself five hundred miles in six thousand years. 
 •In the case of Muir Glacier in Alaska, we have 
 
o 
 
204 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 positive evidence of an actual rapiditj' in the retreat 
 of a great glacier which is of the first importance. 
 When I made my survey of the glacier in 1886 evi- 
 dence was gathered proving that the front of the 
 glacier had retreated fifteen or twenty miles during 
 the last century.-^' Every observation since by other 
 investigators has, from general considerations, con- 
 firmed this conclusion."^ Since 1886, however, this 
 rapid retreat of the ice front is positively known to 
 have continued, until, in 1906 (after a lapse of twenty 
 5Tars), it was seven miles farther inland than it was in 
 1886. During that period the ice front has actually 
 retreated, on the average, at a rate of one mile every 
 three years. 
 
 A striking impression of the rapidity with which 
 the ice disappears is seen also in the fact that upon the 
 mountain slopes which border Muir Inlet, clearly de- 
 fined and vrell preserved glacial striae were discov- 
 ered at an elevation of thirty-seven hundred feet, and 
 running parallel with the axis of the inlet, while Wil- 
 loughby Island, which rises ten or fifteen hundred 
 feet above the level of Glacier Bay, retains the polish 
 of glaciation so perfectly that it glistens in the sun 
 like a mirror. There is no room for doubt that a 
 hundred years ago the whole inlet and the upper part 
 of Glacier Bay were filled with the glacier from two 
 
Si^i^mi,^('(inci' of tlu Ghic'ud Eporli 203 
 
 to four thousand feet in thickness and from one to 
 five miles in width. 
 
 Evidence concernini: the rapid retreat of the con- 
 tinental ice sheet in Isorth America is also abundant, 
 and has already been sufficiently presented in dis- 
 cussing the age of the Niagara gorge and the time 
 occupied by the retreat of the ice front from the Ca- 
 nadian border to Hudson Bay, as estimated by Dr. 
 Warren Upham. The ice did not withdraw from 
 Central New York and the Province of Quebec un- 
 til about seven thousand years ago. The entire time 
 occupied by the retreat of the ice from the Canadian 
 border to Hudson Bay, a distance of five hundred 
 miles, did not exceed one or two thousand years at 
 the utmost. 
 
 As many extravagant but vague estimates concern- 
 ing the duration of the Glacial epoch have been made 
 from the evidence of several interglacial periods, from 
 the relative amount of erosion which has taken place 
 in the older deposits near the border of the glaciated 
 area, and from the extent of the oxidation of the ma- 
 terial in the glacial deposits near the border, it is 
 necessary here to consider the evidence in some detail. 
 
 There have been three, and perhaps four, glacial 
 advances in the United States with interglacial peri- 
 ods between, marked by buried peat deposits and 
 
2o6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 overu helmed forests. These are ( i ) the Kansan 
 (2) the IlHnoisan, (3) the Wisconsin episodes, de- 
 riving their names from the localities where the de 
 posits can be most easily traced. 
 
 I. During the Kansan stage the ice ever^^vvhere 
 attained its extreme southern extension, reaching To- 
 peka, in Kansas, covering all of Missouri north of the 
 Missouri River, extending to the southern part of 
 Illinois and to the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Where 
 the deposits of this age are exposed, they are ver>^ 
 thoroughly oxidized, and are spread out over the 
 country in a comparatively thin and uniform stratum, 
 without the occurrence of moraines. The Kansan 
 deposits, also, show the effects of erosion to an extent 
 many times greater than that of those in the area at 
 the north from which the ice last retreated. From 
 these facts it has been inferred that the age of the 
 Kansan deposits was very many times that of those of 
 the Wisconsin stage. 
 
 But it should be observed that the oxidation of the 
 deposits of Kansan age was probably effected, for the 
 most part, in preglacial times. This was clearly 
 brought to light many years ago in a paper by Pro- 
 fessor Raphael Pumpelly -- and has since been em- 
 phasized by Professor Ralph S. Tarr -^ and others. 
 Previous to the Glacial epoch, during nearly the en- 
 
Sii^nificancc of the Gldchil EpocJi lOJ 
 
 tire Tertian' period, a warm, muist climate cliarac- 
 terized the Northern Hemisphere up to the Arctic 
 Sea. The rtora of North Carolina and Virginia and 
 of Japan and Central F.urope flourished at that time 
 in Greenland and Spitzhergen. During the con- 
 tinuance of these conditions the rocks of the entire 
 reiiion must have been deeply penetrated by oxidizing 
 agencies, so that the whole area was covered with a 
 thick blanket of residual soil, such as exists at the 
 present time outside of the glaciated areas, where, as 
 in Virginia and the Carolinas, for example, the rocks 
 are often decayed to a depth of one hundred feet, 
 and in the Ozark Mountains of Missouri Professor 
 Pumpelly reports that the limestone rocks have been 
 dissolved to such an extent that, though the residuary 
 products are less than ten per cent of the original vol- 
 ume, they now cover the country to a depth of from 
 twenty to one hundred and twenty feet; while, in 
 Nicaragua, Thomas Belt reported that the decay of 
 the rocks had reached a depth of two hundred feet. 
 
 Now it is evident that the first grist of the Glacial 
 epoch would consist of this already oxidized material 
 which covered the region at the close of the Ter- 
 tiary period. It was this material which was first 
 picked up by the iilacial movement and carried to 
 the extreme limit of the continental ice field. The 
 
208 Ori^rin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 excessive oxidation of the material over the field cov- 
 ered by the Kansan ice is therefore no clear indication 
 of the time v/hich has elapsed since its transportation. 
 It was already oxidized when it started. 
 
 Nor is the relative amount of erosion of the Kansan 
 deposits a clear indication of their age. It is true that 
 this erosion is many times in excess of that which has 
 taken place since the Wisconsin stage, but it is also true 
 that the forces in operation over the area were exces- 
 sive. Every stream passing through the area of Kan- 
 san drift has been surcharged with water from the 
 melting of the successive receding ice sheets, and it 
 is well known that the eroding power of a stream of 
 water is many fold greater when the supply of water 
 is superabundant than v^dien it is at an ordinary stage. 
 Moreover, the absence of moraines over the exposed 
 Kansan area prevented the occurrence of those nu- 
 merous obstructions to the drainage which exist over 
 those portions of tlie glaciated area from which the ice 
 receded last. This same line of argument also goes 
 far to diminish the time estimates which have been 
 made concerning the interglacial erosion in areas 
 which have been subsequently covered by the read- 
 vancing ice. 
 
 2. The Illinoisan Stage. It is a fact whose sig- 
 nificance is not fully understood that the center of 
 
I . -^ . — "^^T" ~ .. ._ v ^ 
 
 
210 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 dispersion of ice during the Kansan stage was dif- 
 ferent from that of the two subsequent stages. The 
 center for the dispersion of Kansan ice was some- 
 where west of Hudson Bay; while during the Illi- 
 noisan stage the center of dispersion was from the 
 vicinit}^ of Labrador and southeast of Hudson Bay. 
 During this stage bowlders were transported from the 
 north of Lake Huron southwest as far as the southern 
 part of Iowa, where they occur overlying the Kansan 
 deposits north of Keokuk, Iowa. 
 
 The extent of the oxidation of the exposed Illi- 
 noisan drift sheet and the amount of erosion wliich 
 has been effected in it since its deposition are both 
 midway in amount between tliat of the Kansas depos- 
 its and that of the Wisconsin deposits. But tliis is 
 what is to be expected, in view of the facts just pre- 
 sented with reference to the preglacial disintegration 
 of the rocks over the centers from which the ice 
 moved. The material accessible to the moving ice 
 would necessarily be less and less oxidized as the sur- 
 face soil was more completely removed.* 
 
 3. The Wisconsin Stage. The deposits of the 
 
 * The prc.jection of the Illinoisan deposits beyond the 
 Wisconsin are relatively so slight, that, to avoid confusion, 
 they have been omitted on the accompanying map; while 
 the lov^an border, which Mr. I.everett is now inclined to 
 discard, is left for convenience of future reference. 
 
Sisriiificcucc of ihc Glacial Epoch 
 
 21 1 
 
 Wisconsin episode consist of much fresher material 
 than those of the earh'er episodes, showing that tJiey 
 have been Iar.L2;eI\' derived from the unoxidized strata 
 which had been left exposed by the removal of the 
 residual soil during the earlier stages of the glacial 
 advance. But there is over the entire Wisconsin area 
 an oxidized stratum extending several feet from the 
 surface downwards. This stratum is characterized by 
 a yel-loM'ish color, and rests upon a much thicker 
 stratum of glacial deposits which is more compact, is 
 unoxidized, and is of a bluish color. Whether this 
 upper stratum has been oxidized since the deposit 
 was made is a question of dispute among geologists. 
 The more probable theor}^ seems to be that the up- 
 per, oxidized, stratum consists of material which was 
 incorporated into the moving ice and gradually ac- 
 cum.ulated upon the surface as the ice sheet melted 
 and diminished 'in thickness, and became oxidized in 
 considerable part during the exposure while m pro- 
 cess of transportation. 
 
 The deposits of the Wisconsin ice overlie tho^e 
 both of the Illinoisan and of the Kansan stage, ex- 
 tending in the Ohio Valley very nearly to the border 
 of the Kansan boundary, and sometimes beyond it. 
 It was durine this stage, also, that the great lines of 
 moraines that are traced across the countrv were de- 
 
212 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 posited. The estimates which have been made con- 
 cerning the date of the Glacial epoch derived from 
 the Niagara gorge and the other facts which have 
 been already detailed refer wholly to this Wisconsin 
 stage, and show clearly that the ice of that epoch did 
 not disappear from the northern part of the United 
 States until seven thousand years ago. 
 
 The question of the entire length of the Glacial 
 epoch depends to a considerable extent upon the- time 
 which must be allowed for the interglacial epochs. 
 That these were of considerable length appears from 
 the fact that extensive forest beds and stores of peat 
 are found between the deposits of these various stages 
 spoken of and of various minor advances. Doubtless 
 some centuries, and perhaps many centuries, must 
 have elapsed between the recession of the ice during 
 these episodes and its readvancement to cover the 
 accumulations of vegetal material and the eroded 
 surfaces that had been sculptured during the inter- 
 glacial exposure. Whether these intervals are to be 
 measured by hundreds of years, as in Alaska, or by 
 thousands of years, is not capable in many cases of 
 demonstration. Rut nowhere does it seem necessary 
 to assume intervals expressed by a higher order of 
 fieures, nam.ely tens of thousands. 
 
 The clearest evidence of a prolonged interglacial 
 
Siirni^icd/ice of the Glacial Epoch 213 
 
 episode appears in the deposits carefully studied at To- 
 ronto by Professor A. P. Coleman. Here on the 
 northern shore of Lake Ontario there are two series 
 of glacial deposits, one overlying the other, separated 
 by interglacial deposits representing both a flora and 
 a fauna containing species that even now^ do not live 
 in that latitude, but are found no nearer than the 
 Mississippi Valley and the upper portion of the val- 
 ley of the Ohio. Inhere must therefore have been an 
 interglacial period in the latitude of Toronto long 
 enough and warm enough to permit the migration of 
 shell-fish and of various trees and plants from the 
 Mississippi Valley into Canada, where they had op- 
 portunity to flourish for a considerable period. 
 
 When, however, we attempt to estimate this time, 
 we are confronted by various paradoxes of the Gla- 
 cial epoch. In the first place. It Is evident that, for 
 the Ice to have melted away as rapidly as it did, an 
 unusually warm climate was necessary. So that it 
 seems likely that extrem.es of climate m.et during a 
 considerable time when the summers were very warm 
 and the winters very cold. This supposition is sup- 
 ported not only from the nature of the case, which 
 requires an excessive amount of warmth to melt the 
 Ice back as fast as we have shown that It did In the 
 vallev of the Red River of the North, but also by 
 
214 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 discoveries which Professor Hoist, ^"^ of the Swedish 
 Geological Survey, has made in the glacial deposits 
 near Malmo. Here he has found, mingled in the 
 same lake deposits, species both of plants and of ani- 
 mals which are ordinarily characteristic of widely 
 separated latitudes. But during the close of the 
 Glacial epoch in Southern Sweden there were cli- 
 matic conditions such that all could flourish in the 
 same localit)^ While it may not be permitted to sup- 
 pose that elms, oaks, maples, and pawpaws flourished 
 during an interglacial epoch at Toronto when the 
 edge of the continental ice sheet was a few miles 
 away, it is not at all beyond the realm of plausible 
 supposition that the ice edge was not more than fifty 
 or one hundred miles away, in w^hich case two or 
 three thousand 5^ears may be ample time for both 
 the retreat and the readvance of the ice. Until we 
 know more about the causes of the climatic changes 
 which passed over the Northern Hemisphere, and in- 
 deed over the whole earth, during the Glacial epoch, 
 it is impossible for us to form any very definite ideas 
 concerning the rapidity with which the various epi- 
 sodes of the epoch followed each other. 
 
 The moderate estimates concerning the date of the 
 earliest glacial episode are amply sustained, and we 
 believe demonstrated to be correct, bv the investio-a- 
 
Si<^nific(ince of the Glacial Epoch 215 
 
 tions of Professor K. H. Williams -^ on the attenuated 
 border of the <j;laciated area of the state of Penn- 
 sylvania. This border extends on an average about 
 twenty miles south of the moraine which was sur- 
 veyed in 1880 by Lewis and Wright, and which is 
 reckoned now as of Wisconsin age. On the other 
 hand, the attenuated border, as noted on the accom- 
 panying map (p. 209), is reckoned as of Kansan age. 
 But Professor Williams found that the glaciated 
 surface of the mammoth coal bed at the extreme 
 southern edge of the border was remarkably fresh. 
 Though covered with loose debris permitting free ac- 
 cess of eroding acids it was not eaten into to any 
 appreciable extent, whereas south of the border the 
 coal was oxidized and made worthless to a depth of 
 several feet. Again, the blanket of glacial material 
 covering the attenuated bordsr, though in general 
 highly oxidized, contained wherever examined, and 
 that was in hundreds of places, a small intermixture 
 of rocky fragments w^hich were almost unoxidized, 
 though of a kind to be specially subject to oxidation. 
 Evidently the age of the deposits is determined by 
 this unoxidized material which had been picked up 
 in the movement and brought along with a great 
 mass of material which, as before said, had been 
 alreadv oxidized from the start. Furthermore, Mr. 
 
2l6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Williams found numerous rounded pebbles which had 
 been oxidized almost to the center, but leaving a 
 core of unoxidized material. But some of these peb- 
 bles had been glaciated upon one side so as almost to 
 expose the core without disturbing the deep bands of 
 oxidation on the other side, thus demonstrating that 
 the main oxidation of the pebbles had occurred be- 
 fore they were picked up in their original beds in 
 the far north. 
 
 These facts certainly show that there must be some 
 flaw in the calculations which give an extreme age, in 
 some cases of many hundred thousand years, to the 
 Kansan deposits. The conditions during the entire 
 ice age were abnormal and we are led into serious 
 error when we apply to them the measures of geo- 
 logical time draw^n from the progress of events char- 
 acterizing the more stable conditions of present or 
 preglacial periods. 
 
 It was formerly maintained on Croll's astronomical 
 theory that the glaciation of the Southern Hemis- 
 phere was not contemporaneous with that of the 
 Northern, but that the glacial episodes of these two 
 hemispheres followed each other in successive alterna- 
 tion, the Northern Hemisphere experiencing glacial 
 conditions while the Southern Hemisphere was pass- 
 
Si'^nificdncc of the Glacial Epoch ill 
 
 inii; through a period of milder climate, and vice 
 versa. J^ut recent observations show that the g;la- 
 ciation of the two hemispheres was contemporaneous. 
 According to Professor Isaiah Bov.man,-'' who has 
 extensively investigated the phenomena, all the val- 
 le3's of the Andes reaching above 12,500 feet were 
 even in the equatorial latitudes filled with glacial ice 
 at a comparatively recent time. In some places the 
 glaciers, as for example, between Ollantaytambo and 
 Torontoy, descended to a level of 8,500 feet above 
 the sea and deposited moraines four hundred feet in 
 height. But the deposits of these South American 
 glaciers are so fresh that they are probably to be cor- 
 related with those of the Wisconsin episodes in North 
 America. It is in the deposits of one of these glaciers 
 near Cuzco that Professor Hiram Bingham has 
 found human remains, details of which will be given 
 in a later chapter. 
 
 Thus, though we may not be able to extract any 
 very definite chronology for human history from these 
 glacial facts, they do enable us to set limits to spec- 
 ulation upon the time of man's entrance into the 
 world, and they give us a vivid idea of the vicissi- 
 tudes which the race encountered during the early 
 centuries of its history. 
 
2i8 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 MAN IN THE GLACIAL EPOCH 
 
 Up to the present time the direct evidence of man's 
 existence during the Glacial epoch has been limited 
 (with one or two doubtful exceptions) to the occur- 
 rence of implements and remains found in what is 
 called modified drift, that is, deposits made by the 
 streams of water which everywhere poured out in 
 great volume from the margin of the ice fields during 
 the decline of the period. In America, as already 
 pointed out, the gravel terraces laid down by these 
 glacial floods form bordering terraces to all the 
 southerly flowing streams which rise in the glaciated 
 region. So uniform and characteristic are these de- 
 posits that they have given the name to the well- 
 known ** Terrace epoch." The terraces marking this 
 epoch are prominent features along the borders of the 
 Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susque- 
 hanna, the Ohio with all its northern tributaries, the 
 Mississippi, and the Missouri rivers. That they are 
 connected with the closing stages of the Glacial epoch, 
 when the ice was melting away with exceptional ra- 
 pidity, giving rise to what we may appropriately call 
 
M(in in the Gldc'uil Epoch 219 
 
 " the sprinii; freshet " of the Glacial epoch, is capable, 
 as already said, of beinp; proved to a very hi^ih de'j:ree 
 of ccrtaintw These terraces are composed of material 
 derived from the far north. In the Ohio River, for 
 example, granitic pebbles form a large constituent of 
 the material composing them. But the nearest native' 
 ejanite rocks lie far to the north of Lake Erie and 
 Lake Ontario. In every case, also, the terraces can 
 be traced from the south up to the glacial boundar\^ 
 — the material increasing in coarseness as the bound- 
 ary is approached, where the water deposits at last 
 merge into the unstratified till, or bowlder clay. 
 
 The evidence of man's existence during this " Ter- 
 race epoch " in America is now ample, and, owing to 
 the simplicity of the physical conditions of the con- 
 tinent, capable of very precise determination. The 
 first discoveries were reported in 1875 by Dr. C. C. 
 Abbott in Trenton, New Jersey. The geological sit- 
 uation is here very simple.^ Trenton is at the head 
 of Delaware Bay, where the Delaware River emerges 
 from a rock gorge which it has followed for a long 
 distance in its course through the highlands to the 
 north. The city of Trenton is built upon a delta 
 terrace of gravel, two or three miles in diameter, 
 which was deposited at the head of the bay under 
 conditions very different from those now existing. 
 
220 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Its general level is fifty feet above tide, and it is 
 composed of irregular strata of coarse and fine gravel 
 containing extensive strata of pebbles several inches 
 in diameter, and an occasional bowlder two or three 
 feet in diameter. The material of this terrace is all 
 derived from the valley of the stream above; while 
 everything bears witness to the fact that the deposit 
 was made by tumultuous currents of water far be- 
 yond anything possible under present conditions. 
 Upon following up the stream one finds remnants of 
 the high-level gravel terraces everywhere bordering 
 the trough, which also speak in no uncertain voice 
 of a former tumultuous current far above the level 
 reached by the present stream. Sixty-five miles above 
 the mouth of the stream, at Belvidere, the explana- 
 tion is found. Here we enter the glaciated region, 
 where a veritable terminal moraine crosses the val- 
 ley, and we learn that six thousand square miles of 
 the upper part of the drainage basin of the river was 
 deeply enveloped with ice during the Glacial epoch. 
 This moraine furnished the material for the delta 
 terrace at Trenton, and the melting of the glacial ice 
 furnished the floods to transport it through the long 
 gonze and deposit it at tide level. The facts are too 
 plain to need any discussion. Seeing is believing. 
 Nobody now questions them. 
 
Chipped implement from the Trenton gravel, a, front 
 view; h, edge view. The material being argillite, or 
 metamorphosed slate, is incapable of being wrought into 
 the delicate shapes possible with flint. (C. C. Abbott.) 
 
222 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Dr. Abbott's discoveries in this delta terrace con- 
 sisted of roughly chipped implements, made, not of 
 flint, which is rare in the region, but of argillite, or 
 metamorphosed slate. A short distance above Tren- 
 ton a series of well-know^n trap dikes cross the valley 
 in a diagonal direction, bursting through extensive 
 Arch.Tian slate rocks. The heat of the trap has 
 transformed the slate into an incoherent mass which 
 has lost its stratification and can be chipped like flint, 
 breaking with conchoidal fracture. But the texture is 
 coarse, and the chipped implements made from it are 
 very rude as compared with those from flint. Still, 
 there can be no doubt of the artificial character of a 
 great number which have been found at Trenton.^ 
 
 Th.Q. only ground of doubt which can be urged 
 relates to the question whether the implements were 
 really found in undisturbed gravel. For a long time 
 this was questioned by many investigators. This was 
 made possible by the fact that at first no one but Dr. 
 Abbott found the implements in place in imdisturbed 
 strata. This, however, was not strange, since he was 
 the only one who was on hand when they would 
 naturally come to light. For several years the Penn- 
 sylvania Rnilroad was excavating gravel from this 
 terrace near Dr. Abbott's house, so that he was in 
 position to see the exposed banks daily. In more than 
 
Man in the Glacial Epoch 
 
 22"^ 
 
 S1X1 
 
 xty cases Dr. Abbott reported iindino; ar^illite im- 
 plements in the undisturbed strata of this gravel, and 
 in more than 250 cases found them in the talus at 
 the foot of the bank, where it was altogether proba- 
 ble that they had fallen down from a considerable 
 depth in the deposit. At the same time hundreds of 
 the implements were found on the surface. 
 
 Without questioning the veracity of Dr. Abbott, 
 various suggestions were made as to how error could 
 arise. Ry some it v.as thought that it would not be 
 possible always to distinguish between undisturbed 
 strata of gravel and a talus which had fallen down 
 and become hardened. But this could not account 
 for all the cases, since some of them occurred in 
 ditches freshly dug in the middle of the deposit. It 
 was then suggested that the implements had fallen 
 into holes which burrowing animals had made, or into 
 cracks in the soil which occurred during extreme dry 
 weather, or still again that they had followed down 
 the holes left by the decaying taproots of trees. 
 
 To settle these points committees at two difiFerent 
 times vkked the ground, and carried on some inter- 
 esting experiments. Dr. Abbott had, from the outset 
 of his discoveries, contended that argillite implements 
 were practicallv the only ones found in the glacial 
 gravel. But on the surface thousands of flint and 
 
224 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 jasper implements, such as are used by the modern 
 Indian, are found, together with potter}^ To settle 
 this point the committees were told by Mr. Ernest 
 Volk, who for several years was employed to carry 
 on excavations for Professor F. W. Putnam, curator 
 of the Peabody Museum, that they might select any 
 area on the surface, and he would foretell that they 
 would find numerous flint and jasper implements and 
 some fragments of pottery in the upper layer of ten 
 inches, but that below that depth they would find 
 nothing of that character, but would find an occa- 
 sional argillite flake or implement. In both cases the 
 committees found the facts as Mr. Volk predicted. 
 The absence of flint and of pottery below the first 
 foot of soil was complete, and from the next two or 
 three feet ar5;illite flakes and implements were occa- 
 sionally obtained. 
 
 The drawback to these investigations was that the 
 committee penetrated only three or four feet from 
 the surface, so that it could be objected that they had 
 not reached the real glacial gravel. But the deposits 
 penetrated were just such as cover all flood plains, 
 where finer material always settles upon the surface, 
 being laid do\\n by the gentler overflows which 
 spread over the flood plain at its highest level. Still 
 the fact remained, as Dr. Abbott had contended from 
 
Man in the Glncial Epoch 225 
 
 the outset, that Mint was not found below the surface, 
 anil arglllite was. As argillite is lighter than flint, 
 it would seem that if the material had worked into 
 place b}' falling into cracks, or holes made by animals, 
 or by the decay of taproots of trees, it would have 
 been the flint and not the argillite that occupied the 
 lower position.^ 
 
 But still there were doubters. A quietus was only 
 attained in December i, 1899, when Mr. Volk dis- 
 co^•ered and photographed before removal, a fragment 
 of a human femur in the cross-bedded green sand 
 lying hdow a mass of unassorted gravel, which is 
 unquestionably of glacial age. Upon presentation of 
 this evidence to the society of Americanists, in Octo- 
 ber, 1902, all doubts were silenced, and the existence 
 of man during the close of the Glacial epoch in New 
 Jersey has become an accepted fact."^ 
 
 A word, however, should be said about the way 
 these implements became associated with the gravel at 
 Trenton. We are not to suppose, as many seem to 
 do, that the implements were dropped from boats 
 with which primitive man was moving over the sur- 
 face of the swollen waters. The process probably was 
 much simpler. The flooded condition of glacial 
 streams exists only during the warm part of the year. 
 In August and September they would be at their 
 
226 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 height. But in winter, and early spring, there would 
 be little water in the stream, and the delta terrace at 
 tide level would be a broad expanse of dry gravel 
 over which primeval man could roam at w^ill. Here 
 he would occasionally lose his implements, to be cov- 
 ered by a fresh stratum of gravel during the ensuing 
 flooded season. 
 
 One of the most interesting and important of 
 similar discoveries elsewhere was that of a perfectly 
 formed implement of the palaeolithic type discovered 
 by Professor W. C. Mills,'"' the present accomplished 
 curator of the museum of the Ohio State Archaeolog- 
 ical and Historical Society. The discovery was made 
 in October, 1889. The gravel pit in which it oc- 
 curred is at Newcomerstown on Buckhorn Creek, a 
 small tributary of the Tuscarawas River. The head- 
 waters of this river are in the glaciated region about 
 twenty miles to the north. All the way below the 
 glacial boundary the trough of the stream is bordered 
 by extensive high-level terraces of glacial gravel. The 
 terrace on the north side extends back about a quarter 
 of a mile into the recess formed by the junction of 
 Buckhorn Creek, and is there twenty-five feet above 
 the present flood plain of the river. In a fresh section 
 of this terrace, where the railroad was excavating 
 
riie Xewcnmerstown implement side by side with one from 
 Amiens, France, (face view), reduced one half in diam- 
 eter. (From Wright's Nfan and the Cilacial Period.) 
 (By courtesy of D. Appleton and Co.) 
 
228 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 gravel, Dr. Mills discovered the implement projecting 
 from the freshlj^ exposed perpendicular face, sixteen 
 feet below the surface. It is made of a peculiar dark 
 flint with w^hite specks arising from the occurrence of 
 small shells characteristic of the Lower Alercer lime- 
 stone found in the near vicinity. In form it is a 
 perfect replica of an implement in my possession, 
 which came from Sir John Evans' collection from 
 Amiens, France, showing perhaps that in palaeolithic 
 times the fashions originated in Paris, as they con- 
 tinue to do at the present time. 
 
 Other implements m corresponding situations in 
 glacial terraces in the United States are two found 
 in 1885 by Dr. C. L. Metz, a specially capable coad- 
 jutor of Professor Putnam in his investigations in 
 the Little Miami Valley, near Cincinnati. One of 
 the implements occurred in the coarse gravel at. Love- 
 land, Ohio, thirty feet below the surface, the other 
 at Madisonville, several miles nearer the junction of 
 the Little Miami with the Ohio.^ 
 
 Another important locality where implements have 
 been found in glacial gravels in America is Little 
 Falls, on the Mississippi River, a short distance above 
 Minneapolis. As early as 1877 Professor N. H. 
 Winchell called attention to some chipped quartz im- 
 plements found in the terrace of the river at that 
 
Man in the Glacial Epoch 229 
 
 point, and near an outcrop of extensive quartz veins. 
 Afterwards, Miss Franc E. Babbitt found a lar<j^e 
 number, which attracted much attention at the time, 
 and led to considerable controversy. But subsequent 
 investigations by Professor Winchell and Dr. War- 
 ren Upham have settled beyond reasonable doubt that 
 these quartz quarries were resorted to by primitive 
 man while the ice of the Glacial epoch lingered over 
 the northern part of the State; and that he roamed 
 over the bare exposures of gravel terraces during the 
 portions of the seasons when the w^ater w^as low, as 
 we have supposed him to have done at Trenton. Here 
 the implements lost in the dry season were covered 
 by the torrents which came down during the sum- 
 mer months and covered the whole flood plain, a 
 mile or more in width. This, of course, w^s later 
 than the time of the formations in New Jersey and 
 Ohio, by the length of time required for the glacier 
 to melt back a distance of several hundred miles. But, 
 according to Dr. Upham's calculations as to the rate 
 of melting, it was not over two thousand years before 
 the final melting of the ice from Hudson Bay, and 
 perhaps not more than three or four thousand years 
 later than the formation of the terraces at Trenton, 
 Newcomerstown. and Madisonville." 
 
230 Orif^in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 So far, in America, the evidence of glacial man had 
 been limited to the occurrence of his implements and 
 of a single human bone in terraces of glacial gravel. 
 But in 1902 great interest was excited by the reported 
 discovery of a human skeleton underneath the loess 
 of the Missouri River at Lansing, Kansas, a little 
 belov^^ Leavenworth. The skeleton was found on the 
 farm of Mr. Martin Concannon, by him and his sons 
 while tunnelling in the loess to make a vegetable cel- 
 lar. At the time of the discovery they had pene- 
 trated seventy feet from the entrance of the tunnel 
 and were twenty-three feet below the natural sur- 
 face. The skull and the bones were first brought to 
 public notice by Mr. M. C. Lane of Kansas City, 
 Missouri. But an artificial chert chip and some re- 
 mains of other human skeletons w^ere found in the 
 undisturbed portions of the tunnel by a number of 
 other scientific men w^ho investigated the place, so 
 that there is no doubt of the occurrence of human 
 remains in the place indicated by the Messrs. Con- 
 cannon. The discussion which ensued related wholly 
 to the question of the age of the deposit in which the 
 remains were found. To arrive at a proper under- 
 standing of the merits of the case, it will be necessary 
 to give an outline of the facts about the loess of the 
 Missouri Valley.* 
 
Mail til the Gldc'uil Epoch 23 1 
 
 For several hundred miles the trough of the Mis- 
 souri Ki\cr, to a height of one hundred feet or more, 
 is borderctl by an accumulation of loam, the particles 
 of which are midway in size between clay and very 
 fine sand. It is identical in structure and behavior 
 with the " loess " of Southern Russia, of the Rhine 
 Valley, and of China and Central Asia. It is so 
 porous that sprin,i2;s arc found only at the bottom. It 
 everywhere has the peculiar property of fracturing 
 vertically, so that it presents perpendicular cliffs, in 
 some cases hundreds of feet in height, w^hich do not 
 crumble under the action of the elements much more 
 than does the hardest rock. Still it is so soft that it 
 can be crushed in the hands, and can be cultivated 
 with the greatest ease. Indeed, the areas covered with 
 loess are the most fertile portions of the earth's sur- 
 face, constituting the better portions of China, Cen- 
 tral Asia, and Southern Russia, as well as of large 
 portions of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys. 
 
 Rut there has been much discussion as to wdiether 
 loess has been distributed by wind or water. Since 
 the report of Baron Richthofen upon the loess of 
 China a number of geologists of the highest eminence 
 have maintained the wind hypothesis. In this opinion 
 they are sustained by the fact that the animal re- 
 mains found in it arc exclusiveh' of snails and other 
 
232 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 land species. Moreover the prevailing winds of Asia 
 are from such a direction that they v^-ould bring the 
 material constituting the loess from the Desert of 
 Gobi, and they are known to be loaded with dust 
 swept off from the plains of Central Asia. The ab- 
 sence of aquatic shells from the formation is certainly 
 significant.^ 
 
 But on the other hand It Is evident that whatever 
 part the wind may have had In bringing the loess 
 material into the regions where It Is found, water 
 must be invoked to account for much of its peculiar 
 distribution. In the Missouri Valley It is found in 
 about equal proportions on both the west and the east 
 side of the trough, though the prevailing winds are 
 westerly. Moreover, in many places, as at Leaven- 
 worth, near Lansing, the loess runs back from the 
 brink of the river in a distinctly formed terrace, 
 marking a temporary water level; while level-topped 
 areas frequently occur at considerable distance from 
 the main valley. 
 
 Concerning the snail shells found In the loess. It 
 Is to be remarked that while the snail Is not an 
 aquatic animal, Its most natural habitat Is on the 
 flood plains of streams which are periodically over- 
 flowed, and purely aquatic shell-fish are never found 
 on the flood plain, but In the bed of the stream. 
 
Alan in the Glacial Epoch 233 
 
 It is not to be denied that wind may in many in- 
 stances distribute the loess over hi<2;her points than 
 that reached by the overflowing water after the man- 
 ner of the formation of dunes. I have myself in- 
 sisted upon the necessity of relying on the wind for 
 the accumulation of the loess in the mountainous part 
 of Eastern Mongolia.^*^ But it is equally clear that 
 as the great rivers of China are now tearing down 
 these accumulations in the mountains and redistrib- 
 uting the material over their plains near the seacoast, 
 there was doubtless an analogous distribution of loess 
 in glacial times by the greater floods which coursed 
 down the river valleys of North America. 
 
 The loess of the Missouri Valley is now known 
 to have a definite relation to the glacial ice cap at a 
 particular stage of its recession. The material itself 
 is found to be of mechanical origin, and is believed 
 to be for the most part the finest grist of the conti- 
 nental glacier. The time of its deposition is corre- 
 lated on abundance of the best of evidence, with 
 what some have called the lowan stage of the gla- 
 cial recession, intermediate between the Illinoisan 
 and the Wisconsin. The southern portion of Iowa 
 and the northern portion of Missouri are more or 
 less covered with this deposit of loess, while the 
 northern part of Iowa is free from it, except in the 
 
234 Orifr'in a?id Antiquity of Man 
 
 case of some of the river valleys along its margin. 
 But below the middle portion of Iowa, all the south- 
 erly flowing- streams are bordered with heavy de- 
 posits of the material, which is accumulated in special 
 quantities where these streams join or approach the 
 Missouri on the one side and the Mississippi on the 
 other. When the ice w^as melting off most rapidly 
 from the upper basin of the Missouri and the Mis- 
 sissippi rivers it is no extravagant supposition that 
 there were annual floods in these streams rising to 
 a height of two hundred feet. At the same time there 
 is abundant reason for believing that there was at 
 that time a northerly differential depression on the 
 continent which greatly diminished the gradient of 
 the stream flowing south, thus rendering these im- 
 mense floods the more credible. ^^ 
 
 The date of this lowan stage of the Glacial epoch 
 is considerably earlier than that of the stage at which 
 Niagara began its work, which is elsewhere dis- 
 cussed at considerable length. But it is one of the 
 later stages of the epoch, and there is no demonstrable 
 reason for assigning it a date more than three to five 
 thousand j^ears earlier than that of the Wisconsin 
 period, during which the Niagara recession began. 
 
 A question has been raised, however, as to whether 
 the deposit of loess at Lansing was original or sec- 
 
Alan in the Glacial Epoch 235 
 
 ondary. Proiessor T. C. Chamhcrlin maintained that 
 the evidence was doubtful, and that it might be a 
 secondary redcposition of the material, of great age, 
 indeed, but much younger than the main body of loess 
 in the valley. But Professor N. H. Winchell and 
 Dr. Warren Upham (both ver}^ high authorities upon 
 such subjects) after repeated visits adduce over- 
 whelming evidence that the deposit is original, and 
 that the skeleton was buried by the loess at the time 
 of its deposition during the lowan stage of glacial 
 recession.^- 
 
 Reason for doubting that remains of man had been 
 found in the. original deposit of lowan loess at Lan- 
 sing would seem, however, to be dissipated by the 
 discovery of human bones by Mr. Robert F. Gilder, 
 in the blufi of loess near Omaha in Nebraska. The 
 ground w^as thoroughly studied and reported upon by 
 Professor E. H. Barbour of the Nebraska State Uni- 
 versity. The human bones, including a skull, were 
 shown to be in undisturbed loess from six to twelve 
 feet below the surface, with modern remains in the 
 stratum above them. Evidently, also, they wTre 
 somewhat waterworn, showing that moving water had 
 been instrumental in transporting them to their pres- 
 ent position.^-' 
 
 The principal objection urged against the glacial 
 
236 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 age of the Lansing skull is that it is not much dif- 
 ferent from that of a modern American Indian. This 
 question, however, must be remitted to the chapter on 
 the physiological evidence of man's antiquity. But 
 it is in place to remark here that those who reason 
 most confidently from these data seem to have a much 
 exaggerated estimate of the antiquity of the Glacial 
 epoch. If the age of the Lansing man be, as we have 
 surmised on plausible evidence, only ten or twelve 
 thousand years, that is not much farther back than 
 we find civilized men possessing exceedingly well de- 
 veloped skulls in Babylonia and Egypt. 
 
 In contemplating the remains of glacial man in 
 Eastern North America, we are naturally led to ask, 
 Who were his ancestors, and has he any descend- 
 ants? The conditions of life at that time, and the 
 animal remains found in the vicinity of Trenton, 
 New Jersey, and in Southern Ohio, suggest to some 
 the likelihood that the Eskimos may be his descend- 
 ants. For, as the F^skimo skirts the borders of ex- 
 isting ice fields and seems to delight in its weird 
 conditions, so palneolithic man in Eastern America 
 seems to have eked out a precarious existence along, 
 perhaps, both the advancing and the retreating ice 
 front. But upon the whole there seems no satisfactory 
 
M(in In the Gldcial Epoch 
 
 237 
 
 evidence of any connection betw-een pahi^olithic man 
 and the Eskimo. Stone implements are but little 
 used by the Eskimos, and the skulls of pahuolithic 
 man, so far as they have been observed, are not of the 
 Eskimo type. Furthermore, the Eskimos are found 
 upon both sides of Behring Strait, and are much 
 more^hkely to have emigrated from west to east than 
 in the contrary- direction, since the attractions are 
 greater upon the eastern side of Behring Strait than 
 upon the western. Nor is there the diversity of dia- 
 lects among the Eskimos which would ha^•e arisen 
 in a long lapse of time. 
 
 The better founded opinion of ethnologists now is 
 that the Eskimos represent the latest wave of prehis- 
 toric emigration from Asia to North America, and 
 that a tribe having become inured to the winters of 
 Northeastern Siberia, bettered its condition by cross- 
 ing to the northern shores of America, and thence 
 secure from attack, under the protection of their 
 uninviting conditions of life, spread to the islands 
 and shores of Eastern America, occupying the whole 
 habitable portion of Greenland and the whole eastern 
 shore of the continent as far south as Labrador. 
 
 The evidences of glacial man in America all indi- 
 cate an extremely prinu'tive social condition. They 
 are the remains of men not only in the stone age, 
 
238 Origin end Antir/uify of Ulan 
 
 but in the earliest stages of that age, before smoothed 
 stone implements had come into use. It is worth 
 while also to recall the animals which accompanied 
 him on this continent at that early period. They in- 
 clude the camel, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, the 
 tapir, the mammoth, the mastodon, and the horse, all 
 of which were abundant in the central latitu4es of 
 North America during the milder climate which pre- 
 ceded the culmination of the period. As the ice 
 pressed southward another class of animals were 
 forced down to the same region to struggle with the 
 original occupants of the constricted area, amid the 
 rapidly changing conditions of life. Of this latter 
 class we may mention the walrus, the Greenland 
 reindeer, the caribou, the bison, the moose, and the 
 musk ox, all of whose remains, as already noted, are 
 found in the superficial gravel deposits of Southern 
 New Jersey and the vicinity.^* 
 
 It is by no means an altogether improbable supposi- 
 tion regarding the fate of palaeolithic man in Eastern 
 North America that with many of the species asso- 
 ciated with him, he succumbed to the adverse condi- 
 tions of life and became extinct. A little reflection 
 will impress one with the widespread disturbance 
 which the advancing ice of the Glacial epoch must 
 
Man in the Gldcial Epoch 2},f) 
 
 have produced, not only in the area actually glaciated, 
 but tlir()u;j:hout the whole continent. Before the (jla- 
 cial epoch the plants and animals which now flourish 
 in Europe and in the central portions of the Atlantic 
 States of North America, flourished well up towards 
 the north pole in Greenland and in the northern part 
 of British America and in Iceland and Spitzber;j;cn. 
 All these became fugitives before the advancing rigors 
 of the glacial climate, migrating slowly southward to 
 keep pace with the movement of their natural climatic 
 conditions. It is easy to see, however, that the prob- 
 lem of their survival was not merely one of keeping 
 pace with their climatic conditions, but was largely 
 one of success in the sharp competitive struggle forced 
 upon the individuals of their species by the con- 
 tracting area of the continent. What species should 
 survive this struggle would depend upon a very com- 
 plicated set of causes. A number of species we know 
 succumbed to the adverse influences and became ex- 
 tinct in North America. For, before the Glacial 
 epoch there were, as already said, two species of lion, 
 four species of Canis, six species of horse, two of bi- 
 son, one of camel, two of elephant, two of mastodon, 
 living in America, which had become extinct previous 
 to its discovery by the whites; and in late Tertiary 
 times the continent fairly swarmed with species of 
 
240 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 horse, rhinoceros, camel, and various other animals, 
 which became extinct before the close of the Glacial 
 epoch. It would be natural, also, to suppose that man 
 found it impossible to cope successfully with the dif- 
 ficulties of the situation and so was unable to survive 
 the changes of that destructive period. Whether he 
 really did so we have no certain evidence, but much 
 of what we have points to his extinction upon this 
 continent. ^^ 
 
 Before pausing to dwell upon the direct evidence 
 bearing upon this point, it will be profitable to say 
 something further upon the variety of adverse forces 
 which were crowding in to constrict the habitable area 
 of North America during the progress and culmina- 
 tion of the great Ice Age. Not only did the ice wall 
 slowly close in upon it from the north to limit the 
 area, but the depression to wliich we have referred, 
 upon the Atlantic coast and in the Mississippi Val- 
 ley, still further constricted the habitable area, de- 
 vastating the fairest portions of the land. At the 
 same time there were occurring upon the Pacific slope 
 and upon the plains of the great West a series of 
 some of the most enormous volcanic eruptions which 
 have ever been witnessed in the history of the world. 
 The gold-bearing gravels of California are doubtless 
 parti v of glacial origin. The sudden melting of vast 
 
Man in the Glacial Epoch 241 
 
 masses of glacial ice by outflowing streams of lava 
 seems to have given a unique character to the de- 
 structive agencies of the period. Immense tracts in 
 this region are covered by vast lava deposits, in some 
 places many hundreds of feet in thickness and ex- 
 tending over hundreds of thousands of square miles. 
 These lava outflov^^s occurred not from volcanic cones, 
 as in typical craters of the present day, but from 
 immense fissures where the earth seemed to crack 
 open for long distances to permit the escape of the 
 molten flood. Such Quaternary lava masses form 
 the walls of the Columbia River for scores of miles, 
 and constitute an important portion of the Yellow- 
 stone Park. Over considerable portions of Northeast- 
 ern Nebraska, interstratified with deposits of glacial 
 origin, is an extensive stratum of volcanic ash which 
 must have been belched out during that time from 
 craters hundreds of miles away, and been transported 
 by the wind.^^ 
 
 With considerable plausibility Professor Alexander 
 Winchell connects these vast Quaternary outflows of 
 lava with the direct effect of the pressure upon the 
 earth's crust exerted by the ice which was piled up 
 over the glaciated area. This pressure upon one part 
 of the crust would cause the fluid portion of the in- 
 terior to exude through cracks in the weaker portions 
 
242 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 just as pressure upon one part of an orange causes 
 the juice to exude through other portions of the rind. 
 It is easy to see, also, that these great lava flows 
 among the Sierra Nevada and Rock}- Mountains 
 by melting the snow and ice upon their summits 
 and the glaciers in their valleys, have produced 
 local floods of incredible dimensions. Thus we have 
 man and his companions in the animal world hud- 
 dled together in the gradually contracting area of the 
 southern part of the United States — beset with a 
 wall of ice upon the north, with advancing waves of 
 the Atlantic upon the east and with the extension of 
 the Ciulf of Mexico far up the Mississippi Valley, 
 while the great plains of the West, and the mountain 
 slopes of the Pacific coast were made uninhabitable 
 both by fire and by flood. It w^ould be strange if, 
 amid it all, man as well as the horse, the camel, the 
 elephant, and the mastodon should not have become 
 extinct upon this continent. 
 
 If now we again ask for the origin of that hardy 
 race whose remains are found in the glacial terraces 
 of the eastern and central parts of the United States, 
 our attention is still turned westward to the witness 
 borne by the relics of man, discussed in a later chap- 
 ter, found in the auriferous gravels of California, and 
 beneath the lava beds of the Pacific coast. 
 
Man in the Glacial Epoch 243 
 
 It is intcrestiiii: to notice that these supposed 
 earliest remains of man are from that very gateway 
 through which we supposed the migrations of the red 
 Indian to have penetrated the continent. So that we 
 may well believe that glacial man entered by the 
 same route which we have supposed the red Indian to 
 have followed, viz., that leading up the Columbia 
 and Snake rivers to the great continental divide from 
 which the streams invite emigration into the valley 
 of the Mississippi and the genial climates of the South 
 and the Southwest. So that we seem here to see a 
 primeval tide of emigration from Asia along the same 
 lines which at a much later date were followed by 
 the present so-called aborigines of America. But the 
 real aborigines were the pahuolithic men whom we 
 ha^'e already given some reason to suppose became ex- 
 tinct through the fearful and trying climatic changes 
 and extensive conflagrations and floods connected with 
 the advance and close of the Glacial epoch. 
 
 Increasing evidence is accumulating of the existence 
 of such floods. Especially does study of the glacial 
 phenomena \n America tend to give credence to tho.^e 
 traditions of destructive floods which are so wiile- 
 spread among the nations of the world. Certainly, 
 since man came upon this continent there have been 
 changes of land level, and abnormal accumulations of 
 
244 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 water sufficient to submerge a large part of the in- 
 habitable portions of the United States. As already 
 stated, there was, at the close of the Glacial epoch, 
 a depression of the eastern part of the continent 
 amounting to two hundred feet along the coast of 
 New Jersey, to three hundred feet in the Champlain 
 Valley, six hundred feet at Montreal and one thou- 
 sand feet farther north. In the Mississippi Valley it 
 is difficult to account for the deposits of loess without 
 supposing a depression of two or three hundred feet 
 in the lower portion, and of increased extent in the 
 upper portions. 
 
 But, more impressive still, are the indications of 
 enormous floods in the river vallej^s flowing out from 
 the glaciated areas during the melting of the ice. I 
 was the first to call attention to the evidence of such 
 floods in the upper Ohio basin. To account for them 
 a glacial dam was invoked at Cincinnati, where there 
 was clear evidence that at the climax of the epoch 
 the ice crossed the Ohio River and pushed over sev- 
 eral miles into Kentucky. The effect of this would be 
 to produce a dam five hundred feet in height which 
 would flood a wide margin on both sides of the river 
 above, extending even into the tributaries of the Al- 
 legheny and the Monongahela above Pittsburgh, and 
 submerging that city to a depth of three hundred 
 
Man in flic Ghicial Epoch 245 
 
 feet. Notliiiii: has been toiiiul to tliscrcdit this the- 
 ory. The only alternative is that the Hoods them- 
 selves annually rose tor some time d urine the summer 
 to that unprecedented height. As has already been 
 stated, Hoods of two hundred feet or more annually de- 
 vastated the valley of the Missouri during the closing 
 stages of the Glacial epoch, entombing in its debris 
 the remains of man ; \\ hile, as noted above, the late 
 Professor Tarr, after his survey of the glaciers of 
 Alaska, estimates that during the closing stages of the 
 Glacial epoch, the Mississippi had to dispose annually 
 of sixty times the amount of her present outHow. 
 
 Our attention has already been directed to the vast 
 accumulations of water in front of the retreating ice 
 where it obstructed northerly flowing streams, like 
 the St. Lawrence and the P.ed River of the North. 
 But still more striking are the immense accumulations 
 in interior basins like that of Great Salt Lake in 
 Utah, where during the Glacial epoch a body of 
 water one thousand feet deep accumulated over an 
 area of twenty thousand square miles. In a later 
 chapter we shall give the evidence tliat when the up- 
 PC^ 375 ^eet of this accumulation burst the barrier 
 of dirt that temporarily held it in, it poured down 
 into the inhabited Snake River Valley for twenty-five 
 years in a torrent as large as Niagara. 
 
24t» Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 It is important in this survey to keep in mind the 
 influence, already indicated, upon land levels of the 
 ice accumulations of the Glacial epoch. At the 
 climax of the period sufficient water had been ab- 
 stracted from the oceans and locked up in land ice 
 over the Northern Hemisphere, to lower the whole 
 ocean level two hundred and fifty, and some of the 
 highest authorities say five hundred, feet. Not far 
 from 6,000,000, and some of the highest authorities 
 say 12,000,000, and possibly 18,000,000, cubic miles 
 of water were thus locked up in ice' over the glaciated 
 area of the Northern Hemisphere. Such a transfer- 
 ence of material from the ocean bed to the continental 
 area was ver>' likely in itself a cause sufficient to pro- 
 duce the depression of land known to have taken place 
 during the period.^" Indeed, it is now coming to be 
 a pretty current belief among geologists that the 
 weight of the ice. accompanied with what can now 
 be demonstrated its very rapid melting, explains 
 these widespread evidences of post-glacial submer- 
 gence. Thus has history become joined to geology, and 
 every student of the antiquity of the human race 
 is compelled, at the outset, to reckon with the geolo- 
 gist, and especially with the glacialist. 
 
^Jan in the Glacial Epoch 247 
 
 From South America, also, remains of man ar*- 
 reported from i2;lacial deposits in the vicinity of Cuzco, 
 Peru.'^ The remains consist of a number of human 
 bones representing dilterent individuals, but not suf- 
 ficiently preserved to determine much about the char 
 acter of the individuals to which they belonged. 
 Only small portions of the skull were preserved and 
 the other bones agreed in all essential respects with 
 " normal adult male Peruvians of the later Inca 
 period." 
 
 The discovery was made by Mr. Hiram Bingham, 
 Director of the Yale Peruvian Expedition in 191 1. 
 From the geological report of Professor I. Bow- 
 man, it appears that contemporaneously with the 
 glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere there was a 
 great lowering of the snow line in the equatorial re- 
 gions of South America, when extensive glaciers de- 
 scended from the lofty heights of the Andes, in some 
 places to within 8,500 feet of sea level. In one in- 
 stance a well-developed terminal moraine, four hun- 
 dred feet high, was found at that elevation. In the 
 vicinity of Cuzco, which is itself eleven thousand feet 
 above the sea, glaciers extended down from the sur- 
 rounding heights as far as the twelve thousand and 
 fifty foot line. During this extension of the ice great 
 quantities of gravel were washed down the valleys 
 
248 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to build up the plain on which Cuzco is situated. In 
 one of these tributary valleys two sets of glacial 
 deposits are clearly exposed by the erosion of the 
 modern stream. The lower portion consists of fine 
 material, which from the description we should say 
 was deposited by the more moderate streams which 
 poured forth from the glacier during its advance 
 over the higher portion of the drainage basin. The 
 upper portion consists of beds of coarse gravel which 
 may well have been washed down during the melt- 
 ing stages of the glacier. Altogether these deposits 
 are three or four hundred feet in thickness. The 
 bones were found beneath a deposition of from 
 seventy-five to one hundred feet of gravel, through 
 which a channel had been worn by the present stream 
 since the departure of the glacial ice. The bones lay 
 about midway in the coarser deposits. Associated 
 with the human bones were those of the dog, and of 
 what seem to be the bison, which before had not 
 been known to range farther south than Northeast- 
 ern Mexico. 
 
 While admitting that doubt rests on some points 
 of the evidence, Professor Bowman is reasonably con- 
 fident that the remains are as old as the deposition 
 of the glacial deposits. Their age would, therefore, 
 depend on the date of the Glacial epoch in South 
 
Man in the Glacud Epoch 249 
 
 America. 'Hi is is now :^cne rally acceded to be con- 
 temporaneous with that in North America. It is 
 interestini: to notice that Professor Bowman could 
 distinguish no great difference between the condition 
 of the coarse and fine deposits mentioned, the lower 
 portion beimi apparently as fresh as the upper por- 
 tion, and he has no data by which to determine the 
 rapidity with which such an accumulation would, 
 take place. From their appearance he would corre- 
 late them with those of the Wisconsin episode in the 
 United States. From what we now know of the 
 rate at which glaciers are melting away in Alaska, 
 and of the enormous increment of water furnished by 
 the melting ice to the streams which flow^ from the 
 ice-covered drainage basin it is easy to see that there 
 is nothing here to indicate an antiquity of more than 
 ten or twelve thousand years, w^hile there would be 
 nothing surprising if the remains should prove much 
 younger than that. 
 
250 Orifrin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MAN AND THE LAVA BEDS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 
 
 The Old World has scarcely yet ceased to be in- 
 credulous concerning the marvellous reports upon the 
 geology of the western part of North America. When 
 the traveller passes westward from Cheyenne into the 
 Laramie Valley in Wyoming, he can scarcely believe 
 that he is crossing the summit of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains at an elevation of nearly nine thousand feet; for 
 the only mountains visible are almost as distant as 
 the eye can reach. So gradual is the ascent from the 
 Missouri River to the base of the Rocky Mountains 
 that it is absolutely imperceptible to the naked eye. 
 The route lies over nearly level beds of Tertiary and 
 Cretaceous rocks, which have been slightly tilted up 
 by the elevation of the main axis of the Rocky Moun- 
 tain range In recent geological tlmes.^ 
 
 The period of the deposition of these extensive 
 beds was a most interesting one In the histor}^ both 
 of America and of the world; for the shores of the 
 lakes In which they were deposited were frequented 
 by vast herds of animals as strange In form and hab- 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 251 
 
 its as in the scientific names which have been bestowed 
 upon them, though most of them are more or less 
 related to existing species. Here were the ancestors 
 of the hyena, the tiger, the wolf, and the panther; 
 while fraternizing with them could have been found 
 the rhinoceros, the mastodon, the elephant, three spe- 
 cies of camel, and five of the horse, with a numerous 
 array of other animals, whose scientific names would 
 give the ordinary student no idea whatever. 
 
 The information from these beds which has created 
 the greatest interest pertains to the horse, for America 
 seems to have been the birthplace of this most useful 
 species of the animal kingdom. It is here that the 
 earliest ancestors of the horse branched off from some 
 more generalized stock, and began that progress which 
 has ended in the great number of varieties of his do- 
 mesticated descendants. But though the horse was 
 evolved in America, for some strange reason the 
 land that gave him birth and early nurture proved 
 unfriendly to his continuance, and the species disap- 
 peared from its original home; so that when Colum- 
 bus discovered the continent it was destitute of horses, 
 — those we now have being tlie descendants of im- 
 portations since the beginning of the sixteenth ccntun-. 
 A similar fate befell a number of other species which 
 flourished abundantly in America during the Ter- 
 
252 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 tiar}' period, and which lingered even till after the 
 advent of man upon the continent. In the preceding 
 chapter we have described the vicissitudes of man's 
 experience on this continent in connection with the 
 advance and retreat of the great northern ice sheet. 
 There is, if anything, a still more interesting history 
 in connection with the vicissitudes occasioned by the 
 volcanic eruptions which have characterized the later 
 geological periods west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Geologists whose studies of volcanoes had been 
 chiefly confined to such phenomena in the Old World 
 were for a long time incredulous of the facts reported 
 from the western borders of the United States. Some 
 of these eruptions date back to an early geological age. 
 But the most of them belong to Tertiary and Post- 
 Tertiary^ times, and they were on a most enormous 
 scale. Literally, hundreds of thousands of square miles 
 w^est of the Rocky Mountains are covered with fresh 
 basaltic lava, and over large areas this is of great 
 thickness. The areas where the basaltic capping is 
 most pronounced, extend over Northern California, 
 Oregon, Idaho, Washington, and adjoining regions. 
 Tlie Columbia River, where it cuts its way across 
 the axis of the Cascade Mountains, is lined on either 
 side by precipitous basaltic cliffs, through which it 
 has been compelled to force a passage. Seventy miles 
 
Man and Lavti Beds of the Prirific Coast 253 
 
 south of the Cascades this great basaltic phiin has 
 been cut into by the Deschutes River for a distance 
 of 140 miles to a depth of 1,000 to 2,000 feet with- 
 out reachini^ the bottom of the lava. At Shoshone 
 Falls in Idaho the Snake River is occupying a nar- 
 row, precipitous gorge from three hundred to seven 
 hundred feet in depth, the sides of which are com- 
 posed of the freshest looking lava. At the falls the 
 river plunges down three hundred feet farther, and 
 continues for a long distance between perpendicular 
 walls of basalt, which are one thousand feet in height, 
 and from whose edges almost anywhere a stone can 
 be thrown with sufficient force to reach the water 
 which courses along at the bottom of the canon. 
 
 In many cases the lava has played a most singular 
 and interesting part in its influence upon the drainage 
 of the country. At one point in the great caiion of 
 the Colorado River an eruption of lava ran into it 
 from the north side, and formed an immense dam, 
 obstructing the drainage for a time, and giving rise 
 to an extensive temporar\^ lake. I^ut in the natural 
 course of things the water has prevailed, and long 
 since removed the obstacle. On the California coast, 
 however, it is evident that many of the old water 
 courses leading into the Pacific Ocean have been per- 
 manently obliterated by the extensive eruptions of 
 
254 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 lava which have taken place in the region. From 
 near the summits of the Sierra Nevada, in the vicinity 
 of the Yosemite Caiion, vast eruptions of lava have 
 poured out and flowed down the river valleys for a 
 distance of sixty or seventy miles. These eruptions 
 have necessarily displaced the water from the ancient 
 channels, and compelled it to seek exit by a new 
 course, roughly parallel with the old, but occasionally 
 crossing it. Such has been the history of the Stan- 
 islaus River. At a recent geological period an erup- 
 tion of the lava occurred near its headwaters just 
 below the summit of the Sierra which followed down 
 its shallow channel for a distance of fifty or sixty 
 miles, burning its gravel and completely obliterating 
 its channel. But the Stanislaus, nothing daunted, has 
 kept on its quiet work, and with its tributary and 
 parallel streams, has worn nev/ channels far below 
 the deserted one, and has removed so much of the 
 softer bedded rocks of the region that the basalt 
 stream is left as a projecting flat-topped ridge, the 
 width of the ancient valley, forming a marked fea- 
 ture in the landscape all down the flanks of the 
 mountain. From the flat-topped appearance this is 
 locally known as " Table Mountain." 
 
 From 1850 to i860 great excitement was pro- 
 duced in California by the discover;^ that the old 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 255 
 
 river gravels underneath the Table Mountain of the 
 Stanislaus contained gold in considerable quantities, 
 and an immense amount of enterprise and capital was 
 expended in efforts to obtain the gold that had been 
 thus securely sealed beneath these remarkable lava 
 deposits. Tunnels were pushed in through the rim 
 rock at the base of the lava, expecting to strike the 
 old bed of the stream. In other places shafts were 
 sunk from the surface of the mountain until they 
 should accomplish the same object. In all it is esti^ 
 mated that not less than one million dollars were ex- 
 pended in the vicinity of Sonora in efforts to secure 
 the gold under that part of Table Mountain.^ 
 
 Naturally many things were found beside gold, 
 among which were the bones of numerous extinct 
 animals, which we elsewhere have learned to asso- 
 ciate with the early history of man, and finally re- 
 ports began to circulate that the remains of man 
 hmiself had been found securely preserved beneath the 
 lava cap of l\ible Mountain. 
 
 The evidence that human implements, and frag- 
 ments of the human skeleton, have been found under- 
 neath r-M, Mountain seems to be abundantlv suffi- 
 cient; but. as the witnesses have been challenged, and 
 as so much depends upon the truth of their report 
 It IS best to o-ive the evidence in some detail. 
 
256 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 The first man to call special attention to such dis- 
 coveries was Dr. Snell, a phj^sician of high repute 
 in Sonora, to whom, at various times from 1850 to 
 i860, there were given numerous human implements 
 and a jaw, which were said by the miners to have 
 been found under the lava of Table Mountain. One 
 of the stone implements given him seems to have 
 served as the handle of a bow, and there were one 
 or tw^o spearheads and " several scoops or ladles with 
 well-shaped handles." These were not discovered by 
 Dr. Snell in place, but there was no motive for the 
 miners to deceive him, as they had nothing to gain 
 by so doing. And this is a case where an ordinary 
 man's testimony is as good as an expert's. It does not 
 require an expert to tell whether he finds a thing in 
 a cellar or in a garret. An object found in the 
 ordinary course of driving a tunnel under Table 
 Mountain is older than the mountain. Still, as if to 
 remove all cavil, there was one object which the Doc- 
 tor found himself. This w^as a stone implement for 
 grinding, taken with his own hands from the dirt as 
 it came out from a shaft under Table Mountain. 
 
 During this same decade, Hon. Paul K. Hubbs, a 
 well-known citizen of Vallejo, California, and at one 
 time state superintendent of public instruction, found 
 a portion of a human skull in the mining sluice into 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 257 
 
 which the dirt from one of the shafts under Table 
 Mountain was being shoveled ; and there was cling- 
 ing: to the specimen, when found, portions of the 
 gold-bearing gravel. This fragment was given by 
 Mr. Hubbs to Rev. C. F. Winslow, who divided it 
 into two pieces, and sent one to the Boston Society 
 of Natural History, the other to the Philadelphia 
 Academy of Sciences; and an account of the discov- 
 er}' is given in the Proceedings of the Boston So- 
 ciety of Natural History for October, 1857. The 
 point in the tunnel from which the bucketful of dirt 
 containing this object came was 180 feet below the 
 surface of Table Mountain. At about the same 
 time, one of the owners found in this shaft, also, a 
 large stone mortar, fifteen inches in diameter; but no 
 pains were taken to preserve it and it has disappeared, 
 as the fragment of the skull would have done except 
 for the intelligent interest in it of Mr. Hubbs and 
 Mr. Winslow. Important as was this discovery by 
 Mr. Hubbs, and promptly as it was reported to two 
 of the best known scientific societies of the country, 
 it attracted no general notice until Professor Whit- 
 ney's attention was turned to it, ten or twelve years 
 later, ^^•hen the ground was revisited, the original 
 parties were questioned, and the facts as above stated 
 were placed beyond reasonable doubt. 
 
258 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Upon making further inquiry, Professor Whitney 
 found in the hands of the miners various other arti- 
 cles said to have come from under Sonora Table 
 Mountain. Among these was a large white marble 
 bead, about an inch and a half long and an inch and 
 a quarter in diameter, with a perforation suitable for 
 a string. This bead was taken in 1853, by Mr. Oli- 
 ver W. Stevens, from a carload of gravel as it came 
 out of the tunnel. The load w^as obtained 200 feet 
 in, and 125 feet below the surface of the lava. Be- 
 side the bead there was found the tooth of a masto- 
 don. Both objects bore evidence in themselves to the 
 situation from which they came, being partially in- 
 crusted w^ith sulphate of iron. Mr. Llewellyn Price 
 also gave to Professor Whitney the particulars con- 
 cerning a stone mortar, estimated to be about thirty 
 inches in circumference, which he found in 1862 in 
 what was known as the Boston tunnel, about 1,800 
 feet in from its mouth, and where the overlying lava 
 was more than sixty feet deep. 
 
 It will be observed that these are all independent 
 cases of evidence, dating from the time of greatest 
 activity in pushing mines under this lava deposit. Un- 
 fortunately, the expense of reaching the gravel was 
 so great that after a time the work was suspended 
 in nearly all the mines. It is estimated that in their 
 
Mm, ,ind L„v„ Beds „i ihe Pnafic Cast 239 
 
 efforts to get the gold from under Table Mountain 
 the miners spent a million dollars more than was ever 
 .'actually returned to them. But from time to time 
 Inter spasmodic efforts have been made to reach this 
 gold, ami the discoveries which have since been made 
 will, in the opinion of many, add greatlv to the force 
 ot the evidence here detailed as collected by Professor 
 ^V'hitney. 
 
 One of these subsequent discoveries is that of a 
 mortar which came into my own possession in iSqJ 
 while on a visit to Sonora. This was six and a half 
 inches m diameter, uith a bowl about three and a 
 lialf inches broad and three deep, made from a vol- 
 canic fragment of rock. It had been found by Mr. 
 -M. C. McTarnahan in the Empire mine, which was 
 on the opposite side of Table Mountain from the 
 Valentine shaft. The tunnel of the mine had been 
 excavated 758 feet before reaching the gravel, and 
 was there 175 feet in a horizontal line from the ed^e 
 of the Table Mountain basalt, and one hundred feet 
 below the surface. The mortar was brought out from 
 the end of the tunnel by Mr. McTarnahan, so that 
 there would seem to be no doubt of its genuineness. 
 An account of this was given at the meeting of the 
 Geological Society of A.nerica in fanuarv. ,89, 
 At the same meeting, Mr. George F. Becker, one 
 
26o Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of the most experienced members of the United States 
 Geological Survey, reported having received from Mr. 
 J. H. Neale, a well-known mining superintendent, 
 a mortar about the same size of the one just described 
 concerning w^hich Mr. Neale made affidavit that he 
 took it with his own hands from undisturbed gravel 
 in the Montezuma tunnel under Table Mountain, 
 near Sonora, fourteen hundred feet from the mouth 
 of the tunnel, and between two and three hundred 
 feet from the edge of the lava. Several obsidian spear 
 heads were also found by him in close proximity to 
 the mortar. Concerning this, Mr. Becker aptly re- 
 marked that the judgment of a mining engineer in a 
 tunnel which he was himself excavating is the best 
 that can be obtained, — far better than that of a 
 chance geologist who makes a temporary visit. For, 
 the engineer is acquainted with every foot of the 
 excavation, and from the necessity of the case is 
 constantly on the lookout for disturbances which 
 would endanger the lives of the workmen.^ 
 
 At the same meeting of the Geological Society, 
 Mr. Becker presented a pestle, given to him by Mr. 
 Clarence King, who made the celebrated geological 
 exploration of the fortieth parallel across the conti- 
 nent from east of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
 const, and who was the first director of the United 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 20 1 
 
 States Geological Survey. Mr. Kin^ said that he 
 took this pestle with his own hands from the undis- 
 turbed gravel underneath Table Mountain, near Tut- 
 tletown, between Rawhide Gulch, where Mr. Neale's 
 discoveries were made, and the Empire mine, where 
 the McTarnahan mortar was found. 
 
 From the fact that placer mining has nearly ceased 
 to be profitable on the Pacific coast, it is not, as 
 already remarked, to be expected that numerous dis- 
 coveries will be made at the present time. Still they 
 are reported occasionally. The last one that has come 
 to our notice was made in 1906 by Mr. J. F. Kemp 
 of the United States Geological Survey, which was 
 of two mortars found in the undisturbed gold-bearing 
 gravels of Southern Oregon, which are certainly as 
 old as those under Table Mountain. 
 
 So much has been written about the celebrated 
 Calaveras skull that notwithstanding the partial dis- 
 credit which has been thrown upon it, it will be in 
 place to give the facts somewhat fully in this con- 
 nection. These are as follows: In February, 1866, 
 Mr. Mattison, a blacksmith, living at Altaville, be- 
 tween the two mining camps known as Murphy's 
 and Angel's, near the line bct\\Ten Calaveras and 
 Tuolumne counties, was employing his spare earnings 
 in running a mining shaft under that portion of the 
 
262 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Sonora lava flow known as Bald Hill. He had 
 penetrated the base of the hill with his tunnel until 
 it was 150 feet below the surface, the intervening 
 space being occupied by distinct strata of lava interca- 
 lated with thin beds of gravel, — the superincumbent 
 lava being nearly one hundred feet thick. Here, in 
 connection with some petrified wood, Air. Mattison 
 found, thickly encased in cemented gravel, an object 
 which he first thought was the root of a tree. But 
 what he mistook for a root proved to be the lower 
 jaw attached to the skull above referred to. Having 
 brought the shapeless mass to the surface, and finding 
 it of no value to himself, Mr. Mattison gave it to 
 Mr. Scribner, who was then acting as agent for an 
 express company, and who was for thirty years later 
 a prominent and highly respected business man in 
 the neighborhood, living at Angel's. Mr. Scribner, 
 on perceiving what it was, at once passed it into the 
 hands of Dr. Jones, an intimate friend of his living 
 a few miles away at Murphy's. Dr. Jones was for 
 many years afterwards a resident of San Francisco, 
 and, like Mr. Scribner, was a gentleman of the high- 
 est reputation. Not having a vent^ definite idea of 
 the situation in which the relic had been found, Dr. 
 Jones laid it aside in his yard, and paid little attention 
 to it until the following June, when Mr. Mattison 
 
]\I(in and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 20}) 
 
 chanced to come to liis office for a medical pre- 
 scription. Recalling; Mr. Mattison's relation to the 
 discovery, Dr. Jones questioned him as to the circum- 
 stances attending the discovery of the skull, and 
 elicited the facts as above stated. Dr. Jones imme- 
 diately communicated with Professor Whitney at San 
 Francisco, and at his request forwarded the skull to 
 him. As soon as was convenient Professor Whitney 
 visited Altaville, and made a careful examination of 
 the evidence, both as to the genuineness of the dis- 
 covery and as to the geological conditions in which 
 the skiill was reported to have been found. 
 
 Not long after. Professor Whitney was permitted 
 to take the skull with him, on his return home to 
 Cambridge, Alassachusetts, where, in connection with 
 Dr. Jeffries Wyman, he subjected it to a ven,^ careful 
 investigation, to see if the relic itself confirmed the 
 story told by the discoverer. In their opinion it did 
 so, to such a degree that the circumstantial evidence 
 alone placed its genuineness beyond all reasonable 
 question. According to this examination, the skull 
 was in a fossilized condition, — that is, the phosphate 
 of lime had been largely replaced by the carbonate of 
 lime (as would not have been the case had it lain 
 near the surface in loose gravel). — and evidently it 
 had been exposed to considerable rough treatment 
 
264 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 while rolled along In the channel of the ancient 
 stream. 
 
 We are bound to add, however, that the skull 
 which Professor Whitney presented has been pretty 
 thoroughly discredited by the recent Investigations of 
 Mr. William J. Sinclair,* who on reexamining the 
 material of the matrix In which It was embedded, 
 found evidence that It was a com.paratlvely modern 
 skull from some one of the numerous neighboring cav- 
 erns that were used as burial places. But In the 
 opinion of Professor Putnam, In which on good evi- 
 dence I concur, a skull of some sort was found as 
 reported by Mr. Mattlson and brought to Mr. Scrlb- 
 ner; but In the Interval of several months while It 
 was lying with others neglected outside Dr. Jones 
 office the wrong one was sent to Professor Wyman. 
 (See Records of the Past, vol. vli. p. 186.) 
 
 Moreover, Mr. Sinclair Is not satisfied with chal- 
 lenging the genuineness of the Calaveras skull, but 
 goes through the whole evidence connecting man with 
 the auriferous gravels of California, and finds rea- 
 sons satisfactory to himself for setting It all aside as 
 Inconclusive. While, however, he Is able to show 
 some possibility of error concerning each one in par- 
 ticular, the cumulation of evidence from so many 
 quarters Is such that it is Impossible by this means 
 
^I(in (ind Lava Beds of the Pacl/ir Coast 2^5 
 
 i^rcatly to (.liiiiinish its force. Hcsidcs, Mr. Sinclair 
 and those who side with his views, seem, in their 
 conclusions, to be unduly swayed by certain untenable 
 theories concerning the age of the auriferous gravels, 
 and concerning the durability of species. They re- 
 gard the deep gravels as of Eocene or early Miocene 
 age. That man should have existed in this remote 
 geologic age is justly thought by Mr. Sinclair to be 
 " contrary to all precedent in the histor}^ of organ- 
 isms, which teaches that mammalian species are short 
 lived." But other, and we think, the best authorities, 
 regard the mammalian remains associated with man 
 in these gravels to be of late Pliocene or Post-Pliocene 
 species. Lesquereux regarded the plants of the deep 
 placers as decidedly Pliocene, and the animal remains 
 are those with which we have been made familiar in 
 our study of the glacial deposits, viz., the mastodon, 
 the mammoth, the tapir, the rhinoceros, the hippopota- 
 mus, the camel, and the extinct horse. As to the rela- 
 tive age of these deposits it will be necessary to enter 
 into a fuller discussion. 
 
 Before doing so, however, it will be in place to 
 present somewhat fully the evidence of a remarkable 
 discovery of a small figurine in Idaho, under condi- 
 tions analogous to those surrounding the California 
 
266 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 discoveries. We refer to the so-called Nampa image. 
 This is a skillfully formed miniature representation of 
 the human body, made from clay, and slightly burned, 
 which was brought to my notice in October, 1889, by 
 Mr. Charles Francis Adams, its genuineness being 
 certified to by evidence that was perfectly satisfactory 
 to him. The figurine was found by Mr. M. A. 
 Kurtz, ^ at Nampa, Idaho, while boring an artesian 
 well at that place. 
 
 Nampa is at the junction of the branch railroad 
 connecting the Union Pacific Road with Boise City, 
 the capital of Idaho, and is near the western border 
 of the State about half way between Boise River and 
 Snake River. The record of the well shows that in 
 reaching the stratum from w^hich the image was 
 brought up they had penetrated first about fifty feet 
 of soil, then about fifteen feet of basalt, and after- 
 wards passed through alternate beds of clay and 
 quicksand, — the quicksand largely predominating, — 
 down to a depth of about three hundred feet, when 
 the sand pump began to bring up numerous clay 
 balls, some of them more than two inches in diameter, 
 densely coated with an iron oxide. In the lower por- 
 tion of this stratum there were evidences of a buried 
 land surface, over which there had been a slight accu- 
 mulation of vegetable mould. It was from this point 
 
M(i/i and Lava Beds of the Faei/ie Coast 267 
 
 that the image in question was brought up at a depth 
 of three hundred and twenty feet. A few feet farther 
 down, sand rock was reached. 
 
 The image in question is made of the same ma- 
 terial as that of the clay balls mentioned, and is 
 about an inch and a half long; and remarkable for 
 the perfection with which it represents the human 
 form. It was not, however, a perfect product. The 
 legs were broken off, the hands had never been put 
 on, and the face was imperfectly finished. It was a 
 female figure, and had the lifelike lineaments in the 
 parts which were finished that would do credit to 
 classic centers of art. Upon showing the object to 
 Professor F. W. Putnam, he at once directed the 
 attention to the character of the incrustations of iron 
 upon the surface as indicative of a relic of consider- 
 able antiquity. There were patches of the anhydrous 
 red oxide of iron in protected places upon it, such as 
 could not have been formed upon any fraudulent ob- 
 ject. In visiting the locality in 1890 I took special 
 pains, while on the ground, to compare the discolor- 
 ation of the oxide upon the image with that upon the 
 clay balls still found among the debris which had 
 come from the well, and ascertained it to be as nearly 
 identical as it is possible to be. These confirmaton- evi- 
 dences, in connection with the ver}- satisfactory charac- 
 
268 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ter of the evidence furnished by the parties who made 
 the discovery, and confirmed by Mr. G. M. Gum- 
 ming, of Boston (at that time the superintendent of 
 that division of the Oregon Short Line Railroad, and 
 who knew all the parties, and was upon the ground 
 a day or two after the discovery) placed the genu- 
 ineness of the discovery beyond reasonable doubt. To 
 this evidence is to be added, also, the general con^ 
 formity of the object to the other relics of man which 
 have been found beneath the lava deposits on the Pa- 
 cific coast. 
 
 On comparing the figurine one cannot help being 
 struck with its resemblance to numerous "Aurigna- 
 
 Nampa figurine. View from front, back, and side 
 (natural size). 
 
 cian figurines " found in prehistoric caverns in France, 
 
Man and Lava Bids of the Pacific Coast 2O9 
 
 Belizium, and Moravia. Especially is the resemblance 
 striking to that of " The Venus impudica from Lau- 
 gerie-Basse," reported by Hreiiil and figured in Sol- 
 las's "Ancient Hunters."'' 
 
 The Venus impudica, from a pre-historic cavern in 
 France. (From Sollas's "Ancient Hunters.") 
 
 During my visit to Nampa, special pains was taken 
 to ascertain whether there was any possibility that the 
 object should have been originally at a higher level 
 
270 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 and had by some means worked to the position from 
 which it was brought up. To answer objections it 
 will be well to give the facts more fully. The well 
 was six inches in diameter and was tubed with 
 heavy iron tubing, which w^as driven down from 
 the top, and screwed together, section by section, as 
 progress was made. Thus it was impossible for any- 
 thing to work in from the sides. The drill was not 
 used after penetrating the lava deposit near the sur- 
 face, but the tube was driven down, and the included 
 material brought out from time to time by use of a 
 sand pump. The inside diameter of the tubing was 
 about five inches. The sand pump consisted of a 
 tube about eight feet long, with a valve, of three and 
 a half inches aperture at the bottom, opening upwards. 
 There was also a suction valve, which played inside 
 of this tube, which was attached to what is called a 
 jar, that is, a long iron loop which followed the pis- 
 ton down to the bottom of the pump, and upon the 
 reversal of the machinery, after the pump had been 
 let down to the bottom of the well, suddenly drew 
 the valve to the top of the pump and filled it with 
 water and sand and such other material as was 
 accessible. Whereupon the whole was dra\vn to the 
 surface, and the tube emptied. It will thus be seen 
 that there was nothing at all impossible or improb- 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 271 
 
 able in bringing up an object of this sort from the 
 depth mentioned, if only it should come within reach 
 of the suction of the pump. 
 
 But at first it seems exceedingly improbable that in 
 driving down six-inch tubing for a depth of three 
 hundred and twenty feet one should at random strike 
 so rare an object as this. In commenting, however, 
 upon the subject, Professor Putnam has well said 
 this is not the only well which has been bored in the 
 world, but one of a great many thousand. So that 
 we have not to overcome the probability against 
 striking such an object at the first venture, but at 
 the ten-thousandth venture. Furthermore, the im- 
 probability is greatly diminished by the fact that after 
 the tube had penetrated the strata of clay, which were 
 impervious to water, the quicksand w^orked into the 
 space below in great abundance, being forced in by 
 the hydraulic pressure around, so that an enormous 
 quantity of the material was brought up from near 
 the bottom, in excess of what would be in the direct 
 line of the tubing. Indeed, it seems quite probable 
 that in clearing the tube the sand pump may in its 
 repeated journeys have sucked up the material over 
 the bottom from many square yards. At any rate an 
 immense pile of qm'cksand w\as formed by the process. 
 Assuming, therefore, that the evidence of the genu- 
 
272 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ineness is satisfactory, we will consider the facts 
 bearing upon the age of the relic. 
 
 We have already alluded to the vast extent of the 
 lava deposits west of the Rocky Mountains. To un- 
 derstand their bearing upon the chronology of the 
 human relics found beneath them, we must go more 
 minutely into details. 
 
 In crossing the continent upon the Union Pacific 
 and Oregon Short Line Railroad, one first encounters 
 lava fields near Soda Springs, in the Bear River Val- 
 ley, in Southeastern Idaho. Here he finds extensive 
 level areas of basalt, filling the w^hole space between 
 the mountains like a solidified inundation, which it 
 really is. Occasional small craters appear above the 
 surface of the basalt plains, but they seem totally in- 
 adequate to have supplied the vast amount of lava 
 which spread over the plain. These craters are prob- 
 ably but the last breathing holes of the volcanic fires 
 which produced the total result. The fresh condition 
 of the craters impresses one with the recentness of the 
 eruptions. Several hundred square miles are here 
 covered with lava to an unknown depth ; certainly as 
 much as one hundred feet. Bear River, which here 
 turns an acute angle around an intervening mountain 
 mass, was forced by the lava flow from the north to 
 hug close to the mountain wall. 
 
Man and Laz'a Ihds of the Pacific Coast 
 
 21^ 
 
 A much more impressive vkw of the lava plains 
 is received on crossing the Port Neuf Mountains and 
 coming down to the valley of Snake River, in the 
 vicinity of the American Falls, where one looks out 
 upon a basaltic valley extending forty or fifty miles 
 in width, from the Blackfoot Mountains on the south- 
 east to the Lost River Mountains on the northwest. 
 From this barren waste of lava, much of it seemingly 
 as fresh as though it had poured out of its vents but 
 yesterday, several huttes rise like islands from the sea, 
 and have long served as waymarks for weary travel- 
 lers attempting to cross this trackless plain. Far in 
 the east the Teton Mountains look down upon us 
 from their serene heights on the axis of the Rocky 
 ^Mountain chain. The length of this lava plain from 
 northeast to southwest is about two hundred and forty 
 miles, making its total area not far from twelve 
 thousand square miles. The Snake River flows pretty 
 close to the southern edge of this basaltic plain, 
 having, like the Bear River, evidently been pushed 
 aside from the center of the valley by the encroach- 
 ments from the lava fields of the north. Pillar Butte 
 IS a crater of considerable size, but totally inadequate 
 to have supplied a tithe of the lava that forms the 
 prairie-like expansion about it. There can be but 
 
274 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 little question that this vast lava flow has poured out 
 of fissures rather than from craters.'^ 
 
 It fs difficult to obtain any definite estimate of the 
 age of this lava flow. Some of the craters were 
 thought by Hayden to have been in eruption within 
 the last few hundred years. Indeed, it is not improb- 
 able that the geysers of the National Park, which are 
 at the head of this valley, are the last gasps of the 
 waning volcanic force which has produced these vast 
 results; but it is equally evident that when measured 
 in years the date of the earlier flows must be placed a 
 great many thousand years ago; for the erosion at 
 Shoshone Falls is from twenty-five to thirty times 
 as much as has been accomplished by the Niagara 
 River since the close of the Glacial epoch. Yet it is 
 evident that massive eruptions continued up to late 
 Tertiary or Post-Tertiary times. For, the shells found 
 beneath the lava at Glenn's Ferry (eighty-five miles 
 east of Nampa in the Snake River Valley) are iden- 
 tified by Mr. Dall as belonging to one or other of 
 these periods. 
 
 But we have not yet reached the center of interest 
 concerning the deposits found at Nampa. For this 
 we must go seventy-five miles farther down the val- 
 ley, where we find it considerably narrower than the 
 upper portion, and still filled with the basaltic lava, 
 
iMdfi and Lara Beds of the Pacific Coast 275 
 
 thout2;h separated to a considerable extent from the 
 greater area to the east. In this narrowing portion 
 of the valley, between the Boise and the Snake River, 
 about five hundred square miles was covered with 
 lava. Nampa is almost upon the extreme western 
 edge of the flow, the lava entirely disappearing four 
 miles farther west. No basalt appears for seventy 
 miles below this point in the valley of Snake River. 
 The lava deposit upon the edge of which Nampa 
 stands seems to have come from a center about twenty 
 miles to the east, and to have pushed in like a wedge 
 between the Boise and the Snake River, thrusting 
 them both against the mountains w^hich are here 
 closing in upon the valley. From some extensive 
 canons cut through the lava by the Boise River nine 
 miles above Boise City, it would seem that a number 
 of thousand years must have elapsed since a tongue of 
 the lava there thrust up against the mountains and 
 temporarily obstructed the drainage. The lower strata 
 of the canon, however, consist of gravel deposits 
 which were overrun by the lava stream. In the same 
 manner the Boise River cuts across the western edge 
 of the lava, where it has thinned out to a few feet 
 near Caldvcll, about four miles west of Nampa. 
 
 It will appear on further investigation that the age 
 of the stratum from which the Nampa image was de- 
 
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Man (ind Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 277 
 
 Map showing Pocatello, Nampa, and the valley of the 
 Snake River. (From Wright's " Man and the Glacial 
 Period.") (Courtesy of D. Appleton and Co.) 
 
 rived is not necessarily more than a few thousand 
 years old. For the deposition of quicksand and clay 
 might in favoring conditions take place very rapidly, 
 and there are readily discernible indications of a flooded 
 condition of the valley within comparatively recent 
 times, and while it retained about its present relative 
 altitude and slope. During the Glacial epoch, when 
 glaciers came down as they did from the Teton 
 Mountains on to the edge of the lava plains in the 
 upper part of the Snake River Valley, there must have 
 been a great increase in all the streams which poured 
 in from the surrounding mountains, especially upon 
 the final melting awav of the ice. The results of 
 
278 Origin and Antiquity of ^ Man 
 
 such floods would be various. In certain places It 
 would deposit great quantities of gravel; and in other 
 places, where there w^re eddies or back water, there 
 would be a deposit of quicksand and clay, thus ac- 
 counting for these extensive deposits of silt In the 
 lower part of the Snake River Valley. Fully to ap- 
 preciate the situation, however, we must turn to the 
 description given by Dr. Gilbert of the enormous 
 debacle which occurred in the valley of the Snake 
 River in connection with the vicissitudes of Great 
 Salt Lake during the Glacial epoch." 
 
 Great Salt Lake In Utah is now a shallow body of 
 water, covering about 2,000 square miles, and aver- 
 aging about thirteen feet In depth, the deepest portion 
 not being over fifty feet. This lies in one of the 
 enclosed basins of a vast arid region, extending from 
 the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada over a width 
 of several hundred miles. The rainfall of the basin is 
 now barely enough to supply the waste of evaporation 
 from the surface of the lake. From all the data which 
 we have obtained since Captain Bonneville's party 
 visited the lake in the early part of the last century, 
 we should have nothing to warrant us In expecting 
 any marked change in the condition of the lake in the 
 future, nor would these observations point with de- 
 cisiveness to any great change in the past. There are 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 
 
 279 
 
 fluctuations of level in the different seasons of the 
 year, and slight fluctuations from year to year; but 
 nothing upon which to base sound inferences with ref- 
 erence either to the distant past or the distant future. 
 
 Yet the circumstantial evidence discovered by care- 
 ful investigation compels us to suppose that the region 
 has undergone great changes during the Post-Tertiary 
 epoch. There is conclusive evidence, that, coincident 
 with the formation of great glaciers upon the Wah- 
 satch Mountains, the rainfall was so increased and 
 the evaporation so diminished over the area that the 
 lake swelled beyond its present barrier, and covered 
 an area ten times that of the present lake, and in- 
 creased in depth till it was eighty times as deep as it 
 now is; that is, the lake swelled in proportions till it 
 contained eight hundred times the present volume of 
 water, covering an area of twenty thousand square 
 miles, and being one thousand feet deep. 
 
 A moment's reflection reveals here a most interesting 
 condition of things. The surface of the present Great 
 Salt Lake is more than four thousand feet above the 
 sea. In glacial times, when the depth of the lake was 
 greatest, the surface was more than five thousand feet 
 above the sea. The shore lines indicating this can be 
 easily noted all around upon the mountains along the 
 sides of the basin, and upon those which rise m soli- 
 
28o Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 tude from its central portion. We have thus a reser- 
 voir, containing four thousand cubic miles of water» 
 supported at an elevation of between four and five 
 thousand feet above the sea. Considered even in re- 
 spect to its weight in avoirdupois, this is no insignifi- 
 cant element in its effect upon the equilibrium of 
 forces which maintains the stability of that portion of 
 the earth's crust. 
 
 But more interesting still is the preparation which 
 had been slowly going on for a catastrophe when this 
 water should burst the barriers which at first separ- 
 ated it from the peaceful Snake River Valley on the 
 north. The barrier between this elevated and increas- 
 ing body of water, known now as Lake Bonneville, 
 and the Snake River Valley is a mountain elevation, 
 of moderate dimensions, with its lowest pass at Red 
 Rock between Cache Valley on the south and the Port 
 Neuf River Valley on the north, w^hich joins the. Snake 
 River plain at Pocatello. Up to 625 feet above the 
 present level of Salt Lake, the barrier at this pass is 
 a ledge of limestone rock, forming an invincible dam ; 
 but the upper 375 feet of it was nothing but a dirt 
 dam, consisting of the delta of a mountain stream 
 coming in from the east. Slowly this stream had 
 brought in the wash of the eastern hills, and built up 
 its broad delta upon the limestone foundation. When, 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 281 
 
 at Icntith, the waters of Tvake Bonneville rose above 
 the level of the limestone ledge, and finally approached 
 the very summit of the pass, it would have taken no 
 prophet's eye to foresee a catastrophe of the first order; 
 for this dirt dam, though built by nature, possessed 
 every element of insecurity which belongs to artificial 
 products of the same kind. Just so soon, therefore, as 
 the water rose high enough to run over the pass into 
 the Port Neuf River, it began to enlarge a channel 
 for itself, which would increase in arithmetical ratio 
 until the whole barrier had given away, when twenty 
 thousand square miles of water 375 feet deep w^ould 
 begin to empty itself through the Port Neuf Valley 
 into the Snake River with all the speed which it was 
 possible for it to acquire. 
 
 In tracing out the results of this catastrophe, Mr. 
 G. K. Gilbert found abundant evidence in the Port 
 Neuf Valley of the occurrence of the debacle which 
 he perceived must have passed through it. Where the 
 valley is a mile in width, and descends thirteen feet to 
 the mile, there was evidence of the former existence of 
 a stream filling it from side to side to a' depth of from 
 seven to twenty feet, and rushing with such force as 
 to sweep bowlders of great size along the bottom. 
 Nor was this debacle the mere passing wonder of a 
 day; but, by a simple mathematical calculation, Mr. 
 
282 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Gilbert arrives at the conclusion that a stream the size 
 of Niagara would be occupied for twenty-five years 
 in drawing off the upper 375 feet of the lake which 
 was pouring into it. Here, therefore, we have a most 
 startling catastrophe resulting from a slowly accumu- 
 lating cause. For thousands of years the Port Neuf 
 was an insignificant stream, and everything seemed 
 to remain as it was. Then for a quarter of a century 
 it became a rushing, mighty torrent, in whose way 
 nothing could stand; while now again for thousands 
 of years the quiet of ancient times has rested on the 
 place. 
 
 Where this debacle entered the Snake River Val- 
 ley, it is about two hundred and fifty miles distant 
 from Nampa, and about tw^o thousand feet higher; so 
 that there would have been a descent of about eight 
 feet to the mile. Just how it would have worked its 
 way across the plain to these lower levels, it is per- 
 haps impossible to tell, on account of the subsequent 
 disturbances of the surface which have been produced 
 by the overflow of lava. But the bare statement of 
 the above facts is sufficient to impress us with the im- 
 possibility of depending upon present rates of change 
 in the valley as a standard for those that were taking 
 place at the time that the peaceful village of ancient 
 Nampa was overwhelmed and buried first by a flood 
 
Man and Lava Beds of tin- Pacific Coast 283 
 
 and then by a vast stream of red-hot lava, v/hich has 
 scaled it up and preserved it until the present time. 
 
 On passing to the fianks of the Sierra Nevada in 
 California, where the relics of man have been found 
 beneath lava deposits approximately corresponding in 
 date with those in the Snake River Valley, we find a 
 somewhat analogous condition of things. The Sierra 
 Nevada Mountains were mainly uplifted during the 
 end of the Tertiary and the beginning of the Glacial 
 epoch on the western coast. This uplift was connected 
 with vast eruptions of lava, which took place before 
 the erosion consequent upon the increased elevation of 
 the mountain axis had proceeded to a very great ex- 
 tent, and the lava poured down the shallow valleys, 
 burying up and protecting everything beneath It, in- 
 cluding the works and remains of man. By pretty 
 general consent the glaciation of the Sierra Nevada is 
 believed to have continued to a much later period, 
 and perhaps to have begun at a much later period, 
 than that of the eastern part of America. The steep 
 gradient of the river channels on the western flanks of 
 these mountains, connected with the increased volume 
 of the streams during the Glacial epoch, would pro- 
 vide for an enormous acceleration in the rate of ero- 
 sion in all those channels; so that, even if we suppose 
 
284 Origin and Antiquity of ^Man 
 
 the whole of the gorge occupied by such streams as 
 the Stanislaus, the Tuolumne, and the Merced to 
 have been eroded since the lava flow, the period may 
 not have been so enormously long as might at first be 
 supposed. 
 
 Many things, however, indicate that much of the 
 erosion of the present streams may have been pro- 
 duced before the eruptions of lava took place. If it 
 is asked, how this can be, when the present Stanislaus 
 cuts directly across the old valley, which was filled by 
 the Table Mountain lava flow, the answer would be, 
 that it seems by no means impossible that at some 
 places the lava followed not the valley then occupied 
 by the water course, but a deserted valley which had 
 been left at a higher level in the general progress of 
 erosion. 
 
 The possibility of such a procedure is shown by the 
 report by Mr. Diller ^ upon a remarkable cinder cone 
 and lava field in the vicinity of Lassen Peak, in 
 Northern California. From various data, Mr. Diller 
 is able to show that this lava field, which covers about 
 two square miles, is the product of an eruption which 
 has occurred within the last two hundred years; the 
 flow of lava, however, has not proceeded In a straight 
 line from the orifice, but has turned In almost a com- 
 plete circle, — not because the depression lay In that 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 285 
 
 direction, but because cooled masses of lava at the 
 front dammed up its course, so that, upon a renewal 
 of the Hood, it was easier to break through the side 
 than through the front. Thus it would seem that in 
 the vicinity of Murphy's and Angel's camp, where the 
 Calaveras skull was found, there was such an accu- 
 mulation of rather loose volcanic ash as might have 
 served to divert the basalt flow to the left, and car- 
 ried it down by Sonora over a channel that was then 
 independent of the Stanislaus. Thus it is by no means 
 improbable that the age of Table Mountain, as esti- 
 mated by the erosion subsequent to its formation, may 
 be greatly reduced both by the probable intensification 
 of the erosive agencies during the Glacial epoch and 
 by a considerable reduction of the known amount of 
 erosion which has taken place. Still, w^ith all this re- 
 duction, it is probable that we have in these relics of 
 man upon the Pacific coast some of the oldest that 
 have yet been found. 
 
 A vivid impression of the antiquity of this period 
 is given by observing the complete change which has 
 taken place in California in the plants and animals of 
 the region since man first began to occupy it. The 
 existing forests of the Pacific slope consist almost en- 
 tirely of coniferous trees. The deciduous, or hard- 
 wood, trees fnmiliar on the Atlantic coast are either 
 
286 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 entirely absent from the Pacific side of the continent, 
 or are of smaller siz.e and poorer quality. The Pacific 
 coast has indeed maples, ashes, poplars, walnuts, oaks, 
 and in Washington, birches, but they all compare un- 
 favorably with their brethren upon the Atlantic coast, 
 and are so inferior in economic value, that, as Pro- 
 fessor Gray said, " a passable wagon wheel cannot be 
 made of California wood, nor a really good one in 
 Oregon." But California has, at the present time, no 
 birch, beech, elm, holly, gum tree, magnolia, catalpa, 
 mulberry, linden, or hickory. The flanks of the 
 Sierra above the altitude of two thousand feet are 
 covered with majestic but monotonous forests of pine, 
 cedar, spruce. Sequoia g'lgantea, and tamarack, inter- 
 spersed in the lower portions with inferior kinds of 
 black oak and the diminutive California buckeye and 
 manzanita. 
 
 But from the vegetable remains found associated 
 with traces of man in the deposits under Tabic Moun- 
 tain it would appear that, at the time of that volcanic 
 outflow, there were no coniferous trees on the flanks 
 of the Sierra, whereas many of the hardwood trees 
 above mentioned as now peculiar to the Atlantic States 
 flourished there in abundance. Primeval man in Cal- 
 ifornia found shelter in forests very similar to those 
 which, on the discovery of America by Columbus, cov- 
 
Man (uid Lai'a Beds of the Pacific Coast 287 
 
 cred the whole eastern part of the continent. The 
 ehii, the beech, the willow, the poplar, the sycamore, 
 the <j;um tree, the maj^nolia, and maple spread for him 
 their protecting branches, while the beech tree, as well 
 as the oak and the fig, added its fruit to his limited 
 stock of vegetable food. 
 
 As already remarked the animal companions of man 
 upon the Pacific coast were also, in this early period, 
 as different from the existing species as were the 
 plants. From the remains of animals found associated 
 with man in the deposits beneath Table Mountain, 
 or others equally old, we find that he was then as 
 familiar with the mastodon and the unwieldly form 
 and the long, curved tusks of the mammoth as the mod- 
 ern inhabitant of India or Africa now is with the 
 reduced dimensions of the elephant; cartloads of their 
 fossil bones have been collected from the gold-bearing 
 gravels, as might well be inferred from Truthful 
 James's account of the Row upon the Stanislow. The 
 llama, an ally to the camel, now confined to South 
 America, was another companion of man in Cali- 
 fornia at that time. The rhinoceros can scarcely be 
 said to have been his companion, but from the remains 
 discovered it could have been no unusual event for the 
 hunter in those days to have encountered this animal 
 in his haunts. Those were times, too, when beggars 
 
288 Oricr'tn and Antiquity of Man 
 
 could have ridden on horseback, had they been able td 
 domesticate any one of the several species which then 
 abounded in the region. Extinct gigantic species of 
 the cow^ and deer are also proved, by their remains, to 
 have been then living in companionship with man; 
 while, as is to be expected, the wolf was present to 
 worry and trouble him. 
 
 A closing remark will be in place concerning the 
 bearing of the recent discoveries upon the Pacific coast, 
 where both glacial and post-glacial man eflEected his 
 entrance upon the continent, upon theories as to the 
 original condition and origin of the human race. So 
 far, indeed, the evidences upon the western part of the 
 continent do not indicate, according to modern stand- 
 ards, a high degree of civilization. There is as yet 
 no evidence that man in America had risen above the 
 culture of the stone age. But the artistic ability 
 shown in the graceful lines and symmetrical form of 
 the Nampa figurine, like those of the Venus impudica, 
 indicates a caliber of mind no whit behind that of the 
 average man of the present time. The average man 
 now is incapable of producing such works of art. 
 But, as Professor Putnam has somewhere observed, 
 the imitation of natural forms In objective representa- 
 tions Is one of the earliest demonstrations of the great 
 natural capacity of undeveloped man. 
 
Man and Lava Beds of the Pacific Coast 289 
 
 And so we have from this unexpected quarter of 
 the globe some of the most important of all facts bear- 
 ing upon the origin of the human species. Our earli- 
 est knowledge of man is of a being fully formed and 
 in possession of all the faculties of his kind. So far 
 no evidence has appeared of any transitional stage be- 
 tween the ape and the man. From the indications 
 with reference to the lines of migration in this coun- 
 try it would seem that there was a process of degra- 
 dation in the tribes that reached the outskirts of the 
 continent. The more civilized races of Idaho, Mexico, 
 and Peru, are not a development from the ruder tribes 
 of the Atlantic coast, but the reverse. It seems more 
 likely that the tribes of the Atlantic were, in glacial 
 as in post-glacial time, the degenerate descendants of 
 those on the Pacific slope. 
 
290 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 REMAINS OF GLACIAL MAN IN EUROPE 
 
 In Europe the evidence of glacial man is not quite 
 so clear as in America ; for there drainage to the south 
 was not so free as it was in America, except possibly 
 over portions of Russia. For, the principal localities 
 in Europe in which prehistoric human relics have been 
 found, lie outside of the boundary of the glaciated re- 
 gion. The earliest, and in some respects the most 
 important, of these were in France at Amiens and at 
 Abbeville in the valley of the Somme, and Chelles, on 
 one of the eastern tributaries of the Seine, not far 
 from Paris. ^ While it is not supposed that glacial 
 ice ever covered this portion of France, the deposits 
 in these valleys are connected with the Glacial epoch 
 by the indications in them that there was an excessive 
 amount of floating ice present in the streams when the 
 gravel was deposited, and by other indications of a 
 much colder climate than exists in that region at the 
 present time. The strata of moderately fine gravel 
 which compose the terraces, occasionally contain angu- 
 lar blocks of stone two or three feet in diameter, which 
 could have been carried only by large cakes of floating 
 
Rf mains of Clac'ud Man in F.uropc 29 1 
 
 ice; while the bones found interstratiiied are those 
 of animals which are otherwise known to have existed 
 during the Glacial epoch, but to have become extinct 
 soon after its close. 
 
 A great sensation was produced when in 185Q the 
 leading geologists in France and England gave their 
 adhesion to the theory that certain flint implements 
 found in the high-level river gravels of Northern 
 France were of glacial age. The discovery of such 
 implements, however, had been reported as early a,s 
 1842, by Boucher de Perthes, a physician residing at 
 Abbeville near the mouth of the river Somme. Soon 
 after, Dr. Rigillout of Amiens, forty miles farther up 
 the river, having visited Abbeville and seen the dis- 
 coveries there, began to find flint implements in simi- 
 lar situations in the high-level gravels near his home. 
 In the course of a few years he had found several hun- 
 dred specimens. Still the scientific world was incredu- 
 lous until 1855, when Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Joseph 
 Prestwich, Sir John Evans, MM. Pouchet and Gau- 
 dry visited the place and accepted the genuineness of 
 the discoveries. Since that time the number of imple- 
 ments discovered has grown to enormous proportions 
 — more than four thousand having been reported in 
 1890. For the last few years the collections have 
 principally been made by M. Commont, principal of 
 
ag-'? Orij^in and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the schools of Amiens, whose publications upon the 
 subject are of the highest value. As excavations are 
 in progress near his own door, he is able to classify 
 them into lower and higher according to their occur- 
 rence in different elevations of the bank, and to com- 
 pare their relative stage of culture. The implements 
 are all of chipped flint, made from nodules, which oc- 
 cur abundantly in the gravel. The ultimate origin of 
 the nodules is the chalk which everywhere underlies 
 the soil. There can be no doubt that the implements 
 are the work of man. The age of the gravels, how^- 
 ever, will demand closer attention. 
 
 At the present time, the river Somme is a small 
 stream, flowing leisurely in a valley half a mile wide, and 
 winding from side to side through a low flood plain. 
 But on the margin of the trough, at Amiens and Ab- 
 beville, there are accumulations of gravel, marking 
 a period of floods out of all proportion to anything 
 that can now occur. These accumulations run up to 
 a height of ninety feet or more. The manner of their 
 formation, however, is something of a question. In 
 the opinion of the early investigators the bottom of 
 the valley was nearly at the level of the upper gravel 
 at the beginning of the period of greater precipitation 
 which accompanied the glacial conditions approaching 
 from the north, while at the same time the gradient 
 
Ri//i(iins of Gldc'uil Man In Europe 293 
 
 of the river was somewhat reduced by a depression of 
 land about the headwaters of the stream. Between 
 that time and the return of a warmer climate and the 
 establishment of present conditions, they supposed the 
 stream to have gradually eroded its trough down to 
 the present level. This would of course imply an 
 enormous lapse of time.- 
 
 But closer examination of the terraces seems to 
 show that they are not remnants of continuous strata 
 of gravel reaching from side to side of the trough, 
 but that they arc accumulations of material deposited 
 as " fans" during the" period of excessive precipitation 
 which characterized the Glacial epoch, and when per- 
 haps the trough was occupied by stagnant ice, making 
 them analogous to esker terraces, described later (p. 
 
 308). 
 
 The facts which more than any others delayed the 
 acceptance of the genuineness of these discoveries at 
 Amiens and Abbeville were that the implements were 
 associated in the gravel with the bones of numerous 
 extinct animals which had been supposed to belong to 
 a geological age preceding the advent of man. Among 
 the unfamiliar animals present with man on the banks 
 of the Somme at that time were the mammoth, the 
 woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the hippopotamus, 
 all of whose bones are found in the gravels of Amiens 
 

 u O 
 
R('//i(ii/is of GLuidl Man in Europe 
 
 295 
 
 alono;s{de of human implements. Of these the mam- 
 moth and the woolly rhinoceros have Ions; been ex- 
 tinct, while tlu' reindeer has retired to regions far to 
 the north, and the hippopotamus to the lagoons of 
 Africa. 
 
 Similar discoveries of flint implements in gravel de- 
 posits of corresponding 
 character and age were 
 soon reported from many 
 other quarters, especially 
 at Chelles, on one of the 
 eastern branches of the 
 Seine, near Paris. From 
 the number and perfection 
 of the specimens found 
 there, a type of imple- 
 ments has • been named 
 "Chellean." 
 Chellean boucher. (Sollas.) 
 
 In England, also, numerous discoveries of similar 
 character were made soon after. In the Thames we 
 have a river whose headwaters, if not in the glaciated 
 region, are so closely adjoining it that there was an 
 overflow of glacial floods into it. For, as has been 
 shown by Dr. F. W. Harmer,'' the Scandinavian ice 
 advancing over the eastern coast of England, ob- 
 
296 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 structed the drainage of the Ouse and turned it into 
 the headwaters of the Thames, thus providing the 
 conditions implied by the extensive gravel terraces 
 which flank all its lower reaches. A considerable por- 
 tion of London is built upon the terrace, especially 
 that which lies near the British Museum. This, ac- 
 cording to Sir Charles Lyell, is from one to two 
 miles wide, and traceable for a distance of fifty miles. 
 The gravel varies from five to fifteen feet in thick- 
 ness. 
 
 As long ago as 171 5 a palaeolithic implement was 
 discovered by Mr. Conners in a gravel pit excavated 
 at Black Mary's, near Gray's Inn Lane, London. 
 This can now be seen in the British Museum, where 
 it continues to testify to the identity of the races liv- 
 ing in France, England, and America during glacial 
 times. As in France so in England the bones of an 
 extinct species of elephant were everywhere associated 
 with the remains of glacial man. 
 
 At Biddenham, near Bedford in the valley of the 
 Ouse, numerous well-developed palasolithic implements 
 were found in the gravel terrace which borders the 
 valley, and in close connection with them bones of the 
 elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. The valley 
 is here two miles wide and the gravel terrace reaches 
 the height of ninety feet. The terrace in which the 
 
Remains of Gbicial Man in Europe 297 
 
 discoveries were made, however, was only tliirty feet 
 above the banks of the present stream. 
 
 A most remarkable discovery of implements of this 
 age was made by Mr. John Frere in 1801 at Hoxne, 
 near Diss, on the Waveney River in Suffolk County. 
 So numerous were they that the " workmen emptied 
 baskets of them into the ruts of the adjoining road be- 
 fore becoming aware of their value." As many as 
 five or six to the square yard are said to have been 
 found. 
 
 Other localities where similar discoveries have been 
 made in England, are the valley of the Wey; near 
 Guilford; near Whitstable in Kent; near Thetford 
 and Bury-St. Edmunds in Suffolk County; near Salis- 
 bur}' in Wiltshire County; and on the borders of the 
 Solent near Southampton. 
 
 More recently specially important discoveries have 
 been reported of human remains at Galley Hill, in 
 the valley of the Thames, and at Ipswich on the east 
 coast. 
 
 The Galley Hill remains consist of a nearly com- 
 plete skeleton, found by Messrs. Elliott and Matthew 
 Heys in 1888. The skeleton w^as said to have been 
 in situ, at a depth of more than eight feet, in Pleis- 
 tocene high-level river drift, which there rises from 
 ninetv to one hundred feet above the Thames. 
 
298 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 The Galley Hill deposits show about eight feet of 
 gravel and sand at the surface, and underneath a 
 clay deposit two or three feet thick. The skeleton was 
 found In the clay deposit. This discovery assumes 
 special Importance from the fact that it furnishes the 
 first skull which had been found actually In Pleisto- 
 cene river gravels anywhere in England, or indeed, 
 anywhere in Europe. But more than all, it is inter- 
 esting from the fact that the skull is closely related 
 to that of the modern European. It is dolichocephalic 
 (long-headed) and has a capacity of 1,360 cubic cen- 
 timeters, which is a good average for one of his 
 stature. The cranial capacity of a number of dis- 
 tinguished modern scholars and statesmen is only 
 slightly above this, Leibnitz's brain having a capacity 
 of only 1,422 cubic centimeters, while that of Gam- 
 betta was still less."^ 
 
 The Ipswich discovery was made October 6, 191 1, 
 by Mr. J. Reid Moir, who on that day was notified 
 by Messrs. Bolton and Laughlln, local brickmakers, 
 that one of their workmen while removing surface 
 clay to reach the underlying gravel had encountered 
 human bones. After the bones had been carefully 
 removed and preserved, together with the matrix in 
 which they were encased, three eminent geologists, 
 Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S., Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., 
 
Rrniains of (ihtcidl Man in Europe 299 
 
 and Mr. George Slater, F.Cj.S., were called in to ex- 
 amine the section. According to their report the 
 skeleton was found four and one-half feet beneath the 
 surface of the chalky bowlder clay, which is spread 
 over East Anglia. The clay above the skeleton ap- 
 peared in every respect the same as that which ex- 
 tended for some distance on each side of it, while the 
 calcareous band underlay the skeleton and likewise 
 extended indefinitely on either side. It w^as embedded 
 partly in glacial sand, showing clear lines of stratifi-* 
 cation conformable with that underlying it, and 
 partly in the bowlder clay. From this it would seem 
 that there could be no reasonable doubt that the 
 skeleton was in the original deposit and was not the 
 result of an interment. It is hardly possible that these 
 various deposits should not show signs of disturbance 
 if there had been a burial, however long ago. The 
 skeleton is that of a man about five feet ten inches in 
 height. Judging from the skull fragments and the 
 brain cast, Dr. Keith concludes that the head did not 
 differ essentially from that of modern Europeans.""' 
 
 On the Continent the remains of River Drift man 
 have been reported in three important localities besides 
 the valle\s of the Somme and the Seine, namely at 
 Helin, in the valley of the T>ys. Belgium; at Mauer, 
 
300 Origin and Antiqinty of Man 
 
 in the vallej' of the Neckar, a few miles southeast of 
 Heidelberg, Germany: and at Kiev on the Dneiper 
 in Southern Russia. But as all these localities are 
 outside of the glaciated region except the last, the ac- 
 cumulation of their gravel deposits took place under 
 conditions very different from that of those which line 
 the south flovv'ing streams emerging from the glaciated 
 area in North America. It will be best, therefore, at 
 this point to enter into the particulars which have 
 'a bearing upon the age of the deposits. This is all 
 the more important from the fact that most of the 
 earlier investigators fell into serious error in the in- 
 terpretation of the facts and so became instrumental 
 in propagating extremely exaggerated estimates of the 
 age of the human relics in question. 
 
 According to the theory of these early interpreters, 
 as intimated above, the high-level gravel deposits in 
 the valley of the Somme were laid down when the 
 river was flowing on a bottom nearly a hundred feet 
 higher than now, and the erosion of the lower portion 
 of the valley has been accomplished during the Pleis- 
 tocene (Glacial) epoch. As the bed of the Somme 
 is now more tlian a hundred feet below the level of 
 some of these implement-bearing gravels and the 
 trough is about half a mile wide, this theory would 
 imply an enormous lapse of time or an incredible 
 
Rcnuiiiis of Gldcidl Man in Europe 30 1 
 
 activity of the crodiniz; power of the stream. But 
 later more extended and careful investigations have 
 led to an entirely different interpretation of these river 
 troughs and their bordering gravel deposits. Accord- 
 ing to present Ijght the rock erosion of the streams 
 in Great Ih'itain and Northern and Western Europe 
 was completed in preglacial time, when in Europe as 
 in America there was an extensive continental eleva- 
 tion of the land. 
 
 Indeed, a map of Europe at the close of the Ter- 
 tiary period would scarcely be recognized at the 
 present time. Ample evidence has been given in the 
 sixth chapter that Europe shared in the general ele- 
 vation of land in the Northern Hemisphere preceding 
 the Glacial epoch. But geologists are not altogether 
 agreed as to the extent of this elevation. Dr. War- 
 ren L pham," apparently with the best of evidence, 
 supposes the preglacial land elevation of Northern 
 Europe to have been from tw^elve to fifteen hundred 
 feet. That the elevation was half that amount is 
 generally accepted. Even this would be sufficient to 
 lay bare the whole of the German Ocean (furnishing 
 pasture land for the herds of elephants whose bones 
 are dredged up from the present bottom) and to add 
 to the continent a border of from fifty to one hundred 
 miles in width to the west of Spain, France, and 
 
Geography of Northwestern Europe in late Pleistocene ag:e. 
 
Rinui'nis fjf Gldcial Man in Europe ^o^ 
 
 Ireland. — funiishin;j; a passaijeway for the African 
 Maninialia to rove as far north as the British Isles. 
 Such an elevation would obliterate the Irish Sea and 
 the Straits of Dover, as well as the German Ocean. 
 
 Soundings permit us to trace across these sub- 
 merged plains the courses of the great rivers which 
 then carried off their drainage to the ocean. The 
 Rhine proceeded upon its majestic way northward to 
 the Arctic Sea, being augmented by the Elbe, the 
 Thames, and several other tributary streams, includ- 
 ing one of great size from the region of the Baltic. 
 The Seine conveyed the drainage of Northern France 
 and Southern England far out to the westward of the 
 English Channel and debouched through a deep gorge 
 into the abyss of the Atlantic, a hundred miles be- 
 yond the furthest points of Brittany and Cornw^all. 
 At the same time the drainage from both sides of the 
 Irish Sea. joined by that of the Bristol Channel, 
 flowed parallel with the preceding and eroded a deep 
 gorge through the border of the continental shelf a 
 hundred miles southwest of Cape Clear. 
 
 Farther <outh. a ^vo^derful submerged river course 
 is traced across the continental shelf, westward from 
 Cap Breton, running nearly parallel with the north- 
 west sh<.re of Spain. This seems to be a continuance 
 of the river Adour. The depression has been accu- 
 
304 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 rately traced by soundings for seventy miles. An even 
 more remarkable submerged channel across this shelf 
 can be traced westward from the river Congo.' 
 
 This continental uplift produced significant results 
 in the basin of the Mediterranean, separating it into 
 two inland seas, obliterating the Strait of Gibraltar 
 and exposing a broad isthmus stretching from Tunis 
 across Sicily to the southern point of Italy, thus fur- 
 nishing an easy passage for the animals of Africa to 
 reach the southern shores of Europe and, ranging 
 northward around the border of Spain, to pass with 
 man into the fertile plains of France and Belgium 
 and thence into the equally fertile pasture lands of 
 Southern England and of the elevated rolling prairie 
 lands extending across the bottom of the German 
 Ocean. 
 
 It was during this slow continental elevation, con- 
 tinuing through the latter half of the Tertiary period, 
 that the Thames, the Somme, the Lys, the Seine, and 
 the Neckar eroded the rock gorges on whose borders 
 occur the gravel deposits containing the oldest known 
 relics of man in Europe. In this they are all in per- 
 fect analogy with the streams in the glaciated area of 
 the United States. But, as already remarked, the gravel 
 accumulations in the two countries took place under 
 different conditions. In Southern England, Northern 
 
Ri/'uii/is of Cldi'hd Man in Eiiropc 305 
 
 France, and Hel^iiini there was no active glacial ice, 
 but it is quite possible, it not indeed probable, that 
 stagnant ice filled the valleys and had much influence 
 in determining the position of the gravel deposits. At 
 any rate it is pretty certain that the climatic condi- 
 tions which sent glacial ice southward to the vicinity 
 of London, and which enveloped Sw^itzerland and 
 Northern Italy in one vast covering of ice thousands 
 of feet in thickness, would not have been without its 
 effect over the intervening area; for, the Glacial epoch 
 was preeminently one of widespread increased precipi- 
 tation, as well as of lower temperature. Some, indeed, 
 have been in the habit of calling it the *' pluvial " 
 period. This great increase in the precipitation, 
 coupled with, the high elevation, furnishes us wnth 
 the adequate cause for producing the peculiar gravel 
 deposits whose age w^e are considering. 
 
 In all these instances the gravel is of local origin, 
 that is, it is derived from the rocks w^hich are in place 
 in the drainage basin of the streams mentioned ; while 
 the river Somme, at Amiens, is joined by two tribu- 
 tary streams, the Noye and the Arve, — all three, 
 flow^'ng through a gently rolling country two or three 
 hundred feet above the present level of the river at 
 Amiens. The gravel accumulation so prominent at 
 Amiens does not follow down the course of the stream 
 
3o6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 in distinct terraces bordering the trough, as is the case 
 in our American glacial streams, but is in the shape 
 of " fans " deposited b)^ the several streams as they 
 reached the broader preglacial valley. Nor are the 
 streams at Amiens wtU defined as one might be led 
 to suppose from the earlier descriptions, Tylor, La- 
 driere, and others ^ have demonstrated that the 
 Somme gravel and sand everywhere has a gentle slope 
 from the sides towards the center of the valley, pre- 
 senting a terrace escarpment only vvhere marginal 
 parts of these deposits have been later carried away 
 by the undermining action of the present diminutive 
 stream. Throughout this gravel there are, as already 
 remarked, numerous indications that the streams which 
 deposited it were at times gorged with floating ice, 
 bearing rocks of considerable size which were depos- 
 ited in the mass without having suffered appreciable 
 trituration. Over all, both in the valley of the Somme 
 and of numerous other streams in the region exam- 
 ined by M. Ladriere, there is a blanket of finer ma- 
 terial, extending from the summit to the bed of the 
 stream, which has accumulated by the action of much 
 gentler agencies than those which deposited the gravel 
 of earlier age. Indeed, Ladriere believes he is able to 
 discriminate three stages in the accumulation, mark- 
 ing successive amelioration in the activity of the agen- 
 
3o8 Ori^'m and Antiquity of Man 
 
 cies at work This is like the esker terraces observed 
 in America which were formed by streams of w^ater 
 held in place by a barrier of ice which upon melting 
 left high-level gravel deposits. (See p. 294.) 
 
 At Mauer and Helin in the valleys of the Lys and 
 of a tributary of the Neckar we have apparently a 
 simpler problem. Here would seem to have been 
 great accumulations of gravel at the beginning of the 
 " pluvial " period, completely filling the preglacial 
 trough for a considerable distance, corresponding with 
 those of American rivers at the close of the Glacial 
 epoch, while later there has been deep erosion by the 
 action of the streams when reduced to approximately 
 their present volume, laying bare the strata in w^hich 
 remains of man have been found. 
 
 In none of these cases do w^e have any but the most 
 imperfect means of making estimates concerning the 
 time which has elapsed since the deposition of the im- 
 plement-bearing gravel. For trustworthy estimates we 
 arc compelled to fall back upon the general considera- 
 tions bearing" upon the date of the Glacial epoch. 
 
 It is significant, however, that the implements found 
 in these gravels are of a type that everj^vhere else are 
 characteristic of glacial man ; while the animal re- 
 mains associated \\ith the gravels are those which are 
 chrviacteristic of the Glacial epoch, and which, in the 
 
Rinifiins of Gldcial Mdti in Kiiiopc 309 
 
 case of man\ species, became extinct during or soon 
 after its close. 
 
 The discover\' at Mauer is of special importance 
 since it is that of a human jaw. It was made October 
 21, 1907, by Professor Schoetensack/' according to 
 whom the specimen represented a new species which he 
 named Homo he'idelbergens'is. But the evidence upon 
 which it is deemed worthy to make this classification 
 appears to be slight; for though the absence of chin 
 suggests simian characteristics and " the neck constric- 
 tion is very slight, approaching in this respect the an- 
 thropoid form, the teeth have a distinctly hum.an 
 stamp, not only in their general appearance, but also 
 in point of size — larger than the average, but smaller 
 than In exceptional cases to be found among the Aus- 
 tralians." The jaw occurred beneath eighty feet of 
 stratified sand and gravel in the valley of the ElsenZ; 
 a tributary of the Neckar, Vvdiich joins the Rhine at 
 Heidelberg. Of the probable manner and period of 
 the deposition of these gravels we have already treated 
 in connection with the deposits in the valley of the 
 Somme. The great antiquity of the skull is confirmed 
 by the occurrence in these gravels at Mauer of the 
 bones of extinct species of the elephant, rhinoceros, 
 horse, and bear, together with bones of deer, bison, 
 and beaver, which now are found farther north. 
 
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Ri'f/iiiins of Glacial Man in Europe 31 I 
 
 At Helin, nepr Spiennes, on the river Lys, Bel- 
 gium, M. Rutot reports the occurrence of numerous 
 flaked implements made from flint or brown chert, 
 deeply buried in Pleistocene gravels. The implements 
 are mostly scrapers and rude knives, with some ham- 
 mer stones: but there was an absence of anything 
 which had the appearance of weapons. The Lys, like 
 the Somme, flows through a broad valley, the floor of 
 which is from three to five hundred feet below the gen- 
 eral level of the country. The gravels in which the 
 implements are found are upon the side of the valley, 
 and less than two hundred feet above it. These con- 
 stitute what Rutot calls the fourth terrace, numbering 
 from the top. But there is nothing definite to indi- 
 cate their age. Here, again, as in so many other 
 cases, the antiquity of man is dependent upon our in- 
 terpretation of the general evidence bearing on the 
 chronology of the Glacial epoch and upon our gen- 
 eral theories concerning the progress of evolutionary 
 forces in the production of the changes which mark 
 the development both of animals and man.^^ 
 
 The discovery at Kiev, on the Dnieper, in Russia, 
 was made in 1893 by Professor P. Armaschevsky. At 
 this place the summit of the high bordering bluff is 
 350 feet above the river. The upper fifty-three feet 
 of the bluf? consists of typical loess, breaking of? in 
 
312 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 perpendicular fractures. Beneath this bod}' of loess 
 and resting on the original glacial deposit containing 
 Scandinavian pebbles there were found " instruments 
 fashioned from pieces of flint, larger or smaller knives, 
 scrapers and points with all the characteristic indica- 
 tions of the work of man's hand. The nuclei or cores 
 of flint, from which fragments have been detached, 
 were so numerous that they had accumulated in heaps. 
 The flint implements w^ere accompanied by a large 
 quantity of mammoth bones, especially of their means 
 of defense, their m^olar teeth, the bones of their fore- 
 and hind-feet, apparently from at least five individu- 
 als. Several of these bones show distinct evidence of 
 having been broken with the aid of sharp-edged in- 
 struments. At the same time a number of objects 
 were found testifying to the use of fire, as a quantity 
 of partly charred wood proves, some pieces of wood 
 and half burned bones, as well as two blocks of gran- 
 ite, which had been submitted to the action of fire. 
 All these objects were found here in such abundance 
 that the charcoal, small bones and fragments of flint 
 formed two thin beds in the sand called the ' bed of 
 human culture.' '' ^^ 
 
 Five other places in European Russia are mentioned 
 by Professor Armaschevsky as furnishing similar ob- 
 jects in early Pleistocene deposits. These are as fol- 
 
Rcrndlns of Gldcuil Man in Europe 313 
 
 lows: " I, at the village of Gontsy, Loubny district, 
 province of Poltawa ; 2, at the village of Karatcha- 
 rowo, Arourom district, province of Nijni-Novgorod ; 
 
 3, at the village of Kostensk, province of Wo rone j ; 
 
 4, in the neighborhood of the village Stoudenitsy, Po- 
 dolie; 5, in the vicinity of Kamenets-Podolsk. The 
 principal ones are those of Gontsy and Karatcharowo, 
 also considered under the geological report. Heaps 
 of objects shaped from fragments of flint have been 
 found there by the side of charcoal and mammoth 
 bones in a bed of loess, but at a depth of not over 
 four feet." ^" 
 
 According to Professor Armaschevsky it is probable 
 that at the time of these deposits, Central Russia " was 
 still covered by its mantle of ice and southern Russia 
 had a climate cold enough to be favorable to the ex- 
 istence of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and musk ox."^'*^ 
 
 From Siberia, also, come reports of the remains of 
 man associated with the bones of the mammoth buried 
 deeply beneath the surface. In 1896 Professor Ka- 
 schenko had found " remains of a mammoth twelve 
 feet below the surface of a cliff which stands 136 feet 
 above the present level of the river Tom. Only a few 
 small bones of the skeleton were missing, and with it 
 were associated thirty flint knives, besides scrapers and 
 
314 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 about one hundred flakes. The large bones were split 
 in the usual way for the extraction of the marrow, 
 and there were other clear indications of the presence 
 of man. , . . The position and various other circum- 
 stances exclude any recent data for the find." ^* 
 
 We must not omit to notice the account given by 
 Professor Albrecht Penck of the occurrence of palaeo- 
 lithic implements in a cavern at Wildkirchli, Canton 
 Appenzell, Switzerland. As early as 1861 Riitimeyer 
 announced the presence of bones of the cave bear in 
 the floor of this cavern, but it was not until 1903 and 
 1904 that stone implements were discovered by Bach- 
 ler. The recent deposits underlying the floor were 
 found to be about fifteen feet thick, and to cover an 
 area of several hundred square yards. In the portions 
 of this accumulation already explored the bones of 
 two hundred individuals of this species had been 
 found. They occur at all levels below the upper two 
 feet, and are everywhere accompanied by implements, 
 both of stone and bone. The material from which 
 most of the implements were made had been brought 
 up from the valley one or two thousand feet below, 
 while a few made of greenish flint must have come 
 from a distance. The implements all displayed crude 
 workmanship. Professor Penck fixes the period of 
 

 % 
 
 '^ . 
 
 .^ - 
 
3l6 Ori({in and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 the prehistoric occupation of the cave at a time pre- 
 ceding the Wlirm glacial episode, corresponding to the 
 Wisconsin episode in America. During this episode 
 the snow line, on the Alps, descended nearly a thou- 
 sand feet below the level of the cave, hence it is evi- 
 dent that it could not have been occupied then. As 
 the animals associated w^ith man in the cave are those 
 w^hich characterize the middle part of the Glacial 
 epoch, it would seem certain that the occupation took 
 place during an interglacial episode, separating the 
 Riss episode of advance from the Wiirm, this cor- 
 responding to that between the Illinoisan and the 
 Wisconsin in America. The sterile layer, nearly two 
 feet thick at the top of the floor, represents the accu- 
 mulation since the close of the Glacial epoch. ^^ 
 
 But in estimating the lapse of time since these 
 periods, Mr. Penck makes assumptions w^hich are not 
 supported by our observations in America. Penck 
 estimates thirty thousand years for the post-glacial 
 period and as much more for the continuance of the 
 Wiirm or Wisconsin episode of advance, and thus 
 WT)uld fix the date of these accumulations as one hun- 
 dred thousand years ago. But the evidence in Amer- 
 ica indubitably shows that post-glacial time cannot be 
 extended for more than ten thousand years; while 
 abundant evidence comes from the Alaskan glaciers 
 
Remains of Ghuuil Man in Europe 317 
 
 of a rapidity, both in the advance and tlie retreat of 
 glaciers, which, throws all onlinary calculations out 
 of account. The evitlence whicli I advanced in 1886, 
 showing that the great Muir Glacier in Alaska had 
 retreated twenty miles in a hundred years, and that 
 during the same time the thickness of it in the upper 
 part of Muir Inlet had diminished more than three 
 thousand feet has been amply supported by all subse- 
 quent investigations. Indeed, the front of the glacier, 
 a thousand feet thick when I was there in 1886, re- 
 treated in the following twenty-four years seven and 
 one-half miles, carrying it back to a point where at 
 the time of my observations the surface of the gla- 
 cier was a thousand feet thicker than it was at the 
 front at that time. Nearly all the glaciers in that re- 
 gion have retreated to a corresponding extent. In 
 short, the observations upon Alaskan glaciers during 
 the last twenty-five years show that we are so ignorant 
 of the causes of the climatic changes which are now 
 soing on that v/e are utterly unable to establish any 
 rate for the growth and decay of such gigantic ice 
 streams as now exist in Alaska, and formerly existed 
 in Switzerland. It is far more reasonable to f^ucss 
 that the interglacial period during which man inhab- 
 ited the Alpine cavern under consideration occurred 
 fifteen thousand years ago, than it is to frucss that it 
 
3i8 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 was a hundred thousand years ago. No offhand esti- 
 mates concerning such dates can have any value which 
 do not take into account the facts brought to light by 
 our observations in America.^^ (See accompanying 
 map and illustrations on pp. 202, 203.) 
 
 The establishment of the existence of man during 
 the River Drift period, in the valley of the Somme 
 in 1859, and of his association with a large number of 
 extinct animals, at once gave new interest to the dis- 
 coveries that had been made of a similar coexistence 
 in the remains found in numerous prehistoric caves 
 in England and on the Continent.^' 
 
 Kent's Hole, near Torquay in Devonshire, had 
 been carefully explored in 1826, by Rev. J. Mac- 
 Enery, a Roman Catholic priest, residing in the vi- 
 cinity. But owing to his premature death, and to 
 the incredulity with which his reports were received, 
 his discoveries were not published until 1859, when a 
 cave at Brixham, in the neighborhood, was explored 
 by Mr. Pengclly, under the supervision of a number 
 of eminent members of the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science. The facts concerning the 
 Brixham cave being so similar to those from Kent's 
 Hole, there was no longer any doubt about the gen- 
 uineness of Mr. MacEnery's discoveries, which had 
 
Ri'inains of (i/arial Man in Europe \\() 
 
 been so careful ly recordecl by biin tbirty years before. 
 Tbese caves bad been resorted to for sbelter by man 
 from the earliest time of his existence to a compara- 
 tively recent period. In the soil forming the surface 
 of the floor, which was only a few inches deep, were 
 found Roman pottery, iron and bronze spearheads, 
 polished stone weapons, mingled with the bones of 
 various domestic animals, including the horse. Below 
 this was a stalagmite floor, from one to three feet 
 thick. Under this was a compact deposit of red earth 
 from two to thirteen feet thick. Implements of flint 
 and bone abounded in this stratum, mingled with the 
 bones of the cave bear, the cave lion, the mammoth, 
 the woolly rhinoceros, the wild ox, the horse, the 
 Irish elk, and the reindeer. Flint implements were 
 also found in a brecciated deposit still below this. 
 
 A cave at Wookey Hole, near Wells, in Somerset, 
 explored by Professor Boyd Dawkins, yielded a large 
 number of paL^olithic specimens, together with an 
 enormous number of the bones of the extinct animals 
 just mentioned. At Cresswell Crags, in Derbyshire, 
 other caves were equally prolific in the remains of 
 man and his congeners of the Glacial epoch. In one 
 of these there were found also the bones of the Ma- 
 chairodus, a tiger which originated in the Tertiary 
 period, and became extinct in prehistoric times. 
 
320 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 But it fs not necessary to multiply details. The 
 caves of Southern E^ngland bear abundant testimony 
 to the existence of a prehistoric race in Great Britain, 
 contemporary with the River Drift man of the east- 
 ern counties and of Northern France. 
 
 On the Continent, discoveries of human remains 
 attributed to this same age began to be made in the 
 year 1700, in caverns at Canstadt, a small village 
 near Stuttgart, in Wiirttemberg, where at that time a 
 skull of a very primitive type was found associated 
 with bones of the extinct animals, which later were 
 found to be characteristic of the Glacial age. Little 
 was thought of this until the discovery by Dr. 
 Schmerling of a similar skull in the cave at Engis, a 
 village on the left bank of the Meuse, about eight 
 miles above Liege, in Belgium. There were here also 
 the same associated remains of extinct animals, that 
 had been noted in the high-level river drift deposits, 
 and in the caves of England and Canstadt.^'^ l^he 
 shallowness of the skull and the projecting eyebrows 
 presented such a similarity to the skull of an ape that 
 its great age was at once assumed, and the " Engis 
 skull " became tlie common designation of that of 
 primitive man. But as the skull at Canstadt had been 
 discovered earlier, the Germans claimed the name by 
 right of priority, so that we now speak of the Can- 
 
Rc/fif.ins of a I (I rial Man in Europe 
 
 32. 
 
 stadt race as one of the most primitive in Europe. 
 
 But Germany was destined to produce a still more 
 Lienuine type of what was supposed to he the primi- 
 tive race, in the Neanderthal skull discovered in 1857 
 by some workmen in the valley of the Neander, a 
 small stream tributary to the Rhine near Diissel- 
 dorf/"' This was long supposed to be the most ape- 
 like human skull that had been found. The jaw, 
 however, was absent. Rut notwithstanding the ape- 
 like appearance of the skull its capacity was estimated 
 by Huxley to be 1,250 cubic centimeters, which is far 
 above that of the highest apes, and equal to that of 
 the average capacity of Polynesian and Hottentot 
 skulls. Later estimates of the Neanderthal skull, how- 
 ever, bring its capacity up to 1,600 cubic centimeters, 
 which is more than that of the average European at 
 the present day. Though there was little to connect 
 the Neanderthal skull with the Glacial epoch except 
 its supposed low character, it has been so much dis- 
 cussed that it stands as the best known representative 
 of primitive man. Huxley pronounced it the most 
 apelike of all skulls that had been discovered in his 
 day. 
 
 A far more important discovery, however, was that 
 made in 1886 by Messrs. Fraipont and Lohest at Spy. 
 in the province of Namur in Belgium.^*^ Fortunately 
 
322 Ori<rin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 in this case there were two complete skeletons, a male 
 and a female, and the jav/ bones and most of the 
 other part of the body framework were still intact. 
 Fortunately, also, the cavern floor had not been dis- 
 turbed until it was subjected to strict scientific obser- 
 vation. In the underlying deposits there were three 
 distinct beds containing bones, separated by strata of 
 stalagmite. In the upper stratum, modern implements 
 only were found. In the second stratum implements 
 
 Skull of ths Man of Spy. (Photograph by Mr. S, 
 Prentiss Baldwin.) 
 
Ri/nains of Glacuil Man in Europe ^2J 
 
 of ivory occurred and some fragments of pottery, to- 
 iiether with the characteristic bones of extinct species 
 of glacial animals. 
 
 The skeletons occurred in the lowest bed, and were 
 associated with abundant remains of rhinoceros, mas- 
 todon, cave hyena, and other extinct animals. Flint 
 implements were also found, but they were of the 
 so-called " Mousterian " type, supposed to belong to 
 the middle of the palaeolithic period. The discussion 
 of the characteristics of these skeletons must also be 
 deferred to the chapter on the physiological argument. 
 
 A still more important field for investigating the 
 state of early cave man is found in Southern and Cen- 
 tral France, especially in Dordogne. The most im- 
 portant of all discoveries \\\ this region seems to have 
 been that of considerable portions of a human skeleton 
 found in 1908 by Abbes J. and A. Bouyssonie and L. 
 Bardon.-^ Hie cave is situated near the village of 
 
 o 
 
 La Chapelle aux Saints, about fifteen miles south of 
 Brive in the district of Correze. The fragments in- 
 clude the cranium and lower jaw, which closely re- 
 semble the same parts in the man of Spy. But while 
 the lower jaw is remarkable for its size, and the 
 frontal projections over the eyes are unusually promi- 
 nent, the capacity of the skull is estimated at 1,626 
 cubic ceiitimeters, which, as we have said in connec- 
 
324 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ti'on with the Neanderthal skull, is somewhat more 
 than that of the average European of the present day. 
 There is nothing to indicate the glacial age of this 
 skeleton, except its association with the rude stone 
 implements, and the remains of the bison, reindeer, 
 horse, and rhinoceros, characteristic of that period. 
 
 Another important discovery was made in Dor- 
 dogne by Herr O. Hauser, in 1908, in Combe- 
 Capelle, near Mont Ferrand-Perigord. This was of 
 a nearly perfect skeleton, associated with palaeolithic 
 implements; but the skull was dolichocephalic and of 
 the average capacity of modern skulls, resembling in 
 many respects that already described as having been 
 found at Galley Hill, near London. 
 
 So far we have not paid attention to the minute 
 classification of palseolithic implements which has been 
 attempted, and by which their age is thought to be de- 
 termined by the character and relative perfection of the 
 implements themselves. We have felt it the less im- 
 portant to do this from the conviction that such evi- 
 dence of age is of little value compared with that 
 which is derived from the actual geological position 
 in which they are found. The implements upon which 
 this classification is based largely come from caverns 
 outside of the glaciated areas, where the geolocrical 
 
Rcinditis of Gldc'ud Man in Europe 
 
 325 
 
 evidence is not available. However, the association 
 of these various classes of implements with animal re- 
 mains characteristic of the Glacial epoch fixes their 
 position ^^■ith reasonable certainty. 
 
 The paleolithic series is provisionally divided by 
 Professor Sollas -'- into three 2;roups — an upper, a 
 middle, and a lower. And these are subdivided into 
 stages as follows: 
 
 Ma(2:dalenian stage 
 Solutrian 
 Aurio;nacian " 
 
 Mousterian " 
 
 Acheulean " 
 
 Chellean " 
 
 Strepyan " 
 
 Mesvinian " 
 
 Upper Pahuolithic 
 Aliddlc Pahcolithic 
 
 Lower Pal; 
 
 L'OilthlC 
 
 " The Mesvinian implements are mostly simple 
 flakes of Hint or brown chert, roughly shaped and 
 irregularly chipped at the margin. . . . The absence 
 of any forms which could have served as weapons is 
 worthy of note." 
 
 " The distinctive character of the Strepyan indus- 
 try, according to M. Rutot, is that all the implements 
 retained a considerable part of the original crust of 
 the flint nodule from which they have been fashioned." 
 
326 Orisr'm and Antiquity of Man 
 
 But I have myself at Amiens obtained implements 
 with this characteristic. 
 
 The Chellean implements are dressed by flaking on 
 both sides forming an edge which presents a wavy 
 line, and having commonly somewhat the shape of an 
 almond. This implement is called by Professor Sol- 
 las a " boucher," and is evidently shaped to be held 
 in the hand, and to be used without the intervention 
 of a haft. Indeed, M. Commont insists that the thick 
 butt end was evidently fitted to accommodate the 
 thumb and fingers as it was held in the hand. It 
 has been frequently remarked as singular that few of 
 the Chellean implements of this sort show signs of 
 use, but held in the hand it would be a deadly weapon 
 in contending with either man or beast. Implements 
 of this sort were very widely disseminated during the 
 Glacial epoch, being found all over Western Europe 
 and in America. 
 
 The Acheulean implements differ so little from the 
 Chellean that it is difficult to draw a dividing line 
 between them, but in general they are flatter and 
 lighter and the flaking is not so coarse. 
 
 The Mousterian stage is characterized by imple- 
 ments made for the most part from simple flakes 
 struck off from a core which had been trimmed to a 
 convenient shape for producing those of the right 
 
Remains of Clacud Man in Europe i,!"] 
 
 shape and size. Tlu'se flakes were then trininied so 
 as to ^ive a rounded outhne to the base and to reilucc 
 the ed^es where they were too fragile. The large 
 Implements (" Bouchers") fitted at their bases to the 
 whole hand, so characteristic of Chellean industry, are 
 almost wholly absent from the Mousterian deposits. 
 The Hakes struck ofE from the boucher often had a 
 close resemblance to the Mousterian form. Skillfully 
 made scrapers are also characteristic of the Mouste- 
 rian age. The edges of these were often notched so 
 that they could be used as saws. Occasionally also a 
 lance head is found, notched near the base to permit 
 its being fastened to a shaft by a ligature. 
 
 The period takes its name from the cave of Le 
 Moustier in the valley of the Vezere, Dordogne. Im- 
 plements of this character are found for the most part 
 in caves, though they occur to some extent in river 
 gravels, from which some geological evidence is de- 
 rived concerning their relative age. This, however, 
 does not seem to be of any very definite value. It 
 should be stated, however, that implements supposed to 
 be characteristic of the lower stages already described 
 are not altogether absent from the caves principally 
 characterized by the presence of Mousterian imple- 
 ments. 
 
 The animal remains of the Mousterian stage are 
 
328 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 similar to those of the previous stages, except that the 
 hippopotamus and a species of rhinoceros and of ele- 
 phant supposed to belong to a warmer epoch, have 
 disappeared, and mammoth remains have become pre- 
 dominant. The remains of the northern reindeer, and 
 the musk ox, which now inhabits Northern Greenland, 
 also occur; likewise of the arctic fox, the arctic hare, 
 the chamois, and the lemming. But it is important to 
 notice that with these animals now confined to cold 
 regions are associated remains of the lion, hyena, and 
 leopard now living only in warmer regions. 
 
 Probably the most important relic classified as of 
 Mousterian age is the human skull found near the 
 village of La Chapelle aux Saints, already referred to. 
 This skeleton was surrounded by a great number of 
 well-w^orked Mousterian implements. Here also, a 
 year later, another skeleton of similar character was 
 found. 
 
 These skulls so closely resemble the Neanderthal 
 skull and the one found at Spy, near Liege, in Bel- 
 gium, in 1885, that they may be properly classed 
 together as of Mousterian age. But it would be un- 
 warranted to consider them as the sole representatives 
 of the Mousterian age, since there is much evidence of 
 the existence of other races In deposits equally old. It 
 is interesting to notice, also, that after extensive com- 
 
330 Orifi'm and Antiquity of Man 
 
 parisons, both of skeletons and implements, Professor 
 Sollas finds that there is a close resemblance between 
 the present races of Australia and the Mousterian cave 
 dwellers of Europe in glacial times so that he speaks 
 of the Australians as " the Mousterians of the Anti- 
 podes." -■■ 
 
 The upper division of the palaeolithic age of man 
 is divided, as already said, into three stages, the lower 
 of these the Aurignacian, named from the town of 
 Aurignac, in the department of the Haute-Garonne 
 near the foot of the Pyrenees Mountains, where the 
 discovery of the sepulchral cave w^as made in 1852. 
 The implements classed as of Aurignacian age show 
 a marked improvement in the art of working flint, 
 while for the first time bone implements of various 
 kinds become frequent. But more important than all, 
 skillful drawings of various animal forms were found 
 in a cave of this age at Altamira, some of which were 
 colored with pigments of red, brown, black, and yel- 
 \o\\\ Sketches in black and white, showing marked 
 skill, were foimd in various other caverns soon after. 
 These drawings and sketches represent the bison, the 
 deer, the horse, the mammoth, and various fishes, to- 
 gether with numerous fantastic imaginary forms. Nu- 
 merous figurines showing great skill in carving, were 
 also found, some of which were made from stone and 
 
Mammoth on walls of the grotto at Bernifal. (By courtesy 
 of Records of the Past.) 
 
 Bison on walls of the grotto at Bernifal. (By courtesy of 
 Records of the Past.) 
 
332 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 others from ivor}'. The head is usually absent from 
 these. One cannot fail to be struck with the resem- 
 blance of one of these, the Venus impudica, carved 
 from ivory, to the Nampa figurine found beneath the 
 volcanic formations in the Snake River Valley, in 
 Idaho, of w^hich an acount has been given in a pre- 
 ceding chapter. (See p. 268.) 
 
 The animals in all three stages of the upper palaeo- 
 lithic period are notably different from those of the 
 preceding stages. From this it is inferred that the cli- 
 mate had considerably ameliorated during the transi- 
 tion from the Mousterian to the Aurignacian stage. 
 Bones of the reindeer are rare, while those of the 
 horse, the cave lion, and the h3ena are abundant. It 
 is also to be noted that remains attributed to the 
 Aurignacian stage are frequently met w^ith in the open 
 country buried in deposits of loess. 
 
 The second stage of the upper palaeolithic epoch, the 
 Solutrian, show^s a still greater advance in the manu- 
 facture of flint implements of all sorts, as wtU as in 
 the fashioning of bone and ivory, while an occasional 
 carving is found upon bones. The horse was the 
 prominent animal of this age. About some of the 
 caverns in France the bones of the horse were found 
 in immense quantities, indicating that this animal was 
 a favorite source of food, — the piles of bones sur- 
 
Remains of Glacial Man in Europe 333 
 
 rounding the caverns appearing to be refuse heaps 
 simihir to the kitchen middens. 
 
 The Magdalenian stage, with which the palaeo- 
 lithic epoch closes, followed closely upon the Solutrian, 
 but instead of there being an improvement in the type 
 of stone implements there was a marked decadence. 
 On the other hand the implements and weapons of 
 bone, deer's horn and ivory show a very marked im- 
 provement. Arrowheads and spearheads now appear, 
 with barbed harpoons and evident arrangements for 
 fixing them upon shafts, while skillful drawings of 
 animal forms occur on many of their ivory imple- 
 ments, and domestic utensils occasionally appear, and 
 numerous objects designed as ornaments. Of the ani- 
 mals figured upon their implements and weapons we 
 find the reindeer, the Irish deer, the bison, horse, ass, 
 musk ox, saiga, antelope, glutton, arctic hare, and 
 lemming, indicating a colder epoch than that which 
 preceded it. Of the animal remains those of the horse 
 are much less numerous than they were In the Solu- 
 trian stage, but those of the reindeer have increased 
 so much that It has been called the ** reindeer age," in- 
 dicating, as it Is thought, that a subarctic cllm.ate 
 characterized the period In Europe. 
 
334 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 SUPPOSED EVIDENCE OF TERTIARY MAN 
 
 While the Glacial epoch was, as we have seen, of 
 relatively short continuance, and characterized by ab- 
 normal rapidity in the earth movements and consequent 
 climatic changes, the Tertiary period was one of long 
 continuance (from fifty to one hundred times that of 
 the Glacial epoch) and was characterized by compara- 
 tively stable conditions, slower earth movements, and 
 relatively uniform climatic conditions. In short, the 
 Glacial epoch was a catastrophe resulting from the 
 culmination of the effects of slow moving causes 
 leading up to it in the latter part of the Tertiary 
 period, when the vast continental uplifts of which 
 we have spoken were taking place, not merely in the 
 Northern Hemisphere but in the whole world. ^ The 
 question, therefore, of the existence of man far back 
 in the Tertiary period is one of supreme importance 
 and interest. Space, however, wnll not permit us to 
 give more than a brief summary of the discussions of 
 the subject which have been carried on during the 
 last quarter of a century. 
 
 The evidence for the existence of Tertiary man 
 
Supposed Evidence of Tertiary Man 335 
 
 mostly centers in certain rude chipped pieces of flint 
 which have been found in undisturbed strata of sup- 
 posed Tertiary age. The instances of human bones 
 thought to have been found on the Italian coast in 
 Tertiary formations proved to be interments, and so 
 were long since left out of the question. Likewise, 
 cuts or breaks in animal bones of Tertiary age, or- 
 iginally supposed to be the work of man, are now all 
 accounted for by natural movements of the soil en- 
 closing sharp substances like fractured flint, or as 
 having been marked by sharks' teeth, whose fossil re- 
 mains occur in connection w^ith them. 
 
 But in 1867, and later, the Abbe Bourgeois discov- 
 ered a large number of chipped flint flakes in Tertiary 
 deposits at Thenay, near Tours, France. These, how- 
 ever, wTre all of small dimensions, so small, indeed, 
 that it was difficult to imagine any use which they 
 could have served. The deposit containing these ob- 
 jects is classed by geologists as Miocene, or middle 
 Tertiary. 
 
 A little later, in 1871, M. Ribeiro began to dis- 
 cover chipped flints in a lacustrine deposit of Miocene 
 age at Otta in the Tagus Valley, not far from Lisbon. 
 The distinguished anthropologist G. de Mortillet 
 regarded the flints as chipped by design ; but did not 
 attribute them to an existing species of man {Homo 
 
336 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 sapiens), but to a semihuman precursor, who had just 
 wft enough to pick up a stone and use it for some 
 temporary purpose, as apes have been known to use 
 stones for the purpose of cracking cocoanuts. But 
 after an extended canvassing of the subject the ma- 
 jority of anthropologists have concluded that in both 
 cases the chipping of these flints is natural and not 
 artificial, having been produced by the friction and 
 impact connected with the irregular settling of strata 
 in which they occurred, or by the variations in tem- 
 perature w^hen exposed to the hot rays of the sun by 
 day and to the chilling frosts by night.- 
 
 Again, in 1877, Mr. J. B. Rames discovered chipped 
 flints in middle Tertian^ deposits at Puy Courny, near 
 d'Aurillac, in the department of Cantal, Auvergne. 
 
 An eolith from Puy Courny. (After May et, L'Anthr.. 
 natural size. ) 
 
S/ip posed Evidence of Tertiary Man },},'] 
 
 The aue of the deposits was cstabh'shccl by the pres- 
 ence of the remains of extinct mammals characteristic 
 of that period. The only question of dispute relates 
 to the artificial character of the flints. The contest 
 upon that point was as vigorous as that concerning 
 the discoveries at Thenay and Otta, no less authorities 
 than Quatrefages, Rutot, and Mortillet maintaining 
 their artificial character. 
 
 In 1885, Mr. B. Harrison, of Ightam, in the val- 
 ley of the Thames, a short distance below London, 
 brought to the notice of Professor Prestwich a num- 
 ber of chipped flints which he supposed to be of arti- 
 ficial origin, but which undoubtedly dated from far 
 back in the Tertiary period. At any rate the amount 
 of valley erosion which has taken place since the for- 
 mation of the deposits in which these flints occur has 
 been enormous as compared with post-glacial erosion. 
 To indicate their apparent age the name " eolith " has 
 been invented, and that will be the word hereafter 
 used in referring to them. The age of the eoliths is 
 inferred not only from their position but from their 
 primitive appearance. According to Prestwich, the 
 eoliths are almost all more or less stained like the 
 broken drift flints with which they are associated ; 
 they generally show considerable wear, as though they 
 had been knocked about; the trimming is also often 
 
338 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 very slight and has generally been made on the nat- 
 ural edges of broken flints which were picked up on 
 the surface. Thousands of these eoliths have already 
 been found in England, in twenty-five or thirty local- 
 ities, in deposits far above those of the River Drift 
 period. 
 
 But in the last few years the discoveries of Pro- 
 fessor A. Rutot ^ have largely monopolized attention. 
 These have been chiefly made in the Tertiary plateaus, 
 or terraces, bordering the various streams in Belgium, 
 where he finds a sharp distinction between the eoliths 
 occurring in Tertiary deposits and a higher order of 
 implements in the overlying Pleistocene strata. 
 
 But it would now seem that the evidence for the 
 artificial character of the chippings on eoliths is in- 
 sufficient to establish their genuineness. Further ob- 
 servations and experiments have shown that chippings 
 of such a character can be, and are, the results of 
 natural forces.* Mr. S. Hazzledine Warren has ex- 
 hibited flints of a newly mended road broken by cart 
 wheels, which closely resembled eoliths, showing that 
 where a small pebble lies against a larger fragment a 
 force coming upon the two forms a notch, the edge 
 of which is later subject to secondary flaking, pro- 
 ducing a form, closely resembling the hollow scrapers 
 frequently presented as eoliths. Two adjacent peb- 
 
Supposed Evidence of Tertiary Man 339 
 
 Associated fragments of flints from the Thanet sands of 
 Belle-Assize (Oise) produced by flaking in situ. (After 
 Breuil, X about 1-2.) (From Sollas's "Ancient Hunters.") 
 
 bles may produce a double notch, leaving between 
 what would be classed as a boring point. The irreg- 
 ular settling of superincumbent beds is sufficient to 
 provide the force necessary for producing these effects. 
 M. Commont, of Amiens, figures examples where 
 such forms have been actually produced by the nat- 
 ural pressure of the soil. Furthermore, M. Boule has 
 collected from, a revolving mass of chalk and clay, 
 which is being mixed for the production of cement, 
 any number of forms of flint possessing all the char- 
 acteristics of eoliths. The flint nodules contained in the 
 chalk are subjected to a succession of violent impacts 
 
340 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 in the mass, which is kept in motion for twenty-four 
 hours, with a velocity at the outer edges of twelve or 
 fifteen feet per second, about that of a river flood. 
 After the mixture is completed the mud is drawn ofE 
 and the flints remain. 
 
 But notwithstanding these results of Boule's ex- 
 perinjents, the artificial character of eoliths was still 
 maintained by Rutot and his followers. Within the 
 year past, however, Abbe Breuil "' has apparently been 
 able to give a finishing touch to the evidence discred- 
 iting the artificial character of the eoliths. We will 
 content ourselves with quoting the summary of this 
 evidence as given by Professor Sollas. " These [eoliths] 
 were found by the Abbe Breuil in Lower Eocene 
 sands (Thanctien) at Belle-Assize, Clermont (Oise). 
 M. Breuil shows in the most convincing manner that 
 they all owe their formation to one and the same 
 process, i.e. to movements of the strata w^hile settling 
 under pressure of the soil. The flint nodules crowded 
 together in a single layer are thus squeezed forcibly 
 one against the other, and flaking is the inevitable re- 
 sult. As this process has been active during a very 
 long period so the eoliths have been produced at very 
 different dates, some are ancient and these are dis- 
 tinguished by a dense patina, others are recent and the 
 fractured surfaces of these are perfectly fresh, with- 
 
Supp'jsrrl Kvi/lenrc of l\rtiarx M tin 
 
 ;4i 
 
 out even incipient patination. In many cases the flakes 
 are still to be found in connection witli the parent 
 nodule, lyino; apposed to the surface from which they 
 have been detached. They display just the same forms 
 as other Tertiary ' eoliths,' rano;ing from the obvi- 
 ously purposeless to those which simulate design and 
 bear bulbs of percussion and marginal retouches. 
 Among the most artificial looking are a few which 
 
 n a' h l> 
 
 Naturally formed flint flakes from the Thanet sands of Belle- 
 Assize. (After Breuil, nat. size.) (From Sollas's "An- 
 cient Hunters.") (By courtesy of Macmillan and Co.) 
 
 present an astonishing degree of resemblance to special 
 forms of genuine implements; attention may be di- 
 rected to two in particular, w^hich are compared by 
 the Abbe Breuil, the one to Azilio-Tardenoisian 
 flakes, and the other to the small burins of Les 
 Eyzies; in their resemblance to artificial forms these 
 simulacra far transcend any ' eoliths ' w^hich have 
 been found on other horizons of the Tertiary series. 
 On the important question of man's first arrival on 
 
342 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 this planet we may for the present possess our minds 
 in peace, not a trace of unquestionable evidence of his 
 existence having been found in strata admittedly older 
 than the Pleistocene." 
 
 Horse on walls of the grotto at Bernifal. (By courtesy of 
 Records of the Past.) 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 343 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 GLACIAL MAN IN CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The fact that man has penetrated and become a 
 denizen of every portion of the land surface of the 
 earth raises most important and interesting questions 
 concerning the place of his origin and the probable 
 routes of his dispersion. As preliminary to the im- 
 mediate subject of this chapter it will be profitable, 
 therefore,, to give a general summary of what is 
 known concerning the routes of early migration open 
 to the human race. For light upon these questions 
 we may turn with considerable profit not only to the 
 well-know^n recent changes of land levels in the 
 Northern Hemisphere, already noted, but also to the 
 limitations of the habitat of plants and animals with 
 which he has been associated. (See pp. 168, 301.) 
 
 One of the most obvious facts concerning the dis- 
 tribution of plants and animals is that the species 
 which are most alike are distributed around the world 
 in the Northern Hemisphere where the land contours 
 approach nearest to each other, and the oceans are so 
 shallow that a moderate elevation would join the 
 continents and furnish natural routes for migration. 
 
344 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 It is thus that we have an arctic realm and a north 
 temperate realm circling the whole earth. But as we 
 proceed southward where the projecting portions of 
 continents become farther and farther separated from 
 each other, the species of plants and animals become 
 more and more dissimilar and more and more ances- 
 tral in their forms. But the range of many animals 
 and plants in the Northern Hemisphere is such that 
 we are compelled to suppose great changes in land 
 levels to account for their original migration. One 
 of the most perplexing instances is that of the rein- 
 deer, which are distributed over the northern parts 
 of Europe, Asia, and America, and are so closely alike 
 that no specific differences between them can be de- 
 tected. Yet not only are these animals found upon 
 the continents now separated by Behring Strait, but 
 upon the island of Greenland, which is separated 
 from the continents by a still more impassable bar- 
 rier. Large colonies of this remarkable animal exist 
 in Southern and Eastern Greenland, separated from 
 those in the northern part of the island by the icy 
 barriers of IVlelville Bay and of Humboldt Glacier, 
 w^hich would seem to render migration under present 
 conditions impossible. To account for this distri- 
 bution it must be supposed that there was, in com- 
 paratively recent times, an elevation of land which 
 
Glacidl M(in in Ccnfnil Asia 345 
 
 connected Cireenhind with North America or with 
 Europe or with both. To accomplish this result the 
 elevation would have to amount to four or five thou- 
 sand feet. Such an elevation over the region north 
 of the sixtieth parallel would not only establish broad 
 land connection with Europe and America, but lay 
 bare i^reat areas over which vegetable growths would 
 spread to furnish feeding ground for the immense 
 herds of animals that at one time frequented the arctic 
 zone. So great an elevation as this in late Tertiary 
 times is by no means out of analog}^ with the gen- 
 eral facts already referred to concerning earth move- 
 ments. Late Tertiary elevations all along the western 
 coast of the Am.ericas and throughout Central Europe 
 and Asia, amounting to ten or twelve thousand feet, 
 are familiar facts in geological history. It should be 
 noted, also, that the present elevation of the central 
 portions of Greenland is largely, if not wholly, due 
 to accumulations of snow. It is quite probable that 
 if the glaciers were removed from Greenland there 
 would be left nothing but an archipelago, w-ith scat- 
 tering islands in the interior and disconnected moun- 
 tains of low elevation on the eastern and western 
 borders. 
 
 As already shown, an elevation of less than one 
 thousand feet uould obliterate Behring Strait, and 
 
346 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 join Alaska to Siberia by a broad belt of land cover- 
 ing a large part of Behring Sea. A similar elevation 
 w^ould lift above water level a border of considerable 
 width extending all along the Pacific coast of North 
 America and even to the end of South America, while 
 on the Eastern continent it would obliterate the Ger- 
 man Ocean and the Strait of Dover and extend the 
 border of Northwestern Europe far out beyond Scot- 
 land and Ireland and add materially to the borders 
 of France and Spain, while it would separate the 
 Mediterranean Sea into two or three fresh-water 
 lakes, emptjang into the Atlantic through the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, if indeed they did not become enclosed 
 basins. 
 
 When now we come to trace the movements of 
 various extinct animals connected with the early life 
 of man, they bear unmistakable evidence of a late 
 Tertiary land connection between Asia and America, 
 between North America and South America, and be- 
 tween Europe and Africa, permitting an extensive 
 interchange of species between these regions. Among 
 the extinct Post-Pliocene animals of North America, 
 we find the remains of horses, camels, and elephants, 
 which are now confined to the Old World, and of 
 llamas, tapirs, and gigantic Edentata, including the 
 Megatherium and the Megalonyx, which are pecul- 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 347 
 
 iarly South American types. That these South Amer- 
 ican types were late immigrants is clear from the 
 fact that the remains of not one of them have been 
 found in the Pliocene deposits of North America. At 
 the same time we find in the cave deposits of South 
 America of recent date the remains of the horse, 
 the mastodon, and various other animals w^hich had 
 evidently migrated from North to South America. 
 Under present conditions this interchange of species 
 would be wtII nigh impossible. Such a migration 
 points to an elevation of land of two or three thou- 
 sand feet in the latitude of the Caribbean Sea which 
 would permit of a free interchange of animals between 
 North and South America; w^hile the peculiar devel- 
 opment of earlier species in South America would 
 indicate a previous isolation. 
 
 During late Pliocene times the Mediterranean ceased 
 to be a barrier between Africa and Europe; so that 
 numerous animals of African origin were able to 
 migrate to the north shore of the Mediterranean and 
 penetrate a long distance into the interior of Europe. 
 On the island of Malta, for example, three exrinct 
 species of elephants, two of them of very small stat- 
 ure, and an extinct hippopotamus have left their re- 
 mains in late Pliocene or Post-Pliocene deposits. Re- 
 mains of the hippopotamus are also found in the caves 
 
348 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of Gibraltar, and are scattered over the greater part 
 of England as far north as Leeds in Yorkshire. 
 
 The connection between the species of the Old 
 World and the New is somew^hat difficult to make 
 out in all particulars, but the following facts may be 
 taken as well established: 
 
 The Primates appear in the Eocene deposits of 
 both, but in the Miocene deposits the Old World 
 forms are the most highly organized, making it alto- 
 gether probable that the true monkey and man, his 
 nearest ally, developed in the Eastern continent. 
 
 Of the Carnivora true bears are, in Europe, traced 
 back to the older Pliocene, while in North America 
 they do not appear until the Post-Pliocene period. 
 According to Wallace,^ bears seem to have passed 
 into America from the Pala?arctic in the latter 
 part of the Pliocene period. They probably came in 
 on the northwest, and passed down the Andes into 
 South America, where one isolated species still exists. 
 
 Of the Ungulata, the true horse appears in the 
 older Pliocene of Europe, but not until the newer 
 Pliocene or Post-Pliocene of America; and this not- 
 withstanding the fact that the earlier forms of the 
 family are most fully represented in the Eocene and 
 Miocene deposits of America. From all the facts the 
 conclusion appears probable that the finishing touches 
 
Ci /acid/ Man in Ccnfrnl A si( 
 
 349 
 
 in the devclopnieiit of the horse were given in the 
 Old World, anil that tlie most specialized species of 
 the present time passed into North America from the 
 Pala^irctic region. 
 
 True tapirs, too, evidently originated in the Old 
 World, appearing in the lower Miocene in Europe, 
 but in America not until the Post-Pliocene. 
 
 The camel, on the other hand, seems to have orig- 
 inated in North America, where it is now extinct, 
 but in the Pliocene period six or seven species of a 
 genus closely allied to the camel have been found in 
 Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas; while in the Miocene 
 period several specimens of allied genera have been 
 found in various places, including Virginia. The 
 camel, therefore, probably passed from America to the 
 Old World in late Pliocene or Post-Pliocene times. 
 
 The Cervid^E, or the deer, abounded in Europe 
 in Miocene times, but appear in North and South 
 America only in the later Pliocene and Post-Pliocene 
 periods. 
 
 True oxen, also, while appearing in India in Mio- 
 cene time, do not appear in Europe until the Pliocene 
 period, and in America not until the Post-Pliocene 
 period. 
 
 The Elephantidn[', which are represented at the 
 present time by only two species, the African and 
 
350 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the Indian, formerly ranged over the whole Palae- 
 arctfc and Nearctic regions, fourteen species of the 
 elephant and a still larger number of mastodons having 
 become extinct. In Europe and Central India they 
 go back to Pliocene times, and in India to the upper 
 Miocene; while in America the elephant is limited to 
 Post-Pliocene times, though the mastodon appeared in 
 the Pliocene period. In Europe the mastodon appeared 
 in the upper Miocene, and in India still earlier. From 
 the distribution of this family it is clear that they 
 originated in the Old World, and migrated to Amer- 
 ica during that elevation of land which characterized 
 the latter part of the Pliocene period. 
 
 Thus everything points to the Eastern continent, 
 and to be more particular to the southern part of 
 Asia, as the place from w^hich the immediate ances- 
 tors of the most highly specialized animals associated 
 with man had their origin in the latter part of the 
 Pliocene period. With the elevation of land which 
 characterized that period, easy routes of migration 
 were opened to Northwestern Europe and through 
 Northeastern Asia to North America. There can be 
 scarcely any doubt that these were the routes fol- 
 lowed by the mastodon, whose remains are found so 
 widely scattered over the whole Northern Hemisphere. 
 But the yev}' conditions which in the latter part of the 
 
Glacial Alan in Central Asia 351 
 
 Pliocene period favored this wide distribution of the 
 animals which originated in the Palasarctic region also 
 brought on the Glacial epoch, and in consequence a 
 reversal of all the conditions which have favored 
 the existence of a large number of highly special- 
 ized animal species. In consequence, as we may be- 
 lieve, of the widespread elevation of land which 
 joined the continents together during that period, 
 the Glacial epoch came on, and produced temporary 
 Isolation of species both by the reduction of tempera- 
 ture and by the subsequent depression of the land so 
 as again to separate the continents even more widely 
 than they are now separated. Man alone has been 
 able to overcome these obstacles presented by the Gla- 
 cial epoch and pass from one region to the other 
 across both the climatic and the oceanic barriers. (See 
 maps on pp. 161, 173.) 
 
 A study of the earliest known centers of human 
 development and their relation to the changing con- 
 ditions which characterized the Post-Pliocene period 
 also leads us, as w^e have seen, to Central and West- 
 ern Asia as the center where the races of mankind 
 were first developed and from which they have mi- 
 grated to all parts of the world. It also indicates 
 late Pliocene or early Post-Pliocene times as the 
 period of the earliest development of the species. It 
 
352 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 is in the valley of the Euphrates and in the southern 
 border of the Aral-Caspian depression that we find 
 the earliest traces of civilization, whose antiquity is. 
 reckoned approximately as ten thousand years. At 
 that time cities of considerable importance had arisen 
 in both these centers, a large number of the most 
 useful animals and plants had been domesticated, and 
 most of the important arts necessary for human wel- 
 fare had been evolved. 
 
 The study of language leads us to the same center 
 of original dispersion. The Aryan tongues, in all 
 probability, originated in the oases which spread out 
 from the base of the mountains which form the south- 
 ern border of the Aral-Caspian depression. From 
 here, in prehistoric times, Ar^^an-speaking tribes mi- 
 grated to Persia and India on the one side, and on 
 the other to Russia and the rest of Europe. This 
 also seems to have been the center of dispersal for the 
 tribes using the agglutinative forms of speech. For 
 these tongues are still peculiarly characteristic of the 
 region between the Ural and the Altai mountains 
 and very naturally spread to Finland on the one side, 
 and on the other to the shores of America, and to 
 various places in Eastern and Southern Asia. 
 
 From the earliest times there have gone forth from 
 this center migrations of men, marking epochs in the 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 353 
 
 world's history. The conquests of Genghis Khan 
 and Timur the Tartar, and the invasions of Europe 
 by the l\irks and the Huns are more recent examples 
 of these movements. 
 
 Ethnologists have been led to similar conclusions 
 from study of the relation of different races to a 
 common center. Following is a statement of Quat- 
 refages upon this point. 
 
 " We know that in Asia there is a vast region 
 bounded on the south and south-west by the Hima- 
 la^-as, on the west by the Bolor mountains, on the 
 north-west by the Ala-Tau, on the north by the Altai 
 range and its offshoots, on the east by the Kingkhan, 
 on the south and south-east by the Felina and Kuen- 
 Loun. Judging from the present state of things, 
 this great central region might be regarded as having 
 contained the cradle of the human species. 
 
 " In fact, the three fundamental types of all the hu- 
 man races are represented in the populations grouped 
 around this region. The black races are the furthest 
 removed from it. but have, nevertheless, marine sta- 
 tions, where we find them either pure or as mixed 
 races, from the Kioussiou to the Andaman Islands. 
 Upon the continent they have intermixed with almost 
 even- inferior caste and class of the two peninsulas 
 of the Ganges; they are still found pure in both, as- 
 
354 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 cend as high as Nepaul, and extend west as far as 
 the Persian Gulf and Lake Zareh, according to El- 
 phinstone. 
 
 " The yellow race, either pure or in place mixed 
 with white elements, seems to be the only one which 
 occupies the space in question ; it peoples all the north, 
 east, south-east, and w^st. In the south it Is more 
 mixed, but forms, nevertheless, an important element 
 in the population. 
 
 " The white race, from its allophylian representa- 
 tives, seems to have disputed the central area itself 
 with the yellow race. In early times, we find the 
 Yu-tchi and the Ou-soun to the north of the Hoang- 
 ho; and in the present day cases of white populations 
 have been observed in Little Thibet and in Eastern 
 Thibet. The Miao-Tse occupy the mountain region 
 of China; the Slaputh are proof against all attack in 
 the gorges of the Bolor. Upon the confines of this 
 area we meet with the Ainos and the Japanese of 
 high caste, the Tinguianes of the Philippine Islands; 
 in the south with the Hindoos. In the south-wTSt 
 and west the white element, either pure or mixed, 
 reigns supreme. 
 
 " No other region of the globe presents a similar 
 union of extreme human types distributed round a 
 common centre." - 
 
Glaiial Man In Central Asia 355 
 
 At the present time a population of many millions 
 is supported upon the belt of irrigated land which 
 borders the vast mountain systems which for thou- 
 sands of miles stretch along the south side of the 
 Aral-Caspian depression. The water for the needed 
 irrigation is afforded by innumerable streams large 
 and small which come down from the mountain 
 ranges, and which, in many cases, are fed by gla- 
 ciers still existing at all heights above the twelve 
 thousand-foot line. In every case these streams either 
 disappear in the desert or end in land-locked basins 
 like Lake Balkash and the Aral Sea. Among the 
 larger streams are the Hi, the Chu, the Syr Daria 
 (ancient Jaxartes), the Amu Daria (ancient Oxus), 
 the Murgab, the Tejend, and the Atrek, with thou- 
 sands of smaller ones all descending from the north- 
 ern slopes of the vast bordering mountain system; 
 while in the interior there is the Tarim River with 
 its numerous tributaries ending in Lob Nor; and on 
 the south the Indus carrying fertility to the Punjab; 
 besides innumerable streams of less individual im- 
 portance deploying over the plains of Persia. 
 
 To appreciate the natural attractiveness of this re- 
 gion it is necessary only to refer to what Strabo 
 writes concerning Hyrcania, through which the River 
 Atrek flows to empty into the Caspian Sea. On ac- 
 
356 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 count of its fertility and genial climate it is described 
 as " highly favored of heaven " ; where a single vine 
 had been known to produce nine gallons of wine, and 
 a single fig tree ninety bushels of figs; while grain 
 did not require to be sow^n, but sprang up from what 
 failed to be gleaned in previous years. 
 
 GLACIAL HISTORY OF CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 But it is only a study of the succession of events 
 connected with the Glacial epoch which can reveal 
 the former possibilities of this region and the physical 
 changes which have taken place in it calculated first 
 to stimulate man's micntal activities and secondly to 
 force his migration to other parts of the world. 
 
 Considering the extent of the glacial ice sheets in 
 North America and Europe it was a great surprise 
 to find that Northern Siberia had never been invaded 
 by glacial ice. This, however, was scarcely more 
 surprising than the fact previously discovered that 
 Alaska north of the mountains w^hich border the Pa- 
 cific Ocean showed no signs of general glaciation. 
 In both regions, however, the soil is still deeply 
 frozen, the frost penetrating at Yakutsk to a depth 
 of six hundred feet, while both in Siberia and Alaska 
 stagnant ice is prevalent over large areas, in many 
 cases beins; buried bv a few feet of soil on which 
 
Glm-idl Man in Central Asia 357 
 
 flourishes an abundant vey^ctation, the ice serving as 
 a rock. The effect of the sun and the warmth of 
 summer is felt only a few inches beU)w tlie surface, 
 and yet even so it is suflficient to support a growth 
 of trees, shrubs, and other vegetation which is am- 
 ple for the sustenance of a great variety of animal 
 species.^ 
 
 In Northeastern Siberia it would seem that the con- 
 ditions were somewhat the same during the Glacial 
 epoch as they were in Alaska. According to my own 
 observations, there were no extensive glaciers coming 
 down from the Vitim Plateau, either to the east Into 
 the Chita Valley, or to the southwest, into the val- 
 leys of the Uda and Selenga rivers; w^hile, according 
 to Professor Schmidt, who has made extensive explor- 
 ations in the region, there are no certain signs of gla- 
 cial action In the Yablonol Mountains. Farther north, 
 how^ever. In the latitude of Okhotsk, there are, ac- 
 cording to Professor Tschernyschev, indications of an 
 extensive glacial occupation of the Stanovol Moun- 
 tains above the sixtieth parallel of latitude; while 
 there are extensive areas of stagnant Ice over the 
 lower part of the Lena Valley and In the Arctic Lit- 
 toral, and upon the New Siberian Islands from which 
 so many remains of the mammoth have been derived. 
 Baron Toll speaks of this as a " fossil glacier," sup- 
 
358 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 posing, it would seem, that there had been a move- 
 ment of ice from the continent to these islands. It has 
 been shown by Dr. A. C. Lane, however, that where 
 the average summer and winter temperature is that 
 of Yakutsk, frost would in time penetrate to a depth 
 of six hundred feet. 
 
 At the present time numerous glaciers exist both in 
 the Tian Shan and Altai mountains. An ice cap cov- 
 ers the summit of Khan-tengri, which rises to a height 
 of twenty-four thousand feet, and projects glaciers 
 down upon all sides through the various river troughs 
 to a level of about twelve thousand feet. Another 
 glacial center is about one hundred miles to the west 
 directly south of the east end of Issyk-kul, from 
 which glacial streams descend both into the Tarim 
 basin and into the Naryn River, which flows into the 
 Syr Daria. Another glacial center of considerable ex- 
 tent is found just south of Verni, in the Western 
 Ala-tau range. From this, glacial streams are sent 
 forth both into the headwaters of the Hi and of the 
 Chu. Still another glacial center along the main 
 range of the Tian Shan Mountains is found south of 
 Aulieata, from which perennial streams flow north 
 into the Talas, and south into the Chatkal, which 
 flows past Tashkent. 
 
 Still another center of glaciers is found in the Alai 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 359 
 
 Tagh range between Kokand and the upper basin of 
 the Syr Daria and the Waghesh River, one of the 
 head tributaries of the Amu Daria, forming the north- 
 ern boundary of the Pamir. There are as many as 
 four of these, covering the summits above ten thou- 
 sand feet, from which perennial streams flow into 
 both the Amu Daria and the Syr Daria, and from 
 the western one into the Zerafshan, which waters the 
 valley of Samarkand and Bokhara. 
 
 South of the Waghesh in the Pamir, Mount Kauf- 
 mann (22,500 feet) and Mustagh Ata (25,800 feet), 
 together with two or three other peaks rising to an 
 elevation of nearly twenty thousand feet, sustain gla- 
 ciers of considerable extent. 
 
 In the Altai Mountains, though the elevation is 
 nowhere much above eleven thousand feet, glaciers 
 are still found which would compare favorably with 
 those in the Alps. 
 
 But, as already stated, though the glaciers of Cen- 
 tral Asia and Siberia never descended far enough to 
 become confluent upon the plains w^hich spread out 
 from the base of the mountains^ as in Switzerland 
 the glaciers of the Alps filled the valleys on either 
 side, there was a great extension of glaciers during 
 the Glacial epoch. Professors William M. Davis and 
 Ellsworth Huntington ^ in crossing the Tian Shan 
 
360 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Mountains encountered extensive moraines upon both 
 sides of the range at an approximate level of seven 
 thousand feet above the sea, which is five thousand 
 feet iow'er than glaciers of these mountains descend 
 at the present time. The significance of these facts 
 will be discussed later after giving the data more in 
 detail concerning the spread of man over Northern 
 Asia during the Glacial epoch in company with va- 
 rious extinct animal associates especially the mam- 
 moth. 
 
 MAN AND THE MAMMOTH 
 
 The association of man with the mammoth in their 
 wanderings over the Northern Hemisphere presents 
 many difficult and important problems connected with 
 the physical conditions which favored their original 
 migrations, but which in the end proved fatal to the 
 mammoth. The evidence of the coexistence of man 
 and this species of elephant is found in all parts of 
 the north temperate zone. In Western Europe, not 
 only are the bones of the mammoth and palaeolithic 
 implements found together in high-level river gravels 
 and in caves, but the forms of tlie animal were pic- 
 tured by man on slabs of stone and pieces of bone 
 with a high degree of artistic skill. In Russia and 
 Siberia, stone implements and mammoth remains are 
 found in close juxtaposition. In the valley of the 
 
Glacial Man in Central .Isia ^6 1 
 
 Obi, near Tomsk, the implements were found in con- 
 nection with bones representing an entire skeleton, 
 some of them showing tliat they had been split by 
 man for the extraction of the marrow. In America, 
 the mammoth also was occasionally sketched on stone 
 by the aborigines, and mounds were made to represent 
 the form of the animal. The evidence is also indu- 
 bitable that the mammoth long survived the close of 
 the Glacial epoch, since his remains are frequently 
 found in post-glacial peat bogs and quagmires. He 
 was not killed by cold but by warmth. 
 
 It is in Siberia and the adjoining islands that the 
 most startling facts concerning the histon^ of this an- 
 imal have been brought to light. So abundant are 
 his remains in that region that the principal industry 
 along the northern rivers and on the New Siberian 
 Islands has been the ivory trade.'^ An idea of the 
 enormous number of the remains can be gained from 
 some of the reports on the ivory exported. In 1840 
 Middendorff calculated that during the previous two 
 hundred years, 20,000 mammoths had been discov- 
 ered. Reclus speaks of the annual output of ivory 
 as fifteen tons, which represents the tusks of about 
 two hundred animals; while Stadling says that at the 
 present time there are seventeen tons of ivory taken 
 out annually in the Yakutsk district alone. 
 
362 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 To add to the interest of the subject we must be 
 content with a single illustration. A perfect specimen 
 of the mammoth was discovered and brought to St. 
 Petersburg in 1900 by Messrs. Herz and Tolmat- 
 schow.® From the position in which the carcass was 
 found it appears that the animal " died during the 
 pleasant occupation of feeding. He probably rolled 
 off a precipice while reaching out for a coveted branch 
 or plant; the position of his forelegs shows that almost 
 to a certainty. ... In gliding down the mountain-side, 
 the animal's hind legs were forced into a horizontal 
 position and got under his body, which circumstance 
 made it completely impossible for the mammoth to 
 raise himself by his own efforts. 
 
 " The impromptu grave into which the animal 
 plunged was made of sand and clay, and his fall prob- 
 ably caused masses of neighboring soil to loosen and 
 cover him completely. This happened in the late fall, 
 or beginning of winter, to judge by the vegetable 
 matter found in the stomach; at any rate, shortly 
 afterward, the grave became flooded, ice following. 
 This completed the cold storage, still further aug- 
 mented by vast accumulations of soil all around — a 
 shell of ice, hundreds of feet thick, inclosed by yards 
 upon yards of soil, that remained frozen for the 
 greater part of the year. Thus the enormous carcass 
 
Mammoth from Siberia mounted in the Museum at St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 This mammoth was found in the year 1900. Its skin 
 and skeleton were transported to St. Petersburg by Mr. I. P. 
 Tolmatschow. The carcass was at the bottom of a steep 
 slope which rises to a height of 170 feet above the flood-plain 
 of the Beresowka River. At this height a terrace stretches 
 back for half a mile, where the land rises 300 or 400 feet 
 higher to the general level of a forest-covered plain. The 
 mammoth was completely enveloped in the frozen soil until 
 washed out by the river. The appearance was as if, in 
 stretching out to reach twigs, he tiad slid down backward in 
 the position shown in the illustration, and there perished, to 
 be frozen into the accumulating ice, and preserved for an un- 
 known period of time. 
 
364 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 was preserved, for how long no one knows." (See 
 illustrations in Records of the Past, vol. ii. p. 315-) 
 
 Foxes, bears and wolves devoured most of the 
 flesh, but the stomach, with its undigested food, was 
 preserved. The hairy covering w^as extremely thick 
 and averaged seven inches in length, and the mane 
 was three or four feet long. Under the coarser hair 
 there was a very close growth of wool, like that which 
 covers a young camel. Thus the animal was so pro- 
 tected that he w^ould not feel even the extremest cold. 
 The food found in his stomach showed that his diet 
 had largely consisted of the young shoots of the fir 
 and pine. 
 
 Besides the mammoth there are many remains of 
 the rhinoceros, bison, horse, tiger, saiga, and the 
 wapiti, found in such positions as to prove without 
 doubt that they lived where they were found, even as 
 far north as 74° North Latitude, while now none of 
 them live north of 60° North Latitude. 
 
 The distribution of the mammoth and his final 
 extinction have been the occasion for a multitude of 
 theories concerning the climatic conditions of the 
 Northern Hemisphere during Pleistocene times. This 
 much Is certain that the climate was more mild and 
 equable in Northern Siberia during the time they 
 maintained existence there than at present. The stom- 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 365 
 
 achs of some of the mammoths which have been dis- 
 covered contained leaves of trees whose present habitat 
 is hundreds of miles south of the locality where the 
 animals perished ; while the i!;reat abundance of their 
 remains in the New Siberian Islands renders it certain 
 that at one time within the period of their existence 
 there was a continental elevation sufficient to provide 
 land connection between these islands and Siberia. It 
 is clear, therefore, that great physical changes have 
 taken place in Northern Asia since its joint occupa- 
 tion by man and this unwieldy species of elephant. 
 
 But so many complicated causes conspire on the one 
 hand to favor the life of a species and on the other 
 to bring about its extinction that it is difficult to un- 
 tangle them and estimate the individual effect of each 
 conspiring cause. Of one thing, however, we are cer- 
 tain, that the main cause has been the changing climate 
 of the Glacial epoch. This epoch originated new^ con- 
 ditions of life which acted in innumerable ways both 
 to favor and destroy it. The continental elevations 
 connected with its inception enlarged the land areas 
 about the arctic circle, and thus favored an increase 
 in numbers and opened the way for extensive migra- 
 tions. In certain localities, however, as in the South- 
 ern United States and in Europe, the advancing ice 
 limited the habitable areas and produced overcrowd- 
 
366 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ing. To a still greater extent overcrowding was 
 caused by the continental depression of land at the 
 close of the Glacial epoch ; while the vast glacial floods 
 which poured forth from the melting ice must have 
 been destructive to a high degree. All these changes 
 brought on successively a new adjustment of animal 
 species to one another, during which now one enemy 
 was favored and now another. In short, the host of 
 indirect causes brought in operation by such changed 
 conditions as are connected with the Glacial epoch are 
 beyond calculation. Still the facts are such that careful 
 study of them points to Conclusions which are of some 
 help in solving the main problem relating to the dis- 
 tribution of man and the animals associated with him 
 during the prehistoric period, and permits us with some 
 confidence to present a provisional theory respecting 
 the succession of events connected with man's occupa- 
 tion of Central Asia and the surrounding region in 
 prehistoric times. 
 
 PROVISIONAL THEORY 
 
 Paradoxical as it may seem, it was soon after the 
 culmination of the Glacial epoch that the conditions 
 in Central Asia were most favorable for the support 
 of a dense population both of animals and man ; for 
 it was at that time that the oases on every side were 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 367 
 
 expanded to their greatest extent, and that the ch'niate 
 was most salubrious. The more ice there was to melt 
 upon the mountain heights, the larger the streams 
 which sent their life-giving waters to the fertile belt 
 of soil spreading out in every direction from the base 
 of the mountains. Of the former enlargement of all 
 these streams there is abundant evidence. The river 
 Chu, which now ends in an insignificant lake in the 
 midst of the desert, formerly overflowed and emptied 
 into the Syr Daria. The Syr Daria and the Amu 
 Daria, each with a volume of water at the present 
 time equal to that of Niagara, wtrt formerly large 
 enough to fill the Aral Sea to overflowing, and pour 
 an immense current of water through a well-defined 
 channel, now dry (the Usboy), into the Caspian, 
 while the Caspian Sea itself overflowed through a 
 channel (the Manytch), only a few feet above tide 
 level, into the Black Sea. 
 
 The fertility given by the Nile to Egypt is even 
 now insignificant compared with that which is poured 
 upon Central Asia by the innumerable melting gla- 
 ciers nourished at the more than Alpine heights which 
 look down upon the region from every side. The 
 overflow of the Nile is dependent upon the seasonal 
 rainfall in Central Africa and is liable to be inter- 
 rupted by the accumulation of debris in the outlets of 
 
368 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the great interior lakes of the continent. But in 
 Central Asia the supply of water, such as it is, is un- 
 failing, being kept in cold storage perpetually until it 
 is liberated by the progressive heat of the summers; 
 while the area w^hich can be rendered fertile by irri- 
 gation is many times greater than that of Egypt. But 
 during the Glacial epoch this area was immensely in- 
 creased. 
 
 For it is evident that the irrigated belt at the base 
 of the mountains of the Aral-Caspian depression must 
 vary in size in proportion to the extent of the glaciers 
 in the mountains, and to the rapidity with which they 
 are melting. Thus the period just subsequent to the 
 climax of the Glacial epoch would w^itness the great- 
 est extension of the irrigated belt in Central Asia, and 
 furnish the conditions most favorable for the support 
 of a large population. But, at the same time that con- 
 ditions were so favorable for the increase of popula- 
 tion in this region, they were absolutely prohibitive 
 of the existence of man in what are now the most 
 fertile portions of Europe. When the enlarged gla- 
 ciers in the Tian Shan and Hindu Kush mountains 
 were pouring their life-giving streams into the alluvial 
 plains of Turkestan, vast accumulations of glacial ice 
 rested over Russia, Scandinavia, Northern Germany, 
 the British Isles, and Switzerland. 
 
Glacial Man in Central Asia 369 
 
 Hut the decline of the period reversed these condi- 
 tions. As the ghiciers diminished in the mountains of 
 Central Asia, the irrigating streams which flowed 
 from them were gradually bereft of their full supply 
 of water. The oases fed by these streams became con- 
 tracted in their areas, and the whole irrigated belt at 
 the base of the mountains grew- narrower. The nat- 
 ural effect of all this w^as to intensify the struggle 
 for existence, both among the plants and am'mals, in- 
 cluding man, and to compel migration. 
 
 Fortunately the same causes which wrought this 
 destruction in Central Asia opened up the most fer- 
 tile portions of Europe, and invited their occupation. 
 As the glaciers diminished in the mountains of Central 
 Asia the ice withdrew from the plains of Southern 
 Russia and Northern Germany, opening there oppor- 
 tunities for man to reach the highest attainments of 
 civilization. In America the field exposed by the 
 melting away of the glacial ice remained hid for a 
 longer time. But now the glacial deposits of the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley and the Red River of the North are 
 filling the granaries from which city populations the 
 world over will draw their food supplies for centuries 
 to come. 
 
 At first thought it might appear that the climatic 
 conditions during the Glacial epoch in Central Asia 
 
370 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 would have been unfavorable for man. This, how- 
 ever, was by no means the case. The Glacial epoch 
 was not merely one of a depression of temperature, 
 but was still more a period of increased precipitation, 
 since an increase of snowfall is more effective for the 
 extension of a glacier than is a decline in the temper- 
 ature. Central Asia, at the present time, is handi- 
 capped by an insufficient rainfall. Over the lower 
 areas only a few inches of rain fall in each year. Be- 
 sides, the extremes of temperature are almost unbear- 
 able. While the thermometer rises on the plains of 
 Turkestan to 130° F. in summer, it descends to the 
 freezing point of mercury in the winter, all due to 
 the dryness of the atmosphere. As it is, the popula- 
 tion is compelled to seek shelter in the base of the 
 mountains both from the heat of summer and from the 
 cold of winter. The moist climatic conditions which 
 brought on the Glacial epoch must have spread a 
 most grateful amelioration of both the summer and 
 the winter climate over these now arid regions. In 
 short, it is no unwarranted stretch of the imagination 
 to conceive of this region as the original paradise of 
 the human race. 
 
The Physio/oi^nral An^ufnent 371 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ARGUMENT 
 
 The numerous physiological facts bearing upon the 
 mode of man's origin and the antiquity of his histor}^ 
 though complicated and difficult of interpretation, 
 cannot be passed by without notice. But in weigh- 
 ing the argument drawn from them, we shall be 
 compelled to move with peculiar circumspection, both 
 from the danger of converting a mere analogy into 
 an argument, and from fear of being unduly influ- 
 enced by various natural but ill-founded prejudices. 
 
 The great difficulty in reasoning upon the physio- 
 logical facts bearing upon the question is that we have 
 no satisfactory knowledge either of the rate at w^hich 
 changes have taken place in nature or of the extent 
 to which they may proceed through the action of resi- 
 dent forces. A generation or two ago the unity of 
 the human race was vigorously questioned. To the 
 physiologists of that time the differences between the 
 various races of men seemed so great and so persistent 
 that it passed the bounds of their comprehension that 
 these should have had a common origin. In color of 
 skin, in texture of hair, in shape of skull, and in the 
 
372 Origin a fid Antiquity of Man 
 
 development and adjustment of various bones in the 
 frame, there is such diversity between the races of 
 mankind, and these diversities are traced back to such 
 an early period, — having been found to exist even 
 at the earliest daw^n of history, — that it seemed in- 
 credible that they could have had the same ancestry. 
 But now that through the work of Darwin and his 
 followers even the natural differentiation of a genus 
 into species has become not only conceivable, but the 
 belief in it an essential part of our mental furniture, 
 no one would think of denying a common origin to 
 the human races by reason of the superficial differences 
 which separate them from one another. Two ques- 
 tions, however, are not so easily answ^ered by the 
 thoroughgoing Darwinian. The first relates to the 
 length of time required, on that theory, for the orig- 
 inal race of man to have become so diversified as we 
 find him at the dawn of history. Even the oldest 
 Egyptian monuments which contain representations of 
 the human form show that the Negro race was then 
 characterized by its w^ll-known features, while the 
 Egyptian and Semitic features were as characteristic 
 of the ruling races then as they were at the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era. At first, one might be 
 tempted to solve the problem by applying here the 
 simple rule of three, and endeavoring to estimate the 
 
The Physiological Argutnent 
 
 3,15 
 
 amount of change which has taken place in the Ne- 
 gro, the Egyptian, and the Semite during the many 
 centuries which have elapsed since the building of the 
 pyramids, and then estimating how far back, at a 
 similar rate, we should have to go to find the com- 
 mon stock. But apparently this would send us out 
 upon parallel lines, which never converge; for, so far 
 as we can see, there are absolutely no changes in the 
 anatomical and physiological characteristics of the 
 race since the earliest monuments were decorated w^ith 
 their features. So that, from considerations of this 
 sort, we should be prepared or inclined to throw the 
 origin of man far back into the hundreds of thou- 
 sands of years, or even to place it in a distant geo- 
 logical period. 
 
 Reflection, however, will lead us to hesitate about 
 committing ourselves to such a result. That doctrine 
 of evolution which best adjusts itself to both the 
 geological and the biological facts of the world, is 
 one which admits of paroxysmal development at cer- 
 tain epochs of progress. There is nothing inconsistent 
 in rapidity of change in certain conditions at the 
 same time that there is fixity of character for long 
 periods at other times. It is easy to see that, with 
 continuity of development, the ordinary course of 
 things may at certain periods be interrupted so as to 
 
374 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 compel a rapid readjustment of species to their sur- 
 roundings. For instance, a slow subsidence of the 
 Isthmus of Panama might proceed for centuries with- 
 out subjecting the marine life upon the opposite shores 
 of the isthmus to any specially new conditions; but 
 when this subsidence has proceeded a little farther, 
 so that there is a commingling of the w^aters, the spe- 
 cies upon both sides of the continent w'\\\ immedi- 
 ately be compelled to struggle for existence amid 
 many new conditions of life. New species peculiar 
 to the Atlantic side will commence a struggle for 
 existence with those that have been developed in the 
 waters of the Pacific. The stability of species arising 
 from the long-continued uniformity of conditions in 
 the midst of which they had come into existence, 
 would suddenly be broken up by the necessity of 
 adapting themselves to the changed environment, and 
 of maintaining themselves in the presence of new 
 competitors. 
 
 For, it is not possible to maintain a theory of evo- 
 lution without putting forward changes of environ- 
 ment as the principal factor determining the rapidity 
 of changes which take place in the organism in its 
 struggle to maintain existence. When an organism 
 becomes adapted to its conditions, all abnormal 
 changes are a disadvantage. The very idea of adap- 
 
The Physiolorrical Arr^unirnt 375 
 
 tation implies stability of conditions as related to the 
 physiological changes which take place in the strug- 
 gling organism. But at once, upon a change of con- 
 ditions of any kind or degree, some variations which 
 in a previous condition had been abnormal will now 
 become normal, that is, specially adapted to the new- 
 sphere of conditions. For example: if the vegetation 
 of a country has become adjusted to a rainfall of 
 forty inches pretty evenly distributed over the year, 
 all those variations by which it might adjust itself 
 to greater or less degrees of humidity will be dis- 
 advantageous, and there will be little change so long 
 as present conditions continue; but if, from any 
 cause, the climate becomes arid, at once there begins 
 a rapid substitution of those plants which vary in 
 directions better adapted to the drier climate. The 
 change from one type of plants to another would be 
 almost as rapid as the change in conditions. This is 
 brought about, however, not by any direct effect of 
 the conditions upon the organism, but by that inevit- 
 able sifting process which remorselessly suffers the 
 ill-adapted variations to go to w^aste, and infallibly 
 preserves from destruction the variations adapted to 
 the new conditions. 
 
 From these considerations it follows that, even if 
 we admit the derivative origin of the human race so 
 
376 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 far as hfs physical organization is concerned, we have 
 not thereby obtained any well-defined means of de- 
 termining the date of his origin. Our experience of 
 the changeability of human races is limited to that 
 period of their existence in which there is peculiar 
 stability of conditions. This stability, however, arises 
 in large part from the capacity of man to mold the 
 conditions of life for himself through the marvellous 
 power of his mental capacity. Of the profound and 
 far-reaching influences of the reasoning powers of 
 mankind we shall speak more fully in a subsequent 
 chapter, but a few observations upon it are appropriate 
 in this connection. 
 
 In remarking upon this point, it is important, at the 
 outset, to observe the indeterminateness of the under- 
 lying principle in the prevailing theory of evolution. 
 Herbert Spencer invented the happy but somewhat 
 delusive phrase " survival of the fittest," and the 
 whole theory of evolution has come to be familiarly 
 expressed in the truism that, amid any change of con- 
 ditions to which an organism is subjected, it is the 
 fittest only which will survive. From this most ob- 
 vious truth, however, many fallacious inferences have 
 been draw^n. It has been tacitly assumed by many 
 that this was a doctrine of upward progression, lead- 
 ing by inevitable necessity to the development of 
 
The Ph\'siolo<[ic(il Afi^unicnt 377 
 
 hiVlicr and better and more noble forms of life. A 
 moment's reflection, however, will show that this is 
 an entirely mistaken view. Whether the survival of 
 the fittest shall be the survival of the hij^her and bet- 
 ter and nobler- forms of existence depends upon the 
 prior question, whether the conditions of life have 
 been previously arranged by creative design to secure 
 this result. 
 
 Atheism can have no theory of the distant future. 
 It is well nigh impossible for any one to study the 
 development of life w^hich has actually appeared in 
 the world, the evidences of which are unfolded to us 
 in geological strata, without being convinced that the 
 conditions and the capacity of life have been both 
 created and adjusted by an all-wise and benevolent 
 Architect. Whether raw cotton when thrown in at 
 one end of the mill w^ill at the other end come out a 
 web of cloth depends both upon the adjustment of the 
 machinery and upon the nature of the material. So, 
 whether life w^hen introduced into the complex ma- 
 terial envir(5nment of the world shall come out a 
 higher form or a lower, or even shall escape destruc- 
 tion altogether, depends upon such an adjustment of 
 all the existing forces as demands the oversight of an 
 infinite Creator's m.ind. Whether, again, it is possi- 
 ble for the web of life to be w^oven into all its pat- 
 
378 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 terns without the interference, here and there, of that 
 same creative power which initiated the movement, is 
 a question of philosophy, and not of natural science. 
 Yet it is one which the man of science is by no means 
 at liberty wholly to set aside. Indeed, he cannot set 
 it aside, except by committing himself to a philosophy 
 of creation which lies entirely outside the realm of 
 observation. 
 
 The essential truth in the modern theor}^ of evolu- 
 tion is the continuity of life. Evidently the principle 
 of life which has been introduced into the complex 
 mechanism of the material universe is extremely plas- 
 tic, and capable of expressing itself in an almost in- 
 finite variety of material forms and of appropriating an 
 astonishing range of material forces. Whether the moral 
 and higher intellectual powers of the human mind are 
 direct outgrowths of this original principle of life, or 
 whether it is more philosophical to suppose a direct 
 ingrafting of divinely related qualities upon the high- 
 est form of life attained by natural selection, is a 
 question which we shall consider more fully in the 
 chapter upon the psychological evidence of man's ori- 
 gin and antiquity. 
 
 The point for us to consider here is the arrest of 
 development in the physical constitution of the hu- 
 man race which is produced by the enormous enlarge- 
 
Till' Physiological Argunierit 379 
 
 ment of man's mental powers, which are his crowning 
 glory. So predominant are the mental powers of man 
 over his physical conditions, that it becomes at once the 
 element upon which natural selection fixes for the 
 development of the race. With man knowledge be- 
 comes power. He knows how to profit from the 
 experiences of the past. He protects himself, not so 
 much by instinct, as by forethought, against heat, and 
 cold, and disease, and accident; and guards himself 
 against enemies of all kinds by widespread political 
 organization. Through irrigating schemes he makes 
 the desert blossom like the rose. By dikes and drains 
 he protects himself from the inundation of streams, 
 and renders the malarious lagoon a suitable place of 
 habitation. Through the invention of more and more 
 effective missiles of war, and the perfection of mili- 
 tary and judicial organizations, the weak are made 
 strong, and vast bodies of men can unite their strength 
 and act as a unit against all outward enemies. 
 
 The effect of all this upon the physical organiza- 
 tion of man is peculiar. It preserves the abnormally 
 developed brain, rather than the abnormally devel- 
 oped muscle. If David w\as superior to Goliath by 
 reason of his skill in the use of a sling, how much 
 more is Edison superior to the tall tribes of Pata- 
 gonia by virtue of his control over the thunderbolts 
 
380 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of heaven! Thus in a thousand ways man's inventive 
 capacity counteracts natural selection. 
 
 Upon comparing the bodily structure of man with 
 that of the higher animals associated with him, the 
 argument in favor of a common origin, so far as 
 physical structure is concerned, becomes almost over- 
 whelming. Zoologically considered, man does not 
 constitute an order by himself. The grounds upon 
 which Blumenbach, Cuvier, and others have given to 
 him the dignity of a separate order are mostly based 
 upon his mental qualities. Linnaeus limiting himself 
 to anatomical and phj^slologlcal considerations was 
 content with placing himself at the head of the Quad- 
 rumana, under the title of Primates. The modern 
 zoologists, however, who continue this classification, 
 and give to man the same ancestral origin with that 
 of the anthropoid apes, do not suppose that he was 
 descended from any of the branches of that family 
 now existing. The supposition is that he and they 
 are descended from some common variety which has 
 long since become extinct, and that perhaps each dif- 
 fers as much from the common stock as they do from 
 one another. 
 
 The varying points of anatomical resemblance be- 
 tween man and the anthropoid apes are worthy of 
 special note. "' The gorilla approaches nearest to man in 
 
The PIiysio/ojii;ir(il Argument 381 
 
 the structure of the hand and foot." ^ But his arms 
 are nearly twice as long as man's and the lower part 
 of his face is developed to an enormous extent, even 
 when compared with the most inferior human races; 
 while his chest and neck are developed in adaptation 
 to the stooping gait made necessary by his general 
 structure. The chimpanzee approaches more nearly 
 to man in the shortness of his arms and in the struc- 
 tural details of the skull. But still his arms are much 
 longer than those of man, and his breast is developed 
 to suit his stooping posture, and the lower part of his 
 face is out of all proportion to the upper part. The 
 orangoutang approaches man most nearly in the 
 structure of his brain, though the absolute mass of 
 brain is larger in the chimpanzee than in the orang- 
 outang; but in the orangoutang the convolutions of 
 the brain are more numerous, and the frontal lobe, 
 which is the more direct organ of intellectual activity, 
 is more prominent in him than in any other variety 
 of the anthropoid apes.- 
 
 Indeed, one of the most striking differences between 
 man and the highest of the apes appears in the size 
 of the brain. ** The average human brain weighs 48 
 ounces, while that of a large gorilla is not over 20 
 ounces," ^ that is, the weight of the largest brain of a 
 gorilla is considerably less than half that of the 
 
u 
 
The Physioloi^ical Ar;^iimcnt 383 
 
 averat2;c man, and only about one-third that of the 
 best-developed individuals of the human race. Upon 
 comparing the extremes among men, however, it is 
 found that the difference between the weight of the 
 brain in the highest and lowest men is greater than 
 that between the lowest man and the highest ape. 
 According to Huxley, " The largest recorded human 
 brain weighed between 65 and 66 ounces," * while the 
 smallest weighed thirty-two ounces, that is, there is 
 an absolute difference of thirty-three ounces, or of 
 one-half, in the weight of different human brains, 
 while there is only a difference of twelve ounces be- 
 tween the weight of the smallest human brain and 
 that of the largest known brain of an ape; or, es- 
 timating it by cubic inches, the largest human brain 
 yet measured contained one hundred and fourteen 
 cubic inches, while the smallest was but sixty-three 
 cubic inches, showing a difference of fiftj^-one cubic 
 inches.-' The largest brain of a gorilla yet observed 
 contained thirty-four and one-half cubic inches, or 
 twenty-nine cubic inches less than that of the lowest 
 man. 
 
 Measured, therefore, either by the weight or cu- 
 bical contents, there is both absolutely and relatively 
 a greater difference in size of brain between the high- 
 est man and the lowest man than there is between the 
 
384 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 lowest man and the highest ape. Among the apes, 
 also, the differences are as great among themselves as 
 they are between one man and another, or between 
 man and the highest apes. The cranial capacity of 
 gorillas, for example, varies as much as from thirty- 
 four and one-half cubic inches in the highest to 
 twenty-four cubic inches in the lowest. 
 
 Following the most recent classification, man is to 
 be placed at the head in an order of animals contain- 
 ing seven families, w^hich, arranged in descending 
 order according to their relative rank, would be as 
 follows: (i) Man; (2) the Catarrhine, or narrow- 
 nosed apes, comprising the higher species found in 
 the Old World; (3) the Platyrhine, or broad-nosed, 
 apes, comprising all but one of the New World spe- 
 cies; (4) the Marmosets of the New World; (5) 
 the Lemurs; (6) the Cheiromys, a subspecies of the 
 lemur, containing many features of rodents; and (7) 
 the flying lemur, Galeopithecus, a species resembling 
 the bat in some respects. The gradations connecting 
 these species are pronounced by Huxley to be extra- 
 ordinarj^ " leading us insensibly from the crown and 
 summit of the animal creation down to creatures, 
 from which there is but a step, as it seems, to the 
 lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of the placental 
 Mammalia." ^ 
 
The Fliysiolofr'ical Ar^iunent 3^5 
 
 But c^reat as tlic break is between man and the 
 anthropoid apes, there is a still more significant break 
 between the anthropoid apes and the lemur. Quoting 
 Huxley again, " So far as cerebral structure goes, 
 therefore, it is clear that man differs less from the 
 chimpanzee or orang, than these do even from the 
 monkeys, and that the difference between the brain 
 of the chimpanzee and of man is almost insignificant 
 when compared with that between the chimpanzee 
 brain and that of a Lemur," and again, " It is a re- 
 markable circumstance that though, so far as our 
 present knowledge extends, there is one true struct- 
 ural break in the series of forms of Simian brains, 
 this hiatus does not He between man and the man- 
 like apes, but between the lower and the lowest 
 Simians, or in other words, between the Old and 
 New World apes and monkeys, and the Lemurs. 
 Every Lemur which has yet been examined, in fact, 
 has its cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by the 
 Its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu 
 and hippocampus minor, more or less rudimentar3\ 
 Every marmoset, American monkey, Old World 
 monkey, babboon, or manlike ape, on the contrary, 
 has its cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by the 
 cerebral lobes, and possesses a large posterior cornu 
 with a well-developed hippocampus minor." ^ 
 
386 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 In view of all these facts, it is difficult to resist 
 the conclusion that, so far as his physical organism is 
 concerned, man is genetically connected with the 
 highest order of the Mammalia, but it is equally evi- 
 dent that he is not descended from any existing 
 species of that order, and this Darwin himself was 
 always careful to say, referring to the ancestor of 
 man as an " ape-like creature." 
 
 But after his separation from the central stock 
 of the Primates, man must have made most sig- 
 nificant and phenomenal advances in his physical or- 
 ganization, adapting it to the wants of the higher 
 intelligence with which he became endowed. Briefly 
 summarized, the advances lay in the following par- 
 ticulars : ( I ) the increased size and complexity of the 
 brain, which serves as the seat of mental and nervous 
 activity; (2) the diminution of the canine teeth and 
 of the size of the lower part of the face in general, 
 bringing the animal in marked subordination to the 
 intellectual features of the countenance; (3) the de- 
 velopment of the lower limbs in adaptation to the 
 habitual upright position in which he moves; (4) a 
 corresponding adaptation of the vertebral column to the 
 erect posture; (5) the development of the thumb and 
 great toe in man in adaptation to man's upright posi- 
 
77/<' P/iysioIoo^ical Jn^iinicnt ^587 
 
 tion and to tlic *zreat \aricty of uses to which the hand 
 is put; (h) the U)ss of that hairy covering which na- 
 ture has provided for all of man's humhler relatives. 
 Wallace thinks, that all " these numerous and strik- 
 ing differences . . . point to an enormously remote 
 epoch when the race that w^as ultimately to develop 
 into man diverged from that other stock which con- 
 tinued the animal type and ultimately produced the 
 existing varieties of anthropoid apes." ^ 
 
 But up -to the present time the geological strata 
 have yielded no forms w^hich bring us any nearer to 
 our probable ancestry than do these degenerate cous- 
 ins of the anthropoid family. All further reasoning 
 from these premises concerning the date of the actual 
 beginning of the human race must, therefore, be 
 theoretical. The question, How did this ancient 
 anthropoid form take on the distinctively human pe- 
 culiarities? will be closely connected with the other 
 question. How long ago were these specific qualities 
 assumed? In the next chapter it will come in our 
 way to dwell more specifically upon the mental char- 
 acteristics most distinctive of the human race. Our 
 question now is. How did man obtain those physical 
 peculiarities which separate him so widely from the 
 rest of the animal creation, and which respond in 
 
388 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 such a marvellous manner to the behest of his mental 
 endowments ? 
 
 Our answer to this question is, in brief, that ob- 
 viously this iinishing off of man's physical organiza- 
 tion was concurrent with the impartation to him of 
 his higher mental qualities. How this impartation 
 took place it may not be possible for us to compre- 
 hend, but that it did take place, through creative in- 
 terference or creative prearrangement, at a definite 
 epoch of history, is as easily comprehensible as that 
 the germ in which we each as individuals originate 
 is quickened into true spiritual life, and becomes en- 
 dowed with reason, at a definite point in its exist- 
 ence. When the embryo really becomes human and 
 is endow^ed with the prerogatives of immortal exist- 
 ence is as much a mystery to the Christian philosopher 
 as the question. When in the line of development did 
 the natural ancestry of the human race become en- 
 dowed with its higher human prerogatives? 
 
 When studied from the point of .view of adaptive 
 economy, the human form is the noblest physical 
 work of God. Considered merely in his physical as- 
 pect, " What a piece of work is man. ... In form 
 and moving, how express and admirable; in action, 
 how like an angel. . . . The beauty of the world, the 
 paragon of animals." All these elements constituting 
 
The Physiolns^ical Ar<^iinicnt 389 
 
 Ills peculiar nobility of structure would, on the theory 
 of natural selection, be rapidly developed upon the im- 
 partation to man of his higher mental qualities; so 
 that the strict Darwinian, even, is not warranted in 
 assigning an indefinitely long period to the earlier 
 stages of the development of man's peculiar physical 
 qualities. 
 
 PEHISTORIC HUMAN SKELETONS 
 
 The discoveries of prehistoric human skeletons 
 which are most important for comparison are those 
 of the so-called Neanderthal skeletons of Europe, and 
 the so-called Pithecanthropus erectus of Java. The 
 apelike characteristics of the Neanderthal type of 
 skulls, as exhibited in that from Canstadt, that from 
 the valley of the Neander, and that from the cavern 
 at Spy in Belgium, have attracted wide attention and 
 have led to voluminous discussions. At first it was 
 widely supposed that the missing link had indeed 
 been found. The simian afSnities of the skulls ap- 
 peared in the enormous thickness of the bony ridge 
 over the eyes, in the retreating forehead, in the gen- 
 eral shallowness of the brain cavity, and in various 
 other particulars which it would require more tech- 
 nical language to describe than is profitable or neces- 
 sary in a popular presentation of the subject. In the 
 case of the skeletons from Spy, we are fortunate in 
 
390 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 having the lower jaw, as well as most of the other 
 bones, preserved. In addition to the other Nean- 
 derthal characteristics we find here an enormously 
 heavy lower jaw, almost no projecting chin, excep- 
 tionally large teeth with the last molar as large as 
 the others, in all which respects they sensibly ap- 
 proach the features characteristic of the highest an- 
 thropoid apes. The other parts of the skeletons show 
 that they were powerfully built individuals with 
 strong, curiously curved thigh bones, the lower ends 
 of which are so fashioned that they must have walked 
 w^ith a bend in the knee. (See p. 322.) 
 
 But in the discussions aroused by the discover}^ of 
 
 these prehistoric skulls, much stress was properly 
 
 laid on the fact that skulls of the same type are 
 
 known to occur at the present day, even among the 
 
 civilized races of Europe. Indeed, it was pointed out 
 
 that some men of note have possessed skulls closely 
 
 resembling that from the Neanderthal. St. Mansui, 
 
 Bishop of Toul in the fourth century, possessed, as 
 
 it would appear from portraits, a forehead still more 
 
 receding and a vault more depressed and elongated 
 
 than those of the Neanderthal type; while the skull 
 
 I of the Scotch hero Bruce would be recognized at 
 
 ,M' ■ 1 once as belonging to that type. 
 
 /^ |1J Furthermore, recent investigations have tended 
 
77/r Pliysioloi^icdl .Iri^umcnt 391 
 
 constantly to Increase the jj;ap separating the brain 
 capacity of man from that of apes, and to diminish, 
 if not indeed entirely to remove, the ^ap which was 
 supposed to exist between Pleistocene (Glacial) and 
 modern man.'^ These facts have been mainly pre- 
 sented in a previous chapter, but for convenience will 
 here be summarized. According to Sollas, the cra- 
 nial capacity of the Neanderthal man, as well as of 
 the man of the Chapelle aux Saints, and of Spy, all 
 of them of glacial age, amounted to a little more than 
 1,600 cubic centimeters (97.6 cu. in.), whereas the 
 average capacity of P2uropean skulls is not above 1,550 
 cubic centimeters (94.55 cu. in.), w^hile the average 
 Australian skull has a capacity of only 1,250 cubic 
 centimeters (76.25 cu. in.), and the capacity of the 
 brain of Leibnitz is only 1,422 cubic centimeters 
 (86.742 cu. in.). Thus the Australian, so far as 
 cranial capacity is concerned, stands on a much lower 
 plane than that of glacial man in Europe. The ca- 
 pacity of the largest brain of the gorilla, yet observed, 
 was less than half that of the Neanderthal skull. 
 
 Still, both Professor Huxley and Professor Frai- 
 pont think it proper to suggest that the skeleton of 
 the man of Spy gives us some clue to the rate of de- 
 velopment leading up from the anthropoid apes to 
 the present condition of the human species. Accord- 
 
392 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ing to Professor Fraipont, " If the most ancient ethnic 
 type known has been capable of being modified dur- 
 ing the Quaternary epoch to the extent of giving rise 
 to races as different as that of Cro-Magnon and those 
 of Furfooz, if during this epoch it has been capable 
 of losing so many inferior characteristics, and of 
 gaining so many others terminating in the brachy- 
 cephalic men of Grenelle, it is not too difficult to be- 
 lieve that Pliocene man had perhaps more inferior 
 characteristics than the man of Spy, and that those 
 of the Miocene possessed perhaps more pronounced 
 simian and less numerous human characteristics." In 
 the same strain. Professor Huxley remarks, that 
 these facts '" give us some, however dim, insight into 
 the rate of evolution of the human species, and indi- 
 cate that it has not taken place at a much faster or 
 slower pace than that of other mammalia. And if that 
 is "SO, we are warranted in the supposition that the 
 genus Homo . . . was represented in pliocene, or even 
 in miocene tim.es. But I do not know by wliat osteo- 
 logical peculiarities it could be determined whether 
 the pliocene, or miocene, man was sufficiently sapient 
 to speak or not ; and whether, or not, he answered to 
 the definition ' rational animal ' in any higher sense 
 than a dog or an ape does." ^^ 
 
77/r PJiysiolof^ical /Ir'^uiiicnt 393 
 
 Pithecanthropus erect us ^^ is the name ^iven to the 
 species supposed to be lepresenteil in discoveries made 
 by Dr. Dubois in Central Java in 1894. The speci- 
 mens consist of two teeth found at different times a 
 few yards from each other, the top part of a skull 
 found about a yard from one of the teeth, and a 
 femur found about fifteen yards distant. These were 
 all obtained at different times, in volcanic tufa on the 
 bank of the river Bengawan, near Trinil. Little can 
 be inferred, however, concerning the age of the re- 
 mains from the hardness of the rock in which they 
 occurred, for volcanic outflows of various sorts have 
 occurred at all geological ages, even down to the 
 present. But the deposits w^ere inferred to be Ter- 
 tiary from the associated vertebrate fauna, which 
 were classified as late Tertiary. This, however, is 
 subject to the doubt already referred to in speaking 
 of the mammalian remains in the auriferous gravels 
 of California, as to whether there is a hard and fast 
 line to be drawn between Tertiary and Post-Tertiary 
 fossils, and whether the same species became extinct 
 at the same time in all parts of the world. 
 
 The cranium of the Pithecanthropus erectus is in- 
 deed remarkable for its small brain capacity. But 
 even so it is separated a great ways from that of the 
 highest apes, and is not inferior to that of some ex- 
 
Pithecanthropus erectus, Dubois, a, The skull cap seen from 
 above; b, in profile; c, in sagittal section; d, e, the first 
 found molar tooth, seen from the side and from above; 
 f, g, the femur, seen from in front and in profile, (After 
 Dubois, X 1-6, except d, e, which are X 1-3.) (From 
 Sollas's "Ancient Hunters.") (By courtesy of Macmil- 
 lan and Co.) 
 
77/( Physiolofr'icdl Anrumcnt 
 
 .^95 
 
 isting races of men. According to Cope,^- it had 
 a brain capacity of i,ooo cubic centimeters (6i cu. 
 in.), as against 1,500 cubic centimeters (91.5 cu. in.) 
 normal liuman, and about 500 cubic centimeters (30.5 
 cu. in.) for the gorilla. But Virchow gives 950 cubic 
 centimeters (57-95 cu. in.) as the cranial capacity of 
 some Negritos and only 860 cubic centimeters (48.46 
 cu. in.) for an inhabitant of New Britain. The tooth 
 might do for a gorilla but the femur is long and 
 straight, entirely human. From the shape of the 
 femur it is evident that the individual to which It be- 
 longed walked erect, which implies the remarkable 
 adjustment of the cervical vertebn-e between the spinal 
 column and the head, which, more than any other 
 anatomical peculiarity, differentiates man from the 
 apes. Hence comparative anatomists like Cope and 
 Lyddeker have no hesitation in pronouncing the speci- 
 mens entirely human. They are those of a man and 
 not of a connecting link.^ = 
 
 EVIDENCE OF UNITY AND EQUALITY 
 
 The unity and the substantial anatomical equality 
 of the different races of mankind become more evi- 
 dent upon careful scientific investigation. What were 
 supposed to be anatomical pecuh'arlties of lower and 
 prehistoric races are found, upon wider comparison, 
 not to be peculiarities. The variation in the form of 
 
39^ Origin rind Antiquity of Alan 
 
 the temporal bone of the skull by which it comes in 
 contact with the frontal bone, which was supposed 
 to be characteristic of lower races, is found to ex- 
 ist among all races, though with unequal frequency. 
 The lateral flatness of the tibia " observed in skeletons 
 of the oldest remains of man in Europe, and also in 
 the skeletons of various races," and various other ab- 
 normal forms, " are found among all races, but the 
 degree of variability is not everywhere the same." ^* 
 But in every anatomical arrangement showing the 
 gap between man and animal, and the variations be- 
 tween races, man is w^idely separated from animals and 
 but slightly separated from his fellows. According 
 to Boas, '' The European and the Mongol have the 
 largest brains; the European has a small face and a 
 high nose ; — all features farther removed from the 
 probable animal ancestor of man than the correspond- 
 ing features of other races. On the other hand, the 
 European shares lower characteristics with the Aus- 
 tralian, both retaining in the strongest degree the 
 hairiness of the animal ancestor, while the specifically 
 human development of the red lip is developed most 
 markedly in the negro. The proportions of the limbs 
 of the negro are also more markedly distinct from the 
 corresponding proportions in the higher apes than are 
 those of the European." ^'' According to Manouv- 
 
The Physiological Argiunent 397 
 
 rier, as summarized by Boas, '* all the investigations 
 that have been made up to the present time compel 
 us to assume that the characteristics of the osseous, 
 muscular, visceral, or circulator}- system, have prac- 
 tically no direct relation to the mental ability of 
 man." ^^ 
 
 Estimates of the size of the brain, it Is true, show 
 a slight superiority for the white race. "According to 
 Topinard," as given by Boas, " the capacity of the 
 skull of males of the neolithic period In Europe is 
 about 1560 cc. (44 cases) ; that of modern Europeans 
 is the same (347 cases) ; of the Mongoloid race, 15 10 
 cc. (68 cases) ; of African negroes, 1405 cc. (83 
 cases) and of the negroes of the Pacific Ocean, 1460 
 cc. (46 cases)." ^'^ 
 
 In analyzing these statistics it Is Instructive to no- 
 tice that the brain of neolithic man was no larger than 
 that of palaeolithic and was equal to that of the mod- 
 ern European, and that the brain of the so-called 
 lowest race averages larger than that of the lower 
 members of tlie white race. Furthermore, It is to be 
 observed that the brain of women is found to be 
 lighter than of men of the same stature, while, as 
 already stated, a few eminent men are known to have 
 possessed unusually small brains. Hence it is by no 
 means certain but that a well-developed small brain 
 
398 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 can equal a larger one in the amount of high-class 
 work that it does. Darwin, in commenting upon the 
 mental activities of the ant, significantly remarks that 
 when we consider the size of its brain and the va- 
 riety of its activities it would seem that its brain is 
 the most highly organized segm.ent of matter of which 
 we have any knowledge.^^ 
 
 On surveying the whole subject, it appears to be 
 evident that little confidence can be placed in any 
 chronological calculations based upon the rate of the 
 physiological changes by which man has become sep- 
 arated into races, and by which he may have advanced 
 from the strictly anthropoid to the truly human stage. 
 The element of uncertainty in this class of calcula- 
 tions lies chiefly in our ignorance of the extent to 
 which the possession of man's mental faculties may be 
 a disturbing factor in the ordinary course of evolu- 
 tion, but partly, also, in our ignorance of the relation 
 of changing physical environment to the rapidity of 
 modification of physiological characteristics. 
 
 Even Mr. Darwin did not seem to be fully aware 
 of the wide range of individual variation constantly 
 going on in nature; so that he was constantly assum- 
 ing and asserting an excessively slow rate of change 
 in species. Mr. Wallace ^^ has some just criticisms 
 
Tlw Physio/ogicrd Argument 399 
 
 upon Darwin's statement of this point. But facts are 
 continually coming to light which show that the 
 amount of variability in all widely dispersed species is 
 so great that adaptations to new conditions may take 
 place very rapidly, and this partly accounts for the 
 fact that genera, both of plants and animals, have 
 been so successful in surviving the great geological 
 changes. For the most interesting and exhaustive col- 
 lection of facts upon the extent of variability in wild 
 species of anim.als, we are indebted to Mr. J. A. 
 Allen, whose patient work -^ in examining the actual 
 extent of variation among the mammals and w^inter 
 birds of East Florida really marks an epoch in the Dar- 
 winian theor}^ of evolution. From the facts collected 
 by him it appears that the variations constantly going 
 on in the wild birds of Florida affect every part of 
 the frame, m.odifying the length of the body, of the 
 wing, of the tail, of each toe, and of the bill. In 
 amount the variations reach from twelve to twenty- 
 five per cent, that is, in a thousand birds of a single 
 species, in addition to those of average size, there will 
 be a considerable number that were more than ten 
 per cent above the average size in these several parts, 
 and an equal number that were ten per cent smaller 
 in these parts. It requires but a moment's reflection 
 to perceive what a rapid engine of progress such an 
 
400 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 amount of variability furnishes. The variations are 
 always present, standing ready to be caught up and 
 carried farther on In the same line by any propitious 
 series of circumstances. If, for example, there should 
 come about a change of climate, such as to render It 
 more difficult for birds to obtain their food, and that 
 difficulty was such as to be overcome by the possession 
 of a bill a quarter of an Inch longer than the average, 
 or of a wing ten per cent more powerful than the 
 average, the individuals to survive would be those that 
 possessed these bills, and that could make use of those 
 more powerful wings. If we may suppose that there 
 were a million birds to be subjected to this sifting 
 process, all might perish but the favored ten thousand, 
 and the preparation of species would henceforth go on 
 from this selected remnant, that is, we would have in 
 nature an even more powerful selective agent than we 
 have in man while endeavoring to improve domestic 
 varieties. 
 
 It has been a current objection to Darwinism, — 
 that the minute variations he assumed would be of 
 no advantage to an individual in time of trial. Of 
 what advantage, for example, would it be to a wood- 
 pecker in time of scarcity of grubs to have a bill a 
 thousandth of an inch longer than its fellow? The 
 question Is certainly pertinent, and the objection 
 
Till' P/iyS!o/o<ri(yil A IfriUHC fit 4()I 
 
 involved in it is valid. The variations, in order to 
 furnish any opportunity for the action of natural se- 
 lection, must be appreciable. And such we find them 
 actually to be, — far more appreciable and marked 
 than Darwin in his caution ever fully perceived. 
 
 From these facts concerning the extent of varia- 
 bility constantly affecting all portions of the organ- 
 ism, we can see at a glance that upon subjecting a 
 species to new conditions, a variety with a uniform 
 variation of ten per cent from the former average 
 development of any part might be established in a 
 few^ generations; and so long as the conditions remain 
 permanent, the variety would remain permanent, and 
 so become established as an actual matter of fact„ 
 Upon a subsequent change of conditions, these pecul- 
 iarities might be still farther exaggerated. From our 
 brief and imperfect experiments with domestic ani- 
 mals, we cannot tell how^ rapidly such changes might 
 take place. But it is altogether more probable that 
 the changes have taken place through what might be 
 called a paroxysm of nature, than through an inch- 
 by-mch process. The changing conditions of nature 
 may be compared to a ratchet wheel, by which varia- 
 tions of a definite amount only are seized hold of and 
 preserved, and that after a definite amount of change 
 in the conditions. 
 
402 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 As already remarked, the crowning physiological 
 feature in man in which his superiority over the lower 
 animals appears, is in the size and quality of his brain, 
 — the average human brain -^ weighing three times 
 as much as the average brain of the gorilla. By what 
 process of natural selection can we conceive this great 
 difference to have come about? To form any con- 
 ception of it by the processes of natural selection, we 
 are compelled to go back, and imagine some branch 
 from the anthropoid family of early Tertiary times 
 to have been led along by some kind of intelligent 
 selection in the line of man's physical characteristics; 
 while the full assumption of the human form may 
 at last have come about with great rapidity. For the 
 skull and brain cavity seem to be as variable in ani- 
 mals as any other portion of the system. Mr. Wal- 
 lace affirms, for example, that the orangoutangs' 
 skulls which he collected in Borneo " differed remark- 
 ably in size and proportions. The orbits varied in 
 width and height, the cranial ridge was either single 
 or double, either much or little developed, and the 
 zygomatic aperture varied considerably In size. . . . 
 As an instance of the amount of variation in the skulls 
 of fully developed male orangs, I found the wndth 
 between the orbits externally to be only 4 Inches In 
 one specimen and fully 5 Inches In another." ^^ The 
 
The Physiological Argument 403 
 
 skulls of various other mammalia are found to be 
 equally variable. Dr. Gray of the Britism Museum 
 found in the skulls of ten bears examined by him 
 variations to the extent of from one-eighth to one- 
 f^fth. 
 
 From this general survey of facts concerning varia- 
 bility, it is easy for us to see that, without disturbing 
 the theory of the continuity of development, the fin- 
 ishing touch to man's physical organization securing 
 that multitude of minute peculiarities which alto- 
 gether separate him, by an immeasurable distance, 
 even in a physical point of view, from his simian 
 ancestry, may have been brought about in a compara- 
 tively short period of time; while those more mod- 
 erate changes which have resulted in the peculiarities 
 of race would demand even a shorter period. When 
 that point was reached in which the reasoning powers 
 of man became predominant and took the helm, the 
 variations in tlie direction of the perfect human sys- 
 tem would be seized upon and preserved with such 
 constancy as to transform the physical appearance of 
 the race with extreme rapidity. 
 
 Beyond question the physical organization of man 
 is maintained at its present high level of perfection by 
 its remarkable adaptedness to carry out the behests of 
 his intellect. The human body is an admirable com^ 
 
404 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 plement to the human mind. The size of the brain 
 and the complexity of its convolutions are adjusted to 
 the intellectual faculties of which it is the organ. The 
 free and shorter arms with the delicately adjusted 
 thumb and fingers upon the extremity, together with 
 the well-developed lower limbs and the broad-soled 
 foot, give to man the best conceivable form for the 
 expression and accomplishment of his intellectual and 
 rational purposes. 
 
 The same adaptive forces of natural selection which 
 keep the human form within its typical limits, and may 
 have operated with great rapidity toward the original 
 perfection of that form, are still operative in the pro- 
 duction of changes. Even now it is thought that high 
 civilization is sensibly modifying many of the fea- 
 tures of the race by preserving slight changes which 
 favor economy of force. The diminution of the lower 
 jaw, so characteristic of higher races, as compared 
 with the upper, is not improbably thought by some 
 to arise from the correlation between an increase of 
 brain and a diminution of more functionless parts. 
 Strength of jaw does not play the same role in assist- 
 ing digestion among civilized that it does among sav- 
 age nations. So, too, the loss of the hairy covering 
 upon the body may be advantageous, by leaving more 
 of the energy to be bestowed upon the organ of mental 
 
The Physiological Argument 405 
 
 operations. There is an economy of force in wearing 
 tlic hair of another aniniai over that of producing it 
 for one's self. I'he full development of the mental 
 faculties seems in many ways to be correlated with 
 the diminution or disuse, and perhaps loss even, of 
 some lower functions of the body. Intellectual power 
 is gained in Germany by impairing the eyesight of 
 school children, where now almost all have to use 
 spectacles. And so, in general, the acuteness of the 
 senses is dulled by our dependence upon invented pro- 
 cesses and mechanisms. 
 
 When w^e come down to the final question of the 
 mode of the origin of the human race, \\t meet in 
 its fullest form the familiar problem concerning de- 
 sign in nature, and it has been convincingly argued 
 by Wallace and others, that man's physical structure 
 bears indubitable marks both of long-continued fore- 
 sight in general preparation for its development and 
 of intelligent selection in its final Adaptation to the 
 incoming mental powers of which it was to be the 
 organ. It may be impossible for us to explain just 
 how the designing Artificer of all things has woven 
 his pattern. But that it has been woven by him is 
 beyond all reasonable doubt. 
 
406 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 
 
 In a strange fit of despondency Sir William Ham- 
 ilton fell into the mistake of supposing that modern 
 science was in danger of robbing life of its highest 
 incentives and its noblest joys by clearing up all the 
 mysteries of the universe, and banishing w-onder and 
 reverence from the mind of man. Nothing, however, 
 could be farther from the truth than this. The por- 
 tion of nature's realm which can be illuminated by 
 the torch of science is but infinitesimal in comparison 
 with the whole domain. Newton brought more mys- 
 teries into the horizon than had ever been dreamed of 
 before. Darwin has raised ten thousand questions 
 where he has answered one. Ever}^ secondar}^ cause 
 brought to light by scientific research reveals a vast 
 array of other causes necessary to account for the 
 one already partially comprehended. The man of 
 science can never push his processes of thought far 
 enough back to explain the real origin of anything. 
 Instead, therefore, of diminishing wonder, and of 
 undermining the foundations of reverence, his work 
 
The Psycholoi^ical Evidence 407 
 
 legitimately increases wonder and ma<;nilies the mys- 
 tery of the creation. 
 
 The doctrine of evolution as it appears in modern 
 science is not a doctrine pertaining to ultimate things, 
 hut to the secondary processes of nature, and does 
 not in any way interfere with the legitimate argu- 
 ments of theism. The processes of evolution demand 
 a creator of infinite power and wisdom to set them 
 in motion. Speaking in general terms, there are 
 three prevalent modes of attempting to conceive of 
 the Creator's relation to the universe; namely, the 
 mechanical, the immanent, and the supervisory. 
 
 The mechanical theory represents the Creator as 
 impressing upon the original molecules of matter 
 comprising the universe such capacities and movements 
 that there should eventually come out of them all the 
 combinations revealed by the science of chemistry, 
 and of astronomy; w^hile some would maintain that 
 even life itself was involved in the combinations, so 
 that it should come into being by spontaneous gener- 
 ation. Nor would it stop with the production by 
 natural forces of the phenomena of life. Even the 
 higher qualities of the human mind are brought into 
 the grasp of the theory, and thought is looked upon 
 as a secretion of the brain, as bile is of the liver. 
 
 Various names imperfectly describe this theorv. In 
 
4o8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 a former century it would have been called deism,^ 
 which so magnified the exertion of creative power in 
 the beginning as to shut off all necessity for its pres- 
 ence and interference at any subsequent stage of 
 progress. This is not atheism. At any rate, it is not 
 so in fact, whatever it may be in name, for if it re- 
 jects the name of the Deity, it cannot help transfer- 
 ring to the original elements of the universe all the 
 potencies ordinarily attributed to the Creator. 
 
 At the other extreme lies the doctrine of the divine 
 immanency, which aims to save both nature and man 
 from the inexorable rule of fate and mechanical forces 
 by robbing them of all real independent existence. 
 This view of the universe would represent it as the 
 constant product of an ever-acting deity. It distin- 
 guishes itself from pantheism by insisting upon the 
 freedom of the divine activity. What are ordinarily 
 called laws of nature are under this theory regarded 
 merely as the lines of permanent activity w^hich the 
 wisdom of the Creator has imposed upon himself. 
 These lines of activity are more or less permanent or 
 subject to variation, somewhat after the manner of 
 the adjustment between the constitutional and statute 
 laws of a nation. Those natural forces which exhibit 
 themselves in such phenomena as those of chemistry 
 and astronomy are the permanent lines of the Crea- 
 
The Psyrho/ni^icnl Evidence 409 
 
 tor's activity corrcspoiulino; to the principles of con- 
 stitutional law; while in the more variahle phenomena 
 of animal and plant life and the still more complex 
 phenomena of human histor>', we have what corre- 
 sponds to statute law, which the legislature is free to 
 change from day to day. It is enough to say of this 
 theory, that it meets its most formidable difficulty in 
 the prerogative of independent choice which belongs 
 to the human will, and which in the most emphatic 
 manner declares that man in the realm of his moral 
 activity is not an automaton, but a free and indepen- 
 dent power, having in his own consciousness the high- 
 est possible evidence that in the realm of moral choice 
 he is the architect of his own fortunes. 
 
 In its ultimate analysis, however, the doctrine of 
 the divine immanency as held by the majority of its 
 advocates does not differ essentially from the theory 
 which supposes the Deity to be both the creator and 
 the supervisor of the universe. According to both 
 theories, the ordinar}^ progress of events was directly 
 provided for in the creation, or what we may call the 
 constitution of nature, while, on either theory, it is 
 not believed that all contingencies are thus provided 
 for. This view of the universe does not rest upon 
 mere n priori principles, but is one which is forced 
 upon us by the study of nature itself, and especially 
 
4IO Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 by the questions that arise in attempting to account 
 for the origin of the human race. Nor does this the- 
 ory interfere with the continuity of nature: it does 
 not necessarily suppose a break in the course of nature 
 at any point. The web of nature is continuous, but 
 additional threads are inserted from time to time to 
 increase the complexity and add to the beauty of the 
 figure. 
 
 However much we may emphasize the continuity 
 of nature, it is difficult not to admit that there have 
 been at least three stages of development in which 
 something new has been added to, or, as we might 
 say, grafted upon, the course of nature. Granting 
 that the nebular hypothesis, or something like it, is 
 proven, and that the worlds are but nuclei condensed 
 by gravitation from more widely disseminated spheres 
 of matter, the conditions were at first utterly incom- 
 patible with the existence of living organisms. But 
 in due process of time vegetable life sprang into ex- 
 istence upon the world. Some have endeavored to 
 maintain that the first forms of life were the direct 
 products of chemical action. But all efforts to pro- 
 duce life independent of preexistent life germs have 
 heretofore failed. Spontaneous generation is a figment 
 of the imagination originating neither in experiment 
 nor observation, but in a preconceived and proofless 
 
The Psyc/ioloiriral Evidence 411 
 
 theory conccrnin^j; what f/iit^lit liavc happened in a 
 condition of things which is beyond the reach of ex- 
 pcrinient or observation. This Air. Huxley frankly 
 admitted. Abandoning, however, for a moment, the 
 light of science, he had faith that somehow in the 
 chemical interactions of a cooling universe there was 
 developed that unique power which meets us in a 
 living organism.- But to most well-balanced minds 
 it must still seem to be more in accordance with the 
 facts to regard the active principle w^hich produced the 
 phenomena of vitality as a positive addition to the 
 forces of the world, if not of the universe. 
 
 In distinction from all known chemical agencies, 
 the living principle has the power of growth and 
 reproduction. It adapts itself to conditions, and ap- 
 propriates to its uses the materials and forces sur- 
 rounding it, but it also overcomes their agency, and 
 acts in opposition to them, and finally through a 
 microscopical germ transmits to its successor all its 
 own powers. In the language of Genesis, it " has 
 seed in itself." Such is its ability to conquer nature, 
 that from a single germ planted in favoring conditions 
 in the mo<;t obscure part of the earth, it is only a 
 question of time when its progeny will have spread 
 over the whole surface of the globe; yes, more, when, 
 according to the theory of evolution. It will have di- 
 
412 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 versified itself so as, in the course of ages, to appear 
 in the hundreds of thousands of botanical species into 
 which the men of science have classified the vegetable 
 world. 
 
 It is impossible rationally to believe that such a 
 principle of life is the product of chemical forces. 
 It is rather a coordinate force which furnishes the 
 physiological foundation for any well-considered doc- 
 trine of the derivative origin of species. Chemical 
 and ph^^slcal forces are but the machinery of a mill. 
 Machinery cannot make cloth of itself: there must be 
 put into it the cotton or the wool or the silk, for the 
 machinery to work upon. The product is the joint 
 result of the work of the one and the qualities of the 
 other. If any one wishes to believe that the marvel- 
 lous adaptive capacities of plant life sprang from the 
 dead forces of nature, he is at liberty to do so, but at 
 the risk of his reputation for sanity. In the absence 
 of all scientific evidence he is not at liberty to impose 
 it on any one else for belief. 
 
 If we admit that these primordial germs of vege- 
 table life had within them the power and potency of 
 developing into the hundreds of thousands of species 
 which now cover the dry land from pole to pole, and 
 even invade the sea and support themselves on its 
 bosom, we must still find It hard to believe that plant 
 
77/c Psyrho/oi^irdl Kvidence 413 
 
 life has had within itself from the beginning the power 
 of ultimately taking upon itself the forms and pre- 
 rogatives of animal life; and this, even though it 
 must be admitted that it is impossible to determine 
 whether some of the lowest forms of life belong to 
 the animal or to the vegetable kingdom. For, so 
 nearly alike are some of these forms that Mr. Fran- 
 cis Darwin has humorously suggested that the only 
 practicable way of determining to which kingdom they 
 belong would be to ascertain what class of ani- 
 mals would eat them, — whether Herbivora or Car- 
 nivora. It should be observed, however, that this 
 difficulty of distinguishing plants and animals exists 
 only in the very lowest forms of life. As a rule, 
 there is no difficulty in distinguishing an animal from 
 a plant. Animals give evidence of having sensation 
 and intelligence, and, so far, approach the dignity of 
 companionship with man. They give evidence of 
 having pleasure and pain ; so that we recoginze them 
 as having rights which we are bound to protect, and 
 organize societies for the prevention of cruelty to 
 them — a thing we should never think of doing for 
 plants. 
 
 If any wish to believe that the germs of plant life 
 have by their own power assumed these higher char- 
 acteristics of sensation and intelligence, thev are free 
 
414 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to do so, but ft is well for them to be reminded that 
 in making this supposition they are acting on evidence 
 of no scientific value, and are ascribing to infinitesimal 
 germs an amount of flexibility and latent power 
 which seems to most people not only incredible, but 
 absurd. Especially Is this so if one step farther is 
 taken, and this vegetable germ which has been sup- 
 posed to contain in It the powers and potencies of ani- 
 mal life, is Itself also to be resolved into some special 
 combination of molecular motion. To imagine that 
 animal life has developed from vegetable life, and that 
 vegetable life is a spontaneous development from the 
 fire mist, and that from nothing or next to nothing. 
 Is the same as resting the argument upon nothing, or 
 next to nothing. To say that the Creator has power 
 originally to impress upon matter the ability at a proper 
 time to transform itself Into vegetable germs, and at 
 another time to rise to the higher level of animal 
 feeling and Intelligence, is to utter statements which 
 are incapable of proof, and are harder to believe than 
 the statement that the Creator has from time to time 
 added new forces to the unfolding material system. 
 
 But It Is not necessary to perplex ourselves unduly 
 with the metaphysical questions concerning the man- 
 ner In which these new things have been Incorporated 
 into the sj^stem. Even if, with Locke, we should 
 
The Psychological Evidence 415 
 
 grant the possibility that it is as easy for the Creator 
 to endow matter with the power of thought as it is 
 to create an independent substance capable of thought 
 and join it to matter, we cannot avoid the fact that these 
 manifestations of the higher powers of life and thought 
 come in at successive stages of the material development, 
 and are connected with peculiar effects upon the parti- 
 cles of matter with which they are associated. Vegetable 
 life controls matter, and builds up a form for itself. 
 In animals some low forms of apparently conscious 
 thought make use of matter. To be sure, in one 
 sense it is mechanical force which makes the dog's 
 tail \Aag, but it is something different from mechan- 
 ical force which makes the dog wag his tail. It is 
 perhaps the memories of a long-lost voice, which is 
 in no sense a physical force, that sets the train of 
 associations fn motion and rouses the joyous feeling 
 of which the movement of the muscles is the sign and 
 effect. If these germs of animal and plant life were 
 in the original elements of the universe, the mystery 
 of their lying dormant for such endless ages, and then 
 awaking into life, surpasses comprehension. Mention 
 has already been made of the gauntlet which the 
 forms of life are compelled to run after once they have 
 been ushered into the world amid the warring ma- 
 terial forces of nature. It is not many millions of 
 
4l6 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 years since there was such a condition of things in the 
 world that life could not exist at all; at least in con- 
 nection with any of the material forms in which it is 
 now organized. Ten millions of years ago, say some 
 of the astronomers, the sun was so hot that all the 
 oceans were dried up, and water — that indispensable 
 accompaniment of organic life — was nowhere to be 
 found in the world. Ten millions of years in the 
 future, and the heat of the sun will so diminish that 
 all the waters of the ocean will be frozen solid, and 
 again there will be no water upon the earth to help 
 the growth of the organized products of life. Be- 
 tween these two extremes of heat and cold, the or- 
 ganized products of life are maintaining a precarious 
 existence. 
 
 ORIGIN OF MAN^S MENTAL FACULTIES 
 
 That man incorporates into his earthly nature all 
 the essential elements present in the lower orders of 
 being is evident to all. His body is built up of var- 
 ious chemical compounds. Dust he is, and, upon the 
 sundering of soul and body, unto dust he w^'U return. 
 In his bodily organization, also, he is patterned after 
 other members of the animal creation. So great is 
 this likeness, that we are not compelled in reason to 
 suppose that in the creation of man there has been an 
 
Tlic Psyiholoi^iral Kvidcme 41 7 
 
 observable break in the order of nature. We may 
 well believe that the law of parsimony has here, as 
 ever}'where else, been observed, and that there has 
 been no unnecessary interference with the course of 
 nature in the production of man. The question imme- 
 diately before us is, Has there been any interference 
 at all, or is a man a mere development from some of 
 the germs of the animal nature? This is now the real 
 battle ground betw^een, we will not say contending 
 schools of evolution, but contending schools of fun- 
 damental philosophy. On the one hand it is main- 
 tained that there is no radical difference between the 
 mind of man and that of the higher animals, and 
 that there is no impassable gap between the mental 
 faculties of the human race and those of the higher 
 animals. To prove this proposition, the highest men- 
 tal activities of the highest animal are brought into 
 comparison with the mental activities of the low^est 
 races, and w^ith the individual man in the lowest 
 stages of his development. 
 
 Thus Mr. Romanes ^ supposes that he traces a sig- 
 nificant parallelism between the intellectual develop- 
 ment in the ascending orders of animals and that in 
 the infant of the human species in the first few months 
 of its development. To animals he ascribes a series 
 both of emotional and intellectual activities, reaching 
 
4l8 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 as high in the order of complexity as those attained 
 hy the child at the age of fifteen months. He be- 
 lieves that the Echinodermata exercise memory; that 
 the larvae of insects possess primary instincts and 
 exhibit surprise and fear; that mollusks exercise asso- 
 ciation by contiguity; that insects and spiders recog- 
 nize their offspring, have some parental affection and 
 social feeling, exercise pugnacity, industry, and curi- 
 osity; that reptiles and cephalopods recognize their 
 friends and their enemies; that the Hymenoptera are 
 able to communicate their Ideas and to feel the bond 
 of sympathy; that birds recognize pictures, under- 
 stand words, dream, and have the emotions connected 
 with emulation, pride, resentment, aesthetic love of 
 ornament, and terror; that the Carnlvora, rodents, 
 and ruminants appreciate to some extent the construc- 
 tion of machinery, and experience the emotions con- 
 nected with grief, hate, cruelty, and benevolence; that 
 monkeys and elephants use tools to some extent, and 
 are moved w^Ith the feelings of revenge and rage; and, 
 finally, that anthropoid apes and dogs have a rudimen- 
 tary conscience and an Indefinite Idea of morality, and 
 exhibit the feelings associated with shame, remorse, 
 deceltfulness, and whatever Is ludicrous. This Is as 
 high a point of development, Mr. Romanes contends, 
 as Is attained by the child at the age of fifteen months. 
 
The Psyrholoi^iral Evidence 
 
 419 
 
 According, therefore, to the argument from gradual 
 approach, he maintains that we cannot in logical con- 
 sistency refuse to supply the other rounds in the lad- 
 der which by some adverse fate are acknowledged to 
 be absent, and to maintain the solidarity of the animal 
 creation, and a true brotherhood between man and the 
 lowxr animals. 
 
 But it is hardly fair to the human race to estimate 
 its capacities by the development of a child fifteen 
 months old, when he is at the very commencement of 
 his marvellous intellectual career. It is later than 
 this that his high powers of conceptual thought come 
 into free play, and link their products with the rap- 
 idly acquired forms of grammatical speech. It is 
 much later still that the mind of the child begins to 
 grasp the connected facts of the universe surrounding 
 him, and to enter upon that endless path of inductive 
 reasoning which enables him to accumulate knowledge 
 without measure. It is later still that his eyes and 
 ears are open to the beauties and harmonies of the 
 universe and that the moral nature begins fairly to 
 assert itself, and to bring in upon the mind thoughts 
 of God and duty, with their associated visions of im- 
 mortality. 
 
 The marvellous rapidity witli which the develop- 
 ment of these higher elements of our nature takes 
 
420 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 place cannot fail to be a matter of astonishment even 
 to the superficial observer. Air. Romanes confessed 
 that " there is some reason to think that when this 
 growth has attained a certain point, it makes, so to 
 speak, a sudden leap of procuress, which may be taken 
 to bear the same relation to the development of the 
 mind as the act of birth does to that of the body. In 
 neither case is the development anything like com- 
 pleted. Midway between the slowly evolving phases 
 in utero and the slowly evolving phases of after- 
 growth, there is in the case of the human body a 
 great and sudden change at the moment when it first 
 becomes separated from that of its parent. And so, 
 there is some reason to believe, it Is in the case of 
 the human mind. Midway between the gradual 
 evolution of receptual ideation and the no less gradual 
 evolution of conceptual, there appears to be a critical 
 moment when the soul first becomes detached from 
 the nutrient body of its parent perceptions, and w^akes 
 up in the new^ w^orld of a consciously individual ex- 
 istence." ^ 
 
 This power of the soul to take such a leap of 
 progress, and to wake up in the new world of con- 
 scious Individual existence. Is certainly something that 
 needs accounting for. In Its significance It covers 
 the whole breadth of the discussion. The possession 
 
The Psychological Evidence 421 
 
 of such a latent power makes all the difference be- 
 tween the mnn and the animal. Mr. Romanes' way 
 of minimizing the difficuity is successful only as a 
 form of words. It is as if he were to say, The only 
 difference between this black powder and that appears 
 to be that when a match is touched to one it explodes, 
 while the other does not. But this is the most striking 
 difference between t^unpowder and sand. Or it is 
 like saying of two bipeds. They walked together along 
 the edge of the precipice: the principal difference be- 
 tween them seemed to be that one had the power to 
 leap off the precipice without falling to the ground, 
 while the other could not do it. This is easily 
 enough stated, but anatomically considered, it ex- 
 presses a radical difference between a man and a bird. 
 In reality, this difference which Mr. Romanes so 
 slightingly expresses is that between a being capable of 
 endless progress in knowledge and of one limited to 
 a very narrow sphere of possible attainment. 
 
 It signifies but little to say, that there is no radical 
 difference betw^een men and animals in the matter of 
 using tools, because, perchance, a chimpanzee has been 
 known to make use of a stick to pry open a door, or 
 an rpe to pick up a stone to crack a cocoanut. or an 
 elephant to seize a broken-off branch of a tree with 
 v-hich to brush the flies from the inaccessible portions 
 
422 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 of his body. To say nothing of modern machinery, 
 there is really no just comparison between these in- 
 stinctive acts of animals in appropriating to their use 
 the ready-made products of nature and that of the 
 lowest savage who skillfully constructs his sling and 
 bow and fashions his stone arrow-point, or axe, or 
 lance-head. 
 
 In the use of fire, also, it is of small significance to 
 find that many of the animals appreciate its benefit 
 and seek its genial influence; as cats do when thev 
 stretch themselves in front of the kitchen stove, or 
 as apes do when they huddle about the smouldering 
 trunk of a tree which has been struck by lightning. 
 But man alone has been able so to profit from his 
 observations as to keep fire from day to day by bury- 
 ing its embers, or to create it anew^ by use of steel 
 and flint and tinder, or by the still more primitive 
 process of igniting two sticks of wood by rubbing 
 them vigorously together. 
 
 It is an unworthy travesty on musical art to com- 
 pare, as a recent writer has done, the din created by 
 a company of chimpanzees drumming on hollow trees 
 and accompanying the sound with loud yells, to " so- 
 pranos and tenors of strong pulmonary powers, trying 
 to outshriek the clash of a Wagnerian orchestra." ^ 
 
 Man has no occasion to disparage the capacities of 
 
The Psychological Evidence 423 
 
 the animal world ; for he himself is certainly in large 
 part animal; but the difference between his mental ca- 
 pacities and theirs is enormous, and most far-reaching 
 in its significance. The power of unlimited progres- 
 sion does not exist in the lower animals, while it is 
 possessed b}^ all races of men, and has everywhere ex- 
 hibited itself in marvellous results. Not only is this 
 seen in the products of modern civilization, but it ap- 
 pears in striking light, at the very dawn of definite 
 history, in such structures as the pyramids of Egypt 
 and the dolmens of Northern Europe, in the vaulted 
 arch constructed in the earliest ages of Babylonian 
 history, in the early discovery of processes for separ- 
 ating iron from its ore, and for making and hardening 
 bronze, and the scarcely less remarkable discovery and 
 use of the elasticity of the bow, and of the suscepti- 
 bility for domestication and improvement of various 
 plants and animals and of their actual appropriation 
 for the use of man. These higher powers of the hu- 
 man mind must be distinguished from the instincts, 
 which both in man and animals are effective in inverse 
 ratio to the power of inductive reasoning. 
 
 Animals and men are indeed the common posses- 
 sors of many instinctive powers which, at the very 
 dawn of life, and m numerous emergencies \n after 
 years, operate (h'rectly without instruction for the ac- 
 
424 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 complishment of purposes which are essential for the 
 preservation of the species. The first act of the bird 
 in his nest is to open his bill to receive food. The 
 first act of the young of all mammals, including man, 
 is to bring into use the coordinate muscles used in 
 extracting the mother's milk. The range of things 
 accomplished by instinct in animals is surprising. By 
 instinct we mean those activities for the preservation 
 of self or of the species which are entered upon with- 
 out instruction, and, so far as we can see, without 
 consciousness of the ends which are to be secured by 
 them. These activities which are so numerous and 
 wonderful in the animal creation are largely sup- 
 planted in man by the guidance of his cumulative 
 wisdom. But instinct is perfect at the outset: it is 
 not amenable to instruction : it does not perceive its 
 ends through any process of inductive reasoning. As 
 we have said, man has indeed a limited number of 
 these instincts, but their influence in the history of 
 the race appears in inverse proportion to the develop- 
 ment of his inductive powers of reasoning. It is in 
 these powers of inductive reasoning, we repeat, that 
 the real superiority of man appears, and the marvel 
 does not grow less eitlier in quantity or quality as 
 we carefully scan his attainments. 
 
 The difference between the limitations of animal 
 
'Jlic l\sV(/iolo<{ir(iI I'.-i-itlcnce 425 
 
 intelligence and those of man's is readily enough seen 
 if one attempts to teach an animal any inductive sci- 
 ence. A dog can be taught a little; he can be taught 
 to stand upon his head, to utter a peculiar bark when 
 he wishes to be fed, to go in search of his master when 
 he is lost, and even to scour the snowclad summits 
 of the Alps in search of unknown travellers who have 
 missed their ^^•ay. But the enlargement of knowledge 
 which he is able to make beyond w^hat is directly re- 
 vealed to his senses is extremely limited in compari- 
 son with the lowest attainments of inductive science. 
 So keen is the dog's scent, that if he is shown the 
 stocking of the child who has strayed from home, he 
 can follow his steps through the crowded mart of 
 the city and find the hapless object of his charge far 
 quicker than he could be found by the whole detective 
 force of the government. But if one undertakes to 
 teach a dog such a science as geology, he will see at 
 once the nature of the dog's limitations. Undertake, 
 for instance, to get into the mind of a dog the theory 
 of the Glacial epoch. Take him with you to look at 
 the scratched surfaces of rock from Maine to Alaska, 
 endeavor to get him to understand the significance of 
 the kames, and osars, and gravel plains, and the sheet 
 of till spread over the millions of square miles of the 
 glaciated area; show him in Southern Ohio a granite 
 
426 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 bowlder from the Laurentian highlands and a nugget 
 of copper from the shores of Lake Superior, and what 
 hope will you have of arousing any Idea In his brain? 
 
 Yet the human mind is everywhere capable, if not 
 of interpreting, at least of understanding the Inter- 
 pretation of, such w^idely distributed facts. There Is 
 not an audience anywhere to be found In the world 
 which, If you can get their attention, cannot be made 
 to see the connection of these facts w^Ith one another 
 through the causal bond of a glacial period, and there 
 is not a hearer so stupid that he will not ask, What Is 
 the cause of the glacial period which you say is the 
 cause of these phenomena? The human mind Is, by 
 nature, inquisitive to a degree that renders the rudi- 
 ments of Inquisitiveness in the lower animals utterly 
 insignificant. If we call this impulse an instinct of 
 man, it Is the Instinct w^hich impels one to seek for 
 the cause of all things, and does not allow him to 
 rest until he has formulated some Idea of the first 
 cause, that is, of the Deity. This Is really the foun- 
 dation of the religious nature of man, so that, prop- 
 erly enough, he has been defined as " a religious 
 anlrriaL" Underlying all the superstitious practices 
 of the heathen world, there is a pervasive sense of a 
 divinity ruling over all. 
 
 There is no end to the enumeration of the subtle 
 
The Psyc/inIoi[ii(il Evidinci' 427 
 
 clues of nature which the human nu'nd can take up 
 and follow out to most intcrcstinLj and comprehensive 
 results. To draw another illustration from the science 
 which has played such a part in the present discus- 
 sion : suppose that one insists that he is not interested 
 in the subjects of arch;colo^y and the evidences of 
 man's connection with the Glacial epoch ; he does .lot 
 care to consider such vulgar things as glacial dams 
 and glacial mill ponds and the erosion of ice-laden 
 streams, still we would not despair of interesting him 
 in our subject. Perhaps he cares for botany, and 
 admires the tiny iio\ver that nestles in the wall, and 
 the luxurious vine that covers with its mass of ver- 
 dure the decaying oak, or the stately cedar that man- 
 tles Lebanon with its solemn shadow. But in studying 
 the distribution of these over the earth he will find 
 himself unwittingly paying deference to glacial geol- 
 ogy. For what was it but the great ice sheet that 
 drove down to their present habitat from the far 
 north the bald cypress of the Southern States, the 
 gigantic Sequoias of the Pacific coast, and their near 
 relative the Chinese Gl5^ptostrobus to the mountains of 
 Japan and Northern China? And, again, what but 
 this far-reaching force of glacial action could have 
 driven down from the colder climates the arctic 
 plants now inhabiting the summit of Mount Wash- 
 
428 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ingtx)n, and what but this could have forced the pa- 
 triotic Scotch heather to leave its native mountains 
 and take up a lonelj^ residence on the barren hills of 
 Eastern Massachusetts ? 
 
 If now^ our inquisitor says that he is not particu- 
 larly interested in botany, and we ask him, In w^hat 
 then are you interested? he will perhaps attempt to 
 indicate something which might seem as far removed 
 as possible from our subject, and answer, Of all 
 things in the world, I delight in the study of butter- 
 flies. But, alas, he is caught in his own devices, and 
 unwittingly has attached himself to our triumphal 
 glacial car! For has not Mr. Scudder described 
 whole colonies of arctic butterflies living in lonely 
 isolation about the summits of Mount Washington, 
 and how could they by any possibility have migrated 
 thither except under the conditions furnished by the 
 Glacial epoch? And are not the relatives of these col- 
 onies found in the Rocky Mountains and in the Alps, 
 where they bear testimony to the same pervasive in- 
 fluence ? 
 
 At last in despair, he says, But I am more inter- 
 ested in human history and archaeology. Wherefore, 
 then, is a glacialist asked to discourse on the origin 
 and antiquity of the human race except that the Gla- 
 cial epoch has come in these latter days to be one of 
 
The Psychological Evidence 429 
 
 the most important and productive collateral branches 
 in historical and archnLX)logical investigation. And 
 this is a connection which man wherever found has 
 intellectual capacity to understand. But how absurd 
 the idea of imparting this information to an animal! 
 But these are only a few of the ten thousand illus- 
 trations of the superior capacity of man's mind to 
 interpret nature and to accumulate knowledge con- 
 cerning its operations both in distant space and in 
 distant time. Man has, and so far as w^e can see no 
 other animal has, the marvellous power to transcend 
 the bounds of space and time and to find 
 
 *' tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 
 Sermons in stones, and good in everything." 
 
 The student of science is often asked for the util- 
 ity of his investigations. As answer, he might put 
 in evidence all the material accomplishments of mod- 
 ern civilization. But, better still, he may point to 
 the enrichment of the Intellectual life of all who be- 
 come cognizant of the facts ascertained and the prin- 
 ciples established by scientific investigation. To add 
 a comprehensive thought or an important principle to 
 the accumulating stock of the world's ideas is to in- 
 crease the value of human life beyond all pecuniary 
 estimate. The world was made for other things 
 
430 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 than the production of bread and butter. Man alone 
 is possessed of these marvellous powers of thought 
 and investigation, while the w^hole world is adapted 
 to evoke these powers to the utmost, and to give to 
 him the highest mental satisfaction. 
 
 In considering the means by which the great attain- 
 ments of modern civilization have been reached, we 
 find that of language standing out most prominently 
 of all. It is by articulate speech and written lan- 
 guage that men are able to formulate their thoughts 
 and to communicate them to one another. Thus the 
 wisdom of each becomes the wisdom of all, and the 
 attainments of one generation are passed onward to 
 serve as the starting point of progress for the next. 
 There is really no comparison between the service 
 rendered to man by human speech and that rendered 
 to animals by their imperfect and rudimentary meth- 
 ods of communicating with each other. Romanes 
 thinks that if dogs had the parrot's power of speech, 
 or if a parrot had a dog's brain and intelligence, it 
 would be only a question of time when they would 
 attain the mental capacity of some of the lower races 
 of mankind. On the contrary, thought precedes lan- 
 guage. The very existence of language implies all 
 the essential human powers of thought. It is be- 
 cause men have thoughts to be preserved and com- 
 
The Psychdloi^icdl Evidence 431 
 
 miinicari'd that they fix upon conventional sounds 
 and s;;jiis in which to embody their ideas. It is an 
 impressive fact that liuman lansjua^e is everywhere 
 essentially alike. Every language has a grammar; 
 twtry lang^uage contains the essential concepts of hu- 
 mj'.n thought. The subh'mest thoughts of the world 
 can be translated into the most barbarous dialects in 
 existence. 
 
 This is illustrated in a remarkable manner in the 
 history of modern missions. Whatever one may say 
 about the final character of the religious conceptions 
 of the Book, all must grant that the Bible is to be 
 reckoned among the noblest literatures of the world. 
 Yet to-day there is no nation so degraded that it has 
 not a language into which the Bible can be trans- 
 lated, and with little loss of power. The evidence 
 of this is witnessed to, the world over, in the results 
 of Christian missions. Hundreds of languages have 
 been reduced to wanting by missionaries, and the Bi- 
 ble has been translated into them and disseminated 
 for the enlightenment of the people. No one has 
 borne more positive testimony than Air. ^Darwin has 
 to the transforming effect of these influences upon 
 the sa\'age tribes of Polynesia, where, even before his 
 visit, group after group of islanders had been changed 
 by the persuasive influence of the religion embodied 
 
432 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 in the Bible from cannibals to well-ordered com- 
 munities in which a shipwrecked sailor's life would 
 be as sacred as in England or America. In the 
 opinion of Mr. Darwin the natives of Patagonia were 
 possessed of about as little mental capacity, and were 
 sunk down as low in degradation, as it is possible to 
 conceive human beings to be. Yet the efforts of 
 missionaries to improve their character, and to im- 
 part to them the noble and humanizing effects of 
 Christian ideas, were so successful that he became a 
 constant and liberal contributor to the funds support- 
 ing them in their work. 
 
 When, now, we come to seek the bearing of these 
 facts upon the question of the origin and antiquity 
 of the human race, we shall find that they are both 
 direct and significant. These characteristics of man 
 which we have taken as the indications of his higher 
 nature are the products of his mental capacities, 
 rather than their cause. It is not the use of tools 
 that has produced his mental capacity. It Is his men- 
 tal capacity which has invented tools and made them 
 the means of his progress; and among the most im- 
 portant of these tools we must reckon the fire with 
 which he cooks his food and makes himself indepen- 
 dent of climatic changes. It is not language which 
 
The PsycJioloi^lcal Evidence 4.^3 
 
 has produced the brain of man, hut it is the mental 
 capacity associated with the brain which has first 
 made a demand for, and then created, the language. 
 All the endless progress of the inductive sciences and 
 the hiij;her conceptions of the obligation to love his 
 fellows and to reverence his God reveal elements of 
 human nature that have but at least a rudimental 
 development in the highest of the lower animals. 
 
 That there is not the difference in mental capacity 
 between the races of men which is sometimes sup- 
 posed is ably maintained by Mr. Franz Boas from 
 his comparison of the ancient civilizations of the Old 
 World and the New. " The civilizations of ancient 
 Peru and Central America," he maintains, *' may 
 well be compared with the ancient civilizations of 
 the Old World. In both we find a high stage of 
 political organization: we find division of labor and 
 an elaborate ecclesiastical organization. Great archi- 
 tectural works were undertaken, requiring the coop- 
 eration of many individuals. Animals and plants 
 were domesticated, and the art of writing had been 
 Invented. The inventions and knowledge of the 
 peoples of the Old World seem to have been some- 
 what more numerous and extended than those of the 
 races of the New World, but there can be no doubt 
 that the q;eneral status of their civilization was nearly 
 
434 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 equally high " ; '■ adding that the rapidity of develop- 
 ment in the Old World is no proof of greater ability. 
 In answering the question Why then has there 
 been greater progress in the Old World than in the 
 New? Boas would say that it is explained by the 
 " laws of chance." We prefer to say that, substitut- 
 ing the word *' Providence " for " laws of chance," 
 the adequate explanation is, that the Old World was 
 favored by the rise of lawgivers, inventors, and lead- 
 ers of special ability who have made contributions of 
 world-wide significance to man's stores of knowledge 
 and stock of artistic efficiency, and thereby have 
 started him forward upon a career of cumulative 
 progress. Menes in Eg^^pt, Hammurabi in Mesopo- 
 tamia, Moses in Israel, Solon in Greece, the Caesars 
 in Rome, Galileo in Italy, Gutenberg in Germany, 
 Newton and Watt in England, Morse and Gray and 
 Edison and Wilbur Wright in America, and such as 
 they, have led in a line of progress in which the mul- 
 tiude could only follow. Bereft of the additions which 
 these and such as they have made, man would still 
 everywhere be in a state of primitive barbarism.. 
 
 The more probable scientific hypothesis with ref- 
 erence to the origin of those higher capacities of the 
 human race is that they appeared in the world as 
 an addition and positive increment to the intelligent 
 
The Psyrlioloi^ncal Fyvidcnce 435 
 
 forces before in existence. If we adliere to the de- 
 rivati\e oriiiin of man, we sliould sa\ tiiat to the 
 man of science he appeared as what breeders would 
 call a " sport." J^ut we need not commit ourselves 
 to any particular method by which the Creator se- 
 cured the result. In any event it must have come 
 about in accordance with a well-ordered plan. If it 
 took place by direct interference, \\t may rest assured 
 the interference did not occur until the fullness of 
 time. If by foreordination, it was still a divine gift 
 inwrouii:ht into an orderly system. 
 
 At any rate, there is no Greater philosophical diffi- 
 culty attending the theory of the evolution of man 
 from nature by divine appointment, than there is in 
 the well-known fact of the evolution of the individual 
 soul from its parents. Whence came our individual 
 souls? The theologians are divided into tvvo schools, 
 according as they maintain that the soul is derived by 
 natural law from the parents, or that the soul is in 
 ever>- case a direct gift from the Creator. The first 
 are called 7>aducianists, the second Creationists. So 
 long as they continue to contend over this question 
 of the mode of the origin of the individual soul, one 
 may be pardoned for asking liberty of conviction with 
 reference to the mode of the origin of the higher 
 qualities of the race itself. 
 
436 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 But history forbids us to draw any confident in- 
 ferences concerning the antiquity of man from the 
 known rate of the progress which he has already 
 made. Progress in the world has been by fits and 
 starts. Menes arises, and with him Egyptian civili- 
 zation. Alexander comes upon the field, and the 
 whole world changes front. Copernicus gazes upon 
 the stars, and the earth no more seems to stand still, 
 while the sun ceases to be thought of as in motion. 
 The mariner's compass is discovered, and the stormy 
 ocean ceases to be a barrier between the continents. 
 Stevenson and Watt and Franklin and Field bring 
 forth their speculations about the nature of steam and 
 electricity, and we live and move and have our being 
 in a new world. Yet all these thousands of years the 
 larger part of the human race have been stationary in 
 their development. The habits and customs of their 
 ancestors have settled down upon them like a mid- 
 night pall and quenched all the progressive impulses 
 of their souls. There has been no law of progress 
 in human history from which we can infer the length 
 of time required for the race to attain the develop- 
 ment of the earliest recorded history. The glittering 
 generalities of evolution do not help us to any definite 
 chronology. 
 
77/r Bihlicdl Sihenie 437 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE BIBLICAL SCHEME 
 
 The men of science belle all their own pretensions 
 to candor and thoroughness when they without con- 
 sideration contemptuously set aside the evidence of the 
 Bible relatini^ to the origin and antiquity of the hu- 
 man race. For, in addition to the great antiquity of 
 the documents incorporated into the book of Genesis, 
 its account of the origin and distribution of the hu- 
 man race bears such internal marks of truthfulness 
 that it cannot be ignored in any really scientific treat- 
 ment of the subject. 
 
 But in considering the evidence of these Biblical 
 documents it is important to give them a fair inter- 
 pretation according to the character of the literature 
 to which the several documents belong. The first 
 chapter of Genesis is highly rhetorical in its form, 
 and has not inaptly been termed by some a " poem of 
 creation." But even so its conformity to the modern 
 conceptions of science, as well as to those of theology, 
 is so striking that it has drawn from Haeckel the 
 following well-deserved tribute: "Its extraordinary 
 success is explained not only by its close connection 
 
438 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 w'lXh. Jewish and Christian doctrine, but also by the 
 simple and natural chain of ideas which runs through 
 it, and which contrasts favorably w^ith the confused my- 
 tholo2;y of creation current among most of the ancient 
 nations. . . .Two great and fundam.ental ideas, common 
 also to the non-miraculous theory' of development, 
 meet us in the Mosaic hypothesis of creation with 
 surprising clearness and simplicity — the idea of sep- 
 aration or differentiation, and the idea of progressive 
 development or perfecting. ... In his [Moses'] the- 
 ory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive 
 development and a differentiation of the originally 
 sim.ple matter. We can therefore bestow our just 
 and sincere admiration on the Jewish law^giver's grand 
 insight into nature, and his simple and natural, hy- 
 pothesis of creation, without discovering in it a so- 
 called Divine Revelation." ^ 
 
 Conformably to the teachings of science, the writer 
 of Genesis represents man as the latest born of crea- 
 tion, and states the fact in a form that need give no 
 ofifense to modern science. He has a very inade- 
 quate knowledge of the meaning of words who would 
 limit the significance of " dust of the earth " to un- 
 organized clay and sand. At the same time it will 
 be difficult, if not impossible, for any one to account 
 for the higher nature of man in any better way than 
 
The Biblical Schcnic 439 
 
 it is done in Genesis. It is most in accordance with 
 the facts to look' upon the higher nature of man as a 
 divine izift; and the method of stating this by the 
 sacred writer is too subh'me not to be true. "And 
 God said, Let us make man in our ima(2;e, after our 
 likeness." "And the Lord God formed man of the 
 dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the 
 breath of life; and man became a living soul." 
 
 In respect to the account of the creation of woman, 
 \t is sufficient to say, with Dr. Bartlett,- that " the 
 fact of sex, not only in the human species, but through- 
 out animated life, and its unfailing adjustment from 
 the beginning, is a fact before which, when fairly 
 considered, the most enthusiastic evolutionist has noth- 
 ing satisfactory to offer. So infinite are the proba- 
 bilities against a single individual appearing in exactly 
 the right time and with the right constitution to be 
 in perfect correlation to another individual for the 
 continuation of the species, and so inconceivably in- 
 finite against this occurrence taking place through the 
 hundreds of thousands of species and countless millions 
 of individuals, and in such wise as to insure its never- 
 failing continuance, that one need hardly hesitate to 
 pronounce the statement of the direct creation of the 
 first woman to be the most simple and the most prob- 
 able explanation. Nothing certain can be alleged 
 
440 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 against it, and nothing certain, if anything probable, 
 can be advanced instead of it." ^ 
 
 It is proper, however, to add that the word trans- 
 lated " rib " has no such definite meaning in Hebrew 
 as our translators have given it. Elsewhere it is given 
 the generic meaning of " side." As the object of pre- 
 serving this account is to enforce the sanctity of mar- 
 riage, much liberty must in reason be given to the 
 use of figurative language; and there is room, also 
 to regard with favor those who would understand the 
 account of woman's creation as being a vision of the 
 first man, when, as represented, he had fallen into 
 a deep sleep. The straits to which naturalists are 
 driven in their efforts to account for sex is shown in 
 Darwin's suggestion that, in conformity with the. my- 
 thology of the ancient Greeks, the remote original 
 ancestor of man was an hermaphrodite. The discus- 
 sions between the polygenists and the monogenists are 
 well nigh a thing of the past. The unity of the hu- 
 man race is now so generally accepted that it is 
 scarcely necessary to consider it as needing defense. 
 
 Mankind has distributed itself from some common 
 center. The question as to how the finishing touches 
 were put on to the species may never be known, and 
 need not seriously concern us in the present discus- 
 sion. The mystery is not lessened by the assumption 
 
The Biblical Scheme 441 
 
 that it was done by gradual approach through insensi- 
 ble stages of the progress. But it is as unscientific to 
 tie the hands of the Creator to that process as to any 
 other. In the words of Quatrcfages, *' Man is evi- 
 dently an exceptional or aberrant type among mam- 
 mals. He, alone, is constructed for a vertical position; 
 he, alone, has true hands and feet; he, alone, exhibits 
 the highest degree of cerebral development, and pos- 
 sesses that superiority of intelligence which makes him 
 master of all around him. 
 
 " To allow that the human type, though the most 
 perfect of all types, the exceptional genus 'm the midst 
 of all others, has come into existence in several cen- 
 ters of appearance without characterising any, would 
 be to make him a solitary exception. 
 
 " However strong may be our polygenistic tenden- 
 cies, and how^ever many species we may admit, we 
 cannot help acknowledging that the original localisa- 
 tion of the human ^enus in a single centre of appear- 
 ance and the characterisation of this centre by him 
 are the logical consequence of all facts attested by 
 zoological geography." - 
 
 It is significant, moreover, that the original center 
 of the human race is located by the Hebrew Scriptures 
 somewhere in the vicinity of that which has been in- 
 dicated by all scientific inquiry. Science no less than 
 
442 Origin and Antiquity of Ulan 
 
 the Bible has a " Garden of Eden," somewhere in, or 
 near, Southern Asia, where man could at iirst live in 
 paradisaical conditions and from which both he and 
 the most important animals and plants upon which he 
 is dependent for sustenance have migrated to the ends 
 of the earth. According to the best interpretation, the 
 Garden of Eden described in Genesis was located in 
 the lower part of the Euphrates Valley, near the head 
 of the Persian Gulf, where the Karun and the Kerk- 
 hah rivers, coming down from the east, join the Satt 
 el-Arab, formed by the junction of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates. 
 
 As to the date of the appearance of man at this 
 center, there seems to be a serious discrepancy between 
 the statement of Scripture and the scientific inductions 
 which we have so confidently made. To remove this 
 discrepancy it is necessar}^ to give close attention to 
 the question of Biblical chronology. On the face of 
 them the genealogies in the fifth and tenth chapters 
 of Genesis limit the antiquity of the human race to 
 about six thousand years. To obviate this objection 
 we can do no better than to incorporate entire an 
 article upon " Primitive Chronology " by the able and 
 orthodox Professor William Henry Green of Prince- 
 ton, prepared at my solicitation, and published in the 
 Bihliotheca Sacra. April, 1890, and ever after re- 
 
The Biblical Sclic/ic 44.-; 
 
 ferred to by him as enihoilyini^ his mature wisdom 
 upon the subject. 
 
 Thv- question of the possible reconciliation of the 
 results of scientific inquiry respecting the antiquity of 
 man and the ajie of the world with the Scripture 
 chronolooiy has been long and earnestly debated. On 
 the one hand, scientists, deeming them irreconcilable, 
 have been led to distrust the divine authority of the 
 Scripture; and, on the other hand, believers in the di- 
 vine word have been led to look upon the investiga- 
 tions of science with an unfriendly eye, as though 
 they were antagonistic to religious faith. In my reply 
 to Bishop Colenso in 1863, I had occasion to examine 
 the method and structure of the Biblical genealogies, 
 and incidentally ventured the remark"* that herein lay 
 the solution of the whole matter. I said: ''There 
 is an element of uncertainty in a computation of time 
 which rests upon genealogies, as the sacred chronology 
 so largely does. Who is to certify us that the ante- 
 diluvian and ante-Abrahamic genealogies have not been 
 condensed in the same manner as the post-Abrahamic? 
 . . . Our current chronology is based upon the prima 
 facie impression of these genealogies. . . . But if these 
 recently discovered indications of the antiquity of man, 
 over which scientific circles are now so excited, shall, 
 when carefully inspected and thoroughly weighed, 
 dem.onstrate all that any have imagined they might 
 demonstrate, what then? They will simply show that 
 the popular chronology is based upon a wrong inter- 
 
444 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 pretati'on, and that a select and partial register of ante- 
 Abrahamic names has been mistaken for a complete 
 one." Further reflection has confirmed me in the 
 correctness of the opinion then expressed. 
 
 At the courteous request of the Editors of the Bib- 
 liotheca Sacra I here repeat, with a few verbal changes, 
 the discussion of the Biblical genealogies above re- 
 ferred to, and add some further considerations which 
 seem to me to justify the belief that the genealogies 
 in Genesis, chapters v. and xi,, were not intended to 
 be used, and cannot properly be used, for the con- 
 struction of a chronology. 
 
 It can scarcely be necessary to adduce proof to one 
 who has even a superficial acquaintance with the gene- 
 alogies of the Bible, that these are frequently abbre- 
 viated by the omission of unimportant names. In 
 fact, abridgement is the general rule, induced by the 
 indisposition of the sacred writers to encumber their 
 pages with more names than were necessary for their 
 immediate purpose. This is so constantly the case, 
 and the reason for it so obvious, that the occurrence 
 of it need create no surprise anywhere, and we are at 
 liberty to suppose it whenever anything in the cir- 
 cumstances of the case favors that belief. 
 
 The omissions in the genealogy of our Lord as 
 given in Matt. i. are familiar to all. Thus in verse 
 8 three names are dropped between Jo ram and Ozias 
 (Uzziah), viz., Aha/iah (2 Kings viii. 25), Toash 
 (2 Kings xii. i), and Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. i) ; and 
 in verse 11 Jehoiakim is omitted after Josiah (2 
 
77/r Biblical Schcnie 445 
 
 Kings xxlii. 34; i Chron. iii. ib) ; and in verse i the 
 entire i^enealo^y is siimmeil up in two steps, " Jesus 
 Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham." 
 
 Other instances abound elsewhere; we mention only 
 a few of the most striking. In i Chron. xxvi. 24 we 
 read in a list of appointments made by King David 
 (see I Chron. xxiv. 3 ; xxv. i ; xxvi. 26), that Shebuel,^ 
 the son of Gershom, the son of Moses, was ruler of 
 the treasures; and again in i Chron. xxiii. 15, 16, we 
 find it written, ** The sons of Moses were Gershom 
 and Eliezer. Of the sons of Gershom Shebuel was 
 the chief." Now it is absurd to suppose that the au- 
 thor of Chronicles was so grossly ignorant as to sup- 
 pose that the grandson of Moses could be living in the 
 reign of David, and appointed by him to a responsible 
 office. Again, in the same connection ( i Chron. xxvi. 
 3O, ^^e read that "among the Hebronites was Jeri- 
 jah the chief"; and this Jerijah, or Jeriah (for the 
 names are identical), was, according to xxiii. 19, the 
 first of the sons of Hebron, and Hebron was (ver. 
 12) the son of Kohath, the son of Levi (ver. 6). So 
 that if no contraction in the genealogical lists is al- 
 lowed, we have the great-grandson of Levi holding a 
 prominent office in the reign of David. 
 
 The genealogy of Ezra is recorded in the book 
 which bears his name; but we learn from another pas- 
 sage, in which the same line of descent is given, that 
 it has been abridged by the omission of six consecutive 
 names. This will appear from the following compari- 
 son, viz: — 
 
446 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Chron. vi. 3- 
 
 I. 
 
 Aaron 
 
 2. 
 
 Eleazar 
 
 3- 
 
 Phinehas 
 
 4- 
 
 Abishua 
 
 5- 
 
 Bukki 
 
 6. 
 
 Uzzi 
 
 7- 
 
 Zerahiah 
 
 8. 
 
 Meraioth 
 
 9- 
 
 Amariah 
 
 10. 
 
 Ahitub 
 
 II. 
 
 Zadok 
 
 12. 
 
 Ahimaaz 
 
 13- 
 
 Azariah 
 
 14. 
 
 Johanan 
 
 15- 
 
 Azariah 
 
 16. 
 
 Amariah 
 
 17- 
 
 Ahitub 
 
 18. 
 
 Zadok 
 
 19- 
 
 Shallum 
 
 20. 
 
 Hilkiah 
 
 21. 
 
 Azariah 
 
 22. 
 
 Seraiah 
 
 Ezra vii. 1-5. 
 Aaron 
 Eleazar 
 Phinehas 
 Abishua 
 Bukki 
 Uzzi 
 Zerahiah 
 Meraioth 
 
 Azariah 
 
 A'Tiariah 
 
 Ahitub 
 
 Zndok 
 
 Shnllum 
 
 Hilkiah 
 
 Azariah 
 
 Peraiah 
 
 Ezra 
 
 Still further, Ezra relates (viii. i, 2) : — 
 
 " These are now the chief of their fathers, this i3 
 the genealogy of them that went up with me from 
 Babylon, in the reign of Artaxer-xes the king. Of the 
 sons of Phinehas, Gershom. Of the sons of Ithamar, 
 Deniel. Of the sons of David, Hattush." 
 
 Here, if no abridgement of the genealogy is al- 
 lowed, we should have a great-grandson and a grand- 
 son of Aaron, and a son of David coming up with 
 Ezra from Babylon after the captivity. 
 
 This disposition to abbreviate genealogies by the 
 omission of whatever is unessential to the immediate 
 purpose of the writer is shown by still more remark- 
 
Tlie Bihiuul ScJieme 447 
 
 able reductions than those which we have been con- 
 sidering. Persons of diiierent degrees of relationship 
 are sometimes tlirown together under a common title 
 descriptive of the majority, and all words of expla- 
 nation, even those which seem essential to the sense, 
 are rigorously excluded, the supplying of these chasms 
 being left to the independent knowledge of the reader. 
 Hence several passages in the genealogies of Chron- 
 icles have now become hopelessly obscure. They may 
 have been intelligible enough to contemporaries; but 
 for those who have no extraneous sources of informa- 
 tion, the key to their explanation is wanting. In other 
 cases we are able to understand them, because the 
 information necessary to make them intelligible is 
 supplied from parallel passages of Scripture. Thus 
 the opening verses of Chronicles contain the following 
 bald list of names without a w^ord of explanation, viz. : 
 Adam, Seth, Enosh ; Kenan, Mahalalel, Jared ; Enoch, 
 Methuselah, Lamech; Noah, Shem, Ham, Japheth. 
 
 We are not told who these persons are, how they 
 were related to each other, or whether they w^re re- 
 lated. The writer presumes that his readers have the 
 book of Genesis in their hands, and that the simple 
 mention of these names in their order will be suffi- 
 cient to remind them that the first ten trace the line 
 of descent from father to son from the first to the 
 second great progenitor of mankind; and that the 
 last three are brothers, although nothing is said to 
 indicate that their relationship is different from the 
 preceding. 
 
448 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Again the family of Eliphas, the son of Esau, is 
 spoken of in the following terms in i Chron. i. 36: 
 "The sons of Eliphaz: Teman and Omar, Zephi and 
 Gatam, Kenaz and Timna, and Amalek." 
 
 Now, by turning to Genesis xxxvi. 11, 12, we shall 
 see that the first five are sons of Eliphaz, and the 
 sixth his concubine, who was the mother of the sev- 
 enth. This is so plainly written in Genesis that the 
 author of the Chronicles, were he the most inveterate 
 blunderer, could not have mistaken it. But trusting 
 to the knowledge of his readers to supply the omis- 
 sion, he leaves out the statement respecting Eliphaz's 
 concubine, but at the same time connects her name and 
 that of her son with the family to w^hich they belong, 
 and this though he was professedly giving a statement 
 of the sons of Eliphaz. 
 
 So, likewise, in the pedigree of Samuel (or Shem- 
 uel, ver. 33, the difference in orthrography is due to 
 our translators, and is not in the original), which is 
 given in i Chron. vi. in both an ascending and de- 
 scending series. Thus in verses 22-24: "The sons of 
 Kohath; Amminadab his son, Korah his son, Assir 
 his son; Elkanah his son, and Ebisaph his son, and 
 Assir his son; Tahath his son," etc. 
 
 The extent to which the framer of this list has 
 studied comprehensiveness and conciseness will appear 
 from the fact, which no one would suspect unless in- 
 formed from other sources, that while the general law 
 which prevails in it is that of descent from father to 
 son, the third, fourth, and fifth names represent broth- 
 
The Biblical Scheme 449 
 
 crs. This is shown by a comparison of Ex. vi. 24, 
 and the parallel ijenealopjy, i Chron. vi. 36, 37. So 
 that the true line of descent is the following;, viz.: — 
 
 In ver. 22-24— Kohath ^" "^er. 37-38— Kohath 
 Amminadab Izhar 
 
 Korah Korah 
 
 Assir, Elkanah, Ebiasaph Ebiasaph 
 
 Assir Assir 
 
 Tahath, etc. Tahath, etc. 
 
 The circumstance that the son of Kohath is called 
 in one list Amminadab, and in the other Izhar, is no 
 real discrepancy and can create no embarassment, 
 since it is no unusual thing for the same person to 
 have two names. Witness Abram and Abraham; Ja- 
 cob and Israel ; Joseph and Zaphenath-paneah, Gen. 
 xli. 45, Hoshea, Jehoshua, Num. xiii. 16 (or Joshua) 
 and Jeshua, Neh. viii. 17, Gideon and Jerrubbaal, 
 Jud<z. vi. 3?., Solomon and Jedidiah, 2 Sam. xii. 24, 
 25, Azariah and Uzziah, 2 Kings xv. i, 13, Daniel 
 and Belteshazzar, Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah and 
 Shadrach, Meshach, Abednego, Dan. i. 7; Saul and 
 Paul, Thomas and Didymus, Cephas and Peter, and 
 in profane history Cyaxares and Darius, Octavianus 
 and Augustus, Napoleon and Bonaparte, Ferretti and 
 Pius IX. 
 
 The genealogy of Moses and Aaron is thus stated 
 in the sixth chapter of Exodus: — 
 
 Ver. 16. "And these are the names of the sons of 
 Levi, according to their generations; Gershon, and 
 Kohath, and Merarl: and the years of the life of Levi 
 were an hundred and thirty and seven years." 
 
450 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 17. "The sons of Gershon . . . ." 
 
 18. " And the sons of Kohath ; Amram, and Izhar, 
 and Hehron, and Uzziel ; and the years of the life of 
 Kohath were an hundred and thirty and three years." 
 
 19. "And the sons of Merari . . . ." 
 
 20. " And Amram took him Jochebed his fa- 
 ther's sister to wife; and she bare him Aaron and 
 Moses: and the years of the life of Amram were an 
 hundred and thirty and seven years." 
 
 21. " And the sons of Izhar . . . ." 
 
 22. " And the sons of Uzziel . . . ." 
 
 There is abundant proof that this genealogy has 
 been condensed, as we have already seen that so many 
 others have been, by the dropping of som.e of the less 
 important names. 
 
 This is afforded, in the first place, by parallel gene- 
 alogies of the same period ; as that of Bezaleel ( i 
 Chron. ii. 18-20), which records seven generations 
 from Jacob ; and that of Joshua ( i Chron. vii. 23- 
 27), which records eleven. Now it is scarcely con- 
 ceivable that there should be eleven links in the line 
 of descent from Jacob to Joshua, and only four from 
 Jacob to Moses. 
 
 A still more convincing proof is yielded by Num. 
 iii. 19, 27, 28, from which it appears that the four 
 sons of Kohath severally gave rise to the families of 
 the Amramites, the Isharites, the Hebronites, and the 
 Uzzielites; and that the number of the male mem- 
 bers of these families of a month old and upward was 
 8,600 one vear after the Exodus. So that, if no 
 
The Bihiuai Scheme 45 I 
 
 abridgement has taken place in the j2;cnealop;y, the 
 grandfather of Moses had, in the lifetime of the lat- 
 ter, 8,(300 descendants of the male sex alone, 2,750 of 
 them being between the ages of thirty and fifty 
 (Num. iv. 36). 
 
 Another proof equally convincing is to be found in 
 the fact that Levi's son Kohath was born before the 
 descent into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 11); and. the abode 
 of the children of Israel in Egypt continued 430 years 
 (Ex. xii. 40, 41). Now as Moses was eighty years 
 old at the Exodus (Ex. vii. 7) he must have been 
 born more than 350 years after Kohath, who conse- 
 quently could not have been his own grandfather. 
 
 This genealogy, w^hose abbreviated character is so 
 clearly established, is of special importance for the 
 immediate purpose of this paper, because it might ap- 
 pear, at first sight, as though such an assumption v^^as 
 precluded in the present instance, and as though the 
 letter of Scripture shut us up to the inevitable con- 
 clusion that there were four links, and no more, from 
 , Jacob to Moses. The names which are found Vvithout 
 deviation in all the g'enealogies are Jacob, Levi, Kohath, 
 Amram, Moses (Ex. vi. 16-20; Num. iii. 17-19 - 
 xxvi. 57-59; I Chron. vi. 1-3, 16-18; xxiii. 6, 12, 
 13). Now unquestionably Levi was Jacob's own 
 son. So likewise Kohath was the son of Levi (Gen. 
 xlvi. I T ) and born before the descent into Egypt. 
 Amram also Vvas the immediate descendant of Ko- 
 hath. It does not seem possible, as Kurtz proposed, 
 to insert the missing links between them. For, in the 
 
452 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 first place, according to Num. xxvi. 59, " The name 
 of Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, 
 whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt," this Joche- 
 bed being (Ex. vi. 20), Amram's aunt, or his fa- 
 ther's sister. Now, it is true, that " a daughter of 
 Levi " might have the general sense of a descendant 
 of Levi, as the woman healed by our Lord (Luke xiii. 
 16) is called "a daughter of Abraham"; and her 
 being born to Levi might simply mean that she 
 sprang from him (comp. Gen. xlvi. 25). But these 
 expressions must here be taken in a strict sense, and 
 Jochebed accordingly must have been Levi's own 
 daughter and the sister of Kohath, who must in con- 
 sequence have been Am.ram's own father. This ap- 
 pears from a second consideration, viz., that Amram 
 was (Num. iii. 27) the father of one of the subdi- 
 visions of the Kohathites, these subdivisions springing 
 from Kohath's own children and comprising together 
 8,600 male descendants. Moses' father surely could 
 not have been the ancestor of one-fourth of this num- 
 ber in Moses' own days. 
 
 To avoid this difficulty Tiele and Keil assume that 
 there were two Am rams, one the son of Kohath, an- 
 other the father of Moses, who was a more remote 
 descendant but bore the same name with his ancestor. 
 This relieves the embarrassment created by the Am- 
 ramites (Num. iii. 27), but is still liable to that 
 which arises from n^aking Jochebed the mother of 
 Moses. And further, the structure of the genealogy 
 in Ex. vi. is such as to make this hypothesis un- 
 
The Biblical Scheme 4S/> 
 
 natural and improbable. Verse i6 names the three 
 sons of Levi, Gershom, Kohath, and Merari ; ver. 
 17-19, the sons of each in their order; ver. 20-22, 
 the children of Koh?fth's sons; ver. 23, 24, contain 
 descendants of tbe next ojeneration, and ver. 25 the 
 generation next foUowin^^ Now, according: to the 
 view of Tiele and Keil, we must either suppose that 
 the Amram, Izhar, and Uzziel of ver. 20-22 are all 
 different from the Amram, Izhar, and Uzziel of ver. 
 18, or else that Amram, though belonging to a later 
 generation than Izhar and Uzziel, is introduced before 
 them, which the regular structure of the genealogy 
 forbids; and besides, the sons of Izhar and the sons 
 of Uzziel, who are here named, were the contem.por- 
 aries of Moses and Aaron the sons of Amram (Num. 
 xvi. 1 ; Lev. x. 4). 
 
 This subject may be relieved from all perplexity, 
 however, by observing that Amram and Jochebed were 
 not the immediate parents, but the ancestors of Aaron 
 and Moses. How many generations may have inter- 
 vened, we cannot tell. It is indeed said (Ex. vi. 20; 
 Num. xxvi. 59), that Jochebed bare them to Amram. 
 But in the language of the genealogies this simply 
 means that they were descended from her and from 
 Amram. Thus, in Gen. xlvi. 18, after recording the 
 sons of Zilpah, her grandsons, and her great-grand- 
 sons, the writer adds, " These are the sons of Zilpah 
 .... and these she bare unto Jacob, even sixteen 
 souls." The same thing recurs in the case of Bilhah 
 (ver. 25) : " She bare these unto Jacob; all the souls 
 
454 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 were seven." (Conip. also ver. 15, 22.) No one 
 can pretend here that the author of this register did 
 not use the terms understandingly of descendants be- 
 yond the first ;j;cneration. In like manner, according 
 to Aiatt. i. II, Josias begat his grandson Jechonias, 
 and ver. 8. joram begat his great-great-grandson 
 Ozias. And in Gen. x. 15-18 Canaan, the grandson 
 of Noah, is said to have begotten several whole na- 
 tions, the Jebusite, the Amorite, the Girgasite, the 
 Hivite, etc. (Comp. also Gen. xxv. 23; Deut. iv. 
 25; 2 Kings XX. 18; Isa. li. 2.) Nothing can be 
 plainer, therefore, than that, in the usage of the Bi- 
 ble, " to bear ". and " to beget " are used in a wide 
 sense to indicate descent, without restriction to the 
 immediate offspring." 
 
 It is no serious objection to this view of the case 
 that in Lev. x. 4 IJzziel, Amram's brother, is called 
 " the uncle of Aaron." The Hebrew w^ord here ren- 
 dered " uncle," though often specifically applied to a 
 definite degree of relationship, has, both from etymol- 
 ogy and usage, a much wider sense. A great-great- 
 grand-uncle is still an uncle, and would properly be 
 described by the term here used. 
 
 It may also be observed that in the actual history 
 of the birth of Moses his parents are not called Am- 
 ram and Jochebed. It is simply said (Ex. ii. i), 
 ** and there \^•cnt a man of the house of Levi, and 
 took to wife a daughter of Levi." 
 
 After these preliminary observations, which were 
 originally drawn up for another purpose, I come to 
 
The Bibl'iral Scheme 455 
 
 tlie more immediate design of the present paper, by 
 proceeding to inquire, \\ liether the genealogies of Gen. 
 V. and xi. are necessarily to be considered as complete, 
 and embracing all the links in the line of descent from 
 Adam to Noah and from Shcm to Abraham. And 
 upon this I remark — 
 
 I. That the analogy of Scripture genealogies is 
 decidedly against such a supposition. In numerous 
 other instances there is incontrovertible evidence of 
 more or less abridgement. This may even be the case 
 where various circumstances combine to produce a 
 different impression at the outset. Nevertheless, we 
 have seen that this first impression may be dissipated 
 by a more careful examination and a comparison of 
 collateral data. The result of our investigations thus 
 far is suflRcient to show that it is precarious to assume 
 that any Biblical genealogy is designed to be strictly 
 continuous, unless it can be subjected to some external 
 tests which prove it to be so. And it is to be ob- 
 served that the Scriptures furnish no collateral in- 
 formation whatever respecting the period covered by 
 the genealogies now in question. The creation, the 
 Flood, the call of Abraham, are great facts, which 
 stand out distinctly In primeval sacred history. A 
 few incidents respecting our first parents and their 
 sons Cain and Abel are recorded. Then there Is an 
 almost total blank until the Flood, with nothing 
 whatever to fill the gap, and nothing to suggest the 
 length of time intervening but what is found In the 
 genealogy stretching between these two points. And 
 
456 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 the case is substantially the same from the Flood to 
 Abraham. So far as the Biblical records go, we are 
 left not only without adequate data, but without any 
 data whatever, which can be brought into comparison 
 with these genealogies for the sake of testing their 
 continuity and completeness. 
 
 If, therefore, any really trustworthy data can be 
 gathered from any source whatever, from any realm 
 of scientific or antiquarian research, which can be 
 brought into comparison with these genealogies for 
 the sake of determining the question, whether they 
 have noted every link in the chain of the descent, or 
 whether, as in other manifest instances, links have 
 been omitted, such data should be welcomed and the 
 comparison fearlessly made. Science would simply 
 perform the office, in this instance, which information 
 gathered from other parts of Scripture is unhesitat- 
 ingly allowed to do in regard to those genealogies 
 previously examined. 
 
 And it may be worth while noting here that a 
 single particular in w^hich a comparison may be 
 instituted between the primeval history of man and 
 Gen. v., suggests especial caution before affirming the 
 absolute completeness of the latter. The letter of 
 the genealogical record (v. 3) if we were dependent 
 on it alone, might naturally lead us to infer that Seth 
 was Adam's first child. But we know from chapter 
 iv. that he had already had two sons, Cain and Abel, 
 and from iv. 17 that he must have had a daughter, 
 and from iv. 14 that he had probably had several sons 
 
llic Bihiual Sclirnn 
 
 457 
 
 and dau,Q;hters, whose families had swollen to a con- 
 siderahle miiiiher before Adam's one hundred and 
 thirtieth \ear, in which Seth was horn. Yet of all 
 this the genealogy gives us no inkling. 
 
 2. Is there not, however, a peculiarity in the con- 
 struction of these genealogies which forbids our ap- 
 plying to them an inference drawn from others not 
 so constructed? The fact that each member of the 
 series is said to have begotten the one next succeed- 
 ing, is, in the light of the wide use of this term which 
 we have discovered in other cases, no evidence of itself 
 that links have not been omitted. But do not the 
 chronological statements introduced into these gene- 
 alogies oblige us to regard them as necessarily contin- 
 uous? Why should the author be so particular to 
 state, in every case, with unfailing regularity, the age 
 of each patriarch at the birth of his son, unless it 
 was his design thus to construct a chronology of this 
 entire period, and to afford his readers the necessary 
 elements for a computation of the interval from the 
 creation to the deluge and from the deluge to Abra- 
 ham? And \i this was his design, he must of course 
 have aimed to make his list complete. The omission 
 of even a single name would create an error. 
 
 But are we really justified in supposing that the 
 author of these genealogies entertained such a pur- 
 pose i* It is a noticeable fact that he never puts them 
 to such a use himself. He nowhere sums these num- 
 bers, nor suggests their summation. No chronological 
 statement is deduced from these genealogies, either bv 
 
458 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 him or by any inspired writer. There is no compu- 
 tation anywhere in Scripture of the time that elapsed 
 from the creation or from the deluge, as there is from 
 the descent into Egypt to the Exodus (Ex. xii. 40), 
 or from the Exodus to the building of the temple (i 
 Kings vi. i). And if the numbers in these genealo- 
 gies are for the sake of constructing a chronology, 
 why are numbers introduced which have no possible 
 relation to such a purpose? Why are we told how 
 long each patriarch lived after the birth of his son, 
 and what was the entire length of his life? These 
 numbers are given with the same regularity as the 
 age of each at the birth of his son; and they are of 
 no use in making up a chronology of the period. 
 They merely afford us a conspectus of individual 
 lives. And for this reason doubtless they are re- 
 corded. They exhibit in these selected examples the 
 original term of human life. They show what it 
 was in the ages before the Flood. They show how 
 it was afterwards gradually narrowed down. But in 
 order to this it was not necessary that every individ- 
 ual should be named in the line from Adam to Noah 
 and from Noah to Abraham, nor anything approach- 
 ing it. A series of specimen lives, with the appro- 
 priate numbers attached, was all that was required. 
 And, so far as appears, this is all that has been fur- 
 nished us. And if this be the case, the notion of 
 basing a chronological computation upon these gene- 
 alogies is a fundamental mistake. It is putting them 
 to a purpose that they were not designed to subserve. 
 
The Biblical Srhcnie 459 
 
 and to which from the method of their construction 
 they are not adapted. When it is said, for example, 
 that '* Enosh lived ninetj^ years and begat Kenan," 
 the well-established usage of the word *' begat " 
 makes this statement equally true and equally accord- 
 ant with analogy, whether Kenan was an immediate 
 or a remote descendant of Enosh; whether Kenan 
 was himself born, when Enosh was ninety years of 
 age or one was born from whom Kenan sprang. 
 These genealogies may yield us the minimum length 
 of time that it is possible to accept for the period 
 that they cover; but they can make no account of the 
 duration represented by the names that have been 
 dropped from the register, as needless for the author's 
 particular purpose. 
 
 3. The abode of the children of Israel in Egypt 
 affords for our present purpose the best Scripture par- 
 allel to the periods now under consideration. The 
 greater part of this term of 430 years is left blank in 
 the sacred history. A few incidents are mentioned at 
 the beginning connected with the descent of Jacob 
 and his family into Egypt and their settlement there. 
 And at its close mention is made of some incidents in 
 the life of Moses and the events leading to the Exo- 
 dus. But with these exceptions no account is given 
 of this long period. The interval is only bridged by 
 a genealogy extending from Levi to Moses and Aaron 
 and their contemporaries among their immediate rel- 
 atives (Ex. vi. 16-26). This genealogy records the 
 length of each man's life in the principal line of de- 
 
460 Origifi and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 scent, viz., Levi (ver. 16), Kohath (ver. 18), Am- 
 ram (ver. 20). The correspondence in the points 
 just indicated with the genealogies of Gen. v. and xi., 
 and the periods which thej^ cover, is certainly remark- 
 able. And as they proceeded from the same pen, we 
 may fairly infer from the similarity of construction a 
 similarity of design. Now it has been show^n already 
 that the genealogy from Levi to Moses cannot have 
 recorded all the links in that line of descent, and that 
 it could not, therefore, have been intended to be used 
 as a basis of chronological computation. This is ren- 
 dered absolutely certain by the explicit statement in 
 Ex. xii. 40. It further appears from the fact that 
 the numbers given in this genealogy exhibit the 
 longevity of the patriarchs named, but cannot be so 
 concatenated as to sum up the entire period ; thus 
 suggesting the inference that the numbers in the other 
 genealogies, with which we are now concerned, were 
 given with a like design, and not with the view of 
 enabling the reader to construct the chronology. 
 
 4. In so far as a valid argument can be drawn from 
 the civilization of Egypt, its monuments and records, 
 to show that the interval between the deluge and the 
 call of Abraham must have been greater than that 
 yielded by the genealogy in Gen. xi., the argument is 
 equally valid against the assumption that this genealogy 
 was intended to supply the elements for a chronolog- 
 ical computation. For altogether apart from his in- 
 spiration Moses could not have made a mistake here. 
 He was brought up at the court of Pharaoh, and was 
 
The Biblical ScJicnic 461 
 
 learned in all the \\ isdom of the Ep:3'ptians, of which 
 his legislation and the marvellous table of the affini- 
 ties of nations in Gen. x., at once the admiration and 
 the despair of ethnologists, furnish independent proof. 
 He lived in the glorious period of the great Egyptian 
 monarchy. Its monuments were then in their fresh- 
 ness and completeness. None of the irreparable dam- 
 age, which time and ruthless barbarism have since 
 wrought, had been suffered then. The fragmentary 
 records, which scholars are now laboriously struggling 
 to unravel and combine, with their numerous gaps 
 and hopeless obscurities, were then in their integrity 
 and well understood. Egypt's claim to a hoary an- 
 tiquity w\as far better known to Closes, and he was 
 in a position to gain a far more intelligent compre- 
 hension of it than is possible at present; for exuberant 
 materials were ready at his hand, of which only a 
 scanty and disordered remnant now survives. If, then, 
 Egyptian antiquity contradicts the current chronology, 
 it simply show^s that this chronology is based upon an 
 unfounded assumption. It rests upon a fundamentally 
 mistaken interpretation of the ante-Abrahamic gene- 
 alogy, and assigns a meaning to it which Moses could 
 never have intended that it should have. 
 
 As is well known, the texts of the Septuagint and 
 of the Samaritan Pentateuch vary systematically from 
 the Hebrew in both the genealogies of Gen. v. and 
 xi. According to the chronologies based on these 
 texts respectively, the interval between the Flood and 
 the birth of Abraham was 292 (Hebrew), 942 (Sa- 
 
462 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 maritan), or 11 72 years (Septuagint). Some have 
 been disposed in this state of the case to adopt the 
 chronology drawn from the Septuagint, as affording 
 here the needed reh'ef. But the superior accuracy of 
 the Hebrew text in this instance, as well as generally 
 elsewhere, can be incontrovertibly established. This 
 resource, then, is a broken reed. It might, however, be 
 plausibly imagined, and has in fact been maintained, 
 that these changes were made by the Septuagint trans- 
 lators or others for the sake of accommodating the 
 Mosaic narrative to the imperative demands of the 
 accepted Eg3'ptian antiquity. But if this be so, it is 
 only a further confirmation of the argument already 
 urged, that the ante-Abrahamic genealogy cannot have 
 been intended by Moses as a basis of chronological 
 computation. He knew as much of the age of Egypt 
 as the Septuagint translators or any in their day. And 
 if so brief a term as this genealogy yields, was inad- 
 missable in their judgment, and they felt constrained 
 to enlarge it by the addition of nearly nine centuries, 
 is it not clear that Moses never could have intended 
 that the genealogy should be so interpreted? 
 
 Furthermore, it seems to me worthy of considera- 
 tion whether the original intent with which these 
 textual changes were made, was after all a chrono- 
 logical one. The principle by which they are obvi- 
 ously and uniformly governed, is rather suggestive of 
 a disposition to make a more symmetrical division of 
 individual lives than to protract the entire period. 
 
The Biblical Scheme 4^3 
 
 The effect ol tliese changes upon tlie chronoloj^^y may 
 have heen altoojether an afterthou^^ht. 
 
 Thus in the Hebrew text of Gen. v. the ages of 
 different patriarchs at the birth of the son named are 
 quite irregular, and vary from sixty-five to one hun- 
 dred and eighty-seven. But the versions seek to 
 bring them into closer conformity, and to introduce 
 something like a regular gradation. The Septuagint 
 proceeds on the assumption that patriarchs of such 
 enormous longevity should be nearly two centuries 
 old at the birth of their son. Accordingly, when, in 
 the Hebrew, they fall much belov/ this standard, one 
 hundred years are added to the number preceding the 
 birth of the son and the same amount deducted from 
 the number following his birth; the total length of 
 each life is thus preserved without change, the pro- 
 portion of its different parts alone being altered. The 
 Samaritan, on the other hand, assumes a gradual 
 diminution in the ages of successive patriarchs prior 
 to the birth of their son, none rising to a centuiy 
 after the first two. When, therefore, the num.ber in 
 the Hebrew text exceeds one hundred, one hundred 
 is deducted and the same amount added to the years 
 after the son was born. In the case of Lamech the 
 reduction is greater still, in order to effect the neces- 
 sary diminution. Accordingly the years assigned to 
 the several antediluvian patriarchs before the birth of 
 their son in these several texts is as follows: — 
 
464 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Septuagint. 
 
 Samaritan. 
 
 Adam 
 
 130 
 
 230 
 
 130 
 
 Seth 
 
 105 
 
 205 
 
 105 
 
 Enosh 
 
 90 
 
 190 
 
 90 
 
 Kenan 
 
 70 
 
 170 
 
 70 
 
 Mahalalel 
 
 65 
 
 165 
 
 65 
 
 Jared 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 62 
 
 Enoch 
 
 65 
 
 r'^^ 
 
 65 
 
 Methuselah 
 
 187 
 
 (167' 
 I187 
 
 67 
 
 Lamech 
 
 182 
 
 188 
 
 53 
 
 Noah 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 A simple glance at these numbers is sufficient to 
 show that the Hebrew is the original, from which 
 the others diverge on the one side or the other, ac- 
 cording to the principle which they have severally 
 adopted. It likewise creates a strong presumption 
 that the object contemplated in these changes was to 
 make the lives more S5^mmetrical, rather than to effect 
 an alteration in the chronology. 
 
 .5. The structure of the genealogies in Gen. v. 
 and xi. also favors the belief that they do not register 
 all the names in these respective lines of descent. 
 Their regularity seems to indicate intentional arrange- 
 ment. Each genealogy includes ten names, Noah be- 
 ing the tenth from Adam, and Terah the tenth from 
 Noah. And each ends with a father having three 
 sons, as is likewise the case with the Cainite geneal- 
 ogy (iv. 17-22). The Sethite genealogy (chap, v.) 
 culminates in its seventh m.ember, Enoch, who '' walked 
 whh God, and he w^as not, for God took him." The 
 Cainite genealogy also culminates in its seventh mem- 
 ber, Lamech, with his polygamy, bloody revenge, and 
 
The Biblical Scheme 465 
 
 boastful arro2;ance. The y;enealogy descending from 
 Shem divides evenly at its fifth member, Peleg; and 
 ' in his days was the earth divided,' Now as the ad- 
 justment of the genealogy in Matt. i. into three peri- 
 ods of fourteen generations each is brought about by 
 dropping the requisite number of names, it seems in 
 the highest degree probable that the symmetry of these 
 primitive genealogies is artificial rather than natural. 
 It is much more likely that this definite number of 
 names fitting into a regular scheme has been selected 
 as sufficiently representing the periods to which they 
 belong, than that all these striking numerical coinci- 
 dences should have happened to occur in these suc- 
 cessive instances. 
 
 It may further be added that if the genealogy in 
 chap. xi. is complete, Peleg, who marks the entrance 
 of a new period, died while all his ancestors from 
 Noah onward were still living. Indeed Shem, Ar- 
 phaxad, Selah, and Eber must all have outlived not 
 only Peleg, but all the generations following as far as 
 and including Terah. The whole impression of the 
 narrative in Abraham's days is that the Flood was an 
 event long since past, and that the actors in it had 
 passed away ages before. And yet if a chronology is 
 to be constructed out of this genealogy, Noah was 
 for fift3"-eight 3-ears the contemporary of Abraham, 
 and Shem actually survived him thirty-five years, 
 provided xi. 26 is to be taken in its natural sense, 
 that Abraham was born in Terah's seventieth year. 
 This conclusion is well-nigh incredible. The calcula- 
 
466 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 tion which leads to such a result, must proceed upon 
 a wrong assumption. 
 
 On these various grounds we conclude that the 
 Scriptures furnish no data for a chronological com- 
 putation prior to the life of Abraham; and that the 
 Mosaic records do not fix and w^re not intended to 
 fix the precise date either of the Flood or of the crea- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 THE TABLE OF NATIONS 
 
 The Biblical account of the creation and dispersion 
 of the human race is remarkable for its statements 
 that there were two dispersals from common centers, 
 the second being that w^hich took place after the re- 
 corded deluge, which, according to the sacred story, 
 had destroyed all the inhabitants of the world except 
 one family. The Bible does not concern itself, to any 
 great extent, with, the first dispersal; but in the table 
 of nations found in the tenth chapter of Genesis there 
 is a series of bold and remarkable statements concern- 
 ing the dispersion of the tribes and peoples which in 
 due time occupied all of the then known world. This 
 dispersion is attributed to misunderstandings and con- 
 flicts originating in efforts to build a city and a tower 
 in Babylonia that should make them a name and pre- 
 vent their being " scattered abroad upon the face of 
 the whole earth." Like all subsequent political com- 
 
The Biblical Scheme 4'^ 7 
 
 binations, this one broke into pieces, and the warrintj; 
 elements dispersed to the four quarters of the- globe. 
 " The table of nations " whicli follows is recognized 
 by all as a document of great antiquity.^ 
 
 It is true that some of the higher critics, on purely 
 a priori grounds, have assigned it to a late date in 
 Jewish history. But the document contains indubit- 
 able marks fixing its date as anterior to that of Abra- 
 ham (about 1700 B.C.). Sodom and Ciomorrah are 
 referred to as still existing, though they were de- 
 stroyed in Abraham's time. Tyre is not mentioned; 
 though, after the time of David, it was a more im- 
 portant city than Sidon, the other Phcrnician city 
 which is mentioned. Neither is Persia mentioned, 
 though the older kingdom which preceded it, Elam, 
 finds a prominent place. Again, Ninevah (ver. 11, 
 12) appears as one of four distinct settlements which 
 from the time of Sennacherib (about 700 B.C.) were 
 united as one under that common name. Various 
 other names, also, which appear in later Jewish his- 
 tory, are conspicuous for their absence. 
 
 Of special interest is the group of nations said to 
 be descended from Japheth, namely, Gomer, Magog, 
 Madai, Javan, Tubal, Mesheck, and Tiras, the ma- 
 jority of which have been identified as belonging to 
 the great Aryan-speaking races. Gomer represents a 
 
468 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 group of peoples that finally settled in Cappadocia. 
 Madai is Media. Javan represents the lonians. Tubal 
 and Mesheck are tribes referred to in Assyrian in- 
 scriptions as located in Central Asia Minor. Magog 
 represents a collective series of peoples coming from 
 the north, corresponding to the Scythians. In the 
 minor divisions we find among the descendants of 
 Gomer various tribes which are known to have dwelt 
 in Armenia. Of the descendants of Javan we have 
 tribes dwelling in Greece, various islands of the Medi- 
 terranean, and Tarshish, ordinarily believed to be the 
 Tartessus of Spain. 
 
 The sons of Ham are distributed in their proper 
 place in Ethiopia, Egj^pt, and Libya, with representa- 
 tives, also, in Arabia and Canaan, which accords with 
 the facts as brought out by later investigations. The 
 descendants of Shem are correctly represented as occu- 
 pying Elam, Syria, and Assyria, the centers of Se- 
 mitic civilization. 
 
 The obscurities connected with this table need not 
 concern us, since we have no other sufficient historical 
 evidence with which to compare the entire table. 
 But, so far as comparison is possible, its correctness is 
 established beyond all reasonable question. It is suf- 
 ficient for our present purpose, therefore, to call at- 
 tention again to the fact that this second dispersion 
 
The Biblical Scheme 469 
 
 of the human race indicated in the Bible proceeds 
 from the region in Central Asia already indefinitely 
 outlined by the evidence given in our eleventh chap- 
 ter. From the mountains of Ararat (Armenia) the 
 descendants of Noah would naturally spread in all 
 directions, especially, under the climatic conditions 
 then existing, eastward towards the Caspian Sea and 
 the fertile irrigated belt which we have described as 
 extending all around the southern border of the Aral- 
 Caspian basin, into which Alexander the Great led 
 his conquering armies. 
 
 In explanation of the climatic conditions character- 
 izing that period and favoring the support of a much 
 larger population in that region at that time than 
 now, it will be necessary to summarize briefly the evi- 
 dence which I have elsewhere presented in detail, 
 showing that at the close of the Glacial epoch there 
 was a continental depression of land in all the north- 
 ern part of the Eastern Hemisphere corresponding to 
 that which produced the Champlain epoch of North 
 Ame 
 
 rica 
 
 As already detailed, the Glacial epoch in North 
 America closed with a depression of land amounting 
 to six hundred feet at Montreal, and one thousand 
 feet farther north ; so that, for a time, a great inland 
 sea covered the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. 
 
The Biblical Scheme 47 1 
 
 In Europe, also, there is indubitable evidence that, in 
 post-glacial time, the Scandinavian peninsula was de- 
 pressed to the extent of one thousand feet in its cen- 
 tral and northern portions. The evidence is equally 
 plain in Northern and Central Asia that there was 
 a much larger area, including the Aral-Caspian basin, 
 which was depressed at the same period to the extent 
 of seven hundred feet; and, as I believe, in Central 
 Asia to the extent of two thousand feet; while the 
 enclosed basins, such as we find in the valley of the 
 Jordan and in that of the Tarim River, between the 
 Tian Shan and the Kuenlun mountains, w^re, like 
 that of the Great Salt Lake basin in America, filled 
 with water to a depth of one thousand feet or more. 
 The most salient evidences of this are, first, the 
 existence in Lake Baikal, and in the Caspian Sea, and 
 formerly in the Aral Sea, of a species of seal which 
 are now found no nearer than the Arctic Ocean, two 
 thousand miles away. Lake Baikal is more than fif- 
 teen hundred feet above the sea^ and the depression 
 it fills is of late geological age.^° The only satisfac- 
 tory explanation of the existence of arctic seals in this 
 lake is that, in very recent geological times, there was 
 a depression of Northern Siberia and of the Aral- 
 Caspian basin amounting to more than one thousand 
 five hundred feet, thus facilitating the dispersion of 
 
472 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 this species of seal to the elevated and distant bodies 
 of water in which they are now found; and that, in 
 still more recent times, a gradual reelevation of the 
 land, cutting off direct connection with the ocean, left 
 these animals corralled in the isolated bodies of water 
 where they are now found, at the northern base of 
 the extensive mountain system which runs through 
 Central Asia. 
 
 Still more definite evidence of this post-glacial de- 
 pression I m3^self discovered at Trebizond,^^ on the 
 south shore of the Black Sea, where a very distinct 
 shore line deposit of gravel and sand extends for a 
 considerable distance along the northern face of the 
 precipitous volcanic cliffs which rise back of the city. 
 This shore line, or gravel terrace, is evidently of very 
 recent geological age, and is seven hundred and fifty 
 feet above the sea. Corresponding shore lines were, 
 soon after, reported by Professor Charles R. Keyes 
 at Soudak, on the south shore of the Crimea, nearly 
 opposite Trebizond, and by Mr. Charles Tracy near 
 Samsun, one hundred miles farther west, on the south 
 side of the Black Sea; while at Baku, on the east side 
 of the Caspian Sea, Professor William M. Davis de- 
 scribes corresponding Post-Tertiary shore lines six 
 hundred feet above the sea.^- With the exception of 
 the Ural Mountains, the area including Northern 
 
The Biblical Scheme 473 
 
 Germany, all Russia, the Aral-Caspian basin, and all 
 Central and Western Siberia is less than six hundred 
 feet nbove the sea; so that a depression such as I had 
 witness of when I stood upon the shore line at Treb- 
 izond would have caused all this region to have been 
 submerged to a considerable depth below sea level. 
 Such a submergence is beyond reasonable doubt. 
 
 The great accumulation of water in the Tarim ba- 
 sin and in the Jordan Valley may have been partly 
 due to an irruption of oceanic^ water from this de- 
 pressed area ; for the evidence of the depression of 
 which we speak is found all along the eastern shore 
 of the Mediterranean and in Egypt. But there the 
 direct evidence does not indicate a depression of more 
 than two hundred or three hundred feet. This, how- 
 ever, would be sufficient to carry the water over the 
 valley of Esdraelon into the Jordan Valley. In the 
 depression occupied by the Jordan there is ample evi- 
 dence that it was filled by water to the height of one 
 thousand four hundred feet above the present level 
 of the Dead Sea; while in the Tarim basin there is 
 evidence of a rise of water corresponding to that in 
 the Dead Sea basin. Rut in both cases the enlarge- 
 ment of these lakes may be fully accounted for, as is 
 that in the Great Salt Lake basin in the United 
 States, by the climatic conditions of the Glacial epoch, 
 
474 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 which was a period of greatly increased precipitation 
 and of diminished evaporation. 
 
 Without going further into details concerning the 
 causes in operation, we may be sure that the period fol- 
 lowing the Biblical deluge (corresponding, as we believe, 
 to the early post-glacial period) was one in which the 
 climate of all Western and Central Asia was greatly 
 ameliorated by the presence of an abnormal amount of 
 moisture in the atmosphere, making the highlands of 
 Armenia and of Persia and of all Central Asia far more 
 attractive to population than they are at the present 
 time. Into these conditions the immediate descendants 
 of Noah entered, and had opportunity to flourish 
 amid them for those indefinite periods which our 
 chronology permits. If, as we suppose, the Biblical 
 deluge w^as coincident with this extension of oceanic 
 water to the base of the mountains of Central Asia, 
 and the foregoing enlargement of Lob Nor in the 
 Tarim basin and of the Dea Sea in the valley of the 
 Jordan, we are permitted to believe in a gradual re- 
 tirement of the waters through the slow reelevation 
 of the land which brought about conditions closely 
 parallel to those described in the eleventh chapter, 
 though resulting from an opposite cause. There we 
 have shown that the coming on of glacial conditions, 
 while it closed access to Northern Europe by the act- 
 
The Biblical Scheme 475 
 
 ual invasion of glacial ice, greatly extended the irri- 
 gated belt at the base of the niountaifis of Central 
 Asia by reason of the increased flow of water in the 
 innumerable streams fed by the enlarged glaciers 
 which crept down their sides to the 7,000-foot line. 
 
 In corresponding order the gradual withdrawal of 
 the waters as the land of Central Asia underwent a 
 reelevation would open up this fertile belt at the base 
 of the mountains of Central Asia for the occupation 
 of plants, animals, and man; while the plains of Rus- 
 sia and Northern Europe were still submerged. But 
 when the glaciers of the mountains In Asia had re- 
 treated to approximately their present position, and 
 the increased evaporation had reduced the size of the 
 lakes in the Jordan and Tarim basins, at the same 
 time that the water had disappeared from all the sub- 
 merged areas spoken of, the desiccation of these 
 Asiatic centers followed, and the overcrowded popu- 
 lation found happv relief in emigration to the freshly 
 uncovered plains of Northern Europe. The evidences 
 of this desiccation of Asia are abundant; w^hlle, as we 
 have seen, the distribution of languages, races, and 
 religions, as well as of both wild and domesticated 
 plants and animals, clearly points to this area In Cen- 
 tral Asia as the original center from which they have 
 set out to compass the world. It Is no slight confirm- 
 
47^ Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ation both of this theory and of sacred history, that 
 the oldest ethnological table in the world, that of the 
 tenth chapter of Genesis, and the account in the 
 earliest chapters of Genesis, lead us back to the same 
 center for the origin and dispersion of the human race. 
 
Su/n//i(iry (iinl Co/iclnsio/i 477 
 
 CHAPTl-R XV^ 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 
 
 Nothing can better illustrate the solidarity of the 
 universe and the interdependence of all sciences than 
 the variety of sources of information to which we are 
 compelled to go to obtain an answer in any degree 
 satisfactory to the questions, What is the origin, and 
 what the antiquity, of the human race? Nor can 
 anything bring out into stronger light the immense 
 distance which separates the intellectual capacities of 
 man from those of the rest of the animal creation. 
 That the human mind should care to ask the ques- 
 tions concerning man's origin and antiquity betokens 
 the possession of an exalted nature. That man should 
 seek and be able to find answers to these questions 
 from so many sources and so many r^lms of nature, 
 betokens a rational faculty of which we have but the 
 dimmest intimations even in the highest of the ani- 
 mals that are below him. We may profitably conclude 
 our discussion of the subject by taking a rapid and 
 comprehensive glance at the whole field of evidence 
 traversed and of the conclusions which with more or 
 less confidence we are permitted to draw. 
 
478 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 In the earlier editions of his " Principles of Ge- 
 ology " Sir Charles Lyell assumed that geological 
 time was practically unlimited, and attempted to 
 prove that the Cambrian deposits, containing exquis- 
 itely formed trilobites, were 240,000,000 years old. 
 From which it was justly inferable that the begin- 
 nings of geological history as recorded in the rocks 
 were as far distant as 500,000,000 years. When Dar- 
 win first promulgated his theory- of the origin of 
 species, he followed the fashion of the times (for 
 science as well as everything else has its fashion), 
 and assumed that there were practically no limitations 
 to the time during which natural selection might be 
 supposed to have operated. Speaking of the time re- 
 quired for the extensive erosion that had removed the 
 Wealden deposits in England, \\hich he called " a 
 mere trifle of geological time," he estimated it, as we 
 have said, at 306,562,400 years. If this is a trifle, 
 you are left to •form your opinion as to what the to- 
 tal sum would be. In the second edition of the 
 " Origin of Species " Darwin confesses that this was 
 a rash statement, while in later editions it was quietly 
 withdrawn. Rut it illustrates in a forcible manner the 
 change of base which Darwinian evolutionists have 
 been compelled to make, and the quiet manner in 
 which they have made it. It is instructive, also, to 
 
Summary and Cojicliision 479 
 
 observe, as we have seen, that out of the loins of the 
 eider Darwin there has sprung a younger Darwin 
 whose inherited genius has taken the turn of mathe- 
 matics rather tlian of natural history, and has led 
 him to some most startling conclusions, concerning 
 the limits of time within which natural selection has 
 been permitted to work; for, according to his calcu- 
 lations, g-eological history must find its beginnings 
 within the limit certainly of 100,000,000, and prob- 
 ably of 50,000,000, years. At the same time calcula- 
 tions made from the rate of the erosion of the land 
 surfaces and of the deposition of sedimentary strata, 
 have led to a limitation of geological time. For from 
 such data Alfred Russel Wallace ^ assigns to the oldest 
 sedimentary rocks aji age of only 28,000,000 years; 
 while Charles D. Walcott, for many years the di- 
 rector of the United States Geological Survey, is a lit- 
 tle more accurate, assigning to the oldest fossiliferous 
 sedimentary strata an age of only 27,650,000 years: 
 significantly adding, " Geological time is of great but 
 not indefinite duration. ... It can be measured by 
 tens of millions, but not by single millions or hundreds 
 of millions of years." - 
 
 Adopting Dana's distribution of geological time as 
 in the ratio of 12 for the Palaeozoic, 3 for the Meso- 
 zoic, I for the Tertiary, and 24,000,000 years as the 
 
480 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 absolute amount, we should have, as already seen, but 
 a million and a half of years left since the beginning 
 of the Tertiary period and since the introduction of 
 the class of animals to which man belongs; namely, 
 those which nurse their young, and whose young are 
 born fully developed, — in scientific nomenclature the 
 Placental Mammalia. Multiplying by three would 
 give only 4,500,000 j^ears for the Tertiary period. 
 
 Coming down to the consideration of the length of 
 Pleistocene, or Post-Tertiary, time, which is the only 
 geological age in which we find satisfactory evidence 
 of the existence of man, there is ample evidence to 
 show that relatively it was not more than one-fiftieth 
 that of Tertiary time. With that estimate, the total 
 length of the Glacial epoch would be only 30,000 
 years if we give 24,000,000 years as the age of the 
 oldest sedimentary strata, and only 90,000 j^ears if 
 wc allow for an increase of threefold. At the same 
 time many lines of direct evidence from the recession 
 of waterfalls, the accumulation of sediment in lake 
 bottoms, the short continuance of glacial lakes, like 
 that which covered the Red River Valley of the 
 North during the glacial recession, and the small 
 enlargement of post-glacial river channels, render in- 
 credible the current estimates of the length of post- 
 glacial time. Post-glacial time is to be reckoned by 
 
Surnnidry and Conclusion 481 
 
 thousands of years, rather than by hundreds of thou- 
 sands, or even tens of thousands. 
 
 Inattention to the actual facts and lack of true 
 scientific imajjination have conspired to exagg;eratc 
 beyond all reason the length both of geological time 
 in general, and of post-glacial time in particular dur- 
 ing which man has been an inhabitant of the earth. 
 Recent observations have demonstrated that geologic 
 forces are immensely more active than they were 
 formerly supposed to be, and that there have been 
 periods of rapid advancement when everything moved 
 on by leaps and bounds. It now appears that at the 
 present rate of removal of the soil from the surface 
 of the earth, all the dn,' land, except a few mountain 
 chains, would be carried into the sea within a few 
 million years. At the present rate at which streams 
 are scouring out their channels, the gorge of the 
 Mississippi from St. Louis to Minneapolis, and of 
 the Ohio from the Falls of Louisville to the head- 
 waters of the Allegheny, would be worn In less than 
 a million of years; while the vast canon of the Colo- 
 rado, three hundred miles long and in places six 
 thousand feet deep, would require for its completion 
 only a million and half of years, if we allow the 
 stream two hiuidrcd and fifty years to lower its chan- 
 nel one foot. 
 
482 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 Turning to the continental elevations and depres- 
 sions of land which liave taken place since the Ter- 
 tiarj^ period, it appears that at the rate at which 
 the coast of New Jersey is known to have been sub- 
 siding for the past two or three hundred years, namely 
 three feet in a century, it would in 30,000 years 
 amount to as much as the total post-glacial subsidence 
 in British America and Scandinavia. But there is 
 indubitable evidence that the rate of changes of level 
 was much more rapid in the vicinity of the center of 
 glacial accumulation than anywhere else, and this both 
 in the period of subsidence during glacial times, when 
 the movement was accelerated by the weight of the 
 ice, and during the reelevation, when this weight was 
 suddenly removed by the melting of the ice and the 
 transfer of the water to occupy its earlier position in 
 the bed of the ocean. 
 
 The whole question, too, of the possible rate of 
 advancem.ent in the variation of species has received 
 new light since Darw^in first promulgated his theory 
 of the origin of species through natural selection. It 
 is now seen that upon changed conditions which are 
 perfectly within the range of credibility variations 
 among animal species of 12V2 per cent may take place 
 in a single generation ; so that a few hundred years, it 
 may easily be conceived, w^ould suffice for the produc- 
 
Sununary and Conclusion 483 
 
 tion of chaiii^jes sufficient to establish specific differ- 
 ences betueen the descendants of a common ancestor. 
 We are no long^er shut up to the conception of the 
 infinitesimal rate of variation in species with which 
 Darwin carried on his speculations. 
 
 In reference to the production of different races of 
 mankind, one needs but make a simple calculation to 
 see how easily these all maj'^ have been brought about 
 in two or three thousand years through the simple 
 operation of Danvin's law of natural selection. 
 
 If we suppose the human race to start w^ith a single 
 favored pair and to double once in twenty-five years 
 (the present rate in Quebec), there would be at the 
 end of five hundred years 1,000,000 living descend- 
 ants from this single pair. If they should go on 
 increasing at the same rate another five hundred years 
 without check, there would be 500,000 million ; or, 
 if, instead of taking so large a ratio, we assume a 
 ratio of increase w^hich would double the population 
 once in fifty years, we should then have our 1,000,000 
 people in the world at the end of one thousand years, 
 and our 500,000 million people at the end of two 
 thousand years. But as that number of people is 
 about 300 times more than can be found in the world 
 at the present time we are compelled to consider the 
 counteracting agencies which secure slower growth. 
 
484 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 In the earlier stages of human existence the whole 
 world was before the race, and we can easily imagine 
 that they spread out in quest of food and adventure, 
 so as to become widely dispersed at a very early time, 
 and to incur the liabilities to isolation which we have 
 considered as likely to lead to new dialects and even 
 to totally new languages. At this period of the his- 
 tory of such a species, the colonists would also be sub- 
 jected to those new conditions of climate and modes 
 of life which would rapidly fix the racial peculiarities. 
 
 The rapidity with which these adaptations of a 
 race to its new conditions may proceed has already 
 been discussed in due order. But a brief summary 
 v/ill not be out of place at this point. 
 
 The changes which are taking place in any body of 
 colonists are so great that the favored variations will 
 be selected out and accumulated w^ith astonishing 
 rapidity. This follows from the first law of natural 
 selection. But when the constitutions of the colonists 
 have become adjusted to the conditions, the race will 
 remain permanent so long as the conditions remain 
 unchanged. Certainly we have no positive grounds 
 for asserting that all the diversifications of race and 
 language may not have arisen by natural processes in 
 the course of a very few tlioiisand years, and we have 
 mucli reason in the nature of the case for believing 
 
SumnKuy and Conclusion 485 
 
 that they would thus arise within such a period; for 
 we have the natural tendency of the human race to 
 increase in geometrical ratio, coupled with the natural 
 limitations of the earth in its capacity to provide for 
 this (leometrical increase of population, and the con- 
 sequent enforced colonization of man, and his subjec- 
 tion to new and trying conditions of life. On the 
 one hand, he was forced to eke out a precarious exist- 
 ence amid the arctic rigors of the north, and on the 
 other to contend with the trying heat of the tropics. 
 The point, however, upon which our evidence 
 specially hangs is that relating to the period of trans- 
 ition between the Tertiar}^ and the Post-Tertian^ 
 periods. It is very evident that the early and middle 
 portions of the Tertiary period were characterized by 
 a great diminution of lands in the vicinity of the north 
 pole. Northern British America, Greenland, Nova 
 Zembla, Spitzbergen, were much depressed, so that the 
 warm currents of water from the Pacific, and probably 
 the Indian and the Atlantic oceans, had free access to 
 what are nov/ the icy regions of the north. This pro- 
 duced, or at any rate was accompanied by. a mild and 
 equable climate in which there flourished over all 
 that region now covered with arctic snow a forest 
 vegetation closely resembling- the present vegetation 
 of Virginia and North Carolina. But, as the Ter- 
 
486 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 tiary period approached its close, there occurred a 
 slow but gradual uprising of the northern lands on 
 both continents until the northern parts of North 
 America and of Europe stood two or three thousand 
 feet higher than they do at the present time. The 
 evidence of this meets us on every hand in the fiords 
 of NorAvay and Alaska, in the submerged channels 
 that stretch out from the mouths of almost all of our 
 rivers to the margin of the narrow, submerged shelf 
 which both around America and Europe forms the 
 real continental border of the deep oceanic basin, and 
 in the numerous buried channels brought to light by 
 borings all over the northern part of the United 
 States. The Hudson River in late Tertiary times 
 occupied a gorge eight hundred feet deeper than now, 
 and flowed through an extensive plain which extended 
 out one hundred miles or more southeast of New 
 York Harbor, and in this plain eroded a channel 
 which towards its mouth was from fifteen hundred 
 to two thousand feet in depth. The depths likewise 
 of the fiords in Norway and of the Saguenay River 
 in the eastern part of North America tell the story 
 of the great amount of late Tertiary elevation in this 
 region. It is in this almost universal elevation of 
 lands in the northern part of Europe and America 
 that we are probably to find the cause of the Glacial 
 
Summary and Conclusion 487 
 
 epoch. The accumulations of snow and ice charac- 
 teristic of that period point to some such terrestrial, 
 rather than to any astronomical, cause. It was from 
 the mountains of Scandinavia in Europe as a center, 
 and from Labrador and the Laurentian highlands in 
 America, that those vast sheets of glacial ice crept 
 out on either continent until it had carried debris 
 from the central area to a distance of several hundred 
 miles from its starting-point. There can be but little 
 question that an elevation of two or three thousand 
 feet in the centers mentioned would be ample to pro- 
 duce the results of the glacial phenomena that ra- 
 diated from them. It has been estimated that even 
 w^ith the present amount of precipitation a fall of 
 fourteen degrees in the temperature would produce a 
 glacial period. Not only might this fall of the tem- 
 perature be occasioned by such an elevation, but the 
 precipitation of snow would doubtless be largely in- 
 creased, so that from this double cause the phenomena 
 of the Glacial epoch can be readily explained. 
 
 We come therefore to the immediate questions in 
 hand, How long a time is requisite for the production 
 of the phenomena of the Glacial epoch? How long a 
 period must we allow for its growth, and how long 
 for its decline? Especially will the answer to the 
 last question bear upon the antiquity of man. The 
 
488 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 answers can be sought, first, In the calculations we 
 may make as to the rate at which elevation of conti- 
 nental areas may proceed for a considerable period of 
 time; and, secondly, from the rapidity w^ith which 
 glaciers may spread from their central area; and, 
 thirdly, from the character of the deposits left by the 
 ice in the course of its decline and final retreat. 
 
 As to the rate of elevation in continental areas, we 
 have something to guide us in the changes which have 
 taken place within the historical period. We are fa- 
 mih'ar with the fact that the land level is by no 
 means a constant quantity. The coast of New Jersey 
 is subsiding at such a rate that if it should continue 
 for a million years the land would be carried down 
 several thousand feet below the sea level. The most 
 impressive scenes of recent continental elevation are 
 found in the northern part of North America, and on 
 the Scandinavian peninsula. During the last one 
 hundred and forty years the northern part of Sweden 
 has risen about seven feet. One hundred miles north 
 of Stockholm it is esrimated by Sir Charles Lyell that 
 the average rate of elevation is between two and three 
 feet in a century.-"^ 
 
 A little calculation will show tliat the elevation from 
 the level of Tertiary times in northern latitudes to a 
 height sufficient to have produced the glacial phenom- 
 
Suniniary and Conclusion 489 
 
 ciKi ma>- lia\o proceeded at a very moderate rate, and 
 still have produced the requisite conditions not more 
 than one hundred tliousand years ago. P^or example, 
 if we suppose the rate of elevation in the northern 
 latitudes toward the close of the Tertiary period to 
 have been no greater than that which is taking place 
 at the present time in portions of Scandinavia, namely, 
 three feet a century, that would give us thirty feet in 
 one thousand years, three hundred feet in ten thousand 
 years, and three thousand feet in one hundred thou- 
 sand years. Supposing this elevation to have begun 
 fifty thousand years before the end of the Tertiary 
 period, and to have culminated twenty thousand years 
 ago, the rate of change supposed would be no greater 
 than that with which we are familiar in historical 
 times. 
 
 On the supposition that this continental elevation 
 which brought on the Glacial epoch culminated 
 twenty thousand years ago, there would be left a 
 briefer period for the disappearance of glacial condi- 
 tions than has populariy been supposed to be requisite. 
 But we are to bear in mind that the depression of the 
 northern land from its Tertian^ elevation to its pres- 
 ent level, or indeed to a level in some places twelve 
 hundred feet lower than the present, would be aided 
 by the great weight of ice which had accumulated 
 
490 Orig'ui and Antiquity of Man 
 
 over the region. It is a reasonable estimate that four 
 million square miles in North America and two 
 million in Europe, making six million in all, was 
 covered with ice during the Glacial epoch to an 
 average depth of a mile. This would give us six 
 million cubic miles of ice piled up upon a definite 
 area. All this had been abstracted from the ocean, 
 so that the ocean beds were relieved from pres- 
 sure to the same extent that the pressure was in- 
 creased over the limited area subject to glaciation. 
 The amount of water thus abstracted from the ocean 
 would be sufficient to lower the whole ocean level 
 two hundred and fifty feet. With such a force as 
 this to assist in changing the equilibrium of the 
 earth's crust, we need not be surprised that the sub- 
 sidence of the glaciated area was several times as 
 rapid as the elevation had been. It is believed, also, 
 by many of the ablest geologists, that we liave marks 
 of this disturbance caused by the load of ice which 
 covered the glaciated area, in the further oscillation 
 of the crust in northern latitudes producing the ex- 
 treme subsidence of six hundred feet at Montreal, 
 one thousand feet in Labrador, and from fifteen hun- 
 dred to two thousand feet in Western Greenland and 
 Grinnell Land. When the abnormal load of ice had 
 been removed, however, the elevator}'- forces reas- 
 
Sumnuiry (uul Coiiclusi'jn 49 1 
 
 serteJ their prcdoir.inant inilucncc, and arc still at 
 work in raisin*:; portions of this rc<z;ion to a level still 
 higher than that which they have now reached. 
 
 The question, whether we can reasonably think of 
 ice accumulating over so large an area to so great a 
 depth and retreating from it during a limited period 
 of eighty or one hundred thousand years which our 
 previous calculation would allow for the period has 
 been duly considered, and answered in the affirma- 
 tive, by the late Sir Joseph Prestwich.* As elsewhere 
 stated, he estimates from the numerous careful re- 
 ports made by the Danish surveyors in Greenland 
 that the amount of ice which runs off from the w^est- 
 ern coast of Greenland to drift away as icebergs 
 would, if equalized throughout the whole extent of 
 the coast, form a fringe one-eighth of a mile in width ; 
 that is, if, instead of concentrating its flow through 
 the fiords, the Greenland ice moved steadily forward 
 all along its edge, it would encroach upon the un- 
 glaciated border at the rate of a mile in eight years, 
 or, allowing for some uncertainties in calculation, a 
 mile in twelve years. At this rate, one hundred miles 
 of border might be incorporated in the glaciated area 
 in twelve hundred years. At the same rate the spread 
 of the ice from the Laurentian highlands might have 
 reached its limit of seven hundred miles in less than 
 
492 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 ten thousand years. When, therefore, we take Into ac- 
 count the small amount of precipitation in Greenland, 
 which is now less than one-half that over the Lauren- 
 tian area, it will be seen that we are making no 
 extravagant demands upon the forces of nature in 
 supposing that the time, from the commencement of 
 the accumulation of ice upon the Laurentian high- 
 lands and the rising plateaus of Scandinavia, to the 
 culmination of the period when Scandinavian bowlders 
 had been transported upon glacial ice over the plains 
 of Russia to the banks of the Dnieper and to the base 
 of the Carpathian Mountains, a distance of a thou- 
 sand miles, and from the Laurentian highlands over 
 the Great Lakes to the southern portion of the state 
 of Illinois, and westward to the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains, a distance likewise not much short of 
 one thousand miles, need not be more than twenty- 
 five thousand years, for that would be at only one- 
 half the rate of progress that w^ould be made by the 
 ice fields of Greenland in similar conditions of sur- 
 rounding land area. If the Greenland ice sheet could 
 cover these fields at present rates in twelve thousand 
 years, what might not the Scandinavian and Lauren- 
 tian ice fields do with twice the snowfall and twice 
 the time? 
 
 Historv, however, leaves us still a great way from 
 
SunuiKiry and Conclusion 493 
 
 the solution of the mystery surrouiuHivj; either the 
 origin or the antiqiiit\' of the human race. Whence 
 came the civih'zation of Egjypt, Babylonia, and Cen- 
 tral Asia? Whence came the races of men that even 
 then appeared upon the scene in all their present pecul- 
 iarities? Whence were derived those diversities of 
 language characteristic of human speech ? and how 
 long a time would have been necessary from the first 
 origination of the human species to account for the 
 condition of advancement at which they were found 
 seven thousand years ago? A brief review of some 
 of the principles already discussed will show that 
 there is no scientific necessity for placing the origin 
 of the human race many thousand years before the 
 beginning of history. The simple arithmetical calcu- 
 lations made above «how that, when once started, the 
 dispersion over the world, the diversification of the 
 races, the differentiation of languages, and the devel- 
 opment of ancient civilization may easily have come 
 about in the course of four or five thousand years, if 
 not in half that time, and that the extension of pre- 
 historic time for eight thousand years affords super- 
 abundant opportunity for the growth and development 
 of all the peculiarities and institutions of man as first 
 made know^n to us at the dawn of history. 
 
 But we are not left to general considerations alone 
 
494 Origin and Antiquity of Man 
 
 to Infer that post-glacial time may be limited to a 
 few thousand ^ears. We have adduced in a previous 
 chapter evidence from the erosion of post-glacial 
 waterfalls, from the silting up of a post-glacial lake, 
 and from the small amount of enlargement of post- 
 glacial water courses, together with the limited size 
 of the beaches upon Lake Agassiz and the small ex- 
 tent to which the weathering of glaciated rocks has 
 proceeded, that the continental glacier disappeared 
 from North America not more than seven thousand 
 years ago, and that its disappearance proceeded at a 
 rate probably several times as rapid as its growth had 
 been. The antiquity of man, therefore, so far as the 
 question depends upon his connection with the Gla- 
 cial epoch, is not proved to be, even when we allow 
 a generous margin, greater than twelve or fifteen 
 thousand years. 
 
 Taking now a rapid glance at the evidence as a 
 whole, we find that from historical data the history 
 of man is carried back in the valley of the Nile to a 
 period which, according to the largest estimate, began 
 about seven thousand years ago. At the same time 
 in the valley of the Euphrates and in Turkestan it 
 is probable there was a civilization of a somewhat 
 earlier age. The striking thing about this historical 
 evidence is that it brings to light compact national 
 
Summary ami Com liision 495 
 
 orjjianizations with a written lan^ua*^c, with noble 
 ideas of the family antl of both social and political 
 duties, and in possession of a skill in most of the 
 practical arts of life that has been little improved 
 upon until within the last five hundred years of Eu- 
 ropean civilization. A study of the history of the 
 world reveals the further fact that there has been no 
 marked tendency of improvement in the human race, 
 except as it has been brought in contact with the 
 developing civilization that appeared in these earliest 
 historical times. The peasantry of Egypt are to-day 
 substantially what they were seven thousand y-ears 
 ago. The Patagonians are no higher in their civili- 
 zation than were the River Drift men of Northern 
 France, while the Cave men of France and Belgium 
 would compare favorably with some of the tribes of 
 Australia. But, on the other hand, all civilization is 
 traced back to that in the valleys of the Nile, the 
 Euphrates and the Murgab which appears in full 
 tide four or five thousand years before the Christian 
 era. From Central Asia the world received in this 
 dim prehistoric period the inestimable boon of the 
 most of its domesticated plants and animals. From 
 Eg}'pt the world received an alphabet and a written 
 language. The torch of Grecian civilization was 
 lighted upon Egyptian altars; the culture of Rome is 
 
496 Origin and Antiquity of Alan 
 
 but a reflection of that which attained such gorgeous 
 development in Greece; the rising tide of civilization 
 in the nineteenth century receives its strongest im- 
 pulses from that Semitic nation whose ancestors were 
 sojourners in Egypt thirty-five hundred years ago, 
 and whose greatest lawgiver and leader had it for 
 one of his most distinguishing characteristics that he 
 was brought up in the household of the Pharaohs and 
 was learned in all the wisdom of Egypt. The histor^* 
 of the human race as we actually know it gives no 
 countenance to any doctrine of universal and general 
 progress among the races of mankind, but sustains 
 rather a doctrine of predominant natural tendencies 
 to degeneration, which is only counteracted by con- 
 tact with specially favored nations and by voluntary' 
 acceptance of their most valuable ideas and practices. 
 While the antiquity of man cannot be less than ten 
 thousand, it need not be more than fifteen thousand 
 years. Eight thousand years of prehistoric time is 
 ample to account for all known facts relating to his 
 development. Whether he was a mere scientific 
 " sport," or was assisted to his preeminence by divine 
 intervention, is a question of philosophy. That it was 
 by divine intervention will be the verdict of most 
 sane and candid minds. 
 
Appendix 
 
 .CHAPTER I 
 
 Note i, p. 6 — Estimates of the absolute length of 
 geological time vary from the 10,000,000 years of 
 Tait to the 6,000,000,000 years of McGee {A?neri- 
 can Anthropologist, vol. ii. p. 309) ; at the present 
 time most of the estimates come within 100,000,000 
 years, and the tendency is to settle down upon about 
 24,000,000 years (Dana, " Manual of Geology," 4th 
 ed., pp. 1023-1026; Clarence King, American Jour- 
 nal of Science J January, 1893, pp. 1-20; Wallace, 
 " Island Life," chap. x. ; Newcomb, "Astronomy," 
 p. 519; Young, "The Sun," chap. viii. ; Ball, " Stor\- 
 of the Heavens," last chapter; Croll, "Climate and 
 Time," chap, xx., "Stellar Evolution"; Upham, 
 Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 1. pp. 131-149; American 
 Journal of Science, March, 1893, PP- 209-220; and 
 Wright's " Man and the Glacial Period," pp. 361- 
 364). Dr. Charles D. Walcott, late Director of the 
 United States Geological Survey, after an extended 
 discussion of the whole subject, in which the views 
 of others are fully summarized, fixes the limits of 
 geological time, as shown in stratified deposits, to be 
 between 25,000,000 and 70,000,000 years, and con- 
 cludes that " Geologic time is of great but not 
 of indefinite duration. I believe," he savs, " that 
 
498 Appendix 
 
 it can be measured by tens of millions but not 
 by single millions or hundreds of millions of years " 
 (Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science, vol. xlii. (1893) p. 169). Ef- 
 forts have been made to destroy confidence in the 
 calculations drawn from the theory of the nebular 
 hypothesis and the rate at which heat radiates from 
 the sun by dwelling upon the mysterious powers of 
 radium, and by challenging the nebular hypothesis. 
 But the most of the above calculations cannot be 
 affected by such objections. George H. Darwin's 
 calculations are based upon the effect of the tides 
 resulting from the universal lav/ of gravitation. 
 
 Note 2, p. 8. — "Manual of Geology" (4th ed.), 
 pp. 1023-1026. 
 
 Note 3, p. 8. — Journal of Geology, vol. i. (1893) 
 pp. 294, 295. 
 
 Note 4, p. 8. — Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. I. p. 146. 
 
 Note 5, p. 20. — Le Conte, " Elements of Geol- 
 ogy," pp. 333, 402, 475. 
 
 Note 6, p. 24. — Lamplugh, Address before Brit- 
 ish Association for the Advancement of Science at 
 Vork, 1906. 
 
 chapter II 
 
 Note i, p. 31. — Rev. James Baikie, "The Sea 
 Kings of Crete" (London, Black, 1910, pp. xiv, 288. 
 Imported by Macmillan Co., N. Y.) ; R. Burrows, 
 " Discoveries in Crete, and their Bearing on the His- 
 
Appendix 499 
 
 tory of Ancient Civilizntion " (London. Murray, 
 1 907. pp. xvi, 214) ; C. H. Hawes and H. B. Havves, 
 "Crete, the Forerunner of Greece" (London and 
 New York, Harper Bros., 1909, pp. xiV, 157); An- 
 o;elo Mosso, " The Dawn of Mediterranean Civiliza- 
 tion " (N. v.. Baker, pp. xxiii, 424); Arthur J. 
 Evans, " Palace of Knossos," " Reports of Excavations 
 1900-05" in Annual of British School at A.thens, vol. 
 vi. ff., " The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos" (1905). 
 Note 2. p. 41. — Winckler and some other authori- 
 ties would bring this date down to 3000 B.C. ; but 
 there seems no sufficient reason for discrediting the 
 conclusion of Nabonidus, especially as there are so 
 many other considerations supporting an early date 
 for the civilization of the region. Indeed, the discov- 
 eries of De Sarzec at Telloh, and of Haines and Hil- 
 precht at Nippur, would seem to trace Babylonian 
 civilization back to 3000 B.C. The latest information 
 bearing on Babylonian chronology is afforded by a 
 tablet discovered by Professor Vincent Scheil of 
 Paris, who was the first to publish and interpret the 
 Code of Hammurabi. According to this tablet the 
 earliest dynasty of all had its center at Opis, a city 
 not far from the modern Bao:dad. The Opis dynasty 
 lasted ninety-nine years and was followed by the Kish 
 dynasty, which continued 126 years, the Urich dy- 
 nasty twenty-five years, when it was followed by the 
 famous Sargon who introduced the dynasty of Agade 
 (Accad^ which lasted 197 years. Then follow- 
 other dynasties continuing to that of Hammurabi, 
 
500 Appendix 
 
 about 2000 B.C. But the interval between Sargon 
 and Haoimurabi is not much more than 400 years. 
 According to these figures, therefore, the date of Sar- 
 gon would be brought down to about 2500 B.C. 
 
 Note 3, p. 42. — Maspero, " The Dawn of Civili- 
 zation " (London, 1896); "The Struggle of the 
 Nations " (London, 1896) ; McCurdy, " History, 
 Prophecy, and the Monuments" (New York, 1894), 
 vol. i.; Jastrow^ " Religion of Babylonia and Assyria " 
 (Boston, 1898), p. 36; Hilprecht, "The Babylonian 
 Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania " (Phila- 
 delphia, 1896) ; Hommel, art. " Babylonia," Hastings' 
 Dictionary of the Bible, vol. i. p. 223; J. P. Peters, 
 " Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the 
 Euphrates, being the Narrative of the University of 
 Pennsylvania Expedition to Babylonia in 1888-90" 
 (New York, 1897), vol. ii. ; A. T. Clay, " Light on the 
 Old Testament from Babel," pp. 31-34; o" PP- 44> 
 138, 196, he mentions an inscription of Lugal-zaggisi, 
 whom he places at about 4000 B.C. He also places, 
 pp. 30, 117, a pavement of Sargon L and his son at 
 about 3800 B.C. See his discussion of this subject un- 
 der the heading, " The Great Antiquity of Man," 
 loc. cit., chap. ii. pp. 23 ff. 
 
 Note 4, p. 45.— A. T. Clay, " Light on the Old 
 Testament from Babel," pp. 55, 56. 
 
 Note 5, p. 46. — ^Winckler, " History of Babylonia 
 and Assyria," pp. 49, 141, 142. 
 
 Note 6, p. 47. — " Contra Apion," book i. chap. 14. 
 
Appendix 501 
 
 Note 7. p. 47. — Bunscn, " Egypt's Place in His- 
 tory," vol. i. pp. 601 ff. 
 
 NoTK 8, p. 50. — Brutiscli, '' Kgypt under the Pha- 
 roahs," vol. i. p. 92. 
 
 NoTL^ 9, p. 51. — Baedeker, "Egypt" (1897). 
 
 Note 10, p. 52. — For the extracts here given see 
 the translation made by Dr. Howard Osgood in Bib- 
 liothcca Sacra, vol. xlv. (October, 1888) pp. 648- 
 b88. 
 
 Note ii, p. 63. — Raphael Pumpelly, Editor, "Ex- 
 plorations in Turkestan, Expedition of 1904" (2 
 vols., 494 pp.), esp. vol. i. chaps, iii. and iv. pp. 
 37-75- 
 
 . Note 12, p. 67. — Brugsch, " Egjpt under the 
 Pharaohs," vol. i. p. 7. 
 
 chapter III 
 
 Note i, p. 72.— A. T. Clay, "Light on the Old 
 Testament from Babel," pp. 136-138. 
 
 Note 2, p. 73. — The languages of Egypt and 
 Babylonia show affiliation in the earliest inscriptions. 
 The affinity is most pronounced in grammatical con- 
 structions. ( I ) They have the same masculine and 
 feminine gender endings. (2) Identical pronominal 
 suffixes. (3) The peculiar adjectival termination 
 " nisbeh." (4) Identity of several numerals. (5) 
 Identity of several verbal inflections. (6) Verbal 
 nouns with prefixed " m." (7) Correspondence be- 
 tween fifteen or more Semitic and Egyptian conso- 
 
502 Appendix 
 
 nants, including alcph, vauv, ay in. (8) The lack of 
 written vowels. 
 
 But (i) The correspondence of root words is 
 slight. (2) The Egyptian does not have triliteral 
 roots, (3) The Babylonian written language had 
 almost entirely lost its pictorial character in the earliest 
 inscriptions. But the pictorial writing in Egypt main- 
 tained a parallel existence with the hieratic and de- 
 motic down to late times. It was peculiarly used for 
 sacred literature and ornamental inscriptions (see art. 
 " Egypt." in Hastings' Diet, of Bible; Boscawen, 
 " The Bible and the Monuments "; Erman, " History 
 of Egypt"). 
 
 Note 3, p. 77. — But see a comparative grammar 
 of the Semitic and Aryan languages entitled, " Se- 
 mitisch und Indogermanisch," by Professor Hermann 
 Moller of the University of Copenhagen. It appears 
 to be a most thorough and careful work and seems 
 to prove the original oneness of these two great lin- 
 guistic families. 
 
 Note 4, p. 79. — W. D. Whitney, " Language and 
 the Study of Language," p. 331. 
 
 Note 5, p. 81.— W. D. Whitney, "Life and 
 Growth of Language," p. 260. 
 
 Note 6, p. 82. — Ibid., p. 261. 
 
 Note 7, p. 83. — This word is instructive; for it 
 shows the agglutinative side of the Sanskrit, which al- 
 most rivals the languages of the American Indians in its 
 capacity for such combinations, although it is a highly 
 inflected tongue. The word is made up as follows: — 
 
hhariria, '' pot "; pur/;a, " full " or " filled " ; kuiiihha: 
 " jar " ; kara, " maker " ; ina//^/apika, " little shop " ; 
 cka. " one "; deca, " place." It is typical of many San- 
 skrit compounds, the parts of which must be sought 
 in the lexicon and then put together by the translator. 
 The elements arc somewhat more complex than those 
 used in ap^glutinative lan^ruages usually are; but in 
 other respects the word in question is a good example 
 of an agglutinative form, and it shows how the three 
 types of languages cross and recross one another in 
 their formations. The word " inapplicabilities," cited 
 above, is also a case in point. It is made up of in, ad, 
 pHc-, able, -i-ty, and -e-s, the plural sign. The com- 
 ponent parts arc more simple than those used in the 
 Sanskrit word ; but the compound itself is also more 
 of a unit. It is, in fact, a genuine compound, though 
 ag-glutinative, while the Sanskrit word is only loosely 
 so, each element retaining its individuality and dis- 
 tinctive meaning more sharply than is possible in the 
 English example. Such cases help to illustrate the 
 difficulties which beset the linguistic argument on 
 every side ; for they go to show how intricate and 
 confusing the problem really is. The different 
 threads are now so interwoven and entangled that 
 the utmost patience is necessary to obtain even tenta- 
 tive results. There is, however, another side to the 
 matter ; for these agglutinative tendencies in inflected 
 languages point toward an ultimate origin that wms 
 the same for the whole human race, since they show 
 the same forces at work in lano"uages otherwise to- 
 
504 Appendix 
 
 tally different. German is often strongly agglutina- 
 tive, especially in some of its technical terms; and it 
 was the same capacity in the Greek v/hich enabled 
 Aristophanes to coin his famous word for " hash," by 
 joining together the names of all the ingredients used 
 for such compounds. 
 
 Note 8, p. 83. — " Language and the Study of Lan- 
 guage," p. 347. 
 
 Note 9, p. 84. — " The Origin of Languages and 
 the Antiquity of Speaking Man," an address by Hora- 
 tio Hale, Vice President of the Anthropological Sec- 
 tion of the American Association for the Advancement 
 of Science. See the Proceedings of the Association, 
 vol. XXXV. (1886) pp. 280-333. 
 
 Note 10, p. 92. — This account is given in Hale's 
 address noted above, pp. 286-288. 
 
 Note ii, p. 93. — " Singular Development of Lan- 
 guage in a Child," Monthly Journal of Psychological 
 Medicine (1868); the substance of the article is 
 given in Hale's address, pp. 289-292. 
 
 Note 12, p. 99. — See Hale's address, p. 300. 
 
 Note 13, p. loi. — As to the ultimate origin of 
 language, concerning w^hich much has been written, 
 little need be added to what has already been said. 
 External stimuli usually cause animals to give utter- 
 ance to inarticulate cries denoting rage, fear, hunger, 
 joy, etc., and these cries are easily understood. Under 
 precisely similar conditions, though in a much broader 
 field, primitive man must have uttered sounds that 
 
Appendix 505 
 
 were articulate, and these must have speedily crystal- 
 ized into words which thus became a means for rep- 
 resenting the related things. An interchange of ideas 
 on a limited scale then became possible, and this ten- 
 dency once started, was bound to grow. In the last 
 analysis, this may be what Heyse had in mind when 
 he formulated his much ridiculed " Ding-dong " the- 
 ory, according to which each substance in nature has 
 its own pecidiar ring, so that primitive man must 
 have " possessed an instinctive ' faculty for giving ar- 
 ticulate expression to the rational conceptions of his 
 mind.' " Two other theories, the " Bow-wow " and 
 the *' Pooh-pooh," have been opposed to this. The 
 first teaches that language began with onomatopoetic 
 signs formed by the imitation of natural sounds; the 
 second, that interjections were the first articulate w^ords 
 and therefore the ultimate beginnings of speech. 
 
 The importance of the two latter theories is recog- 
 nized by AMiitney, who groups them together, making 
 the third subordinate to the second. The other the- 
 or)^ he rejects, although it seems quite possible to make 
 it include both of these without unduly stretching it. 
 Max Miiller doubtless carried it too far; but the 
 examples given above appear to indicate its general 
 soundness at bottom. Moreover, if man had been 
 without " an instinctive ' faculty for giving articulate 
 expression to the rational conceptions of his mind,' " 
 he would have been as helpless as a parrot, so far 
 as framing a language was concerned. Whitney is 
 right in maintaining that language, properly so-called, 
 
5o6 Appendix 
 
 involves the perception of quality, and that terms 
 expressive of quality ultimately became the chief 
 foundation on which the linguistic superstructure was 
 reared ; but that does not by any means exclude the 
 basic idea of the " Ding-dong " theory. Nor does 
 his other contention that the desire to communicate 
 with one another was the real source of language. 
 The capacity had to be there at the beginning, and 
 no language could possibly have been produced with- 
 out it. A parrot can learn to speak; but he cannot 
 originate anything. He imitates sounds; but he never 
 coins words from them. That province was reserved 
 for man, and he alone can occupy it. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Note i, p. 104. — For the facts relating to Origin 
 of the Races of Europe we are largely indebted to 
 " The Races of Europe, A Sociological Study," N. 
 Y., D. Appleton and Co., 1899, PP- xxxii, 624, with 
 numerous maps and photographs. By William Z. 
 Ripley, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Sociology in 
 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Lec- 
 turer on Anthropology at Columbia University in the 
 City of New York. 
 
 Note 2, p. 107. — Lyell. "Antiquity of Man," 
 chap ii. 
 
 Note 3, p. no. — See paper of Edmund Andrews, 
 American Journal of Scicnrc, 2d ser., vol. xlv. pp. 
 180-190 (March, 1868). 
 
Af^l^cndix 507 
 
 NoTH J., p. III. — Ripley. " R;ices of Kuropc," p. 
 458. 
 
 NoTi-: 5, p. 1 1 J?. — Ih'uL, p. 54. 
 
 Note O, p. 114. — " Urizcschichte Kuropas, Grund- 
 zuge einer prahist. Arch:i^ologie," Strassburg, 1905. 
 
 Note 7, p. 116. — Ripley, "Races of Europe," p. 
 176. 
 
 Note 8, p. 122. — I bid, pp. 366, 367. 
 
 Note 9, p. 127. — Ibid., p. 502. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Note i, p. 139. — Lewis Morgan, "The Consan- 
 guinity and Affinity of the Human Family," Smith- 
 sonian Report, vol. xvii. (1871); "Indian AJigra- 
 tions," North Afiicrican Revieic, vol. cix. (1869) pp. 
 391-442. vol. ex. (1870) pp. 33-82. 
 
 Note 2, p. 141. — Records of the Past (Washing- 
 ton) vol. vii. (Oct. 1908) pp. 219-232. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Note i, p. 159. — Records of the Past (Washing- 
 ton), vol. V. (1906) p. 187. 
 
 Note 2, p. 162. — Chamberlin and Salisbury, "Ge- 
 ology," vol. iii. p. 357. 
 
 Note 3, p. 162. — Author's " Ice Age in North 
 America." 
 
 Note 4, p. 163.— Author's "Asiatic Russia," p. 
 510; also, especially the report of William \l. Davis 
 
5o8 Appendix 
 
 and E. Huntington, in " Explorations in Turkestan," 
 Expedition of 1903 under the direction of Raphael 
 Pumpelly, Washington, D. C, published by the Car- 
 negie Institution, April, 1905, pp. 84-92. 
 
 Note 5, p. 167. — ^Author's " Scientific Confirma- 
 tions of Old Testament History," pp. 334-347- 
 
 Note 6, p. 167. — Author's '' Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 366-372. 
 
 Note 7, p. 167. — O. D. von Engeln, " Phenomena 
 associated with Glacier Drainage and Wastage, with 
 especial reference to observations in the Yakutat Bay 
 Region, Alaska," Zeitschrift fiir Gletscherkunde, vol. 
 vi. (1911) pp. 104-150- 
 
 Note 8, p. 170. — Proceedings of the Victoria In- 
 stitute, vol. xl. p. 151 : also vols, xxx., xxxi., xxxii. 
 
 Note 9, p. 180.. — Baptist Quarterly for July, 1884. 
 
 Note 10, p. 182. — Author's " Ice Age In North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 565-567- 
 
 NoTE II, p. 186. — Bulletin of the Geological So- 
 ciety of America, vol. iv. (1893) pp. 423-427; au- 
 thor's " Ice Age In North America " (5th ed.), p. 542. 
 
 Note 12, p. 187. — "Recent Earth Movement in 
 the Great Lakes Region," U. S. Geol. Surv., i8th An. 
 Report, pt. il. pp. 601-647. 
 
 Note 13, p. 188. — ''The Glacial Lake Agassiz," 
 pp. 238-244. 
 
 Note 14, p. 192. — Author's " Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 572-575- 
 
 Note 15, p. 193. — "A Thermographlcal Record of 
 
.Ippr/Nlix 509 
 
 the Late Quaternary Climate," Postglaziale Kiuna- 
 virandcnuifrcn, Stockholm, 19 10, p. 309. 
 
 Note iO, p. 19-I.— Hnllctin of the Geological So- 
 ciety of America, vol. ii. p. 19O. 
 
 Note 17, p. 195.— " Lake Lahontan," U. S. Geol. 
 Survey, Monograph, XI, p. 273. 
 
 Note 18, p. 195. — See Quarterly Journal of the 
 Geolofrical Society, vol. xxxix, 1883, in Proceedings, 
 pp. 67-69; cf. id., vol. xlii. pp. 527-539; Bulletin of 
 the Geological Society of America, vol. i. pp. 306, 
 308; Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Prog- 
 ress, 1 875-70, p. 90; also author's ''Ice Age in 
 North America" (5th ed.), p. 568 f. 
 
 Note 19, p. 197.—" Collected Papers on some Con- 
 troverted Questions of Geology," pp. 40, 41. 
 
 Note 20, p. 204.— Author's " Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 55-68. 
 
 Note 21, p. 204. — See, among others, the paper by 
 Professor I. C. Russell, Scottish Geographical Mag- 
 azine, 1894, and the reports of Professor H. F. Reid 
 on " Variations of Glaciers," in the Journal of Ge- 
 ology, from year to year. 
 
 Note 22, p. 206. — American Journal of Science, 
 vol. xvil 1879, pp. 133-144. 
 
 Note 23, p. 206. — American Geologist, vol. x. pp. 
 25-44. 
 
 Note 24, p. 214.— Author's "Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 151-166; also, especially, his 
 art. " Post-glacial Erosion and Oxidation," Bulletin 
 
5IO Appendix 
 
 of the Geological Society of America, vol. xxiii. 
 (June, 1912) pp. 277-295. 
 
 Note 25, p. 217. — Isaiah Bowman, "The Geo- 
 logic Relations of the Cuzco Remains," American 
 Journal of Science, 4th ser., vol. xxxiii. (April, 1912) 
 pp. 306-325. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Note i, p. 219. — Report by Lewis and Wright in 
 vol. Z of the 2d Geol. Survey of Pa. ; also author's 
 "Ice Age in North America" (5th ed.), pp. 625 ff. 
 
 Note 2, p. 222. — Abbott, "Primitive Industry"; 
 Professor Henry W. Haynes' report published in the 
 author's " Ice Age in North America " (5th ed.), pp. 
 619-622. 
 
 Note 3, p. 225. — Report of Professors Hollick, 
 Libbey, Mercer, Abbott, and G. F. Wright, in Pro- 
 ceedings of the A. A. A. S., 46th meeting held at 
 Detroit, Aug. 1897, PP- 344-399; <ilso Records of the 
 Past, vol. X. (1911) pp. 273-282. 
 
 Note 4, p. 225. — Ernest Volk, "Archaeology of 
 the Delaw^are Valley," vol. v. of the Papers of the 
 Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Eth- 
 nology, Harvard University, pp. xvi, 258. Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., 191 1. 
 
 Note 5, p. 226. — Popular Science Monthly, July, 
 1891, May, 1893, and December, 1895; also "Man 
 and the Glacial Period," 2d ed., preface, p. xv ; also 
 "Ice Age in North America" ( Sth ed.), pp. 645- 
 648. 
 
I p />('/! flix 
 
 511 
 
 NoTR 6, p. 228. — '' Ice AjTC in North America " 
 (5th ed.), p. 612. 
 
 Note 7, p. 229.— Paper of Dr. W^-irren Upham 
 before Boston Societ)- of Natural History, December 
 ^l, 1887, summarized in ''Ice Ag-e in North Amer- 
 ica" (5th ed.), pp. O54-666; also N. H. Winchell, 
 " Pre-Indian Inhabitants of Minnesota," chapter i. of 
 the "Aborigines of Minnesota," published by the Min- 
 nesota Historical Society, 191 1, first printed in Rec- 
 ords of the Fast, vol. vi. (1907) pp. 145-157, 163- 
 181. 
 
 Note 8, p. 230.— Paper of G. F. Wright and Miss 
 Luella Owen on " Evidence of the Agency of Water 
 in the Distribution of Loess in the Missouri Valley," 
 American Geologist, vol. xxxiii. pp. 205-222; also 
 vol. XXXV. pp. 236-240; also Records of the Past, vol. 
 ii. pp. 1 1 9-1 24; but especially N. H. Winchell on the 
 " Pleistocene Geology of the Concannon Farm near 
 Lansing, Kansas," American Geologist, vol. xxxi. 
 (AL^y, 1903) pp. 263-308, summarized in " Ice Age 
 in North America" (5th ed.), pp. 678-683. 
 
 Note 9, p. 232.— Author's " Origin and Distribu- 
 tion of the Loess in Northern China and Central 
 Asia," Bulletin of Geological Society of America, vol. 
 xiii. pp. 127-138; also his "Scientific Confirmations 
 of Old Testament Histor}," pp. 272-343. 
 
 Note 10, p. 233.— Author's "Asiatic Russia," p. 
 502 ; " Scientific Confirmations of Old Testament 
 Histor}'," p. 302 ; and " Origin and Distribution of 
 
512 Appendix 
 
 Loess in Northern China and Central Asia/' op. cit., 
 p. 133. 
 
 Note ii, p. 234. — Author's "Scientific Confirma- 
 tions," as above, chap. xi. 
 
 Note 12, p. 235. — See Warren Upham, American 
 Geologist, vol. XXX. pp. 135-150; Winchell, as above, 
 American Geologist, vol. xxxi. pp. 263-308; author's 
 "Age of the Lansing Skeleton," Records of the Past, 
 vol. ii. pp. 1 1 9-1 24, Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. Ix. pp. 
 28-32. 
 
 Note 13, p. 235. — Nebraska Geological Survey, 
 vol. ii. pt. V. pp. 318-327, pt. vi. pp. 331-348; also 
 Records of the Past, vol. vi. pp. 34—39. 
 
 Note 14, p. 238. — Henry Fairfield Osborn, "Age 
 of Mammals" (New York, Macmillan, 191 1), pp. 
 501-509; also author's " Ice Age in North America " 
 (5th ed.), pp. 436-438. 
 
 Note 15, p. 240. — Author's "Scientific Confirma- 
 tions of Old Testament History," pp. 347-355 ; W. 
 Boyd Dawkins, " Early Man in Britain," p. 266. 
 
 Note 16, p. 241. — Professor J. E. Todd called my 
 attention some years ago to strata of this volcanic aslY 
 appearing underneath the loess forming the bluffs on 
 the western side of the Missouri River, north of 
 Omaha. In the first volume of Professor Barbour's 
 report on the geology of Nebraska we learn that this 
 volcanic ash is found in nearly every county of the 
 state of Nebraska, the deposits growing thicker and 
 coarser towards the west, where thev often reach a 
 
Appendix 513 
 
 depth of a bund red feet or more. The deposits are 
 found also in Kansas and to a h'mited extent in Iowa 
 and South Dakota. The material must have been 
 poured forth from volcanic vents several hundred 
 miles to the southwest and have been transported by 
 wind during the closing stages of the Glacial epoch. 
 In a large number of cases, however, it seems to have 
 fallen into bodies of still water. 
 
 Note 17, p. 246. — Author's "Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), pp. 500-510; "Scientific Con- 
 firmations of Old Testament History," chap. viii. 
 
 Note 18, p. 247. — Hiram Bingham, "The Discov- 
 ery of Prehistoric Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru," 
 American Journal of Science, 4th ser., vol. xxxiii. 
 (April, 1912) pp. 297-305; George F. Eaton, "Re- 
 port on the Remains of Man and of Lower Animals 
 from the Vicinity of Cuzco, Peru," Ibid., pp. 325- 
 333. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Note i, p. 250. — These facts can be found clearly 
 stated in any standard geology and various govern- 
 ment reports upon the region ; but one would get the 
 most vivid impression of the facts from Sir Archibald 
 Geikie's " Geological Sketches," pp. 186-192. 
 
 Note 2, p. 255. — J. D. Whitney, " Report on the 
 Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada," 1879, p. 
 258 f. 
 
 Note 3, p. 260. — Bulletin of the Geological So- 
 ciety of America, vol. ii. p. 192. 
 
514 Appendix 
 
 Note 4, 246. — William J. Sinclair, " Recent In- 
 vestigations Bearing on the Question of the Occur- 
 rence of Neocene Man in the Auriferous Gravels of 
 the Sierra Nevada," vol. vii. No. 2 of the publica- 
 tions of the University of California in American Ar- 
 chaeology and Ethnology. 
 
 Note 5, p. 266. — For the detailed evidence see 
 Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His- 
 tory, vol. xxiv. pp. 424-450, and vol. xxv. (Feb. 
 1 891) pp". 242-246. 
 
 Note 6, p. 269. — ^W. J. Sollas, "Ancient Hunt- 
 ers," p. 261. The Venus impudica here figured is 
 carved from ivory. Of the perfection of some of the 
 carvings of Aurignacian age M. Salomon Reinach re- 
 marks that " by their realism and intelligent render- 
 ing of the female form they are superior to all the 
 artistic productions of the lEgt^n and Babylonia." 
 
 Note 7, p. 274. — The reader will get a most vivid 
 impression of these lava deposits by referring to Sir 
 Archibald Geikie's " Geological Sketches," pp. 237- 
 245, where he describes his personal impression on 
 visiting the region. 
 
 Note 8, p. 278.— G. K. Gilbert, "Lake Bonne- 
 ville," Monograph I, of the U. S. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Note 9, p. 284.— Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. Sur- 
 vey, No. 79 (1891), being a report by Joseph S. Dil- 
 ler on "A Late Volcanic ?>uption in Northern Cali- 
 fornia." 
 
Appendix 515 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 NoTF- I, p. 390. — The reader will do well to o;o 
 back to the earliest description found in Lyell's "An- 
 tiquity of Man " and Prestwich's " Geoloczy." 
 
 Note 2, p. 293.— Lyell's "Antiquity of Man," pp. 
 140-144. 
 
 Note 3, p. 295. — A convincing paper in the Quar- 
 terly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 
 vol. Ixiii. pp. 470-514. 
 
 Note 4, p. 298. — A large number of facts are given 
 by W. J. Sollas in his "Ancient Hunters," p. 160. 
 
 Note 5, p. 299.— For the account of the Galley 
 Hill skeleton see art. by Professor George Grant Mac- 
 Curdy in Records of the Past, vol. x. (Nov.-Dec. 
 191 1 ) pp. 322-331; and for the Ipswich man an 
 article by the same in Science, March 29, 191 2, pp. 
 505-507. 
 
 Note 6, p. 301.—" Primitive Man in the Somme 
 Valley/' American Geologist, vol. xxii. pp. 350-362. 
 
 Note 7, p. 304.— Professor Edward Hull's recent 
 volume, " Monog-raph on the Sub-oceanic Physiogra- 
 phy of the North Atlantic Ocean" (London, Stan- 
 ford, 19 12). 
 
 xNoTE 8. p. 306.— See A. Tylor's papers, " Qua- 
 ternary Gravels," Quarterly Journal of the Geolog- 
 ical Society of London, Feb. 1869, pp. 57-100, and 
 "The Amiens Gravels," Proceedings of the Geolog- 
 ical Society of London, 1867, pp. 103-125. A full 
 
5i6 Appendix 
 
 summary of M. Ladriere's investigations will be found 
 in Geikie's "Great Ice Age" (3d ed.), pp. 629-635- 
 
 Note 9, p. 309. — For more details" see W. J. Sol- 
 las, "Ancient Hunters," pp. 40-50. 
 
 Note 10, p. 311. — See again Upham's observations 
 upon " Primitive Man in the Somme Valley," noted 
 above. 
 
 Note it, p. 312. — "Human Remains below the 
 Loess of Kiev, Russia," Records of the Past, vol. i. 
 (1902) p. 276. 
 
 Note 12, p. 313. — Il^id., p. 277. 
 
 Note 13, p. 313. — Professor Armaschevsky's report 
 prepared for the International Geological Congress, 
 held in St. Petersburg in 1897, translated in Records 
 of the Past, vol. i. (1902) pp. 275-278. For the man- 
 ner in which the deposits have taken place see his 
 " Memoirs of the Geological Committee of Russia," 
 vol. XV. no. I, being a report upon the geology of 
 Poltava, Charkov, and Obojan, 1903. The first part 
 of the report is in Russian, but the second part, deal- 
 ing specially with the origin and distribution of the 
 loess, and filling sixty quarto pages, is in German. 
 
 Note 14, p. 314. — A. H. Keane, "Man Past and 
 Present," p. 269. 
 
 Note 15, p. 316. — See evidence detailed in full by 
 George Grant MacCurdy in Records of the Past, 
 vol. viii. (1909) pp. 33-38. 
 
 Note 16, p. 318. — Author's " Ice Age in North 
 America" (5th ed.), chnp. iii. 
 
Appendix 5 1 7 
 
 Note 17, p. 318. — For fuller details and references 
 see author's " Man and the Glacial Period," pp. 
 267-293. 
 
 Note 18, p. 320. — A. dc Quatrefages, " Human 
 Species," pp. 142-143. 
 
 Note 19, p. 321. — Lyell, "Antiquity of Man," pp. 
 y^-yg; Huxlev, "Man's Place in Nature," pp. 168- 
 
 187. 
 
 Note 20, p. 321. — Author's " Man and the Gla- 
 cial Period," pp. 275-278; Sollas, "Ancient Hunters," 
 pp. 45, 153, 162. 
 
 Note 21, p. 323. — " Sgmatology and Man's An- 
 tiquity," by G. G. MacCurdy in Records of the Past, 
 vol. X. (1911) pp. 322-331; see Sollas, "Ancient 
 Hunters," pp. 146-167. 
 
 Note 22, p. 325. — W. J. Sollas, "Ancient Hunt- 
 ers," p. 99. 
 
 Note 23, p. 330. — Ih'id., chap. vi. 
 
 chapter X 
 
 Note 1. p. 334. — Warren Upham's collection of 
 facts in author's " Ice Agt in North America" (5th 
 ed.), chap. xix. 
 
 Note 2, 336. — W. J. Sollas, "Ancient Hunters," 
 p. 56. 
 
 Note 3, p. 338. — Ibid., pp. 63, 104, 112, 116; 
 Prestwich, " Controverted Questions in Geolo;j:y," 
 pp. 49-80: "The Eolithic Problem," MacCurdy in 
 
5l8 Appendix 
 
 Ajnerican Anthropologist, vol, vii. (1905) pp. 425- 
 480. 
 
 Note 4, p. 338. — Professor H. W. Haynes, Ap- 
 pendix to " Man and the Glacial Period,"' pp. 365- 
 374; also in Records of the Past, vol. v. pp. 83-85. 
 
 Note 5, p. 340. — W. J. Sollas, "Ancient Hunt- 
 ers," pp. 67-69. 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Note i, p. 348.— Alfred Russel Wallace, "The 
 Geographical Distribution of Plants and Animals," 
 vol. i. p. 154. 
 
 Note 2, p. 354.— A. de Quatrefages, "The Hu- 
 man Species," pp. 175, 176. 
 
 Note 3, p. 357. — Author's "Asiatic Russia," pp. 
 395, 510. 
 
 Note 4, p. 359. — " Explorations in Turkestan," 
 Expedition of 1903, edited by Raphael Pumpellv, pp. 
 84-88. 
 
 Note 5, p. 361. — Author's "Asiatic Russia," pp. 
 107-109, 512, 513; D. Gath Whitley, "Buried Ele- 
 phants in the Arctic Regions," Gentleman's Masra- 
 zine, Sept. 1894, PP- 275-288; also his " Ivory Islands 
 in the Arctic Ocean." 
 
 Note 6, p. 362. — Records of the Past, vol. i. pp. 
 127, 128; vol. ii. pp. 313-317: art. by Frederick 
 Bennett Wright, vol. ii. pp. 243-252. 
 
Jppcndix 519 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Note i, p. 381. — Haeckel " Evolution of Man," 
 vol. ii. p. 181. 
 
 Note 2, p. 381. — Mivart, " Man and Apes," p. 
 144. 
 
 Note 3, p. 381. — Brinton, " Races and Peoples," 
 p. 26. 
 
 Note 4, p. 383. — " Man's Place in Nature," ed. 
 of 1901, p. 143. 
 
 Note 5, p. 383. — Ihirl., pp. 106, 107. 
 
 Note 6. p. 384. — Ib'uL, p. 146. 
 
 Note 7, p. 385. — Quoted in Darwin " Descent of 
 Man," pp. 201, 202. 
 
 Note 8, p. 387. — Wallace, " Darwinism," p. 454. 
 
 Note q, p. 391. — W. J. Sollas, " On the Cranial 
 and Facial Characters of the Neandertal Race," 
 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of 
 London, ser. B, vol. cxcix. pp. 281-339; "Ancient 
 Hunters," pp. 157 ff. 
 
 Note 10, p. 392. — " The Aryan Question and Pre- 
 historic IVIan," Nineteenth Century, vol. xxv'm. (1890) 
 p. 775. 
 
 Note ii, p. 393. — Eugene Dubois. "Pithecanthro- 
 pus Erectus, cine Menschenaehnliche Uebergangsform 
 aus Java" (Batavia, 1894); "Pithecanthropus Erec- 
 tus, a Form from the Ancestral Stock of Mankind," 
 Smithsonian Institution, An. Report, 1898, pt. i. pp. 
 445—449, being part of a paper read before the Berlin 
 
520 Appendix 
 
 Anthropological Society, December, 1896, and trans- 
 lated from the Anatomischer Anzeiger, vol. xii. pp. i- 
 22; O. C. Marsh, Review of Dubois' book in American 
 Journal of Science, 3d sen, vol. xlix. (Feb. 1895) pp. 
 144-147; O. C Marsh, Abstract of Communication 
 to the National Academy of Sciences at Washington, 
 in American Journal of Science, 4th ser., vol. i. (June, 
 1896) pp. 475-482; also in Science, new ser., vol. iii. 
 (May 29, 1896) pp. 789-793; Prince Kropotkin, re- 
 port on Pithecanthropus, in LittelVs Living Age, vol. 
 ccix. (April 11, 1896) pp. 76-78, taken from the 
 Nineteenth Century for 1896; D. J. Cunningham, 
 " Dr. Dubois' So-called Missing Link," abstract of 
 a report at the Royal Dublin Society meeting Janu- 
 ary 23, 1895, Nature, vol. li. (Feb. 28, 1895) pp. 
 428, 429; also his "Place of 'Pithecanthropus' on 
 the Genealogical Tree," Nature, vol. liii. p. 296; ab- 
 stract of paper by Eugene Dubois reported in Na- 
 ture, vol. liii. (Dec. 5, 1895) pp. 115, 116; also his 
 " Place of ' Pithecanthropus ' in the Genealogical 
 Tree," Nature, vol. liii. pp. 245-247; W. J. Sollas, 
 " Pithecanthropus Erectus and the Evolution of the 
 Human Race," Nature, vol. liii. pp. 150, 151. 
 
 Note 12, p. 395. — " Primary Factors," 1896, pt. 
 i. chap. ii. 
 
 Note 13, p. 395. — Views of Cope summarized by 
 Professor George Macloskie, Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 
 Ix. p. 269. 
 
 Note 14, p. 396. — Franz Boas, " Mind of Primi- 
 tive Man," p. 20. 
 
Appendix =^21 
 
 Note 15. p. 39O. — Ihid., p. 22. 
 Note ib, p. 397. — //>/>/., p. 24. 
 Note 17, p. 397. — Ibid., p. 25. 
 
 Note 18, p. 398. — " Man's Place in Nature," ed. 
 of 1 901, p. 203. 
 
 Note 19, p. 398. — " Darwinism," p. 82. 
 
 Note 20, p. 399. — •" On the Mammals and Win- 
 ter Birds of East Florida, with an examination of 
 certain assumed specific characters in Birds, and a 
 sketch of the Bird Faunae of Eastern North Amer- 
 ica," published in the Bulletin of the Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., in 1871. 
 
 Note 21, p. 402. — Wallace, "Darwinism," p. 458. 
 
 Note 22, p. 402. — Ibid., pp. 69-71. 
 
 chapter XIII 
 
 Note i, p. 408. — See author's '' Scientific Aspects 
 of Christian Evidences," pp. 63-66. 
 
 Note 2, p. 411. — See Enclclop.Tdia Britannica. 9th 
 ed., art. " Biology." 
 
 Note 3, p. 417. — " Mental Evolution in Man," 
 1889. 
 
 Note 4, p. 420. — Ibid., p. 208. 
 
 Note 5, p. 422. — Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1892, p. 
 184. 
 
 Note 6, p. 434. — Franz Boas, " Mind of Primi- 
 tive Man," pp. 7, 8. 
 
522 Appendix. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Note i, p. 438. — " History of Creation," English 
 translation, vol. i. pp. 37, 38. 
 
 Note 2, p. 439. — " Veracity of the Hexateuch," pp. 
 209, 210. 
 
 Note 3, p. 441. — A. de Quatrefages, " The Hu- 
 man Species," p. 174. 
 
 Note 4, p. 443. — " The Pentateuch Vindicated 
 from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso," p. 128 foot- 
 note. 
 
 Note 5, p. 445. — He is called in i Chron. xxiv. 20 
 a son of Amram, the ancestor of Moses; for Shubael 
 and Shebuel are in all probability mere orthographic 
 variations of the same name. 
 
 Note 6, p. 454. — In Ruth iv. 17 Ruth's child is 
 called " a son born to Naomi," who was Ruth's 
 mother-in-lav/ and not even an ancestor of the child 
 in the strict sense. Zerubbabel is called familiarly 
 the son of Shealtiel (Ezr. iii. 2; Hag. i. i), and is so 
 stated to be in the genealogies of both Matt. i. 12 and 
 Luke iii. 27, though in reality he was his nephew 
 (i Chron. iii. 17-19). That descent as reckoned in 
 genealogies is not always of actual parentage appears 
 from the comparison of the ancestry of our Lord as 
 given by Matthew and by Luke. 
 
 Note 7, p. 464. — The number varies in different 
 manuscripts. 
 
 Note 8, p. 467. — A. de Quatrefages, " The Hu- 
 man Species," pp. 175, 176. 
 
NoTK o. p. 496. — Author's " Scientific Confirma- 
 tions of OKI Testament History," chaps, vii.-xi. 
 
 Not I- 10. p. 471. — Bulletin of the Geolocrical So- 
 ciety of America, vol. \iii. pp. 127-138, and 530; au- 
 thor's "Asiatic Russia." pp. 75-77; <'i^so his "Scien- 
 tific Confirmations." pp. 207, 211, 305. 
 
 Note it, p. 472. — Bulletin of the Geoloi^ical So- 
 ciety of America, vol. xiii. pp. 127-138; author's 
 "Scientific Confirmations," pp. 315, 316. 
 
 Note 12, p. 472. — William M. Davis, " Explora- 
 tions in Turkestan" (Carneizic Institution, Washincj- 
 ton. 1905), pp. 28-36. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Note i, p. 479.— Alfred Russel Wallace, "Island 
 Life," p. 212. 
 
 Note 2, p. 479. — Charles D. Walcott, " Geologic 
 Time; as indicated by the Sedimentaiy Rocks of 
 North America," Proceedinp;s of the American Asso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of Science, vol. xlii. pp. 
 168-169. 
 
 Note 3, p. 488. — Sir Joseph Prestwich, " Geol- 
 ogy," vol. i. p. 232; Sir Charles Lyell, "Principles 
 of Geology," vol. i. p. I33- 
 
 Note 4, p. 491. — Quarterly Journal of Geological 
 Society. Aui:r. 1887; " Gcoloey." vol. ii. pp. 441-535. 
 
524 Appendix 
 
 IMPLEMENTS DEEMED TO BE OF GREAT AGE FROM 
 STUDY OF THE PATIXATED SURFACES 
 
 Since the body of this work was in press there has 
 come into my hands a paper of Professor N. H. 
 Winchell (to be published in the Records of the Past, 
 Washington, vol. xi. pt. iv, July-August, 191 2) de- 
 scribing a collection of artifacts gathered by the late 
 Mr. J. V. B rower from an area in eastern Central 
 Kansas lying outside the glacial boundary. Mr. Win- 
 chell's study of them, however, has convinced himi 
 that thev are of the same age with those that have 
 been found connected with the glacial deposits. This 
 conclusion is reached not only by the study of the 
 forms of the implements, but especially by attention 
 to the extent of the patina upon their surface. The 
 artifacts under consideration *' are fashioned from a 
 blue-gray cliert, or from a yellowish-gray chert which 
 has resulted from it by weathering. . . . Usually from 
 exposure these artifacts have acquired a patina consist- 
 ing of a smooth glossy surface, with a thin scale of 
 altered rock immediately below the gloss. . . . Fre- 
 quently one side of a flat specimen is more patinated 
 than the other. All degrees of weathering and de- 
 cay can be found, so that it seems the fabrication of 
 rude artifacts continued from paLeolithic time in 
 Kansas to the neolithic. On the other hand can be 
 found in the same region, and sometimes on the same 
 sites, implements of higher culture which are not 
 weathered or patinated ; and on closer and wider ex- 
 amination it is found that this hiizher culture is itself 
 
Af^pcndix 525 
 
 so old that the specimens that manifest it have also 
 acquired a semi-fi;loss, indicatinj^' that they have also 
 been exposed, but for a shorter time, to the same de- 
 structive airents as the paheoliths. In many cases the 
 implements that show this higher culture are quite 
 like those of the neolithic people of post-Glacial time. 
 . . . The culture of the palaeoliths, however, is mark- 
 edly different from and ruder than that of these semi- 
 patinated specimens. These semi-patinated specimens 
 embrace implem.ents known as knives, points, scrapers, 
 etc., all of which are excluded from the palaeolithic 
 o:roup by the simple fact that they are never found 
 carrying palaeolithic patina, and by the significant fact 
 that patinated palaeolithic implements were used, in 
 many cases, for the making of the specimens of higher 
 culture. The different dates of the two chippings are 
 perfectly evident on the same specimen by reason of 
 the natina on the one and its absence on the other." 
 It is worthy of note also in this connection that 
 close study of the Newcomerstow^n implement reveals 
 to Professor VVinchell a degree of patination corre- 
 sponding to that of these oldest implements in Mr, 
 Brower's collection. Professor Winchell's conclusions, 
 also, correspond with those of Dr. W. Allen Sturge 
 of Mildenhall (Suffolk), England, detailed in the 
 Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia 
 for 1908, 1909, and 19 10, thus greatly increasing the 
 evidence of the early date of prehistoric man and of 
 his wide distribution over the surface of the earth. 
 We cannot, however, accept Dr. Sturge's conclusions 
 
526 Appendix 
 
 concerning the actihTl nge of these implements, since 
 he follows Croll's estimates of ^rlacial time from astro- 
 nomical evidence without proper acquaintance with 
 the accumulation of geolo<i;ical evidence made since 
 the publication of CroU's theory. Estimates made 
 from patinated surfaces of the implements can at 
 present relate onh- to the relative age. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTE BY N. H. WINCHELL. 
 
 This specimen has the same shape as the Newcomers- 
 town palaeolith cf Ohio, but is a little larger. It is of 
 blue-gray chert, abindant in the Upper Carboniferous for- 
 mation of the Kansas valley. Its form is not uncommon 
 among the specimens collected there, but few are as per- 
 fect as this. The long edges and the large end show a 
 battering which has rej-ulted from use, indicating that the 
 implement had reached the state cf completion. Its ^hape 
 and size warrant the name celt. The facets show the fea- 
 ture that is comm.on en surfaces of forced fracture, i.e., an 
 undulatory, circular, alternation of elevation and depression, 
 the size of the waves increasing with distance from the 
 ictus-point, and furnishing a guide to the place of the bulb 
 of percussion, although such bulb may have been destroyed 
 by the later chipping. The surfaces are numbered, begin- 
 ning with the oldest, viz. 
 
 (i) Has a thick patina of a dirty white color, but no 
 gloss. It is seen on one side and one edge. There is no 
 demonstration that this is artificial, and it may date from 
 the time of crntact with the parent rock. If so it may be 
 called prepaUeol'ith'ic. 
 
 (2) Has a distinct, brown patina and a dull gloss. It 
 is seen on one side, near the center, ou.tlined by the aretes 
 formed by the later chipping, and at the small end. This is 
 distinctly an artificial fracture surface, since it shows the 
 
528 Appendix 
 
 wavy contours both at the point and at the lower right 
 hand of the larger area. The thickness of the patina is 
 about that of writing paper It indicates early palaeolithic 
 time. 
 
 (3) Is found only on one edge. It has a nearly white 
 patina similar to No. (i), and it appears older than No. 
 (2), having no gloss. It is also probably early paLeolithic. 
 
 (4) The most of the specimen is covered by No. (4). It 
 is of the color of the interior of the specimen, blue-gray. 
 There is in some places a tendency to a white patination, 
 but in general the age of this surface is indicated only by 
 the glossiness which reflects the sunlight in all directions 
 as the specimen is turned about. It is a characteristic in- 
 dication of paheoUthic date, although a similar glossiness, of 
 less pronounced character, is found on many artifacts of 
 early neolithic date. The specimen, as it is, dates certainly 
 from pre-Wisconsin, and probably from pre-Kansas time. 
 
 August 15, 1912. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abbeville, France, glacial man in, 290, 291, 293. 
 
 Abbott en amount of silt in the Mississippi River, 181. 
 
 Abbott, C. C, palaeolithic discoveries at Trenton, 219 ff. 
 
 Acheulean stage of the paleolithic period, 326. 
 
 Adour River, 303 f. 
 
 Agassiz, Alexander, on the geology of America, 18. 
 
 Agglutinative languages, 81 ff., 90, 352, 502 ff. 
 
 Alexander, mentioned, 35, 68. 
 
 Algonquins, distribution of, 138. 
 
 Allen, J. A., on variations cf animals in Florida, 399 f. 
 
 Alps, the, 21. 
 
 Altai Mountains, glaciers of the, 359. 
 
 Amenhotep III, mentioned, 33. 
 
 American languages, 83, 98, 129. 
 
 Amiens, France, glacial man at, 290, 291 ff. 
 
 Amu Daria, the, 367. 
 
 Anau, 59 ff., 86. 
 
 Andes Mountains, 21 ; glaciation of, 217. 
 
 Andrews on the age of lake dwellings, no. 
 
 Animals associated with prehistoric man, 238 ff., 248, 265, 
 287 f., 293 f., 296, 309, 313, 314, 319, 323, 324, 327 f-. 
 332, 333, 346 ff.; distribution of, 287 f., 293 f., 301, 303, 
 304, 343 ; instinct of, 423 f. ; limitations of their intel- 
 ligence, 424 f.; of the Tertiary period, 23, 250 f. 
 
 Ants, brains of, 398. 
 
 Appalachian Mountains, 20. 
 
 Aral-Caspian depression, 355; former climate of, 370; 
 former fertility of, 367 ff.; geolog\' of, 57 f. 
 
 Armaschevsky, P., discovers implements at Kiev, 311 ff. 
 
 Art, of neolithic man, 125 f.; of palaeolithic man, 330. 
 
 Aryan languages, 75 ff., 85 f., 90, 352. 
 
 Arve, the, 305. 
 
530 Index 
 
 Asia, Centra], centers of glaciation in, 358 f.; climate of, 
 after the deluge, 474; glacial history of, 356 ff.; water 
 supply of, 367 f., 370. 
 
 Asia, Central and Western, original home of man, 351 ff. 
 
 Asia, Southern, original home of animals associated with 
 man, 350. 
 
 Asiatics, hair of, iii. 
 
 Assouan, quarry at, 49 f. 
 
 Assurbanipal, 42. 
 
 Aurignacian stage of the palaeolithic period, 330 f. 
 
 Australia, uniformity of language in, 99. 
 
 Australians resemble Mousterian man, 330; skulls of, 391. 
 
 Babbitt, Miss Franc E., palaeolithic discoveries at Little 
 Falls, Minn., 229. 
 
 Babylonian chronology, 499 f. 
 
 Babylonians, architecture of, 46; astronomy of, 46; lan- 
 guage of, 501 f. ; literature on, 500; writing of, 46. 
 
 Bachler finds stone implements at Wildkirchli, 314. 
 
 Balk, 58. 
 
 Barbour, E. H., on the Nebraska loess man, 235; on vol- 
 canic ash, 512 f. 
 
 Bardon and Bouyssonie, discoveries by, 323 f. 
 
 Bartlett, S. C, quoted on sex, 439. 
 
 Basques, the, 117 ff.; language of, 83, 117; skulls of, ii8. 
 
 Baum mounds, 146. 
 
 Baumes-Chaudes, discoveries in cave of, 115. 
 
 Bear River, 272. 
 
 Bears, .migration of, 348. 
 
 Becker, George F., on a stone mortar found under Table 
 Mountain, 259 f.; quoted on the recentness of the with- 
 drawal of glacial ice, 194. 
 
 Behring Strait, a favorable route for migration from Asia 
 to Alaska, 134. 
 
 Bell, Robert, cited, 195. 
 
Index 531 
 
 Bible, the, can be translated into every language, 431; 
 chronology of, 442 fF. ; evidence of, relating to the or- 
 igin and anti(iuit\ of man, 437 ff. 
 
 Biddenhani, Eng., palaeolithic tliscoveries at, 296. 
 
 Bingham, Hiram, discovers human remains near Cuzco, 
 Peru, 247. 
 
 Black Mary's, Eng., palaeolithic discovery at, 296. 
 
 Blumenbach's classification of man, 380. 
 
 Boas, Franz, quoted on racial differences, 396; on the an- 
 cient civilization of the Old \^'orld, and the New, 433. 
 
 Bolt, Thomas, on decay of rocks in Nicaragua, 207. 
 
 Boule, M., on eoliths, 339 f. 
 
 Bourgeois, Abbe, discoveries at Theney, 335. 
 
 Bouyssonie and Bardon, discoveries by, 323 f. 
 
 Bowlders, 158, 159, i6o, 163, 210. 
 
 Bowman, Isaiah, glacial investigations in South America, 
 217, 247 ff. 
 
 Brachycephaly, definition of, 112; in Bosnia, 119; in the 
 Alps, 113; in Russia, 119. 
 
 Breuil, Abbe, discredits artificial character of eoliths, 340 f 
 
 Brixham, Eng., discoveries at, 318 f. 
 
 Brooks, C. W., on Japanese wrecks on American shores, 134. 
 
 Brower, J. V., collects artifacts in Central Kansas, 524. 
 
 Bruce, skull of, 390. 
 
 Brugsch, Dr., quoted on the Fellahin of Lower Egypt, 66 f. 
 
 Burrows, R., explorations in Crete, 31. 
 
 Butterflies, distribution of, 428. 
 
 Caesar, mentioned, 35. 
 
 Cahokia Mcund, 142. 
 
 Calaveras skull, 261 ff. 
 
 Camel, original home of, 349. 
 
 Canaanites, 72. 
 
 Canstadt skull, 320, 389 f. 
 
 Caspian Sea, 57 f. 
 
 Caucasians, distribution of, in Asia, 354. 
 
532 Index 
 
 Cave bear, 314. 
 
 Caves, prehistoric remains in, 314, 316, 318 ff. 
 
 Chamberlin, T. C, on transportation of glacial material, 162. 
 
 Chellean, stage of the palaeolithic period, 326. 
 
 Chelles, France, glacial man in, 290, 295. 
 
 Chillicothe, Ohio, mounds at, 143 ff. 
 
 China, date of authentic history of, 30. 
 
 Chinese language, 79 ff. 
 
 Chronicles, genealogies of, 447 ff. 
 
 Chu River, 367. 
 
 Civilization, prominent names connected with, 434, 436; 
 sources of, 495 f. 
 
 Clay, Albert T., quoted on the art and culture of the Baby- 
 lonians, 45. 
 
 Coleman, A. P., on the interglacial episode at Toronto, 212 f. 
 
 Colenso, Bishop, reply to, 443 ff. 
 
 Columbia River, 252 ; mouth of, center for dispersion of In- 
 dian tribes, 135. 
 
 Columbus, mentioned, 36. 
 
 Combe-Capelle, France, discovery at, 324. 
 
 Commerce, prehistoric, 108. 
 
 Commont, M., on eoliths, 339; on the Chellean implements, 
 326 ; palaeolithic discoveries of, 291 f. 
 
 Conners, Mr., palaeolithic discovery of, 296. 
 
 Cope on the brain of Pithecanthropus, 395 ; on classification 
 
 of, 395- 
 Coptic language, 74. 
 Creation, mechanical theory of, 407 f. 
 Cresswell Crags, Eng., discoveries in caves at, 319. 
 Crete, archaeology of, 31; archaeological literature on, 498 f. 
 Croll, J., theory of the cause of the Glacial epoch, 174 f., 216. 
 Cro-Magnon race, 115 ff. 
 Cuvier's classification of man, 380. 
 Cuzco, Peru, human remains near, 247; geology of, 247 f. 
 
 Dana, Charles D., estimates of geological time, 8 ; on the 
 formation of the Appalachian Mountains, 20. 
 
Index S^.^ 
 
 Darwin, Charles, and the origin of species, 372; assumed too 
 slow a rate of variation of species, 398 ; estimates of 
 geological time, 2, 478 ; has not solved the mystery of 
 creation, 406; objection to his minute variations in spe- 
 cies, 400 f. ; on sex, 440; on the ant's brain, 398; on 
 the effect of the Bible on savage races, 431 f. 
 
 Darwin, Francis, on the way to determine the difference be- 
 tween the lowest plants and animals, 413. 
 
 Darwin, Sir George H., estimates of geological time, 479. 
 
 Davis, William M., on moraines of the Tian Shan Mount- 
 ains, 359 f.; reports terraces on the Caspian, 472. 
 
 Dawkins, Boyd, explores cave at Wookey Hole, Eng., 319. 
 
 De Sarzec, discoveries at Telloh, 499. 
 
 Deer, distribution of, 349. 
 
 Deluge, the, date of, 474. 
 
 Demavend Mountain, height cf, 57. 
 
 Denmark, forests of, 106; kitchen middens of, 105 f. 
 
 Deschutes River, 253. 
 
 Diller, Mr., on a cinder cone in California, 284. 
 
 Divine immanency, doctrine of, 408 ff. 
 
 Dolichocephaly, characteristic of the prehistoric European, 
 113 f., 118 f; definition of, 112; in France, 114 f. 
 
 Dolmens, 122 ff. 
 
 Dordogne, France, cave man in, 323 f. 
 
 Dubois, Eugene, discovers Pithecanthropus erectus, 393. 
 
 Eg\'pt, antiquity of, 47, 50 f. ; language of, 501 f. 
 
 Elamites, 42. 
 
 Elbe River, 303. 
 
 Elephants, distribution of, 349 f. 
 
 Elevation of land, at close of Tertiary period, i68 ff., 301 ff., 
 
 343 ff., 486, 488; relation to distribution of animals, 
 
 301 f., 304, 344 ff.; of man, 171 f., 304. 
 Elsenz River, 309. 
 
 Engeln, O. D. von, on rate of melting of glacial ice, 167. 
 Engis skull, u6, 320. 
 
534 " Index 
 
 Eoliths, 337 ff. 
 
 Esker terraces, 294, 308. 
 
 Eskimos, 236 f. 
 
 Etruscan art, 103. 
 
 Euphrates Valley, date of man's history in, 494; early his- 
 tory in the, 33 f., 38 ff. 
 
 Europe, complexion of the races of, iioff. ; in the Tertiary 
 period, 301 ff., 346; origin of the races of, chapter on, 
 102-127; skulls of, 112 ff. 
 
 Europeans, hair of, iii; skulls of, 112 ff. 
 
 Evans, Arthur J., explorations in Crete, 31. 
 
 Evans, Sir John, on the discoveries in the Somme Valley, 291. 
 
 Evolution, bearing of, on man's appearance, 7; theories of, 
 6, 373 ff., 407- 
 
 Exodus, date of the, 48. 
 
 Ezra, genealogies of, 445 f. 
 
 Fellahin, the, 66 f. 
 
 Fiords, 168 f., 171, 303 f., 486. 
 
 Floods at the close of the Glacial epoch, 243 ff. 
 
 Fort Ancient, 143. 
 
 Fort Hill, 143. 
 
 Fraipont, Professor, quoted on the rate of development from 
 
 apes to man, 392; and Lohest discover skeletons at 
 
 Spy, 321 ff, 
 Frere, John, palaeolithic discoveries of, 297. 
 
 Galley Hill, Eng., geology of, 298. 
 
 Galley Hill skeleton, 297 f. 
 
 Garden of Eden, location of, 442. 
 
 Gaudry, M., 291. 
 
 Geer, Baron de, on a post-glacial lake bed in Sweden, 193. 
 
 Genealogies of the Bible are frequently abbreviated, 444 ff. ; 
 
 not to be used for chronological purposes, 444. 
 Genesis i. conforms to modern science, 437 ff. 
 Genesis v. and xi., genealogies of, not complete, 455 ff. 
 
Iniicx 535 
 
 Genghis Khan, 58 f, 353. 
 
 Geological time, 8, 478 ff. ; literature on estimates (rf, 497. 
 
 German Ocean, elevation of, 302. 
 
 Gilbert, G. K., on the rate rf post-glacial elevation, 187; on 
 the geological history of Great Salt Lake, 278 ff. 
 
 Gilder, Robert F., finds' human bones at Omaha, Neb., 235. 
 
 Gizeh, pyramid of, 49. 
 
 Glacial boundary in Europe, i6o; in North America, 163. 
 
 Glacial debris, depth of, 159, 163. 
 
 Glacial epoch, cause of, 22, 486 f,; characteristics of, 305,334, 
 370; date of, 174 ff.; of the close, 494; depression of 
 land at the close of, 469 ff. ; effect of, on Central Asia, 
 368 f., 474 ff. ; on drainage, 24, 164 ff.; on land levels, 
 22, 168 ff., 351; extent of, in America, 162 f., 490; in 
 Europe, i6of., 490; in Southern Hemisphere, 216 f.; 
 length of, 195 ff., 334, 480, 491 f.; significance of, chap- 
 ter on, 157-217. o 
 
 Glacial ice, depth of, 159, 160, 162. 
 
 Glacial man, in Central Asia, chapter on, pp. 334-370; re- 
 mains of, in Europe, chapter on, 290-333. 
 
 Glacier Bay, former extent of ice in, 204 f. 
 
 Glaciers in Central Asia, 164. 
 
 Granville, Ohio, mound at, 148. 
 
 Gray, Asa, quoted on California wood, 286. 
 
 Gray, Dr., on variations of bear's skulls, 403. 
 
 Great Salt Lake, 278 ff. 
 
 Green, William Henry, article by, on " Primitive Chronol- 
 og>'," reprinted, 443 ff. 
 
 Greenland, geology of, 344 f. ; movement of ice in, 491. 
 
 Greenland glaciers, movement of, 201. 
 
 Haeckel (juoted on the first chapter of Genesis, 437. 
 
 Hale, Horatio, on conditions favoring growth of different 
 
 languages, 97 f. ; on linguistic stocks in (Megnn, 84; en 
 
 origin of the various languages, 91. 
 Hallstatt, Austria, archaeology of, 103 f. 
 
536 Index 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William, on a supposed danger in modern sci- 
 ence, 406. 
 
 Harmer, F. W., on Scandinavian ice in England, 295 f. 
 
 Harrison, B., discovers chipped flints at Ightam, 337. 
 
 Hauser, O., discovery by, in Dordogne, France, 324. 
 
 Haynes, Mr., explorations at Nippur, 43, 499. 
 
 Helin, Belgium, geology of, 308; implements found at, 311. 
 
 Helland on the motion of the Greenland ice sheet, 200. 
 
 Herz and Tolmatschow discover a perfect specimen of mam- 
 moth, 362. 
 
 Heys, Messrs. Elliott and Matthew, discover skeleton at 
 Galley Hill, 297. 
 
 Heyse, K. W. L., " ding-dong " theory of, 505. 
 
 Hicks, Professor, on Raccoon Creek, 180 f. 
 
 Hilprecht, H. V., discoveries at Nippur, 499. 
 
 Himalayas, the, 21. . 
 
 Hindu Kush Mountains, 368. 
 
 Hippopotamus, 347 f. 
 
 Hoist, N. O., glacial discoveries near Malmo, 213 f.; on a 
 chalk bowlder, 159. 
 
 Homer, poems of, 31. 
 
 Homo heidelbergensis, 309. 
 
 Hopewell mounds, 145. 
 
 Horse, distribution of, 348 f. ; in America, 251. 
 
 Hcxne, Eng., palaeolithic discoveries at, 297. 
 
 Hubbs, Paul K., finds relics under Table Mountain, 256 f. 
 
 Hudson River, geology of, 486. 
 
 Humphreys on amount of silt in the Mississippi River, 181. 
 
 Hunn, E. R., account of a language invented by children, 
 
 93 ff. 
 
 Huntington, Ellsworth, on moraines of the Tian Shan 
 Mountains, 359 f. 
 
 Hurlbut, Rev., on Algonquin verbs, 82. 
 
 Huxley, T. H., on spontaneous generation, 411; on the Ne- 
 anderthal skull, 321 ; quoted on the brains of man and 
 
Index 537 
 
 apes, 383, 385; on the classificatinn of mammals, 384; 
 on the rate of development of man from apes, 392. 
 Hyrcania described, 355 f. 
 
 Ightam, Eng., chipped flints discovered at, 337. 
 
 lUinoisan deposits, 208 f. 
 
 Indian corn, origin of, 137. 
 
 Indians, American, antiquity of, 154 f- 1 culture of, 130; 
 customs of, 130 f.; language of, 83, 98, 129; migration 
 from Eastern Asia, 134; migration in America, 138 f.; 
 mode of reckoning blood relationship, 131 if.; origin 
 of, chapter on, 128-156; relation to the Mound Build- 
 ers, 141 ff.; to the Tamils, 84, 131, 133- 
 
 Ipswich, Eng., geology of, 299. 
 
 Ipswich skeleton, 298 f. 
 
 Java, lava deposits of, 393. 
 Jordan Valley, geology of, 473. 
 
 Kakimna's Treatise on Manners, 51 ff. 
 
 Kansan deposits, 206 ff. 
 
 Kansas, artifacts found in, 524 f. 
 
 Kaschenko, Professor, finds remains of man and mammoth, 
 
 313 f- 
 Keil assumes two Amrams, 452 f. 
 Keith, Dr., on the Ipswich skeleton, 299. 
 Kemp, J. F., finds two mcrtars in Southern Oregon, 261. 
 Kent's Hole, Eng., discoveries at, 318 f. 
 Keyes, Charles R., reports a terrace at Soudak, 472. 
 Khufu, 50. 
 
 Kiev, Russia, geolog\- of, 311 f.; implements found at, 312, 
 King, Clarence, on a pestle found under Table Mountain, 
 
 260 f. 
 Kitchen middens, 105 f. 
 Knossos, discoveries in, 31. 
 Kudur-Mabug, 72. 
 
538 Index 
 
 Kurtz, M. A., finds the Nampa image, 266. 
 
 La Chapelle aux Saints, skulls discovered near, 323 f., 328. 
 
 Labyrinth, the, 31. 
 
 Ladriere, on the Somme gravel deposits, 306. 
 
 Lake Agassiz, 188 ff. 
 
 Lake Bonneville, 280 ff. 
 
 Lake dwellings, 107 ff. 
 
 Lane, A. C., on the stagnant ice of Siberia, 358. 
 
 Language, origin of, 504 ff. ; relation to modern civilization, 
 430 ff. 
 
 Languages, diversifications of, 96 f.; invented by children, 
 91 ff. 
 
 Lansing, Kansas, skeleton found at, 230. 
 
 Latin language, 88 f. 
 
 Laugerie Basse, discoveries near, 115. 
 
 Lava deposits in Western United States, 240 ff., 252 ff., 
 272 ff. 
 
 Le Conte, Joseph, quoted on the transition from the Silu- 
 rian to the Devonian formation, 19. 
 
 Les Eyzies, discoveries near, 115. 
 
 Lesquereux on the age of the deep placers, 265. 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, influence of, 37. 
 
 Linnaeus' classification of man, 380. 
 
 Little Falls, Minn., palaeolithic discoveries at, 228 f. 
 
 Little Miami River, mounds on, 143, 147. 
 
 Locke on the origin of thought, 414 f. 
 
 Loess, 231 ff. 
 
 Logan, Sir William, on recentness of glaciation, 195. 
 
 Lohest and Fraipont discover skeletons at Spy, 321 ff. 
 
 London, built on a gravel terrace, 296. 
 
 Loveland palaeolith, 228. 
 
 Lugal-zaggisi, 72, 500. 
 
 Luther, Martin, mentioned, 35. 
 
 Lyddeker on classification of Pithecanthropus, 395. 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, 291; estimate of geological time, 478; 
 
Index 539 
 
 on tlie London terrace, 296; on the rate of continental 
 elevation, 488; on the recession of Niagara Falls, 178; 
 theory of uniformitarianism, 14 ff. , 
 
 Lvs River, 304; geology of, 311. 
 
 MacEnery, Rev. J., discoveries at Kent's Hole, Eng., 318. 
 McCiee, \V J, estimate of geological time, 497. 
 Machairotlus, 319. 
 McTarnahan, M. C, finds a mortar under Table Mountain, 
 
 259. 
 Madisonville palaeolith, 228. 
 
 Magdalenian stage of the palaeolithic period, 333. 
 Mammoth, 260 ff. ; found in Siberia, 313 f. 
 Man, advances over the other Primates, 386 f. ; and the 
 lava beds of the Pacific Coast, chapter on, 250-289; 
 and the mammoth, 360 ff.; body cf, adapted to his 
 mind, 404 f. ; classifications of, 380, 384; compared n'ith 
 the anthropoid apes, 380 ff. ; definitions of, 10 f., 91, 
 426; diversification of the races of, 372 f., 376; in the 
 Glacial epoch, chapter on, 218-249; mental powers of, 
 379, 416 ff., 426 f. ; prehistoric, culture of, 288 f.; pre- 
 historic, not anatomically different from modern man, 
 395 f.; unity of the races of, 371 f. 
 Manetho, 47. 
 
 Manouvrier en bearing of physical characteristics on men- 
 tal, 396 f. 
 Maracanda, 58. 
 
 Marr, J. E., en the geology of Ipswich, Eng., 299 f. 
 Marietta, Ohio, fortifications at, 142. 
 Mattison, Mr., discovers the Calaveras skull, 261 ff. 
 Mauer, geology of, 308; human jaw discovered at, 309. 
 Mediterranean Sea, 304. 
 Menes, 66, 434, 436. 
 
 Mental capacity of neolithic man, 122 ff. 
 Merv, 58. 
 Mesopotamia, mentioned, 72. 
 
540 Index 
 
 Mesvinlan stage, of the palaeolithic period, 325. 
 
 Metz, C. L., finds palaeoliths at Loveland and Madisonville, 
 Ohio, 228. 
 
 Middendorff on the mammoth in Siberia, 361. 
 
 Mills, W. C, discoveries in Baum mounds, 146 ; finds 
 palaeolithic implement at Newcomerstown, 226. 
 
 Minos, not a fabulous monster, 31. 
 
 Mississippi River, amount of silt in, i8i. 
 
 Mississippi Valley, mounds in, 141 ff. 
 
 Moller, Hermann, Semitic and Aryan grammar by, 502. 
 
 Mohammed, mentioned, 36. 
 
 Moir, J. Reid, discovers skeleton at Ipswich, Eng., 298. 
 
 Mongolians, distribution of, 354. 
 
 Monoliths, 125. 
 
 Mx)orehead, Warren K., discoveries in Hopewell mounds, 
 145. 
 
 Morgan, Lewis H., on the customs of the American In- 
 dians, 130 £., 140; on their mode of reckoning rela- 
 tionship, 133 f. 
 
 Morlot, on the age of lake dwellings, 109 f. 
 
 Mortillet, G. de, on the chipped flints found at Otta, 335 f.; 
 at Puy Courny, 337, 
 
 Moses, 434; qualified to make correct genealogies, 460 f. 
 
 Mound Builders, 141 ff. 
 
 Mousterian stage of the palaeolithic period, 326 ff. 
 
 Miiller, Sophus, on the source of European culture, 114. 
 
 Mugheir, See Ur. 
 
 Muir, Sir W., on the traditionals about M'ahommet, 30. 
 
 Muir Glacier, Alaska, 317; retreat of, 204 f. 
 
 Muir Inlet, glaciation in, 204. 
 
 Murray, explorations in Crete, 31. 
 
 Nabonidus, cylinder of, 40; his conclusions not to be dis- 
 credited, 499. 
 Nampa, Idaho, geology of, 266 f., 275, 277. 
 Nampa image, 265 fi^., 288. 
 
Index 541 
 
 Napoleon on the pyramids, 48. 
 
 Naram-Sin, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46. 
 
 Nations, table of, 466 ti. 
 
 Neanderthal skull, 321, 328, 389 f. 
 
 Neckar River, 304. 
 
 Negroes, distribution of, 353 f.; hair of, iii. 
 
 Neolithic man, brain of, 397. 
 
 New Jersey, subsidence of the coast of, 488. 
 
 New Siberian Islands, 365. 
 
 Newark, Ohio, embankments at, 143. 
 
 Newcomerstown palaeolith, 226, 228. 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 406. 
 
 Niagara Falls, a glacial chronometer, 176 ff. 
 
 Nile River, 367 f. 
 
 Nile Valley, date of man's history in, 494; early history In, 
 
 33 f-, 47 ff. 
 Nippur, excavations at, 43 f. 
 Noye River, 305. 
 
 Obi Valley, prehistoric remains in, 361. 
 Ohio Valley, mounds in, 141 ff. 
 Omaha, Neb., human bones found at, 235. 
 Otta, discoveries at, 335 f. 
 Oxen, distribution of, 349. 
 
 Pacific coast, animals of, 287 f. 
 Palaeolithic implements, classification of, 324 ff. 
 Palaeolithic man, art of, 360, 361. 
 Patagonia, effect of missions in, 432. 
 Patinated surface, a test of age, 524 f. 
 Pawnees, distribution of, 138. 
 
 Penck, Albrecht, on the geolog>' and date of the cave de- 
 posits in Switzerland, 314 f. 
 Pengelly, Mr., explores a cave at Brixham, Eng., 318. 
 Persian Gulf, mentioned, 72. 
 Perthes, Boucher de, palasoHthic discoveries of, 291. 
 
542 
 
 I ndex 
 
 Phoenicians, 72. 
 
 Pithecanthropus erectus, described and discussed, 393 f.; 
 
 literature on, 519 f- 
 Plants, distribution of, 427 f. 
 Pleistocene climate, 364 f. 
 Plum Creek, a glacial chronometer, 182 ff. 
 Polynesia, effect of the Bible in, 431. 
 
 Pouchet, M., on the discoveries in the Somme Valley, 291. 
 Powers, Stephen, on the languages of California, 84. 
 Prestwich, Sir Joseph, 291 ; on characteristics cf eoliths, 
 
 337 f.; on length of the Glacial epoch, 197, 491 f. 
 Primates, original home of, 348. 
 Prisse Papyrus, 51 f. 
 Ptah-Hotep's Treatise on Morals, 51 if. 
 Pumpelly, Raphael, excavations by, 59 if. ; on dissolution of 
 
 limestone in Missouri, 207 ; on the oxidation of the 
 
 Kansan deposits, 206. 
 Putnam, F. W., on the Calaveras skull, 264; on the Nampa 
 
 image, 267, 271. 
 Puy Courny, France, chipped flints at, 336 f. 
 
 ■ Quatrefages on clipped flints at Puy Courny, 337; quoted 
 on a common center for the origin of man, 441 ; on 
 Asia as the original home of man, 353 f. 
 
 Raccoon Creek, a glacial chronometer, 180 f. 
 
 Rames, J. B., discovers chipped flints at Puy Courny, 336. 
 
 Reclus on the mammoth of Siberia, 361. 
 
 Red River cf the North, 187. 
 
 Reinach, Salomon, on the perfection of Aurignacian art, 
 
 514. 
 Reindeer, distribution of, 344 f. 
 Rhine River, 303. 
 
 Ribeiro, discoveries by, at Otta, 335 f. 
 Rigillout, Dr., palaeolithic discoveries of, 291. 
 Ripley, William Z., quoted on the anthropological history of 
 
Ind( 
 
 543 
 
 Northeastern Europe, 120 ff. ; rn the Cro-Magnon race, 
 115 f.; on the hair of tlie negro, m; nn the preva- 
 lence of broad-headed races in Central Eurf)pe, 113; 
 on the source of early European culture, 127. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, 21, 22. 
 
 Romance languages, 88 ff. 
 
 Romanes, C^eorge J., on requisites to make dogs and par- 
 rots equal the lower races of men, 430; on the differ- 
 ence between man and an animal, 421 ; on the intel- 
 lectual development of animals, 417 ff. ; quoted on the 
 growth of the human mind, 420. 
 
 Riitimeyer finds bones of the cave bear at Wildkirchli, 314. 
 
 Russell, I. C, quoted on the recentness of the withdrawal 
 cf glacial ice, 194. 
 
 Rutot, A., discovers eoliths in Belgium, 338; on chipped 
 flints at Puy Courny, 327; reports implements at He- 
 lin, 311. 
 
 St. Anthony, Falls of, a glacial chronometer, 179. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., mound near, 142. 
 
 St. Mansui, skull of, 390. 
 
 Saint-Gaudens, discoveries near, 115. 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch version of Gen. v. and xi., 461 ff 
 
 Samarkand, 59. 
 
 Sanskrit, 502 f. 
 
 Sargon, 40 f., 42, 44, 46, 499 f. 
 
 Scheil, Vincent, discovers a Babylonian tablet, 499. 
 
 Schleicher represents a Chinese sentence in English, 79. 
 
 Schmerling, Dr., discovers skull at Engis, 320. 
 
 Schmidt, Professor, on glaciation of the Yablonoi Mount- 
 ains, 357. 
 
 Schoetensack, Professor, discovers human jaw at Mauer, 
 309. 
 
 Seine River, 303, 304. 
 
 Semitic languages, 71, 74 ff., 85. 
 
 Septuagint version of Gtn. v. and xi., 461 ff. 
 
544 Index 
 
 Serpent mounds, 148 f. 
 
 Sex, origin of, 439 f. 
 
 Shell heaps. See Kitchen Middens. 
 
 Shoshones, distribution of, 139. 
 
 Siberia, geology of, 356 f.; palaeolithic implements found 
 
 in, 313 f. 
 Sierra Nevada Mountains, geology of, 283 ; trees of, 286 f. 
 Sinclair, William J., discredits the Calaveras skull, 264 f. 
 Sioux, distribution of, 138. 
 
 Slater, George, on the geology of Ipswich, Eng., 299. 
 Slavs, skulls of, 119. 
 Snake River, 253, 273 ; line of migration of Indian tribes, 
 
 136 f. 
 Snell, Dr., finds relics under Table Mountain, 256. 
 SoUas, W. J., on the classification of palaeolithic implements, 
 
 325 ff.; on the skulls of glacial man, 391; quoted on 
 
 eoliths, 340 ff. 
 Solutrian stage of the palaeolithic period, 332 f. 
 Somme River, geology of, 292 f., 300 f., 304 ff. 
 Soul, origin of the, 435. 
 South America, glaciers in, 217; origin of inhabitants of, 
 
 140 f. ; prehistoric man in, 247 ff. 
 Southern Hemisphere, glaciation of, 216 f., 247 ff. 
 Species, origin of, 411 ff.; variations of, 372, 373 ff-, 399 ff- 
 Spencer, Herbert, and "the survival of the fittest," 376 f. 
 Spy, Man of, 321 ff., 328, 389 f. 
 Stadling on the mammoth of Siberia, 361. 
 Stanislaus River, 254, 284, 285. 
 Steenstrup on the date of the stone age, 107. 
 Stevens, Oliver W., discovers marble bead under Table 
 
 Mountain, 258. 
 Strabo on Hyrcania, 355 f. 
 
 Strepyan stage of the palaeolithic period, 325. 
 Sturge, W. Allen, on the age of palaeolithic implements, 525 f. 
 Sumerians, 81 ; cities of the, 39. 
 Sweden, kitchen middens of, 105 f. 
 
Index 545 
 
 Switzerland, lake dwellinjis of, 107 ff. 
 
 Syr Daria, the, 367. 
 
 Table Mountain, 254 f.; age of, 285; relics from, 255 f. 
 
 Tait, estimates of geological time, 497. 
 
 Talmatschow and Herz discover a perfect specimen of 
 
 mammoth, 362. 
 Tamils related to American Indians, 84, 131, i33- 
 Tapirs, original home of, 349. 
 Tarr, Ralph S., on oxidatir.n of the Kansan deposits, 206; 
 
 on rate of melting of glacial ice, 167, 245. 
 Telloh, discoveries at, 45. 
 Terrace epoch, the, 218 f. 
 Terraces, 24 ff., 167, 181, 188, 218 ff., 226, 290, 292, 293, 
 
 296, 472. 
 Tertiary man, supposed evidence of, chapter on, pp. 334" 
 
 342. 
 Tertiary period, characteristics of, 334, 485 f-i climate of, 
 
 485; elevation of land at the close of, 168 ff., 301 ff., 
 
 343 ff., 486, 488 f. 
 Thames River, 295 f., 303, 304- 
 Thenay, France, discoveries at, 335. 
 Thucydides, .mentioned, 31. 
 Tian Shan Mountains, 368; glaciers of the, 358; moraines 
 
 of the, 359 f. 
 Tiele assumes two Amrams, 452 f. 
 Timur the Tartar, 59, 353. 
 Todd, J. E., on volcanic ash, 512. 
 Toll, Baron, on the stagnant ice of Siberia, 357 f- 
 Topinard on the skulls of ancient and modern men, 397. 
 Toronto, Can., interglacial episode at, 212 f. 
 Tracy, Charles, reports terrace at Samsun, 472. 
 Tradition, value of, 29 f. 
 Trebizond, Turkey, old shore line at, 472. 
 Trenton, N. J., geology- of, 219 f. 
 Trojan War, date of, 31. 
 Troy, mentioned, 33. 
 
546 Index 
 
 Trumbull, Mr., on compounds in Indian languages, 82. 
 Tschernyschev, Professor, on glaciation of the Stanovoi 
 
 Mountains, 357. 
 Tschudi, Baron von, on languages in South America, 99. 
 Turkestan, ancient religion of, 63 ; antiquity cf civilization 
 
 in, 56flF. ; temperature of, 370. 
 Turner mounds, 146, 148. 
 Tylor, A., on the Somme gravel deposits, 306. 
 
 Upham, Warren, estimates of Post-Tertiary time, 8 ; on 
 Lake Agassiz, 188 ff.; on preglacial elevation of Eu- 
 rope, 301; on the loess deposits at Lansing, Kan., 235; 
 on the rate cf post-glacial erosion, 187. 
 
 Ur, 39, 40. 
 
 Venus impudica, 269, 514. 
 
 Vezere Valley, discoveries in, 115. 
 
 Village Indians, 139 f., 149 f. 
 
 Virchcw on cranial capacity of Negritos and inhabitants 
 
 of New Britain, 395. 
 Volcanic ash, 241, 512 f. 
 Volk, Ernest, palaeolithic discoveries at Trenton., N. J., 224 f. 
 
 Walcott, Charles D., on limits of geological time, 479, 497. 
 
 Wallace, Alfred Russel, estimates of geological time, 479; 
 on migration of bears, 348 ; on the foresight shown in 
 man's physical structure, 405 ; quoted on the remote- 
 ness of the divergence between man and apes, 387; 
 on variations in skulls of orangoutangs, 402. 
 
 Warren, S. Hazzledine, on method of formation of eoliths, 
 338 f. 
 
 Washington, George, influence of, 37. 
 
 Watson, Miss E. H., on a language invented by children, 
 92 f. 
 
 Wheeling, W. Va., mounds near, 142 f. 
 
Index S47 
 
 W'hitaker, \\ ., on the geology of Ipswich, Eng., 298 f. 
 
 Whitney, J. 1^., investigates the discoveries at Talile 
 Mountain, 257 f.; the Calaveras skull, 263. 
 
 Whitney, W. D., on the origin of language, 505 f. ; (junted 
 on the American languages, 81, 83. 
 
 WHiittlesey, Col., on signal mounds, 151 f. 
 
 Wildkirchli, Switzerland, geology and implements of, 314 f. 
 
 Williams, E. H., investigations of, sustain the moderate 
 estimates of glacial time, 214 ff. 
 
 W^illiams, Henry S., estimates of geological time, 8. 
 
 Willoughby Island, glaciation on, 204. 
 
 Winchell, Alexander, on the Quaternary lava flows, 241. 
 
 Winchell, N, H., estimates of geological time, 8 ; on the 
 loess deposits at Lansing, Kan., 235; palaeolithic dis- 
 coveries at Little Falls, Minn., 228 f. ; study of Falls 
 of St. Anthony, 179; of artifacts found in Kansas, 524 f. 
 
 Winckler, on the date of Babylonian civilization, 499 ; 
 quoted on Babylonian art, 46. 
 
 Wisconsin, mounds in, 148. 
 
 Wisconsin deposits, 210 ff. 
 
 Women, brains of, 397, 
 
 Wookey, Hole, Eng., discoveries in cave at, 319. 
 
 Wright, S. G., on the Ojibway word for father, 81 f. 
 
 W^ijrm glacial episode, 316. 
 
 Yaho, dynasty of, 30. 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
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