IP!I!!( {NMl "V! Si THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES MEREDITH WILLSON LIBRARY STANLEY RING COLLECTION :> t:? Mistakes and Disputed Points in Music and Music Teaching BY LOUIS C. ELSON INSTRUCTOR IN MUSICAL THEORY AT THB NEW BNGLANO CONSKRVATOKY OF MUSIC THIS BOOK IS INTENDED TO ASSIST THE TEACHER IN UNDERSTANDING MANY POINTS IN MUSIC REGARDING WHICH MUSICIANS DISAGREE TH EO. PRESSER CO. Philadelphia Pennsylvania Copyright, igio, by Thko. Prbssbr Co. British copyright secured Music Lib'-ary ML 1^0 t^-'W. PREFACE This little book presents a phase (or rather several phases) of Music which has as yet re- ceived but little attention. It may serve a two- fold purpose. Firstly, it may aid the young teacher in some cases where authorities contradict each other. Secondly, it may call attention to the great need of more unification in Music and to the difficulties in the path of attaining it. It has been judged best not to discuss the question of a Movable or a Fixed "Do" in Vocal Music, for here the opposing views are fairly well known to every musician. Louis C. Elson. 115J>7(;9 CONTENTS CHAPTER I MISTAKES IN ACOUSTICS p^cE Acoustics. Sound. Effect of Atmosphere. Animals and Music. Color and Tone. Compass in Music. Definite Emotions of Keys. Pure Tone. Pitch. Concert Pitch. Tablature. Synchronism. Sympathy of Vibrations. Archi- tectural Acoustics 7 CHAPTER II ORCHESTRAL ERRORS Compass of Orchestra. Orchestral Keys. Scale Forms. Gregorian Tones. Size of Orchestra. Keys in Orchestral Scores. Catgut. Improvement of Violins by Age. Material of Wind Instruments. Slide and Valve Trombone. Conduct- ing with Baton. Violoncello. Composers as Conductors. Obbligato. Conductors as Performers. Works on Instru- mentation. Symphony. Clarinet. Beating Time 27 CHAPTER III MISTAKES IN TEACHING American Fingering. Language of Musical Terms. Pedal- ing. Trills. Turns. Mordents. Grace Notes. Appoggia- tura in Recitative 44 CHAPTER IV ACCENTS Natural Accents. Artificial Accents. Rf. and Rfz. Stac- cato. Thesis and Arsis. Portamento. Piano Touch. Over- markings of Shading 56 4 Contents 5 CHAPTER V ERRORS OF NOTATION PACK Clefs. Repeat Marks. Whole Rests. Double Whole Rests. Groups of Rests. Change of Notation of Rests. Notation of Smaller Rests. Numerals in Connection with Rests. Notation of Sharps and Naturals Faulty. Laws of Accidentals. Over Use of Accidentals. Probable Further Changes. The Name "Natural." Step and Half-step. Arti- ficial Groups. Sextolets Wrongly Notated. Long Slurs 66 CHAPTER VI TEMPO AND RHYTHM Time. Tempo Marks. Tempo in Old Music. Andante and Andantino. Metronome. Language in Tempo and Ex- pression Marks. Tempo Rubato. Counting of Rhythms. Characters of Rhythms. Alia Breve. Old Notation. English Church Music. Other Rhythm Marks. Stopped Diapason. . . 89 CHAPTER VII MISTAKES CONNECTED WITH MUSICAL FORMS Repeats in Sonata-Allegro. Phrases and Periods. Theme. Terminology in Sonata.^ Coda. Five-division Sc^ng-form. Two-part .Scjng-form. Fugal Nomenclature.^ Strophe-form. General Mispronunciations. Mispronunciali does not indicate abso- lute loudness, but shows that the note or chord to which it is attached is to be louder than the sur- rounding ones. There is no difference between > and A unless used together, when A would be the louder accent. Use of Rf or Rfz It is a mistake to think that these signs only influence a single note or chord. Generally they are so used, but they can be extended to effect a figure or phrase. See the last phrases of the Adagio movement of the ''Sonata Pathetique" (Beethoven) for example. Staccato Many instruction-books give a misleading state- ment about the staccato signs. They frequently state that is staccato and f is demi-staccato. It is quite true that when this sign is used the note is to be made very short, but it is equally true that in practical notation to-day the wedge- shaped sign is disapi)caring altogether and the dot over the note is no longer demi-staccato, but 58 Accents stands for all staccato effects, being sometimes used even for staccatissimo. It is also not universally known that, while staccato implies an accent, it is sometimes used, in piano music, for an accent alone. Examples of this may be found in the closing theme of the first movement of Beethoven's "Sonata Pathct- ique," where the staccato dots over the first eighth- note in each group of eighth-notes are meant not to shorten the notes but to accent them. This effect only occurs where the staccato is on the first note of a rapid group of short notes. Presto r'UjL;^ Double Stems as Accent Marks Where a note has a double stem which cannot be otherwise explained, it is intended as an accent mark, as follows: i " tiaf^ p Accents 59 Thesis and Arsis These words are often misapplied. Strictly speaking, and according to the rules of prosody, arsis means the heavy accent and thesis the light one. Therefore, arsis would mean the down-beat and thesis the up-beat. These terms are used in music in just the opposite sense. It will generally be safer to speak of "strong accent" and "light accent," or of "primary and secondary accents," and avoid confusion in this matter. The mistake probably arose from the Greek terms, for "thesis" means "to put down," while "arsis" signifies "to lift up," but the depression and raising of the hand had an opposite signifi- cance in Greek poetry from the motions of the musical conductor. The musical dictionaries will be found sadly at variance and often mystifying in their definitions of Thesis and Arsis. Portamento One of the most glaring instances of the misuse of a word by pianists. Portare, in Italian, means "to carry," and portamento would, therefore, indicate a carrying over of the notes, one into the 6o Accents other, as in a strong legato. The pianist uses the term in just the opposite sense and a passage marked thus: would have its notes pressed down separately and given with individual accent. A slight separa- tion would be essential. An eminent teacher once said to a pupil, about such a passage: ''Play the notes as if you were trying to give a legato with one finger." Moscheles told a pupil: "Let the note^ sob out." A disjunct movement is, there- fore, essential, which is the opposite of the mean- ing of the term. This might not be so awkward (since, as we have seen, many terms are mis- applied in music, yet have their meaning under- stood), but it happens that the singer and the orchestral player, particularly the violinists, use "Portamento" in its true sense, carrying one note into the other. Such a confusion becomes in- tolerable. We would suggest the term "dcvni- marcato" for the pianist's misnomer. A word may be added about a mistake conno ted Accents 6i with the young singer's execution of a portamento. It would not mean a drawling or sliding from one note to another. That would be glissando. It would really mean that in a passage like the follow- ing: $ ^hB= Fare thee well. the syllable "Fare-" would be extended into the note E, with a strong legato (not a slide), thus taking a little of the time of the note away from its proper syllable "Thee." A Portamento with Staccato We now come to a point where eminent teachers disagree. In passages such as this I ^ there are many teachers who hold that the second note is not struck. They teach the pupil to play a shortened half-note and to regard the slur as a tie. I\Iany others, among whom is the present writer, hold that the first note here is to be given 62 Accents with a tenuto pressure (clinging touch), the hand then raised, and a Hght staccato to be made on the second note. It would seem to be only rational to imagine that if a single note were intended it could be more intelligibly written thus ^ <^ f " ^r" 4 Some very eminent teachers hold that if the figure is written thus $ (^ m pc=P the second note is to be struck, while if written as follows : 4 m r-*^* '' m w the effect is that of a tie, and the second note is not to be struck, but we doubt whether music engravers recognize this nice distinction. We refrain from giving an opinion here, merely presenting the two opposite views of some celebrated teachers. We shall speak further of slurs and ties in a succeeding chapter. Accents 63 Piano Touch We scarcely dare to interfere between the com- batants in this domain, for many teachers have evolved theories on this point which they contend for with some acerbity. We would merely sug- gest to every piano teacher to spend a day in some piano factory studying the mechanism of every part of the instrument and especially examin- ing the action. We would also suggest this simple experiment at the instrument : Open the lid of the piano so that the hammers may be watched as the key is struck. Now press down, very slowly and without making a tone, one of the keys. At a certain point in the descent of the key the player will feel something give way. That is the escape- ment throwing the hammer and passing through. He will notice that at this moment the hammer is thrown toward the wire and then falls back, now totally disconnected from the key. He has no earthly power to influence the tone after this. He cannot resume any control of the hammer until he has raised the key to press it again. This simple experiment will show him that every tone on the piano is an accent of some sort, and 64 Accents that after the key is down *a diminuendo of the tone, =^, which he can shorten or lengthen at pleasure, takes place. He will also understand that the shaking to and fro of the finger on the key that is held down, as many celebrated pianists do, has not the slighest effect upon the tone. It has a beautiful effect upon the violin, this shaking of the finger, and also upon the clavichord (which has a different mechanism from the piano), but upon the piano it has none at all. As many teachers are "touchy" about touch, we will let the above experiment speak for itself. Over-markings of Shading There are a few composers who hold that pp should represent the softest and // the loudest tones. Wagner himself very seldom used /// or ppp, holding that the conductor would understand the extremes without further marking. But some of the modern composers go much further than this in their markings. Verdi and Tschaikowsky have been especially profuse in this direction. The latter, in both his fifth and his sixth symphony, uses a succession as follows: ^^ pp, ppp, pppp, Accents 65 pppppy Such a shading is impossible, and in the piano scores of the works the editors have changed them so that pppp is the softest dynamic effect required. In the other direction //// is the loudest that we have ever seen demanded in a score, although it is possible that some may have gone beyond this. The teacher may regard ppppp or ///// as impos- sibilities, and, therefore, mistakes in notation. Many teachers are ignorant of what word is represented by ppp or ///. Some translate these as "piano-pianissimo" or "forte-fortissimo," or "double pianissimo" or "double fortissimo," which are none of them quite correct The Italian adds an extra "iss" for each additional letter. Thus pppp is "pianissississimo," and ////, "fortissississimo." 6 CHAPTER V ERRORS AND SHORTCOMINGS OF NOTATION Mistakes About Clefs The fact that most musicians use but two clefs, the F and G clefs, and that these are fixed in posi- tion, leads to a few points of error, especially p4<*nt9eo rum offV\citifh moief r**rurttdmtm6 m-*-i lomm i nomnem trt'^'***--mrtmiirfon eo among pianists. Every clef was originally a letter. Every clef was originally movable, and was meant to designate the position of one note from which 66 Errors of Notation 67 the others were to be counted. The earliest clef denoted the position of small f, and was merely that letter placed upon one of the lines. The specimen of music of the nth century, on p. 66, will show this. Here the F is on the second line in the first two staves, but on the third line in the last one. The present bass-clef, whether written thus V or thus (*' , simply means that f is between the two dots. The G clef has also become immovable, yet in France, 200 years ago, it was often written thus in violin music ^ , meaning that g was to be on the first line and all other notes counted from that. The bass clef was also frequently found upon the third line instead of the fourth, and was then called the "Baritone" clef. ^)= r '^' r The movable clef of to-day is the C clef, which shows the position of middle c. It is used as follows: 68 Errors of Notation Soprano Clef w^cn^ Alto Clef ^^ Tenor Clef The soprano clef is least used, but appears in some masses, in contrapuntal exercises, and some ad- vanced soprano exercises and songs. The alto clef is most used. It appears as above and also in all viola music, in E-flat trombone music, etc. The tenor clef is found, as the soprano clef, in exercises and songs, but also very frequently in violoncello and trombone music. When reading any vocal music for male voice which is written in the G clef, always transpose the music down an octave. To make the pitch of such music more clear, the following devices have sometimes been adopted, ^ ^ F which means that middle c is now on the third Errors of Notation 69 space, or ffn^ , both of which remind the reader of the downward transposition. The object of the transposing clefs is to avoid leger hnes in parts which would otherwise run much below or above the staff. The G clef is only an easy form of writing the German letter "G," as may be seen by covering its upper half. Repeat Marks Many young teachers make the error of respect- ing these too implicitly. Many dot repeats are now omitted in musical interpretation. In the eighteenth century there was far too much repeti- tion. The taste of the twentieth century is against these repetitions. The following suggestions may be offered in this case. Repeat dots at the end of the first movement of any sonata may be omitted. Repeat dots at the end of the first part of such a movement (the Exposition) should generally be respected. In Beethoven and the later composers all repeats may be made. Sometimes a repeat forms part of the form, and the melody would 70 Errors of Notation sound incomplete without it. Such cases often occur in Beethoven's works. The following mark ^11: , often found in German editions, has no especial meaning in itself, but the extra lines are added to make the repeats clearer to the eye. The teacher should bear in mind that dot repeats after a "D. C." are almost never carried out. The only exception is where such repeats form the consequent of a period, the first playing (up to the dots) forming the antecedent phrase and being incomplete with- out a repeat. The musical sense of the player will generally recognize such cases even without a study of musical form. Whole Rests A very frequent error in musical writing is the non-appreciation of the fact that the whole rest means a whole measure rest in every rhythm except f or 1^. The whole rest is almost the only sign of notation that has a changeable value. The following notation is absolutely correct: Errors of Notation 71 {d-l\\'l\\- 4J im 1 w nf > K etc. The following is incorrect, although it is some- times found: -m . Some composers use a dotted whole rest in the following cases: p Vi H but this is not necessary, and the whole rest had better be used in the last two cases, since its mean- ing cannot be misunderstood. The dotted whole rest must be used in f rhythm, since here a whole rest has a fixed value, i. e., two beats, but a whole rest (undotted) would not appear as a fraction of a measure in j- rhythm. Double Whole Rests Such a rest would be used in f rhythm to indicate a whole measure rest, - ^ A ' -j See 72 Errors of Notation Bach's "Well Tempered Clavichord," vol. ii, Fugue No. 9. Groups of Rests The custom of grouping long rests to the exact value desired is one that is an inheritance from the old music written before the bar-line came into existence. To such groups a numeral is now always attached, showing just how many measures rest is intended. The longest single sign would mean four measures rest in almost every rhythm. It would be written thus ffk I $ , but it would always have a figure 4 attached to it, to make its meaning clear. This numeral has made matters so clear that many teachers have forgotten the original meaning of the group of rests. Thus the following : $ E I - ^B would mean two measures, four measures, seven measures, and ten measures rest, written just as they are, but they would appear in modern music thus: $ Errors of Notation 2 4 7 10 73 IE3 ]BE Change in Notation of Rests The quarter-rest and the eighth-rest, written thus T 7, resemble each other so closely that it has been found expedient to change the shape of the quarter-rest from ^ to X- But in some editions (especially French ones) these rests will be found as follows: f^% ^ T B ^ [ > a confusing custom. A similar change should be made in connection with the half and the whole rest, which resemble each other far too closely for easy reading in some scores, as the following may show. ^i- r ir - f Rests in Compound Rhythms Ij^ f f J or V^ rhythms a plain (undottcd) half- rest, or half-note, or whole note, ought nei'er to be written unless a strong syncopation, or change of rhythm, is intended. The reason for this is 74 Errors of Notation that these notes or rest would not show to the eye the natural grouping of the measure. The fol- lowing examples may show this: Incorrect: ^11 r rJ i M=m: Correct: ^jiir'c.c^ i rj'^^ Incorrect p" nyr - f FF f^ im Correct (m ^ '^ - i ^ H #ffii ^ O^DER OF Rests in Compound and Triple Rhythms This rule ought to be well understood in all nota- tion. When the first two beats of any natural group of three beats is rest, we had better use a single sign (some use two signs), but when the last two beats of such a group is rest, we must always use two signs. The following examples may show this: 4 Errors of Notation Correct Not so good 75 ^ C orrect Wrong ^^ Not 80 good, Correct although allowed M ^m Correct Wrong ^f M Ir : Some composers use the dotted quarter-rest in f , f , or ^ rhythms, but it is better to use two signs, the longer coming first, thus: Correct Not so good I Longest and Shortest Notes of Music As some teachers make an error in this matter, we m.ay state that the longest note in use at present is the double whole-note, written thus 1| "^ || or 76 Errors of Notation thus JZIJ , or (more rarely) thus | c |- The shortest practical note is the 128th note, written See Beethoven's "Sonata Pathetique " in the opening Grave passages. But very rarely one may find even 256th notes written thus: Such unusual notes had better be changed into cadenza-notes, printed in small type, and treated as a group of embellishment-notes. See "Arti- ficial Groups." Rests Indicated by Numbers Often, when many measures rest are desired, instead of using the grouping of rests shown above, they may be indicated by a numeral. The sign connected with this numeral varies and (different from the grouping of rests shown above) has no intrinsic value of its own. Sometimes the numeral may be written over a simple whole rest, sometimes written on the staff without any added sign at all. The following examples will readily be understood: Errors of Notation 77 43 61 77 m 7I> ' ^^^^ - etc. The GERiiAN Notes B and H The German system of naming the notes, and especially the sharps and flats, differs materially from ours in some details see "Elson's Music Dictionary." One very important error is some- times made in this matter. It must be remem- bered that "B" in German works means B-flat, and the '*H" means B. An entire edition of a certain book was spoiled recently by the fact that the translator spoke of many of Beethoven's works as being in B where B-flat was meant. German scores constantly present "Clarinet in B," which would represent a non-existent instrument, in English. The error crept into German music almost a thousand years ago, when the scale was represented by letters, in Italy. It was entirely diatonic with one exception, the note B was (to avoid a certain progression) sometimes "softened " (that is flatted), and another shape of B was used in such a case. The regular B was written thus pi, but the 78 Errors of Notation softened B was written thus, TL . From this came our flat and natural, after some centuries. But in Germany, there also came the error that has continued until now. The ancient theorists knew that "b" represented the note now known as B- flat and applied it so, which was correct in the notation of that time. But tney mistook the square b, rn, for an h, and, therefore, named that tone (really b natural) "H," and never changed it thereafter. The sharp came in later than the flat and natural, and was written as a St. Andrews' Cross, thus, /SK ^^^^ "^^^^ ^^ taken in very old editions not to mistake this sign for a double- sharp. Notation of Sharps and Naturals Faulty It is very difficult to introduce a change in our notation, which has been established for centuries and has changed very little in the last 200 years. But, as we have shown above, the quarter-rest has been almost universally changed because of its resemblance to the eighth-rest. In Errors of Notation yg the same manner some reform should take place to make the sharp and the natural more clearly distinguished from each other. In sight-playing many a near-sighted musician is apt to mistake one for the other. It is one of the defects of our present notation. Accidentals End their Effect at the Bar- line The young teacher needs to be warned about an almost obsolete rule in music that holds that the accidental continues in force if the first note of a measure is on the same degree as the last note of the preceding measure, when that note has been affected by an accidental. Thus sometimes it may be found (but very rarely) that in such a measure as the following: ^ ^ ^ the first note of the second measure is intended to be flat. A few teachers hold to this rule, but almost all modern musicians hold that the acci- dental ends its effect at the bar-line unless it is 8o Errors of Notation tied over to the first note of the next measure, as follows: cJ4j J rV'^r'^ But even then the question arises, Does the acci- dental continue in force in the measure into which it has been tied? For an answer to this see the next paragraph. Overuse of Accidentals If the composer for any reason believes than any note may be mistaken by the teacher or performer, he has a right to make its meaning sure by means of an accidental. Whether the second B in the second measure above given were flat or natural it ought to have been marked. In applying the above free rule it is but natural that the teacher will find many differences in the works of difTerent composers. A certain note may seem doubtful to one composer and not to another. Thus, Pinsuti's song, "'Tis I," is brimful of seemingly unnecessary accidentals, where the composer Errors of Notation 8i wishes to show certain diminished seventh chords plainly to the eye. Reinecke's "Spring-song" has a natural appear before an A in the bass part, where all the "A's" are natural before and after it, simply because a sharp appeared before an A in the right hand of the accompaniment. In most of the editions of Hullah's "Three Fishers" there is a B-flat appearing in the introduction and in the accompaniment to the refrain, forming the dominant seventh chord of F, where the far less usual first secondary seventh chord of C major was desired and no flat was intended. In such a case it would have been wise for Hullah to have written a natural before the B, although the entire pas- sage was in the key of C major and strictly re- quired no natural or accidental of any sort. It is perfectly legitimate for a composer to mark F sharp by an accidental, in a composition in G major, if there has been a modulation into the key of C, even if the F in question comes several measures after the natural has appeared. Many seemingly unnecessary accidentals are quite legiti- mate under the above rule, which is almost uni- versally accepted in music. 6 82 Errors of Notation Probable Further Change At present, among the most modern composers, there is so little fixity of key or continuance of one tonality that the signature nowadays means very little. It is possible that such signatures may yet be abolished. One or two composers have already made the experiment of avoiding any key signa- ture and indicating their shifting keys entirely by accidentals. The Name "Natural" Some teachers avoid the term "Natural" alto- gether and use the words " Cancel " or " Cancelling- mark." In some cases (in at least one of those cited above) the word "Natural" would express the meaning better. "Natural" is the more fre- quently employed word, and while sometimes "Cancel" might be the more graphic, we again remind teachers of the tremendous difficulty of changing established usage in music. "Step" and "Half-step" Some teachers insist on using these terms in- stead of "Tone" and "Semitone." There are so many real reforms necessary in the systematiza- Errors of Notation 83 tion of music that it is a pity to waste effort on points of nomenclature which, however fauUy, are yet well and universally understood. We would also remind these reformers that ''Tone" and "Semitone" have been used in English and Latin, in music, for more than 1000 years. Accidentals in Different Octaves Teachers and students should be made aware of the fact that there is diversity of opinion regard- ing the necessity of marking another accidental when a note already marked reappears in another octave in the same measure. The strict rule is to re-mark the note if it appears on any other degree than the accidental, thus, ^^ rtc ft But this rule is very often broken in violin and vocal music, where passages like the following are very frequently found : 84 Errors of Notation There is such diversity of usage in this matter that the present writer can do no more than present the fact. Artificial Groups In artificial groups as used in present notation there are hundreds of errors of notation which the teacher or student will be obliged to correct with his blue pencil. The values of the artificial groups and the proper denomination of their notes may be studied in "Elson's Music Dictionary," article "Notation," page 184, but it may here be added that many composers seem to be quite ignorant of the laws underlying this subject and use whatever denomination of notes their caprice suggests in writing their artificial groups. Chopin took refuge generally in writing small notes in his artificial groups (when the value is free irre- spective of the denomination written), and most frequently wrote eighth-notes, which are often mis- leading. Sextolets Wrongly Notated The error which the teacher will most frequently be obliged to correct, even in editions of Beethoven, Errors of Notation 85 Mozart, etc., is the false grouping of sextolets. If it is remembered that any artificial group that di- vides in halves, either by the counts or the rhythm of the accompaniment, is wrongly notated, it will at once be seen that the following sextolets should be written as two triplets: (Mozart's Sonata in F [No. i Peters] andante movement) i M ^^ 1 Yet this is an error that is made thousands of times. As carefully edited versions always correct this error, the teacher will often be confronted with editions that disagree, and it will be well for him to remember that the above rule is absolute. Long Slurs This is one of the most carelessly handled sub- jects in the entire domain of notation. The very 86 Errors of Notation definition of a "long slur" is sometimes wrong. In applying rules we may classify a slur over two consecutive notes of different pitch as a "short slur," and any slur over more than two notes as a "long slur." For the general rules for long slurs see "Elson's Music Dictionary." The long slur ought to be used as a phrasing mark, but many good composers have used it as if it were a mere ornamental flourish. The excerpt below may show how long slurs may become very misleading. The passage is from Mendelssohn's "Song With- out Words," No. 20, and is quite wrong in its slurs if they are regarded as phrasing-marks. They are here intended only to indicate legato playing. Other editions, however, will give the proper phrasing by slurs, and endless confusion results: nmn^ te fb^jj^ Errors of Notation 87 'M^hSi m ^^ tS^i marc at Q y ^bJlffl^ '):,i-. g 'y f T^ ^ We regret that it will be impossible at present to bring unity into this very important subject. 71ie teacher who is versed in the study of musical form will have no difTicuIty in ])ultin,fi; ])ro]K'r phrasing-marks U]X)n the compositions he uses with his pupils, but it is as well to know that many 88 Errors of Notation of the standard editions of important works are unreliable in their slurring and frequently contra- dict each other. In violin music the long slur is generally correct, for here it indicates a bow stroke. In vocal music also the slur is generally reliable, and often indi- cates the notes that are to be sung on a breath. It must be remembered also that in good editions of vocal music a slur is also used to indicate the notes that are to be sung upon a single syllable. Thus it is quite possible to find two sets of slurs used simultaneously in songs, the upper indicating the phrase upon a single breath, the under one showing that several notes are given to a syllable. Sometimes the latter slur is omitted, but it should not be. CHAPTER VI TEMPO AND RHYTHM Time Sometimes an error becomes sanctioned by usage and it is impossible to reform it. The word "Time" is used in a manner that cannot be strictly justified. It ought to signify the speed of the natural accen'^s, or measures, but it has been so constantly applied to the rhythm of the measure that "Three-quarter Time," "Six-eighth Time," etc., are not to be considered incorrect at present. The purist, however, would consider "Three- quarter Rhythm" or "Three-quarter Measure" more correct. In the self-same manner the purist would consider "Bar" to mean the line that divides the measures and not the measures them- selves, but there are more musicians who would say "Ten bars rest" than would describe it as "Ten measures rest," although the latter would be the more strictly accurate. Custom has here given sanction to the less logical term. 9 9 Tempo and Rhythm This error, therefore, must be accepted, yet it is a pity that, when the word "Time " is used, we cannot at once be certain whether speed or rhythm is meant. This is not the case, however, with the phrase ''Common Time," which is no more common than any other. The "Common" should be changed into "Four-quarter." Nor does the error cease here. There are plenty of old fogies who will glibly state that the following mark is a "C" and stands for "Common Time." fe This absurd error ought to be thoroughly ex- posed. In the mediaeval days the monks held a triple rhythm to be the best in music because they believed that it represented the Holy Trinity. They called it "Perfectum" and they marked it by a circle, thus Q, but when an even rhythm was employed they called it "Imperfectum" and broke the circle, thus Q . From this it will be seen that the accepted sign for |- is but a religious symbol showing that the Trinity is no longer represented by the rhythm. Tempo and Rhythm 91 Tempo Marks Let us now explain "Time" in the sense of speed, and employ the word "Tempo," which is never used with a double meaning. "Grave" is held to be the slowest tempo, but this is not indicated by its Italian meaning. The tempo marks have sifted down into their present order more by usage than by the definite meaning of the word. In a Music Dictionary of the year 1724 the following table of tempo marks from slowest to quickest is given: Adagio-adagio. Vivace. Adagio. Allegro. Grave. Presto. Largo. Prestissimo. TEiiPO Marks in Old Masters It is a mistake to treat the tempo marks in 1 7th and 1 8th century music as they are employed in the 20th century. Tliey should be taken more moderately, the (juick movements less quick, the slow movements less slow, than in modern music. A Haydn or Mozart "Allegro" is often but an 92 Tempo and Rhythm "Allegro Moderato," while an "Adagio" is fre- quently about the same as a modern "Andante." Andante and Andantino Andante, by constant usage, has come to signify, in music, a gentle, legato, and slow movement. The Italian word by no means indicates this. The word means "going" and implies a steady move- ment. Referring to the old dictionary above quoted we find this definition: "Andante, this word has Respect chiefly to the Thorough Bass, and signifies, that in playing, the Time must be kept very just and exact, and each Note made very equal and distinct the one from the other." The constant use of the word in the sense of tenderness and tranquillity has brought another error in its train. Musicians (non-Italians) have used the diminutive "Andantino" as less slow than "Andante." This is again an error which cannot be entirely corrected, and it may be taken as a fact that "Andantino," as used in modern music, generally means quicker than Andante. Tempo and Rhythm 93 Yet, as some few use it in its proper sense, it may be regarded as a most doubtful term. Its Italian meaning is "less going" and therefore slower than Andante. Metronome It is a mistake to state that "M. M." means "Metronome Mark." This reduction of terms to the English language often leads to errors. "M. M." signifies "Maelzel's Metronome." It will be well also to remember that this appliance was put upon the market in 181 5, and, therefore, any "M. M." found upon a composition written prior to that date is not the speed commanded by the composer, but the one judged best by some editor. It is also a mistake to suppose that the metro- nome marks of the composer himself are always infallible. Schumann sometimes marked his tempo too fast. Raff, when a young man, and quite poor, had a metronome that beat too slov/ly. As a consequence, several of his early compositions are marked too quick. The metronome marks of \'on Biilow upon many technical studies (Clc- menti, Cramer, Czerny, etc.) are much too fast 94 Tempo and Rhythm and practically impossible for the student. Some- times the direction given by the composer is erroneous or ill chosen. In Schumann's G minor Piano Sonata, first movement, we find the direc- tion: "So rasch wie Moglich," "As quick as pos- sible," and a little later "Quicker," and finally, "Still Quicker." The error is not as great as it might seem, for at each acceleration he has simpli- fied the passage somewhat. Language in Tempo and Expression Marks These marks came in with the Opera, about A. D. 1600. For three centuries Italian Opera ruled the world and the Italian terms went into various countries along with it. Purcell intro- duced the Italian terms into England. In the 19th century there was some revolt against the Italian rule in this matter. See page 45 for an explanation of this much-disputed matter. We have also alluded to the necessity of unification in Musical Notation in the concluding chapter of this volume. It might also be desirable to restrict somewhat the fanciful terms of expression used by some composers. Such terms as "Come Tempo and Rhythm 95 Fumo" ("like smoke"), "Vuoto" ("empty"), and other subtiHties of a Hke nature might well be discarded from the list. Long sentences in Italian are also undesirable. In the last-named matter Beethoven himself was something of a sinner. Such sentences as "Non si fa una Cadenza ma s'attacca subito il Seguente" or "Si deve suonare tutto questo pezzo delicatis- simamente e senza Sordine" can only cause trouble to any teacher not conversant with Italian. If the reader will refer to page 47 of this book he will find that a great pianist mis- understood what was meant by the last sentence, which is used in the first movement of the "Moonlight" sonata, by Beethoven. Tempo Rubato This irregular or, more properly, elastic tempo has many disputed points associated with it. Its very name, "Rubato," is an error, since the time is not "stolen" or even transferred from note to note. Liszt, who was fond of teaching by parables, once gave his view upon this subject, during a lesson in Weimar, as follows: A young pianist had played 96 Tempo and Rhythm a Chopin work in so erratic a tempo that it stag- gered Hke a drunken man. At the end of the per- formance Liszt took the culprit to the window and pointed to the trees outside, which were waving freely in the wind. ''Look at those trees," said he, "the leaves and small twigs are dancing about freely, but the large branches move but little, while the trunks are not swaying at all! Let that be your Rubato." Tempo Rubato, therefore, means elasticity and not distortion. It is the very life-blood of some modern music, as Chopin showed sometimes when Mme. Dudevant caused him to play when he was not in the mood. He would then perform one of his compositions in strict and exact time, and the guests would soon perceive that he had given the body without the soul. It has been held that Beethoven and the classics should be performed without rubato, but Pader- ewski thinks this to be an absolute error. In his chapter in Mr. Finck's volume "Success in Music" he says about Tempo Rubato: *Tt is older than the Romantic school, it is older than Mozart, it is older than Bach. Girolamo Tempo and Rhythm 97 Frescobaldi, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, made ample use of it." Answering the question whether rubato should be used in Beethoven, Paderewski writes: "To this we answer, without hesitation, in the affirmative. Rubato was Rubinstein's playing of the opening bars and the Andante of the G major Concerto ; Rubato was Joachim's rendering of the middle part of the finale of the violin concerto; and BiJlow, whom we by no means tend to put on the same level as the two artists just mentioned, but who was a great authority in Germany, indulged in Tempo Rubato very frequently when playing Beethoven. The Largo in the C minor, the Andante in the G major, the Adagio in the E-flat concertos, call imperatively for Tempo Rubato." Counting of Rhythms Young teachers sometimes commit an error in causing their pupils to count as many beats as the numerator at the beginning of the piece calls for six in 6-8, nine in 9-8, etc. This is not wrong in a slow or a complicated measure, but is generally unnecessary. The numerator is usually (in com- 7 98 Tempo and Rhythm pound rhythms) merely for the analysis of the measure. A 6-8 rhythm would be counted two, a 9-8 three, etc., but the moment any irregularity creeps in let the pupil count by the numerator, six, nine, etc. The kinship of compound rhythm with simpler ones should be well understood; 6-8 rhythm is but 2-4 in a triplet form, 9-8 is 3-4, 12-8 is 4-4, etc. No one ever dreams of counting 24-16 as twenty- four. Among the less usual rhythms we may state that 24-16 is practically 4-4 or 8-8, 18-16 is 3-4, 15-8 is 5-4, 12-16 is 4-8, etc. (See page 43.) Characters of Rhythms We have already pointed out (page 13, et seq.) the grave errors that have become associated with the theory that each key has a definite character. It would be extending the same fallacy to state that every rhythm has a definite character, but one can at least state that there are certain character- istics in some rhythms which suit them to the portrayal of definite subjects. A slow 6-8 is the most swingy, cradling, and soothing rhythm and suits to Cradle-songs, Barcarolles, Swing-songs, Tempo and Rhythm 99 etc. A quick 6-8 is the snappiest and brightest of rhythms, and we, therefore, find that Quick- steps, Tarantellas, Saltarellos, etc., are generally written in this rhythm; 12-8 is often lofty and dignified and many processionals are in this rhythm; 3-4 and 9-8 are often best fitted for expressive and romantic touches. It will be found that 3-4 is very frequently the rhythm of the slow movements of Sonatas and Symphonies; 5-4 is anxious, perturbed, and uneasy. No one would dream of writing a slumber-song in 5-4 rhythm. We have seen in one of D'Indy's works a single measure marked 1-4, but as all rhythm demands a contrast of light and heavy accents, no such rhythm can exist; it can only be used for an odd measure, as in this case. Mistakes About Alla Breve It is an error to state that Alla Breve means 2-2 only; 4-2 is also an Alia Breve rhythm. Some teachers call 2-2 the "Short Alia Brcvc" and 4-2 the "Long Alla Brcvc." In one sense all the movements in which we count more than a cjuarter- notc to a single beat is Alla Breve, although such 7 loo Tempo and Rhythm a nomenclature is not to be recommended, as it might breed confusion. The origin of these large rhythms may clearly show this. In Mediaeval times the notes were of larger denomination than at present. The Maxima i was equal to eight whole notes, the Longa "^ to four, the Breve (from which comes our double whole note) e^ to two, the Semi-breve (our whole note) to one, and the smallest note of the old notation was the Minim, meaning the least (our half- note), written thus *. The English perpetuated the above names and to-day they call a double whole note a Breve, a whole note a Semi-breve, and a half-note a Minim. But they have done more than this, for they have kept all their sacred music (Church of England) in these large rhythms. Where we would write 3-4 or 4-4, they write 3-2 or 4-2, or even 3-1 or 4-1 (three or four whole notes to the measure), although the last two are rare. It is a mistake to think that this large notation affects the speed; a 4-2 would only be the equivalent of 4-4, a 3-2 of 3-4, etc. We have seen a 2-1 rhythm which went as rapidly as a 2-4 Tempo and Rhythm loi Allegro. Let the student look over any large Hymnal and he will find that the hymns in the large rhythms are not slower than those written in ordinary notation. Although this notation is universal in English Church music, it is also often found in other countries, particularly in the Ger- man Chorales. It must be remembered, however, that if a com- position presents a 4-4 rhythm which is (in the same work) changed into 4-2, it would mean a broadening and slowing-up, and vice versa. The sign of Alia Breve (^ is properly used for 2-2, but the same sign often appears for 4-2. Properly the sign for 4-2 (the numeral is always best and safest) would be thus (^ or (j^ ^ The old sign for 4-4 (not to be called "Common Time") C is also often erroneously used for 2-2 or 4-2. The teacher had better scan a few meas- ures of the music whenever the Alia Breve sign occurs, to make sure that it is correctly written. Other Rhythm Marks Smaller rhythms are only used to denote a style of tempo and expression. Thus 3-8 would be 102 Tempo and Rhythm brighter and quicker than 3-4 ; 6-16 than 6-8; 12- 16 than 12-8, etc. Such an effect could, however, be as well produced by a tempo or expression mark, and we hope that eventually music may be simplified by the abolition of many of the unneces- sary rhythm marks, 3-8, 6-16, 4-8, etc. An Organ Misnomer. Stopped Diapason There are some organists who are beginning to discard the term "Stopped Diapason" as applied to the pipe organ stop of to-day. The term is still in general use however. In response to a request from the author, Mr. Henry M. Dunham, the well-known organist, states the case as follows: "As this stop is of flute rather than diapason quality, and is always assigned to the flute family in classifications of organ-stops, the title 'Stopped Diapason' is obviously a misnomer it belongs properly to that subdivision of the flute family known as the Bourdon, and is properly called, in some modern organs, 'Bourdon 8.'" Mr. Wallace Goodrich also concurs in classifying this stop as "Bourdon." CHAPTER VII MISTAKES CONNECTED WITH MUSICAL FORMS MISTAKES OF NOMENCLATURE Repeat-marks in Sonata-Allegro The form of the first movement in classical Sonata or Symphony is frequently called "Sonata- Allegro." The form is also often used in Over- tures. Sometimes it is named "Sonata-move- ment" or "First-movement form." It ought not to be called (as is sometimes done) "Sonata-form," for this confuses it with the shape of the entire sonata. In the first movement the exposition of themes is generally ended with a double-bar, and here repeat-dots are found. This repeat should generally be observed, as it familiarizes the auditor with the themes which are the im- portant material of the movement. But very frecjuently in Mozart's or Haydn's sonatas a repeat- mark is also found at the end of the movement. I04 Mistakes Connected with Forms This repeat is unnecessary and had better be disregarded. It is almost never found in Bee- thoven. Phrases and Periods Different teachers apply these terms in different ways. The author will not attempt to bring order into the chaos of the terminology of Musical Form, but merely state that Music in its simpler forms is like poetry, and can be scanned in the same manner. The Phrase, in such music, is like the line in Poetry, while the Period is a complete sentence or verse. Theme This word is also very loosely applied, being sometimes used to indicate a figure in a fugue, and from this up to an entire song-form, in "Theme and Variations." The German word "Satz," similar to Theme, is applied in the same manner. The teacher must judge of each use of the wcxd by an examination of the music itself. Terminology in Sonata-form It is a pity that some teachers take delight in inventing new names in this field. We would advise the teacher to keep to the established Mistakes Connected with Forms 105 nomenclature even where a new term might seem better or more descriptive. (See the last chapter for the only practical means of correcting this defect.) In Sonata-form we have the following assortment of terms: "Chief Theme," "Principal Theme," "Main Theme," and "Subject" is often used instead of "Theme." All the foregoing are what the German, in his unified nomenclature, calls "Hs." "Hauptsatz." For what the Ger- man calls "Ss." " Seitensatz," we have "Sub- ordinate Theme," "Side Theme," "Subsidiary Theme." For "Schls." " Schlusssatz," we find "Closing Theme," "Conclusion Theme," and in England the puzzling word "Coda." See "Ab- breviations" in "Elson's Music Dictionary." Coda The word comes from the Latin "Cauda," a tail, or appendix. It ought to be applied only to a division that comes after the form is com- pleted. No postscript is ever written in the middle of a letter, and no Coda should be recognized until the form is completed. When the English- man marks the "Schls." as "Coda," he simply io6 Mistakes Connected with Forms means that it is a coda to the Exposition, not to the movement, and this leads to much confusion. The word "Coda" is also applied to the final treatment of a fugue, before the end of the form is reached Here we venture to suggest that "Coda-episode" might preserve the established nomenclature, and yet make it clear that this "Coda" is not a true Postscript. Five-division Song-form The three-division Song-form is made as follows: Div. I, a Theme (period); Div. II, a Counter- theme or Episode; Div. Ill, return of Theme A, B, A. The English call this a Binary form (twofold), since there are only two different divisions in it, but it is clearer to the student to treat it as a three- division form. There is an extension of this form which is built as follows: Div. I, Theme; Div. II, a Countertheme or Episode; Div. Ill, return of the Theme; Div. IV, another Countertheme or Episode; Div. V, a final appearance of the Theme A, B, A, C, A. Many theorists call this last form "Five-division Mistakes Connected with Forms 107 Song-form," and it is undoubtedly logical to do so; but, unfortunately, Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, Purcell, and many other composers regarded it as a Rondo (Second Rondo-form), and have often marked it so. It is a Rondo in so far as a Rondo consists in returning to its chief theme, and it may be better to hold to that name under the circum- stances. Shakespeare asks, '' What's in a Name ?" In teaching (one could answer), there is a great deal, for a misleading name may utterly befog the pupil. Two-part Song-form, etc. Many teachers prefer the word "Part" to "Division," and speak of "Two-part Song-form," "Three-part Song-form," etc. We have known cases of pupils being misled thereby and seeking the forms in Mendelssohn's "Two-part Songs," Bach's "Three-part Inventions," etc. Since the word "Part" means different things in music, "Division" would seem to be preferable because more definite. FuGAL Nomenclature Without attempting to decide upon absolute terminology here, the statement must be made io8 Mistakes Connected with Forms that Cherubini, Stainer, Reinecke, etc., all differ in the terms used in teaching the various divisions of the Fugue. The author has endeavored to bring the fugue to its simplest analysis in ''Famous Composers and their Works" (New Series) and in his Music Dictionary. The terms he has chosen in his own classes are: "Subject," "Answer," " Countersubject," "Exposition," "Counter-ex- position," "Stretto," "Episode," "Repercussion," and "Coda-episode." Strophe-form We come here to a mistake in the aesthetics rather than in the form of composition. Strophe- form is that form of vocal composition where the music is set to the first verse of a poem and then repeated to each one of the succeeding stanzas. It may be properly used only where there are but few stanzas and each one presents the same sentiment. Strophe-form is much used in folk- song music. It has two defects first, monotony; second, the music is almost sure to contradict the sense of the words at one time or another. The public generally accept the expression of Mistakes Connected with Forms 109 the singer for the intrinsic expression of the music, but they are sometimes far from being the same. Many celebrated songs commit ludicrous errors in this matter, errors which none of the public discern until the music is analyzed for them. Let the teacher examine Hullah's beautiful "Three Fishers," and he will find that the music agrees perfectly with the second and third stanzas, but ludicrously contradicts the first. He will find a fierce dissonance where the line runs " Each thought of the woman who loved him the best." (not so dreadful a matter), and the most sombre and portentous passage at " And the children stood watching them out of the town," as if the children were stealthy evil-doers. Kingsley's "When All the World is Young" is distinctly major and minor in its two verses, yet many times it has been set with the same music to each stanza. Great composers have sometimes fallen into weakness because of inattention to this matter. Schubert's "Wandering" is a proper application of the strophe-form, since each stanza I lo Mistakes Connected with Forms has the same mood. The same may be said of his "Impatience." But his ''Miller's Flowers" has dissimilar thoughts set to the same music, and is, therefore, bad art. General Mispronunciations The word "Sinfonia" should be pronounced Sin-foh-wee-ah, and not S'm-joh-m-ah.. "Fan- tasia" is pronounced Fan-ta-2ee-ah, not Fscn-tah- see-ah. "Concerto" may be pronounced as Ita- lian Con-c^air-toh, or in English as Concerto. Concerto has become as English a word as Soprano. Among less used w^ords which many teachers mis- pronounce are Percfewdosi, Semplice, which should be pronounced 6'ew-plee-cheh, etc. Piano, Pianoforte, and Pianist We have as yet found no authority for the pronunciation "Pee-an-ist." The accent should fall on the second syllable as in Piano. There are some purists who may take the teacher to task for using the word "Piano" to describe the instrument, saying that it should always be "Piano-forte." But we beg to remind these sticklers that in that case the player upon it must always be called a Mistakes Connected with Forms 1 1 1 "Piano-fortist." The use of the word "Pianist" is a logical justification of the word " Piano." The original term was ** Clavicembalo con Piano e Forte," which has gradually shortened into "Piano." "Piano-forte" is permissible, but not necessary. Mispronunciations of Composer's Names Here many errors are likely to occur, and no fixed rules can be given, since so many different languages are involved. One ought to remember, however, that in Russian and Polish the letter "W," when ending the penultimate or the final syllable, has generally the sound of "F." This accounts for Padere^ski, Tschaiko^sky, etc. Many Russians mispronounce the names of their own composers. An eminent Russian as- sured me that a name spelled exactly the same would often be pronounced in different ways in different parts of Russia. Even the spelling may differ in American concert programmes, and one may expect to find "Tschaikowski," "Tschaikov- sky," "Tshaikoffski," and other variants in differ- ent books and programmes. 112 Mistakes Connected with Forms The following list may be of some help to the teacher. A more complete one may be found in "Elson's Music Dictionary." Names Frequently Mispronounced Beethoven, never Beethoven; Berlioz, sound the "z"; Carreiio is pronounced Carrmyo; Cramer, pronounced Krah-mev; Czerny, pronounced Tschair-ny; Dvorak, pronounced Di^or-szhahk; Gabrilowitch, pronounced Gah-bril-o/t-vitch ; Handel (strictly Handel or Haendel), exactly like the English word "handle"; Haydn is High-dn; Kjerulf is Chher-u\i, with the German sound of "ch"; Kohler is about as "Kayler." Massenet should be Mahs-seh-n&y; Mascagni is Msihs-kah- nyee; Moscheles is accented on the first syllable; Rachmaninoff is accented upon the second sylla- ble; Rimski-Korsakoff, a much-debated name, is accented upon the first and the next to the last syllable; Smetana is accented on the first syllable only; but the list may easily grow into very large proportions. In French names the sound of "u" is a great stumbling-block to American teachers. It is sounded like a very dark "ee"; thus Dukas Mistakes Connected with Forms 113 is Dee-kah, and Debussy becomes Deh-bees-sy, as nearly as it can be phonetically spelled in English. A name like Saint-Saens utterly defies phonetic reproduction. CHAPTER VIII VOCAL ERRORS AND DOUBTFUL POINTS It is not the purpose of this volume to touch upon the disputes regarding methods of breathing, uniting of registers, etc. These matters form the subjects of a dispute that often becomes acri- monious. Almost every work that theorizes about the voice has some aspersion to cast upon other methods or books that take different views. A few points upon which popular errors exist may, however, be briefly recited. The Tremolo This is generally regarded as a fault in Germany, England, and America. In France and Italy, however, a vibrato tremolo is regarded with favor. It is supposed to be sympathetic and emotional in those countries. What is a Good Vocal Language? The chief requisites of a language in its vocal use are crisp consonants and open vowels. The 114 Disputed Vocal Points 115 Italian fills these requirements perfectly. An Italian would shudder at such a vowel sound as we give in "birth," "yearn," or "bird." The order of the chief languages in their fulfilment of vocal requirements may be stated as follows: After Italian come Spanish and Latin, the former having a few gutturals. French would be next to these, its nasality being a defect. German is singable because of its open vowels, but has many gutturals. A phrase such as "Ich liebe dich" would illus- trate this clearly. Some teachers attempt to soften such effects by pronouncing such a phrase as: "Isch liebe disch," which is going out of the frying-pan into the fire. English is somewhat more difficult as a vocal language than the fore- going, such words as "singing," "battles," "earth," etc., showing plainly some of the defects of the language, but these are only difficulties to be overcome. In England, where almost every vocal teacher lays great stress upon articulation, one is seldom made aware of the vocal difficulties of the language, in the concert-room. America is, unfortunately, far behind England in ibis matter. The following couplet contains about ii6 Disputed Vocal Points as many vocal defects as any two lines in the language : "Afloating, afloating, upon a sleeping sea, All night I heard, a singing bird, upon the topmast tree." Pronunciation or Latin The vocal teacher should not forget that there are three ways of pronouncing Latin: The English method, by which a celebrated writer rhymed "bite 'em" with the Latin "Ad infinitem." Second, the Continental pronunciation, which closely follows the Italian rules. Lastly, the " Old Roman," now used in many colleges, which hardens the c into k, etc. Of these three, the Continental is decidedly the preferable for the vocal teacher, since it is used by the Catholic Church, and almost all the Latin songs that he will use are connected with the service of that church. Compass of Children's Voices Until very recently a decided error was made in this field. Believing that the high notes strained the juvenile voice, almost all children's songs were written within a very narrow compass, about Disputed Vocal Points 117 ^ 2z: But careful investigation has shown that the child's voice is quite normal in higher passages, and to-day the compass of children's songs is about # a full fifth higher than of yore. What Constitutes a Musical Child In connection with the mistake regarding the true compass of the child's voice it may be proper to speak of another error regarding music in childhood. Many imagine that if a child remem- bers a tune or has a good sense of pitch, it is of necessity a musical prodigy and ought to be devoted to a musical career. As a matter of fact, while these qualities are essential, many a child possess- ing them may fall far short of being a composer or a great musician. Together Vvith the tests of pitch and of musical memory one ought to test the subtler qualities of musical appreciation. ii8 Disputed Vocal Points Almost invariably a child cares chiefly for the simplest and most direct treatment of a theme. An accompaniment of thirds and sixths, that a cultured adult would find too cloying in sweetness, is eminently satisfactory to the juvenile auditor. Counterpoint, with its interwoven melodies, is almost always repugnant to the young listener. When, however, a child is discovered who pre- fers a good contrapuntal treatment to a har- monic one, who enjoys the appearance of dis- sonances and their resolution, in preference to a succession of consonances, one has found a musi- cian in embryo. Tessitura. The vocal teacher must not forget that a mere statement of the highest and lowest note of a song does not always indicate its fitness for a certain class of voice. It is the tessitura, the general pitch of the tones, which determines that. Thus one could write a song in this compass ih: Disputed Vocal Points 119 which might be an alto song, while another song in exactly the same compass might be as clearly a soprano selection. Chorus Breath-marks It will always lead to a better ensemble if, in a chorus, the director sees to it that breathing- marks are put in every copy of the music. Unanim- ity in breathing is a great essential to a perfect ensemble. The Study of Metre Every chorus conductor or choir director should be familiar with the scansion of poetry. The un- derstanding of how to fit the natural pulsations of a poem to the natural pulsations of music will assist greatly in impressing the effects of a chorus upon its singers. Alterations of Words The conductor will often find it necessary to change a word or a sentence in a song or a chorus. Various reasons may lead to such a change. The vowel "e" on a high note may be very effective at times in a male part, while very unsiiigublc in a female voice. Sometimes the association of a I20 Disputed Vocal Points word renders it unsuitable in a song. Thus, in Mendelssohn's Cradle Song, the line ''Sleep through the star-spangled hours" would awaken a doubtful impression in an American auditor, while it might do very well in England. The Hymn, ''The Lord Distils the Mountain Dew," might suit well enough everywhere except in Scotland, where "Mountain Dew" happens to mean whiskey. When the words are scriptural, it is better to retain an awkward phrase than mar the beauty of the text. Thus, in the "Messiah," the con- ductor will find the sopranos obliged to strain a little at "King of Kings" (in the "Hallellujah Chorus"), while "Lord of Lords" will be com- paratively easy. He will find another awkward phra&e in "Unto us a child is born unto us a Son is given," for the sibilants will be noticeable when many voices take them. In such cases the consonants must be very clear, but very brief. Errors in Translation Here the singing teacher must be constantly on his guard, for the mistakes are legion. Often the Disputed Vocal Points 121 composer's best points are destroyed in the trans- ference of the text from one language to another. There is, for example, an edition of Schubert's "Erl-king," in which, by a blunder of the trans- lator, the affrighted words of the child are given to the deepest notes of the music, while the father replies in a piping treble. The conscientious teacher will very frequently be obliged to revise a translated copy of a song before giving it to his pupil to study. It is always better to sing an operatic aria or scena in the original tongue, in spite of the great amount of argument that is made for "opera in English." Many operatic librettos are impossible to translate properly. Wagner in English is al- ways merely a makeshift. One needs only to examine an operatic translation to ascertain this. The most composed bit of poetry extant is Heine's "Du bist wie eine Blume " (there are more than 400 musical settings of it), yet we have not yet seen even one English version where the exact spirit of the German poem is kept and the accents placed on the words to which Heine wished to give stress. To have real translations 122 Disputed Vocal Points it would be necessary to have a poet and a musi- cian (preferably a singing-teacher) work together, and even then some songs would be impossible to translate perfectly. Of the chief vocal languages, the German translates best into English, the French, worst. CHAPTER IX PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL ERRORS CONCERNING MUSIC When Congreve wrote "Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast" he wrote a truth, but not the entire truth, for we have seen (Chapter I) that animals also come under the spell of the natural pulsation of music rhythm. Effects of Rhythm There is not much doubt that the rhythmic effects of music will yet be employed as part of Materia Medica. The effect upon the human system is very direct. It can be used as a curative agent in cases of stuttering and of St. Vitus' dance. In such cases, however, the best application of its powers is to have the patient sing himself. The regularity of vibrations (tone) and of pulsa- tions (rhythm) combined almost always works beneficially. The author has, in two marked cases, established an improvement in one, and an absolute cure in the other, by vocal work. 123 124 Psychological Errors Music and the Insane The employment of music in this field is as yet in its infancy. There is not much question but that music properly employed in cases of mental alienation is beneficial, but experiments have thus far been made but superficially, and few well-authenticated data are obtainable. The scriptural accounts of such uses of music, as the playing of David before Saul, will probably be corroborated by modern experiments. As yet, however, the physician and the musician have scarcely worked together at all. The employ- ment of rapid dancing to cure the bite of the tarantula (whence the name of the dance "Tarantella") seems to be a well-authenticated use of the rhythmic effects of music in febrile or tetanic cases. Not only the Bible, but much of Greek and Egyptian literature is filled with accounts of the psychological use of music. The use of music by the Pythagoreans as a tonic in the morning and as a sedative in the evening is quite v/ell authenticated. The different effects of music Psychological Errors 125 upon different minds and natures is still to be investigated. The use of rhythmic music among the medicine- men of many savage tribes will not be dismissed by the psychologist as a mere superstition. Dif- ferent races have different degrees of predisposi- tion toward rhythm. The negroes have far more than the North American Indians, the Latin races more than the Saxon. Association of Ideas in IMusic There is much to be studied yet as to how powerful music is in awakening memories, and how much of its power proceeds from this pro- cess. The Ranz des Vaches, during the Napoleonic wars, "Farewell to Lochaber," during the Sepoy Mutiny, and ''The Old Folks at Home," during our own Civil War, were often prohibited by different generals because they caused too many desertions. The mere melodies, without words, v.'ere as potent as the songs themselves. Such an association of ideas might cause certain musical selections to mean much to one person and little to another. A Chinese mandarin once told 126 Psychological Errors Father Amiot (a Jesuit missionary) that the European music seemed very skilful to him, but it did not go to the heart as Chinese music! Brain Action in Music There are many points in the execution of music that are not fully understood by the scientist, and hence are not properly investigated. The playing of three notes in one hand against four or five or two in the other involves a degree of sub- conscious action that deserves analysis. Ex- perienced teachers know that they sometimes find intelligent and earnest pupils who cannot master such combined rhythms, and they then simplify them (see Klindworth's editions of Chopin), but they are seldom aware of the phys- iological difficulty that underlies them. The Memorization of Music Investigation here shows that three mental processes are involved tone-memory, sight-mem- ory, and motor-memory. The first is chiefly employed. A good musician remembers the se- Psychological Errors 127 quence of musical ideas and harmonies. He may often alter certain notes, but he will always present the fundamental idea. Some musicians remember chiefly the ''look of the page"; they visualize the work, and imagine it upon the music-rack before them. At times, when the memory is at fault in the foregoing actions, a musician can save disaster by trusting to motor-memory. He half-con- sciously remembers the position of his hands, the extension of his fingers, and follows this precarious guide to safety. The period of awakening of musical thought ought to be more carefully investigated. It some- times precedes speech. The author has seen a babe (daughter of a prominent New York musi- cian) which cried at sad minor and laughed at bright major melodies. Reyer tells of a child of nine months that was able to sing notes as they were sounded on a piano. Dvorak's son sang the " Fatinitza March " at the age of one year. Robert Franz in adult years remembered having heard a certain Chorale when as a babe he was carried by his nurse to a religious festival. 128 Psychological Errors Quickness of Musical Perceptions Experiments have been made in this field which may astonish many musicians. A pianist struck two tones with both hands exactly together, as he thought. But the left hand was proved to be Toh ^^ ^ second later than the right. He tried to strike a tone with his left hand the moment a signal was given. He averaged ^ of a second later than the sound-signal. When it came to more complex processes, such as pressing down a tone with the right hand when he heard a high- pitched signal, and the left hand when a deep- toned signal was given, the result took appreciably longer. Lack of Musical Perception We generally speak of persons having such a lack as "having no ear for music." The auditive faculty certainly does not exist in any two persons quite alike, and to some it is denied altogether. Thus we may find some persons of high intelligence and great mental attainments who have no musical appreciation whatever; while, on the other hand, one may find persons of low intelligence who are Psychological Errors 129 most sensitive to the power and beauty of music. Thousands of negroes in Africa were infinitely in advance of Dean Swift or Alfred Tennyson in this respect. Charles Lamb, Dr. Johnson, Tenny- son, Swift, Victor Hugo, Catherine II, and many others might be named, who have been denied this perception. It is a cerebral, not an intellectual defect. Physical Changes Due to Musical Practice That there are certain changes of muscular tissue due to constant musical practice seems a fact that has been demonstrated by surgery. The vocal chords in the average throat are white, but with the professional singer they become a pearl gray. This can be demonstrated by means of an examination with the laryngoscope. No such examination is possible in the case of the pianist, but it is almost certain that a similar change takes place with his much-employed muscles. Sir Robert Hunter, the English surgeon, once said that he would gladly give a thousand pounds for a pianist's hand to dissect but none were offering in the market at that price. 9 130 Psychological Errors Physical Effects Due to Musical Practice The most healthy musical practice of all is singing. Vocal practice is a species of universal gymnastics that causes activity or vibration in almost every part of the human body, and almost every part is benefited by it. Not all vibrations, however, are beneficial to health. It would seem that the high overtones, with their rapid vibrations, are exhausting to the brain. Instruments in which these are prominent are sometimes apt to cause nervousness. The oboe and the reed organ are less restful to the performer than clarinette or pipe organ would be. Blowing upon wind instruments is an exaggeration of normal breathing and carries with it the effects which such an exaggerat on induces. The respira- tions, however, average about as many per minute as in ordinary breathing, but the inspiration is almost always deeper than in ordinary breathing, and the intake of breath generally more rapid. RobilHer is quoted in Dr. J. Frederick Rogers' pamphlet on "The Effect of Blowing upon Musical Wind Instruments," as saying: "Among the pathological effects which may Psychological Errors 131 result from the prolonged exercise upon the clarion, cornet, or trumpet are those on the circula- tion and on the lungs. The robust men, with large chests, become habituated, and do not suffer bad effects ; but those of feeble constitution and narrow chests, those who are very full blooded, who have a short neck and who are large and thick-set, experience, after having devoted a long time to a wind instrument, the oppression of suffocation, as if they had just been running." He warns such of the danger of cerebral con- gestion, apoplexy, or hernia. Dr. J. Frederick Rogers, however, states that where the breathlessness and the dizziness after long-sustained tones do occur, they are not more serious than the same results brought about by running or the lifting of a heavy weight. They would not do harm except in cases where there was a preceding degenerative condition. Oboe playing is a more severe strain upon the breathing apparatus because the expiration must be restricted. The breath must be given out very slowly a more abnormal process than that of blowing on other instruments. 132 Psychological Errors Is Catarrh Prevalent Among Wind-instru- ment Players? The Surgeon-general of the German Army says that wind-instrument players in his military service show a tendency to catarrhal complaints, but in America an observation of military bands seems to lead to an opposite conclusion. Dr. Rogers, in summing up an extensive series of investigations, comes to the conclusion that a moderate use of the wind instruments is helpful to the lungs, throat, nose, etc. He considers the Boehm flute the most desirable instrument for a person with weak lungs, "since it offers less effort than the other instruments, even less than singing, requires less skill in the production of tone than the reed instruments; is adapted for individual playing; is possessed of beauty of tone; is not sombre; has a mechanism easily acquired, though always offering something to overcome in the perfection of technique ; and lastly, is an instrument adapted for women as well as men." He considers the soprano saxophone to come next in desirability for those without much lung power. To this the author can add that he has known of an eminent Psychological Errors 133 physician prescribing the use of the saxophone to a patient suffering with dulness of hearing, as a tonic to the aural nerves. The Longevity of Composers It is a popular error to suppose that composers die young. Their average of life is not so great as that of clergymen or bankers, but it is longer than is generally supposed. The error is founded on the fact that several of the masters have been unable to stand the strain of the struggle with poverty and lack of recognition, and have died before reaching middle age. But the many cases of especial longevity change the average decidedly. Sometimes also the nervous strain consequent upon some large composition has caused the break-down of an already enfeebled body. Thus, "Elijah" was one of the chief causes of the death of Alen- dclssohn; "Carmen" (and its lack of recognition), of Bizet; "The Seasons," of Haydn; "Zampa," of Ilerold; and other instances might be named. But against the cases of early death, many of especial longevity may be cited among famous composers. Mendelssohn died at 38, Mozart at 134 Psychological Errors 35, Purcell at 37, Pergolesi at 26, Bellini at t,^, Chopin at 40, and Schubert at 31; but Handel died at 74, Bach at 65, Haydn at 77, Palestrina at 70, Spohr at 75, Gluck at 73, Cherubini at 82, Meyerbeer at 70, Wagner at 70, Rossini at 78, and Verdi at 87. The average is not as low as is supposed. CHAPTER X MISTAKES AND ERRORS IN MUSICAL HISTORY In the next chapter we shall speak of literary errors in the domain of music. Almost all of these are on the analytical or technical side, but occa- sionally errors are made regarding musical history, and these range from misstatements regarding compositions to untruths about the origin of entire schools of music. The Origin of Counterpoint How audacious the "musical novel" may some- times become may be shown by a synopsis of one that appeared in a Parisian society magazine as far back as 1837. I^ is entitled "La Vieillesse de Guillaume Du Fay" "The Old Age of William Du Fay" and may be summarized as follows: March, 1465 Night in Paris. Du Fay with some of his pupils is in the street, returning home. He absent-mindedly raps at the wrong door and the concierge, Ursula, tells him that within dwells 35 136 Historical Errors the widow of Vicomte, killed in a duel. The young widow, Helene, is the daughter of Chevrus, the Rebec player; she is poor and has an infant daughter. Du Fay, who knew Chevrus well, decides to protect Helene in spite of the objec- tions of his old housekeeper, Marion. The latter begs Josquin Des Pres, who is a pupil of Du Fay (!), to change his master's decision. But Des Pres himself falls in love with Helene. Six months Helene and her child dwell with Du Fay, when the infant becomes ill. The infant is left in the old master's care. In the midst of a tempestuous night, Du Fay, agitated and senile, manages to set the apartment on fire. The child is burnt badly and dies. Helene goes crazy. She sings old Noels. Du Fay notices that the melody is varied at the repeat, yet can be made to accompany itself. He calls the attention of Josquin Des Pres to this, who has already noticed it. Thereupon the two musi- cians join in the singing, in canonic style. This at once cures Helene of her insanity and Josquin Des Pres marries her. The French novelist ends naively with "Le Contrepoint venait d'etre d^- couvertel" Thus was counterpoint discovered! Historical Errors 137 False Names of Compositions Another element that breeds false history is the facility with which descriptive names not intended by the composer are attached to many important compositions. These names are not always wrong or misleading, but the musician should know that they do not come from the composer. The names "Moonlight Sonata," "Sonata Appassionata," "Emperor Concerto," "Jupiter Symphony," etc., do not come from Beethoven or Mozart, however well they fit the compositions to which they are applied. Most of the names applied to Mendelssohn's Songs without Words were added by publishers. Mendelssohn named a few with well-fitting titles, such as "Duetto," "Gondellied," etc. Such names as "Consolation," "Sadness," etc., were not given by him. Some of them fit the tone- picture very well, but some are as ludicrously out of place. See "The Fleecy Cloud," which has enough crashes (fz) for a thunder-cloud, as a glaring example; or, "The Song of the Pilgrim," which is a syncopation study and in which the 138 Historical Errors "Pilgrim" seems to have hiccoughs from be- ginning to end! Spurious Tales Regarding Famous Works Against these the teacher should be constantly upon his guard, for they mislead many pupils, and are apt to create an absurd demand for a "story" in connection with many works which should be enjoyed, without any such fictitious aid, for their music alone. Stradella's Prayer The tender and expressive "Pieta Signore" ("Stradella's Prayer") is said to have saved the life of its composer. Stradella had fallen in love with an aristocratic lady in Rome and she returned his affection. The high-born brother, fearing the disgrace of his family, hired two bravos (profes- sional murderers) to assassinate Stradella as soon as possible. The assassins proceeded to the church where Stradella was that day to sing one of his own compositions, intending to slay him as he left the edifice. They were, however, so much moved by Historical Errors 139 the tenderness of the song that when he appeared on the street they not only warned him of the plot, but gave him money to escape from Rome. Not only did this never occur, but "Pieta Signore " is not one of Stradella's compositions. It is supposed to have been written by Gluck, and it bears some of this composer's characteristics, but even this is a doubtful point, and "Stradella's Prayer" will probably always remain an anony- mous composition. Pseudo-compositions The story of another famous work happens to be a quite true tale, but serves to show how easily false history can be made when desired. Hector Berlioz, the great founder of modern program music, was cordially disliked by many of his brother critics in Paris. His scathing sarcasm, his bold iconoclasm, and his extreme demands in orchestral matters made him many enemies, who attacked his music, root and branch. It was about this time that Berlioz discovered an old musical score by an unknown composer, Pere Ducr6, which he announced as treasure tro\e 140 Historical Errors to all Paris. Every one was anxious to hear "L'Enfance du Christ," this new-old cantata. When it was publicly given, in Berlioz's transcrip- tion, the critics found traces of Berlioz in some of the numbers, but in the ^'Choeur Mystique" they discovered mediaeval music in its best state, and a few even hinted that if Berlioz could write some- thing like that he might indeed have hopes of eventually becoming a composer. Then came the sweet revenge. Berlioz explained that there was no "Pere Ducre"; there was no mediaeval manuscript; there was no "musical dis- covery"; he had written every note of the work himself, and he was greatly obliged to the reviewers who had at last given him hearty praise. There are other pseudo-compositions in the re- pertoire of to-day. More than one reviewer has gone into ecstasies over Mozart's 12th Mass, and the "Gloria" in this has been spoken of as an excellent example of Mozart's powers. But the fact is that probably ISIozart did not write a note of the composition. It is one of the most doubtful works in the catalogue, and w^as perhaps made up of various excerpts from unknown sources. Historical Errors 141 The Requiem of Mozart also falls partially in this class, for it is known that Siissmayer, his pupil, wrote some parts of it, after the death of the master, in order that the widow might collect the fee for the work. It is not certain what parts the pupil composed, although we may be sure that he did not write the double fugue of the "Kyrie." Schu- bert's "L' Adieu" is also to be placed among the "doubtful compositions," and several other of Mozart's less known works belong to this "index expurgatorius." False Stories About Beethoven Beethoven has also suffered both from false stories and from wrongfully ascribed compositions. The tender little waltz called "Sehnsuchtswalzer" is not by Beethoven, but by Schubert. The little Album-leaf, which has been called "Beethoven's Farewell to the Pianoforte," is his own, but was by no means his farewell to the instrument which he had glorified. This work is sometimes labeled "Beethoven's Last Composition." This was not the case. Beethoven's last complete work was the finale to the String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 142 Historical Errors 130. This was written in November, 1826, only a short time before his fatal illness. His very last (incomplete) musical thought was part of a string quintet, which he hoped to finish, although very ill. The "Moonlight Sonata" The spurious story regarding the ''Moonlight Sonata" is something that must grieve every think- ing musician. That Beethoven found a piano and a blind girl in the woods near Vienna, and that he improvised a sonata, is such a farrago of nonsense that it cannot be too emphatically contradicted. Yet the sonata (Op. 27, No. 2) has its interesting story, which is quite different from the silly romance above indicated. It may have been a musical love letter to the Countess Giuletta Guicciardi, possibly even a farewell to her. Her name appears on the first edition, in 1802, and the sonata is dedicated to her. The mysterious and very intense love letters which were found in Beethoven's desk after his death probably have reference to this passion. Even at this time it must have been evident to Beethoven that nothing could come of this hope- less attachment. The question as to whether he Historical Errors 143 voluntarily withdrew his attentions or whether the parents of the lady requested him to cease his suit is still somewhat doubtful, Marx holding the former, Thayer the latter theory. It is fair, how- ever, to suppose that the first movement presents his yearning, and the finale his passion, for the beautiful Giuletta. That Beethoven's somewhat wandering affections crystallized into music is un- doubted, and there is reason to believe that in the case of Giuletta Guicciardi his devotion was deep and sincere. Schumann's "Warum" Perhaps the most impudent and far-fetched story that has been saddled upon a musical com- position is the one which is too frequently narrated in connection with Schumann's exquisite question in tones, entitled "Warum" "Why?" Schu- mann was deeply in love with Clara Wieck, and the father of Clara vehemently opposed the mar- riage, while Clara herself devotedly returned Schumann's affection. Starting from this perfectly true premise, the story-teller states that after long separation the 144 Historical Errors young lover wrote this tender question on a sheet of music-paper and sent it to his Clara. She read it over and knew at once its purport. **Why must we suffer? Why must we be apart?" She wept over the manuscript, and then carried it to her stern parent, who was also melted to tears and sent at once for Schumann and said, "Bless you, my children!" and they lived happily ever after- ward. This is all very pretty, but is made out of the whole cloth. Schumann was much attracted, in ^^37 y ^y ^ young Scottish pianist. Miss Robena Anna Laidlaw. There was close friendship and much mutual sympathy between the two. They chatted together, they rowed together, they went on walks together. He even suggested that "Anna Robena" would sound more musical than "Robena Anna," and suggested changing the order of her names, which she did. There was high respect on the one side and admiration on the other in this intercourse. The lady afterward married, and as Mrs. Thomson held a high position in England and Scotland. It was to her that the set of " Phantasie-stiicke," of Historical Errors 145 which "Warum" is No. 3, was dedicated. In order to thoroughly settle this "Warum" story we v>'ill quote Schumann's letter regarding the work. He writes Miss Laidlaw: ''The time of your stay here will always be a most beautiful memory to me, and that this is true you will soon see in eight ' Phantasie-stiicke ' for pianoforte that will shortly appear bearing your name on their forehead. It is true that I have not asked you for permission to make this dedication, but they belong to you, and the whole 'Rosenthal,' with its romantic surroundings, is in the music. The ' Phantasie-stiJcke ' will be ready by the end of September. How and in what way shall I send them to you?" After this letter goes on a chat about friends and begs a reply to be written in English. All this occurred in 1837. Schumann won his Clara in 1840. He won her by a lawsuit in which he proved that he was of good reputation, had a reasonable income, that both the lovers were of legal age, and that there was no valid ground for Fricdrich Wieck to oppose their marriage. The court ordered the father to cease his opposition to the match. 10 146 Historical Errors The story of the deep affection of this famous pair, of the loyalty and devotion through months of trial, and the efforts of Schumann to earn money and position for Clara's sake, is eloquent and pathetic enough in itself and needs no fictitious aid by any story regarding a tear-stained and very damp "Warum." "Weber's Last Thought" One other composition that has been very much used in all kinds of variations may be alluded to in this place, since it is parading under false colors. "Weber's Last Thought," or "Weber's Last Waltz," was not his last thought, nor his thought at all, since it v^as written by Reissiger. There was some justification for the title, however. When Weber was discovered dead in his bed in London they found this waltz in manuscript among his papers. Naturally every one thought that it was the dead master's last composition. After it had been published as such, C. G. Reissiger, the German composer, proved that it was his own composition. In a letter to the composer Pixis, Reissiger writes: "I played the little composition Historical Errors 147 to Weber and his wife just before the former went to London. They urgently desired a copy of the work and I therefore wrote it down for Weber, who took it with him to England. Its discovery among his papers is probably the reason that the work is ascribed to him." This was an innocent and, perhaps, unavoidable error. Far less excusable are some of the false stories recounted and exposed above. It is said that "a lie will travel around the world while truth is getting on its boots"; nevertheless truth does generally overtake the falsehood at last. It is possible that some of the facts which are here given will cause the false stories of musical history to be somewhat less frequently cited in musical club papers and in musical lectures than they are at present. The teacher should certainly try to eliminate such stories from his curriculum, and while not despising the interest of a true bit of history, should seek to teach his pupils that a noble musical work has no need of a "story" attach- ment. 148 Historical Errors Oriental Music Several great composers have misled the public as regards Oriental music through their composi- tions supposed to represent this school. Bee- thoven's "Turkish March" is not in the slightest degree Turkish. Mozart's ''Alia Turca," in his sonata in A major, for piano, is also not Oriental. Very much of the Oriental music, except the Chinese, is innocent of strong rhythm and tends to a gentle and soothing vein. St. Saens has been almost the only European composer of prominence who has caught the true Eastern spirit, and his "Suite Algerienne" or his song "La Brise" may show the investigator something of the school which has been so often misrepresented by greater composers. Ancient Music There are some glaring errors regarding the existence of very ancient tunes, which are fostered by audacious statements in certain editions. Thus some Hymnals present "Leoni" as an ancient Hebrew melody. We have seen it labelled "4000 years old" in one Hymnal, and "sung in the Temple of ancient Jerusalem" in another, while, Historical Errors 149 as a matter of fact, it is not of any especial antiquity. The oldest music in existence is probably the Hymn to Apollo, which was discovered, engraved on marble, at Delphi, in May, 1893, by the French archaeological school at Athens. This celebrated the victory of the Phocians over Brennus, the Gaul, and was composed about 278 b. c. There is, however, considerable doubt as to its interpreta- tion in our notation. It is in a strange and rather unsingable 5-4 rhythm. An ancient Hymn to Calliope and a few other musical antiques exist, but again the difficulty of deciphering the Greek notation stands in the way. As regards scriptural music not a scrap is left. There was no definite written Hebrew notation in the time of David, and therefore any hope of future discoveries is untenable. The oldest piece of Jewish music in existence is possibly "Kol Nidrei," a plaintive minor melody, sung on the Day of Atonement. This is probably of Moorish origin and not much over 600 years old. *'Kol Nidrei" can be obtained in various arrangements at almost any music store, the violoncello arrangement by Max Bruch being much the best. 150 Historical Errors Bach's Suites A mystifying point which the piano teacher is often called upon to unravel is the naming of the two sets of suites for piano, by Bach. Of course, they were not originally for piano, since Bach cared but little for that instrument, but were generally played on the spinet or clavichord. But the names "English Suites" and "French Suites" are puzzling. The usual glib explanation, that one set was dedicated to an English noble- man and the other to a French gentleman, has not been proved. Sir Hubert Parry, in his recent excellent work on Bach, suggests that the lightness and daintiness of the shorter set, quite in the tradi- tions of French art, gave to that set its name, which he thinks was never given by Bach himself. The "English Suites" were not published during the composer's lifetime. It is possible that the name "English" came about through the fact that the opening prelude in this set is taken from a Gigue by Dieupart, who was at that time very famous in England. Bach is said to have written on this "Fait pour les Anglais," meaning that the melody was originally written for the English. Historical Errors 151 Possibly the early publishers mistook this as ap- plying to the entire set and thus the name came about. The subject is by no means cleared up as yet, but the above explanation has at least prob- ability in its favor. Errors nsr American National Music The errors in this branch of musical history are very numerous and it will be impossible to cite them all here. They will be found mentioned in Elson's "Our National Music and its Sources," Elson's "History of American Music," and in the excellent monograph by Oscar G. Sonneck, en- titled "Report on 'The Star-spangled Banner,' etc." All that we desire to present to the teacher in this chapter is a summary of the historical facts of the case, without discussing the mass of false history that has grown up around our national airs. "Yankee Doodle" remains entirely vague as to its origin. It is not absolutely certain who wrote the words which gave the name to the melody. It is utterly uncertain as to where the tunc came from. Many countries have melodies resembling 152 Historical Errors it. Mr. Sonneck suggests that it may be a com- posite tune, formed of at least two different melodies of different age. The present writer's opinion is that it is old English in its origin. ''America" was written as an anthem for a Fourth of July celebration given by children in Park Street Church, Boston, in 1832. The words are by Rev. Samuel F. Smith, then a theological student at Andover. The tune is "God Save the King," the English anthem, which has been taken as a national anthem by several countries. Who wrote this tune is unknown, although the best English authority ascribes it to Dr. John Bull in the time of King James the first. ''Hail Columbia" is still in doubt. Joseph Hopkinson wrote the words in 1798. The melody was written as "The President's March," in 1789, nine years earlier. Either Philip Phile or Johannes Roth wrote the music, probably the former. The spelling of the name of either of these composers is still in doubt. "The Star-spangled Banner" is now accepted as cur official national anthem. The words were written by Francis Scott Key to the tune of "Adams Historical Errors 153 and Liberty," a very popular American patriotic song. But this tune was originally a drinking- song, entitled "To Anacreon in Heaven," and was composed about 1770 (perhaps a trifle later) by John Stafford Smith. The unsingability of "The Star-spangled Banner" is due to the fact that it was originally a rather showy solo, as a drinking- song would be apt to be. "Glory Hallelujah," so famous in the Civil War, was originally a Methodist hymn, written by a musician named Steffe, in Charleston, S. C. The original words about "John Brown's Body" were set to it by the soldiers in Col. Fletcher Webster's 12th Massachusetts regiment. Mrs. Julia Ward Howe afterward added the grander words of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." As the teacher will often find various other origins attributed to the above melodies and poems, the above condensation of the historical facts may be of service. CHAPTER XI ERRORS ABOUT MUSIC IN LITERATURE It will be well to remember that when poets and litterateurs introduce references to music into their works it is almost always a non-musician speaking about an art or science that is full of technicalities, and, therefore, the reader may expect many slips. The music teacher may some- times need to warn his pupils against them. The "musical novel" is, at its best, only an addition of sentimentality to a subject where ''gush" already rules too freely. One of the first duties of the women's clubs that study musical history is to banish the sentimentality with which inferior lecturers and teachers invest music. As the virginals is an instrument no longer played, we need not dwell upon Shakespeare's errors made in the 128th Sonnet, where the virginal jacks are made to "kiss the tender inward" of the hand of the player, which would be as impossible '54 Literary Errors in Music 155 as for the hammers of the piano to perform the same feat. Browning's Errors Browning was one of the poets who frequently garnished his poems with musical allusions. Generally these were correct, sometimes even sublime, but occasionally very misleading errors of judgment creep in. In ''Abt Vogler," for example, he speaks of that master as improvising and striking the common chord, and then "sliding by semitones till I sink to the minor," which would be a simple chromatic style of modulation which would not be approved of in any conservatory. He also speaks of ''Blunting it into the Ninth," which would be a very odd specimen of "blunt- ing" a common chord. Then he gives a glorious metaphor in "For my resting-place is found, the C major of this Life." All these three points are found in the last stanza of "Abt Vogler," whom, by the way, Mozart stigmatized as a quack and charlatan. Browning also makes a decidedly false estimate of two composers when, in "Bishop Blougram's Apology," he says: 156 Literary Errors in Music "Like Verdi, when, at his worst opera's end (The thing they gave at Florence, what's its name?), While the mad houseful's plaudits near outbang His orchestra of saltbox, tongs, and bones, He looks through all the roaring and the wreaths, Wher* sits Rossini patient in his stall." It is bad criticism to place even the earlier Verdi so far beneath Rossini. In the seventh stanza of "A Toccata of Galup- pi's" the reader will find, among a number of good musical metaphors, such as "commiserating sevenths," "Lesser thirds so plaintive," etc., the astounding line: " Sixths, diminished, sigh on sigh." The musical student will scarcely find diminished sixths in his curriculum, but Albrechtsberger gives them in his method. Nevertheless, a succes- sion of them, "Sigh on sigh," would mean nothing less than a series of consecutive fifths, which would make the harmony teacher heave "sigh on sigh." In "Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha" the reader will find a layman's estimate of the Fugue. It is a vivid description, but evidently the thoughts of a non-musician who has no authority to describe Literary Errors in Music 157 the most subtle form of music extant. Never- theless, the reader will find Shakespeare, Milton, and Browning, the real musical triumvirate in the poetic field, and, while studying their poetry he might carefully compare Shakespeare's 8th Sonnet with the seventh verse of Browning's "Abt Volger," and see how two music-lovers extol harmony or counterpoint above mere melody. There is a curious similarity of thought in these two poems. Errors in Novels Naturally we shall here speak only of great or famous writers, for the musical errors of the lesser writers are simply innumerable. George Eliot speaks of "a long-drawn organ stop." That would simply mean a lengthening of the piece of wood that the organist draws out by a knob, and if it were a foot or two in length it would be a very awkward matter for the performer. Black speaks of his heroine going to the piano and dashing ofT Mozart's Sonata in A sharp. That would be the key of ten sharps, which we have not seen written as yet, although we cannot tell what 158 Literary Errors in Music the composer of the near future may do. Ouida makes one of her heroes a tenor, who sings wonder- ful airs by Palestrina. They must indeed be wonderful, since no one has yet discovered any solo airs by that contrapuntal composer. We also have read in one of her novels of an organist who plays grand masses by Mendelssohn. We would like to discover those masses. "Charles Auchester" is the musical novel that has had the greatest vogue, and was the progenitor of many sentimental successors. It gives a totally false picture of Mendelssohn and other musical celebrities. Other Poetical Errors Coleridge, in the "Ancient Mariner," has this stanza "The wedding guest here beat his breast, For he heard the loud bassoon." Now the bassoon is neither "loud" nor is it prominent in wedding music. It was probably the trombone that Coleridge meant, which is called "Posaune" in German. Coleridge may have been misled by the similarity of sound of the Literary Errors in Music 159 names. But in the same poem he has the good metaphor of the ''lonely flute," and any one familiar with certain touches in Mendelssohn and Beethoven will recognize the aptness of the adjective. Tennyson, who wrote most musical poetry, was the most unmusical of poets, and one will very seldom find any musical metaphor in his works. But even among the very few he manages to make one decided error. It is in "Maud," where the verse runs "All night have the roses heard The flute, violin, bassoon, All night has the casement jessamine stirred To the dancers, dancing in tune." A band of "flute, violin, bassoon" would be somewhat worse than the average street-band, but here something was needed to rhyme with "tune." Composer's Estimates of Co^rposERS These are often very misleading. Composer's are sometimes the poorest judges of other com- i6o Literary Errors in Music posers. A composer like Wagner or Beethoven, wedded to a certain school, might be blind to the merits of a school differing totally from his own. Thus Handel, when devoted to a certain style of operatic composition, could see nothing in the freer and less contrapuntal style of Gluck. **Hc knows no more of counterpoint than my cook!" was his indignant summing up of his contem- porary. But one might add that Handel's cook happened to be a fair musician. Beethoven could not understand Weber. "He studied music so late that he never attained more than the art of pleasing," was his judgment. But Weber pub- lished a set of six very good Fughettas (really fugal expositions) when he was ii years old. Weber, on his side, could not appreciate the grandeur of Beethoven. "He is now fit for the mad-house," was his criticism after the fourth symphony was published. Mozart, as above stated, held Abt Vogler, the teacher of Weber and Meyerbeer, to be an arrant charlatan. Schumann, generally the fairest of critics, held that Meyerbeer had led music into the circus. Mendelssohn held Schumann's music in very slight esteem. This Literary Errors in Music i6i statement has been combated in England, but there is evidence that this was the case. Mendels- sohn's closest friend in England was Chorley, and it was Chorley who constantly abused Schu- mann as if he had been the veriest mountebank. He said, regarding him, "Young Germany is in a fever which, should it last, will superinduce an epilepsy fatal to the life of music." He heard the great symphony in B-flat "with less than little satisfaction." "Broken Crockery School" and "Delirium Tremens" were a few of the English reviews on Schumann at this time. Brahms had the most contemptuous opinion of Bruckner's music. Chopin undervalued Schu- mann and thought Mendelssohn "common." Cherubini could not understand Berlioz at all. Gounod said of Franck's D minor symphony that "it is the affirmation of incompetence pushed to dogmatic lengths." Debussy has belittled Strauss and Wagner. Wagner has abused Meyerbeer, has said that "Schumann had a certain tendency toward greatness," and held Mendelssohn to be utterly vapid. Tschaikowsky thought that the music of Brahms was quite uninspired. Brahms 11 1 62 Literary Errors in Music cordially disliked some of Tschaikowsky's sym- phonic music. The list is too long to pursue to its end. Suf- ficient has been quoted to show that composers are often the poorest imaginable critics of work in other schools than their own. The errors of musical criticism would make a very interesting volume. Chorley's vituperation of Schumann, Hanslick's fury against Wagner and Bruckner, Bernard Shaw finding that Paderewski "almost displayed temperament," the list of errors is too long to quote, but it is consoling to find the really good in art surviving all the mud throwing. CHAPTER XII CONCLUSION From the foregoing chapters it will be seen that music as a science is as yet far less unified than all the sister sciences. Many matters have been left at loose ends. Certain of these points cry loudly for unification. Among the most important are the misuse of the sextolet, the irregular use of the long slur, the use of accidentals, the misprints and misunderstandings of long grace notes, the misunderstandings about the interpretation of the turns in all kinds of music, the dual use of the term "Portamento," the irregular methods used in artificial groupings, etc. The most dangerous of all mistakes is the idea that a single teacher, or a conservatory, or even an entire nation, can set these matters straight unaided and alone. There is an imperative need of an International Congress in the Science of Music, just as there are international congresses in medicine, in theology, and in other studies. 163 164 Conclusion Only an international congress to which representa- tive musicians from many countries are sent would have the power to lay down rules with authoritative force, and this only after debate and thorough comparison of usages. When America holds its next World's Fair, in- stead of giving a number of concerts with native and foreign musicians, it might inaugurate such a World's Congress for the revision of doubtful points in music. Such a meeting would find plenty of work upon its hands. But it might introduce order where considerable chaos rules at present. It would be epoch-making. The cause of so much dissension is not far to seek. Our musical system has grown up, by accre- tion chiefly, during a full thousand of years. Old customs have passed away in some countries and not in others. Musicians, not being skilled ety- mologists, have given sanction to a misuse of terms through a lack of knowledge of their origin. Notation has come about little by little through many centuries. Some of the shortcomings of ancient times have been inherited along with much that is good. One cannot sweep away Conclusion 165 ruthlessly a system that has taken such deep root, but we can at least eliminate the chief faults. Every little while some reformer, seeing the many faults, tries to take a short cut to reform by invent- ing a new system of notation. We cannot believe in the feasibility of any such radical change. But, retaining all that is good, or at least all that is universally accepted, and weeding out merely local mistakes, we may yet make music, in its written form and in its execution, what it was always meant to be a universal language. May the Congress for the Revision of Music and Notation come soon ! THE END INDEX "Abt Vogler," by Browning, 155 Accents, natural and artificial, 56, 57 Acciaccatura, 52 e/ seq. Accidentals, 58 e^ seq. end at bar-line, 59 in different octaves, 83 notation faulty, 78 et seq. Acoustics, 8 Alia breve, 99 et seq. Alterations of words in songs, 1 19, 120 "America," origin of, 152 American fingering, 44 national music, 151 Ancient music, errors about, 148 Andante and Andanlino, 92 Animals and music, 10 AfKjllo, Hymn to, 149 Appoggiatura, 52 e/ seq. Architectural acoustics, 25 Arsis, 59 Artificial groups, 84 Asscxiation of ideas in music, 123 Atmosphere, effect on tone, 8 "B" IN Germany, tj et seq. Bach's suites, 150 "wcU-temperid clavichord," comjjass of, 13 Bar, use of word, 89 Baton, conducting with, 38 Beach, Mrs., views on color ana emotion, 11 Beethoven, false stories about, 141 over use of Italian, 94, 95 xaews on emotions of keys, 15 Berlioz, practical joke in music, 139, 140 table of emotions of keys, 13 et seq. Biblical allusions to music, 124, "Bishop Blougram's Apology," by Browning, 156 Boehm flute healthy to practice, 132 Bourdon in organs, 102 Brain action in music, 126 Breath-marks for choruses, 119 Breathing in wind instruments, 130 et seq. Browning's musical errors, 155 Billow, Von, views on trills, 49 Byzantine scales and signatures, 30 Catarrh among wind-instru- ment players, 132 , Catgut, 35 67 i68 Index Causes of many errors, 7, 164 Character of keys, 13 of rhythms, 98 Child, what constitutes a musical, 117 Children's voices, compass of, 116, 117 Chorley's criticisms of Schumann, 161 Chorus breathing-marks, 119 Church-music notation, 100 " Clarinette," not "clarionet," 42 Clarinette not used in old scores, 42 Clefs, errors concerning, 66 origin of, 66 et seq. Coda, 105 Color and tone, 11, 12 Common time a misnomer, 90 Compass of orchestra, 27 of tone, 12, 13 Composers' estimates of other composers, 160 longevity of, 133 names mispronounced, iii, 112 Compositions bearing false names, 137 cause of death, 133 Concert pitch, 19 Conducting beats, 42 by composers, 39 with baton, 38 Conductors as performers, 40 Contra-bass, five-stringed, 28 Comet, material of, 37 Counterpoint, absurd story of origin, 135 Debussy, whole-toned scale, 31 Deep tones travel farthest, 9 Deepest tone in music, 12 Demi-marcato instead of porta- mento, 60 Diapason, stopped, 102 Double whole rests, 71 "Du bist wie eine Blume," the most composed poem, 121 Dunham, Henry M., on stopped diapason, 102 Effects of musical practice, 130 Emotions of keys, 13 e^ seq. "Enfance du Christ," L', 139, 140 English ecclesiastical notation, 100 names for length-notes, 100 suites by Bach, 150 Errors in celebrated songs, 109 in translations, 120, 121 False names of compositions, 137 Fff., meaning of, 65 Fingering, American, 44 Five-division song-form, 106, 107 Flats, notation of, 78 el seq. Flute, silver vs. wooden, 37 Flute-playing conducive to health, 132 Folk-songs in strophe-form, 108 French suites by Bach, 150 Fugal nomenclature, 107 General mispronunciations, no "George Eliot" musical error, 157 Index 169 German nomenclature in sonatas, 105 "Glory Hallelujah," origin of, 153 "God save the King," 152 Goodrich, Wallace, on stopped diapason, 102 Grace notes, long and short, 52 et seq, Gregorian tones, 31c/ seq. Groups, artificial, 84 of rests, 72 Gypsy scale, 31c/ seq. "H" IN Germany, 77 e/ seq. "Hail Columbia," origin of, 152 Halls, examples of poor and good. Harp, key of, 29 Health and music practice, 130, 131 Hexachordal scale, 130 Highest tone in music, 12 Horns, easiest keys of, 29 Hymn notation in England, 10 1 Insanity, effect of music upon, 124 Instrumentation, works on, 40 Internaticmal musical congress necessary, 164 pitch, 20 Italian lx;st for terms of expres- sion, 45, 95 overuse of, 95 "John Andcrsfm, my Jo," often misprinted, 33 "John Brown's Body," origin of, 153 Keys, definite emotions of, i^ et seq. fallacies about, 16 favorite, of composers, 15 orchestral, 16, 28, 34 "Kol Nidrei, " ancient Jewish melody, 149 Lack of musical perception, 128 Language in musical terms, 45 in tempo and expression marks, 94 vocal, 114 "Last Thought" not by Weber, 146 Latin, pronunciation of, 116 Length of composers lives, 133, 134 "Leoni" not very ancient music, 148 List of most important musical errors, 163 Longevity of composers, 133 Material of wind instruments, 37 Materia medica, music as, 123 Memorization of music, 126, 127 Mendelssohn's estimate of Schu- mann, 161 Metre, 119 Metronome marks, 93 Mispronunciations, jKiimiar, no of comjxisers names, in, 112 "Moonlight Sonata" not so named, 14a 170 Index Mordents, 51 Mozart's Requiem, 141 Twelfth Mass, 140 Muscular changes due to prac- ticing, 129 Music as medicine, 123 not a natural science, 10 Musical perception, beginnings of, 127 lack of, 128 quickness of, 128 terms, language of, 45 "Nattjral" a proper term, 82 foundations of music, 10 Nomenclature in sonata, German, 105 Non-musical natures, 128 Notation, old, 100 Notes, longest and shortest, 75, 76 Novels, musical errors in, 157 Numerals connected with rests, 73. 77 "Obbligato," often misspelt, 40 Oboe-playing, effects of, 131 Oldest music in existence, 149 Old music, tempo marks, 91 notation, 100 Orchestra, deepest instruments, 28 size of, 2^ Wagner's, 34 Orchestral errors, 27 keys, 16, 28, 34 Organ, deepest tone, 27 highest tone, 28 Oriental music, errors about, 148 Overmarked shadings, 64 Overtones, 17 Over use of Italian, 95 Paderewski on rubato, 96, 97 Pedal, methods of marking, 47, 48 Pedaling, 46 Pentatonic scale, 30 Phrases and periods, 104 Physical changes due to practic- ing, 129 effects of practicing, 130 Piano, pianoforte, and pianist, in touch, 63 "Pieta Signore," 138 Pitch, 19 absolute, 19 concert, 19 international, 20 Popular errors in pronunciation, no Portamento, 59 Ppp, meaning of, 65 Praller, or prall trill, 51 Pseudo-compositions, 139, 140 Pure tone, 17 Quality of tone, causes of, 17 Quickness of musical perception, 128 Recitative, appoggiatura in, 55 Reissiger's waltz, 146 Religious signs in notation, 90 Repeat marks, 103 often overused, 69 Requiem, Mozart's, 141 Rests, 70 et seq. Index 171 Rfz., 8 Rhythm, character of, 98 marks, loi, 102 Rh\thms, counting of, 43, 97, 98 eflects of, 123 et seq. Ro billies on wind instruments, 130 Rogers, Dr. J. Frederick, on wind instruments, 130, 131 Rubato, 95 Saxophone conducive to health, 132 Scale, Byzantine, 30 hexachordal, 30 Hungarian gypsy, 31 pentatonic, 30 whcle-toned, 31 Scale-forms and modulations, 29 et seq. Schubert's "Adieu," 141 use of strophe-form, 110 Score notation, 41 "Scots wha Hae" peculiar scale, 33 Scriptural music, none extant, 149 uses of music, 124, 125 "Senza Sordine," 46 Sextolets, wrongly notated, 84, 85 Shading often overmarked, 64 Shakespearian error in music, 154 Sharjjs, 78 et seq. Signatures, Byzantine, 30 Slurs as syllable-marks, 88 errors in long, 85 et seq. in violin or vocal music, 88 when f(;llowcd by a dot, 6i Sonata allegro, 103 terminology, 104, 105 Song-form, five-division, 106, 107 two-part, 107 Sonneck, Oscar G., on American national music, 151 e/ seq. Sound, speed of, 8 what is, 8 Spurious tales regarding fam-^ us works, 138 et seq. Staccato, 57 "Star-spangled Banner," origin of. 152. 153 Stems as accent marks, 58 Step and half-step, 82 Stopped diapason, 102 Stradella's Prayer, 138 Strophe-form, 108 St. Vitus dance, singing as s remedy, 123 Sympathy of vibrations, 21 et seq. Symphony, meaning of word, 42 Tablaturk, 20 Tarantula, music used for bite of, 124 Temp