^ IBRAR JIIVO- CALIF! .t; ^ J ijjf'. v'jui ^ ?.. ^, FH (rr\i-' BROWN'S GRAMMAR IMPROVED. ' THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR METHODICALLY ARRANGED; WITH rORMS OF PARSING AND CORRECTING, EXAMPLES FOR PAESINQ, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, FALSE SYNTAX FOR COR. EECTION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, METHODS OF ANALYSIS, AND A KEY TO TIIE DEAL EXERCISES: TO WHICH ARE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES. iBSIGNED FOR 1UK USE OP SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATE LEARNEBJi BY GOOLD BROWN, PRINCIPAL OF AN ISNOL181I AND CLASSICAL ACADEMY, NEW TOEK. "W« quis igltur tanquain p.irva fustidiat Grammatices elemeuta." — Q[jii(TU,tA& A NEW EDITION, WITH EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING, BY HENRY KIDDLE, A. M., ASSISTANT SUPERINTKNDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. 1 ■3 / * .WILLIAM W0OT> ■&■ GO.j 27 Gt.- JONES STREET 187S. ADVERTISEMENT. TiiE Gxcellenco of Brown's Grammars, both as treatises and school-boolis, Is Tery generally acknowledged. The repeated demands, however, for a more extend- ed treatment of the " Analysis of Sentences" than was thought necessary by tho anther, has induced the publisher to issue a new edition, containing a full and pro- gressive exposition of this department of grammar, and an entirely new series of exercises and examples, both for analysis and parsing, with observations and refer- cnces to make them correspond with the body of tho work. The exercises in Anal- ysis, and the definitions necessary to explain them, have not been confined to tlio department of Syntax, as in most other grammatical text-books, but made to com- mence at a point where the intelligent progress of tho pupil seems to demand such aid. No attempt has been made to revise the text, or change the system of grammar therein explained ; because, while no change could possibly accommodate it to tho views of all, the intelligent teacher can find no difficulty in varying it, in a few minor particulars, so as to make it correspond with his own views. Witu these alterations, the publisher hopes that these works will be found more useful to the public, and a more valuable aid to teachers in imparting instruction in this important branch ol •ducAtioa. •~' — ' -7 Entered, according to Act of Congress, iji thu yeor 185C, by GOOLD BKOWN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S62, bi' S . 8 . & W . WOOD, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southar* ]")isti let of New York. 1 1 PREFACE. *'Neque erdm aut dliena vituperare, aut nostra jactanti us prccdioare, animus esL^ 1. Lanotjaqf- is the principal vehicle of thought ; and so numerous and important are the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive In what manner the affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will ever entitle it to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and (o an Important place in ail systems of education. For, wliatever we may think in relation to its origin— whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry^ natural endowment, or an artiticial invention, — certain it is, that, in tlie present state of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, on the voluntary e.xercise of our faculties, and ou the helps and opportunities afforded us. One may indeed acquire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as to enjoy the ordinary advantages of speech; and he who is salistiedwith the dialect he has so obtained, will tind no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is desirous either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or of expressing kia sentiments with propriety and ease, must make the principles of language liis study. 2. It is not the business of the grammarian to give Icmo to language, but to teach it, agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, and with wliich his instructionb must always accord, is that species of custom which critics denominate ooou use; that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, which is equally opposed to fantastic iimovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to the quaint peculiarities of ancient usage, is the only proper standard of graranuitical purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority, may be called the Institutes of Grammar. 3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language; to express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth; to illustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises; and to give to the whole all possible advantage from method iu the arrangiraent; are the objects of the following work. Tlie author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial; but to improve upon it, iu its present application to our tongue. 4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance aflford greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known ; and has contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of incul- cating tliem. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines anew ; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to otfi3r, on that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. The errors of former grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose ; and of tlieir delicioucies the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they aro here supplied. 5. Tills treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to aH classes of learners, was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, disencumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the sub- ject Little regard has therefore been paid to gainsayers. Grammarians have over disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those wlio have dealt most in philological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Dcnham: " The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces saples.f leaves in stead of fruits." 6. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungram- matical which appears to them to be uuphilosophical, render the whole ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found ia Bome of tlieir books. Amidst this rage for speculation ou a subject purely practical, various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is mani- festly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to iu- 233482 IV PREFACE. vent on otlier less objectionablp. Pnch attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their liistory will give no encouragement to future innovators. 7. While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing that the learning (if ages would give place to their whimsical theories; others, with more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost iunumerably, by abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus intro- duced into our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more extensive and more permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord Bacon ob- Berves, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, buf by writing others whicli, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious. 8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in vorks of this sort ; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned and popular of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and ■write for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language. 9. All science is laid in the nature of things ; and he only who seeks it there, can Tightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his pre- decessors u'eut right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had eyes to see them ! "Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsup- ported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this^ for that author- ehip which has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall ho who can- not write for himself, improve upon him who can? It is not deference to merit, but impudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance! Commonness alone exempts it from scrutin}', and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worth- Icssness! To read and be informed, is to mrke a proper use of books for the advance- ment of learning; but to assume to be an a /hor by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the ambition cf a scholar and the honesty of a man. 10. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a hook written professedly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seeia that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of spealaug and writing well ; so that correctness of language and neat- ness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in Ather books. There have been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But these, for an obvious reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of suc- cess ; and even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to fiu-ther labour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward ; and to those who were best quali- fied to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive lor diligence. 11. Having devoted many yeai-s to studies of this nature, and being conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the objects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements here otlered, are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to de- preciate the labours, or to detract from the merits of those who have gone before him and taught with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself ef all the light they have thrown upon the suljject. For 5iis own information, he has carefully perused more than two hundred English grammars, and has glanced over many others that were not worth reading. With this publication in view, he has also resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has seen and heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with Bome diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. 1-. His prstgress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises already before tlie public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views .ind explanations ■which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible -with his ultimate object — the production of a practical school grannnar. 18. Ambitious of making not a large but an acceptable book, he has compressed int» this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials from which ho could as easily have formed a folio. Whether the toil be compensated or not, is a matter of little consequence ; he has neitlier written for bread, nor built castles in the air. Me ifi too wCU versed ia the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune PREFACE. y of ailtTiorfi, to imlulge any cnnfuloiit nnticipatioiiK of Riircess ; yet liP T^'ill not dony (liat his hopes are large, being conKcious of having cherislied tlicm with a liherality of fc-cl- ing wliich cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he wouhi invite the render to a thorough perusal of tlie following pages. A grammar should speak for itself Jn a work of this nature, every word or tittle whieli does not recommend the perfoimnnce to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet, if some small errors have escaped detection, let it he recollected that it is al- most impossible to print with perfect accuracy a work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minntentfs sometimeK elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry mid difBcult subject ; but tliere is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason allu- ring. The ditticulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epilcn;e, and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave tho author a fondness for grammar; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, ho has voluntarily pursued the study, with au assiduity vdiich no man will ever imitate for the «ake of pecuniary recompen.-e. 14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several parts, with notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned them. The examples of false syntax placed under the n:lcs, are to be corrected oral- iy; the four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subject, are to be written out by the learner. In selecting examples for thef^e exercises, the author has been studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by adrr.itting those only which were very short. He has, in general, reduced each example to a single line. And, in this manner, he has been able to present, in this email volume, a series of exercises, more various than are given in any other grammar, aiul nearly equal in number to all that are contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed thata gram- matical treatise at once bo comprehensive and concise, has not before been offered to the public. 15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal defi- nitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to menioi'y, that they may ever after- wards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smooth the way, and facilitate tho labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar witliout imposing this task, is disproved by univerfal experience. Nor will it avail any thing lor the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his hook, and then applying them in itarsing, till the ■whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory, and strength- en all the faculties of the mind. 16. The mode of instruction hero recommended is the result of long and successful experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it diiticult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- ample, rule and praxis; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. The book itself will make any one a granimavian, vriio ■\7ill take the trouble to observe and practise what it teaches ; and even if some iustructors should not adopt the readiest and most eflicient method of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. "Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable ekill in teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, how- ever learned, who, on a periisal of the volume, would not be furnished with some im- portant rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. IT. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly rtnitniber that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well; an art which can no more bo acquired without practice than that of dancing or swimming. And each should be careful to perform his part handsomely — without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesita- ting, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, mis- quoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance dis- agreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and the system will be found well calculated to eft'ect that object ; because it demands of him, not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much ; and, in general, he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; give the word to the next, when any one errs ; and order the exercise in such a man- ner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually cor- rect the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 18. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of etymol- ogy, and is carried on progressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are aj)plio»i 1* Ti PREFACE. ble to ft. If it be perfofnied according to the order prescribed, it will soon malce the student perfectly familiar witti all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. IS requires j sst enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are utter- ing ; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave tho pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehcai'sed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy' 9 conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation, or declamation ; and is thereforo an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in or- dinary speech— a species of elocution as valuable as any other. 19. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill in practice ; and grammar is best taught by that process whicli brings its doctrines most d-rectly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil— which the most effrtctftally conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upoa blundering ignorance. In tlie whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importance than tliat of parsing ; and yet perhaps there is none whicli is, in general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is th« practice of correcting' false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument; nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of disci- pline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the man- agement of these things ; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to habits of correct thinking ; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympa- thize, in some degi-ee, with tlie sadness of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us, that ho had "always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so mucU neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to bo no adequate remedy." — Pref. to Minerva. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral ; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Christian poet: " Sacred Interpreter of human thought. How few respect or use thee as they ought 1" — Coivper. 20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the un- thinking to speak or write well. Tliat must indeed be an admirable book, which can attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in tliera. Yet something may be effected by means of a better book, if a better can be introduced. And what with- stands?— Wiiatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And i3 it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this, as well as to many a weightier matter, one may too truly aftirm, Multa non sunt tsicut multis videntur — Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal them- selves from the common mind; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficul- ties: multiplicity perplexes choice ; inconvenience attends change; improvement I'e- qulres effort ; confiicting tlicories demand examination ; the principles of tho scienca are unprofitably disputed ; the end is often divorced from the means ; and much that belies the title, has been publislied under the name. 21. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the im- portant exercises of parsing and correcting, are eitlier so awkwardly written, or so negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, littlo else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used with liis grammar ; but ho made the examples in the former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series agreeably to his direction. Tlie publisliing of them in a separate volume, has proljably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar with- out them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnisiies, are also misplaced ; and when found by the learner, are of littlo use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly igno- rant of grammar, if ho cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better Engli.nh, When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we can- not think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, are badly writ- ten. Nor does the objection lie against this writer only : Ab uno disce onines. But the reader may demand some illustrations. 22. First — from his etymological parsing: "O Virtue 1 how amiable thou art!" Here his form for the word Virtue is — " Virtue is a common substantive of the neuter gender, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case." It should have been — " Virtue is a common 7wun, -personified proper, of the secoiulper- aon, singular numher, feminine gender, and nominative case." And, then tho defini- tions of all these things should have followed in regular numerioal order. He givea PREFACE. Vii ilie claflB of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becornefl an individual ; he gires tho gender wrong, and in direct contradiction of what he sayH of the word, in his section on gender; lie gives the (icTson wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou; he re- peats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless preposi- tions, making them different where the relation is precisely the same: and all this, in a sentence of two linos, to tell tlie properties of the noun Virtue ! — But, in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought lo be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them are perfectly familiar, and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what is true or false in the de- scription of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits; and, on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably de- ficient. 23. Secondly — from his syntactical parsing: '■'Vice degrades us." Here his form for the word Vice is — " Vice is a common substantive of the third person, in the sin- gular number, and the nominative case." Now, when the learner is told that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course con- clude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely to omit the gender — this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this ditference had no other origin ihan the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises — the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymologi- cal? Never. I5ut Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves — making a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said — " Vice is a common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- der, and nominative case : and is the subject of degrades; according to the rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the noniinativa case.' Because the meaning is — vice degrades." This is the whole description of the word, with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 24. Thirdly — from his " mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences: 'The man is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence," says Murray, "is incorrect; because lohich is a pronoun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antece- dent 'man, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, &c., according to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should tlwrefore be who, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent Tnan; and the sentence should stand thus: 'The man is prudent who speaks little.' " Again: " 'After I visited Europe, I returned to America.' This sentence," says he, "is not correct; because the verb visited is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned, to which it relates. By tho thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense visited, should therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of visiting, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of returning. The sentejice corrected would stand thus: 'After I liad w'sited Europe, I returned to America." " These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones re- tained by Alger, in his improwed, recopij -righted edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false 1 In the former, truly, which should be who; but not because ivhich is of the neuter gender ; but because the appli- cation of that relative to persons, is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian for- get ^hat, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use which, and never who f But if which must needs be neuter, the world is wrong in this. — As for the latter example, it is right as it stands: and the correction is, in some sort, tauto- logical. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to tha other, and gives to tlie visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. '■'After I visited Europe," is equivalent to " lF/i«>i I had msited Europe." The whole argument is therefore void. 25. These few brief illustrations, out-of thousands that might be adduced in proof of thefaultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treat- ed with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be sup- posed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in respect to grammar, the evidences of failure are constantly inducing changes from one system to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an expe- rienced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplying tho aid and guidance which they require. 26. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no, embeUishment. A writer may express them with neatness and perspiouity^-tiieir importance alone can eomnicml them to notice. Yet, in drawing hisi illustrations from the stores of litei"ature, tlie grammarian may select some goras of thought, whicli will fasten on the memcvy a Vlll ' PREFACE. TTOrthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of miuiite Instruction. Such examples havo been taken from various authors, and interspersed through thj following pages. 27. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is es- pecially incumbent on all those wlio are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intel- lectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they in- struct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader ; and, of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages- ■with a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what is copied and what is original. All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily similar. The doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own lan- guage, and illustrated by that of others. Where authority was requisite, names have been inserted ; and in general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occixsion, are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to al- most every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or refer- ence is added. In the exercises for correction, few references have been given ; be- cause it is no credit to any author, to have written bad English. But the intelligent reader will recognize as quotations a large portion of the examples, and know from what works they are taken. To the school-boy this knowledge is neither important nor interesting 29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, and have been printed under eo many names, that it is dilKcult, if not impossible, to know to whom they originally Ijelonged. Of these the author has freely availed him- eelf, though seldom without some amendment ; while he has carefully abstained from every thing on which ho supposed there could now be any individual claim. He haa therefore fewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are re- puted to have written with sufficient originality on the subject. 30. In truth, not a line has here beeucopied with any view to save the labour of com- position; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the sources of tlie art, was the bisk which the writer proposed to himself. And tliough the theme is not one upon which a man may hope to write well with little reflection, it is true, th;tt tlie parts of this treatise which have cost him the most labour, are those which '.' consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others." These, however, arc not the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples; which, according to the custom of the cncient gramma- rians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our modern grammars been allowed to presume upon *lie respect and acquiescence of their readers, that the ancient exactncKS on this point w ould often appear pedantic. Many phrases and sentences eitiier original or anonymous will therefore be found among tha illustrations of the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would de- mand for every thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous exam- ples are sutlicient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and elucidation is often the sole purpose for whicli an example is needed. 31. The author is well aware that no writer on grammar haa any right to propose himself as autliority for what he teaches ; for every language, being tlie common prop- erty of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defi- nitions and rules. "Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with ■whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have con- firmed his assertions by reason and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, ' Grammarians are the guard- ia7is, not the authors, of language.' "—Minerva, Lib. i, Cap. ii. Yet, as what is in- tuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language. 3'2. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far aa they become competitors for the same jirize ; but in competition there is nothing dis- honourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grarainarian, who has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology ; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other . — or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having " done all that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of Eng- lish grammariana ; and he who begins with saying that "little can be expected" from PREFACE. iX the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted when he is held to have dona much. Neither tlio ordinary power of speech, nor even tlie ability to write respecta- bly on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a giamuiarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy— a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior preteusions may bo ac- cepted and honoured under the name. 33. By the force of a late popular example, ptill too widely influential, grammatical authorship has been reduced in tlie view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, even for an indifferent performance of this low ottice, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of gram- matical excellence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a. ])ro/esised compiler; who had bo mean an opinion of what his theme re- quired, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to im. prove upon this most happy design : while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our lan- guage? What, motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such no- tions prevail as give inastersliip no hope of preference,aud where the praise of his inge- nuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world un- der better auspices? If the lovfe of learning supply such a motive, who that has gen- erously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an "humble drudge" — or, like Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar? 34. Since the first edition of this work, more than two hundred new compcnds, many of them professing to be abstract.'^ of Murray with improvements, have been added to our list of English grammars. The author has examined about one hundred and fifty, and seen advertisements or notices of nearly half as many more. Being va- rious in character, they will of course be variously estimated; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of littl: or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, lie would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have committed upon the following digest, were it not possible that by such a frittering-away of his work ho himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it mani- fest to men of learning, that in the production of these Institutes far more has been done for the grammar of our language, than any single hand had before achieved within the limits of a school-book, and that with perfect fairness towards other writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whatever else may befall; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so need- ful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled lor years in solitude to coii'plete a work of pub- lic utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism arc neither obscure nor dis- putable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed. Many things must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is per- sonally interested ? Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are ade- quate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth; and, even of some things within their reach, the majority seem content to take their opin- ions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred ; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appre- ciated. But common sense might dictate that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 36. The real history of grammar is little known ; and many erroneous impressions are entertained concerning it : because the story of the systems most generally receiv- ed, has never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the sayiig: " Unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance : but from him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into tha account ; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talenta of otUsrs into the shade, or made them tributary to their own succeiis aud popuUntjf, X PREFACE. 37. Few writpi-s on g'-ainmar have been more noted than Lily and Murray. A law •was made in Eiighmd by Henry tlie Eighth, commanding Lily's gramniai " only everywhere to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt in changing of Bchooleniaisters." — Pre/, to Lily, p. .\iv. Being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, ("because," says one of the patentees, " he had .so comdderahle a hand in the compo- ■ition,") was written by L)r. (Jolet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. (See Ward's Preface to the book, 1703.) Acd of the other half, history incidentally tells, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar, London, 17S7, speaking of the art of type-founderj', says: "The Italians in a short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th of January, 1474 ; from whom, our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his gratnmar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, icithout paying any regard to the memory of this author.'" The historian then proceeds to speak about types. See also the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar which bears upon its titlepage: " Qwant solam Regia Majestas in omnibus eeholia docendam prcecipit.'" 38. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose varions labours in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thought and critical skill he fell far below most of "the authors to whom," he confesses, " the grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its 'materials ; namely, ilarris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, (Joote, Blair, and Campbell." — Introd. to Gram,., p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon his task witha very insufficient preparation. His biography informs us, that, " Gram- mar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time before the publication of his first work on that subject ;" that, "His grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, was completed in rather less than a year — though he had an intervening ill- ness, which for several weeks stopped the progress of the work;" and that, "the Ex- ercises and Key were also composed in about a year." — Life of L. Murray, p. 183. From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public. He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that "little can be expected" from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) "from a new compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and Bome degree of improvement ii the mode of adapting it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners." — Introd. to Gram., 8vo, p. 5; l'2mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his own art — to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's business! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned theml 39. Murray' s general idea of the doctrines of grammar was j udicious. He attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught ; for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in la- bours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his no- tion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the sake of doing good ; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for Iiis own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfec- tion of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure, is absurd. He says, " The greater part of an English grammar m,ust necessarily be a compilation f and adds, with reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a Email portion of it. This I have acknowledged ; and I trust this acknowledgement will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed inijust and irregular as- Bumptions." — Letter, 1811. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies does not appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was then inserted as follows: "In a work which professes to be a compilation, and which, /row the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the compiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names." — Introd. to Gram., 8vo, p. 7; l'2mo, p. 4. 40. For the nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, the author alone is answerable ; but the nature and design of grammar, are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by Murray in iiis work of compilation. There is no part of the volume more accurate, than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone he was iudebted for more thau a hundred and twenty paragraphs ; and cvun ia these PREFACE, x\ thsro arc many tl.ings obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes wcra taken from Priestley ; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of thoso " positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some, however, his own alterations may have given rise ; for, where he " persuades himself he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against thetext of his own earlier editions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital ; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about si.xty pages were extracted from Blair, and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, thero are fifteen pages from Campbell; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. Tho rules for spelling are the same as Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross blun- der; and the fourth, a needless repetition. Were this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeat- edly violated by the lumd of the mastci'. Nor is there among all those who have since abridged or moditicd the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. Who ■will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Eussell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, Wood- worth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to observe, how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by JIurray, or some one of his prede- cessors, has escaped the notice of all tliese, as well as of many others who have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. 41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the reviews, and made common stock in trade, — being published, both in England and in America, by booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by those who were most interested in the sale of them, — have been eminently successful with the public; and, in tlie opinion of the world, bucccss is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have writtea in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point ia most of the commendations which, have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, " at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed ;" par- ticularly commends him for bis "candour and liberality towards rival authors;" avera that, "he went ou, examining and correcting his grammar, through all its forty edi- tions, till he brought it to a degree of perfection wliich will render it as permanent as the English language itself;" censures (and not without reason) the "presumption'* of those "superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honours; and, regarding the compiler's confcs.sion of his indebtedness to others, buS as a mark of " his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds, (in very bad Eng- lish,) " Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unex- 2)ected bt/ himself, than Lindley Murray." — 2'he Friend, Vol. iii, p. 33. 42. In a New-York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was in- serted a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, "as it came in purity from the pen of the author ;" with an earnest remonstrance against the several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in alter- ing the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, " that ths whole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they have met with his decided disapx>rohation. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, '■Xhn rights of living authors, and the interests of science and literature, demand the abolition of this un- ijcncrous practice.'' " Here, then, we have the opinion and feeling of Murray himself upon this tender point of right. Kere we see the tables turned, and other men judg- ing it " scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which tliey have made of their Ijredecessors' labours." 43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to Murray any thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply ; except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfection as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent al- terations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, lierhaps, never complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions; and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it seems necessary first to convince them that it is possible, to compose a better grammar tlian Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and from every granmrar based upon his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minuta surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confess- edly still more imperfect. The region and the scope are essentially the same ; th« tracing and the colouring are more original j and (if the reader cau pardon tke Bug* gestiou; perhaps more accurate and vivid. Xil PREFACE. 44. He who makes a new grammar, does iiotbing for the advancement of learning, unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose ; and no- thing for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader — even to him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by time, will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may Eubstitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distinguish merit ; and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will always tie some who can discern the ditference between originality of style, and innovation in doctrine — between a due regard to tlic opinions of others, and an actual usurpation of their text; and it is incredible that these should ever be eatisfied with any mere com- pilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the •writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that "an English grammar must neces- sarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a theme, and in "the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation, beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all, most unavoidably implies — not conscious " ability," generously doing honour to rival merit — -nor " exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own — but inadequate Bkill and iuferior talents, bribing the public by the spoUs of genius, and seeking pre- cedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. To excel in grammar, is l)ut to know better than others wherein grammatical excel- lence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly preface, " tliat a whole life cannot be spent upon synta.x and etymology, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient." Who then v/ill suppose, in the face of such facts and confessions as have been e.xhibited, that cither in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands, we h.ave any such work as deserves to be made a permarTent standard of instruction in English grammar ?— The author of this treatise will not pretend that it is perfect ; though he has bestowed upon it no inconsiderable pains, that the narrow limits to v.iiich it must needs be con- fined, might be filled up to the utmost advantago of the learner, as well as to the best direction and greatest relief of the teacher. 46. A Key to the Oral Exercians i7i False Syntax, is inserted in the Grammar, that the pupil may be enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class X'ecitaiions. Being acquainted with the rule, and having seen tlie correction, he may be expected to state the error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. It is the opinion of some teachers, that no Key in aid of the student should be given. Accordingly many grammars, not destitute of exercises in false syntax, are published without cither formules of correction, or a Key to show the right reading. But Eng- lish grammar, in any extensive exhibition of it, is a study dry and difficult enough for the young, when we have used our best endeavours to free it from all obscurities and doubts. The author thinks he has learned from experience, that, with explicit help of th's sort, most pupils will not only gain more knowledge of the art iu a given time, but in the end find their acquisitions more satisfactory and more permanent. 47. A separate Key to the Exerciseti for Writing, is published for tlie convenience of teacliers and private learners. For an obvious reason this Key should not be put into the hands of the school-boy. Being a distinct volume, it may be had, bound by itself or with the Grammar. Those teachers who desire to exercise their pupils oraUy in correcting false grammar without a Key, can at any time make use of this series of examples tor such purpose. 48. From the first edition of the following treatise, there was made by the author, for the use of young learners, a brief abstract, entitled, '■'■The First Lines of English Oramritar;" in which are embraced all the leading doctrines of the original work, with a new series of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important i.i the grammar of the language, was necessarily excluded from this epitome ; nor was it designed for those who can learn a larger book without wearing it out. But econ- omy, as well as convenience, demands small and cheap treatises for children; and those teachers who approve of this system of grammatical instruction, will find many reasons for preferring the First Lines to any other compend, as an introduction to the study of these Institutes. 49. Having imdertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hope of facilitating the litudy of the English Language, and thus promoting the impruvement of the young, the author now presents his finished labours to the candour and discernment of those to whom is committed the important business of instruction. How far he has suc- ceeded in the execution of his design, is willingly left to the just decision of those who are qualified to judge. GOOLD BUOVVN. iievised, Lynn, Mass., 1854. POSTSCKIPT TO THE PREFACE. The school-book now pretty -well-knoivn as " Bro-wn's Institutes of English Oranfc mar," was my first attempt at authorship in the character of a grammarian ; and, satisfactory as it has been to the many thousands who have used it, it has never- theless, like all other not incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible of sundry important emendations. So that I must believe with Murray, that, "Works of this nature admit of re2Jeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." It cannot, however, be said In my favour, as it has been in cummendation of this author, that, " lie went on examining and correcting his gmmmar through all its fort'j editions, till he brought it to the utmost degree of perfection ;" but something has been done in this way, three or four of the early editions of t!ic Institutes ha\i jg been severally retouched and improved by the author's hand , and now, an undimin- ished demand for the work having continued to spread its reputation, I have at length the satisfaction to have endeavoured yet once again to render it still mora worthy of the public favour. The time which has elapsed since the author first published this work, has beeis mainly spent in labours and studies tending very directly to enlarge and mature bis knowledge of English Grammar; and, especially, to better bis acquaintance with the great variety of books and essay's which have been written upon it. The principal result of these labours and studies has been given to the world in Lis large work entitled " The Grammar of English Grammars." To conform the future editions cf these Institutes more nearly to the text of this large Grammar, to supply soms deficiences which have been thought to lessen the comparative value of the former work, to divide the book more sj'stematically into chapters and subdivisions, and to correct a few typograpliical errors which had crept in, were the objects contemplated in the revision which has now been effected. In making those improvements, I have not forgotten that alterations in a popular class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly undesirable. Tlie writer who veuturcs at all upon them, is ever liable to subject his patrons and best friends to more or less iuconvenicnce; and for this he should be very sure of having presented, in every instance, an ample compensation. It is believed that the changes which the present revision exhibits, though they are neither few nor unimportant, need not prevent, in bchools, a concurrent use of old editions with the new, till the former may be suf- ficiently worn out. Wliat has been added or changed, will therefore lack no justifica- tion ; and the author will rest, with sufficient assurance, in the hope tliat the intelligent patronage wliich has hitherto been giving more and more publicity to his earliest teachings, will find, decidedly, and without mistake, in this improved form of the work, the best common school Grammar now extant. GOOLD BROWN. Lynn, Mats., 1855. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS, Preface to the Institutes ; . . . . Postcript to the Preface ; . . . . Defiuitiou and Division of English Grammar ; iii-xii. xlii. 17. PART I.— OETHOGEAPHY. Chapter I.— Of Letters ; I. Names of the Letters ; IL Classes of the Letters ; in. Powers of the Letters; IV. Forms of the Letters ; . Eules for the use of Capitals ; Chapter IL— Of Syllables; . Diphthongs and Triphthongs ; Eules for Syllabication ; Chapter III.— Of Words ; Species and Figure of Words; Eules for the Figure of Words; Chapter IV.— Of Spelltng; . Eules for Spelling ; Chapter V. — Questions on Orthography ; Chapter VI. — Exercises in Orthography ; PAET IL— ETYMOLOGY. Chapter I.— The Parts of Speech; Parsing, Praxis I ; Chapter IL— Of Articles ; Chapter III. — Of Nouns ; Persons ; Numbers Genders ; Cases ; The Declension of Nouns ; . Analysis and Parsing, Prajcis II Chapter IV. — Of Adjectives ; The Comparison of Adiectives , . Analysis and Parsing, Praxis III Chapter V. — Of Pronouns ; . The Declension of Pronouns Analysis and Parsing, Praxis IV Chapter VL— Of Verbs ; Moods ; Tenses ; Persons and Numbers The Conjugation of Verbs ; The Form of Passive Verbs ; Irregular Verbs ; . Eedundant Verbs ; Defective Verba i . . 17. 19. 20. 24. 26. 27. 23. 28. 29. 29. 29. SO. SL 81. 83. 84. 42- 44. 46. 47. 48, 49. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 59. 61. 63. Go. 07. 63. 70. 71. 74, 88. 91, 95. 97. CONTENTS. XT 'raxi8 Chapter VII.— Of Participles • Analysis and Parsing, Pr Chapter VUl.— Of Adverbs ; Chapter IX.— Of Oonjnnctions; . Chapter X.— Of Prepositions; . Ciiapter XI. — Of Interjections; Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VI ; Chapter Xl'l. — tiuestions ou Etymology; Chapter Xlll. — Exercises in Etymology ; PAOR, 98. 102. 10.-;. 107. 108. 109. 110. 114. 119 PART III. — SYNTAX. Introductory Definitions ; Chapter I.— The Rules of Syntax, Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VII ; Chapter II. — Of Eelation and Agreement; Rule I. — Of Articles; Rule II. — Of Nominatives; Rule III.— Of Apposition ; Rule IV. — Of Adjectives ; Rule V. — Of Pronouns ; . Rule VI. — Of the Pronoun and Collective Noun ; . Rule VII. — Of the Pronoun and Joint Antecedents; Rule VIII. — Of the Pronoun and Disjunct Antecedents RulelX.— Of Veibs; . . ... Rule X. — Of the Verb and Collective Noun ; . Rule XI. — Of the Verb and Joint Nominatives ; Rule XII. — Of the Verb and Disjunct Nominatives Rule XIII.— Of Verbs Connected; Rule XIV.— Of Participles ; . Rule XV.— Of Adverbs: Rule XVI. — Of Conjunctions ; . Rule XVII.— Of Prepositions ; Rule XVIII. — Of Inteijections ; Chapter III. — Of Government ; Rule XIX. — Of Possessives; . Rule XX.— Of Objectives ; Rule XXI. — Of Same Cases ; . Rule XXII.— Of Objectives ; . RuleXXIII.— Of Inlinitives; . Rule XXIV.— Of Infinitives ; . Rule XXV. — Of the Case Absolute, or Independent Rule XXVI.— Of Subjunctives; False Syntax Promiscuous ; Chapter IV. — General Items; General Eulo of Syntax ; . General Observations on the Syntax ; False Syntax under the General Rule Analysis and Parsing ; Chapter V. — Questions on Syntax ; Chapter VI. — Exercises in Syntax ; 124. 125. 131. 154. 151. 159. 16u. 1G2. 163. 177. 178. 179. 180. 183. 185. 188= 190. 192, 196. 200. 203. 206, 206. 207- 210. 213. 214. 21G. 218. 219. 220. 222. 226. 226. 227. 228. 229. 234. 236. PART IV. — PROSODY. Chapter I. — Of Punctuation; Section I. — Of the Comma ; Section II. — Of the Semicolon ; Section III.— Of the Colon ; . Section I V.— Of the Period ; . Section V, — Of the Dash ; . 249. 249. 254. 254. 2o5. 256.. XVI CONTENTS. Section VI.— Of the Eroteme ; . Section VII. — Of the Eephonemo ; Section VIII.— Of the Curves? ; Section IX. — Of the Other Marks ; Chapter II. — Of Utterance ; Section I. — Of Pronunciation ; . Section II. — Of Elocution ; Chapter III.— Of Figures ; Section I. — Fijjures of Orthography Section II. — Figures of Etymology; Section III. — Figures of Syntax ; Section IV. — Figures of Rhetorix;; Chapter IV. — Of Versification ; Section I. — Of Quantity ; Section II.— Of Ehyme ; Section III. — Of Poetic Feet; . Section IV. — Of Scanning; Order I. — Iambic Verse ; . Order II. — Trochaic Verse; Order III. — Anapestic Verse; Order IV. — Dactylic Verse ; Chapter V. — Oral Exercises ; Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII ; Chapter VI. — Questions on Prosody ; Chapter VII. — Exercises in Prosody ; KEY to Oral Exercises in False Syntax ; APPENDIX I.— Sounds of Letters ; APPENDIX II.— Of Derivation ; . APPENDIX III.— Of Stvlc ; . APPENDIX IV.— Of Poetic Dictioa } • • • • • PAGE. 256. 257. 257. 258. 260. 260. 261. 261. 262. 262. 263. 265. 207. 268. 268. 208. 269. 269. 270. 272. 272. 274*. 274. 281. 283. 297. SI 9. 827. o6t . THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. English Grammar is the art of speaking;, reading, and writing the English language correctly. It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthoi -t-, in ale, ajy, at. The semivowels arcj^ h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, vj, x, y, z, and c and ij soft : but w or y at the end of a- syllable, is a vo\vel ; and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only aa an aspirate, or strong breath. Four of tho semivowels, — I, m, n, and ?•, — arc termed liqidds, on account of tho fluency of their sounds ; and four others, — V, w, y, and z, — arc l.kewise more Tocal than the aspirates. The mutes are eight ; h, d, h, r>, q, t, and c and g hard : threo of these, — k, q, and c hard, — sound exactly alike : b, d, and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. OBSERVATIONS. Obs. 1. — The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, and, in rcrtpeet to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal authority. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern writers, however, not well satisfied with this ancient distribution of the element-* of learning, bave contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both sounds and letters into new classes, with various new names. But, so far as 1 can see, they havo thereby effected no important improvement ; and, since mere innovation la not in itself desirable in such cases, the old scheme is here still preferred. Ob3. 2. — Dr. Rush, author of "the Philosophy of th.c Human Voice," re- Eolves the letters into " tonics, sultonics, and atonies ;" and avers that " con- sonants alone may form syllables." S. Kirkham too, tliough his Grammar teaches the old doctrine as given by Murray, prefers in his Elocution tho iiistructions of Rush ; disparages "the hoary division of the letters of our riphabet into vowels and consonants ;" afBrms that, " A consonant is not only capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, more- over, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable;'"' (p. 32;) commends Rush's new " division and classification of the elementary characters of our language, in accordance with their use in intonation ;" puts an obsolete k into each of the Doctor's new names, giving to novelties the garb of an- tiiiues; tells of "the Tonicks, the Suhtonicks, and the Atonicks f and, undef these three lieads, exhibits his thirty-five " elements" of the English, tongue, by means of lialics and the spliBtiBg of syllables, thus: — 22 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 1. "Tlie Tonicls, t-welxc: ^4-te, a-rk, a-11, a-t, ee-\, c-rr, e-nd, i-do, i-t, o-ld, oo-ze, ou-t. 2. ^^ The Subtaiiicks, fourteen: ^-oat, d-are, g-ilt, ®-ice, z-one, ij-q, w-o, Vi-&t, a-s-ure, so-n^, ^-ate, m-ate, n-ot, r-oc. 3. " The Atonicks, nine : V-p, a-t, lar-ifc, i-/, tlii-5, ^-e, w^-at, BS. 4. — In Comstock"s Elocution, we have the following statement : "The elements, as well as the letters by which they are represented, are usually divided into two classes, Vou'tls and Consonants. A more philosophical division, however, is into three classes. Vowels, Sxcbvowels, and Aspirates. The vowels are pure vocal sounds ; their number is fifteen : they are heard in ole, arm, all, an, eve, end, ile, in, old, lose, on, t«be, wp, fwll, out. The sub- vocals has'C a vocality, but inferior to that of the vowels ; their number is fourteen: they are heard in ^ow, di\j, guy, light, 7«ind, Tio, song, roll, then, vile, wo, yoke, sonc, asurc. The aspirates are made with the whispering breath, and, consequently, have no vocality ; they are nine in number ; and arc heard in/ame, Aut, Hie. pit, sin, shade, tin, thin, «-7«it." — Pp. ID and 20. Obs. 5. — This again is a classification of sounds, and not of the letters. To call it " a more philosophical division" of the letters, is a ridiculous absurdity. For, of the twenty-six letters, it throws out four, — c,J, q. and a!,^becausQ their sounds may be otherwise expressed ; while ten repetitions of the same letter with a difi'erent pound, and six combinations of different letters, mak- ing sixteen unalphabetical items, are allowed to swell the number of " ele- ments" to thirty-eight: ou and wh being improperly reckoned among them. The definitions, too, are each of them inconsistent with the fact that all these elements may be either whispered or spoken aloud, at pleasure. Obs. 6. — The elementary sounds of the language being more numerous than the letters of the alphabet, and not very philosophically distributed among them, no accurate classification of cither species can be exactly adapted to the other; and to divide the powers of the letters into one set of classes, and then divide the letters themselves, with reference to their powers, into an other set, as a few late writers have done, seems to be neither free from objection, nor very necessary to the purposes of instruction. Such is the Bcheme in Covell's "Digest," and also in Greene's "Elements of English Grammar;" where the sounds used in English, being reckoned forty by the latter author, and forty-one by the former, are divided into " Vocals, Siih- •cocals, and Aspirates,^^ with an additional class of" Cognates,'''' or " Cor^rel- atives f and then the letters are classed as '•'■vowels and consonants ;^^ with the suggestion that consonants are either "subvocals" or "aspirates." Obs. 7. — By way of definition, Covell says, " Vocals consist oi pure ■voic4i only. Subvocals consist of voice and breath united. Aspirates consist of pure breath only. A vowel is a letter used to represent a vocal. A consonant is a letter used to represent a subvocal or aspirate.'''' — Pp. 11 and 16. Greene Bajs, " The vocals consist ef pui-e tone only. The subvocals consist of tone united with breath. The aspirates consist of pure breath only. Those letters which represent vocals are called vowels. Those letters which represent sub- vocals and aspirates are called consonants.'''' — Pp. 2 and 5. Now, since all tho elements of words, except silent letters, may be whispered, and whispering consists in the articulation ^^ of pure breath only^'' may not a little whispering Ehow the uBfitnesa of &U these defiuitious i CHAP. I.] ORTHOGKAPnY.— LETTERS.— THEIR CLASSES. 23 Ob8. 8. — Greene says, " By wliat fnle such sounds as/, s, or c soft, whicli Lave no vocality whatever, can be called semivowels, it ia impassible to see." —Elements of E. Gram., p. 8. This remark must have originated in soma ■wrong notion of what vocality is. . Again, it is forgotten that not " sounds," but letters, are by the definition made semivowels. If there ia any error in regarding a hiss as lialf a voice, or in calling "./', s, or c soft" a semivowel, Aristotle himself is answerable for it, as may be seen in the twentieth chap- ter of his Poetics. But S. S. Greene contradicts the old philosopher not only by denying all vocality to some of his semivowels, but also by finding the nature of " suhvocay in both of his examples of a mute; namely in g hard and d, or the corresponding Greek letters. See " Table of Elementary Sounds," in Greene's Elements, edition of 1853 ; wherein our sibilant s is blunderingly stereotyped as being an element of two or three different sorts, and as having v for its " correlative.'''' Obs. 9. — By an improper recognition of sounds for letters, and of combi- nations for simples, some authors absurdly reckon the consonants alone to bo more numerous tiian arc all the alphabetic characters together. Thus the Kev. Dr. Mandevillo : " A consonant is a letter which, as the name implies, cannot be sounded without tlia aid of a vowel. The consonants arc h, c, d, f, g, h, i, J, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, i, v, w, x, y, z ; to which must be added th, 'ch, sh, zk, wh, ng: being plainly {Icmentary sounds, and as such helonging to the alphabet, though not formally included in it." — Course of Beading, p. 13. Oi5S. 10. — The distinction between vowels and consonants is generally obvious and easy enough ; and yet, in reference to certain sounds or letters, •when not pure, but combined, it is often very difficult and arbitrary. Somo few of our grammarians have long taught that w and y, as well as a, e, i, o, tt, are always vowels. The most common doctrine is, that w and y are some- times vowels and sometimes consonants, and that a, e, i, o, and u, are always vowels. But, the sound of initial w being thought to be sometimes heard in V, likewise in o, and the sound of initial y sometimes in e, or i, or u, somo writers have recognized one ; some, two ; some, three ; end a few, all four, of these letters, as wjU as w and y, as being sometimes consonants ; thus making a vast diver, i y of teaching concerning the classification of the six — • a diversity which alto extends itself equally into each of the new schemes ©f elements remarked iipon above. Obs. 11. — Dr. Lowth, and his improver, Churchill, also Sheridan, and his copier, Jones, represent a, e, i, o, v, w, and yus. being invariably vowels, and RS having no souids peculiar to consonants. This opinion makes easy and fiimple the division ot the letters, but it greatly swells the number of diph- thongs, shows n jt why the initial w or y follows a vowel without hiatus, and accounts not for the use of a, in preference to an, before nouns beginning with w or y : as, a tcall, a yard ; not an wall, an yard. 0b3. 12.— Dr. Webster, in his great American Dictionary, says, "1^ is Bometimes used as a consonant." — Introd., p. Lxxviii. Concerning a, e, i, o, u, and w, he appears to agree with Lowth, and the others above named. Fisher, a London grammarian of the last century, treated w as being always a consonant, and y as being sometimes such. Brightland, Johnson, Murray, AValker, Ward Wells, Worcester, and others, — a majority of those who treat of the letters, — maintain the division which I have adopted above. Obs. 13. — Dr. Mandevillo »pays, " /, y, and w, are sometimes consonants." — Course of Reading, p. 9. Dr. Pinneo, uttering a strange solecism, and am- biguity of construction, says, " All the letters of the alphabet, except tl^o vowels, and sometimes i, u, w, and y, are consonants." — Analytical Gram., Htereotype Edition of 1853, p. 7. L. T. Covell says, " All, except a, may bo consonants." — Digest of E. Gram., p. 16. Obs. 14. — Sheridan and Jones divide the consonants into mutes and semi- vowels, then subdivide the mutes into '■'■pure and impure^'' and the semi- vowels into " vocal and aspirated.'''' In lieu of this, some, among whom are Ilerries and Bicknell, divide the consonants into three sorts, '■'■ half vowels, aspirates, and mutes.'''' Many divide them into labials, dentals. Unguals, palor- tals, and nasals ; classes which refer to the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, aud nose, as the effective organs of their utterance. 24 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART L Obs, 15. — Certain consonants or consonantal sounds are often distinguished in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one being called Jlat and the other sharp : as, h and j3 ; d and t ; ; as, j:)a'e, pat, 2^ci^', ImU, peel, p)ell, p>ile, pill, j^ole- p)ond, pool, pule, purl, pxdl. The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty- two : they are marked by /;, d,f, g hard, h, k, I, rn, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh is written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of s in pleasure, or z in azure. All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: huy, die, fie, guy, high, hie, lie, my, nigh, eying, p)ie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again : most of them may be repeated in the same word, if not in the same syllable ; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, Idgh-hung, cackle, lily, vninxic, ninny, singing, pjipjpin, mirror, hissest, fieshbrush, tittle, tJdnkelh, thither, vivid, witival, union, dizzies, vision. The possible combinations and mutations of the twent3'-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are unpronoun*a- CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR POWERS. 25 able, arc -useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of use- ful writing, or the recording of speech. Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to ex- plain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages, OBSERVATIONS. Oes. 1. — Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth dif- ferently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each ; but tlie voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel power. 0b3. 2. — Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible : eigh, S., ah, awe, eh, e, eye, i, oh, 6, oo, yew, u, u. Tlius the eight long sounds, eigh^ ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may be words ; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants ; ex- cept tlie tirst, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or a — a sound sometimes given to the wo?'d a, perhaps most generally ; as in the phrase, " twice a day." Obs. S. — With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but com- plex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh ; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To tlie initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of Z ; as in Xerxes, xebec. Obs. 4. — The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the pov/er of k, and is constantly followed by « and some vowel or two more in the same syllable ; as in quake, quest, quit, quoit. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y: thus the syllables ca, ce, cl, co, cu, cy, are pronounced ka, se, si, ko, ku, »y. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter ; lience the sylla- bles, sea, see, sci, sco, sou, scy, are sounded ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes tlie sound of sh ; as in o-^ean, social. Ch commonly repre- eents the sound oitsh ; as in church. Obs. 5. — G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u ; and generally soft, like_;, be- fore e, i, or y : thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga, Je, Ji, go, gu, jy. Obs. 6. — The imperfections of the English alphabet have been the subject of much comment, and sundry schemes for its reformation have successively appeared and disappeared witliout effecting the purpose of any one of tlieir authors. It has been thouglit that there ought to be one character, and only one, for each simple sound in the language ; but, in attempting to count tlie several elementary sounds which we use, our orthoepists have arrived at a remarkable diversity of conclusions. Bieknell, copying Martin's Physico- Grammatical Essay, says, "The simple sounds," originally necessary to speech, " were in no wise to be reckoned of any certain number : by the firet men they were determined to no more than ten, as some suppose ; as others, fifteen or twenty ; it is however certain that mankind in general never exceed twenty simple sounds ; and of these only ^'ye are reckoned strictly Buch." — BicknelVs Gram., Part ii, p. 4. Obs. 7. — The number of oral elements is differently reckoned by out 2 26 INSTITUTES OF ilNGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART I. critics, because they do not agree among themselves concerning the identity or the simpheity, the sameness or the singleness, of some of the sounds ia question ; and ulso because it is the practice of all, or nearly all, to admit a» elementary some sounds which diti'er from each other only in length orshort^ ness, and some which are not conceived to be entirely simple in themselves. The circumstances of the case seem to make it impossible to find out /or a certainty what would be a perfect alphabet for our tongue. Ob3. 8. — Sheridan, taking i and u for diphthougs, h for " no letter," and the power of A for no sound, made the elements of his oratory twenty-eight. Jones followed him implicitly, saying, "The number of simjilc sounds in our tonguf is twenty-eight, 9 Vowels, and 19 Consonants. H is no letter, but merely a mark of aspiration."— Pro«ofi?ia^ Gram., p. xiv. Bolles says, " Tlio number of simple vowel and consonant sounds in our tongue is twenty- eight, and one pure aspiration Ti, making in all twenty-nine." — Octavo Diet., Introd., p. 9. Walker recognized several more ; but I know not whether he has anywhere told us how many there are. Obs. 9. — Lindley Murray enumerates at first thirty-six wqW known sounds, and the same thirty-si.x that are given in the main text above ; but he after- wards, contradicting certain teachings of his Spelling-Book, acknowledges one mare, making thirty-seven — tlie third sound of e — "An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound : as in open, lucre, participle.'''' — Gram., p. 11. Comstoek, who does not admit the obscure e, says, " There are thirty-eight eZeme/ife in the English alphabet, and * * * a deficiency of fe'e^«« to/^rs." — Elocution, p. 19. Wells, deducting C, Q, and X, says, "The remaining twenty-three letters are employed to represent about forty elementary sounds." School Gram., 113th Th., p. 42. His first edition stated the number of sounds to be '■'■forty-one.'''' — F. 86. Obs. 10. — For the sake of the general principle, which wc always regard in writing, a principle of universal grammar, as old at least as the writings of Aristotle, that tliere can be no syllable without a roivel, or without soma vowel power, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Mur- ray, and otliers, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel e, in some unaccented syllables a certain very obscure sound, which approaches, but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so re- farded by the writers of our dictionaries. See Murray's examples above, f the e in '■'•open'''' or able be supposed to b.ave some faint sound, the oral elements of our language may "be reckoned thirty-seven. Obs. 11. — It is also a general principle, necessarily following from this, that, where the vowel oi" a syllable is suppressed or left entirely mute, any part which remains, of such syllable, fidls to another vo\v«l, and becomes part of another syllable: thus Cowper, in the phrase '■'■''T'ts desp^rate,^'' re- duces five syllables to three. But Wells, in arguing against the comnioa definition of a consonant, says, " We have many syllables in which tha vowel, though written, is not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words taken, burdened, which are pronounced iah-n, hurd-nd.''^ And he adds, " There are instances, also, in which a consonant is sounded as a distinct syl' lable, without the use even of a wi-itten vowel, as in the words chas-m, rhuth-m.^^ — School Gram., p. 31. Here a very excellent teacher evidently in- culcates error ; for chasm, rhythm, or even chasmed, is only a monosyllable, and to call a consonant a syllable, is a contradiction iu terms. IV. FORMS OF TPIE LETTERS. In the Englisli language, the Roman characters are generally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occa- sionally, the'cOlb CEncjlisI). In writing^ we use the (^m//a. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHy.—LETTEKS.— THEIR FORMS. 27 The letters have severally two fonns, by whicli tliey are distinguished as capitals and small letters. Small letters constitute the body of every work ; and capitals arc used, for the sake of eminence and distinction, BULES FOE TEE USE OF CAPITALS RULE I. TITLES OF BOOKS. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should be printed in capitals. When books are merely men- tioned, the chief Avords in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man." RULE II. FIRST WORDS. The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital. RUI III. NAMES OF DEITY". All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being. RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. Titles of ofiice or honour, and proper names of every de- scription, should begin with capitals; as. Chief Justice Hale, William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the Thames. RULE V. OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. The name of an object' personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, " Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come. RULE VI. WORDS DERIVED. Words derived from proper names of persons or places, should begin with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman. RULE VII. 1 AND O. The words /and should always be capitals; as, " Out of the depths have /cried unto thee Lord." — Psalms, cxxx, 1. RULE VIII. IN POETRY. Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital ; as, " Our sons their fathers' failing language see, And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." — Pope. 28 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. RULE IX. EXAMPLES, ETC. A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should begin with a capital ; as, " Remember this maxim : * Know thyself.'" — "Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'" RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. Proper names frequently have capitals throughout. CHAPTEE II.— OF SYLLABLES. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sonnd, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syl- lables, a trissyllahle ; and a word of four or more sylla- bles, a jpolysyllahle. DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A diphthong is two vowels joined iu one syllable ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi ia voice. An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, iew in view. A. proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. An improper triphthong, is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beautyy iou in anxious. SYLLABICATION. In dividing words into sjdlables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to ob- serve, as far as practicable, the following rules. CHAP. III.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— WORDS. 29 RULE I. CONSONANTS. Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels of diphthongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-caU RULE II. VOWELS, Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. j RULE III. TERMINATIONS. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added ; as, harm-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed. RULE IV. PREFIXES. Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out-ride, up-lift : but if their own primitive meaning be disre- garded, the case may be otherwise ; thus re-create and rec-reate are words of different import. RULE V. COMPOUNDS. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them ; as, no-where. RULE VI. LINES FULL. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary ; but a syllable must never be broken. CHAPTEE in.— OF WOEDS. A Word is one or more syllables spoken or •written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. SPECIES AND FIGURE OF WORDS. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or comjwund. The former division is called their species ; the latter, \hQ\r figure. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. A derivative word is one that is formed from soma simpler word in the language ; as, harmless^ greatly, con- nected, disconnect, unconnected. 3* 30 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART L A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words ; as, watch, man, never, the, less. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, hooh- seller, schoolmaster : others, which maj be called tempo- rary compounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass- house, negro-merchant. RULES FOR TEE FIGURE OF WORDS. • RULE I. COMPOUNDS. "Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. RULE II. SIMPLES. When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. RULE III. THE SENSE. Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction ■may happen to require. RULE IV. ELLIPSES. When two or more compounds are connected in one sen- tence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. RULE V. THE HYPHEN. When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to- day, to-night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, as first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving ^ the hyphen chould be inserted between them. RULE VI. NO HYPHEN. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pro- nunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hjphen should be inserted between them. CHAP, lY.] ORTnOGRAPHY— SPELLING. 81 CHAPTER IV.— OF SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their propel? letters. Ob9. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spellin.er-. book or dictionary, and by observation in readin^;, than by the study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much un- certainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words a» are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, aud thus bo of serv- ice to those who wish to be accurate. BULES FOR SPELLING. RULE I. FINAL F, L, OR 8. Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : ex- cept three in f—clef, if, of; four in l—bul, mil, sal, sol ; and eleven in s — as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus. BULK II. OTHER FINALS. "Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not double the final letter : except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err^ burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. RULE III. DOUBLING. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel : ViS, rob, robber ; permit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. Exc. — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. RULE IV. NO DOUBLING. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a singlo vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllabic: as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited ; general, generalize. Exc. — But I and s final are usually doubled, (though per- haps improperly.) when the last syllable is not accented : as, travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. RULE V. RETAINING. Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double 82 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART I. before any additional termination, not beginning with the same letter ; as in the following derivatives : seeing^ blissful, oddhj^ hilly, stiffness, illness, smallness, carelessness, agreement, agree' able. Exc. — ^The irregular words, jled, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spilt, shalt, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word pontiff, are exceptions to this rule. RULE VI. FINAL E. The final e mute of a primitive word, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. Exc. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g : as, peace, peace- able ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. RULE VII. FINAL E. The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, pale7iess; lodge, lodgement. Exc. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as, true, truly ; awe, awful: and sometimes retained; as, rue, rueful; shoe, shoeless. RULE VIII. FINAL T. The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- nant, is changed into i before an additional termination ; as, merry, men'ier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. Exc. — Before iiig, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i ; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 6th, change i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. Obs. — When a vowel precedes, y shonlcl not be changed : as, day, days} valley, valleys ; money, mcmeys ; monkey, jnonkeys. ~ RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words Avhich compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, re- call, uphill, shellfish. Exc, — In permanent compounds, the words /m?^ and a/Z drop one I ; as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they re- tain both ; as, full-eyed, all-wise, save-all. Ob9. — Other words ending in II, Pometimes improperly drop one I, ■when taken into composition ; as, miscal, d&wnhU. This excision is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are ueces- eary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compoundt CHAP, v.] ORTHOGIlAPnY.— QUESTIONS. 33. "Where is the consistency of ^vriting, recall, miscal, — inthrall, hethral, — wind- fall, dmiinfal, — laystall, thumbstdl^—^iateTfall, overfal, — molehiU, dunghil, — vjlndmill, twibil,—clodpoll, enrol? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first Ameri- can ed. 4to.] CHAPTER v.— EXAMINATION. LESSON I. — GENERAIi DmsiON. What is English Grammar ? How is it divided ? Of what does Orthogrraphy treat? Of what does Etymology treat ? Of what does Syntax treat? Of what does Prosody treat ? QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. LESSON n. — LETTEKS. Of what does Orthography treat? "What is a Lettei- ? "What is an elementary sound of a word? "What name is given to the sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded ? How many letters are there in English ? and how many sounds do they represent? In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? "What variety is noticed in letters that are always the same ? What different sorts of types, or letters, are used in English ? TVhat are the names of the letters in English? Which of the letters name themselves ? and which do not ? What are the names of all in both numbers, singular and plural ? LESSON in. — CLASSES OF LEITEES. Into what general classes are the letters divided? What is a vowel ? What is a consonant ? What letters are vowels ? and what, consonants ? When are w and y consonants ? and when vowels? How are the consonants divided ? What is a semivowel? What is a mute? What letters are semivowels? and which of these are aspirates? What letters are called liquids, and why ? How many and which are the letters reckoned mutes ? LESSON rV. — POWEES, OR SOTJNDS. What is meant, when we speak of " the jjoicers of the letters ?" In what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds? How may these sounds be modified to form words or syllables? Can you form a word from each by means of an/? Will you form an other such series with a jt> ? How many and what are the consonant sounds in English ? In what series of words may all these sounds be heard ? In what series of words is e'ach of them heard more than once 2 Do our letters admit of combinations enough ? What do we derive from these elements of language? Si INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTl. IXSSOX V. — rOKM3 OF TJIE LETTEKS. Wliat is said of the employment of the several styles of letters in English f "What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ? Wl.rit is said of small letters ? and wliy are capitals used ? How many rules for capitals are given"? and what are their heads ? What says Kule 1st of titles of books ?—llu]e 2d o? first uords ?—'Bi\x\(> Sd of names of Deity? — Rule 4th of proper names/ — Eiile 5th of objects per soni' Jiedf — Rule 6th of ^cords derived? — Rule 7th of / and O.?— Rulo 8th of foetry? — Rule 'iX.h.oi examples, &c. ? — Rule 10th ot chief uvrds ? LESSON VI. — SYLLABLES. What is a syllable ? Can the syllables of .1 word be perceived by the ear ? What is a word of one syllable called ? — a word of two ? — of three ? — of four or more ? What is a diphthong ? What is a proper diplithong ?— an improper diphthong ! What is a triphthong ? What is a proper triphthong? — an improper triphthong? What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ? How many rules of syllabication are given ? and what are their heads f What says Rule 1st a^ conmnants ? — Rule 2d o^ vowels? — Rule 3d oi termina- tions? — Rule 4th of prefixes? — Rule 5th of compounds? — Rule 6th of Unet full ? LESSON Vn. — W0ED3. What is a word ? How are words distinguished iu regard to species and figure ? What is a primitive word ? What is a derivative word ? What is a simple word ? What is a compound w'ord ? How do permanent compounds differ from others? How many are the rules for the figure of words? and what, their heads ? What says Rule 1st of compounds? — Rule 2d of simples ?--ii.n\e 8d of tha sense? — Rule ith of ellipses? — Rule 5th of the hyphen? — Rule 6th of using no hyphen ? LESSON Vm. — SPELLtNO. What is spelling ? How is this art to be acquired ? How many rules for spelling are there? and what are their heads? What says Rule 1st o\ final f, I, or s? — Rule 2d of other finals? — Rule 3d of the dcubling of consonants? — Rule 4th against the dovbling of consonants? — Rule 5th of retaining? — Rule 6th oi finale? — Rule 7th oi final «? — Rule 8th oi final y .?— Rule 9th of compounds t CHAPTER YI.— FOR WRITING. EXERCISES m ORTHOGRAPEY. ' [Spelling l3 to be taught by example, rather than by rnle. For oral exercise* in this branch of learning, a spelling-book or vocabulary should be employed. The following examples of false orthograpiiy are inserted, that they may be corrected by the pupil in writing. They are selected with direct reference to the rules; which are at first indicated by figures. For it Is evident, that exercises of this kind, without express rules for tlioir correction, would rather perplex than instruct the learner; and that his ability to correct them without reference to the rules, must presupposa ftncb knewleilge as would render thorn useless. CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES. S5 EXERCISE I.— CAPITALS. 1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's english synonymcs. Walker's key to the pronunciation of pro- per names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions of purley. 2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at once performs its duty and endears itself to others. 3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! Shall mortal man presume against his maker "? shall he not fear the omnipotent ? shall he not reverence the everlasting one? — 'The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, Persians, bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many other nations, in an expedition against greece. 5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, before habit had time to enchain them. 6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the ery- manthian boar, the lernean serpen^, and the stymphalian birds. The christian religion has brought all mythologic stories and milesian iixbles into disrepute. 7. i live as i did, i think as i d'id, i love you as i did ; but all these are to no purpose; the world will not live, think, or love as i do. — o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa ! 8. are these thy views 1 proceed, illustrious youth, and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle." EXERCISE II.— CAPITALS. 'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. — ' thus,' said diogenes, ' do i trample on the pride of plato.' — • ' true,' replied plato ; ' but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes V the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following ^ords : ' o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrfius youth !' epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his love of truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. and pharaoh said to Joseph, " say to thy brethren, * do this— lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan,' " 86 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART T. who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips over yonder plain ? her name is health : she is the daughter of exercise and temperance. to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of eain, and the birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of the immediate family of adam, after his fall. on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, i hear the voice of god among the trees. EXERCISE III.— SYLLABLES. 1. Correct Murray's division of the following words : " d- Til, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea^ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, le-mon, mea-dow, ne-ver, o-range, pu-nish, ro-bin, sho-vel, ti-mid, whi-ther; — be-ne-fit, ca-n^p-ter, ge-ne-rous, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, se-ve-ral ; — mi-se-ra-ble, to-le-ra^-ble, e-pi-de- mic, pa-ra-ly-tic ; — a-ca-de-mi-cal, cha-rac-te-ris-tic, ex-pe-ri- tnent-al." — Murray's Spelling-Book. 2. Correct Webster's division of the following words : " oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate ; — am- bro-sia, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry ; — an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, ne-go-tiate, sub-stan-tiate." — Webster''s Spelling-Boohs. 3. Correct Cobb's division of the following words : " dres- ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-Ier, jes-ter, wea-ver, vamper, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-cy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy," — Cobb's Standard Spell- ing-Book. And these : " eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy." — Webster. Also these : " woo-dy, stor-my, clou-dy, ex-al-ted, at-ten-dance. " — Murray. 4. Divide the following words into their proper syllables : adit, ado, adorn, adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, bespeak, bestow, between, bifold, encroach, incrust, foreknow, forestall, forswear, mishear, mistell, misyoke, outrap, overtire, preterit, retrace, unoiled, unrepaid, unresting, underbid, underanged, uphand, upholder, uprouse, withal. 5. Divide the following compounds into syllables : England, anthill, cowslip, farewell, foresail, forctop, hogshead, homeward, sandstone, forever, husbandman, painstaker. CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES. 37 EXERCISE IV.— FIGURE OF WORDS. 1 . The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth. The cross row has ever had some thing of a magic spell in it. The old fashioned are apt to think the world grows worse. The stealing of water melons may lead to house breaking. A good clothes brush helps greatly to make a gentle man. 2. An ill-tongue is a fearful corrupter of good-manners. Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors. St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables. Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants. New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day. 3. They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones. A glass house is a house in which glass is manufactured. A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one. Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honour. The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird. 4. Let school and meeting-houses be pleasantly located. The teapot and kettle are now deemed indispensable. Both the ten and the eight syllable verses are iambics. Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are men and women. A ketch is a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast. 5. The bloodyminded man seldom dwells long in safety. A tiresmith puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them. Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered. Timehonoured custom may be souldestroying folly. Is evenhanded honesty expected in slavemerehants 1 6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought. The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast. Rain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky-water. EXERCISE v.— SPELLING. 1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 2. The business of warr is devastation and destructioo- To er is human ; to forgive, divine. A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp, 3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. Of all tame animak the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 4 38 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISn GFwAMMAR. [PAET L 5. Sraalness with talncss makes the figure too slender, rieedlesncss is always in danger ofenibarrasment. The recklesness of license is no attribute of fredom, 6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. Doubts should not excite contention, but inquircy. . Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. Encouragment increases with success 8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. Vices, though near relations, arc all at varyance. Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request. 9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint. A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. EXERCISE VI.— SPELLING. 1 . lie js tal enough who walks uprightly. Repetition makes smal transgressions great. Religion regulates the wil and aflections. 2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. A bad begining is unfxvourable to suc'jess. Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. They had all been closctted together a long time. 5. Blesed is he whose transgresion is forgiven. Indolence and listlesncss are foes to happiness. Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. C. In all thy undertakcings, ponder the motive and the end. We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances. 8. Pitiiug friends cannot save us in a diing hour. Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 9. Cold nuraness had quite bereft her of sense. A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenerj. CHAP. VI.] ORTnOGr.APHT. — EXERCISES. S9 Nettles grovr in the vinyard of the slolhfull. Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. EXERCISE VII.— SPELLING. 1. He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. Misdemeanours arc the pioneers of gros vices. 2. To remitt a Avrong, leaves the offender in debt. Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. S. You arc safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. lie has run well who has outstriped his own errors. See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish. To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf. A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. The gods of this world have many worshippers. 5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. Eearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer. G. Many things arc chiefly valued for their rareity. Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. Irreconcil cable animosity is always blameablc. 7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. By self-examination, wc discover the lodgments of sin. The passions often mislead the judgment. 8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. And, all within, were walks and allies wide. Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. Without fire chimnies arc useless. 0. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. All mispeut time will one day be regretted. EXERCISE VIII.— SPELLING. Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud, A covettous person is always in want. Fashion is compareable to an ignis fatuus. Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. Never utter a fklshood even for truth's sake. 40 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH: GRAMMAR. [PART L Medicines should be administerred with caution. We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. We are caught as sillyly as the bird in the net. By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. He is in great danger Avho parlies with conscience. Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly. Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment. Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. EXERCISE IX.— SPELLING. A downhil road may be travelled with ease. Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. A knave can often undersel his honest neighbours. Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. All virtues are in agrement ; all vices, at varyance. Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. The birds frame to thy song, their chearfuU cherupping There figgs, sky dyed, a purple hue disclose. Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. Years following years, steal sumthing every day. CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES- 4:1 The soul of the slothfull, doos but drowse in his body. What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres? Justice is hero holding the stilliards for a balance. The huniiiig-bird is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. The niuskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout. Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-ilved vice. Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. ' These are villanous creatures,' says a blokheded boy. The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest ; And children sacred held a martin's nest 4* i2 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTU. PART II. ETYMOLO GY. Etjmolog}^ treats of the different parts of speech, ■with their classes and modifications. CHAPTER I— THE PARTS OF SPEECH. The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Con- junction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 1. The Article. An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification ; as, The air, the stars ; an island, a ship. 2. The Noun. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, apple, truth. 3. The Adjective. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality ; as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are diligent. 4. The Pronoun. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them, well. 5. The Verb. A Verb is a word that signifies to he, to act, or to be acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I hue, thou lovest, he loves. chap. i.j etymology. — parsing. 43 6. The Participle. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- pating llie properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ivg^ d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, twc simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. rukd, 3. having ruled. 7. The Adverb. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here, studying very diligently. 8. The Conjunction. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected : as, " Thou and he are happy, because you are good." — L. Murray. 9. The Preposition. A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun : a=, The paper lies before me on the desk. 10. The Interjection. An Interjection is a Avord that is uttered merely to Indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh 1 alas ! ah ! pah ! pshaw ! avaunt I PARSING. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, the pupil should, at first, be required to distinsuish the parts of speech in any senunce. The verb i* made the first in this series, because it is the word to which all others ve an imme- diate or remote relation, and because t is easily recognized, and, when discovered, leads the mind necessarily to a knowledge of the other parts of speech comprehended in the sentence, by showing the i)articular office of every word. This cannot be done, at this stage of the pupil's progress, with a proper degree of intelligence and pre- cision, by mechanically examining each word in succession; for the reason that to do so requires him to compare the distinctive office of each pan of speech with the word examined ; wh' > ! i these preliminary exercises, he i^only required to keep ia mind the characli'r of a single part of speech, and compare it-witb each tcovd of the sentence in succession. Besides, an eclectic process liko that indicated, is better calculated to keep f'je interest and attention of tlie pupil awake, the constant desira 9t discovery continually stimulating mental atLivity. CHAP. I.] ETYMOLOGY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS I. 45 7. Meekly is tm adverb, because it is added to the verb perforins. and expresses maimer. 6. And is a conjiuiction, because it connects submits and performs. 8. 2'o is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of tJie verb submits to the noun yoke. EXERCISE I. parse, in the folloiving sentences, the verb, the noun, and the article, in the order, and according to the method, indicated in Praxis I. The tree bears fmit, Pizarro invaded Peru. Avarice causes crime. The raiser loves gold. The ox bears a yoke. The river overflowed the banks. John's brother has entered college. The carpenter is using a saw. John Smith explored Virginia. Columbus was a Genoese. Napoleon Bonaparte died an exile. Lend Charles a book. The merchant has made a fortune. Did the candidate obtain tlie office? The elephant is a quad- ruped. Virgil praised the emperor Augustus, The boys have told an untruth. The scholar's diligence deserves a reward. Could the criminal have escaped punishment ? Queen Dido founded Carthage. Scipio defeated Hannibal. EXERCISE II. Parse, in the following sentences, the verb, the noun, the article, the adjective, the pronoun, and the adverb, iri the oi'der^ and according to the method, indicated in Praxis I. The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. The architect who planned that fine building, is naujed Brown, Demosthenes was a very famous Grecian orator. A child who disobeys his parents, is very ungrateful. Human happiness is exceedingly transient. The man who has not virtue, is not truly wise. I saw the whole transaction ; both parties disgraced them« eelves. They had a fierce dispute. Perseverance finally overcomes all obstacles. I, who was present, know all the particulars. A Being infinitely wise will not unnecessarily afflict bia creatures. Passionate men are very easily irritated. Good books always deserve a careful perusal. Evil communications corrupt good manners. EXERCISE III. Parse all the parts of sjoeech to be found in the following sen* tences, according to Praxis I. 46 INSTITL'TES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART II The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with sofit feathers. The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the western sky. Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and flourishing manhood. Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us a deluge of crimes and evils. O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy rewards! Alas! such miseries are too common among mankind! Industry is needful in every condition of life ; the price of fill improvement is labor. When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and the plants and flowers display their beauty. CHAPTER II.— OF ARTICLES. An Article is the word the, an, or a, wbicli we put "before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the stars; an island, a ship. An and a arc one and the same article. An is used Avhen- ever tlo following word begins with a vowel sound; as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. — A is used whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when ex- pressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. CLASSES. The articles are distinguished as the definite and the indefinite. I. The definite article is the, which denotes some par-* ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. II. The indefinite article is an or a, Avhich denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, an orange. Obs. 1.— The English articles have no gmnimafical modifications ; they are CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CLASSES. 47 rot varied by numbers, pendcrs, and cases, as are those of eomo other lan- guages, lu respect to class, each is sui generis. Obs. 2. — A common noun -without an article or other word to limit its sie- nification, is generally taken in its widest sense ; as, " A candid temper la proper for man; that ia, /or ail mankind." — Murray. CHAPTER III.— OF NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned : as, Oeorge^ York, man, apple, truth. Obs. ]. — All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are nouns ; or, nitlier, ara things read and construed as nouns • as. Us is u personal pronoun." — Mur- ray. " Th has two sounds." — Id. " Control is probably contracted from counterroU.'''' — Cralh. "Without one if or hut,'''' — Cowper. '■'■A is some- times a noun ; as, a great A."— Todd's Johnson. "Formerly sp was cast in a piece, as st's are now." — Hist, of Printing, 1770. Obs. 2. — In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each ■word, and class it accordingly: many words commonly belonging to other nines." — Burns. 2. " Or any 7ic, the proudest of thy sort." — ShaL " I am the happiest she in KenV— Steele. " The shes of Italy."— .S'^a/fc. " The hes in birds.'''— Bacon. 3. " Avauirt .all .attitude, and stare, and start, theatric !" —Oneper. "A ma«/-6e of mercy is insufficient."— iJWt/^p. 4. " For the^oro ducing of real happiness." — Crahh. " Reading, loriting, and ciphering, aro indispensable tocivilized man." 5. '■' An hereafter."— Addison. "The dread of a hereafter."— FalUr. " The deep amen." —Scott. " The tvhile ."—Milton. 6. " With harh, and tvhoop, and wild halloo."— Scott. " Will cuts him sliort •with a ' iVhat then f "—Addison. CLASSES. Nouns are divided into two general classes ; proper and commo7i. _ I. A propter noun is the name of some particular indi- vidual, or, people, or group ; as, Adcun, Boston, the Bud- son, the Romans, the Azores, the Alp)S. II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things ; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect,— creatures, persons, children. The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal or par- ticipial, are usually inchided among common nouns. The name of a thing sui generis is also called common. 1. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together j as, Council, meeting, commiltee, /lock. 4:3 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 2. An ahsfract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, hardness^ pride, frailty. 3. A verbal ov participial noun is the name of some action or state of being ; and is fo* ^ from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun ; Ua, • The triumphing of the wicked is short." — Job, xx, 5. 4. A thing sui generis, (i. e., of its own peculiar hind,) is something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galvanism, music, geometry. Obs- 1.— The proper name of a person or place with an article prefixed, is generally used as a common noun ; as, " He is the Oicero of his age," — that is, the orator. " Many a fiery Alp,'''' — that is, mountain : except when a com- mon noun is understood; as, I'he [river] Hudson, — The [ship] Amity, — The treacherous [man] Judas. Obs. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, some- times becomes proper; as, The Park, — The Strand. Obs. 3. — The common name of a tiling or quality personified often becomes proper; as, '"My power,' said Reason, 'is to advise, uot to compel.'" — Johnson. MODIFICATIONS. Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, Persons^ Numbers, Genders, and Cases. PERSONS. Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely spoken of. Oes. — The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse itself. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it }s always applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs aie like their sub- jects, in person. There are three persons; i\xQ first, the second, and the tJiird. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer ; as " I Paul have written it." The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed ; as, " Robert, who did this '?" The third person is that which denotes the person o? thing merely spoken of; as, '"'' James loves his hook^ Obs. 1. — In written language, the^>«<^er«a« denotes the writer or author^ and the second, the reader or person addressed : except when the writer de» Bcribes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an Other the worda which he records. CHAP. IIIJ ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— NUMBEES. 49 Ob9. 2. — Tho speaker Beldom refers to himself byname as the Bpeaker; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the tirst person ; and wlien they are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to tliein. Hence some grammarians deny the tirst person to nouns altogether ; others ascribe it ; and many are silent on the subject. Analogy clearly requires it; as may be seen by the following examples: "^(/wmTroius^neas."— Fi^. "Callopius/r-w/wui."— 7fer. Com. apudrimm. " Paul, an apostle, »te., "%nothy, »i^ own sou in the faith." — 1 Tim., i. 1. '• .^ Obs. 3. — When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in the jirst person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what M>ses did, and Caesar records the achievements of Uccsur. So Judali hunihly beseeches Joseph: " Let th?/ servant abide in stead of the L-id a bondman to my lord.''^ — Gen., xliv, 83. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God : " Oh ! let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." — Gen., xvili, 30. Ob3. 4.— When inanimate things are spoken to, they are pergordfied ; and their names are put in the second person, because by the :^ure tho objects are supposed to be capable of hearing. NUMBERS. ^Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distin- guish unity and plurality. Obs. — The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by pecuJiarity of form, or by infer- ence from the principles ot concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number. There are two numbers ; the singular and the 2^^ural. The singular number is that which denotes but one ; as, The boy learns. The jjlural number is that which denotes more than one ; as, The hoys learn. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular : as, book., hooks; box., boxes. Rule I. — When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding a only, and the number of syllables is not hicreased : sl^, pen, pens ; grape, grapes. Rule IL — But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable: as, j^age, pages ; fox, foxes. Obs. 1. — English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add eg, but do not increase their syllables: as, wo, woes; hero, heroes: negro, negroes; potato, potatoes ; muskitto, musJcittoes ; octavo, octavoes. The exceptions to this rule appear to be in such nouns as are not properly and fully Anglicized; tlius many write cantos, juntos, solos, &c. Other nouns in o add s only ; as, folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos. The plural of two is commonly written twos, but some prefer tivoes. Obs. 2. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as, jly, ilies ; duty, duties, 3 50 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PART II. Other nouns in y add s only : as, day, days; valley, valleys. So likewise proper names in y are sometimes varied ; as, Henry, the Henrys. Obs. 3.— The following nouns in/, change / mto », and add es, for the plural; sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, Jialf, elf, shelf self, wolf, u-harf : as, sheaves, leaves, &c. Life, lives ; knife, knives ; wtje, wives ; are similar, i'te/" makes staves: though the compounds of ste/f are regular; as,flagst(^, . flagstaffs. The greater number of nouns in / and fc, are regular ; as, fifes, iirife^s chiefs, griefs, gulfs, &c. Obs. 4. — The following are still more irregular : man, men ; tcoman, wo- men ; child, children; brother, brethren [or brothers] j foot, feet ; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; m/mse, mice; die, dice ; penny, pence ; Dies, stamps, &\idi pennies, coins, arc regular. Obs. 5. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, arcanum, arcana; datum, data; erratum, errata; effluvium, ejfluvia; medium, media [or inediums] ; minutia, 7ninuti(?. ; stratum, strata ; stamen, stamina ; genus, genera ; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit] ; magus, magi ; radius, radii ; appendix, appendices [or appendixes'] ; calx, calces; index, indices [or indexes']; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; basis, bases ; crisis, crises ; thesis, theses ; anti- thesis, antitheses; diceresis, dicereses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses ; metamoiphosis, meUimxtrphoses ; automaton, automata ; criterion, criteria [or eriterions] ; ph(enom£non, phmnom^na ; cherub, cherubim ; seraph, seraphim; beau, beo/ux [or beau s]. Obs. 6. — Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no plural ; as, gold, pride, meekness. Obs. 7. — Proper names o? individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes in some degree common, and admits the plural form and ah article ; as. The Stuarts, — The Ccesars : so likewise when such nouns are used to denote char- acter; as, " The Anstotles, the Tullys, and the Livys.'"— Burgh. ()b3. 8. — The proper names of ■nations and societies are generally plural ; aud, except in a direct address, they are usually coustrued with the definite article: as, The Greeks, — The Jesuits. Obs. 9.— When a title is prefixed to a proper hama so as to form a sort of compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ; as. The Miss Hoicards,—The two Mr, Chirks. But a title not regarded as a part of one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to more than one ; as, Messrs. Lambert and Soti, — The Lords (Jalthorpe and Erskine, — The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's,— The Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. Obs. 10. — Some nouns have no singular ; as, embers, ides, oats, scissors, tongs, vespers, literati. 6bs. 11. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermin, swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The following aro sometimes coustrued as singular, but more frequently, and more properly, as plural: alms, amends, pains, riches' ethics, mathematics, m£laphysics, optics, piolitics, pneumatics, and other similar names of sciences. Bellows and (fallows are properly alike in both numbers ; (as, " LetagaUows be made."— Esther, V 14. "The bellows are hnrnecV—Jer., vi., 29 ;) but they have a regular plural in vulgar use. Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, aud rebus, admit the regular plural. Obs. 12. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the possessive case: as, Sing, father-in-law, V\m. fathei-s-in-law, Voaa. father-in-law's ;~ Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. court-martiaVs. The Possess- ive^lural of such nouns is never used. Obs. 13.— Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the principal word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns ; as, Tiandfids, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, felhw-servants, uiannservants, outpourings, ingatherings, downsittings. Obs. 14.— Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings : but when taken distributively, they have a plural signification, -svithout the form ; es, " The Jury were divided.' 0b3. 15.— When other parta of speech become noucis, they either want the CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY —NOUNS.— GENDER 51 plural, or firm >, regtilarly, like common nonna of tho same endings ; as, ''His affairs •vvcat cm at sixes and seoensy—Arhuthnot. " Some niathcniati- cians ha /e pi '^j^fihcd to compute by twoes ; othem, hy fours ; others^ by twelves.''' —Churchill. "i^hrcc fo-urths, nine tenths."— Id. " Time's to^t«^s and kav-' inns:'— Barton. '■'■Thayeas and m>/s.'''— Newspaper. "The ays and noes.''' —Ibid. "The tns and the outs."— Ibid. ''llnAunds and his ors.'"—Mbtt. " One of the buts:''—Fuwle. " In raising the mirth of stupids."— Steele. GENDERS. Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distin- guish objects in regard to sex. Obs.— The different genders are founded on the natural distinction of se* in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they be- long only to nouns and pronouns ; and to these they are usually applied agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as tho nouns for which they stand. There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind ; as, man, father, king. The femimne gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind ; as, icoman, mother, queen. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, iMper. Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually determined by the context. To such words, some grammarians have applied the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly observes, " There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business of parsing, can be effectually performed without having recourse to a common gender:'' The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to the learned languages ; but with us it is plainly a solecism. Obs. 2. — Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually include both sexes ; as, "Hast thou given the horse strength i hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?"—" Doth the hawk fly by thy wis- dom, and stretch her wings toward the south ?" — Job. These have been called epicene nouns — that is, supercommon '^ but they are to be parsed each according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it. Obs. 3. — Those terms -which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for^ in all lan- guages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common term. Obs. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways : I. By the use of different names : as, bachelor, Tnaid ; boy, girl ; brother, sister; b-uck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, r/wther ; friar, nun; gander, goose ; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; ling, queen ; lad, lass; lord, lady ; vvin, woman; master, mistress; milter, spawner ; nepheio, niece; ram, ewe; sloven, slut; son, daughter ; stag, hind; steer, heifer ; uncle, wunt ; wizard, witch. II. By the use of different terminations : as, abbot, abbess ; administrator, administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride; caterer, cateress ; duke, duchess ; emperor, emperess or empress ; executor, executrix ; gavernm; governess; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margraoinf t 62 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMA!!. [PART II marquis, marchioness ; sorcerer, sorceress ; sultan, sultaness or sultana / tes- tator, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or tutress ; widower, widoiv. . The following; nouns become feminine by merely adding ess ; haron, deacon, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, pter, poet, prinst, prir/r, prophet, shepherd, viscount. The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel, and adding ess; actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, condvctor, doctor, elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, idolafor, inventor, prince, protector, song- ster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; man-sercant, maidservant; he-goat, she-goat; male relations, female relations. Obs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, arc always of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively, as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine ; as, the moon, earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace. Obs. 6. — Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals that compose the assemblage. Obs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are generally spoken of as neuter; as, " He fired at the deer, and wounded if'' — "If a man shall steal au ox or o. sheep, and kill it or sell i<;" &c. — Exodus, xxii, 1, CASES. Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. Obs. — The cases are founded on the different relations under which thin&s are represented in discourse, and from which the words acquire correspond- ent relations, or become dependent one on an other, according to the sense. In English, these modifications, or i-elations, belong only to nouns and pro- nouns. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents, in case. There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive^ and the objective. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb : as, The hoij runs ; / run. Oes. — The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before it ; as, "The boy runs" — Who runs ? The boy. Hoy is therefore here in the nominative case. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of jjroperty: as, The boy^s hat; 7ny hat. Obs. 1. — The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, singular, loy''s; plural, boys\- — sounded alike, but written difterently. Obs. 2.— Plural nouns that do not end in «, usually form the possessiva case in the same manner as the singular ; as, mnii's, men''s. Obs. 3. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, the apostrophe, which (aa Dr. Johnson hag shown) is merely a sign of tha CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CASES. 53 case, and not of elision, ought to follow the s in the plural, to dibtiuguish ib i'romthaxhii^ahu-; a», sheep's, sheej)s\ ,..-,» Obs. 4.— Tiio uposfnj-jj/uc a adds a syllabic to the noun, when it wul not unite with the sound m which the uominativo ends ; us, torch s, pronounced Obs.' 5.— The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters, to denoUi piuraliti/, and not the possessive case ; as, Two a's— three i's— four 9'8. In tiic following example, they are used to givo the sound ot a verbal termination to words that are not properly verbs: " When a man in a sohl- oquy reasons with himself, and j>ro's ai>d cofi's, and weighs all his designs," &c. — Congreve. The ohjedive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, wbich usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition :• as, I know the hoij ; be knows me. Obs. 1.— The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which an- Bwers to wJwm o\ what after it ; as, " I know the boy."— I know w/^owi? The loy. Boy is therefore here in tlie objective case. Obs. 2.— The nominative and the' objecti^■e of nouns, are always alike ia form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sen- tence, or their simple dependence according to the sense. THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Thus : — :ZXAMPLE I. FRIEND. Sing. Nom. Poss. Obj. friend, Plur, Nom. friend's, Poss. friend ; Obj. EXAMPLE II. MAN. friends, friends', friends. Sing. Nom. Poss. Obj. man, Plur. Nom. man's, Poss. man ; Obj. EXAMPLE III. FOX. men, . men's, men. Sing. Nom, Poss. Obj. fox, Plur. Nom. fox's, Poss. fox ; Obj. EXAMPLE IV. FLY. foxes, foxes', foxes. 6mg. Nom. Poss. Obj. fly, Plur. Nom. fly's, Poss. fly ; Obj. flies, flies', flies. '54 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. lPART IL ANALYSIS. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parta' which compose it. Every sentence must contain, at least, two principal parts ; namely, the suhjcci and the predicate. The subject of a senteno* is that of which it treats ; as, " The sun has set." — ;" Can you write ?" The predicate \6 that which expresses the action, being, or passion, as belonging to the subject. It is therefore always a verb. Any combination of the subject and predicate is called a pro2)osition. A simple sentence is one that contains only one pro- position ; as, "Fire burns."' — "The truth will prevail." Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of the propositions which they contain, into four classes ; declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory, A sentence is declarative when it expresses an affir- mation or hegation ; interrogative, when it expresses a question; imperative, when it expresses a command; and exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation. Ob3. 1. — The predicate being always a verb, the subject of the sentence 13 the subject of the verb, as detiued in Ol/s. page b'i. 'ihe object of the verb, wheu tlie latter is the predicate of a sentence, may be considered one of the principal parts of the sentence. It properly, however, modifies the verb, and is not a pr'vtnary element of the sentence. In imperative sentences, tho subject is the pronoun ihou or 7/o« (understood). For the definition of the object of a verb, see Obs. 1, page i>o. Obs. 2.— There are pometimes used in connection with a sentence, words that form uo part of its structure. Such words are said to be independent. A noun or a pronoun may bo independent in various ways ; as, 1. The name of a person or thing addressed; as, " t/o/w, when will you go ?"-" O ye of little faith !" 2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclama- tion ; as, "Alas, poor Jw-w-i/" S. An expletive word used merely to make the subject or object em- ]ihatic ; as, " The Spring — she is a blessed thing !" — " Gad, a troop shall overcome him." Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in state, require tho form of the nominative case, and therefore, in parsing, should be said to be in that case. Interjections are always independent. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. PRAXIS II. — ETYMOLOGICAL. Jn the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to state whether the sentence is declarative^ interroyative, imperative^ CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 65 or cxclamatnrij ; to analyze it hi; pointinr/ out the subject, pred- icate, and object ; and to 2}arse it by distinguishing the different jiarts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the nouns. Thus : — EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. *' Columbus studied geography," Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is Columbus f the predicate, studied y the object, geogra-phy. VAssTNG.—Q)him/ivs is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular hidividual ; it is of the third person, because it is the name of a per- son spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one ; of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male ; and in the nominative ease, because it is the subject of the verb studied. Studied is a verb, because it signifies action. Geography is a common noun, because it is the name of a thing sui generic ; (see page 48). It is of the third person, because it is spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one ; of the neuter gen- der, because it is neither male nor female ; and in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb studied. Generosity makes friends. Can indolence bestow wealth ? Despise meanness. Can man avoid errors ? Does Eliza under- stand Italian ? Love truth. Perseverance overcomes obstacle^ What did you say ? Diligence deserves praise. It should be rewarded. Could he have avoided disgrace ? Romulus founded Rome. Forgetfulness cures sorrow. Can liars respect them- selves ? Do they fear God ? Birds sing. Cowards fear death. Sinners feel remorse. Has John returned ? Time flies. Plants produce fruit. Observation increases knowledge. Mortal, prepare. Take warning, youth ! Liberty, it has fled ! Elec- tricity causes lightning. Avarice extinguishes generosity. In- tegrity inspires confideuce. Who can tiHist liars ? CHAPTER IV.— OF ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are diligent. CLASSES. Adjectives may be divided into six classes ; namely, common, proper^ numeral^ pronominal, participial^ and compound. 56 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or ad- jective denoting quality or situation ; as. Good, bad, peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- per name; as, American, English, Platonic. III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c. IV. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word wliich may either accompany its noun, or represent it under- stood ; as, "J.Z/ join to guard what eadt desires to gain." — Pajje. That is, All men join to guard what each man desires to gain. Y. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time; as, An amusing story. VI. A compound adjective, is one that consists of two or more words joined together; as, Nut-brown, laughter- loving, four footed. Osa. 1. — Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely, 1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c. 2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, &c. 3. MaltipUcative ; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or three- fold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, sep- tuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. Obs. 2. — Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numer- ous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series ; as, one-leaved, two-leaved, ihree-lea,ved, four-leaved, «fcc. MODIFICATIONS. Adjectives have, commonl}^, no modifications but the forms of comparison. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express quality iu different degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard., soft, good. The comparative degree is that Avhich exceeds the pos- itive; as, harder, softer, better. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded ; as, hardest, softest, best. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 57 different degrees, cannot be compared: as, two, second, all, total, immortal, infinite. I Those adjectives which may be Varied in sense, but , not in form, are compared bj means of adverbs ; as, r skillful, more skillful, most skillful — skillful, less skillful, 't^least skillful. REGULAR COMPARISON. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add ing est to them ; as. Positive Comparative. Superlative. great, greater, greatest. *\vide, wider, widest. hot, hotter, hottest. The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. Tlie different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and viost : as, ^vise, more ivise, most wise / famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, most amiable. The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less tvise, least wise ; famous, less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. Obs. 1. — Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending in y or mute c, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather compared by means of the adverbs : thus we say, virtuous, taore virtuous, most virtuous^ but not virtiMU-s, virtnouser, virtuousest. Obs. 2. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called ft variation of tho adjective ; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, tho decree being ascribed to the adverb — or, if you please, to loth words ; for both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former. Ob3. 3. — The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely various ; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, ars those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express. Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, they properly belong to it ; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. If an advei-o is employed fortliis purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly its own ; as, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees may be other- wise expressed; as. worthy, in a higher degree worthy, in the highest degree worthy. Here also the adjective warthy is virtually compared as before ; but only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and Tnost, less and least, as parts of the adjective. * Sec Eulcs for Spelling III. and VI. ' 3* i58 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, letter, best; bad or ill, icorse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; many, more, most. Obs. 1.— In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote placs or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either re- dundant or detective in comparison. Thus :— I. The following nine have more than one superlative : far, farther far- thest, farmost or Jar ther most ; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former foremost ox first ; hind, hinder, hindmost or Undermost ; in, inner, inmost or tnnermost; out, outer or utter, outmost or titmost, outermost or uttermost • vp upper, upmost or vppermost ; low, lower, lowest or lowtrmost : late, later or latter, latest or last. II. Tlie following five want the positive : [aft, adv.,J after, aftmost, or af~ iermost; \forth, a&w.,] further, furthest ov f urthermost ; hither, hither most ; nether, nethermost; under, undermost. III. The following want the comparative: //-owi, /wn^wosi!; rear, rear- most; head, headmost; end, endrrwst ; top, topmost; h'ottom, bottommost; mid or middle, midst, midmost or middlemost ; north, northmost ; south, south- most ; northern, northernmost ; southern, southernmost ; eastern, easternmost ' zvestern, westernmost. ' Obs. 2.— Many of these irrenfular adjectives are also in common use, as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions ; the sense in which they are employed will Bhow to what class they belong'. Obs. 3.— The words ./(>;■ iiiiilor>(iiyn, nr not placed after the adjective ; as, " For none of us liveth to himself, and no ioua Uieth to himself" — Romans, siv. 7. 60 • INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 1. By an article or an adjective ; as, " The diligent scholar improves." 2. By a noun or 2^'>'(^^oun in tlic possessive case ; as, Williani's sister has lost her book." 3. By a verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire to excel is laudable." 4. By a prepositio>i and its object, used together as an adjective ; as, "A man of integrity obeys the dictates of conscience^'' 5. By a noun ov jjronoun used as an explanatory adjunct; as, " His brother, Charles, is idle." The predicate of a sentence may be modified by adverbial adjuncts of various forms ; as, 1. By an adverb ; as, "The sun shines brightly T 2. By a iircposition and its object, used together as an adverb; as, "He came f-om Boston.'''' EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. PRAXIS III. — ETYMOLOGICAL, Jn the Third Praxis, it is required oj the pu2nl — to classify and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis y to point out, in addition, the adjuncts of each of the principal parts, and distinguish their classes ; and to* parse the sentence by distinguishing the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the nouns, and adjectives, distinguish- ing also the article as definite or indefinite. Thus: — EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. "The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise laws." Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject IS Athenians ; the predicate, ohsermd ; the ohject, law;^. The subject is limited by the adjective adjunct, the ; tlie predicate is modi- fied by the adverbial adjunct, carefully ; and the object is modiiied by the adjective adjuncts, Solon's and wise. Parsing. — Tfte is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people. (Modifications as in the preceding praxis.) Carefulli) is an adverb, because it is added to the verb observed, and ex- presses manner. Observed is a verb, because it expresses action. Solon''s is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual; it is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the possessive case, because it indicates the possession of laws. Wise is a common adjective, because it simply expresses the quality of laws. Laws is a common noun, becauso it is the name of a class of things. CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY. — PRON-QUNS. 61 Pleasure's call always wins an eager attention. Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous emotion. King Belshazzar made a great feast. Every person highly praised William's noble conduct. Where did your kind father buy that interesting book ? The French ambassador immediately presented his cre- dentials. This benevolent young lady kindly teaches many poor children. Kiotous indulgence rapidly destroys the bodily vigor. This enterprising merchant has just returned from Europe. The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. Indulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest admiration of mankind. The powerful eloquence of Demosthenes excited the fierce indignation of Athens against Philip of Macedon. CHAPTER Y.— OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well. Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. Obs. 2. — The pronouns / and thou iii their different modifleations, stand immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without be- ing named; (/meaning the speaker, and iliou the hearer;) their antecedents are therefore generally xinderstood. Obs. 3. — The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned ; as, '■^He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." 0b3. 4. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some per- son or thing unknown to the speaker; the noun, therefore, cannot occur before it, but may be used after it or instead of it. Obs. 5. — The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in cou- atruction as the antecedents to other pronouns ; as. He that arms his intent with virtue is invincible." — " Who that has any moral sense, dares tell lies J" CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; jjersona?, rel- ative^ and interrogative. I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. The simple personal pronouns are five : namely, I, of 62 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. the first person ; €iou^ of the second person ; /ze, she^ and it, of the third person. The compound personal pronouns are also five : name- ly, myself^ of the first person ; thyself^ of the second per- son ; himself] herself, and itself of the third person. II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. The relative pronouns are who. which, what, and that ; and the compounds lohoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever^, whatever or whatsoever. What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that or those which ; and is to be parsed, first as aiitecedent, and then as relative. III. An interrogative pronoun is a j^ronoun with which a question is asked. The interrogative pronouns are luho, ivhich, and what; being the same in form as relatives. Obs l.— TF^o is usually applied to persons only: w^M, though formerly applied to persons, is now confiued to animals and inanimate things . what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : that is applied iuditferently to persons, animals, or tlimgs. Obs. 2.— The pronoun ivhat has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that which, or the thing which. In this double relation, what represents two cases at tlie same time: as, " He is ashamed of ?ii7ia< he has done ;" that is, of that [thing] ivhich he has done. It is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural ; as, " I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to m^.^—Bi/ron. " All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what raise aver- sion in stead of pleasure. — Steele. Obs. 8.— What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the „ , god but enters yon forbidden field."— Po^e. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction ; as, " We will certainly do whatsoever thi,)ig goeth forth out of our own mouth."— t/er., xliv, 17. Obs. 4. — Who, ivhich, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all com- monly followed by two verbs: as, " 'Whoever attends, will improve;" that is. Any person who attends, will improve. In parsing, supply the antecedent. Obs. 5.— Which and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive or inter- rogative adjectives ; and, as such, may be applied to persons as well as to things : as, " What man ?"— " Which boy?'' Obs. 6. — The word that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who, whom, or which ; as, " The days that [which] are past, are gone forever." It is a definitive or pronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it ; as, " That book is new." In other cases, it is a con- junction, as, " Live well, that you may die well." Obs. 7.— The relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow the word ou which its case depends: thus, it is said, [John, xiii, 29,] "Buy CHAP, v.] ETrMOLOGY.— PRONOUNS.— MODIF. 63 those things that we have need o/";" but we cannot say, " Buy those things (2/" nelf, the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case j SIS, My single sell',— .1/// own self, — His own self, — Their own selves. t Whose is sonietiine.i used as the possessivo case ol which ; as, " A religion whosa origin is divine."— .fi/uic. 6* 66 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. oue of the principal parts of a sentence. The clause on which it depends, is called the principal clause. Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative pronouns, or adverbs, . A complex se^itence is one composed of a principal clause, and one or more dependent clauses. A compound sentence is one composed of two or more mdependent clauses. Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called members. Obs. — A clause introduced by a relative pronoun, is often called a relative clause ; it may bo dependent or independent; thus the sentence, " This is the man who committed the deed^^'' is complex ; because the relative clause ia an adjunct of man, modifying it like an adjective ; but " 1 gave the book to John, who has lost it,''' is a compound sentence, the relati^^e clause not being an adjunct, but expressing au additional /act, and equivalent to " and he has lost it." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. PRAXIS IV. — ETYMOLOGICAL. Jn the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the ^9?/^?7 — to clas- sijy the sentences^ to point out the component clauses • to analyze and parse each as in the j^recediwj jjraxis / and to state the classes and modifications of the j^ronouns. Thus : — EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. *' Children who disobey their parents, deserve punishment." Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is. Children deserve punishment, and the dependent clause is, Who disobey their parents, an adjective adjunct of children ; the connective word is tvho. The subject of the principal clause is children ; the predicate is deserve ; and the object is punishment. The adjunct of the subject is the de- pendent clause ; the other parts have no adjuncts. The subject of the dependent clause is who; the predicate is disobey/; the object is parents. The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts ; the ad- j unct of parents is their. Faesing. — Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word children, and connects the two clauses of the sentence j^ it is of the third person, because it represents the persons spoken ot ; of the plural number, because it denotes more than one; of the masculine gender, because it is a term equally applicable to both sexes (see Obs. 3, page 51) ;* and in the nominative ease, because it is the subject of the verb disobey ; its declension in both numbers is, Nom. 2i)ho; Poss. whose ; Obj. whom. Their is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the * It would be preferable, in the opinion of the editor of these exercises, to desig- nate this the common gender, there being no reason to consider the masculine gen- der more " woi'tliy" than the feminine. Besides, gender is not a distinction of objects as to sex, but a distinction of ivords with respect to the sex zchich thexj denote; and therefore such words as belong, in common, to both sexes, are manifestly of tha common gender. CHAP. VI- ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. — CLASSES. 67 third person ; it is of tho plural number, masculino gender, and in the possessive case, because it denotes the possession of parents. Ita declension is, Noui. they, Poss. their, (- theirs, Obj. them. (Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes,) He who conquers his passions, overcomes his greatest enemies, Every teacher must love a pupil who evinces a love of study. Savages who have no settled abode, wander from place to place. Avoid rudeness of manners, Avhich always hurts the feelings of others. A good reader will often make a pause, where no gram- marian would place a point. He who, in nature, recognizes the Creator's hand, will ever survey its varied scencs-with reverence. The poems of Homer celebrate the exploits of Achilles, who Blew the Trojan prince. Hector. Prosperity gains many friends, but adversity tries them. I disregard their imputations, be- cause I do not merit them. When he had sold his patrimony, he engaged m traffic. CHAPTER YI.— OF VERBS. A Verb is a word that signifies to he, to act, or to he acted upon: as, 1 am,\ rule^ I am ruled; 1 love, thou loveslj he loves. CLASSES. Verbs are divided, with respect to their/orm, into foui' classes ; regular^ irregular, redundant, and defective. I. A regidar verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect particij^le by assuming d ored; as^ love, looED, loving, lovED. IL An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, see, saw, seeing, seen. III. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular ; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. IV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, be- ware, ought, quoth. Ob8.— Kegular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, by adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb hear, heard, htaringy lizard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 68 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. Yerbs are divided again, witli respect to their signifi- cation^ into four classes ; active-transitive, active-intransitiv& ^passive, and neuter. I. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as, '^CixmsleivAhcC II. An actlve-intrcinsitive verb is a verb that expresses an ac'ion Avhich has no j^erson or thing for its object; as, "John icalksJ' III. A j^ci^sive verl) is a verb that represents its subject, or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I ain com- pellecV IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither ac- tion nor passion, but simplj being, or a state of being ; as, " Thou artj' — " He sleepsJ' Ods. 1. — In most gramraara and dictionaries, verbs arc divided into three classes only; actlce, passive, and 7ieuter. In such a divisidn, the class of ac- tive verbs includes those only which are actine-transiiive, and all the acUoe- intransitive verbs are called neuter. But, ni the division adopted above, cctive-mtransUivexevhs arc made a distinct class , and those only are regarded as neuter, which imply o state of existence without action, When, there- fore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, wo apply the simple term active to all those which express- actian^ whether transitiee or intransitive. " We act whenever we do any thing; but we may act without doing any thing." — Crabb's Sytwnymes. Ob3. 2. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them and the object afterthem ; as, " QiE9.a.r conquey-eii roinpcy." Passive verbs (which are derived from active-transitive verbs) reverse this order, and denote that the subject, or nominative, is ati'ected by the action ; and the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition by: as, " Fompey was conquered by Ctcsar." Obs. 3. — Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. Active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates; when they do not govern euch an object, they arc intransitive. Obs. 4. — Some verbs may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. In the sentence, "Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb; but in the sentence, " Here I rest my hopes," 7'cst is an active-transitive verb, and governs hopes. Obs. 5. — An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its ob- ject, will sometimes admit of being put into tlie passive form, the object of the prcDosition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition being retained with tlie verb, as an adverb : as, {Active,) " They laughed at him." r— {Passive,) " ilo was laughed at." MODIFICATIONS. Yerbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Moods^ Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. MOODS. Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— MOODS. 69 expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner. There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive^ and the Imperative. The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number : as, To read, to speak. The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates, or declares a thing: as, 1 write; you know: or asks a question; as, Bo you hnoivf The Potential mood is that form of the verb, which ex- presses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as, I can read; we must go. The Salijanctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the bemg, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtfid, and contingent: as, "If thou ne,9,-"— "Thou travels far;"— "Thou paints;''' " Unseen thou lurks,"— ''O thou pale orb that silent shines:'' This mode of simplify- ing the verb confounds the persons, and as it has little advantage in sound, over Iho Tttgular contracted form of the second person, it ought to bo avoided. It is too fre- quently used b)' the poets. "* The second per.sou singular may bo contracted, whenever the verb ends in a sound which will unite Willi that of ",'i^. The poets generally employ the contracted forms, but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing them. Some insert the apostrophe, and, after a .'■ingle vowel, double the final conson- . ant before «<; &=•, hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, inay'st, might'st, Ac: others add St only, and form permanent contractions; a>, holdst, hidst, saidst, ledst, mayst^ tnigJttst, &.C Some retain the vowel in the terminalion of certain words, and sup-r press a preceding one; as, Quick'iiest, 7Mpj)'neM, scatt'rest, slumV rest, sluml'redst: others contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe; as, (juicl;- C7ist, liappetist, scatter'st, slumher'st, sluinier'dst. The rature of our language, Iho' accent and pronunciation of it, incline ns to contracteven all our regular verbs; so as to avoid, if possible, an increase of sjllablcs i:i the inllection of them. Accordingly, several terminations which formerly constituted disUnet syllables, have been either ■^\-holly droppe(l, or blended with tin filial syllables of flio verbs to which they aro added. Tlius the plural teimination <•J^lla9 liecomo entirely obsolete ; th or eth is no longer In common use; ed is contracted in pronunciation ; the ancient ys or is, of the third person sinsular, is changed to s or es, and is usually added without increase of syllables: and st or <>,$•« has, if> part, adopted t.-c analogy. So that the proper moda of forming these contractions of the second person singular, seems to be, to add «t only, and to insert the apostrophe, whei> a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added ; as, thinUst^ eaysi, hidst, lov'st, loo dsi, slumberst, slum- her'dyt. t Some grammarians fay, that, whenever the preterit Is like the present, it should take edsi for Ihe second person sinaular. This rule gives as such words as cast^edsf, cost-edst, htd-dedxt, burkt-^edst, cnl-tedst, liit-tedst, UMfdst, ptit,tedst, htirt-.edst, rid-' d-edst, shed-dedst, itc, The few examples which may bo adduced from ancient writ- ings, ia suppor of this rule, are undoubtedly formed in Uio usual manner from regular preterits now obsolefe, and if this were not the ca-se, no person of taste could think of employing derivatives so uncoulh. Dr. John.=on lias justly remarked, that "Iho chief defect of our lanenage U ruggeilnessand asperity." And ihisdefect i-i peculiarly obvious, when even llio regular termiii.ation of the second person singular is added tQ ^ur preterits. Aeeori not writing. 8. Interrogatively; as. Write 11 Bo\ write? or. Ami %vriting? 4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Bo I not write? or. Am I not writing ? I. SIMPLE FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries ; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. FIRST EXAMPLE. The rerjidar active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal Parts. Present. Preterit. Imj^er. Participle. Perfect Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. The infinitive mood ia that form of the verb, which expresses the being, 76 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR [PART IL rction, or passion, in nn vinlimited manner, and ■without person or camber It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. Present Tense. This tense is the root, or radical verb ; and is usually preceded by th« preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word : thus, — To love. Perfect Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliary Jiave to the perfect participle, and ia usu- ally preceded by the preposition to : thus, — To have loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicatei or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in ail the tenses. Prese7it Tense. The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as tho present infinitive, or radical verb ; except that tho verb be has am in the in- dicative. 1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus: — Singular. Plural. 1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, Sd per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the verb ; thus, — Singular. Plural. 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 0. He does love ; 3. They do love. Imperfect Tense. This tense, in its simple form, is the preterit ; which, in all regular verbs, adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously. 1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus:— Singular. Plural. 1. T loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved; 3. They loved. 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present : thus,— ^ Singular. Plural. 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 3. He did love ; 3. They did lovia. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 77 Obs.— In ft flimiliar question or negation, tlip nuxiliary form is preferabl* to tho simple. But in the soletnii or the poetic style, the simple form is more diffnilied an. I graceful: a:», ^'^ Understandest tbou what thou readest?" — "Of whom speahcth the prophet i\\\?,V'—Acts, viii, 30, 34. "Say, Acard ye nought of lowiaud war ?" — SmU: L. of L., C. v, ^ 5. Perfect Tense. Tliia tense prefixes the auxiliary haoe to the perfect participle : thus,— Singular. Plural. 1. I have loved, 1. Wo have loved, 2. Tliou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. Pluperfect Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : thus,— Singular. Plural. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. lie had loved ; 3. They had loved. First-future Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present : thus,— 1. Simply to express a future action or event : — Singular. Plural. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. lie will love ; 3. They will love. 2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat:— Singular. Plural. 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. Thou shalt love, ' 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. Ob3.— In interrogative sentences, tho meaning of these auxiliaries is re- versed. Wheu preceded by a conjunction implying condition or uncertainty, their import is somewhat varied. Secondfuture Tense. Tills tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect par- ticiple: thus, — Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. Obs. — The auxiliary ,?7ia^ may also be used in the second and third persona of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or con- tingency; as, "If he shall have finished his work wheii I return." And perhaps will may here be used in the first person to express a promise or a determination, though such usage, 1 thinii, very seldom occurs. 7» 78 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL POTENTIAL MOOD. The potential mood is that form of the verb, -which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses ; but the potential imperfect is properly nn aorist, and not necessarily a past tense. No definite time is usually implied in it. Present Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb : thus,— Smgular. Plural. 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love ; 3. They may love. Imperfect Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, eould, would, or should, to the rad- ical verb ; thus, — Singular. Plural. 1. 1 might love, 1. V/e might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love ; 3. They might love. Perfect Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, ma,y have, can have, or must have, to tho periiect participle : thus, — Singular. Plural. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. Pluperfect Tense. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or ehould have, to the perfect participle : thus, — Singular. Plural. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The subjunctivo mood is that form of the verb, which represents the bein^, fiction, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction; as, if, that, though, lest, unless, &e. It does not vary its termination, in the different persons. It is used in the present, and sometimes in tile imperfect tense ; rarely in any other. As this mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite. Present Tense. This tense is gener.ally used to express some condition on which a future action or evot is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some grammariana, oa an ellipti.ci'i ibrm of the future. CHAP. VI.J ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 79 Singular. Plural. 1. If I love, 1, Ifwc love, .2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 3. If he love; 3. If they love. Oes.— In this tense the auxiliary do is sometimes employed ; as, " If thon do prosper iny way."— 6'e«,., xxiv, 42. " If lie do not utter it:'— Lev., v, 1. This uninflected do proves the tense to he presttit and the mood subj urvctive ; for the word will come under no other mood or tense. Imperfect Tense. This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential mood, with whieh it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or iudclinite tense ; and it may refer to time past, present, or future : as, " If therefore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there," &e. — Eeb., vii, 11. " If the whole body were an eye, where were the liearing ?" — 1 Cor., xii, 17. " If it were possible, they shall deceive the very (AGcV—Matt., xxiv, 24. Singular. Plural. 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. The imperative mood is tliat form of the verb, wliich is used in command- ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in tha eecond person of the present tense. Present Tense. Sirigular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love ; Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. Obs.— In the G?-eek language, which has three numbers, the imperative mood is used in the second and tJd?'d persons of them all ; and has also sev- eral ditFerent tenses, some of which cannot be clearly rendered in English. In Latin, this mood lias a distinct form for the third person both singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, t\m first person plural is also given it. Imitatwns of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, particularly by the poets. Such imitations must bo referred to this mood, unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else. The following are examples : ^'■Blessed be he that blesseth thee."— (Jen,., xxvii, 29. " Thy Icimjdom come:''— Matt., vi, 10. '■^Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms. And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Pope. " My soul, torn from iham— turn we to savvey,''^ &,q.— Goldsmith. 1. SYNOPSIS OP THE FIRST EXAMPLE. First Person Singular. Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, I shall have loved. Pox. I may love, I might love, I may hav© loved, I might have loved. Subj. If I love. If I loved. . PARTICIPLES. The Imperfect. Loving. 2. The Perfect. Loved. 8. The Preperfect. Having loved. so INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART 11. Second Person Singular. Ikd. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Pot. Thou mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved, Thou mightst have loved. Subj. If thou love, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. Third Person Singular. Ind. He loves, He loved, He has loved. He had loved. Ho will love, He will have loved. Pot. He may love. He might love, He may have loved, He might have loved. Subj. If he love, If he loved. First Person Plural. Ind. "We love, We loved. We have loved, We had loved, We shall love. We shall have loved. Pot. We may love, We might love, We may have loved, We might have loved. Subj. If we love, If we loved. Second Person Plural. Ind. You love, You loved. You have loved. You had loved, You will love, You will have loved. Pot. You may love, You might love. You may have loved. You might have loved. Subj. If you love, If you loved. Imp. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. Third Person Plural. Ind. They love. They loved, They have loved. They had loved, They will love. They will have loved. Pot. They may love, They might love. They may have loved, They might have loved. Subj. If they love. If they loved. Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usu- ally formed thus : Ind. Thou lov'st, Thou loved, Tliou hast loved, Tliou had loved, Thou will love, Thou will have loved. Pot. Thou may love, Thou, might love, Thou may have loved, Thou might have loved. Suej. If thou lovG, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. SECOND EXAMPLE. The irrBjular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal Parts, i'resent. Preterit, Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. See. Saw Seeing. Seen. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To see. CHAP. YI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 81 Perfect Tense. To have seen. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. - PluraL 1. I see, 1. "VVe see, 2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 3. He sees; 3. They see. Imperfect : Singular. Tense. Plural. 1. I saw. 1. We saw, 2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 8. He saw; 3, They saw. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have seen. 1. We have seen. 2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. Pluperfect Singular. Tense. Plural. 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. Thou hadst seen. 2. You had seen. 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen. First-future Tense. Singular. Plural 1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 3. He will see ; 3. They will see. 1. 2. Second-future Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen. 3. He will have seen : 3. They will have seen. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. 1. I may see, 2. Thou mayst see. He may see ; 4» Plural. 1. We may see, 2. You may see, 3. They may see. 82 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH CRAMMAR. [PART II. Imperfect Tense. Singular, Plural. 1. I might see, 1. Yv''e might see, 2. Thou mightst sec, 2. You might see, 3. He might see ; 3. They might see. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have seen, 1. "We may have seen, 2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 3. "" ~ [e might have seen ; 3. Th( jy might have SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 1. 2. 8. Singular. If I see. If thou see, If he see ; Present Tense. Pural. 1. If we see, 2. If you see, 3. If they see. Singular. Imperfect Tense. Plural. 1. 2. 3. If I saw. If thou saw, If he saw ; 1. 2. 3. If we saw. If you saw. If they saw. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou sec ; Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see. PARTICIPLES. 1. Tlie Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Seeing. Seen, Having seen. Obs.— In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is Bsually formed thus : Ind. Thou seest. Thou saw. Thou hast seen. Thou had seen. Thou will see. Thou will have seen. Pot. Thou may see. Thou might Bee, Thou may have seen, Thou might have seen. Subj. If thou see, If thou 6aw. latP. See [thoU,] or Do thou se'e. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS— CONJUGATION. 83 TIIIRD EXAMPLE. The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal Parts. Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, Be. Was. Being, Beeru INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To be. Perfect Tense. To have been. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Obs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present: ns, " We he twelve brethren."— (?e»., xlii, 32. " Wliat be these two olive branches?" — Zeck.i iv, 12. Bui this construction is now obsolete. „ Singular. PluraL 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, S. He is; 3. They are. Imjjerfect Singular. Tense. Plural 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast,* 2. You were. S. He was; S. They were. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been. 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been ; 3. They have been* Pluperfect Singular. Tense. Plural. 1. I had been, 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been, 3. He had been ; 3. They had been. * Wert is sometimes n?ed Indicativelv for ^oast; as, " Vainly wert thou wed.'"— ^ymn. " Whate'ef thou art or werV—Id. 84 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET II. First-future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. 1 shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 3. lie will be; 3. They will be. Second-future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, S. He will have been ; 3. They wiD have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 3. He may be ; 3. They may be. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be ; 3. They might be. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been j 3. They may have been. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I be, 1. If we bej 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 8. If he be ; 3. If they be. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VEKBS.— CONJUGATION. 85 Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. 2. 3. Ifl were, 1. If thou wert, or were, 2. If he were; 3. If we were, If you were. If Ihey were. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singtilar. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be ; Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imiyerfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being. Been. Having been. Obs. — In tlie familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is nsii- ally formed thus : Ind. Thou art, Tliou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been. Thou will be, Thou will have been. Pot. Thou may be, Thou might be, Thou inay liave been, Thou might have been. Subj. If thou be, If thou were. Lup. Be [thou, J ur Do thou be. II. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its changes ; as, I am loriting — He is sitting. This form of the verb denotes a continuance* of the ac- tion or the state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb. Obs.— Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; as, "Tho books are now selling y— Allen's Gi-am., p. Sl'. " II requires no motion in the organs whilst it is forming.'''— Murray's Gram., p. 8. " While the work of the temple was carrying on."— Z)r. J. Owen. " The designs of Providence are carrying on.'"— Bp. Butler. "We are permitted to know nothing of what IS transacting in the regions above \xs."—I)r. Blair. Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably of far better authoritv, and (accordmg to my apprehension) in far better taste, than the nioie complex phraseology which some late writers adopt m ita stead; as, "The books are now being sold." FOURTH EXAMPLE. 27ie irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively in the Compound Form. Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Pcrf. Participle. Read. Read. Reading. Read. ^ * Those verbs which, in thefr simple form, Imply contlnnance, do not admit tln» eom^ucd form thus wo say, ' I respect him ;" but not, " I am renpecUni; lihn." 8 66 . INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PART II. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. o be reading. Perfect Tense. To have been reading. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I Avas reading, 1. We Avere reading, 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 3. He has been reading; 3, They have been reading. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading Firstfuture Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. Secondfuture Tense. Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 3. He will have been reading ; Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 2. You will have been reading, 3 They will have been reading. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION". 87 POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. Imjierfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 3. He might be reading ; 3. Tiiey might be readuig. Perfect Tense. Singular. I. I may have been reading, 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 3. He may have been reading ; Plural. 1. We may have been reading, 2. You may have been reading, 3. They may have been reading. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 3. He might have been reading ; Phiral. 1. We might have been reading, 2. You might have been reading, 8. They might have been reading. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Phiral. 1. If I be reading, 1, If we be reading, 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. Imperfect Tense. .Singular. Plural. 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 3. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading; Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be leading. 88 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART XL PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being reading. Having been reading. Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is nsually formed thus : Ind. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou liast been reading. Thou had been reading, Thou will be reading. Thou will havo " been reading. Pot. Thou may be reading. Thou might be reading, Thou may have been reading, Thou might have been reading. Subj. If thou be reading, If thou were reading. Ywe. Be [thou] reading, w Do thou be reading. III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, by add- ing the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its changes : thus, from the active-transitive verb love^ is formed the passive verb he loved. Ob3. 1.— a few actiTe-intransitivo verbs, that merely imply motion, or change of condition, may be put into this form, with a neuter signification ; making not ^s«ie)e but newfer verbs, which express nothing more than the Btate which results from the change : as, I am, come ; He is risen ; They are fallen. Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequently employed this mode of coniugation in a neuter sense ; but, with a few ex- ceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary Aaw in preference to he, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive ; ns. They have arrived — not, They are amved. Obs. 2.— Passive verbs may be distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument ; which frequently is, and always may be, expressed after passive verbs ; but which never is, and never can be, expressed aftei neuter verbs : as, " The thief has been caught by the officer.^'' — " Pens are made with a knife.'''' FIFTH EXAMPLE. The regular passive verb BE L VED, conjugated affirmatively. Principal Parts of the Active Verb. Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle, Love. Loved. Loving. Loved, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To be loved. Perfect Tense. To have been loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural, 1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, S. He is loved; 3. They are loved. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 89 Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I -was loved, 1. We av ere loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. Perfect Tense. Singular Plural 1.1 have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. lie has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved, Firstfuture Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. He will beloved; 3. They will beloved. Secondfuture Tense. Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 2, Thou wilt have been loved, 3. He will have been loved ; Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. They Avill have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. T may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. He may bo loved ; 3. They may be loved Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. \. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved, 8* 90 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART XL Perfect Tense. Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 3. He may have been loved ; Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved. Phqjerfecl Tense. Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 2, Thou mightst have been loved, 3, He might have been loved ; Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. They might have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I beloved, 1. If we beloved, 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If he be loved ; 3. If they be loved. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I were loved, 1. If "we were loved, 2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD, Present Tense. Singular. 2, Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved ; Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. PARTICIPLES. 1. TJie Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The P re-perfect. Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. Or?. — In the fomiliar style, the second pers?on shi^ular of this ver>>, 13 nsually formed thus : Ind. 'TIiou art loved, Thou iv;us loved, Thou hast been Jovsd, Thou had been loved, Thou will be loved, Thou will have been loved. J'oT. Thou may be loved, Thou might be loved, Thou may have been loved, Thou niitrht have been loved. Subj. If thou be Joved, If tliou were loved. Imp. Bo [thouj loved, or Do thou be loved. IV. FORM OF NEGATION. A verb is conjugated ncgativehj^ by placing tbe adverb CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY,— VERBS.— IRREGULARS. 91 not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; hut the infinitivo and participles take the negative first : as, Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love not, or [ do not love, I loved not, or 1 did not love, I have not loved, 1 had not loved, I shall not love, I shall not have loved. Pot. 1 may, can,* or must not love ; I miglit, could, would, or should not love, 1 may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, would, or should not have loved. Subj. Jf 1 love not, If I loved not. Part. Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. V. FORM OF QUESTION. A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliarj^ : as, Ind. Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? Shall I love? Shall I have loved? Pot. May, can, or must I love? Might, could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must 1 have loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? VI. FORM OF QUESTION" WITH NEGATION. A verb is conjugated inferrogaiively and negatively^ in the indicative and potential moods, bj placing the nomina: tive and the adverb 7zo^ after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: as, Ind. Do I not love 1 Did 1 not love 1 Have I not loved ? Had I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? Pot. May, can, or must I not love? Might, could, would, or should I not love? May, can, or must I not have loved? Might, could, would, or should I not have loved ? IRREGULAR VERBS. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the pre- terit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see^ saw, seeing, seen. (>B3. 1. — "When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- properly substituted for ed, maliing the preterit and tlie perfect participlo irregular in spellinor, when they are not so in sound : as, distrest for distressed, tost for tossed, mixt I'or mixed, cracht for cracked. Obs. 2. — Wlien the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. In some * When power is denied, can and not are united to prevent ambiguity ; as, " I can- not fro.' But when the power is afhrnied, and something else is denied, the words arc written fepar.ately; as, "The Christian apologist cvi not merely expose the utter baseness of the intidel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in Its place." — Dr. Chalmers. 92 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IT. such irregularities, the poets are indnlcred for the peIkB of rhyme: but the best speakers aud writers of prose prefer the regular form wherever good use has sanctioued it: thixi', learned is better than learnt ; (ivt'iied, than fiurnt ; penned, th. in pent ; u/jsorbed, than absorpt ; swelled, than s/je^i; smelkd, thaa smelt; though both forms are allowabl;'. (Jbs. 3. — Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best au- thors ; and many preterits and participles which were formerly in good use, are now obsolete, or becoming so. Obs. 4.— The simple irregular verba are about 110 in number, and are nearly all monosyllables. They arc derived from the Saxou, iu which lan- guage thoy are also, for the most part, irregular. Obs. 5.— The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, as they are now generally used. In this list, aud also in that of the redun- dant verbs, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be prefer- able, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all com- poimds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that follow their primitives, are purposely omitted from both tables. Welcome and be- have, unlike come and hiive, are alvrays regular, and therefore belong not to either list. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that the learner miarht not mistake them for words in present use. Some of thoso which are placed last, are now little used. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. Presint. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perfect Participle. Arise, arose, arising, arisen. Be, Avas, being. been. Bear, bore or bare. bearing, borne or bom.* Beat, beat, beating. beaten or beat. Begin, began or begun, beginning, begun. Behold, beheld, beholding, . beheld. Beset, beset. besetting. beset. Bestead, bestead, besteading, bestead. f Bid, bid or bade, bidding, bidden or bid. Bind, bound, binding, bound. Bite, bit. biting. bitten or bit. Bleed, bled, bleeding, bled. Break, broke. breaking, broken. Breed, bred. breeding, bred. Bring, brought, bringing. brought. Buy, bought, buying, bought. Cast, cast. casting, cast. Chide, chid, chiding. chidden or chid. Choose, chose, choosing, chosen. CIeave.| cleft or clove, cleaving, cleft or cloven. Cling, ' clung, clinging. clung. Come, came, coming. come. Cost, cost. costing, cost. Cut, cut. cutting. cut. • Borne .^isnilies carried ; horn .«i?iiifies brought forth. t "And they shall pass through it, h.irdly benteail, and huns^y."— /<(a«aA, vili, 21. X Cleave to split, is iircirular as above; cleave, to slick, is regular, but clavtwaa foriaerly used in the preterit, for cleaved. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— IRREGULARS. 93 Present. Do, Draw, Drive, Drink, Eat, Fall, Feed, Feel, Fight, Find, Flee, Fling, Fly, Forbear, Forsake, Get, Give, Go, Grow, Have, Hear, Hide, Hit, Hold, Hurt, Keep, Know, Lead, Leave, Lend, Let, Lie, (to rest,) Lose, Make, Meet, Put, Read, Rend, Preterit. did, drew, drove, drank, ate or 6at, fell, fed, felt, fought, found, fled, flung, flew, forbore, forsook, got, gave, went, grew, had, heard, hid, hit, held, hurtjf l