m MEMORIAM John S-vett THE QUESTION BOOK A GENERAL REVIEW OF COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES. TO BE USED IN SCHOOLS, IN CONNECTION WITH TEXT BOOKS. BY ASA H. CRAIG. TENTH EDITION — REVISED. CALDWELL'S PRAIRIE, WIS. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 1878. LBI7fl Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1872, by ASA H. CRAIG, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. OlC PREFACE. Reviews should be cne of the most important features of any school, for by it the pupil is called upon to answer from real memory, instead of the momentary memory "direct from the text books. I have sometimes thought that the majority of teachers of our district schools, do not realize the importance c^ daily, v/eeklv and monthly reviews. Their greatest zeal appears to be in the advancement of their pupils in their studies. 7 hey labor to stimulate them to pass over a cer- tain course, or reach a given point, and it is with pride that they note the rapid progress of their classes. We all know that students are few v/ho can retain the lessons of to-day, without the thought of to-morrow on the same sub- ject. It is more essential for us to direct apart of our thoughts upon what we have learned, than it is to be continually pressing farther. Far better it is for us to fully understand, and be capable of practically using a part of a science, than to have studied the whole and forgotten a part. If teachers would adopt the plan of asking some questions on previous lessons, at the close of each recitation, a more thorough knowledge would be obtained; their memories would be continually refreshed, until those facts or prin- ciples will be so indelibly fixed upon their minds that they cannot be forgotten. It is with this idea of refreshing the memory, that the author collected and formed systematic- 543436 4 PREFACE. ally the general and essential principles of the Common School studies. The object is to facilitate the means of reviews, and if, through the publication of this work, teachers are induced to direct the attention of their scholars to questions promiscuously, then much good will be ac- complished. The answers which are given are formed of few words, but the intention was to make them clear and concise, and as it is to be used in connection with text books, reference should be made when the teacher or pupil does not fully understand the whole meaning. Errors may be found, and the author will consider it a great favor to be informed of them, that the correction may be made. ASA H. CRAIG. QUESTIONS ON United States History ( I. What is History? 2. What records show that America was discovered pre- vious to the discovery of Columbus? 3. What proofs show that America was inhabited by a race of men previous to the Indians? 4. Into how many chief epochs can the history of the United States be divided? *^5. What land did Columbus first discover, and when? 6. How many vessels composed the fleet? 7. When and where did Columbus first discover the main land? 8. How many voyages did he make? 9. Who discovered the continent before Columbus, and where? i^io. Why was this continent named America instead of Columbia? 11. "What reward did Columbus receive for his dis- coveries? Where was he buried? 12. What nations explored the future United States? 13. Where did the Spaniards make their claims? 14. Where did the French make theirs? 15. The English? 16. The Dutch? ^6 * /, '*% THE QUESTION BOOK. 17. Who was Ponce de Leon? Why did He come to the new continent ? 18. What discoveries were made by Vasco de Balboa? 19. What was the object of De Narvaez' explorations? ^ 20. Who was Ferdinand de Soto? 21. When anywhere was the first colony founded on the continent? i/cs-^-^i-'-;^- i <"> ^ 22. When, where, and by whom, was the first perma- nent settlement made in the United States? The second? 23. Who first attempted to form English settlements in America? y^ 24. When and where was the first permanent English settlement made in the United States? 25. Who sent out the settlers to Jamestown? 26. What territory was granted the London Company? 27. How many charters had the London Company? 28. What territory was granted the Plymouth Company? I 29. Who were the first Spanish, French, English and Dutch discoverers? 30. Where was the first permanent settlement made by the Dutch? 31. Where was the first permanent settlement made by the French? 32. Who was James Carter? 33. Who were the Jesuit Missionaries? 34. Who were the first partial explorers of the Missis- sippi and its branches? 35. Who were La Salle and Father Hennepin? 36. What tract of country was called Acadia? 37. Who discovered the Hudson river? 38. What was the object of Hudson's explorations? 39. What is said to have been the fate of Hudson? 40. What was that country called explored by Hudson? 41. What nations claimed it? 42. How was the dispute settled? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 7 43. When, and by whom was the first colony founded in Massachusetts? 44. How many Puritans came on the first voyage ? 45. Who was their first governor? 46. "V^'as the colony prosperous? j^ 47. Who was Roger Williams? 48. What was the treatment by the Puritans of the Quakers? 49. When, and by what nation was negro slavery intro- duced into the United States? 50. Who was Captain John Smith? 51. Who were Pocahontas and Powhatan? 52. What became of Pocahontas? 53. When did the first English women come to America? 54. What valuable plants were discovered in America? 55. When was the first Indian plot to massacre the English? 56. When was the first massacre? The second? 57. Who was Nathaniel Bacon? Wliat was the cause of Bacon's rebellion? 58. When was the first Colonial Assembly? ^' Wliat colonies composed the United Colonies of New England ? 60. When was King Phillip's war? Who was King Phillip? U^6i. What was the Navigation Act? 62. Was this Act observed in Massachusetts? 63. Who was Sir Edmond Andros? ^ 64. From what was derived the appellation of Charter Oakl 65. Who was Sir William Phipps? 66. What was the cause and result of the Salem witch- craft? 67. What was the cause of the Pequot war? How did it terminate? 8 THE QUESTION BOOK. 68. What name did the Dutch give their colony on Manhattan Island? 69. How was this island obtained? 70. Give a short history of the early government of New York. 71. When, and by whom was Philadelphia founded? 72. Who was William Penn? 73. Why did Lord Baltimore obtain a tract of land north of the Potomac river? 74. What was the cause of Clayborne's rebellion? 75. After this rebellion, what was the condition of Maryland ? 76. What European wars disturbed the American colonies? 7 7. What were the causes of King William's war? How long did it last? 78. What was the condition of the colonies during Queen Anne's war? 79. Were the colonies much affected by King George's war? 80. What part did the Indians usually take in these wars? 8 1 . Which of the colonies suffered most in early warfare ? 82. Which of the colonies was free from Indian warfare? 83. What was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken by the Indians? l/'^ 84. Name the thirteen colonies. 85. When and where were Harvard and Yale Colleges founded ? 86. When, and by whom, was the first newspaper started in America? 87. In 1 74 1, what caused great excitement in New York city? ^ 88. Who was John Eliot? 89. Who was William Kidd? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 9 90. Where and when was the first permanent settle- ment made in the Mississippi river valley? 91. What was the cause of the French and Indian war? What parties were engaged in it? 92. Wliere was the disputed territory? 93. Who was sent to request the French to withdraw from the territory on the Ohio? 94. What was the result of Washington's endeavor to compel the French to abandon the Ohio? 95. How were Col. Washington and his soldiers re- w^arded by the Legislature of Virginia? 96. After Washington's retreat, what general was sent in his place against the French? 97. What was the result of Gen. Braddock's expedition? 98. Who was the only mounted officer saved in this expedition? 99. Was the next expedition against Fort de Quesne successful? 100. At what other points besides the Ohio did the colonists attack the French? 10 1. What success had the English in their attack on Acadia? 102. What was their success at Crown Point and Ticon- deroga ? 103. Describe the attack on Ticonderoga? 104. Were they successful at Niagara? -^ 105. Who were the commanders at the battle of Quebec? 106. How was Quebec taken? 107. What generals were killed at the capture of Que- bec? What were their dying words? 108. What was the treaty of peace between France and England? 109. What was the cause and result of Pontiac's war? 1 10. In the French and Indian war, what was the most remarkable battle? 10 THE QUESTION BOOK. 111. What were the effects of this war? 112. At the close of the French and Indian war, what was the population of the colonies? \^ 113. What were .the chief causes which led to the American Revolution? 114. What were writs of Assistance ? i^ 115. What was the Stamp Act? When passed? i<^ii6. Who was Patrick Henry? 117. After the repeal of the Stamp Act, what attempt was made to tax the colonies? 118. What was the Mutiny Act? 119. What occurred in Boston in relation to the tea tax? 120. What was the Boston Port Bill? 121. When and where did the first general Congress of- the colonies assemble? What action did it take? REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 122. Who had command of the British army at the commencement of the Revolution? 123. When and where was fought the first battle of the Revolution ? 124. Describe the battle of Lexington? 125. When and where was fought the battle of Bunker Hill? 126. Who were the commanders in this battle? What was the force of each army, and the loss? 127. What American general was killed in this battle ? 128. What two forts were captured by the Americans in May, 1775? 129. To whom did these forts surrender? 130. What did Allen say when asked by what authority he demanded the surrender of Ticonderoga? 131. When did the second Continental Congress as- semble? What did this Congress do? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 11 132. When did Gen. Washington take command of the American army, and how large was his force? 133. What was the result of the American attack on Canada? 134. How did Washington force the British to evacuate Boston? 135. Describe the attack on Fort Moultrie. 136. What daring feat was accomplished by sergeant Jasper in this attack? 1776. 137. Who introduced measures into Congress that " The United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States?" 138. Who were appointed to draw up a declaration of rights? 139. When was the Declaration of Independence ac- cepted by Congress? 140. What did this declaration declare? 141. When were these articles signed, and by how many persons? 142. What became necessary after this declaration? 143. What were these articles called, and when were they to take effect? 144. Were they ratified by Congress immediately? 145. Which State was last to give her consent? 146. Why were the articles of confederation not adapted to the general wants of the government? 147. When was fought the battle of Long Island, and with what result? 148. In the retreat of Washington, through what place did he pass? 149. When was fought the battle of White Plains, and who was victorious? 150. What daring exploit was made by Washington near the close of the year 1776? 12 THE QUESTION BOOK. 1777. 151. What battle soon followed Washington's success at Trenton? 152. When was fought the battle of Brandy wine, and who was victorious? 153. When did Philadelphia surrender to the British? 154. Where did Washington attack the British soon after his retreat from Philadelphia, and with what result? 155. What was one of the most daring and remarkable exploits during the war, and how accomplished? 156. What was the chief object of taking Gen. Prescott? 157. Who invaded the United States from Canada? 158. Who commanded the northern division of the American army? Who the British? 159. What stratagem did Arnold resort to, in order to rout the British, and relieve Fort Stanwix? 160. At the battle of Bennington, how did Gen'. Stark inspire his troops, and with what result? 161. What battles were fought by Gates and Burgoyne? who were victorious? 162. When, where, and to whom did Burgoyne surrender? 163. What was the agreement in this surrender? 164. Where did Washington quarter his troops during the winter of 1 777-1 778, and what were their condition? 1778. 165. Who were appointed by Congress to solicit aid from the French government? 166. When and where was a treaty of alliance formed? 167. In the Spring, what assistance was sent by France? 168. How long did the British hold Philadelphia? 169. Where did Congress assemble while the British held Philadelphia? 1 70. When and where was fought the battle of Mon- mouth, and who were victorious? What heroic achieve- ment was performed by a woman in this battle? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 13- 171. When did the massacre of Wyoming occur? Who directed it? 1779- 172. Who had charge of the American forces in the south, in 1779? who the British? 173. At this time, where were Washington and CHnton? 1 74. What important posts on the Hudson were sur- rendered to the Americans in 1779? 175. How were these posts taken, and by whom? 176. What was the result of the American attack on Savannah? 177. In the siege of Savannah, what nobleman was mortally wounded? 178. Up to this time, what had been the successes of the American navy and privateers? 179. Who was Paul Jones? 1780. 180. In 1780, where were the military operations mostly carried on? 181. What was the result of the siege of Charleston? 182. Who succeeded Lincoln in the command of the southern forces, and who had command of the British? 183. When and where was the battle of Camden, who commanded, and who was victorious? 184. Who received command of the southern army after the unsuccessful operations of Gen. Gates? 185. What massacre was perpetrated by Col. Tarleton ' and a body of British? 186. What was the condition of the south after these reverses? 187. What fleet came to assist the Americans in July? 188. Who was Benedict Arnold? 189. Who was Major Andre? ^ 190. What were the names of the captors of Andre,, and how were they rewarded? 14 THE QUESTION BOOK. 191. What became of Arnold and Andre? 192. How was Arnold rewarded for his treacher}'? 1781. 193. When and where was fought the battle of Cow- pens, and who was victorious? 194. What successful operations under Gen. Greene in September? 195. Did Gen. Greene ever gain a decided victory? 196. How was the war conducted at the north? 197. What event brought the war to a close? 198. When and to whom did Cornwallis surrender? ^^199. When and where was the treaty of peace signed? Who were the commissioners who signed it? 200. When was peace proclaimed to the American army? 201. When and where did Washington resign his mili- tary commission? 202. What was the condition of the country at this time? 203. What noted persons from foreign powers gave their assistance to the Americans? ^^04. What was the cause of Shay's rebellion? 205. When was the national flag adopted? Describe it. 206. When was the constitution adopted? 207. After the adoption of the constitution, where did Congress first meet? 208. What were the difficulties with which the new government had to contend? Washington's administration. 209. When was Washington inaugurated as President of the United States? 210. \Vhere was the second session of Congress held? 211. When did the city of Washington become the capitol of the United States? 212. Who were Washington's Cabinet? 213. How was the credit of the United States put upon a firm basis? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 15 214. What did Daniel Webster say of Hamilton? 215. What was the whisky rebellion? 216. What difficulties now arose with the Indians, and what expeditions were sent against them ? 217. What was the condition of foreign affairs? ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION. 218. During Adams' Administration what memorable occurrences transpired? 219. What was the nature of the Alien cvid Sedition Laws? 220. What were the difficulties with France, and what prevented war with that nation? Jefferson's administration. // 221. How was Thomas Jefferson elected President? 222. What was the most important event of Jefferson's Administration? 223. What was the cause of the war with Tripoli? 224. What daring exploit was accomplished by Lieut. Decatur? 225. What diffictilties arose between England and the United States? 226. Who was Aaron Burr? Alexander Hamilton? 227. For what is Robert Fulton noted? Madison's administration. 228. What Indian disturbances occurred in the year 1811? 229. When was war formally declared against Great Britain? How long did it last? WAR OF 1812. 230. What was the opening event of the war of 1812? 231. Describe the surrender of Detroit. 232. What other attempt was made to invade Canada, and with what result? 16 THE QUESTION BOOK. 233. What were some of the most important naval victories for the Americans in 181 2? 234. During this year, how many prizes were captured by the Americans? 1813. 235. What was the plan of the campaign of 181 3? 236. What successes had these divisions? 237. Describe Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 238. What daring exploit was performed by Perry? 239. In writing to Gen. Harrison of the victory gained, what memorable words did Perry use? 240. What course did Harrison pursue after hearing of the Erie engagement? 241. What were the principal American naval victories in 1813? 242. What were the important British naval victories in 1813? 243. In what engagement, and by whom was used the sentence, "don't give up the ship?" 244. What Indian disturbances occurred, and who was sent to punish them? 245. What ravages were committed by Admiral Cock- burrj? 1814. 246. In the third invasion of Canada, what battles were fought? 247. Describe the battle of Lund/s Lane. Who com- manded? 248. Describe the battle of Lake Champlain. 249. What were some of the ravages of the British on the Atlantic coast? 250. When and where were the articles of peace signed? 1815. 251. After this treaty, what terrible battle was fought, and with what loss? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 17 / 252. What was the national debt at this time? Monroe's administration. /x^^53. What was the Missouri compromise bill? Who proposed this compromise? 254. What foreigner visited this country as "The Nation's Guest?" \y^2^$. What is the nature of the Monroe doctrine? ^^256. How was J. Q. Adams elected President? J. Q. ADAMS' administration. 257. What important events occurred during Adams' Administration? 258. Where was the first railroad in the United States? 259. How long is the Erie Canal? Jackson's administration. i^^6o. What was the Nullification Ordinance? 261. What Indian troubles occurred during Jackson's Administration ? 262. What demands were made of the French govern- ment? VAN buren's administration. 263. What were some of the memorable events during Van Buren's Administration? 264. What were some of the causes of the J^inancial Crisis? 265. What occurred during the Patriot war? HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION. u^266. How long did Harrison remain in office? 267. What bill was vetoed by Tyler, to the great dis- gust of the men who elected him? 268. What was the cause of the Dorr Rebellion? 269. What were the Anti-Rent difficulties? 270. What occurred in relation to the Mormons? 271. When was Texas admitted into the Union? 18 THE QUESTION BOOK. 272. Where was the first telegraph, and what was the first message sent by it? JAMES K. folk's ADMINISTRATION. ^^^73. What were the causes which led to the war with Mexico? 274. Who had command of the American army? 275. What was the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico? >2 76. What was the Fugitive Slave Law? Pierce's administration. ^277. What was the Kansas Nebraska Bill? Who pre- sented it? 278. How did this bill affect the inhabitants of Kansas? u-^79. What was the Gadsden purchase? Buchanan's administration. ^ 280. What was the Dred Scott Decision ? Jz2>i. What did John Brown attempt to do? 282. In the fall elections, who were the candidates for the Presidency? 283. What did each of the parties advocate? 284. What were the causes whirli led to the Civil war? 285. Which State first passed ordinance of secession? 286. What other States followed this example? 287. What government was formed by these States? 288. Who was elected President, and when inaugurated? Lincoln's administration, 1861. 289. What event signalized the commencement of the war? 290. What was the result of this bombardment? 291. What did Lincoln do in regard to troops? 292. Where was the first blood shed in this war? 293. What valuable stores were seized by the Confeder- ates? 294. How did Col. Elmer E. Ellsworth meet his death? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 19 295. When was fought the battle of Bull Run, and with what result? 296. What effect had this defeat on the northern people? 297 298 299 300, 301 Give an account of the battle of Ball's Bluff. What colonel was killed in this battle? What was the condition of Missouri? When and where was Gen. Lyon killed? What proclamation was issued by Davis? In re- ply, what did Lincoln declare? 302. At the commencement of the year, how many vessels were in the United States Navy? how many at the close of the year? 303. What did England and France do, by way of en- couraging the rebellion? ^-^304. Who were James M. Mason and John Slidell? 305. What occurred of much interest in relation to the commissioners? 306. Give a general review of the first year of the war. 1862. 307. What was the plan, for the campaign of 1862? 308. What was the size of each army? what successes had the Union forces early in this year? 309. When was fought the battle of Shiloh, and who commanded? 310. Describe the battle of Shiloh. 311. Where is Island No. 10? when and by whom was it captured? 312. When was fought the battle of Murfreesboro? who were victorious? 313. What effect had this battle? 314. What was the plan of the first expedition against Vicksburg, and how did it terminate ? 315. What fighting occurred in Missouri? WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST. 316. Describe the capture of New Orleans. 20 THE QUESTION BOOK. 317. After the capture of New Orleans, what course did Com. Farragut pursue? 318. What was gained by the capture of Roanoke Island? 319. What vessels were sunk by the Merrimac? 320. Describe the encounter between the Merrimac and Monitor. 321. What would undoubtedly have been the final result if the Merrimac had been succesful? 322. After this engagement, how was the United Stales Navy looked upon by European powers? 323. What became of the boats Merrimac and Monitor? WAR IN THE EAST. 324. In the war in the east, what was the objective point ? 325. Who commanded in the Peninsular Campaign? 326. Describe the siege of York town. 327. When was fought the batde of Williamsburg? 328. What were McClellan's plans? how foiled? 329. What were the movements of Stonewall Jackson? 330. What was the effect of this movement? 331. While these events were transpiring in the Shen- andoah valley, what were the movements of McClellan ? 332. After the battle of Fair Oaks, What course did McClellan pursue, and what desperate fighting occurred? 333. What is the distance from Fair Oaks to the James river? 334. What was the effect of this campaign? 335. What orders did McClellan now receive? 336. Describe l.ee's campaign against Pope. 337. What was the effect of this campaign? 338. What did Lee do? 339. Who assumed command of the army of the Poto- mac after Pope's defeat? 340. What battles were fought soon after he took com- mand? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 21 341. After these battles, what course did Lee pursue? 342. What was the effect of Lee's defeat? 343. Why was McClellan again superseded? who took command? 344. When was fought the battle of Fredericksburg, and with what result? 345 What were the Confederate victories during this year? 346. What were the Union victories? 347. What terrible Indian massacre occurred? 1863. 348. What was the plan of the war of 1863? What was the force? 349. When was issued the Emancipation Proclamation? 350. Describe the second expedition against Vicksburg. 351. When did the garrison of Vicksburg surrender? 352. What effect had this campaign? 353. When was fought the battle of Murfreesboro? Who were victorious? 354. After this battle, what were the movements in Tennessee? 355. By what means was the army of the Tennessee Jrelieved? 356. Where was Hooker, and how did he so suddenly appear before the Confederate army at Chattanooga? 357. After the battle of Fredericksburg, who took command of the army of the Potomac? 358. When was fought the battle of Chancellorville? 359. In this battle, what valuable Confederate officer was killed? 360. Who succeeded Hooker after the battle of Chan- cellorville? 361. What were the movements of Lee? 362. How was his progress arrested? 22 THE QUESTION BOOK. 363. At the battle of Gettysburg, what was the loss? 364. The loss of Vicksburg and the battle of Gettys- burg had what effect on the Confederacy? 365. How did Admiral Dupont attempt to take Charleston? 366. What were the Confederate successes for the year 1863? 367. The Union successes? 1864. 368. When was Gen. Grant appointed Lieutenant Gen- eral of all the Union forces? 369. Where was the main strength of the Confederacy? 370. What plan was now adopted? 371. Describe Sherman's advance to Atlanta. 372. When did Atlanta surrender? 373. What had been the loss during this campaign of four months' fighting? 374. What movement was made by Hood, and why? 375. What became of Hood's army? 376. Describe Sherman's "March to the Sea," after burning Atlanta. 377. AVhat effect had this march on Georgia? 378. At the time of Grant's move towards Richmond^ what battles were fought? 379. Describe the battle of the Wilderness. 380. What did Grant do, and what battle followed? 381. Where was the next engagement? 382. What was the result of the attack on Petersburg? 383. What was the loss in this campaign? 384. During the siege of Richmond, what two important events occurred? 385. What was the result of the mine explosion? 386. What raids were made by (len. Early? 387. What was secured by these expeditions? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 23 388. What did Gen. Sheridan do? 389. What was the effect of Sheridan's successes? 390. Describe the Red River Expedition. 391. When was the massacre of Fort Pillow, Ky. 392. What brilliant naval victory did Admiral Farragut achieve? 393. Describe the expedition against Fort Fisher. 394. What was the Alabama? What damage did she do? 395. When, where, and with what result was the en- counter between the Kearsarge and the Alabama? 396. What were the Confederate victories during this year? 397. What were the Union victories? 1865. 398. When were Petersburg and Richmond evacuated by the Confederates? 399- When and to whom did Lee and Johnson surrender ? 400. When was Jefferson Davis captured, and how? What was done with him? . 401. How long did the war last? 402. When and by whom was Abraham Lincoln assas- sinated? . 403. What became of Booth? 404. What was the cost of the war? 405. How was slavery abolished in the United States? 406. What caused trouble between Johnson and Con- gress? 407. What were the most important bills passed over the President's veto? 408. What is the nature of these bills? 409. For what was Johnson impeached? ^4,10. What is the fourteenth Amendment to the consti- tution? When adopted? 411. What demand was made by the United States government of France? 24 THE QUESTION BOOK. 412. When was the Atlantic cable completed? 413. When was the U. P. R. R. completed? 414. When was the fifteenth Amendment formally an- nounced? ^^415. What is the nature of this amendment? 416. What proclamation did Grant proclaim? 417. Whsit was the difficulty with England? How settled? 418. Name the Presidents in their order. How long in office? Who died in office? 419. Which three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July? 420. What father and son were Presidents? 421. Who said "I would rather be right than be Presi- dent?" 422. Name the rebellions which have occurred in our history. 423. \^Tien, where, and by whom were each of the States settled, and when admitted as a State? 424. What are the acquisitions of territory to the United States? ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON United States History 1. A recital of what has happened respecting nations and countries. 2. The historical records of Iceland show that America was discovered by the Northmen in 1002, 3. In Llexico and Central America there are ruins of ancient cities, which must have been erected during a high state of civilization, and the Indians have no traditions as to their origin. Tnousands of curiously constructed earth mounds, which are scattered through the Mississippi river valley, and from the gulf to the lakes, are evidences of a different race of men which inhabited the continent pre- vious to the Indians. 4. Six: First, from the discovery of the continent to the first settlement. Second, from the first settlement to the breaking out of the Revolutionary war. Third, from the commencement of this war to the adoption of the constitution. Fourth, from the adoption of the constitu- tion to tlie commencement of the civil war. Fifth, from the beginning of this war to the surrender of Lee's army. Sixth, from the close of the rebellion to some future period of more than ordinary importance. 5. The island of Guanahani or San Salvador, on Fri- day, Oct. 12th, 1492. 26 THE QUESTION BOOK. 6. Three small vessels; the Pinta, Santa Maria and Nina. 7. At the mouth of the Cionoco river, in 1498. 8. Four. 9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, who discovered the coast of Labrador in 1497. 10. A German, who published a description of the new world, suggested that it should be called America in honor of Americus Vcspucius, who made great claims to the first discoveries. 11. Others were jealous of his successes; treachery was planned; false statements were made; and he died without reward, almost broken hearted. He was buried at Valladolid, Spain, where he remained until 1 5 13; he was then transported to Seville; and again in 1536, his remains were removed to the citj/^ of Saint Domingo, Hayti, and there interred; but in 1796, they were taken to their final resting place, in the cathedral at Havana, with imposing ceremonies. 12. The Spaniards, English, French and Dutch. 13. The West Indies and southern part of the United States. 14. They claimed the northern part of the United States and Canada, having explored the great lakes, the Mississippi river, from the Falls of St. Anthony to the gulf, the Illinois, Wisconsin, Wabash, Maumee, Fox, and many other rivers. 15. Having discovered and explored the Atlantic coast at various points, they claimed this vast territory, naming it Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. 16. In New York, which they called the New Nether- lands. These claims were based upon the explorations of Hudson. 1 7. He was a Spanish explorer, who, being a disgraced soldier, sought the glory of conquest to restore his tarnished UNITED STATES HISTORY. 27 reputation. He also went in search of a fountain, the ele- ments of which were supposed to restore youth to all who drank of its waters. He discovered Florida in 15 12. 18. He crossed the isthmus of Panama, and from the summit of the Andes discovered the Pacific Ocean. 19. Receiving a grant of Florida in 1528, he with 300 men attempted its conquest, allured by the prospect of gold. The exploration proved a failure. Many perished while wandering in the swamps. After arriving at the gulf of Mexico, they hurriedly constructed boats and put to sea; they were shipwrecked and De Narvaez was lost. Six years afterward, the only survivors (four) reached the Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast. 20. A Spanish nobleman, who invaded Florida in 1539, with the prospect of gold and conquests. He discovered the Mississipi river, and was shortly after buried in its waters. 21. At Darien, by the Spaniards in 15 10. 22. At St. Augustine, in 1565, by Melendez, a Spaniard. The second was also founded by the Spaniards, at Santa Fe, in 1582. 23. Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Their labors were unsuccessful. 24. At Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. 25. The London Company, composed of noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants of London. 26. All of the country between the southern limit of Maryland and Cape Fear. 27. Three : the first charter contained no idea of self-gov- ernment. The people chose none of their officers ; the king was to appoint two councils; one to reside in London, and have control of all the colonies, and the other to reside in each colony, and have control of its local affairs. The second charter vested the authority in a governor instead of a local council ; this change gave the colonists no ad- ditional rights, neither were they consulted with regard to 28 THE QUESTION BOOK. the change. The third charter gave the stockholders power to regulate the affairs of the company themselves. 28. That tract of country lying between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees of latitude. This was called North Virginia. 29. Columbus was the first Spanish, John Verrazani, the first French; John Cabot, the first English; and Hud- son, the first Dutch discoverer. 30. At New York, in 1613. 31. At Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605. 32. A French explorer, who made three voyages to the St. Lawrence river, which he discovered in 1534. 33. They were French Priests, who sought to convert the Indians to the Catholic faith ; they were the explorers of the Mississippi valley. In 1868, they founded the mis- sion of St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michi- gan. 34. . Joliet and Marquette. 35. They were Jesuit Missionaries, and early explorers of the northern lakes and rivers. 36. The tract lying between the present cities of Phila- delphia and Montreal. The name has since been confined to New Brunswick and the adjacent islands. 37. Henry Hudson, in 1609, who sailed up the riVer 116 miles, to where the city of Hudson now stands. 38. To find a north-east passage to the East Indies. 39. In 1610, after discovering the strait and bay which bears his name, he was placed in an open boat by his com- panions and abandoned. 40. The New Netherlands. 41. The English and Dutch. The English based their claims upon the discoveries of the Cabots, and the Dutch upon the discoveries of Hudson. 42. By force of arms. The English maintained posses- sion. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 29 43. By the Puritans, or Pilgrim Fathers, who landed at Plymouth, December 30th, 1620. 44. One hundred. They came in a vessel called the May Flower. 45. John Carver. 46. Nearly one-half of the number died during the first four months, and all would have perished but for the aid of fishermen off the coast. Their sufferings continued four years, after which they were prosperous. 47. A Puritan, who for liberal religious opinions was banished from Massachusetts. He afterward formed the' first settlement in Rhode Island. 48. The Quakers were banished from the colony, many were imprisoned, and four put to death. 49. By 'the Dutch, in 1620. 50. One of the founders of Jamestown who succeeded Ratcliffe, and governed the affairs of the colony with great energy and success. 51. The daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan, who saved the life of Capt. John Smith, who had been sentenced to death by her father. 52. She married a young English planter, John Rolf. Three years after, she visited London, was taken sick and died. She left an infant son, whose posterity are many of the leading families of Virgmia. 53. In 1608, to Jamestown. 54. Indian corn, potatoes and tobacco. 55. In 1609, but the massacre was prevented by Poca- hontas, who revealed the plot to the people of Jamestown. 56. In 1622, when in one hour, 347 men, women and children were massacred. The second was in 1644, when 300 were killed; this plot was originated by Opechancan- ough, and was intended to extermmate the English settlers. 57. A patriotic young lawyer, who rallied a company and defended the settlements against the Indians; he was 30 THE QUESTION BOOK. denounced by governor Berkley as a traitor for acting with- out orders. During the contest which followed, Berkley was driven out of Jamestown, and the village burned. In the midst of this struggle Bacon died. 58. At Jamestown, June 28, 1619. It consisted of the governor, council and deputies or "burgesses," chosen from the various plantations. ' ! 59. Massachusetts, Plymouth, Rhode Island and Con- necticut 60. The war commenced in 1675, continuing about one year. King Phillip was an Indian chief, the son of Massasoit; he became jealous of the intrusion of the whites, and planned a confederation of the Indian tribes against their intruders. He was shot by an Indian, an ally of the English, in 1676. 61. In 1660, the British Parliament ordered that the commerce of the colony should be carried on in English Vessels, and their tobacco shipped to England. 62. It was not, and an officer was sent to enforce the act, but without success. Charles II. seized upon the excuse thus offered, and made Massachusetts a royal province. The King died before his plan was completed, but James II, in 1686, declared the charters of all the New England colonies forfeited. 63. The first royal governor of New England. He was sent by James II. The colonies endured his oppressions for three years, when learning that his royal master was dethroned, they rose against him, and he was put in jail. 64. When James II. declared that the charters of all the New P^ngland Colonies were forfeited, Connecticut re- fused to surrender hers. Governor Andros demanded the charter of the assembly then in session at Hartford, and during the debate which ensued, the lights were suddenly extinguished, the charter was seized by William Wadsworth UNITED STATES HISTORY. 31 and hidden In the hollow of an old oak, which, since that time has been called the "Charter Oak." 65. The second royal governor of Massachusetts, or a province embracing Massachusetts, Maine and Nova Scotia. 66. A superstition prevailed that persons were subject to the control of invisible evil spirits, and it is the received opinion that 200 persons were accused, 150 imprisoned, 28 condemned, 19 hanged, and one pressed to death. 67. The Indians had become troublesome and danger- ous to the early settlers of Connecticut, who resolved to make war upon the Pequots. The battle took place at Mystic River, where the tribe was annihilated, those who were not killed were captured and made slaves, or escaped and joined other tribes. 68. New Amsterdam. 69. It was purchased of the Manhattan Indians for about $24. 70. After the discovery of the Hudson river, the West India Company obtained of the Dutch government a grant of New Netherlands, and settlements were made at New Amsterdam and Fort Orange, (Albany. ) For twenty years New York was subject to Indian butcheries, varied by difficulties with the Swedes on the Delaware, and the Eng- lish on the Connecticut. In September, 1664, an English fleet came to anchor in the harbor of New Amsterdam, and demanded the surrender of the town. Peter Stuy vesant, the last and ablest of the four Dutch governors, plead with the council to fight, but in vain. They wished for English rule. The surrender was signed, and the colony was named New York. The English governors did not satisfy the people, so that when, after nine years of English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the people went back quietly under their old rulers. The next year peace was de- clared between England and Holland, and New Amster- dam became New York again. Andros now became gov- 82 THE QUESTION BOOK. emor, and New York was a royal province until the revolu- tion. 71. It was founded in 1683, by William Penn, who pur- chased the land of the Swedes; the name sigaifiQS brotherly love. 72. A Quaker, who with a band of followers, settled in Pennsylvania, in 1682, buying the lands of the Indians. 73. To secure for the friends of this church a Catholic refuge from the persecutions which they were then suffering in England. 74. The Virginia colonies claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered territory belonging to them. Claybome, a member of the Jamestown council, having established two trading posts in Maryland, prepared to defend by force of arms. On the eve of battle he fled to Virginia, and his parly was defeated. Clayborne was tried for treason, but ac- quitted. Ten years afterward he came back, raised a re- bellion, and drove Calvert (Lord Baltimore,) then governor of Maryland, out of the colony; Calvert returned with a large force, and Clayborne fled. 75. The Protestants, having obtained a majority in the assembly, excluded Catholics from their rights; assailed their religion ; and even declared them outside the pro- tection of the law. Civil war ensued. At one time two governments were sustained, one Protestant, and the other Catholic. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became a royal province. In 1715, the fourth Lord Baltimore recovered the government, and religious toleration was again restored. 76. King William's war in 1689, Queen Anne's in 1702, and King George's in 1 744. 77. In 1689 war broke out in Europe between England and France. The contest extended to the American colonies, and lasted seven years. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 38 78. The war lasted eleven years ; the New England frontier was again desolated; remote settlements were abandoned; the people betook themselves to palisaded houses, and worked their farms with their guns always at hand. 79. They were not. The only event of importance was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. Peace being established, England gave back Louisburg to the French. 80. They assisted the French against the English. 81. Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New- York. 82. Pennsylvania. S^. William Penn's treaty with the Indians. 84. Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 85. Harvard was founded at Cambridge, Mass., in 1638; Yale at New Haven, Conn., in 1701. 86. It was the Boston News Letter^ and was established in 1 704, by Bartholomew Green. 87. The supposed negro plot; the plan being to bum New York, and make one of their number governor. Many innocent persons suffered death. 88. A minister who labored among the Indians, and for his devotion was called the Indian Apostle; he also trans- lated the Bible into the Indian language. 89. He was a man sent out by England to suppress piracy in 1696, but turned pirate himself; he was captured in Boston, in 1699, sent to England, condemned and ex- ecuted. 90. At Kaskaskie in Illinois, about 1690. 91. The cause was disputed territory, and the parties were the French and Indians against the English. 4 84 THE QUESTION BOOK. 92. West of the Alleghany mountains, along the Ohio river and the northern lakes. 93. George Washington. 94. After some successes Washington marched to a place called Great Meadows, where he built Ft. Necessity. Early in July, 1755, the fort was attacked by the whole French and Indian force, but was defended with such re- sistance that the French Commander, Count de Villiers, sent in a flag of truce. Washington gave up the fort but was permitted to march away with all the honors of war. 95. A vote of thanks was passed, and each soldier was to receive z. pistole. 96. Gen. Braddock with a select force of 1200 men. 97. When within a mile of Fort du Quesne he was sur- prised by a body of French and Indians in ambush. Brad- dock was mortally wounded, and nearly all of his officers, and one-half of his troops were killed. Braddock was buried during the retreat, and Washington ordered the wagons to^pass over his grave that his body might not fall into the hands of the Indians. 98. Washington, although four bullets pierced his coat, and two horses were shot under him. 99.. It was. Gen. Forbes led this expedition. Washing- ton commanded the Virginia troops. After the capture of the fort it received the name of Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt. 100. At Louisburg, Quebec, Crown Point and Niagara. 10 1. The French forts at the head of Fundy Bay were quickly taken, and the region east of the Penobscot fell into the hands of the English. Gen. Loudoun planned an attack on Louisburg, but, learning that the French fleet contained one more ship than his own, gave it up. The next year Gen. Amherst and Wolf captured the city after a severe bombardment, and took possession of the entire island. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 35 1 02. The English under Johnson met the French com- manded by Dieskau, near the head of Lake George, where a battle was fought, the English being victorious. Johnson after building a fort which he called WilHam Henry, feared defeat if he attempted to take Crown Point, and returned to Albany. 103. On a calm Sunday morning, about four months before the fall of Ft. du Quesne, Gen. Abercrombie with a thousand boats full of soldiers, with waving flags and mar- tial music, swept down Lake George to attack Ticonderoga. The result was a disastrous repulse. The next year, 1759, at the approach of Gen. Amherst with a large army, both Ticonderoga and Crown Point were evacuated. 104. When Gen. Shirley reached Oswego, and hearing of the disastrous defeat of Braddock he was discouraged, and after building a fort came home. Four years after Niagara surrendered to the English. 105. General Wolf commanded the English, and Gen. Montcalm the French. 106. Gen. Wolf while reconnoitering observed a nar- row path winding among the rocks to the top, at night he ■descended the river ; his men landed ; climbed the steep cliff; seized the guards; and at break of day he stood with his entire army drawn up in order of battle on the plains of Abraham ; a desperate battle ensued ; five days after the city surrendered. 107. Generals Wolf and Montcalm. Wolf, when in- formed that the French were running, exclaimed, "Now God be praised, I die happy. " Montcalm when told that he could not live more than twelve hours, replied, "So much the better ; I shall not see the surrender of Quebec. " 108. France gave up all the territory west of the Mis- sissippi, except two small islands south of Newfoundland, retained as fishing stations. In this treaty, Spain ceded Plorida to England, and France ceded to Spain New Or- 86 THE QUESTION BOOK. leans, and all the territory she owned west of the Missis- sippi. 109. When the English took possession of the western forts great discontent was roused, for the French had won the hearts of the Indians. Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas, formed a confederation of the tribes against the English. Eight forts were surprised and captured, thousands of per- sons fled from their homes to avoid the scalping knife. By a disagreement among the Indians the confederation was broken and a treaty signed. no. The capture of Quebec, the 13th of September, 1759- 111. It cost the colonists $16,000,000, and England re- paid only $5,000,000; they lost thirty thousand men; they suffered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity; taxes were sometimes equal to two-thirds of the income of the tax payers; they learned to think and act independently of the mother country. 112. About 2,000,000 people. Boston and Philadelphia contained about 18,000 inhabitants each. 113. The colonies were unjustly taxed, and not allowed the right of sending representatives to Parliament. 114. Warrants authorizing the King's officers to search for smuggled goods. This gave the custom house officers power to enter a man's house or store at his pleasure. The colonists resisted such power as a violation of their rights. 115. That all bonds, deeds, newspapers, pamphlets, &c., should be stamped. It was passed by Parliament in 1765. 116. A Virginian, who with boldness and eloquence distinguished himself by his opposition to the Stamp Act 117. A duty was laid on all tea, glass, paper, and painters' colors, which should be imported. 118. That the colonies should furnish the soldiers with quarters and necessary supplies. This act aroused the indig- UNITED STATES HISTORY. o7 nation of the Americans. To be taxed was bad enough, but to shelter and feed their oppressors was unendurable. 1 19. Vessels containing nearly 350 chests of tea were boarded by Americans disguised as Indians, and the tea was thrown into the harbor. 120. An act of Parliament forbidding the landing of goods in Boston. 121. The first Continental Congress was held at Phila- delphia, Sept. 5 th, 1774. They voted not to obey the recent acts of Parliament ; they protested against standing armies being kept in the colonies without consent of the people; they sustained Massachusetts in her resistance, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great Britain. 122. General Gage. 123. At Lexington, near Boston, April 19th, 1775. 124. Gen. Gage, learning that the people were gather- ing military stores at Concord, sent eight hundred men to destroy them; at Lexington a skirmish ensued, in which seven Americans were killed. After destroying the stores, they hastily retreated, followed by the militia, who were eager to avenge the death of their countrymen. In their re- treat to Boston they lost nearly three hundred men. 125. On Breed's Hill, June 17th, 1775. 126. Gen. Howe of the British army, and of the Amer- icans it is uncertain who commanded, but it is thought by some to have been Prescott. The British force was 3,000, loss 1,000; the American force, 1,500, loss 450. 127. General Warren. 128. Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 129. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. 130. "I demand it in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress. " 131. It assembled May loth, 1775, when they voted to raise and equip 20,000 men, and give the command to Gen. 38 THE QUESTION BOOK. Washington. It was again convened at Philadelphia, in Mx).^ 1776. 132. June 15th, 1775. His force was 14,000 men. 133. They were unsuccessful, receiving a defeat at Quebec, where Gen. Montgomery, the American general, was killed. 1 34. By sending a force at night to fortify Dorchester Heights. This overlooked Boston, and Howe remembering the lesson of Bunker Hill, decided to leave. The next day^ March i8th, Washington entered amid great rejoicing. 135. June 28th, a British fleet, under Admiral Parker,, opened fire on Fort Moultrie. The response from Moul- trie's guns was so fearful that the fleet was badly shattered,, and they withdrew and sailed for New York. 136. Early in the action the flag staff was struck by a ball, Jasper leaped over the breastworks, caught 'up the flag, and springing back tied it to a sponge staff, and hoisted it in its place. 137. Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, June 7, 1776. 138. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Frank- lin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. 139. July 4th, 1776. 140. That the thirteen United States of America were free and independent. 141. August 2d, 1776, by all the members of^ Congress^ numbering fifty-six. 142. That articles of government should be drawn. 143. Articles of Confederation, and were to take effect when ratified by all the States. 144. No; delays and objections arose, but they were established in March, 1781. 145. Rhode Island. 146. Because it gave no real power to Congress, who could only recommend what should be done. Congress could borrow money, but was not empowered to pay it. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 39 could declare war and determine how many troops should be raised, but could not levy taxes to defray expenses, nor compel the States to raise the troops. 147. Aug. 27th, 1776, the Americans being compelled to withdraw, closely pursued by the British under Gen. Howe. 148. North by the way of Harlem, White Plains and Chester, then southwest through New Jersey to the Penn- sylvania side of the Delaware river. 149. Oct. 28th, 1776, neither side being victorious, al- though Washington retreated when the British received re- inforcements. 150. He crossed the Delaware December 26th, pro- ceeded to Trenton, captured one thousand Hessians and a large quantity of arms. 151. The battle of Princeton, Jan. 3d, 1777, which was one of the hottest fought battles during the whole war. The Americans were successful. That night Washington left his camp fires burning to deceive the enemy, and by a circuitous route passed the British; fell upon the troops near Princeton ; routed them ; took three hundred prisoners; and by rapid marches reached Morristown Heights in safety. 152. September nth, 1777, Washington was defeated, retreating to Philadelphia. 153. September 26th, 1777, without opposition. 154. At German town, October 4th, meeting with a de- feat, losing 1,200 men. 155. The capture of the British General Prescott, by Col. Barton, with forty select soldiers, who crossed from Warwick in the night to the island of Rhode, where the British army was encamped, proceeded to Gen. Prescott's lodgings, captured him and returned. 156. To have an officer equal' in rank to Gen. Lee, that they might exchange. 40 THE QUESTION BOOK. 157. Gen. Burgoyne with 10,000 British and Indian troops. 158. Gen. Gates commanded the Americans, and Gen. Burgoyne the British. 159. He sent a half-witted boy into the camp of the t British, who spread the report that a large body of Americans was close at hand. When asked their number, he could only answer by pointing to the leaves of the trees, the Indians and the British were so frightened that they fled immediately. 160. As the British lines were forming for the attack, he exclaimed: "There are the red coats, we must beat them to-day or Mollie Stark is a widow. " They gained a victory, and took six hundred prisoners. 161. The battles of Stillwater, (Saratoga) Sept. 19th, and Oct. 7th, 1777; the Americans were successfTil. 162. To Gen. Gates at Saratoga, Oct. 17th, 1777. 163. That the British should give up their arms and ammunition, return to England, and engage no more in the war. 164. In Valley Forge. The men were encamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little or no clothing, many were barefooted, few had blankets, and straw could not be ob- tained ; sickness followed, and for want of suitable food ^♦# and medicines many died. 165. Benjamin Franklin, Silas Dean and Arthur Lee. 166. At Paris, February 6th, 1778, and was ratified by Congress May 4th. 167. A French fleet under Count D'Estaing. 168. About nine months, withdrawing their forces June i8th, 1778. 169. At Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania. 1 70. June 28th, 1 778, in the eastern part of New Jersey, both parties claimed the victory, but the British withdrew their troops. The day was sultry and hot. During this battle UNITED STATES HISTORY. 41 an artillery mar« was shot at his post, his wife, Mary Pitcher, saw him fall and heard the commander order the piece to be removed from the field ; she hastened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with great skill and courage per- formed her husband's duty. 171. July 3d, 1778, under the direction of John Butler, at the head of i,6oo Tories and Indians. 172. Gen. Lincoln. Gen. Prevost of the British. 173. In the northern States. 1 74. Stony Point and Paulus Hook. 175. Gen. Wayne, in the night of July 15th, with un- loaded guns and fixed bayonets attacked Stony Point, carry- ing the works. Paulus Hook was surprised and taken by Major Lee, July 19th. 176. A great loss to the American and PYench forces. 177. The Polish nobleman, Count Pulaski. 178. They had captured over five hundred ships, they even cruised among the British Isles, and entering harbors, seized and burned ships lying at the English wharves. 179. A very successful naval commander of the naval forces. His most memorable exploit occurred ofi" the coast of Scotland, where the Richard captured the Serapis. As the enemy carried heavier guns, he lashed the two vessels together, and for two hours they fought hand to hand with musket, pike and cutlass. As the Ban Homme Richard was about to sink, the captain of the Serapis struck his colors, and Jones transferred his men to the captured frigate and sailed off with his prize. 180. In South Carolina. 181. Gen. Lincoln was forced to surrender his troops, 2,000 in number. May 12th, 1780. 182. Gen. Gates succeeded Lincoln, and Lord Corn- wallis had command of the British. 183. Near Camden, South Carolina, Aug. i6th, 1780. 42 THE QUESTION BOOK. The armies were commanded by Gates and Cornwallis, the Americans being defeated with a loss of 2,000 men. 184. General Greene. 185. The massacre of Maxhaw Creek, where a body of 400 Americans were surprised, and after surrendering, were massacred. 186. As the states had been overrun by the British, there was no organized resistance to them. 187. A French fleet, under De Ternay and Count De Rochambeau, with 6,000 troops. 188. An American traitor, who secretly agreed to betray West Point into the hands of the British. 189. A British officer, who was sent by Clinton to negotiate with Arnold. T90. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They received a pension of $200 each for life, and a silver medal bearing on one side the motto "Fidelity," and on the other, "The love of country conquers." 191. Arnold escaped to the British and was given a command in the army. Andre was hanged as a spy, Oct. 2d, 1780. 192. He received about $30,000, a colonelcy in the English army, and the contempt of every body. 193. In South Carolina, Jan. 17th, 1781. The Ameri- cans under Gen. Morgan were successful, with a loss of only 80 men. The enemy's loss was 800. 194. He attacked the British at Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8th, and the forces of the enemy were so crippled that they retired towards Charleston. 195. He did not; but his defeats had all the effects of success, and Congress voted the highest honors to him, for his prudence, wisdom, and valor. 196. With great brutality. Arnold, who had command^ burned much of private as well as public property, and UNITED STATES HISTORY. 43 Cornwallis, after arriving and taking command, destroyed $10,000,000 worth of property. 197. The surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 198. To Gen. Washington, Oct. 19th, 1781. 199. At Paris, Sept. 3d, 1783. The American com missioners were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Lawrence, and John Jay. The British commissioners were Messrs. Fitzherbert and Oswald. 200. x^pril 19th, 1783, just eight years after the battle of Lexington. 201. Before Congress, which was assembled at Annap- olis, Dec. 23d, 1783. He then returned to his home in Virginia. 202. The Articles of Confederation could not meet the wants of the people. Bitter jealousy existed between the several states, with regard to each other and the general goverment. Continental money was much depreciated, and bankruptcy seemed almost inevitable. 203. The Marquis de La Fayette, Count de Grasse, Count de Rochambeau, Count D'Estaing, Count Pulaski, and De Ternay. 204. In New England they refused to pay their taxes, and openly threatened to overturn the government. It was put down by militia under Gen. Lincoln. 205. In 1777, by Congress. It is composed of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, with a field of blue in the upper flag staff corner, on which there is a star for every state. The breadth is two-thirds its length. 206. In 1788. 207. At New York, in April, 1 789. 208. The treasury was empty; and the United States had no credit ; the Indians were hostile ; pirates from the Barbary States preyed upon our commerce ; Spain refused the navigation of the Mississippi ; England had not sent a 44 THE QUESTION BOOK. minister to our government, nor had she made a treaty of commerce with us. 209. At New York, April 30th, 1 789. 210. At Philadelphia, where the seat of government was to remain until 1800. 211. In the year 1800. 212. Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox and Randolph. Jef- ferson was appointed Secretary, of State; Hamilton, Sec- retary, of the Treasury ; Knox, Secretary, of war ; and Ran- dolph, Atorney-General. 213. By the advice of Alexander Hamilton, taxes were levied on imported goods, and distillation of spirits; also a mint and national bank were established at Philadelphia. 214. "He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." 215. The inhabitants in Western Pennsylvania were de- termined that no tax should be paid on whisky, and they were so well organized that fifteen thousand troops were ordered out to subdue them. 216. The early settlers of Ohio were much annoyed by their depredations and Gens. Warner and St. Clair were sent against them, but were defeated with great slaughter. Gen. Wayne was now put in command, who, in 1 794, gained a complete victory, laying waste their whole country. 217. Difficulties were arising with England in regard to the collection of debts in America, and the impressment of our seamen. A treaty was made with Spain, securing to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and fixing the boundarj' of Florida, still held by that nation. 218. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws, and difficulties with France. 219. Under the Alien Law, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States. Under the Sedition Law^ any one UNITED STATES HISTORY. 45 libelling Congress, the President, or the government, could be fined or imprisoned. 220. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French gov- erment. Hostilities were commenced on the seas, but when Napoleon became First Consul of France the dif- ficulty ceased. 221. He was elected by Congress on the thirty-sixth ballot, there being no election by the people, he and Aaron Burr, receiving an equal number of votes. 222. The purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon for $15,000,000. This secured over one million square miles of land, and the full possession of the Mississippi. This tract had just been ceded by Spain to France. 223. American commerce suffered greatly from the inhabitants of the Barbary States, who were known as pirates. They also held the crews of captured vessels, until raiTsomed. The war occurred in 1805. 224. The frigate Philadelphia, had unfortunately grounded while in the harbor of Tripoli, and fell into the hands of the Bashaw. Decatur entered the harbor with a small vessel, apparently in distress, he having concealed his men below ; boarded the Philadelphia ; swept the crew into the sea ; set the ship on fire, and amid a tremendous can- nonade from the batteries, escaped without the loss of a man. 225. England claimed the right of stopping American vessels on the high seas; searching for seamen of English birth, and pressing them into the British navy. According- ly the British frigate, Leopold, fired into the American frigate, Chesapeake, oft' the coast of Virginia, and going aboard, seized four of the crew, three of which were Americans by birth. These were taken on the pretence of being deserters. 226. Aaron Burr was at one time Vice President of the 46 THE QUESTION BOOK. United States. He attempted to form a government west of the AUeghanies; was tried for treason, but acquitted. This was called "Burr's Conspiracy." Hamilton was distin guished in the affairs of government, and was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr. 227. For inventing the steamboat. The first voyage was made from New York to Alb any. 228. The British emissaries had aroused the Indians to war, and Tecumseh formed a confederacy of the northwestern tribes. Gen. Harrison was sent against them, who at the battle of Tippecanoe routed them with great slaughter. 229. June 19th, 18 1 2, and lasted two years and a half. 230. The government proposed to invade Canada, accordingly Gen. Hull crossed over from Detroit, but learn- ing that the British and Indians were gathering to attack him, retreated, pursued by a force of British under Gen. Brock, and Indians under Tecumseh. 231. As Gen. Brock marched to attack the fort, Hull seemed to lose all presence of mind, and dare not risk a battle. He raised the white flag, surrendered Detroit, with its garrisons and stores, and the whole of Michigan, without even stipulating for the honors of war. 232. In October of the same year Gen. Van Rensselaer sent a small body of men across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and Gen. Brock killed. Gen Van Rensselaer now returned to bring over the rest of his army •, but the militia had lost their courage, and refused to go. The troops on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, were compelled to surrender. 233. The capture of the Guerriere by the Constitution, Aug. 19th; of the Frolic by the Wasp, Oct. i8th; of the Macedonia by the United States, Oct. 25th; of the Java by the Constitution, Dec. 29th. 234. Over three hundred. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 47 235. Three armies were raised with the intention of in- vading Canada. The division under Harrison was sent to the west shore of Lake Erie ; the division under Dearborne between Erie and Ontario ; and Hampden's division on the shore of Lake Champlain. 236. They acompHshed but Httle. 237. The American fleet consisted of nine vessels, car- rying fifty-four guns, and the British fleet of six vessels and sixty three guns. Perry's flag ship, the Lawrence, engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, and fought until but eight of his men were left. Leaving the Lawrence he passed to the Niagara, and within fifteen minutes after mounting the deck won the victory. 238. It was while passing from the Lawrence to the Niagara. The enemy's guns were directed upon him, and,, although he passed within pistol-shot of the British, he es- caped without injury. 239. "We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 240. Harrison was at Sandusky Bay, preparing to in- vade Canada, and at the news of this victory, crossed the lake, landed at Maiden, where on the approach of Harrison the British retreated, but were overtaken on the Thames River, and compelled to surrender. Proctor escaped by the fleetness of his horse. In this engagement Tecumseh was killed. 241. The capture of the Peacock by the Hornet, Feb. 24th; of the Boxer by the Enterprise, Sept. 5 th; of Barkley's fleet by Perry's fleet, Sept. loth. 242. The capture of the Chesapeake by the Shannon; and the Argus by the Pelican. 243. It was the last command of Capt. Lawrence as he was carried below during the engagement between the Chesapeake and Shannon. 244. A rising of the Alabama Indians. They fell npon Fort Mims and massacred the garrison. Gen. Jackson 48 THE QUESTION BOOK. took command ; drove them from place to place, and at Horseshoe Bend, where they had fortified themselves, the soldiers with fixed bayonets, scaled their breastworks, and a desperate battle ensued. Six hundred Creeks were killed. Those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. 245. Early in the spring Cockburn commenced devas- tating the southern coast. In Virginia and Carolina he burned bridges, farmhouses, and villages ; robbed the in- habitants; plundered churches; and murdered the sick in their beds. 246. They attacked the British at Chippewa, July 5th, and gained a brilliant victory. A second engagement was at Lundy's Lane, July 25 th. 247. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Gen. Scott commanded the American forces of one thousand men, and maintained the unequal contest until dark. A battery located on a height was the key to the British position. Scott asked Col. Miller if he could take it. "I'll try, sir," was the reply. The battery was taken. Three times the British rallied for its recapture, but were unsuccessful. This victory, though glorious to the American army, was barren of direct results. 248. In this contest the British fleet on Lake Champlain attacked the A.merican squadron under Com. McDonough and was nearly annihilated. Prevost with twelve thousand men advanced against Plattsburg, but when he found that his ships were lost, he fled, Id^ving his sick and wounded, and large quantities of military stores. 249. Gen. Ross marched to Washington; burned the capitol and other public buildings, libraries, records, and several private dwellings. 250. At Ghent, December 24th, 1814. 251. The battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8th. Gen. Jackson conmianded the American forces, numbering 6,000, and Gen. Pakenham commanded the British, numbering 1 2,000. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 49 The American loss was seven killed and seven wounded. The British loss was 2,500. 252. $127,000,000. 253. A bill defining the Hmits of slavery; all states north of latitude ;^6^ 30/, and all territories west of the Mis- sissippi should be free. It was proposed by Henry Clay. 254. La Fayette. 255. Any attempt by a European nation to gain domi- nation in America would be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act. 256. There being four candidates, no majority of votes was obtained. He was chosen by the House of Represent- atives. 257. The first railroad was completed, and the Erie Canal was opened. 258. The first railroad in the United States was built in 1833, from Albany to Schenectady. 259. The Erie Canal is about ;^6^ miles in length. 260. It declared the tariff laws "null and void," 'and that the State (South Carolina) would secede from the Union if force should be employed to collect any revenue. 261. TAe Black Hawk War broke out in the Northwest Territory. After some skirmishing they were driven off and their leader. Black Hawk, was captured. The Florida War with the Seminoles grew out of an attempt to move them, in accordance with a treaty, to lands west of the Mississippi. 262. They had promised to pay $5,000,000, for damages to our commerce during Napoleon's war. Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French ships. By the medi- ation of England, the debt was paid, and war prevented. 263. The Financial Crisis of 1837, and the Patriot War. 264. (i.) The specie circular, which was issued by Jack- 60 THE QUESTION BOOK. son, directing that payments for public lands should be made in gold and silver. (2.) The surplus public money, amounting to about $28,000,000, which was ordered by Congress to be with- drawn from the local banks and distributed among the states. The banks could not meet this demand. (3.) Heavy importations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver. (4.) A terrible fire in New York City on the night of Dec. 1 6th, 1835, which had burned six hundred valuable stores, and property to the amount of $18,000,000. 265. The Canadian Rebellion stirred the sympathies of the American people. Meetings were held; volunteers offered; and arms contributed. The President issued a proclamation, and (ien. Scott was sent to the frontier to preserve the peace. A body of American syijipathizers took possession of Navy Island, in the Niagara River, but were dislodged by British troops. The steamer Caroline was taken by a body of British troops, and sent, with her crew, over the Falls. 266. One month. 267. A bill for establishing a United States Bank. 268. The people of Rhode Island organized by force a new constitution, and elected Dorr Governor. Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced for life. He was afterwards pardoned. 269. The tenants on some of the old patroon estates in New York, refused to pay the rent. Some assumed the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those who paid their rents, and even killed officials who served warrants upon them. 270. They were settled at Nauvoo, III., but having in- curred the enmity of the people about them, were com- pelled to leave. Joseph Smith, their leader, was killed by a mob. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 51 271. December 27th, 1845. She applied for admission in 1836. 272. From Baltimore to Washington. The message was the announcement of Polk's nomination for President of the United States. 2 73. The annexation of Texas by the United States, and and a certain tract of land claimed by Mexico. 274. Gen. Taylor, in 1846, and Gen. Winfield Scott, in 1847. Scott was successful in many engagements, enter- ing Mexico Sept. 14th, 1847. 2 75. A withdrawal of United States troops ; that Mexico should cede to the United States the territories of New Mexico and Upper California for the sum of $15,000,000, and pay $3,500,000 to American citizens due them by Mexico. 276. It provided for the return of slaves to their owners, who had escaped to a free state. 277. Its nature was a repeal of the Missouri com- promise bill, allowing the people of the territories to decide 'Whether it should be bond or free. It was proposed by Stephen A. Douglas, and had relation to the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. It became a law, May, 1854. 278. A bitter contest arose between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. Each party sent bodies of armed emi- grants to the territory. Disturbances arose; mobs were formed; houses were attacked and pillaged; men were murdered in cold blood ; and for several years Kansas was a scene of lawless violence. 279. A dispute arose between the United States and Mexico, with regard to the boundary line. Gen. Gadsden negotiated a settlement, whereby $10,000,000 were paid to Mexico for additional territory. 280. The Supreme Court of the United States declared that slave-owners might take their slaves into any state in the Union, without forfeiting authority over them. Dred 52 THE QUESTION BOOK. Scott was a slave, and claimed freedom on the ground that he had been taken into a free territory. 281. Being an ardent lover of negro freedom, he con- ceived the wild scheme of taking the law into his own hands and liberating the slaves. He seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in 1859, and proclaimed freedom to all the slaves in the vicinity. He was taken by the United States and hung as a traitor. 282. Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, and John Bell. 283. The Lincoln party held, that, while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought not to be carried into any free territory. The Douglas party favored squatter's sovereignty, the right of each state to decide whether it shall exclude or accept slavery. The Breckinridge party claimed that any citizen has a right to migrate to any territory, taking with him anything that is property (including slaves), and Congress is bound 10 protect the rights of slave-holders in all the territories. The Bell party had for their platform : " The constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforce- ment of the laws." 284. The agitation of the slavery question. The South- ern States, believing they had a right to secede from the Union, seceded, but the federal government, denying that right, raised armies and enforced its authority. 285. South Carolina, Dec. 20th, i860. 286. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. 287. The Confederate States of America, and the form of Government was similar to the government of the United States. 288. Jefferson Davis, and was inaugurated Feb. 4th, 1861. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 53 289. The bombardment of Fort Sumter. 290. Fort Sumter fell into the hands of the Confede- rates under Beauregard. Maj. Anderson, the Commander of Sumter, was permitted to go north with his men. 291. He issued a requisition for 75,000 troops, and soon after for 300,000 volunteers. 292. In Baltimore, April 19th, i86t, where southern sympathizers attacked a Massachusetts regiment on its way to Washington. 293. They seized the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, and the navy yard at Norfolk. At Norfolk there were twelve ships of war, two thousand cannon, two hundred and fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder, and great quantities of shot and shell. 294. After the seizure of Alexandria, Ellsworth, seeing the Confederate flag still flying from the roof of a hotel, went up and tore it down. As he descended, he was shot, at the foot of the stairs, by the landlord, Jackson, who, in turn, fell at the hands of private Brownell. 295. July 2ist, 1 86 1, in Northern Virginia. Gen. Mc- Dowell made the attack, and was defeated, after a severe engagement. 296. At first they were much disappointed and dis- couraged; then came a renewed determination. Congress voted $500,000,000 and five hundred thousand men, and Gen. McClellan was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac. 297. A party of 2,000 Federals crossed the Potomac at Ball's Blufl". They were attacked and forced down the slippery, clayey bluff, fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, to the river below, where, in trying to escape, many were drowned, some were shot, and scarcely half their number reached the other bank. 298. Col. Baker, United States Senator from Oregon. 299. The state refused to pass an ordinance of seces- 54 THE QUESTION BOOK. sion, yet an effort was made to preserve an armed neutral- ity. Capt. Lyon foiled this attempt. Gen. Sigel was de- feated in an engagement at Carthage. Gen. Lyon now took command, and was compelled to fight superior forces or abandon that part of the state. He chose the former. 300. At Wilson Creek, Aug. loth, while gallantly lead- ing a bayonet charge. 301. He issued a proclamation offering to commission privateers. Lincoln declared a blockade of the Southern ports. 302. One on the Northern coast, and forty-two in the United States Navy. At the close of the year there were two hundred and sixty-four. 303. They acknowledged them as belligerents, thus placing them on the same footing with the United States. 304. Southern commissioners sent to England and France to plead the cause of the Confederacy. 305. They were taken from the British steamer Trent, by Capt. Wilks, and brought back to the United States. This produced much excitement in England. The United States Government, however, promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners. 306. The large vessels and stores at Harper's Ferry and Norfolk were captured by the Confederates. They were ^ ; successful in the two great battles of the year. Bull Run and Wilson's Creek ; also in the minor engagements at Big Bethel, Carthage, Lexington, BeUnont and Ball's Bluff. The Federals had saved Fort Pickens and Fortress Monroe. The Forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal were captured. They had gained the victories at Philippi, Rich Mountain, Boonsville, Carrick's Ford, Cheat Mountain and Dranes- ville. West Virginia, Maryland and Missouri were saved to the Union. 307. On the part of the North there were three main UNITED STATES HISTORY. 55 objects: the opening of the Mississippi; the blockade of the Southern ports ; and the capture of Richmond. 308. The Union forces numbered about 500,000; the Confederates about 350,000. Gen. Thomas won an en- gagement at Mill Springs, and Com. Foote and Gen. (irant captured Forts Henry and Donelson, in Northern Tennessee. 309. On the 6th and 7th of April. Gen. Grant com- manded the Union forces, and Gen. Beauregard the Con- federate. 310. Sunday morning Johnson surprised the Union forces by a desperate assault. The Federals, having no time to form into order of battle, fought where they happened to stand, slowly yielding, and for twelve hours they obstinately disputed every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river (Cum- berland), Grant massed his artillery, and gathered around it the fragments of his regiments for the final stand. By the aid of the gunboats below, and Buel's reinforcements, the tide of battle was stayed, and the Confederates fell back. They possessed, however, the Union camps, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and immense stores; but they had lost their commander, Gen. Johnson. The next morning the Confederates were driven from the field. 311. In the Mississippi River, between Kentucky and Missouri. It was taken by Com. Foote and Gen. Pope, April 7th. 312. Dec. 31st. Gen. Bragg, with 60,000 troops, at- tacked the Union forces under Gen. Rosecrans, and were repulsed. Jan. 2d, the battle was renewed, but Bragg, be- ing unsuccessful, retreated. This was one of the bloodiest contests of the war. The loss was one-fourth of the num- ber engaged. 313. The Confederates gave up the attempt to recover Kentucky. ;: 56 THE QUESTION BOOK. 314. Grant was to move along the Mississippi Central Railroad, while Sherman was to descend the river from Memphis, with the gunboats under Porter. The plan was spoiled by Van Dorn's cavalry dash, which destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs. Sherman, ig- norant of what had happened, pushed on and made an at- tack at Chickasaw Bayou, north of Vicksburg. After suf- fering a bloody repulse, and hearing of Grant's misfortune, he fell back. 315. Gen. Curtis having command, attacked Gen. Price and drove him out of the state into Arkansas. Van Dorn now taking command, a desperate battle was fought at Pea Ridge, March 7th and 8th, in which Van Dorn was totally defeated. 316. The attempt was made with a fleet of forty-four vessels, under Com. Farragut, and 8,000 troops under Gen. Butler. Mortar-boats for six days stormed the outer de- fences, but with little effect. Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet past the defences to New Orleans. At three o'clock in the morning, April 24th, they advanced, running a fearful gauntlet of shot and shell, and flames of fire rafts. They now encountered the Confederate fleet of thirty armed steamers. Twelve of the Confederate flotilla were destroyed. New Orleans now became an easy prey, and soon surrendered. 317. He ascended the river, took possession of Baton Rouge and Natchez, and, running the batteries at Vicks- burg, joined the Union fleet above. 318. It gave control to the outer defences of Nor- folk ; it opened two sounds, eight rivers, four canals and two railroads. It was an excellent rendezvous for ships, and exposed a large country to attack. 319. The Cumberland and Congress, March 8th. 320. The morning after the ravages of the Merrimac, the Monitor made her appearance and commenced the at^ UNITED STATES HISTORY. 57 tack. The Merrimac, confident of success, poured in a broadside, but the balls glanced harmlessly off the Moni- tor's turret, or broke and fell to pieces on the deck. The battle now opened ; they fought side by side, iron rasping on iron. Five times the Merrimac strove to crush her an- tagonist by running her huge iron beak against the Mon- itor's side. At each dash her prow would raise above the water, and at the same instant heavy volleys from the Mon- itor would crash against the exposed parts. In this manner the Merrimac received severe injuries, gave up the contest and steamed back to Norfork. 321. She could have entered any port of the United States, destroyed cities, opened the blockade, and, un- doubtedly, would have secured the acknowledgement of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war. 322. It was regarded as the most formidable naval power in the world. 323. Just before the capture of Norfolk she was sunk by the Confederacy. The Monitor sunk, in a storm, off Cape Hatteras. WAR IN THE EAST. 324. Richmond. 325. Gen. McClellan. 326. Gen. Magruder, with only about 5,000 men, held such strong defences along a line of thirteen miles, that Gen. McClellan was brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, but as the siege began Magruder quietly withdrew, having delayed the Union army a month. 327. May 5 th. Gen. Hooker with his division main- tained the contest for nine hours, then being reinforced, he carried the works, and the pursuit was continued to within seven miles of Richmond. 328. McDowell, with 30,000 men, was to meet him 58 THE QUESTION BOOK. near Hanover Court House, and then commence the siege of Richmond; but Gen. Johnston, suspecting this move- ment, ordered Gen. Jackson to move up the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington. 329. After being reinforced by Gen. Ewell's division of 10,000 men, he hurried down the valley and drove Banks across the Potomac. The excitement in Washington was intense. The President took military possession of all the railroads; called upon the Governors of Northern states to send militia to the defense of the capital ; ordered Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and Mc- Dowell at Fredericksburg, to capture Jackson. He now commenced his retreat, burning bridges as he passed, and escaped. 330. With 15,000 men, Jackson had occupied the at- tention of three Major Generals and 60,000 men, prevented McDowell's junction with McClellan, and saved Richmond. 331. He had pushed his left wing across the Chicka- hominy, and before he could unite his army, a terrible storm flooded the swamps, and the Chickahominy Creek became a broad river. Johnston, seeing the exposed wing, commenced the attack. Johnston was severely wounded. The next day the Confederates were repulsed in great dis- order. ' ^ 332- Jackson making his appearance near Hanover Court House, McClellan resolved to "change his base" of supplies to the James River. A series of battles, lasting seven days, now occurred. The most important were those . of Mechanicsville, Gaines' Mill, Savage's Station, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern Hill. In this famous retreat the army fought by day to give time for the baggage trains, and fell back at night to a new position. At Malvern Hill Lee received so bloody a check that he pressed no farther. 333' Seventeen miles. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 59 334. The North was as much discouraged as the South was elated. Lincoln called for 300,000 troops. 335. To transfer his army to Acquia Creek, and put it under the command of Gen. Pope. ^^6. After some manoeuvering, Pope was compelled to fight the entire Confederate army on the old battle-field of Bull Run. The shattered remains of the Army of the Po- tomac retreated and took refuge within the fortifications at Washmgton. 337. The Union army lost 30,000 men and vast sup- plies. The Capitol was in great danger ; a victorious army without and only broken battalions within. 338. He crossed the Potomac and entered Marylana. 339. McClellan. 340. South Mountain and the terrible battle of Antie- tam, September 17th. 341. He retreated across the Potomac. 342. It was a Union victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Washington from any danger of attack. 343. For the slowness of his movements in pursuing the retreating army. Gen. Burnside took command. 344. Dec. 13th. The Union forces were defeated, with a loss of 12,000 men. 345. They had gained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign; those against Pope; Bragg' s great raid in Kentucky; the battles of Cedar Mountain, Chickasaw Blufi", and Fred- ericksburg. 346. They had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Phillip, and Island No. 10. They had opened the Mississippi to Vicksburg; taken New Orleans, Roanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfork, and Mem- phis. They had also won the battles of Pea Ridge, WiL liamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, luka, Corinth, and Murfreesboro, and silenced the Merrimac. 60 THE QUESTION BOOK. 347. In Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakotah; over seven hundred whites were slain, and many thousands driven from their homes. Col. Sibley routed them and took five hun- dred prisoners. Thirty-nine were hung on one scaffold, at Mankato, Minnesota, Dec. 26t^\ 348. It was about the same as the preceding year. The Union force was about 700,000; the Confederate, about 350,000. 349. January ist, 1863. 350. After several weeks of fruitless efforts upon the north, Grant marched down the west side of the river, and crossed below the city. From May ist to the i8th, he de- feated the Confederates at Fort Gibson, Jackson, Cham- pion Hills, and Big Black River, and within seventeen days after he landed, Pemberton's army was shut up within the entrenchments of Vicksburg. After three desperate as- saults, the Union troops threw up entrenchments and com- menced undermining the city. The siege lasted forty- seven days. 351. On the 4th of July. 352. The Confederates lost the cities of Vicksburg and Jackson; 37,000 prisoners; 10,000 killed and wounded, and mimense stores. On the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hud- son surrendered to Banks. The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and one great object of the North accomplished. 353. January 2d. Gen. Rosecrans defeated the Con- federates under Gen. Bragg. 354. But little occurred until June, when Rosecrans, with 60,000 men, marched against Bragg and compelled him to evacuate Chattanooga. Sept. Sth, Sept. 19th and 2oth, was fought the battle of Chickamauga. The Union army was defeated and withdrew to Chattanooga, while Bragg occupied the heights commanding the city, and threatened them with starvation. 355. Grant was now appointed to succeed Rosecrans, UNITED STATES HISTORY. 61 and the relief was obtained by Hooker coming with two corps from the Army of the Potomac, and Sherman, who hastened by forced marches from luka, 200 miles away. 356. He was in Virginia. They came by rail, 23,000 strong, in seven days, a distance of 1,200 miles. 357. Gen. Hooker, January 26th. 358. May 2d and 3d. The Union army was defeated with great loss. 359. "Stonewall" Jackson. While returning from a reconnoissance at the front, he was fired upon by his own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry. 360. General Meade. 361. With the flower of the Confederate army he crossed the Potomac, passed through Maryland, entered Pennsylvania, and proceeded within four miles of Harris- burg. 362. By the battle of Gettysburg, which was fought the I St, 2d and 3d of July. Gen. Meade commanded the Union forces. Gen. Lee retreating to Virginia. $6;^. The Union loss was 23,000; the Confederate, 36,000. 364. These losses and defeats having occurred at the same time, caused the turning-point of the war, and the Confederacy began to wane. 365. Having confidence in the ability o^ the iron-clads to resist cannon balls, he attempted to run the fortifications and force his way up to the city. The attempt was a dis- astrous failure. 366. They had gained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chancellorville. The Union cause in Texas was depressed. Galveston was seized, and they successfully resisted every attack on Charleston. 367. They had taken Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and won the battles of Chattanooga and Gettysburg. Arkan- sas, East Tennessee, large portions of Louisiana, Missis* 62 THE QUESTION BOOK. sippi, and some portions of Texas were held by Union troops. 368. March 3d, 1SC4. 369. It lay in the armies of Lee in Virginia, and Jo- seph E. Johnston m Georgia. 370. Grant was to march against Lee, and Sherman to attack Johnston and sweep through to the coast. 371. He started with a force of 100,000 men. For one hundred miles there was continuous skirmishing. Sherman would drive Johnson into a stronghold, and then with consummate skill would outflank him, when Johnston with equal skill would retreat to a new post and prepare to meet his opponent again. Several bloody battles were fought, and finally Johnston retired, July 10th, to the en- trenchments of Atlanta. Hood was now put in command. 372. September 2d, 1864. 373. There had been ten pitched battles, and scores of lesser engagements. It cost the Union army 30,000 men, and the Confederacy about 40,000. 374. He turned to invade Tennessee, with the expecta- tion that Sherman would follow him, and Georgia be saved from invasion. 375. He marched against Gens. Thomas and Schofield, at Nashville. After severe fighting,' Thomas withdrew from ^he fortifications and remained two weeks. He then sud- denly burst forth and drove the Confederate forces out of their entrenchments into headlong flight. The army was completely demoralized, and, for further use, destroyed. 376. Hood having moved from his path, there was but little to impede his progress. With 60,000 troops, in five weeks he had marched three hundred miles, and captured Savannah. 377. A fertile region sixty miles wide and three hun- dred miles long, was devastated, and three hundred miles of railroad were destroyed. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 63 378. The battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania. 379. After crossing the Rapidan, the Union army plunged into the Wilderness, where they were attacked, May 5th, by the Confederate army. There was none of the pomp or glory of war, only its horrid butchery. The ranks dashed into the woods, and in the gloomy shad- ows, dense with smoke, this strangest of battles, which no eye could follow, was fought. The third day, both armies, worn out by this desperate struggle, remained in their en- trenchments. Grant lost 20,000 men; Lee, 10,000. 380. He pushed his army by the Confederate right flank towards Spottsylvania Court House, where, for live days, May 8 to 12, terrible fighting occurred. Ten thousand men fell on each side. 381. Grant now concluded to try the flank movement again, and pushed forward to Cold Harbor, a short distance from Richmond. Lee hastened by a shorter route, and arrived in time to prepare for the defence. Early on the morning of June 4th, the Union army made an assault on Cold Har1)or. Twenty minutes after the first shot was fired, fully ten thousand Union men were stretched writhing on the sod. or still in death, while the enemy's loss was little over one thousand. 382. The Confederate works could not be carried, so Grant threw up entrenchments, and prepared for a siege of Richmond. T,S;^. The Union army lost 70,000, and the Confederates 40,000. 384. The Mine Explosion and the capture of the Wel- don Railroad. 385. A mine was dug beneath a strong Confederate fort in front of Petersburg, and was fired with a blast of 8,000 pounds of powder. The fort and garrison were de- stroyed. At the same time the Union artillery opened along the line, and an assaulting column rushed forward, f>4 THE QUESTION POOK. but it Stopped in the crater produced by the explosioru The Confederates, rallying, turned their artillery toward the seething mass within the demolished fort, and about four thousand were lost before they could relreat to the Union Hues. $S6. He entered Maryland, threatened Washington and Baltimore, defeated Wallace, and then withdrew to Virginia. In the same month, July, he crossed into Penn- sylvania, his troops setting fire to Chambersburgh ; after which he withdrew. 387. A vast amount of stores, five thousand horses, and a withdrawal of part of Grant's army from before Petersburg. 388. In September he defeated Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, and in a week destroyed half of his army and put the rest to flight. Early returned with reinforce- ments, and, under covei of a dense fog, surprised Sheri- dan's army at Cedar Creek, October 19th, and drove it in confusion. At this critical moment Sheridan arrived from Winchester, checked the retreating columns, turned and won the battle. 389. This was the /nost brilliant campaign of the war. In one month he had virtually destroyed Early's Army, Sheridan's loss was 1 7,000. 390. Gen. Banks was sent up the Red River to destroy the Confederate authority in that region and Texas. This campaign was a Confederate triumph. Banks lost 5,000 men, 18 gims, and large supplies. 391. April 1 2th. The Confederates were maddened by the sight of negro troops opposing them, and a terrible massacre followed. 392. The capture of Mobile Harbor, Aug. 5th, and closing it against blockade runners. The city of Mobile was not captured until April 12th, 1865. 393. This fort defended the harbor of Wilmington, N. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 65 C. The expedition consisted of seventy vessels, under Com. Porter, and a land force under Gen. Butler. After a fierce bombardment, Dec. 24th and 25th, Butler decided that the fort could not be taken by assault, and the army returned to Fortress Monroe. Com. Porter asked for an- other trial. The same troops were sent back under Gen. Terry. By a series of trenches a column of troops worked themselves up within two hundred yards of the fortifica- tions. At the word they rushed forward and burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand conflict within lasted for hours. Late at night the garrison surrendered, Jan. 15th, 1865. 394. She was a British steamer, built in England, but officered and commissioned by the Confederate govern- ment. Her object was to prey upon Union commerce. She captured over sixty vessels. Her commander was Capt. Semmes. 395. The engagement was off the coast of France, in the English Channe/, June 15th, 1864. The Alabama was sunk. Capt. Winslow, commander of the Kearsarge, res- cued a part of the sinking crew. The English yacht, Deerhound, picked up the remainder and steamed off to the British coast. Capt. Semmes was among the number. 396. They had gained the battles of Sabin Cross Roads, Wilderness, Bermuda Hundreds, Spottsylvania, New Mar- ket, and Cold Harbor. They had resisted the Red River and Florida expeditions; two attacks upon Petersburg, and one against Fort Fisher. 397. They had gained the battles of Atlanta and those preceding it — Dalton, Rexaca, Dallas, and Last and Kene- saw Mountain — Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Cedar Creek, and Nashville. They had captured Fort de Russy, (this was taken by Banks in his Red River expedition) ; the forts in Mobile Harbor, and Fort McAllister; Sheridan had annihilated Early's army ; Sherman had marched across Georgia and taken Savannah; Thomas had destroyed 66 THE QUESTION BOOK. Hood's army, and the Confederacy was almost extin- guished ; only North and South Carolina were retained. 398. April 3d, 1865. 399. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant, near Lynchburg, Va., April 9th, and Johnston to Sherman, in North Caro- lina, April 26th. 400. He was taken in disguise by a party of Union troops, in Georgia, May loth, 1865, and imprisoned in Fortress Monroe, but was afterward bailed out. 401. Four years. 402. The 14th of April, 1865, by J. Wilkes Booth, at Ford's Theater. 403. After shooting the president he sprang upon the stage. His spur caught in the American flag, and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg. He escaped, mounted his horse and fled into Maryland, where he was overtaken in abarn and shot. 404. The Union armies probably lost in battle, or by its effects, 300,000 men, and 200,000 were crippled for life. The Confederate loss is not known, but, undoubted- ly, as heavy. The Union debt Jan. ist, 1866, was nearly $2,750,000,000. The daily expenses at one time reached the sum of $2,500,000. 405. By an act of Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the states. This act is the thirteenth amendment. 406. The exercise of the veto power. 407. The Freedman's Bureau, the Civil Rights, and the Tenure-of-office bills. 408. The first provides for the establishment of a de- partment for the care and protection of the freedmen. The Civil Rights bill guarantees to the negroes the rights of citizenship. The Tenure-of-office bill makes it neces- sary that the consent of the Senate shall be obtained for the removal, by the president, of any person from a civil oflSce. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 67 409. The charge was misdemeanors, contempt of the Senate for violation of the Tenure-of-office bill, by the at- tempt to remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. He was acquitted, the two-thirds majority, necessary for conviction, lacking one vote. 410. It guarantees equal civil rights to all, and bases representation in each of the states on the number of vot- ers. It was adopted July 28th, 1868. 411. The recall of the French from Mexico, under Maximilian. This invasion of Mexico was in opposition to the "Monroe Doctrine". 412. June, 1866. 413. In 1869. 414. March 30th, 1870. 415. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state, on account of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude. 416. A general amnesty to all connected with the civil war. 417. The refusal of the English government to pay the damages to American commerce, caused by the cruise of the Alabama. It was settled by arbitration, the Eng- lish government paying $15,000,000. 418. Years Presidents. Inaugurated. In Office. George Washington 1 789 8 John Adams 1 797 4 Thomas Jefferson 1801 8 James Madison 1809 8 James Monroe 181 7 8 John Quincy Adams .1825 4 Andrew Jackson 1829 8 Martin Van Buren 1837 4 68 THE QUESTION 500K. Years Presidents. Inaugurated. In Office. *William H. Harrison 1841 ]/{2 John Tyler. 1841 3^M2 James K. Polk 1845 4 *Zachary Taylor 1849 i^ Millard Fillmore. . 1850 2^ Franklin Pierce . . '. 1853 ^ 4 James Buchanan i8^f 4 ♦Abraham Lincoln 1861 4^ Andrew Johnson 1865 3^ Ulysses S. Grant 1869 419. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Mon- roe. Adams and Jefferson expired the same day — July 4th, 1826. Monroe died in 1831. 420. John Adams and John Quincy Adams.^ 421. Henry Clay. 422. Bacon's, Clayborne's, Shay's, Dorr's, Whisky In- surrection, and the Civil War. 423- STATES. Florida Virginia New York Massachusetts. . . New Jersey New Hampshire. Maine Connecticut Maryland Rhode Island . . . Delaware Pennsylvania . . . North Carolina.. Wisconsin South Carolina. . Where Settled. When. St. Augustine . 1565 Jamestown 1607 Albany 1.614 Plymouth .... 1620 Bergen 1620 Dover 1623 York 1630 Windsor 1633 St. Mary's 1634 Providence. . . . i6s6 Wilmington... 1638 Philadelphia . . 1643 Albermarle . . . 1650 Green Bay .... 1669 Port Royal .... 1670 By Whom. Spanish English Dutch English Dutch and Danes English . English English English . . Roger Williams . Swedes Swedes English French EnMish Admitted 1845 1820 1848 t ♦Died in office. fOriginal States. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 69 STATES. Where Settled. When By Whom. Admitted Michigan Illinois Detroit Kaskaskia . . . Arkansas Post. Vincennes Bexar Iberville Mobile Biloxi Brattleboro . . . Savannah St. Genevieve.. Fort London . . San Diego . . . Boonsboro Marietta Astoria Dubuque St. Paul Omaha 1670 1688 I685 1690 1693 1699 1702 1699 1724 ^nz 1775 1757 1769 1770 1788 i8ii 1833 1838 French 1837 1818 French Arkansas Indiana French. 1836 1816 Texas Spanish 1845 1812 Louisiana French Alabama Mississippi French French 1819 1817 1791 * 1821 Vermont English . . Georgia Missouri English French Tennessee California English Spanish 1796 1850 1792 .1802 Kentucky Ohio Daniel Boon English Oregon Iowa Americans Fren'^h 1859 1846 1858 1867 1861 Minnesota Nebraska Americans Americans Americans Kansas West Virginia. . . 1863 1864 Nevada 424. At the close of the French and Indian war France yielded up all her claims to territories on the mainland in North America, excepting the city of New Orleans, ceding all east of the Mississippi to England, and all west to Spain. This gave England the entire country east of the Mississippi, excepting Florida, which was a Spanish posses- sion. In the treaty of peace which followed the Revolu- tionary war, the boundaries of the United States included all of the English claims east of the Mississippi and north to the Great Lakes. In 1800, Spain, by a secret treaty, restored to France the territory of Louisiana, comprising her possessions east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from Mexico to the British claims. The northern boundary of the Louisiana territory was never drawn. * Original State. 70 THE QUESTION BOOK. In 1803 the United States purchased the Louisiana ter- ritory of France for $15,000,000. In 1804 President Jefferson sent an exploration party under Lewis and Clark, to the head waters of the Missouri, and thence across to the Pacific. Up to this time the North Pacific country did not belong to any nation, but, as the United States became interested, England became jeal- ous and claimed the same. The United States, however, continued to assert her rights, and a great deal of cor- respondence between the two governments resulted. At last, in 18 1 8, the United States and England agreed to a joint occupancy of the whole territory for ten years. In 1828 the treaty of joint occupancy was renewed, to terminate on either party's giving a year's notice. No divi- sion was made until 1846. It was then agreed by a treaty that the American possessions should extend as far north as latitude 49^. From this acquisition was formed the state of Oregon, and the territories of Washington, Idaho and Montana. In 18 1 9 Florida was purchased from Spain for $5,- 000,000. In 1845 Texas became a part of the United States by annexation. At the close of the Mexican war, in the treaty of Cauda- loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 1848, the Mexican government ceded to the United States California, Nevada, Utah, a part of Arizona, and New Mexico, for which the United States paid $15,000,000 and assumed the debts of Mexico to American citizens, amounting to $3,500,000 more. In 1854 the "Gadsden Purchase" gave to the United States the southwestern corner of New Mexico and that part of Arizona south of the Gila river, for which was paid $10,000,000. In 1867 Alaska was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 71 From the claims ceded to the United States, by Great Britain, in the Paris treaty. Congress formed two great ter- ritories: the Northwestern and the Southwestern terri- tories. From the Northwestern, the states of Ohio, In- diana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin have been formed ; from the Southwestern, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama. From the "Louisiana Purchase" have been formed the states of Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Kansas, also Dakota and Indian territories. The Mexican treaty gave California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, a part of Arizona and New Mexico. Texas came by annexation. Florida by purchase. Maine, until 1820, was a part of Massachusetts. Vermont, until 1791, was disputed territory between New Hampshire and New York. As the northern and northwestern boundary of the "Louisiana Purchase" was never formed, the territory of Wyoming might be considered a part of that purchase, or a part of the claims made by the Clark and Louis expedi- tion. To fully understand the acquisitions of territory to the United States, the student should refer to a geographical map and there trace the given lines in accordance with the above. QU ESTI ON S ON GEOGRAPHY 1. From what did the term geogj^afihy derive its name ? 2. How many kinds of geography ? 3. Define mathematical geography. 4. Define physical geography. 5. Define political geography. , *^ 6. What is the shape of the earth ? 7. What is supposed to be the reason why the earth is flattened at the poles ? 8. How much greater is the diameter at the equator than the diameter at the poles ? 9. What is the axis of the earth ? What are its poles ? f^^o. How many revolutions has the earth ? Define each. II. What causes day and night ? c.'^2. What causes the seasons ? t^^. What is the earth's orbit ? Its estimated length ? 14. How great is the earth's annual motion ? 15. Why is it cold in winter and warm in summer ? 16. What are zones? How many? Their width? Where situated »* 1^17. What is the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit ? 18. Why are the zones given their respective widths ? 74 THE QUESTION BOOK. 19. What would be the climate, supposing the earth's axis to be horizontal to the plane of its orbit ? 20. Why would the inclination of the earth affect the climate ? 21. Supposing the earth's inclination to be 30°, or any other degree, how would we ascertain the width of the several zones ? 22. What is a compass ? Its cardinal points ? 23. Into how many circles is the earth divided ? What are they ? 24. How is every circle divided ? 25. What is a map ? 26. What are the lines, or circles, on a map ? 27. \Vhat is the equator ? 28. Through what countries does the equator pass ? *^29. What is a meridian circle ? A meridian ? 1/30. What is longitude ? 31. PVom what meridians do we reckon longitude ? 32. How many degrees west of Greenwich is Wash- ington ? i/* ^;^. What is the greatest longitude a place can have ? ^34. Can a place have no longitude? 35. Reckoning from the meridian at Washington, what is the latitude and longitude of Quito ? •^6. What is the length of a degree of longitude. 37. Why does the length of a degree of longitude de- crease after leaving the equator ? 38. Through what states does the meridian at Washing- ton pass ? 39. What countries in Asia are crossed by the same meridian circle ? 40. What large city in Asia is nearly opposite Philadel- phia ? 41. What is latitude ? How many kinds ? 1^2. What is the highest degree of latitude? GEOGRAPHY. 75 43. What is the length of a degree of latitude ? 44. Through what countries and bodies of water does the Tropic of Cancer pass ? 45. The tropic of Capricorn ? 46. The Arctic Circle ? 47. The Antarctic Circle ? 48. Why is it colder at the Antarctic Circle, than at the Arctic ? 49. What part of North America is in the same lati- tude as England and Ireland ? 50. Why does the climate of Labrador differ so ma- terially from that of England ? 51. Why are the winters more mild at Puget Sound, than in the region of Lake Superior ? ^%2. Describe the Gulf Stream. 4-^53. Where and what is the Sargasso Sea ? 54- What is the meaning of sargasso ? 55. What are the natural divisions of land ? Describe each. 56. What are the natural divisions of water ? Describe each. 57. How are straits divided ? 58. What is the size of the Eastern Continent com- pared with the Western ? 59. What is the area of the entire surface of the glol 60. Which of the grand divisions is the largest ? Sii vil- est ? Most populous ? Richest in fertiHty ? 61. What country contains the greatest number o > habitants in proportion to its area ? 62. How does England compare in size with the Uniteu States. 63. Which is larger, Europe or the United States ? 64. How does Europe compare in size and population to Asia ? 65. What is a frith, or estuary ? 76 THE QUESTION BOOK. 66. What is an archipelago ? 1/67. What is a delta ? 6S. Why is this tract of land called a de/^a? 69. What is a road, or roadstead ? 70. What is an oasis ? 71. What is a valley, or basin of a river ? 72. What river of the world has the greatest basin ? What is the extent of this basin ? 73. What is the extent of the basin of the Mississippi ? 74. How wide is the mouth of the Amazon ? 75. Into how many classes is mankind divided, in re- gard to social condition ? 76. How many kinds of government ? 77. What is a monarchy ? 78. What is an aristocracy ? 79. What is a democracy ? 80. What are the political divisions of the earth ? 81. What is an empire, kingdom, republic, state, county? 1^82. What is the government of Great Britain ? 83. What countries are absolute monarchies ? C4. How many distinct races of men ? 85. How many prevailing systems of religion ? 86. How many classes of Christians ? "7. What is the Mohammedan religion ? 8. What is the principal difference between the Chns- # .1 and Jewish religions ? 89. Who are Pagans ? 90. What proportion of the inhabitants embrace these .orms of religion ? 91. Name and give the length of the longest four riv- ers in the world. 92. Name and give the length of the longest four rivers of North America. 93. What would be the length of the St. Lawrence GEOGRAPHY. 77 through the chain of lakes to the head of the St. Louis river ? 94. Name and give the length of the longest four rivers of South America. 95. Of Europe. 96. Of Asia. 97. Of Africa. 98. What is noticeable of the Amazon river ? 99. Of the Mississippi ? 100. Of the Missouri ? loi. Of the Nile ? 102. Describe the Rio de la Plata. 103. Describe Egypt. 104. By what two great commercial routes can we travel around the world, starting from New York ? 105. What country in the world has the longest and most numerous lines of railroads ? 106. Between what parallels does the United States lie ? 107. What is the longitude of San Francisco, and about how far is it from New York City ? 108. What State is the geographical center of the United States ? 109. What country produces the most cotton ? Sugar? Coffee ? Rice ? Tea ? What countries produce largely of the same pro- What country produces the most spices ? What are cloves ? What are nutmegs ? Mace ? What is a mountain system ? Name the mountain systems of America ? What is the length of the longest day at the equator ? At the Tropic of Cancer ? Arctic Circle ? North Pole ? no. ducts ? III. 112. TI3- 114. 115- 116. 78 THE QUESTION BOOK. 117. Why does so little rain fall on that part of South America west of the Andes mountain range ? 118. What large city in Europe is noted for the manu- facture of cotton cloth ? For silks ? Linen ? Cutlery ? Laces ? 119. What are the leading pursuits of the people of the Eastern States ? 120. What are the products of the Eastern States ? 121. Where are the manufactures carried on to the greatest extent in these states ? 122. Where is marble obtained ? 123. What is granite, and where found ? 124. What state is called the "Granite State"? a. Where are the following mountains: White, Blue, Hoosick, Mt. Katahdin, Mt. Holyoke, Bunker Hill. b. What are Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and to what state do they belong ? c. Where are Rhode and Mt. Desert islands, and to what states do they belong ? d. Describe lakes Memphremagog, Moosehead, Ches- uncook. Grand, Winnipiseogee, Sebago, and Umbagog. e. Describe the bay of Passamaquodda, Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Penobscot, Casco, Narragansett, and Long Is- land Sound. 125. How many square miles in the area of Rhode Island, and how many states of the same size could be formed out of the State of Texas ? 126. What is particularly noticeable about the northern boundary of Connecticut ? a. Locate Burlington, Belfast, Dover, Salem, Bath, Bennington, Bangor, Eastport, and Lowell. b. Describe the following: Housatonic, Kennebec, Merrimac, Pawtucket, Connecticut, Thames, St. Croix, Taunton, Onion, White, and Androscoggin. 127. WHat is the size of California ? GEOGRAPHY. 79 128. What is the surface of this state ? 129. What is the name of this valley, and from what did it derive its name ? 130. What is the Golden Gate ? 131. When was gold discovered in California ? 132. What is the climate ? a. Locate Vallejo, San Jose, Los Angelos, Stockton, Benicia, and San Francisco. 133. What is the difference in latitude between San Francisco and Richmond ? 134. How far north of Richmond is New York City ? a. Name and locate the capital cities of South America. 135. What part of South America is in the same lati- tude south of the equator, that Central United States is north of it ? 136. How does Brazil compare in size with the United States (not including Alaska)? 137. What city in the W^est Indies is in the same lati- tude north of the equator, that Rio Janeiro is south of it ? 138. Describe South America. 139. What are the llanos "i 140. What are the selvasl 141. What are the pampas 1 142. What are the wastes of Patagonia ? 143. What is a plateau, or table land ? 144. How may the plateaus of South America be di- vided ? 145. Describe the plateau of the Andes. 146. Describe Quito. 147. What are Chimborazo and Cotopaxi ? 148. What is the Peruvian Balsa ? 149. Describe the Cassiquiare river. 150. How far north does South America extend ? 80 THE QUESTION BOOK. 151. What part of South America is in the same lati- tude of Cape Colony ? 152. What city in Australia is in, nearly, the same lati- tude as Buenos Ayres ? 153. What large city in the United States is in, nearly, the same longitude as Quito ? 154. What part of the western coast of A-frica is in the same latitude as Cape Gallinas ? a. Describe the following islands : Joanes, Desola- tion, Chiloe, Falkland, Staten, Wellington, Juan Fernandez, Trinidad, St. Felix, Hermit, Marg-arita. b. Locate tne following places : Conception, Trux- illo, Areguipa, Santiago Villa Bella, Pernambuco, Popay- an, Aspinwall, Villa Rica, Valparaiso, Cobija, Callao, Chagres, Guayaquil, Para, Bahia, Barcelona, Angostura, Potosi, Panama. c. Name and locate the capital cities' of South America. 155. Where is Cape Horn ? 156. What is Terra del Fuego ? 157. Why was Patagonia so named ? 158. What Cape in South America is the most north- em, eastern, southern, western ? a. Locate the following capes: North, Frio, St Antonio, Blanco. b. Where are the peninsulas of St. Joseph's and Tres Montes ? c. Locate the Gulf of Darien, St. Mathias, All Saints, Choco, Blanco, Guayaquil, St. George's, Paranagua, Panama. d. Where are lakes Titicaca and Uros ? What river connects them ? 159. Where is Lake Reys; and what river is its outlet ? 160. What is the general character of the lakes of South America ? GEOGRAPHY. 81 a. Locate lakes Xarayes, Yber, and Maracaibo. i6i. Describe Lake Titicaca and Maracaibo. a. Where is the Desert of Atacama ? b. In how many zones is South America ? c. Between what two mountain chains is the basin of the Orinoco ? d Of the countries of South America, which border on the Caribbean Sea ? Which on the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Pacific Ocean ? 162. Where are the Lobos and Chincha islands ? For what are they valuable ? 163. Which is the smallest division of South America, and what state is about the same size ? 164. How does Brazil compare in size to the whole of South America. .165. What is the Argentine Confederation ? a. What are the following : San Francisco, Geral, Magellan, Port Stanley, De los Patos, Madeira, Pichincha, Essequibo, JDespoblado, Maranham, Tobago, Margarita ? b. Describe the following rivers: Orinoco, Magda- lena, Rio Negro, Para, Tocantins, Araguay, Tapajos, Xingu, Mamore, Purus, Pilcomayo, Salado, Rio Colorado. 166. Describe the Andes mountains. 167. How is British America divided ? 168. How are the British Provinces of North America divided ? 169. What is the government of these provinces ? 1 70. Is there any similarity between the government of these provinces and that of the United States ? 171. Where is Rupert Land ? 172. What does the province of British Columbia com- prise ? 1 73. What island forms a part of the province of Nova Scotia ? 1 74. Describe Newfoundland. For what is it noted ? 82 THE QUESTION BOOK. 175. What is the Bras d'Or ? 176. What are the French possessions near these pro- vinces ? 1/^177. What are the banks of Newfoundland ? 1 78. Where is Anticosta Island ? Is it valuable i» 179. Which of the United States is about the size of New Brunswick ? Prince Edward Island ? 180. How is Montreal situated ? 181. For what is the Basin of the St. Lawrence re- markable ? 182. For what is the Ba^of Fundy noted ? ^^183. What are tides ?' Neap-tides ? S ^ng tid oo ? 1^84. What are the chief causes of tides ? 185. What are the three distinct movements of the ocean ? 186. What are waves ? 187. What are ocean currents, and how are tHey caused? 1 88. How are ocean currents divided ? 189. What is a counter current ? 1x^190. Why are the tides of Fundy Bay so much greater than at other ports ? 191. What are the chief productions of the Canadian provinces ? 192. Name and loca-te the the capital cities of these provinces. a. Locate the following cities : Prescott, Kingston, St. John, Liverpool, Toronto, Quebec, Pictou, Hramilton, Bathurst, Three Rivers, Yarmouth, Harbor Grace, Sydney, Louisburg, Chatham, Windsor, Truro, and Victoria. b. Describe the capes: Sable, Canso, North, Race, Bauld, Ray, St. Lewis, Rozier. c. Describe the following gulfs and bays: James, Hudson, St. Lawrence, Chaleurs, Georgian, Fundy, Notre Dame, Placentia, Fortune, Bonavista, Trinity, and St. George's. GEOGRAPHY. 53 d. Locate the straits: Belle Isle, Northumberland, and Canso. e. Describe some of the principal lakes : Abbitibbe, Mistissinnie, St. John, Grand, NipJssing, Sinco. /. Describe the following rivers: Albany, Moose, Ottawa, East Main, St. Maurice, Saguenay, Rupert's, Severn, Grand, Richelieu, St. Francis, St. John, Fraser. 193. To what province does Labrador belong ? 194. What are the obstructions to navigation from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior ? 195. How are these obstructions avoided ? 196. How is Nova Scotia joined to New Brunswick ? 197. What islands are in the Niagara river ? 198. How is Oceanica divided ? 199. What does Malasia comprise ? 200. Which are the principal Sunda Isles ? 20 r. What are the productions of these islands ? 202. What is said of the animals of Malasia ? 203. What are the inhabitants ? 204. What nations have possessions here ? 205. Which are the most important cities of this Archi- pelago ? Where are they situated ? a. Locate Acheen, Macassar, Bencoolen. b. What strait separates Sumatra from Java ? c. What strait separates Sumatra from Asia ? Borneo from Celebes ? d. Where is Mt. Ophir ? 206. How large is Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Philippine Isles ? 207. What state is about the size of Celebes ? 208. In which zone are these islands situated ? 209. What is the surface of these islands ? 210. Are these islands thickly inhabited ? -211. How is Australasia divided ? 84 THE QUESTION BOOK. 212 To what country does Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania belong ? 213. What possessions have France in these divisions ? 214. How is Australia divided ? 215. How large is Australia ? 216. What is the surface of this island ? 217. What are the inhabitants ? 218. What are the chief pursuits of the people ? 219. What is said of the native animals of Australia ? 220. Which are the principal cities ? Locate them. 221. Is this country thickly settled ? 222. Describe Tasmania. 223. Where is New Zealand ? a. Locate Auckland, Hobarton, Cook Strait. b. Where is Bass Strait, Torres, Molucca Passage ? 224. What is said of Papua, and the other islands ? 225. What does Polynesia include ? 226. Name the principal groups ? 227. What is the surface of the island? of Polynesia ? 228. What are the inhabitants ? 229. What is said of the animals ? 230. Which is the only important town in Polynesia ? a. Locate Timor, Sumbawa, Kangaroo, Hawaii. b. To what divisions of Oceanica do the following islands belong: Luzon, Feejee, Lombock, Chatham, Mindanao, North and South, Sooloo, Banca ? c. Describe the Gulf of Carpentaria, Spencer, Shark, Plenty, Botany, and Great Bay. 231. Name the Middle States. 232. Which is the larger. New York or Pennsylvania ? 233. What is the surface of these. states ? 234. What can be said of New York ? 235. For what are Rochester, Syracuse, West Point, and Saratoga noted ? Locate them. 236. What is noticeable of Pennsylvania ? GEOGRAPHY. 85 237. What is said of its minerals ? 238. For what are Pittsburg and Philadelphia noted ? 239. What are the pursuits of the people of New- Jersey. ? 240. What fashionable resorts for sea-bathing in this state ? Locate them. 241. How large is Delaware ? a. Where are capes May and Henlopen, Charles and Henry ? b. Name and locate the capitals of the Middle States. c. Locate Sing Sing, Poughkeepsie, Hudson, Troy, Buffalo, Gettysburg, Erie, Newark, Paterson. d. Which one of the States is called the "Empire State"? Which one the "Keystone State"? e. Describe the Hudson, Mohawk, Susquehanna, Delaware, Genesee, Tioga, Juniata, and the rivers which form the Ohio. /. Locate Pottsville, Rome, Utica, Wilmington, Camden, Jersey City, Reading, Alleghany, Scranton, Oswe- go, Lockport, Ithaca, Ticonderoga. g. Locate the following: Lake George, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Delaware Bay, Egg Harbor, Manhattan Island. h. Where is Sandy Hook, Blackwell's Island, East River? u Locate New Castle, Titusville, Oil City, Ogdens- burg. Flushing, Whitehall, Albion, Lebanon, Schoharie^ Auburn. 242. How great a fall has the cataract of Niagara ? How are the West India Islands divided ? What islands belong to the Greater Antilles ? What does the Lesser Antilles include ? What and where are the Bahama Islands ? To what country do these islands belong ? What are the inhabitants of these islands ? 243 244 245 246 247 248 86 THE QUESTION BOOK. 249. Where are the negroes held as slaves ? . 250. What is the surface of the Antilles ? 25 1. What are the productions ? 252. What is rum ? 253. How is Hayti divided ? 254. What is the history of this Republic ? 255. Where are the Bermuda Islands ? To whom do they belong ? 256. How large are Cuba and Hayti ? a. Name and locate the capital cities of the West Indies. b. Locate Mantanzas, Kingston, Falmouth, Ponce, Manzanillo, Nuevitas, Samana, Gonaives. c. Describe the following capes; Maysi, Morant, St Antonio, Negril, De Cruz, Engano. d. Describe the straits, Mona Passage, .Windward Passage, Channel of Yucatan, and Florida Strait. e. To what divisions do the following islands belong: Barbadoes, Dominica, Guanahani, Antigua, Tobago, Trini- dad, Tortuga, St. Thomas, Guadeloupe, Grenada, Isle of Pines, Orchilla ? 1X257. What are Keys ? 258. What is a reef ? 259. Describe the southern coast of Florida. 260. Where is Key West ? What are its exports ? 261. How is salt made in Key West ? 262. What is sponge ? 263. What is the general surface of Florida ? 264. What are the productions of this state ? 265. What is Lake Okeechobee, and where is it ? 266. Why has this state so few good harbors ? a. Locate the following cities : Pensacola, Apalachi- cola, Tallahassee, St. Augustine, St. Marks, b. How is the Apalachicola river formed ? Describe them. GEOGRAPHY. ti? 267. Which State is separated by the Mississippi river? 268. On which side of the river is New Orleans ? De- scribe it. 269 What is the soil of Louisiana ? 270. How many territories in the United States ? Name them. 271. What is Alaska and the District of Columbia ? 272. Describe Alaska. 273. Is this possession valuable to the United States ? 2 74. Which is the principal settlement, and how situ- ated ? 275. What does Danish America include ? 276. Has Greenland been fully explored ? 277. Why was Greenland so named ? 278. Describe Iceland. 279. What natural curiosities here ? 280. What is supposed to be the cause of this phenom- enon ? 281. What gave the name of Iceland "i 282. Which are the principal towns of Danish America ? 283. How much larger is Asia than Africa ? 284. What is the greatest length and breadth of Africa ? 285. Give a short description of Africa. 286. What are the inhabitants ? ►^287. What does Barbary include ? 288. To what nation do these countries belong ? 289. How large is the Desert of Sahara ? a. Describe the following mountains: Atlas, Mount- ains of the Moon, Snow Mountains, Kong, Crystal, and Mocambe. 290. How is Southern Africa divided ? 291. How are these countries governed ? 292. Where, and what is Liberia ? 293. Where is the colony of Sierra Leone ? 294. What are the j^rincipal exports of Africa ? 88 ' THE QUESTION BOOK. a. Locate Morocco, Monrovia, Free Town, Cairo, Cape Town, Mozambique, Cobbe, Tripoli, Sego, Condar, Sokoto, Algiers, Antananarivo, Petermaritzburg, Timbuc- too, Wara, Mesna, Coomassie, Kouka, Zanzibar, Graham Town, and Port Natal. b. What capes project from the four extremities of Africa ? c. Describe the Mozambique Channel, Gulf of Aden, Guinea, Sidra, Niger river, Senegal, Orange, and Congo. d. Locate the following islands: Azores, Canary, Cape Verd, Ascension, Helena, Madeira, Peak of Teneriflfe. 295. Describe Madagascar. 296. Locate the capital cities of the territories of the United States. 297. For what are Idaho and Montana noted ? 298. Describe Dakota. 299. Describe the Union Pacitic P.ailroad. 300. Locate the principal towns on this railroad 301. How is Salt Lake City situated ? 302. Describe Utah. 303. For what are the southern territories and Texas especially adapted ? 304. How is the western part of Texas occupied ? 305. What are the productions of Texas ? 306. What is the climate ? U^ a. Locate Austin, Houston, Matagorda, Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Colorado City, Greeley, Filmore City, Walla Walla, Portland, Ft. Benton, Ft. Union, Sioux City, Ft. Laramie, Silver City, Dallas, Preston, Pembina, Ver- million. b. Describe the following rivers : Columbia, Snake, Humboldt, Colorado, Gila, Rio Grande, Brazos, Trinity, Arkansas, Smoky Hill Fork, Platte. c. Locate Pike's Peak, Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, Mt GEOGRAPHY. 89 Shasta, Diamond Peak, Long Peak, Spanish Peaks, Fre- mont's Peak, Mt. Fairweather, Mt. St. EUas. 307. Which of the states and territories border on British America ? 308. Which of the states are separated by the Mississippi river ? 309. Which are separated by the Ohio river ? 310. What is the general outHne of Europe, and what advantages does it offer ? 311. What is the surface ? 312. What are the principal European parts of this great mountain system ? Describe each part. 313. What part of Europe is included in the Great Plain ? 314. What is the climate ? 315. Name the political divisions. How are they classified ? K^i6. Which divisions are called the "Five G/eat Pow- ers"? 317. Name and locate the peninsulas of Europe. 318. Describe the Scandinavian peninsula. 319. What are the exports of this peninsula ? 320. How much farther north can grain be raised in Norway than on the Atlantic shore of America ? 321. What point on the American continent is in the same latitude as Christiana ? 322. Where is I^apland ? 323. Is this country inhabited ? 324. What is the size of the Russian empire ? 325. What is the surface of this empire ? 326. How are the inhabitants divided ? 327. What is the government ? Religion ? 328. In what does the principal wealth of Russia con- sist? 329. Where are the great wheat-growing regions of Europe ? 90 THE QUESTION BOOK. 330. What is the nature of the country around the Caspian &ea ? 331. Describe the Caspian sea. 332. What are steppes^ and where found ? 2t2iZ- Where is Poland ? Circassia ? 334. Describe Moscow. When was it burned ? 335. For what is Sebastopol famous ? 336. What was the cause of this siege ? 337. VViio inhabit the steppes, or barren plains of Russia ? 338. Where is Niznei Novgorod, and what takes place there every year ? 339. Which are the principal ports for foreign com- merce ? Locate them. 340. What seas and gulfs wash the shores of Russia ? Describe each. 341. What do the British Islands comprise ? 342. What does Great Britain include ? 343. What is the surface of the British Islands ? 344. How is Scotland divided ? 345 What is the nature of the sea-coast ? 346. What is ttie climate ? 347. In what does the chief wealth of Great Britain consist ? 348. How does she rank with other nations in the amount of her manufactures and commerce ? 349. What is the population of the several divisions ? 350. Where is tin obtained ? 351. What is the chief article of fuel in Ireland ? 352. What is the extent of the British Empire ? 353. Which are the principal possessions of Great Britain in Europe ? 354. Which in Asia ? 355. In Africa ? 356. In Oceanica ? GEOGRAPHY. QTl 357. In America ? a. Locate Malta, Gozo, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong, Aden, Mauritius and Seychelle islands. b. Where are the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland, Ang- lesea, Man, Isle of Wight, Skye, Mull, Lewis, Uist, Islay, Arran ? c. Describe St. George's Channel, North Channel, English Channel, Bristol Channel, Dover Strait, Menai, The Minch, Little Minch, Jura Sound. d. Describe the following capes : Land's End, Liz- ard Pt, Dunnet Head, Kinnaird Head, Malin Head, Miz- zen Head, Flamborough Head, Butt of Lewis, and Cape Wrath. 358. For what are Liverpool, Leeds and Bradford, Birmingham, Limerick, and Merthyr Tydvil noted ? Lo- cate them. 359. Describe the Spanish Peninsula. 360. What are the productions of Spain ? 361. What parallel crosses the central portion of Spain, and through which of the United States does the same parallel pass ? 362. What other countries in Europe does the same parallel cross ? 363. Were we to follow this parallel, what countries in Asia would we pass through ? 364. Where is the Republic of Andorra ? 365. What is noticeable of this republic ? 7,66. What are the foreign possessions of Spain ? 367. How wide is the strait of Gibraltar ? T,6S. What is noticeable of the Fortress of Gibraltar ? 369. How large is France ? 370. How does she rank with other countries ? 371. What is the surface ? 372. What, and where are the landes ? 373. What are the principal exports ? 92 tHE QUESTION BOOK. 3 74. What influence has Paris throughout the civilized world ? 375. Name and locate the principal possessions of France. a. Where is Pondicherry ? b. Locate Minorca, Majorca, Sardinia, and Ivica. c. Describe, Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of Genoa, and Strait of Bonifacio. 376. What are the pursuits of the people of Holland and Belgium ? 377. What is the condition of much of the coast of this country ? 378. How is internal communication promoted ? 379. What is the Zider Zee ? 380. What people are called Dutch ? 381. What is the surface of Denmark ? 382. How is Copenhagen situated ? 2f^2>' What does Germany comprise ? ?^4. Which are the free cities ? 385. Where is the state of Alsace ? 386. Which are the chief ports of Germany ? 387. What are the productions ? 388. What are heaths 1 389. What are the inhabitants of Austria ? 390. How is Vienna situated ? 391. What was Poland formerly ? 392. Which is the most mountainous country of Eu- rope ? 393. Of how many states is Switzerland composed ? How large is it ? 394. For what are the Swiss noted ? What language do they speak ? 395. For what is Geneva noted ? 396. How is Italy governed ? GEOGRAPHY. 93 397. In ancient times, for what was this country cele- brated ?■ 398. For what are the towns and cities noted ? 399. Where is San Marino ? 400. To what country do the islands of Sardinia and Sicily belong ? 401. What is the extent of the Ottoman Empire ? 402. Describe the Turk. 403. What was Greece in ancient times ? 404. What is the shape of Greece ? 405. Name and locate the capital cities of Europe. a. Locate Matapan, Spartivento, De Gata, St. Vin- cent, Finisterre, Ortegal, St. Matthew, The Naze, North, Sviatoi. b. Describe the following straits : Otranto, Messina, Bosphorus, Dardanelles, Enikale, Vaigatch Skager Rock, and Cattegat. c. Name and describe the seas which wash the shores of Europe. d. Describe the following Gulfs : Taranto, Salonica, Dantzic, Lubeck, Murray Frith, The Wash, Frith of Solway. e. Locate the principal seaports of Europe. Lon- don, Marseilles, Elsinore, Amsterdam, Venice, Aberdeen. Rotterdam, Palermo, Lisbon, Lubeck, Naples, Genoa, Hull, Oporto, Southampton, Brest, Constantinople, Bre- men, Hamburg, Limerick, Dundee, Bordeaux, Galway, Dublin, Bristol, Port Mahone, Havre, Wat'jrford, Belfast, Portsmouth, Cork, Liverpool, Stettin, Antwerp, London- derry, Barcelona, Dantzic, Dover, Leith, Swansea^ Kings- ton, St. Petersburg, Riga, Odessa, Archangel, Malaga, Navarino, Sebastapol, Trieste, Aalborg, Salonica, Calais, Cronstadt. /. Describe the mountains of Kiolen, Carpathian, Balkan, Apennines, Pyrennees, Cevennes, Cantabrian, Siera Morena, Sierra Nevada, Jura, Alps, Ural, Valdai 9^ THE QUESTION BOOK. Hills, Cheviot Hills, Grampian Hills, Cambrian, Mt. Etna, Mt. Vesuvius, Ben Nevis, Ben Lomond, Mt. Snowdon. 406. With what country is England most extensively engaged in trade ? 407. Which is the most northern town in Europe ? a. Locate the principal inland cities, not capitals: VIoscoWj Warsaw, Dresden, Metz, Manchester, Birming- am, Sheffield, Nottingham, Nancy, Orleans, Granada, aragossa, Cologne, Hanover, Adrianople, Sophia, Flor- ence, Turin, Milan, Geneva, Waterloo, Kilkenny, Killarney, Bradford, Norwich, Oxford, Pesth, Munich, Versailles, Rouen, Breslau. 408. What countries are termed Spanish America ? 409. AVhat part of Spanish America is still in posses- sion of Spain ? 410. What is the surface of Mexico ? ''. 411. Are the table-lands accessible from the Gulf ? 412. What is the climate ? 413. What are the inhabitants ? 414. How are the seasons divided ? 415. What are the productions ? 416. What are the principal minerals ? 417. How is the city of Mexico situated ? 418. What two volcanoes are visible from the city ? V\Tiat do their names signify ? 419. What IS cochineal ? Pulque ? 420. What is the history of Mexico ? 421. What peninsulas belong to this republic ? 422. What does Central America comprise ? 423. Locate the capital cities. 424. Where is Balize? To what country does it be- long ? 425. What are the exports of Balize ? a. Locate the following cities: Vera Cruz, Mata- GEOGRAPHY 95 moras, Monterey, Merida, Balize, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, Acapulco, Guatemala. 426. What three routes were projected from the Atlan- tic to the Pacific ? 427. How does Mexico compax-e in size with the United States ? 428. In what zones is Mexico ? 429. Where are the greatest copper regions in the United States ? 430. Where is lead found most abundantly ? a. How many Western States ? Name them. b. How many Southern States ? Name them. 431. What are the great staple productions of the South- ern States ? 432. Which state produces the most cotton ? Rice ? Sugar ? Tobacco ? Sweet potatoes ? Corn ? Wheat ? 433- Which State has the greatest number of swine ? Cattle ? Horses ? Mules ? Sheep ? 434. Which state produces the greatest quantity of gold ? Silver ? Iron ? Copper ? Lead ? Coal ? Pine lumber ? Turpentine, resin, and tar ? 435. How is turpentine, resin, and tar manufactured ? 436. From what does Nortli Carolina derive her chief wealth ? 437. What is South Carolina often called } 438. What article can be raised extensively in .all the states and territories ? 439. Into what sections is the United States divided ? 440. What does the Atlantic Slope embrace ? 441. What does the Pacific Slope embrace ? 442. What division is included in the Central Plain ? 443. Into what divisions may the United States be di vided, with reference to its drainage ? 444. What is the surface of Asia ? ^96 THE QUESTION BOOK. 445. How are the table-lands divided ? What is said of them ? 446. What countries constitute the Great Northern Plain of Asia ? 447. Describe the mountain system of Asia. 448. Where is the Great Desert of Gobi ? 449. How may the climate be described ? 450. What is the climate of Northern Asia ? 451. Describe Siberia. 452. What is the climate of Central and Southern Asia ? 453. To what three races do the inhabitants of Asia belong ? 454. What people belong to the Mongolian race ? 455. What nations, or tribes, living in Asia, belong to the Caucasian race ? 456. What countries are occupied by the Ma,lay race ? 457. What is the estimated number of inhabitants of the several races ? 458. For what has Siberia long been used ? 459. To what country does Georgia belong ? What is noticeable of the inhabitants ? 460. What is the Khan ? a. Locate the following cities: Tobolsk, Irkoutsk, Tashkend, Bokhara, Yarkand, Khokan, Khiva, Tiflis, Smyrna, Jerusalem, Damascus, Medina, Mecca, Mocha, )'- Aden, Muscat. 461.. What does the Chinese Empire include ? 462. What is said of the population of China ? 463. What are the productions of China ? 464. What is the government ? 465. Which are the most important sea-ports for foreign trade ? Locate them. 466. Name the principal islands of Japan. 467. What are the chief productions of these islands? •468. What two peninsulas comprise India ? GEOGRAPHY. 97 469. How is Farther India divided ? 470. Name and locate the capitals of India. 471. What are the productions of India ? a. Locate Singapore, Rangoon, Monchobo, Bombay, Madras, Benares, Mandalay, Cabul, Candahar, Herat, Kelat, and Lassa. 472. What is the government of Persia ? 473. What is the surface of Arabia ? 474. Who are the inhabitants .? 475. For what is Mecca noted ? Medina ? 476. Where is the country of Cochin China ? a. Locate Teheran, Ispahan, Sana, Yeddo, HakOr dadi, Kauagawa, Pekin. b. Name and describe the seas which wash the shores of Asia: Kara, Behring, Ochotsk, Japan, Yellow, China, Arabian, Red, Mediterranean, Marmora, Black, and Cas- pian. c. Where are the Aral and Dead seas ? d. Describe, Bay of Bengal, Persian, Siam, Tonguin, Petchelee, Lena, Obe, Martaban, and Cambay. e. Describe Lake Baikal, Tchany, Balkash, Tonting. /. Describe the following rivers : Lena, Obe, Yene- sei, Irtish, Amoor, Hong Ho, Yang tse Kiang, Hong Kiang, Euphrates, Tigris, Amoo, Indus, Ganges, Brahma- putra, Irrawadda, and Cambodia. I' 477. Name and locate the peninsulas of Asia. 478. Where is the Isthmus of Kraw ? 479. Which is the most elevated lake in the world ? a. Locate Formosa, Hainan, Socotra, Nova Zembla, Ceylon, Laccadive, Maldive, Hong Kong, Lew Chew, Saghalien, Kurile, Aleutian, New Siberia. b. Describe the following straits and capes : Babel- Mandel, Ormus, Tartary, Corea, Formosa, Manaar,/_Ma- ^lacc^ Comarin, Ras-al Gat, Cambodia, Lopatka, and Vastochnoi. 98 THE QUESTION BOOK.. 480. How wide is Behring Strait ? Gibraltar ? Dover ? 481. How wide is the Isthmus of Panama, Suez, Te- huan tepee ? 482. Which are the largest five islands in the world ? 483. What is the size of the oceans ? 484. What is the highest point reached by Arctic ex- plorers ? By the Antarctic ? 485. Name four of the largest cities in the world, in order of population. 486. Name the next four in order. 487. Name the five largest cities of the United States. 488. In the production of what minerals does Great Britian exceed every other country ? 489. Name the largest seven rivers in the United States. Describe them. 490. What is the population of the Chinese Empire ? Japan ? Hindoostan ? United States ? 491. How does China compare, in size and population, to the United States ? 492. What is the horizon ? 493. What are the principal uses of rivers ? 494. What important places of the globe are situated on or near the 40th parallel north latitude ? 495. What part of the United States is in the same latitude north of the equator, that the southern part of Africa is south of it ? 496. \Vhat.is the latitude of Cape Horn ? Cape Good Hope ? 497. What is the difference between the location of commercial and manufacturing cities ? 498. Why is the water of Great Salt l-.ake not fresh ? 499. Name five of the principal articles exported by the people of the United States. 500. Naine five of the principal articles imported. A N S \V E R S TO Questions on Geography. 1. From the two words geo (earth) and graphy (de- scription). 2. Three : Mathematical, Physical and Political. 3. It treats of the form, magnitude, and motions of the earth, and of the various imaginary lines on the sur- face. 4. It treats of the solid and fluid parts of the earth's surface, the atmosphere, and all animal and vegetable life. 5. It treats of the various countries on the earth's sur- face; the people, customs, religion, and government. 6. A sphere flattened at the ends. 7. By the revolution of the earth while in a plastic condition. 8. About twenty-six miles, the diameter at the equa- tor being 7,925 miles. 9. An imaginary line on which it performs its daily revolutions; its poles are the points where its axis meets the surface. 10. Two: diurnal and annual. The diurnal is its mo- tion from west to east ; its annual is its revolution around the sun. 11. The revolution of the earth on its axis. 12. The revolution of the earth around the sun. 13. The course it takes in its annual motion; its esti- mated length is about 600,000,000 miles. 100 THE QUESTION BOOK. 14. About 68,000 miles an hour. 15. It is due to the direction of the sun's rays, and is on the same principle that morn and eve are cooler than mid-day. 16. Belts, or divisions of the earth, bounded by the tropic and polar circles, of which there are five — two frigid, two temperate, and one torrid. The north frigid lies be- tween the pole and Arctic Circle, and is 23^° in width; the north temperate lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer, and is 43'^ in width ; the torrid lies be- tween the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, and extends 23%° north and south of the equator; the south temperate is of the same size as the north, and lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle; the south frigid is all of the earth's surface south of the Antarctic Circle. L/17. It is 66^ degrees, or 23^ degrees out of a per- pendicular direction. 18. During the revolution of the earth around the sun a part of the earth's surface comes directly perpendicular to the sun's rays. This belt, 47^ wide, is enclosed by the tropics, and termed torrid, meaning great heat. Geo- graphers have decided that the limit of the temperate zones should be to that line where the length of the longest day is twenty-four hours, and as the inclination of the earth is 23^° that line should be 23^^ from the poles, where the polar circles have been drawn. 19. What the exact influence upon the earth's climate would be, might be difficult to determine, but during the annual revolution of the earth the entire surface would come directly perpendicular to the sun's rays, and become torrid. When one pole would come perpendicular to the sun's rays, the other would necessarily be in darkness, and frigid. The length of the longest day at the equator would be twenty-four hours, and would occur every six months. GEOGRAPHY. \ , ! 4ftl This would give, at the equator, four zones m\ ons, year-'-; ' two torrid and two temperate. 20. If the earth was perpendicular to the plane of its orbit there would be no change of seasons, but as it be- comes inclined the position of the earth to the sun is changed in its annual revolution, consequently this change must produce a diversity of climate. It is by this inclina- tion that the temperate zones have four seasons. 21. The inclination of the earth will vary that line where the length of the longest day is twenty-four hours, one degree for every degree of inclination. As it is now 23^°, the line must be 23^° from the poles, or the boundary of the frigid zones. If the inclination should be 20°, the frigid zones would extend 30°, and 30° each side of the equator would become perpendicular to the sun's rays, making the torrid 60°, the temperate 30° and the frigid 30 ° ; and so on of any other degree of incHnation. The frigid zone would be in width the number of degrees of the inclination of the earth ; the torrid would be the same each side of the equator, and the temperate what lies between. 22. A magnetic needle, resting upon a pivot, enclosed in a circular box. It always points nearly north. The cardinal points are north, south, east, and west. 23. Into great and small circles. The great circles are the meridians and the equator; the small circles are the tropic and polar circles, and the parallels of latitude. 24. Into 360 equal parts, called degrees. 25. A drawing representing a part or whole of the earth's surface. 26. The equator, meridians, parallels, tropic and polar circles. 27. A great circle equally distant from the poles. 28. It crosses the mouth of the Amazon river, Brazil, United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Pacific Ocean, East /iUgSs ; <,/ THE QUESTION BOOK. Tndiefe (Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra), Indian Ocean, Zangue- bar, Ethiopia, Lower Guinea, Atlantic Ocean. 29. Any great circle passing through the poles. A meridian is half a meridian circle. 30. The distance either east or west from any given meridian. 31. The one which passes through Washington, and the one near Greenwich. 32. About 77 o . $^. 180 ° either east or west. 34. If situated on the meridian from which we reckon, it can have no longitude. 35. It has no latitude, and but one degree of longitude, west. ^6. Sixty geographical miles at the equator, but they gradually grow less as they approach the poles ; in lati- tude 30 ° it is about fifty-two geographical miles ; in latitude 60 ° it is thirty, and at the poles it is nothing. 37. All meridian lines terminate at tlie poles, and as a degree of longitude is enclosed by meridian lines, the length must decrease as the lines approach the poles. ^8. New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. 39. Siberia, and Chinese Empire. 40. Pekin. 41. The distance north or south of the equator, called north and south latitude. 42. 90 ° , which is at the poles. 43. Sixty geographical, or 69^ statute miles. 44. Bahama Islands, Florida Strait, Gulf of Mexico, Mexico, Pacific Ocean, Sandwich Islands, near Canton (China), Burmah, Hindoostan, Arabian Sea, Muscat (Arabia), Egypt, Sahara Desert, and Atlantic Ocean. 45. Near Rio Janeiro, Paraguay, the Northern part of the Argentine Republic, the southern part of Bolivia, GEOGRAPHY. 103 Pacific Ocean, Central Australia, Isle of Madagascar, Southern Africa, and Atlantic Ocean. 46. Greenland, British America, Alaska, Behring strait, Siberia, northern part of Russia, Lapland, Sweden, Norway, and Atlantic Ocean. 47. Discoveries of land have been made in this region, but the cold is so great that animal or vegetable life does not exist. 48. In the northern hemisphere there are vast tracts of land to receive the rays of heat and warm the atmosphere ; but towards the south pole the rays of heat are lost on the great bodies of water, and the air is not warmed. 49. The southern part of British America. 50. Cold winds from the north and the Arctic current which flows near the coast of Labrador, cause the climate to be too cold for cultivation, while in the same latitude in England snow is seldom seen, which is due to the nearness of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, a branch of which flows into the Irish Sea, and the northeast current flows by the coast of Norway. This stream renders the climate of Western Europe mild and moist. 51 It is by the presence of the Japan current, which brings the warm waters of the torrid zone. 52. It issues from the Gulf of Mexico, spreads out a breadth of 150 miles, and sweeps along the shore of North America to Newfoundland. Here it meets the Arctic cur- rent and divides into two branches, one of which takes a southeasterly course towards the coast of Africa, while the other flows in a northeasterly direction towards the British Isles and Norway. 53. It is situated in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, consisting of seaweed, and occupies the eddy or whirl caused by the several ocean currents which surround it. 54. It is a Spanish name, meaning grassy. 104 THE QUESTION BOOK. 55. Continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, capes, promontories, mountains, hills, plains, and valleys. 56. Oceans, seas, gulfs or bays, straits, lakes, and rivers. 57. Straits, passages, sounds, and channels. 58. It is little more than twice as large. The Western Continent contains about 15,000,000 square miles. 59. About 200,000,000 square miles. 60. Asia. Europe. Europe. South America. 61. England; 22,500,000. 62. It is about one-sixtieth as large, or about the size of Wisconsin. 6$. Europe is about one-tenth larger. 64. Asia contains four times as many square miles and two and a half times as many inhabitants. 65. A narrow arm of the sea into which a river empties. 66. A sea interspersed with many islands. 67. When a river discharges its waters by several out- lets, the tract of land embraced by these outlets is called a 68. From its resemblance to the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, which is deUa, and shape of a triangle. 69. A place some distance from the shore where ves- sels can anchor in safety. 70. A fertile spot in a desert. 71. The tract of country drained by that river and its tributaries. 72. The Amazon. It contains more than 2,000,000 square miles. 73. About 1,000,000 square miles. 74. One hundred and eighty miles. 75. Into four : enlightened, civilized, half-civilized, and savage. 76. Three: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy. These fonns of government may be variously modified. GEOGRAPHY. 105 77. The fonn of government where the supreme power is in the hands of one person. 78. The form of government where the power is in the hands of a privileged few. 79. Where the power is in the hands of the people. 80. Empires, kingdoms, repiibHcs, states, counties, townships and cities. 81. An empire is a country governed by an emperor; a kingdom^ one governed by a king ; a republic, one gov- erned by representatives chosen by a people ; a state is a division of a republic, having laws of its own harmonizing with the general government : a county is a division of a state or kingdom. 82. A limited monarchy. 83 China, Persia, Morocco, and the most of the half- civilized countries of the Eastern Continent. 84. Five : Caucasian, Mongolian, American or Indian, African, and Malay. 85. Four: Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan, and Pagan. 86. Three : Protestants, Roman Catholics, and adher- ents of the Greek Church. 87. The Mohammedans are followers of the 'false prophet Mohammed, who lived in Arabia about six hundred years after Christ. They believe in one God ; they con- sider Moses and Christ as true prophets, but Mohammed as the greatest and last. S8. The Jews reject Christ and his gospel, and expect a Messiah, yet to come. 89. The greater part ot the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, nearly all of the tribes of the islands of the Pacific, and the Indians of America. 90. About one-half of the people of the globe are Pa- gans, about one-third are Christians, nearly one-sixth are Mohammedans, and about 4,000,000 are Jews. 106 THE QUESTION BOOK. 91. Mississippi, with the Missouri, 4,200; Nile, 4,000; Amazon, 3,750; Yenisei, 3,400. 92. Mississippi proper, 2,800; Missouri, to the Missis- sippi, 2,900; Mackenzie, 2,300; Arkansas, 2,000; Sas- katchawan, 1,900. 93. 2,000. 94. Amazon; La Plata, 2,300; Orinoco, 1,550; San Francisco, 1,550. 95. Volga, 2,000; Danube, 1,600; Don, 1,000; Dniep- er, 1. 000. 96. Yenisei; Yang-tse-Kiang, 3,320; Obi, 3,000; Lena, 2,700. 97. Nile; Niger, 3,000; Zambesi, 1,800; Senegal, 1,200. 98. It is a broad, deep river, and navigable for large vessels about 2,400 miles> and for steamboats to the foot of the Andes. The tide flows up 600 miles. Its waters teem with alligators, and its banks are lined with almost impenetrable forests, filled with huge serpents, ferocious beasts, troops of monkeys, swarms of insects, and flocks of gaudily-colored birds. 99. It rises in Itasca Lake, and is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, which are very heavy rapids. The •upper* part of the river^ in many places, has very high and rugged banks, while in Louisiana levees, or banks are built to prevent inundations. Its mouth is not favorable for the ) * navigation of large vessels. Instead of being broad and clear it has many outlets, and sand-bars are continually forming. 100. This river is very rapid. It is much larger than the Mississippi above, and is navigable to the Great Falls above Ft. Benton, where there are some of the grandest cataracts in the world. loi. Its source is not definitely known. It flows through a rainless district, but its periodical inundations make the valley one of the most fertile in the world. GEOGRAPHY. 107 Above its mouth, for 1,500 miles, there are no rivers or creeks which flow into it. 102. It is a great estuary 200 miles long, and formed by the union of the Parana and Uraguay. For 1,000 miles on the Parana there is a continuous and safe navi- gation for vessels of three hundred tons burden. 103. This country is nearly as large as Texas; about three-fourths of its area consists of sandy deserts. The settled portions are principally in the valley of the Nile, which is from ten to twenty miles in width. Egypt is noted for its wonderful ruins. The pyramids, temples, sphynxes, statues, and caves hewn in the rocks, are traces of its former civilization. 104. Cross the Atlantic, enter the Mediterranean Sea; pass through the Suez canal; down the Red Sea into the Indian Ocean; pass near the southern points of Asia, to Canton; thence across the Pacific, to San Francisco; then by rail across the continent to New York. 2d. Sail southwest on the California route until nearly opposite Rio Janeiro; cross the Atlantic; pass Cape of Good Hope; through the Indian Ocean to the East In- dies; then up the China Sea to Canton; cross the Pacific to San Francisco; thence to Panama, and across the Isth- mus; then north, through the West Indies, to New York. 105. The United States. 106. Between the 26th and 49th. The distance from the southern point of Texas to the British possessions is about 1,600 miles. 107. It is about 45° west from Washington, and about 3,000 miles from New York. 108. Kansas. 109. Cotton — United States. Sugar — West Indies. Coffee — Brazil. Rice and tea — China. no. Cotton — South America and Egypt. Sugar — United States and South America. Coffee — Java Islands, 108 THE QUESTION BOOK. West Indies, and United States. Rice^United States and Egypt. III. The Spice Islands are celebrated for the produc- tion of cloves, nutmegs, and other spices. Java produces more pepper than all other countries combined. IT 2. The unexpanded flower dried. The clove tree grows to the height of from twenty to thirty feet. 113. The fruit of the nutmeg tree. This tree is about the size of the cominon pear. 114. Several ranges near each other and connected. 115. The Rocky, Californian, Alleghanian, Andean, Parime, and Brazilian. 116. At the equator the length of the days are equal, being twelve hours each; at the tropics the longest day is about thirteen and a half hours ; at the Polar circles twenty-four hours ; at the Poles six months. 117. Rains from the Pacific are of rare occurrence, and the height of the Andes range prevents the rain-clouds from the east. 118. Manchester. Lyons. Belfast. Sheffield. Brussels. 119. Agriculture, manufactures, lumbering, and com- merce. 120. Grains, butter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, and live stock. 121. On the Merrimac and Pawtucket rivers. n 122. From the extensive quarries in Vermont and Italy. It is also found in the states of Maine, Massachu- setts, and Rhode Island. 123. It is very hard rock, and much used for millstones. It is fouAd in the Eastern States. 124. New Hampshire. 125. 1,300 square miles. 183. 126. The boundary line varies by taking, as it appears to be, a township in one place and part of another from the state of Connecticut and giving it to Massachusetts. GEOGRAPHY. 109 127. About 189,000 square miles. 128. A large portion of it is traversed by mountain ranges. The great agricultural valley lies between the Sierra Nevada and coast range, and extends 500 miles. 129. It is the Sacramento and San Joaquin valley, and derives its name from the Sacramento river, which rises in the northern part of the state, and the San Joaquin which rises in the southern part. These rivers flow towards each other and empty into a branch of the San Francisco Bay. 130. A narrow strait about four miles long, which is the entrance from the Pacific Ocean to San Francisco Bay. 131. It was first announced at the close of the year 1848. 132. The climate is noted for its periodical changes. There are two seasons, the wet and the dry. In the lati- tude of San Francisco the wet season lasts from the middle of November to the middle of May. 133. Richmond is about twenty-five miles south. 134. About 230 miles. 135. The northern part of Patagonia. 136. It is a little larger than the United States, con- taining about 3,230,000 square miles. 137. Havana. 138. It is a vast peninsula, occupying the southern half of the Western Continent. Its length from north to south is about 4,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 3,000. Three great mountain systems diversify the surface, viz : The Andean, which stretch along the western coast; the Parime, which consists of several parallel ranges, extending from east to west, between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers ; and the Brazilian system, which con- s.ists of two ranges running parallel to the coast of Brazil, with several diverging chains. Between these mountain systems extends a vast plain. This plain may be divided 110 THE QUESTION BOOK. into four parts — the region of the llanos, the selvaSy the pampas, and wastes of Patagonia. 139. They are level grazing tracts, which occupy most of the region of the basin of the Orinoco. During the dry season they are parched and desolate; but with the return of ram, rich pastures are abundant. 140. They are the forest plains of the Amazon, occu- pying the lower part of the basin, extending as far as the periodical inundation. 141. These tracts are in the Argentine Republic, and are covered with a heavy growth of grass, which afford sustenance to great herds of cattle and horses. 142. Sterile tracts covered with sand and gravel. 143. An extensive level tract considerably elevated above the level of the sea. 144. The Great Plateau of the Andes; the. elevated plains of Quito, Bogota, and Popayan; and the table-lartd of Brazil. 145. It is an extensive tract of lofty table-land, stretch- ing along the tops of the Andes between parallels 3 ° and 15 ° south latitude, with an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet. 146. It is situated under the equator, on the side of a volcanic mountain, 9,500 feet above the sea. The climate -I is that of continued spring. Earthquakes are frequent. ^ There are in sight eleven summits of the Andes coverc<' with perpetual snow. 147. Volcanoes of Equador. Chimborazo is a peak of the Andes range, 21,440 feet high. Cotopaxi, 18,900 feet high, is the most tremendous volcano in the world. The flame sometimes rises 3,000 feet above the top. 148. A light raft, which is formed of inflated skins cov- ered with a light platform. These are used for unloading vessels through the breakers, which continually dash upon the shores and prevent the approach of any ordinary boat. GEOGRAPHY. Ill 149. It is a connecting river between the Orinoco and Rio Negro rivers. This tract of country is so level that a rise or fall of the Orinoco governs the course of that river, which flows during a portion of the year into the Amazon, and at other times in an opposite direction. 150. Twelve and a half degrees north of the equator. 151. Uruguay. 152. Sydney. 153. Buffalo. 154. Near Cape Verd. 155. It projects from Horn Island, which is southwest from Hermit Island. Cape Horn h^as usually been given as projecting from the Isle of Hermit. 156. The most southern part of the inhabited world, and is peopled by a race of miserable savages, who live chiefly by fishing. These islands were discovered by Magellan, in 1520, and so named by him on account of the number of fires he saw along the coast, which he sup- posed to be eruptions of volcanoes. The meaning of Terra del Fuego is land of fire. 157. It was taken from the Spanish word Patago?i — a man with large feet. Magellan gave the inhabitants of this country the name of Patagonians on account of the apparent large size of their feet, which, being wrapped in skins, seemed much larger than they really were. 158. Cape Gallinas, St. Roque, Horn, Parina. 159. It is in Peru, and the Ucayle river is its outlet. This lake is the source of the Amazon. 160. With the exception of Lake Titicaca and Lake Maracaibo, they are more like vast morasses than lakes. 161. Lake Titicaca is a saltish lake, about half as large as Lake Erie, and is situated on the Great Plateau nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean. Its waters are inland, having no outlet to the ocean. Lake 112 THE QUESTION BOOK. Maracaibo is, more properly speaking, a bay being con- nected by a strait with the Carribbean Sea. 162. They lie off the coast of Peru, and are of great value for the immense quantities of guano found upon them. 163. French Guiana, which contains about 3,500 square miles, or about the size of Maine. 164. It contains nearly one half of the peninsula. 165. It consists of a number of states united under a government modelled after that of the United States. Uru- guay and Paraguay were formerly members of this con- federation. 166. They form one of the grandest mountain ranges in the world. They commence in low hills on the Isthmus of Panama, and terminate in the Island of Cape Horn, which is a bleak and naked rock, rising 3,500 feet above the sea. In Patagonia they rise abruptly from the shore ; but farther north, they are from 60 to 100 miles from the coast. They consist generally of parallel ranges of lofty mountains, with high valleys and table-lands between. This system is from 30 to 400 miles wide. 167. Its divisions are Rupert Land, and the British Provinces. 168. 'J'he Dominion of Canada, which includes the Pro- vinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island Newfoundland, and British Columbia. 169. A governor for each of these provinces is appoint- ed by the British government. Every province, however, elects its own legislature, and in a great measure are inde- pendent. The Governor of Canada is Governor-General of the whole of British America. 170. Ottawa, like Washington, is the capital of the sev^ eral provinces, or states, and the Canadian Parliament, like GEOGRAPHY. 113 our Congress, meets there to enact general laws. The Governor-General is President. 171. It comprises the greater part of British America, formerly known as the Hudson Bay Company Territory, who had exclusive right to the fisheries and fur trade of this vast region. 172. The south-western part of British America, be- tween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, and Vancouver's and Washington islands. 1 73. Cape Breton. 174. The surface is generally rocky and barren. The coast is indented by deep inlets, which form many excellent harbors. It is noted for its fisheries. 1 75. It is an arm of the sea, which almost divides the island of Cape Breton. 176. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. These islands lie south of Newfoundland, and serve as fishing-stations. 177. They are shallow places in the sea, the largest of which is Grand Bank, and lies to the eastward of the island. This bank is more than 600 miles long and 250 broad. 178. It is situated at the mouth of the St. Lawrence river. It is a barren island and only occupied by keepers of light-houses upon the coast. 179. South Carolina, Delaware. 180. On Montreal island. This island is 32 miles in length, and is situated at the junction of the Ottawa with the St. Lawrence. The isle of Jesus lies north of it. t8i. For the grandeur and beauty of its natural scenery. Niagara Falls, the Thousand Isles, and Rapids of St. Law- rence, the falls near Quebec, and the grand scenery of the Saguenay river, are the admiration of thousands of tourists. 182. For having the highest tides in the world, which rise to the height of seventy feet. 183. Tides are elevations and depressions of the ocean 114 THE QUESTION BOOK. at regular intervals, occurring twice in twenty-four hours ; the neap tides are the least ebb and flow of the water and are at the close of the first quarter, and first of the last quarter of the moon ; spring tides are the greatest ebb and flow of the water, which occur at the time of the new and the full moon. 184. The attraction of the moon and sun. 185. Waves, tides, and currents. 186. The action of the winds on the surface of a body of water. On the ocean, the height of waves produced by storms averages from 10 to 20 feet. 187. They are like vast rivers, transporting its waters from one part to another, and are caused by the heat of the sun, rotation of the earth, the saltness of the sea, by winds, tides, and melting ice. 188. Into constant, periodical, and temporary. 189. A stream which runs by the side of, or beneath another current, and in an opposite direction. 190. The position of the bay is such, that the Atlantic tide is forced into it, and the waters are raised by this pres- sure above the adjoining sea. 191. Grain, hemp, flax, potatoes, lumber, fish, coal, grindstones, and gypsum. 192. Halifax, Charlotte Town, St. John's, Frederic- town, Ottawa, and New Westminster. 193. Newfoundland. 194. The Rapids of the St. Lawrence, Niagara Falls, and falls in the river St. Mary. 195. In ascending the river, the rapids are avoided by canals on the left bank ; but the downward passage, though perilous, is made by the river itself. The Welland Canal connects lakes Ontario and Erie, thereby avoiding the Falls of Niagara. The falls of the St. Mary river are passed by a ship canal. 196. By an isthmus, fourteen miles in width. GEOGRAPHY. 115 197. Grand, Navy, and Goat. 198. Into three divisions: Malasia, Australasia, and Polynesia. 199. The East India Archipelago, which lies to the southeast of Asia. The principal divisions are the Sunda Isles, Spice Islands, Philippine, and Celebes. 200. Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. 201. They are varied, for no part of the world is richer in its vegetable productions. The minerals are also valu- able. Nearly all of the spices that we use — such as cinna- mon, cloves, nutmegs, and pepper — are raised on these islands. The bread-fruit tree, sago, cocoanut palm, ba- nanas, yams, and various tropical fruits are grown exten- sively. Coffee is exported from Java ; gold and diamonds from Borneo; tin from Banca; sugar, hemp, and tobacco from the Philippine Isles. 202. They are among the largest and fiercest upon the earth. The tiger, rhinoceros, elephant, and ourang- outang are found in Sumatra. 203. They are principally Malays, and are engaged in maritime pursuits, many of which are pirates. 204. The Dutch, English, Spanish, and Portuguese. Java, the Spice Islands, Sumatra, Celebes, a part of Borneo, and most of Timor belong to the Dutch; the Philippine Isles to Spain; a part of Borneo and Lapuan to the Eng- lish; and a part of Timor belongs to the Portugese. 205. Batavia and Manilla. 206. Borneo contains about 260,000 square miles, Su- matra 125,000, Java 52,000, Celebes 46,000, Phihppine 66,000. 207. Pennsylvania. 208. The torrid. The equator crosses Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and some of the Spice Islands. 209. Most of them are mountainous, and many con- tain active volcanoes. Java, alone, contains forty-three. 116 l-HE QUESTION BOOK. 210. With the exception of Java they are not. Java, which is about the size of Arkansas, contains 16,000,000 people. 211. This is the largest division of Oceanica, and comprises Australia, Papua or New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and many other islands. 212. To Great Britain. 213. New Caledonia. 214. North Australia, South Australia, West Australia, Queen's Land, New South Wales, Victoria, and Alexan- dra Land. 215. About four-fifths as large as the United States. 216. Near the coast are mountain ranges. The central regions have never been explored, but are supposed to consist of a low, barren plain. The Murray is the only river of much importance. 217. The greater part of them are Europeans and their descendants. The natives are a race of negroes, called Papuans, 218. Mining and raising wool. 219. The largest is the kangaroo. The most singular one is the platypus, which has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and lays eggs. 220. Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Perth. 221. It is not. The estimated number of inhabitants is only a million and a half. 222. It is about one-half as large as England, and is a fine agricultural island, inhabited solely by European col- onists. 223. It is situated southeast of Asia. These islands are mountainous, and the inhabitants belong to the Malay race. ^ 224. They are but little known. There are no white settlements in any of them except New Caledonia. GEOGRAPHY. 117. 225. The great number of islands which are scattered throughout the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. 226. The Sancfwich, Society, Friendly, Marquesas, Caroline, and Ladrone. 227. They are divided into two classes: The mountain- ous, which are principally ot volcanic formation, and the low islands, which are the work of the coral insect. 228. Most of the natives belong to the Malay race. 229. When first discovered, these islands contained neither insects or reptiles, and no animal larger than a hog. 230. Honolulu, on Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands. 231. New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Dela- ware. 232. New York contains 47,000 square miles, and Pennsylvania 46,000. 233. New York is somewhat undulating. The Cats- kill and Adirondack mountains are in this state. Penn- sylvania is quite mountainous : here the Alleghany system has attained its greatest breadth. The greater part of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland is a low and gener- ally sandy tract. 234. In wealth, population, and commercial import- ance, it holds the first rank in the Union. 235. Rochester has the most extensive flour-mills, and Syracuse the greatest salt works in the country. West Point is the seat of the United States Military Academy, and Saratoga is well-known as a fashionable watering place. 236. It is one of the wealthiest states in the Union. Much of its wealth lies in mining and manufacturing ; but it is also rich in grain and live stock. 237. The mines of iron and coal far surpass those of any other state. Petroleum in large quantities is found in the northwestern part. 238. Pittsburg is the greatest iron manufacturing city 118 THE QUESTION BOOK. and Philadelphia is the greatest manufacturing city in the Union. 239. Chiefly agricultural. They supply New York and Philadelphia with vegetables. 240. Long Branch, Cape May, and Atlantic City. 241. With the exception of Rhode Island, it is the smallest state in the Union. It contains 2,120 square miles. 242. One hundred and sixty-five feet. 243. Into three divisions: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. 244. Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. 245. The chain of islands which extend from Porto Rico to South America. 246. They are low islands of coral formation, and lie north of the Greater Antilles. 247. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain ; Jamaica, tjie Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to Great Britain; Hayti is independent; and the remaining islands are owned by France, Denmark, Holland, and Venezuela. 248. They consist principally of whites, free negroes, and slaves. About one-sixth axe white. 249. In Cuba and Porto Rico. J J 250. They are mountainous, and are supposed to be the remains of a mountain chain, which at some remote period, connnected North and South America. 251. Tropical fruits, sugar, coffee, tobacco, rum, ma- hogany, and spices. 252. Spirits diptilled from molasses. 253. Into two distinct states: the Republic of Domin- ica and the Republic of Hayti. 254. The island once belonged to France and Spain. In 1 791, the slaves in the western, or French division, rose against their masters, and, after a bloody and cruel war, GEOGRAPHY. 119 succeeded in establishing themselves, first as an empire, then as an independent republic. In 1849, the President (Soulouque) proclaimed himself emperor, with the title of Faustin I. After a reign of ten years, Soulouque was deposed and a republican form of government was again adopted. In 182 1, the eastern division revolted from Spain, and form- ed a republic. 255. They are east of the United States and belong to Great Britain. There are about 400 of these islands. Most of them are so small and barren that they have neither name or inhabitants. 256. Cuba is about the size of Pennsylvania, andHayti is about half as large as Michigan, containing 28,000 square miles. 257. Small rocky islands of coral formation. 258. A chain of rocks lying near the surface of the water. 259. It is fringed with reefs, and as many of the rocks are just below the surface of the water, it becomes danger- ous to navigation. 260. It is the most southern town in the United States, and is situated upon an island of coral formation, south- west of the main-land of Florida. Its exports are salt and sponge. 261. By solar evaporation. 262. A soft porous substance, which is found attached to rocks below the surface of the water, supposed to be the work of marine insects. 263. It is generally level, there being no mountains in the state. In the south, dense marshy thickets, called everglades, cover the surface for a distance of 160 miles with an average breadth of 60 miles 264. Cotton, corn, sugar-cane, rice,- and tobacco. Trop- ical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, pineapples, olives, &c., are abundant. 120 THE QUESTION BOOK. 265. It is near the southern part of Florida, and is a great swamp connected with the everglades. 266. On account of the numerous reefs, or keys, which skirt the shores, and the lowness of the land as it approaches the sea. 267. Louisiana. About one-fifth part of the state is on the east side of the river. 268. On the west side. It is the greatest cotton mart in the world, and is about 100 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi. It is built round a bend in the river, and there- fore is called the "Crescent City." The foundation is arti- ficial; having been built on a swamp. It lies below the level of the river, but is protected by the Levee, which at this place is a continuous quay, 4 miles long and 100 feet wide. 269. It is various. The richest tract in the state is a narrow belt of land, from one to two miles wide, on both sides of the river, extending from 150 miles above, to 100 miles below New Orleans. This tract is annually inun- dated by the spring floods. Only a small part of the state is under cultivation. 270. There are ten: Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Indian Territory. 271. Alaska is a posession of the United States, not or- ganized into a territory. The District of Columbia con- tains 60 square miles, and is situated on the north bank of the Potomac river. It contains the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and has a territorial form of government. 272. It has an area of 577,000 square miles, or more than ten times that of Illinois. The climate is cold, and with the exception of the southern point, it is unfit for civilization. In the northern i)art the coast is low and maishy, while in the south it is mountainous. About five GEOGRAPHY. 121 hundred whites, and 70,000 Indians and Esquimaux con- stitute the inhabitants. 273. It may be, for there are extensive forests of pine and other timber; valuable deposits of minerals; great numbers of fur-bearing animals; and almost inexhaustible fisheries, 274. Sitka, in the southern part, on Baranoff Island. 275. Greenland and Iceland. 276. It has not. The interior and northern parts are unknown, and the supposition by some, is, that the island is only a projection of an Arctic continent not yet dis- covered. 277. It was named by an Icelandic chief, who, for some crime, was obliged to flee from his native land. To induce his countrymen to follow him to Greenland, he falsely represented it to be superior in fertility to Iceland. 278. It is of volcanic formation. Ranges of high, rugged mountains border the coast, while the interior is a dreary desert of volcanoes, ice-clad mountains, or fields of lava. 279. The Geysers, or boihng springs. About fifty of these hot springs occupy an area not exceeding twelve acres. Some are so powerful that they throw up water, and even large stones, to a great height. 280. The nearness to Mount Hecla, which is thirty-five miles distant, or the volcanic commotion beneath. 281. It was so called by a Norwegian pirate, who, on his first visit, saw a bay filled with ice, which had floated there from Greenland. 282. Lichtenfels and Reikiavik. 283. About 4,000,000 square miles. 284. From north to south it is about 5,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 4,800, 285. Large portions of it have not, as yet, been ex- plored. The shores are not indented by deep gulfs or in- 122 THE QUESTION BOOK. lets, which is one of the principal reasons why the interior is so little known. The surface is various. There are mountain systems; sandy deserts; and elevated plateaus. The greater part is in the torrid zone, and, much of the country being desert land, it is, as a whole, the hottest and dryest grand division of the globe. 286. Except the northern part and some settlements on the coast, the inhabitants are negro tribes, whose religion is Paganism and their condition barbarous. 287. Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. 288. Morocco is an independent empire. Algiers is a colony of France. Tunis and Tripoli are subjects of Turkey. 289. It is from 750 to 1,200 miles wide, and 3,000 in length. 290. Cape Colony, Natal, Caffraria, the Trans Vaal Republic, Orange Free States, and Zoolu, Bechuna, Nam- aqua, and Damara. 291. Cape Colony and Natal are British colonies. The others are in possession of independent tribes. 292. It is on the western coast of Africa, and is a negro republic, with a government modeled after that of the United States. Liberia was founded in 182 1, by the American Colonization Society, as a place of refuge for free blacks and liberated slaves from the United States. 293. It is situated above Liberia, and was founded for the same purpose, in 1787, by the British government. 294. They differ in different parts. The southern por- tion exports corn, wine, wool, hides, horns, ivory, gold, and diamonds; the western part, ebony, palm oil, gold dust, and ostrich feathers ; the northern, fruits, wool, hides, gums, indigo, salt, leather, cotton, rice, opium, coffee, and many other articles. 295. It is the largest of the African islands, containing 240,000 square miles. It is a mountainous country, and GEOGRAPHY. 123 but little known. Part of the inhabitants belong to the African and part to the Malay race. 296. Boise City, Virginia City, Yankton, Cheyenne, Denver, Salt Lake City, Tucson, Santa Fe, and Tahlequah. 297. For their rich gold and silver mines, and the natural advantages for grazing and stock-raising. 298. It has less mountains than Idaho or Montana. Much of its surface consists of rolling prairie land, well watered, and especially adapted for farming and cattle- raising. 299. This name is given to that part of the great rail- road west of the Missouri river. It passes through the southern part of Nebraska, up the valley of the Platte river, touching the northern boundary line of Colorado, and the southern part of Wyoming, through Northern Utah and Nevada, and thence through California to the Pacific Ocean. 300. Omaha, Fremont, Columbus, Kearney, Julesburg, Cheyenne, Laramie, and Ogden. 301. It is on the Jordan river, near Great Salt Lake, south of the Union Pacific Railroad, on a branch of that road. 302. It contains the Great Salt Lake and the eastern portion of the Great Basin, which is the most desolate region in the United States. Rain seldom falls in this Basin, but some portions near the rivers and lakes have been made fertile by irrigation Gold, silver, iron, salt, coal, and other minerals are plentiful. 303. For grazing. 304. By tribes of Indians, and large herds of wild horses and buffaloes, 305. Cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco, rice, and tropical fruits. Stock-raising is the principal business of the in- habitants. 306. A great portion of the state is much elevated, and 124 THE QUESTION BOOK. therefore free from extremes of heat and cold. Snow is seldom seen, but from October to March, the "Northers" (violent winds) sweep over the prairies of Texas and plains of Mexico. 307. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wash- ington. 308. Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missis- sippi, on the east, and Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkan- sas, and most of Louisiana, on the west. 309. Ohio, Indiana, and IlKnois, from Kentucky and West Virginia. 310. It is more irregular than that of any other division of the earth. Large seas and gulfs penetrate far into the interior, affording unequaled advantages for commercial intercourse. 311. It is divided into extensive plains and mountain systems. Southern Europe is crossed from west to east by a great mountain system, which is continued, in Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. Northward from this system ex- tends a great plain, which stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 312. Caucasus, Balken, Alps, Cevennes, Pyrenees, and Cantabrian. 313. Russia, Northern Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and a part of France. 314. It varies in the same latitude. In Eastern Eu- rope the winters are excessively cold ; while the summers are very hot. On the shores of the Atlantic the warm ocean current renders the climate mild and moist. 315. Russia, Austria, Germany, and Turkey are empires ; Great Britain, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece are kingdoms ; France and Switzerland are republics. GEOGRAPHY. 125 316. Great Britain, Russia, Germany, P'rance, and Austria. 317. Scandinavian, Jutland, Iberian, Italian, Moreaand Crimea. 318. It comprises Sweden and Norway, two distinct states, with separate governments, but are united under one king. Nearly the whole of Norway and the eastern part of Sweden are mountainous. The southeastern part of Sweden is a level plain. 319. Iron, copper, lumber, and fish. 320. 1,400 miles. These grains are, rye, oats and barley.. 321. The southern point of Greenland. 322. It is in that part of Europe north of the Arctic Circle, and between the White Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It belongs to Russia, Sweden and Norway. 323. It is, by a tribe of the Mongolian race, called Laplanders, who own numerous herds of reindeer, which supply them with food, clothing and means of travelling. 324. It is the largest, in extent, in the world, com- prising fully one-half of Europe, and more than one-third of Asia. 325. For the most part it is very level. The only^ mountainous section in European Russia, is between the Azov and Caspian seas. 326. Into four classes: , i — The nobles. 2 — The clergy. 3 — The merchants. 4 — The lately emancipated serfs. 327. It is an absolute monarchy. The greater part of the inhabitants are adherents of the Greek Church. 328. In its forests (two-fifths of the country is covered with forests), and the products of agriculture and grazing. 329. In Central and Southern Russia. 330. It is mostly a sterile region, and has the appearance of having been subjected to volcanic fires. Salt lakes and fire-hills are numerous. 126 THE QUESTION BOOK. 331. It is an inland sea, containing 140,000 square miles, and below the level of the Mediterranean Sea, Several large rivers flow into it, but there is no visible out- let. 332. I.arge, barren plains in southeastern Russia. ^^;^. Poland is that part of Russia lying north of Aus- tria. Circassia is the region of the Caucasus mountains. 334. Near Central Russia, on a branch of the Oka river. It is a railroad center, and one of the principal cities for trade. It was burned during Napoleon's invasion of 181 2, to defeat him, by having no protection for his troops in winter. 335. For the siege which it sustained for one year, against the English, French, Turkish, and Sardinian armies. 336. It was one of the strongest Russian fortifications, and was a perpetual menace to Turkey. Its destruction ended the Crimean war. 337. The Cossacks are the inhabitants, and are of great service to the Russian army as light cavalry. 338. A great fair is held there every year, which is at- tended by thousands of people who come from different parts of Europe and Asia to buy and sell goods. 339. St. Petersburg, Cronstadt, Riga, Archangel, and Odessa. 340. Caspian, Azov, Black, Baltic, White, and Kara; Riga, Finland, Bothnia, Onega, and Petchora. 341. Great Britain, Ireland, and many small adjacent islands. 342. England, Scotland and Wales. 343. England and Ireland are generally level or undu- lating; Scotland and Wales are rugged and mountainous. 344. It is divided by the Grampian Hills into the High- lands and Lowlands. The Highlands lie north, and the lowlands south of the mountains. GEOGRAPHY. 127 345. It is very irregular, and abounds in fine harbors and roadsteads. 346. It is moist and mild. The winters, even of Scot- land, are rarely severe. The moisture of the climate and low temperature in summer sometimes prevent crops from maturing. Corn will not ripen. 347. In her commerce, manufactures and mining. 348. She surpasses every other country in the world. The principal manufactures are those of cotton, wool, and iron. 349. Europe, 285,000,000; Asia, 790,000,000; Africa, 188,000,000; North America, 50,500,000; South America, 24,500,000; Australia, 3,500,000. 350. Principally from Cornwall (England) and the is- land of Banca. The mines of Cornwall have been famous from remote antiquity. 351. Peat, or bog turf, of which there are over 3,000,- 000 acres. 352. It has colonies in every quarter of the globe, and unites under one sovereign a greater number of people than are ruled by any other government. 353. Gibraltar, in Spain, and the islands of Malta and Gozo. 354. British India, including Ceylon, Hindoostan, a part of Farther India, and Singapore ; the island of Hong K-ong, and the city of Aden. 355. Sierra Leone, and orner settlements on the western coast; Cape Colony and Natal; the islands of Sychelle, Mauritius, Ascension, and St. Helena. 356. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, N'orfolk, Labuan, and a part of Borneo. 357. British America, Bermuda Isianas, Balize, Jamaica, Bahama Islands, and many of the Lesser Antilles, British Guiana, and the Falkland Islands. 358. Liverpool, for its great commerce. Its fine dock 128 THE QUESTION BOOK. covers more than 400 acres. Leeds and Bradford, for their manufactures of wool; Birmingham, for hardware; Limerick, for the manufacture of gloves, laces, and fish- hooks; Merthyr Tydvil, for its iron-works. 359. It is the principal plateau of Europe, the whole central part of which consists of a series of lofty plains, divided from each other by parallel mountain chains. This plateau comprises 93,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the peninsula. 360. The vine, olive, mulberry, and orange. Large flocks of sheep are raised on the table-lands of the interior. 361. The 40th parallel. It passes through central United States, or New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Northern Missouri, Central Ne- braska and Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and North- ern California. 362. Southern Italy and Turkey. 363. Turkey, Georgia, Turkistan, Pekin, and the Em- pire of Japan. 364. In the northeastern part of the Spanish Peninsula, 365. The population is only 5,000 or 6,000, but the country has been independent for more than a thousand years. 366. Cuba, Porto Rico, a part of the Philippine, La- drone, Caroline, and the Canary islands. 367. Twelve miles in its narrowest place. 368. It is situated on a mountainous promontory, and is the strongest fortification in the world. 369. It contains 204,000 square miles. 370. As one of the richest and most powerful. The position of the country and the fertility of the soil give it great commercial and agricultural advantages. 371. The eastern portion is mountainous, while tne rest belongs to the Great Plain, which extends across the continent. GEOGRAPHY. 129 372. They are plains of shifting sands, in the south- western, part of France. 373. PVance exports more wine, brandy, and silk goods than any other country, 374. The influence of fashions. 375. Algeria, Senegal, Pondicherry, Isle of Bourbon, New Caledonia, Marquesas Islands, French Guiana, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Corsica. 376. In Holland, stock-raising and dairying are the chief pursuits. Belgium is an agricultural and manufac- turing country; it also has extensive mines of coal andiron. 377. It is so low that in many places dikes, or em- bankments, are necessary to prevent inundations. 378. By numerous canals. In Holland especially, canals run through the principal streets of the towns, and and form a complete network over the country. 379. An arm of the sea, or gulf, which indents the northern part of Holland. 380. The people of Holland. 381. It is nearly flat; some portions are below the sur- tace of the sea, from which it is defended by dykes. 382. On the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, and partly on the adjacent island of Amok. Many of the buildings are built above the water. ^S;^. The kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony; six grand duchies; five duchies; seven principaHties ; three free cities; and the new State of Alsace. 384. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck. 385. It was formerly a part of France, but since the late Franco-Prussian war it was ceded to Germany. 386. Hamburg and Bremen. 387. Nearly the whole of Germany is under cultivation, 130 THE QUESTION BOOK. and large crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, tol)acco, beet- root, and linseed are produced. 388. Sandy tracts in Northern Germany and Denmark. 389. They are of different races. The Germans, Hungarians, Italians, and Poles are most numerous. 390. On eighty-two small islands, separated Dy 150 canals crossed by 360 elevated bridges. 391. An important kingdom of Central Europe, but, after suffering many reverses, it was divided between Russia, Germany and Austria. 392. Switzerland. 393. It is composed of twenty-two states, or cantons. It is about one-third as large as the state of New York. 394. For their love of liberty, and attachment to their native country. Most of the population speak the Ger- man language. Italian and French are spoken in the cantons adjoining Italy and France. 395. For the manufacture of watches and jewelry. 396. It was formerly divided into a number of states, but after a protracted struggle, the efforts of the people to obtain national unity were successful, and the whole country is now united under a liberal and enlightened government. 397. It was the central part of the Roman Empire, which ruled all the known world. ♦ I 398. Almost every place is connected with some re- markable event, which is renowned in history or art. 399. It is a small republic, with an independent gov- ernment, on the Adriatic Sea. 400. Italy. 401. It comprises Turkey in Europe, Asiatic Turkey, Isle of Candia, and Egypt. Tripoli and Tunis are nominally under the control of the government. 402. They are a grave and solemn people, — ignorant, bigoted, and indolent. Their reHgion is Mohammedanism. 403. This country was in advance of all other nations GEOGRAPHY. 131 in civilization and learning, Athens was the birthplace of many renowned philosophers and orators. 404. It is very irregular, projecting southward, and hav- ing many indentations from the sea, one of which, the gulf oi Lepanto, nearly separates it, forming the peninsula of Morea, which is connected with the mainland by the isthmus of Corinth. 405. St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, Hague, Brussels, Paris, Madrid, Lisbon, Rome, Vienna, Athens, Constantinople, Berne, London, Edinburgh. 406. The United States. 407. Hammerfest. 408. Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and the greater part of South America. 409. Cuba and Porto Rico. 410. The interior consists of table-lands, from 4,000 to 9,000 feet high. The Pacific coast is abrupt, and abounds in fine harbors; but upon the Gulf of Mexico, it is flat and sandy, and deficient in good harbors. 411. Only by two carriage roads; one by Jalapa, from Vera Cruz; the other by Saltillo, from Matamoras and Monterey. 412. As Mexico contains high and lowlands, it exhibits a great variety of climate. In ascending from the coast to the surface of the plateau, there are three regions: the hot, swampy and pestilential lowlands ; the temperate re- gions; and the cold, desolate plains above. 413. Whites, Indians, and mixed races. The Ir.dians and mixed races form the greater part of the population. 414. The wet and dry. The rainy season continues from May to October, and the dry from October to May. 415. They vary with climate. Wieat and barley are produced in the cooler regions, and cotton, tobacco, sugar- cane, tropical fruits and spices in the plains and valleys below. 132 THE QUESTION BOOK. 416. Gold and silver, iron and copper. 417. It is situated in a plain, 7,000 feet above the level of the sea, enclosed by lofty mountains. The city is about two miles from Lake Tezcuco ; is in the form of a square, and noted for its numerous churches, convents, and squares. 418. Popocatapetl and Iztaccihuatl. The former is 17,717 feet high, and its name signifies Smoking- Mountain. The latter is 15,600 feet high, and is White Lady. 419. The cochineal is an insect which feeds on a species of cactus. When killed and dried in the sun it yields a brilliant crimson dye. Pulque is a favorite Mexi- can beverage, manufactured from the Maquey plant. It is intoxicating. 420. In 152 1. Fernando Cortez, a Spanish adventurer, conquered the country. He found an extensive kingdom, with regular laws, and with cities, temples, public roads, and many of the arts of civilization. After the conquest the cruelty of the Spaniards drove the Indians back into a state of barbarism. In 182 1 Mexico became independ- ent of Spain, and established first an empire, then a re- publican form of government. The people are restless, and revolutions have been common. By the war with the United States she lost valuable territory. 421. Yucatan and Old California. These parts are but little known. Yucatan is noted for its ruins of ancient cities and temples. 422. Five states: Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. This country bears a general resemblance to Mexico. 423. Comayagua, San Salvador, Managua, Nicaragua, and San Jose. 424. It is situated south of the eastern part of Yuca- tan. It belongs to the British. GEOGRAPHY. 133 425. Mahogany and other hard cabinet wood, cochi- neal, tortoise shells, sarsaparilla and cocoa-nuts. 426. Across the isthmus of Panama; by way of the San Juan river and Lake Nicaragua ; and by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 427. About one-fourth as large. 428. North, temperate and torrid. The Tropic of Can- cer in the central part. 429. In Northern Michigan and Wisconsin. 430. In southwestern Wisconsin and parts of Illinois and Iowa which adjoin. 431. Cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar, corn, and sweet po- tatoes. 432. Cotton — Alabama. Rice — South Carolina. Sugar — Louisiana. Tobacco — Kentucky. Sweet potatoes — Georgia. Wheat — California. Corn — Illinois. 433. Swine — Illinois. Cattle — Texas. Horses — Illi- nois. Mules — Alabama. Sheep — Ohio. 434. Gold — California. Silver — Nevada. Iron — Pennsylvania. Copper — Michigan. Lead — rlUinois. Coal — Pennsylvania. Lumber — Michigan. Turpentine, etc. — North Carolina. 435. Turpentine and resin are made of the sap of the pitch pine, by boiling ; turpentine is the vapor, while resin, like sugar, is what remains. Tar is also made from the pitch, but by burning; the timber having been placed in nearly a perpendicular position, and covered to prevent a flame, the heat causes the pitch to ooze out and run below where it can be saved. 436. From her pine forests. 437. On account of the abundance of palmetto trees, which grow there, it is often called the Palmetto State. 438. Corn. 439. The Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Central Plain. 184 THE QUESTION BOOK. 440. The country which extends from the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. 441. The country between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. 442. The Mississippi Valley, the Texas Slope, the basin of the St. Lawrence, and the small valley of the Red River of the North. 443. The St. Lawrence Basin, Atlantic Slope, Missis- sippi Valley, Texas Slope, Pacific Slope, inland Basin of Utah, and Red river. 444. It is crossed by a system of mountains, table- lands and plains. 445. They are divided into two classes: Those of Central and those of Southern Asia. They are the loftiest and most extensive in the world. 446. Turkistan and Siberia. This is a continuation of the great plain of Europe. 447. It commences with the Ta.urus Mountains, and is continued by the Elborz and Hindoo Koosh to the Balor Mountains. From this point it branches off into four great chains — the Himalaya, Kuen Lun, Thian Shan, and Alti — which are the grandest and most stupendous moun- tains upon the globe. 448. It is near the central part of Asia, south of the jj Thian Shan mountains. This desert is only a part of an immense belt of desert land, which extends almost across the continent from west to east. 449. Into three divisions: that of Northern, Central, and Southern Asia. 450. It is characterized by intense cold, with short in- tervals of great heat during summer. 451. It is a great plain, comprising more than one-third of Asia. Near the Arctic Ocean, it is a barren and deso- late region, and the cold is so intense that the spongy soil is frozen to the depth of several hundred feet. Near the GEOGRAPHY. 135 Irtysh river the soil is rich, and pasturage good, but there are few inhabitants. 452. Central Asia has the dimate of the temperate zone. It is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, and, except near the shores of the Pacific, is remarkably dry — for the mountain system intercepts the warm and moist winds of the Indian Ocean. Southern Asia has the climate of the torrid zone. 453. Mongolian, Caucasian, and the Malay. 454. Those nations living north of the Himalaya moun- tains, those of ]^arther India, the Japanese, and Turks. 455. The Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Persians, Afghans, and Hindoos. 456. The Peninsula of Malacca, and many of the is- lands of Oceanica. 457. Caucasian race, 564,500,000; Mongolian, 535,- 500,000; Ethiopian, 180,000,000; Malay, 55,000,000; American, or Indian race, 15,000,000. Total, 1,350,- 000,000. 458. As a place of banishment for exiles and criminals. A large portion of the population consists of them and their descendants. 459. It is a Russian province. The people are a vig- orous and handsome race. 460. The name given to the rulers of the several inde- pendent states of Turkistan. 461. China, Thibet, and Chinese Tartary (Corea, Mon- golia, Mantchooria, and Soongaria). 462. So dense is the population in some districts that great numbers of the inhabitants dwell constantly upon boats in the rivers, or on rafts in the lakes, which they con- vert into gardens by covering them with earth. They are a very industrious people, but deceitful and very immoral, and jealous of Europeans. 136 THE QUESTION BOOK. 463. The most important are rice, tea and silk. Rice is the chief article of food for the entire population. 464. A despotic monarchy. The laws are severe ; for trifling offences punishment with the bamboo is inflicted, while serious crimes almost always meet with death. 465. Canton, Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchow, Amoy 466. Niphon, Sikoke, Kiusui, and Jcsso. 467. Rice, wheat, barley, tea, tobacco, and camphor. 468. Hindoostan and Farther India. 469. Into the kingdoms of Burmah and Siam, the em- pire of Anam, the interior state of Laos, and that part of British India on the east side of the Bay of Bengal. 470. Calcutta, Pondicherry, Goa, Ava, Bangkok, and Hue. 471. The chief productions are rice and cotton. 472. A despotic monarchy. The sovereign is called a shah. 473. The greater part is a desert plateau. The princi- pal fertile tracts are Oman and Yemen, and the mountain valleys. 474. The greater portion of them are Bedouins, who are a wandering people and inhabit the deserts, devoting themselves to the care of their camels, horses, goats, and sheep. They are generous and hospitable, but quarrel- some, revengeful, and addicted to plunder. )i 475. Mecca is regarded by the Mohammedans as a holy city, and is annually visited by vast numbers of pilgrims. Medina is the burial place of Mohammed. 476. The southeastern part of Anam. 477. Arabia, Hindoostan, Farther India, Corea, and Kamtschatka. 478. It connects Malacca with the main land. 479. Sirikol, the source of the Amoo river, on the table-land of Pamer, is 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. GEOGRAPHY. 137 480. Behring, 40 miles; Dover, 30; Gibraltar, 12. 481. Panama, 27 miles; Tehuantepec, 130; Suez, 65. 482. Australia, Greenland, Borneo, New Guinea, and Madagascar. 483. The Pacific Ocean contains about 82,000,000 square miles; greatest width 10,000 miles. The Atlantic, 30,000,000; wddth 5,000. The Indian 22,000,000, width 6;000. Antarctic, 12,000,000; and the Arctic 4,000,000. 484. By Captain Perry, in 1827, 502 miles from the pole. By Captain Ross, in 1842, 803 miles from the pole. 485. London, 3,311,000; Paris, 1,852,000 ; Pekin, 1,648,000; Canton, 1,000,000. 486. New York, 942,000; Tientsin, 930,000 ; Vienna, 834,000; Berlin, 825,000. 487. New York; Philadelphia — 674,000; Brooklyn — 396,000; Chicago — 325,000; St. Louis — 320,000. 488. Coal, iron, salt, lead, and tin. 489. Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Columbia, Nebraska, and Red. 490. Of the Chinese Empire, 470,000,000; Japan, 37,- 000,000; Hindoostan, 200,000,000; United States, 40,- 000,0000. 491. It is a little more than one-fourth as large as the United States, and contains about 420,000,000 people. 492. That part of the heavens which appears to meet the earth. 493. For drainage, commerce, and milling. 494. Philadelphia, Columbus, Indianapolis, Springfield, Denver, Pekin, Constantinople, and Madrid. 495. The boundary line between the states of Missis- sippi, Alabama, and Georgia, from Tennessee. 496. Cape Horn is 53° south, and Good Hope about 32 o. 497. Commercial cities require good harbors and water 138 THE QUESTION BOOK. communication to faciliate commerce; while manufactur- ing cities depend very much upon water power to run their machinery. 498. Lakes of this class lose water by evaporation only, and retain the salt and other materials carried into them by their affluent rivers. 499. Cotton, wheat, pork, cheese, machinery. 500. Wool, tea, coffee and spices, dry-goods, sugar, and liquors. QUESTIONS ON English Grammar. 1. What IS English Grammar ? 2. Into what parts is it divided? 3. Of what does pronunciation treat? 4. Define etymology. 5. Of what does syntax treat? 6. Ofwhat does prosody treat? 7. What is the basis of grammar? 8. Ofwhat does language consist? 9. What is a part of speech? How many r 10. How are nouns divided? 11. What is a collective noun? 12. What is an abstract noun? 13. What is a participial noun? 14. When does a proper noun become a common noun? 15. When does a common noun become proper? 16. What is the office of a pronoun? 17. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 18. Into what classes are pronouns divided? 19. What is a personal pronoun ? Name them. 20. Where are thou, thy^ thine, thee a.ndye used ? 21. In parsing, how are the pronouns ours, yours, hers^ theirs and mine disposed of ? 22. What peculiarity about the pronoun /// 23. What is a compound personal pronoun ? 140 THE QUESTION BOOK. 24 26 27 28 29 What is a relative pronoun? To what are the relatives who and which applied? How is the relative what used? When is oj a relative pronoun? When is thafi What are the compound relative pronouns? What is an interrogative pronoun? 30 What is a responsive, or indirect interrogative pronoun ? 31. What is an adjective pronoun? How many? 32. To what do distributive pronouns relate? 'i^'Ti' What is the difference between the demonstrative and indefinite pronouns? 34. What do the reciprocal pronouns denote? 35. How should either, neither, each other, and one an- other be used? 36. How should this and that be used? 37. What properties have nouns and pronouns? 38. When are objects personified? 39. In personified objects when is the masculine gen- der preferred? 40. When is the feminine gender preferred? 41. What are the methods of distinguishing the two sexes? 42. When and how are proper nouns made plural? 43. What class of nouns is generally used in the singu- lar number? How may they be used in the plural ? •f 44. When is a collective noun singular? When plural? 45. How are most nouns made plural? 46. How are most compound words made plural? 47. How are the titles Mr., Mrs., Miss and Dr. made plural ? 48. How is the plural of foreign nouns formed? 49. How are foreign words ending in a, us, urn ox on, is, X or ex changed to form the plural? Form the plural of the following words • formula, larva, nebula, vertebra, focus, radius, sarcophagus, stimulus, phenomenon, datum, analysis, GRAMMAR. 141 synthesis, axis, basis, crisis, emphasis, oasis, parenthesis, thesis. 50. How are letters and figures made plural? 51. How is the editorial we used? 52. What is case? Name them. 53. When is a noun or pronoun used in the different cases? 54. When is a noun or pronoun used independently? 55. How is the possessive case denoted? 56. How can the possessive case be expressed without the apostrophe ? 57. When are two terms in opposition? When is one predicated by the other? In what must these terms agree? 58. How is a compound term expressed in the posses- sive case? 59. When is a noun or pronoun in the same case as another? 60. In how many cases are compound personal pro- nouns used ? 61. Decline who, which, what, and that. 62. When may that have two cases? 63. What is declension? 64. How are the articies the, a, and an used? 65. Why are a and an both called the indefinite arti- cles? 66. When should a be used? 67. When should an be used? 68. What is an adjective? 69. How are the adjectives divided? Define each class. 70. Into what smaller classes are adjectives divided? 71. Define a common adjective. 72. Define a proper adjective. 73. What is a participial adjective? 74. What is a compound adjective? 75. What is a numeral adjective? 142 THE QUESTION BOOK. 76. How are the numeral adjectives divided? Define them. 77. What is a pronominal adjective? 78. Into what classes are the pronominals divided? 79. What is comparison? How many degrees? 80. Define the positive degree. Comparative. Super- lative. 81. What parts of speech have comparison? 82. How are degrees below the positive expressed. 83. When should more or most in comparison be pre- ferred? 84. Must adjectives always agree with their substan- tives in number? 85. When does an adjective become a noun? 86. What is a verb? A regular verb? An irregular verb? 87. What are the principal parts of a verb? 88. Why are these called the principal parts? 89. What is a redundant verb? A defective verb? A finite verb? 90. What parts of a verb are not finite? 91. What is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb? 92. When may a transitive verb become intransitive? 93. When may an intransitive verb become transitive? ♦ I 94. What is a neuter verb? 95. What is a principal verb? An auxiliary verb? 96. What properties have verbs? 97. Define voice, mode, tense. 98. What are the person and number of a verb? 99. When is a verb in the active or passive voice? 100. How is a verb in the active voice changed into tlie passive? 10 1. To what verbs does voice belong? 102. How many modes are there? GRAMMAR. 143 103. "Wliat does a verb in the indicative mode express? In the subjunctive? In the potential? In the imperative? 104. How many tenses in each of the modes? 105. What are the signs of the tenses? 106. What are the forms of a tense? 107. How is the emphatic form of a verb expressed? 108. How is the passive form expressed? The pro- gressive? 109. What is the ancient form? no. How is a proposition made interrogative? How made negative? 111. When the subject consists of words differing in person, how is the form of the verb or pronoun deter- mined ? 112. What is an impersonal verb? 113. What properties have auxiHary verbs? 114. Which are auxiliary verbs? 115. Which are sometimes principal verbs? 116. When is it proper to use shall and should 2 117. When is it proper to use will and would? 118. When are do, be and hai'e principal verbs? 119. What is an infinitive? How many? 120. How is the present infinitive formed, and what does it denote ? 121. How is the perfect infinitive formed, and what does it denote? 122. When is to, the sign of the infinitive, omitted? 123. What is a participle ? How many? 124. Howis the present participle formed? What does it represent? 125. Howis the perfect participle formed? What does it represent? 126. "What voice have participles ? 127. What is a compound participle? 144 THE QUESTION BOOK. 128. What do beings having and having been express in relation to participles? 129. What are some of the chief particulars in which participles and infinitives agree? Some in which they differ? 130. What is the conjugation of a verb? 131. What is the synopsis of a verb? 132. What forms of a verb are called composite? a. Conjugate lie^ to repose; lie^ to speak falsely; dare, to venture ; bear, to carry. b. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: drink, lay, rose, build, eat, sow, dive, gone, set, sit, get, bid, dig, slay, thrust, was. c. Give the synopsis of the verb eat, in the third per- son, singular number, indicative mode, passive voice. d. Give a synopsis of the verb run, in the- first per- son, singular number, interrogative form, in the indicative and potential modes. 133. What is an adverb? How are most of them formed? 134. What is a conjunctive adverb? 135. Into what classes are adverbs divided? 136. What is the difference in the use of an adjective and adverb? a. Classify the following adverbs: Now, much, more, so, well, here, whither, everywhere, to-morrow, for- ever, daily, enough, nearly, yesterday, aloud, hither, whence forth, away, often, little, yet, too, nevertheless, together, to-day. yonder, out, somewhat. 137. How can we ascertain to what class adverbs be- long? 138. What is a preposition? An adjunct? To what does an adjunct relate? 139. What may a substantive, governed by a preposi- tion, be! GRAMMAR. 145 140. When does a preposition become an adverb? 141. What is a conjunction? Correlative connective? 142. What is the difference between analysis and synthesis? 143. What is parsing? 144. What is relation? Agreement? Government? 145. What is a sentence? Clause? Proposition? Phrase? 146. What is a declaratory sentence? Interrogatory? Imperative? Exclamatory? 147. What is a simple sentence? Compound? Com- plex? 148. What is the subject and predicate of a sentence? 149. What is the logical and grammatical subject and predicate of a sentence? 150. What is discourse? Of what may it treat? 151. What is a paragraph ? 152. What is analysis based upon? 153. What are elements of sentences? 154. What must every proposition have? 155. What is a modifier? How many kinds? 156. By what may a noun and pronoun be modified? 157. By what may a verb be modified? 158. When an infinitive or participle is used as a noun? What i/iodifiers do they take ? 159. What parts of speech are never modified? 160. What kinds of words are connectives? 161. In the analysis of phrases, what forms are given? 162. What part of a sentence is considered the most important? 163. When may a subordinate element occupy the chief place? 164. What is a period in grammar? 165. In what do all the errors of language consist? 166. What is a figure ii\ grammar? 146 THE QUESTION BOOK. 167. What is aphoeresis? Syncope? Apocope? Pros- thesis? Paragoge? Tmesis? 168. What is ellipsis? Aposiopesis? Zengma? Ple- onasm? 169. What is a simile? Metaphor? Allegory? Synec- doche? 170. What is antithesis? Irony? Paralipsis? Hyper- bole? 171. What is euphemism? Interrogation? Exclamation? 172. What is versification? Verse? 173. What is rhyme? Blank verse? 1.74. What is a couplet? Stanza? )* ANSWERS TO Questions on English. Grammar. 1. The science of speaking and writing the EngUsh language correctly. 2. Pronunciation, orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody. 3. Of the sounds of letters and syllables. 4. It treats of the different parts of speech, their deri- vation and modification. 5. Of the arrangement and relation of words in sentences. 6. Of versification, punctuation, figures and utterance. 7. The usage of the best authors. 8. Of sounds, which, combined, form words which rep- resent ideas. 9. Classes of words, differing according to their usage and meaning. 10. Into proper and common; and the common are divided into collective, abstract and verbal. 11. One that denotes a collection. 12. The name of some quality of a substance. 13. A participle or infinitive used as a noun. 14. When it is used to denote a whole class; as, "The Washingtons of the world are few. " 15 When personified, or used as a proper noun. 16. To avoid the repetition of nouns. 148 THE QUESTION BOOK. 1 7. The word, phrase, or clause, which the pronoun rep- resents. 18. Personal, relative, interrogative and adjective. 19. One which distinguishes the persons. I, thou or you^ he, she and it, with their compounds and declined forms, are the personal pronouns. 20. In the Bible and addresses to the Deity, and fre- quently, in poetry. 21. As these words are equivalent to a noun and pro- noun, the parsing should correspond with the words which they represent. 22. The antecedent of //is sometimes considered lost, when the pronoun denotes merely the state or condition of things, or a point of time, or when it introduces a sentence and is explained : as, It rains. It is twelve o'clock. It was moonlight. It is mean to take advantage of another's dis- tress. Some authors consider it in the above examples as having no antecedent, yet, if we observe closely there may be one somewhat remote ; as, in the first example, we might use clouds for the antecedent; in the second example, time; in the third, night; and in the last example we might use act for the antecedent : as, the act is mean, &c. 23. My, thy, your, him, her, or //, compounded with self to form the singular; and our, your, and them, com- pounded with selves to form the plural. 24. A pronoun that joins a descriptive clause to its an- tecedent. 25. Who is applied to persons only; which to persons or things. 26. What is used in place of that which or things whichy and may denote persons or things. Note — This idea, of forming an antecedent for //, has been given to provoke discussion and impress the mind with the peculiarity of this pronoun. GRAMMAR. 149 27. When preceded by such^ many^ or same, and relates to the objects thus specified, that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who, whom or which. 28. Who, which, and what, with ever and soever annexed. 29. One used to ask a question. 30. One used indirectly as an interrogative; as, "Tell rae what truth is. " 31. An adjective that is sometimes used as a pronoun. They are divided into four classes ; distributive, demonstra- tive, indefinite, and reciprocal. 32. They relate to objects taken singly, and are ecu:h, either, and neither. 33. The demonstrative pronouns point out objects definitely, while the indefinite relate to objects indefinitely. The demonstratives are this, these, that, those, satne, former, latter. The indefinites are one, ones, other, others, any, some, such, all, both, and none. 34. The same signification, and consequently are con- vertible, and may be used for each other. 35. In speaking of two, either, neither, and each other should be used; but in speaking of more than two, one an- other, 36. TJiat shoula be applied to the more distant, the first mentioned, or the absent; this, to the nearer, the last mentioned or the present. 37. Gender, person, number, and case. 38. When they are regarded as persons. Nouns thus used have gender by personification. 39. When the character of the object denotes size, power, or domineering qualities; as, "The Sun seemed shorn of his beams." "Lo, steel-clad ?^dJr his gorgeous standard rears. " 40. When the character of the object is noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or submission; as. 150 THE QUESTION BOOK. » " Soon Peace shall come with all her smiling train. " The earth, moon, and ship, when personified, are given the feminine gender. 41. By different words, different endings, and by a dis- tinguishing word; as, father, mother; eitiperor, empress; /«««-servant, maid-SQr\2Xi\. 42. When they refer to a class of the same character^ they are made plural by adding s when it does not coalesce in sound, otherwise es; as, the Cherokees; the Napoleons; the twelve Caesars. 43. The names of substances, actions, states, qualities, arts, sciences, and diseases, when they refer to the kind of thing; but when different kinds are meant they are plural; as, wine^ wines; tea., teas; fever ^ fevers; religion^ religions. 44. When the whole collection is regarded as one thing, it is singular, but plural when different collections are meant, or when it refers to the individuals composing the collection ; as, army^ armies; congregation, congregations; most people are eager to succeed. 45. By adding s to the singular; but those ending in /, 0, «, y, and preceded by a consonant, and j, x^ sr, sh^ and soft ch, add es. 46. By making plural that part described by the rest; as, mouse-trapj, cup-fulU. 47. Mr., Dr. and Miss are made plural by annexations; as, Messrs., Drs., Misses. When the title is Mrs., or when a numeral stands before the title, the noun is made plural; as, the Mrs. Browns, the two Miss Smiths. 48. Most of them retain their foreign plural when used in the English language. 49. When the ending is a, it is changed to ce or ataj us is changed to i, um or on to a, is to es or ideSy x or ex to ces or ices. 50. By annexing 'j. 51. To represent one person. GRAMMAR. 151 52. The property of nouns and pronouns which shows their relation to other words. They are nominative, possessive, and objective. 53. In the nominative when it is the subject of a verb; in the objective when it is the object of a verb or preposi- tion ; and in the possessive when il denotes possession. 54. By direct address. ^^John, your father is here." By exclamation, "Alas, poor Yorick T' By pleonasm or specification, ^^ He that hath ears, let him hear." 55. By adding the apostrophe and s, fexcept when the word ends in j-, when the apostrophe only is added. 56. By using of^ or by making the possessive word an adjectiv-. "The death of Socrates," "Soldiers' Home." 57. When a verb joins the terms, one is predicated of of the other: as, "He is president;" but when no verb joins them, the latter term is in apposition with the former; as, "Webster, the orator." These terms must agree in case. 58. It takes the possessive sign but once; generally at the end, or next to the name of what is owned. The court- mar tiaVs decision. Daniel Webster's oration. 59. When it denotes the same person, or thing. 60. Only in the nominative and objective cases, and then they retain the same form. 61. Nominative ivho^ possessive w^^i-^, objective «/^ the other. 29. Find the greatest common divisor of the given numerators, and the least common multiple of the denom- inators. 30. Find the least common multiple of the numerators, and the greatest common divisor of the denominators. 31. Fractions whose denominators are increased or de- creased in ten-fold ratio. 32. Write the multiplier with the order of its figures reversed, and with units' place under that figure of the mul- tiplicand which is the lowest decimal to be retained in the product. Find the product of each figure of the multiplier ): 168 THE QUESTION BOOK. by the one above in the multiplicand and those to the left, increasing this multiplication by as many units as would have been carried had the rejected part of the multiplicand been used. Write these partial products with the lowest figure in the same column and add together, pointing off the required number of decimal figures. ;^;^. Compare the left hand figure of the divisor with the units of like order in the dividend, and determine how many figures will be required in the quotient. For the first contracted divisor, take as many figures from the left of the divisor as there are places required in the quotient, and in each following division reject one place from the right of the last preceding divisor, using the remainder for a new dividend. 34. A decimal in which a figure or set of figures are continually repeating. 35. The figure or set of figures continually repeated. ^6. A fraction whose numerator is i, and whose de- nominator is a whole number, plus a fraction whose nu- merator is also I, and whose denominator is a similar frac- tion, etc. 37. The first has a denominator understood, showing that a unit is divided into ten equal parts, or sub-divided in a ten-fold ratio ; the seconi^ has a denominator showing that a unit is divided into any number of equal parts. 38. The medium of circulairion. 39. From the initial letters of the United States^ U. S. joined together as a monogram. 40. Such a part as will exactly divide that number. 41. A written statement of articles bought or sold, to- gether with price of each and the whole cost. 42. A concrete number, whose value is expressed in two or more different denominations. 43. That by which extent, dimension, capacity, or amount is ascertained. Measures are of seven kinds: WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 169 Length, surface or area, solidity, weight, time, angles and money. 44. Extension has three : Length, breadth, and thick- ness. 45. A series of numbers, descending or ascending, used in operations upon compound numbers. 46. A measure of the quantity of matter a body con- tains, according to some fixed standard. 47. It consists of 100 links, each link containing 7.92 inches, or the whole length 66 feet, or 4 rods. 48. Troy has 5,760 grains; avoirdupois has 7,000. 49. That which is used in measuring lines or distances. 50. A square is a figure having four equal sides and four equal angles; a cube is a figure having six equal sides. 51. In a wine gallon, 231 cubic inches; beer, 282; in a bushel, 2,150.4 cubic inches. 52. The divisions and subdivisions of a unit, resulting by continually dividing by 12. 53. Such part of a number as is represented by the per cent. Its base is the number on which the percentage is reckoned. 54. By the hundred. 55. The percentage allowed an agent, factor or com- mission merchant, is commission. Brokerage is the fee paid to a dealer in money, stocks, &c., for the transaction of business. 56. An agent who buys or sells goods for another. 57. A person who receives goods to sell for another. A consignor is a person who sends goods to another to be sold. 58. Individuals united for the purpose of performing some business or undertaking. A corporation is a com- pany formed and authorized by law to act as one person. 59. One of the equal parts into which capital stock is 170 THE QUESTION BOOK. divided. Stock is the amount of capital invested. Stock- holders are the owners of stock. 60. A charter defines the powers of an incorporated body, while Jir7ti is the name under which an unincor- porated body transacts business. 61. Stock is at par when it sell? for its first cost; below par when it sells for less than first cost. 62. A commercial term, used to express the gain or loss in business transactions. 63. Divide the gain or loss by the purchase price. 64. Multiply the purchase price by $1, increased or diminished, as the case may be, by the gain or loss per cent. 65. Divide the selling price by $1, increased or dimin- ished, as the case may be, by the gain or loss per cent. 6(i. A portion of the capital stock required of the stockholders as a payment on their subscription. An as- sessment is a sum required of the stockholders to meet the losses or the business expenses of the company. A divi- dend is a sum paid to the stockholders from the profits of the business. 67. Security on property guaranteed by one party to another, for a stipulated sum, against the loss of that prop- erty by any casuality. A policy is a written contract be- tween the parties. Premium is the sum paid for insurance. 68. A tax is a sum of money assessed on the person or property of an individual for public purposes. Poll tax is a sum required of each male citizen liable to taxation, without regard to his property. An assessor is the person appointed to prepare the assessment roll, and apportion the taxes. 69. A written list of articles of property with their value. 70. A method of ascertaining the loss to be sustained by the proprietors of ships, freight, and cargo, where a por- WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 171 tion oi the property nas oeen sacrificed or damaged for the common safety. Jetson is the portion of goods thrown overboard. 71. Duties are taxes levied on imported gooas. A custom-house is an office established by government for the transaction of business relating to duties. 72. Carrying on foreign commerce secretly, without paying the duties imposed by law. 73. There are two kinds: Ad valorem and Specific. Ad valorem duty is a sum computed on the cost of the goods in the country from which they were imported. Specific duty is a sum computed on the weight or measure of goods, without regard to their cost. 74. A sum paid for the use of money. Usury is illegal interest. 75. Divide the given interest by the interest on $i for the given time at the given rate. 76. Divide the given amount by the amount of $i for the given time at the given rate. 77. Divide the given interest by the interest on the principal at i per cent, for the time. 78. Divide the given interest by the interest on the principal for one year at the rate per cent. 79. Part payment of a note, bond, or other obligation. An endorsement is an acknowledgement written on the back of a note, or any obligation, stating the time and amount of a partial payment. 80. Discount is an allowance made for the payment of a debt before it is due. The present worth of a debt is such a sum, which, being put at legal interest would amount to the debt when due. It is found by dividing the given debt by the amount of $i for the given time and rate. 81. A bank is a corporation chartered by law for the purpose of receiving and loaning money, and furnishing a paper circulation. Bank discount is an allowance made to 172 THE QUESTION BOOK. a bank for the payment of a debt before it is due. Days of grace are three days allowed a bank to pay its notes after they become due. 82. A promissory note is a written agreement to pay a certain sum either on demand or at a specified time. Bank notes are paper circulation issued by banks as money. A negotiable note is one which may be bought and sold, or negotiated, and is made payable to the bearer or to the or- der of the payee. Z-7^, An officer authorized by law to attest documents or writings of any kind to make them lawful. A protest is a formal declaration in writing, made by a notary-public, at the request of the holder of a note, notifying the makers and the endorsers of its non-payment. 84. A method of remitting money from one person to another, or making payments by written orders. . There are two kinds, domestic and foreign. 85. Domestic or inland exchange is the exchange be- tween different places in the same country. Foreign ex- change is the remittance made between different countries. 86. It consists of three copies of the same, made in foreign exchanges, and sent by different conveyances to provide against a loss ; when one has been paid the others are void. A course of exchange is the current price paid in one place for bills of exchange on another place. 87. The process, of finding the meantime of the pay- ment of several sums, due at different times, without interest. 88. The date at which several debts may be paid atone time. 89. The date by which all others are compared in averaging an account. 90. A relation established by two or more persons in trade. Partners are the individuals thus associated. 91. The comparison o( two numbers with each other. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 173 Arithmetical ratio is the difference between two numbers. Geometrical ratio is one divided by the other. 92. The antecedent is the first term of a ratio; a con- sequent is the second term. - 3 93. Direct ratio is dividing the consequent by the ante- cedent. Inverse ratio is dividing the antecedent by the consequent. 94. An equality of the ratio. ^ 95. The extremes are the first and fourth terms. The means are the other two. 96. Of mixing or compounding two or more ingredients of different values. 97. Two : medial and alternate. Medial is the process of finding the average price or quality of several ingredients whose prices or qualities are known. Alternate is the pro- cess of finding the proportional quantity to be taken of several ingredients whose prices are known. 98. Involution is the process of raising a number to a given power. Evolution is the process of extracting the root of any number considered as a power. 99. The indicated root of an imperfect power. 100. One of two equal factors that produce that number. 10 1. One of three equal factors that produce that number. 102. A series of numbers increased or diminished by a common difference. 103. A series of numbers increased or diminished by a constant multiplier. QUESTIONS ON READING, 1. What is reading ? 2. What is elocution ? 3. What does elocution embrace ? 4. What is expression ? 5. What does orthoepy embrace ? * '! 6. Define articulation. 7. What are the oral elements ? How produced ? S. What is accent ? 9. When two syllables of a word are accented, which has the greater force ? 10. What are the expressions of speech ? 11. What is emphasis ? 12. Define slur. 13. How are emphatic words distinguished ? 14. When should emphatic words be used ? 15. How many kinds of emphasis are there ? 16. What is absolute emphasis ? 1 7. Define antithetic emphasis. 18. How many inflections are there ? 19. What is the circumflex ? 20. What is the monotone ? 21. When is the rising inflection used ? 22. When is the falling inflection used ? 33. In what is the circumflex mainly used ? READING. 175 24. What is modulation and its divisions ? 25. What is pitch ? How divided ? 26. Define force. What are its divisions ? 27. Define rate. How classified ? 28. What is quality, and how divided ? 29. What is a pure tone ? 30. What is the orotund ? :?i. Describe the -aspirated tone. 32. What is the guttural quality ? ^;^. When is the trembling tone used ? 34. What is personation ? 35. WTiat are pauses ? ^6. What are grammatical pauses ? 37. Define rhetorical pauses. 38. What is suspensive quantity ? 39. What does quantity embrace ? 40. What are some of the essential qualities of good reading ? 41. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation ? 42 What quality of voice is mostly used in reading and speaking ? 43. What determines the proper accent of words ? 44. How is inflection sometimes affected by emphasis ? 45. What is cadence ? 46. What is the difference between the construction of prose and poetry ? 47. What is a parenthetic clause, and how should it be read ? 48. When melody comes in cc>nflict with accent, which must yield ? AN S\VERS •1-0 Questions on Reading, 1. The enunciation of written language. 2. The delivery of composition. 3. Orthoepy and expression. 4. It is the manner of deHvery. • 5. Articulation, syllabication, and accent. 6. It is the distinct utterance of the oral elements. 7. The sounds that form syllables and words; and are produced by the positions of the organs of speech in con- nection with the breath. 8. The force given to one or more syllables of a word. 9. The primary. 10. Emphasis, slur, inflection, modulation, monotone, personation, and pauses. 1 1. The force given to one or more words of a sentence. 12. It is that smooth, gliding, subdued movement of the voice used in parenthetic clauses, words contrasted or repeated, and in explanation. 1 3. By italics, small capitals, and CAPITALS. 14. AVhen words and phrases are important in meaning, or when they point out a difference ; when emphatic words are repeated, or when a succession of important words or phrases occur. 15. There are two kinds: absolute and antithetic. READING. 177 1 6. It is used to designate the important words of a sentence, without any direct reference to other words. 17 It is founded on the contrast of one word or clause with another. 18. Three: the rising inflection, falHng inflection, and circumflex. 19. A union of the rising and falling inflections, begin- ning with the one and ending with the other. 20. A sameness of tone. 21. It is generally used when the sense is incomplete; in questions which may be answered by yes or no; when a word or sentence is repeated as a kind of interrogatory exclamation; usually m negative sentences; and in the last but one of a passage. 22. When the sense is incomplete, when language de- mands stronpr emphasis, in exclamations, and in questions which cannot be answered by yes or no. 23. In the language of irony, sarcasm, and contrast. 24. Modulation is the variation of the voice made in reading and speaking, and is divided into pitch, force, quality, and rate. 25. Pitch is the degree of elevation of the voice, and is divided into high, moderate, and Jow. High pitch is that which rises above the usual speaking key, and is used in expressing joyous and elevated feelings. Moderate pitch is that which is heard in common conversation, and is used in expressing ordinary thought and moderate emo- tion. Low pitch is that which falls below the usual speak- ing key, and is employed in expressing emotions of sub- limity, awe, and reverence. 26. Force is the volume, or loudness of voice, and is divided into loud, moderate and gentle. Loud force in expressing violent passions and vehement emotions. Mod- erate force is a medium loudness of voice, and is employed in narrative, description, and ordinary assertion. Gentle 178 THE QUESTION BOOK. or subdued force is employed to express fear, caution, secrecy, solemnity, and tender emotions. 27. Rate is the speed, and is divided into quick, moder- ate, and slow. Quick rate is used to express joy, mirth, violent anger, and sudden fear. Moderate rate is similar to moderate force. Slow rate is used to express grandeur, vastness, pathos, horror, and consternation. 28. Quality has reference to the kinds of sound uttered, and is divided into the pure tone, orotund, aspirate, gut- teral, and trembling. 29. A clear, smooth, flowing sound, with moderate pitch. 30. It is the pure tone deepened, enlarged, and intensi- fied, and is adapted to the expression of the sublime and pathetic emotions. 31. It is an expulsion of the breath, the words being spoken in a whisper. 32. The guttural is deep undertone, expressing hatred, contempt, ioathmg. 33. The trembling is a constant waver of the voice, used to express an intense degree of suppressed excite- ment, or to represent the tones of enfeebled old age. 34. Changes of the voice necessary to represent two or more persons speaking. 35. Suspensions of the voice in reading or speaking. 36. Grammatical pauses are indicated by the punctua- tion marks. 37. They are suspensions of the voice which the sense requires when a grammatical pause is not admissible. 38. Prolongation of the voice at the end of a word without making an actual pause. 39. Force and rate. 40. To read slowly, mind the pauses, give the proper inflections, speak plainly, and read as if talking. READING. 179 41. Enunciation is the utterance of words; pronuncia- tion the mode of utterance. 42. The pure tone. 43. General usage. 44. It sometimes changes the falUng to the rising in- flection. 45. It is a fall of the voice very similar to the falling inflection. 46. Prose pays no attention to the melodious arrange- ment of its words, while poetry is written with regard to the rhythm and feet of each line. 47. Something abruptly introduced into a sentence for the purpose of modifynig, explaining, or adding to the leading proposition, and should be read in a lower voice. 48. Accent. QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 1. What is orthography? 2. Dehne orthoepy. 3. What is Phonology? 4. What is a letter? 5. What are elementary sounds? 6. How many elementary sounds in the English lan- guage? How divided? 7. How are these sounds produced? 8. What are the organs of speech? 9. How is voice produced? 10. What is the larynx? 11. How are the letters divided? 12. What are vowels? Consonants? 13. How are the consonants divided? 14. What is a mute? Name them. 15. What is a semivowel? Name them. 16. What divisions are formed from the semivowels? 1 7. What are the subvocals? Which of the elementary sounds are represented by them? 18. What are aspirates? What sounds do they rep- resent? 19. Name the combinations of the consonants? 20. In the formation of the consonant sounds,' how many classes are given them? 21. How are the labials formed? Name them. ORTHOGRAPHY. 181 2 2. How are the dentals made? Name them. 23. What are the linguals? How many? 24. How many palatals, and how made? 25. Why is the letter h not included in these divisions? 26. What are cognates? 27. How do we analyze words? 28. How is th aspirate distinguished from th sub- vocal? [The following table exhibits the properties of the consonants and should be committed to memory for use in analyzing words.] ^ is a consonant, mute, labial, subvocal. ^/ is a consonant, mute, lingual, subvocal. / is a consonant, semivowel, labial, aspirate. g hard is a consonant, mute, palatal, subvocal. ^ is a consonant, semivowel, aspirate. j is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal. k^ g, and c hard, consonant, mute, palatal, aspirate. , / is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal. w is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal. « is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal. / is a consonant, mute, labial, aspirate. ;r is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal. s and c soft, consonant, semivowel, dental, aspirate. / is a consonant, mute, lingual, aspirate. 27 is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal. w is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal. ^ is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal. ^ is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal. th is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, aspirate. th is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal. 4:h is a consonant, semivowel, dental, aspirate. sh is a consonant, semivowel, dental, aspirate. zh is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal. zjh is a consonant, semivowel, labial, aspirate. ng is a consonant, semivowel, palatal subvocal. 182 THE QUESTION BOOK. [In analyzing words, the properties of the letters given in the table above, can always be applied to the same letter, in whatever word it may be found, except silent and substituted letters.] [The following is an approved plan for analyzing the letters of any word:] Shrine — Monosyllable, sh — cons., semi., den., aspr., antecedent to its vowel i. I — cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel i. i — vowel, long sound. n — cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel L e — vowel, silent. Veil — Monosyllable. V — cons., semi., lab., sbv., antecedent to its digraph ei. ei — digraph, substitute for long a. 1 — cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its digraph ei. Phrensy — Dissyllable. ph — subs, for/, cons., semi., lab., aspr., antecedent to its vowel e. r — cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel e, e — ^vowel, short sound. n — cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel g. s — subs, for z. cons., semi., dent., sbv., antecedent to its vowel y. y — vowel, substitute for /, short sound. Machine — Dissyllable, m — cons., semi., lab., sbv., antecedent to its vowel a. a — vowel, long sound, ch — subs. {oTsA, cons., semi., den., aspr., antecedent to its vowel i. i — vowel, subs, for e, long sound, n — cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel i. e — vowel, silent. Echo — Dissyllable. e — vowel, short sound. ch — subs, for k, cons., mute., pal., aspr., consequent to its vowel e. o— vowel, long sound. ORTHOGRAPHY. 183 Rose — Monosyllable, r — cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel o. o — vowel, long sound. s — cons., semi., dent., aspr., consequent to its vowel o. e — vowel, silent. Republican, polysyllable^ r — cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel e^ e — vowel, long sound. p — cons., mute., labial, aspr., antecedent to its vowel u. u — vowel, short sound. b — cons., mute, labial, sbv., consequent to its vowel u. 1 — cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel i.. i — vowel, short sound. c — subs, for k, cons., mute, pal., aspr., antecedent to its vowel a. a — ^vowel, short sound. n — cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel a. The plan of the above example should be carefully exam- ined, and the table on page i8i should be studied so thor- oughly, that the properties of all the consonants can be given without any hesitation. A little practice is required, after which any word can be analyzed readily. The following are test words for analyzing: People, guard, jewel, avoirdupois, due, grammar, contradictory, nephew, phosphorus, arduous, was, alien, quartz, century, lungs, wrangle, ascension, special, free, buy, ride, chuck, debt, sovereign, rhetoric, rhinoceros, column, calf, isle, knife, weight, neigh, daisy. P'or further practice let the student take any exercise in the spelling book, or any sentence which he may see or think of. 29. How are the elementary sounds divided? 30. How many sounds have each of the vowels? 31. What is a diphthong? 32. How many diphthongs are there. 184 THE QUESTION BOOK. S$. How many sounds are represented by these diph- thongs? 34. What IS a digraph? Triphthongi* 35. When are w and^ vowels? 36. What is a syllable? 37. What is a word? 38. What are the words of one, two, three, four or more syllables called? 39. What is essential in every syllable? 40. By what is the principal sound in every syllable produced? 41. To what does every consonant belong? 42. When is a consonant antecedent or consequent to a vowel? 43. What is syllabication? 44. What is the guide for arranging words i-nto sylla- bles? 45. How may words be divided at the end of the lines? 46. Why are words divided into syllables? 47. When is the hyphen used? 48. When two vowels come together, how are they dis- posed of in syllabication? 49. When is one letter a substitute for another? 50. What properties do a substituted letter assume? 51. Which letters have no substitutes? The following table contains a list of the substitutes of the elementary sounds : A long has two substitutes : ei and ey, as in weight and they. A short has no substitutes. A medial has one substitute ; ^ as in there. Aflat has no substitutes. ' A droad hsis one substitute; as in /or, jE long has one substitute ; i as in machine. £ short has two substitutes ; a and «, as in says and dury. ORTHOGRAPHY. 185 I long has one substitute; 7 long as in rhyme. I short has four substitutes; y, e, u, and ^, diSiw hymn, England, btisy, and women. O long has two substitutes; eau and ew, as in beau and sezu. O short has one substitute ; ^ as in what. O slender has no substitutes. U long has one substitute ; ew, as in fiew. U short \ia.s three substitutes; e, z, and 0, as in her^ stir, and son. U 7nedial has one substitute, 0, as in wolf and wool. F has two substitutes ; ph and ^//, as in philosophy and rough. G has part of a substitute ; as x in exist. yhas two substitutes besides g soft; ^i and ^, as in sol- dier and verdure. K has two substitutes besides c hard and half of x; ch and ^/^, as echo and lough. S has two substitutes ; ^ soft^ z, as in 72. Z has three substitutes ; s, e, and .^^, as in was, siiffice, and Ch has two substitutes; /i and /, d.'^'wy question and nature. Sh has six substitutes; h A ^) ^j ^» ^j «'> y^ z-) ^^j ^K and ng, 18. The aspirates are mere whispers made by the or- gans of speech and breath, and are ^, /, h^ k, /, s, /, x, th, ch, shj and wh. 19. They are th aspirate, ih subvocal, ch, sh, zh, why and ng. 20. Four: labials^ dentals^ Unguals^ and palatals. 21. They are made by the lips, and are <^,/, m^ p. v, Wy and wh. The lips are assisted by the teeth in making the sounds of/ and v. 22. They are made through the teeth, and are /, s, Zy ch. sh, zh, and c and g soft. 23. They are made by the tongue, and are d, /, n, r, t, y, fh aspirate, and th subvocal. 24. They are made by the palate, and are k, q, x, ng, and c and g hard. 25. As the sound is lormed by emitting the breath sud- *The difference between the mutes and semi-vowels, is, that the organs of speech are more closely united in pronouncing the mutes than the semi- vowels. 190 THE QUESTION BOOK. denly with all the organs open, it does not properly belong to these divisions, as the organs of speech are not brought into action. 26. Letters whose elements are produced by the same organs in a similar manner, as / and v. The aspirates (except h) are all cognates of some of the subvocals. 27. Take each letter separately, state whether it is a vowel or consonant, if a vowel, what sound, if a consonant, give its divisions. 28. To distinguish th subvocal from th aspirate, a dash is placed beneath the subvocal, 29. There ?.re sixteen vowel sounds, fifteen subvocals, and ten aspirates. 30. A has .^ve -. long, short, medial, flat, and broad, as in ale, Of, air, art, all. M has two : long and short, as in eat^ ebb. /has two: long and short, as in ice, it. O has three : long, short, and slender, as in old, not, do. 6^ has three: long, short and medial, as in due, up, pull. Ou and o^v have one and the same sound, as in out^ cow. Oi and oy have one and the same sound, as in oil, joy. The diphthongs oi or oy are not purely distinct vowel sounds, as they represent two sounds in connection, broad a and short /. 31. A union of two vowel sounds in the same syllable. 32. Four: ou, ow, oi, oy. 33. Two : ou and ow represent the same sound, and are called inseparable diphthongs, because they cannot be sep- arated into two distinct vowel sounds ; oi and oy represent one sound, and are called separable diphthongs, because their sounds can be separated into broad a and short /". To test the separable diphthongs spell by sound the words oil and boy, using broad a and short / in each, and pro- nounce in quick succession. ORTHOGRAPHY. 191 34. A digraph is the union of two vowels in the same syllable, one of which is silent. A triphthong is the union. of three vowels in the same syllable, two of which are silent 35. When they represent the sounds of u and i. Some authors justly question whether w is ever a vowel. It cannot form a syllable, either alone or in connectioh with consonants ; which all the other vowels will do. There- fore, as it requires the aid of a vowel letter to express a perfect syllable it cannot be a perfect vowel. ■T^d. A letter or combination of letters, uttered by one emission of the voice. 37. A syllable or combination of syllables representing some thought or idea. 38. Monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and poly- syllables. 39. A vowel. 40. By the vowel, except in unaccented syllables with e as the vowel sound. This may be observed by the careless manner in which many pupils spell such words as table^ labels center^ &c. In these words the vowel is not as distinct as the consonant sounds. 41. Unless it is silent, every consonant in a word be- longs to some vowel or diphthong. 42. When it precedes the vowel in the same syllable, it is antecedent to it ; when it follows in the same syllable, it is consequent to it. 43. Dividing words into syllables. 44. They must be arranged exactly as they are heard in correct pronunciation. 45. Between the syllables. 46. To assist in the pronunciation of words. 47. Between compound words when first formed or when little used; between syllables at the end of lines; and between syllables for the purpose of instruction. 19^ THE QUESTION BOOK. 48. Unless it should be a diphthong, two syllables must be formed, or they may be used together with one vowel silent. 49. When it has the sound that another letter usually represents. 50. Those of the letter which it represents. 51. B, d, g, h, /, m, «,/, r, ///, and wh. 52. When it begins a syllable and is immediately fol- lowed by a vowel sound ; as in alien. 53. When it is preceded by g or s, and immediately fol- lowed by a vowel sound, it is a consonant and a substitute for w; as in ^iznguage. 54. To modify the sounds of other letters. 55. F,j, q,r,x,Vy z. 56. C, X, and q. 57. When another vowel precedes it in the same sylla- ble ; as in ?nade, grape, ice, bride. 58. Two syllables would be formed for one. 59. Before t or after m in the same syllable; as in comd^ tomb, debt, subtle. 60. Before k in the same syllable ; as in back, rack, luck. It is also silent in czar, indict, muscle, victuals, and a few others. 61. Before g in the same syllable; as in bridge, pledge. 62. Before m or n in the same syllable; as in phlegniy gnat, malign, design. 63. After ^ or r in the same syllable ; as in ghost, rhyme, rheumatism; when it is final, following a vowel ; as in oh, ah, Jehovah; when it is initial it is silent in a few words; as in herb, heir, honest, hour; in asthma, phthisic, isthmus, Thomas, Thames, it follows / and is silent. 64. Before n in the same syllable ; as in knife, knee. 65. After a when followed by/, m, k, or v, in the same syllable (except valve); as in folks, half, palm, stalk, salve. L is also silent in could, would, and should. ORTOOGRAPHY. 193 66. After / and m; as in kiln, solemn. 67. When it is initial and before «, s, or /; as in psalm, pneumonia, psalter. 68. Before ch in the same syllable; as in notch, latch. It is also silent in Christmas, eclat, mortgage, and a few- others. 69- Before r in the same syllable ; as in wrap, wreck. In whole, sword, whoop, answer and two it is silent. 70. After i in the same syllable; as in fright, neigh; after au and ou; as in aught, ought, bought, slaughter, and through. 71. In yacht, schism, and drachni. 72. In corps, isle, island, puisne, viscount, and Belles- lettres. 73. In the word ^/nemonic or mnemonics. 74. In two ways: first, as simple or compound; second, as primitive or derivative. 75. One that is not composed of two 01 more whole words ; a compound word is composed of two or more sim- ple ones. 76. One that is derived from no other word. 77. One formed from a primitive by means of prefixes or suffixes. 78. A letter or letters joined to the beginning of a word is called a prefix ; when added to the end of a word, a suffix ; and the root is the chief word without prefix or suffix. 79. Whenever the meaning of the word is radically changed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes ; as in re- proof, in which the meaning of neither re or proof is re- tained. In forming derivatives by means of suffixes, something more is required than merely to write the parts together as one word. Thus, if we desire to affix the suffix ed to the word suffer, we have only to unite, without change, thj suf- fix with the radical ; as suffered. If we take prefer, a change 194 THE QUESTION BOOK.. must be made by doubling the final letter r, as preferred. This and other changes of like nature are made, for the most part, in strict accordance with known rules. These rules should be committed to memory by repeated illustra- tions in order to fully understand when and how to apply them. RULES FOR SPELLING. Rule L — The final the Senate, sitting for that purpose, on oath or affirmation, and the Chief Justice shall preside. The conviction shall be by the concurrence of, two-thirds of the members present. 23. It shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States. 24. He is liable and subject to indictment, trial, judg- ment, and punishment, according to law. 25. Judgment is the sentence pronounced by the judge or court by which the person is tried. Indictment is a writ- ten accusation of crime made by a grand jury. 26. An oath is a solemn declaration, made with an ap- peal to God for the truth of what is affirmed. An affirma- tion is a solemn declaration, made by one who is unwilling to take an oath. 27. They choose all of their officers except the presi- dent of the Senate, but when absent or exercising the office of president of the United States, one shall be chosen pro tempore, 28. For the time being. 19. It is prescribed in each state by the Legislature CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 211 thereof; but Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places choosing sen- ators. 30. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- turns, and qualifications of its own members. 31. A majority; but a smaller number may compel the attendance of absent members, in such a manner and un- der such penalties as each House may provide. 32. It may punish its members for disorderly beha- Tior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem- ber. ;^^. Not for more than three days, without the consent of the other House. 34. It shall, and print the same, unless secresy is re- quired. 35. When one-fifth of those present shall require it. ^6. The first Monday in December; but it may be con- vened by the president, when necessary, or Congress may adjourn from time to time. 37. By law; and are paid out of the treasury of the United States. ;^8. Only for felony, treason, or breach of the peace. 39. For any speech or debate in Congress. .40. He cannot. 41. In the House of Representatives. 42. Revenue is the income of government, arising from taxes, duties, etc. A bill is a formal writing presented to the Legislature for enactment. 43. By passing both Houses of Congress, and receiv- ing the sanction of the president ; but if returned within ten days, Sundays excepted, with his objections, it does not become a law, unless reconsidered and passed by a two- thirds vote of both Houses. 44. The question of adjournment, except in cases 212 THE QUESTION BOOK. of disagreement between the two Houses with respect to the time of adjournment, when the President can adjourn them to such a time as he shall think proper. 45. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; to borrow money on the credit of the United States ; to regu- late commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes ; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; to provide for the pun- ishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the ex- clusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; to constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and sup- port armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be made for a longer term than two years ; to provide and maintain a navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress in- surrections, and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the ap- pointment of the officers, and the authority of training the CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 213 militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Con- gress, become the seat of government of the United States, and exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — and to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all others vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or any department or officer thereof. 46. The law of nations, the accepted or universal laws of all nations. 47. Written authority from government to seize the property of an enemy, especially vessels and cargoes. 48. Duty, a tax levied on imports. Imports, goods brought from other countries. Excise, a tax on anything made, used, or sold. 49. The citizens of a state liable to military duty en- rolled for service. 50. The District of Columbia. 51. Fort, a place of defense. Magazine, a store where ammunition is kept. Arsenal, a repository for arms and military stores. Dockyard, a place for containing all kinds of naval stores and timber. 52. A writ for delivering a person from false imprison- ment, and can only be suspended in cases of treason, or when the public safety requires it. 53. A special act of the Legislature inflicting capital punishment upon persons supposed to be guilty of high crimes, without the process of law. It is not allowed by the constitution of the United States. 214 THE QUESTION BOOK. 54. A law making an act criminal which was not so when done. It is not allowed. 55. It cannot. 56. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding an office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 57. It cannot. 58. Not unless in imminent danger from invasion. 59. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports,except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws. 60. In a president. 61. Any citizen born in the United States, thirty-five years of age, and fourteen years a resident. 62. By electors chosen by the people. The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by distinct ballots for President and Vice-President. These votes are sealed and transmitted to the seat of gov- ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the pres- ence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for Presi- dent shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the high- est numbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 215 no person have a majority, then from the two highest num- bers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. 6;^. The Vice-President shall act as President, in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 64. Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their vote; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 65. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office. 66. The President shall, at stated time, receive for his services a compensation which shall neither be increased or diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 67. "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faith- fully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability preserve, protect, an(i defend the Constitution of the United States. " 68. The president. 69. Cases of impeachment. 70. He has the right with the advice and consent o^ the Senate to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur, and with the advice and consent the Senate he shall appoint embassadors, ministers, judges, and officers of the United States, and all appointments which shall be established by law. 71. By an appointment by the President. 72. An article directed to Congress, stating the condi- tion of the country, and proposing such measures as he may judge necessary and expedient. 73. For treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors. 216 THE QUESTION BOOK. 74. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene- mies, giving them aid and comfort. Bribery is giving money or some other consideration to procure desired legislation, a judicial decision, or other official action. 75. In one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time establish. 76. During good behavior, or life. 77. In all cases arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States, and cases that cannot be settled in the Supreme Court of any state. 78. In all cases affecting embassadors, other public min- isters and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party. In other cases the Supreme Court shall have ap- pellate jurisdiction, or jurisdiction by an appeal from lower courts. 79. In the state where the crime is committed. 80. At such a place or places as Congress may by law have directed. 81. Crimes subject to impeachment. 82. Congress. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. S$. That no posterity or person shall be denied any rights because of the punishment or conviction of another. 84. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. 85. On demand of the executive authority of the state where the crime was committed. 86. By consent of Congress. 87. From territories having 30,000 inhabitants, or from states or parts of states with the consent of the states con- cerned. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 217 88. Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful i-ules and regulations respecting it. 89. A republican form of government and protection. 90. The constitution and laws of the United States. All government officers and representatives are bound by oath to support it. 91. No religious test shall ever be required as a qualifi- cation to any office or public trust under the United States. 92. By two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress, or by the action of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states, ratified in either case by three-fourths of all the states. 93. Fifteen; the first ten were adopted at the first ses- sion of Congress. 94. Freedom of religion, of speech, of the press, the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition to the government for a redress of grievances. 95. The right of the people to keep and bear arms. 96. No soldier shall, in the time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 97. The right of the people to be secure in their per- sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures. 98. Nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb. 99. He cannot. 100. If taken for public use, he shall have just com- pensation. loi. A speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have com- pulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 102. In suits at common law, where the value in con- troversy shall exceed twenty dollars. 103. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor exces- 218 THE QUESTION BOOK. sive fines imposed, nor cniel and unusual punishment in- flicted. 104. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are re- served to the states respectively, or to the people. 105. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 106. Persons who have held office under the United States, or of any state, and shall have been engaged in in- surrection, or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 107. The vaHdity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, shall not be questioned. Any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebel- lion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave, shall be held illegal and void. 108. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abriged by the United States or any state on account of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude. QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY km ANATOMY. 1. What is Physiology? 2. What is Anatomy? What is Hygiene? 3. What law is impressed on all animal beings? 4. What is the difference between food and living flesh? 5. What organs constitute the digestive apparatus? 6. What difference in the teeth of the carnivorous and herbivorous animals? 7.' How many teeth has man, and how divided? 8. Of what are teeth composed? 9. How are the teeth set in the jaw? 10. What are salivary glands? What is their function? 11. Where are the salivary glands situated? 12. Describe the pharynx, or second chamber of the mouth. 13. What is the epiglottis? 14. Describe the cesophagus. 15. How does food find its way to the stomach? 16. Describe the stomach. 17. By what is the food dissolved in the stomach? 18. Describe the process of digestion in the stomach. 19. Of what is gastric juice composed? 20. What is hunger? 21. Wliat is the relative position of the stomach, lungs, IW'^* and diaphragm? 220 THE QUESTION BOOK. 22. To what substance is all food reduced in the stomach? 23. Does the stomach digest fatty articles of food? 24. What is the temperature of the stomach? 25. Can food be digested artificially? 26. What is the pyloric valve? 2 7. How long does it take our chief articles of food to digest? 28. What is the first work of the stomach in digestion? 29. Into what organ does the chyme pass from the stomach? 30. Describe the intestinal canal. 31. What is the pancreas? 32. What is the office of the pancreas? 33. What are the lacteal absorbments? 34. What is the lacteal duct? 35. What is called the lacteal system? 36. How is the digested food disposed of ? 37. What is chyle? 38. When is a new supply of nutriment needed? 39. Will the stomach bear sudden changes in the time of eating? 40. When does the body sustain labor and exposure best? 41. Why do growing persons, or convalescents require more food than adults or persons in health? 42. What is the common error in regard to eating? 43. When any organ of the body is in action, what changes occur? 44. What is the office of the liver? 45. Where is the bile emptied? 46. Where is the spleen? 47. What is the office of the spleen? 48. What is fatigue? 49. What is rest? PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 221 50. What terms are applied to the difference in the temperament of men ? 51. Describe the nervous temperament. 52. Describe the sanguine temperament. 53. Describe the bilious temperament. 54. Describe the lymphatic temperament. 55. How does childhood differ from old age? 56. Does this difference lequire a modification of diet? 57. What two things are to be considered in all kinds of food? 58. What are the natural effects of stimulation? 59. What is the effect of alcohol? 60. What becomes of the chyle ? 61. What is the apparatus of the circulation of the blood ? 62. Describe the heart. 63. What is the beating of the heart? 64. What are the valves of the heart? 65. How do these valves act? 66. How many sets of blood-vessels? 67. Describe the arteries. 68. Describe the veins. 69. Describe the capillaries. 70. What is the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circulation? 71. Give the circulation of the blood. 72. What is the aorta? 73. Where are the carotids? 74. Where are the subclavians? 75. What arteries supply the stomach with blood? 76. How is the liver supplied? 77. How are the kidneys supplied? 78. How is the spleen supplied? 79. How is the intestinal canal supplied? 80. How is the heart supplied ? 222 THE QUESTION BOOK. 8i. What are the chief divisions of the aorta? 82. What is the vena cava? 83. What are the names of the larger branches of the vena cavas? 84. How are the arteries or veins arranged in respect to each other? 85. How does the blood pass through the heart? 86. How do the pulmonary arteries and pulmonarj' veins differ? 87. Where are the largest arteries situated? 88. Where are the largest veins situated? 89. What prevents the blood in the veins from jflowinpc backwards? 90. How does arterial blood differ from venous? 91. What action has the lungs upon the blood? 92. What causes the blood to circulate in the veins? 93. How much blood in a man of average size? 94. In what time does it circulate through the system? 95. What circumstances will affect the rate of circula- tion? 96. How do mental states affect the circulation? 97. Where is the living flesh made? 98. What materials of the body are obtained from the blood? 99. For what purpose is the circulation of the blood? 'V, 100. What law must be observed, in regard to eating, if health is preserved? 10 1. How are the wasted particles of the body dis- posed of? 102. What elements are selected by the nutritive or- gans to form fat? 103. What elements are required to form hair? 104. What to form muscle? 105. Describe the lungs. 106. Describe the air-cells. PHYSIOLOGY AS^B ANATOMY. 223 107. What is the organ of voice? How is voice pro- duced? 108. Describe the spine. 109. Describe a vertebra, no. What is the pelvis? 111. What is the sternum? 112. What is the coccyx? 113. Describe the ribs. 114. Describe the skull. 115. What are the bones of the arm and forearm? 116. What are the bones of the wrist? 117. What are the bones of the hands? 118. Name the bones of the lower extremities. 119. How many different kinds of joints? 120. How are the joints held together? 121. Where is the clavicle? 122. Where is the scapula? 123. What pecuHarity about the joints of the neck? 124. How is the femur joined to the pelvis? 125. What peculiarity about the elbow and wrist joints? 126. Describe the hip joint. 127. Describe the shoulder joint. 128. How many bones in the human body? 129. Of what is a bone made? 130. What is the structure of a bone? 131. Where are the synoval membranes situated? 132. What is the function of the synoval membrane? 133. When is a joint said to be sprained? 134. What is a muscle? 135. How many kinds of muscles, 136. What is the use of muscles? 137. How many muscles? 138. How are the muscles under the control of the will? 139. Is the heart a muscle? Voluntary or organic? 224 THE QUESTION BOOK, 140. How do we breathe? 141. Describe the diaphragm. 142. Explain the process of inspiration. 143. Explain the process of expiration. 144. What is coughing? 145. What is sneezing? 146. What is the effect of breathing the same air sev- eral times? 147. In how many ways is the air unfit for respiration? 148. How much fresh air ought to be supplied to each person per minute? 149. How much air will the lungs hold? 150. What effect has an ill-ventilated school-room upon children? 151. What is the average number of respirations per minute? 152. What animals are most active? What most sluggish? 153. How does consumption waste the flesh and strength ? 154. Why does sleep sometimes fail to refresh? 155. What is carbonic acid? 156. What is a common source of danger from carbonic ax:id? 157. How does drowning produce death? 158. What necessity is imposed on all animals? 159. What reciprocal offices do animals and vegetables perform ? 160. What is the temperature of the human body? 161. ^Vhat is the origin of heat in living bodies? 162. Into what classes are animals divided in relation to heat? 163. What prevents an increase of temperature in the body? 164. What is insensible perspiration? PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 225 165. What is sensible perspiration? 166. Which protects from cold best, alcohol or food? 167. Which warms most, flesh or bread? 168. Why is more fat required for food in a cold climate than in a warm? 169. Describe the skin. 1 70. What is the cuticle? 171. What part of the blood flows through the skin? 172. Describe the hair. 1 73. Describe the nails. 174. Where is the seat of color in the skin? 175. What proportion of the waste of the body passes through the skin ? 176. ^Vhat connection exists between the internal or- gans and the skin? 177. What is the office of the skin? 178. Name those organs which carry off" waste matter from the body. 1 79. Name those organs which bring fresh material to the body. 180. Describe the minute structure of the perspiratory organs. 181. Of what does the nervous system consist? 182. Describe the general outline of the brain. 183. How is the brain protected? 184. What large nervous trunks have their origin in the brain? 185. What is the spinal cord, and its position? 186. How many kinds of nerves? 187. What three things are necessary for sensation? 188. Is the action of the different organs modified by the nerves? 189. Do the arteries have nerves? 190. If the nerve which governs the action of the heart should be severed, what would the heart do? 226 THE QUESTION BOOK. 191. What is day-dreaming? 192. Describe the eye. 193. What is the sclerotic coat? Cornea? 194. What is the choroid coat? 195. Where is the retina? Its office? 196. Where is the iris? Its office? 197. Describe the hds. 198. Where is the fluid prepared which moistens the eyes? 199. What are the lachrymal glands? What is the nasal duct? 200. \Vhat moves the eye? 201. Describe the optic nerve. 202. How is vision produced? 203. How does the eye change as one grows old? 204. What is the difference between a short-si'ghted man and one who is long-sighted? 205. Why are some persons cross-eyed? 206. What does the organ of hearing include? 207. Describe the external ear. 208. Describe the internal ear. 209. What is the eustachian tube? 210. How is sound produced? AN S^V E RS TO Questions on Physiology, 1. The science of the organic functions of animals or plants. 2. The science of the structure of animal bodies. 3. That branch of medicine which treats of the preser- vation of health. 4. Food is the material we eat, changed by the action of the system into living flesh. 5. The mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, pancreas and intestinal canal. 6. The carnivorous have sharp front teeth, and long, sharp and pointed canine teeth, and grinders with high and sharpened points. The herbivorous have short, blunt, and strong front teeth; small canine teeth; but their molars are very large broad and flat, with slightly raised lines on their surface. 7. Sixteen in each jaw: four incisors in the center; one canine next to the incisors, on each side ; then two bicus- pids, and three molars. 8. They are composed of soft bone within, but are covered on the outside with an enamel of very hard tex- ture, which admits of an exquisitely fine polish. 9. With long fangs, so they are not easily started from their places. 10. They are glands which empty their fluids into the 228 THE QUESTION BOOK. mouth. Their function is to secrete fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and assists, in a measure, in diges- tion. 11. The two larger ones, situated between the ear and upper part of the jaw, and are called parotid glands. Two smaller ones situated about half way between the symphe- sis, or center, are called submaxillary. Smaller ones still, underneath the tongue, are called sublingual. 12. It is separated from the mouth by the palate. Four passages open out of it : one leads forward to the mouth ; a second, upward to the nose ; a third, downward to the lungs; and a fourth, backward to the stomach. 13. A small valve placed over the mouth of the trachea, admitting air, but excluding all foreign substances. 14. It is a soft muscular tube, extending from the pharynx to the stomach, and is about nine inches in lengthy and some less than one inch in diameter. It is composed principally of two muscular coats; the fibers of one run lengthwise of the tube, and the fibers of the other passing around it in a circular manner. 15. Upon being forced back in the mouth to the phar- ynx it causes, by its presence, the muscles of the pharynx to contract upon it. This is the act of swallowing, and is beyond the control of the will. The circular fibers of the muscles of the oesophagus seize upon the morsel of food, and contracting, force it downward until it reaches the stomach. 16. It is an oval-shaped sac, situated below the dia- phragm on the same plane with the liver, and lies mostly on the left side of the spine. It has two openings; an up- per, or cardiac orifice, where the oesophagus enters; and a lower or pyloric orifice, which enters into the duodenum. It is composed of three coats : an outer, or serous coat, which is the same as that which lines the whole abdomen ; a middle, or muscular coat composed of two layers of PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 229 iibers, longitudinal and circular, the contraction of which move the food about the stomach during digestion ; and an inner, or mucous coat, containing the gastric tubules, which secrete the gastric juice. 17. A powerful fluid called the gastric juice. 1 8. The presence of food in the stomach causes the gastric juice to be thrown out. The muscles of the stom- ach move the food about, which causes the gastric juice to be thoroughly intermingled with it. The gastric juice re- duces the food to a pulpy mass, which occurs usually, in three cr four hours, and is then passed out of the stomach ^ at the pyloric orifice. 19. It is composed of an acid, supposed to be lactic or hydrochloric acid, and an organic substance called pep- sine. 20. A sensation of want of more nutriment in the body, and is caused by the action of the blood on the terminal branches of the nerves in the mucous coat of the stomach. 21. The lungs lie within the walls of the thorax, sep- arated from the abdomen by a broad muscle, the diaphragm. Under the right lung, below the diaphragm, lies the liver; and to the left is the stomach. 22. A pulpy substance, called chyme. 23. It does not; they are digested by the pancreatic and intestinal juices. 24. About 100^ F. 25. It can. If food be thoroughly mixed with hydro- hloric acid and pepsine, and kept at an equal temperature of 100°, it will be reduced in a few hours to a homoge- neous mass somewhat resembling chyme. 26. It is no valve, but simply a narrowing or contrac- tion of the pyloric end of the stomach. 230 THE QUESTION BOOK. 27. Articles. Preparation. Time. Hrs. Min. Apples, hard, sour. . . . Apples, sweet, mellow. Barley Beef, fresh, rare Beef, steak Bread, wheat, fresh... Cake, sponge Cheese, old Codfish, salt, dry Ducks, wild Eggs, fresh Eggs, fresh Eggs, fresh, whipped. . Milk, new Mutton, fresh Oysters, fresh Oysters, fresh — . . . . . Pigs' feet, soused . . . . Pork, fat and lean . . . , Pork, salted Potatoes, Irish. . ; . . . . , Potatoes, Irish. Rice Sausage Soup, barley Soup, oyster Tripe, soused. ....... Trout, fresh. Veal, fresh Venison, steak Raw. Raw. Boiled. Roasted. Fried. Baked. Baked. Raw. Boiled Roasted. Boiled, har-'. Roasted. Raw. Raw. Roasted. Raw. Stewed. Boiled. Roasted. Raw. Boiled. Roasted. Boiled. Broiled. Boiled. Boiled. Boiled. Fried. Fried. Broiled. 50 30 30 30 3«> 30 30 20 30 15 3 15 S . . 3 30 I .. 5 15 3 ... 3 30 2 30 I ... 3 20 I 30 3 30 I 30 4 30 I 35 28. To get rid of the greater part of the fluid which has been swallowed with the food. 29. Into the duodenum. 30. It is composed of three coats, arranged in a man- ner similar to the stomach, and for similar purposes. The mucous coat secretes the intestinal juice, which aids diges- tion. It is divided into the large and small intestines ; the small intestine is sub-divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum ; between the ileum and the large intestine is a a perfect valve, which alldws nothing to pass back that has once entered the large intestine from the ileum. PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 231 31. A long, narrow gland, situated immediately below and behind the stomach. 32. It secretes the pancreatic juice, which is emptied into the duodenum, and digests the fatty parts of food. ;^^. Numberless minute tubules in the intestinal mucous membrane, which take up by absorption the nutriments, and convey it to the blood. These tubules join together, forming other tubules, which again join, and continue to do so until all are united in the thoracic duct. 34. The duct into which all the lacteal absorbents empty, and is sometimes called the thoracic duct. It passes up- ward along the spine, and empties into the left subclavian vein. 35. The lacteal absorbents, the tubes which they form by joining together, and the lacteal duct, — all together form the lacteal system, 36. In the duodenum the digested food is divided into two kinds : that which is to enter the blood vessels, and the waste. 3 7. Food reduced to a whitish colored fluid, and ready to be absorbed by the lacteals. ^S. When the lacteal absorbents have consumed the chyle and carried it to the veins, and the blood can no longer meet the demands of the wasting flesh. 39. Not without some complaint. One's appetite re- turns ^t established periods; then his stomach craves food, and the gastric juice is ready to flow and dissolve it. 40. When it is best nourished. 41. In order to meet the new conditions, and supply the new wants of the system. 42. That to please the palate, food that is not easily digested is eaten, and more than the system requires. 43. The nervous force of the part is increased, and the circulation of the blood quickened, to supply the waste and support its powers. 232 THE QUESTION BOOK. 44. To form the bile, the elements of which are sep- arated from the blood. 45. It is emptied through a duct into the duodenum, and serves to keep the intestinal contents in a healthy con- dition. 46. On the left side of the spine. 47. It is a ductless gland ; and its office is not for a certainty known. 48. A waste of the particles of the system, by exercise greater than the new materials supplied by the blood. 49. The restoration of the materials wasted by fatigue. 50. The general classes are the nervous, sanguine, bil- ious, and lymphatic temperaments. 51. Those in whom the nervous system predominates, who are easily elated or depressed, whose mental actions are performed with rapidity. 52. Those in whom the circulatory system predomin- ates, who are strong, but at the same time active, who are bold and resolute, and always hopeful. 53. Those in whom the physical system predominates, who are strong in mind and body, but not quick, who. are calm, steady, and persevering. 54. Those in whom the lymphatic system predomin- ates, who are indisposed to exertion and unexcitable. 55. In childhood the blood flows rapidly, the muscles are easily stimulated to action, the nervous system is irri- table, and the feelings and passions are readily quickened. In old age, all the powers, feelings and passions are in an opposite direction. 56. It does. The elastic period requires a mild and soothing diet, while the inactive period needs more stimu- lating food. 57. First — The digestibility. Second — The quantity of nutriment contained in them. 58. When any part of the body is rubbed with pepper, PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 233 mustard, or spirits, it creates an irritation; the blood flows to the place more abundantly; there is greater action and quicker life ; but these effects soon cease, and then the skin is pale, the circulation is more languid, for unusual action of the muscles causes fatigue. 5j9. It is quick in action, both in excitement and ex- haustion. To a healthy stomach it must be injurious, foi it gives only temporary strength; it only quickens the ac- tion and expenditure of power already existing, leaving the stomach to fall below its natural standard. 60. It is taken up by the lacteal absorbents, carried through the lacteal tubes, to the thoracic duct, and from that emptied into the left subclavian vein near the heart. 61. The heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins. 62. It is a hollow, muscular organ of a conical form, placed between the lungs, lying more in the left than right cavity of the chest. It is about five inches in length, three inches and a half in breadth, and two inches and a half in thickness ; and weighs from eight to twelve ounces. It is divided by a se-ptum into two lateral halves; and a trans- verse construction divides each half into two cavities, the upper cavity on each side being called the auricle, and the lower the ventricle. 6^. When the heart contracts, to send the bl®od out, the apex is thrown forward and strikes against the ribs of the left side, near the breast bone, where the beating is very easily felt. 64. In the passage-ways of the heart valves are placed, which open to allow the blood to pass downward, but they close, and prevent its passing upward. 65. They act on the same principle as the valve in the common pump-box. 66. Three : The arteries, veins and capillaries. 67. They are tubular vessels, which serve to convey the blood fiom both ventricles of the heart to every part of 234 THE QUESTION BOOK.. the boay. They are composed of three coats : internal, middle, and external. The middle coat consists of muscu- lar and elastic fibers principally, which make the larger arteries very elastic. The arteries are supplied with nutri- ent arteries and nerves. 68. The veins return the blood from the capillaries to the heart, communicating very freely with one another. 69. They are minute terminal branches of the arteries, and pervade nearly every tissue of the body in a vast net- work. 70. In the pulmonary circulation the blood is conveyed to the lungs to be purified, and then brought back to the heart; in the systemic circulation the blood is carried to every part of the system, and returned by the veins to the heart. 71. By a contraction of the heart the blood is forced from the left ventricle through the aortic valve? into the aorta, and through all the arteries of the body, to the upper and lower extremities, and the internal organs. From these various points it enters the capillaries, where all the changes in the system are produced; and is then taken up by the veins, and returned as venous blood to the right auricle of the heart. From the right auricle it passes through a valvular constriction into the right ventricle ; from the right ventricle it is forced through valves into the pulmon- ary arteries, which carry it to the lungs; and from the lungs returned again to the heart through the pulmonary veins, entering the left auricle of the heart, and passing to the left ventricle, the point of commencement. 72. The largest artery in the systemic circulation. It passes upward from the heart at first, describes a curve, and goes downward, passing through the diaphragm, and along the spinal column. The curved portion is called the arch of the aorta ; between the arch and the diaphragm PHVSiOLOGlif AND ANATOMY. 236 it is called the thoracic aorta; below the diaphragm, the abdominal aorta. 73. The carotids are arteries carrying blood upwards along the neck; the left carotid arises from the arch of the aorta ; the right from the arteria innominata, a large vessel springing from the aorta. 74. The subclavians carry blood to the arms; the left arises from the arch of the aorta; the right from the arteria nominata. 75. The gastric artery, arising from the coelic, which arises from the abdominal aorta; also, a branch from the splenic artery, and one from the hepatic. 76. The liver is supplied by the hepatic artery, a branch of the coelic axis. 77. The kidneys are supplied by the renal arteries. 78. By the splenic artery, the third branch of the coelic axis. 79. By the superior and inferior messenteric arteries. So. By the coronary arteries, small branches from the aorta. 81. The subclavian, carotid, coelic, hepatic, renal, Splenic, and where the aorta branches off to go to the ex- tremities it is then called (the two branches that pass through the groins) the inguinal arteries, and where they enter the thighs the femoral arteries. 82. There are two vessels by this name : one called the superior, and the other the inferior vena cava. The superior vena cava is formed by the junction of the two in- nominate veins, which in turn are formed from the sub- clavian and jugular veins. The inferior vena cava is formed from the junction of the two iliac veins, which are supplied by the femoral and other veins. Both vessels empty into the right auricle of the heart. 83. The jugular, subclavian, and inguinal veins. 84. The arteries begin at the heart, and end in all the 236 THE QUESTION BOOK. parts of the body, in minute tubes. The veins, on the contrary, begin in the flesh of all the parts of the body at the connecting link (the capillaries), and end in one large trunk, the vena cava, at the heart. 85. By the contraction of the heart, which forces the blood from one chamber to another; first, from the right auricle to the right ventricle, then to the lungs, and back to the heart, passing through the left auricle and left ven- tricle. 86. The pulmonary arteries convey venous blood from the heart to the lungs, where it is purified, and then re- turned to the heart by the pulmonary veins as arterial blood. 87. They are placed deeply within the flesh, where they are protected from injury. Some of them approach the surface, and their pulsations can be felt at the wrist, at the sides of the neck and on the temple. 88. Their great trunks are placed near the great arteries, but being less liable to injury, their branches are situated nearer to, and more of them on, the surface, than the ar- terial branches. 8y. Valves placed at proper intervals on the inner coat of the veins. The long veins are the best supplied ; some veins have no valves. 90. Venous blood is of a dark purple color, loaded with the waste particles of the system. The arterial blood is of a bright scarlet color, purified of all wastt? matter, rich in oxygen and nutricious elements 91. It purifies the venous blood by means of the air in the lungs, which gives up its oxygen, and absorbs the carbon and other impurities. 92. The action of the heart, which is like a pump; for when the arterial blood is forced out, it leaves a vacuum for the venous blood to flow in ; also the pressure of the PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 237 muscles on the veins by contraction; and perhaps a power from behind, or capillary force, in the capillaries. 93. It is estimated to be twenty-eight pounds. 94. The left ventricle of the heart, in a man of average size, will contain about two ounces. Every time the heart beats, this cavity is filled and emptied. In ordinary health the heart will beat about seventy-two times in a minute; therefore, in three minutes, an amount of blood equal to the whole, will pass through the heart, or system. 95. The heart will beat faster when we are standing than when we are sitting, and faster when sitting than when lying down. The pulsation is more rapid in the morning than in the evening. All exercise increases the force of the circulation. 96. When the mind is excited with anger, hope, cheer- fulness and love, the blood flows more freely, and he is capable of greater exertions. The depressing passions have the opposite effect. 97. In the capillaries. 98. All the tissues of the body, — the bone, muscle^ brain, skin, fat, the hair and nails, the tears, saliva, and the perspiration. 99. To cany nutrition to the body, and absorb the dead particles of the flesh. 100. When exercise is light, eat but little, and at no time eat to excess. 10 1. They are thrown out of the system by the lungs, by the skin, by the kidneys, and by the liver and intestines. 102. Seventy-nine parts of carbon, i imparts of hydro- gen, and 9% parts of oxygen. 103. Fifty parts of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, 17 of nitro- gen, and 26 parts oxygen and sulphur. 104. Fifty-one parts of carbon, 7 of hydrogen, 15 of nitrogen, 2 1 of oxygen, and 4 parts of other matters. 105. The lungs are placed, one in each of the lateral 238 THE QUESTION BOOK. cavities of the chest, separated from each other by the heart; and are conical in shape. The right lung is larger than the other, and has three lobes ; the left lung has two. The weight of both lungs is about forty-two ounces ; the color, in young persons, is of a pinkish white, but mot- tled with dark spots as age advances. The substance of the lungs is of a light, spongy texture. Passing through it in every direction from the trachea are numerous tubes, called bronchial tubes, growing smaller as they subdivide. Each tube ends in a minute cell, or vesicle, the air-cell. 1 06. The air tubes commence at the back part of the mouth and nostrils with a single cylinder, which leads through the neck to the chest; but in the lungs they are divided and subdivided into smaller and smaller tubes, and at the minute teraiination of these tubes are found the air- cells. These cells are separated from the myriads of min- ute arteries only by an exceedingly thin membrane, so thin that gases can pass through it, and the blooa itself is almost in contact with the air, whereby it becomes purified and in condition to nourish the system. 107. The larynx is the organ of voice, and is the upper part of the trachea, where small cords, called vocal cords, stretch across it. Voice is produced by the air rushing over the vocal cords. 108. The spinal column is composed of twenty-foui vertebrae — the sacrum and the coccyx; and is a little over two feet in length. The vertebn-e are separated from one another by a thick piece of elastic cartilage, which saves the body from jars. Twelve of the vertebrae in the thoracic region support the twelve ribs on each side. 109. It is somewhat circular and flattened on the sides, with tooth-like projections, which match one with another. They each have spinous processes extending backward. Through the center of each vertebrae the spinal cord passes. no. It is a bony cavity at the lower part of the spine, PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOxMY. 239 composed of the sacrum, coccyx, and the two innominate bones, or hip bones. 111. A flat, sword-shaped bone, consisting of three pieces, which forms the front part of the thorax, and sup- ports the ribs by means of their cartilages. 112. A small bone at the lower extremity of the sac- rum. 113. The ribs are curved, and join the spine behind, and the sternum in front. The lower five are called false ribs, because their connection with the sternum is not so close as that of the others. 114. The skull is divided into the cranium and face; the cranium is composed of eight bones, the face of four- teen. 115. The humerus of the arm, and the radius and ulna of the forearm. 116. In the wrist are eight small bones arranged in two layers. 117. In the hands are five metacarpal bones and four- teen phlanges. 118. In the thigh, the femur; in the leg, the tibia and fibula; in the ankle, seven small bones; in the foot, five metacarpal bones and fourteen phlanges; also, the patella, or knee-pan. 119. Four: the hinge joint, as in the elbow; the ball and sock joint, as in the shoulder and thigh; a combination of the hinge joint with a rotary movement, as in the neck; and a joint with a sliding movement, as between the clavi- cle and sternum. 120. They are held together by ligaments. 121. It IS the collar bone, extending between the ster- num and shoulders. 122. The scapula is a broad, flat, triangular bone, called the sho alder-blade , it forms part of the shoulder joint. 123. Between the head and the first vertebra is a 240 THE QUESTION BOOK. hinge joint; and between the first and second vertebra is a joint with a rotary movement, formed by a tooth-like projection from the second vertebra, which serves as an axis for the first to i)lay upon. These two joints combined gives the various movements to the head. 124. By a ball and socket joint. 125. That a rotary movement is given to the hand by the radius rotating in a fibrous socket at the elbow, and corresponding movement at the wrist between the ulna and hand. 126. The femur, or thigh bone, has almost a globular head at its upper extremity, which is fitted into a very deep socket in the side bone of the pelvis. The socket is called the acetabulum. 127. The head of the bone of the upper arm is less than half a ball, and is fitted into a very shallow socket in the upper corner of the scapula or shoulder-blade. 128. Two hundred and four, besides the teeth and the patellae, or knee-caps. 129. Of animal and earthy matter: two-thirds earthy and one-third animal. The earthy matter is principally carbonate and phosphate of lime. 130. Bone is made of two kinds of tissue: a dense, hard tissue, like ivory, which is on the outside and forms .-V the shell; and a porous or cancellated tissue, always found on the inside of the bone. 131. In joints. 132. To secret a liquid which lubricates the joint. 133. When, by an accident, a ligament or some fibers of a ligament are torn or much stretched. 134. The active organs of locomotion. They are formed of bundles of reddish fibres endowed with the prop- erty of contractility. 135. Two: those under control of the will, called the PH^'SIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 241 muscles of animal life ; and those over which the will has no control, called muscles of organic life. 136. To produce all the motions of the body. 137. About 527; the number varies. 138. Through the nervous system. Every muscle of animal life is supplied with nerves through which the mind operates. 139. It is a muscle of organic life. 140. Principally by the aid of the diaphragm, which contracting, produces a vacum in the lungs, and air rushes in to fill the space. 141. It is a flat muscle, and is a flexible partition that divides the chest from the abdomen, and separates the res- piratory from the digestive organs. Its edges are attached to the back-bone, to the lower edge of the lower ribs, to the breast-bone, and to the loAver part of the chest. It forms an arch, upon the upper surface of which the lungs rest; and in the hollow below, the liver and stomach. "WTien the diaphragm is at rest its upper point reaches as high as the fourth rib ; but Vv-hen it is in action it is drawn down to below the seventh rib. 142. The muscles on the sides of the chest raise the ribs and extend their circle forward and outward. The diaphragm draws down its arch and thus enlarges the chest, and the lungs having room for expansion, the air is pressed into them to fill the vacuum left by the enlarging chest. This is the mechanical part of the process of inspiration. 143. After the chest is thus sufficiently expanded, the muscles of the ribs and the diaphragm relax and lose their firmness. Then the action of other muscles carries the ribs dovmward; and at the same time, the muscles that cover the abdomen press upon its contents, and force them against the diaphragm. This yields to the pressure and rises upward and presses upon the lungs, which retreat be- 242 THE QUESTION BOOK. fore it, and the air is expelled. This is the process of ex- piration. 144. A spasmodic action of the muscles of expiration forcing the air out violently through the mouth. 145. It is the same action as coughing, only the mouth is closed, and the air rushes through the nose. 146. It poisons the system, the expired air being loaded with waste matter and carbonic acid. 147. Three: by being deprived of oxygen; by being loaded with carbonic acid ; by being filled with waste mat- ter from the lungs, skin, etc., or other poisonous materials. 148. About four cubic feet. 149. About 384 cubic inches. 150. They grow dull and sleepy from the action of the poisonous matter in the air. 151. Eighteen. 152. Those which breathe most are the most vigorous, lively, and active, while those which breathe least are the most sluggish, stupid and feeble. 153. In this disease the lungs are more or less filled with tubercles and abscesses ; the air-vessels are, to some extent, closed, so that the air cannot penetrate them and reach the blood, to purify it ; therefore, for want of pure blood, the system is not well nourished, the muscles grow thin and weak, and the body gradually wastes away. 154. For want of sufficient air. 155. This gas is known by many as damps ^ dead air^ and is often found in wells and vats. It is heavier than air, and, therefore, falls to the bottom of a vessel or room, like water. 156. A pan of coals is sometimes left burning in a bed- room which has no fire-place, while some one sleeps on the bed. The gas given out falls to the floor, and fills the bot- tom of the room, rising as fast as it is produced, until, like PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 243 water, it reaches the sleeper's head, and suffocation is the result. 157. It produces death, not, as is commonly supposed, by filling the lungs with water, but because the water pre- vents the access of air to the respiratory organs, and the sufferer dies from suffocation. 158. The necessity of good air, though in an unequal degree. Yet every animal, the highest and the lowest, the man and the worm, must sustain life by their breath. 159. The animal uses oxygen and gives out carbonic acid; while, on the other hand, the plant uses carbonic acid, and gives out oxygen. 160. 98° to 100^, F. 1 61. The carbon of the food and the oxygen of the air. These two unite and produce heat similar to the way in which heat is produced by sensible combustion. 162. Into two grand classes : the warm-blooded, and in- cludes man, birds, quadrupeds, &c. Their heat is ever of the same degree. The other class is called cold-blooded, and includes snakes, oysters, fishes, worms, toads, turtles, &c. Their heat is but little higher than that of the medium in which they live. 163. Perspiration. 164. That moisture which is absorbed by the air as fast as formed. 165. When the moisture is exuded too fast to be imme- diately absorbed, and is left in small drops upon the skin. 166. Alcohol stimulates the stomach, and excites the nervous system. It supplies to the flame carbon and hydrogen ; but these soon burn out, and the body is after- ward cooler than it otherwise would have been. Food, alone, can sustain a permanent fire. 167. Flesh, containing more carbon and hydrogen, sup- plies more fuel to the fire than vegetable matter. 244 THE QUESTION BOOK. 1 68. Because it supplies more carbon, and gives more heat. 169. It is composed of two layers; t«he derma, or true skin, and the epidermis, or cuticle. On the surface of the former are the sensitive papillae; and within or beneath it are the sweat glands, hair follicles and sebaceous glands. This layer is a dense and thick membrane, and composed of firm and strong fibers, and is almost filled with minute blood vessels. 170. The cuticle, or scarf skin, is a thin layer for the purpose of protecting the derma. 171. A large proportion. 172. It is an outgrowth from the skin. It has a root which is bulbous ; and a shaft which is hollow. The hollow ceases near the point. 173. The nails are also outgrowths from the skin. They are flattened, elastic structures of a horny nature, and are firmly connected with the cutis. 1 74. In the pigment cells, or the rete mucosum, which are situated in the innermost and last formed layer of the cuticle. The contents of these cells give the diff"erent shades to the various races of mankind. 175. About five-eighths. 176. A most intimate connection. As the blood finds its way freely through it, it serves to relieve internal organs when the circulation is disturbed. 177. It protects the body; it regulates the heat of the body by means of its sweat-follicles; and it throws out much waste matter. 1 78. The skin, lungs, kidneys, liver, and intestines. 179. The stomach and intestines particularly; and sometimes the skin. The lungs bring oxygen. 180. The perspired fluid is formed by the inner skin and conveyed to the surface, through minute tubes which are attached to the glands. There are three thousand five PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 245 hundred and twenty-eight of these Httle tubes on each square inch in the palm of the hand, and twenty-eight hundred on each square inch throughout the whole body, making seven millions of perspiratory tubes on a man of average size. 1 8 1. The brain, spinal cord, and the nerves. 182. It is divided into two principal parts, the cerebrum and cerebellum. The first is divided by a deep fissure into two lateral halves, called hemispheres. The under part of the cerebellum is divided in the same way. The cerebrum is much the larger part of the brain, and occupies the an- terior portion of the skull. Its surface is indented with nu- merous convolutions. The outer portion , of grey color, is called the cortical substance. The inner portion, of like color, is called the medullary substance. The cerebrum is separated from the cerebellum by a strong fibrous tissue. 183. By three membranes which cover it. The inner and middle of these membranes are very delicate, and give the brain a soft cushion to lie between it and its bony en- closure. The outer membrane is thick and very strong, and would hold the brain in its position, even when re- moved from the skull. 184. The olfactory nerve, the optic, the facial and au- ditory, the pneumogastric, and others, nine in all. Some authors divide the seventh and eighth pair, and make three more nerves. 185. It extends from the brain, through the whole length of the spinal column. It gives off thirty pairs of nerves, which divide and subdivide until they reach every part of the body. 186. Two: motor and sensory. 187. The nerves upon which the impression is made, the trunk which conveys the impression, and the brain which receives it and perceives it. 246 THE QUESTION BOOK. 1 88. They are. The amount of blood they receive is regulated by the nerves. 189. They do. 190. The heart would cease beating. 191. Drawing beautiful imaginations of the future, where all things which are unpleasant and disagreeable are ex- cluded; where wealth, honor, fame, love, and pleasure are begging at the dreamer's feet. It is but one delightful revery, where all is beautiful and satisfactory. It is more commonly known as "building air-castles. " 192. It is placed in a deep, bony socket. It contains two humors : the aqueous humor, a transparent fluid in the anterior portion of the eye ; and the vitreous humor, trans- parent and jelly-like, in the posterior portion, and forms the greater part of the eye. Between these two humors is the chrj-stalline lens, a double convex lens. 193. It is a dense fibrous coat, covering the whole eye except in front, in which the cornea is placed, a transpar- ent and strong tissue. 194. It is the middle coat, and contains a black pig- ment, which absorbs such rays of light as are not needed for vision. 195. A delicate nervous membrane, lining the inner surface of the ^choroid coat. The images of external ob- jects are received upon it. Behind, it is continuous with ^ the optic nerve. 196. It is a thin, circular-shaped curtain suspended be- hind the cornea, in the aqueous humor, and connected at its circumference with the choroid coat. A small opening in its center admits the rays of light, and is called the pupil. 197. They are composed of cartilages adapted to the shape of the eye, the skin without, and the lining mem- brane within. One circular muscle surrounds the open part of the eye, and closes the lids when it contracts. An- PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY. 247 Other muscle, attached to the upper eyeUd by one end, and to the bone of the socket by the other, opens the eye. 198. In the Hning membrane of the Hds. 199. The lachrymal glands secrete the tears, and are in the upper and outer part of the orbit. The tears clean the eye of any particles of foreign matter ; and upon reach- ing the inner corner of the eye pass into the lachrymal canal and nasal duct into the nose. The nasal duct is a membranous canal, about three quarters of an inch in length, extending from the inner corner of the eye into the nose. 200. The eye is rolled by a set of muscles peculiar to itself. These are attached by one end to the bony socket, and by the other to the eyeball. By their contractions they roll the eye in every direction ; and, by their co-opera- tion, both eyes are directed to a single object. 201. It passes from the base of the brain forward through the socket and into the eyeball. After passing the outer and middle coats, it is spread out on their inner sur- face, and forms the retina, which receives the rays of light. 202. The light is reflected from objects, and passes through the transparent cornea and the pupil into the ball. The humors and the lens refract these rays, and give them such a direction that they fall upon the retina, where they form the image of the object. This impression is carried along the optic nerve to the brain, and there perception takes place and the object is seen. 203. The lens loses its convexity in some degree, and the rays of light are not concentrated at short distances upon the retina; the person becomes far-sighted. 204. In one who is near-sighted the lenses are too con- vex; in one who is long-sighted the lenses are not convex enough. 205. Because the muscles that govern the movement of 248 THE QUESTION BOOK. the eyeball do not act in harmony ; one muscle is more powerful than another, and draws the eye to one side. 206. The external ear, the internal ear, and the passage between them. 207. It is composed principally of stiff cartilage; and its shape is that which is best adapted to catch sounds, and transmit them to the internal ear. The canal leading in- wards is about an inch in length ; and is covered with hair and wax to project it from insects. A thin membrane, the covering of the drum of the ear, is stretched across the the canal, and separates it from the internal ear. 208. It consists of a cavity filled with air behind the membrane of the drum, and three small bones, which reach from the membrane to the labyrinth, where the auditory nerve is spread out in numerous filaments to receive im- pressions of sound. 209. A canal passing from the internal ear to the back part of the mouth, and serves as vent to the air in the drum of the ear. 210. The pulsations of air pass along the external canal, cause the membrane of the drum to vibrate, which transmits the vibrations by the air and three small bones to the labyrinth, where in some unexplained manner, the" filaments of the auditory nerve receive the impression, which is conveyed to the brain, and we hear. QUESTIONS ON Physical Geography. 1. What is Pliysical Geography? 2. What are some of the proofs of the rotundity of the earth? 3. What conclusively proves the annual revolution of the earth? 4. In what condition was the earth supposed to be in a remote period of its existence? 5. What are the uroofs of this molten condition of the earth. 6. How did the earth become solid? 7. What is the thickness of the earth's crust? 8. What is a simple substance? 9. How many elements have been discovered? 10. How many elements mainly compose the crust of the earth? 11. What is oxygen? Silicon? Carbon? Hydrogen? Sodium? Chlorine? Sulphur? Potassium? Calcium? Magnesium? Aluminum? 12. How are rocks classihed? 13. What are stratified rocks? 14. How are these rocks formed into layers? 15. How did water originate on the earth's surface? 16. What are igneous rocks? 17. What are metamorphic rocks? 18. What are fossils? 250 THE QUESTION BOOK. 19. What are fossiliferous rocks? Nonfossiliferous? 20. Into how many ages does geology divide the globe? 21. What is the Azoic Age? The Silurian Age? De- vonian Age? Carboniferous Age? Reptilian Age? Mam- malian Age? Age of Man? 22. By what agencies are the changes of the earth's crust produced at the present time. 23. How does the atmosphere produce a change? 24. How does the water produce a change? 25. What is erosion? 26. Where is the greatest example of erosion. 27. What are the changes which are produced by the action of the heated interior? 28. Where are there illustrations of the slowly progress- ing change? 29. What will eventually be the condition of the earth's surface ? 30. What proportion of the whole volume of the globe is water? 31. What is the position of the continents? 32. How are islands divided? 33. What are continental islands? 34. Give illustrations of continental islands. 35. What are oceanic islands? 36. What is coral? ^Vhere found? 37. Into how many classes are coral formations divided? 38. What are fringing reefs? 39. What are barrier reefs? Encircling reefs? 40. What are atolls, or coral islands? 41. What is a lagoon? 42. What is the theory of the circular formation of atolls? 43. Into how many great classes may we divide the surface of the earth? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 251 44. Where is found the highest elevation of the earth? The lowest depression? 45. What is trend? 46. What elevation is given as necessary to become table-lands? 47. Where are the great plateaus of the world? 48. Where are the great low plains of the world? 49. Into how many classes are mountains divided? 50. What is a longitudinal valley? A transverse valley? 51. How many mountain systems in America? 52. What is the extent of the Rocky system? 53. Describe the Alleghany system. 54. Describe the plateau of North America. How may this region be divided? 55. How may the plateaus of South America be divided? 56. Describe the plateau of the Andts. 5 7. Into what divisions are the plateaus of Asia divided ? 58. What does the central table-land of Asia embrace? 59. What table-lands does Southern Asia embrace? 60. What are the known table-lands of Africa? 61. Describe the principal plateau of Europe. 62. Where is the great plain of North America? 6$. What does the great plain of South America comr prise? How is it divided? a. What are //anos, selv as, pampas^ and wastes "i b. What are steppes, heaths, lands, and where found? c. What is a plain? Plateau, or table-land? 64. What is the boundary of the great plain of the Eastern Continent? 65. What are some of the chief points in the physical geography of Siberia? 66. What are the principal known plains of Africa? a. Describe the Desert of Sahara. 262 THE QUESTION BOOK. 67 Of what is the hiterior of Australia supposed to consist? 6S. What resemblance between North and South America? 69. From what do volcanic phenomena result? How are these phenomena divided? 70. How are volcanoes classified? 71. What are intermittent volcanoes? a. What is the crater of a volcano? Lava? 72. Where is the largest known crater in the world? 73. Into what classes are volcanoes divided? 74. What is the central? The lineal? 75. "V^Tiere are volcanoes most numerous? 76. How many volcanoes have been enumerated? 77. What are some of the volcanic phenomena? 78. What are mud volcanoes? Where found? 79. What are fields of fire? Where found? 80. What are earthquakes, and where confined ? 81. What are the movements of earthquakes? 82. What is the theory of earthquakes? S$. What is the dynamic force of earthquakes? 84. "What is the duration ? 85. Of what does hydrography treat? 86 What are springs, and how may they be classified? 87. What are perennial springs? Intermittent? Peri- odical? 88. How are springs produced? 89. What are artesian wells? 90. What is a bifurcation? 91. Into what classes are rivers divided? Describe them. a, "What is the basin of a river? A watershed? 92. On what does the amount of water in a basin de- pend? PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY. 253 93. Into what divisions may the United States be di- vided with reference to its drainage? 94. What are the divisions of Europe ? 95. What is a singular fact in regard to the watershed', of Europe which separates the three systems of drainage? 96. Where do the largest streams of Africa flow? Of Asia? 97. Why do larger streams flow into the Atlantic than into the Pacific ? 98. How are lakes divided? Describe each class. 99. What name is given to lakes without an outlet? 100. Where are the principal steppe lakes? loi. Describe the Caspian Sea. 102. Describe the most extensive lake region of the- globe. 103. What is said of the Great Lakes? How large are they? 104. Describe the lake regions of Europe. 105. ^Vliat are the Tundras? 106. What is the color of the ocean? Depth? Trans- parency? 107. Which is heavier, fresh or sea-water? At what temperature will sea-water freeze ? 108. What causes the phosphorescence of the sea? 109. How many, and where are the great mediter- ranean seas? a. What is a mediterranean sea? no. Name the principal border seas. What separates these seas from the ocean? a. What are the three distinct movements of the ocean ? b. What are tides? Neap tides? Springtides? c. AVhat are the chief causes of the tides? d. What are v/aves? Breakers? How high da waves roll? v 254 THE QUESTION BOOK. 111. To what depth is the sea agitated by waves? 112. What is the height of tides? 113. Describe the great tidal wave. 114. What are ocean currents? How are they di- vided? 115. What are temporary currents? 116. What are periodical currents? 117. What are constant currents? 118. What is a counter current? Where are they found? 119. Of what does meteorology treat? 120. What is the composition of air? 121. What is temperature^ 122. On what does the temperature of a place depend? 123. What is the depth of the limit of invariable tem- perature in the several zones? 124. What is the depth of the limit of invariable tem- perature in the ocean? 125. What is the mean temperature of a place? 126. Does the mean temperature of a place vary one year with another? 127. What are isothermal lines? 128. Into how many zones of climate may the surface of the earth be divided by the isothermal lines? 129. What is wind? How produced? 130. To what region must we look for the cause of tht: circulation of the winds of the globe? 131. Explain the circulation of the atmosphere. 132. What are trade winds? 133. Why do these currents become distinct winds at 30° of latitude? 134. In what direction do the trade-winds blow? Why? 135. How many wind zones are there? 136. Where is the zone oi calms? 137. Where are the sub-tropical zones? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. , 255 138. Where are the zones of variable winds? 139. What are monsoons? 140. Wliere are the principal monsoon regions? 141. Describe the monsoons of the Indian Ocean. 142. What is the cause of the monsoons of the Carib- bean Sea? 143. What are the "Northers" of Texas and Mexico? 144. What are land and sea-breeze si 145. Where are the Etesian winds? To what do they owe their origin? 146. What are the most noted hot winds, and where do they prevail? 147. What are the most noted cold winds, and where do they prevail? 148. What are whirlwinds? Waterspouts? 149. How are the tropical storms variously named? 150. Where are the three principal hurricane regions? 151. What is the nature of tornadoes? 152. What is dew, hoar-frost, fogs, clouds, rain, and snow? 153. How is hail formed? 154. Into what classes are clouds divided? Describe each class. 155. How may the surface of the earth be divided in reference to the quantity of rain that falls? 156. Where are the regions of periodical rains? 157. Describe the zone oi calms. 158. Describe the zones of the trade-winds. 159. What are the characteristics of the sub-tropical zones? 160. Where are the regions of frequent rains? 161. Where are the rainless regions? 162. Why are the Pacific shores of Peru and Bolivia rainless? c 256 THE QUESTION BOOK. 163. Wliat would be the condition of South America, providing the Andes were on the Atlantic coast? 164. Why is the Pacific shore of Mexico rainless? 165. Where is the largest rainless district of the globe? Why are these regions rainless? 166. What is the cause of barrenness of the desert of Gobi? 167. Where does the greatest amount of rain fall? 168. What particular place has the greatest annual rain fall on the globe ? a. What is a climate? 169. What circumstances affect the cHmate of a place? 170. What are the two chief classes of climate? De- scribe them. 171. What effect nas the soil on the climate of a country? 172. Why does California have but little rain between May and November? 173. What is organic life? 174. Under what three divisions is this department con- sidered? 175. What is botanical geography? 1 76. What is indispensable to the existence of vegetable life? 177. What four regions are destitute of vegetation in consequence of the want of moisture? 1 78. Into what two great classes are vegetable forms divided? 179. What plants are flowerless? 180. How are flowering plants divided? 181. Describe the endogenous. The exogenous. 182. About how many distinct plant species are there? 183. Which are the simplest forms of the plant species? 184. Where are the lichens, algne, and mosses found? 185. Which are the most stately of all vegetable forms? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 257 1 86. What are the principal food-plants of the torrid and hot zones? 187. What are bananas, bread-fruit, dates, cocoanuts, yams, cassava, and sago? 188. What are the principal food-plants of the warm and temperate zones? 189. What plants are the most valuable for furnishing clothing? 190. What spices are in common use in the various countries of the globe? 191. What are the principal narcotics used in the differ ent parts of the globe? 192. What is opium, betel, haschish? 193. What is zoological geography? 194. How have the animals upon the globe been classi- fied? 195. What are vertebrates? How have they been divided? 196. What are mollusks? Articulates? Radiates? 197. What is the mammaHa? 198. How have the mammalia been classified? 199. Of what does ethnology treat? AN S W^ E R S TO Questions on Physical Geograpliy. 1. That science which treats of the natural divisions of water, the atmosphere, and all organic life. 2. The masts of ships coming into a harbor are seen before the hull, and the shadow of the earth on the moon is always circular. 3. The seasons. 4. In a state of igneous fluidity. All the elements of the earth were one molten mass, surrounded by a thick at- mosphere, charged with vapors and gases. 5.- A direct proof is the ball-like form of the earth, which, but for its plastic condition, would not have been. Astronomy furnishes us with examples of like condition. Our sun is even now in a state of intense ignition, and the stars of the firmament are burning suns. The moon was once a fiery ball, but is now cooled, and covered with ex- tinct craters. 6. In the course of countless ages the earth lost heat and cooled sufficiently to form a solid crust, while the in- terior, even now, is liquid lava, gradually losing its temper- ature, which in time will cause a solid earth. 7. It is variously estimated at from fifty to one nunared miles. At the depth of 60 feet, water obtains its greatest degree of cold; at 2,200 feet the temperature rises to ninety degrees Fahrenheit ; at 8,000 feet water would boil. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 259 and as the temperature increases regularly from the surface downward, at a depth of twenty-eight miles iron would melt. 8. An element that cannot be separated into other component parts. 9. Sixty-three, and of these only fourteen have been found in a pure state, as gold, silver, copper, platinum. 10. Twelve: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron, carbon, sulphur, hydro- gen, chlorine. 11. Oxygen is a gas, and a constituent of all rocks, and composes about one-half by weight, of the earth's crust. SiHcon is the element next in abundance ; combined with oxygen it forms silica or quartz, sandstone, and ordinary sand. Carbon is an element, which combined with oxygen, enters largely into the composition of various rocks. Char- coal and diamonds are pure carbon. Hydrogen is a gas, and combined with oxygen, consti- tutes water. Sodium is a metal, and with oxygen forms soda. It is the basis of salt. Chlorine with sodium forms common salt. Sulphur is a simple mineral substance, and united with oxygen and lime makes gypsum. Potassium is a metal which, combined with oxygen, forms potash. Calcium is a metal, which with oxygen forms common quicklime, and with carbon, limestone. Magnesium is also a metal, which combined with oxygen forms magnesia. Aluminum is a white metal, and with oxygen forms alu- mina, the basis of clay. 12. As stratified and unstratified, the unstratified being divided into igneous and nietamorphic. 260 THE QUESTION BOOK. 13. Those which are made up of a series of laj-ers, as sandstone, slate-rock, limestone. 14. By the waters of the globe remdving materials from one place and depositing them in another as stratified sediment. 15. When the surface of the earth had become cooled, or fallen below the boiling point of water (212° Fahren- heit), the vapors of the atmosphere were condensed and gathered as water in the depressions of the earth. 16. Those which, instead of being a sedimentary de- posit, were forced in a melted condition from the burning depths below. 17. These rocks were at first stratified, but by the igneous lava breaking forth and flowing near them, a sub- terranean heat was produced, thus destroying the sedimen- tary or stratified condition. 18. Petrified remains of animals or plants that lie im- bedded in the rock formations of the earth's crust. 19. Stratified rocks that contain fossils. Nonfossilifer- ous rocks are those without fossils, or igneous rocks. 20. Into seven: The Azoic Age, the Silurian Age, Devonian Age, Carboniferous Age, Reptilian Age, Mam- malian Age, and the Age of Man. 21. The Azoic Age is the earliest, and includes the time from the first forming of a solid crust to the appear- ance of animal life. Rocks of this age contain no animal fossils. The Silurian Age succeeded the Azoic, and the rocks abound in fossils of the simplest animals and plants. Star-shaped animals and animals that consist of joints or segments, as worms, make their first appearance on the earth ; but the moUusks, animals like our oyster, predom- inate. The Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes, succeeds the Silurian. Rocks of this age contain fossils of higher and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 261 more developed animals and plants than those of the pre- ceding age. Of fishes, the shark and gar-fish predominate. The Carboniferous Age was the age of vegetation. Great forests and jungles covered the land, from the poles to the equator. It was a period of unceasing change. Destruc- tive floods undermined the dense vegetation, which fell, layer upon layer, gradually changing into vast coal-fields under the pressure of the waters. The Reptilian Age is remarkable as the era of the cul- mination of reptiles and mollusks. Among the former were the gigantic ichthyosaurus^ a marine animal with the teeth and head of a crocodile, and from ten to thirty feet long; the plesiosaurus^ a huge reptile with the head and neck of a snake, and the pterodactyl, a flying reptile. In the Mammalian Age many of the lower animals and vegetable forms become extinct, and more perfect ones appear. The gar-fishes give place to the salmon, perch, and herring; thecycads among plants, to the oaks, willows, and palms. Animals of great size tread the earth, which are now known only by their remains. The Age of Man is the present era. The animal ele- ment is no longer dormant. The majority of the large beasts, that during the preceding era were the chief deni- zens of the world, have become extinct, and made room for smaller but higher creatures. Man, as the most highly organized being, appears latest upon the earth, which has, by means of successive changes in the past, arrived at that stage of development which renders it a fit dwelling-place for him. The earth, in this last stage, has reached a state of comparative stability. Changes take place, but they are less sweeping and less violent than those of the pre- ceding ages. 2 2. By the atmosphere, the water, ana Dy the action of the heated interior. 23. The moisture in the atmosphere crumbles the exposed 262 THE QUESTION BOOK. rock-surfaces, and the dusty fragments are drifted by the wind, and in the course of time, deep deposits of it are formed. 24. Rivers and creeks are everywhere at work gradually moving the whole surface of continents towards the oceans. Rivers also produce important changes by erosion. 25. Rivers wearing out deep channels in their courses. 26. The Canon of the Colorado River, which is a nar- row chasm three hundred miles long, and with perpendic- ular walls of rock, from three thousand to six thousand feet in height, worn by the flowing river. 27. Changes of level, which are slowly progressing by the century, or suddenly by the action of volcanoes and earthquakes. 28. The northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula is slowly rising at the rate of four feet in a century, while the southern part, and Holland and Denmark, are gradually subsiding. It is by this subsidence that the greater part of Holland and Denmark is below the level of the sea, and should the dykes which protect these countries become broken, great inundation would follow. 29. When the interior of the earth has cooled beyond the power to react and disturb its surface, the leveling of continents by the elements of nature will begin to be ap- parent. By the washings of rain the surface of the country is slowly moving to the bottom of oceans ; by the action of the moist atmosphere rocks crumble to dust and are borne away. Though the process of decomposition is slow, yet the all-devouring element of time will tear down the moun- tains of earth and fill up the valleys of the seas, until land shall disappear, and the earth shall be one wide expanse of ocean. 30. About one-five-hundred-and-thirtieth part of the whole volume of the globe, or if the earth were a perfect PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 263 Sphere, without elevations and depressions, the volume of water would be about 10,000 feet in thickness. 31. They lie with their masses about the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and narrow as they extend southward. 32. Into two classes: continental and oceanic. ^^. Those that lie near continents, and appear, by their position, to be detached portions. 34. The West Indies, Bahamas, Aleutian, Japan East Indies, and many others. 35. Such as lie far removed from any continent. Nearly all of the islands of the Pacific Ocean belong to this class. ;^6. It is the limy secretion or deposit of small marine animals that lie together in vast numbers. It is found in tropical seas, or where the temperature of the water is not below sixty-eight degrees (Fahrenheit). 37. Four : fringing reefs, barrier reefs, encircling reefs, and atolls, or coral islands. 38. lines or ribbons of coral near the shores. 39. They lie. parallel to the shore, but are separated from it by a channel of water of considerable depth and varying greatly in width. The grandest example of coral formation known is the Great Australian barrier reef Ex- ternally it rises, with little incHnation, from a fathomless ocean — stretches upwards of 1,000 miles along the north- east shore — ^varies in breadth from two hundred yards to a mile, and in distance from the shore from twenty to seventy miles. There are many openings through the reef, by which vessels enter the interior ocean, which is everywhere safely navigable. An encircling reef is a barrier reef which encloses one or more islands. 40. They consist of a low, narrow rim of reef surround- ing a lagoon. 41. The vacant place enclosed by atolls or coral islands. 42. It is based uoon a regular and gradual subsidence 264 THE QUESTION BOOK. of the bed of the ocean. A fringing reef is first formed near the shore of an island, which becomes an encircling reef, and as the ocean bed subsides, the coral deposits still continue to grow upward until by the subsidence the in- terior island disappears, and the atoll alone remains. 43. Into three classes : mountains, table-lands or plat- eaus, and low lands. 44. The Himalayas are the highest elevations, rising 29,000 feet above the level of the sea. The lowest de- pression is the Dead Sea, in Palestine, which lies 1,300 feet below the level of the ocean. 45. The direction of a mountain chain. 46. Above an elevation of 1,000 feet. Low plains are below 1,000 feet. 47. Mean elevation in feet. The Plateau of Thibet 14,000 The Bolivian Plateau, in the Andes 13,000 Plateau of Anahuac, in Mexico 8,000 Arabian Plateau 7,000 to 8,000 Colorado Plateau 7,000 The Great Basin 4,000 to 5,000 The Sahara 2,000 to 3,000 Southern Africa 3,000 to 5,000 Central Asiatic Plateau 2,000 to 4,000 48. In the Western Continent there is the Mississippi Plain, the Arctic Plain, Atlantic Coast Plain, Llanos of the Orinoco, Selvas of the Amazon, and the Pampas of the La Plata. In Europe there is the Great Central Germanic Plain. In Asia, there is the Siberian Plain, the Plain of Turkistan, the Chinese Plain, and the Mesopotamia!! Plain. Africa has no great low plains. 49. Into three : those rising to an elevation of 20,000 feet or upwards ; those between 10,000 and 20,000 feet, and those between 2,000 and 10,000 feet PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 266 50. Longitudinal valleys are those which separate parallel ridges of mountain chains, and extend in the same direction. Transverse valleys cut the ridges at right angles, and extend in an opposite direction. 51. Six: the Rocky Mountains, Californian, Allegha- nian, Andean, Parime, and Brazilian. 52. This system^ including the Californian system, occupies the whole western part of the continent, ext-end- ing from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of 5,700 miles. 53. It extends in a southwesterly direction from the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the northern part of Georgia and Alabama. This system consists of many parallel chains, varying in height from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, enclosing fertile valleys. 54. It extends from the 50th parallel of north latitude, between the Rocky Mountains and the coast range of the Pacific, through the Central part of Mexico to the Isthmus of Panama, and may be divided into the Great Basin of Utah, the Great Mexican Plateau, and the table-lands of Central America. 55. The Great Plateau of the Andes; the elevated plains of Quito, Bogota, and Popayan ; and the table-land of Brazil. 56. It is an extensive tract of lofty table-land, stretch- ing along the top of the Andes between the parallels of 15° and 3° south latitude, with an elevation of nearly 13,- 000 feet. 57. They are divided into Central, Southern and South- western Asia. 58. The great desert of Gobi, and the table-land of Thibet. 59. Those of Hindostan, Iran, Asia Minor, and Arabia. 60. Those of Abyssinia and South Atrica. 61. It is the Spanish peninsula, the whole central part 266 THE QUESTION BOOK. of which consists of a series of lofty plains, divided from each other by parallel mountain chains. This plateau comprises 93,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the peninsula. 62. It extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Alleghanies, and is divided about midway into a northern and southern slope. 6;^. The entire peninsula east of the Andes, except the mountain systems and the Brazilian table-land, and is di- vided into the llanos, selvas, pampas, and wastes of Pata- gonia. 64. It extends from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, to Behring Strait. 65. It contains a great plain, extending from the foot of the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and from the Alti Mountains to the Arctic Ocean. This plain, near the Arctic, is a barren and desolate region, and the cold is so intense that the spongy soil is perpetually frozen to the depth of several hundred feet. Near the Irtysh river, the soil is rich and pasturage good, but there are few inhab- itants. 66. Sahara, the plains of Egypt, Central Africa, and the region of Zambezi. 67. Of vast, barren plains. 68. Each have a predominant mountain system in the west, two secondary systems in the east, and vast, low plains intervening. 69. From the reaction of the heated interior upon the solid crust. These phenomena are divided into three classes: volcanoes, earthquakes, and a rising or subsidence of portions of the earth's surface. 70. As active, intermittent, and extinct. 71. Those having periods of rest. 72. It is that of Kilauea on the island of Hawaii, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 267 4,270 feet high. This crater is over three miles long and one mile wide, and from 600 to 1,000 feet deep. Large pools of boiling lava may be seen from the brink. 73. Two : the central and lineal systems. 74. The central, consists of several vents grouped to- gether, one of which usually serves as a common point of eruption. The lineal, consists of several vents extending in one direction, at no great distance from each other, forming, as it were, chimneys along an extended fissure. 75. On the islands and shores of the Pacific Ocean. 76. Humboldt has enumerated 225 still in action, and the number of extinct volcanoes is much greater. 77. Geysers, mud volcanoes, and fields of fire. 78. Miniature volcanoes, which emit steam and mud but never molten rocks. They are found in large num- bers in Sicily, and on the shores of the Caspian Sea, near the base of the Caucasus Mountains. 79. Regions where columns of fire break forth from the ground. These fires are classed with volcanic phenomena,, although they may have their origin from the connection of the internal heat with large quantities of gases which accumulate in the crevices of rocks and burst forth in flames. They are found to the greatest extent west of the Caspian Sea. 80. Convulsions of the earth, and are most common in volcanic districts. 81. Horizontal, vertical, and rotary. 82. That the convulsions are the results of the heated interior seeking vent, and may be caused by the collection of steam and gases, or, like congealed water, the crust of the earth may contain the property of expanding during its process of cooling, thus forming a pressure which is re- sisted by violent agitations to obtain reHef. The move- ments of earthquakes appear to be on the principle that waves recede when any substance is thrown into the water; 268 THE QUESTION BOOK. thus, when convulsions occur great waves of the fluid in- terior recede, by which the crust is uplifted and more or less violently shaken. 8^. They vary according to their power. The terrible earthquake of Lisbon, November ist, 1755, ^^ which 60,- 000 persons lost their lives, disturbed an area of 7,500,000 square miles, or, as the earth's crust is about twenty-five miles in thickness, 187,500,000 cubic miles of matter were moved. 84. Some of the most destructive lasted but a few sec- onds. That of Lisbon produced its terrible effects in less than five minutes. 85. The waters upon the earth. 86. Fountains of waters which flow from reservoirs un- derneath the ground, and are classified as perennial or constant, intermitting, and periodical. 87. Perennial springs are those which continue to flow at all seasons. Intermittent are those that alternately flow and stop. Periodical depend upon the prevailing charac- ter of the seasons. 8S. They depend upon the peculiar arrangement of the pervious and impervious stratification. The water pene- trates the pervious stratum and sinks to the impervious, where, if the stratification is tilted, the water will follow this layer until an outlet is found. Should the pervious V stratum lie between two convex layers of impervious mat- ter, springs could be obtained at any place where the height is less than the highest points of the pervious stra- tum, by breaking through, whereby the water would raise to the surface and flow. 89. Artificial springs formed by boring to the pervious stratum, as explained above. 90. When a river is so situated that it may divide and flow to two distinct river basins. The best known exam- ple is the Cassiquiare river, in Venezuela, which connects .-N PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. through its bifurcation the river systems of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. 91. Into oceanic and continental. The oceanic are those that flow into the ocean, and are divided into five classes, one for each ocean. The continental are those which never reach the ocean. 92. Upon the extent of the territory which it drains; the rains; the physical features of the country — a well- wooded country impeding evaporation ; and the climate. 93. The St. Lawrence basin, Atlantic slope, Missis- sippi valley, Texas slope. Pacific slope, inland basin of Utah, and the Red River basin. 94. There are three classes: the Atlantic basin, the Arctic slope, and the inland basin of the Caspian Sea. 95. They are entirely within the low plains of Russia. 96. Into the Atlantic Ocean. 97. The position of the several grand divisions partially enclose, and slope to the Atlantic, while mountain chains which form the divides between the river basins of these oceans are near the shores of the Pacific. 98. Into four classes: first, those which receive no streams and have no outlets; second, those which receive no streams, but have an outlet; third, those which receive streams, but have no outlet ; fourth, those which both re- ceive and discharge streams. 99. Steppe lakes. 100. Great Salt Lake of the United States, Lake Titicaca of South America, the Caspian Sea, Lake Tchad and Nagami of Africa, and numerous smaller ones through- out Central Asia. loi. It is over 176,000 square miles in extent, and 2,957 feet deep; its surface lies eighty-four feet below the level of the ocean, and is slowly diminishing in size. Several large rivers flow into it. 102. This region is in North America, and sweeps in 270 THE QUESTION BOOK. the shape of a broad belt around Hudson Bay, from Lab- rador to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The lakes of Canada, those in the New England States, New York, Minnesota, the great northern lakes, and ,the many lakes in the great northern plain east of the Rocky Mountains, belong to this region. 103. These lakes have been estimated to contain one^ half of all the fresh water of the globe. Lake Superior contains about 32,000 square miles; Lake Michigan about 22,400; Lake Huron, 21,000; Lake Erie, 10,815; Lake Ontario, 6,300. 104. In Europe there are two lake regions. The one surrounds the Baltic Sea and its branches. To it belong the countless lakes of Finland, the great Ladogo and Onega lakes of Russia, the numerous small lakps in North' em Germany, and those of Denmark and Sweden. The other lake region is that of the Alps, containing 426 lakes., the largest of which lie along the base of this mountain system. 105. They are the most extensive swamps on the globe, and belong to Northern Russia and Siberia. These swamps are frozen to a great depth, and thawing during the summer months at the surface only : are covered with a dense covering of mosses. 106. The color is generally a deep, bluish green, which becomes clearer near the coast. The depth depends upon the formation of the bottom, which, like the land, is diver- sified by mountains and valleys, high and low plains. The greatest depth in the region of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable is about 12,700 feet; in the South Atlantic, 25,000; in the Pacific, over 43,000 feet. The clearness and trans- parency vary in different localities. In the Arctic Ocean shells and animals are distinguished at a depth of 500 feet ; around the Lesser Antilles objects are distinctly seen 150 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 271 feet below the surface. Sea-water, in general, is more transparent than fresh water. 107. By the presence of mineral substances, chiefly- salt, sea-water becomes heavier. Fresh water congeals at 32° Fahrenheit, sea-water at 28^^. 108. It is due to myriads of minute animalcules which inhabit the water. 109. There are four: The Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Mediterranean Sea, and the Baltic Sea, with the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. no. Carribbean Sea, Gulf of St. Lawrence, North Sea, Behring Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Japan, Yellow, and China seas. 111. Experiments show an agitation from 450 to 620 feet. 112. The great tidal-wave rises less than three feet in mid-ocean, but when it strikes against the shores of conti- nents its altitude is much greater, varying according to the formation of the inlets, sometimes rising as high as seventy feet. 113. This vast tidal swell or wave, probably originates southeast of Australia, and, like other waves, it is not an onward flow of water, except over shoals and near the land. The reason assigned for giving this point as the place of commencement, is, the position of the continents. Beyond this commencement extends the great ocean, which con- sists of the Antarctic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Over this vast water-area the flood-tide journeys westward around the earth, sweeping up against the African and Asiatic coasts into the Atlantic Ocean, and around Cape Horn in- to the Pacific Ocean. , . ^ 114. They are like vast rivers, transporting its waters from one part to another, and are caused by the heat of the sun, rotation of the earth, the saltness of the sea, by 272 THE QUESTION BOOK. winds, tides, and melting ice. They are divided into con- stant, periodical and temporary. 115. Those which continue for a limited time, and are caused by tides, melting ice, or gales of considerable dura- tion. 116. Such as flow at regular intervals, and are occa- sioned by tides, and by periodical winds called monsoons. 117. Those which flow throughout the entire year in the same direction, and have their origin in permanent causes. There are two kinds : polar currents, flowing from the poles to the equator, and equatorial currents flowing from east to west near the equator. The origin of constant currents may depend upon the rotation of the earth and enormous evapo- ration in the equatorial regions. By the evaporation cur- rents are formed from beyond the equator to supply the loss, and by the rotation of the earth from west to east, the waters at the equator, where the velocity of the earth is greatest, are inclined to flow or slide to the west, which produce currents in an opposite direction from the motion of the earth. 118. A stream which runs by the side of, or beneath another current, and in an opposite direction. 119. Of the atmosphere, temperature, winds, and moisture (dews, fogs, rain, snow, and hail). 120. It is composed of three gases, in the following proportion: Nitrogen, 76.84; Oxygen, 23.1; Carbonic Acid, 0.06. 121. The quantity of sensible heat which a body possesses, as indicated by a thermometer. 122. The direction and amount of the sun's rays, its vicinity to the sea, the prevailing winds to which it is ex- posed, and its elevation above the sea. 123. In the tropical zone the limit is but one foot from the surface ; in the temperate zone it is from sixty to sev- enty feet; and in the frigid zone it is about fifty. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ' 273 124. In the tropical zone, it is, ])robably, about 7,200 feet; sixty degrees north and fifty-six degrees south lati- tude, it reaches the surface, and in seventy degrees abput 4,500 feet. 125. The average amount of heat a place receives dur- ing the year. 126. The variation is but little. The variable produce of our harvests is owing more to the change in the distribu- tion of heat through the different months, than to any differ- ence in the annual supply. 127. Lines which are drawn through all places, which have nearly the same mean annual temperature. 128. Six: the torrid, hot, warm, temperate, cold, and frigid. 129. Air in motion. It is produced by the different amount of heat which the atmosphere receives in different localities. 130. To the equatorial regions. 131. Within the tropical regions the air is heated. It expands, becomes lighter, and rises. From both sides the colder air rushes in to restore the disturbed equilibrium, thus producing two lateral currents, one from the north, the other from the south. But the air drawn by these cur- rents must be restored, else there would be an accumula- tion of atmosphere in these regions. This is effected by the ascending current, which, on reaching a certain eleva- tion is pressed outward, forming two return currents, one flowing to the north, the other to the south. It is by these currents, one ascending current, two lateral polar currents^ and two returning equatorial currents, that the general cir- culation is effected. 132 Th^y diXQ t\iQ lateral polar currents, although the name is generally applied, only to that part of the currents between the equator and 30° of latitude, where they be- come distinct surface winds. 274 THE QUESTION BOOK. 133. The equatorial currents, which in the tropics flow high above the polar currents, become chilled in their tran- sit through the upper regions of the atmosphere, and have a tendency to descend, and intermingle with the polar cur- rents, which replace each other successively, thus prevent- ing constant currents above that latitude. 134. They are northeast winds in the northern hemis- phere, and southeast winds in the southern hemisphere. The direction is due to the rotation of the earth, the velocity of the surface of the earth being greater as the polar currents approach the equator, which cannot acquire, suddenly, the same velocity, and the earth moves under it, and the trades, in the northern hemisphere, by this reason blow from the northeast, instead of coming directly from the north. By a similar reason the equatorial currents flow in an opposite direction. As these currents commence to flow from the equator, they acquire the equatorial velocity, which can- not, suddenly, conform with the decreased velocity of the earth's surface as they approach the poles, but unlike the trades, which lag behind, they have acquired a velocity and flow beyond the meridian from which they started. 135. Seven: the zone of calms, the two zones of the trade-winds, the two subtropical zones, and the two zones of the variable winds. 136. It extends from i^*^ to 11^ north latitude. This place has the greatest mean annual temperature, conse- quently it is where the trade-winds cease, or rather, where they rise and flow back again as equatorial currents, thus producmg a series of calms. 137. Those belts which lie between the summer and winter limits of the trade-zones. The trades prevail here during the summer, but in winter they recede, and the vari- able winds prevail. 138. They extend from the limits of the sub-tropical zones to the poles PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 275 139. Trade winds whose direction has been modified . by the unequal heating of the land and sea. The name was originally restricted to periodical winds which blow in the Indian Ocean, blowing part of the year in one direc- tion, and part in the opposite. 140. In the Indian Ocean, along the coast of Guinea, and in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. 141. During the cooler months of the year, the mon- soons are the regular northeast trade-winds, but as the sun crosses the equator, and the continent of Asia becomes intensely heated, an ascending current results, and the trades are deflected and rush to the continent to restore the equilibrium, thus turning the trades in almost an oppo- site direction. A similar deviation i? also produced south of the equator when Australia becomes heated. 142. The northeastern trades are deflected by the over- heated Mississippi valley, and like the trades of the Indian Ocean, they are bent to supply the demand on the conti- nent. 143. Violent winds which sweep over the prairies of Texas and plains of Mexico. They prevail from October to March, and are considered as winter monsoons. 144. Those winds which blow in summer from the sea to the land during the greater part of the day, and from the land to the sea at night; they are caused by the different tem- perature of the land and water, the land being warmer than the water in the day, and colder at night. '145. They are periodicals which blow on the Mediter- ranean Sea in summer, and owe their origin to the Sahara desert. 146. The simoon, khamsin, harmattan, sirocco, and the solano. The simoon prevail on the deserts of Arabia, Nubia, Persia, and Syria ; the khamsin blow in Egypt, but are not so oppressive as the simoon ; the sirocco is a well- 276 THE QUESTION BOOK. known hot wind of Greece and Italy, and the solano of Spain, which owe their origin to the vicinity of the Sahara. 147. The pamperos and bora. The pamperos are cold southwest winds which originate among the snows of the Andes, and sweep with great violence over the level pam- pas of South America. The bora is a northeast wind, com- mon on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Venice. 148. A whirlwind is the meeting of two winds at an angle. Waterspouts are whirlings occurring on the sea or on lakes. They first appear in the form of an inverted cone attached to a dark cloud. The cone swings backward and forward, and gradually approaches the water, which be- comes violently agitated. The whirling eddy draws up masses of spray, which unite with the descending cone. When fully formed, they appear as tall pillars of cloud of sombre grey, stretching from the ?ea to the sky, whirling around an axis. They continue but for a short time, when the column breaks, and rain often descends from the cloud above. The drops of water forming this rain are never salt, as would be the case were they carried up from the ocean. They must, therefore, have been derived from the clouds, as in ordinary rain. 149. As hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones, and tornadoes. 150. In the West Indies, Indian Ocean, and the Chinese ^ Sea. The wind revolves. V 151. They differ from the other tropical storms merely in their extent and duration. Their extent is quite limited, and their duration at any one place is seldom more than a few seconds. 152. Dew is moisture collected on substances during the night. Hoar-frost is frozen dew. Fogs are masses of vapor resting on or near the surface of the earth. Clouds are masses of visible vapor, differing in no respect from fogs, except in position. Rain is water, which, originally taken up m the atmosphere in the form of vapor, is re- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 277 turned to the earth in drops. Snow is the frozen vapor of the atmosphere. 153. As they are composed of alternate layers of snow and ice, it is supposed that the wind revolves around a horizontal axis, by means of which the moisture of the air is successively carried into warm and cold clouds. In the cold clouds the particles of snow are collected, and by the whirl are carried into rain clouds, where they receive a coating of water, which when returned to the cold cloud becomes ice. In this manner the hailstones grow rapidly in size, and are finally hurled to the ground. 154. The cirrus, cumulus, stratus, and nimbus. The cirrus occupy the highest position in the atmosphere, and resemble a lock of hair, being composed of parallel streaks. The cumulus resemble a mountain of snow, and are most common in summer. The stratus consist of horizontal bands near the surface of the earth, and belong to the night. The nimbus is the rain-cloud, and much more dense than the others, although the others may be changed to the nimbus. 155. Into rainless regions, regions of periodical rains, and regions of frequent rains. 156. In the zone of calms, the zone of trade-winds, and the sub-tropical zones. 157. In this zone it rains daily. The ascending cur- rent, hot and highly saturated, is cooled when it reaches greater elevations. In the afternoon, usually, a ring of clouds appear, and, accompanied by thunder and lightning, torrents of rain descend. 158. These zones are characterized by almost constant serenity, and a deep-azure sky. But as the sun stands over the zenith during a part of the summer in these zones, it carries with it the calms and rains of the first zone. Hence the serenity of the trade-zones is interrupted by a brief rainy season during summer, while the winters are dry. 278 THE QUESTION BOOK. 159. They are characterized by dry summers and rainy winters. This is due to the trades which prevail there dur* ing the summer, and absorb rather than bring moisture. During the winter the variable winds prevail, and bring the irregular rains of the temperate regions. A large portion of the United States lies within this zone, and would have dry summers if it were not for the monsoons occasionally blowing from the Mexican Gulf far inland, and bringing thunder storms. 160. A part of the temperate zone and the frigid. 161. They lie almost entirely within the zones of the trade-winds. 162. The trade-winds coming across the entire conti- nent, are intercepted by the Andes Mountains, and are forced to ascend their slopes, where they meet the cold air, which condenses their vapor, and the rain flows down the eastern slopes. The wind passes over the crest and reaches the western slopes dry and vaporless. 163. The greater part would be a barren desert. 164. The trade-wind is here deprived of its vapor by the Plateau of Anahuac. 165. The Great Desert, Arabia and Persia. The trades prevail here, but have lost their moisture on the passage across the mountains and plateaus of High Asia. 1 66. It is found to be in the Himalayas, which intercept \ the prevailing southwest winds, and deprive them of almost all their moisture. 167. In the tropics of the New World. This amount is about 115 inches, while in the tropics of the Old World the fall is about 77 inches. In the temperate parts of the Old World, 34 inches fall; in the New World 35 inches. 168. On the Khasia Hills, in Farther India, which face the Bay of Bengal and receive winds heavily laden with vapor on their passage over the Indian Ocean. The an- nual fall is about 50 feet. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 279 169. The lavitude of a place; its height above the level of the sea; the position and direction of the mountain chains; its distance from the sea; the slope of the country; the character of the soil; the degree of cultivation and density of population ; and the quantity of rain that falls. 170. Oceanic and continental. Those regions which are open to the influence of the ocean are moist and mild, while those which are removed from the influence are com- monly dry and suffer to great excesses of heat and cold. 171. A country covered with a barren, sandy soil is subject to great and rapid changes in its temperature, owing to the readiness with which it receives and parts with heat, while marshy lands, or lands covered with forests or vegetation, are more salubrious. 172. It is owing to the eastern or trade-winds which prevail, they having been deprived of moisture by crossing the continent and meeting the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains. The westerly winds prevail from December to May, which produces the rainy season. 173. It is that department of Physical Geography which treats of all vegetable and animal life. 174. Botanical Geography, Zoological Geography, and Ethnography. 175. Botanical Geography treats of the different divis- ions of the vegetable kingdom and their geographical dis- tribution. T 76. Moisture, in the form of rain or dew. 177. The deserts of Gobi and Arabian in Asia, the Sahara in Africa, and the Atacama on the western slope of the Andes. 1 78. Into the cryptogamous (flowerless), and the phen- ogamous (flowering). 179. The mosses, lichens, fungi, ferns, and sea weeds. 180. Into two classes: the endogenous and the exoge- nous. 280 THE QUESTION BOOK.. i8i. The endogenous are those plants which increase from within, as grasses, sugar-cane, corn, etc. The exo- genous are those which increase by coatings from without, as the trees of the forest, etc. 182. It is estimated that there are about 250,000 dis- tinct plant species upon the earth. Less than half of these have been described by botanists. 183. The lichens, algas, and mosses. 184. Lichens cover the rocks in tropical deserts and in the regions of ice or snow. They are the most widely dis- tributed class of plants. Algae are sea and fresh water weeds, of the most varying forms and colors. Some attain an enormous size. One species, growing in the Straits of Magellan and near the Falkland Islands, is often 400 feet long. Mosses are also found in all zones, wherever mois- ture is abundant. In our forests they are quite Common. 185. The palms. The tall and slender shaft rears on high its crbwn of shining, fan-like leaves. Some are nearly 200 feet high. They require a mean annual temperature of 78^ to 82°, Fahrenheit, and occur, therefore, chiefly in the hottest parts of the tropical zone. 186. Rice, bananas, bread-fruit, dates, cocoanuts, yams, cassava and sago. 187. Bananas are the fruits of tropical plants. This plant rises 15 or 20 feet high, with leaves six feet long and a foot broad. The fruit is four or five inches long, and an inch or more in diameter. They grow in large bunches, weighing a dozen pounds or more. Bread-fruit is produced by the bread-fruit tree, which grows in the isles of the Pa- cific Ocean, of the size of the common apple tree. The fruit is of a round or oval shape, as large as a small loaf of bread, which is eaten as food. Dates are a delicious fruit, produced by the date-palm of Asia and Africa. Cocoanuts are the fruits of the cocoa tree. These nuts hang in clus- ters of a dozen each, on the top of the tree, apd are bound PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 281 together by tough, stringy filaments. Yams are roots re- sembHng the potato, and are cultivated in a similar man- ner. Cassava is a kind of bread made from the roots of the cassada plant. Sago is obtained from the pith of sev- eral species of palm trees, which form entire forests in many of the Spice Islands. The pith is prepared into sago- meal by mixing it with water and straining. A tree com- monly yields from 300 to 500 pounds. 188. Wheat, potatoes, corn, rye, oats, and barley. 189. Cotton, hemp, and flax. 190. Pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and vanilla. 191. Tobacco, opium, betel, and haschish. 192. Opium is prepared from a specie of poppy, and is very extensively used in China and Turkey. The betel plant is a climbing shrub, which grows in Hindostan and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The leaves are used by the natives as tobacco. Haschish is a powerful narcotic, obtained from a specie of hemp-wort, and is used in India to produce intoxication. 193. That department of physical geography which treats of the divisions of the animal kingdom and its geographical distribution. 194. Into four classes: vertebrates, moUusks, articu- lates, and radiates. 195. This division includes all animals which have an internal skeleton joined to the backbone. It comprises four classes: i. Mammalia; 2. Birds; 3. Reptiles; 4. Fishes. 196. Mollusks are animals of soft texture, and have no skeleton ; as the oyster, snail, and mussel. Articulates are animals consisting of a number of joints or rings, soft or hard, supplymg the place of a skeleton; as the lobster, worms, spiders, and insects. Radiates are so called be- cause in many cases their organs are arranged like rays 282 THE QUESTION BOOK. proceeding from a center. The coral and microscopic animals belong to this division. 197. They are the most perfect of the animal creatibn. They differ greatly in appearance and habits, but corre- spond in the one particular of suckling their young. They number about 3,000 species. 198. Into eight classes: Quadrumana (four-handed), monkey, ape; carnivora (flesh-eaters), bear, cat, dog; Marsupialia (pouched), opossum, kangaroo; rodentia (gnawers), beaver, squirrel, rat; edentata (toothless), sloth, armadillo; pachydermata (thick-skinned), elephant, horse, hog; ruminantia (chewing the cud), camel, ox, sheep; marine mammalia, whale, dolphin, seal. 199. It treats of the varieties of the human race, their physical and intellectual characteristics, and their geograph- ical distribution on the earth. v INDEX. Page. Preface , 3 Questions on United States History , 5 Answers to Questions on United States History 25 Questions on Geography 73 Answers to Questions on Geography 99 Questions on Grammar ... 139 Answers to Questions on Grammar 147 Questions on Written Arithmetic 161 Answers to Questions on Written Arithmetic 165 Questions on Reading 1 74 Answers to Questions on Reading 176 Questions on Orthography , iSo Answers to Questions on Orthography 188 Questions on Civil Government 203 Answers to Questions on Civil Government 209 Questions on Physiology 219 Answers to Questions on Physiology .,,...227 Questions on Physical Geography 249 Answers to Qnestions on Physical Geography 258 X X \ ' O OOJ I I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY