iSfa. OaNDARY CAI^IN*t)!AVIS UNIVERSITY of CALIPORNrA AT LOS ANGELES '■"^P' PUBLIC SECONDARY EDUCATION PUBLIC SECONDARY EDUCATION By CALVIN OLIN DAVIS Assistant Professor of Education in the University of Michigan Author of "A Guide to Methods and Observation in History" RAND McNALLY & COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK O 4 Q r: 1 Copyright, igi?. By Rand McNally & Company THE CONTENTS PAGE The Introduction and Preface vii Sources Consulted xii CHAPTER I. The Colonial Latin School i ^ II. The Middle Period 34 ^ III. The Early Northwest 64 "* " IV. Early Michigan 85 V. Putting the Constitutional Provisions into Effect no VI. Branches of the University 125 VII. The Academy Movement 151 ^^' VIII. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools . 172 IX. The High-School Era 190 Appendixes 243 s The Index 253 THE INTRODUCTION AND PREFACE IN presenting this work to the public few explanations are necessary. The aim and purpose of the under- taking seemingly are clearly indicated in the title, and the justification for the production rests in the faithfulness with which these have been followed. Few will deny, I think, that the field of secondary education in America is to-day not only one of the most interesting fields of study in education, but that it is a most important realm of investigation and research. The high schools of America are largely the foundation upon which the colleges and universities stand, and they are at the same time the culmination and the stimulating ideal toward which much of the work of the elementary schools is directed. They occupy a most important place in our system of education. They serve as agencies of culture for culture's sake, and simultaneously constitute prepar- atory institutions. Their character is therefore unique. ^:^] In almost no other country in the world do schools of secondary education combine so many functions under a single type of institution. They are worthy of extensive study. The purpose of any historical study is, as I conceive it, to make intelligible the contemporary institutional and social life of the present. Social conditions of to- day are as they are because social conditions of yester- day were as they were yesterday. No period is sufficient imto itself. No era stands alone. What was done one hundred years ago affects in some measure the condi- tions now. Not a jot or a tittle that is significant in to-day's civilization will be wholly unrelated to life interests one hundi'ed years hence. vii viii The Introduction and Preface Therefore, in order to comprehend completely the con- ditions that prevail in any locality to-day, there would be need to analyze the entire period that has gone before. Obviously, this is in large measure impossible. The best one may hope to do is to select and discriminate, and thus to treat the aspects that have exerted a decided influence upon the present. That has been the plan of this work. -;;T^ The high school, considered as a historical product, derives its character and fonn from earlier types of secondary education found in the state. These in turn were influenced not only by the facts of the general educational history of the state, but by the facts of the general educational history of the entire Northwest, — yes, of the general educational history of the nation. Indeed, political, social, and economic factors of all these regions have borne with more or less direct weight upon every recent phase of the special subject. -y> Hence it has seemed desirable, first, to sketch briefly the entire history of secondary education in America up to the settlement of the Northwest Territory; then to narrow the discussion to the early aspects of general interest to education in this Northwest Territory; then to treat briefly the development of Michigan as a territory and as a state ; and, finally, to consider the course of public sec- ondary education in the state during the seventy-nine years it has been a member of the Union. Current pedagogical theory believes pretty thoroughly in the study of a few type forms in order to derive a general knowledge of the entire related field. Data are too numerous and life is too short to permit of an exhaustive study of all the individual units. Thus psychology iso- lates a few individuals and studies in detail their char- acteristics and modes of mental reaction. It then applies the results deduced to all individuals of the same class. The Introduction mid Preface ix So in physiography, instead of attempting to study and plot every river system and every mountain range, one typical river system and one typical mountain range serve as models. Having acquired a conceptual acquaint- ance with these, all other systems of rivers and mountains are interpretable and explainable. The same procedure is followed in zoology, botany, and in fact in all sciences. The same principle applies in the study of medicine and of law; of literary masterpieces; of history and social institutions; of schools and education. In studying the history of public secondary education in Michigan one is, therefore, in reality studying the general history of public secondary education in the entire United States. The system of Michigan is but-)^v a type. The systems of the other states differ from it in details, but not strikingly in fundamental principles and characteristics. The study is, in fact, a treatment of public secondary education in America viewed through the lenses of Michigan's history and Michigan's current practices. In preparing the early portions of the work, namely. Chapters I to IV inclusive, I have made little attempt at original research. These early chapters give merely a background sketch of the general conditions here in America. The facts were taken largely from standard secondary sources, though verifications of statements were often made. As the work narrowed, soiu"ce material alone was employed. The chapters entitled "The Early North- west" and "Early Michigan" are transition chapters. They are based chiefly on secondary accounts and only slightly on primary material. The real work of original research began with the topics relating to the admission of Michigan into the Union in 1837. X The Introduction and Preface For the history of the period from 1837 to 19 15 I was forced to rely pretty largely upon Joint State Documents, House Documents, Senate Documents, Compiled Laws, Revised School Laws, Reports of the Superintendents of Public Instruction, reports of local educational author- ities to the state authorities, school catalogues, and similar data. While I have endeavored to be careful and accurate in statement, I am certain that the data upon which conclusions have been based were not always dependable themselves. Many figures in the reports of the superintendents of public instruction were obviously erroneous, and editing alone could give fair approach to the real facts. Often local reports were not regularly made to the superintendent, so that the historical study of any one school was frequently marred with breaks and gaps that could not be filled. In such cases nothing was possible except to omit the specific consideration at those points, and to pick up the trail where it next appeared. Much of the material that fiu-nished a basis for the latter portions of the study consisted of school catalogues and the reports of individual schools; replies to a general questionnaire sent by the writer to several superintendents and principals in the schools to-da}^; personal letters; and personal knowledge gained from visits to many individual schools and from conversation with teachers and administrators in them. I wish here to express my sincere thanks to those men — superintendents and principals in the state — who have so courteously and willingly aided ine. The question- naire sent to many of them called for no superficial and hurried list of replies. To answer it, I am sure, must have encroached upon their leisure time. Most of those who answered the questions at all seemed to The Introdiictian and Preface xi appreciate the nature of the request and replied accord- ingly. Some few treated the request indifferently, and either gave indifferent answers that were of little value to me, or else did not respond at all. On the vv^hole, though, a most excellent set of answers was received. I wish to express my thanlis to Hon. Luther L. Wright, formerly State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Michigan. He has kindly furnished me with much printed material from the state archives and has given me personal suggestions. I also wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Arthur O. Norton, of Wellesley College, and Professor Henry W. Holmes, of Harvard University, both of whom have read portions of the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions. My particular and especial thanks are, however, due to Professor Paul H. Hanus of Harvard University, imder whose personal direction and supervision the work has been undertaken and carried to completion. He has encouraged me in my efforts, suggested to me methods of procedure and organization, and has sympathetically read and criticized my manuscript. I give to him my sincere thanks. ,, . . .,,.,. Calvin O. Davis University oj Michigan IQ16 SOURCES CONSULTED I. Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools. 2. Dexter, History of Education in the United States. 3. Boone, Education in the United States. 4. Clews, Educational Legislation and Administration. 5. Hinsdale, Documents Illustrative of American Edu- cational History. 6. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. 7. Meriwether, Our Colonial Curricidum. 8. Leach, English Schools of the Reformation. 9. De Montmorency, Progress of Education in England. 10. Balfour, Educational Systems in Great Britain and Ireland. 11. DiLLAWAY, History of the Grammar School in Roxhury. 12. Parker, Sketch of the History of the Grammar School in Roxhury. 13. Butler, Education in the United States. 14. The American Journal of Education (numerous articles). 15. Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education. 16. Rice, Public School System in the United States. 17. Adam, Free School System in the United States. 18. Allen, "Old Academies" (in New Englander Maga- zine). 19. Johnson, Old Time Schools and School Books. 20. QuiNCY, Municipal History of Boston. 21. Jenks, Boston Latin School. 22. Bush, Early Education in New England. 23. Hough, Constitutional Provisions in Regard to Edu- cation. xu Sources Consulted xiii 24. Catalogue of the Boston Latin School. 25. Mayo, Public Schools during Revolutionary Times. ^ 26. Mayo, Education in the Southern States. 27. North American Review, Vol. 122, pp. 191-225. 28. HuLiNG, American High School. 29. Chase, History of Ohio. 30. Johnston, History of the United States. 31. Hinsdale, The Old Northwest. 32. McLaughlin, History of the American Nation. 33. Hart, Formation of the Union. 34. Coggeshill, System of Common Schools in Ohio. 35. WooDBURN, Higher Education in Indiana. 36. WiLLARD, History of Education in Illinois. 37. McLaughlin, History of Higher Education in Mich- igan. 38. Mayo, Education in the Northwest. 39. Lanman, History of Michigan. 40. Cooley, Political History of Michigan. 41. Farmer, History of Detroit. 42. Salmon, Education in Michigan during the Terri- torial Period. 43. Smith, History of Education in Michigan. 44. Putnam, Primary and Secondary Education in Michi- gan. 45. Reports of Superintendents of Public Instruction of Michigan. 46. Campbell, Outlines of the Political History of Mich- igan. 47. Bingham, Michigan. 48. Howe, Ohio. 49. Taylor, Manual of Ohio School System. 50. Proceedings, National Educational Association for 1885, p. 195; 1891, p. 677; 1899, p. 412. 51. Frieze, Early History of Cleveland High School. xiv Sources Consulted $2. Hurley, Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sept., 1896, Vol. 8, No. 2, p. 120. 53. Hinsdale, Schools in the Western Reserve. 54. Barnard, American Joimial of Education, Vols. 5, 6, 16, 17, 19, 24. 55. Knight, Life of Colet. 56. LuPTON, Life of Colet. 57. Barney, Report on the American School System. 58. Shearman, Public Instruction and School Law of Michigan. 59. Hinsdale, History of the University of Michigan. 60. Joint Documents of the Legislature of Michigan. 61. House and Senate Reports of the Legislature of Michigan. 62. Revised School Laws of Michigan. 63. Reports of Superintendents of City Public Schools. 64. Michigan Pioneer Collections. 65. Circulars and bulletins issued by the State Educa- tional Department. 66. Annual catalogues of the University of Michigan. 67. Annual catalogues of numerous city and town school boards and school superintendents. 68. Numerous programs of studies of high schools. 69. Report of the State Commission on Programs of Study. 70. Report of the Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. 7 1 . Replies received in answer to a general questionnaire. 72. Private letters. 73. Bradstreet's Weekly. PUBLIC SECONDARY EDUCATION CHAPTER I The Colonial Latin School WHEN in 1629 and 1630 the Puritan fathers began the colonization of the Massachusetts coast, they set up here the practices and the institutions of the old home, modifying them only so much as was necessary to make them conform to the ideals and exigencies demanded by the new life in America. Thus at the outset in Massachusetts Bay Colony the settlers sought privately to give their children the rudiments of the English language and the elements of writing and ciphering; simultaneously they set up, publicly, a school of higher learning — the town Latin or grammar school. As the name implies, the school aimed to give youths a training in Latin grammar and literature, and thus fit them for college. But its ultimate fvmction was to equip them for public service in either church positions or civil and political offices. Such a school was established in Boston in 1635, five years after its settlement — probably the first school of secondary education in America.* It is time the Virginia Company and the West India Company had each made provisions for founding schools in Anlerica at a date somewhat earlier than 163 5, but there seems to be no evidence that any of these projected plans were ever carried into execution. It is quite certain, too, that as early as 1633 there was a school established in New 1 Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 34. 2 I 2 Public Secondary Education Amsterdam.^ This, however, was not a real public school, nor did it aim to give secondary education. It was purely a private undertaking and a school of an elementary character. From the Massachusetts Colony then, and from Boston in particular, dates the foundation of the American public schools of secondary education. The Boston Latin School was styled a "free school," but it was established and supported at the outset not by the whole body of legal voters, but by the mutual agreement and the volimtary contributions of the "richer inhabitants" of the town. Precisely what was meant, therefore, by the expression "free school" has been a question of much dispute. It is certain that the words did not, in colonial times, denote a school free from all tuition fees. Indeed, such fees were always exacted from every pupil, save, perchance, from the children of the very poorest families. Nor did "free school" signify a school maintained wholly or partially by public taxation, inasmuch as, at the outset at least, schools were not thus supported. Whatever be the exact import of the words, it suffices for our purpose to bear in mind that a "free school" in colo- nial days was always a school of secondary grade. That is to say, it was a Latin or grammar school. It is also well here to point out that secondary schools went under various names almost down to our own day. Besides grammar schools and free schools they were not infrequently referred to as public schools, classical schools, Latin-grammar schools, or merely Latin schools — all these expressions being, so far as discoverable, only provincialisms or localisms, and therefore practically synonymous. Before the close of the seventeenth century nearly all the colonies possessed Latin schools; but, save 1 Dexter, History of Education in the United States, p. 13. The Colonial Latin School 3 in New England, these were, almost without exception, private undertakings privately supported. In New Eng- land this was not the case. In 1636 Harvard Univer- sity was founded. In 1642 the General Court established a precedent by enacting a general school law which, though of little force at the time, became later of great historical significance.^ In 1647 the earHer law was strengthened by changing the permissive features into mandatory provisions. Instead of leaving education in the hands of local selectmen, the law of 1647 explicitly required every town of fifty families to maintain an elementary school, and likewise every town of one hundred families to support a Latin or grammar school. The private or dame schools prepared for the Latin school; the Latin school prepared for the university; the imiver- sity prepared for social leadership and social service. Here then was the beginning in America of a school system that recognized three grades of instruction and three types of educational institutions. These are (i) the elementary or primary school; (2) the secondary or college preparatory school; (3) the university or college. The first dealt with the school arts and the tools of education; the second dealt almost wholly with Latin, with slight attention to Greek, mathematics, and Eng- lish; the last, theoretically at least, presented the sum total of higher learning. Massachusetts thus became the mother of the American school system. Her laws and institutions were adopted, with more or less change, by most of the other colonies. Wherever she led, other colonies followed. Whenever she halted, other colonies lagged behind. Thus matters stood well beyond Revolu- tionary days. We shall in subsequent pages return to 1 For the general history of education in Massachusetts see Martin's Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. 4 Public Secondary Education this phase of our study. Meanwhile a more analytical investigation of the colonial secondary schools will be desirable. Historically considered, the story of secondary education in America falls into three more or less clearly recognized divisions. First is the Colonial Period, with its Latin or grammar school; second, the Middle Period, extending from Revolutionary days down to the time of the Civil War, in which period the characteristic secondary school was the academy; and, third, the Contemporary Period, or period since the Civil War, with the pubUc high school as the typical school of secondary scope. The first period imitates closely the institutions, ways, and ideas of Europe; the last period is typically American; while the intervening period of a hundred years exhibits the char- acteristics of both the other periods, being largely imita- tive in the earlier years and gradually developing an independence and an originality of its own in later times. From the very first, as Dr. Brown conceives the situa- tion, there were thus two opposing influences affecting the higher life of the people of America. These influences v/ere a tendency to and spirit of imitation and an equally strong tendency to and spirit of protest.^ Everywhere in the institutional life of early America are seen the effects of these mingling forces, but perhaps in no field are they more noticeable than in the field of educa-tion and of educational practices. The evidence goes to show that the social ideals and the educational practices of all western Europe exerted considerable indirect influence on the American colonists, but that the great direct stream of formative power flowed in from England, Holland, Scotland, and Germany. All contributed largely to the ideals and organization of American elementary schools, 1 Brown, op. cit., p. 6. The Colonial Latin Scltool 5 but the great prototypes of the early American secondary school were the English Latin or grammar schools.^ And yet the Calvinistic influences common in England at the time, and more especially among the Puritans who migrated to America, served here to modify the older types from the outset. Hence from their very birth the American Latin schools conformed more closely to the social needs — or to the ideals conceived to be social needs — of the new settlements, than to the social de- mands of old England. There is no doubt, too, that the extensive system of schools established by the Jesuits in Europe and else- where had an indirect influence on American schools, but since the territory from Maine to Florida was settled chiefly by Protestants, and largely by English Protes- tants, and since, too, Catholicism — and consequently the Jesuits — was debarred from England for many years, the direct influence of the Jesuit schools was indeed small or even nil. In consequence of this natural but excessive English influence, the first schools that sprang up in New England took, as we have seen above, a form that was typical at* home. The Boston Latin School was first styled a "free school," but was voted and supported not by the town as a whole but by the "richer inhabitants thereof."" It was thus a purely cooperative undertaking, — the members voluntarily agreeing to meet the expense of the school by voluntary contributions. Evidence seems to point, however, to the belief that children of 1 An excellent account of the early schools of England is found in Leach's English Schools of the Reformation. For later schools see de Montmorency's Progress of Education in England. For the present-day conditions see Balfour's Educational Systems in Great Britain and Ireland. 2 Clews, Educational Legislation and Administration, p. 6i. For accounts of the schools of Boston see Quincy's Municipal History of Boston; Jenk's Boston Latin School; early catalogues of the Boston Latin School; Bush's Early Education in Ncm England; Boone's Education in the L'yiited Slates, and other similar writings. 6 Public Secondary Education non-contributors who were not of the "richer" class were also admitted to this school. Indeed, this may be the true significance of the expression "free school," though there is no proof of the theory. Within six years, however, it is certain that the school had become a recognized town school, for we read that in 164 1 the town voted to devote to the partial support of this school all the revenues accruing from the rental of lands on Deer Island. Here then was another important step in the history of educa- tion in America, — a step no less significant than the decision to establish the school in the first place. This act of the town meeting not only estabUshed a precedent for Boston, but also for the whole of Massachusetts and America. It set up the principle that schools are contrib- utory to the social and political welfare of the whole people, and that the establishment and support of schools is, therefore, a legitimate function of goveniment. During the succeeding ten years Boston voted grants of considerable portions of land, and in 1660 these local town efforts were supplemented by a grant of a thousand acres of land made by the General Court of Massachusetts Colony for the support of schools in Boston. Though this grant was not the first made by the General Court (it had in 1659 voted a like amount of land to each of the three towns of Dorchester, Charlestown, and Cambridge), it served to strengthen the precedent and to fix per- manently in our governmental policy the idea that local effort of great social importance may be supported and supplemented by funds from the central treasury. What a mighty role the custom thus inaugurated has played in the history of education in the United States! What vast tracts of land has the Federal Government dedicated to schools of all kinds during the century and a quarter! In many parts of America the elementary The Colonial Latin School 7 schools, the colleges, and the agricultural and technical schools owe their very existence to the generosity of the central government in appropriating lands for their foundation. The Massachusetts law of 1659 had con- sequences more far-reaching than the uttermost stretch of the imagination of the time could have comprehended. At the time, too, these early central appropriations must have come as welcome benefactions to the struggling little towns whose treasuries were being drawn upon for so many other needs. It is not, however, imtil 1679^ that the Boston records make mention of any specific tax being levied by the town upon the town's inhabitants for school purposes, though it is possible such tax was raised at a considerably earlier date. In the meantime in other portions of IVIassachusetts Bay Colony other grammar schools were being established. Within the short period of sixteen years after the first extensive settlements in Massachusetts in 1629 eight Latin schools were founded. These were: Boston, in 1635; Charlestown, in 1636; Ipswich, in 1636; Salem, in 1637; Dorchester, in 1639; Newbury, in 1639; Cambridge, in 1643 ; and Roxbury, in 1645.^ Each of these was a school of secondary education, and the aims, scope, and instruc- tion given in all were almost precisely the same as those of the Boston school. On the other hand, the organization, administration, and support of these schools varied slightly with each town in accordance and harmony with the good old Anglo-Saxon doctrine of local self-government. Indeed, throughout the whole history of Massachusetts, even to the present day, the custom has prevailed of allowing local or individual initiative at the outset to take its own 1 Dexter, op. cit., p. 26. 2 Brown, op. cit., pp. 34-42. 8 Public Secondary Education cxDurse in the administration and execution of political or civic functions. Then, after this "cut and try" method has produced a fairly acceptable procedure, and other towns and communities, likewise experimenting, have developed a kindred method or standard, the state has stepped in and legitimatized the practices by incorporating into a permissive law the common and salient features of all the local regulations. The provisions of this act have later been extended, optionally, to other towns of similar rank and, finally, when the great majority of the towns have adopted the permissive legislation, the state has closed the gaps by making the law mandatory on all alike. This has been the general course of the history of education throughout Massachusetts; and, since many of the other states of the Union have copied their school systems and legislation from this Commonwealth, it is the common practice in vogue throughout a large portion of the United States.^ In fact, the procedure may not unjustly be regarded as the distinctive feature of Anglo-Saxon governmental practice. So at the outset of our colonial history each town regulated its school matters as it saw fit, without regard to what other towns were doing — save that in particular matters there was a more or less conscious imitation of the practices thought to be working well in other com- munities. Sometimes the peculiar local conditions or temporary needs led to the employment of new and hitherto imtried methods. In the earliest days school matters, as well as all other town affairs, were discussed and provided for by the whole body of enfranchised citizens of the town, gathered together in town meeting. Then when the town's growth made the town meeting 1 For a complete elaboration of the view set forth above — 'especially as the I)ractice has affected educational history in Massachusetts — see that most readable little book, Martin's Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, The Colonial Latin School 9 unwieldy and inconvenient, and the town's affairs were largely turned over to selectmen, school functions were in most places left to this new body. Executive duties, such as employing the teacher and overseeing the school's needs and the school's work, led soon to the appointment, from among the selectmen, of temporary committees charged with these specified functions. Inasmuch, how- ever, as these or similar duties recurred annually or oftener, the situation gave rise to permanent school committees. Ordinarily, it seems, these were chosen from among the selectmen themselves, but sometimes they were selected from the non-office-holding class. Particularly was this the case in respect to school visitation and inspection — this fimction, until early in the nineteenth century, being performed either solely by the Christian ministers of the community or conjointly by them and one or more of the selectmen or the school committee. In some few towns at an early date special officers other than the selectmen or committee of the selectm.en were chosen to take complete charge of the schools. Dor- chester, Massachusetts, probably enjoys the distinction of being the first town in this country to provide such a body. In 1645 this town voted in town meeting "that three able and sufficient men of the Plantation shall be chosen to be wardens or overseers of the school, who shall have the charge, oversight, and ordering thereof and of all things concerning the same."^ Dorchester also claims the honor (with how much justice documentary evidence is not able to decide) of being the first munici- pality in the world to support a public school "by direct taxation or assessment on the inhabitants of the town."^ 1 Town records. Sea Brown, op. cii., p. 39. 2 Brown, ibid., quotes this from the "Dorchester celebration," then adds: "A competent public commission appointed some years ago in Massachusetts to set at rest the question where the first free public school came into being, was unable to arrive at any final answer, for lack of clear documentary evidence." lo Public Secondary Education At best, the accuracy or inaccuracy of the boast is of httle value or importance, save as a source of satisfaction to local pride. The important point to note is that from the very first settlement of towns in New England, atten- tion was given to founding and maintaining schools — many of them of secondary grade and all of them directly or indirectly supported by the town or the "better part" thereof. As above indicated, no two of these schools were or- ganized, administered, or supported in precisely the same way. In some towns, even as late as the eighteenth century, school questions were decided in town meet- ings by the qualified voters of the town. In others the selectmen, collectively, controlled. In still others we find committees of the selectmen or, as in Dorchester, special school committees who had complete supervision of all school matters. Likewise, too, in respect to the means of maintaining the schools, there was a variety of sources of revenue. Tuition fees from all who attended, save from the very poorest children, were common in every town. Rentals from public properties and payments for public monop- olies were also not infrequent or insignificant sources of school funds. Among these were revenues from lands, weirs, fisheries, and markets — all specifically dedicated to the support of education. In addition, many gifts, bequests, and endowments helped often to swell the funds, and after 1659 occasional grants from the colonial treasury were made. It is thus seen that from the earliest days the Puritan settlers fostered a spirit and interest in education which have been of vital importance in the history of our country. Strange as it may seem, this interest was not directed primarily to public elementary schools and The Colonial Latin School ii education so much as it was to public secondary schools. It was the Latin school that was first founded in Boston in 1635. It was the Latin school that first arose in Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury, and the other New England towns. Nor are the explanations of this fact difficult to find. They are discoverable partly in the general traditions of education and educational institu- tions; partly in the customs immediately current in England at the time of the migrations to America; and partly in the character of the settlers themselves. In all times and among all peoples, education and literary instruction have been very closely bound up with religious and ecclesiastical matters.^ Among primitive men the shaman, or familiar, acted not only as priest of the tribe but as the teacher of the youth. He it was who, knowing the mysteries of life, was able to transmit them to the adolescent boys. So, too, among the Ori- entals, the Greeks, and the Romans, education took its rise as a fimction of the priesthood. With the develop- ment of Christianity and the spread of churches, the cathedral and the monastic schools throughout Christen- dom came to be dominated almost solely by the eccle- siastical authorities. Schools were, therefore, erected and maintained almost completely to the end that religion might be perpetuated, the powers of the Church enhanced, and pious and godly men and women reared. The guide to the religious life, it was conceived, was the Scriptures, and since these for a thousand years had been locked up in the Latin language, the study of the Latin lan- guage and literature became paramount. Following the enthusiastic revival of study in the Renaissance and Himianistic movements of the fifteenth and sixteenth I This statement and the following are based on the more common views of the various histories of education, such as Brown's, Monroe's, Davidson's, and Laurie's. 12 Pithlic Secondary Education centuries there was added to the Latin a study of the Greek and the Hebrew tongues. The end and aim of literary study was the knowledge of Holy Writ. The means to this knowledge were the Latin schools. Consequently educational traditions and educational practices alike tended to promote this type of school in America. Finally the very genius and spirit of the early colonists led them to cherish education for noble ends. Many of the settlers of Massachusetts were well educated gentle- men for whom the highest ideals of life were a free Church and a free State in which pious, godly, and learned men were to play equal and active parts. They had come to America to seek to realize those ideals, and the first and foremost means to the end sought was the public school — that is to say, the Latin or grammar school which should fit the youth for college. The ideal evidently was that every boy in the colony should receive a college education. Everywhere among the early political and religious documents of these Puritans one finds reference to the religious, civil, and moral aims that lay at the basis of all activity and all institutional life. For example, in the annals of Roxbury of 1645 one reads: "Whereas the inhabitants of Roxbury, in consideration of their religious care of posterity, have taken into consideration how necessary the education of their children in Literature will be to fit them for pubHc service, both in Church and Commonvv^ealth, in succeeding years. They therefore imanimously have consented and agreed to erect a free school in the said town of Roxbury."^ Again and again in the New England town doctmients do we find repeated the thought that life is best lived when it is devoted to the ^Annals of Roxbury, quoted by Brown, op. cit., p. 40. See also Dillaway's History of the Grammar School in Roxbury; and Parker's Sketch of the History of ike Grammar School in Roxbury. The Colonial Latin School 13 Church and the Commonwealth, and that the best preparation for such a Hfe is the training given by the Latin school and college. Thus motives of religious and public service dominated the entire life of the times, and in so doing set the ideals for the schools. The theoretical and ultimate aims and ideals were, therefore, for the most part general and primary; but the immediate and practical ends were not wholly lacking. For example, the law of 1642 provided that the various towns and their selectmen should, among other duties, see that there was furnished "learning and labor and other emplo>rments which may be profitable to the Commonwealth." So, too, in 1645, the General Court decreed that boys from ten to sixteen years of age should be trained in the "art and practice of arms" — the instruction to be given "by some one of the officers of the band." ^ Kindred, too, to the religious and civil motives for education was found the philanthropic and missionary motive. Schools were to be open free of charge to the poor children of the town, and express provision was also made, in some of the armals, for the gratuitous instruction of Indian youths. It is thus to be observed that the leading motive back of all efforts to establish schools was, in the early colonial times, the religious motive. It determined largely the aim, scope, and administration of all educational under- takings. Closely allied with it, however, were the civic and the philanthropic ideals. Though the Renaissance and the Reformation had swept over Europe more than a himdred years earlier, there was still left in Christendom much of the old spirit of medievalism. Asceticism; rigidity of morals and manners; unquestioning faith witliin the somewhat enlarged, yet still narrow, limits 1 Clews, op. ciL, p. 60. 14 Public Secondary Education which an individualism partially enthroned had set; the conceptions of the words "God" and "the Bible" as the most awful that the mind possessed; the view which placed the real goal of life beyond the grave ; the contempt for the physical, the natural, the aesthetic, because of the belief that these are evil or at least invite to evil; — all these were characteristics of the fourteenth century, but they are also characteristics that were more or less prominent in New England in the early years of the seventeenth century. To the people of that day, to live at all was a most serious and awful affair; to live a godly life, unselfishly to serve one's fellow men through the state, was the height and depth of human perfection and the noblest pursuit the individual could follow. Hence the Christian minister took social rank above all others. His ideals became the ideals of the town; his advice became the accepted creed of his flock. From his exalted station he was regarded as ex officio a member of every public organization and every administrative body. Consequently his power was enormous, and he exerted it with a feeling that he was divinely directed. The schools therefore were shaped to approximate a youth to the ministerial ideal. The aim was, therefore, at least nominally democratic, in that it was hoped and expected that every boy would receive a thorough education, — that he would become past-master of Latin, and perchance have a good command of Greek and Hebrew. Nor does the ambition appear so strange when one recalls that, at the very time the Puritans v/ere settling in America, ecclesiastical and civil authority and lay influence in Europe were strenuously seeking to preserve Latin intact as the universal language. It was at this time that Comenius brought forth his Janua lingiiarum The Colonial Latin School 15 reserata and promised that his method would not only enable one in a brief period to conquer fully the Latin language, but would give a complete and full compre- hension of all the knowledge of the world. The optimism and egoism of the teachers and the educational reformers of the age knew no limits; nor is it strange that this peciiliar infection respecting the powers of the schools, and of Latin within the schools, should have extended to America. The Latin school was indeed regarded as the very servant of the Lord. Exactly what was the program of studies in these early schools is not determinable. Certain it is, however, that the ideals were to teach only Latin and Greek and Hebrew, and to inculcate precepts and habits of morals, manners, and religion. If other and more elementary subjects were admitted, it was to make them serve as a foundation for the advanced subjects; they had no merit or worth in their own right or name. Theology was the noblest branch of learning; the classics were the way thereto. Dr. Brown thinks that the most representative of all the English grammar schools, and therefore the one that best furnishes the ideal of our colonial Latin schools, was that foimded by Dean Colet about 1508,^ and known as St. Paul's School, London.^ Certain it is that there was great similarity among all the grammar schools, so that a study of one of them ought to give a fairly accurate notion of all. Moreover, the first master of St. Paul's was William Lilly, the author of the famous Latin gram- mar that became the standard authority in the schools of England and America. It is therefore very probable that the work in the early colonial schools differed Httle 1 It is doubtful whether this school was established in 1508, 1509, isio, or 1512. See Knight's Life of Colet, pp. 102-109. 2 Brown, op. cit., p. 12. 1 6 Public Seco'udary Education from that of St. Paul's. Respecting the requirements of admission to this school one reads: "If your childe can rede and wryte latyn and Englisshe sufficiently soo that he be able to rede and wryte his owne lessons, then he shal be admytted imto the scole for a scholar." "If j'^our childe after reasonable season proved be founde here imapte and unable to lemynge, than ye warned thereof shal take hym awaye, that he occupye not here rowme in vayne." "If he be apte to leme, ye shal be content that he contynue here tyl he have some competent literatur."^ Respecting the subjects to be taught, the accoimt continues as follows: "I would that they [the pupils] were taught all way in good literature both laten and greke, and good auctors suych as have the veray Romayne eliquence joyned withe wisdome." Later follows a hst of these authors, and it includes both the classical and the Christian. Unless the youth had a fair foundation in the rudiments of learning (which most frequently was apparently not the case) the first work in the gram- mar school consisted of a study of the alphabet and of simple sentences in English, and the memorizing of the catechism, the Psalms, and the Testament. Then the study of Latin was begun and as proficiency in this subject increased, attention to English diminished. The pupil passed successively through the stages of acci- dence, grammar, construing, and the making of Latin letters, verses, declamations, and themes. Then fol- lowed the study of the selections of the classical litera- ture itself — the works of .^sop, Cassar, Tully (Cicero), Ovid, Vergil, Horace, Eutropius, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, Sallust, Nepos, Corderius, and Erasmus.^ 1 Lupton, Life of Colet, Appendix B. 2 Meriwether, Our Colonial Curriculum, pp. 74 ff- The Colonial Latin School 17 These and others furnished the literary study, while Priscian, Donatus, and Lilly were the standard authorities in grammar. All texts used in our colonial schools were brought from England imtil Cheever's Accidence appeared in 1644. This then became the stock primer of Latin for the colonial days. The Accidence was a little book of scarcely a hun- dred pages and, as the name implies, served as a guide and introduction to the rudiments of the Latin language. It was written in English but was lacking in all illustrative material, both for etymology and for syntax. To master it was a dead lift of the memory. To the scriptural injunction of presenting "line upon line, precept upon precept" was added the massing of fact upon fact, and exception upon exception. No effort was made to elicit the spontaneous interests of the boy, or to make the abstract text connect with the realities of boy life. In fact, the very remoteness of the thought from the worldly matters of the day, the very difficulties that were involved in mastering the language, were considered to be proof sufficient of the value of classical study. Cheever's Accidence became very popular and was used in the schools well down into the nineteenth century. It passed through eighteen editions,^ the last one appearing in 1838. Note. The various editions of this famous textbook differ somewhat from each other in form and in content. The earhest editions, apparently, were the smallest. Those now in the Harvard Library are all i2mo volumes, usually containing seventy- two pages. One, however, has eighty-five. 1 Dexter, op. cit., p. 218. I have found, however, in the Harvard Library a reprint of what purports to be a twentieth edition. The original [it is claimed] was publishea at Salem by Samuel Hall in 1685. A copy of the edition of 1838 is also in this library, but the title page declares the edition was "carefully revised, corrected and stereotyped from the I8th edition." It does not claim to be the eighteenth edition. 1 8 Public Secondary Education The title page of a reprint of the ninth edition reads thus: A Short Introduction TO THE Latin Tongue FOR THE Use of the Lower Forms IN THE Latin School being the ACCIDENCE ABRIDG'd and COMPIL'd IN THAT MOST EASY AND ACCURATE METHOD, WHEREIN THE FAMOUS MR. EZEKIEL CHEEVER TAUGHT AND WHICH HE FOUND MOST ADVANTAGEOUS FOR SEVENTY YEARS. THE NINTH EDITION, TO WHICH IS ADDED A CATALOGUE OF IRREG- ULAR NOUNS AND VERBS DISPOS'd ALPHABETICALLY. BOSTON. PRINTED BY KNEELAND AND ADAMS, IN MILK STREET FOR THOMAS LEVERETT IN CORN HILL 1 776. The book gives four pages to an explanation of "Latin Letters, Points, etc.," and then treats briefly of the eight fundamental parts of speech in order. All descriptive matter is in English throughout the book, but the Latin words have no English equiva- lents suggested. A sample page is herewith given. It is page 12 of the ninth edition. THE FOURTH DECLENSION Nouns of the Fourth Declension are of the masculine gender commonly and are thus declined SiNGULARITER Nom. hie Grad- us Gen. Grad- us Dat. Grad- •ui Ace. Grad- ■um Voc. Grad- •us Abl. Grad- •u Pluraliter Nom. Grad-us Gen. Grad-unm Dat. Grad-ibus Ace. Grad-us Voc. Grad-us Abl. Grad-ibus Some few nouns of the Declension have the Dative and Ablative Plural in ubus; as specus, arcus, artus, tribus, partus. The Colonial Latin School 19 Those that end in u are of the Neuter Gender and not declined in the singular number; but in the Plural Number they are declined. SiNGULARITBR PLUKALITER Hoc Genu Norn, gen-ua Undeclined Gen. gen-um Dat. gen-ibus Ace, gen-ua Voc. gen-ua Abl. gen-ibus Lilly's Grammar, which was the second book used by most Latin students, was no improvement over the Accidence. In fact, the difficulties were increased rather than diminished. The Accidence was written in English; Lilly's Grammar was wholly in Latin, and required a "frightful burden of memorizing page upon page" of forms, rules, and exceptions. Nor is this the end. The very colloquial use of English was forbidden in the class- room, and among advanced pupils strenuous efforts were made to keep the youth from uttering a word in that language at any time. Needless to say, this ideal was seldom or never realized, nor was it so truly the aim in secondary schools as in the college and the imiversity. In so far as Greek was studied at all in the secondary schools its pursuit took the same general course as that of Latin. Greek accidence, grammar, and the New Testa- ment followed in order. Then came portions of Plato, Demosthenes, and Isocrates, together with some effort at Greek composition. This task was, however, gen- erally foimd to be too difficult, and the time at one's dis- posal too short, to result in any great proficiency, and in few schools was Greek given much attention. Josiah Quincy, writing in pre-Revolutionary days, says that the knowledge of Greek reqmred for admission to Harvard University was "slight and superficial" and consisted of "Gloucester's Greek Grammar and ability to construe the 20 Public Secondary Education four gospels."* In the Boston Latin School, he adds, Xenophon and Homer were merely "dipped into."^ The third subject of emphasis in the colonial grammar schools was the study of the Bible and of religion. The instruction in this field consisted of the catechism, reports of sermons heard on Sunday, attendance on morning and evening prayer, and the committing to memory of portions of Bible history. This consumed much time, but it represents only the formal side of religious teaching. The very atmosphere of the school was surcharged with the religious spirit. Textbooks, — when textbooks became common — fairly oozed religious thoughts. Even as late as the early eighteenth century, when a very noticeable secular spirit had begun to come over New England, this obtrusive religiosity is clearly seen. At that time appeared a little book containing "sentences for children" and intended to be an easier introduction to Latin. In this text on a single "page of thirty-five lines the word God appears 28 times, not counting pronouns."^ Can one wonder at the rebellion against schooling and at the hypocrisy and the evasion of law that were so common at this time? Nor can there be any doubt that the conditions were similar in these respects in the early seventeenth century — or perhaps were even more extreme. These Latin schools, as before stated, aimed chiefly to prepare youth for college — the earliest ones having Harvard College as their dictating mistress. The two types of institutions — the college and the grammar school — therefore kept step together, the one leading the way and setting the pace and the other docilely 1 Meriwether, op. cii., p. 102. I 2 Ibid., p. 103. 3 Ibid., p. 77. See also Am. Jour, of Ed., Vol. 32, p. 873. The Colonial Latin School 21 following. Both mirrored the thought and ambitions of the age, and as these were narrow and restricted, so the program of studies in the schools was confined and in- elastic. The aim and scope of the work in the secondary- schools can well be seen from the admission requirements of the college. The requirements of Harv^ard in 1642 read thus: "When any scholar is able to understand Tully, or such like classical Latin author extempore, and make and speak true Latin in verse and prose, suo ut aiunt marte; and decline perfectly the paradigms of nouns and verbs in the Greek tongue; Let him then and not before be capable of admission into the college."^ This was all. The ability to compose Latin and Greek sentences reasonably well was the sole entrance require- ment for admission to college and the^ chief aim of the grammar school. Indeed, not infrequently the require- ment in Greek was waived by the college, and in conse- quence that subject was more and more neglected by the secondary schools. Once within the college there was still no individ- ual freedom — no choice of subject-matter. Boys were admonished not to "use the mother-tongue except when specially allowed on some public occasion." ^ Besides, the course was entirely prescribed to its minutest details and was most narrow in scope and variety. In content, form, and method the work differed little from the pattern of medieval scholasticism. All was bookish and dead, nor was effort made to embellish or enliven it. In order to show in its fullness the literary goal of the time I give here the earliest Harvard schedule. This is the work outlined in 1642 for the three years' course. 1 Josiah Quincy, History of Harvard, Vol. i, p. 515; also Brown, op. cit., p. 128, quoting from Pierce, History of Harvard University, Appendix, pp. 48-49. 2 Meriwether, op. cit., p. 53. 22 Public Secondary Education First Year's Class Second Year's Class < The Earliest Harvard Schedule- Monday: Logic, Physics, Disputes. Tuesday: Logic, Physics, Disputes. Wednesday: Greek etymology, syntax, Precepts of Grammar. Thursday: Hebrew grammar, Bible practice, East- ern tongues. Friday: Rhetoric, declamations,^ meat rhetoricis studiis. Saturday: Divinity, catechetical commonplaces, History, Nature of plants. ( Monday and Tuesday : Ethics, PoHtics and Disputes. Wednesday: Greek Prosidia and Dialectics, Poesy, Nonnus, Duport "or the like." Thursday: Chaldae, Ezra and Daniel. Friday and Saturday: Continuation, respectively, of first year's courses. ^ Monday and Tuesday: Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Disputes. Wednesday: "Perfect their theory and exercise style, Composition, Imitation, Epitome, both in prose and verse." Thursday: Syriac, Trastius, New Testament. Friday and Saturday: Continuation, respectively, of earlier courses. ■* This is the entire program of study of the only college in America at the time. It is top-heavy with dead language and padded with disputations and religious, or quasi-religious, hterary material. The program may have contained good material for the training of clergy- men, but there was Httle in it to attract others than this class. What wonder that boys revolted! What wonder that preparatory schools dwindled in attendance! What wonder that towns evaded the law requiring the erection of schools whose ways led only to this goal! What 1 Meriwether, op. cit., p. 52. 2 Once monthly. ^ , • ^ i- 3 Continuation of courses given on Friday and Saturday in the earlier year. * Continuation of courses given on Friday and Saturday in the earlier years. Third Year's Class The Colonial Latin School 23 wonder that special privileges and legal exemptions had to be offered by the town authorities to tempt men to engage in the calling of grammar-school teaching! The secondary school of the day was out of time with the interests of life. Three times before 1800 the General Court of Massachusetts increased the fine on towns that neglected to maintain a Latin school according to law.^ Many other laws less drastic in nature but all showing the solicitude of the lawmakers for the perpetuation of learning were likewise enacted during this period previous to the Revolutionary War. For example, in 1652 the General Court gave voice to this fear: "for the better discharge of our trust for the next generation and so to posterity, seeing that the first families do wear away apace and that it grows more and more difficult to fill places of most eminence as they are empty or wanting; and this court finding by manifest experience that though the number of scholars at our college doth increase, yet as soon as they grow up ready for public use they leave the cotmtry and seek for and accept employment else- where, so that if timely provision be not made it will tend much to the disparagement, if not to the ruin of the Commonwealth. It is therefore ordered and hereby enacted by this court that a voluntary collection be commended to the inhabitants for the support of Harvard college."^ It is evident, too, that private bequests and gifts for schools were decreasing in numbers and that the ftmds from earlier sources of this kind were being diverted, for in 167 1 a law was thought necessary "that the gifts and legacies given to college or schools shall be truly and 1 In 167 1 the fine was advanced from five pounds to ten pounds. In 1683 it was increased to twenty pounds; and in 1718 to thirty pounds. See Hindsale's Docu- ments, kept. Secretary of Interior for 1892-93, Vol. 5., pt. 2., pp. 1232^. 2 Hinsdale, op. cit., p. 1232. 24 Public Secondary Education faithfully disposed of according to the true and declared intent of the donors."^ Nevertheless the schools declined steadily, until it truly seemed that the fears of the fathers would be realized, and that learning would cease to exist among them. Nor is the explanation of this declension difficult to find — the schools no longer served to meet social needs. What the majority of parents desired was an education that would fit their children in more practical ways than the Latin school was doing. A belief gradually grew up that a rigidly prescribed classical course was an expensive luxury. Indeed, some towns were even more outspoken, and openly complained that the type of school required by law actually prevented their children from getting an education. What was wanted was a school that would touch daily life — and touch it in more than one place. The existing type of school satisfied few of any class. For the well-to-do whose boys desired a thorough preparation for college, the later grammar schools were considered inefficient and weak. Few really capable teachers of Latin and Greek were procur- able — especially in the smaller and more remote towns. For the boys who had no college ideal ahead of them the little Latin that was taught in the schools was a waste and an infringement upon time that could be better employed. Consequently, between the two dissatisfied factions the public grammar school was in serious danger of being abandoned altogether. Only the law with its penalties saved it from this fate, and at best it enjoyed a precarious existence during the rest of its days — that is, until it was superseded by the modern high school. In the meantime the majority of such youths as sought admission to college or the study of the classics as merely 1 Op. cit., p. 1233. The Colonial Latin School 25 an element in a liberal education acquired this training (save in the few towns in which efficient Latin schools were still maintained) through private tutors, or in private academies. These types of schools will be dis- cussed later. Suffice it to say here that they served a noble mission in keeping alive the spark of interest in secondary education during the long dark period of declension of the public secondary schools. In the old colonial schools the school day was long and the vacations were few and short. At the outset the school was expected to continue almost uninterruptedly six days in the week during the full twelve months. The daily hours were from nine to twelve o'clock in the morning and from two to five o'clock in the afternoon. Sundays were taken up with attendance on religious services during a goodly portion of the day. Not infre- quently other than Latin students were admitted to the grammar schools, and in consequence the master often employed an assistant or usher to aid him. In this case the master usually taught the language and perhaps the more advanced work in English, while the usher devoted his time to the yoimger pupils and to giving instruction in the elements of learning. Salaries were small, ranging from twenty to seventy pounds a year. These were often supplemented by fees or presents from the children, by the allowance of a residence, rent free, and by the grant of a garden plot or other lands by the towns. The frequent mention made in the old chronicles to a grant of twenty pounds or thirty pounds seems to indicate that these salaries were the most common ones paid. Although these amounts in colonial days had a purchasing value far beyond what they would have to-day, still then, as now, salaries were grossly inadequate and unjust. This fact no doubt 26 Public Secondary Education accounts, in part, for the small number of men who entered this vocation. Moreover, very often the salary was paid not in cash but in products of the farms or gardens, though this was a common practice in all transac- tions in those days and, save in the inconvenience, worked no hardship. An interesting item in the records of the Roxbury school for 1668 shows that the master was to be paid for his services twenty-five pounds — "three fourths in Indian com and peas and one fourth in barley, all good and merchantable at prices current." ^ The number of pupils who attended the Latin schools seems to have varied greatly with the different towns and the times. Generally five or ten were a minimum, wliile not infrequently the number reached one hundred.^ Girls were not, of course, admitted to the study of the real secondary subjects, and generally not even to the ele- mentary work given in the grammar schools. An early record of Dorchester shows that the subject of co- education was one that had arisen at the foimding of its school, and that its settlement was left to the select- men, who decided adversely to the girls. It was almost one hundred and fifty years later, — that is, in 1 784 — that Dorchester finally gave them the same privileges in secondary education as the boys.^ Even then, the time in which they might attend was limited to the simimer months. Some other towns, it is true, were slightly more ad- vanced than this, for from an early date they allowed girls to attend the schools, provided there was accommo- dation for them without in any way interfering with the rights and privileges of the boys. However, even where girls were admitted, in most cases they were instructed 1 Dillaway, op. cit., pp. 30-31. 2 Brown, op. cit., p. 125. 3 Dexter, op, cit., p. 426. The Colonial Latin School ' 27 in classes segregated from the boys. It was not, in fact, until near Revolutionary times that girls received any but tolerant recognition in secondary education. Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, had a distinctively girls' school in 1773, ^ and Boston accorded girls the privilege of attend- ing the boys' school in 1789, — though the instruction was given separately. This, then, was the general situation of secondary edu- cation in Massachusetts down to the close of the colonial period. Much more attention has been given in this treatise to the educational history of this colony than can, or need, be given to any other colony. This has been done for two reasons: first, Massachusetts is the mother of secondary education in many other portions of America, and, secondly, the idea of pubUc secondary education in America at this period found almost sole support in Massachusetts and the neighboring colonies. When one timis to the early history of the Plymouth Colony one finds, however, that there attention to edu- cation was, at first, slight indeed. It was not tmtil 1658, — that is, thirty-eight years from the foimding of settlements here, — that the question of public schools was even formally considered.^ Even then the General Court only suggested that towns "ought" to erect free schools. Similar efforts were made in 1663, but without success. In 1673 the General Court voted to appropriate to the support of a free school, if erected, the proceeds derived from the fisheries "at the cape." This simi amoimted to thirty-three pounds, and with it a secondary or Latin school was opened. In 1677, towns of fifty families were authorized to erect grammar schools and to levy a tax of twelve poimds annually upon the people of the town. The colony was to distribute funds from the 1 Ibid., p. 427. 2 Hinsdale, op. cit., pp. 1630 ff. 28 Public Secondary Education fisheries to all such towns as accepted the provisions of the law, and the remaining support was to come by volun- tary contributions from those who sent children to the school.^ However, the Latin school did not flourish, since its work was even more out of harmony with the life of the fishing interests here than it was with the more varied ideals found in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Never- theless, when the two colonies later became merged and the school laws of Massachusetts were extended over Ply- mouth, there was the nominal pretense, at least, of keep- ing up the schools, but with very barren returns. The early history of secondary education in the Con- necticut and New Haven colonies is a close dupHcate of that of Massachusetts.^ The records show that Hart- ford voted thirty pounds for the support of a Latin school in 1642, but there is good reason to believe that the school was in existence earlier than this date. The support of the school was to be secured partly from public funds and partly from private bequests. This was the same arrangement many towns in Massachusetts had. In 1650 there was drawn up the famous Codification of the Laws of Connecticut. In principles and in precepts these laws followed very closely the laws of Massachusetts. What is of especial interest to us, however, is that the Massachu- setts school law of 1647 was copied into the Cormecticut Code almost in toto and verbatim. After this date every town of one hundred famihes was required to maintain a Latin school. In this the elements of Latin and Greek were to be taught, and, it was suggested, also the begin- nings of Hebrew. Like its prototype, this law also imposed a fine upon towns that failed to comply with its mandates. But, as in Massachusetts, and for Hke reasons, the law was ignored and evaded. From time to time the 1 op. cil., pp. 1630 #.; also Dexter, op. cit., p. 39- 2 Brown, op. cit., pp. 44#.; also Hinsdale, op. cit., pp. 1245^. The Colonial Latin School 29 fine here was increased, and more strenuous efforts were made to secure the enforcement of the law, but without much real success. Meanwhile, in 1638, New Haven was founded, and within foiir years had erected a Latin school. To this school Mr. Ezekiel Cheever was called as master. Here he remained ten or twelve years, and it was here that he brought out his Accidence} During his incumbency the school seems to have flourished, but its high rank was not long maintained. It is very probable, indeed, that his departure from New Haven was due, in part at least, to the indifference and the lack of moral support accorded the school by his townsmen. Other towns in the colony likewise established Latin schools, but the early enthusiasm for them soon cooled. In 1660 all the towns abandoned their separate under- takings and imited in founding a "colony grammar school." 2 This school endured but two years. At that time, in 1662, the New Haven Colony was absorbed into the Connecticut Colony and came tmder her laws. From this time to the Revolution the history of secondary education in Connecticut followed the same precarious course it did in Massachusetts. Moreover, the cur- riculum, the administration, the textbooks, the methods, and the general spirit of all these schools are so similar as to call for no specific discussion here. The point to be kept in mind is that all were out of touch with social interests and social needs, and all, consequently, gradually declined near, if not quite, to complete disruption. In Rhode Island, the non-conformist colony of the 1 It is a little uncertain when Mr. Cheever first began to teach in New Haven. He left there, however, in 1650, spent the next twenty years in Ipswich and Charles- town, and became master of the Boston Latin School in 1670, where he served continuously for thirty-eight years. He died in oflSce in 1 708, at the age of ninety- four. 2 Brown, op. cit., p. 45. 3© Public Secondary Education non-conformist colonies, there seems to have been little unity of opinion or harmony of action. The educational data are few indeed. Apparently no attempt was made previous to 1800 to erect a system of public secondary schools within that territory. In that year each town was required by law to maintain one or more free schools at public expense.^ Previous to this time all education was private. Of the other New England States, New Hampshire was a part of Massachusetts until 1680 and therefore has no history of her own until after that date. By that time the secondary schools had practically ceased to exist save in the more populous and wealthy towns, so that down through colonial times New Hampshire may be truly said to have had no real public secondary schools. Still her laws provided for such schools, and in name they did exist. Maine and Vermont likewise have no history of their own during this period, and may be omitted from con- sideration. In the middle colonies almost no thought or attention seems to have been given to secondary education during the colonial period. New York, New Jersey, and Dela- ware each had fairly good elementary schools at an early date, but all were supported and administered by the Church, or by private and cooperative effort. The first school of secondary grade in New York — at least the first publicly supported secondary school — did not arise imtil 1710.^ This was established to teach Latin, Greek, and mathematics, but seems not to have had much influence or permanency.^ In Pennsylvania, William Penn at the outset gave * Dexter, op. cit., pp. 51-52. 2 Ibid., p. 77. 3 Another school appears to have been established in 1732, which, after a series of changes, is thought to have furnished the nucleus from which Columbia College sprang in 1754. The Colonial Latin School 31 great encouragement to education and to schools, but in the later charters not so idealistic and liberal a spirit is shown. However, in 1689 the Friends' Public School was opened in Philadelphia. In 1697 this school was chartered as the WilHam Perm Charter School. It was a school of elementary and secondary grade, was open to youths of both sexes, and was to be free to those who were too poor to pay tuition.^ Later, however, this school became purely a sectarian school, its organization and administration passing entirely out of the hands of public officials. It still holds high rank, but no longer comes within the scope of this discussion. In the South the educational efforts have, until a comparatively recent day, been largely directed to the establishment and support of church or private schools. In colonial times, few indeed were the attempts made to set up either elementary or secondary schools at public expense. In each one of the colonies laws were passed from time to time encouraging education, but all laws pertaining to public schools were permissive in character and hence produced few or no results. In all parts of the South appeared from time to time grammar schools endowed by wills, grants, and gifts. Many of these received charters from the provincial government and, to this extent, became quasi-public schools. Still they are not of the same character as the Latin school of New England, and scarcely come within the scope of a treatise that professes to deal only with public secondary educa- tion. The Virginia legislature had, however, in 1660, enacted a law providing for a "college and a free school," but neither institution materialized. Likewise Maryland, by law, in 1696, sought to establish public schools, but nothing came of the effort. 1 Brown, op. cit., pp. 54, 74; also Dexter, op. cit., p. 60. 32 Public Secondary Education South of Virginia there were no schools until after 1700!^ In South Carolina, in 1701, a free school was set up in Charleston. This was founded by a gift of money from several charitable persons, and the state granted it a charter. The master was required to be a member of the Church of England and to be able to teach Latin, Greek, and mathematics. He was to receive an income of one hundred pounds per year out of the "public treasury," the balance of the salary being made up by fees.^ A law of 1722 authorized justices to "purchase land, erect a free school in each county and precinct, and to assess the expenses upon the lands and slaves within their respective jurisdictions." "At the close of the Revolutionary War South Carolina had eleven public and three char- itable grammar schools, besides eight schools of a private nature."^ These, however, seem to have been nearer the type of the old academies than of the old Latin school. Nor do they seem to have been public secondary schools in the sense in which we now use that expression. In North Carolina conditions were similar. In 1745 a law authorizing the erection of free schools was passed, but, as its provisions v/ere solely permissive, little was accomplished. Here, as in other parts of the South, semi -religious, semi-public schools arose that served in place of grammar schools, but which in reality were varying forms of the old academy. Reverting to Virginia, one finds during the Revolu- tionary period, that is in 1779, a most comprehensive system of elementary, secondary, and higher education proposed by Thomas Jefferson. Nothing came of his efforts at that particular time, but in 1796 his ideas were 1 Dexter, op. cit., p. 67. 2 Ibid., p. 69. 3 Ibid., p. 70. The Colonial Latin School 33 embodied into law. However, since this act was per- missive and not at all mandatory, Jefferson's advanced, though cumbrous, ideas were never put into practice. Thus one finds that, at the close of the colonial period, public secondary education had, from Maine to Georgia, been practically abandoned. Only in the laws of Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire were there found mandatory provisions for such schools, and, as has been observed, even here (save in the larger and more law-abiding towns) there was no semblance of enforcement of them. Elsewhere, secondary education was being given, where given at all, privately, by ministers and young college students, or in the semi-religious, quasi-private endowed schools or academies. A brief survey of the work done in these institutions will be the aim of the following chapter. CHAPTER II The Middle Period THE next great period of secondary education in the United States covers something over one hundred years. It extends from late pre-Revolutionary days down to, or beyond, the era of the "Common School Revival" in the first third of the nineteenth century. Its approximate dates may be fixed as 1750 at one end of the span and 1850 at the other. It is an important century in the development of American ideas, character, and institutions; but so far as it bears directly and imme- diately on the development of free, public, secondary education it is a time that is relatively barren. The dominant school of the age was the academy, and this in a very limited and general way only may be regarded as a public school. Nevertheless in a very true sense the academies did serve pubHc educational needs, and a complete account of the secondary education in the United States could not be given without making con- siderable mention of them. They were not always supported by a public tax; but neither were the public Latin schools during all their history. Their adminis- tration was not imdertaken by elected public ofhcials; but in many of the early grammar schools the control was not vested in a body of men elected by all the citizens. Tuition fees were charged in most academies ; but in this respect, too, the practice differs not at all from that found in the earlier schools. Indeed, in many ways the academy was but a modified type of the Latin school. It arose in this transformed shape to fill a social need, and it filled it. 34 The Middle Period 35 We have seen that the New England grammar school had, under pressure of the democratic, secular, and social changes and demands of the people, gradually lost its hold upon society, and had been either abolished entirely or else converted (in fact, if not always in name) into an elementary school. The old Latin school was, despite its original aim, aristocratic in nature. It served only the interest of those who had before them a rela- tively long period of study, and whose ultimate vocation was to lie in the professional fields. Six years in the Latin school could hardly be afforded by the majority of youths. Even six years spent in this way qualified one neither generally nor specifically for active life, imless the grammar-school course was supplemented by an additional period of study in the college. The new social conditions called for new social agencies, and especially for schools with a program of studies of greater scope and flexibility. These were not publicly provided, and consequently people secured what they wanted through other channels. The old statutes of New England requiring town Latin schools still stood. The officials often sought their perfect enforcement, though few changes had been made in the laws to meet the changed social needs. There was a wide gulf between the letter of the law and the spirit of the age, but few legal attempts were made to close it. Nevertheless, in the last analysis, it is free public opinion that really enforces law under any demo- cratic government. Where the sentiments of a people are indifferent or opposed to legislation of a particular kind all the machinery of government can never secure more than tacit obedience to the letter of the law. The spirit will be broken though the precept be enforced. This was the case in New England over a considerable 36 Public Secondary Education portion of the history of its grammar schools. Towns disobeyed the law deliberately, and found it cheaper to pay the specified fine than to keep the school.^ In many instances the school was open during the required ntmiber of months, but was held successively in different sections of the town — a brief period in each. Few pupils thus attended regularly for more than a few weeks at a time. The emphasis was placed not on the study of Latin and Greek as in the earlier grammar schools, but upon the elementary subjects. Not many pupils, in fact, had any desire or inclination for the classics. Scholarship de- clined. The necessity of teaching the veriest rudiments of elementary branches made grammar-school teaching unattractive to most college graduates; they sought service in other fields. The effect on the schools was natural. As in the realm of physics, so here, action and reaction were equal and opposite in direction. There were few scholarly teachers in the schools to inspire pupils to advanced study, and, conversely, the small number of reaUy ambitious pupils made the calling distasteful to the ambitious young men. All these conditions could but accentuate the growing weakness of the grammar school and aid in its decline. Still there were famihes that looked with regret upon the disintegration of the old type of school. The col- leges continued to require for admission the old inflexible Latin preparation. If a boy were to enter at all, he needs must obtain this preliminary training somewhere. For a time this need was met by the private tutor, who very often was the minister of the town, or some young col- lege man who gladly accepted the invitation to earn a few shillings during his vacation periods or while waiting 1 See Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School SysUm, for a full account of these changes. The Middle Period 37 to get established in his profession. But the demand steadily increased for schools that should do this work and at the same time be able to furnish a more liberal course of instruction in the English branches for young men whose vocations in life were to be non-professional. Out of these demands arose the American academy. The first institution of this kind and name in America was that fathered by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia. As early as 1743 his practical mind had formulated the idea, but conditions were not ripe for its implanting. Six years later, however, his hope was realized. In 1749 the Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia was foimded. In 1753 it was incorporated with three semi- distinct departments, — namely the Latin, the English, and the Mathematical. Each department had its sep- arate master, and, contrary to Franklin's wish, the Latin master held chief rank. The school was endowed chiefly by private contributions, but the city contributed out of the general treasury two hundred poimds the first year and pledged the public tax for one hundred pounds additional each year for five years. Here the public interest ended. The control of the school was vested in a body of trustees selected by the contributors, and this body was to be self-perpetuating. The school was open to all boys on equal terms. Its aims are set forth in the petition presented by the promoters when they sought aid from the city government. They are as follows:^ 1. To give the youth an opportunity to receive a good education at home, where not only a considerable expense can be saved but where a "stricter eye" can be kept over his morals by his friends and relatives. 2. To fit a niunber of young men for the magistracies and other public ofSces of trust. 1 Adapted from the quotations given by Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 185. ' o 4 q f^ -^ «c» ± ij • LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL SCIENCE I I 2 3 Folsom's Livy, Xeno- phon's Cyropaedia and Anabasis Livy finished, Horace, Thucydides, Herodo- tus, Roman Antiqui- ties Horace finished, Homer's Odyssey Bourdon's Algebra Algebra, Legen- dre's Geometry, Botany Geometry, Men- suration, Appli- cation of Algebra to Geometry - 2 I 2 3 Cicero's de Se?iectute and de A micitia . Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes Cicero's de Oratore, Greek tragedy, Gre- cian Antiquities, Newcomb's Rhetoric Tacitus' Vita Agrico- lae and Cermanii, Greek tragedy Plane and Spher- ical Trigonome- try Davies' Descrip- tive and Analyti- cal Geometry Analytic Geome- try, Bridge's Conic Sections Logic 1 Mr. George Williams was made professor of mathematics and Rev. Joseph Whiting, professor of Latin and Greek. See Report, p. 83. 2 Faculty Report in Joint Documents, 1842, p. 389. 3 Joint Documents, 1852, p. 388. , Branches of the University 143 > LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL SCIENCE 3 I 2 3 Cicero's de Officiis, Greek poetry Terence, Greek poetry, General grammar Whiteley's Rhetoric Olmstead's Natu- ral Philosophy, Zoology Natural Philoso- phy, Chemistry Olmstead's As- tronomy, Chem- istry, Mineralogy Abercrombie's In- tellectual Power, Paley's Natural Theology 4 I 2 3 Lectures on Greek and Latin languages and literature Geology, Calculus Stuart's Intellec- tual Philosophy, Cousin's Psy- chology Whiteley's Logic, Wayland's Moral Science, Politi- cal Grammar Studies of Con- stitution. Way- land's Political Economy, But- ler's Analogy Note: The first commencement of the university was held August 6, 184s, at which time eleven students were given their A.B. degree. (McLaughlin, op. cil., p. 42.) Even a superficial analysis of this program discloses that Latin, Greek, and pure and applied mathematics constitute the bulk of the studies.^ In the fourth or senior year the emphasis is shifted to the intellectual and moral sciences. The course was rigidly prescribed, and con- sequently the preparatory studies pursued in the branches had to be dogmatically laid down. The requirements for 1 That is to say, in 1843 there were offered, all told, in the University of Michigan, fifty ttrm courses. Of these, Latin, Greek, and mathematics included 26; natural science, 9; intellectual science, s; moral and religious science, 3; political science, 3; English, 4. 144 Public Secondary Education admission to the university,^ together with the program of studies as set forth above, show that the University of Michigan was following pretty closely the ideals and forms set by the older colleges and imiversities. Very soon, however, this over-emphasis of the classics — especially of Greek — found critics. The State Board of Visitors appointed to inspect the university, to make a report, and to offer recommendations declared that they had given some attention to the relative impor- tance of the subjects of the course of study, and that they believed certain modifications were desirable.^ They called attention to the fact that the total nimiber of recitations and lectiures given in the imiversity in 1850 was 2,545. Of these, 330 were devoted to Latin; 630 to Greek; 495 to mathematics, pure and mixed; 236 to modem languages; and 854 to all other subjects. They thereupon recommended that Greek and Latin be treated alike and assigned 400 recitation periods each a year; that mathematics be given 500 meetings; and that French and German be increased to 200 class recitations each. The Annual Report of the regents for the same year gives the admission requirements as follows : ' ' Candidates for admission to the Freshman Class must not be less than fourteen years of age, and must sustain an examina- tion in English Grammar, Geography, Arithmetic, Algebra through simple equations, first part of Kreb's Guide to the Writing of Latin, Latin Reader, Cornelius Nepos (Arnold's), Cicero's Orations against Catiline, Vergil's Aeneid, Greek Reader to the poetry, the four Gospels, Latin and Greek Grammar, Keightley's Grecian and Roman History."' Each class was required to attend tliree recitations or lectxires daily, except Saturday and Simday. On the 1 These are given on page 13s of this chapter. 2 Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1851. p. 38. 3 Ibid., 1852, p. 267. Branches of the University 145 former day there was held one exercise in elocution. This would give the familiar sixteen hours a week schedule that is known at present. There were "also frequent exercises in translation, composition and oral and written disputation" — the word "also" implying that these were subjects carried in addition to the regular sixteen hours' work. Public examinations were held at the close of each term, and were attended by the regents and the Board of Visitors sitting in their official capacities. All students were required to attend chapel exercises daily in the college hall, and to attend public worship each Sabbath in some one of the churches in Ann Arbor. Monday m.omings throughout the four years there were compulsory classes in Bible study. In the freshman year the Gospels were the basis of work; in the sophomore year, the Acts; in the junior and senior years, the Epistles. The textbook was the Greek Testament. The year's work was divided into three terms of thirteen weeks each. There were two weeks of vacation at Christ- mas time; three at Easter; and eight in the summer. Commencement was held the third Wednesday in July, and the fall term opened the second week in September. All admissions were still by examination only. The only charges of the institution at this time were a matriculation fee of ten dollars, and a sum ranging from five dollars to seven dollars and fifty cents a year for room rent and the services of the janitor. Tuition was wholly gratuitous. "Including board, washing, and books the necessary expenses of a student for a year will range from $70 to $100."^ This was in 1850. Only slight changes had been made in the program of studies since 1843. In 1850 it was as follows.^ 1 Taken from the college catalogue for 1850 and given in Report of Superintendent of Public Inslruclion, 1832, p. 269. 2 Ibid. n 146 Public Secondary Education Freshman Year first term Livy (Lincoln's or Folsom's), Roman Antiquities (Eschenberg's Manual), Homer's Odyssey (Owen's), Bourdon's Algebra, Newman's Rhetoric. SECOND TERM Livy, Ancient History, Grecian Antiquities (Eschenberg's Manual), Homer's Odyssey, Algebra, Legendre's Geometry. THIRD TERM Horace's Odes, 'K.e.no^ih.on's Anabasis (Owen's), Geometry, Botany, Zoology. Monday morning throughout the year, Greek Testament (Gospels). Sophomore Year first term Newman's Rhetoric, Horace's Satires, Xenophon's Anabasis, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Conic Sections. SECOND TERM Analytical Geometry and Calculus, Tacitus' Germaniae and Agri- colae (Tyler's), Demosthenes' de Corona, Isocrates. THIRD TERM Sophocles, Cicero's de Senectute and de Amicitia, French. Monday morning throughout the year, Greek Testament (Acts). Junior Year first term Wayland's Political Economy, Logic, French, Olmstead's Natural Philosophy. SECOND TERM Tacitus' Historia, Euripides, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Mineralogy. THIRD TERM German, Blair's Rhetoric, Olmstead's Astronomy. Monday mornings throughout the year, Greek Testament (Epistles). Senior Year FIRST term Geology, Upham's Mental Philosophy, German. SECOND TERM Upham's Mental Philosophy (3d Vol.), Whiteley's Logic, Way- land's Moral Science, Natural Theology, Evidences of Christianity. Branches of the University 147 THIRD TERM Butler's Analogy, Plato's Gorgias. Monday mornings throughout the year, Greek Testament (Epistles). The total ntimber of students ini85owas72. Ten years later it was 519; in 1880-81 it reached 1,534;^ in 1907-8 the total was 5,010;^ and in 1913-14 the members ag- gregated 6,857.^ Of these , more than 1,200 were women . Naturally the branches had to keep step with this restricted program of the imiversity; — at least the pre- paratory or classical departments had to do so. In consequence, as we have seen, popular approval was gradually withdrawn from both types of institution. In 1850, the date of the program given above, the Romeo branch was the only one in existence, and this was sup- ported by local fimds. Still, at this very time there was a demand on the part of the more progressive citizens and the lovers of popular education that the branches be revived and supported. Indeed, pressure was brought to bear upon the legislature so that a law was enacted requiring the regents to continue their appropriations to the branches. This act placed the authorities in an embarrassing position. Though eager and ready to comply, the state of finances was still such as to render impossible a just and adequate maintenance for both the imiversity and the dependent schools. To attempt to do so, the regents felt, would cripple both and lead finally to a retrograde movement in all that had been planned. Forttmately — or unfortimately — the courts came to the aid of the university, and disposed of the difficulty by setting aside the newly enacted law and by so 1 President's Report, 1 88 1, p. I. The Department of Medicine was opened in 185 1 ; that of Law in i860; those of Homeopathy and Dentistry in 1876; that of Pharmacy in 1877. 2 Catalogue, 1907-8. p. 470. In 1906-7 there were 741 women students enrolled. President's Report, 1907, p. 2. 3 Catalogue, 1914-15. p. 707. 148 Public Secondary Education construing the constitution that the regents were given full pov/er to deal with the university as they thought wise. Left free to act as judgment dictated, the regents took no further notice of the conflicting requests, but left the branches, as they had been left since 1846, to live or die as fate might decide. All hope of their official revival was now abandoned, and the friends of public education directed their view and attention to secondary schools of other kinds. Such institutions had, as we have hinted, already become well started, and from this date they advanced rapidly. Thus died the branches of the University of Michigan. As a final justification of their policy carried out during the fourteen years, the regents authorized one of their number. Dr. Zina Pitcher, to prepare an address that was printed and distributed over the state. The most significant parts of this address are here appended:^ Having selected the site of the University, secured the means of erecting the buildings, purchasing the library, and of having other things necessary to lay its foundation, it became apparent that the materials for the construction of the living edifice were not at hand. The blocks for the statuary were in the quarry, but there were no hands to hew them into form. Our political and social institutions were yet in a transition state. The common schools were then in chaos, and our whole system of Public Instruction in the state, at best, [was in a condition] of inchoation. Believing that the attempt to establish or organize the University at this stage of our political existence, in this condition of the other edu- cational institutions of the state, would prove abortive, the regents resolved (as a constitutional authority or warrant for so doing had not then been questioned,) to invert the order of things contem- plated in the organic law, and proceed at once to the establishment of braiiches as a means of furnishing the elements necessary to give vitality to the central institution, when the time for appointing its Faculty should arrive. 1 The address in full is found on pages 312 Jf. of Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1852. It epitomizes the transactions of the regents from 1837 to June 30, 1851. Branches of the University 149 In order to carry this purpose into effect, the committee on branches was authorized to employ an agent to visit the different sections of the state and engage the cooperation of citizens living at such points as seemed most suitable for the establishment of branches, and report his doings to the Board. This agent, who was restricted to eight localities, reported in favor of locating a branch at Pontiac, Detroit, Monroe, Tecumseh, Niles, Grand Rapids, Palmer and Jackson, the citizens of which were required to furnish the site and the edifice necessary for the accommodation of the pupils. On the fulfillment of these conditions, branches were organized at Monroe, Tecumseh, Niles, White Pigeon, Kalamazoo, Pontiac, Romeo and Detroit. A department for the education of females was added to the branch at Monroe, Tecumseh, White Pigeon, Kalamazoo, and Romeo. Branches were also located at Mackinac, Jackson, Utica, Ypsilanti and Coldwater, but no appropriations were ever made for their support. On the first organization of the Board of Regents, it included no clerical members. For this reason, the University then in jiituro, was stigmatized as an infidel affair, which, it was predicted, would fail to perform the functions for which it had been endowed. This prediction was uttered with much confidence in certain quarters, and an act for the incorporation of a sectarian college was urged through the Legislature, partly by the force of an appeal to the religious feeling of the members, based on this accusation. Partly with a view to disarm that kind of opposition, and more especially because they believed it to be a duty, irrespective of it, the Board was careful to introduce the elements of religion into the branches, which they did by the appointment of clergymen of the different denominations as principals thereof. In the adoption of rules for the government of the branches, special care was taken to guard the common school interest from injury, by requiring candidates for admission to undergo a pre- paratory examination. Tuition was to be paid in advance. A treasurer was appointed for each branch, who was required to make a report of the funds in his hands, at the close of each term. The course of study to be pursued therein was prescribed by the Board of Regents, which embraced the preparation of the pupil for college, his qualification for business, or for teaching, as he might himself elect. With the design of inducing young men who had been educated at the branches, to engage in the business of instruction, a ISO Public Secondary Education regulation was adopted which authorized the treasurer to refund the money paid for tuition, to all such persons as should furnish to him evidence of having been engaged in teaching, having regard to the time they had been thus employed. A board of visitors was also appointed for each branch, to whom such powers were delegated as seemed necessary to the practical working of the system. Notwithstanding the pains taken to adapt these institutions to the public exigencies, so that their legitimate functions could be performed without infringing upon another portion of the educa- tional system, they soon began to decline in popular estimation, because they were not able at the same time to perform the functions of a common school as well as a branch of the University. A feel- ing of jealousy was awakened in the minds of those whose children were excluded from them either from want of age or qualifications. Consequently they were soon regarded as places for the education of the (so-called) aristocracy of the state, and the University, through the influence of the branches, began to be spoken of as an enemy to popular education. If an opinion may be formed of public senti- ment by the tone of certain official papers, it would appear that that feeling, instead of becoming extinct, has only changed the mode and place of its appearing. Finding that the branches were drawing largely upon the fund designed for the construction of the University building, and that they were not satisfactorily accomplishing the end for which they had been established, the Board of Regents, after mature delibera- tion, being fully assured that the expense of keeping them up was greatly disproportioned to the benefits accruing therefrom, sus- pended, in 1846, all appropriations for their support, after more than $30,000 had been expended in trying to sustain them. Whilst this trial was being made of the utility of branches. Professor Gray was in Europe selecting the library of the University, and Dr. Torrey, of New York, was negotiating the purchase of the Lederer cabinet of foreign minerals, which now constitutes the principal sources of attraction to persons visiting this institution. From this experimental though abortive effort to build up and sustain branches of the University, the Board have learned, and they deem the lesson of sufficient importance to leave it on record, that local institutions of learning thrive best under the immediate management of the citizens of the place in which they are situated, and when endowed or sustained by their immediate patrons. CHAPTER VII The Academy Movement THE second great type of secondary school in Michigan was the academy. While, as elsewhere, this class of schools was not, strictly speaking, a part of the state- supported educational system, the different foundations were nevertheless quasi-public institutions which were chartered and regulated by the state and which the people then regarded essentially as public schools. Certain it is that during the two decades in particu- lar — from 1839 to 1859 — the academies and kindred institutions played a notable part in the history of secondary education in Michigan. Indeed, a historical accoimt of the public secondary schools of this state would be wholly incomplete without a brief sketch of the rise and status of the academy. In earHer chapters we have seen that there were a few private schools of the academy type in Michigan even before the state was admitted into the Union. The records respecting these are, however, scant indeed. For the most part they are the merest legal statements respect- ing the terms of the charters given, or the briefest accounts of the fact that a particular school was "kept" by a particular person at a particular time and place. This is all. There is nothing available that yields returns worthy of the search. Apparently most, if not all, of these early private schools were of short duration and of doubtful financial success. Many of them taught the classical languages and French,^ and may, in a sense, iMr. William D. Wilkins, in an article styled "Traditions and Reminiscences of the Public Schools of Detroit," in the Michigan Pioneer Collections, Vol. i, p. 448, speaks of there being "public" schools in Detroit in 1802, 1816, 1823, and, later. Some of these taught the classics, but not one, surely, was a public school in the present meaning of the term. 152 Public Secondary Education be looked upon as schools of secondary education. How- ever, since in that age these languages were considered essential for even any true elementary education, it would be equally just to omit from consideration all these schools, as falhng below the grade of institutions under treatment in this thesis. When, too, it is recalled that the total population of Michigan in 1830 numbered only 31,639,^ and that the real movement toward settling this territory had begun only about five years earlier than this, one is not siu*- prised to learn that even private schools were then few and inferior. Certain it is that previous to 1830 there were in the territory no incorporated schools.^ The schools that did exist had a denominational or personal basis, and enjoyed only transitory careers. Between 1830 and 1836 a number of private academies were founded, and some received legal charters from the territorial government.^ A list of these will be given later. Most of them, however, were short lived, — the only one that enjoyed a permanent existence and exerted a lasting influence being the Spring Arbor Academy, chartered March 23, 1835. With the admission of Michigan to statehood and the decision of the educational authorities to establish a series of branches of the university, the academy move- ment was much affected. There was a strong temporary movement forward, followed by a short period of depres- sion, and then again a new advance was made. At first, 1 U.S. Census Reports. 2 Fanner's History of Detroit, p. 98. . . , . n»- 3 In Detroit alone there were the following unincorporated schools: the Misses Farrand's Young Ladies' Seminary and Mr. George Wilson's English Classical School, both established in 1830; J. B. Howe's Classical Academy, 1852; D. B. Crane's Classical School, 1833; Messrs. Taopan and Nichols Detroit Female Seminary, 1833. In T834 the Mechanics' Society opened the Mechanics' Academy, and also had a Classical School. In 1836 Rev. R. Elms was at the head of the Detroit Classical Academy. There were also at this time Catholic schools in goodly numbers. (See Farmer's History of Detroit, pp. 716 #.) The Academy Movement 153 existing academies sought to be transformed into branches and to be placed under the patronage and dignity of the state. Many new academies were projected, some were organized, and appeals were made to the regents for recognition as branches. When, however, it was seen to be the policy of the state to limit the branches to a relatively small number, enthusiasm for the local private institution waned. Numerous projected undertakings were abandoned altogether, and many that had already been established suffered from neglect and lack of stu- dents and funds. For a few years popular interest in secondary education centered in the state-supported branches. Nevertheless, despite these adverse tendencies, nearly every year during this period witnessed the incor- poration of a new school of the academy type, so that when in 1846 the regents abandoned the branches to their fates, popular interest turned again to the earlier schools, and an era of renewed prosperity set in. During the next ten years the academy movement reached the height of its importance in Michigan. At the end of that decade the public imion schools had secured a firm footing, and the academies gradually disappeared from among the notable educational institutions of secondary grade in the state. Just how many of these schools there were in the state it is almost impossible to determine. Many, as we have said, seem to have been undertaken with enthusiasm only to be abandoned within a few months or weeks because of lack of funds and patronage.^ Others arose and had a more or less dazzling success but were never incor- porated, and hence left no official records of their work.^ 1 Examples of these are the Utica Female Seminary, incorporated 1844; Clinton Institute, 1846; Woodstock Man'.tal Labor Institute, 1848. 2 Two of this kind of which fate has preserved a record are the Misses Clark's Female Seminary at Ann Arbor, opened in 1839, and Dr. Fitch's Detroit Female Seminary, opened in 1841. Neither of these was ever incorporated. (See A. D. P. Van Buren's "The Old Academy and Seminary" in Mich. Hist. Col., Vol. 18, p. 397.) 154 Public Secondary Education Others, again, were incorporated; ran a short course; died out; and were later revived imder the same or a different name.^ The question arises — should credit be given for one or two or more schools? In addition to academies and seminaries there also arose after 1839 several institutions of a similar character which, however, bore the more dignified title of "college," and were empowered to grant degrees and to bestow the privileges that other colleges did. Several of these had attached to them preparatory departments,^ and it seems certain, moreover, that in some instances the college course itself was little or no further advanced than the course foimd in the better class of academies or seminaries.^ For example, the Michigan Central College, chartered in 1845, was not given the right to confer degrees or grant diplomas imtil five years later, in 1850.* The early history of one of these colleges in particular — Michigan College, located at Marshall — is both interest- ing and pertinent to our theme. It will be recalled that Superintendent Pierce, when he took charge of educa- tion in the state in 1836, favored a highly central- ized, monopolistic state system of education. Doubtless overinfluenced by admiration for the Prussian system of government and of school administration, he opposed most stubbornly and vehemently any plan that would tend to imdermine or detract from the powers and prestige of the state. Hence he set his great personal influence and the strength of his official position in opposition to any scheme that had for its aim the incorporating of colleges 1 The Clinton Institute at Mt. Clemens is an illustration of this fact. 2 For example, Michigan Central College at Spring Arbor had attached to it the Spring Arbor Academy ; Kalamazoo College had a preparatory course ; and Wesleyan Seminary and Albion Female College were one and the same institution. 3 I find no exact distinction between these two terms. As a rule, in Michigan, the word seminary signified an institution of secondary instruction for women only; the academy was usually coeducational. 4 Jontl Documents of Michigan, 1851, p. 500. The Academy Movement 155 that should be rivals of the state university. The test of power came in 1838 when the tnistees of Michigan College sought a charter from the legislature. The association had existed since 1833 and had looked forward for several years to the realization of the ideal to found a college embodying the particular religious faith of its members. Mr. Pierce fought the plan fiercely before the legislature and based his objections chiefly on the following arguments: (i) If one college is chartered, others will follow imtil the state will be covered over with little, weak, struggling institutions that will bring college education into contempt; (2) such institutions will divide the patronage of the commonwealth and detract from the University of Michigan; (3) they will create literary factions founded perhaps on religious opinions; and (4) they will introduce "pernicious differences in the course of instruction." The committee of the legislature to which the question was referred did not, however, share Mr. Pierce's views. The majority report so stated the decision and recom- mended that the charter be granted. The salient features of that report are worthy of insertion here. One reads: "The majority of your committee have anxiously delib- erated upon the evils anticipated by the superintendent in granting the prayer of the petitioners, but have not been able to persuade themselves of their reality. They carmot appreciate the force of the objection made, that by granting the franchise asked, we encourage others to make like requests. . . . They deem it the duty of the legislature not only to prevent all impediments, but to afford facilities for the progress of general education; to speak words of encouragement rather than of re- straint to those who volunteer aid ; and not from any over- weening fondness for one institution or one particular 156 Public Secondary Education system to place all others under the ban of power. "^ The next year, in 1839, the college was duly chartered and the way was opened for other similar institutions. It is not my purpose here to speak of the wisdom or the lack of wisdom of this piece of legislation. The point that concerns us is that from this date other colleges than the State University existed in Michigan, and that in consequence these, too, put forth efforts to secure stu- dents and hence exerted their influence to foster prepara- tory schools of one kind or another. That class of people who aspired to give their children a college education, but who looked upon the State University as non-religious, if not absolutely irreligious, could now find other schools that met their approval and favor. These new centers of higher learning helped, therefore, to spread an interest in knowledge and culture, and hence helped to foster the rise of academies, seminaries, and other institutions giving pre-collegiate instruction. The next few years, therefore, saw a rapid increase in schools of these kinds. Still one other type of educational institution shoiild be mentioned in this connection. This was the chartered literary society, whose leading purpose was "for moral and intellectual improvement" of its members through mutual self-help. Although not in themselves strictly schools of secondary education, these societies not infre- quently pursued studies that belonged to the category of a secondary program of studies, and were the stepping stones for some youths to a full college career. The Adrian Lyceum and Benevolent Association expressly stated that among other aims it purposed to "provide for the Education of Orphan Children";^ while the Lawrence Literary Institute Association, founded in 1 House Documents, 1838, No. 11, p. 120. 2 Joint Docu-menls of the Legislature of Michigan, 1851, No. 19, p. 541. The Academy Movement 157 1850, had inserted in its charter this section: "Said corporation shall have power to establish in the village of Lawrence, in the County of Van Buren, an institution for the instruction of young persons in the ordinary and higher departments of learning."^ The first of these associations chartered seems to have been that of the Detroit Young Men's Society in 1836.^ All these societies were liable to be called upon for an annual report to the legislature, but such reports were not made mandatory by the charters. Likewise, too, all chartered educational institutions of other types were expected to make such annual reports. Indeed, the act of 1839 expressly required such reports from all.' Few, however, complied with the law. In his report of 1849, Superintendent Mayhew said that after examin- ing the laws back as far as 1841 there appeared to be seventeen incorporated literary and educational institu- tions in the state. Five of these, he added, were subject to visitation by state authorities, just as the university was subject to inspection. These were Adrian Academy, incorporated in 1846; Woodstock Manual Labor Institute, incorporated in 1848; Leoni Seminary, incorporated in 1848; Olivet Institute, incorporated in 1848; and Howell Academy, incorporated in 1848. Three others were required to make annual reports : Vermontville Academ- ical Association, 1846; White Pigeon Academy, 1847; and Clinton Institute, 1846. Eight were not required to report or to be visited by the superintendent,* while one — 1 Ibid.. No. 306, p. 543- 2 Ibid., p. S39. 3 School Law of 1852, p. 497; also Joint Documents, 1851, p. 497. This law required "every organized academy or literary or collegiate institution, heretofore incorporated or hereafter to be incorporated, to cause to be made out — and for- warded — to the office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, between the ist and iSth days of December of each year," a complete report of conditions and work of the institution. This law was approved March 4, 1S39. * This statement of Mr. Mayhew s seems to have been made without taking into consideration the general law of 1839, cited above. Of the eight institutions mentioned three were Female Institutions and one a Theological Institute. 158 Public Secotidary Education the Michigan Central College — was, by law, required to be visited and examined annually by the superintendent in person.^ How lightly the statutes weighed upon the consciences of the various trustees is seen from the pithy closing sentence: "None have comphed with the law."^ / Thus, beginning with 1835, there arose in the state a whole series of institutions of a semi-pubHc, semi-private, ' or denominational character that helped mightily to J carry forward secondary education. These were the ' unchartered schools of one kind or another; the chartered literary associations, academies, seminaries, institutes, and colleges; the branches of the university; and the union schools.^ It may be of interest, especially to citizens of Michigan, to have a complete list of all these chartered schools, together with the dates of their incorporation. I append here such a list:* Title Incorporated 1. Ann Arbor Academy, Ann Arbor 1830 2. Auburn Academy, Auburn 1831 3. White Pigeon Academy, White Pigeon 1831 4. Cass County Academy, Cassopolis 1833 5. Michigan and Huron Institute, Kalamazoo 1833 6. Michigan Manual Labor Institute, Washtenaw Co.. . . 1833 7. Pontiac Academy, Pontiac 1833 8. Richland Academy, Richland 1833 9. Romeo Academy, Romeo 1833 ID. Shelby Liberal Institute, Macomb Co 1833 11. Spring Arbor Seminary, Spring Arbor ^ 1 835 12. Marshall Academy, White Pigeon 1836 13. Detroit Young Men's Society, Detroit 1836 14. Kalamazoo Literary Institute, Kalamazoo 1837 15. Tecumseh Academy, Tecumseh 1838 16. Grass Lake Academy and Female Seminary, Grass Lake 1839 17. Grand River Theological Seminary, Orion 1839 1 Joint Documents, 1840. No. 6, p. 60. 2 The superintendent himself had, of course, visited and examined the Mich- igan Central College. 3 We shall treat of these in a subsequent chapter. 4 This list is compiled from the JotjU Documents, Legislative Acts, Reports of Superintendents of Public Instruction, and other source materials. 6 This school was rechartered by an amended act in 1837. The Academy Movement 159 Title Incorporated 18. Marshall Female Academy, Marshall 1839 19. Marshall College (Michigan College), Marshall 1839 20. St. Philip's College (Catholic), Detroit 1839 21. Wesleyan Seminary, Albion^ 1841 22. Allegan Academy, Allegan 1843 23. Utica Female Seminary, Utica 1844 24. Grand Rapids Academy, Grand Rapids 1844 25. Ann Arbor Female Seminary, Ann Arbor 2 1845 26. Michigan Central College, Spring Arbor 1845 27. Ypsilanti Seminary, Ypsilanti 1845 28. Adrian Seminary, Adrian 1846 29. Adrian Lyceum and Benevolent Association for Orphan Children, Adrian 1846 30. Clinton Institute, Mt. Clemens 1846 31. Owosso Literary Institute, Owosso 1846 32. Vermontville Academical Institution, Vermontville . . 1846 33. White Pigeon Academy, White Pigeon 1847 34. Raisin Institute, Lenawee Co 1847 35. Howell Institute, Howell 1848 36. Leoni Theological Institute, Leoni 1848 37. Leoni Seminary, Leoni 1848 38. Olivet Institute, Olivet 1848 39. Woodstock Manual Labor Seminary, Woodstock 1848 40. Tecumseh Literary Institute, Tecumseh 1849 41. Oakland Female Seminary, Pontiac 1849 42. Clinton Institute, Mt. Clemens 1850 43. Monroe Young Ladies' Seminary and Collegiate Insti- tute, Monroe 1850 44. Clarkston Academical Institute, Clarkston 1850 45. St. Mark's College, Grand Rapids 1850 46. St. Mary's Academy, Bertrand 1850 47. Union Hall Association, Monroe 1850 48. Almont Young Men's Society, Almont 1850 49. Lawrence Literary Institute Association, Lawrence. . . 1850 50. Niles Union Hall Association, Niles 1850 51. Academy of the Sacred Heart, Detroit 1850 52. Albion Female Collegiate Institute, Albion 1850 53. Disco Academy, Disco 1850 54. Kalamazoo Literary Institute, Kalamazoo 1851 55. Dickinson Institute, Romeo 1855 56. German English School, Detroit 1857 57. Colon Seminary, Colon 1858 58. Lapeer Seminary, Lapeer 1858 59. Michigan Female Seminary, Kalamazoo 1859 60. Michigan Collegiate Institute, Leoni 1859 61. Michigan Female College, Lansing 1859 1 This was an amended act. The real incorporation was earlier. 2 There was also established at Ann Arbor this same year the Misses Clark School. This was really a seminary, but was distinct from the so-called Female Seminary. i6o Public Secondary Education Title Incorporated 62. Detroit Female Seminary, Detroit 1859 63. German American Seminary, Detroit 1 863 64. Lansing Academy, Lansing 1 863 65. Raisin Valley Seminary, Adrian 1863 66. Bedford Harmonical Seminary, Calhoun Co 1865 67. German English School, Grand Rapids 1865 68. Coldwater Female Seminary, Coldwater 1866 69. Fenton Seminary, Fenton 1868 70. Trinity School, Fenton 1868 71. Oak Grove Academy, Medina 1873 72. Spring Arbor Seminary, Spring Arbor 1873 73. Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake 1877 74. Theological School of the Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids 1878 75. Somerville School, St. Clair 1880 76. Seminary of the Felician Sisters, Detroit 1882 77. Detroit Home and Day School, Detroit 1882 78. Academy of the Sacred Heart, Grosse Point Farms. . . 1885 79. Akeley Hall, Grand Haven 1889 80. St. Mary's Academy, Monroe 1890 81. Detroit School for Boys, Detroit 1890 82. Cleary Business College, Ypsilanti 1891 83. Benton Harbor Collegiate Institute, Benton Harbor. . 1892 84. Ferris Institute, Big Rapids 1894 85. Michigan Business and Normal College, Battle Creek. 1896 86. International Business College, Saginav/ 1896 87. Nazareth Academy, Nazareth 1897 88. Grand Rapids Business University, Grand Rapids. . . . 1897 89. Fenton Normal School and Business College, Fenton.. 1898 90. Ludington Business College, Ludington 1898 91. Academy for Ladies of the Loretto, Sault Ste. Marie. . 1898 92. St. Mary's School, Sault Ste. Marie 1898 93. Ursuline Academy, St. Ignace 1899 94. Benzonia Academy, Benzonia 1900 95. Jackson Business University, Jackson 1901 96. Detroit University School, Detroit 1901 97. Holy Rosary Academy, Bay City 1901 98. Cedar Lake Academy, Cedar Lake 1902 99. Parson's Business College, Kalamazoo 1906 100. Valley City Commercial School, Grand Rapids 1907 This list evidences the repeated attempts that were made in certain communities to secure a permanent and successful school. It also discloses the variety of titles that were employed to designate schools of the type imder consideration. A third and highly interesting fact deduced from the list is the wonderful acceleration of the The Academy Movement i6i academy movement immediately following the suspension of the university branches in 1847 and the gradual abatement of the movement after the legal establishment of public high schools in 1859. The period of seeming depression between 1850 and 1855 is explained by the fact that the revised constitution of the former date forbade granting charters save under the operation of a general law.^ Such a law was not enacted imtil 1855. It is also to be observed that most of the private institu- tions of the academy type founded since 1880 have been either business schools or academic schools established imder the control of Catholic orders. As already pointed out, most of these academical insti- tutions aimed to give an extended and varied elementary and secondary course of study, but with the emphasis always upon the latter phase. Superintendent Shearman, in his report of 1850, speaks of the incorporated schools thus: "Several of these institutions are doing valuable service to the cause, not only in preparing students for the University, but in bestowing the means upon many of acquiring not only a good, but a classical education."^ While all of these schools were legally recognized by the state, no financial aid was ever granted them. As we have seen in other chapters, provisions for education in Michigan — and for the most part in other states, too — have, until a comparatively recent date, been incon- gruous and inconsistent in the extreme. The laws afforded a college or university course free to all, and likewise the rudiments of a general elementary education ; but they left a wide gap between the two, over which every individual was forced to help himself as best he 1 All the charters granted up to 185 1 were granted by special legislative enact- ments. 2 Joint Documents, 1850, No. 6, p. 11. 12 1 62 Public Secondary Education might. To be sure, the Catholepistemiad had held up another ideal, as did also the later state laws establishing the university with branches. But even in the branches, education was not free. Still, the tuition was nominal. When the branches declined, the gulf between higher and lower education was aggravatingly apparent — de jure as well as de facto. Then it was that the academies exerted their powers to bridge the chasm, but people were not wholly satisfied. In general, the friends of education in Michigan at this time may be divided into three classes. One division insisted that the constitution required the regents of the university to maintain the branches, and looked to the courts for the enforcement of the law. A second party, holding that the regents were within their statutory powers, argued however that justice to the children of the state, to the university, and to the academies them- selves demanded that the legislature should provide financial support for the private institutions that were willing to comply with certain fair legal requirements. The third class, as we shall see in the following chapter, looked to the expansion and development of the ele- mentary schools as the true solution. Their plan was to make these schools the institutions of secondary training. Of course there was a fourth party that was more or less indifferent to the whole matter, and urged that events be left to work themselves out as they might. All the superintendents up to 1850 hoped and advised that the branches be reestablished and maintained by the state. Superintendent Mayhew, however, in his re- ports for 1855-57, urged upon the legislature the duty of taking over the various academies and seminaries, and of subsidizing them generously. But events were opposed The Academy Movement 163 to both these plans, for by this date the union school had conquered. After a last noble effort the private secondary schools of Michigan gave up the struggle for supremacy and slowly but surely were forced almost entirely out of the field. A few labored on, joined from time to time by new recruits who seemed to think there was a favorable opening for a rehabilitation of the old form. Most, however, in time ceased to exist, or were transformed into colleges, and have continued more or less successful existences down to the present day.^ While some of the academical institutions were estab- lished by religious denominations, the majority seem to have been purely secular in natiu^e and were organized by stock companies. The earlier charters usually made no mention of the amount of stock to be subscribed, but merely gave the organizers the power to "acquire, hold, and convey property, real and personal." Later charters contained clauses limiting the amount of the capital stock and specifying the par value of the shares. The amount of capitalized stock varied with the size of the towns in which the companies were to operate, and with the enthusiasm of the day. In the '40's, stock companies, capitalized at $50,000 or $25,000, were not uncommon. Later, $10,000 seems to have been the more usual siun, though instances of $5,000 or even $1,000 are not lacking.^ Shares ranged in value from $5 to $50 each. The number of trustees ranged from five to twenty-one.^ In the earlier charters the specific aim of the insti- tutions was not mentioned at all. Later charters contain 1 Kalamazoo College developed out of the Michigan and Huron Institute in 1855. Spring Arbor Academy was merged with the Wesleyan Seminary and Female College at Albion and became Albion College in 1861. Olivet Institute became Olivet College in 1859. 2 Spring Arbor Seminary in 1835 was capitalized at $30,000; Marshall Academy, White Pigeon, in 1836, at $20,000; tjtica Female Academy, in 1844, at Js,ooo; Adrian Seminary in 1846, Raisin Institute in 1847, and Howell Academy in 1848, each at Sio.ooo; Clinton Institute, 1850, at $1,000. 3 Joint Documents, 1851, pp. 497 ff. 1 64 Public Secondary Education expressions like these: "for the instruction of young persons in the ancient and modem languages, or litera- tures, and the arts and sciences";^ "an institution of learning for instruction of persons in the various branches of literature and the arts and sciences. "^ The limits of this work preclude the consideration of any one of these academies in detail. Still, some of the charters contain peculiarly interesting provisions which help to make clear the popular educational thought of the times. That the University of Michigan was to be considered the standardizing institution is evidenced by the follov/ing provisions found in the charters of Michigan Central College and of Marshall College, respectively. One reads there: "The course of study pursued in said college shall be in all respects as comprehensive and thorough as that required or which shall hereafter be required in the University of Michigan."^ Also: "The primary degrees shall not be conferred on any students who shall not have passed through a course of studies, similar or equivalent to, and at least as thorough as that prescribed by the regents of the University for candidates for like degrees."^ We also find several interesting provisions respecting religion. Section lo of the charter of Marshall College reads: "No religious test whatever shall be required from any stockholder, trustee, teacher, or pupil, nor shall the tenets of any particular religious denomination be inculcated in said academy."^ And again: "No person shall be excluded from any 1 Found in section 2 of the charter of Leoni Seminary in 1848. Also found in the charter of Olivet Institute, and others. 2 Found in section 2 of the charter for Tecumseh Institute in 1849. 3 Section 14 of an act amendatory to the act chartering Michigan Central College, 1850. (Joint Documents, 1851, No. 121, p. 500.) 4 Found in section 9 of act incorporating Marshall College, 1839. {Joint Documents, 1851, No. 60, p. 51 1.) 5 Incorporating act. (See Report, I8S2, p. 499. sec. 10.) The Academy Movement 165 privilege, immunity, or situation in said college on account of his religious opinions, provided he demean himself in a sober, peaceable, and orderly manner and conform to the rules and regulations thereof."^ With respect to the chartered Catholic institutions, several seemingly strange provisions are found. The charter of St. Philip's College at Detroit was made out to a single person, namely, "the Bishop of Detroit and his successors in said office of Bishop of Detroit duly appointed by the See at Rome."^ The charter granted to St. Mary's Academy (Catholic) at Bertrand declared that "said corporation shall not hold any real estate more than five years after they shall have become owners of the same, except such real estate as shall be necessary for the objects of the corporation." Again: "The amount of real and personal property which said corporation may hold shall not at any time exceed $50,000." Still again: "No deed or devise of land made to said corporation by any person or persons during his or her last sickness shall be valid. "^ One sees in these provisions an effort to prevent any educational or religious corporation from securing and holding enormous properties that should be exempt from state taxation.^ The restrictions did not apply to Cath- olic institutions alone. Provisions similar to the above are found in many other charters, especially in those granted to literary associations whose aim was not avowedly to serve the entire public. The charter of the Woodstock Manual Labor Institute 1 Section 4 of incorporating act of Michigan Central College in 1845. {Joint Documents, 185 1, No. 32, p. 499.) 2 Section i of incorporating law. (Joint Documents, 1831, p. SI3-) 3 Sentences taken from section I of the incorporating act. (Joint Documents, i8si. p. 538.) 4 St. Mary's Academy was later moved two or three miles southward across the line into Indiana, where apparently less restrictive laws prevailed. It is now one of the most notable and wealthy Catholic schools in the country, and has large real-estate holdings. 1 66 Public Secondary Education contains this statement of aim: it is "for instruction of persons of color, and others, in ancient and modem languages or hteratures, and arts and sciences."^ This is the only school I find that expressly includes in its aim the intention to give instruction to negroes. The institution, however, was short lived. The incorporating act of the Oakland Female Seminary, 1849, declares that "no male teacher shall at any time hereafter forever be employed in the seminary hereby incorporated. "2 This school seems not to have had a long existence either. Like their predecessors — the academies of the eighteenth century — these quasi-public institutions of the nine- teenth century (when they succeeded at all) exerted a re- markable influence on the life of the communities in which they were located. They were, to a large degree, truly people's colleges. In them youths of scant financial means secured a fairly extensive and thorough literary training.' They also received here what is of even more value — a groimding in the fundamental principles of the ethical, religious, and social sides of life. In these schools the youths mingled on an equal footing with their fellows. The training received in them made for social leadership and social betterment. In the truest sense, these schools were schools of social democracy. Nevertheless, they were select schools. After all, only the few attended them, and these few were apt to be the sons and daughters of the more prosperous citizens, or were young men and yoimg women who by temperament, 1 Section 2, Joint Documents, 1851, No. 42, p. 530. 2 Section 9, Joint Documents, 1851, No. 168, p. 532. 3 I am unable to find an account of the average expenses of a youth in one of these academies. President Fairfield of Hillsdale College reported in 185S that the annual expenses there were as follows: tuition, $20; room rent, $6 to lo per year; incidental expenses $2 to S3 per year; board in College Hall, $1.50 per week (with tea and coffee, 5i. 75) ; board m private families (room, furniture, and fuel included), $2 per week. This would have equaled between ISs.and $95 per year. The expenses in the academies could not have been much different. The Academy Movement 167 nature, and ambition belonged to the superior ranks. Hence, like the branches and the old-time Latin school, the academies had their enemies, who charged them with being exclusive, snobbish, and undemocratic institutions, and sought their overthrow. This hostile attitude on the part of many, coupled with other circumstances, doubtless accounts in large measure for the shifting fortunes experienced by so many of these schools, and finally for their gradual disappear- ance. There are snobs in Michigan, but the people as a whole are intensely democratic, and hate any contrary pretense. *" Discipline in these academical schools was not severe, but it was expected to be sufficiently rigid to check evil temptations and to inculcate a wholesome respect for law, for the social proprieties, and for individual tastes. The schools were usually sufficiently small to enable the students to come into immediate personal contact with the teachers,^ and most of these, we must believe, were men and women of noble ideals and gentle manners. One v of the most enjoyable and beneficial practices found in many schools was the weekly, or daily, hour devoted to "General Exercises," when questions of vital importance to morals, manners, faith, and knowledge were discussed by the principal before the entire assembled school. Not infrequenily this hour was devoted to opening the "question box" and to discussing in a frank, sympathetic, and fluent way any pertinent questions that might have been asked by the students.^ By many, the principal's views were regarded as spoken ex cathedra. The school buildings were usually situated on the most 1 For example, Clinton Institute in 1850 had 75 students and three teachers. (Report, 1851, p. 75.) Olivet had about 95 students, with five instructors, and Vermontville, in 1862, had 38 students with two instructors. (Report, 1853, p. 182.) 2 Mention is made of this practice in an article by M. D. Osband in Michigan Pioneer Collections, Vol. 18, p. 657. 1 68 Public Secondary Education sightly spot in the town, and were surrounded by spacious grounds covered over with the shade of a natural grove. Here is the beginning of attention to the aesthetic side of school training. The program of studies not infrequently was drawn to include elementary instruction in the English language, and advanced subjects which might or might not include the classics. The emphasis, however, was always laid upon the post-elementary instruction. This was real secondary work, and was the true ideal the academy set for itself. All instruction that was offered as preparatory to this was given to accommodate older students whose early advantages had been limited. However, many schools offered no elementary, preparatory course. As a rule the academy period proper extended over three years divided into three terms of thirteen, fourteen, or fifteen weeks each. The subject-matter was arranged in "departments." For example, the Wesleyan Semi- nary, in its report for 185 1, stated that the " Departments in this institution consist of the following branches of study, viz.: (i) Moral and Intellectual Science; (2) Natural Science; (3) Ancient Language and Elocution; (4) Mathematics; (5) Modem Language; (6) Belles Lettres; (7) Primary English Literature, and (8) Fine Arts."i Tuition charges depended upon the work taken. For illustration, in 1850, Clinton Institute, Mt. Clemens, published the following announcement of fees for the quarter of eleven weeks : For Elementary Branches $ 3 00 For Common English Branches 4 . 00 For Higher English Branches 5.00 For Latin, Greek, and French 6 . 00 For Music 8.00 1 Superintendent's Report, 1831, p. 67- The Academy Movement 169 Naturally the programs of study differed somewhat with different institutions. Still, since the ideals were nearly the same, the work offered was similar. The courses were regulated by the popular demands, which in turn varied with the traditions and ambitions of the institution itself and of the community it was designed to serve. One program m^ust suffice as an illustration. In 1856 Wesley an Seminary offered the following:^ First Term Mental Arithmetic; Elocution; Rhetoric; Geometry, begun; Geog- raphy of the Heavens; Bookkeeping; Botany; Political Economy; Astronomy; Governmental Instructor. 2 Second Term English Composition; Analj^sis of Words; Ancient Geography; Universal History; Geometry, completed; Trigonometry; Mental Philosophy; Elements of Criticism; Evidences of Christianity; Natural Theology. Third Term Modern Geography; History of the United States; Survey- ing and Navigation; Mental Philosophy; Logic; Agricultural Chemistry; Animal Chemistry; Analogy of Religion; Geology; Mineralogy. Every Term EngHsh Grammar; Analysis of Language; Written Arithmetic; Higher Arithemetic; Elementary Algebra; Higher Algebra; Anatomy and Physiology; Natural Philosophy; Chemistry; Drawing, Painting, Music; Greek, Latin, French, and German. One readily observes from this program that the old, iron-clad, restrictive classical course has completely broken down and disappeared. The classics are offered 1 President's report found in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1855-57, P- 411- At this date the seminary enrolled 235 students. Above the seminary, and influencnig it. was the female college. This fact doubtless accounts for the variety and richness of program found here. Surely few of the smaller academies could parallel it. 2 This last 1 take to mean to indicate a handbook in civics, the president apparently naming the textbook in lieu of describing the course offered. lyo Public Secondary Ediication for those who desire to pursue them, but they here take theu- place on a parity with the other subjects — neither above nor below them. Modern languages have also come into full recognition. In place of a few subjects of study pursued for a long time the poHcy is here reversed. Here is an extensive and rich menu, offered, however, in small quantities. The student perforce came out of the seminary knowing a little about many things and not much about any one. The age of specialization for every individual — even before he passed out of the field of secondary education — had not yet arrived. Naturally, in this period of particularism, the textbooks in use varied greatly. Still, a few standard books are found in nearly every school. Among the familiar ones may be mentioned: Wayland's texts on Moral and Mental Philosophy; Paley's Evidences of Christianity, and his Natural Theology; Butler's Analogy; Packer's Natural Philosophy; Davies' mathematical series; New- man's Rlietoric; Agassiz's Zoology; and Fasquelle's French text. As an indication of the popularity of the various sub- jects, the following list of students' elections may be valuable. In the Young Ladies' Seminary at Monroe, the president reports, for the year 1850: ^ "The pupils have pursued the following studies: Latin, 12; French, 9; Instrumental Music, 17; Drawing, 34; Vocal Music, the entire school;^ Algebra, 58; Geometry, 9; Chemistry, 15; Natural Philosophy, 25; Moral Science, 4; Physiology and Anatomy, 34; Arithmetic, 123; Astronomy, 20; Geology, 9; Grammar, 94." From the foregoing list, as well as from other data we have considered in this chapter, it is clearly manifest 1 Report of Public Instruction, 1850, p. 79- 2 The school enrolled at this time, about 125. The Academy Movement 171 that the "elective system" of studies, in fact if not in name, was in full operation in many if not all of the academical institutions of the state even before the middle of the last century. Students who expected to be gradu- ated were, it is true, required to pursue a rather definite course of studies. Those, however, who had only a limited time at their disposal were frequently allowed to take up the subjects for which they were fitted, and for which they had an especial desire. Very naturally, then, we shall find that these institu- tions set the standards and furnished the ideals and the models for the public high schools that were just then arising. An enriched curriculum, a flexible curriculum, a more or less "practical" ctirriculimi, became the rule. If there was not always free choice for the pupil, there were at least two separate and distinct curricula open for his election — the Classical and the English. Sometimes a third, styled the Modem Language Course, was offered. All these were carried over into the high school. The academies likewise bequeathed the example of coeducation, if not in all, at least in many of their institutions. This practice, too, became the natural and imconscious ideal of the evolving high schools. We shall trace the details later. CHAPTER VIII The Rise and Development of the Union Schools THE third channel through which secondary education in Michigan was moving during the twenty years preceding i860 was that of the union schools. In fact, it is from these that the present-day high schools take their immediate rise and their distinctive form. While the branches of the university and the private and denomi- national academies and seminaries contributed much of the spirit and not a little of the internal workings and methods of the high schools, the external shape, the admin- istration, and the financial support of these have been evolved almost wholly from the operation of principles that tmderlay and produced the union schools. Indeed, in many towns and villages in Michigan to-day the local high school is still recognized and spoken of as the "Union School" — what was originally only a department of the school having assiuned to itself the name and essence of the whole. ^ We have already seen that the period between 1840 and i860 was one of hesitancy and halting in matters of secondary education in Michigan. Indeed, there was no definite settled state poHcy respecting the question tmtil about the latter date. One party or faction had set up one ideal, and another, another. Each sought, by proselyting, to rally to its support sufficient strength to carry through its program. Meantime the legislature assumed a more or less neutral attitude and waited to be guided by the survival 1 1 have frequently, in my visits through Michigan, heard the high school thus designated. 172 The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 173 of the fittest. Of course, educational statutes were en- acted, but few or none of them were drastic in their requirements or partial in their principles. The repre- sentatives of each school party received some recognition. Nevertheless, the legislature on the whole assumed a laissez /aire demeanor. It refused to appropriate addi- tional money for the maintenance of the branches; it refused to subsidize the private schools and academies; and it refused to make provision for secondary education, directly, in any other way. But, meanwhile, the popular demand, silently expressed, was steadily making for free, secular, state-supported secondary schools. When this quiet growth had assumed proportions that were irre- sistible, the legislature and the courts came to its support with specific legal aids. In an earlier chapter we have seen that the state constitution declared for a system of primary schools to be kept up in every district for a minimum period each year, and to be supported, in part at least, out of the public treasury. We have also called attention to the confusion that arose respecting the school lands and the Primary School Fund, and to the abuses that followed the rise of the spirit of excessive democratization that reached its height in the fourth decade of the past century. So- far as this last factor bore on education, its most serious and evil effect was the establishment of the pubhc- school system with the small, independent school district as the imit. So distrustfiil were the people of that generation of anything bordering on the centralization of power, and so opposed were the settlers of Michigan, in particular, to the perpetuation of the earlier French ideas, that any thought or plan of building a school system on the township basis was easily and successfully opposed. Hence Michigan was, and in part is yet, 174 Public Secondary Education bound to a system that has been very retarding, to say the least, in its effects. The sparseness of population in Michigan up to 1840 made the district system less irritatingly felt than it might otherwise have been.^ Still, especially in the larger tovms, the plan was not working well. For example, at this time Detroit, with a population of ten thousand, was spUt into eight separate and distinct dis- tricts, each with its district school and its district school officers.2 The condition was fast becoming intolerable. In 1842, therefore, the legislature came to the relief of the city by enacting a law consoHdating the various dis- tricts of Detroit and providing for one school authority over all.^ This act marks the first effective step toward modi- fying the district-school plan. For the first time in the state an incorporated city or town was made the imit for the local administration of schools. Still, Detroit did not at once establish a union school with an aca- demical department. In this respect she was beaten by several other towns. Detroit's academical department was not created until 1848.* Meanwhile, throughout the state, demands were being made for similar legislation that would permit the estab- lishment of imion-school districts in the larger towns. 1 The population of the state in 1840 was 212,267. In 1838 there were only two chartered cities — Detroit and Monroe — and twenty-three incorporated villages and towns. (Farmer's History of Detroit, pp. 740 ff.) 2 Ibid., p. 743. 3 This act, approved February 17. 1842, provided that henceforth "all schools organized therein (Detroit), in pursuance of this act shall, under the direction and regulation of the Board of Education, be public and free to all children residing within the limits thereof, between the ages of five and seventeen inclusive." It provided tor the election of twelve school inspectors (two from each ward) who, together with the mayor and the recorder, were to constitute the Board of Education for the entire city. The same law authorized the common council of Detroit to assess and levy each year for school purposes a tax upon all real and personal property in the city up to the amount of one dollar per child of school age. {Joint Documents, 1851, No. 70 p. 49i-) ,„ • 4 At first there were two grades — a primary and a middle — m each ward. Later there were six primary and three middle in the whole city. In 1848 there were thirteen primary and four middle schools. (Farmer's History of Detroit, p. 743-) The Rise atid Development oj the Union Schools 175 What was good for Detroit was likewise good, it was argued, for all villages and towns of any considerable size. Not only would a single district with a single school and a single set of officers be vastly more economical to the people of the community, but it would permit the carrying on of a school vastly more efficient. In a union district better salaries could be paid, better teachers secured, and enthusiasm of numbers could be generated. The imion school would also permit the grading of pupils according to their attainments, and thus bring greater zest and emulation into the classroom, where all would be nearly equal. Grading would also permit organizing the work on the departmental plan, and would thus enable teachers to devote their time to the particular subjects for which they were best prepared, and for which they had a natiu-al aptitude. These were the arguments laid before the legislature by the friends of the imion schools. In response to this appeal the legislature in 1843 enacted another law which gave to the local officers per- missive authority to organize imion schools anywhere. The important sections of that law read as follows:^ "Whenever the board of inspectors of any township shall deem that the interests of any of the schools will be best promoted by so doing, they may form a single dis- trict out of any two or more districts therein and classify the pupils in such districts into two or more classes, according to their proficiency and advancement in learn- ing, and require that such pupils be taught in distinct schools or departments as classified by them; and such district may have the same number of schoolhouses, if 1 These are sections 92 and 93 of the compiled laws of 1846. See Joint Docu- ments, 1851, p. 397. 176 Public Secondary Education necessary, and raise the same amount of taxes which the original districts forming the same could raise if not tmited." The inspectors were also authorized "on the appli- cation of the district board of any district, to classify the pupils therein in the manner prescribed in the pre- ceding section, and require that such pupils be taught in distinct departments, whenever they shall judge that the interest of the school will be best promoted thereby." ^ Amendments to this law in the next year or so author- ized any district having more than a himdred pupils of school age ^ to enlarge its board of trustees to seven mem- bers, provided two-thirds of the voters at any annual meeting so decided. The district board was also given power to "graduate the price of tuition according to the studies pursued by the scholars respectively." ^ From the above sections it is to be observed that, while graded schools are here provided, they are in no sense free public schools. A tuition or "rate" was authorized in every district* to be collected from the residents of the district, as well as from the non-resident students attend- ing that school. Nothing, however, is stated in the law respecting the scope of the work to be offered in these schools. That was left wholly to local settlement. Under the original law some little advance apparently was made by the more progressive inspectors, but no really full-fledged graded school issued. Superintendent Comstock, through his reports of 1844 and 1845, gave his support to the movement and urged immediate action by the different towns. "The consoHdation of districts in our cities and rising villages is highly desirable." said 1 Section 93 of the same compiled laws. 2 The school age was now from four to eighteen. ^Amendment to Section 93. (See Joint Documents, 1851, p. 398.) * Detroit was exempt from this law. Her schools were free by the law of 1842. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 177 he in his report of 1845.^ "These graduated schools," he continued, "would obviate the necessity of select seminaries. Education obtained in these is always more expensive than it would be if imparted in the graduated school . . . The necessity of select schools is founded in the imperfect character of the primary schools. Ele- vate these, and the select schools will be superseded." This quotation leaves no doubt as to which party Mr. Comstock favored in the three-cornered fight for control of the secondary schools of Michigan. In a similar way, Superintendent Mayhew, in his report for 1848, urges upon boards the desirability of organizing their schools under the provisions of the revised law. "A considerable number of districts have already availed themselves of this provision," said he, "and several large and commodious Union School houses have been built in which schools are in successful opera- tion. Other similar houses are now in process of erection and taxes have been voted in other cases with reference to building another season." "In that school [that is, the imion school] are combined all the advantages of the well conducted common school, the academy for yoimg gentlemen and the seminary for young ladies. Children may there commence v/ith the alphabet and pass from one grade to another until, on leaving the school, they are prepared to enter an}^ college or University in the United States." "Union schools should be established at the earliest practicable period, in every county of this state, and in all the principal villages, in which students may qualify themselves for the University. Union schools constitute the only reliable connecting link between the primary school and the State University. " ^ 1 Joint Documents, 1851, p. 457. 2 Report of 1848, Joint Documents, i8si, p. 458. 13 178 Piiblic Secondary Education Mr. Mayhew then adds a list of the advantages such schools possess. I content myself with merely giving his main headings without his detailed arguments. These are : 1. They are open to all and embrace a more extensive and com- plete course of study than otherwise would be practicable. 2. They may be made better than either the common or the select schools. 3. They are cheaper than any other schools. 4. They are democratic institutions. 5. They afford a good substitute for normal schools or teachers' seminaries. 6. They perform the office of a preparatory school for colleges. Although Mr. Mayhew was ambitious to see these schools made preparatory schools for colleges and the universities, apparently, at the time he wrote, this view was shared by few. Rather, the union school was gen- erally expected to take the place of the local academy and to give the youth of the neighborhood a good foun- dation in the elementary and secondary subjects that would fit them for their places in the active affairs of the community, and would train them in moral, religious, and social principles. Probably the first village to organize a union school under the law of 1843 was Jonesville, in 1845, though the school was not opened and in operation imtil two or three years later. From this date the more important towns of the state, one by one, took the advanced step and con- verted their ungraded schools into union or graded schools. There was, of course, at this time, no fixed or ideal standard to which the various schools sought to approxi- mate themselves. Each community went its own way and established a school that seemed good in its own eyes and adapted to the local needs. Nevertheless, the dif- ferences of a homogeneous people are usually more superficial than real. There was, therefore, ahnost of The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 179 necessity, a close agreement among all these schools, — in aim, organization, administration, programs of study, equipment, textbooks, internal workings, methods, and results. Obviously, in a book of this kind, it is impos- sible and imdesirable to deal, in a detailed way, with the characteristics of any one school. We shall have to content ourselves with deducing general principles and illustrating these with a few concrete facts. Almost all these union schools were organized into two, three, four, or five different departments under different names. The program of studies ranged from the merest elements of knowledge up to, and including, subjects now found only in the colleges and universities. Hence the divisions or departments were given names suggestive of the grade of work included. The earlier schools usually had four departments, though sometimes five. The later more commonly classified the work into three divisions. All had a primary department, and many had an academical department. Between these two extremes were found the secondary, the intermediate, and the gram- mar departments, and other designated departments.' In some schools the academical department was made to include the grammar department and the high school. The full course in the perfectly organized schools was usually eleven or twelve years in length, three years being devoted to each of the four common departments: primary, intermediate, grammar, and higher depart- ments. Later it was more usual to find the primary, grammar, and high departments, with four years devoted to each. 1 The following illustrations will show the variety of usage: (a) Jonesville had primary, secondary, grammar, and higher departments; (b) Monroe had the same designations; (c) Niles had ist primary, 2d primary, intermediate, grammar, and high; (a!) Plymouth had ist department, 2d department, and 3d department; (e) St. Clair had primary, secondary, intermediate, and higher; (J) Sturgis had primary, secondary, third department, and high school; (g) Ypsilanti had primary, secondary, grammar, and academical. I So Public Secondary Education The year was divided into three or four terms and con- sisted usually of forty or more weeks.^ The school day was ordinarily six hours in length, but there was no uniformity as to just what six hours.^ At the outset there was usually but one school building in the town, and this accommodated all grades.^ As the town grew the main or luiion school building continued to be used for the upper departments, and ward buildings were erected for the primary departments. As the union school building became more and more overcrowded, one grade after another was forced out and was quartered in the ward buildings, until, in time, by this process of division, the union building was often given over entirely to the academical or high-school department. Up to 1856, however, and perhaps later, there was in Michigan no true high school in the sense of an institution of secondary learning set apart from the middle or grade school and offering advanced education only.* Indeed, the true high-school period did not begin in Michigan until the passage of the law of 1859. Just as there was a division and a separation of grades in separate buildings, so there gradually developed a differentiation of fimctions among the teachers. Before the union-school era each district had its one teacher who was administrator, teacher, truant officer, clerk, and janitor — a veritable jack-of-all-trades. With the division of the school into grades there was usually one head master, or principal, with one or more teaching assist- ants. With the removal of the primary department from the main bmlding there arose the office (though for a 1 Of the twenty-seven schools reporting in 1859, fourteen had 40 weeks of school; one had 41; eight had 42; one had 43; and two had 44. One only had fewer than 40 weeks. This was Cassopolis, with 36. (See Report of Public Instruction, 1859, p. 234-) 2 Report of Detroit School. (Report, 1850, p. 156.) 3 Exception must of course be made of the larger towns. * Report, 1855-57. p. 52. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools i8i time, to be sure, unrecognized by title) of superintendent. This function still fell to the lot of the head of the aca- demical department, who at first was designated "Prin- cipal of the Schools."^ This process was repeated when the grammar department was set off from the higher or academical department, and not infrequently one of the assistant teachers was designated as assistant to the principal, having charge of the grammar department. As the evolution went on the term "principal" came to denote the head master or head mistress of any building or department. This practice then necessitated the employ- ment of a new title to distinguish the highest adminis- trative official of the whole system, and consequently "^ there arose the designation "Superintendent of Schools." | Thus, here as elsewhere in modem life, a complexity of duties led to a division of labor, a continuous differen- tiation of function, and the creation of a hierarchy of authority. To meet the needs of the new type of schools most towns and cities were forced to erect new school buildings, and these became the pride and boast of the community. Copied somewhat closely from the academies, these structures occupied the choicest available plot of groimd in the town, and, where possible, stood upon a command- ing hill in the midst of a natural grove. The first buildings were often only two stories in height ; the later ones were, with few exceptions, three stories. Although land was cheap and there was an abundance of room to build out laterally, the architects of the day would have none of that style. Two or three flights of steep stairways seem to have been regarded as essential for any model union-school building, and not infrequently one or two 1 Oftentimes, too, the academical department was spoken of as the principal's department. 1 82 Public Secondary Education other flights led still higher to the tower and the belfry. Another usually led down into a basement.^ The record, "an ample and spacious building 60 ft. long by 40 ft. wide, and three stories in height," is a familiar one in the reports of these schools. Salaries, as one might expect, were low, — shamefully and criminally low. If the total expense of conducting the entire school for a year averaged much over two hun- dred and fifty or three himdred dollars for the teachers employed, the school board was thought needlessly extravagant. Here are a few illustrations taken from the reports of 1859: Pay $ 9 and $ 4 per week, respectively $ 750 per year, collectively 3,370 per year, collectively 750 per year, collectively 740 per year, collectively 960 per year, collectively 2,316 per year, collectively 694 per year, collectively 2,105 per year, collectively 3,500 per year, collectively 5,470 per year, collectively When one recalls that the principal's salary was con- siderably larger than that of his assistants, one can well guess how slimly these latter fared. Indeed, a salary of one hundred seventy-five to two htmdred dollars for a primary teacher, and two hundred to three hundred 1 There are several of these old union-school buildings still standing throughout the state, and the material conditions in some are as bad as the above statement would indicate. The author recalls a visit to one such school two or three years ago in which the high-school students occupied the third floor, seventy-two steps above the ground. Besides being forced to ascend and descend these stairs four times a day at least, many students in addition went up into the tower twice each day, and down into the basement once each day to attend classes held there. If any went outside the building at recess there were four additional trips up arid down the seventy-two steps. In addition to the danger to physical health m general, the building was a veritable firetrap. Fortunately, the present generation is rapidly abandoning this type of building. Town No. OF Teachers Almont 2 Ann Arbor 3 Battle Creek 10 Bay City Cassopolis Charlotte 2 3 3 Coldwater 8 Eaton Rapids Flint 3 6 Niles 9 Ypsilanti 17 The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 1 83 for an intermediate teacher, was the ruling scale. ^ The programs of studies in these schools, as we have already hinted, varied greatly with the pride and ambi- tion of the community and the funds at the disposal of the board. There was no close articulation between the dif- ferent departments in any school. Admission to the academic or high-school department from the grammar- school department was in these earlier schools upon examination, and examination only.^ This included, usually, arithmetic, grammar, geography, reading, pen- manship, composition," and declamation.^ Sometimes also, as at Adrian, algebra, physiology, book-keeping or drawing, and United States history were required. The program of studies in the academical or high-school department was usually, from the first, divided into two courses — the English and the Classical. Every school offered the English course, and the larger and more ambitious schools had both. One or two illustrative programs must suffice for our purpose. In 1858 the English course in the Ann Arbor High School was as follows: First Half Year: Elementary Algebra; Elementary Composi- tion; Physiology. Second Half Year: Davies' University Arithmetic; English Grammar; Physical Geography. Third Half Year: Geometry; Rhetoric; History. Fourth Half Year: Geometry (finished); Natural History; English Literature; Elements of Criticism; History. Fifth Half Year: Olmstead's Natural Philosophy; Mental Philosophy; Chemistry; Geology. Sixth Half Year: Natural Philosophy (finished) ; Botany; Reviews. lln 1858 Flint paid her teachers as follows: Principal, J8oo; first assistant, $260; second assistant, $220; teachers of intermediate department, S240: two teachers of primary department, S200 each. {Reports, 1858, p. 458.) This same year the salaries m the Detroit schools ranged from S200 to Sooo. (Ibid., p. 451.) In Grand Rapids salaries were from $220 to $1,000. {Ibid., p. 463.) 2 At least, I have found no records to the contrary. 3 Report of Ann Arbor, for example, in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1858. 1 84 Public Secondary Education In addition to the above there was offered, as optional subjects, a two years' course in French and in German. ^ The Classical Course for the same school for this year was: In Latin: Harkness' First Latin Book; Latin Reader; Caesar; Cicero's Select Orations; Arnold's Latin Prose Composition; and Vergil. In Greek: Kuehner's Greek Grammar and Exercises; Greek Reader or Anabasis; Arnold's Greek Prose Composition; Review. 2 A few years earlier than this Battle Creek offered the following program:* First Year First Term: Arithmetic; English Grammar; Physical Geography ; Latin ; French. Second Term: Algebra; English Language; Physical Geography; Latin; French. Third Term: Algebra; Rhetoric and English Literature; Book- keeping; Latin; French. Reading and Spelling throughout the the year. Second Year First Term: Geometry; Rhetoric and English Literature; Chemistry; Latin; French; Greek; German. Second Term: Geometry and Trigonometry; Chemistry; Natural Philosophy; Latin; French; Greek; German. Third Term: Trigonometry and Surveymg ; Physiology; Botany; Latin; French; Greek; German. Third Year First Term: Botany; History; Zoology; Latin; French; Greek; German. Second Term: History; Astronomy; Mental Philosophy; Latin; French; Greek; German; Drawing. Third Term: Political Economy; Moral Philosophy; Geology; Latin; French; Greek; German; Drawing. Declamations, Com- positions, etc., throughout the year. lAt the time of the report thirty-four were pursuing the study of French, and twelve of German. (Report, 1858, p. 440.) 2 At this time fifty-five were studying Latin and eighteen Greek. 3 Report, 1852, p. 587. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 185 The above programs suggest the scope and variety of work offered in the average school of the stronger types. Apparently a pupil was expected at the outset of his high-school career to select either the English or the Classical Course and to continue in it without break to the end. The only real flexibility was found in the options allowed in the modem languages.^ In some schools, however, a decided tendency is observed to incorporate in the high-school program of studies subjects that are now usually confined to the grammar school. In still others, advanced subjects that approach the courses of the university were found. Grand Rapids, for example, in 1858 offered this course in its higher department: Spelling, reading, penmanship, geography, grammar, mental arithmetic, written arith- metic, history, algebra, geometry, book-keeping, science of government, rhetoric, physiology, natural philosophy, astronomy, French, Latin, composition, and declamation.^ At this same time Ypsilanti offered this rich program in its academical department : Elocutionary reading, uni- versity arithmetic, algebra and Bourdon,^ geometry and trigonometry, grammar, English analysis, ancient and modem history, natural philosophy, logic, rhetoric, ele- ments of criticism, evidences of Christianity, original and selected declamations and compositions, Latin, Greek, French, German, and music. The last five were optional. lUntil 1859 no classical studies were taught in any of the Detroit schools, although the president reported in 1858 that their program of studies covered "the whole range of elementary instruction from ABC up to Trigonometry." (Report, 1858. p. 4SI.) 2 Report, 1858, p. 465. 3 Louis Pierre Marie Bourdon (1799-1854), a French mathematician, was the author of several published mathematical works, among them: Elements d' Alg'ebre (1815); Elements d'Ariihmelique (1821); Application de I'Algehre a la Geomelrie (1824); Trigonometrie rectiligue el spiriqtie (1854). Bourdon's works were adapted by Professor Davies, of West Point, and were extensively used in the United States. School authorities in arranging their courses of study often misused the word Bourdon, so that now it is difficult to decide whether his algebra, his geometry, or his transitional book. Applications of Algebra to Geometry, is meant. The context seems to imply that the last-mentioned book is intended. 1 86 Public Secondary Education Jonesville also shows a liberal spirit in this sentence: "No regular course of study," says the report, "has been prescribed. We have classes in Greek, Latin, French, German languages. Philosophy, Chemistry, Algebra, Geometry, Physiology, Astronomy, Botany, and in all the Common English Branches."^ All these programs show clearly the influence of the academy movement on the subjects of study. Prescribed courses were everywhere going out, and a principle of a more or less free choice was coming in. We must from now on expect to see the pendulum swinging more and more away from the traditional standards and toward a more modem ideal. We shall first find blazed in the forest of subjects numerous straight and narrow paths. Upon some one of these each and every pupil must enter, and, having once started, must persevere to the end or give up all attempt to go through. Again, later, we shall find that this ideal did not prove acceptable, and a more liberal principle was adopted. The pupil was now permitted to cross over from one course to another, provided he did so at certain specifically prescribed points. Still once more, we shall see, satisfactory conditions were not secured, and a modified form of older standards was set up. Thus society and the schools m.ake progress by cutting and trying, and ceaselessly making over past experiences. In these early union schools there was little or no apparatus to serve as pedagogical aids, nor any school libraries of any considerable size or significance.^ The 1 Report, 1838, p. 467. 2 Jonesville seems to have had the best supply of apparatus. It consisted of "Chemical Apparatus and full sets of large Geographical, Astronomical, and Physiological Maps, the whole costing $200." (Report, 1858, p. 467.) Grand Rapids at the same time reported the following equipment: One terrestrial globe at $12; one celestial globe at $12; one tellurion at $8; one telescope at J20; one microscope at $4.50; one horseshoe magnet at S4; one set of mechanical powers at $12; one set of cubical blocks at $1.50 Four sets outline maps, at $8 to $32; one air pump at J 16. This gives a total supply of thirteen pieces with a total value of $122. (Report, 1858, p. 463.) Most of the other schools reported no apparatus and no libraries. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 187 majority of teachers were women, though as a rule the principal was a man, and usually a college or academy graduate. Coeducation existed in every school, and to the minds of the majority of principals was highly desirable and to be recommended for continuance. A few schools — the older, larger, or better ones — declared that their academical departments had prepared youths for college or university, but for the most part the reports avow no such honor and distinction. In almost every town which reported in 1858 a part, at least, of the expense of the school was still being raised by a rate bill.^ How- ever, public sentiment was fast rising against the practice, and in many towns the amoimts thus collected were only nominal. People began to feel with Superintendent Gregory that "it were a cruel mockery for the state to proclaim a free university to its youth and at the same time to remind them they can reach it only by a heavy preliminary expense."^ As in the academies, there was no imiformity in text- books used in these early union schools. The law of the state had, from the beginning, required the Superintendent of Public Instruction to recommend books for use in the various schools, but their adoption was not made man- datory. Still, a few books had wide use. Among these may be mentioned McGuffey's Readers, Davies' mathe- matical texts, Willard's histories, Parker's Aids to English Composition, and his Natural Philosophy; and Dr. Watts' Improvement of the Mind. This, then, was the mode of development of the imion schools of Michigan, and these were their general char- acteristics and conditions in the sixth decade of the past century. Directly out of these schools, as we have already 1 Detroit, Ann Arbor, Fenton, and one or two other towns declared that the English course in their schools was free to students of their own districts. 2 Superintendent Gregory in his Report for 1859, p. 332. 1 88 Public Secondary Education stated, grew the present-day high schools of the state. The rise and development of those institutions will be left to the succeeding chapter. Not until the law of February 14, 1859, can the true high-school period in Michigan be said to have begtin. Up to that date no separation of the school statistics was made by the state authorities, so that it is difficult to present accurately the detailed facts of their immediate progenitors. In 1859 there were, however, fifty-eight graded or union districts in the state. Many of these, of course, had no academical or higher department whatever; others had only the beginnings of one. In response to circulars sent out by the Educational Department of Michigan in 1859, twenty-seven cities and towns reported on the status of their union schools. At the end of this chapter will be foimd a list of these schools, together with the most interesting data gleaned from the replies to the circular mentioned. All but eight of the twenty-seven schools reported absolutely free tui- tion for i860, though the law abolishing the rate bill did not pass until July 3, 1869.^ Meanwhile, in 1850, the constitution of the state was revised, but no changes essential to our study were made therein, save that the legislature was ordered, within five years, to provide for establishing a system of primary schools in which instruction, without any charge for tuition, was to be given at least three months in every year in every district in the state, and all instruction was to be in the English language. ^ We shall later see the trouble this last sentence caused. Union schools, of course, continued to exist after 1859, 1 It may be interesting to note that in this same year the University of Michigan reported having fifteen professors, three assistant professors, three instructors, one assistant, and 430 students. (Regents' report, 1859, in School Reports for that year, Document No. s, p. 74.) 2 Section 4 of Article XIII of the Constitution of Michigan, as drawn in 1850. The Rise and Development of the Union Schools 189 and are to-day important institutions in Michigan. For the purposes of this book, however, we have traced their history as far as we need. We shall now turn to the high school, considered in its own right. Table of Union Schools Reporting in 1859 1 Town Adrian , Almont Ann Arbor City Ann Arbor, Lower Town Bay City Battle Creek Cassopolis Charlotte Clinton Coldwater Dexter Dowagiac Eaton Rapids East Saginaw Fentonville Flint Jonesville Kalamazoo Lansing, Lower Town . . Lansing, Middle Town . . Monroe Niles Plymouth St. Clair Sturgis Tecumseh Ypsilanti No. Attend- ing II78 200 1325 200 170 183 208 619 300 245 220 367 229 340 351 941 328 320 490 450 220 540 237 500 1200 No. Teachers 15 3 18 3 2 10 3 3 4 9 5 4 3 5 3 6 5 16 3 4 8 9 3 6 4 9 17 Weeks Date of OF Organiza- SCHOOL I TION 40 42 40 42 40 42 36 42 40 42 44 42 40 42 40 40 40 40 40 40 41 40 42 40 44 40 43 1849 1859 1856 1854 1854 1847 1857 1859 1859 1853 1856 1857 1853 1853 1853 1846 1847 1859 1852 1857 1859 1856 1853 1853 1855 1852 1849 J Report, i8sQ, p. 234. There were of course many other flourishing union schools with academical departments besides these that reported. Detroit, for example, had four union schools at this time, with at least one that gave instruction of an academical grade. CHAPTER IX The High-School Era THE true high-school era in Michigan began Febru- ary 14, 1859.^ On this date the governor approved a legislative act which authorized graded-school districts to establish academical or high-school departments in their union schools. This date is therefore a turning point in the history of secondary education in the state. Academic departments, it is true, had developed in many union schools long before this time, but they had no certain and specific legal status. They were merely the natural product of the conditions of the age. Under the new law the way was opened for the establishment and expansion of these secondary schools imder more favorable and permanent conditions. From this date the zeal and enthusiasm for public high schools — particularly in the cities and larger villages — was amazing. Communities vied with each other in taxing themselves for building sites and buildings, and in providing a course of instruction that should be complete from bottom to top. The high school speedily 1 The important sections of this law read: "Any district containing more than 200 children between the ages of four and eighteen years may elect a District Board consisting of six Trustees: Provided, the District shall so determine at an annual meeting." (Sec. 147, Laws of 1859, p. 218.) Section 149 reads: ','Said Trustees shall have power to classify and grade the scholars in such District and to cause them to be taught in such schools or departments as they may deem expedient; to establish in said District a High School when ordered by a vote of the district, at any annual meeting, and to determine the qualifications of admission to such school and the prices to be paid for tuition or any branches taught therein, etc." (Laws of 1859, p. 219.) Section 150 gives the district the right to "vote at each annual meeting such sums to be raised by tax upon the taxable property of the District as may be required to maintain the several schools thereof for the year." Section 151 says: "Any two or more contiguous districts may unite to form a single district for the purpose of establishing Graded or High Schools under the provisions of this act whenever the said districts shall severally by a two-thirds vote of the legal voters attending the annual meeting agree thereto." 190 The High-School Era 191 took the place, in the popular mind, of the old academies, and this type of institution, as we have seen, was in large measure abandoned to its fate. There were, of course, for a number of years after this, whole commimities, and a greater or smaller constituency of individuals in nearly every community, that did not share the optimism or the satisfaction of the majority. To these the high school was a needless burden upon the taxpayers; an attempt to strain after the impracticable and useless; an aristocratic institution, designed and established for the aristocracy, approved by the aris- tocracy, and made up of the aristocracy. Among these was repeated the perennial falsehood: "What was good enough for father and mother is good enough for the children." Indeed, Superintendent Gregory in his report for 1859 already recognized the dangers that beset the new type of school when he declared: "There is no branch of our educational system that awakens so much hope and occasions so much solicitude as the so-called imion schools."^ However, as already stated, the establishment and expansion of the public high school went on apace. In 1859 there were in Michigan 3,968 school districts. Of these only fifty were organized into graded districts; and of these fifty not all included true academic depart- ments.2 Within twenty years, however, these figures had been enormously augmented. Naturally the events connected with the Civil War temporarily checked the advance of all schools — the high school included — but Michigan rapidly recovered from the depression incident to that struggle, and the passion for education surged 1 Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1859, p. 25. While the sentence includes a consideration of the lower grades as well as the high school, it is obvious that the thought has reference primarily to the higher or academical departments of the union school. 2 Ibid., p. 24. 192 Public Secondary Education onward again. The following table sho\\ rs the gro\ of high schools , by years, down to 1877. 1 Date of Number High Schools Established Date OF Number High Schools Established 1858 2l2 1868 12 1859 6 1869 10 i860 4 1870 6 1861 4 1871 8 1862 2 1872 4 1863 5 1873 6 1864 3 1874 3 1865 4 1875 1866 II 1876 1867 15 1877 Total 124 Thus the period from 1866 to 1873 was the time of most phenomenal advancement in the establishment of high schools in Michigan. By the end of that time practically every city in the state contained an institution of this kind. From the cities the movement spread into the larger towns and thence to the smaller villages. As the definition of a high school became more and more inclu- sive, communities that at the beginning of this era felt themselves unable or indisposed to meet the standard, began to aspire to schools of this rank. Hence, even though the cities were already provided, the high-school movement continued to develop. Many of the smaller schools, it is true, make no attempt to provide a full college-preparatory program of studies, or even to offer a full four years' high-school course. Many of them provide only three years of study beyond the eighth 1 Data taken from Reports of Superintendents of Public Instruction, 1873 to 1877. Tables of Statistics. Alter 1877 no record seems to have been kept of these data, though of course many other high schools have been established since then. 2 These figures mclude all high schools established previous to 1859 in connection with the union schools. The High-School Era 193 grade; others offer only two years, and still others but one year. Nevertheless, each little community insists that honor shall be given where honor is due, and there- fore cherishes the name "high school" whenever the facts offer the least opportimity to employ the term with a modicimi of truthfulness.^ In 1874 the agitation and alarm caused by the enemies of the public high schools reached their climax, but were soon effectively and permanently checked by two judicial decisions, handed down this same year. These were the judgments rendered in the now famous Kalamazoo High School case, and, so far as the State of Michigan v/as concerned, they forever settled the legal status of public schools of secondary grade. For some years the claim had been made by the oppo- nents of the high schools that nothing but primary instruc- tion could legally be given in any of the common schools of the state. The contention was based upon alleged constitutional provisions, upon legislative enactments, and upon public policy. At an early date, it was argued, the legislature had established the Primary School Interest Fimd, and had inviolably dedicated it to the use of the common schools. Indeed, the constitution had it- self incorporated the idea into fundamental law.^ The common schools did not include high schools. Secondary education was a recognized part of superior education, and for this the University Fund and other special funds had been set apart.^ In fact, until 1846 or later the 1 The Report of the Superintendent of Puhlic Instruction, 19 14, gives a list of 105 incorporated cities and 279 incorporated villages possessing high schools. (Report, 1914, pp. 180 #.) 2 Constitution of 1850, Article XIII, Section 2. 3 Section 18 of Act of 1851 reads: "As soon as the income of the University interest fund will admit, it shall be the duty of the Board of Regents to organize and establish branches of the University, one at least in each judicial circuit or district ot the state, and to establish all needful rules and regulations for the government of the same. They shall not give to any such branch the right of conferring degrees, nor appropriate a sum exceeding ^1,500 in any one year for the support of any such branch." 14 194 Public Secondary Education support of many of the secondary schools had always come, in part, from the University Fund, and the administra- tion of these schools had been looked upon as a function of the regents. To attempt, therefore, to appropriate moneys from the Common School Fimd to the use of the high school was a diversion of resources and hence was unconstitutional. Moreover, it was urged, any public primary school giving instruction in a foreign language was infringing upon the provisions of Section 4 of Article XIII of the State Constitution,^ and therefore that the law of Feb- ruary 14, 1859, was null and void, since it authorized schools contrary to the fundamental law. In the sen- tence, "all instruction shall be conducted in the English language," the opponents of the high school felt they had a just warrant for banishing from the schools Greek and Latin, French and German. But a professed secondary school without those languages would, at that time, have been regarded as no high school at all. Hence, it was hoped, by driving out the study of foreign languages the high school itself would be driven out. There were other contentions made that need not here be considered.^ In order to secure a definite judicial decision upon the points of law in dispute, a friendly suit was instituted before the ninth Judicial Circuit Court of Michigan. The case was called in the name of Charles E. Stuart et al. versus School District No. i of Kalamazoo et al., and 1 This section reads: "The legislature shall within five years from the adoption of this constitution, provide for and establish a system of primary schools, whereby a school shall be kept without charge for tuition at least three months in each year in every school district in the state, and all instruction in said school shall be conducted in the English language." 2 For example, it was also denied that moneys could legally be raised by taxation to pay the salary of a school superintendent. This contention was based on that section of the law that imposed upon boards of education the right and duty to grade the school, appoint teachers, select textbooks, determine the course of study, the qualifications for admission, the rate of tuition, and similar powers. The High-School Era 195 in it the plaintiffs prayed the court to issue orders restrain- ing the school officials from imposing and collecting taxes for the support of the local high school or for the pay- ment of the salary of the school superintendent. The case was tried before Judge Charles R. Brown, who at its conclusion rendered a judgment adverse to the petitioners.^ In arriving at his opinion Judge Brown entered at some length into the history of the public schools of Michigan, called attention to the sections of law that bore upon the case and the obvious intent of the framers of those laws, and summed up his judgment by dismissing the suit. Respecting the constitutional provision, Mr. Brown held that the clause requiring the legislatttre to establish a system of primary schools did not in any way limit the power of the legislature to that duty, but left it free like- wise to provide other schools at its pleasure. Moreover, the constitutional clause requiring all schools to be con- ducted in the English language, he held, signified only that the general instruction given should not be com- municated in a foreign language, but that it did not pre- clude teaching foreign languages in the schools if the officials so voted.^ On appeal, the case was at once carried before the Supreme Court of Michigan, by which a decision was rendered in July of that same year, sustaining the lower court in every essential particular.^ The judgment of the court was written by Hon. Thomas Cooley, one of Michigan's eminent jurists, and the opinion carried au- thority far beyond the borders of the commonwealth. The opinion was not only a masterpiece of legal analysis 1 The decision was rendered February 9, 1874. 2 A full report of this judgment may be found in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction for Michigan, 1873, pp. 399 ff. 3 For full report, see Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, i874> pp. 409 #. 196 Public Secondary Education and of interpretation, but it was also a model of English diction and rhetoric, and contained withal a most lucid and terse sketch of the development of the school system in the territory and state. Mr. Cooley therefrom con- cluded that the "general state policy" had, from 18 17 down, "been uninterruptedly and imiformly in the direc- tion of free schools in which education, and, at their op- tion, the elements of classical education, might be brought within the reach of all the children of the state." The effect of the decision was greatly to strengthen the high schools that had already been established and to encourage other and smaller communities to plan similar institutions. Not only, however, were high schools as institutions enormously increasing in numbers during the era imder consideration, but the nvmiber of pupils availing them- selves of the opportunities afforded by these schools was also vastly increased. Each year saw larger and larger enrollments in nearly every school. Buildings which had been erected but a few years before were foimd inadequate to accommodate the throngs. Rooms that were designed for grade pupils were one by one appro- priated to the use of the high school, and other quarters were provided for the members thus dispossessed. In- deed, how to anticipate the growing needs for high-school facilities and to provide for them became an almost annual problem for boards of education and superinten- dents from one end of the state to the other. Doubtless several causes contributed to produce these conditions. Among these was the rapid development of cities and towns in the state, and the continuous trend of the rural population toward these centers of industry. The rise of manufacturing institutions and the develop- ment of the railroads — and more recently of electric The High-School Era 197 roads — also helped to knit the people together and to stimtilate a desire for enlarged educational advantages. Likewise, too, the increased personal wealth of thrifty families and the accompanying social and cultural aspira- tions they had for their children bore directly upon the situation. But above and beyond all of these causal factors was another that has worked with a mightily potent influence throughout its history. This power was the University of Michigan. We have seen in our earlier chapters that education in Michigan developed pretty largely from the top down- ward. That is to say, from early territorial days higher education received the first attention, both in theory and in practice. The hold that the university acqtdred upon the popular mind, even in the days of the Catholepis- temiad, was phenomenal, and it has never been relaxed even down to the present. During the period in which the union schools and the high schools were in their formative stages, the imiversity exerted an exceptionally strong and beneficent influence upon them. One can trace this influence through their aims, spirit, and ideals; through their organization and administration; their programs of study; their standards of scholarship; the flexibility of their curricula; the articulation with the college and with the lower schools, and even, in slight measure, through the methods of instruction. We shall touch upon each of these aspects in the proper places. Suffice it to say here that, as a general rule, notable changes and reforms have first found their application in the university and have then been carried into the field of secondary education. Nevertheless, in one very notable respect at least, the reverse of this rule has been true. This is with refer- ence to coeducation of the sexes. From the earliest day igS Public Secondary Education in Michigan the primary school, the union school, the academies, and even the branches of the imiversity looked upon coeducation as eminently proper and feasible. Not every academy, to be sure, or every branch of the university, admitted girls or women to its courses. This fact, however, was based more upon the idea of expediency and personal predilection than upon any common theory or estabHshed principle. Nevertheless, despite these current practices, coedu- cation in colleges and tmiversities — and for that matter the separate higher education of women in separate col- leges — was in general, and until a very recent date, denoimced in theory and imheard of in practice, not only in Michigan but in almost every other part of the world. Women were regarded as being unfit both physically and mentally for higher things in the way of intellectual culture. And as for coeducation, social and moral reasons were adduced to combat the idea. A "finishing school," at the most, was considered commensurate with woman's native ability and in keeping with the highest social ends. Like all false notions, however, these, too, were bound in time to be refuted and disproved. Coeducation first pried open the doors of the primary school, then of the academies, then of the grammar school, then of the high school, then of the normal school, and finally also those of the college and the university. The full but tardy acceptance of this principle by institutions of higher learning naturally had a reciprocal and correlative influ- ence upon the lower schools. Particularly have the high schools been greatly affected by it. No clearly audible demands for the admission of women to the University of Michigan seem to have been made until after the ratification of the revised state constitu- tion in 1 85 1. Certain clauses in that instrument, and The High-School Era igg subsequent legislation based upon them, seemed to give the friends of coeducation a leverage. The law provided that the imiversity should be open without charge to "all persons" in the state.^ Did the words "all persons" include women? Obviously, in common parlance, they did, but whether or not technically they comprehended women was a question of earnest dispute. At any rate, there soon arose a not insignificant party which continued to clamor for equal privileges for both sexes at the uni- versity. Memorials and petitions were addressed to the president, the faculties, the regents, and even to the legis- lature and the courts, urging the claims of women. Even local communities took up the discussion, and sentiment was formed from one end of the state to the other. The more the idea was opposed the stronger it grew. In 1855 the Michigan State Teachers' Association, by resolution, went on record in favor of opening the uni- versity to all alike.^ About the same time a monster petition was sent to the regents praying them to grant this avowed right to the daughters of the state. This body referred the matter to a committee, which in turn sought the advice of numerous influential educators throughout the United States.^ Conflicting and varying opinions were received, but the committee finally reported that "at present it is inexpedient to introduce the plan into the university."'* This was in 1858. Nevertheless, the agitation did not cease. The courts 1 Section 13 of Act 151. approved April 8, 1831, says: "The University shall be open to all persons resident of this state without charge of tuition, under the regulations prescribed by the Regents, and to all other persons under such regula- tions and restrictions as the board may prescribe." 2 Report of Superinlendent of Public Instruction, 1859, pp. no ff. The resolution reads thus: "That it is the opinion of this Association that coeducation of the sexes is in accordance with true philosophy and is practically expedient." The resolution grew out of a report made by Professor Putnam, and of discussions to which the report and other papers led. 3 Among the persons consulted were Presidents Hopkins of Williams College, Walker of Harvard, Woolsey of Yale, and several others. ^Regents' Report, 1858. 200 Public Secondary Education were besought for a mandamus requiring the regents to put into effect the statutory provisions. The legislature was solicited to erect, separately, another state institution exclusively devoted to the higher education of women in college and imiversity branches. A private school was founded at Lansing which seems to have had the ambition and hope that it would shortly receive the financial sup- port of the state and would ultimately be transformed into a state university for women.^ The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in his annual reports, touched at length upon the matter and gave it as his deliberate opinion that the regents were acting contrary to their legal and moral obligations. Still, for several years no practical progress was made save in intensifying and crystallizing public sentiment. Until 1870 the regents were obdurate.^ In that year they receded from their former position and voted to admit to the university both sexes on an equal footing.^ In February of that year the first woman student was matriculated. The following school year, 1870-71, there were thirty-four women enrolled — fourteen being in the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts; eighteen in the Department of Medicine, and two in the Department of Law.* From that day to this the enrollment has never slackened. In 1 908-1 909 there 1 This was the Michigan Female College. Miss A. C. Rogers, the principal of this school, reported in 1858 that one building was complete and she hoped con- tributions would soon be made to carry out the ideals of the founders. The program of studies included a full four years' course in classics and science. (Report. 1858. pp. 418 ff.) 2 The legislature in 1867 adopted this resolution: "Resolved that it is the deliberate opinion of this Legislature that the high objects for which the University of Michigan was organized will never be fully attained until women are admitted to all its rights and privileges." {President's Report, 1868, p. 191.) The president of the university, Mr. E. O. Haven, also advised the experiment, but the State Superintendent was unfavorable to the plan. 3 Regents' Report, 1870. The exact date was January S, 1870. 4 The first woman to matriculate was Miss Madalon Louisa Stockwell of Kala- mazoo, who enrolled in the Literary Department, February 2, 1870. (Regentr' Report. 1870.) The High-School Era 201 were enrolled in all departments 886 women students.* To-day the number is in excess of twelve hundred. Obviously this decision of the regents was bound to have a notable reaction upon the high schools. Espe- cially was this the case in the larger cities and towns, because the decision came as it did at the end of years of public clamor and agitation. While the high schools in Michigan never were, and are not now, primarily established to serve as college-preparatory schools, pure and simple, they have from the very outset had this ideal as one of their aims, and have consistently carried out these ideals in practice. From the earhest times, too, the high schools have, in general, enrolled a larger propor- tion of girls than of boys. Since, however, imtil 1870 no opportimity was afforded girls to secure a college or tmiversity education at state expense, a relatively small niimber completed the high-school course or aspired to further education. During this period the State Normal School alone invited girls to post-high-school study.2 After 1870 all this was changed. Not only, as has been said, did many young ladies now remain for graduation from the local high school and then enter the university, but the newly acquired college privileges stimulated high-school life and high-school attendance in general. One cannot doubt that the new dignity accorded to the high school in making it a college-preparatory school for girls as well as for boys attracted to its doors hundreds of youths who otherwise would never have entered them. Not that all who thus came remained to graduate, or 1 College year 1908-9. Of the total number, 735 were enrolled in the Literary Department; one in Engineering; twenty in Medicine; two in Law; four in Pharmacy; six in Homeopathy; eight in Dentistry; and no (omitting duplicates) in the summer school. (President Angell's report for 1908-1909.) 2 There were, of course, private or denominational colleges admitting girls before 1870. The statement above has reference solely to public education. 202 Public Secondary Education that all who graduated went on to college, or that all who went on to college entered the University of Michigan. The point is that the privilege granted by the university fired the imaginations and the ambitions of more youths, stimulated an interest in the high schools, and thus vastly augmented the movement that was already so well tmder way — the movement fostering and developing public secondary education, open and available for all. Two other innovations made by the university had particularly potent influences upon the high school of the state. These were the expansion of the subject- matter within the university program of studies; and, secondly, the closer articulation of the vmiversity with the high schools through affiliation and the granting of certificating privileges. We shall consider these two aspects in turn. In harmony with practically all other colleges of Hberal culture in the world, the University of Michigan at first had in its curriculum only one narrowly prescribed course of study for every student. This was the old, traditional classical course, slightly modified, requiring not only a knowledge of mathematics, Latin, and Greek for admission, but also occupying most of the student's time in college with these three branches of study. ^ Toward the middle of the centvu-y, however, the scientific movement had attained such proportions that it could no longer be kept in the inferior position hitherto assigned it by the colleges.^ Now concessions had to be made. Science demanded a place in the college curriculimi independent of that 1 It is found by actual computation that slightly more than fifty per cent of the time was devoted to these three subjects. 2 It will be recalled that the theoretical scientific movement was as old as Bacon and Comenius, but most of the colleges and universities had until much later succeeded in keeping the subject out of their programs. Then isolated subjects were put in the curriculum and prescribed for all students. Until about 1850. though, science was, generallv speaking, a questionable field of study. Ihis was true of the University of Michigan as it was of other colleges at the tune. The High-School Era 203 awarded the humanities and on an equal footing with them. In 1853 the University of Michigan yielded to this demand by instituting, parallel with the Classical Course, a Scientific Course.^ For admission to this course no pre-coUegiate training in the ancient languages was required, but once the student was enrolled he was reqviired to pursue the study of Latin, though not of Greek, the same as the classical students. The principle of strict uniformity once having been yielded it is obvious that the divisions of the program could not vStop with two parallel courses. Such an arrangement was mere mockery of individual tastes and capacities. Further advance was absolutely imper- ative. In consequence, new changes were made, one after another, and always in the direction of a greater freedom for individual choice. Election of studies within the courses was allowed to seniors as early as 1855 and 1856. This same year, too (1855), a third course, that of civil engineering, was instituted parallel with the other two, and in 1864 there was added a course in mining engineering. In 1867 there were recognized and offered by the Faculty six parallel courses, all leading to a degree. These were styled (i) the Classical, (2) the First Scientific, (3) the Second Scientific, (4) the Latin and Scientific, (5) the Civil Engineering, and (6) the Mining and Engineering courses.^ Having once elected one of these six courses the student was at first required to pursue, without variation, the 1 President Tappan, in his inaugural address in 1852, first proposed the plan, and the following year it was carried into effect. One year earlier, however (in 1851), the legislature, by an act, opened the doors of the university to special students — that is, to students not conforming strictly to the prescribed course or passing all the prescribed entrance examinations. (Hinsdale's History of the University of Michigan, pp. 43 and 44.) 2 Report of President E. O. Haven for 1867, in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1867, pp. 171 ff. In the Report of 1870 these courses are styled: (i) the Classical, (2) the Scientific, (3) the Latin-Scientific, (4) the Greek-Scientific, (5) Civil Engineering, and (6) Mining Engineering. (Report of President, 1870, p. 210 in State Papers.) 204 Public Secondary Education subjects therein laid down. Then came the privilege to seniors to elect certain subjects within that course. In 1870 seniors were permitted the further freedom of breaking over the limits of their selected course and of choosing subjects from one or more of the parallel coiirses.^ All this is an earnest of the free elective system that was to come later. In 1873 Dr. Angell stated that seniors were given permission to elect work "from a wide range of sub- jects," and in 1874 a like privilege was granted the juniors. For two years or more, said President Angell in his report of that year, a student was held to a definite course embracing the "disciplinary and fundamental studies belonging to his course," and was then given a rather free option.^ In 1877 still another course was opened in the imi- versity, namely, a course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Letters, and articulating with the distinctively EngHsh or non-linguistic course in the high school.^ In 1880 the university had revised its courses in the literary department and reduced them to four in number. These were courses leading to the following degrees : 1. Bachelor of Letters, requiring neither Latin nor Greek either for admission or for graduation. 2. Bachelor of Science, requiring one year of Latin for admission, but none thereafter, and no Greek. 3. Bachelor of Letters (Latin), requiring Latin for admission and in college, but no Greek. 4. Bachelor of Arts, requiring both Latin and Greek for admission and also in college.^ At the same time, too, graduation from the university was based no longer upon a definite term of residence, 1 President Angell's report for 1872 in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1872, p. 176. 2 Report, 1874, p. gs. 3 Ibid., 1877, pp. 14 and 15. *Ibid., 1880, p. no. The High-School Era 205 but upon the completion of a specific amount of work estimated in "hours. "^ For the A.B. degree 120 hours' credit were required, for the other degrees, 130 hours' credit. About half of these "hours" were open to free election by the student.- In 1889 the study of science received another impulse through the requirement made by the university that students entering on the A.B. and the Ph.B. courses should offer for admission both physics and botany, and that candidates for the B.L. degree should present for admission three sciences or, in lieu thereof, credit in French and German.^ Finally, in 1900, the university abolished all courses, as such, in the literary department, made the work entirely elective (save for four or six hours of prescribed English), and conferred but one baccalaureate degree — Bachelor of Arts — on the completion of 120 semester hours. Likewise, too, for admission the imiversity no longer required conformity to any hard-and-fast courses of study in the preparatory school. Certain prescribed subjects, it is true, were still demanded of every matricu- lant who became a candidate for a degree, but within certain well-defined and large limits the individual had nearly free choice.* As already implied, all these changes in the university reacted with great force upon the high schools of the 1 An"hour"was usually the equivalent of one recitation per week carried through one semester. 2The A.B. course allowed $8 hours of elective studies; the B.L. (Latin), 64 hours; the B.L., 73 hours; and the B.S., 15 in natural science and 29 others unlimited in choice. (From a "Table of Statistics" prepared by Professor W. W. Beman and Superintendent W. S. Perry, and printed in Superintendent' s Report, 1880, p. 119.) ^President's Report for 1889. p. 189. Before 1889 candidates for the degree of B.L. had offered only two sciences. 4 The requirements for admission in 1900 were fifteen units or years' work. Of these, three units in English, three in mathematics, one in physics, and two in any foreign language were demanded of all regular students. The other six units were optional from a wide field of studies. 2o6 Public Secondary Education state. Wherever the university led, the high schools readily and willingly followed.* Deriving their ideals at the outset from the prevalent academies and seminaries, the high schools — before, in fact, the opening of the era under present consideration — offered their work in a more or less imorganized way. There was little or no imiformity anywhere among them. There were, of course, certain common subjects found in every school professing to have an academic depart- ment, but the order in which these were presented, the time devoted to each branch, and the general standards attained varied widely from school to school, and not infrequently, too, in the same school in different years. The number and selection of the uncommon branches taken up depended pretty largely upon expediency and the resources of the particular school. These conditions were particularly noticeable in the early union schools, and the early high schools inherited the tendency from them. If a pupil, or a group of pupils, desired to pursue a particular study, that study was usually taught. If in the following year or term there was no demand for that subject, some other was substituted in its place. If Latin or Greek were desired by any considerable number of pupils, a teacher qualified to give this instruction was secured. If later the constituency of the class left school, the teacher's time was employed in other ways. Indeed, 1 It ought not to be understood that the university required the high schools to accept its terms. The university has never dictated. It has, however, often of its own free w'ill and more often at the earnest solicitation of the high schools them- selves, given advice and suggestions to the secondary schools, and these have usually been accepted and followed. The relation, however, between the two fields of education is purely cooperative. The university has always — and justly, one must think — claimed the right to set its own standards of admission. No high school has, however, ever been required to accept these standards against its own best interests — and no high school ought ever to do so. The public high school, as established in America, is a local institution first of all. It should defer to local interest and needs before attempting to serve in a larger capacity. This at least is the true basis of the high schools of Michigan. A very cordial, kindly, mutually helpful spirit has always existed, nevertheless, between these schools and the university. It would be a sad day for education in the state were this relation ever to cease. The High-School Era 207 the whole organization was on an elective basis, but instead of being an elective system it was, to use Professor Hanus' words, an "elective chaos." Gradually, however, definite order and distinct courses began to emerge from the confusion, and before the opening of the true high-school period a more or less stable goal had been set up, and the straight and narrow way leading to it had been laid out. Wherever the programs of studies had evolved so far as to warrant the appellations of distinct courses, two were usually found, namely, the Classical Course and the English Course. The first of these, so far as the choice and scope of the subject-matter was concerned, was pretty uniform; the second was far from being so. In his report of 186 1 Superintendent Gregory presented to the school men of Micliigan a sug- gestive program of studies for union schools. The plan for the elementary grades is definite and specific, but for the high schools he only "indicates" what may be included. These subjects are algebra, geometry, natural philoso- phy, rhetoric, natural history, botany, geology, chemistry, moral and mental philosophy, and ancient and modem languages.^ This constituted the ideal program of the day, and doubtless its recommendation was of consid- erable influence in helping to bring imity into the work. Following closely the university, and keeping step with her, the high schools next began to modify and divide the two courses already mentioned, and to admit into their curricula other and newer subjects. Just as in the university, the next course to be established was the Sci- entific. Then came the Latin-Scientific and the EngHsh- Scientific and these were followed by courses made up of various combinations of subjects grouped under appro- priate headings. Once having selected his course on ^Report for 1861, p. 45. 2o8 Public Secondary Education entrance to the high school, a pupil's fate was sealed. Henceforth his road was laid out for him between nar- row and unchanging lines. To turn either to the right or left was strictly forbidden; to go ahead, often impossible. The only way out for the pupil who found he had made an inapt election was to retreat to the entrance and begin again. Even this Hobson's choice was not always given him, and, if it were, discouragement frequently hemmed him in so thickly that the usual result was the total aban- donment of school, — without graduation and with little or no return to show for his one or two or three years' effort. Nevertheless, despite the apparent evils, this pernicious system dominated the schools for several years to come. Educators, however, sought to minimize the disadvan- tages by increasing the number of courses. Instead of giving the pupil four roads from which to select his destined way, schools offered him a choice among five, six, seven — yes, in some instances as many as eleven, twelve, or thirteen' — different routes, whereas the diffi- culty lay not in the ntunber of courses but in the fact that the inexperienced youth was not capable of tmerringly selecting any course that guaranteed no need of later revision. Indeed, the multiplicity of choices tended more to confusion than to clarity. What was really needed was a training in choice before the pupil entered the high school, or at least an opportunity to correct a wrong choice as soon as the discovery was made. 1 Ann Arbor, for example, offered the following courses in 1874: (1) Classical; (2) Latin; (3) Scientific; (4) English; (s) French and Science; (6) German and Science; (7) Latin and German; (8) German; (9) Commercial. {Principal's Report to Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1874. pp. 255 #.) Grand Rapids as late as 1897 offered eleven courses as follows: (i) Commercial-English; (2) Pre- paratory English; (3) French-English; (4) Short German-English; (s) German- English; (6) Engineering; (7) Scientific; (8) Latin-German; (9) French-German; (10) Classical; (li) English-Scientific. Pupils, however, at this date were not held rigidly to a suggested course. {Report of Board of Education, 1896, p. 178; 1897, pp. 82 and 85.) The writer himself recalls having visited a school — Charlevoix — as late as 1906 in whose catalogue thirteen courses were printed, and these were expected to be followed closely in practice. The High-School Era 209 The making of courses of study had reac'hed such a stage that it required a master to conceive them, and a past-master to interpret and apply them. Indeed, the situation had become humorous and ludicrous, and the idea began to crumble before the ridicule hurled at it. Meanwhile, as at the university, there was creeping into high schools, here and there, the principle of free election of studies. As a rule every pupil in the earlier high schools was expected to carry simultaneously three separate branches, but strong, capable, and ambitious students were frequently permitted to pursue addi- tional subjects lying outside the scope of the regular printed course. Particularly was this true in respect to the election of a foreign language.^ Nevertheless it was the "regular course" and the "reg- ular student" that received the greatest moral support and encouragement of the school. As late even as 1898, when there were enrolled in the three high schools of Detroit 3,496 pupils, only 118 were "special students," or students not following definite courses.^ In 1874, out of a selected list of twenty-eight state high schools not one permitted a pupil to break over the boundaries of his elected course of study.^ Two years later, however, East Saginaw reported having introduced the principle of a partial election of studies, and found that the idea "popularizes without destroying efficiency."^ All thoughtful educators seemed to have appreciated the need for greater flexibility, but no one was sufficiently 1 For example, the catalogue of the Detroit School Board for 1879 (p. 82) declares that "a partial course" may be taken by a student, but that no certificate of graduation will be given for work thus done. The report further states that "Pupils of the English Course may take Latin, German or French as an extra study, as long as they do good work in all their studies." 2 Report of the Board of Education, 1898, p. 128. 3 Statistics compiled by Superintendent J. C. Jones of Pontiac, and quoted in Report of Superintendent of Public Education, 1874, p. 370. * School report to Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1876, p. 328. The plan was, of course, free election in a limited sense only. 15 I 2IO Public Secondary Education convinced, or sufficiently bold, to propose a complete abandonment of the idea of prescribed courses. Not imtil the late nineties does the idea of free elections by individual pupils seem to have been voiced before the pubHc as the best means of remedying the difficulties. In 1898 Professor A. S. Whitney,^ in a paper read before the State Teachers' Association, advocated the abolition of all set courses in the high school and the substitution therefor of two intensely flexible courses styled by him the "fitting" and the "finishing" courses, or the college- preparatory course and the non-college-preparatory course.^ Shortly after this date the leading schools of the state began avowedly to organize and operate their work on this basis, modifying the principle in such details of application as seemed wise for local needs. This is the situation to-day, and this is the working plan of the majority of the schools of the state. The second notable innovation inaugurated by the university and wonderfully affecting the high schools was the plan of receiving pupils for admission upon the pres- entation of certificates of graduation from approved secondary schools and without any individual examina- tion. Coupled with this plan should be considered also the influence exerted by the university upon the standards of scholarship foimd or demanded in the high schools. As already mentioned in earlier chapters of this work, the scope of the subject-matter, and probably the quality of the instruction, in all the earlier colleges and uni- versities was, aside from the classics, of a general and elementary character. This was equally true of the 1 At that time Mr. Whitney was Superintendent of Schools in East Saginaw. 2 This paper, styled "Flexibility of the High School Course," is reported in full in the Reports of the State Teachers' Association, and is to be found in Report oj the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1898, pp. 180 #. The High-School Era 211 University of Michigan. Entrance requirements, aside from a knowledge of the classical languages, were nomi- nal. Graduation standards were not high. Material prosperity, however, gave confidence, and with this came a boldness in advancing scholastic standards. Pre- admission attainments and post-admission demands were set at a higher scale. The result was that high schools, too, advanced with equal step. Not only is this true with respect to subjects directly preparatory for college, but the influence sympathetically and reflex- ively was carried over into the non-college-preparatory courses. When the imion schools first arose there was, as we have seen, little uniformity among them — either in their details of organization, their programs of study, or the order of presentation of instruction. Schools were divided into grades to meet local convenience or the theories of the local officials. As new subject-matter was added new grades were organized to encompass it. In time imion schools with fifteen grades were not im- common. These, as we have seen, VN^ere divided into what was equivalent to the first primary, second primary, intermediate, grammar, and high-school departments, each containing two or more grades organized to cover two or more years of study. The high-school depart- ment was almost always divided into three grades only, though in some instances, even at the outset, it was planned to cover four or even five years' work. The school year of from thirty-six to forty-five weeks was divided into three terms, and subjects of instruction were fitted into these terms according to local desires. Not infrequently one finds in the early high schools the Classical Course planned for the longer period, while the EngHsh Course was drawn to cover only two or three 212 Public Secondary Education years' time ^ — a fact that reveals the inferior rank accorded the mere "practical" subjects in those days. Indeed, about this time there seems to have been at the university an ambition to shape the whole system of education in Michigan on the German model. The high schools, it was hoped, would develop into gymnasien, and the university would then be able gradually to shift the undergraduate or college work from the one cen- tral institution to the various secondary schools, , and thus leave opportunity to herself to devote her time and efforts exclusively to graduate or research study. Presi- dent Frieze in his report for 1870 expressly voiced this wish and hope. After noting the fact that the requirements for admission to the university were much more exacting than they had been fifteen years before, he adds: "I cannot but think that there are existing in the state the conditions which, seized upon now and carefully watched and improved will, in the end, develop the gymnasium in its proper place and secure to us the true University. - One public high school of this state, at the close of the present year, has sent into our Academic Department a class of thirty-five students, well prepared. The high schools of the state, in general, are yearly coming into more intimate relations to the University, and sending increasing numibers to its halls. "^ 1 In Grand Rapids in 1859 the English Course was three years in length; the Classical, five. (Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1859. P- 99-) At the same time Jackson devoted three years to each course. {Ibid., p. 121.) Mar- shall, on the other hand, gave four years to the English Course and three to the Classical. {Ibid., p. 144.) Monroe had a "Primary Department" of three years, a "Junior Department" of six years, and an "Academical Department" of five years — that is, fourteen years all told. {Ibid., p. 151.) 2 The German influence on the high schools of Michigan was perhaps best seen in the organization at Monroe. Here there were fourteen years' work laid out and grades were numbered in reverse order to the common American plan, that is, the most elementary grade was called the ninth grade, the next one above, the eighth grade, and so on up to the academic department. The lowest grade of this depart- ment was styled the "E Class," the next above the "D Class," and thence on through the "C Class." "B Class," and "A Class." The last, the "A Class," was the graduating class of the high school. (Report of the school in Repott of Super- intendent of Public Instruction, 1859^ pp. 151 ff.) 3 President's Report, 1870, p. 208. The High-School Era 213 In this same report President Frieze also mentions the fact that certain educators, within and without the university, had suggested a way of bringing the high schools into closer relations to that institution by means of "a Commission of Examiners from the Academic Faculty" which "should visit annually such schools as may desire it and give certificates to those pupils who may be successful in their examinations, entitling them to admission, without further examination, to the Uni- versity."^ Later in the same year President Angell in his inaugiiral address voiced similar views. "The time is not far dis- tant," said he, "when the better and stronger institutions can safely push up their requirements for admission to the standard now reached at the beginning of the Sopho- more year, and I am confident that the day is not remote when they can secure yet higher attainments." ^ President Angell then suggested that the high schools take over instruction in mathematics at least up to trigo- nometry, and that the elements of physiology, botany, physics, French, and a year or more of Latin be given in every one of the stronger schools. The next year, 187 1, these ideas had begun to be put into effect by the university., A year of French was required for admission to the Latin-Scientific Course. In 1872 one year of French and an elementary knowledge of natural philosophy, botany, zoology, and geology were required for admission to the Scientific Course. In 1874 an additional year of Latin was required for admission to the Classical Course.^ Still later, other demands were added. For example, in 1889 physics and botany were 1 Ibid., p. 209. 2 Inaugural address. Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1871, pp. 214 #. 3 President's Report, 1872, p. 180. 214 Public Secondary Education made preparatory subjects for admission to the courses leading to the A.B. and the Ph.B. degrees; and three sciences, or in Heu thereof a knowledge of French and German, were demanded for a.dmission to the course leading to the B.L. degree. Necessarily, and as one would expect, those require- ments of admission to the university were followed by a revision of the courses of study in the high schools, though it is true some school boards objected to what they were pleased to call the "dictation" from the uni- versity and refused to comply with the conditions that would enable their youth to prepare themselves to enter the university.^ Many high schools in fact found themselves between two forces and were violently pulled in opposite directions at the same time. The narrowly prescribed courses often met local needs very ineffectively. There was a de- mand for more liberality and for more popular and practical subjects. Despite the efforts of teachers and officials, proportionally few pupils who entered the high schools remained to graduate. In 1874, Grand Rapids, for example, reduced the high-school course from iour years to three years expressly to meet this difficulty and to encoiu-age pupils to aspire to a diploma.^ Other schools acted in a similar way, and nearly all made efforts to minimize the faults by increasing and popularizing the courses of study. Just at this juncture, it will be recalled, the new demands from the university were forcing additional burdens upon schools that still aimed to be preparatory schools. The cry went up that the pupils were overtaxed; that the 1 Report of the Board of Visitors to the University in 1872, Report of Super- intendent of Public Instruction, 1872, p. 195. 2 Report of the school for 1874. Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, p. 260. The High-School Era 215 program of studies was overcrowded; that the courses were not sufficiently extended to enable the work to be done properly and without injury to the pupils. To the plan for decreasing the length of the course to encourage graduation, and hence to secure for more pupils at least three years of academic training, was now opposed the idea of increasing the allotted time in order to relieve the overburdening and to meet the university requirements. As was to be expected, both parties won certain temporary victories, but the ultimate outcome was an advance in the standards of scholarship, and hence a imiform increase in the length of the high-school course to four years.^ The standard school period was now one of twelve years and twelve grades. In 1877 1^0 school reported more than twelve grades, though communities not being able or not finding it expedient to support a four-year high-school course naturally stopped short at the ninth, tenth, or eleventh grade.^ On the other hand, not a few of the better schools of the state began to furnish post- graduate work for such students as cared to return to the high school after having taken a diploma at the end of the regular four years' course. For the most part these 1 Ann Arbor, for example, in 1874 took steps to make her high-school course four years instead of three. Battle Creek had already done this three years before, in 1871. {Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1875, p. 325.) In 1876 Saginaw reported that their course of study had, during the past five years, been gradually reduced from fifteen years to twelve years. (Report, 1876, p. 269.) Niles the same year mcreased the high-schoo' course from three years to four by transferring one year of the grammar grades to the high school. (Ibid., p. 308.) Flint reported a full four years' high-school course of four parallel courses of study. (Ibid., p. 274.) Business courses also began to appear about this time, Grand Rapids establishing one m 1875. (Report, 1875, p. 355.) The superintendent of the Adrian schools, Mr. Payne, in his report for 1875 emphatically declared that "the settled line of policy" of their school was "to provide that kind of instruction which will best meet the wants of the community. Public opinion in this community at this time is unmistakably in favor of that class of studies embraced in the Continental real-schule — Latin, History, Mathematics and Natural Science — and hence the organization of our High School is therefore on this basis." (Report of 1875, p. 304.) The Classical Course was therefore abolished at Adrian at this time. 2 In 1877 there were 721 schools having twelve grades; 1,108 having eleven grades; 1,659 having ten grades; and 2,364 having nine grades. The total number of schools offering more than merely eight grades of work thus was 5,852. (Report, 1877, p. 8.) Of course few of these possessed real high schools. 2i6 Public Secondary Education pupils included those who desired to seaire a cultural knowledge of subjects not regularly found in their chosen course, those who were eager to prepare themselves better in practical subjects or for positions as teachers, and those who sought to fit themselves more thoroughly for admission to college or who hoped to seciu-e for this extra work advanced credit from the college authorities. The University of Michigan has always recognized and encouraged this work of supererogation and has allowed definite imiversity credit therefor. ^ Hence many a student has been able to shorten his college course by one full year or more, thus bringing to pass, in a measure. Dr. Frieze's and Dr. Angell's wishes, uttered forty years ago. Somewhat later, in 1891, Dr. Angell in his annual report says, apropos of this question: "It is gratifying to hear that some of the schools of Michigan think they can do the most or whole of the work of otir first year, and can send their students prepared to take up the studies of our second year. We should be only too glad to be relieved altogether of our first year's work, and we desire to encourage the schools in their praiseworthy efforts to carry their pupils farther than they have done heretofore, provided they do not diminish the thoroughness of. the more elementary work."^ About this same period — between 1870 and 1880 — the trimestrial division of the school year was largely abandoned, and, following the example of the imiversity, the semestrial plan was substituted in its place. Meanwhile the entente of the imiversity and the high schools was becoming firmer and closer through the operation of the idea of "affiliation." This plan was first 1 In 1876 Detroit, for example, had five regular high-school grades, and in addition, a post-graduate grade. This last contained at that time twenty-nine students. (Principals' Report of 1876, p. 262.) 2 President Angell's annual report, 1891, p. 88. in State Reports of that year. The High-School Era 217 put into effect in 187 1. Under the earliest arrangements a committee of the Literary Faculty — a committee of one, two, or three members usually — visited, upon request, any high school whose program of studies was sufficiently comprehensive in scope to fit pupils for admis- sion to all of the courses offered in the university. If, after a personal inspection of the school, the committee was satisfied with the organization, teaching staff, equip- ment, and the general work done, and was convinced that its graduates could satisfactorily piirsue work in the university, such graduates, if recommended by the high-school principal or by the superintendent, were admitted directly to the freshman class in the university without further examination. The plan was immiensely popular from the start. The very first year fifty candidates were thus admitted. ^ Each succeeding year brought additional requests from the high schools soliciting a visit of inspection, and each year brought increased numibers into the imiversity through this door. The university authorities approved the idea, for it almost guaranteed large entering classes. It also did away, in a measure, with the delay and tedium incident to the formal examinations held at the beginning of each college year. The plan was, too, regarded as a safer, surer, and saner test of a pupil's ability than was any short, formal, and chance examination. Moreover, the scheme enabled members of the faculty to come into personal contact with the constituency of the university, and thus better to know the public sentiments and needs ; and, in consequence, permitted them to adapt their work more justly to social ends. The high-school authorities supported the plan, since iThese came from six schools as follows: three from Detroit, eight from Flint, seven from Jackson, three from Kalamazoo, one from Adrian, and twenty-eight from Ann Arbor. {President's Report, 1872, p. 181.) 2i8 Public Secondary Education "affiliation" brought the school thus recognized into dignity and prominence in the state, reflected honor upon its teachers and officials, and attracted to its halls in turn a larger proportion of the youth of the community. The pupils preparing for college also naturally applauded the plan as it saved them the ordeal — often a nerve- racking and dangerous ordeal — of undergoing the burden of a dozen or more examinations crowded into one week, conducted at a distance from their homes, before a strange, and therefore av/e-inspiring and intimidating, body of examiners. In fact, few persons in the state could be found to oppose the scheme, and, after an experience of nearly forty years, none, apparently, who would abandon it.^ Nearly every report of President Angell for the subsequent ten or a dozen years contains a paragraph extolling the merits of the system as seen in practice, and expressing his gratitude for the cordial and generous cooperation given to this matter by the schools and the officials and teachers of the state. Gratifying, too, was the fact that the standard of work and of deportment maintained by the students thus admitted to the university was, on the whole, superior to that of pupils admitted on examination. There were fewer "failures" and fewer "conditions" among the certificated students than among the others.^ In 1876 the accrediting system underwent another change, made in the interest of the high schools and the public. Up to that year no student was admitted to the university without exarnination, unless the high school from which he graduated was organized and equipped to 1 There is now and then heard a criticism of the plan, but it is a criticism directed against the careless application of the principle rather than against the principle itself. 2 President' s Report, 1872, pp. 181 ff. Later reports also substantiate this claim. The High-School Era 219 prepare pupils simultaneously for admission to all the vmdergraduate courses. As already seen, many high schools felt indisposed to attempt to meet these require- ments. The Classical Course, requiring both Latin and Greek, seemed everywhere to be on the wane. Few high schools could or would therefore support this course. Few — very few — pupils in the smaller cities and towns cared to pursue the study of Greek, and it was a burden to the taxpayers to continue classes in this subject for one, or two, or three pupils. In the year mentioned the imiversity recognized the justness of this attitude and thereupon granted limited certificate privileges to those high schools that were found fitted to prepare students for admission to any one course in the university. This change encouraged small schools to do well the work in a limited field rather than to attempt too much and run the risk of doing all superficially and ineffectively. This provision in consequence added a nimiber of high schools to the university approved list and stimulated others to reach out for similar honors.^ When still later the principle of free individual election of studies came into common usage, ^ still greater freedom was granted to the high schools. Then pupils' admission to the university was determined not by any absolutely iln 1880, as we have seen, there were four courses in the Literary Department of the university. That year there were, all told, sixteen high schools of the state on the affiliated list. (President's Report, 1880, p. 112.) Superintendent J. C. Jones of Pontiac in his report for 1874 summed up the advantages of the accrediting system, as he conceived them, as follows: (i) It had intensified, deepened, and dignified the work of the high schools. (2) It had led to conversation about the university and had therefore set more youths toward a college career. (3) It had stimulated parental pride in the high schools. (4) It had benefited the pupils physically and mentally by removing the dread of exam- inations, (s) It had held more pupils in the high schools until graduation and had caused more of them to go on to callings of leadership and dignity. (6j It had tended to bring a uniformity to the programs of study. (7) It had prevented poorly prepared pupils getting into college on the chance passing of the examination. (8) It had stimulated the teachers to do their best. (Paper read before the State Teachers' Association at Kalamazoo.) 2 In May, 1900, the university voted to abolish all fixed courses, to adopt the principle of absolutely free election of subject-matter (save English), and to grant but one bachelor's degree in the Literary Department, namely Bachelor of Arts, given on the completion of one hundred and twenty semester hours' work. 220 Public Secondary Education uniform standard, but each one's case was judged upon its merits. Since, moreover, only two years' preparation in any one foreign language was then made the maximum foreign-language requirement for admission to the uni- versity, many new schools were in a position to aspire to the honor of affiliation. Indeed, there were few schools in the state which offered a full four years' high-school course that could not nominally fulfill this linguistic requirement. The effects of this plan may be judged from the fact that in 1907 out of the 285 high schools having a four-year course, 138 were affiliated with the imiversity.^ As was to be expected, the new relations established between the high schools and the university soon affected the relation existing between the high schools and the grades below them. In the earlier days admission to the high schools was possible only upon condition of passing an examination set by the high-school authorities. Usually this examination included arithmetic, geography, grammar, reading, writing, and orthography. In a few schools United States history was required. Soon, how- ever, just as the leaving examinations of the high schools served for admission to the university, so the examina- tions and recommendations of the eighth-grade teachers became, in themselves, tickets of admission to the high school. In some schools, to be sure, this privilege was slow to be granted, but before 1900 the custom was practically universal. As we have seen elsewhere, the agitation for absolutely free public schools was going on throughout the state from an early date. The revised constitution of 1851 gave impetus to the movement, and one by one the schools gave up the practice of levying rate bills. It was 1 Superintendent's Report, 1907, pp. 232 #., and p. 10. The High-School Era 221 not, however, until 1869 that a general law made the custom illegal throughout the state. This act, more- over, had application only to the primary schools. Until the decision in the Kalamazoo case in 1874, high schools were not indubitably a part of these. Since that date, though, all high schools have been free to all residents of the district who are of school age.^ Residents not of the district in which the high school is located were never- theless required to pay such tuition for school privileges as the school oflicials might levy. This practice worked particiilar hardship upon the country youth who Hved in districts possessing no city or village high school. To secure a high-school education such students were obliged not only to journey to a neighboring town but to pay, out of their own pockets, the tuition demanded there. Effort was repeatedly made to correct this in- equality and injustice, but success did not come until after the opening of the twentieth century. In 1901 a permissive law was enacted authorizing township boards in townships having no village or city high school to establish a rural high school.^ The response, however, was not as ready as was expected.^ The law provided that manual training, domestic science, nature study, and the elements of agriculture might be included in the pro- gram of study, but even with these "practical" subjects available, rural communities were negligent about voting the school. In 1903 a supplementary law^ authorized dis- tricts to vote a tax to pay the tuition and the expense of daily transportation of such pupils as were prepared 1 The school age now is from five years to twenty-one years. 2 Act 144, Laws of 190 1. 3 The first rural high school to be erected under this law was at Covert, in Van Buren County, m 1903. (Report, 1903, p. 7.) But Superintendent Wright in his report of 1907 (p. 20) declared that "this law has been practically a dead letter until the year 1907." At that time Excelsior, Kalkaska C9unty, established a school, and two or three other townships took steps to do likewise. (Report, 1907. p. 10.) 4 Act 190, Laws of 1903. 222 Public Secondary Edmation and desirous of attending a neighboring high school, but like all permissive laws this was slow to be adopted. In 1909, however, the provisions of the law of 1903 respecting tuition were made mandatory, and much benefit has been derived from their operation. ^ In 1903 there was also enacted a law providing that county normal training classes ^ might be organized in connection with one selected high school in each county. This act aimed to provide a body of teachers for the rural schools, and while the normal class is separate and dis- tinct from the high school proper, the requirements for admission to this class are such that its estabHshment has great influence on the high school.^ In 1907, an act authorized county schools of agriculture and domestic science.'* These are not strictly high schools in the commonly accepted meaning of the expression. Nevertheless this type of school requires for admission previous graduation from an eighth-grade course and thus is in fact a high school. The work comprises two years, but for some imexplained reasons rural peoples have not taken kindly to the school. Up to 19 15 only two such schools had been established. Just as the fifty years after 1859 witnessed a grad- ual development of greater or less imiformity in the organ- ization of the high schools of the state, the elevation 1 Act 37, Laws of 1909. The law gives parents of children who have com- pleted the eighth-grade studies the right to select any one of the three nearest high schools and to send their children thereto. The district is then required to vote the tuition and may vote the transportation. Further .amendments were made to the law in igii and 1913. so that to-day a country boy or girl has approx- imately the same legal opportunities for a high-school education as the town or city youth. 2 Act 241, Laws of 1903. 3 The course is one or two years in length. The one-year course is open to (a) graduates of the tenth grade in any high school; (6) holders of a second-grade certificate; or persons who have taught two years in any public school. The second year is open to (a) those having passed the first year's work; (6) graduates of a four-year high school; or persons holding a first-grade certificate. (.Report, 1903. p. 39.) In 1907 thirty-two such classes had been formed. In 1915 the number had grown to forty-five. * Act 35, Laws of 1907. The High-School Era 223 of the standards of scholarship, and the increased flexi- bility in the courses of study, so did they produce a marked change in the scope and content of the school program. Before 1849, as we have seen, the old, narrow, classical ciuriculum had given place, to a large extent, to scientific branches. Indeed, as one studies the pro- grams of the middle period of the century one is inclined to think that there was an excess of zeal in this respect. The old curricula had demanded from three to five years' work in Latin and two or three in Greek. The new curricula seemed to think that equality could not be demonstrated imless a like period of time was devoted to science. Inasmuch, however, as one course or partial course was at that time sufficiently long to exhaust the knowledge of the subject, and since the idea of laboratory experiments had scarcely taken form in college courses, to say nothing of high-school science work, the efforts that to-day are usually concentrated on two or foiir sci- entific branches were then spread over the whole field. The result was an elementary and hence superficial knowledge of six or seven sciences. Those most com- monly foimd in the better and larger schools included physiology, physical geography, botany, zoology, astron- omy, chemistry, natural philosophy, and geology. Each usually covered not more than two terms' work. While thus, at this early time, science and the classics were jealously jostling each other for advantages in the curriculimi, there was little or no attention given to cer- tain other subjects which to-day hold an honored place in the schools. The study of English, for example, con- sisted of scarcely more than a term or two of formal grammar and exercises in analysis of words and parsing. The rich fields of literature lay unexplored and almost tmknown. Now and then the elements of rhetoric were 224 Public Secondary Education studied, but the approach was deductive and yielded impoverished results. In the sphere of history one or two courses, covering two terms and intended chiefly to aid the classical student, constituted, for the most part, the entire offering. The course was styled "General History," but it began with the Greeks and ended with the Romans, with brief — very brief — mention of world-facts lying outside this compass. The study of American history was practically unheard of in 1859. Modern foreign-language study was just beginning to receive respectful recognition, but was still confined to the larger and more progressive schools. The classics and the sciences, with some mathematics, virtually pre- empted the entire high-school field fifty years ago, and left only the interstices for other branches. Then came a change — almost a revolution. Although there was a semblance of likeness in the larger features of the high-school curricula, there was no close unifonnity even here. Each school program shows in- dividual characteristics. Perhaps a typical one is the following. It is the program of studies for the Grand Rapids High School for 1862. It is divided into two courses, namely, the English Course of three years' dura- tion and the Classical Course of five years. The year was divided into three terms. The Program of Studies for the Grand Rapids High School for the Year 1862I ENGLISH COURSE YEAR TERM ( 1st Arithmetic, Physiology, Ancient History. I 2d Algebra, Physical Geography, Modern History, Analysis .1 of English Language. I 3d Algebra, Botany, Zoology, Analysis and Parsing. 1 School report for 1862 in Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1862, pp. 99 jf. The High-School Era 225 YEAR TERM ENGLISH COURSE — continued I 1st Geometry, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy, 2 s 2d Geometry, Higher Algebra, Chemistry, Astronomy. ( 3d Higher Algebra, Chemistry, Geology, Natural Philosophy. 1st Trigonometry, Geology, Mental Philosophy and Logic, Rhetoric. 2d Mental Philosophy, Rhetoric, Household Science, Ancient Geography. 3d Household Science, Civil Government, Moral Philosophy, Reviews. 3 { I CLASSICAL COURSE YEAR TERM I < 1st Latin Grammar, Higher Arithmetic, Physiology. 2d Latin Reader, Elementary Algebra, Modern History. 3d Latin Reader, Elementary Algebra, Botanv If 1st Latin Reader, Botany, English Analysis and Parsing. 2d Sallust, Chemistry, Physical Geography. 3d Sallust, Chemistry, Zoology. ( 1st Sallust, Ancient History, Geometry. 2d Vergil, Higher Algebra, Geometry, Rhetoric. I 3d Vergil, Greek Grammar, Higher Algebra, Natural Philos- [ ophy. 1st Vergil, Greek Grammar and Reader, Trigonometry, Astronomy. 4 ^ 2d Cicero, Latin Prose Composition, Greek Grammar and Reader, Astronomy. 3d Cicero, Latin Prose Composition, Xenophon, Geology. I 1st Livy, Anabasis, Mental Philosophy and Logic, Geology. 5 I 2d Tacitus, Homer, Household Science, Mental Philosophy. I 3d Horace, Homer, Household Science, Moral Philosophy. One notes in this program illustrations of the general assertions just made respecting the disproportionate emphasis on certain branches, and the total or large neg- lect of others. Here are eight sciences, and two and one- third years of mathematics in both courses. English and English literature are represented by two terms 16 2 26 Public Secondary Education devoted to analysis, parsing, and rhetoric. History is accorded an obscure place and disposed of in two terms, while modem foreign-language study is conspicuous by its entire absence. There are, from the viewpoint of the present day, many other serious faults of omission. There are no "commercial" or business subjects; no manual training; no political economy or other social science save perchance civil government. In Latin and Greek, formal grammar leads the way. All coiirses are of short duration and seemingly stand in no perfect logical order. Mental and moral philosophy still hold their time-honored rank. A study of other programs of study reveals similar conditions throughout the state, the subject-matter varying with the personal views of the officials and with the traditions of the community.^ At about this same time in connection with many high schools, there were established so-called teachers' depart- ments. The aim of these was to give prospective teachers of rural and city schools a general review of the subjects to be taught, together with suggestions respecting methods of presentation and of discipHne. These departments rested wholly upon authorization of local school boards, but in 1863 the Superintendent of Pubhc Instruction declared "these classes are now common to most of our high schools. "2 The following year he urged the legislature to give them legal authorization throughout the state.^ During this early period some little sentiment seems to have arisen in favor of offering Latin in the grammar IThe program at Monroe in 1862 included: (a) Mathematics: Written and Mental Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry; (&) Science: Geography, Physiology. Botany, Physical Geography, Natural Philosophy, Geology, Astron- omy, Chemistry; (r) English: Grammar, Rhetoric, Analysis of English Language; (d) History: U.S. History. English History, General History, Civics; (e) Phi- losophy: Mental and Moral Philosophy; (/) Language: Greek, Latin, French, and German; (g) Book-keeping. {Report, 1862, p. 151.) 2 Report, 1863, p. 71. 3 Ibtd., 1864, p. 29. The High-School Era 227 grades, for such pupils as expected to continue through the high school and college, but the idea received little practical encouragement.^ In the meantime, as we have seen in earlier pages of this chapter, the university had not only increased the num- ber of courses in the Literary Department, but had insti- tuted higher requirements for admission. It had also begim to allow some small opportunity for free election of studies in the senior year, and had begiui to use labor- atory methods in science. Now the high schools modified their programs in harmony. In the school reports for 1874 nearly every high school boasted of what then seemed an adequate supply of school apparatus, including chemical and philosophical equipment and instruments, maps, charts, and so on. Grand Rapids led the proces- sion with apparatus valued at twenty thousand dollars. Detroit claimed eight thousand dollars thus invested. The suppUes in other cities and towns ranged in value from zero to two thousand dollars, but in by far the larger number of schools there was less than five hundred dollars worth of eqmpment all told.^ Few schools possessed high-school Hbraries of any significance. Perhaps the best survey of the scope of the work given in the high schools thirty-five years ago can be had from the following statistical reports collected and compiled by Superintendent J. C. Jones of Pontiac, in 1874.^ Statistics from 28 selected high schools in 1874: Total enrollment, 2,748; average enrollment per school, 98; pupils enrolled in different subjects as follows: Latin, 1 Ibid., p. ig8. 2 Reporl, 1874. Table C, p. Ixv. 3 The paper containing these data was read before the meeting of the State Teachers' Association held at Kalamazoo in that year, and is printed in full in the records of that society. It is also found in Report of Supennlendent of Public InstrucUon, 1874, PP. 370 ff. The data were taken from twenty-eight selected high schools. 228 Public Secondary Education 730; Greek, 156; German, 481 ; French, 283 ; geometry, 584; algebra, 1,510; higher arithmetic, 1,024; book-keeping, 314; physiology, 540; chemistry, 275; geology, 213; zoology, 279; natural philosophy, 530; civil government, 283; Eng- Hsh grammar, 1,014; rhetoric, 441 ; English Hterature, 228; United States history, 550; physical geography, 530; gen- eral history, 480; Greek history, 149; moral philosophy, 98; mental philosophy, 117; geometrical drawing, 147; astronomy, 175; botany, 207; trigonometry, 42. The same report gives the number of instructors in these 28 schools as 87, each of whom conducted on an average of six and one-half recitations a day, and received an average salary of $86 2. 50.- The per capita cost per pupil was $27.50. Of the 2,748 students enrolled, 514 declared their intention of entering the University of Michigan or other colleges. Twenty-three schools found strong support in the commimities, while five met with considerable opposition. In 21 schools teachers aided pupils to select their courses of study, and all 28 schools required rigid adherence to the choice when once it was made. Each school had, usually, three parallel courses of study based on the courses in the university. The high schools averaged three teachers each. These statistics, when analyzed, reveal some interesting changes from the conditions of tvvrelve years before. Modem language had now a firm foothold; book-keeping had quite a following; United States history had secured a recognized place in the field, and the study of English and English literature was growing. The sciences held their rank both in variety of subject-matter and in numbers of students. There was, however, at this time frequent and loud complaint of the overtaxing of pupils. Superintendent 1 The salaries of all the superintendents are averaged with these figures. The High-School Era 229 Briggs, in his report for 1875/ declared that there was a general tendency over the state to hurry students along through the grades to make room for others, and hence many youths found themselves in the high schools before they were fitted to undertake the work there. To meet these deficiencies the high schools were, he added, obliged to devote considerable time to reviews of grade subjects, and thus were further hampered and embarrassed in the performance of their own true duties. To meet the specific needs of the pupils not preparing for college, and at the same time to conform to the definite demands for higher standards being made by the imiver- sity, schools began to consolidate and unify their pro- grams more and more. Subjects no longer demanded for admission to college and having no conceivably direct bearing on local needs were one by one lopped off the curricultmi, and the time thus gained was employed in intensifying and prolonging the work on subjects already in the program, or else was allotted to new subjects of a more "practical" character.- The program of study for the Detroit High School in 1879 was as follows. The work was arranged in four courses — English, Latin, Classical, and Scientific — and the year was divided into three terms. First Year^ COURSE English Arithmetic, Algebra, Book-keeping, English Syntax, Reading, Spelling. Latin Arithmetic, Algebra, Latin Grammar and Reader, English Syntax, Reading, Spelling. "^Report, 187s, p. Ixv. This is the old perennial cry: "All before me failed as teachers. I alone am instructing the youth as he should be instructed." 2 Grand Rapids, for example, had during the fifteen years preceding 1875 one by one omitted frorn its program the following branches: Higher arithmetic: higher English analysis; higher algebra; trigonometry; analytical geometry; com- position and derivation of words; advanced rhetoric; household science; moral philosophy; political economy; science of government; Sallust's Jugurtiia; Vergil's Eclogues, and selections from Livy, Tacitus, and Horace. (Report, 1875, p. 356.) ^Principal's Report, 1879, pp. 81, 82. 230 Public Secondary Education COURSE Classical Scientific COURSE English Latin Classical Scientific COURSE English Latin Classical Scientific COURSE English Latin Classical Scientific COURSE English Latin First Year — continued Same as Latin Course. Same as English Course. Second Year Geometry, General History, Zoology, Botany, Spell- ing, Reading, English Literature. Geometry, General History, Caesar, Latin Prose, Spelling, Reading, English Literature. Same as the Latin Course with Greek added. Geometry, General History, Botany, Zoology, English Literature, Spelling, French (optional). Third Year Algebra, English Literature, English Syntax, Essays, Rhetoric. Geometry, English Syntax, Essays, Cicero and Vergil, Latin Prose, French. Same as the Latin Course with Greek added. Geometry, English Syntax, Essays, English Litera- ture, French. Fourth Year (by terms) FIRST term Arithmetic (review). Natural Philosophy, Mental Philosophy, Astronomy, Orations, Essays. Arithmetic (review). Solid Geometry, Vergil, Latin Prose (review), French, Orations, Essays. Arithmetic (review). Solid Geometry, Vergil, Latin Prose, Greek History, Anabasis, Greek Prose, Orations, Essays. Natural Philosophy, Solid Geometry, French, Draw- ing, English Literature, Orations, Essays. SECOND TERM Arithmetic (review). Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Local Geography (review). Chemistry, Orations, Essays. Arithmetic (review). Algebra, Roman History, Vergil, Latin Prose (review), French, Orations, Essays. The High-School Era 231 SECOND TERM — continued Arithmetic (review), Algebra, Roman History, Vergil, Latin Prose (review), Greek History, Anabasis, Greek Prose, Orations, Essays. Algebra, Natural Philosophy, Local Geography (review). Drawing, French, Orations, Essays. THIRD TERM Natural Philosophy, United States History, United States Civil Government (review), Chemistry, Orations, Essays. Algebra (review), Geometry (review), Roman History, Vergil, Latin Prose (review), French, Orations, Essays. Algebra (review), Geometry (review), Anabasis, Greek Prose, Roman History, Greek History, Vergil, Latin Prose (review). Orations, Essays. Natural Philosophy, United States History, Algebra (review), Geometry (review). United States Civil Government (review), French, Mechanical Drawing, Orations, Essays.^ In order to help bring system out of the confusion and to encourage the acceptance of a viniform program of studies for the entire state, the Association of City Super- intendents in 187s drew up and recommended a specific plan. The Superintendent of Public Instruction approved the recommendation, published it in his annual report, and circulated it with the further co-recommendation of the State Department. But few schools seem to have adopted the scheme in toto, and only slowly were programs reshaped to conform to it in all its more important aspects. The recommendation follows:^ COURSE Classical Scientific COURSE English Latin Classical Scientific 1 The textbooks in most common use thirty-five years ago were: Mathematics: Olney's, Robinson's, Ray's, and Davies' texts; General History: Swinton's and Anderson's texts; Rhetoric: Hart's and Quackenbos' texts; Physiology: Steele's, Dalton's, Loomis", and Brown's texts; Botany: Gray's and Wood's texts; Zool- ogy: Tenney's, Steele's, Smellie's texts; Natural Philosophy and Chemistry: Cooley's, Steele's, Norton's, Well's, Hooker's, and Quackenbos' texts. (Report, 1877, p. xix.) Here too, it is observed, is little uniformity. ^Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1S76, p. xlix. 232 Public Secondary Education Year Term Subject-Matter I I Algebra, Composition, Physiology. I { 2 Algebra, Grammar, Zoology. I 3 Algebra, Analysis, Botany. I I Arithmetic, General History, Botany,Physical Geography. 2 < 2 Arithmetic, General History, Botany, Physical Geography. i 3 Book-keeping, General History, Science of Government, 1 Geometry, French or German, Natural Philosophy. 2 Geometry, French or German, Natural Philosophy. 3 Geometry, French or German, Rhetoric. 1 Algebra, French or German, Rhetoric. 2 Algebra, French or German, English Literature. 3 Geometrical Drawing, French or German, English Literature. One is impressed at once by a survey of this plan with the happy simpHcity of the whole. What a sweeping away of diversified subject-matter there is ! A movement toward concentration is very apparent, but even yet the sciences are more or less "chopped up." There are, too, grave faults of omission. The "practical" subjects are represented alone by book-keeping. United States his- tory is lacking. The English work is not well arranged. No reference is made to the classical languages, but since the plan was drawn for all schools one would expect this omission. Obviously, schools that desired to incor- porate a Classical Course were expected to do so. The whole plan, however, points plainly in the direction of a simplified curriculimi, and hence, by impHcation, to a curtailment of individual and local choices. The actual trend, however, was just the opposite. At least as early as 1876^ there was to be found in some 1 Grand Rapids in this year allowed a choice between book-keeping and history but in the English Course only. In 1880 the whole senior work in this course was elective. (Principal's Report, 1876, p. 285, and Board of Education Report, 1880, p. 30.) East Saginaw, in its report of 1876, also speaks of introducing a free election of studies. {Report, 1876, p. 328.) This report adds: "'It popularizes without destroying the efficiency of the work." The High-School Era 233 high schools the inception of the principle of individual election. By 1880 the idea had gained quite a respectable clientele, but was still rarely found in practice. In 1 88 1 in the State Teachers' Association a plea was made for industrial training in the schools, but appar- ently left no impression sufficiently strong to excite to action.^ Still, there was growing more and more a feeling that the high schools should better meet the local and practical needs — that they did not exist primarily to prepare for college.^ A state law enacted in 1884 made it obligatory on every public school of the state — both elementary and second- ary — to offer prescribed courses in physiology and hygiene, treated with especial reference to the effects of narcotics and alcohol upon the himian body.^ This law, together with the requirements of the imiversity respecting physics and botany, made these three sciences commonly prescribed subjects in practically every course of all the better schools. For the next ten years the program of studies, on the whole, remained virtually unchanged. Individual schools modified their w^ork somewhat by curtailing or eliminating certain subjects that were not in especial favor in the community and by adding such as the people desired.* There was, therefore, still no uniformity. Pupils passing from one town and school to another often found more or less difficulty in adjusting themselves to the new condi- tions. Not infrequently by such removal they lost one full year's credit toward graduation. To obviate these disadvantages and to improve the 1 Paper read by Mr. F. E. Clark of Orchard Lake. (.Report of r88i, pp. 289 #.) 2 Resolution of State Teachers' Association, 1880. 3 Laws of 1884, Chap. 3, Sec. 15. 4 Adrian, for example, in 1876 dropped astronomy, zoology, and geology from the program, and reduced the study of algebra to one year. Civics and drawing were added. (Report, 1876, p. 222.) 234 Public Secondary Education situation in general, the State Teachers' Association again in 1894 appointed a committee to wrestle with the question and to draft a new program of studies for the guidance of all the schools of the state. ^ This com- mittee formulated and reported a number of resolu- tions, based in large measure upon the suggestions made by the National Committee of Ten.^ The most salient recommendations made by the local committee were: 1 . That the recommendations of the Committee of Ten be adopted respecting the study of foreign language and mathematics in the eighth grade, and also respecting the study of English in the high school. 3 2. That a year's work in general history be required of all students in the tenth grade. 3. That physics be taught in the twelfth grade. 4. That botany be taught the second semester of the ninth grade. 5. That no pupil be permitted to carry more than sixteen hours of recitation per week during the first two years of the high school, and not more than eighteen in the last two years.^ The committee then proposed the following scheme of studies for all schools, recognizing the four standard courses — Classical, Latin, Scientific, and English — and appraising the different subjects by means of points or credits or units. ^ Sixty-eight and one-half units were to be required for graduation from any course. Of these, 37 points were constant for all. These were: Eng- lish, 12 points; general history, 5 points; algebra, 7>^ points; geometry, 5 points; botany, 2^ points; and 1 This committee convened in final meeting at Ann Arbor, June 28, 1895. 2 The Committee of Ten reported in December, 1893. 3 These were that Latin or German be begun in the eighth grade as alternates (optionals) with English grammar; that concrete geometry and algebra be given a large place in the eighth grade; and that four years' work in English be offered in the high school. (See Report of Committee of Ten.) * In the original draft of their resolutions the committee also recommended that two years of foreign language be required of all students in the eleventh and twelfth grades, but in their later draft this provision was eliminated. (Report, I89S. p. 85.) ... fi A point, or unit, signified one recitation per week for one year. Ten points, for example, signified five recitations per week for a period of two years. The High-School Era 235 physics, 5 points. Additional subjects to be required in the different courses were: Classical Latin-Scientific SUBJECT POINTS SUBJECT POINTS Latin 20 Latin 20 Greek 10 French or German ID Elective I'A Elective IJ^ Total 31K Total 31'y^ Scientific English SUBJECT POINTS SUBJECT POINTS U.S. History and Civics 5 English Literature 5 Foreign Language 20 English History 5 Chemistry 5 U.S. History 5 Elective IH Arithmetic and Book- keeping 2y2 Total 3IK Chemistry 5 Laboratory Science 5 Physiology 2K Elective IK Total 31 }4 The committee then distributed this program over four years' time and thus offered to the various schools of the state a definite scheme for their guidance. While of course there was no legal power attached to the recom- mendations, they did, as the earlier ones, tend greatly to standardize the work. Obviously, in the minds of the committee the idea of rigid parallel courses — however numerous — was not satisfactory. While their scheme afforded little oppor- tunity for free individual choice, the principle of individual election was, in a small degree, recognized as applicable to all schools just as it had already been recognized in a limited way in the university. Three years later, before the same association of teachers. Superintendent A. S. Whitney of Saginaw advo- cated the reduction of all courses to two — a "fitting," 236 Public Secondary Edtication or college-preparatory course; and a "finishing," or non- preparatory course. He also urged the following reforms : (i) beginning two foreign languages in the seventh and eighth grades — the modem language coming first; (2) dis- tributing the time allotted to the various subjects over a longer period; (3) introducing manual training, domestic science, and commercial subjects more extensively into the high schools; (4) granting high-school credit for suc- cessful work done outside the high school in music, painting, and drawing; (5) introducing more liberal courses of civics, sociology, and economics; (6) increasing the total number of recitation periods per week by per- mitting some "unprepared recitations"; and (7) making all subjects beyond the ninth grade purely elective, save perchance English.^ During the next few years the greater number of the better high schools of the state began to revise their work in line with these suggestions.^ Every year witnessed the further extension of the elective system, though the old courses of study were usually retained as suggestive guides pointing to more or less definitely perceived ends. In some schools these suggestive courses were but two — the college preparatory and the non-preparatory. In other schools they took the names "University of Michi- gan Literary Course," "University of Michigan Medical Course," "Normal School Course," "Wellesley Course," "Business Course," and others similarly. Each course contained the subjects that seemed best suited to lead to the ends conceived but no pupil was compelled to hold rigidly to the advice. 1 Proceedings of State Teachers' Association, 1898, in Report of Superintendent 0/ Public Instruction, 1898, pp. 180 ff. 2 It is not meant to imply that the movement was not already under way before 1898. It was, and the ideas suggested by Professor Whitney were, in part, already in successful operation in some schools of the state. His advice gave momentum to the reform. The High-School Era 237 Under the new ideals the program of studies recommended in 1895 seemed obsolete. Again, shortly- after this date, therefore, the State Teachers' Associa- tion appointed a commission to "investigate the courses of study pursued in the high schools of the state and to recommend a uniform course of study for the same." This new commission, consisting of many of Michigan's foremost educators both in college and in secondary work, reported their decisions in 1905. The document is a valuable one, and the recommendations therein have since been accepted by many high schools of the state. The program of studies advised includes the following: Latin, 4 years; Greek, 2 ; English, 4; German, 4; French, 4; music, 4; history, 4; mathematics, 3 or 4; sciences, 4; drawing, 4 ; domestic art, 4 ; domestic science, 4 ; woodwork, 4; and ironwork, 4.^ One still finds in Michigan a great variety of programs of studies, but imdemeath the apparent differences there is a common fotmdation; there is to-day a closer approx- imation to unity in the midst of the diversity. In almost all the larger schools and in many of the smaller there are offered to the youth rich menus from which each may appropriate what is best suited to his nature. The languages, the sciences, the social subjects, literature, art, and the "practical" studies are all there, nor is there any deep-seated jealousy among them. Each meets a felt need. Respecting the academical preparations of high-school teachers during the period under consideration there are no available data. Of course every teacher was obliged to hold a legal certificate of some kind. The standards, 1 See Report, p. 19. Manual training work had begun to find a place in some schools early in the nineties. Bay City, for example, introducing it in a small way in 1891. {Report, 1900, pp. 37 ff.) The most active movement, however, did not come until considerably later. Even yet few schools ofiFer the work for more than one or two years in the high-school grades. (Report, 1905, Statistical Tables.) In 191S only 86 of the cities and towns in the state provided work of any kind throughout their entire systems. (Repbrt, 1915, pp. 180 ff.) 238 Public Secondary Education however, differed widely with different communities and at different times. ^ Apparently most of the super- intendents or principals, together with the teachers of language, were college trained or had pursued work in a normal school. As schools developed and higher standards of attainments were made, a normal or col- lege diploma became an essential quaHfication of appoint- ment. For many years, however, the majority of teachers in the high schools were those who had received only a normal-school training. In more recent years, however, the standard has been set at graduation from a college offering a four-year course. To-day, in all the larger and stronger schools this is the unvarying rule. But in the smaller schools only a small minority of the teachers are college graduates. In 1874 the university adopted the policy of granting to its graduates of especial merit a special "Teacher's Diploma." 2 In 1879 there was established in the Uni- versity of Michigan the first chair of the Science and Art of Teaching that was found in a state university in America.^ Though no legal certificate was given students pursuing work in this department, its organization obviously stimulated the scholastic training of teachers.'' In 1 89 1, however, the dignity and value of the pedagogical studies were enhanced by a legislative act authorizing the faculty of Literature, Science, and the Arts to grant a teacher's certificate, valid throughout the state during the life of the holder, to such students as took an academic 1 In T873, in answer to a circular sent out by Superintendent Briggs, 143 of the 311 union schools made replies. In these 143 schools 84 had high-school depart- ments. In these 143 schools were employed 1,261 teachers, of whom 59 held state certificates; 82, normal-school diplomas: and 80, college diplomas. These figures include the superintendents and principals. (Report, 1873, pp. 28#.) 2 This •'Diploma" had no legal validity. It was signed by the pres- ident and by the professor who had had charge of the work, and was an official recommendation only. . 3 President's Report, 1880. Superintendent Payne of Adrian was the first incumbent of this office. 4 Students could now secure academic training and professional training in the same institution, and at the same time gain an academic degree. The High-School Era 239 degree.^ In harmony with this act the faculty voted to require of such candidates a minimum of work in the Department of the Science and Art of Teaching. Two years later a similar legislative act authorized the State Board of Education to grant life certificates to graduates of other colleges of the state, provided such colleges offered each a full four years' course leading to a degree, and required at least eleven semester hours' work in their Department of Education.^ The normal school had naturally from its earliest organization enjoyed the privilege of certificating teachers.^ These new statutes gave the colleges equal advantages. In consequence, prospective teachers who could afford four years of post high-school preparation, more and more sought the colleges, and hence larger numbers of college- trained teachers have in recent years gone back into the high schools.* In very recent years the standards set by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools have caused many high schools to reject all applications from candidates who hold no college degree. 1 Act 144, Laws of rSoi. 2 Act 136, Laws of 1S93. Eleven "hours" would be approximately one third of the work allowed to be carried in one college year; or nearly one whole semester's work. After the law of 1893, the faculty of the university also set ejeven hours as the minimum requirement of pedagogical study leading to a life certificate. 3 Act of establishment, 1849, gave this privilege. 4 The following table shows the recent tendencies at the university: VTTAl? NUMBER GRADUATES NUMBER SENIORS T^ T— * T% ^~* T— ' VT f* I i:>aa LITERARY COLLEGE PLANNING TO TEACH PER CENT 1904- 5 310 154 48 1905- 6 297 157 53 1906- 7 319 160 50 1907- 8 323 178 55 1908- 9 362 192 53 1909-10 356 197 56 1910-I1 359 213 59 1911-12 394 199 51 1912-13 407 228 56 1913-14 479 243 51 1914-15 493 285 57 During the first semester, 1915-16, a total of 533 students were taking work in the Department of Education. 240 Public Secondary Education All these regulations have obviously had great influence upon the secondary schools. The college-bred teacher, being possessed of a greater degree of liberal culture and holding high ideals of scholarship, has, as a rule, carried into the high school a spirit that has been stimulating to intellectual effort and also has modified the standards of social intercourse and personal decorum. College ideals have been transplanted to the lower schools, and ambi- tions for college careers have been implanted and fos- tered in souls that might otherwise never have been awakened. Indeed, the personal influence of a generous, liberal, refined, and cultured man or woman — who can estimate it ? The clientele supporting the public high schools of the state is as varied as society itself. In the early days of these schools the charge was made- — most often, we must think, from ulterior m.otives — that they were exclusive and aristocratic. To refute these charges Superintendent Gass in 1883 gathered statistics respecting the family affiliations of high-school pupils, and found to his great satisfaction that the high schools were the very centers of democracy. Not only was this fact revealed in the constituency of the pupils, but also in their daily asso- ciations and ideals.^ Children of the wealthy and the poor, of the professional classes and the non-professional classes, sit side by side and enter upon relations of close social intimacy. There is little trace of snobbishness or of feelings of social inferiority. In the high schools of Michigan all are equal nominally and, in large measure, actually. The average number of pupils per teacher has varied 1 Mr. Gass studied the conditions in thirty-six high schools. In Detroit he found 56 per cent of the pupils of the high school were children of non-taxpayers and that 33 per cent were from the so-called working classes. In the other thirty- five schools 34 per cent of the pupils were children of farmers, and 26 per cent of mechanics and laborers, 21 per cent made no reply to his questions. (Report, 1883, pp. xi and xli.) The High-School Era 241 from school to school and from one year to another. In 1883 the average of nine cities and towns was thirty-four per teacher.^ The average age of pupils graduating from the high schools about 1870 was nearly nineteen and one-half years. By 1890 this had been reduced by one full year at least, owing largely to the superior organization of the schools, improved methods of instruction, and the gener- ally enhanced financial conditions of society. Since 1890 there has been a further decrease in this regard.^ Toward the latter period of the era under discussion, organized high-school athletics came to play an important r61e in nearly every community. At first taking on a local form, the interest in these activities soon came to be an intercommunity affair, and finally as wide as the state. Interscholastic meetings of various kinds had by 1890 obtained a firm foothold in the school life of the larger schools and even in many small schools. Indeed, the fear was not tmfounded that there was too great an inter- est centered about these affairs. Opinion was expressed that the schools were getting away from their intellectual ideals and from true standards of propriety and even of morality. To regulate and control these activities in the interest of school harmony, clean sport, and due proportion, the high-school section of the state Teachers' Association in 1895 appointed a committee to devise a plan of agreement to govern state interscholastic activities, and to nominate a Board of Directors to supervise all inter-high-school athletic contests.^ 1 Monroe's average was i8; Battle Creek's, 22; Kalamazoo's, 23; Detroit's, 25; Flint's, 30: Ann Arbor's, 35; Hillsdale's, 42; Hastings', 52; and Ithaca's, 58. {Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1883, pp. lx#.) ■These same schools in 1913-14 showed the followmg averages: Monroe, 19; Battle Creek, 26; Kalamazoo, 16; Detroit, 21; Flint, 22; Ann Arbor, 22; Hillsdale, 24; Hastings, 28; Ithaca, 21. (Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1913-14, pp. 180 ff.) 2 Comparisons of statistics found in Reports of Superintoidents of Public Instruction. 3 Report, 1896, p. 33S. 17 242 Public Secondary Education After due consideration this committee recommended a plan which became the basis for determining future athletic meetings.^ From that day to this, athletics has played a leading r61e throughout the state, but it has been rigidly subjected to official supervision and control. Thus in almost every aspect the high schools of Michigan have been keeping step with progress. Dur- ing that whole period of fifty years, which is so aptly called the High-School Period, one word alone best describes the whole situation. This is the word growth — steady, healthful, many-sided growth. There has been growth in pubHc sentiment favorable to the high schools ; there has been growth in friendly legislative action and in the resources dedicated to high-school purposes; there has been growth in numbers of schools established and in new buildings erected ; there has been growth in enroll- ment and in attendance; there has been growth in the richness of the program of study and in the methods of its adjustment to individual needs; there has been growth in equipment, and in the teaching force; there has been an enhancement of the social rank of the teachers; and, finally, there has been growth in professional spirit and in the ideals and ambitions that dominate parents, pupils, and teachers alike. In a later book an effort will be made to note the contemporary tendencies and to analyze them in the light of this historic past. 1 The salient parts of the adopted agreement were: (a) Every contestant must be carrying at least ten weekly hours of work, and must be doing satisfactory work in these ten hours. (6) No person was allowed to compete for more than five seasons. («) No person was permitted to compete in athletics of the second semester who had not been enrolled in the school from October I to March i, and was still a member of the school. APPENDIX A Course of Study for County Normal Training Classes Michigan in Bulletin i of 1908, Issued by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction IN Qualifications for Admission to Classes 1. All applicants for admission must be at least seventeen years of age at the time of entrance. 2. They must subscribe to the following declaration: I hereby declare that my object in asking admission to the training class is to prepare myself for teaching, and it is my purpose to engage in teaching in the rural schools, or in schools of not more than two departments, at the completion of such preparation, and I pledge myself to serve the state faithfully in such school, during the life of my certificate. I pledge myself to remain in the class during the year unless prevented by sickness or excused by the county normal board. 3. All applicants must poseess a good moral character. 4. Applicants must possess these academic qualifications to enter training classes: (a) Any person who is a graduate of a graded school having at least a course of ten grades in its curriculum. (6) Any person who is a holder of at least a second-grade certificate, or shall pass a second-grade examination. (c) Any person who has had two years of successful experience in teaching in the public schools. Note. — These should be strictly observed. Course of Study first quarter Psychology Reading, Spelling, Writing English (Language Work) Arithmetic Manual Training Observation (last four weeks) second quarter Psychology and Pedagogy Classics (Literary Study) Grammar Arithmetic and Book-keeping State Course of Study Observation THIRD QUARTER Practice Teaching Pedagogy Geography United States History Civics and School Law FOURTH quarter Practice Teaching Pedagogy and School Management Geography (three weeks), Physiology (six weeks) United States History Elementary Agriculture Notes. — i. Music and drawing alternate through the year. 2. Sufficient time should be given in the second quarter for a specific study of the State Course of Study as a whole. 3. Daily work in the subjects specified for each quarter. 4. In connection with reading, language, arithmetic, and geography present proper primary methods, and also give special lessons on general primary methods. 243 244 Public Secondary Education APPENDIX B State of Michigan High-School Course in Agriculture, Sug- gested BY the Department of Agricultural Education OF the Michigan Agricultural College Course pth Grade loth Grade nth Grade 1 2th Grade English English Literature and Literature and Composition Rhetoric Algebra Geometry Physics Chemistry Arithmetic and General History Commercial Geog- American History Book-keeping raphy; Zoology and Civics Botany Crops (el.) ) Live Stock, types ) Live Stock, im- provement, 1 1 feeds and ( * Soils and > i and breeds >• i tillage ) Dairying ) feeding ) Agricultural Horticulture | , Soils 1 Botany Entomology i ' and soil phys- > i ics j Poultry Farm manage- ment Farm Me- }i chanics Farm Machin- ery - APPENDIX C A Typical Small School System Brown City High School Course of Study required ELECTIVE Fir^t Year First Semester Composition and Litera- ture, Algebra Latin, Physiology, An- cient History Second Semester Composition and Litera- ture, Algebra Latin, Botany, Ancient History First Semester Composition and Litera- ture, Plane Geometry Caesar, Physical Geog- raphy, Medieval His- tory Second Semester Composition and Litera- ture, Plane Geometry Caesar. Physical Geog- raphy, Medieval His- tory Thirri Year First Semester English Cicero, German, Chem- istry, Advanced Al- gebra Second Semester English Cicero, German, Chem- istry, Solid Geometry First Semester Physics, Civics and Lfnited States History Vergil, English Litera- ture, German, Book- keeping Second Semester Physics, Civics and United States History Vergil, English Litera- ture, German, Re- views Appendixes 245 LO U^ U» lO l/i \n \ri \n 4) •a « O c W o o 0) a 6C rt >. u J3 c/: a ->, ctf J5 (X, a o C p CD 3 V V a ^ u S '-5 lO to to to >/) t/) m lo lo « 2- O Q ►—I Q W <« ■J o o B (J W w 2 (/J ►H >> lA CO a o ^ w o ^ g I/) Oi P o o la O H i, :§ i >. o c )S. 00 o O P^ >. a s bO g 'ft 2 rt n Q < H V Xi •a n "3 J.) 'H J3 a O U u J^ m u t( W eu 3 VI O O .2 c3 1 2 CO M ,c Cfl V 4-> Tl 4-> o «4-l o OJ o r1 2 XI tH & 1 CLI o en J-1 +J to lO ^ M ro ro lo 1/1 ro lo to to N 00 J3 fe ^ c bo a W .5 b Q in _ bO a J3 C — ? p -i^ 75 a o ft A J O S fq < O O J , r" ^ < d (^ r: ■M PL, SP < w to lO »* M fO cs I totor^toio NiooON o 01 " O K '*' vu uu B -H .S ^ tn < bc bfl *^ •do. < rt OT s a o o p p fu a Is ni u Pvt bO C .s a a 3 00. o o -4-> +j bo to to .3 o ^ „ „ 'm ft O IS rt M ro fO loto fjioototonj 73 Wi o ^ y o iu rt bo ^ bo ti J=t c c a C CO < a a o o bo l'i< u w<> « 73 4) u> to ^ M ro M to to to M to «> 73 l-l o c W ■^ y ^ c H w c^-5 ^ 0) ft bo a 2 -S j3 bo 73 o p c !-• o o l_ bo M XI 4) ■" ■!-> 00 O S -a c ft . 1- cu bo •« 4. 4^ CO Oj O ja J3 2 a Xi o 246 Public Secondary Education iri\n\rivii/ii/iirii/iifjvi « o & o a „ o C u t5 W a o c « fe O) Oh °«j C (9 6 ft : a tn 0. a rt J3 'cl ti G i-i cm '5 c 1 u i J3 a a 4) Q H Q s X J3 8 M Ol .J o o a u CO B o a Q Q Z < O H S H s) o 10 10 u> m u) lA u> lA a 3 H 03 III O H lA Oi D O o O M Z H s o E o C o b 2 K M ^ 6 o a o <3 o o ciH M Ph w bo J3 a ft Q !30 a 00 X! ■ft *Ih =s ■5 ^ c rt V V ^ x: w ft 4-* u 3 H Q s a U2 60 O OS Q -Q Q m u) i/> 10 m u> u> u) u> in n o t-l O Mm" M ;= E 60 O C « W O w 3 ffi u c ci3 60 .• 3 k. w 2 ti 5K o S w (9 J3 .. x! (/} ? S >> ^ :«8 : J3 ft ■ M ft 2 - i< o 1^ c C . n) 60-^ c o I'" o o fo M u »S E- Q2 QQO loioiomiowwu) iAi/> wm sn z O I J3 w o J5 (1> O w W (J (9 M a o w c 1^ c9 o (U J3 ft CO O ^ 3 u W S w o W < (9 ?;-2 bo ft ,S "a <9 J3 •5 'a ft o <9 JS bo ^J 60 . o J> ft QO C ft o J3 CO Q Q u CO S o Q 10 M m 10 >o "O 10 i/j »n 10 in 4) O 60 C ft CO ° i c 2 .Ji 3 < 60 c o ^ 3 o O 3 o *C 60 < c C9 O 60 C o ft o x; CO CO a o Q Appendixes 247 APPENDIX E Entrance Requirements of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, of the University of Michigan, Taken from the Official Catalogue of 19 14-15 Admission of Candidates for a Degree Admission to this College is gained only by examination or by certificate. Applicants for admission must be at least sixteen years of age, and must have completed the requirements for admission as here described. Fifteen units are required for admission, a unit meaning the equivalent of five recitations a week in one branch of study for one year, amounting in the aggregate to not less than one hundred twenty sixty-minute hours in the clear. Two to three hours of laboratory, drawing, or shop-work will be counted as equivalent to one of recitation. admission on examination The fifteen units presented for admission on examination must all be chosen from Group I. They must embrace two subjects of three units each, and must include three units of Enghsh Composition and Literature, two units of a Foreign Language, one unit of Algebra and one of Geometry, and one unit of one of the sciences. Physics, Chemistry, Botany, or Zoology. admission on certificate Plan A . The fifteen units presented for admission on certificate (except by those entering from especially approved schools, see Plan B) must include three units of English Composition and Lit- erature, two units of a Foreign Language, one unit of Algebra and one of Geometry, and one unit of one of the sciences, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, or Zoology; and may include not more than three units from Group IL They must embrace two subjects of three units each from Group L It is, however, strongly recom- mended that one or more studies be pursued throughout the four years of the high-school course. Plan B. Graduates of schools on the approved list of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools will be admitted upon the presentation of an unqualified recommendation 248 Public Secondary Education covering not less than fifteen units, of ^ which at least twelve must be from Group I. Admission on this basis of recommendation may be granted also to the graduates of other especially approved schools. Applicants for admission who intend to enter the Combined Curriculum in Letters and Medicine must offer two units of Latin. They are also strongly advised to present Trigonometry, Physics, and Chemistry. Those who enter without these subjects will ordinarily need to attend one Summer Session in addition to the regular term prescribed for the course. SUBJECTS ACCEPTED FOR ADMISSION The subjects from which choice may be made, and the number of units which will be accepted in each subject, are as follows: Group I English Composition and Literature, 3 or 4 units Greek, 2 or 3 units Trigonometry, yi unit Latin, 2, 3, or 4 units Physics, i unit French, 2, 3, or 4 units Chemistry, i unit German, 2, 3, or 4 units Botany, K or i unit Spanish, 2, 3, or 4 units Zoology, K or i unit History, i, 2, or 3 units Physiology, K unit Algebra, i, iK. or 2 units Geology, yi unit Geometry, i or iM units Physiography, K or i unit Three units of science may be offered as a three-unit subject. In order that a half unit in science may be accepted it must be supplemented by a second half unit in science. For this purpose the following groupings are suggested: (c) Botany and Zoology; (b) Zoology (or Botany) and Physiology; (c) Physiography and Geology; (d) Physiography and Botany. Two units of Mathematics and one unit of Physics may be offered as a three-unit subject, in which case a second unit of science must be presented. Croup II Agriculture, i or 2 units Domestic Science, i or 2 units Drawing, ^ or i unit Manual Training, i or 2 units Commercial Branches, i or 2 units Subjects from Group II will not be accepted for admission on examination. APPENDIX F Secondary Schools on the Accredited List of the University OF Michigan, 1914-15 ♦Adrian Athens *Albion Bad Axe, a Allegan Bangor, a *Alma *Battle Creek *Alpena *Bay City, E. S., a *Ann Arbor Bay City, Holy P.osary Acad- Ann Arbor, St. Thomas' School emy Armada Bay City, St. James Academy Appendixes 249 Bay City, St. Mary's School ♦Bay City, W. S. Belding Bellaire Belle vue *Benton Harbor Benzonia Academy Berrien Springs *Bessemer *Big Rapids Big Rapids, Ferris Institute *Birmingham Blissfield *Boyne City, a Bronson Brown City Buchanan ♦Cadillac ♦Calumet Caro Carson City Cass City Cassopolis Cedar Springs Central Lake Champion Charlevoix ♦Charlotte, a ♦Cheboygan Chelsea Chesaning Clare ♦Coldwater Coleman Coloma Colon Constantine Coopersville Corunna Croswell, a ♦Crystal Falls Decatur Detroit, Cass ♦Detroit, Central ♦Detroit, Eastern ♦Detroit, Liggett ♦Detroit, McMillan ♦Detroit, University School ♦Detroit, Western Dexter ♦Dollar Bay ♦Dowagiac Dundee Durand East Jordan Eaton Rapids Elk Rapids Elsie ♦Escanaba, a ♦Evart, a Fenton ♦Flint Flushing, a Fowlerville Frankfort ♦Fremont, a Galesburg Gaylord ♦Gladstone Gladwin ♦Grand Haven Grand Ledge Grand Rapids, Catholic H. S. for Boys Grand Rapids, Catholic H. S. for Girls ♦Grand Rapids, Central ♦Grand Rapids, John Calvin Preparatory Grand Rapids, Sacred Heart Academy ♦Grand Rapids, Union Grass Lake Grayling Greenland ♦Greenville ♦Gwinn ♦Hancock Harbor Beach Harbor Springs ♦Hart, a Hartford ♦Hastings, a ♦Highland Park ♦Hillsdale, a ♦Holland Holly Homer ♦Houghton Howard City Howell ♦Hudson, a Public Secondary Education Imlay City *Ionia *Iron Mountain Iron River *Ironwood Ironwood, St. Ambrose *Ishpeming Ithaca *Jackson Jonesville *Kalamazoo Kalamazoo, Nazareth Academy Kalamazoo, Normal Prepara- tory Kalkaska *Lake Linden Lake Odessa Lake View L'Anse *Lansing Lansing, St. Mary's Lapeer Lawton, a Leslie *Lowell Ludington, a Ludington, St. Simon's Mancelona Manchester *Manistee, a *Manistique Manton Marcellus Marine City Marlette *Marquette ♦Marshall *Mason Mendon ♦Menominee ♦Midland Milan Millington ♦Monroe, a Monroe, St. Mary's Morenci ♦Mt. Clemens ♦Mt. Pleasant Mt. Pleasant, Normal Prepara- tory Mt. Pleasant, Sacred Heart Munising *Muskegon. a Nashville ♦Negaunee Newaygo New Baltimore *Newberry ♦Niles North Branch North ville ♦Norway Olivet Onaway Ontonagon Orion ♦Otsego, a Ovid ♦Owosso Oxford ♦Painesdale ♦Paw Paw Pellston Pentwater ♦Petoskey Plainwell Plymouth ♦Pontiac ♦Port Huron ♦Portland Rapid River Reading Reed City Republic Richmond ♦River Rouge Rochester Rockford Rockland Romeo Royal Oak *Saginaw, E. S. vSaginaw, St. Mary's Saginaw, SS. Peter and Paul ♦Saginaw, W. S. St. Charles St. Clair St. Ignace *St. Johns, a ♦St. Joseph ♦St. Louis, a Saline Appendixes 251 Sandusky *Traverse City, a Saranac Trenton *Sault Ste. Marie *Union City, a Schoolcraft Vassar Scottville Vicksburg Sebewaing Vulcan Shelby *Wakefield Shepherd Watervliet, a South Grand Rapids Wayne *South Haven, a West Branch Sparta *Williamston Spring Arbor Academy *Wyandotte Stanton Yale *Sturgis *Ypsilanti Tecumseh Ypsilanti, Normal Preparatory Three Oaks Zeeland *Three Rivers Number of accredited public high schools in Michigan 22s Number of accredited parochial and private high schools in Michigan 23 Number of high schools in Michigan accredited by the North Central Association lOO Total number of schools accredited by the North Central Association 986 * Schools marked with an asterisk ( *) are also accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. a Schools marked thus (a) ofiEer work in Agriculture that is accepted for admis- sion at the university. THE INDEX ACADEMICAL department, admission to, by examination only, 183; program of studies in Ypsilanti, 185; two courses in the, 183; union school building given over to, 180. Academies, and institutes chartered by special legislation, 79; and institutes in Indiana, rise of, 79; and semi- naries meet an unfilled demand, 80; apparently short-lived, earliest, 151; bequeathed the example of coeduca- tion, 171; curricula of the, 57; disci- pline in, 167; earliest, in a sense secondary schools, 152; effect of pro- posed branches of university upon, 152; "elective system" in operation in, 171; essentially public schools in people's opinion, 151; establishment of, continues, 153; founded between 1830 and 1836, 152; "General Exer- cises" in, 167; government openly aids private, 50; gradually disappear, 153; how they served posterity, 43; in Illinois, first, 83; instruction in the, 168: instruction of negroes in, 166; in the colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution, 44; list of incorporated, in the United States in 1850, 51-52; not strictly speaking a part of state- supported school system. 151; number of, 153; of nineteenth century truly people's colleges, 166; organized by stock companies, 63; part of expenses of, and se.minaries met by County Seminary Fund, 79; play notable part in history of secondary education in Michigan, 151; "question box" in, 167; received no financial aid from the state, 161; recognized in Michigan school system, 124; records of earliest, 151; schools of democracy, 166; seek to be transformed into branches, 153; subject-matter arranged in "depart- ments," 168; supplanted by high schools, 190; supplanted by union schools, 163; taught classics and French, 151; textbooks in, 170; the strongest tie between the people, 63; tuition in, 168; were declared by enemies to be undemocratic, 167. Academy, the, 34; and Charitable School of Philadelphia, aims of, 37, 38, 39; and grammar school in New England, 49; and the district school, 48; at Corydon, first, 79; at Detroit, Catholic girls', 93; building, location of, 167; characteristics of the, 40; charters, property in, 165; charters, religion in, 164; charters and some of their provisions from, 164-166; decline of the, 80; fills a social need, 34; for all classes, 39; furnishes the only secondary schooling in America, 40; government aid for the support of the, 48; in the Middle Period, 4; movement and its fluctuations, 151, 161; program of studies in the, 169; reaches the height of its importance in Michigan. 153; rise of the Ameri- can, 37; students' choice of studies in the, 170; the model for the de- veloping high school. 171; the second great type of secondary school, 151; typical, at Andover, 40; union school expected to take place of local, 178; year, terms of the, 168. Accidence, Cheever's, 17, 29; pages and lessons from, 18-19. Adherence, to a chosen course required, 203; to selected course, high schools demand. 207. Administration of schools, incorporated city or town for first time made unit for local, 174. Administration of the University of Michigan, 103. Admission, to academies or high-school department by examination only, 183; to branches, 134; to high school, subjects required for, 183; to Scien- tific Course, requirements for, 203; to university by certificate, 210; to uni- versity by examination, 134; to university in 1850, 144; to university on student's own merits, 220. Adrian Lyceum and Benevolent Asso- ciation, 156. Advance, general educational, 113; of high schools in Michigan, 192. Aesthetic side of school training, begin- ning of, 168. Affiliated schools, number increases rapidly, 217. Affiliation, advantages of, 217; does away with entrance examinations. 218; of high schools and university, 202, 217. Agricultural Department, required by law in at least one branch. 127. Agriculture, county schools of, 222. Allegheny Mountains, 65. America, English in, 65; English and French widely separated in, 65; French in, 65; second great awaken- ing of, 113. American life, second great awakening of, 113. 253 254 Public Secondary Education American people, influences affecting the higher life of the, 4. Andrew Jackson, democratic move- ment under, 113. Ann Arbor, university buildings erected at, 131; university located, at, 128. Ann Arbor High School, classical course in, 184; English course in, 183. Annual reports of schools to the legis- lature, 157. Apparatus, high schools boast adequate supply of, 227; in early union schools, 186; in secondary schools, illustra- tive, 60; in the Romeo branch, 137; purchased for university, 141. Appropriations, further reduction of university, 132. Aristocracy, branches considered places for education of (so-called), 141. Articulation, between different depart- ments of school, 183; between uni- versity and high school, 202. Assistants, teaching, 180. Association of City Superintendents, offers plan for uniform program, 231, 232. Astronomy, great interest in, 137. Athens, Ohio, State University estab- lished at. 73. Athletics, Board of Directors of inter- high-school, 241; in high schools, 241; organized high-school, important, 241; rigid supervision of high-school, 242. Atlantic States, settlers of Illinois from South, 81. Attendance, at high schools increases vastly, 196; at Latin schools varied, 26. BACCALAUREATE degree, conferred by University of Michigan, 205. Barnard, Henry, 113. "Base line," 90; diagram showing, 91. Benevolent Association, Adrian Lyce- um and, 156. Bequests and gifts decreasing, private, 23- Better schools, Horace Mann's fight for, 113. Bible, study of religion and the, 20. Bill creating the University of Michi- gan, 97-99; principles embodied in the, 100. Board of Directors of inter-high-school athletics, 241. Board of Education of Michigan, first, 99; powers and duties of the first, 99. Boston, 2; first Latin School established in, i; first to set up a high school, 53; grants land for support of schools, 6; levies tax for school purposes, 7. Boston Latin School, a cooperative undertaking, 5; a "free school," 2, s; becomes a town school, 6; children of non-contributors admitted to, 6; establishment and support of, 2, 5; program of, 56. Boundary dispute, Michigan, no. Boys' English High School, at Boston, S3; program of studies in, 56. Boys' school at Detroit, 95; Latin and history taught in, 95. Boys' schools, branches of university, 127. Branch at Romeo, apparatus in, 137; coeducation in, 139; conditions in, in 1851, 135, 136; faculty of, 136; laboratory demonstrations part of instruction in, 137; last, 134; literary society in, 139; offered preparatory and college work, 136; report of, 135- 140; represented university schools at their best, 135; scope of instruc- tion in, 136; teacher-training course in, 138; tuition in, 137. Branches of the university, 120, 124, 125-150; academies seek to be trans- formed into, 153; admission to, 134; and university, financial arrange- ments of, 129; at Pontiac, Monroe, Kalamazoo, Detroit, Niles, White Pigeon, and Tecumseh, 128, 129; attitude of local committees toward, 129; beginning of the decline of, 133; Classical Department of, 126; Com- mittee on, has hard task, 130; courts set aside law requiring university to aid, 147; demand for revival and sup- port of, 147; departments of, 126; English Department of, 126; effect of proposed branches on academies, 152; established before the uni- versity, 128; "female institutions" opened in, 130; find favor with peo- ple, 130; from 1842 to 1847, 132, 133; five in operation, 128; funds lacking for support of both university and, 131, 147; hope of revival abandoned, 148; law requiring university support of, 147; left to own resources, 148; local board to have general control of, 126; Normal Department of, 126; number enrolled in, 129; plan for a university with, abandoned, 134; popularity of, increases, 130; prepara- tion for university prime purpose of, 141; prepare a class for the univer- sity, 128; receive aid from university fund, 127; regarded as places for education of (so-called) aristocracy, 141 ; regents favor opening more, 131; religious quarrels and criticisms cast shadow over, 130; requirements for establishing, 125, 126; revival of, 133; schools for boys, 127; second- ary education in, 124; served rela- tively small number of people, 140; three branches suspend, 132; towns vie for possession of, 129; university aid of, curtailed, 132; university support of, causes financial embar- rassment, 147; university support completely withdrawn, 133; women instructors in, 129. The Index 255 Buildings, change in use of school, necessitated by growth of town, i8o; communities proud of school, i8i; location and plan of school, i8i; location of academy, 167; union school, 177, 180; university, erected at Ann Arbor, 131; ward school, 180. CALVINISTIC influences in England and America, effect of, 5. Carlyle, Illinois, Washmgfton Academy at, 83. Catalogue of the university, first, 142. Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, Act to establish, 97. Catholic, girls' academy at Detroit, 93; schools at Detroit, early, 95. Catholicism, in England and America, S; effect of, 5. Central college, Indians give land for support of, 100; University of Michi- gan a, in name only, 104. Centralizing theories of French influ- ence growth of Michigan school system, 96. Certificate of graduation from approved secondary school admits to univer- sity, 210. Certificating privileges granted to high schools, 202. Certification of teachers by state, recommended in Michigan, 114. Character, of settlers of Illinois, 81; of settlers of Michigan, 89, 105. Characteristics, of the academy, 40; of the three divisions of American secondary education. 4. Charleston, first school in South Caro- lina at, 32; qualifications for master of school in, 32. Charter for Michigan College, report recommending, 155. Chartered literary society, 156. Chartered secondary schools of Michi- gan with dates of incorporation, list of, 158-160. Charters, property in, 165; religion in academy, 164; some provisions from academy, 164-166. Cheever, Ezekiel, 29; schoolmaster in New Haven, 29. Cheever's Accidence, 17, 29; pages and lessons from, 18-19. Choice of studies, academy students', 170; for seniors, 204; in Harvard College, 21. Church and education, the, 30. Church lands, a source of jealousy and contention, 70; Congress annuls ordi- nance respecting, 70; set aside for support of the church, 70. Church schools in the South, 31. Civil motive for education, 13. Civil War, Michigan rapidly recovers from effect of, 191; temporarily checks all schools, 191. Classes, the academy for all, 39. Classical and English courses in the high school, 207. Classical Course, 183; first course in the University of Michigan, 202; in Ann Arbor High School, 184; old rigid, has disappeared from academies, 169; stronger schools offered, 183. Classical Department of the university branches, 126. Classical languages in the earliest academies, 151. Classical school at Detroit, 102; fore- runner of the "high school," 102; program of studies offered in, 103. Classics, over-emphasis of, 144. Codification of the Laws of Connecticut, 28. Coeducation, academies bequeathed the example of, 171; at Romeo branch, 139; first found in schools below the university, 198; in Latin schools, 26; in union schools, 187; in University of Michigan, effect on high schools of, 201; not readily adopted by colleges, 198. Colet, Dean, 15. College, and grammar school worked together, 20; at Detroit abandoned, 103; influence of teachers trained in, 240; offers no choice of subject- matter, 21; teaching unattractive to graduates of, 36; union schools not expected to prepare for, 178; work of, offered by Romeo branch, 136; work of, some high schools offer first-year, 216. Colleges, find recognition in Michigan school system, 124; in Illinois, 83; in Michigan, 154; new, founded from 1776 to 1796, 44; new, more liberal, 43; other than the state university established in Michigan, 156; reluc- tant to adopt coeducation, 198; rivaling state university, 154; varied types of, stimulate education in Michigan, 156. Colonial Latin School, the, i. Colonial Period, 4; general situation of secondary education at close of, 27, 33; Latin school in the, 4. Colonial schools, salaries in, 25; texts used in. brought from England, 17; the day in the old, 25. Colonies, Latin schools in, 2. Colonization of Northwest, England opposes, 85. Colony, Massachusetts Bay, I. Comenius, 14. Commission of Examiners from uni- versity for high schools, 213. Commission of Seven, 73; plans for state school system, 74. Committee on Branches, 30. Committees, attitude toward branches , of local, 129. Common schools, did not include high schools, 193; Primary School Interest Fund for support of, 193; rise of, 218. 256 Public Secondary Education Communities vie with one another in promoting high schools, 190. Concentration of power in Michigan schools, loi. Conditions in Michigan unfavorable to settlement, 87. Conditions of entrance to the univer- sity, terms and, 135. Confederate Congress encourages edu- cation, 47. Congress, annuls ordinance regarding church lands, 70; divides the North- west, 71 ; grants land for support of a university, 70. Connecticut, Codification of the Laws of, 28. Connecticut Colony, secondary educa- tion in, 28. Conservation of school funds, plan for, 114. Consolidation, of Detroit school dis- tricts, 174; of high-school programs, 229; of school districts has advan- tages, i7s; of school districts, super- intendents urge, 176, 177. Constitution of Illinois, first, makes no provision for support of education, 82. Constitution of Michigan, educational provisions of, no, in; first to pro- vide for state superintendent of edu- cation, 1 08. Constitution of Ohio provides for edu- cation, 73. Constitutional provisions, put into effect, no. Constitutions, early state, and sec- ondary education, 45. Contemporary Period, 4; public high school in the, 4. Content of high-school program, 223, 224. Control of the university, officers having, 125. Corydon, Ind., first academy at, 79. Country youth, difficulty in securing high-school education for, 221; high- school education for, 221, 222. County normal training classes, 222. County, school funds loaned to, 118. County schools of agriculture, 222; of domestic science, 222. County seminaries in Indiana, 79. County Seminary Fund, 79; meets part of expenses of seminaries and acade- mies alike, 79. Course in university rigidly prescribed, 143. Courses, in academical or high-school department, 183; in high schools, begin to take definite shape, 207; in secondary schools include both ele- mentary and college subjects, 185; in union schools, length of, 179; in Uni- versity of Michigan, 104, 203; influ- enced by two opinions, 214; little flexibility in, i8s; modified, 207. Courts, set aside law requiring univer- sity aid for branches, 147; settle legal status of public secondary schools, 193. Criticism of over-emphasis of study of classics, 144. Curricula of the academies, 57. "Cut and try" method of developing school systems, 8. DAME school, the, 3. Dangers, beset new high schools, 191; faced by settlers in the Northwest, 86. Day, in the colonial schools, the, 25; in union schools, 180. Decline of branches, beginning of the, 133; of Latin schools, 24; of pre- scribed courses, 186; of seminary and academy, 80. Degrees conferred by the University of Michigan, 204, 205. Delaware, 30. Demand, for adequate schools, 37; for free, secular, state-supported sec- ondary schools, 173; for more branches, 131; for revival and support of branches, 147; for schools, universal, 113; for union-school dis- tricts throughout the state, 174. Democracy, academies, schools of social, 166. Democratic institutions, high schools as, 240. Democratic movement under Andrew Jackson, 113. Denominational schools in Michigan, no need for private, 100; Pierce opposes, 121. Department of Education, of Michigan Territory, 108. Departments, in schools, no close articu- lation of, 183; in union schools, 179; of university branches, the three, 126; of university, the three, 128; subject-matter in academies arranged in, 168. Detroit, branch at, 128; classical school at, 102; classical school at, the fore- runner of the "high school," 102; college at, abandoned, 103; early schools at, 95 ; early schools at, Catholic, 95 ; has eight school dis- tricts, 174; high-school program for 1879, 229-231; program of studies offered in classical school at, 103; school districts consolidated, 174; Young Men's Society, 157. Diagram, of a section, 91; of a township, 91; showing base line, 91; showing principal meridian, 91. Differentiation of functions of teachers, 180. District made school unit, 108. District school and the academy, the, 48. District-school plan, first step toward modification of, 174. Diversion in the schools, literary society almost sole, 140. The Index 257 Divisions of American secondary edu- cation, characteristics of the three, 4. Domestic science, county schools of, 222. Dorchester, Mass., first to support public school by direct taxation, 9; provides first body for school admin- istration, 9. Dummer School, the, 40. Duties, of Michigan's first Board of Education, powers and, 99; of the master of a school, 25; of the school usher, 25. EARLY academies, apparently short- lived, 151; in a sense secondary schools, 152; teaching of classics and French in, 151. Early colonists, education cherished by, 12. Early French, explorations, 65; schools in Michigan, 89; settlements and trading posts, 65. Early high schools, organization of, 207 ; points of contention in fight on, 193, 194- Early Northwest, the, 64. Early school history, of Illinois, 81; of Indiana, 74; of Michigan, 89; of Ohio, 72; of Wisconsin, 84. Early schools at Detroit, 95; Catholic, 95; instruction in, 95. Early settlements in Michigan, 85. Early settlers of Northwest, 77; sup- porters of education and religion, 68-69. East Saginaw, partial election of studies in, 209. Eastern ideas predominate in early Michigan, 89. Education, Confederate Congress en- courages, 47; developed from top downward, 197; early history of, in Illinois, 81; early settlers of North- west supporters of religion and, 68, 69; foundation of American public schools of secondary, 2; Illinois 's first constitution makes no provision for support of, 82; increase of secondary, 196; in Indiana, 80; in Michigan at public expense, 104; in Michigan, French influence upon, 104; in Michi- gan, important points in Pierce's plan for, 115; in Michigan, third type of secondary, 172; in Michigan, varied types of colleges stimulate, 156; in Ohio, lags, 72; in Pennsylva- nia, 31; in Plymouth colony, 27; in the early Northwest, secondary, 78; in the South, 31; Michigan con- stitution first to provide for state superintendent of, 108; Michigan demands adequate system of, 114; motives for, 13; nuclei for state uni- versities and free higher, 70; of (so-called) aristocracy, university branches considered places for, 141; Ohio constitution provides for, 73; possible for all in Michigan, loi; provision of Indiana for, 75; Puritans foster interest in, 10; secondary and elementary, demanded two distinct types of schools, 120; secondary, classed as superior education, 193; secondary, in the "branches" of the university, 124; sixteenth section of every township dedicated to support of, 47, 70; tax for support of, re- pealed, 103; territorial laws of Illinois do not mention schools and, 82; wide gap in system of free, 161. Education and religion closely related, II. Education and the church, 30. Educational, administrators, Michigan fortunate in her early, 112; advance general, 113; advantage, delays in settlement of Michigan redound to her, 88; ideas of first state superin- tendent of education in Michigan, 112; principles underlying school system of Michigan, 104; provisions of the constitution of Michigan, no, in; situation in Michigan at close of territorial period, 108; ventures, Michigan College opens way for other, 124. Educational conditions in Indiana, de- plorable up to 1850, 80; reformation of, sought by constitution of 185 1, 80. Educational institutions, law required state supervision of, 157; three types of. 3. Educational system, Illinois slow to establish a state, 82; of early Michi- gan, retarding in its effects, 173; of Michigan, foundation of, 90; of Michigan, tends to follow German model, 212; plan for, not developed by Indiana, 76; proposed system of Indiana almost unequaled in the world. 74. 75- Edwardsville, 111., Madison Academy at, 83. Election of studies, first appears in University of Michigan, 203; free, in high schools first seen, 209; in East Saginaw, partial, 209. "Elective chaos," early organization of high schools an, 207. Elective system, extended, 236; fore- runner of the free, 204; in operation in academies, 171; in universities, 205. Elementary and secondary education demanded two distinct types of schools, 120. Elementary education, real beginning of working system of public, in Michigan, 107. Elementary school, high school the product of. 7S; maintained by every town of fifty families, 3; work of, enriched, 55. Enemy to popular education, university spoken of as, 141. 18 258 Public Secondary Education Engineering courses established in university, 203. England, disregards treaty of 1873, 67; jealousy between France and, 66; opposes colonization of Northwest, 85; refuses to withdraw from North- west, 71; the second ruler of North- west Territory, 66. English and French widely separated in America, 65. EngUsh Classical School, 53- English Course, 183; every school offered, 183; in Ann Arbor High School, 183; in the high school, 207. English Department of the branches, 126. English idea of self-government, people of Territory of Michigan, indifferent to, 105. English in America, the, 65. English language, law requiring that all instruction be given in, 188. Enghsh Latin schools the prototypes of early American secondary schools, 5. "English school" in Michigan, 106. English settlement at Marietta, Ohio, 66. English subjects emphasized, 38. Entrance examinations abolished by affiliation, 218. Entrance to university, requirements affect high schools, 214; terms and conditions of, 135. Era, of American Revival of Learning, 113; of activity of private schools, 124. Erie Canal, 93; important in increasing population of Michigan, 93. Establishment, and support of schools a legitimate function of government, 6; of academies continues, 153; of branches of the University, re- quirements for, 125, 126. Examination, admission to secondary schools only by, 183; admission to university by, 134. Expansion of subject-matter in Uni- versity of Michigan, 202. Expenses, of academies and seminaries met partly by County Semmary Fund, 79; of students in University of Michigan reduced to a minimum, 104. Explorations, early French, 65. Explorers, and missionaries, French, 65, 85; and surveyors in Michigan, 87. FACTORS influencing educational his- tory of Northwest Territory, 68. Faculty and students of university increase, 142; of the Romeo branch, 136; of the University of Michigania, first, loi. False reports turn migration from Michigan, 87. Fayette County, Ind., first seminary in, 79- Federal government distributes the surplus revenue, 113. Fees, matriculation, 145; tuition, 34. "Female institutions" opened in branches, 130. Fight, for better schools, Horace Mann's, 113; on early high school, points of contention in, 193, 194. Financial aid to academies not granted by state, 161. Financial arrangements of branches and university, 129. Fines, for failure of towns to maintain Latin schools, 23, 28; for failure to obey school laws in Michigan, 107. "First College of Michigania," 102; sources of support of, 102. First school law of Illinois, 82. First school of secondary education in America, i. First settlers in the Northwest, 68. First woman student in the University of Michigan, 200. First-year college work offered in some high schools, 216. Fisheries, proceeds from, to support schools, 27, 28. Flexible courses, adoption of, 210; Professor Whitney presents plan for, 235; Professor Whitney suggests, 209. Flexibility in high-school courses, 185. Fluctuations in the academy move- ment, 161. Foreign languages, instruction in, unconstitutional, 194. Foundation, of American public schools of secondary education, 2; of educa- tional system of Michigan, 90. Fourteenth-century characteristics in seventeenth-century New England, 14. Four-year course uniformly estab- lished in high schools, 215. France, jealousy between England and, 66; the first white power in North- west Territory, 65. Franklin, Benjamin, 37. Free choice, of studies finding favor, 186; of subjects for admission to university, 205. Free education, wide gap in system of, 161; no secondary, 162. Free election of studies in high schools first seen, 209. Free elective system, forerunner of the, 204. Free public schools, graded schools not, 176; secular, free, state-supported schools demanded, 173. "Free school," s ; a school of secondary grade, 2; Boston Latin School a, 2, 5; in Charleston, S. C, 32; law in Illinois, 83; significance of the expression, 6. Free schools, for Indians, 13; for poor children, 13; tendency of state policy always toward system of, 196. French and Indian War, 85. The Index 259 French and Indians masters of North- west Territory, 85. French, early instruction in Michigan probably in, 95; English and, widely separated in America, 65; explora- tions, early, 65; explorers and mis- sionaries, 65; explorers in Michigan, 85; in America, 65; in Michigan, 85; influence on education in Michigan, 104; school at Kaskaskia, 81; schools in Michigan, early, 89; settlements and trading posts, early, 6s; taught in many of the earliest academies, 151. Friendly suit, between Romeo branch and university, 13s; to determine legality of high schools, 194. Friends' Public School, 31. Functions of teachers, differentiation of, 180; of the three types of educa- tional institutions, 3. Fund, branches receive aid from uni- versity, 127; Indiana's seminary, 79. Funds, see School funds. "GENERAL Exercises" in academies, 167. General state policy had always tended toward system of free schools, 196. Georgia establishes a university, 97. German model influences educational system of Michigan, 212. Ghent, Treaty of, 71. Girls, admitted to university in 1870, 129; and secondary education, 27; more girls complete high-school course after 1870, 201; provisions made for schools for, 127. Girls' academy, at Detroit, Catholic, 93. Girls' English High School, at Boston, S4; program of studies in, 55. Gloucester's Greek Grammar, 19. Government, aid for private academies, 48, so; left in debt by Revolution, 68; Northwest Territory under the general, 67. Graded schools, important towns estab- lish, 178; not free public schools, 176; "rate" in, 176; superintendents favor, 176, 177; tuition in, 176; work offered in, left to local board, 176. Grades, union school building contains all, 180. Grading in union schools, 175. Graduation, from high schools achieved by few, 214; from university based on "hours" of work, 205. Grammar, Lilly's, 19. Grammar school, and college worked together, 20; every town of one hundred families required to support a, 3; in New England, academy and, 49; new meaning of term, 53. "Grammar school" in Michigan, 107; new meaning of term, 53. Grand Rapids High School, program of studies in, for 1862, 224, 225. Grants of land, see Land and Lands. Gray, Dr. Asa, first professor in uni- versity, 141. Greek and mathematics, with Latin, constitute bulk of studies in univer- sity, 143; required for admission to Harvard, 19; study of, added to Latin, 12; study of, followed same plan as study of Latin, 19. Greek and Latin dominate thought of early nineteenth century, 96. Greek Grammar, Gloucester's, 19. Growth, of high school, 242; of high schools by years, 192; of population in Michigan from 1810 to 1890, map showing, 194; of private schools, cir- cumstances temporarily check, 124; of religious sects, 70. Gymnasien, 212. HARVARD College, dictating mistress of Latin schools, 20; earliest schedule of, 22. Harvard University founded, 3. Head master in union school, 180, i8r. Hebrew, study of Greek and, 12. High school, the academy the model for the, 171; admission to the, by examination only, 183; aim of the, 54; and university, affiliation of, 202, 212, 216; a new type of educa- tional institution, 53; athletics in the, 241, 242; attendance at, increases, 194; beginning of true period of, in Michigan, 180, 188; Classical and English Courses in, 207; close articu- lation of university with, 202; courses in, begin to take definite form, 207; a democratic institution, 240; education for country youth in, 221; era in Michigan, 191-242; first set up in Boston, 53; flexi- bility in courses in, 185; girls' com- plete course in, 201; growth of, 242; mtroduction of the term, 53; length of course in, 192; open to boys only, 54; post-graduate work in, receives university credit, 216; program of studies in, prescribed, 54; program, changes in scope and content, 223, 224; public, 4; public, appears, 80; pupils overburdened in, 215; subjects required for admission to, 183; teachers in, preparation of, 237; the classical school at Detroit forerunner of the, 102; the product of the elementary school, 78; union school forerunner of the present-day, 172. High-school athletics, important, organ- ized, 241; subject to rigid super- vision, 242. High schools, affected by additional entrance requirements of university, 214; and university more closely related, 213; authorized, rural, 231; average number of pupils per teacher in, 240; begin to permit free election of studies, 209; boast adequate sup- ply of apparatus, 227; changes m 26o Public Secondary Education university react on, 205; Commission of Examiners of, from university, 213; communities vie with one another in promoting, 190; con- solidate and unify programs, 229; contain all classes of people, 240; dangers beset new, 191; early organi- zation of, an "elective chaos," 207; establish teachers' departments, 226; establish uniform four-year course, 215; friendly suit to determine legality of, 194; growth of, by years, 192; hold few till graduation, 214; influenced in making courses by two opinions, 214; little uniformity among early, 206; many courses in, cause confusion, 208; not classed as common schools, 193; offer first-year college work, some, 216; offer post- graduate work, 215; of to-day, union schools foundation of, 188; partly supported by University Fund, 194; period of greatest advancement of, in Michigan, 192; preparing for any one college course given limited certificating privileges, 219; provi- sion _ for increasing needs of, 196; receive certificating privileges, 202; supplant academies, 190. Higher standard set in all schools, 211. History, of education in Illinois, early, 81; of Michigan College at Marshall, 154; of secondary education in Michigan, academies play notable part in, 151. See also School history. History taught in boys' school at Detroit, Latin and, 95. Houghton, Dr., second professor in university, 141. "Hours" of work basis of graduation from university, 205. Hygiene required by law, study of, 233. IDEAL course for the early schools, 15. Ideals and forms of older institutions adopted by university, 144; for the schools, 13. Ideas of East predominate in early Michigan, 89. Illinois, character of settlers of, 81; "colleges" and seminaries in, 83; early history of education in, 81; "free school" law of, 83; first acade- mies in, 83; first constitution of, makes no provision for support of education, 82; first school law of, 82; formed, 71; receives school lands, 82; settlers of, from South Atlantic States, 81; slow to establish state educational system, 82; state aid for colleges and seminaries in, 83; territorial laws of, do not mention schools and education, 83; textbooks in schools of, 83. Illustrative apparatus in secondary schools, 60. Incorporated academies in the United States in 1850, list of, 51, 52. Increase, in high-school attendance, 196; in population of early Michigan, 93; in secondary education, causes of, 196. Indiana, advanced ideas of, impos- sible of realization, 76; authorizes school officers, 77; county seminaries in, 79; deplorable educational con- ditions in, up to 1850, 80; early school history of, 74; formed from North- west Territory, 71; permanent school fund in, 80; permissive school laws of, 77; plan for educational system not developed by, 76; proposed educational system of, 74, 75, 81; receives school lands, 74; reformation of educational conditions in, sought by constitution of 1851, 80; schools of, a theme for ridicule, 77 ; school tax in, 81; seminary fund in, 79; semi- nary trustee in, 79. Indians, and French, masters of the Northwest, 85; free schools for, in 164s, 13; grant land for support of central college, 100; in the North- west, subdued, 86. Individuals, school funds loaned to, 118. Industrial training urged, 233. Influence, of college-bred teachers, 240; of French in school system of Michigan, 96; of Jesuit schools, 5; of New England felt in Michigan, 106; of University of Michigan on second- ary education, 197. Influences affecting the higher life of the American people, 4. Inhabitants of Michigan, characteris- tics of, lOS. Inspection, school visitation and, 9. Institutes chartered by special legisla- tion, academies and, 79; in Indiana, rise of academies and, 79. Institutions and laws of Massachusetts adopted by other colonies, 3. Institutions and practices familiar to the Puritan fathers at home, I. Instruction, early, in Michigan probably in French, 95; for negroes in the academies, 166; in foreign languages unconstitutional, 194; in Romeo branch, laboratory demonstrations part of, 137; in the academies, 168; to all be given in English language, law requiring, 188. Inter-high-school athletics, Board of Directors of, 241. JACKSON, Andrew, democratic move- ment under, 113. Janua linguarum reserata, 14. ealousy between France and England, 66. Jefferson, Thomas, scheme of, for Vir- ginia school system, 97. Jesuits, influence of the schools of the, 5. onesville has first union school authorized under law of 1843, 178, The Index 261 KALAMAZOO, branch at, 128; High School Case, 193. Kaskaskia, early French school at, 81. LABORATORY demonstrations part of instruction at university branch at Romeo, 137. Land, Boston grants, for school support, 6; Congress grants, for support of university, 70; dedicated to support of the church, 70; grants, average value of, high, 92 ; grants, first educa- tional, made directly to people, 72; method of locating a tract of, 91; of pestilence and poison, Michigan a, 87. Land Ordinance of 1785, 47, 90. Lands, _ Congress annuls ordinance granting church, 70; dedicated to support of church a source of jealousy and contention, 70; for support of central college, Indians grant, 100; Illinois receives school, 82; Indiana receives school, 74; in the Northwest Territory sold to pay debts of Revo- lution, 68; Michigan, as a unit, receives school, 88; sale of public, of Michigan, 116; survey of public, 90. Latin, and Greek uppermost in thought of early nineteenth century, 96; and Greek and mathematics constitute bulk of studies in university, 143; and history taught in boys' school at Detroit, 95. Latin School, The Colonial, 1-33. Latin school, aim and function of the, i; the fishing interests and the, 28; aristocratic in nature, 35; course re- duced to four years, 57; every town of one hundred families required to support a, 3, 28; first, established in Boston, i; in the Colonial Period, 4; number of pupils attending, 26 ; of first importance from earliest days, 11. Latin schools, aimed to prepare for college, 20; coeducation in, 26; de- cline of, 24; fines for failure of towns to maintain, 23, 28; Harvard College dictating mistress of, 20; no longer meet social needs, 24; privately sup- ported except in New England, 3; segregation in, 27. Law, first Illinois school, 82; general school, 3; Illinois "free school," 83; establishing state university in Michigan, 103; of 1817 repealed, 103; of 1843, first union school organized under, at Jonesville, 178; permissive features of school, made mandatory, 3; permitting local officers to organ- ize union schools anywhere, 175; required an Agricultural Depart- ment in at least one branch, 127; re- quired state supervision of educa- tional institutions, 157; requiring all instruction to be given in English language, 188; requiring study of physiology and hygiene, 233 ; requir- ing university support of branches. 147; requiring university support of branches set aside by courts, 147. Law the only traditional college sub- ject not treated in the course of University of Michigan, 100. Lawrence Literary Institute Associa- tion, 156. Laws and institutions of Massachusetts adopted by other colonies, 3; codi- fication of, of Connecticut, 28; early school, of Ohio, 73; fine for failure to comply with school, of Michigan, 107; Michigan school, of 1827, 106, 107; permissive school, of Indiana, 77; providing for branches of uni- versity, 125. Learning, American Revival of, 113. "Learning, passion for," 113; surges over Michigan, 191. Legal status of public secondary schools settled by courts, 193. Legality of high schools, friendly suit to determine, 194. Legislature, annual reports of schools to the, 157; assumes neutral attitude toward secondary education, 172; refuses to provide for secondary education, 173. Length of courses, in union schools, 179; in high schools varied, 192. Libraries, few high-school, of signifi- cance, 227; in early union schools of little value, 186. Library for the university, nucleus for a, 131. Life in the Northwest, early, 77. Lilly, William, 15. Lilly's Grammar, 19. Literary Institute Association, Law- rence, 156. Literary society, almost the sole diver- sion in the schools, 140; at Romeo, 139; chartered, 156. Local academies, union schools sup- posed to take place of, 178. Local administration of schools, incor- porated city or town for first time made unit for, 174. Local board to have general control of branches, 126; work offered in graded schools left to, 176. Local committees, attitude of, toward branches, 129. Local of&cers permitted by law to organize union schools, 175. Locating, a given section of land, method of, 92; any tract of land, 91. Location, of academy buildings, 167; of school buildings, 181. Losses suffered by school fund of Michigan, 117. Low salaries in union schools, 182. Lyceum, 140; Adrian Lyceum and Benevolent Association, 156. MADISON Academy at Edwardsville, 111.. 83. Maine, 30. >62 Public Secondary Education Mann, Horace, and his fight for better schools, 113. Marietta, Ohio, English settlement at, 67; receives federal aid for support of schools, 47. Marshall, history of Michigan College at, 154. Maryland vainly seeks to establish public schools in 1696, 31. Massachusetts, first type of public school in, i; laws and institutions of, adopted by other colonies, 3; School Law of 1647 a model for Michigan, 106; the mother of American school system, 3; the mother of secondary education in America, 27. Massachusetts Bay Colony, i. Master of a school, duties of the, 25. Mathematics, with Greek and Latin, constitutes bulk of studies in univer- sity, 143. Matriculation fee in university, 145. Men principals of union schools, 187. Methods of administering school affairs, various, 10. Michigan, academies, seminaries, and colleges recognized by school system of, 124; academy reaches its highest importance in, 153; admitted as a state, 108; a land of pestilence and poison, 87; as a unit, receives school lands, 88; assumes self-government, 106; attempts to establish schools in, unsuccessful, 103; beginning of true high-school period in, 188; borrows all school funds, 118; boundary dispute of, 110; character of settlers of, 89, 105; chartered secondary schools of, 158-160; College at Mar- shall, history of, 154; College opens way for other educational ventures, 124; College, report recommending charter for, 155; "colleges" in, 154; colleges other than state university established in, 156; concentration of power in schools of, loi; conditions in, particularly unfavorable to settle- ment, 87; conserves school lands, 88; delays in settlement of, re- dound to its educational advantage, 88; demands adequate system of education, 114; early educational system of, 173; early French schools in, 89; early history of, 85; early instruction in, probably in French, 95 ; early settlements in, 85; educa- tion at public expense in, 104; education possible for all in, 10 1; educational ideas of first state super- intendent of education in, 112; educational provisions of the con- stitution of, no, in; educational situation at the close of the terri- torial period in, 108; "English school" in, 106; explorers and surveyors in, 87; false reports turn tide of migra- tion from, 87; feels influence of New Englanders, 106; first Board of Edu- cation of, 99; fortunate in her early educational administrators, 112; foundation of educational system of, 90; French in, 8s; French explorers in, 85; French influence upon educa- tion in, 104; "grammar school" in, 107; had no incorporated schools prior to 1830, 152; ideas of East pre- dominate in early, 89; important points in Pierce's plan for education m, 115; increase in population due to opening of Erie Canal, 93; in- fluence of centralizing theories of French on school system of, 96; legislature of, accepts Pierce's plan, 116; map showing growth of popu- lation in, 94; migration from New England to, 106; minimum salary law recommended in, 114; new law establishing state university in, 103; no need for private or denomina- tional schools in, 100; passion for education surges over, 191; period of greatest advancement of high schools in, 192; plan of, provides for estab- lishment of schools of every grade from elementary to university, 100; population increases slowly in early, 93; powers and duties of first Board of Education of, 99; present condition of funds for primary schools of, 119, 120; Primary School Fund of, 119; principles underlying school system of, 104; professional training and state certification of teachers recommended in, 114; profits by mistakes of older states, 88; programs of studies have common foundation, 237; public servants of early, loi; public support and control of schools in, 100; rapidly recovers from effects of Civil War, 191; rejects representa- tion in legislature, los; sale of public lands of, 116; sanctions schools not supported or controlled by state, 123; school fund of, suffers great loss, 117; school laws of, contradictory, 107; school laws of 1827, 106, 107; school terms in, 106, 107; state constitution first to provide for state superintend- ent of education, 108; State Super- intendent of Public Instruction of, 108; takes steps to become a state, no; tends toward German educa- tional system, 212; Territorial De- partment of Education of, 108; Territory established, 71; third type of secondary education in, 172; university the head of the school system in, 104; Upper Peninsula added to, no; uses Massachusetts School Law of 1647 as model, 106; varied types of colleges stimulate education in, 156. Michigan College, early history of, 154; report recommending charter for, 155- "Michigania, University of," 95. The Index 263 Middle colonies, secondary education in, 30. Middle Period, the, 4, 34; academy in the, 4, 34; relatively barren regard- ing secondary education, 34. Migration, from New England to Michi- gan, 106; westward, 67. Minimum salary law for teachers in Michigan recommended, 114. Missionaries and explorers, French, 65. Missionary motive for education, 13. Mississippi River, part of route of French explorers, 65. Modifications, of district-school plan, first step toward, 174; of university course recommended by State Board of Visitors, 144. Monroe, branch at, 128. Monteith, Reverend John, loi. Motive for education, the civil, 13; the missionary, 13; the philanthropic, 13; the religious, 13. NATIONAL domain, the, 67. Negroes in the academies, instruction of, 166. Neutral attitude toward secondary ed- ucation, legislature assumes, 172. New Amsterdam, i; school established in, I. New buildings to meet needs of new type of schools, 181. New colleges founded between 1776 and 1796, 44; more liberal in choice of subject-matter, 43. New England, academy and gram- mar school in, 49; influence of, in Michigan, 106; migration to Michi- gan from, 106. New Hampshire, early public second- ary schools in, 30. New Haven Colony, secondary educa- tion in, 28. New Jersey, early elementary schools in, 30. New York, early elementary schools in, 30; first secondary school in, 30; standard, to be met by private schools of, 121; university created in, 97. Niles, Mich., branch of university at, 128. Normal Department of the university branches, 126. Normal schools grant teacher's certifi- cates, 239. Normal training class, county, 222. North Carolina, early school conditions in, 32. Northwest, early, 64; early life in, 77; England opposes colonization of, 8s; first settlers in, 68; Indians in, subdued, 86; obstacles to settlement of, 86; perils and dangers in, 86; powers that controlled, 64; secondary education in early, 78. Northwest Territory, Congress divides the, 71; disputes over, 67; England refuses to withdraw from, 71; England second ruler of, 66; factors influencing educational history of, 68; France first white power in, 65; French and Indians masters of, 85; lands in, sold to pay debts of Revo- lution, 68; number of states to be made from, limited, 71; powers _ to which, was subject, 67; states claim- ing the, 66; thrown open to pur- chasers, 68; under the general govern- ment, 67. Number, of academies unknown, 153; of affiliated schools increases rapidly, 217; of pupils enrolled in the first branches, 129; of pupils per teacher in high schools, 240; of recitations in university in 1850, 144; of states to be made from Northwest Territory limited, 71; of students in the uni- versity after 1850, 147; of women in the University of Michigan, 200. OBSTACLES to settlement of North- west, 86. Office of superintendent, rise of, 180. Officers, controlling the university, 125; special, in charge of schools, 9. Ohio, a state, 73; authorizes local school officers, 73; constitution of, provides for education, 73; dissipates school funds, 72; early school laws of, 73; education lags in, 72; establishes state university at Athens, 73; or- ganized, 71; practically without schools, 73. Old and new in secondary institutions, 39. Old statutes of New England outgrown and ignored, 35-36. Opening of university, delay increases difficulty of, 131; no longer to be deferred, 131. Opposition of Mr. Pierce to private and denominational schools, 121. Ordinance of 1785, 92; an invitation to all the world to buy, 92. Ordinance of 1787, 47, 7i; United States still observes, 47. Organization, of states from North- west Territory, 7 1 ; of union schools, general plan of, 179. Original scheme for University of Michigan never put into operation, 102. Over-emphasis on classics criticized, 144. PANIC of 1837, 116. Paris, Peace of, 8s; Treaty of, 66. Partial election of studies in East Saginaw, 209. Passion for education sweeps Michi- gan, 191. "Passion for learning," 113. Peace of Paris, 85. Penn, William, 30. Pennsylvania, early education in, 31. 264 Public Secondary Education People's co'.leges, academies of nine- teenth century truly, 166. Perils and dangers in the Northwest, 86. Permanent school fund in Indiana, 80. Permissive school laws of Indiana, 77. Philanthropic motive for education, 13. Phillips academies, aim of the, 40-42. Phillips Exeter Academy, 40; program of studies in, 58-60. Phillips family, 40. Physiology, study of, required by lavsr, 233- Pierce, Reverend John, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Michigan, 112; his plan of education in Michi- gan, lis; opposes colleges rivaling state university, 154; opposes private and denominational schools, 121; plan of, 114; plan of, made law al- most in toto, 116; plan of, not all realizable, 115; slated for retirement, 122. Pitcher, Dr. Zina, 148. Plan, of Association of City Superin- tendents, 231, 232; of the Commis- sion of Seven, 74; of John Pierce, legislature of Michigan accepts, 115; of school buildings, 181; Pierce's, not all realizable, 115. Plans, for a university with branches abandoned, 134; for complete state school system in Ohio, 74; for con- serying school funds, 114; for edu- cational system not developed by Indiana, 76; for flexible courses, Whitney's, 235; for "University of Michigania" contained advanced ideas, 96; of Horace Mann and John Pierce similar, 114. Plymouth Colony, education in, 27. Points of contention in fight on early high schools, 193, 194. Policy of regents. Dr. Pitcher prepares address justifying, 148. Pontiac, branch at, 128. Poor, free schools for the, 13. Popular education, university spoken of as enemy to, 141. Popularity of branches increases, 130. Population, in Michigan from 18 10 to 1890, map showing growth of, 94; of early Michigan increases slowly, 93- Post-graduate work in high schools, offered, 215; receives university credit, 216. Power, concentration of, in Michigan schools, loi. Powers, and duties of first Board of Education of Michigan, 99; control- ling the early Northwest, 64, 67. "Practical subjects," accorded inferior rank, 212; in rural high schools, 221. Practices and institutions familiar to Puritan fathers at home, i. Preparation, for university prime pur- pose of university branches, 141; of high-school teachers, 237. Preparatory work oflFered by Romeo branch, 136. Prescribed course, decline of, 186. Present condition of funds for primary schools of Michigan, 119, 120. Primary School Fund of Michigan. 119; sources of, 119. Primary School Interest Fund, 193; for support of common schools, 193. Primary schools of Michigan, present condition of funds for, 119, 120. Principals, 180; of union schools, 187. "Principal meridian," 90; diagram showing, 91. Principles incorporated in bill estab- lishing University of Michigania, 100. Private academies founded between 1830 and 1836, 152. Prjvate gifts, decreasing, 23. Private schools, circumstances tem- porarily check growth of, 124; era of activity of, 124; in Michigan, no need for denominational or, 100; of New York, standards to be met by, 121; Pierce opposed to, 121; struggle in legislature over, 122. Professional training and state certi- fication of teachers in Michigan recommended, 114. Professorships in the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts, 128. Program, for union schools, 207; in academies, 169; in the Boys' High School, 56; in the Girls' High School, 55; in Grand Rapids High School, 1862, 224, 225; in high schools, pre- scribed, 54; in Phillips Exeter Acade- my, 58-60; in union schools varied, 180; in university, 1843, 142-143; in university, 1850, 146; in Wesleyan Seminary, 169; in Ypsilanti academ- ical department, 185; of Detroit High School, 1879, 229-231; of Eng- lish Co'urse in Ann Arbor High School, 183; of studies for all schools, new uniform, 234; of 1905, 237; offered in the classical school at Detroit, 103. Programs, of high schools consolidated and unified, 229; of studies in Mich- igan have common foundation, 237. "Property" in academy charters, 165. Protestants in America, 5. Provisions by law for branches of the university. 125; for increasing needs of high schools, 196; for secondary education, legislature refuses to make, 173; in some academy charters, 164-166; made for girls' schools, 127; of Indiana for education, 75. Public control and support of schools in Michigan, 100. Public expense, education in Michigan at, 104. Public high school appears, 80. Public Instruction, State Superintend- ent of, in Michigan, 108. The Index 265 Public lands of Michigan, purchasers of, released from contracts, 117; sale of, 116; survey of, 90. Public school, Dorchester first to sup- port a, by direct taxation, 9; first type of, in Massachusetts Bay Colony, I. Public schools, academies considered essentially, 151; foundation of American, of secondary education, 2; graded schools not free, 176. Public secondary education at close of Colonial Period, 33; secondary schools, courts settle legal status of, 193; union school appears, 80; union schools secure a firm footing, 153. Purchasers of public lands released from contracts, 117. Puritan fathers, the, i; practices and institutions familiar to, i. Puritans foster interest in education, 10. QUALIFICATIONS for master of school in Charleston, S. C, 32; for teachers in grammar schools, 49. Quarter section, the, 90. " Question box " in the academies, 167. "RANGE," a, 90. "Rate" in graded schools, 176. Rate bill in union schools, 187. Recitation in university, 1850, 144. Records of earliest academies, 151. Reduction of university appropria- tions, 132. Regents, absolute masters of univer- sity, 148; favor opening more branches, 131; policy of, justified, 148-150. Relationship of high schools and uni- versity more intimate, 212. Religion, and education, early settlers of Northwest supporters of, 68, 69; Congress annuls ordinance granting lands for support of, 70; in academy charters, 164; lands set aside for support of, 70; lands set aside for support of, a source of jealousy and contention, 70; study of the Bible and, 20. Religious, motive for education, 13; quarrels and criticisms cast shadow over branches, 1 30; sects, growth of,70. Repeal of Law of 1817, 103. Report, of Romeo branch, 135-140; recommending charter for Michigan College, 155. Reports of schools to the legislature, annual, 157. Representation in the legislature, Michigan rejects, 105. Representative school, St. Paul's School, London, a, 15. Requirements, for admission to Scien- tific Course, 203; for admission to university, 1850, 144; for establish- ing a branch of university, 125, 126; for position of high-school teacher. 239; for university entrance, new, 213. Revenue, Federal government dis- tributes surplus, 113. Revival of branches, 133; demand for, 147 ; hope of, abandoned, 148. Revival, of Learning, Era of the Ameri- can, 113; of public secondary edu- cation, 60-61 ; of secondary education, decline and, 52-53. Revolution, lands in Northwest Terri- tory sold to pay debts of, 68; leaves government in debt, 68. Revolutionary period, Virginia's school system in, 32. Rhode Island, secondary education in, 30. Richard, Father Gabriel, 95, loi. Rigid courses losing favor, 225. Rise and development of union schools, 172; of academies and institutes in Indiana, 79; of the American acade- my, 37; of the common (elementary) schools, 48; of office of superintend- ent. 180. Romeo branch, and the university, friendly suit between, 135; appara- tus in the, 137; coeducation in, 139; faculty of, 136; in 1851, conditions in, 135, 136; laboratory demonstra- tions part of instruction in, 137; last of the branches at, 134; literary society in, 139; ofiEered preparatory and college work, 136; report of, 135-140; represented university schools at their best, 135; scope of instruction in, 136; teacher-training course in, 138; tuition in, 137. Rural high schools authorized, 221; "practical" subjects in, 221. Rural schools, training teachers for, 222. Rural spelling school, 140. ST. LAWRENCE River, part of route of French explorers, 65. St. Paul's School, London, 15; most representative of English grammar schools, 15; requirements for ad- mission to, 16; subjects taught in, 16. Salaries, better in union schools, 175; in the colonial schools, 25; in union schools, list of, 182; in union schools low, 182; in university of Michigania, first, loi. Salary law, minimum, for teachers, recommended in Michigan, 114. School aSairs, discussed and provided for in town meeting, 8; managed by selectmen, 9; various methods of administering, 10. School, classical, at Detroit, 102; dame, 3; elementary, maintained by every town of fifty families, 3; established in New Amsterdam, i; every town of one hundred families required to support a Latin, or grammar, 3; free, 2, s; French, at Kaskaskia, 81; gram- mar, 2; Latin, 2; Latin grammar, 2; 266 Public Secondary Education public, 2; public high, 4, 80; public union, 80; tax, in Indiana, 81; terms, in Michigan, 106, 107; training, be- ginning of esthetic side of, 168; union, rise and development of, 172; unit changed from township to dis- trict, 108; visitation and inspection, 9; year in university, 1850, 145. School building, contains all grades, 180; given over to academical or high- school department, 180; location of, 181; plan of, 181; pride of each com- munity, 181; union, 180. School districts, advantages of con- solidation of, I7s; in Detroit, eight, 174; of Detroit consolidated, 174; superintendents urge consolidation of, 176, 177, School funds, in Indiana, permanent, 89; insufficient for support of univer- sity and branches, 131, 147; loaned to county and individuals, 118; lost by loaning to individuals, 118; Michigan borrows, 118; Ohio dissi- pates, 72; plan for conserving, 114; suffer great loss, 117. School history, early, of Illinois, 81- 84; of Indiana, 74-81; of Michigan, 89-109; of Ohio, 72-74; of Wiscon- sin, 84. School lands, a definitely located and unvarying portion of public domain, 92; changes in methods of distribut- ing, 47; Illinois receives, 82; Indiana receives, 74; Michigan, as a unit, receives, 88. School law, general, 3; of 1647, Massa- chusetts, a model for Michigan, 106; of Illinois, first, 82; permissive fea- tures of, made mandatory, 3. School laws contradictory. Michigan, 107; fine for failure to comply with, in Michigan, 107; of 1827, Michigan, 106, 107; of Ohio, early, 73; permis- sive of Indiana, 77. School libraries small and of inferior grade, early, 186. School officers, Indiana authorizes, 77; Ohio authorizes local, 73. School system, academies not strictly speaking a part of state-supported, iSi; beginning of a, recognizing three grades of instruction and three types of institutions, 3; for Virginia, Jefferson's scheme for a, 97; influence of centralizing theories of the French on the Michigan, 96; Massachusetts the mother of the, 3; of Indiana, ap- proaches first ideal, 81; of Michigan, academies, seminaries, and colleges recognized in, 124; of Michigan, educational principles underlying, 104; of Michigan, real beginning of the, 95 ; of Michigan, the university the head of, 104; plan for complete state, in Ohio, 74; Thomas Jefferson's plan for, 32; Virginia's, during Revolutionary period, 32. Schools, academies considered essen- tially public, rsi; advantages of union, 178; all set higher standards, 211; and education, territorial laws of Illinois make no mention of, 82; annual reports of, to the legislature, 157; at Detroit, early, 95; attempts to establish, in Michigan unsuccess- ful, 103; attempts to secure perma- nent and successful, 160; below university first to adopt coeducation, 198; building to meet needs of new type of, 181; circumstances tem- porarily check growth of, 124; Civil War temporarily checks all, 191; co- education in union, 187; concentra- tion of power in Michigan, loi; demand for adequate, 37; early Catholic, at Detroit, 95; elementary and secondary education demanded two distinct types of, 120; era of activity of, 124; established from 1629 to 1645, 7; for boys, the branches, 127; founded before Revo- lution still in existence, some, 44; graded, not free public schools, 176; Horace Mann's fight for better, 113; ideals for the, 13; important towns establish union or graded, 178; in Michigan before 1830 not incorpo- rated, 152; in Michigan, early French, 89; in Michigan, no need for private or denominational, 100; in Michigan, public support and control of, 100; in South Carolina, 32; list of salaries in union, 182; literary society almost sole diversion in, 140; low salaries in union, 182; Marietta, Ohio, receives federal aid for support of, 47; Mr. Pierce opposed to private and denominational, 121; nearly all colonies possessed Latin, 2; no fixed standard for union, 178; not con- trolled or supported by the state, Michigan sanctions, 123; of agri- culture, county, 222; of domestic science, county, 222; of every grade from elementary to university pro- vided for by Michigan plan, 100; of Indiana a theme for ridicule, 77; of Michigan, chartered secondary, with dates of incorporation, 158-160; of social democracy, the academies. 166; of Wisconsin. 84; Ohio practically without, 73 ;"Principal of the Schools," 181; provisions made for girls', 127; public union, secure firm footing, 153; rate bill in union, 187; sixteenth section of every township granted for support and maintenance of. 70; stronger, offered classical course, 183; "Superintendent of Schools," 181; superintendents favor graded, or union, 176, 177; terms in union. 180; textbooks in Illinois, 83; textbooks in union, 187; the day in the old colonial, 25; tuition or "rate" in graded, 176; union, foundation of The Index 267 high schools of to-day, 187; uni- versal demand for, 113; variety of titles for secondary, 160; various means of maintaining, 10; what the various, prepared for, 3. Science and Art of Teaching, Michigan first to have chair of, 238. Science demands its own place in col- lege curriculum, 202. Scientific Course, established in Uni- versity of Michigan, 203; require- ments for admission to, 203. Scope, and plan of union schools agree closely, 179; of high-school program, changes in, 223, 224; of instruction in Romeo branch, 136. Secondary education, academy fur- nishes only in America, 40; and first state constitutions, 45; at the close of the colonial period, public, 33; causes of increase of, 196; classed as superior education, 193; decline and revival of, 52-53; elementary and, demand two distmct types of schools, 120; first school of, in America, i; for girls, 27; foundation of American public schools of, 2 ; general situation of, at close of colonial period, 27; in "branches" of the university, 124; in Connecticut, 28; in early Northwest, 78; in Michigan, acade- mies play notable part in history of, 151; in Michigan, third type of, 172; in middle colonies, 30; in New Haven Colony, 28; in Rhode Island, 30; influence of University of Michigan on, 197; legislature assumes neutral attitude toward, 172; legislature refuses to make provision for, 173; Massachusetts the mother of, in America, 27; no free, 162; period of hesitancy and halting in, 172; real beginnings of working system of public, in Michigan, 107; revival of public, 60-61; story of American, falls in three divisions, 4; transition period in, 61. Secondary institutions, the old and the new in, 39. Secondary school, the academy the second great type of, 151; first, in New York, 30. Secondary schools, courts settle legal status of public, 93; earliest acade- mies in a sense, 152; English Latin the prototypes of early American, S; for girls, 27; free, secular, state- supported, demanded, 173; illustra- tive apparatus used in, 60; of Michigan, chartered, with dates of incorporation, 158-160; offer both elementary and college subjects, 185; variety of titles of, 160. Secondary-school, problem, three solu- tions offered for the, 162; work lacked life and interest, 60. Section, the, 90; diagram of a, 91; of each township numbered, each, 90; of land, method of locating a given, 92; the quarter, 90; sixteenth always lies near center of township, 92; sixteenth, of every township dedi- cated to education, 70; system of numbering, 90. Sects, growth of religious, 70. Segregation in Latin schools, 27. Self-government, Michigan assumes, 106; people of Territory of Michigan indifferent to English idea of, lOS. Semestrial plan adopted, 216. Seminaries, find recognition in Michi- gan school system, 124; in Illinois, "colleges" and, 83; in Illinois, state aid for colleges and, 83; meet an unfilled demand, academies and, 80; part of expenses of, and academies met by County Seminary Fund, 79. Seminary, county, in Indiana, 79; decline of the, 80; first, in Fayette County, 79; fund, Indiana's, 79; of learning, Congress grants land for support of a university or, 70; trustee, Indiana's, 79. Settlement, conditions in Michigan particularly unfavorable to, 87; de- lays in, redound to educational advantage of Michigan, 88; English, at Marietta, Ohio, 67; of Northwest, obstacles to, 86. Settlements, and trading-posts, early French, 65; early, in Michigan, 85. Settlers, early dangers faced by, 86; of Northwest supporters of religion and education, 68, 69; first, in North- west, 68; of Illinois, character of, 81; of Illinois, from South Atlantic States, 81; of Michigan, character of, 89; of Northwest guaranteed ad- vantages equal to those of rest of nation, 69. Sixteenth section of every township to be used for support of education, 47, 70. Social democracy, academies schools of, 166. Social need, academy fills, 34; Latin schools no longer meet, 24. Sources, of Primary School Fund of Michigan, 119; of support of branches, 126; of support of "First College of Michigania," 102; of support of University of Michigan, 103. South Carolina, first school in, 32. South, education in the, 31. Special legislation, academies and in- stitutes chartered by. 79. Special oflScers, Dorchester provides first, for school administration, 9; in charge of schools, 9. Spelling school, rural, 140. Spring Arbor Academy, 152. Standard of all schools raised, 211: school period of twelve years and twelve grades, 215; union schools have no fixed, 178. 268 Public Secondary Education Standards to be met by private schools in New York, 121. State aid for colleges and seminaries in Illinois, 83. State Board of Education grants teacher's certificates, 239. State Board of Visitors recommends modification of university course, 144. State constitutions and secondary education, 45. State educational system, Illinois slow to establish a, 82. State superintendent of education, in Michigan, educational ideas of the first, 112; Michigan constitution first to provide for, 108. State supervision of educational insti- tutions, law required, 157. States, number of to be formed from Northwest Territory limited, 71; which claimed Northwest Territory, 66. Statistics from twenty-eight high schools in 1874, 227. Status, of academies in United States in 1850, si; of public secondary schools, courts settle legal, 193. Stock companies organized academies, 163. Students, admitted to university on their own merits, 220; and faculty of university rapidly increase, 142; choose studies in academies, 170; from affiliated schools do better university work, 218; in university after 1S50, number of, 147. Studies, free election of, in high schools first seen, 209; for union schools. Superintendent Gregory suggests program of, 207; in the academy, program of, 169; in union schools, varied program of, 183; in universi- ties, 1843, program of, 142, 143; in university, 1850, program of, 146; in university, Latin, Greek, and mathematics constitute bulk of, 143; in Ypsilanti academical department, program of, 185; partial election of, in East Saginaw, 209; principle of free choice of, finding favor, 186; pro- gram of, in Wesleyan Seminary, 169. Subject-matter in academies arranged in departments, 168; in University of Michigan, expansion of, 202. Subjects presented for admission to university, nearly free choice of, 20S; required for admission to high school, 183; taught in University of Michigania, 100. Suit, between Romeo branch and uni- versity, friendly, 135; to determine legality of high schools, friendly, 194. Superintendent of Public Education in Michigan, 108; Reverend John Pierce, 112. "Superintendents of Schools," 180, 181; urge consolidation of school districts, 176, 177. Supervision of high-school athletics rigid, 242. Support, and establishment of schools a legitimate function of government, 6; of both university and branches, funds lacking for, 131, 147; of branches causes financial embarrassment of university, 147; of branches com- pletely withdrawn by university, 133; demand for, of branches, 147; sources of, for branches, 126; of common schools. Primary School Interest Fund for, 193; of high schools in part from University Fund, 93; of schools, proceeds from the fisheries for, 27, 28. Surplus revenue. Federal government distributes the, 113. Survey of public lands, 90. Surveyors in Michigan, explorers and, _ 87. System, of education, Michigan de- mands adequate, 114; of free schools, tendency of state policy toward, 194; of numbering sections, 90; real begin- ning of school, of Michigan, 95. TAX, Boston levies, for school support, 7; for support of academies, 34; for support of education repealed, 103; for support of grammar schools, 27; in Indiana, school, 81. Taxation, Dorchester first to support a public school by direct, 9. Teachers better in union schools, 175; differentiation of functions of, 180; employed in university, 129; for rural schools, training, 222; influence of college-bred, 240; in grammar schools, qualifications for, 49; in high schools hold college degrees, 239; in union schools women, 187; preparation of high-school, 237. Teachers' Appointment Committee, beginnings of, 139. Teacher's certificates, granted by uni- versity, 238; normal schools grant, 239; State Board of Education grants, 239. Teachers' departments in high schools, 226. "Teacher's Diploma," 238. Teacher-training course at Romeo, 138. Teaching unattractive to college grad- uates, 36. Teaching assistants, r8o. Teaching staff of university at its open- ing, 142. Tecumseh, branch at, 129. Terms, in Michigan, school, 106, 107; in union schools, 180; of academy year, 168. Territorial Department of Education of Michigan, 108. Territorial, laws of Illinois make no mention of schools and education, 82; period, educational system in Michigan at close of, 108. The Index 269 Territory of Michigan, people of, in- different to English idea of self- government, 105. Textbooks, in academies, 170; in Illinois schools, 83; in union schools, 187. Texts used in colonial schools brought from England, 17. Theology excluded from the university, 128. Titles of secondary schools, variety of, 160. Towns, important, establish graded or union schools, 178; vie for possession of branches, 129. Township, the, 90; diagram of a, 91; district instead of, made the school unit, 108; each section of each, numbered, 90; section sixteen always lies near center of, 92; system of numbering, 91. Trading-posts, early French settle- ments and, 65. Training, professional, recommended for teachers in Michigan, 114; of teachers at Romeo, 138; of teachers for rural schools, 222. Transition period in secondary edu- cation, 61. Treaty, of Ghent, 71; of Paris, 66. Trustee, Indiana's seminary, 79. "Trustees of Michigan College," 123. Tuition, fees, 34; in academies, 168; in graded schools, 176; in Romeo branch, 137. UNIFICATION of high-school pro- grams, 229. Uniformity among early high schools, little, 206. Union school, at Jonesville organized, 178; forerunner of the present-day high school, 172; not expected to prepare for college, 178; public, appears, 80; Superintendent Gregory suggests program of studies for, 207; supplants the academy, 163; the day in the, 180; third type of education in Michigan, 172; to take place of local academy'. 178. Union school building, 180; built, 177; contains all grades, 180; given over to academical (high-school) depart- ment, 180; location of, 181; plan of, 181; pride of community, 181; to meet needs of new type of school, 181. Union schools, advantages of, 178; agree closely in plan and scope, 179; better salaries in, 175; better teachers in, 175; coeducation in, 187; depart- ments in, 179; early organization of, 211; foundation of high schools of to-day, 187; general plan of organi- sation of, 179; grading in, I7S; nave httle apparatus, early, 186; have men for principals, 187; have no fixed standard, 178; have women teachers, 187; important towns establish, 178; law permitting local officers to organize, anywhere, 175; length of courses in, 179; list of salaries in, 182; rate bill in, 187; reporting in 1859, 189; rise and development of, 172; secure a footing, public, 153; superintendents favor, 176, 177; terms in, 180; text books in, 187; varied program of studies in, 183. Union-school, districts demanded throughout state, 174; libraries small and of inferior grade, 186; salaries low, 182. United States still follows Ordinance of 1786, 47. Universities, coeducation not favored by, 198; nuclei for state, and system of free higher education, 70. University, created in New York, 97; Georgia establishes, 97; Ohio estab- lishes state, 73- University of Michigan, administration of, 103; admission by certificate, 210; admission by examination, 134; ad- mission on merit, 220; admission re- quirements in 1850, 144; affiliation with high schools, 202, 216; allows nearly free choice of entrance sub- jects, 205; appropriations reduced, 132; articulation with high schools, 202, 212; baccalaureate degree con- ferred, 205; branches, see Branches of the university; buildings erected at Ann Arbor, 131; Classical Course established, 203; Commission of Ex- aminers for high schools, 213; Con- gress grants land for support of, 70; courses in, 104, 203; degrees granted by, 204; election of studies first ap- pears in, 203; elective principle applied to all work, 205; engineering courses established, 203; entrance re- quirements, 213; equipment pur- chased, 141; expansion of subject- matter in, 202; expenses of students, 104; faculty and students of, increase, 142; fees in, 14s; first catalogue of, 142; first woman student in, 200; follows ideals and forms set by older institutions, 144; friendly suit be- tween Romeo branch and, 135; girls admitted to, in 1870, 129; gradua- tion from, based on "hours" of work, 205; grants limited certificate privi- leges to high schools preparing for any one college course, 219; grants teach- er's certificate, 239; head of Michigan school system, 104; high schools affected by additional entrance re- quirements in, 214, by changes in policy in, 205, by coeducation in, 201; mfluence of, on secondary education, 197; located at Ann Arbor, 128; mod- ification of course in, recommended by State Board of Visitors, 144; non- sectarian, 104; nucleus of a library for, 131; number of students in, after 1850, 147; number of women in, 200; officers controlling, 125; opens with 270 Public Secoridary Education seven students and four teachers, 142; post-graduate high-school work, cred- it given for, 216; program of studies in 1843, 142, 143; program of studies in 1850, 146; recitations in 1850, 144; regents absolute masters of, 148; relations with branches, see Branches of the university; requirements for establishing branches of the, 125. 126; Romeo branch represented schools of, at their best, 13s; school year in 1850, 145; Science and Art of Teaching, first to have chair of, 238; Scientific Course established, 203; sources of support of, 103; teachers employed by, 129; theology excluded from, 128; three departments of, 128; women admitted to, 200; women demand entrance to, 199; women refused admittance to, 199; work of high quality done in, by students from affiliated schools, 218 "University of Michigania," 95; bill creating the, 97-99; first faculty of, loi; first salaries in, 10 1; law the only traditional college subject not included in the course in, 100; orig- inal plan for, never put in opera- tion, 102; plan for, contained ad- vanced ideas, 96; principles em- bodied in the bill establishing, 100; sources of support of, 99; subjects covered in the courses of, 100. University Fund, 193; partly supports high schools, 194. Upper Peninsula added to Michigan, no. Usher, duties of the school, 25. VALUE of land grants high, average, 92. Variety, of titles applied to secondary schools, 160; of types of colleges stimulate education in Michigan, IS6. Vermont, 30. Vincennes University, 74. Virginia, authorizes schools in 1660, 31; Jefferson's scheme for school system for, 97; school system in Revolutionary period, 32. Virginia Company, the, i; provisions of, for founding schools in America, i. Voluntary contributions for support of schools, 28. WAR of 1812, 71. Ward buildings, 180. Washington Academy at Carlyle, III., 83. Wesleyan Seminary, program of studies in, 169. West India Company, i; provisions of, for founding schools in America, I. Westward migration, 67. White Pigeon, branch of university at, 129. William Penn Charter School, 31. Wisconsin, fifth territory in the North- west, 72; from the first gave system- atic attention to schools and educa- tion, 84; profits by her neighbors' experiences, 84; schools of, 84. V/oman student, first, in the University of Michigan, 200. Women, admitted to University of Michigan, 200; demand entrance to University of Michigan, 199; number of, in University of Michigan, 200; instructors in the branches, 129; refused admittance to University of Michigan, 199; teachers in union schools, 187. Work in university made elective, 205; offered by Romeo branch, college and preparatory, 136; offered in graded school left to local board, 176. YEAR in the university (1850), the school, 14s. Young Men's Society, Detroit, 157. Ypsilanti academical department, pro- gram of studies in, 185. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below ^m. JOL 5 1932 ''iff 7 1932 APR 2 4 ^^53 ' .' • ' o I ■* "a J VJI^M ^ - 1948 19^0 'UO «QV 2 9 ^^411 APR 2 91943 OCT 25 1943 APR 2^' . f OL^^ tl&liieJS^ <^ ■;^ o;)^ LA 307 Davis - Public secondary yC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 637 585 education. Mar 18 19^ APR 8 =^ s f^Er" rrrrr- ^4 ^f C ^ LIFOKNIA 5RARY