FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS CONTAINING A SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL CASES OF FOUNDATION WORKS, WITH THE USUAL MODES OF TREATMENT AND PRACTICAL REMARKS ON FOOTINGS, PLANKING, -SAND, CONCRETE, BETON, PILE-DRIVING, CAISSONS, AND COFFERDAMS BY E. AUTHOR OF THE "ART Qj^L^HrG|*i>" BRlCK'^SD TILE MAKING." ) STONE-CL-TTIX6," OP THE - THIRD EDITION GEORGE DODD, ILLUSTRATED WITH WO&DCUTS LONDON LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT LUDGATE HILL 1872 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE popularity of Mr. Dobson's four volumes on the " Art of Building;" " Principles of Brick-making and the Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles ; " " On Masonry and Stone-cutting," and on "Foundations and Concrete Works," is the best test of their practical utility. There are few manuals, designed specially for the use of work- men, that have achieved greater success. In the preface to the former edition Mr. Dobson called the attention of those readers who may not have purchased the * * Art of Building " to the fact of the present volume being written in continuation of the chapter in that work devoted to the subject of "Foundations," and intended to give further information on those parts of the subject which could then only be touched upon very briefly. He added, " I may also observe, that many subjects which are treated of very fully in other volumes of the Rudimentary Treatises are here for that reason left unnoticed, or are merely glanced at in a cursory manner ; as, for example, the blasting of rocks, the nature and properties of limes and cements, the construction of travelling and other cranes, and of hoisting machinery in general. " In making the remarks on concrete, and the usual practice of builders in its use, which will be found in Chapter IV., I feel that great respect is due to the elder members of the profession, with whom I am un- willing to differ ; but in every observation of this kind IV ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. which may be opposed to the usual routine of practice, I have written from my own experience, and from careful observation of works executed under my own superin- tendence, or to which I have had free access, and have been careful to advance nothing hastily, or without due consideration. Unfortunately the practices of the present generation of workmen are greatly of an empirical character, and have been handed down from one generation to another with little or no thought as to how far they are judicious, or in what respects they may be improved upon. "To assist in leading the workman to think, and to examine the principles by which the practical details of his work should be regulated, has been my principal aim in writing the volumes now brought to completion ; and it will be a source of gratification to me hereafter, when engaged in devising new constructive arrangements to meet the engineering difficulties of colonial practice, to think that the last moments spent by me in England have been devoted, however unsuccessfully, to the advancement of the skill and knowledge of the workmen of the mother country." This new edition has been carefully revised, and some of the principles and methods of practice illustrated by additional examples, by Mr. GEOKGE DODD, C.E. August, 1867. CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER I. SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL CASES OF FOUNDATION WORKS . 1 CHAPTER II. FOOTINGS . 28 CHAPTER in. PLANKING 33 CHAPTER IY. SAND, CONCRETE, AND BTON 35 CHAPTER V. PILE-DRIVING . . . CHAPTER VI. CAISSONS 90 CHAPTER VII. COFFERDAMS ...... . 100 LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO OR QTJOTED. Annales des Fonts et Chaussees. Bridges Weale. Burnell, Rudimentary Treatise on Limes, Cements, and Mortars. Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal. De Cessart, Description des Travaux Hydrauliques. Langier de Tassy, Work on Algiers. Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Papers on Engineering Weale ; Papers on subjects connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Poirel, M&noire sur les Travaux a la Mer, comprenant 1'historique des ouvrages executes au Port d'Alger. Railways of Belgium. Rennie, Sir John, Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound. Rudimentary Treatise on the Art of Building. Smeaton, Narrative of the Building and a Description of the Con- struction of the Eddystone Lighthouse. Stevenson, Alan, Account of the Skerryvore Lighthouse. Stevenson, Robert, Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Treussart, Memoire sur les Mortiers. Tire, Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL CASES OF FOUNDATION WORKS, WITH THE USUAL MODES OF TREATMENT. IT may be necessary to premise, that by the term "Foundation" we here mean all that portion of any structure which serves only as a basis on which to erect the superstructure, and not merely the work which may be requisite for the purpose of forming an arti- ficial bearing stratum, in which restricted sense the word is often used. Thus we speak of " natural " and "artificial" foundations meaning, in the one case, a solid natural stratum on which we may safely build; and, in the other case, an artificial bearing stratum of timber, concrete, faggots, &c., placed upon ground which of itself would be too soft to bear the pressure of a building, without some contrivance of this kind to distribute the weight over a large surface. The reader will therefore be good enough to con- sider that, in the following pages, the term is used in its most extended sense. The object to be attained in the construction of 2 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE any foundation is, to form such a solid base for the superstructure that no movement shall take place after its erection. We must bear in mind that all structures built of coursed-masonry (whether brick or stone) will settle to a certain extent ; and that, with a few exceptions, all soils will become com- pressed, more or less, under the weight of a build- ing, however trifling its character. Our aim, there- fore, will be not so much to attempt to prevent settle- ment, as to ensure that it shall be uniform, so that the superstructure may remain without crack or flaw, however irregularly disposed over the area of its site. The principles to be kept in view in the treatment of all cases where the natural soil is at all of a doubtful character, may be thus briefly stated : 1st. To distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of bearing surface. 2nd. To prevent the lateral escape of the support- ing material. Foundations may be divided into two great classes : Class I. Foundations constructed in situations where the natural soil is sufficiently firm to bear the weight of the intended structure. Class II. Foundations in situations where an artificial bearing stratum must be formed, in conse- quence of the softness or looseness of the soil. Each of these great classes may be subdivided as under, viz. : Division A. Foundations in situations where water offers no impediment to the execution of the works. Division B. Foundations under water. The methods used for constructing foundations under water may also be divided under three heads, viz. : ON FOUNDATIONS. O 1st. Skeleton foundations formed of piles. 2nd. Solid foundations executed under water. 3rd. Solid foundations laid in the dry by means of caissons or cofferdams, from which the water is tem- porarily excluded. The above classification may be thus briefly summed up : Object Uniformity of settlement. p . . , fTo extend the bearing surface. [To retain the supporting material. Foundations divided into two classes : Class I. NATURAL Foundations. Division A. Foundations in dry ground. Division B. Foundations under water. Subdivided into 1. Skeleton Foundations. 2. Solid Foundations formed under water. 3. Solid foundations formed inside caissons or cofferdams. Class II. ARTIFICIAL Foundations. Division A. Ordinary Foundations. Division B. Foundations under water. This classification, as will be seen, has reference simply to the circumstances of the several cases occurring in practice, irrespective of the constructive arrangement applied to their treatment. Thus we have considered whether the ground be hard or soft, wet or dry ; and, if wet, whether the work be executed under water, or whether the water be tem- porarily excluded. The adoption of this arrangement in the following synopsis enables us to consider the general principles of the treatment of foundations, which are constant - and permanent, apart from the practical details of the subject, which are ever varying with the progress of mechanical science and with local circumstances ; B 2 4 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE reserving the examination of the constructive arrangements in common use at the present day for the subsequent chapters of the work. "We now proceed to enumerate the principal cases occurring in practice, and the modes of treatment usually adopted : CLASS I. FOUNDATIONS FORMED IN SITUATIONS WHEKE THE NATURAL SOIL IS SUFFICIENTLY FIRM TO BEAR THE WEIGHT OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE. DIVISION .A.- FOUNDATIONS IN SITUATIONS WHERE WATER OFFERS NO IMPEDIMENT TO THE EXECUTION OF THE WORKS. Case 1. Bearing stratum not liable to be affected by exposure to air or water ; such as solid rock, in- durated gravel, fa. In founding upon a natural bottom of this kind, the only precaution necessary is to level the founda- tion-pits so that the masonry may start from a horizontal bed. Should any vacuities or irregulari- ties occur in the firm ground, it will be found better to fill them up with concrete, which, once set, is nearly incompressible under anything short of a crushing force, rather than to bring up masonry for that purpose, seeing that as the compression of the mortar joints is certain to cause some irregular settle- ment. If it is unavoidably necessary that some parts of the foundation shall start from a lower level than others, care must be taken to keep the mortar- joints as close as possible, or to execute the lower portions of the work in cement, or some hard-setting mortar : otherwise it will be very difficult to keep the courses level in the superstructure, the work settling most at those points where the greatest number of mortar-joints occur. Strong gravel may be considered as one of the best soils to build upon, as it is almost incompressi- ON FOUNDATIONS. 5 ble,* is not affected by exposure to the atmosphere, and is easily levelled. Sand is also almost incompressible, and forms an excellent foundation so long as it can be kept from escaping ; but as it has no cohesion, and acts like a fluid when exposed to running water, it must be looked upon with suspicion, and treated with caution. A bottom of solid rock, although at first sight appearing to offer many advantages to the builder, is not in practice found to be a desideratum. The labour of forming a level bed is generally consider- able^ and, unless the strata be nearly level, it com- * The superiority of gravel over clay as a bearing stratum is well shown in the following remarks made by Mr. Bidder, at the Institution of Civil Engineers, June 23, 1846 : "In the case of the bridge over the Grand Junction Canal, on the line of the Northampton and Peterborough Railway, the rails were laid upon girders, resting upon bedplates, with piles under each end. . . . Part of these piles were driven into dry gravel, and a few into the Oxford clay. It was found that when the engines and carriages passed over the former, no visible effect was produced ; but with the latter there was a very evident sinking, and an especial pro- vision against such an effect became necessary. The result of Mr, Bidder's present experience induced him to believe that, in clay, or wet soils, it was not advisable to trust a greater weight than 12 tons upon each pile ; but, in gravel, there was scarcely any limit to their vertical bearing strength." Vide " Minutes of Proceedings," 1846. f The histories of the three most celebrated of modern light- houses, viz., the Eddystone, 1 the Bell Rock, 2 and the Skerry vore 3 , (1) "Narrative of the Building, and a Description of the Con- struction of the Eddystone Lighthouse with Stone, by John Smeaton, C.E., F.R.S." London, 1791. (2) "Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, by Robert Stevenson, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board," &c. Edinburgh, 1824. Found also in his Rudimentary Work on Lighthouses in the Weale Series, Nos. 47, 48, and 49. (3) " Account of the Skerry vore Lighthouse, with Notes on the Illumination of Lighthouses, by Alan Stevenson, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board." 1848. After the success which has attended the efforts of the French, engineers employed on the harbour works of Algiers, in forming beton foundations on the most rugged rocks, and exposed to heavy seas, it may be fairly questioned whether, in cases similar to that of the Skerry vore, a foundation of beton, dovetailed as it were into the natural cavities of the rock, would not prove as efficient against the force of the waves as one formed by cutting away the rock to form a sunk bed, as done at the Bell Rock and the Skerry vore. 6 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE monly happens, in the area of a large building, that some portions will rest upon the rock, and others afford instructive examples of the trouble and expense attendant on preparing a level bed in hard rock. In the construction of the Eddystone, the rock on which it stands was cut by Smcaton into steps, and each course of masonry was dovetailed into the upright face of these steps. At the Bell Rock and the Skerryvore, the base of the intended structure was brought to a uniform level and sunk below the adjacent surface of the rock. The labour attend- ant on this operation at the Skerryvore will be understood by a short extract from Mr. Alan Stevenson's account of the work : " After a careful survey of the rock, and having fully weighed all the risks of injuring the foundation, I determined at once to enter upon a horizontal cut, so as to lay bare a level floor of extent sufficient to contain the foundation-pit for the tower. The very rugged and uneven form of the rock made this an almost neces- sary precaution, in order to prevent any misconception as to its real state, for it was traversed by numerous veins and bands inclined at various angles, on the position and extent of which the stability of the foundation in no small degree depended. That operation occupied 30 men for 102 days, and required the firing of no fewer than 246 shots, chiefly horizontal, while the quantity of material removed did not greatly exceed 2,000 tons When the floor had been roughly levelled, I again carefully surveyed the rocks with a view of fixing precisely the site of the foundation-pit, and of taking advantage of its form and structure to adopt the largest diameter for the tower of which the rock would admit After much deliberation and repeated examinations of all the veins and fissures, I was enabled to mark out a foundation-pit of 42 ft. in diameter, on one level throughout. . . . . The outline of the circular foundation-pit, 42 ft. in diameter, having been traced with a trainer on the rock, numerous jumper-holes were bored in various places, having their bottoms all terminating in one level plane, so as to serve as guides for the depth to which the basin was to be excavated. The depth did not exceed 15 inches below the average level already laid bare by the cutting of the rough horizontal floor which has just been described ; and before the close of the season of 1839, about one-third of the area of the circle had been cleared, and was ready for the final pick dressing, which prepared it for the reception of the first course Another considerable source of labour was the dressing of the vertical edges of the basin, as that implied cutting a square check, 15 inches deep, and about 130 feet long, in the hardest gneiss rock, and the labour attending which can only be fully estimated by a practical stonecutter who has wrought in such a material. The plan employed was to bore all round the peri- phery of the circle, ^/- inch vertical jumper-holes, 6 inches apart, to the required depth, and to cut out the stone between them. The surface thus left was afterwards carefully dressed, so as to admit vertical and horizontal moulds, representing truly the form ON FOUNDATIONS. 7 upon some adjacent stratum, as clay or gravel ; and the irregularity of settlement thus caused is most troublesome to deal with.* Beds of 'rock, with partings of clay between them, are not to be trusted to, especially if lying in an inclined position, as they are liable to slip, and thus to cause serious derangement of the superstructure. Much, however, must depend upon the situation of of the masonry which the check was intended to receive. The experience of the labour attending that operation gave me great reason for congratulation on having adopted a foundation on one level throughout, instead of cutting the rock into several terraces, at each of which the same labour of cutting angular checks must necessarily have been encountered. The cutting of the foundation occupied 20 men for 217 days in all The rock, indeed, was in many places so hard as often to make it seem, hopeless that tools could make any impression on it. The time employed in the excavation, and the number of tools expended on it, were very great, as a pick seldom stood more than three strokes in the harder quartzose veins ; but our perseverance was at length amply rewarded, by obtaining a foundation so level, and so fairly wrought throughout the whole area of a circle 42 feet in diameter, as to present to the view the appearance of a gigantic basin of variegated marble." .* An excellent illustration of the danger of building on a partially compressible stratum is given by Mr. Hughes in his Papers on the Foundations of Bridges, from which we extract the following details (vide " Bridges," vol. i. part 4, Weale, London) : " The piers of a large aqueduct, eleven in number, with two abutments, had all been founded on gravel, a few feet below the surface, and stood remarkably well, the masonry appearing without a flaw when they were carried up to their full height of about 50 feet. One of the piers at the south end, however, was founded one part on the gravel and the other on very hard Whinstone rock, the surface of which was merely levelled, and the building at once commenced. When carried up to about 30 feet, a formidable fissure was observed from top to bottom of this pier, and the only possible source to which the mischief could be traced was the step of founding the pier partly on the rock and partly on the gravel. Had the whole pier been on the rock, it would, of course, have stood without any settlement ; had the whole been on the gravel, it would, perhaps, have settled to a trifling extent, but would, no doubt, have stood as well as all the other piers, which were founded entirely on the gravel ; placed, however, partly on the rock, which was perfectly solid, and partly on the gravel, which slightly yielded beneath the great pressure upon it, the consequence followed as described above." 8 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the work. Thus in building a bridge, on inclined strata of this nature, over a ravine, as shown in Fig. 1, the foundations on the one side would be per- Fig. l. fectly secure, whilst those on the opposite side would be always liable to disturbance, from the pressure of the inclined strata. Case 2. Bearing stratum affected by exposure to air or to water. Soils of this character must be carefully protected from exposure, either by laying the foundations so deep as to be beyond the reach of summer heats and winter frosts, or by covering the, bottom of the foundation-pit with a stratum of concrete. For want of these precautions, many buildings with shallow foundations on clay soils become rent and seriously injured by the contraction and expansion of the ground on which they rest. Some soils, which are naturally so hard as to re- quire blasting for their removal,* rapidly disintegrate * Disintegration from Chemical Action. Vide " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," March 26, 1844. " Mr. Taylor believed that the mechanical action of water produced many of the effects which had been mentioned, but the ON FOUNDATIONS. 9 on exposure to the atmosphere, undergoing a chemical action which completely destroys their cohesion. It therefore requires considerable caution when laying foundations upon ground which is at all exposed, as, for instance, in throwing an arch over a railway cutting, to guard against this source of danger. Many of the beds in the lias formation, which when first opened have the appearance of hard rock, will run into sludge after being exposed for a short time to the atmosphere. We remember chemical action upon clays, and even upon solid rocks, must not be overlooked. He would instance, particularly, the well-known action of the air upon shale, which, although so tough and hard under ground as to require the agency of gunpowder for its excavation, became, after a few weeks' exposure to the air, thoroughly decomposed. " Decomposed granite, called by miners ' pot grawen,' was extremely troublesome in mines ; it consisted principally of feld- spar and potash, and was the china clay so much used in potteries. This substance would appear to have been formed by the decomposing action of the air, or of chemically formed oxygen. " Pyrites, which appear to have abounded in the strata of the New Cross cutting, not only had a natural tendency to decompo- sition when exposed to the action of the air, but also affected everything with which it was in contact. " It had become fashionable to account for all changes by attributing them to the agency of electricity, and since the interesting researches of Mr. Fox, of Falmouth, there was much reason for believing that electricity was capable of producing these wonderful changes. It was easy to understand that as soon as chemical action began, electricity might be generated ; its flow would be conducted through the fissures and veins of mineral substances ; decomposition of the existing material proceeded, and other forms were assumed ; this action could not be continued without a corresponding alteration of the bulk of the mass, and when it reposed on an inclined bed, of which the surface was covered with a semi-fluid film, such as the London clay was described to be reduced to by the solvent effects of water, the slightest expansion or contraction would suffice to set the whole superstratum in motion, and to produce the slips. "Primary rocks were subject to the same effects, and in sinking through porphyritic rocks, fissures were frequently found filled with foreign matter, which swelled and forced in the sides of the shafts, when such an event was least expected ; such occurrences could not be guarded against, as the direction of these fissures was usually parallel with that of the shaft." B 3 10 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE a striking instance of this kind, in which a railway contractor made use of a hard stratum of shale as ballasting, for which at first sight it appeared well adapted ; but in course of a short time it was nothing but a mass of mud, and was scraped off to make way for ballast of a more durable character. As a general rule, when dealing with ground of this expansible and treacherous character, the less it can be exposed to the air, and the sooner covered up again, the better for the work. Precautions of this nature are indispensable in cases where work has to be built against an upright face of expansible material, as in the execution of tunnels, sewers, retaining walls, abutments of bridges, and similar constructions, which are liable to be forced out of the upright by the lateral pressure of the soil, and much practical instruction may be de- rived from the study of works of this nature.* Case 3. Bearing stratum underlying soft ground of considerable depth. In cases of this kind, where the expense of bring- ing up a solid foundation from the hard ground is too great to allow this to be done, a number of sup- ports must be brought up through the soft ground, * Expansion of clay when exposed to the air. Vide " Minutes of Proceedings," as above. Mr. Hawkshaw said, " In the tunnel on the Manchester and Bolton Eailway the timbers were frequently broken by the expan- sion of the clay, although it appeared quite dry." Mr. Foster said, " In the Primrose Hill and the Kilsby tunnels, if the cutting was left for a few days without completing the brick arching, the timbers were broken. The expansion appeared to be nearly the same, whether it was caused by the air, as in the former case, or by the water, as in the latter instance." Mr. Thomson remarked, " That in the Box Tunnel it was usual to allow 6 inches for expansion between the face of the work and the timbers, and that space was scarcely sufficient." Mr. J. Simpson " had seen, at Eichmond, a well of 4 feet diameter completely closed in one night by the swelling-up of the bottom, although there was not any water in it." ON FOUNDATIONS. 1 1 on which to form a platform to carry the superstruc- ture. This may be done in a variety of ways, of which the following are those principally em- ployed : 1st. By excavating holes to the depth of the soft ground, and refilling them with sand, gravel, con- crete, or some equally incompressible material. This system is scarcely known in this country, but has been much used on the Continent, the method usually followed being to drive down a timber-pile to the required depth, and then to withdraw it, and fill ihe whole with sand. Full details of the method of using sand in foundation works will be found in the " Annales des Ponts et Chaussees" for the year 1835, and also in the fourth volume of the i( Papers on Subjects connected with the Duties of the Corps of Hoyal Engineers," London, Weale, 1840. 2nd. By driving piles of wood or iron through the soft ground until they rest on the solid stratum. 3rd. By screwing piles into the soft ground until they reach the firm ground. 4th. By hollow " cylinders of cast iron, lowered until they rest upon the bearing stratum, the soft material being removed from the interior of the cylinder to enable it to descend. Under this head may be included all hollow piling, whether driven by impact, lowered by gravity, or forced down by atmospheric pressure, as in Dr. Pott's process. Case 4. Crust of good ground resting on a treacherous substratum. In the treatment of all cases of this kind it may be laid down as a general rule, that it is best to let well alone, and to abstain from all disturbance of the ground by ramming, driving piles, or similar ex- pedients, simply taking precautionary measures to avoid any wounding of the good ground, or escape of the substratum. It need scarcely be said, that it 12 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE is important to reduce the weight of the structure as much as- possible, and to distribute it over a large area of bearing surface. When the substratum is simply compressible, it may sometimes be brought to its extreme settlement by weighting the foundations before commencing the superstructure, which may afterwards be carried up without fear of subsequent movement. If the substratum be soft soapy clay, care should be taken to avoid exposing it by cutting deep ditches or drains in the neighbourhood of the work, as this might cause extensive slips. If the substratum be of sand, there will probably be little or no settlement so long as it remains un- disturbed ; but if exposed to the action of water no dependence can be placed upon such ground, as it will be always liable to be undermined. Thus a chimney might stand perfectly secure for many years upon a substratum of dry sand, and be under- mined and destroyed in a few days by sinking a well near it, or even by laying in a drain at some considerable distance from its site. Thus, in the neighbourhood of salt works, the ground gradually sinks, from the pumping of the brine springs ; this may be seen at JSTorthwich, in Cheshire, to a very striking extent. We may here remark, that the numerous instances of failure which have at different times occurred from the escape of sand and loose ground from below buildings, which would other- wise have been perfectly secure, shows the great attention and care required in executing drainage- works in the neighbourhood of existing buildings. Lastly, if the substratum be of a peaty nature, it will generally be seriously affected by drainage, and it will therefore be desirable to drain the site as perfectly as possible before commencing operations. Many buildings about Moorfields, London, have undergone serious settlements during the last few years, in consequence of the morass from which the ON FOUNDATIONS. 13 district takes its name having become thoroughly drained by the construction of new sewers. At the London Institution in Finsbury Circus, the outer walls were built on the substratum of gravel under- lying the peat, whilst the inner walls rested on the peat itself, which, being prevented from spreading by the outer walls, formed a good bottom so long as it remained wet ; but on the formation of the new sewerage they began to sink, and it was found necessary to underpin them with concrete, an opera- tion which was skilfully and successfully performed. This instance of failure affords an instructive lesson as to the insufficiency of sheet-piling round a building to prevent settlement, when the substratum is full of water ; although a most valuable precaution in many cases. CLASS I. DIVISION B. FOUNDATIONS UNDER WATER. We have just been describing the leading cases occurring in building upon a natural bottom ; we now come to the reconsideration of these cases, with the superadded difficulty of their occurring under water. In some cases it may be sufficient to bring up a number of isolated supports, which is almost always practicable, except in the case of a rock bottom. In the majority of instances, however, nothing less than a solid foundation will meet the requirements of the structure. If the ground be not exposed to scour, and does not underlie a soft stratum, we can safely lay our work simply on the ground, and this may be done under water by a variety of means. If, on the other hand, there is a liability to scour, or the firm ground is covered by soil which must be removed before commencing the work, it becomes necessary temporarily to exclude the water from the site of the foundation by means of caissons or cofferdams. In considering, therefore, 14 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the several methods adopted for executing hydraulic foundations, it will be convenient to class them under three heads, viz. : 1. Pile foundations. 2. Foundations constructed under water. 3. Foundations from the site of which the water is temporarily excluded during the execution of the work. Subdivision 1. Pil$ Foundations. Method 1. Timber Piling. Timber piles are ob- jectionable when partly out of water, as they are liable to decay at the water-line. In tidal waters,* also, timber is soon attacked by the worm, and becomes rapidly destroyed by its ravages. No cer- tain preventive is as yet known for this evil ; but saturation with oil of tar, by Mr. Bethell's process, is at present considered to be effectual, and has -stood a trial of some years at Lowestoffe Harbour, without ^single instance of failure. The use of timber piling ' is very general, and numerous examples will occur to the mind of the reader. Method 2. Cast-iron Piling. Cast-iron piles may either be solid, their section being +, or hollow, either square or round. When hollow, the ground is usually removed by boring from the interior of the pile, to facilitate its descent, and by this means cast-iron piles can be driven into gravel or chalk with great facility. Cylindrical piles, driven into chalk, were used by Mr. Tierney Clarke in the con- struction of the Town Pier at Gravesend.f Square piles, driven into sand, were adopted by Mr. Simpson at the new pier of Southend, where they support an upper tier of wooden piles. J Solid piles of cast-iron * The action of the worm does not appear to be always confined to salt water. f " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," vol. iii. part 3. " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En- gineers," 1850. ON FOUNDATIONS. 15 have been used in many places, amongst others in the foundation of a swing bridge over the river Wensum, at Norwich, on the line of the Norfolk Railway, by Mr. Bidder.* Cast-iron piling will not last for any considerable length of time in salt water; as it becomes gradually softened, so that it can be cut with a knife. This renders the employment of cast-iron piling in sea- works rather precarious. Method 3. Screw Piling. This method of fixing piles has of late come considerably into use, and has been applied to the construction of lighthouses in situations where all other methods would have failed. Screw-piles are exceedingly well adapted for obtain- ing a foot-hold in situations where an ordinary pile would fail, as, for instance, on a sandbank. A full account of Mr. Mitchell's invention, and of some of the most important works to which it has been applied, will be found in the " Minutes of Proceed- ings of the Institution of Civil Engineers" for 1848. Method 4. Hollow Cast-iron Cylinders. These may be considered as large hollow piles. They may be made to descend simply by gravity, the ground in the interior being excavated so as to allow them to descend by their own weight, or they may be forced down by atmospheric pres- sure, as in Dr. Pott's process. f Lastly, they may * " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En- gineers," 1846. f An excellent notice of Dr. Pott's " Patent Pneumatic Appa- ratus for Sinking Foundations by means of Atmospheric Pressure in Deep "Water, Movable Sands, Mud, Shingle, or Bog," is given in the Supplement to the Work on Bridges, in 4 parts, published by Mr. Weale, from which we give the following extract : " This invention, which is the subject of a patent, is for improve- ments in the construction of foundations (under any of the circum- stances mentioned above) for piers, embankments, breakwaters, or other similar constructions. It is equally applicable for the sinking of wells in analogous positions. " It consists in the use of hollow tubes, usually of cast iron, of any size, and almost of any shape, which are sunk into their places by means of the atmospheric pressure. The lower extremity of the tube is open, and being placed upon the ground, of whatever nature 16 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE it may be, the air, water, or semi-fluid material in the inside is extracted by pumps, or by any of the well-known means of pro- ducing a vacuum. It is usual to create this vacuum or rather, more correctly speaking, to rarefy the air in the interior of the tubes by placing them in communication with large vessels from which the air is previously withdrawn by means of a pipe and a stop-cock. As soon as the communication is effected, the air in the interior of the tubes rushes into the empty vessels, leaving the atmospheric pressure upon the pile-head without any counter- acting resistance. If the strata to be traversed be of a yielding semifluid nature, they are also acted upon by the same cause, and flow up into the tube, or hollow pile, which at the same time descends with corresponding rapidity. The materials thus intro- duced are removed, or, if the strata be more resisting, they are thrown out, so as to attain the greatest possible rarefaction of the air, and the operation is repeated until the piles are fully driven. A succession of tubes may be placed upon the first by means of flanges, or other joints, so that they may be driven of any length required. " The shapes of the tubes usually employed are either cylindrical, angular, or conical ; they may be made to fit into one another so as to form a continuous close piling ; or they may be made with grooves to receive plates, such as have been employed upon the river- walls of the Thames. " Upon the first introduction of this invention, it was applied more as a means of driving hollow piles of the usual dimensions of wooden ones. Subsequent experience has led to a considerable modification in its use. The fact that the atmospheric pressure is in the proportion of the surface exposed to its action has induced the patentees to increase the diameter of the piles gradually, until at length they have ceased to act in a manner such as we are accustomed to consider the latter to act." Dr. Pott's process seems well adapted for sinking piles or cais- sons through a soft stratum to a hard one, and is being adopted in several large works at present uncompleted. It does not come within the province of this volume to pass any opinion upon the merits of an invention which as yet is quite in its infancy, but we would advert to a few points which appear important. If the stratum to be passed through be tolerably firm, it will, in ordinary cases, be better to bore, and to sink the cylinders by dead weight. If the substratum be of clay, or other compressible material, it will be necessary, after sinking the caissons to the intended depth, to weight them with a load at least equal to that which they are intended to support, as the greatest pressure that can be brought upon the top of the caissons by the exhaustion of the air does not exceed one ton per superficial foot, which is far less than the weight often thrown upon pile foundations. It is also questionable how far the cutting edge of the bottom of the caisson may facilitate its settlement when loaded with the weight of the superstructure, and whether the system may not from this cause be found inferior to that of cylinders with bottom flanches screwed into the ground under Mr. Mitchell's patent. It may be not uninteresting to OUT ON FOUNDATIONS. 17 be screwed* into the ground in the same way as a readers to give a brief notice of a system successfully employed in France for sinking through a quicksand, which is precisely the opposite to that of Dr. Pott's. Vide Dr. lire's " Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," Supplement, art. " Ventilation." " These striking results, obtained on one individual at a time, with a small experimental apparatus, have been recently repro- duced, on a working scale, with many persons at once enclosed in a mining shaft,- encased with strong tubbing formed of a series of large sheet-iron cylinders riveted together, and sunk to a great depth through the bed of the river Loire, near Languin. The seams of coal in this district of France lie under a stratum of quicksand, from 18 to 20 metres thick (20 to 22 yards), and they had been found to be inaccessible by all the ordinary modes of mining previously practised. The obstacle had been regarded to be so perfectly insurmountable, that every portion of the great coal basin that extends under these alluvial deposits, though well known for centuries, had remained untouched. To endeavour by the usual workings to penetrate through these semifluid quick- sands, which communicate with the waters of the Loire, was in fact nothing less than to try to sink a shaft in that river, or to drain the river itself. But this difficulty has been successfully grappled with through the resources of science boldly applied by Mr. Triger, an able civil engineer. " By means of the above frame of iron tubbing, furnished with an air-tight ante-chamber at its top, he has contrived to keep his workmen immersed in air sufficiently condensed, by forcing pumps, to repel the water from the bottom of the iron cylinders, and thereby to enable them to excavate the gravel and stones to a great depth. The compartment at top has a man-hole door in its cover, and an- other in its floor. The men, after being introduced into it, shut the door over their heads, and then turn the stop-cock upon a pipe in connection with the condensed air in the under shaft. An equi- librium of pressure is soon established in the ante-chamber, by the influx of the dense air from below, whereby the man-hole door in the floor may be readily opened to allow the men to descend. Here they work in air maintained at a pressure of three atmospheres, by the incessant action of leathern-valved pumps driven by a steam- engine. Whilst the dense air thus drives the waters of the quick- sand communicating with the Loire out of the shaft, it infuses, at the same time, such energy into the miners that they can easily excavate double the work without fatigue, which they could do in the open air." * This method of using cylinders appears likely to be very successful. As yet, we believe, the only published notice of the system is a short note to the account of Mr. Mitchell's system of screw-piling, in the " Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," 1848, just referred to, and from which we extract the following particulars : " Mr. Brunei has recently caused a very interesting and con- clusive experiment to be tried, near the proposed site of the bridge 18 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE screw-pile. When the cylinders are of large di- mensions, they are usually filled up with concrete or brickwork, and may be considered as caissons rather than piles.* Subdivision 2. Solid Foundations laid under Water. Method 1. Pierre perdue, or Random work. This method consists in throwing masses of stone into the water, and leaving them to arrange themselves. This is not a system of construction that can be adopted in rivers, where it is of consequence to avoid for carrying the South Wales Railway across the river Wye, at Chepstow. "A cast-iron cylinder, 3 feet diameter externally, 1J inch in thickness, cast in lengths 10 feet each, with internal socket and joggle joint, secured with pins and run with lead, was armed at the extreme bottom with a sharp wrought-iron hoop, and a little above it was a helical flanch projecting 12 inches all round from the body of the cylinder, around which it made an entire revolution with a pitch of 7 inches. By means of capstan bars, worked by manual labour, and by strong winches, this cylinder was screwed into the ground, near the bank of the river, but out of the influence of the tide, to a depth of 58 feet, in 48 hours and 14 minutes, through stiff clay and sand, down to the marl rock. In descending to that depth, the cylinder made 142 revolutions, and the average rate of sinking per revolution very nearly accorded with the pitch of the screw. The time quoted is only that which was actually consumed in forcing the cylinder down, as it was allowed to rest for long periods, whilst the interior core of clay' was repeatedly cleared out, and on account of the breakages of the ropes and the capstan-bars, and other casualties incidental to all first experiments. In spite of the great surface exposed to lateral friction, the cylinder was always started again with comparative ease, and its progress down- wards was very uniform. * Captain Heathawn, R.A., has recently proposed a mode of laying concrete foundations in deep water, on a bottom covered with mud or shingle. An annular caisson is gradually built up of suc- cessive tiers or stories. The lowest tier is closed at the bottom, which is slightly conical ; it is floated out and moored in the proper spot. Concrete is poured in ; the ring or annulus sinks a little by the additional weight, and affords facilities for fixing another ring on the top of it. This is filled with concrete in turn ; and so on, until the caisson of built-up rings is sunk to the bottom. The iron and the concrete together sink through the soft mud and sand to the hard rock beneath. Minor adjustments are made, according as the bottom is level, shelving, or sloping. ON FOUNDATIONS. 19 contracting the waterway, but is made use of in sea- works, for the construction of breakwaters, jetties, and like constructions. It is, however, not to be depended on in situations exposed to the run of the sea, as a base for any permanent erections, as wharf walls, lighthouses, c., the more exposed parts of the work being liable to dilapidation, and requiring continual renewal. The two most celebrated in- stances of this system of construction are the Cherbourg* and Plymouth f breakwaters, the re- spective histories of which are full of interest and instruction. Method 2. Random blocks of bet on.- The insecu- rity attending works erected on a foundation of pi err e perdue led the French engineers engaged on the harbour works at Algiers to substitute for the ordinary- sized blocks of stone previously used, large masses of beton, of such size as to be immovable by the waves. The force of a blow given by a wave depending on the surface exposed to its violence, whilst the resistance offered by the mass increases as its weight, there will always be a limit to the moving force of the waves. Except in some few special cases, it is practically impossible to employ stones sufficiently large to fulfil this condition; but there are few situations where it is not possible to manufacture artificial blocks of beton, of from 10 to 20 tons weight, which may with great ease be floated to the spot where they are to be immerged. The new mole at Algiers is a successful example of this mode of construction on a large scale. The reader may consult, with great advantage, in reference to this subject, M. Poirel's account of the new works at Algiers, J * " Description des Travaux Hydrauliques de Louis Alexandra de Cessart, Doyen des Inspecteurs Generaux des Fonts et Chaus- sees." Paris, 1808. f "Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound, by Sir John Rennie." London, Weale, 1848. + " Memoire sur les Travaux a la Mer, comprenant I'historiquc" 20 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE which is, in fact, a complete treatise on the subject of submarine foundations. Method 3, Beton laid in caissons lined with tar- paulin. This method of using beton has been recently brought into notice by its adoption in por- tions of the works at Algiers, and is exceedingly well adapted to forming foundations on a rugged rock bottom in shallow water, where it is desirable that the work should be brought up with a face vertical, or nearly so, to avoid contracting the water- way, or to allow vessels to come alongside a wharf. The caisson employed is a large box, without bottom or top, the sides of which are roughly cut to suit the irregularities of the rock on which it is placed. It is lined with tarpaulin, which is allowed to adapt itself freely to the bottom, and prevents all danger of the newly-laid beton being injured by the action of bottom springs, or by the run of water through the cavities left between the rock and the sides of the caisson. The b6ton is lowered to the bottom of the caisson in a box with a movable bottom, by which contrivance it is deposited in a solid mass, without any risk of the lime being washed out, which is always more or less the case when concrete or beton is dropped through water without any protection of this kind. When the mass thus formed by successive deposits reaches the surface of the water, it is left for some days to become hard ; and when this has taken place, the sides of the caisson are removed, and the cloth lining cut away, to be used again in the formation of the ' next length. This method of constructing foundations appears especially adapted to the case of an uneven rock bottom, in situations where the construction of a des ouvrages executes au Port d'Alger, et 1' expose complet et detaille d'un systeme de foiidation a la mer au moyen de blocs de beton. Par H.'Poirel, Ingenieur-en-chef des Ponts et Chaussees." Paris, 1841. ON FOUNDATIONS. 21 water-tight cofferdam, and the levelling of the rock to receive regular masonry, would be attended with heavy difficulty and expense. Method 4. Solid masonry laid on the natural bot- tom, with the aid of the diving-bell. This is an ex- tensively used method of forming submarine founda- tions, and is very successful where there is no' danger of scour, and where the bottom can be readily brought to a level surface. By means of travelling- cranes, moving on tramways erected over the site of the work, each stone can be lowered to its place, and its position verified by the diving-bell, with as much precision as on dry land. If the situation of the work does not afford stones of sufficient weight to withstand the shock of the waves, masses of beton may be used instead. Subdivision 3. Foundations from the Site of which the water is temporarily excluded. Method 1. Solid masonry sunk in caissons, or chests of timber, of which the bottoms rest on the surface of the ground. This system of forming foundations is now but little used, on account of the difficulties with which it is attended. If the ground be soft or loose, the foundation is liable to be under- mined ; if it be hard, there is great difficulty in forming a level bottom, and the cross strain thrown in consequence upon the unsupported parts of the timbers leads to fractures and dangerous movements in the superstructure, as in the well-known case of Westminster Bridge. Method 2. Masonry built in caissons grounded upon a bed of beton. This is a method of using caissons which is quite free from the objections just named. If there be any liability to scour, the ground must be dredged out to a sufficient depth before putting in the beton. This system of con- struction is used on the Continent, but as yet is little if ever practised in this country. 22 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Method 3. Masonry built in caissons resting on a pile foundation. This is a very economical system of construction, and well adapted to situations where there is a liability to scour, or where the bearing stratum is at a considerable depth. The piles, having been driven down until a firm bottom is reached, are cut off to a uniform level as near the ground as possible, and the caisson is lowered upon them, the timbers forming the bottom of the caisson being disposed so as to rest on the pile-heads. This method of forming foundations is not extensively practised, but it has been adopted with great success by Mr. Rendel in the Lary bridge at Plymouth*. The foundations of a handsome railway bridge over the Meuse at Liegef, in Belgium, were also con- structed in this manner. Method 4. Foundations laid in the interior of a cq/erdam. A cofferdam may be defined as a water- tight wall constructed round the site of any work, for the purpose of laying dry the bottom, by pump- ing out the water from the inclosure thus formed. Cofferdams are now used in foundation- works to a great extent ; they are usually constructed of timber piles driven close together in rows round the site of the work, the space between the rows being filled with puddle. The number of rows of piles, and the thickness of the puddle- wall, must depend on the situation of the work ; but in ordinary practice dams are usually made much too slight for their in- tended purpose, through the mistaken economy of contractors, to whose discretion all temporary works are usually left in this country. In the last chapter of this volume the reader will find descriptions of some of the best examples of cofferdams that have been constructed in this country, to which we refer him for the practical details of the subject. * " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," vol. i. Weale. t " Railways of Belgium." Weale. ON FOUNDATIONS. 23 Portable cofferdams are sometimes used with ad- vantage in particular situations. Cast-iron grooved sheet-piling has been also adopted with much success for cofferdamming in shallow water. CLASS II. FOUNDATIONS OF AN ARTIFICIAL BEARING STRATUM. DIVISION A. ORDINARY FOUNDATIONS. Case 1 . Ground soft but not fluid. We may treat ground of this kind in two very different ways : 1st. We may consolidate the soft ground by driving piles into it until it becomes so compressed that the piles are prevented from sinking by lateral friction. 2nd. We may interpose a platform of fascines, tim- ber, or concrete, between the surface of the ground and the superstructure, thus distributing the weight of the latter over a large extent of bearing surface. These methods are often combined ; a very usual method of proceeding is to surround the site of the work with sheet-piling, to prevent the escape of the soil, which is then consolidated by driving piles into it at short distances from each other. The piles are then sawn off level, the ground between them re- moved for 2 or 3 ft. deep, the excavation filled up with concrete, and the whole is then planked over to receive the masonry of the superstructure. Some- times the planking is laid, not on the heads of the piles, but on a network of horizontal timbers. (See Fig. 2, page 24). The practice of driving piles into soft ground to consolidate it is not one to be recom- mended ; its effect being usually to pound up the soil, and to bring it into a state which can best be described by comparing it to batter-pudding. In- stead of driving piles in these cases, a much better RUDIMENTARY TREATISE plan is to bore holes with a large auger to a consi- derable depth, and to fill them with sand, which, from its property of acting almost as a fluid, is a Fig. 2. most valuable material for distributing pressure over a large area of surface. In the case of a timber pile, the pressure is transmitted only in the direc- tion of its length, but a sand pile transmits the pressure laid on it, not only to the bottom, but to the sides of the excavation, and does not injure the ground by vibration. In many soils, where the ground is too soft to carry the weight of the walls of a building without artificial aid, a wide trench filled with dry sand will be found a more effective precaution against settlement than the use of timber planking, concrete, or any other expedient which simply distributes the pressure in a vertical direc- tion. Case 2. Soil of a semifluid nature, as Mud, Silt, or Peat. Cases of this kind occur chiefly in navigation and ON FOUNDATIONS. iiO drainage works, and are exceedingly difficult to treat successfully. The principle to be kept in view is the formation of a firm platform, on which the work shall be allowed to float, as it were, on the fluid soil, into which it will sink to a considerable depth. This must be allowed for in the construc- tion of the work, and, if possible, the foundation should be weighted to the full weight of the super- structure before the latter is commenced, so as to avoid any considerable movements after the comple- tion of the work. In this country timber platforms are usually adopted in works of this nature ; in Holland, platforms of fascines are employed, as will be presently described. The great point to be at- tended to is the equal distribution of the weight of the structure over the foundation, which will then settle in a vertical direction, and cause little injury ; whereas any irregular settlement would rend the work from top to bottom, CLASS II. DIVISION B. FOUNDATIONS UNDER WATER We now come to the consideration of the most difficult class of foundations, viz., those of hydraulic works in soft alluvial soils. If the ground be tolerably firm, we may enclose it with a dam ; but in this method of proceeding there is always great danger of the bottom being lifted* by the pressure of the water, and it is gene- * Vide " Memoir of the Canal of Exeter," " Minutes of Pro- ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," 1845, from which we extract the following notice of the method adopted for over- coming the difficulties arising from the lifting of the ground. " The excavation for the entrance lock at Turf proceeded very favourably through a stiff alluvial clay without water to a depth of nearly 20 feet below the surface of the marshes, when, on the occasion of a pile being driven to ascertain the depth at which a harder foundation would be obtained, water forced its way up around the pile, and the following morning the sides of the exca- C 26 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE rally necessary to weight the ground with planking and stones to prevent accidents. Sometimes it may be advisable to execute the work in small portions, completing one division before the excavation for the next is commenced. When the ground is semifluid, the formation of a cofferdam becomes impossible. The most effectual method of proceeding is to sink the work in large caissons, the bottom having been first covered with a bed of fascine work, weighted with stones or brickwork, and sunk on the site of the work. These fascine beds are much used by the Dutch in their hydraulic works, and are sometimes of large dimen- sions, and several feet in thickness ; they are formed of bundles of fascines crossing each other at right vation were found to have sunk perpendicularly at least 10 feet, and the bottom of the lockpit had risen to a greater height than the sides, exhibiting on its surface peat, moss, roots of trees, and a great variety of marine plants, rushes, fern, &c., but with very little water. It was, however, now evident that there would be much water to contend with in sinking to the required depth for the foundation. In order to accomplish this, a complete close kerbing of whole timber piles was driven, enclosing a space for the invert and the side walls of the lock ; these piles were well strutted by transverse whole timbers. The excavation was then made, and the lock was founded in short lengths between the transverse struts. It was presumed that the pressure of water from the tide without the lock would have a tendency to force up and raise the invert and the gate platform ; several flues, formed of elm plank trunking, were therefore laid in the rubble masonry, which formed the bed for the invert ; these flues were carried under and throughout the lock, and terminated in a vertical well beyond the upper gates of the lock ; thus the sub water was allowed to circulate, and to rise without obstruction to a corresponding height with the tide. This had the desired effect^), for the platforms never exhibited any tendency to rise, and there was no settlement in the masonry. " Mr. Telford, who saw this work in progress, declared he had never seen so troublesome a foundation, and he highly approved of the method adopted for preventing the upward pressure of the subwater." (1) It is not easy to understand the precise object of these pre- cautions, as the upward pressure would remain unaffected by them. ON FOUNDATIONS. 27 angles, securely bound with, tarred rope, and strengthened with poles and wicker bands. These platforms are weighted with gravel and broken stone, and sunk by means of guide-ropes in the required situation, where they are secured by long stakes and piles driven through them. A very excellent ac- count of the " Art of Building with Fascine Work," is given in the " Minutes of Proceedings of the In- stitution of Civil Engineers " for 1847, from the pen of Mr. G. B. Jackson, to which we would refer the reader who is desirous of studying the subject in detail. The foregoing brief sketch may be regarded as an outline of the general principles of Foundation works, the filling up of which must be supplied by the student from personal observation, and from the records of executed works. It is by studying the accounts of difficulties successfully overcome by others that the young engineer is best enabled to prepare himself for the obstacles which are sure sooner or later to beset his own career ; whilst the failures of men eminent in their profession teach him humility, and impress on his mind the necessity for patient investigation and untiring perseverance if he wish to master a subject, the difficulties of which are ever on the increase with the growing re- quirements of commercial enterprise, in spite of all the facilities afforded by the science and mechanical skill of the nineteenth century.* * During the construction of the new extension works at the London Docks a very solid concrete bottom was made by render- ing available a 12-feet layer of gravel found on the spot. Blue lias lime, obtained from Lyme Regis, was burnt in egg-shaped kilns, holding 100 tons each, and a vast quantity of concrete was made by mixing this lime with the gravel. The concrete was used for four purposes to spread the weight over a large surface of foun- dation ; to form dock walls, in parts not exposed to the alternate action of water and air ; to form counterforts and buttresses, in situations where weight was wanted, but on which nothing was to be built. The total cost was 5s. Sd. per cubic yard. Gr. D. (See the Builder for 1861.) c 2 28 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE CHAPTER II. ON FOOTINGS. IN the chapter just closed we called the reader's attention simply to general principles, without- entering upon mechanical details more than was unavoidably necessary ; in the succeeding chapters we propose to examine the practical details con- nected with the execution of foundations, so far as the scope of a rudimentary treatise will allow. To give an account of all the different systems of con- struction that have from time to time been proposed, or even of all those actually in use at the present day, would lead us far beyond our limits ; we have therefore selected for illustration a few leading heads, the study of which will form a good prepara- tion for the commencement of that self- education by which alone the student can make himself master of any branch of knowledge. The subjects referred to are as follow, viz. : Footings ; Timber Platforms ; Sand, Concrete, and Beton ; Pile Driving ; Caissons ; and, lastly, the construction of Cofferdams. To each of these heads we propose to devote a separate chapter. In commencing the erection of a building it is usual to spread the bottom courses of the masonry considerably beyond the face of the superincumbent work. These spread courses, or, as they are more technically called, footings, answer two important purposes : 1st. By distributing the weight of the structure over a larger area of bearing surface, the liability to vertical settlement from the compression of the ground is greatly diminished. 2ndly. In the case of isolated structures standing ON FOUNDATIONS. 29 on a comparatively small base, they form a great protection against the danger of the work being thrown out of the upright by the action of the wind. Let us take, for instance, the case of a chimney stalk 100 feet high, standing on a base 10 feet square, and exposed to heavy gales. The compres- sion of the ground to leeward to the extent of 0*025 ft. would be sufficient to cause the top of the stalk to overhang 6 inches. If, however, we in- crease the base to 20 ft. square, we not only double the leverage with which the foundation resists the force of the wind, but the bearing surface is quad- rupled, so that the total resistance is 8 times greater than in the first instance. It need scarcely be said that for footings to have any useful effect, they must be securely bonded into the body of the work, and of sufficient strength to resist the violent cross strains to which they are exposed. The common practice of builders, whether the materials be brick or stone, is unfortunately very faulty in these respects ; and to neglect in this matter may be attributed many disastrous failures and settlements in works otherwise well executed. Let us first consider the case of stone founda- tions. 1st. It should be remembered that the lower any stone is placed in a building the greater weight it has to support, and, therefore, the greater the risk arising from any irregularities in the working of the beds, which should be dressed perfectly true, and with as much or even greater care than in the upper part of the work. 2nd. No back joints should be allowed beyond the face of the upper work, except where the footings are in double courses, and every stone should bond into the body of the work several inches at least. Unless this is attended to, the RUDIMENTARY TREATISE footings will not receive the weight of the super- structure, and will be useless. (See Fig. 3.) 3rd. In proportion to the weight of the super- structure, the projection of each footing course beyond the one above it must be reduced ; or the Fig. 3. Fig. 4. cross strain thrown on the projecting portion of the masonry will rend it from top to bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In building large masses of work, such as the \ abutments of bridges and the like, the proportionate increase of bear- ing surface obtained by the pro- jection of the footings is very slight, and there is generally great risk of the latter being broken off by the settlement of the body of the work. It is therefore usual, in these cases, to give very little projection to the footing courses, -and to bring up the work with a battering face, or with a succession of very slight 1 Fig. 5. set-offs. (See Fig. 5.) Footings of undressed rubble built in common mortar cannot be too much reprobated, as the com- pression of the mortar is sure to cause movements in the superstructure. A much safer way of using rubble is to break it up tolerably small, and lay it in ON FOUNDATIONS. 31 the trenches without mortar ; as it forms a hard un- yielding bottom, so long as it is prevented from spreading laterally by the pressure of the ground. Where the building material is small rubble, the best way of proceeding " is to lay the foundations with cement mortar, so that the whole will form a solid mass ; in which case the size, shape, and dress- ing of the stone is of little consequence. In building with brick, the great point to be at- tended to in the footing courses is to keep the back joints as far as possible from the face of the work, and in ordinary cases, the best plan is to lay the footings in single courses ; the outside of the work being laid all headers, and no course projecting more than brick beyond the one above it, except in the case of 9 in. walls. If it Jbe wished to introduce more longitudinal bond into the work, the courses must be double, the heading course above, and the stretching course below. (See Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9.) Fig. 6. Fig. 7. _______ 3 bk?- ------ II I Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 32 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE It is scarcely necessary to add, that the bricks used for footings should be the hardest and soundest that can be obtained. It is desirable that the bottom course should in all cases be a double one. Too much care cannot be bestowed upon the footing courses of any building, as upon them de- pends much of the stability of the work. If the bottom courses be not solidly bedded ; if any rents or vacuities are left in the beds of the masonry ; or, if the materials themselves be unsound or badly put together the effects of such carelessness are sure to show themselves sooner or later, and almost always at a period when remedial efforts are useless. Before leaving the subject of footings, it may be desirable to notice an injudicious method of using inverted arches under openings, which often leads to serious evils. Inverted arches should only be used where there is a proper abutment for them on both sides. If used at the quoins of a building, as shown in Fig. 10, the effect of any settlement will be Fig. 10. ON FOUNDATIONS. 33 to throw the quoin out of the upright, as indicated. in an exaggerated manner by the dotted lines. An instance of this lately came under the author's notice, in which it was necessary, in order to save the building, to cut out portions of the arches. In cases where the ground is soft, and a large extent of base is requisite, the expense attendant on spreading out the solid work to the requisite extent renders it necessary to adopt some cheaper method of proceeding. Three methods may be mentioned : 1st. To put in a wide footing course, so to speak, of timber, which, from the nature of the material, may be safely carried to a considerable distance beyond the masonry without any fear of injury from cross strain. 2nd. To put in a layer of concrete, which may be considered as a footing course of arti- ficial stone, having, however, but little transverse strength, and, consequently, requiring the depth of the stratum to be carefully proportioned to its pro- jection. 3rd. To build upon a layer of sand, or similar material, which, pressing against the sides as well as against the bottom of the foundation-pit, distributes the weight of the superstructure over a large resisting surface. We shall examine each of these methods in the two succeeding chapters. CHAPTER III. ON PLANKING. IN erecting buildings on soft ground, where a large bearing surface is required, planking may be resorted to with great advantage, provided the timber can be kept from decay. If the ground be wet and the timber good, there is little to fear ; but in a dry situation, or one exposed to alternations of wet and dry, no dependence can be placed on unprepared c3 34 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE timber. "We do not here propose to enter upon any examination of the relative merits of the different processes employed in the preservation of timber. The systems most in use are those known respect- ively as Kyanizing, Paynizing, and Creosoting. Whatever method is employed, care should be taken to effect the process strictly according to the direc- tions of the patentees, otherwise no dependence can be placed upon the results. The advantage of timber is that it will resist a great cross strain with very trifling flexure, and, therefore, a wide footing may be obtained "without any excessive spreading of the bottom courses of masonry. The best method of employing planking under walls is to cut the stuff into short lengths, which should be placed across the foundation, and tied longitudinally by longitudinal planking laid to the width of the bottom course of masonry, and firmly spiked to the bottom planking. (See Fig. 11.) Fig. 11. A common method of planking foundations is shown in Fig. 12 : the space under the planking Fig. 12. being intended to be well rammed. There is, how- ever, so much risk of this being done in an imper- ON FOUNDATIONS. 35 feet manner, that it is much better to have the ground flushed up with concrete to the top of the sleepers, so that the planking may rest on a solid level surface. In planking foundations of considerable extent, such as those of the abutments of a bridge, it is better to lay the planking in two thicknesses, crossing joint and spiked together, and laid crossing the courses of the masonry diagonally. This makes sounder work than if the joints of the planking were parallel to those of the masonry. CHAPTER IV. SAND, CONCRETE, AND BETON. here name, in the relative order of their value as artificial foundations, three methods of forming a hard bearing stratum for distributing the weight of a building over a large area of compressible ground, or for bringing up a solid foundation from a con- siderable depth where there are objections to the use of masonry or timber for effecting that object. Sand. The use of sand, with its value as a means of distributing weight, has been known from a very early period, but it has been very little, if at all, adopted in this country. It may at first sight seem paradoxical that a loose substance, such as sand, having no cohesion amongst its particles, and proverbial for its instability, should be of any use as a material for foundations, especially when we consider that it is very similar to a fluid, and, if unsupported, can scarcely be made to stand at any slope whatever. It is, however, to these very qualities that it owes its value, which consists in distributing the weight laid upon it, not only in a vertical, but in a horizontal direction, the lateral 36 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE pressure exerted against the sides of the foundation- pit greatly relieving the bottom. In very soft ground, it need scarcely be said, this system of con- struction cannot be adopted, as the sand would work itself gradually down ; but in all situations where the ground, although soft, is of a tolerable con- sistency, so that the sand is confined, the use of this material is attended with many advantages as regards both the cost and the stability of the work. The most complete published account of the use of sand in foundations will be found in the " Annales des Ponts et Chaussees," for the year 1835, before referred to, which goes into the subject in great detail. From this account, and from the fourth volume of " Papers of the Royal Engineers/' we learn, that not only is it in use in India and in Surinam, where it is often recommended as the only method of forming a foundation in bad soils, but that it has been adopted in works at Geneva, Bayonne, and Paris, and probably many other places. There are two methods of using sand, viz., in layers and as piles. In forming a stratum of sand, the soft ground should be taken out several feet in depth, and the sand well rammed as it is thrown in, so as to ensure its being thoroughly forced into the sides of the foundation-pit ; after which there will be very little, if any, risk of irregular settlement. The surface of the sand may be protected in a variety of ways by planking, paving, or otherwise, ac- cording to the nature of the materials at hand ; but care should of course be taken to lay the masonry of the superstructure at sufficient depth to prevent all risk of scour from surface water, or from any other accidental source of injury. ' Sand piling is a very economical and efficient method of forming a foundation under some circum- stances where timber piling is usually resorted to in this country. It would not, however, be effective in very loose wet soils, as the sand would work into the ON FOUNDATIONS. 37 surrounding ground. Sand piling is executed by driving wooden piles to a short depth, and then withdrawing them and filling up the holes with sand, which should be well punned, so as to force it well into every vacuity. In situations where the stability of piles arises from the pressure of the ground round them, these sand piles are found to be of more service than timber ones, and for the following reason : A wooden pile can merely transmit pressure in a vertical direction, and consequently, exerts no lateral thrust upon the ground through which it passes, except whilst it is being forced down ; but a sand pile acts in a different manner, transmitting pressure not only against the bottom but against the sides of the hole it fills, and thus acting on a large area of bearing surface. The treatment of the ground above the piles is very simple. It should be covered over with planking, concrete, or masonry, to prevent its being forced up by the lateral pressure exerted by the piles ; and, on the stratum thus formed, the super- structure may be built in the ordinary manner. A layer of small broken stone, gravel, burnt clay, ballast, or any similar hard material, will be found also of great service when distributed over the area of a foundation. Indeed it may fairly be questioned, whether a great proportion of the concrete founda- tions in this country made with chalk lime, or with very weak water limes, do not act by transmitting the pressure of the structures laid on them against the sides of the foundation-pits, rather than by their resistance to cross strain, although they may become in time thoroughly consolidated. Our own ex- perience leads us to feel that, unless the lime used in the composition of concretes is such as to ensure the formation of a mass which shall at once become firm and solid throughout, it will be better, under ordinary circumstances, to use the gravel in a loose state, merely punning it to force it thoroughly into the 38 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE sides of the trenches. If this view be correct, much expense is often incurred in making bad concrete, where a layer of broken stone, or gravel, would be cheaper and more effective ; and we would especially recommend those of our readers who may have op- portunities of examining concrete foundations which have been only a short time executed, to do so with especial reference to this point, which is of consider- able importance. Concrete. Concrete* is an artificial conglomerate, or pudding-stone, in which the pebbles which make up the greater part of its bulk are cemented together by lime mortar. As generally made, concrete is nothing more than a weak artificial stone, possessing little strength when exposed to transverse strain, even when the cementing material is thoroughly hard which it may be fairly presumed, in most cases, does not take place for many months, if at all, although the outer crust may become firm in the course of a few hours. It is, therefore, the most prudent course, in putting in a concrete foundation, to force the concrete into the trenches, ramming it continually, so that it shall exert considerable lateral pressure. It is a common practice with contractors to make the concrete course exactly of the specified width, irrespective of the extent to which the trenches have been excavated, and where any vacuities occur, to keep up the concrete temporarily with boarding, which is removed as the concreting advances, and the vacant space is filled with loose earth, and punned or not as the chance may happen. This is a most improper practice, and would often lead to serious failures, from the crushing of the weak and newly- formed concrete ; were it not that in most cases the strength given to the foundations of our important works is greatly in excess of that * Ik may be necessary to remind the reader that the term " con- crete" is here applied exclusively to that made of gravel concreted with chalk lime or weak stone lime. ON FOUNDATIONS. 39 required to resist this effect. It is, therefore, de- sirable, in drawing up specifications for concroto works, to require that the whole extent of excavation should be filled in with concrete, and that, if the trenches are got out too wide, they must be filled up with concrete at the contractor's expense. If the sides of the foundation-pits are carefully trimmed, and the concrete punned up solidly against them, the success of the work will be in a great measure independent of the cementing properties of the lime, and the gradual consolidation of the mass will be an additional source of security. Another practice, which we cannot too strongly condemn, but which has the sanction of many pro- fessional men of high standing, is that of throwing the concrete into the foundation-pits from a raised stage, with a view to consolidate it. Our own ex- perience confirms us in the opinion that the contrary effect is produced, and that this practice not only tends to separate the particles which have been pre- viously brought into close contact, but that the ad- mission of the air into the mass renders it less com- pact and tends to prevent the lime and sand from properly entering into combination with each other. We ourselves prefer to tip the concrete from the barrow as close to the surface as possible, and to keep it constantly punned as the work proceeds, so that no vacuities shall remain in any part. We also prefer that it should be brought up in successive layers, not exceeding 12 inches thick, the wheelers working gradually round the whole area, and being followed by the punners, so that no vertical junctions exceeding 12 inches in height can occur at any point ; the whole mass is more likely to be homogeneous than if the work is commenced at its full thickness and driven forward, which is certainly in most cases the easiest way of proceeding. Concrete is a valuable material when applied in a proper manner, viz., in underground works where it 40 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE is confined on all sides, and is, consequently, subjected to little cross strain ; but it is not fit to be used above ground as a substitute for masonry, and will not bear exposure to water. - Mr. Burnell, in his "Rudimentary Treatise on Limes, Cements, and Mortars," has given such ad- mirable directions for the composition of concretes and batons, that it is unnecessary for us here to enter into much detail on the subject ; a few remarks may, however, be acceptable to the reader who may not have Mr. BurnelPs work at hand to refer to. Concrete is made of gravel, sand, and ground lime, mixed together with water ; the slaking of the lime taking place whilst in contact with the sand and gravel. It is difficult to give any definite propor- tions for the several ingredients ; but the principle to be followed in proportioning the several quantities of sand and stones should be to form as much as possible a solid mass, for which purpose it is desirable that the stones should be of various sizes, and angular rather than rounded. The common material is un- screened gravel, containing a considerable portion of sand and large and small pebbles ; but small and irregular fragments of broken stone, granite chip- pings, and the like, are of great service, as they interlace each other, and bond the mass together. The proportion of lime to sand should be such as is best suited to form a cement to connect the stones. This must depend in a great measure on the quality of the lime used ; the pure limes requiring a great proportion of sand, whilst the stone limes, and those containing alumina, silica and metallic oxides, re- quire a much smaller proportion. The lime chiefly used near London for making concrete is stone lime from Merstham, in Surrey, which has slightly hydraulic qualities. The most usual proportions adopted by London architects are about \ of ground stone lime to y of unscreened Thames ballast, or good clean gravel. ON FOUNDATIONS. 41 The lime and gravel should be thoroughly incor- porated by being repeatedly turned over with shovels, sufficient water being added to ensure the thorough slaking of the lime without drowning it. Concrete should not be thrown into water, because ordinary stone lime will not set under such circumstances ; and it should be carefully protected from any wash or run of water, which would have the effect of washing out the lime, and leaving the concrete in the state of loose gravel. Concrete made in the way just described swells slightly before setting, from the expansion due to the slaking of the lime, and does not return to its original bulk. This property makes it valuable for underpinning foundations and similar purposes.* Beton. Beton may be considered as hydraulic concrete ; that is, concrete made with hydraulic lime ; and is chiefly used in submarine works, as a substi- tute for masonry, in situations where the bottom cannot be laid dry. It differs from ordinary concrete, inasmuch as the lime must be slaked before mixing with the other ingredients, and it is usual to make the lime and sand into mortar before adding the stones. Concrete also is used hot, while beton is allowed to stand before being used, in order to ensure * Concrete cottages are frequently built where the materials are ready at hand. Merstham lime and Keigate sand have offered temptations for building such cottages at Bexley. A wooden framework is laid down to form a kind of mould; the concrete is poured into this mould to form walls, &c. ; and the framework is raised stage after stage as the work proceeds, each day's work serving as a foundation for that of the following day. This work can be done at about half the price of brickwork. In other instances the concrete is used in the form of bricks made of sand, gravel, chalk, clinkers, road scrapings, seabeach, &c., moulded, but not burned. Villas have been built of this kind of brick at Reigate. In France, Coignot's beton agglomere is the material employed (instead of stone or brick) to fill up the iron framework of the church of Vesinet, near St. Germains, recently constructed by M. Boileau. Eansome's artificial stone, tested against Coignot's beton agglo- mere in 1863, bore up better against both a cruslin^ md a rending* force. G. D. 42 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the perfect slaking of every particle of lime. Belidor directs that the mortar shall first be made, with poz- zuolana, sand, and quicklime. When the mortar is thoroughly mixed, the stones are to be thrown in (not larger than a hen's egg), and also iron dross well pounded ; the whole is then to be thoroughly incorporated, and left for twenty- four hours. The proportions are to be as follows : Pozzuolana 12 parts Sand 6 Good quicklime 9 Small stones 13 Ground slag 3 43 The bton is to be lowered into the water in a box, with a bottom so constructed that it can be opened, and its contents discharged, by pulling a cord, so as to deposit the b6ton on the bottom without having to fall through a depth of water, which might wash away the lime. For the same reason it is necessary, before commencing to lay the beton, to surround ths site with sheet-piling, to protect it from the action of the water, and to guard against the danger of the softer portions of the work being carried away by tempests before they become consolidated. The ordinary method of using beton on the Con- tinent is in alternate layers of beton and rubble stone. A layer of beton, about a foot in thickness, is first spread over the whole area of the foundation ; and on this is laid a stratum of rubble, which, sinking into the soft beton, becomes thoroughly incorporated with it. On this is laid another layer of beton, followed by another course of rubble ; this system being pursued until the work reaches the intended height. At the harbour works of Algiers, alluded to in the first chapter of this volume, beton has been used on a large scale, in a very different way to that just ON FOUNDATIONS. 43 described ; and the published account of the manner in which the works .were conducted, and of the reasons which led to the adoption of the systems of construction there employed, is so interesting, that we have thought it desirable to transfer to our pages, without abridgment, the first three chapters of M. Poirel's work before referred to, which form, a toler- ably complete treatise on the use of beton for sub- marine foundations. Beton, as prepared on the Continent, is seldom if ever used in this country ; but concrete is sometimes made with blue lias lime, when it, in fact, becomes a species of b6ton, and must be treated in a similar way. The lime must be ground or beaten to powder, and before being mixed with the gravel it must be slaked, and allowed to stand for a considerable time, to en- sure the thorough slaking of every particle. The lime and sand should be brought into the state of mortar before adding the stones. If it is attempted to make concrete with lias lime, in the same way as with the ordinary stone lime, the lime, from its re- fractory nature, is but imperfectly slaked, many particles remaining in the state of quicklime. The practical effect of this mode of treating concrete is, that the more refractory particles continue to expand in the interior of the mass after the outside has set perfectly hard, and the whole becomes more or less disintegrated. If, also, any particles remain in the state of quick- lime, subsequent exposure to water will cause them to slake, and in so doing they burst, and split the work in immediate contact with them. It may be worth remarking here, that beton or rough rubble masonry executed with cement or mortar, was well understood and practised in former times, but concrete, as made at the present day, ap- pears to be a modern invention, and is in every way inferior to it. 44 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ACCOUNT OF THE WORKS RECENTLY EXECUTED IN BETON AT THE HARBOUR OF ALGIERS. (Translated from the French of M. POIREL, Ingenieur-en-chef des Fonts et Chaussees.) Rebuilding of the Old Mole. The roadstead of Algiers, exposed like all those of the north of Africa, is completely open to sea-board. The little basin which forms the harbour at the western extremity, and at the entrance of the road- stead, was formed in 1530 by Khair-ed-din, brother of Barbarossa. Having made himself master of a little islet lying in front of the town, and upon which the Spaniards had a fortress, he resolved, for the double purpose of securing his new possession, and of forming a harbour in front of Algiers, to connect this rock with the town by means of a jetty, which is called by his own name. Its length is 574 ft. 1 in. (175 metres), with a top width of 118 ft. 1 in. (36 metres), and it lies nearly east and west. Besides the Khair-ed-din jetty, a mole in prolongation of the islet shelters the basin from the easterly winds. This mole is 410 ft. 1 in. in length (125 metres), with a maximum width of 311 ft. 7 in. (95 metres), and its direction is north-east and south-west. The circuit of the basin thus formed terminates at the little mole of the Lazaretto. Its area is nearly ten acres (4 hectares), and it is capable of containing 60 vessels, 30 of which are of about 300 tons, and a very few of 800 tons burthen. Vessels of a larger tonnage lie outside. The greatest depth of the harbour is at present 16 ft. 4 in. (5 metres), but this may increase from the scour, Khair-ed-din Jetty. The Kha'ir-ed-din Jetty, abut- ting at one end on the shore, and at the other end on the Isle de la Marine, presents a continuous line without exposing any head to the sea. Besides this, it is protected by several groins, formed by portions of the bank of rocks on which it stands. ON FOUNDATIONS. 45 However, in spite of the masses of rubble annually placed on it since the time of Barbarossa, to say nothing of the quantity of stone thrown upon it in 1833 and 1834, since the occupation of Algiers by the French, the foot of the jetty was constantly laid bare at several points, and the breaches were always increasing. This jetty, on which are built the large ware- houses for military stores, necessarily first demanded the attention of the government, because it was of especial importance to secure the buildings of which it forms the foundation. This work was intrusted, in 1831, to M. Noel, engineer of the hydraulic works of the harbour of Toulon, from which service he was temporarily detached. He reinstated the whole body of the jetty for a width of 6 ft. 6 in. (2 metres), to the height of 16 ft. 4 in. (5 metres), above the water. The new masonry is executed in a perfect manner, and is extremely substantial. Unfortunately, the insufficiency of the funds put at the disposal of the skilful engineer who directed this work, and the shortness of the time assigned to his mission, did not permit him to renew the base of the jetty, the breaches in which continued to extend, and which it has been impossible to stop, except by protective works formed with blocks of bton. The Mole. The mole is much more exposed than the jetty. It stands out into the sea, to which it presents a pier-head whose direction is nearly per- pendicular to that of the winds which blow into the roadstead with the greatest force. It was therefore on this so much threatened point that the Turks lavished all the resources at their disposal, both in men and money. They employed upon it the greater number of their slaves, and spent annually on it from 160 to 180 boudjons, that is more than 12,500 of British money, Laugier de Tassy, one of the most exact historians of the government of Algiers, where he resided in 1727, thus expresses himself on the subject : 46 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE " As the great mole is directly exposed to the north, in order to prevent its "being carried away by the heavy shocks of the sea, which breaks fiercely on a sandbank running the whole length of the mole on the outside of the harbour, it is necessary to employ the slaves of the Beylic throughout the year at a quarry of hard stones near Point Pescade, and to remove these stones and throw them into the sea along the whole length of the mole, in order to secure it. The sea carries away nearly all the stone that is thrown in, but care is constantly taken to replace it." First Works undertaken by the French. The head of the mole, in which the sea had opened a large breach, was also repaired in 1831 ; but the new masonry resting on loose masses of rock, which were disturbed by every heavy sea, was entirely destroyed at the commencement of the bad weather of the winter of 1832. All repairs that could have been made on the face of the work would infallibly have undergone the same fate, because the base on w^hich it was built was of a shifting nature. In addition to this, the head of the mole was placed in the worst possible direction, being perpendicular to the north- east (that is, to the point whence the wind blows into the roadstead with the utmost force), and forming a considerable re-entering angle with the line of the mole. The first operation to be performed was to raise in front of the head of the mole a massive embankment of large blocks, in order to protect it from complete destruction, and to form a bank under cover of which the foundation might be subsequently restored : it being intended that the mass of stones should be arranged by the action of the sea to the slope required for their equilibrium. It was therefore necessary to consider the means of procuring a considerable quan- tity of stone, and for this nothing was prepared ; quarries, roads, means of conveyance, everything was wanting, everything had to be created. ON FOUNDATIONS. 47 From the commencement of the season of 1833, an active search was made for quarries from which might be obtained blocks containing from 70 to 140 cubic feet each (2 to 4 cubic metres) : numerous ex- plorations were made at all points where there was a hope of obtaining them ; roads were opened from all the quarries to the city gate ; the streets widened ; the approaches to the mole enlarged, so as to allow of the passage of vehicles, which before could not get on the mole ; and notwithstanding the difficulties encountered in extracting large blocks from a geo- logical formation presenting no regular stratification or continuous stratum, in spite of the universal want of resources inevitable in a barbarous country recently conquered and placed under military rule, by the month of December about 212,000 cubic feet of stone had been thrown into the sea. In the winter of 1833-34 these masses of stone became completely arranged, and took an average slope of 1 in 6. The embankment which had been carried up above the level of the sea, had sunk 13 ft. l.in. (4 metres) below it, and during its subsidence many of the blocks had been carried by the action of the waves inside the harbour. It was found that one of them, containing 35 cubic ft. of stone, had been thrown by the waves upon the top of the mole to the height of 13 ft., and to a horizontal distance of 98 feet, and that another, containing 141 cubic feet, had been carried completely across the mouth of the harbour to the Musoir de la Sante. This serious displacement of the blocks, which tended to throw them back into the harbour, was a radical defect, which made it necessary to renounce the ordinary system of random blocks. The only means of not falling again into the same error was, instead of using blocks of from 100 to 141 cubic feet (below which size they were displaced by the waves), to throw in masses of such dimensions that they should resist the action of the sea and remain ini- 48 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE movable ; which, is possible, since the action being proportioned to the surface struck, whilst the resist- ance of the block increases as its mass, there must necessarily be a point where the latter predominates. This limit was at first fixed at 706 cubic feet, but it has since been found that the blocks remain stationary when only half that size. The raising masses of this size from the quarries was not to be thought of, on account of the difficulty of quarrying them, and the equally great difficulty presented by their carriage. There remained, therefore, no other course to adopt but to make them artificially ; and this led to the adoption of beton as a material for the blocks. These blocks are of two kinds : some are formed in the water, on the site they are to occupy, the others are made on shore, to be afterwards thrown into the sea. First kind of blocks made in situ with beton, im- mersed in lined caissons. Blocks of the first kind are made by immersing beton in lined caissons grounded upon the intended site of the block. The sides of the caissons are formed of a framework of timbers, lined on the inside with double layers of planking, crossing joint, the bottom being cut to the profile of the ground. They are also lined on the inside with tarred cloth, which forms a kind of sack. This cloth is nailed to the woodwork, and extends the whole height of the caisson up to 1 ft. 8 in. (*50 metres) above the level of the water. The four sides of the caisson are connected by hinged angle-irons, so that they can be easily unshipped. They are taken up at the end of from ten to twelve days ; and all that is required to fit them for being used a second time is to lengthen or shorten them a little, to bring them to the shape of the ground. When fixed to- gether, a cloth is fitted to them, which must be of sufficient size to adapt itself to all the irregularities of the bottom that it covers. The caisson thus formed becomes a real sack, of which the sides are V ON FOUNDATION^ y^ 49 Ifc V strengthened by the wooden framing on which tho cloth is stretched and fixed. The mass of beton which fills it can then mould itself perfectly to the ground, and connect itself with it by the very ir- regularities of the latter : whereas with the flat- bottomed caissons generally employed in founding works in water without laying dry the bottom, it is necessary to remove the roughnesses of the ground by bringing it to a nearly level surface, an operation which is difficult, and which can never be attended with perfect success. These caissons are prepared in the yard and launched into the harbour, whence they are towed by pontoons and floated to their intended sites. They are then weighted by means of wooden boxes slung all round the outside of the caisson, and filled with balls or with pig-iron. The caisson thus fixed, a machine for lowering the beton is set up on a travelling scaffold, communicating with the shore by a temporary bridge. Considerations which led to the employment of lined caissons. We were led to this method of making artificial blocks by a process which the Italians em- ploy when they wish to repair the breaches that take place in masonry under water. This process consists in filling with beton sacks similar to those used in fortification, placed one over another in the breacli to be closed. Starting on this idea, we filled with beton and threw into the sea, during heavy weather, .a sack much larger than the common ones, and at the end of some days, when the sea was calm, we found this block very hard, and possessing great resistance. All that was further wanted to succeed, by an analogous process, in forming blocks of large dimensions, was to make the sack so strong that it should not burst, and to fill it with beton on the very place where it was wished to immerse the block ; a problem which has been solved as we have just ex- plained, the caisson above described being nothing D 50 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE else than a large cloth bag, of which the sides are strengthened by timber framing. The cloth lining of the caisson indispensable to protect the newly immersed beton from the wash of the sea. The cloth lining which forms the bottom of the caisson is the essential and capital part of this mode of construction, without which it would be very defective. With a simple caisson without a bottom, it would be impossible that the sides should be cut exactly to the profile of the ground on which it is to rest ; and besides, even were that practicable, there would never be the certainty of being able to immerse the caisson exactly in the place for which it had been prepared. There would, therefore, always remain openings between the caisson and the ground, and the sea, finding its way under the sides of the caisson, would penetrate into the mass of the beton ; instead of which, in the lined caissons, the action of the sea is never directed against the beton itself, but only against the cloth, without causing any injury to the material it envelops. What has been here advanced is easily understood, arid a great number cf experiments authorize the establishment of the principle, that " whenever beton is immersed in water which may be agitated before its setting, or wherever it may be lowered into a foundation pit where there are bottom spring s, it is imperatively necessary that it should be completely protected from wash." This principle, laid down for caissons formed with framed sides, applies with still greater force to piled dams ; as these latter are never water-tight, it is indispensable, under the conditions above specified, to line them with water-proofed cloth up to the water-line. The wash, which is to be guarded against, first, during the putting in of the beton, and afterwards, until it has set, renders it necessary to be very care- ful in using this material in submarine foundations. It is only after having made provision against ON FOUNDATIONS. 51 ever} thing which may have a tendency to wash the newly-immersed beton, that this plan of laying sub- marie e foundations, which is otherwise so simple, so economical, so expeditious, and so susceptible of a variety of applications, can be adopted with security. (The annexed woodcut, Fig. 13, which is copied from M. Poirel's work, will give the reader a good idea of the arrangements just described ; for the working details we must refer him to the original work.) Second kind of blocks, prepared on shore and thrown into the sea after having become sufficiently hard. The second kind of blocks, which are made on shore, are formed in moulds, of which the four sides are made of timber lined with boarding. The bottom on which they are set up rests upon a framing of large balks, forming part of an inclined plane, ending at the point where the block is to be sunk. These moulds, like the caissons, are without internal strutting. When the beton with which they are filled is well set, the sides of the mould are removed, and the block thus deprived of its covering is launched into the sea. Composition of mortar and beton. The mortar used in making the beton immersed in the caissons is made of one part of rich lime, slacked and made into a paste, mixed with two parts of Italian poz- zuolana. For the blocks made on shore the pozzuolana is mixed with sand, in equal quantities. The lime in use at Algiers is from a primitive grey limestone, somewhat granular and very hard ; its weight is about 156 Ibs. per cubic foot. Slaked' in the usual way, and reduced to the consistence, of a thick pulp, it absorbs once and a half its own weight of water. It increases in bulk in the pro- portion of Ito 1'75. The pozzuolana employed is the same which is D 2 52 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. 13. ON FOUNDATIONS. 53 used along all the Mediterranean coast for making hydraulic mortars. It is found in the caverns of St. Paul, near Rome, and is sifted on the spot, through sieves of thin iron plate, pierced with rectangular openings 0'078 in. wide, O78 in. long, and 0'39 in. distant from each other. One pkrt of lime, with two parts of pozzuolana, make two parts of mortar. If the pozzuolana is used without sifting, it takes from eight to ten days before the mortar will bear the needle* of M. Vicat without sensible depression. If the pozzuolana is sifted, the process of harden- ing is nearly twice as rapid ; that is to say, at the end of five or six days the needle makes no impres- sion on it. The mortar, composed of one part of sand, one of lime, and one of sifted pozzuolana, such as is made for the blocks of be ton moulded on shore, does not attain the same hardness under from eight to ten days. The b6ton is composed of one part of mortar with two of stones broken up into pieces, containing each about 1| cubic feet, which forms two parts of beton. Its weight is about 137 Ibs. per cubic foot. That which is made with pure pozzuolana only, without admixture of sand, rapidly acquires a cohesive strength, of which the following experiment will give a pretty exact idea. A block, after thirty- six hours' immersion, was strip- ped by a heavy sea of the caisson in which it had been made, and thus laid bare it withstood, without any support, and without the least fracture, the shock of very heavy waves. It must, however, be added, that if the wind had not abated, or had the swell increased, this block would certainly have been destroyed. A prism of beton 11*7 in. long, 3*9 in. thick, and 3*9 in. wide, made of mortar composed of one part of lime, one of pozzuolana, and one of sand, * It may be necessary to explain to some readers that this refers to the method pursued by M. Vicat for testing the hardness ot the mortars arid cements on which he experimented. 54 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE dried in the air, and tested by the machine described by General Treussart in his " Memoir e sur les Mor- tiers," supported, at the end of twenty days, a weight of 310 Ibs. before it broke. A similar prism immersed immediately after it was made, supported, after the same number of days, a weight of 203 Ibs. Manner in which the blocks of beton were used in the reconstruction of the Mole of Algiers. The blocks of beton, whose nature and composition have been above described, were employed in the following manner in the construction of the Mole of Algiers : 1st. Masses of beton, of from 2,000 to 6,000 cubic feet, were made on the spot, in lined caissons, the inside face of these masses, on the land side, being placed according to the new direction given to the line of the top of the mole. 2nd. On these first blocks were placed moulds, containing from 353 to 1,765 cubic feet, which were filled with beton ; and when once set, these blocks were launched into the sea, so as to form a second line in front of the first. 3rd. The space left between - these two lines of blocks of beton was filled up with stone in blocks of from 106 to 247 cubic feet. (The natural stone was only used to accelerate the work, and to economize the pozzuolana ; but it would generally be more advantageous to use only blocks of beton.) 4th. Behind this double line of defence, and under its shelter, the ground was dredged to the depth of 6 ft. 6 in. below the water-line, for a width of 9 ft. 9 in., and the whole of this space was filled up with a continuous mass of beton. It must be fully understood that this work was not undertaken at once along the whole length of the mole ; but that it was effected successively piece- meal, so as not to enter upon a greater length in each year than could be completely finished in the course of the season. This work, which has perfectly succeeded, esta- ON FOUNDATIONS. 55 blishes beyond all question, 1st. That blocks of beton have sufficient strength to resist the heaviest seas without injury, and that they form indestructible masses. 2ndly. That these blocks are immovable when above a certain size, which at Algiers has been found to be 353 cubic feet, but which may perhaps vary a little under different local circumstances. The mole, on which the preservation of the harbour of Algiers depends, was, at the time of the occupation of the city by the French army in 1830, in a state of complete dilapidation and imminent ruin, notwithstanding extensive repairs by the Turks, continued annually during two centuries. By using blocks of beton instead of natural stone, it has been practicable in five years only, and at a cost of less than 84,000, to rebuild nearly 700 feet of the mole, and to give it a stability which is proof against the severest test. Construction of the new Mole. Plan for a new mole of blocks of beton. After the rebuilding of the mole, and at the end of the season of 1838, a commencement was made of a plan for the enlargement of the harbour of Algiers by means of a new mole, 1,650 ft. in length, in con- tinuation of the old one : it was to be constructed entirely of blocks of beton of 353 cubic feet, pre- pared on shore ; and at the end of a month or two,, ac- cording to the season, dropped into the sea, as is done with natural blocks in embankments of pierre perdue. In the works previously described the blocks were made on the beach, whence, by an inclined plane, they were launched into the sea. This system, which answered well for forming a line of sea-wall in front of the mole to be rebuilt, could not be applied to the construction of the new mole in prolongation of the old one. As it would not have been possible to place on inclined planes more than three or four blocks 56 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE abreast at the tip, and as they must have been allowed a month or two for setting before immersion, the result would have been that not more than from forty to fifty could have been thrown in during the year. Plartjor the carriage and immersion of the blocks by land, It therefore became necessary to make a large number of blocks beforehand in the work- yard, whence, as they became sufficiently hard, they might be removed to the spot where they were to be sunk. This was effected by the following means, which are now (1841) in course of execution : The blocks of beton are all of the same form, that of a rectangular prism, 11 ft. long, 6 ft. 6 in. wide, and 4 ft. 11 in. high, and contain 353 cubic feet, deduction being made for the bottom grooves. They are made by filling with beton a chest, which forms a mould. This mould has four framed sides, each made of five uprights, lined with fir planking, and tenoned at top and bottom into a cap and sill. The ends of the caps and sills have mitre-joints, and* are fastened with angle-irons, which bring them up close when put together, and which are easily unshipped when the block is to be bared. The bottom of the mould is formed by a layer of sand, 2 in. thick, spread over the surface of the yard to prevent the beton from adhering to it. On the sand are placed three rectangular moulds, made of three boards, for the purpose of forming grooves about 5 in. square, for passing underneath the block the chains by which it is to be raised. From sixty to seventy men working eight hours can make four blocks. The blocks are placed rather more than a yard apart, to facilitate the handling of them during their removal. Three carpenters can take to pieces and reset a mould in an hour. The same frames, with slight repairs, will serve for making about fifty blocks. From four to six days after filling the mould, its four sides are removed and set up again to form a ON FOUNDATIONS. 57 new mould. Thus exposed, the block becomes in a month, or at the latest two, sufficiently hard to be thrown into the sea. This last operation is divided into two stages ; first, the lifting of the block, and afterwards its conveyance to the point where it is to be sunk. To raise the block two chains are used, which are passed through the grooves prepared for that pur- pose, and four screws placed at the ends of the grooves, two on each side of the block. The chains are attached to the heads of the screws, and the nuts are keyed into spoked wheels, by which the former are turned. Sixteen men, four at each wheel, will raise the block 20 in. from the ground in twenty minutes. The block being lifted from the ground, a low truck is run under it, with wheels barely 10 in. diameter, placed in the thickness of the wood ; two greased boards, placed on the truck, serve to facili- tate the descent of the block. It is drawn along an iron tramway by a capstan worked by eight men. When it reaches the end of the road, a slight tilt is given to it, which is sufficient to cause the block to slide from the waggon by its own weight, carrying the greased boards with it. Second system of carriage and immersion by water. The blocks to be sunk are sometimes also trans- ported by sea. The block is lowered into the water .on an inclined float until it has sunk to the depth of 3 ft. 3 in. When it is fixed in this position, a machine is brought over it composed of two pontoons, between which it is symmetrically placed ; the pon- toons are attached to it by means of chains passed under the block, and thus at once support it and transport it, just as camels are used by the Dutch to lighten vessels and to take them out into deep water. The two systems of immersion by land and by water are employed simultaneously in the construc- D 3 58 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE tion of the new mole. The 280 feet of new work completed up to the 1st of June, 1840, afford decisive evidence in favour of this method of constructing piers with blocks of beton of not less than 353 cubic feet, thrown irregularly upon each other. It proves that blocks of this size invariably remain in the position in which they were sunk. On the last half of the new mole eight cross sec- tions have been taken at equal distances. Although they differ from each other, they generally give, for the slopes to which the blocks settle, an average of 1 to 1 seaward, and of to 1 towards the inside of the harbour. From the cubic contents given by calculations based on these sections, and compared with the notes kept of the quantity of blocks sunk between them, it is found that the voids are nearly a third of the solids, or, which amounts to the same thing, that they form one- fourth of the whole mass. These observations have not yet been sufficiently numerous to permit us to generalize the conclusions just deduced from them ; it will be necessary to verify them by the results that will be obtained in carrying on the work during ensuing years. But they may, even at present, be considered as supply- ing a sufficient approximation, and may serve as a basis for the estimates of plans that may have to be drawn up for the construction of piers with blocks of beton. They give the cube of the material actually required for an embankment of which the length, top, width, and the depths at different points are ascertained, from which may be found the expense to which the work should amount. When the foundation of the mole of Algiers, formed, as has been shown, of blocks of beton, has been completed along its whole length, the remainder of the body of the work (which will be brought up to nearly 20 ft. above water) will be finished with beton carried up inside cases of the form which it is intended to give to the face of the work. ON FOUNDATIONS. 59 Behind the revetment formed with blocks of beton, can be formed on the harbour side wharfs of such width as may be desirable, simply by a stone em- bankment brought up to within about 16 ft. below water, and on which may be raised a solid mass of beton immersed in lined caissons. Defects of the ordinary System of Construction with Pierre Perdue, and the advantages resulting from the substitution of blocks of Beton for natural blocks. Piers of Pierre Perdue. The system generally employed in our times for the construction of sea fiers, is that known by the name of pierre perdue. t was practised by the ancients, as may be seen at the port of Civita Vecchia, which was constructed in the reign of Trajan. By the moderns it has been applied in various ways ; the most remarkable instance is the Cherbourg Breakwater, which was begun in 1784. The materials used in the construction of these piers vary generally in bulk from 7 to 70 or 100 cubic feet ; below this size they are shaken and over- turned ; but, according to the partizans of this mode of construction, this movement is only temporary, and the action of the waves working on the mass gives the latter a definite slope, at which it becomes capable of resisting the heaviest seas. This slope is a double one, the upper slope varying from - to , and the lower from - to The depth at 6 10 IH which the change of inclination takes place varies from 13 to 16 ft. under low- water mark, according to the varying force of the sea in different localities. It is generally admitted, that below this depth the sea is not agitated, and that the change of slope is caused by this fact. Nevertheless, it must be ac- knowledged that the motion only diminishes, and 60 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE never entirely ceases. A great number of well- known facts prove that the sea exerts great force at depths of 32, and even of 65 feet below the surface. In stormy weather the waters become turbid, to a certain distance from shore, in consequence of the action of the waves on the bottom of the sea, an action sufficiently strong to detach seaweed and madrepores, which are thrown upon the shore, where they are found in abundance after every gale. For this reason, also, the fishermen, after the return of calm weather, are obliged to wait a day or two before they cast their nets, because the mud upon which the fish remain has been disturbed, and it must settle again before they will return to it.* Inherent defects of this mode of construction. Even if we admit that the slope taken by the blocks re- mains the same, it does not follow that the blocks themselves undergo no displacement, but only that their motion, instead of being indefinite, is confined within certain limits ; just as the sand and pebbles of a natural beach are continually set in motion by the action of the waves, although the section of the beach remains unaltered ; and that the blocks never attain a state of complete rest is proved by the noise made by their rolling over each other whenever the sea is rough. Besides, as it must be acknowledged that they are movable until their mass has taken the slope at which they will remain without displace- ment, they must necessarily be worn by friction as long as this displacement goes on, and the effects of this grinding would soon be perceived, for a single winter is sufficient to round the sides of large angular fragments of very hard stone. We know that sand and pebbles are thus formed along the shore, at least * M. Aime, Professor in the College of Algiers, and Member of the Scientific Commission, has made direct experiments on the motion of the waves, which prove that this motion is plainly felt at depths of 50 to 65 feet. The interesting results obtained by this young savant have been recorded in several papers addressed by him to the Institute. ON FOUNDATIONS. 61 partially so, by the motion of blocks thrown by the sea against the cliffs. Independently of these destructive results, which are only slowly developed, there are others which become manifest even during the execution of the work. It is generally admitted that the pier-heads should be formed with stones of larger size than those which form the body of the work, in order to prevent the harbour channels from being choked by the displacement of the materials, which, having no support, are carried round the head along the inside face of the work. Now the successive sections of a pier in course of construction, constantly present a head seaward at every stage of its progress. The materials of which it is composed must therefore be driven round each of the portions by which it is suc- cessively terminated, and thus carried inside that part of the sea which it is intended to inclose to secure still water ; and if the pier is built parallel to the shore, and at no great distance from it, this dis- placement of materials will inevitably produce a diminution of depth over the greater part of the area of the harbour. Difficulties which occur in its execution. Having exposed the inherent defects of the system of pierre perdue, it remains to mention the difficulties attend- ant on its execution. In what we are about to say on this subject, we will take, as an example, what has been done at Algiers ; the results obtained from the use of natural blocks at this harbour may be equally applicable to other localities. 1st. In the neighbourhood of the piers to be built it is not always possible to find quarries of stone sufficiently hard to resist violent blows, and which will be durable under water. 2nd. The working of quarries fulfilling these conditions occasions enormous waste. It is a point generally agreed upon that no stones should be em- ployed under from 18 to 27 cubic feet ; and the 62 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE opinion of those engineers who, with M. Cachin, considered that the smallest materials were not only useful but necessary, to fill up the voids between the large stones and to form with them a compact mass impenetrable to the waves, is now nearly abandoned. Now, at Algiers, of the total yield of the quarries, only one-third consists of blocks of the above-named dimensions, the remaining two-thirds consisting only of rubble and small blocks. 3rd. The small blocks, up to the size of 70 ft. cube, are carried by means of trucks, or on low two- wheeled carts. The carriage (including handling, loading, and unloading) amounts to nearly 4d. per cubic foot. Blocks exceeding 70 cubic feet are carried on strong four-wheeled carts, to which are harnessed from 28 to 30 horses, when the block is one of about 250 cubic feet. 4th. The handling in the quarry, as well as the landing, is managed with a number of crabs. Wherever the ground will allow of it, the cart is backed to a loading-place sloping from the level on which the block rests ; the latter being moved along on rollers until it reaches the cart. This operation, although a long one, is the easiest of execution ; but it is not practicable for all blocks. An idea may be formed of the difficulties presented by these operations from the price paid for them at Algiers. The handling amounted to more than Id. per foot cube for blocks of from 70 to 105 cubic feet, and to 2d. for blocks of 211 to 247 cubic feet. The loading and unloading cost somewhat less than Id. per foot for blocks of 70 to 105 cubic feet, and to 2d. per foot for those of 211 to 247 cubic feet. The handling and loading of large blocks might, no doubt, be simplified, if a considerable quantity had to be removed, by the aid of machinery that might be set up in the quarries ; but it would be impossible to facilitate these operations sufficiently to reduce the price to any important extent. ON FOUNDATIONS. 63 5th. When the blocks have been loaded, their carriage from the quarry to the spot where they are to be sunk, if upon an ordinary road, amounts to a very high price. At Algiers it was found that it could not be done for less than about 4^d. per foot, with a lead of 1^ mile, when the blocks were from 100 to 300 cubic feet. The most favourable case would be that in which the quarry is formed immediately on the spot where the pier joins the shore, as at the harbour of Ra- toneau, at the entrance of Marseilles. But this circumstance rarely occurs ; there will be almost always a certain distance to pass between the quarry and the pier ; and in proportion as this distance is greater or less, and the space to be crossed offers more or less obstacles to the establishment of a con- tinuous tram-road, the difficulties of transport will be more or less considerable ; in very many localities the construction of a tram-road uniting the quarries with the pier would be quite impracticable. 6th. In what has been said above, we have had in view only piers connected with the shore ; but if isolated breakwaters are required it would be neces- sary, as at Cherbourg, to employ a mixed system of carriage by land and water ; and it is easy to satisfy ourselves that the methods employed at Cherbourg, which are the most ingenious and the best contrived imaginable for blocks such as those of which the breakwater is formed, and which never exceed from 70 to 106 cubic feet, would be extremely difficult of application when masses of much larger size are in question. Advantages of the system of construction with blocks of beton. The defects and difficulties which we have just pointed out in the method of construction with pierre perdue disappear when, instead of natu- ral blocks of from 14 to 70 cubic feet, weighing from about 1 to 5 tons, masses of beton are substituted' of 353 cubic feet and weighing nearly 22 tons. The 64 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE works which have been executed on this latter system in the harbour of Algiers completely prove its superiority. It presents numerous advantages over the system of pierre perdue, of which the prin- cipal are : 1st. Immediate stability, whilst ordinary rubble work is never secure. 2nd. Incomparably greater facility in the carriage of materials, generally so troublesome and expensive when blocks have to be -quarried exceeding 100 cubic feet. 3rd. A consider- able reduction in the sectional area of the pier, and, consequently, a remarkable saving of cost. 4th and lastly. That the system is everywhere applicable, now that our advanced knowledge of the subject of hydraulic mortars enables us to make beton in every locality.* * It may be -well to supplement the above information with a few details as to more lecent beton works by the French engineers. In 1 865 M. Poirel examined the condition of various works of the kind at Algiers, Marseilles, the mouth of the Gironde, Port Ven- dres, Cette, Biarritz, Cherbourg, Leghorn, &c. The use of very large blocks had been found decidedly advantageous. Those weighing 23 tons, used at Algiers, were about 8 feet long, 6 feet 7 inches wide, and 5 feet deep ; but some have since been used much larger and heavier ; at Leghorn as much as 46 tons. A depth of as much as 114 feet had been reached by some of these blocks, whereas the deepest stone blocks at Cherbourg are at 66 feet. The slope at which the beton blocks naturally settle down, after the scour of sand and mud beneath them has ceased, is about 45. The usual French proportions of ingredients seem to be 2 of hard, broken limestone to 1 of cement, the cement being itself formed of 5 of sand to 1 of lime. Two men are employed half a day in beating down the materials for each block in the wooden mould. If not sunk in the water until three months after being made, the beton blocks are found to bear the wear and tear of the sea remarkably well ; some specimens after sixteen years were found very little worn, even at the sharpest edges and corners. The cost at Marseilles (with blocks of 23 tons each) is set down at 12s. Sd. per cubic metre (about d. per cubic foot),' or 15s. Wd. (5d. per cubic foot) with setting and incidental expenses. See account'by Mr. J. Hawthorn, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1865. Beton blocks are being used for the jetties at Port Said, the Mediterranean entrance to the Suez ship canal. Arrangements are made on the spot for manufacturing thirty-five blocks of 10 cubic metres each per day. There are traction engines, travelling cranes, lime and sand depots, inclined tramways, working plat- ON FOUNDATIONS. 65 CHAPTER V. PILE DRIVING. THE usual method of driving piles is by a succession of blows given by a heavy block of wood or iron (called a monkey, ram, or tup), which is raised by a 1'ope or chain passed over a pulley fixed at the top of an upright frame of timber, and allowed to fall freely on the head of the pile to be driven. The construction of a pile- engine is very simple, and whatever may be the nature of the power em- ployed, or the way in which it is applied, there is very little difference in the arrangement of the prin- cipal parts of the guide frame. (See Fig. 14). The essential parts of a pile-engine are the leaders or guides, two upright pieces of timber which guide the ram in its descent, and which are stayed in two directions by framing. The base of the framing is generally planked over and loaded with stones, or iron ballast, to counterpoise the weight of the ram, as, without this precaution, the whole would be in unstable equilibrium. The leaders are framed into a strong bottom sill, and with a top frame (see Fig. 15), on the sides of which are placed the bearings for the pulley round which the hoisting- chain is passed. The ram (see Fig. 16) itself is usually of cast-iron, with a projecting ear, which passes between the guides, and is kept from falling forwards by a plate keyed on behind them. The hoisting-chain is attached to a pair of claws, or nippers, which clip an eye on the top of the forms, and all other appliances on a large scale. There is room on the staging for 2,000 blocks at a time, placed a yard apart, and each block is kept three months to harden before being used. The ingredients are 45 per cent, of hydraulic lime, 55 of sand and sea water, the sand being the dredge stuff from the port. The jetties require 250,000 cubic metres of such blocks. The first block was dropped into the sea in August, 1865. RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. U. ON FOUNDATIONS. 67 ram, and are opened to release the latter by pulling a line. The nippers can be made self-acting, by Fig. 15. Fig. 16. attaching the line to the pile tnat is being driven, by which means the fall can be kept uniform throughout the descent of the pile. Sometimes a claw lever (see Fig. 17) is used instead of a pair of nippers, and occasionally the ram is placed between the guides instead of in front of them : but the description just given will enable the reader to understand the general arrangement of a pile- engine, if he will bear in mind that the minor details are seldom exactly alike in any two engines. We shall briefly describe the engines most in use for pile-driving, and say a few words on their com- parative efficiency. The pile-driving machines most commonly used in this country are of four kinds : viz., the ringing engine, the crab engine, Nasmyth's steam-hammer, and Clarke and Vaiiey's atmospheric engine. The Ringing Engine. This is the simplest of all 68 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the pile- engines in use. It ta,kes its name from the large pulley or ring, round which the hoisting-rope passes. The frame of the engine consists only of the leaders, bottom sill, and head and side braces. The frame is kept in its required position by guy ropes or by a movable prop. The ram is usually of hard wood, hooped at both ends, and comparatively light, so that it can readily be lifted by the united exertions of from eight to twelve men pulling on as many ropes attached to the main rope. It is used with a slight fall, and consequently it is unnecessary to detach it from the rope at each blow, and no claws or nippers are required. This machine is very effective, and well adapted for the use to which it is applied, viz., for driving piles to a short distance, and where no great force is required. The blows are given with great rapidity, and with little waste of power, and the portability of the machine enables it to be readily moved about from place to place. It is made from 10 to 15 feet high ; the weight of the ram about 3 cwt. The Crab Engine. The crab engine, of which we have just given several illustrations, is the machine in ordinary use in this country for driving all kinds of piling. It differs from the ringing engine in being made larger, viz., from 20 to 50 feet in height, and is strengthened and braced in proportion. It is used with a ram weighing from 6 to 18 cwt., a crab winch being used to raise the ram. In the ringing engine the rope is attached to the ram, and is carried down with it at each blow, the men allow- ing the falls to escape from their hands simul- taneously ; but, in the crab engine, as one end of the hoisting chain is fastened to the drum of the crab, the fall of the ram is effected by attaching it to a pair of nippers, or to a claw lever, the release of the ram being effected at the proper height, either by a simple self-acting apparatus, or by a line attached to the nippers, by pulling which the ram is ON FOUNDATIONS. 69 released at any required height according to the fall required. The crab engine cannot be considered an economical one where great force is required, the advantage gained by the fall being small compared with the power employed. There is also a great deal of time lost between each blow, in lowering the chain, and re- attaching it to the ram. The crab engine is not unfrequently driven by steam-power, the steam engine being sometimes placed on the frame of the engine itself, but more frequently at some convenient spot near the work, the chain being wound round a drum attached to the steam engine, and led to the pile engine by means of pulleys fixed wherever a change of direc- tion becomes necessary. This method of using steam power has been applied on a very large scale at the works of the New Grimsby Docks, where the whole of the piles of the large cofferdam were driven in this way by two stationary engines, which, in some cases, were several hundred yards from the piles that were being driven. It is supposed that steam power was first applied to this purpose by the late John Rennie, in 1801-2, for driving the piles of the cofferdam of the entrance of the London Docks. Two years later, viz., in 1804, the same gentleman made use of a steam engine of 6-horse power, driving two pile engines simultaneously in forming the cofferdam at the en- trance of the Hull Docks. Where the hoisting chain is wound round the drum at a considerable distance from the pile engine, it is obvious that considerable care, and a series of well- arranged signals, are requisite to prevent over- winding. These difficulties may be overcome by substituting for the ordinary crab- winch, hoisting machinery fixed close to the base of the pile engine itself, and worked by a strap from the driver of the steam engine passed round a pulley on the shaft of the hoisting drum, which, by a self-acting apparatus, 70 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE is thrown out of gear on the ram's reaching the re- quired height. An apparatus of this kind, ne^d by Mr. James Milne at the Montrose Harbour Works, is fully described in the third volume of the "Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers." When steam power is applied to work the ordi- nary pile engine, it will be obviously to the in- terest of the contractor to allow as little time as possible to be spent in shifting the guide-frame from one pile to another, as the steam must be kept up all the time, and there will be little saving effected if the steam engine is lying idle during a great portion of the day. This is not of so much import- ance if the engine is used for other purposes, as pumping, sawing, &c., or if it is applied to work several pile engines at once; but, under any circum- stances in which steam power is used, it will be found economical to lay down a light tramway along the line of the work, on which the guide frames may be shifted as each pile is successively driven, with the least possible waste of time. Nasmyttis Steam Pile Driver. This important application of the steam hammer to the purpose of pile driving may be said to have effected a complete revolution in the art of pile driving, and by its means works have lately been completed, which, without such mechanical aid, may be said, humanly speaking, to have been impracticable. The essential parts of Nasmyth's steam pile driver are : 1st. A vertical guide post, with a pulley and chain for hoisting the hammer and pitching the piles. 2nd. A wrought-iron case, which acts as a guide to the hammer in rising or falling. This case is clamped to the guide post by sliding clamps, and, resting on the top of the pile, grasps the neck and shoulders of the latter, so that it cannot in any way swerve or twist from its proper position. ON FOUNDATIONS. 71 3rd. The steam hammer, which is attached to a piston-rod passing out of the bottom of a cylinder fixed on the top of the wrought-iron case just described. 4th. A steam boiler, from which the steam is led to the cylinder by a set of steam pipes with elbow joints to allow of the pile-driving apparatus follow- ing the pile in its descent. Besides the above-named arraijgements, Nasmyth's steam pile driver, as usually made, is provided with a small steam engine for hoisting the hammer and " pitching " the piles, with wheels and locomotive gear, by which it can be propelled on a tramroad, and with horizontal saws for cutting off the heads of the piles to a level surface after they have been driven. It would be impossible to ex- plain these arrangements without a great number of illustrations, and, as they do not affect the principle of the application of the steam hammer to pile driving, and have already been published, we shall here only give a small side view of the driving machi- nery, by which the reader will be ena- bled to understand the action of the hammer upon the pile (see Fig. 18). A is the pile in the course of being driven ; B the guide post ; c the wrought-iron case resting on the head of the pile, and working freely on the guide post, to which it is attached by clamps at top and bottom ; D the steam cylinder ; E the steam pipe from the boiler. The action of the machine is as follows : The pile to be driven having been drawn up and placed in its pro- per position, the driving apparatus is hoisted and lowered on the shoulders of the pile. The hoisting chain is then let free, so that the apparatus may rest entirely on the pile, and follow it in its descent. The Fig. 18. 72 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE steam being then let in under the piston, the machinery begins to work, and the hammer inside the wrought- iron case showers down blows upon the head of the pile at the rate of 75 to 80 per minute. As each blow is given, the driving apparatus follows the pile, which is its only support, and it is, therefore, free to slide down the guide post the moment the pile begins to sink, the jointed steam pipe accommodating itself to every motion of the apparatus. The steam valve is opened and shut by a lever passing through an opening in the case c (not shown in the cut), to which motion is given by contact with a small in- clined plane on the hammer block. When the steam has raised the piston to its proper height, the steam valve, by the action of this lever, is closed, and an out- let valve opened, which allows the steam to blow out into the air, and the hammer to descend. As soon as the pile is driven to the required depth, the ap- paratus is again wound up, the locomotive gear set in motion to bring the engine in front of the next pile, and this latter having been pitched, the ap- paratus is again lowered, and the driving goes on again as before. " The peculiar merits of Nasmyth's steam pile driver " (to quote from a writer in the " Engineer and Architect's Journal/' Sept., 1848) " consist, in the first place, in the direct manner in which the elastic force of steam is employed as the agent by which the ( monkey ' (or block of iron which strikes the head of the pile) is lifted to the height requisite for that purpose. Secondly, in the very peculiar and original manner in which the pile itself is made to .act as the only support for the active or blow- giving portion of the apparatus, by which arrange- ment the entire dead weight of the apparatus in question is turned to most important account as a 'persuader/ to assist the pile in sinking into the ground when in the act of being driven, this dead weight also acting very importantly as an anti- recoil ON FOUNDATIONS. 73 agent, so far as its entire weight (three tons) can ac- complish that object. Thirdly, in the peculiar manner in which the pile- driving part of the apparatus is per- mitted to sink down along with the pile, and guide it in its descent, so as to remove all chance of the pile twisting, or in any respect swerving from the true position given to it at the commencement of the operation of driving. Fourthly, in the peculiar manner in which a vast increased degree of energy is given to the blows of the monkey beyond that which is due to the height through which it falls." This last sentence refers to an arrangement which we have not yet noticed. The holes for blowing off the steam are placed a short distance below the top of the cylinder, which is made air-tight. The instant the piston passes these openings in its up- ward action, all further motion in that direction is terminated by the compression of the air then con- fined in the space between the top of the piston and the under side of the cylinder cover ; which com- pressed air, on recoiling, adds to the force of the blow all the energy it would have acquired by falling from the height to which the monkey would have been carried by the momentum given to it in the upward direction by the lifting action of the steam on the under side of the piston. The usual weight of the ram employed is 35 cwt., and the fall 3 ft. In the above sketch of Nasmyth's steam pile driver we have purposely avoided unnecessary detail, our object being only to give such a popular descrip- tion as would enable the general reader to understand the principle of the machine. Those who wish to study its very interesting mechanical arrangements will find full drawings and descriptions of every part of it in the number of the "Engineer and Architect's Journal" quoted above. - Nasmyth's steam pile driver is exceedingly well adapted for driving continuous rows of piles, and 74 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE for work in any situation where a great number of piles have to be driven within a short distance of each other. It has been used with great success and pecuniary advantage in piling the foundations of the High Level Bridge at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and at the viaduct over the river Tweed, near Berwick. It has been employed very largely also at the New Grimsby Docks in piling the foundations for the entrance locks ; and it was an interesting sight to see it at these works gradually working its way from side to side of the immense excavation, doing its work with an economy and despatch quite unattaina- ble with the common engines. For works of small extent no economy would result from the use of Nasmyth's engine, its first cost (about 1,500), and the expense of moving it from place to place, restricting its economical ap- plication to works of large extent, such as those just named ; but in these it is truly invaluable. It should be noticed, before leaving the subject of Nasmyth's engine, that it possesses the great advan- tage of a heavy ram worked rapidly with a light fall, by which means the piles are driven more steadily, with less recoil, and with less injury to the timber, than with a light ram and a heavy fall. We shall presently have occasion to advert to this when con- sidering the economy of power in pile driving. Clarke and Varley's Atmospheric Engine. This very useful engine may be described as a modification of the ringing engine, the ram being shackled to the hoisting chain without the intervention of nippers, and carrying it down with it in its descent. The lift of the ram is effected by one end of the hoisting chain being made fast to the rod of a piston working in a cylinder, which is connected by pipes with the receiver of an air-pump, worked by a steam engine placed in any con- venient part of the work. By means of a floating pulley the fall of the ram is made double the length of stroke of the piston, and by an ingenious arrangement ON FOUNDATIONS. 75 r\ of the chain to which the ram is shackled, the fall can be adjusted at pleasure to anything less than that amount. The following description is from the " Engineer and Architect's Journal," Nov., 1848 : " This ma- chine consists of a vacuum cylinder of wrought iron, A (Fig. 19), closed at the bottom and open at top, having an air-tight piston, and self- acting slide gear, fixed to any con- venient part of the frame of a com- mon pile engine. The piston-rod is connected to a chain which passes over a fixed pulley, B, on the top of the engine ; to the end of this chain is suspended a pulley, c ; over this passes a second chain, one end of which is attached to the ram, and the other, passing down under the bottom of the frame, is brought up and affixed to the head of the pile. The power is derived from a small steam engine, fixed at any conveni- ent spot, which works an air-pump for producing the exhaustion. Com- munication is made between the air-pump and the pile- driving ma- chine by small wrought-iron tubes, connected together by flexible joints of vulcanized india-rubber. Thus the machine possesses the incalcula- ble advantage of being worked at any required distance from the steam engine, and moved about with as much facility as a common crab emgine. Flg * 19 ' The mode of action is as follows : The ram being supposed down on the pile head, and the piston consequently at the top of the vacuum cylinder, Cylinder A Y 76 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE communication is opened by the valve gear with the air pump, exhaustion then takes place in the cylinder, the piston descends by the external pressure of the atmosphere and raises the ram ; when the piston arrives at the bottom of the cylinder the valves re- verse themselves ; communication with the air-pump is then shut off, and the external air admitted under the piston ; equilibrium being now restored, the ram falls with the full effect of gravity upon the pile ; the valves are again reversed, and the same operation is repeated. Thus a succession of short heavy blows is given, rapid of course, in proportion to the power of the steam engine, and as, by the arrangement of the pulleys, the distance between the pile head and the face of the ram is always the same, a regularity of action is obtained quite un- known to the old pile driver ; the injurious effect on the head of the pile, and rebound of the ram, con- sequent upon great height of fall, avoided ; and the ram being permanently fastened to the chain, the whole time lost by the re-attachment after every blow is saved." The atmospheric pile driver was first used in 1848, for driving the piles of the cofferdam for a wharf wall at St. Katherine Docks, where it gave great satis- faction. Mr. Crate, the clerk of the works at these docks, states that he drove forty- two piles, 18 ft. deep, into a bed of very hard compact gravel at the rate of three piles each tide of about three and a half hours ; whilst to drive one pile only by the ordinary hand engine occupied five tides before it could be finished, and even then was left 2 ft. above the height required to be driven. We have had the opportunity of seeing the at- mospheric pile engine driving piles into strong gravel on the works of the Nottingham and Gran- tham Railway, near Ratcliffe-upon-Trent, where the average time taken for driving a pile to the depth of nine feet was exactly nine minutes, and if proper ON FOUNDATIONS. 77 arrangements had been made for shifting the engine after the driving of each pile, four piles per hour would have been driven with great ease, whilst with the common crab engine two piles per day was the outside performance. The steam engine used for working the air-pump was a small portable engine, used also for pumping. The great merit of this engine consists in the adoption of the floating pulley, by which a sufficient fall can be obtained without making the stroke of the piston inconveniently long. The success of the at- mospheric engine induced Mr. Clarke to give the sub- ject his careful attention, and he designed an improved steam pile driver, on a somewhat similar principle, with a 5-ft. fall, to be worked by a piston, with a comparatively short stroke. In a great many instances the power at hand to drive a pile considerably exceeds the resistance offered by the ground to its descent ; but in driving through a hard stratum, or in driving piles which have to sustain a heavy weight, it is sometimes diffi- cult to effect the required object by ordinary means, and it becomes important to know how the greatest effect may be produced with the least expenditure of power. Suppose, for instance, that with a ram weighing 10 cwt., working with a 10-ft. fall, we are unable to get a pile down to the required depth ; we have two courses open to us we may take a heavier ram, which will require a greater power to lift in the same time, or we may give a greater fall, which will require the same power to be exerted for a longer period. Putting aside for the moment the question of which will injure the pile least, let us confine ourselves simply to the question of the comparative power required to be exerted. In order to calculate exactly the force of the blow given by the ram of a pile engine, it would be neces- sary to know the resistance of the atmosphere, and 78 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the amount of friction against the guides of the engine ; but as these retarding forces are very trifling, compared with the whole force of the blow, and as these considerations would make the calculation ex- ceedingly complicated, they may in practice be safely disregarded, and it will be sufficient to remember that such retarding forces exist. Now, The momenta of falling bodies are as the products of their weights by their velocities. The velocity acquired by any falling body is directly as the time occupied in its descent. The spaces fallen through are as the squares of the times of descent. A body falling freely in a vacuum falls through 16^- ft. in the first second of time, and the velocity acquired at the expiration of the first second is 32 6 ft. per second. Let, Weight of ram = w, Fall of ditto, in feet ....=/= 16 T V S* Time of descent in seconds = s = \ / ' V 16A Velocity of rani at moment of striking the pile, T ; = v = 32i - 5 = 32^ A / JL- = 2 v/16 Momentum or force of blow a simple formula, which gives the force of the blow in terms of the weight and fall of the ram. From the above values of s and v the following table* has been calculated, by which the comparative * See a similar table and interesting paper in the " Engineer and Architect's Journal," for January, 1842. It is to be regretted that the writer did not, however, explain that there is no means of comparing pressure and impact. The table has been recalculated for the purpose of this volume. ON FOUNDATIONS. 79 Scale 80 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE force of the blow given by a ram whose weight = 1, with falls varying from 1 to 40 ft., can be at once read off by inspection. (See previous page.) Thus the momentum of a ram weighing 1 ton and falling from a height of 10 ft., will be to that of the same ram falling from a height of 30 ft. as 25*3 to 43*9, and, in common parlance, the blows thus given would be called respectively of the forces of 25'^ tens and 43*9 tons ; a blow given by a ram weighii g 1 ton, and striking at a velocity of 1 ft. per second, being called of the force of one ton. We must, however, guard the young reader against supposing that impact and pressure can be compared together in any way, or, in other words, w that a blow nominally of the force of a ton will balance a pressure of a ton weight, or produce the same effect in sinking a pile. Of the comparative effect of impact and pressure in driving piles we as yet know nothing, and the question is so complicated, from the great number of points that have to be taken into consi- deration in reducing the results of experiment into a definite form from which some rule for our guidance might be obtained, that we can only lay down in general terms the following empirical rule, that, in ordinary cases, if a pile will resist an impact of a ton, it will bear without yielding a pressure of 1J ton. But to return to our immediate subject. It will be at once seen by the reader, as a natural consequence of the law by which the velocities of falling bodies vary as the square roots of the heights fallen through, that the power expended in driving a pile will also be as the square root of the height to which the ram is raised.* * Professor Ranlrine has given the folio win ^formula for the re- lation between the blow required to drive a pile to a given depth and the greatest load that it will then bear without sinking further, ON FOUNDATIONS. 81 Thus to produce an impact of 32 tons we require in round numbers : Weight of Ram, in tons. Fall, in feet. Power expended in tons, lifted 1 foot high. i 64 32 i 29 21 i 16 16' 2 4 8 3 2 6 The first and last of these cases may be considered as the main resistance of the pile being supposed to be the friction of its sides in the ground. Let W= the weight of the ram, h = the height of its fall, x = the depth through which the pile is driven by the final blow, P = the greatest statical load it will bear without further depression, S = the sectional area of the pile, I = its length, and s = its modulus of elasticity ; then the momentum or energy of the blow may be expressed as in which the first number of the right-hand side of the equation expresses the portion of the whole energy employed in compres- sing the pile, and the second that employed in driving it into the ground. Hence Vt 4 S WH 4 2 2 1 I I 2 The usual practical value given to P is from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds per square inch of the area of S 9 the actual load being from 200 to 1,000 Ibs., so that the factor of safety is from 3 to 10. Whewell's "Mechanics of Engineering" may be also consulted on this subject. The method adopted by the latter, and by some French authors, greatly clears the prevalent obscurity of ideas entertained as to the comparability of impact and pressure impact is, in fact, only pressure, which may be, and is generally, very- great, applied for a very short time. In the case of the pile, it this time is only that occupied in compressing the ram and the timber, and in the resilience of both to their state of equilibrium, with the ram resting on the pile. E 3 82 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE impracticable, and are only inserted by way of illus- tration ; 30 feet may be considered the greatest fall that can be used without splitting the timber, and a ram exceeding 2 tons in weight would be exceedingly troublesome to move from place to place. In cases where the force required to drive a pile is very small, it is easy to obtain a surplus of power with either the ringing engine or the crab engine, and it will probably be found much cheaper to employ hand labour than steam power. But this only holds good within certain limits. As a general rule, a fall of 15 or 16 ft. is quite the maximum that can be used without risk of injury to the piles, and in prac tice it is not desirable with the crab engine to use a ram exceeding 12 cwt., as a greater weight involves the employment of additional hands, whose time is almost completely wasted during the shifting of the engine. We may therefore consider, generally speak- ing, that the maximum force we can exert advan- tageously with hand labour is that obtained by a 12 cwt. ram worked with a 16 ft. fall. This will give an impact of somewhat less than 20 tons, which is not enough for many cases daily occurring in railway works. For instance, the bearing piles of a timber bridge, which have to sustain the heavy blows given by the driving wheels of our 36-ton locomotives, can scarcely be said to be secure from settlement unless they will refuse an impact of 30 tons. "We may, therefore, establish as a principle that wherever an impact exceeding 20 tons is required, it will be desirable to make use of steam or other mechanical power. In many situations where a head of water can be obtained water-pressure engines might be employed with great advantage. The common method of detaching the ram from the hoisting chain at every blow, although a neces- sary evil in the common hand engine, is quite inad- missible where steam power is to be economically adopted, on account of the time lost in re- attaching ON FOUNDATTO: the nippers ; and, therefore, if tl good and simple form of ram and adhered to, some arrangement similar^ that of Clarke and Varley's atmospheric engine appears to be the most advantageous. For heavy work, where great power is required and the extent of the undertaking warrants the outlay, Nasmyth's engine leaves nothing to be desired. The economy of power is not, however, the only advantage derived from using a heavy ram with a slight fall. The piles are driven with much less injury, and the splitting of the timber is almost entirely avoided, whilst in working with a fall of from 12 to 20 feet, it is common for every tenth pile to be more or less shaken ; and every one who has had the management of pile- driving is fully alive to the anxiety, delay, and expense, attendant on re- placing injured piles. In selecting timber for piles, care should be taken to choose that which is straight- grained and free from knots and ring shakes. Larch, fir, beech, and oak are the woods most esteemed. In situations exposed to the worm there is little difference in the durability of the best and the worst timber, if un- prepared, and, therefore, it is always safest to use some preserving process. Piles which have to be driven through hard ground require to be rung, that is, to have an iron hoop fixed tightly on their heads, to prevent them from splitting, and also to be shod with iron shoes ; the shoes may be of wrought or of cast-iron. For single piles the point of the shoe is placed in the centre of the pile (see Fig. 20) ; but for sheet-piling, the shoes are made not with a point, but with an edge, which is not level, but slightly inclined, so as in driving to give the pile a drift towards the pile last driven, by which means a close contact is insured (see Fig. 21). Great care is required, in shoeing a pile, to ensure that the shoe shall be driven perfectly home. The advantage 84 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE of a cast-iron shoe is, that the inside can be formed with a square butment on which the pile rests, SO! Fig. 20. Fig. 21. whilst a wrought-iron shoe has to be driven up until the toe of the pile is wedged tight, and, as the force with which the pile is driven into the ground greatly exceeds that with which the shoe is driven on the pile, it will often happen that the shoe will burst open, and allow the point of the pile to be crushed before it is down to its full depth. Sheeting piles should be carefully fitted to each other before driving, otherwise they cannot be ex- pected to come in close contact when driven. In some few cases it is worth while to groove and tongue the edges, but this is seldom done, and if the piles are perfectly parallel and truly driven, the swelling of the wood when exposed to moisture will generally secure a tight joint. As a general rule, broken timber, that is, timber cut out of larger balks, should be avoided. A 10-in. stick of Swedish timber will drive better and with less risk of splitting than a quarter of a 20- in. balk of best Dantzic. If piles must be cut from large balks, the heart of the wood should, if possible, be left in the centre of the pile. In driving sheet piling, the piles are kept in their proper position by horizontal pieces of timber called ON FOUNDATIONS. 85 rvales, which are fixed to guide piles previously driven. In driving cofferdams and similar works, the wales are seldom placed below the water-line ; but this may be done with great benefit by attaching the wales to hoops dropped over the heads of the guide piles, and pushed down as low as the ground will permit. In driving into or through a hard stratum, it is desirable that the auger should precede the driving, as it will save much time, and much injury to the piles ; and in all cases where a hard- bearing stratum has to be reached at a variable d^pth, the boring-rod should be used to ascertain the length of pile required, as nothing is more vexatious than finding a pile a few inches too short when driven, or, on the other hand, having to cut off 5 or 6 ft. of good timber, which must be needlessly wasted. Many writers have endeavoured to lay down rules for calculating the effect of a given blow in sinking a pile, but investigations of this kind are of little practical value, because we can never be in posses- sion of sufficient data to enable us to obtain even an approximate result. The effect of each blow on the pile will depend on the force of the blow, the velocity of the ram, the relative weights of the ram and the pile, the elasticity of the pile head, and the resistance offered by the ground through which the pile i? passing ; and as we never can ascertain the two last/ named conditions with any certainty, any calcula- tions in which they are only assumed must of necessity be mere guesses. Piles driven for temporary purposes are, at the completion of their term of service, either drawn for the value of the timber and iron shoes, or cut off at the level of the ground if they are in situation? where the drawing of the piles might cause any risk to the adjacent work. When sheet-piling has been driven round the foundations of any work, as in forming a cofferdam round the pier of a bridge, there 86 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE will always be, in the event of its being drawn, the risk of the ground settling down to fill up the vacancy thereby occasioned ; but in clay or marl soils this is not the greatest danger, for the water scours out and enlarges the race thus formed, and the bottom speedily becomes broken up, nearly to the depth to which the piles were driven. As a general rule, therefore, it may be laid down, that piles in such situations should never be drawn, but should be cut off at the level of the ground, and this may be done in various ways. 1st. By common means, the men working in a diving-bell, or with diving-helmets. 2nd. By machinery especially con- structed for the purpose. 3rd. In the case of coffer- dams, by cutting the piles nearly through from the inside with the adze, leaving the pressure of the water on the outside of the piles to complete the operation on the removal of the strutting. There are many cases, however, in which it be- comes necessary to draw piles, and the modes in which this may be done are almost infinite. The common plan, where the situation will admit of it, is to make use of a balk of timber as a lever, one end of which is shackled to the head of the pile, whilst to the other end is applied such power as can most readily be obtained. A very simple method of drawing piles is by means of a powerful screw, of which one end is hooked to a shackle passing round the head of the pile, whilst the other passes through a cross- head, resting firmly on temporary supports placed on each side of the pile. Cast- and Wrought-Iron Piling. The introduction of cast-iron or wrought-iron as a material for piles is of comparatively recent date, and although it is not probable that it will ever supersede the use of timber, there are many situa- tions in which it may be used with great advantage. ON FOUNDATIONS. 87 Cast-iron piles are of two kinds bearing piles and sheeting piles, the latter being used both for cofferdamming and for wharfing. We have already mentioned the principal forms of bearing piles (page 14), and need here only describe the manner in which iron piles are used for sheeting, in doing which our principal source of information is a " Memoir on the use of Cast-Iron in Piling," pub- lished in the first volume of the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers." Cast-iron sheet piles were first used by Mr. Matthews in the foundations of the head of the north pier of Bridlington Harbour. These piles were of different forms, the most common being one in which the adjoining piles clipped each other, as shown in Fig. 22. The length of these piles was Fig. 22 % about 8 or 9 ft., their width from 21 in. to 2 ft., and their thickness half an inch. Some time after this, in the beginning of 1822, Mr. Ewart took out a patent for constructing coffer- dams of broad cast-iron piles, held together by cramp piles, as shown in Fig. 23. The piles were to Fig. 23. be made about 15 in. wide, and from 10 to 15 ft. in length. These cofferdam piles have been extensively used by Mr. Mylne, of the New River Head, London, and by Mr. Hartley, of Liverpool, in various works at the Liverpool Docks. Mr. Hartley thus expresses 88 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE himself concerning their use : " Considerable care is required in keeping the piles in a vertical position, as they are apt to shrink every blow, and drive slanting. They require to be driven between two heavy balks of timber to keep them in a straight line, as they expose very little section to the blow of the ram, and are so sharp that they are easily driven out of a right line. There is another very necessary precaution to be taken, which is the keeping of the fall in the same line as the pile ; otherwise the ram descending on the pile and not striking it fairly, the chances are, that in a pretty stiff stratum the head breaks off in shivers, and the pile must be drawn, which is sometimes no easy matter." He concludes by saying, " These piles are, on the whole, the most useful tools you can use for their purpose (cofferdamming). I believe they have had as extensive & trial at the Liverpool Docks as any- where else, and certainly with success. They have generally been driven with the ringing or hand engine, and rams of 3 or 4 cwt., a front and back pile being driven at the same time by one ram." In 1824 Mr. Walker made use of cast-iron sheet- piling in the foundations of the return end of the quay wall of Downes' Wharf, which required to be rebuilt. In this work the form of the pile was con- siderably modified from that used by Mr. Ewart, the cramp piles being omitted, and the piles being made merely to overlap each other at the joints. The next work on record is on a larger scale than those yet mentioned, the wharfing at the sea en- trance of the Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation, executed by Mr. Cubitt, and completed in 1832. In this instance the piles were not made to overlap, and it would have been difficult to keep them in line but for the following plan, adopted to secure that object : " This consisted in riveting close to the lower end of the pile about to be driven, a pair of strong wrought-iron cheeks, projecting beyond the ON FOUNDATIONS 89 edge about 2 or 3 in., which, clasping the pile already driven, served as a guide or groove to keep the pile flush, however thin the edge ; and the tendency to turn out or in at the heel was counter- acted after a few trials by giving a greater or less bevel to the front or back face." The next application of iron piles to wharfing that comes under our notice is a wharf on the Lea cut at Limehouse, executed by Mr. Sibley. This wharf is formed of flat cast-iron plates, let down in grooves on the sides of hollow elliptical guide piles, whose greatest diameter is 12 in. The guide .piles were 20 ft. long, and were made hollow, to enable an auger to be passed through them, to ease the driving ; they were afterwards filled up with con- crete. Similar wharfing, on a larger scale, has since been executed adjoining London Bridge, on both sides of the river. The piles on the City side are 43 ft. long, and are cast in two lengths, with spigot and faucit joints. In 1833-34 Messrs. Walker and Burgess con- structed a wharf wall, about 720ft. long, in front of the East India Dock, at Blackwall, since named Brunswick Wharf. This wharf wall is formed by driving in cast-iron main piles, 7 ft. from centre to centre, the spaces between them being. filled up with cast-iron sheet piles, with lap joints, reaching about 8 ft. above low- water mark, whilst the remainder of the height of the wall is made up with three tiers of cast-iron plates, whose width is equal to the distance between the main piles to which they are bolted. Each main pile is in two heights, the lower part being first driven, and the upper part subse- quently bolted on to it. The great practical difficulty in the application of cast-iron piling to permanent structures is the difficulty of getting the piles all down to the in- tended level. This difficulty does not exist in cofferdamming, as it is of no consequence in this 90 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE kind of work whether the heads of the piles range or not. In driving iron piles it is especially necessary to confine the fall within narrow limits, as a fall exceeding 4 or 5 ft. would be almost sure to fracture the metal. In all cases it is essential to interpose a piece of wood between the ram and the pile head, to deaden the blow, and to distribute its force equall} over the pile head. Wrought- iron sheet piling has, of late, got ex- tensively into use. It has been formed of flat boiler plates and vertical T-irons riveted to them and driven in sheets. It has also been formed, in a very advantageous and economical manner, of Mr. Mal- let's hollow wrought-iron piles, and his patent buckled plates slided down between in grooves. Mr. Hughes' s patent wrought-iron hollow rolled piles, and similar plates between such forms, admit of much greater distances between the hollow or sustaining piles only occupied by very thin plates than is possible with cast-iron sheet piling. CHAPTER VI. CAISSONS. HAVING already explained the methods in which caissons are used, in the present chapter we propose to make a few remarks on each of these methods, and to give, by way of illustration, detailed accounts of two works executed by means of caissons in most unpromising situations the first in soft bad ground of great depth, the second in loose sand to a depth of 60 ft., and liable to shift with every freshet. "We have already spoken of the danger attendant upon sinking caissons upon the natural bottom, on account of the difficulty of forming the latter to a level bed, in default of which the cross strain caused ON FOUNDATIONS. 91 by any irregularities of the surface would be pro- ductive of serious injury. But there are cases of soft ground, in which the only available mode of putting in a foundation is by sinking it piecemeal in caissons, weighting them until they have com- pressed the mud in which they are grounded to such an extent, that no reasonable fear can be entertained of their sinking further with the weight of the superstructure ; and, provided there is no tendency to scouring below the bottom of the caissons, such foundations are the very best that can be formed under such circumstances. The usual material for caissons is timber, the sides being attached to the bottom in such a manner, that on the masonry reaching the required height they can be detached and removed. The late Brigadier- General Sir Samuel Bentham, however, about the year 1810, devised and carried into execution a new kind of caisson, of which the sides should be of brickwork and permanent, the bottom only to be of timber. These permanent caissons, or, as he termed them, "buoyant masses," were used by him with great success in the construction of above 200 feet of sea wall at Sheerne'ss, in the years 1811-12. Sir Samuel's invention is thus described in the " Quar- terly Papers on Engineering," part xii: " The invention was that of forming hollow buoy- ant masses of brickwork or stone, set in Roman cement ; which masses, being built on shore to a height above that of the line of flotation, were then to be floated, each mass over the spot it was destined to occupy in the wall, the mass then to be sunk ; its height being such as to rise above low water. " The mass, as executed at Sheerness, thus resting on the foundation, as the tide rose, a flat-bottomed barge was brought over the walls of the mass, and the barge loaded with a weight greater than each mass would afterwards have to bear ; on the falling of the tide this loaded barge sank upon the mass, TREATISE and thus pressed it into the subsoil, until a sufficient bearing was obtained. The mass was then built upon till it arrived at the desired height ; the interior was strengthened and filled in with chalk, shingle, or other material, grouted with some indurating matter, up to a certain height, during which opera- tions of course the water was pumped out of the masses when needful. " The bottoms of these masses were formed on a platform of timber, on which was built an inverted arch or dome of brick. The base of each mass from seaward to the interior towards the dockyard was 24 feet ; along the line of the wall 21 feet. The masses were so guided in their descent as to be in contact one with the other along that line. The accompanying plan and elevation of the second mass that was deposited exhibits the manner in which strength was given to the walls, by a circular wall built within, and connected with the square walls." ELEVATION. LINE OF FLOATATION KI Fig. 24. The injury caused to one of the piers of the late Westminster Bridge from the ground below the timber platform forming the bottom of the caisson used in its construction not having been made level ON FOUNDATIONS. throughout, is well known, and need not be here particularly recounted. We only allude to it here as a well-known example of the danger of this mode of construction. PLAN. Fig. 25 Caissons on beton foundations are used on the Continent ; such a mode of construction offers very great advantages in many situations, especially for founding upon an irregular rocky bottom, which it would be difficult to lay dry, and difficult to reduce to a level surface, even if this preliminary difficulty could be disposed of satisfactorily. The beton may be put in by various means, the most satisfactory being that of caissons lined with tarpauling, as practised by the French engineers at Algiers. Caissons on pile foundations appear well suited to situations where the bearing stratum underlies a depth of soft ground, or in cases where there is a risk of scour, which it is desirable to guard against without going to the expense of laying solid founda- tions at a great depth below the surface. In the 94 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE "Art of Building" we have briefly described an example of this mode of construction in the erection of a railway bridge at Liege in Belgium, in which each caisson was sunk in its place by means of guide piles, left standing above the general level of the heads of the piles which form the foundation of the work ; we will now give the reader an English ex- ample, in which a somewhat different system ^was pursued these two examples together containing all the information requisite to enable the reader fully to understand the details of the subject. The follow- ing description is compiled from a paper in the 1st vol. of the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," the passages between inverted commas being quoted verbatim : " The Lary Bridge, .near Plymouth, is built over the Lary, which is the estuary of the river Plym, and is connected by Cat water with Plymouth Sound. The general width of the estuary is half a mile ; but at the site of the bridge the shores abruptly approach each other, and form a strait between 500 and 600 ft. wide. The tide rushes through this strait with a velocity of 3 ft. 6 in. a second, and flows on an average 1 6 ft. perpendicular. The depth at low water is from 5 to 6 ft. " By borings it appeared that the bed of the river was sand to a depth of 60 ft., the lofty lime rock on each shore dipping abruptly from high water, and forming a substratum nearly horizontal across the strait. The sand in the wide parts of the estuary above and below the bridge is fine ; at the site of the bridge the current leaves only the coarser kind, but this is not sufficient to resist the heavy land floods to which the Plym is liable, and it frequently happens that the bed of the river is scoured away several feet in depth in winter, and refilled in summer." The design first furnished by Mr. Rendel was on the suspension principle, but circumstances ulti- ON FOUNDATIONS. 95 mately led to the abandonment of this design, and to the adoption of one in which the river was pro- posed to be spanned by five cast-iron arches, and this design was successfully carried into execution, the work being commenced in August, 1824, and the bridge opened in July, 1827. It is unnecessary to give here any description of the superstructure of the bridge, our object being only to direct the reader's attention to the methods employed for putting in the foundations of the piers and abutments in such treacherous ground, and we cannot do better than to give Mr. Rendel's own account of the operations undertaken for this pur- pose. (See Fig. 26.) " We commenced by driving sheeting piles to a depth of 15 ft. around the whole area of the base of the piers and abutments. These piles are of beech plank, 4 in. thick, grooved to each other, and were driven in double leading frames fixed to temporary guide piles ; great attention was paid to have them perfectly close. When pitched they were from 16 to 18 ft. long, properly hooped, and shod with plate- iron shoes, weighing on an average 2 Ibs. each. These piles were driven with a cast-iron weight of 450 Ibs., worked by seven or eight men, in what is termed a ringing engine. They were driven several feet below low water, by means of punches. u As these pilings were carried on, the sand was excavated from the space they inclosed to a depth of 5 or 6 ft. below the general level of the river, and from 9 to 10 ft. below the level of low water of ordinary tides. " As these excavations proceeded, the ground was piled with whole timbers (B) of large Norway and small- sized Memel, and as many of beech as could be procured of the desired length ; these piles, being properly shod and hooped, were driven from tem- porary stages fixed above high-water level, by weights varying according to the size of the pile from 10 to 96 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS. 97 15 cwt. ; they were disposed in five rows, in the width of the foundations, from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in t from centre to centre, and were driven till they did not sink more than one inch with eight blows of the 15-cwt. driver falling from a height of 25 ft., and then received twenty additional strokes with the same weight and fall. " These piles, none of which were less than 35 ft. long, were driven to the level of the stage, and then punched to their proper depth. The punches used for the purpose were made of sound and well- seasoned elm, hooped throughout their length, and having at their lower ends a strong cast-iron ring about 18 in. wide ; this ring had a thick partition plate cast in the middle of its width, which separated the head of the pile from the end of the punch; the lower end of the ring was cast a little conical, and the pile heads were made to fit it accurately. By this means the pile heads were but little injured, and the loss of momentum occasioned by the intervention of a punch was reduced to a mere trifle. " The next operation was to cut off the bearing piles to their proper depth, and to pave and grout the spaces between them. The usual mode of coffer- dams was manifestly inapplicable to such a bed of sand; I therefore, in an early stage of the works, proposed to the contractors that the pile heads should be levelled, and the spaces between them paved by means of a diving-bell. To save expense this bell was made of wood, and, with the necessary machi- nery, was finished and put to work within six weeks from the time it was determined on ; with its assist- ance the works were carried on with expedition and success ; when in operation it contained two men, who, being provided with the necessary instruments for cutting off the piles, paving the spaces between them, &c., continued at work for four hours, when they were relieved by two others. " As much depended on the regularity with which r 98 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the pile heads were levelled, great care was bestowed on this part of the work. It was accomplished in the following manner : The four angular piles of each foundation being cut as low as the water would permit, were accurately levelled from a plug on the shore to ascertain how much each had to be reduced to bring it to its proper level ; on each of these piles was marked the portion remaining to be cut by the bell men, which being done, all the remaining piles were levelled from them by means of a spirit level, accurately adjusted in a piece of wood, sufficiently long to be applied to three piles at a time. The paving (c) between the pile heads was performed in an equally simple and satisfactory manner." This diving-bell was made of two thicknesses of 1^ in. well- seasoned elm boards ; the whole surface between the inner and outer case being covered with double flannel saturated in a composition of beeswax, and every precaution being taken to render the joints water-tight. The diving-bell was suspended from a carriage mounted on a travelling frame, working on a temporary stage formed about 15 ft. above high water ; and by means of the combined action of the upper and lower gauge- trees it was moved with great celerity to any part of the foundations. Detailed descriptions of the construction of the diving-bell, and the arrangement of the machinery for working it, are given in Mr. Renders original paper, to which we would refer the reader for further details respect- ing this portion of the work. " The foundations being prepared, and guides fixed to the plank piles, caissons were floated off from the &hore with one, and, in some instances, two courses of masonry (i), and sunk. The greatest success attended these operations, from the care that was taken to get the foundations perfectly level ; of course the heads of the plank piles were not cut off until the caissons were sunk. "The bottoms of the caissons were made of beech ON FOUNDATIONS. 99 plank and beams ; the bottom plank (D) was 4 in. thick, and laid in the transverse direction of the pier, across which the beams (E), 12 in. by 8 in., were placed so as to correspond with the rows of piles in the foundation. The spaces between the beams were filled with masonry (r) set in pozzuolana mortar, and grouted ; and a flooring of 3 in. plank (G), closely jointed and well caulked, so as to be per- fectly water-tight, covered the masonry and beams. The top and bottom planks were trenailed to the beams, and the whole strengthened by a strong frame of beech (H), a foot square, surrounding the bottom and fastened to it by strong screw bolts and trenails. " The upper surfaces of the beams of this frame were grooved to receive a strong tongue fitting a corresponding groove in the bottom beams of the sides and ends of the caissons, which were made in the usual way, and connected to the bottom by strong lewes irons fitted to cast-iron boxes firmly fixed in the bottom planking. The lewes irons were, fixed about 8 ft. apart, and were easily removed when the masonry was brought up to the heignt of the caisson. The introduction of the tongue in the bottom beams of the caisson proved of the greatest utility, as it prevented leaks from the slight sinkage of the bottom between the lewes irons, which it is impossible to prevent when the caisson grounds. "The caissons were furnished with sluices, and made 15 ft. high, which gave the masons an oppor- tunity of working about five hours each tide on an average of neaps and springs." During the erection of the bridge it was found that a gradual scour of the bed of the river was taking place, and that some protective measures were necessary, in addition to the sheet piling, to prevent the undermining of the foundations. Mr. Rendel therefore determined on forming an artificial bed to the full extent to which the natural one was removed, with clay, from 18 in. to 2 ft. thick, covered with F 2 100 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE rubble stone of all sizes from 200 Ibs. each down- wards. This plan was put in execution, and suc- ceeded perfectly. To quote Mr. Renders words : " By this union of materials an indestructible bed has been produced. The clay shields the natural bed from the current, whilst at the same time it form a tenacious cement in which the stone buries itself, and which is hardened by the volume of water con- stantly pressing on it. In six months after this work was finished, I ascertained that sea- weeds were growing on its surface, and that it was sufficiently firm to resist an oyster dredge." CHAPTER VII. COFFERDAMS. A COFFERDAM may be described as a water-tight wall, constructed round the site of any work for the purpose of laying dry the bottom by pumping out the water from the area thus enclosed. In some situations this may be effected by earthen dams, by bags of clay piled on each other, or by rough caissons, without top or bottom, filled with clay, and sunk in line around the space to be inclosed ; but in the majority of cases the method adopted is to drive two or more rows of close piling, and to fill up the space between them with clay puddle. Cofferdams are sometimes formed in shallow water with a single row of sheet piling ; but this is very precarious work, as unless the piles are fitted together with great accuracy before driving, and are driven with great truth, it is impossible to keep the joints close and to prevent leakage. A single row of sheet piling may, however, be often used with great ad- vantage as a protection and support in front of an earthen dam, and this is a very economical and satisfactory method of proceeding where there is no great depth of water. ON FOUNDATIONS. 101 Cofferdams are subject to heavy external pressure from the water round them, which would crush them in were they not very firmly strutted. In coffer- dams inclosing a small area, as, for instance, the site of the pier of a bridge, the strutting is placed from side to side, in the manner that will give the greatest facility for carrying on the work, the struts being gradually removed as the latter proceeds. In constructing dams in front, of a wharf wall, or similar work, the strutting requires to be effected in a different manner, and the plan usually adopted is to form a series of buttresses, or counterforts, at short intervals, from which the intermediate portions of the dam can be strutted, with raking horizontal struts. The strength given to these counterforts must of course depend on the amount of pressure to come on the dam. The counterforts of the cofferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament (see Figs. 27 and 28) were Fig. 27. Section of the Cofferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament. 102 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. 28. Plan of a part of the Cofferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament. formed of skeleton framing ; those of the cofferdam at the entrance to the Grimsby New Docks were constructed of rows of piles driven close, and brought home to each other, and to the body of the dam, by strong screw bolts. (See Fig. 29.) In rivers subject to heavy freshes it is common, in constructing cofferdams, to keep the top of the dams below the flood level, as it is generally less expensive to pump oat the water from the interior of the dam occasionally, than to construct and maintain a dam which should sustain the pressure of the flood waters ; and it is always advisable to provide every dam with a sluice, by means of which the water can be admitted, if there is any fear of injuir- from a sudden fresh, or from any other cause. In tidal waters the operation .of closing a dam is sometimes rather hazardous (unless it can be per- formed at low water), from the tide falling outside, without the dead water inside being able to escape sufficiently quickly through the sluices to maintain an equilibrium ; and, unless the piles and puddle wall are sufficiently strong to resist this outward pressure, the work will be violently straiced, and ON FOUNDATIONS. 103 g Fig. 29. View of part of the Cofferdam, Grimsby New Docks. often permanently injured. Where the site to be inclosed is above the level of low water, half-tide dams are sometimes resorted to. A half- tide dam is one which is covered and filled at every tide, and emptied by sluices at low water, the available work- ing hours lasting from the time the bottom runs dry until the flood tide reaches the top of the dam. The principal difficulties in the construction of cofferdams may be thus briefly stated : 104 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 1st. To obtain a firm foothold for the piles, which, in either rock or mud, is a matter of great difficulty. 2nd. To prevent leakage between the surface of the ground and the bottom of the puddle. 3rd. To prevent leakage through the puddle wall. 4th. To keep out the bottom springs. In the case of a rock bottom, the use of timber piles, driven in the ordinary way, would be impossible. In a very ingenious and successful dam, constructed by Mr. David Stephenson, for excavating rock from the bottom of the river Bibble, the usual guide piles are dispensed with, and iron rods, "jumped" into the rock, substituted for them, the sheeting of the dam being formed by horizontal planking, secured to the rods by rings, which allowed them to be pushed down into the water, until each plank rested on the one below it, the bottom plank being cut as nearly as possible to the profile of the surface of the rock. (See Fig. 30.) In soft ground there is as much difficulty in secur- ing the guide piles as in the case of a rock bottom. Cases of this kind may, however, be successfully treated by the use of screw piles, with a broad flange. Leakage between the puddle and the surface of the ground will generally take place, unless all the loose, soft, or porous surface soil be carefully removed by dredging before any of the puddle is put in. This dredg'ing may be done before or after the piles are driven ; the best plan is to dredge for a portion of the depth required before commencing the driving, which is much eased thereby, and afterwards to dredge out a trench between the rows of piles, sufficiently deep to allow the puddle to lie well bolow the ground line. Leakage through the puddle wall itself may arise from various causes, but may generally be prevented by careful work, and selection of good materials. In the first place the piles should be all fitted to each other before driving, and should be truly and ON FOUNDATIONS. 105 Fig. 30. View of part of the Cofferdam, River Ribble. carefully driven. Next, the framing and strutting should be sufficiently strong to prevent any straining or movement under the varying pressure to which the dam may be exposed by alternations in the height of the water. And lastly, the material used for puddle should be such as will settle down into a solid F 3 106 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE mass, and should be carefully punned in thin layers, so as to ensure that no vacuities are left in any part. For this reason it is desirable, when the piles have been driven between double walings, to remove the inside wales after the piles are home, as any projec- tions of this kind increase the difficulty of punning the puddle. In order to resist the evil effects which might arise from the swelling of the puddle, the inner and outer rows of piles are usually connected with iron bolts passing through the piles, and secured by nuts with iron plates and large wooden washers, to prevent the former from being drawn into the piles by the extreme pressure. These tie bolts are often found to be very troublesome sources of leakage, as the water soaks in round the bolt holes, and it is difficult to keep the puddle from settling away from the bolts, and leaving a channel for the passage of water through the dam. In the Grimsby dam this was guarded against in a very effective manner. The dam consisted of a double puddle wall, inclosed by three rows of piling, and the tie bolts only passed through half the total thickness of the dam, and were fixed, breaking joint with each other, so that no water could find its way through from this cause. Leakage from bottom springs, where the ground is porous, can scarcely be prevented. The best course to adopt is, to put in a layer of beton over the whole area inclosed by the dam, and as soon as this has set, there will be no difficulty in keeping the dam dry. This is a much less anxious course than to attempt to keep down the water by dint of constant pumping ; and the b6ton, extending for some distance round the base of the work, forms a valuable protection against any scouring action. It is not uncommon for ground, which appears perfectly firm and sound, to overlie a water-bearing stratum receiving the drainage of elevated land. Where this occurs, the effect is, that on the area ON FOUNDATIONS. 107 being laid dry, and the firm superstratum thinned by excavation, the upward pressure of the sub- water will blow up the work, unless the springs are tapped, and the water allowed to rise and flow over the bottom of the dam. This evil may be guaided against by excavating small portions at a time putting in the masonry of one section before the excavation of the next is commenced, taking care, at the same time, to weight the ground, to balance the upward pressure as much as possible. The fiist step to be taken in forming a cofferdam (after the ground has been prepared by dredging) is to drive guide piles, at short intervals, along the line of the dam and to bolt on to them horizontal timbers, called walings, to guide the sheeting piles in their descent. The guide piles are always of whole timbers, the walings generally of half balks. The guide piles are usually placed about 10 ft. apart in the length of the dam. If the sheet piles are of whole balks, the wales may be bolted on each side of the guide piles, so that the latter become portions of the sheeting; but if the sheeting piles are half balks, or planks only, the wales are both bolted on the inside of the guide piles, a sheet pile being driven first behind each guide pile, to keep the wales at the proper distance from each other. This is in some respects a better plan than the former, because it is not always possible, in pitching the guide piles, to keep them perfectly in line, and an opportunity is thus afforded of blocking out the guides, so that the wales and sheeting piles shall be perfectly true. These two systems of construction will be well un- derstood by comparing Fig. 31, and Fig. 32, which show the construction of the dam used at the entrance of the St. Katherine's Docks, with the section of the cofferdam used at the Houses of Parliament (Fig. 27, p. 101). It is always desirable to have two tiers of wales, one at the top of the dam, and the other as low as 103 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. 31, St. Katherine's IX/ck. ON FOUNDATIONS. 109 practicable. The usual plan is to bolt on the lower tier of waling at the low- water line; but by men using diving helmets there would be no difficulty in fixing the wales under water, and this, in many cases, would assist grqatly in getting the piles down truly. Fig. 32. St. Katherine's Dock The guide piles are usually driven from barges or pontoons ; but the sheet piles from a temporary stage formed over the site of the dam, and on which a gangway should be laid for shifting the engine re- gularly from pile to pile as each is driven in succes- 110 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE sion. As the piles are driven, the inside wales should be removed, and the piles bolted to the out- side wales with strong screw bolts. When the inside and outside rows of piling are completed, the interior of the dam may be dredged out to the required depth, the tie bolts put in to keep the sides together, and the puddle thrown in and punned up in thin layers until it reaches the top of the dam. Portable cofferdams have been used with great success by Mr. Thomas Stevenson, of Edinburgh, for harbour and marine works, in situations where, from the nature of the bottom, or the exposed posi- tion of the work, the construction of an ordinary cofferdam would be impossible. These portable dams have two tiers of wales securely framed to uprights at the angles; the upper and lower tiers being bound together by long bolts. Each dam, therefore, consists of two sets of framed walings, one for the outside, the other for the inside of the dam. These frames are floated to the site of the work, and placed in the required position, the one frame inside the other ; and the sheet piles, which fill up the space between the inside and the outside frames, are then driven down with heavy malls. The sheet piling being driven, iron jumpers are driven down outside the frames, and edge planks for retaining the clay, with iron staples fixed to them, are slipped down upon the jumpers. After this, good clay, mixed with gravel, is punned hard be- tween the piles and the planking, and the dam is ready to be pumped dry. This brief description will enable the reader to understand the principle of the portable cofferdam, which has been described very fully by Mr. T. Stevenson, in a paper read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, January 10, 1848, and which has been published in the " Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal/' for August, 1848. ON FOUNDATIONS. Ill The first portable dams constructed were of small dimensions, but Mr. T. Stevenson has made use, at the Forth Navigation Works, Stirling, of a dam 35 ft. square, and, by taking precautions for strengthening the framing, it appears probable that even this limit may be safely exceeded. The selection of proper material for puddle is a point of considerable importance. The clay should be thoroughly worked up with gravel before being thrown into the dam ; this lessens the tendency to cracking, and makes a much more compact and binding mass than clay alone. Marl, when chopped up small and well punned, answers exceedingly well ; as also chalk, if the lumps are not to'o large. The great point of importance is to leave no large lumps, but to break up the material very small before using it, and to pun it up carefully, so that no vacuities may be left in any part. We have already spoken of the danger of draw- ing the piles of cofferdams for the sake of obtaining the timber and iron, which would otherwise be wasted. We need here only repeat the caution, and would most earnestly endeavour to impress its im- portance on the minds of those engaged in works of this kind. We have now glanced at the principal points of importance in the construction of cofferdams ; there are, of course, a variety of minor details of practical importance, but of a nature to be learnt much better by personal inspection of works in actual progress than by any verbal description. In this, as well as in the preceding chapters of our work, our object has been, not to supersede the necessity for personal observation, but to teach the student how and what to observe, and by laying down first principles to which he may constantly recur, to enable him. to understand the object of what he sees going forward in his visits to engineering works, and to judge for himself how far the means employed are suited to the end proposed. 112 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE In conclusion, we shall briefly describe a few of the best cofferdams that have been constructed in this country, and would recommend the student to examine attentively the respective systems of con- struction employed. It would be also productive of much practical benefit to model these dams to a large scale, as the construction of such models is a valuable practical lesson, and the experience gained by so doing will tell with great advantage when the student has the management of such works thrown into his hands for the first time. (The figures referred to below have all been in- serted previously.) The first dam we propose to describe is that con- structed by Mr. Thomas Telford in front of the entrance lock of the St. ^Catherine's Docks, of which the general construction is shown in Fig. 31 and Fig. 32. Fig. 31 is a perspective view of one bay of the dam, showing the guide piles with the walings bolted on, preparatory to the driving of the sheet piling ; Fig. 32 shows a section of the dam when complete, with the inner walings removed. "We cannot better describe the dam than by an extract* from the specification of the work, which fully ex- plains its construction. "ST. KATHERINE'S DOCKS. " Specification for the cofferdam for the entrance lock, to be 207 ft. long, and of the form, represented in the drawings. " The principal dam to be made of two rows of piles, at a distance of 6 ft. apart, of Memel or Dantzic timber 12 in. square ; also an outer row of piles of the same timber 12 in. square, at 8J ft. from the main dam. An inner row to be driven, to strengthen the foot of the main dam, at 5 ft. from it, of fir timber 12 in. square ; the piles to be driven * Published in the " Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal/* November, ON FOUNDATIONS. 113 8 ft. below the lowest part of the lock. All the piles to be perfectly straight, and parallel on two sides, and shod with wrought-iron shoes not less than 15 Ibs. each ; strong iron hoops also to the heads, the iron 4 in. broad by 1 in. The gauge piles to be driven opposite each other at the distance of 10 ft. apart, and their heads, when driven, to be 4 ft. above high- water mark of an 18-ft. tide ; when they are driven to the proper depth, two rows of temporary double walings, 12 in. by 6 in., to be bolted to them, the upper one to be 1 ft. above high- water mark, and the other as low as the tide will admit, allowing a space of not less than 12 in. wide between the wale pieces for the piles to fill up the bays between the gauge piles ; the bolts to be \\ in. square, iron, 3 ft. long in the clear, and to pass through the walings and the piles, and also two pieces of timber, 6 in. thick, to be placed under the head and nut of each bolt ; the remainder of the piles to fill up the bays are to be driven truly, and each bay keyed in with wedge piles to make the dam water-tight. When all the piles are driven, the temporary walings to be taken off; the joints between the piles of the outer row, of the main dam to be caulked where necessary with tarred oakum ; three rows of permanent single walings are then to be put on, as shown on the drawings, of timber, 12 in. by 6 in., and in length not less than 20 ft., the two rows of piles to be tied together with screwed bolts, and nuts, with plates, to pass through the walings and piles, and also the two pieces of timber ; the bolts to be of the best scrap iron, 2 in. diameter, and proper lengths ; the distance between the bolts at the bottom tier is not to exceed 5 ft., the middle tier 7 ft., and the top 10 ft. The dam is then to be filled with good clay to the level of 3 ft. above the bottom tier of the bolts, and from thence to 3 ft. above high water of a spring tide, with bricks laid in sand. 114 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE " The gauge piles for the outer rows to be driven 10 ft. apart, and the heads when driven to be 6 ft. above low- water mark of spring tide ; two rows of temporary walings, 12 in. by 6 in., to be bolted to the gauge piles, the same as to the main dam, leaving sufficient space between the wales for the piles to fill up the bays, the same as above ; the temporary walings are then to be removed, and one of 12 in. square to be put on, as shown by the drawing, and bolted, as above, so as to secure the piles to the main dam, the bolts not to exceed the distance of 5 ft. apart, and every second bolt to pass through the two rows of main- dam piles and walings. This dam is then to be filled in with clay, as above ; the inner row of piles, at the distance of 5 ft. from the main dam, to have a double waling, 12 in. by 6 in., bolted within one foot of the top, and to be firmly braced from the inside, and the top part of the dam must be tied to the shore with chains, to prevent its going outwards at low water. * A circular trunk, 3 ft. diameter, with sluices for letting the tide flow in and out, is to be placed through the dam. The mud, gravel, and other matter now upon the space where the cofferdam, is to be constructed, is to be removed by the contractor, to the level of 12 ft. below low- water mark of a spring tide, and in a uniform inclination to the lowest part of the bed of the river opposite the said coffer- dam." The dam just described is a very strong one, and capable of resisting very great pressure without injury. Our next example, viz., the cofferdam for the river wall of the new Houses of Parliament, is one of a totally different construction, the piling and puddle wall depending entirely for support upon the counterforts and strutting (see Figs. 27 and 28). The following description of the work is extracted from the " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institu- tion of Civil Engineers, February 11, 1840." ON FOUNDATIONS. 115 " The mud at the site of the works varied much in depth and in consistency, but beneath it is a bed of red gravel and sharp sand, averaging 14 ft. in thickness, laying over a stratum of stiff clay, into which the piles are driven to a depth of 2 ft. To facilitate the driving of the piles, a curved trench, 27 ft. wide by 8 ft. deep, was dredged in the line of the dam. The main piles (A) of Memel fir, 36 ft. long by 1 ft. square, were then driven, leaving their tops 4^ ft. above the Trinity high-water mark of ordinary spring tides. The waling pieces (c) were then attached, and the outer sheet piles (D) of whole timber, 36 ft. long by 13 inches square, sawn square on all sides, so as to insure the joints being close when driven and bolted to the waling. The inner sheet piles (E) of half timber were then driven to the same depth as the others ; the space above them was made up with horizontal pieces (F), bedded down to them, and secured with bolts to the furring pieces (H) inserted above the waling at each gauge pile, The whole length of the dam was secured by diagonal braces (G), extending back to the old river wall*, against which they were abutted. The outer and inner rows of piles were secured together by three rows of wrought-iron bolts (i), the lower being 2-^ in. diameter, and the two upper rows 2 in. diameter. The whole of the piles being driven, the space be- tween was cleared out down to the clay substratum, and then filled up with stiff clay mixed with a por- tion of gravel; a portion of the excavated matter was then laid on both sides of the dam to protect the piling from injury. " The first pile was driven on the 1st September, 1837, and the dam was closed on the 24th of De- cember, 1838. The extreme length of the cofferdam along the river face is 920 ft., and the ends return * In the plan and section here given, the struts are shown as abutting on the brace piles (B), the extension of the bracing to the old wall being omitted. 116 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE at an angle until they meet with and enter the old river wall at a distance of about 200 ft. from the face of the dam." The cofferdam constructed at the entrance of the Grimsby Docks, of which, by permission of the Institution of Civil Engineers, we are enabled to give a perspective diagram, Fig. 29, taken from the drawings presented to the Institution by Mr. Charles Neate to accompany his memoir on that work, was one of the most important dams that was ever con- structed. It stood in deep water, five-eighths of a mile from the high- water margin of the shore, and was entirely self- supported. Its length was 1,500 ft., and it supported at high water a head of water of 25 ft., whilst the excavation behind it was carried to 11 ft. below low water. The form of the dam was that of a circular curve, with a versed sine of 200 ft., or nearly one- fifth of the span. The body of the dam was formed by a triple row of whole timber sheet piling, which received support from counterforts of close piled whole timber, driven at intervals of 25 ft. throughout its whole length. The through bolts were made to break joint and terminate at the middle row of piling, so that no water could pass along them through the dam. In the middle row of piles, wrought-iron longitudinal ties were substituted for timber walings, by which means an uninterrupted surface was left on the piles against which the puddle could be compactly punned. The execution of the work was fully equal to its design, and it has been emphatically declared to be the longest, the deepest, the strongest, and the tightest dam ever constructed. We have only space for one more illustration of our subject, viz., the cofferdam constructed by Mr. David Stevenson for excavating rock in the river Kibble. The peculiarity of this dam consists in its having been constructed on a rock bottom without guide or sheet piles, the sides of the dam being formed of ON FOUNDATIONS. 117 edge planks, secured by staples to iron rods, jumped into the rock and kept in their position by raking stays placed inside the dam'. The following description is extracted from the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, " Vol. III. (See Fig. 30.) " It will be seen that the cofferdam consists of a double row of iron rods 2 in. diameter placed 3 ft. apart, the spaces between the rods which form each row being 3 ft. also. On the inner side of each row of rods, linings of 3 in. Memel planking are placed ; and the space between these linings of planking, which form the two sides of the cofferdam, is care- fully filled with well-wrought clay puddle. The sides of the dam are kept together by bars of iron connected to two horizontal wale pieces of Memel timber, measuring 10 in. by 6 in., placed on the- out- side of the iron rods. These iron bars pass hori- zontally through the heart of the puddle at proper intervals, and serve to counteract the tendency which the puddle exerts to force the iron rods and planking outwards, and thus to derange the whole structure. A row of strong stays placed 18 ft. apart from centre to centre, as shown in the plate, is also applied to the inside of the dam. To avoid inter- rupting the navigation as well as for greater safety, the dams were stayed entirely from the inside. These stays, as shown in the drawing, have joints at the upper extremities, and being simply slipped over the tops of the iron rods and kept in their places by cotters, their lower ends which rest on the bottom can be moved either horizontally or vertically, and thus be easily adapted to the level of the rock. The shorter stays applied in the first instance can be re- moved as the work proceeds, by simply driving out the cotters at the tops of the iron rods, and their places supplied by longer stays resting on the bottom of the excavation. A sluice at the level of low water, which can be opened so as to admit the water 118 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE and prevent the dangerous consequences of a sudden rising of the river while the interior of the dam is empty, two cast-iron pumps of 12 in. bore, with their gearing, and a steam engine of 10-horse power for pumping the dams dry, complete the whole apparatus. " In constructing the dams according to this de- sign, the most tedious parts of the operation were those of fixing the iron rods into the bed of the river, and securing the lower tier of planking which rested on the irregular surface of the rock. The manner in which these operations were effected I shall endeavour briefly to explain. "In order to fix the iron rods, a jumper point was first worked on the end of each of them. They were then successively jumped into the bed of the river to depths varying from 12 in. to 18 in., according to the soundness or hardness of the rock, by labourers who worked from punts moored in the line of the dam, three or four men being employed at each rod. Gauges were used for enabling the workmen to enter the rods properly, so that they might retain a nearly perpendicular position when fixed, and also for the purpose of preserving the proper line of the dam and placing the rods at equal distances apart. No other fixture than that produced by simply jumping the rods into the rock was applied, but this was neces- sarily a tedious process, from the difficulty of work- ing in a rapid run of water, and from the repeated interruptions which occurred, occasioned by the rise of the tides and by land floods. When a sufficient length of rods had been fixed in the manner de- scribed, the lower tiers of planking, which were to be placed below the level of the water, were secured to the iron rods by clasps of iron, as shown in the drawings, and slipped down into their places one above another. The under edge of the lowest tier of planking, the fitting of which often occasioned much trouble, was cut previously to being put down, as ON FOUNDATION nearly as possible to suit the inequalities of the rock which were ascertained approximately by measuring from the surface of the w r ater down the iron rods to the bed of the river. The plank being then~fow into its place, a small iron rod, with a hooked end which could go under the plank, was used for finding what parts of it did not touch the rock, and this having been ascertained, the plank was raised and again cut. This operation was repeated two or three times, until a near approach to the contour of the rock was obtained. The lower edge of the plank was then cut with the adze in a bevelled or wedge- shaped form, and the plank being finally lowered into its place in the bottom, was beaten down by blows from a heavy mallet upon an upright piece of wood resting upon the upper edge of the plank, and extending above the upper surface of the water, and the sharp bevelled edge yielding to the blows, sank into the smaller irregularities of the rock, and thus ultimately, as experience proved, formed, in connec- tion with the puddle behind it, a perfectly water- tight joint. The planks above low water had no fixture to the iron rods, and were kept in ifheir places simply by the pressure of the puddle in the inside of the dam." Cofferdams of wrought-iron are, however, the last improvement introduced, and have at once come ex- tensively into use. These have been formed of large cylinders sunk much as hollow piles, as in the case of the Blackfriars Bridge, of the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, by Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E., or as rectangular or triangular boxes, or coffers of flat and of patent buckled plates, as employed by the same engineer for the new Blackfriars Road Bridge ad- jacent to the former ; or as a range of hollow, oval, or round sectioned cylinders driven close together as hollow piles, and made water-tight at their oscu- lating surfaces by a timber feather pile driven in recesses prepared to receive such between each pair, 120 TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS. aa in parts of the Thames Embankment, London, by Mr. J. Bazalgetti, C.E. Mr. R. Mallet has successfully employed coffer- dams of timber piles and framing in a single sheet made staunch by a sheet of waterproofed (india-rub- ber) canvas stretched over the surface, and immersed in a puddle trench at the bottom, thus dispensing with the double range of piling and with almost the whole of the puddle. THE END. LOXDON: VIRTUE AND co., PBINTKES. CITY ROAD. PRIZE MEDAL, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862, was awarded to the Publishers of ' ' Weale's Series.'' 7, Stationers* Hall Court , Ludgate Hill, E.G. November, 1873. NEW LIST OP WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY, SCIENTIFIC, EDUCATIONAL AND CLASSICAL SERIES, OP WORKS SUITABLE FOE Engineers) Architects, Builders, Artisans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in Workmen's Libraries, Free Libraries, Literary and Scientific Insti- tutions, Colleges, Schools, Science Classes, <&c., &c. %* THE ENTIRE SERIES IS FREELY ILLUSTRATED WHERE REQUISITE. (The Volumes contained in this List are lound in limp cloth, except where otherwise stated.) AGRICULTURE, 66. CLAY LANDS AND LOAMY SOILS, by J. Donaldson. Is. 140. SOILS, MANUEES, AND CHOPS, by B. Scott Burn. 2s. 141. FAEMING, AND FAEMING ECONOMY, Historical and Practical, by B. Scott Burn. 3s. 142. CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOESES, by E. Scott Burn. 2s. 6d. 145. MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIEY PIGS POULTEY, by E. Scott Burn. With Notes on the Diseases of Stock. 2s. 146. UTILISATION OF TOWN SEWAGE IEEIGATION EECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND, by E. Scott Burn. 2s. Qd. tfos. 140, 141, 142, 145, and 146 bound in 2 vols., cloth boards, 14s. 177. CULTUEE OF FEUIT TEEES, by Du Breuil. 187 Wood cuts. 3s. 6d. LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT. 2 ARCHITECTURAL AND BUILDING WORKS. ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING. 16. ARCHITECTURE, Orders of, by W. H. Leeds. Is. 6d. \ In 1 17. Styles of, by T. Talbot Bury. Is. 6d.JaI!ei. 18. Principles of Design, by E. L. Garbett. 2s. JVbs. 16, 17, and 18 in 1 vol. cloth boards, 5s. 6d. 22. BUILDING, the Art of, by E. Dobson. Is. Qd. 23. BRICK AND TILE MAKING, by E. Dobson. 3s. 25. MASONRY AND STONE-CUTTING, by E. Dobson. New Edition, with Appendix on the Preservation of Stone. 2s. Qd. 30. DRAINAGE AND SEWAGE OF TOWNS AJTO BUILD- INGS, by G. D. Dempsey. 2s. With No. 29 (Seepage 4), Drainage of Districts and Lands, 3s. 35. BLASTING & QUARRYING OF STONE, &c., by Field- Marshal Sir J. F. Burgoyne. Is. 6d. 36. DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS used by Architects, Builders, Engineers, Surveyors, &c. New Edition, revised and enlarged by Robert Hunt, F.G.S. 5s. 42. COTTAGE BUILDING, by C. B. Allen. New Edition. Is. Qd 44. FOUNDATIONS & CONCRETE WORKS, by Dobson. Is. Qd. 45. LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, &c., by Burnell. Is. 6rf. 57. WARMING AND VENTILATION, by C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. 3s. 83**. DOOR LOCKS AND IRON SAFES, by Tomlinson. 2s. Qd. 111. ARCHES, PIERS, AtfD BUTTRESSES, by W. Bland. Is.Qd. 116. ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS, by T.R. Smith. Is. Qd. 182. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, founded on Robison and Tredgold. 3s. Qd. 182*. ILLUSTRATIVE PLATES to the preceding. 4to. 6s. 124. ROOFS FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS, founded on Robison, Price, and Tredgold. Is. Qd. 124*. PLATES OF RECENT IRON ROOFS. 4to. [Reprinting. 127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, Practical Instructions, by T. A. Richardson, Architect. Is. Qd. 128. VITRUVIUS'S ARCHITECTURE, by J. Gwilt, Plates. 5s. 130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, Principles of Beauty in, by the Earl of Aberdeen. Is. Nos. 128 and 130 in 1 vol. cloth boards, 7s. 132. ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES, with Specifications, Quantities of Materials, &c., by S. H. Brooks, 27 Plates. 2s. Qd. 156. QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, by Beaton. Is. Qd. 175. BUILDERS' AND CONTRACTORS' PRICE-BOOK. By G. R. Burnell. 3s. 6d. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.. ARITHMETICAL AND MATHEMATICAL WORKS. ARITHMETIC AND MATHEMATICS, 32. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, THEIE CONSTRUC- TION, USE, &c., by J. F. Heather. Original Edition in 1 vol. Is. Qd. *+* In ordering the above, be careful to say " Original Edition " to distinguish it from the Enlarged Edition in 3 vols. t advertised on page 4 as now ready. 60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING, by T. Baker. 2s, 61*. READY RECKONER for the Admeasurement and Valuation of Land, by A. Arman. Is. Qd. 76. GEOMETRY, DESCRIPTIVE, with a Theory of Shadows and Perspective, and a Description of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection, by J. P. Heather. 2s. 83. COMMERCIAL BOOK-KEEPING, by James Haddon. Is. 84. ARITHMETIC, with numerous Examples, by J. R. Young. Is. 6d. 84*. KEY TO THE ABOVE, by J. R. Young. Is. Qd. 85. EQUATIONAL ARITHMETIC : including Tables for the Calculation of Simple Interest, with Logarithms for Compound Interest, and Annuities, by W. Hipsley. Is. 85*. SUPPLEMENT TO THE ABOVE, Is. 85 and 85* in 1 vol., 2s. 86. ALGEBRA, by J. Haddon. 2s. 86*. KEY AND COMPANION to the above, by J. R. Young. Is. Qd. 88. THE ELEMENTS OF EUCLID, with Additional Propositions, and Essay on Logic, by H. Law. 2s. Qd. 90. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY A.ND CONIC SECTIONS, by J. Hann. Entirely New Edition, improved and re-writtefc by J. R. Young. 2s. 91. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, by J. Hann. Is. 92. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, by J. Hann. Is. Nos. 91 and 92 in 1 vol., 2s. 93. MENSURATION, by T. Baker. Is. Qd. 94. MATHEMATICAL TABLES, LOGAEITHMS, with Tables of Natural Sines, Cosines, and Tangents, by H. Law, C.E. 2s. Qd. 101. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, by W. S. B. Woolhouse. Is. 101*. WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEYS OF ALL NATIONS ; with the Principles which determine the Rate of Exchange, by W. S. B. Woolhouse. Is. 6d. 102. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, RUDIMENTS, by H. Cox, B.A. Is. 103. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Examples on, by J. Hann. Is. 104. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, Examples, by J. Haddon. Is. 105. ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, and TRIGONOMETRY, in Easy Mnemonical Lessons, by the Rev. T. P. Kirkman. Is. 6d. 117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, AND THE MAG- NETIC VARIATION OF THE NEEDLE, by T. Fenwick, with Additions by T. Baker. 2s. 6d. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. 4 CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS. 131. READY-RECKONER FOR MILLERS, FARMERS, AND MERCHANTS, showing the Value of any Quantity of Corn, with the Approximate Values of Mill-stones & Mill Work. Is. 136. RUDIMENTARY ARITHMETIC, by J. Haddon, edited by A. Arman. Is. 6d. 137. KEY TO THE ABOVE, by A. Arman. Is. 6d. 147. STEPPING STONE TO ARITHMETIC, by A. Arman. le. 148. KEY TO THE ABOVE, by A. Arman. Is. 158. THE SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT. With Slide Rule in a pocket of cover. 35. 168. DRAWING AND MEASURING f INSTRUMENTS. In- cluding Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mecha- nical Drawing, the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps, Plans, &c., by J. F. HEATHER, M.A. Is. 6d. 169. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, more especially Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for producing copies of Maps and Plans by Photography, by J. F. HEATHER, M.A. Is. Qd. 170. SURVEYING AtfD ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including Instruments Used for Determining the Geome- trical Features of a portion of Ground, and in Astronomical Observations, by J. F. HEATHER, M.A. Is. Qd. *.* The above three volumes form an enlargement of the Author's original work, " Mathematical Instruments" the Tenth Edition of which (No. 32) is, still on sale, price Is. Qd. 178. PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY : Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane, by J. F. HEATHER, M.A. 2s. 178*. PROJECTION, Orthographic, Topographic, and Perspective : giving the various modes of Delineating Solid Forms by Con- structions on a Single Plane Surface, by J. F. HEATHER, M.A. *** The above two volumes, with the Author's work already in the Series, "Descriptive Geometry" (see page 3), will form a complete Elementary Course of Mathematical Drawing. CIVIL ENGINEERING. 13. CIVIL ENGINEERING, by H. Law and G. R. Eurnell. Fifth Edition, with Additions. 5s. 29. DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS, by G.D.Dempsey. la. 6*. With No. 30 (Seepage 2), Drainage and Sewage of Towns, 3s. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO., WORKS IN FINE ARTS, ETC. 31. WELL-SINKING, BORING, AND PUMP WORK, by J. G. Swindell, revised by G. R. Burnell. Is. 43. TUBULAR AND IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, including the Britannia and Conway Bridges, by G. D. Dempsey. Is. 6d. 46. ROAD-MAKING AND MAINTENANCE OF MACADA- MISED RO ADS, by Field-Marshal Sir J.RBurgoyne. Is. Qd 47. LIGHTHOUSES, their construction and Illumination, by Alan Stevenson. 3s. 02. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, by Sir M. Stephenson. With Additions by E. Nugent, C.E. 2s. 6d. 62*. RAILWAY CAPITAL AND DIVIDENDS, with Statistics of Working, by E. D. Chattaway. 1*. No. 62 and 62* in 1 vol., 3s. 6d. 80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA, by J. TFiggins. 2s. 82**. GAS WORKS, and the PRACTICE of MANUFACTURING and DISTRIBUTING COAL GAS, by S. Hughes. 3s. 84. WATER-WORKS FOR THE SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS, by S. Hughes, C.E. 4s. 118. CIVIL ENGINEERING OF NORTH AMERICA, by D. Stevenson. 3s. 120. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING, by G. R. Burnell. 3s. 121. RIVERS AND TORRENTS, with the Method of Regulating their Course and Channels, Navigable Canals, &c., from the Italian of Paul Frisi. 2s. Qd. EMIGRATION. 154. GENERAL HINTS TO EMIGRANTS. 2s. 157. EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO NATAL, by R. J. Mann, M.D. 2s. 159. EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO NEW SOUTH WALES, WESTERN AUSTRALIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, VIC- TORIA, AND QUEENSLAND, by James Baird,B.A. 2s. Gd. '.60. EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO TASMANIA AND NEW ZEA- LAND, by James Baird, B.A. 2s. FINE ARTS. 20. PERSPECTIVE, by George Pyne. 2s. 27. PAINTING; or, A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, by G. Field. 2s. 40. GLASS STAINING, by Dr. M. A. Gessert, with an Appendix on the Art of Enamel Painting, &e. Is. 41. PAINTING ON GLASS, from the German of Fromberg. Is. 69. MUSIC, Treatise on, by C. C. Spencer. 2s. 71. THE ART OF PLAYING THE PIANOFORTE, by C. C. Spencer. Is. 181. PAINTING (FINE ART), Gullick and Timbs. 5s. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. WORKS IN MECHANICS, ETC. LEGAL TREATISES. 50. LAW OF CONTRACTS FOE WORKS AND SERVICES, by David Gibbons. Is. Qd. 107. THE COUNTY COURT GUIDE, by a Barrister. 1*. Qd. 108. METROPOLIS LOCAL MANAGEMENT ACTS. Is. Qd. 108*. METROPOLIS LOCAL MANAGEMENT AMENDMENT ACT, 1862; with Notes and Index. Is. Nos. 108 and 108* in I vol., 2s. 6d. 109. NUISANCES REMOVAL AND DISEASES PREVENTION AMENDMENT ACT. Is. 110. RECENT LEGISLATIVE ACTS applying to Contractor, Merchants, and Tradesmen. Is. 151. THE LAW OF FRIENDLY, PROVIDENT, BUILDING, AND LOAN SOCIETIES, by N. White. Is 163. THE LAW OF PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS, by F. W. Campin, Barrister. 2s. MECHANICS & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. : 6. MECHANICS, by Charles Tomlinson. Is. Qd. 12. PNEUMATICS, by Charles Tomlinson. New Edition. Is. Qd. 33. CRANES AND MACHINERY FOR RAISING HEAVY BODIES, the Art of Constructing, by J. GUynn. Is. 34. STEAM ENGINE, by Dr. Lardner. Is. 59. STEAM BOILERS, their Construction and Management, by R. Armstrong. With Additions by R. Mallet. Is. Qd. 63. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, BUILDINGS, MOTIVE POWERS, FIELD MACHINES, MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS, by G. H. Andrews, C.E. 3s. 67, CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND BELLS, by E. B. Denison. New Edition. [Preparing. 77*. ECONOMY OF FUEL, by T. S. Prideaux. Is. Qd. 78. STEAM AND LOCOMOTION, by Sewell. {Reprinting. 78*. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, by G. D. Dempsey. Is. Qd. 79*. ILLUSTRATIONS TO ABOVE. 4to. 4s. Qd. [Reprinting. 80. MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS, AND THE SCREW, by Robert Murray, C.E., Engineer Surveyor to the Board of Trade. With a Glossary of Technical Terms, and their equivalents in French, German, and Spanish. 3s. 82, WATER POWER, as applied to Mills, &c., by J. Glynn. 2s. 97. STATICS AND DYNAMICS, by T. Baker. New Edition. Is. Qd. 98. MECHANISM AND MACHINE TOOLS, by T. Baker; and TOOLS AND MACHINERY, by J. Nasmyth. 2s. Qd. 113*. MEMOIR ON SWORDS, byMarey, translated by Maxwell. Is. 114. MACHINERY, Construction and Working, by C.D.Abel, Is.Qd. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO., NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL WORKS. 7 115. PLATES TO THE PEECEDING. 4to. 7s. 6d. 125. COMBUSTION OF COAL, AND THE PEEVENTION OP SMOKE, by C. Wye Williams, M.I.C.E. 3s. 139. STEAM ENGINE, Mathematical Theory of, by T. Baker, lo. 162. THE BEASSFOUNDEE'S MANUAL, by W.Graham. 2s.Qd. 164. MODEEN WOEKSHOP PEACTICE. By J. G. Winton. 35. 165. IEON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace, by JAMES ARMOUR, C.E. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d. 166. POWEE IN MOTION: Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driying Bands, Angular Forces, &c., by JAMES ARMOUR, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. 2s. Gd. 167. A TEEATISE ON THE CONSTEUCTION OF IEON BEIDGES, GIEDEES, EOOFS, AND OTHEE STEUC- TUEES, by F. Campin. Numerous Woodcuts. 2s. 171. TEE WOEKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DEAWING, by JOHN MAXTON, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Eoyal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engi- neering, South Kensington. Plates and Diagrams. 3s. Qd. 172. MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Mining Students, &c., by WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Mining, Bristol School of Mines. 12mo. 2s. 6*?. 172*.ATLAS OF PLATES to the above, containing 200 Illustra- tions. 4to. 4. 6d. 176. TEEATISE ON THE METALLUEGY OF IEON; con- taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c., by H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., A.E.S.M. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Woodcuts. 4s. 6^. 180. COAL AND COAL MINING, by W. W. Smyth. 3s. Qd. NAVIGATION AND SHIP-BUILDING. 51. NAVAL AECHITECTUEE, by J. Peake. 3s. 53*. SHIPS FOE OCEAN AND EIVEE SEEYICE, Construction of, by Captain H. A. Sommerfeldt. Is. 53**. ATLAS OF 15 PLATES TO THE ABOVE, Drawn for Practice. 4to. 7s. 6d. 54. MASTING, MAST-MAKING, and RIGGING OF SHIPS, by E. Kipping. Is. 6d. 54*. IEON SHIP-BUILDING, by J. Grantham. Fifth Edition, with Supplement. 4*. 54**. ATLAS OF 40 PLATES to illustrate the preceding. 4to. 38s. 55. NAVIGATION ; the Sailor's Sea Book : How to Keep the Log and Work it off, Law of Storms, &c., by J. Greenwood. 2s. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 83 Us. SHIPS AND BOATS, Form of, by W. Bland. Is. Qd. 99. NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION, by J. R. Young. 2s. 100*. NAVIGATION TABLES, for Use with the above. Is. Qd. 106. SHIPS' ANCHORS for all SERVICES, by G. Cotsell. Is. Qd. 149. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING, by R. Kipping, N.A. 2s. Qd. 155. ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MER- CANTILE NAVIES. By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. McCarthy. 3s. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 1. CHEMISTRY, by Prof. Fownes. With Appendix on Agri- cultural Chemistry. New Edition, with Index. Is. 2. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, by Charles Tomlinson. 1*. Qd. 4. MINERALOGY, by A. Ramsay, Jun. 3s. 7. ELECTRICITY, by Sir W. S. Harris. Is. Qd. 7*. GALVANISM, ANIMAL AND VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY, by Sir W. S. Harris. Is. Qd. 8. MAGNETISM, by Sir W. S. Harris. New Edition, revised and enlarged by H. M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. With 165 woodcuts. 3*. Qd. 11. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE ELECTRIC TELE- GRAPH, by Robert Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. 3s. 72. RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS (A Manual of the MoUusca), by S. P. Woodward. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, F.G.S. Qs.Qd. ; in cloth boards, Is. Qd. Appendix separately, Is. 79**. PHOTOGRAPHY, the Stereoscope, &c., from the French of D. Van Monckhoven, by W. H. Thornthwaite. Is. Qd. 96. ASTRONOMY, by the Rev. R. Main. New and Enlarged Edition, with an Appendix on " Spectrum Analysis." Is. Qd. 133. METALLURGY OF COPPER, by Dr. R. H. Lamborn. 2s. 134. METALLURGY OF SILVER AND LEAD, by Lamborn. 2s. 135. ELECTRO -METALLURGY, by A. Watt. 2s. 138. HANDBOOK OF THE TELEGRAPH, by R. Bond. New and Enlarged Edition. 3s. 143. EXPERIMENTAL ESSAYS On the Motion of Camphor and Modern Theory of Dew, by C. Tomlinson. Is. 173. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY (partly based on Portlock's " Rudi- ments of Geology"), by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. 2s. 174. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY (partly based on Portlock's " Rudi- ments of Geology "), by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. 2s. Qd. V 173 and 174 in 1 vol., 4s. Qd. 183. ANIMAL PHYSICS, by Dr. Lardner. Part I., 4*. 184. Part II., 3s. ** Nos. 183 and 184 in 1 vol. cloth boards, 7s. 6d. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO., EDUCATIONAL WORKS. MISCELLANEOUS TREATISES. 12. DOMESTIC MEDICINE, by Dr. Ralph Gooding. 2s. 112*. THE MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH, by James Baird. Is. 113. USE OF FIELD ARTILLERY ON SERVICE, byTaubert, translated by Lient.-Col. H. H. Maxwell. Is. 6d. 150. LOGIC, PURE AND APPLIED, by S. H. Emmena. Is. 6d. 152. PRACTICAL HINTS FOR INVESTING MONEY: with an Explanation of the Mode of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange, by Francis Playford, Sworn Broker. Is. 153. LOCKE ON THE CONDUCT OF THE HUMAN UNDER- STANDING, Selections from, by S. H. Emmens. 2s. NEW SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 1. ENGLAND, History of, by W. D. Hamilton. 5s.; cloth boards, 6s. (Also in 5 parts, price Is. each.) 5. GREECE, History of, by W. D. Hamilton and E. Levien, M.A. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 3s. Qd. 7. ROME, History of, by E. Levien. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, Ss. 6d. 9. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY, ART, LITERATURE, and Progress, from the Creation of the World to the Con- clusion of the Franco-German War. The continuation by W. D. Hamilton, F.S.A. 3s. cloth limp ; 3s. 6d. cloth boards. 11. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, by Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. Is. 11*. HANDBOOK OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, by Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. Is. 12. ENGLISH DICTIONARY, containing above 100,000 words, by Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. 3s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 4s. 6d. -- , with Grammar. Cloth bds. 5s. 6d. 14. GREEK GRAMMAR, by H. C. Hamilton. Is. 15. - DICTIONARY, by H. R. Hamilton. Vol. 1. Greek English. 2s. 17. -- Vol. 2. English Greek. 2s. - Complete in 1 vol. 4s. ; cloth boards, 5s. Grammar. Cloth boards, 6s. 19. LATIN GRAMMAR, by T. Goodwin, M.A. Is. 20. - DICTIONARY, by T. Goodwin, M.A. Vol. 1. Latin English. 2s. 22. - Vol. 2. English Latin. Is. 6d. - Complete in 1 vol. 3s. Qd. ; cloth boards, 4s. 6d. -- , with Grammar. Cloth bds. 5s. 6d. 24. FRENCH GRAMMAR, by G. L. Strauss. Is. 25. FRENCH DICTIONARY, by Elwes. Vol.1. Fr. Eng. ls.6rf. 26. -- Vol.2. English French. 2s. - Complete in 1 vol. 3s. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d. -- , with Grammar. Cloth bds. 4s. 6d. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. 10 EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 27. ITALIAN GEAMMAE, by A. Elwes. 1*. 28. TEIGLOT DICTIONARY, by A. Elwes. Vol. 1. Italian English French. 2s. 30. Vol.2. English French Italian. 2s. 32. Vol.3. French Italian English. 2s. .Complete in 1 vol. Cloth boards, 7s. Qd. , with Grammar. Cloth bds. 8*. Qd. 34. SPANISH GEAMMAE, by A. Elwes. 1*. 35. ENGLISH AND ENGLISH SPANISH DIC- TIONAEY, by A. Elwes. 4s. ; cloth boards, 5s. lf w ith Grammar. Cloth boards, 6s. 39. GEEMAN GEAMMAE, by G. L. Strauss. Is. 40. EEADEE, from best Authors. Is. 41. TEIGLOT DICTIONAEY, by N.E.S. A. Hamilton. Vol. 1. English German French. Is. 42. Vol. 2. German French English. 1*. 43. Vol. 3. French German English. Is. Complete in 1 vol. 3s. ; cloth boards, 4s. , with Grammar. Cloth boards, 5s. 44. HEBEEW DICTIONAEY, by Bresslau. Vol. 1. Heb. Eng. 6s. , with Grammar. 7s. 46. Yol. 2. English Hebrew. 3s. Complete, with Grammar, in 2 vols. Cloth boards, 12s. 46*. GEAMMAE, by Dr. Bresslau. Is. 47. FEENCH AND ENGLISH PHEASE BOOK. 1*. 48. COMPOSITION AND PUNCTUATION, by J. Brenan. Is. 49. DEEIVATIVE SPELLING BOOK, by J. Eowbotham. Is. 6^. 50. DATES AND EVENTS, by Edgar H. Eand. Is. 51. AET OF EXTEMPOEE SPEAKING. Hints for the Pulpit, the Senate, and the Bar, by M. Bautain, Professor at the Sorbonne, &c. 2s. 6d. 52. MINING AND QUAEEYING, by J. H. Collins. Is. d. 53. PLACES AND FACTS, by Eand. Is. SCHOOL MANAGERS' SEBIES OF READING BOOKS, Adapted to the Requirements of the New Code 0/1871. Edited by the Eev. A. E. GRANT, Eector of Hitcham, and Honorary Canon of Ely ; formerly H.M. Inspector of Schools. INTRODUCTORY PRIMER 3 FIRST STANDARD 6 s. d. SECOND STANDARD 10 THIRD 1 s. d. FOURTH STANDARD 1 2 FIFTH 1 6 A Sixth Standard in preparation. XESSONS FROM THE BIBLE. Part 1. Old Testament. Is. LESSONS FROM THE BIBLE. Part 2. New Testment, and Scripture Geography. Is. 2d. Parts f. and 11. bound together, 2s. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO., EDUCATIONAL AND CLASSICAL WORKS. It LATIN AND GREEK CLASSICS, WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES IN ENGLISH. LATIN SERIES. 1. A NEW LATIN DELECTUS, with Vocabularies and Notes, by H. Young 1*. 2. C-33SAE. De Bello Gallico ; Notes by H. Young . . 2s. 3. CORNELIUS NEPOS; Notes by H. Young . . . Is. 4. VIEGIL. The Georgics, Bucolics, and Doubtful Poems; Notes by W. Eushton, M.A., and H. Young . Is. Qd. 5. VIEGIL. jEneid Notes by H. Young . .2s. 6. HOEACE. Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Seculare, by H. Young ........ Is. Qd, 7. HOEACE. Satires and Epistles, by W. B. Smith, M. A. Is. Qd. 8. SALLUST. Catiline and Jugurthine War; Notes by W. M. Donne, B.A : Is. Qd. 9. TEEENCE. Andria and Heautontimorumenos ; Notes by the Eev. J. Davies, M.A Is. Qd. 10. TEEENCE. Adelphi, Hecyra, and Phormio; Notes by the Eev. J. Davies, M.A 2s. 11. TEEENCE. Eunuchus, by the Eev. J. Davies, M.A. 1*. Qd. Nos. 9, 10, and 11 in 1 vol. cloth boards, 6s. 12. CICEEO. Oratio Pro Sexto Eoscio Amerino. Edited, with Notes, &c., by J. Davies, M.A. Now ready . . Is. 14. CICEEO. De Amicitia, de Senectute, and Brutus ; Notes by the Eev. W. B. Smith, M.A 2s. 16. LIYY. Books i., ii., by H. Young Is. Qd. 16*. LIYY. Books iii., iv., v., by H. Young . Is. Qd. 17. LIVY. Books xxi., xxii., by W. B. Smith, M.A. . Is. Qd. 19. CATULLUS, TIBULLUS, OVID, and PEOPEETIUS, Selections from, by W. Bodham Donne . . . .2s. 20. SUETONIUS and the later Latin Writers, Selections from, by W. Bodham Donne 2s. 21. THE SATIEES OF JUVENAL, by T. H. S. Escott, M.A., of Queen's College, Oxford 1*. Qd. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. 12 EDUCATIONAL AND CLASSICAL WOKKS. GREEK SERIES. WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES IN ENGLISH. 1. A NEW GEEEK DELECTUS, by H. Young . . Is. 2. XENOPHON. Anabasis, i., ii., iii., by H. Young . . Is. 3. XENOPHON. Anabasis, iv., v., vi., vii., by H. Young . 1*. 4. LUCIAN. Select Dialogues, by H. Young . . .Is. 5. HOMEE. Bind, i. to vi., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd, 6. HOMEE. Iliad, vii. to xii., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. 1*. Qd. 7. HOMEE. Iliad, xiii. to xviii., by T.H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 8. HOMES. Iliad, xix. to xxiv., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 9. HOMEE. Odyssey, i. to vi., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 10. HOMEE. Odyssey, vii. to xii., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 11. HOMEE. Odyssey, xiii. to xviii., by T.H.L. Leary, D.C.L. Is.Qd. 12. HOMEE. Odyssey, xix. to xxiv. ; and Hymns, by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L 2s. 13. PLATO. Apologia, Crito, and Phsedo, by J. Davies, M,A. 2s. 14. HEEODOTUS, Books i., ii., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 15. HEEODOTUS, Books iii., iv., by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 16. HEEODOTUS, Booksv.,vi., vii., by T.H.L. Leary, D.C.L. Is.Qd. 17. HEEODOTUS, Books viii., ix., and Index, by T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L. Is. Qd. 18. SOPHOCLES. OSdipus Tyrannus, by H. Young . . Is. 20. SOPHOCLES. Antigone, by J. Milner, B.A. . . . 2s. 23. EUEIPIDES. Hecuba and Medea, by W. B. Smith, M.A. Is. Qd. 26. EUEIPIDES. Alcestis, by J. Milner, B.A. . . . Is. 30. -3SSCHYLUS. Prometheus Vinctus, by J. Davies, M.A. . Is. 32. AESCHYLUS. Septem contra Thebas, by J. Davies, M.A. Is. 40. AEISTOPHANES. Acharnenses, by C. S. D. Townshend, M.A Is.Qd. 41. THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War. Book i., by H. Young Is. 42. XENOPHON. Panegyric on Agesilaus, by LI. F. W. Je witt Is. Qd. LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COUET, LONDON, November , 1873. Cataicrpe af 00ks INCLUDING MANY NEW & STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AGRICULTURE, MATHEMATICS, MECHANICS, SCIENCE, &c. &c. PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO., I 7, STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, Ac. Humbers New Work on Water-Supply. A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS. By WILLIAM HUMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. This work, it is expected, will con- tain about 50 Double Plates, and upwards of 300 pages of Text. Imp. 4to, half bound in morocco. [In the preys. %* In accumulating information for this volume, the Author has been very liberally assisted by several professional friends, who hdve made this department of engineering their special study. He has thus been in a position to prepare a work which, within the limits of a single volume, will supply the reader with the most complete and reliable information upon all subjects, theoretical and practical, con- nected with water supply. Through the kindness of Messrs. Ander- son, Bateman, Hawksley, Homersham, Baldwin Latham, Lawson^ Milne, Quick, Rawlinson, Simpson, and others, several works, con- structed and in course of construction, from the designs of these gentle- men, will be fully illustrated and described. AMONGST OTHER IMPORTANT SUBJECTS THE FOLLOWING WILL BE TREATED IN THE TEXT I Historical Sketch of the means that have been proposed and adopted for the Supply of Water. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. Rainfall and Evaporation. Springs and Subterranean Lakes. Hydraulics. The Selection of Sites for Water Works. Wells. Reservoirs. Filtration and Filter Beds. Reservoir and Filter Bed Appendages. Pumps and Appendages. Pumping Machinery. Culverts and Conduits, Aqueducts, Syphons, &c. Distribution of Water. Water Meters and general House Fittings. Cost of Works for the Supply of Water. Con- stant and Intermittent Supply. Suggestions for preparing Plans, &c. &c., together with a Description of the numerous Works illustrated, viz : Aberdeen, Bideford, Cockermouth, Dublin, Glasgow, Loch Katrine, Liverpool, Manchester, Rotherham, Sunderland, and several others ; with copies of the Contract, Drawings and Specifi- cation in each case. 2 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humber s Modern Engineering. First Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, Assoc. List. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c. Price 3/. $s. half morocco. List of the Plates. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Victoria Station and Roof L. B.& S. C. Rail. i to 8 Mr. R. Jacomb Hood, C.E, Southport Pier o and 10 Mr. James Brunlees, C.E. Victoria Station and Roof L. C. & D. & G. W. Railways ntoi5A Mr. John Fowler, C.E. Roof of Cremorne Music Hall 16 Mr. William Humber, C. E, Bridge over G. N. Railway 17 Mr. Joseph Cubitt, C.E. Roof of Station Dutch Rhenish Railway .. iSandig Mr. Euschedi, C.E. Bridge over the Thames -West London Ex- tension Railway 20 to 24 Mr. William Baker, C.E. Armour Plates 25 Mr. James Chalmers, C.E. Suspension Bridge, Thames 26 to 29 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E. The Allen Engine 30 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E. Suspension Bridge, Avon 31 to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C. E. and W. H. Barlow, C.E. Underground Railway 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler, C.E. With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for many important engineering works." Engineer. Humber s Modern Engineering. Second Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1864 ; with Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c. Price 3/. 3*. half morocco. List of the Plates. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Birkenhead Docks. Low Water Basin i to 15 Mr. G. F. Lyster, C.E Charing Cross Station Roof C. C. Railway. 16 to 18 Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E. Digswell Viaduct Great Northern Railway. 19 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Robbery Wood Viaduct Great N. Railway. 20 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Iron Permanent Way 2o# Clydach Viaduct Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Railway 21 Mr. Gardner, C.E. Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto 22 Mr. Gardner, C.E. College Wood Viaduct Cornwall Railway . . 23 Mr. Brunei. Dublin Winter Palace Roof 24 to 26 Messrs. Ordish & Le Feuvre. Bridge over the Thames L. C. & D. Railw. 27 to 32 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 36 Messrs. Bell & Miller. With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. " A resume of all the more interesting and important works lately completed in Great Britain ; and containing, as it does, carefully executed drawings, with full working details will be found a valuable accessory to the profession at large." Engineer. "Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public." Practical Mechanic's Journal. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humbers Modern Engineering. Third Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1865. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of J. R. M 'Clean, Esq., late Pre- sident of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3-r. half morocco. List of Plates and Diagrams. MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. NORTH SIDE. Map showing Interception of Sewers. Middle Level Sewer. Sewer under Re- gent's Canal. Middle Level Sewer. Junction with Fleet Ditch. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Elevation. Outfall Sswer. Bridge over River Lea. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junction. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Elevation. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder. Elevation. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Section. Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet. Outfall Sewer. Penstocks. SOUTH SIDE. Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Plan. MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS, continued Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Details. Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist. Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). THAMES EMBANKMENT. Section of River Wall. Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Elevation Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Details. Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and Waterloo Bridges. York Gate. Front Elevation. York Gate. Side Elevation and Details. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Details. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Penstock. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Penstock. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. Eleva- tion. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- tails. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- tails. Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections. Gullies. Plans and Sections. Rolling Stock. Granite and Iron Forts. With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. Opinions of the Press. <( Mr. number's works especially his annual ' Record,' with which so many of our readers are now familiar fill a void occupied by no other branch of literature The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear representations of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. number's last volume." Engineering. " No engineer, architect, or contractor should fail to preserve these records of works which, for magnitude, have not their parallel in the present day, no student in the profession but should carefully study the details of these great works, which he may be one day called upon to imitate." Mechanic's Magazine. " A work highly creditable to the industry of its author The volume is quite an encyclopaedia for the study of the student who desires to master the subject of municipal drainage on its scale of greatest development."- Practical Meclianics Journal. 4 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humberts Modern Engineering. Fourth Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1866. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3^. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, Metropolis i to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C.E. Barrow Docks 5 to 9 Messrs. M'Clean & Stillman, Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C. E. Railway 10, n Mr. W. Loyd, C.E. Adams' Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railw. 12, 13 Mr. H. Cross, C.E. Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway .... , 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C. E. Read Bridge over the River Moka 17, 1 8 Mr. H. Wakefield, C.E. Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia 19 Mr. Siemens, C. E. Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railw. 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E. St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Railway .... 23, 24 Mr. Brunei, C.E. Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E. Millwall Docks 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and William Wilson, C.E. Milroy's Patent Excavator 32 Mr. Milroy, C. E. Metropolitan District Railway 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, Engineer-in- Chief, and Mr T. M. Johnson, C.E. Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters A to C The Letterpress comprises A concluding article on Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters, with Illustrations and detailed descriptions of the Breakwater at Cher- bourg, and other important modern works ; an article on the Telegraph Lines of Mesopotamia ; a full description of the Wrought- iron Diving Cylinder for Ceylon, the circumstances under which it was used, and the means of working it ; full description of the Millwall Docks ; &c., &c., &c. Opinions of the Press. "Mr. Humber's 'Record of Modern Engineering* is a work of peculiar value, as well to those who design as to those who study the art of engineering construction. It embodies a vast amount of practical information in the form of full descriptions and working drawings of all the most recent and noteworthy engineering works. The plates are excellently lithographed, and the present volume of the * Record ' is not a whit behind its predecessors." Mechanic J Magazine. "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its usefulness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men in the profes- sion, cannot be too highly prized." Artizan. " The volume forms a valuable companion to those which have preceded it, and cannot fail to prove a most important addition to every engineering library." Mining Journal. " No one of Mr. Humber's volumes was bad ; all were worth their cost, from the mass of plates from well-executed drawings which they contained. In this respect, perhaps, this last volume is the most valuable that the author has produced." Prac- tical Mechanics' Journal. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humberts Great Work on Bridge Construction. A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By WILLIAM H UMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous additions to the Text. In 2 vols. imp. 4to., price 6/. i6.r. 6d. half- bound in morocco. *' A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering'. In addition to elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very much enhance the instructive worth of these illustrations. No engineer would wil- lingly be without so valuable a fund of information." Civil Engineer and A rchitecfs Journal. *'The First or Theoretical Part contains mathematical investigations of the prin- ciples involved in the various forms now adopted in bridge construction. These investigations are exceedingly complete, having evidently been very carefully con- sidered and worked out to the utmost extent that can be desired by the practical man. The tables are of a very useful character, containing the results of the most recent experiments, and amongst them are some valuable tables of the weight and cost of cast and wrought-iron structures actually erected. The volume of text is amply illus- trated by numerous woodcuts, plates, and diagrams : and the plates in the second volume do great credit to both draughtsmen and engravers. In conclusion, we have great pleasure in cordially recommending this work to our readers." Artizan. " Mr. Number's stately volumes lately issued in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail." Engineer. Wealds Engineer s Pocket-Book. THE ENGINEER'S, ARCHITECT'S, and CONTRACTOR'S POCKET-BOOK (LOCKWOOD & Co.'s ; formerly WEALE'S). Published Annually. In roan tuck, gilt edges, with 10 Copper- Plates and numerous Woodcuts. Price 6s. " A vast amount of really valuable matter condensed into the small dimen- sions of a book which is, in reality, what it professes to be a pocket-book. 1 Every branch of engineering kind abound." Mechanics' Mag. " It contains a large amount of information peculiarly valuable to those for whose use it is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural professions generally." Mining Journal. Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c. A TREATISE on the APPLICATION of IRON to the CON- STRUCTION of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and OTHER WORKS ; showing the Principles upon which such Structures are Designed, and their Practical Application. Especially arranged for the use of Students and Practical Mechanics, all Mathematical For- mulae and Symbols being excluded. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. I2mo., cloth boards, 3^. {Rccejitly published. " For numbers of young engineers the book is just the cheap, handy, first guide they want." Middlesborough Weekly News. " Invaluable to those who have not been educated in mathematics." Colliery Guardian. " Remarkably accurate and well written." Artizan, 6 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Barlow on the Strength of Materials, enlarged. A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. ; and an Appendix on the Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes and Gradients. By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, 'P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, F.R.S., to which are added Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIR- BAIRN, and KIRKALDY ; an Essay (with Illustrations) on the effect produced by passing Weights over Elastic Bars, by the Rev. ROBERT WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S. And Formulae for Calculating Girders, &c. The whole arranged and edited by W. HUMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of " A Complete and Practical Treatise on Cast and Wrought -Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates, and numerous woodcuts, price i&r. cloth. " Although issued as the sixth edition, the volume under consideration is worthy of being regarded, for all practical purposes, as an entirely new work . . . the book is undoubtedly worthy of the highest commendation." Mining Journal. "An increased value has been given to this very valuable work by the addition of a large amount of information, which cannot prove otherwise than highly useful to those who require to consult it ..... The arrangement and editing of this architect's office, or a competent clerk of wo , orks, who will not recognise in the scientific nd valued friend." Building News. , volume newly given to circulation, an old an vaue ren. u " The standard treatise upon this particular subject." Engineer. Strains, Formula & Diagrams for Calculation of. A HANDY BOOK' for the CALCULATION of STRAINS in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their STRENGTH ; consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Fcap. 8vo, with nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, price *js. 6d. cloth. "The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is as convenient as it well could be ..... The system of employing diagrams as a substitute for complex computations is one justly coming into great favour, and in that respect Mr. Humber's volume is fully up to the times." Etigineering. "The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good." Athenczum. "We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers. " English Mechanic. Mechanical Engineering. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGI- NEERING: comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufac- ture of the Steam Engine, &c. c. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ore, and Glossary of Terms. By F'RANCis CAMPIN, C.E. Illustrated with 91 Woodcuts and 28 Plates of Slotting, Shaping, Drilling, Punching, Shearing, and Riveting Machines Blast, Refining, and Reverberatory Furnaces Steam Engines, Governors, Boilers, Locomotives, &c. 8vo, cloth, 12^. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Strains. THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. ByF. W. SHEILDS, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, $s. cloth. CONTENTS. Introductory Remarks ; Beams Loaded at Centre ; Beams Loaded at unequal distances between supports ; Beams uniformly Loaded ; Girders with triangu- lar bracing Loaded at centre ; Ditto, Loaded at unequal distances between supports ; Ditto, uniformly Loaded ; Calculation of the Strains on Girders with triangular Basings ; Cantilevers; Continuous Girders; Lattice Girders; Girders with Vertical Struts and Diagonal Ties ; Calculation of the Strains on Ditto ; Bow and String Girders ; Girders of a form not belonging to any regular figure ; Plate Girders ; Ap- portionments of Material to Strain ; Comparison of different Girders ; Proportion of Length to Depth of Girders ; Character of the Work ; Iron Roofs. Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, &c. IRON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By JAMES ARMOUR, C.E. Woodcuts, I2mo, cloth boards, 3^. 6d. ; cloth limp, 2s. 6d. [Recently published. "A very useful and thoroughly practical little volume, in every way deserving of irculation amongst working men." Mining Journal. " No ironworker who wishes to acquaint himself with the principles of his own trade can afford to be without it." South Durham Mercury. Power in Motion. POWER IN MOTION : Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c. By JAMES ARMOUR, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. I2ino, cloth boards, 3-r. 6d. [Recently published. " Numerous illustrations enable the author to convey his meaning as explicitly as it is perhaps possible to be conveyed. The value of the theoretic and practical know- ledge imparted cannot well be over estimated." Newcastle Weekly Chronicle. Metallurgy of Iron. A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con- taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Proces es of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. BAUERMAN, F.G S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, revised and much enlarged. I2mo., cloth boards, 5-r. 6d. [Just published. " Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points, while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into." Standard. Trigonometrical Surveying. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo- graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon- naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy and Practical Astronomy, and Formulae and Tables for Facilitating their Calculation. By LIEUT-GENERAL FROME, R.E., late In- spector,- General of Fortifications, &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, thoroughly Revised, and partly Re-written. By CAPTAIN CHARLES WARREN, R.E., F.G.S. With 19 Plates find 115 Wcodcuts, royal 8vo, price i6s. cloth. \jrxst /.'. 'Wished. 8 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Hydraulics. HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAE for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Second Edition, with extensive Additions, New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. With nume- rous Woodcuts, 8vo, i6s. cloth. %* This work contains a vast number of different hydraulic formulae, and the most extensive and accurate tables yet published for finding the mean velocity of discharge from triangular, quadri- lateral, and circular orifices, pipes, and rivers ; with experimental results and co-efficients ; effects of friction ; of the velocity of approach ; and of curves, bends, contractions, and expansions ; the best form of channel ; the drainage effects of long and short weirs, and weir-basins ; extent of back-water from weirs ; contracted ^ channels ; catchment-basins ; hydrostatic and hydraulic pressure ; water-power, &c. c. Levelling. A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. TELFORD'S Rules for the same. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Fifth Edition, very carefully revised, with the addition of Mr. LAW'S Practical Examples for Setting out Railway Curves, and Mr. TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, &s. 6d. cloth. %* TRAUTWINE on Curves, separate, price $s. "One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there is scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution would be sought but that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume." Mining' Journal. " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges." Engineer. "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work." Engineering. Tunnelling'. PRACTICAL TUNNELLING ; explaining in Detail the Setting out of the Works ; Shaft Sinking and Heading Driving ; Ranging the Lines and Levelling Under-Ground ; Sub-Excavating, Timber- ing, and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels ; with the Amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of the various Por- tions of the Work. By FREDK. W. SIMMS, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., M. Inst. C. E. , Author of "A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Levelling," &c. &c. Second Edition, revised by W. DAVIS HASKOLL, Civil Engineer, Author of " The Engineer's Field-Book," &c. &c. With 16 large folding Plates and numerous Woodcuts. Imperial 8vo, I/, is. eloth. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 9 Strength of Cast Iron, &c. A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON and OTHER METALS. By the late THOMAS TREDGOLD, Mem. Inst. C.E., Author of "Elementary Principles of Carpentry," &c. Fifth Edition, Edited by EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S. ; to which are added EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES on the STRENGTH and OTHER PROPERTIES of CAST IRON. By the EDITOR. The whole Illustrated with 9 Engravings and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 12s. cloth. %* HODGKINSON'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON may be had separately. With Engravings and Woodcuts. 8vo, price 6s. cloth. The High-Pressure Steam Engine. THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and Economy. By Dr. ERNST ALBAN, Practical Machine Maker, Plau, Mecklenberg. Translated from the German, with Notes, by Dr. POLE, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., &c. &c. With 28 fine Plates, 8vo, 16^. 6d. cloth. " A work like this, which goes thoroughly into the examination of the high-pressure engine, the boiler, and its appendages, c., is exceedingly useful, and deserves a place in every scientific library." Steam Shipping Chronicle. Steam Boilers. A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con- struction, and Economical Working. By ROBERT WILSON, late Inspector for the Manchester Steam Users' Association for the Prevention of Steam Boiler Explosions, and for the Attainment of Economy in the Application of Steam. I2mo, cloth boards, 328 pages, price 6s. Tables of Curves. TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By ALEXANDER BEAZELEY, M. Inst. C.E. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, price $s. 6d. " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for the pocket an arrangement that will recommend them to all practical men." Engineer. " Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." At/ietueum. Laying Out Curves. THE FIELD PRACTICE of LAYING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES for RAILROADS. By JOHN C. TRAUTWINE, C.E. (Extracted from SIMMS'S Work on Levelling). 8vo, $s. sewed. io WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Estimate and Price Book. THE CIVIL ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S ESTI- MATE AND PRICE BOOK for Home or Foreign Service : in reference to Roads, Railways, Tramways, Docks, Harbours, Forts, Fortifications, Bridges, Aqueducts, Tunnels, Sewers, Water- works, Gasworks, Stations, Barracks, Warehouses, c. c. c. With Specifications for Permanent Way, Telegraph Materials, Plant, Maintenance, and Working of a Railway ; and a Priced List of Machinery, Plant, Tools, &c. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E. Plates and Woodcuts. Published annually. Svo, cloth, 6s. "As furnishing"a variety of data on every conceivable want to civil engineers and contractors, this book has ever stood perhaps unrivalled." Architect. Surveyi&g (Land and Marine). LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C. E., Author of "The Engineer's Field Book," " Examples of Bridge and Viaduct Construction," &c. Demy Svo, price 12s. 6d. cloth, with 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts. "A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book;" Builder. "Mr. Haskoll has knowledge and experience, and can so give expression to it as to make any matter on which he writes, clear to the youngest pupil in a surveyor's office. " Colliery Guardian. " A volume which cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility It is one which may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors." Mining Jozirnal. Engineering Fieldwork. THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider- able additions, and a Supplementary Volume on WATER- WORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. Demy Svo, 2 vols. in one, cloth boards, I/, u. (published at 2/. 4^.) Mining Surveying and Valuing. THE MINERAL "SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im- proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal Mineral Properties: to which is appended M. THOMAN'S (of the Credit Mobilier, Paris) TREATISE on COMPOUND IN- TEREST and ANNUITIES, with LOGARITHMIC TABLES. By WILLIAM LINTERN, Mining and Civil Engineer. I2mo, strongly bound in cloth boards, with four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c , price IGJ-. 6d. \Justpublishcd. ''Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which, as far as we have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy." Iron and Coal Trades Review. " The matter, arrangement, and illustration of this work are all excellent, and make it one of the best of its kind." Standard. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 11 Fire Engineering. FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- ment ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, c., &c. By CHARLES F. T. YOUNG, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, price I/. 4s. cloth. " We can most heartily commend this book It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject." Engineering. " We strongly recommend the book to the notice of all who are in any way in- terested in fires, fire-engines, or fire-brigades." Mechanics 1 Magazine. Manual of Mining Tools. MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, Mining Students, &c. By WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Prac- tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. I2mo. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 4to. Together, price gs. cloth boards. \Recentlypublished. " Students in the Science of Mining, and not only they, but subordinate officials in mines, and even Overmen, Captains, Managers, and Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. Morgans's Manual." Colliery Gitardian. "A very valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining litera- ture." Mining Journal. Gas and Gas-works. A TREATISE on GASWORKS and the PRACTICE of MANUFACTURING and DISTRIBUTING COAL GAS. By SAMUEL HUGHES, C.E. Third Edition, revised by W. RICHARDS, C.E. With 68 Woodcuts, bound in cloth boards, I2mo, price 4J-. Waterworks for Cities and Towns. WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water. By SAMUEL HUGHES, F.G.S., Civil Engineer. New and enlarged edition, I2mo, cloth boards, with numerous Illustrations, price $s. \just published. " One of the most convenient, and at the same time reliable works on a subject, the vital importance of which cannot be over-estimated." Bradford Observer. Coal and Coal Mining. COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. New edition, revised and corrected. I2mo., cloth boards, with nume- rous Illustrations, price 4^. 6d. \Just published. "Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and as an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers." Mining Journal. "Certainly experimental skill and rule-of-thumb practice would be greatly en- riched by the addition of the theoretical knowledge and scientific information which . Mr. Warington Smyth communicates in combination with the results of his own ex- perience and personal research." Colliery Guardian. 12 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Fie Id- Book for Engineers. THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, Civil Engineer. Third Edition, much enlarged, consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theo- dolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, cal- culated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts, I2ino, price I2s. cloth. " A very useful work for the practical engineer and surveyor. Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." Rail- way News. "The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." Athenceum. " The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering profession.'' Mining Journal. "We strongly recommend this second edition of Mr. Haskoll's ' Field Book' to all classes of surveyors." Colliery Guardian. Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of. A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth- work will find a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineers' contractor's offices." Artizan. Harbours. THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS. By THOMAS STEVENSON, F.R.S.E., M.I.C.E. Reprinted and en- larged from the Article "Harbours," in the Eighth Edition of " The Encyclopaedia Britannica." With 10 Plates and numerous Cuts. 8vo, ioj. 6d. cloth. Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPAL MATHEMATICAL AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS employed by the Engineer, Architect, and Surveyor. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Practical Tunnelling," &c. Third Edition, with numerous Cuts. I2mo, price 3^. 6d. cloth. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13 Bridge Construction in Masonry, Timber, & Iron. EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC- TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of seleot Works. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works, illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, price 2/. 12s. 6d* half- morocco. *' One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and treating on the common cvery-day practice of the railway engineer. ... A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove invaluable to hundreds. The tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance its value." Engineering. Mathematical Instruments, their Construction, &c. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS : THEIR CONSTRUC- TION, ADJUSTMENT, TESTING, AND USE; comprising Drawing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instru- ments. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A., Author of " Practical Plane Geometry," "Descriptive Geometry," &c. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely rewritten. With numerous Wood-cuts. I2mo, cloth boards, price 5^. [Now ready. Oblique Arches. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of OBLIQUE ARCHES. By JOHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, price 8j-. cloth. Oblique Bridges. A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE BRIDGES, with 13 large folding Plates. By GEO. WATSON BUCK, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected by W. H. BARLOW, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, 12s. cloth. "The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches, is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better." Engineer. Weale's Series of Rudimentary Works. These highly popular and cheap Series of Books, now comprising nearly Three Hundred distinct Works in almost every department of Science, Art, and. Education, are recommended to the notice of En- gineers, Architects, Builders, Artizans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in Workmen's Libraries, Free Libraries, Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schoolfe, Science Classes, &c., &c. *** Lists may be had on application to LOCKWOOD & CO. Weales Dictionary of Terms in Architecture, Engineering, Art, &c. A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By JOHN WEALE. Fourth Edition, enlarged and revised by ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts," c. I2mo, cloth boards, price 6s. \Just published. 14 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. ARCHITECTURE, &C. 1 Construction. THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : an Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. Illustrated with 47 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo, price 8s. 6d. cloth. {Recently published. " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." Builder. "While Mr. Tarn's valuable little volume is quite sufficiently scientific to answer the purposes intended, it is written in a style that will deservedly make it popular. The diagrams are numerous and exceedingly well executed, and the treatise does credit alike to the author and the publisher. " Engineer. " No architectural student should be without this hand-book of constructional knowledge." A rchitect. "The book is very far from being a mere compilation ; it is an able digest of information which is only to be found scattered through various works, and contains more really original writing than many putting forth far stronger claims to originality." Engineering. Beaton s Pocket Estimator. THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters' and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material and labour. By A. C. BEATON, Author of ' Quantities and Measurements.' 33 Woodcuts. Leather, waistcoat-pocket size. 2s. Seat on s Builders' and Surveyors Technical Guide. THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memo- randa for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement of Timbers, and Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains. By A. C. BEATON, Author of * Quantities and Measure- ments.' With 19 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat pocket size. 2s. [Now ready. Villa Architecture. A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of England," &c. First Series, consisting of 30 Plates ; Second Series, 31 Plates. Complete in I vol., 4to, price 2/. IQJ-. half morocco. Either Series separate, price I/. 7s. each, half morocco. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive to architects, students, and amateurs." Building News. The Architect's Gitide. THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE ; or, Office and Pocket Com- panion for Engineers, Architects, Land and Building Surveyors, Contractors, Builders, Clerks of Works, &c. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E., R. W. BILLINGS, Architect, F. ROGERS, and P. THOMPSON. With numerous Experiments by G. RENNIE, C.E., &c. Woodcuts, I2mo, cloth, price $s. 6d. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & GO. 15 Vitruvius* Architecture. THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO. Translated by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. Numerous Plates. I2mo, cloth limp, price 5-r. The Young Architect's Book. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By GEORGE WIGHT- WICK, Architect, Author of " The Palace of Architecture," &c. &c. Second Edition. With numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 7^., extra cloth. Drawing for B^tilders and Students. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. By GEORGE PYNE, Author of a "Rudimentary Treatise on Per- spective for Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, Js. 6d., boards. CONTENTS. I. Practical Rules on Drawing Outlines. II. Ditto the Grecian and Roman Orders. III. Practical Rules on Drawing Perspective. IV. Practical Rules on Light and Shade. V. Practical Rules on Colour, &c. &c. Drawing for Engineers, &c. THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By JOHN MAXTON, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, South Kensington. Second Edition, carefully revised. With upwards of 300 Plates and Diagrams. 121110, cloth, strongly bound, 4^. 6d. \Now ready. " Even accomplished draughtsmen will find in it much that will be of use to them. A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." Engineering. "An indispensable book for teachers of engineering drawing." Mechanics* Magazine. Cottages, Villas, and Country Houses. DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, VILLAS, and COUNTRY HOUSES ; being the Studies of several eminent Architects and Builders ; consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Per- spective Views ; with approximate Estimates of the Cost of each. In 4to, with 67 plates, price I/, u., cloth. Bidlders Price Book. ATCHLEY'S BUILDERS' PRICE BOOK for 1873, contain- ing a complete List of Prices of Builder's Materials and Labour of all Trades in connection with Building ; useful and important Tables and Memoranda for preparing Estimates, compiled by a staff of experienced men. To which are added, Builders' Prices for the West Riding of Yorkshire, specially prepared for this work ; Tables for Calculating wages ; Builders' Measurements, with Bills of Quantities. By A. C. BEATON. Marks and Qualities of Timber, with Rules for Calculating the Various Standards ; Iron as applied to Building Structures. By a CIVIL ENGINEER. Crown 8vo, strongly bound, price 3^. 6d. 16 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD CO. Handbook of Specifications. THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c., and explained by numerous Lithograph Plates and Woodcuts. By Professor THOMAS L. DONALDSON, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Professor of Architecture and Construction, University College, London, M.I.B.A., Member of the various European Academies of the Fine Arts. With A REVIEW OF THE LAW OF CONTRACTS, and of the Responsibilities of Architects, Engineers, and Builders. By W. CUNNINGHAM GLEN, Barrister-at-Law, of the Middle Temple. 2 vols., 8vo, with upwards of noopp. of text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, 2/. 2s. (Published at 4/. ) " In these two volumes of 1,100 pages (together), forty-four specifications of executed works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, ' the bill of quantities, with the description of the works,' and occupies more than 100 printed pages. "Amongst the other known buildings, the specifications of which are given, are the Wiltshire Lunatic Asylum (Wyatt and Brandon) ; Tothill Fields Prison (R. Abra- ham) ; the City Prison, Holloway (Bunning) ; the High School, Edinburgh (Hamilton) ; Clothworkers" Hall, London (Angel) ; Wellington College, Sandhurst (J. Shaw) ; Houses in Grosvenor Square, and elsewhere ; St. George's Church, Doncaster (Scott) ; several works of smaller size by the Author, including Messrs. Shaw's "Ware- house in Fetter Lane, a very successful elevation ; the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Railway Station (J. Dobson) ; new Westminster Bridge (Page) ; the High Level Bridge, New- castle (R. Stephenson) ; various works on the Great Northern Railway (Brydone) ; and one French specification for Houses in the Rue de Rivoli, Paris (MM. Armand, Hittorff, Pellechet, and Rohault de Fleury, architects). The last is a very elaborate composition, occupying seventy pages. The majority of the specifications have illus- trations in the shape of elevations and plans. "We are most glad to have the present work. It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. "About 140 pages of the second volume are appropriated to an exposition of the law in relation to the legal liabilities of engineers, architects, contractors, and builders, by Mr. W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-law ; intended rather for those persons than for the legal practitioner. Suffice it, in conclusion, to say in words what our readers will have gathered for themselves from the particulars we have given, that Donaldson's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects." Builder. Specifications for Practical Architecture. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE : A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo, price 15^., cloth. \* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis of thtft work, has produced the above. Some of the specifications he has so altered as to bring in the now universal use of concrete, the improvements in drainage, the use of iron, glass, asphalte, and other material. He has also inserted specifications of works that have been erected in his own practice. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17 Granthams Iron Ship-Building, enlarged. ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and Details. Fifth Edition. ' Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together with separate Text, I2mo, cloth limp, also considerably enlarged, By JOHN GRANTHAM, M. Inst. C.E., &c. Price 2.1. 2s. complete. Description of Plates. 1. Hollow and Bar Keels, Stem and Stern Posts. [Pieces. 2. Side Frames, Floorings, and Bilge 3. Floorings continued Keelsons, Deck Beams, Gunwales, and Stringers. 4. Gunwales continued Lower Decks, and Orlop Beams. 40. Gunwales and Deck Beam Iron. 5. Angle- Iron, T Iron, Z Iron, Bulb Iron, as Rolled for Building. 6. Rivets, shown in section, natural size ; Flush and Lapped Joints, with Single and Double Riveting. 7. Plating, three plans ; Bulkheads and Modes of Securing them. 8. Iron Masts, with Longitudinal and Transverse Sections. 9. Sliding Keel, Water Ballast, Moulding the Frames in Iron Ship Building, Levelling Plates. 10. Longitudinal Section, and Half- breadth Deck Plan of Large Vessels on a reduced Scale. 11. Midship Sections of Three Vessels. 12. Large Vessel, showing Details Fore End in Section, and End View, with Stern Post, Crutches, &c. 13. Large yesset,showing Details After End in Section, with End View, Stern Frame for Screw, and Rudder. 14. Large Vessel, showing Details Mid- ship Section, half breadth. 15. Machine* for Punching and Shearing Piates and Angle-Iron, and for Bending Plates ; Rivet Hearth. 15^. Beam-Bending Machine, Indepen- dent Shearing, Punching and Angle- Iron Machine. i5& Double Lever Punching and Shearing Machine, arranged for cutting Angle and T Iron, with Dividing Table and Engine. 16. Machines. Garforth's Riveting Ma- chine, Drilling and Counter-Sinking Machine. i6a. Plate Planing Machine. 17. Air Furnace for Heating Plates and Angle- Iron : Various Tools used in Riveting and Plating. 18. Gunwale i Keel and Flooring; Plan for Sheathing with Copper. i8rt. Grantham's Improved Planof Sheath- ing Iron Ships with Copper. 19. Illustrations of the Magnetic Condi- tion of various Iron Ships. 20. Gray's Floating Compass and Bin- nacle, with Adjusting Magnets, &c. 21. Corroded Iron Bolt in Frame of Wooden Ship ; Jointing Plates. 22-4. Great Eastern Longitudinal Sec- tions and Half-breadth Plans Mid- ship Section, with Details Section in Engine Room, and Paddle Boxes. 25-6. Paddle Steam Vessel of Steel. 27. Scarbrough Paddle Vessel of Sted. 28-9. Proposed Passenger Steamer. 30. Persian Iron Screw Steamer. 31. Midship Section of H.M. Steam Frigate, Warrior. 32. Midship Section of H.M. Steam Frigate, Hercules. 33. Stem, Stern, and Rudder of H.M. Steam Frigate, Bellerophon. 34. Midship Section of H. M. Troop Ship, Serapis. 35. Iron Floating Dock. "An enlarged edition of an elaborately illustrated work." Builder. " This edition of Mr. Grantham's work has been enlarged and improved, both with respect to the text and the engravings being brought down to the present period . . . The practical operations required in producing a shipare described and illustrated with care and precision." Mechanics' Magazine. " A thoroughly practical work, and every question of the many in relation to iron shipping which admit of diversity of opinion, or have various and conflicting personal interests attached to them, is treated with sober and impartial wisdom and good sense. As good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron naval architecture as can be found in any language." Practical Mechanics Journal. " A very elaborate work. ... It forms a most valuable addition to the history of iron shipbuilding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised, will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in shipbuilding." Army and Navy Gazette. 18 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c. f TredgolcTs Carpentry r , new, enlarged, and cheaper Edition. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes^ the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. Edited by PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor- rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (n of which now first appear in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2s., reduced to I/. 5^., cloth. "'Tredgold's Carpentry' ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library, and those who do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new issue. " Builder. "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car- pentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time, and, as now presented, combine the surest base with the most interesting display of progressive science. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." Building News. " 'Tredgold's Carpentry* has ever held a high position, and the issue of the fifth edition, in a still more improved and enlarged form, will give satisfaction to a very large number of artisans who desire to raise themselves in their business, and who seek to do so by displaying a greater amount of knowledge and intelligence than their fellow-workmen. It is as complete a work as need be desired. To the superior workman the volume will prove invaluable ; it contains treatises written in language which he will readily comprehend." Mining Journal. Grandys Timber Tables. THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Comprising : An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, Duty, &c., &c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. I2mo, price Js. 6d. cloth. "Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c. all that the class to whom it appeals requires." English Mechanic. f< The only difficulty we have is as to what is NOT in its pages. What we have tested of the contents, taken at random, is invariably correct." I llustratedBicilder's Journal, Tables for Packing-Case Makers. PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. Compiled by WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Accountant. Oblong 4to, cloth, price $s. 6d. "Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use packing-cases." Grocer. "Invaluable labour-saving tables." Ironmonger. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19 Nicholsons Carpenter s Guide. THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER NICHOLSON'S standard work. A new Edition, revised by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. is. cloth. Dowsing* s Timber Merchant's Companion. THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a variety of other valuable information. By WILLIAM DOWSING, Timber Merchant. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3.5-. cloth. " Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." Hull Advertiser* Timber Freight Book. THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Timber Broker, author of " Packing Case Tables," c. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 6s. MECHANICS, &c. * Mechanic s Workshop Companion. THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC- TICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules in Mechanical Science ; with numerous Tables of Prac- tical Data and Calculated Results. By W. TEMPLETON, Author of "The Engineer's, Millwright's, and Machinist's Practical As- sistant." Eleventh Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, &c. ; together with several Useful and Practical Rules in Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics, a variety of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and Roots. II Plates. I2ino, $s. bound. {Recently piiblished. " As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are judiciously met, TEMPLETON'S COMPANION stands unrivalled." Mechanics' Magazine. " Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work. " Building News* 20 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Engineer s Assistant. THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S . PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original Matter, by W. TEMPLETON. 5th Edition. i8mo, 2s.6d. cloth. .id a more suitable jossibly be made." to the attention of our readers." Mechanics' Magazine. " Every mechanic should become the possessor of the volume, an present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not pi Building Neivs. Designing, Measuring, and Valuing. THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA- SURING, and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re- spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, c. With 43 Plates and Wood- cuts. Originally edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect. New Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc- tion, and several useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measurements. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. 8vo, I or. 6d. cloth. [Recently published. "This useful book should be in every architect's and builder's office. It contains a vast amount of information absolutely necessary to be known." The I risk Builder. " The book is well worthy the attention of the student in architecture and surveying, as by the careful study of it his progress in his profession will be much facilitated." Mining Journal. " We have failed to discover anything connected with the building trade, from ex- cavating foundations to bell-hanging, that is not fully treated upon in this valuable work. " The A rtizan. " Mr. Tarn has well performed the task imposed upon him, and has made many further and valuable additions, embodying a large amount of information relating to the technicalities and modes of construction employed in the several branches of the building trade From the extent of the information which the volume embodies, and the care taken to secure accuracy in every detail, it cannot fail to prove of the highest value to students, whether training in the offices of provincial surveyors, or in those of London practitioners." Colliery Guardian. " Altogether the book is one which well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students. Finally, it is only just to the pub- lishers to add that the book has been got up in excellent style, the typography being bold and clear, and the plates very well executed." Engineering. Superficial Measurement. THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- SUREMENT. Tables calculated from I to 200 inches in length, by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES HAW- KINGS. Fcp. 3^. 6d. cloth. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21 MATHEMATICS, &c. Gregory s Practical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common- place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. PURE MATHEMATICS comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. Part II. MIXED MATHEMATICS comprising Mechanics in general, Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL. D. , F.R. A. S. Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C. E. 4th Edition, carefully revised and corrected by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Profes- sor of Mathematics, Belfast College; Author of "A Course of Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, I/, u. cloth. " As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled." Artizan. " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. As a moderate acquaint- ance with arithmetic, algebra, and elementary geometry is absolutely necessary to the proper understanding of the most useful portions of this book, the author very wisely has devoted the first three chapters to those subjects, so that the most ignorant may be enabled to master the whole of the book, without aid from any other. The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out. " Bitilder. " One of the most serviceable books to the practical mechanics of the country. . The edition of 1847 was fortunately entrusted to the able hands of Mr. Law, who revised it thoroughly, re-wrote many chapters, and added several sections to those which had been rendered imperfect by advanced knowledge. On examining the various and many improvements which he introduced into the work, they seem almost like a new structure on an old plan, or rather like the restoration of an old ruin, not only to its former substance, but to an extent which meets the larger requirements of modern times In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revised by Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors which have escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is possible to make it We have carried our notice of this book to a greater length than the space allowed us justified, but the experiments it contains are so interesting, and the method of describing them so clear, that we may be excused for overstepping our limit. It is an instructive book for the student, and a Text- book for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them." Building News. The Metric System. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By*C. H. DOWLING, C. E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, los. 6d. strongly bound. " Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." Athen&um. " Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal." Builder. *' Resolution 8. That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of Metric Tables, by C. H. Dowling, C.E." R eport of Section F y British Association, Bath. 22 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Inwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and improved. TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By WILLIAM INWOOD, Architect. The i8th edition, with considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis- count, Annuities, &c., by M. FEDOR THOMAN, of the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. I2ino, &$. cloth. %* This edition (the \^>th] differs in many important particulars from former ones. The changes consist, first, in a more convenient and systematic arrangement of the original Tables , and in the removal of certain numerical errors which a very careful revision of the whole has enabled the present editor to discover ; and secondly, in the extension of practical utility conferred on the wo?'k by the introduction of Tables now inserted for the first time. This neiv and important matter is all so much actually added to INWOOD'S TABLES ; nothing has been abstracted from the original collection: so that those who have been long in the habit of consulting INWOOD for any special profes- sional purpose will, as heretofore, find the information sought still in zts pages. " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent service." Engineering. Geometry for the Architect, Engineer , &c. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. TARN, M.A., Architect, x Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. I2s. 6d. \_Noiu ready. " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satis- factory. " Scotsman. Compound Interest and Annuities. THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ; with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Intro- duction. By FEDOR THOMAN, of the Societe Credit Mobilier, Paris. I2mo, cloth, $s. " A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his subject." Professor A. de Morgan. " We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accountants." Atken&um. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23 SCIENCE AND ART. The Military Sciences. AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- ferent Sendees. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols. royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, price 4/. los. "A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly in- debted." Edinburgh Review. " The most comprehensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences. Among the list of contributors, some seventy-seven in number, will be found names of the highest distinction in the services." Volunteer Service Gazette. Field Fortification. A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK of FORTRESSES, MILITARY, MINING, and RECON- NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, price I2s. complete. Naval Science. Edited by E. J . Reed, C.B. NAVAL SCIENCE : a Quarterly Magazine for Promoting the Improvement of Naval Architecture, Marine Engineering, Steam Navigation, and Seamanship. Edited by E. J. REED, C.B., late Chief Constructor of the Navy. Copiously illustrated. Price 2s. 6d. No. 7, October, 1873, now ready. (Vol. I., containing Nos. I to 3, may also be had, cloth boards, price los. 6d.) %* The Contributors include the most Eminent Authorities in the several branches of the above subjects. Dye- Wares and Colours. THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES: their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, s.nd Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Dry Salters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER. Post 8vo, cloth, price JS. 6d. [Recently published. "A complete encyclopaedia of the materza tinctoria. The information given respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable." Chemist and Druggist. Electricity. A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Mag- netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno- Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Fourth Edition, entirely rewritten. Illustrated by 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, I/. 4^. cloth. " The commendations already bestowed in the pages of the Lancet on the former editions of this work are more than ever merited by the present. The accounts given of electricity and galvanism are not only complete in a scientific sense, but, which is a rarer thing, are popular and interesting." Lancet. 24 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Text-Book of Electricity. THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY: in- eluding Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, Electro-Magnetism, Dia- magnetism, Magneto-Electricity, Thermo-Electricity, and Electric Telegraphy. Being a Condensed Resume of the Theory and Ap- plication of Electrical Science, including its latest Practical Deve- lopments, particularly as relating to Aerial and Submarine Tele- graphy. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Post Svo, 400 Illustrations, \2s. 6d. cloth. " We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts." At/teneeum. " A most elaborate compilation of the facts of electricity and magnetism, and of the theories which have been advanced concerning them." Popular Science Review. " Clear, compendious, compact, well illustrated, and well printed." Lancet. " We can strongly recommend the work, as an admirable text-book, to every student beginner or advanced of electricity." Engineering. " Nothing of value has been passed over, and nothing given but what will lead to a correct, and even an exact, knowledge of the present state of electrical science." Mechanics 1 Magazine. " We know of no book on electricity containing so much information on experi- mental facts as this does, for the size of it, and no book of any size that contains so complete a range of facts." ngtisA. Mechanic. Rudimentary Magnetism. RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. SNOW HARRIS, F.R.S. New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr. NOAD, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. I2mo, cloth, 4^. 6d. \_Now ready. "There is a good index, and this volume of 412 pages may be considered the best possible manual on the subject of magnetism." Mechanics' Magazine. "As concise and lucid an exposition of the phenomena of magnetism as we believe it is possible to write." English Mechanic. " Not only will the scientific student find this volume an invaluable book of refer- ence, but the general reader will find in it as much to interest as to inform his mind. Though a strictly scientific work, its subject is handled in a simple and readable style. " Illustrated Review. Chemical Analysis. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In- trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. NORMANDY, Author of "Prac- tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's " Treatise of Chemical Analysis." Illustrated with Woodcuts. (A new Edition of this work, revised by Dr. Noad, is in preparation.} "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." Medical Times. "The very best work on the subject the English press has yet produced." Me- chanics' Magazine. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25 Science and Art. THE YEAR-BOOK of FACTS in SCIENCE and ART ; ex- hibiting the most important Improvements and Discoveries of the Past Year in Mechanics and the Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Electricity, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany, Geology and Mine- ralogy, Meteorology and Astronomy. By JOHN TIMES, F.S.A., Author of "Curiosities of Science," "Things not Generally Known," &c. With Steel Portrait and Vignette. Fcap. $s. cloth. %* This work, published annually, records the proceedings of the principal scientific societies, and is indispensable to all who wish to possess a faithful record of the latest novelties in science and the arts. The back Volumes, from 1861 to 1873, each containing a Steel Portrait, and an extra Volume for 1862, with Photograph, may still be had, price $s. each. " Persons who wish for a concise annual summary of important scientific events will find their desire in the 'Year Book of Facts.' " Athen&um. " The standard work of its class. Mr. Timbs's ' Year Book ' is always full of sugges- tive and interesting matter, and is an excellent resume of the year's progress in the sciences and the arts." Builder. " A correct exponent of scientific progress .... a record of abiding interest If anyone wishes to know what progress science has made, or what has been done in any branch of art during the past year, he has only to turn to Mr. Timbs's pages, and is sure to obtain the required information." Mechanics' Magazine. " There is not a more useful or more interesting compilation than the 'Year Book of Facts.' . . . The discrimination with which Mr. Timbs selects his facts, and the admi- rable manner in which he condenses into a comparatively short space all the salient features of the matters which he places on record, are deserving of great praise." Railway News. Science and Scripture. SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT ANTAGONISTIC TO IT ; being a Series of Essays on I. Alleged Discrepancies ; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and Figure of the Earth ; 3. The Mosaic Cosmogony ; 4. Miracles in general Views of Hume and Powell ; 5. The Miracle of Joshua Views of Dr. Colenso : The Supernaturally Impossible ; 6. The Age of the Fixed Stars their Distances and Masses. By Professor J. R. YOUNG, Author of "A Course of Elementary Mathematics," &c. &c. Fcap. 8vo, price 5r. cloth lettered. " Professor Young's examination of the early verses of Genesis, in connection with modern scientific hypotheses, is excellent." English Churchman. " Distinguished by the true spirit of scientific inquiry, by great knowledge, by keen logical ability, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and energetic." Nonconformist. " No one can rise from its perusal without being impressed with a sense of the sin- gular weakness of modern scepticism." Baptist Magazine. " A valuable contribution to controversial theological literature." City Press. Practical Philosophy. A SYNOPSIS of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. By the Rev. JOHN CARR, M.A., late Fellow of Trin. Coll., Cambridge. Second Edition. i8mo, $s. cloth. 26 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Dr. Lardners Museum of Science and Art. THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi- losophy and Astronomy in University College, London. CONTENTS : The Planets ; are they inhabited Worlds ? Weather Prognostics Popular Fallacies in Questions of Physical Science Latitudes and Longitudes Lunar Influences Meteoric Stones and Shooting Stars Railway Accidents Light Common Things: Air Locomotion in the United States Cometary Influences Common Things : Water The Potter's Art Common Things : Fire Locomotion and Transport, their Influence and Progress The Moon Common Things : The Earth The Electric Telegraph Terrestrial Heat The Sun Earthquakes and Volcanoes Baro- meter, Safety Lamp, and Whitworth's Micrometric Apparatus Steam The Steam Engine The Eye The Atmosphere Time Common Things : Pumps Common Things : Spectacles, the Kaleidoscope Clocks and Watches Microscopic Drawing and Engraving Locomotive Thermometer New Planets : Lever- rier and Adams's Planet Magnitude and Minuteness Common Things : The Almanack Optical Images How to observe ' s the Heavens Common Things : the Looking-glass Stellar Universe The Tides Colour Common Things : Man Magnifying Glasses Instinct and Intelligence The Solar Microscope The Camera Lucida The Magic Lantern The Camera Obscura The Microscope The White Ants : their Manners and Habits The Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of Geography Science and Poetry The Bee Steam Navigation Electro-Motive Power Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis The Printing Press The Crust of the Earth Comets The Stereo- scope The Pre-Adamite Earth Eclipses Sound. With up- wards of 1 200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, reel edges, price i is. tl The ' Museum of Science and Art ' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." Sir David Breivstcr in tke NortJi British Review. "Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found among the new books, one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a valuable present." Examiner. *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmerfs Libraries, Science Classes, r. [Recently published. " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly- arranged list of prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c." Standard. The Civil Service Book-keeping. BOOK-KEEPING NO MYSTERY: its Principles popularly ex- plained, and the Theory of Double Entry analysed. By an EXPE- RIENCED BOOK-KEEPER, late of H.M. Civil Service. Second Edition. Fcp. 8vo. price 2s. cloth. "A book which brings the so-called mysteries within the comprehension of the simplest capacity." Sunday Times. 32 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. "A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country" EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER ; a Handy-Book of the Prin- ciples of Law and Equity. By A BARRISTER. loth Edition, carefully revised, including a Summary of the Ballot Act, The Adulteration of Food Act, The Masters' and Workmen's Arbitra- tion Act, the Reported Cases of the Courts of Law and Equity, &c. With Notes and References to the Authorities. I2mo, price 6s. &/. (saved at every consultation), strongly bound. \_Now ready. Comprising the Rights and Wrongs of Individuals, Mercantile and Com- mercial Law, Criminal Law, Parish Law, County Court Law, Game and Fishery Laws, Poor Meris Lawsuits. THE LAWS OF BANKRUPTCY BILLS OF EXCHANGE CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS COPYRIGHT DOWER AND DIVORCE ELECTIONS AND REGISTRATION INSURANCE LIBEL AND SLANDER MORTGAGES SETTLEMENTS STOCK EXCHANGE PRACTICE TRADE MARKS AND PATENTS TRESPASS, NUISANCES, ETC. TRANSFER OF LAND, ETC. WARRANTY WILLS AND AGREEMENTS, ETC. Also Law for Landlord and Tenant Master and Servant Workmen and Apprentices Heirs, Devisees, and Legatees Husband and Wife Executors and Trustees Guardian and Ward Married Women and Infants Partners and Agents Lender and Borrower Debtor and Creditor Purchaser and Vendor Companies and Asso- ciations Friendly Societies Clergymen, Churchwardens Medical Practitioners, &c. Bankers Farmers Contractors Stock and Share Brokers Sportsmen and Gamekeepers Farriers and Horse-Dealers Auctioneers, House-Agents Innkeepers, &c. Pawnbrokers Surveyors Railways and Carriers, &c. &c. " No Englishman ought to be without this book . . . any person perfectly unin- formed on legal matters, who may require sound information on unknown law points, will, by reference to this book, acquire the necessary information ; and thus on many occasions save the expense and loss of time of a visit to a lawyer. " Engineer. " It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain language which all can understand . . . should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills." Weekly Times. " A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care." Law Magazine. " What it professes to be a complete epitome of the laws of this country, thoroughly intelligible to non-professional readers. The book is a handy one to have in readi- ness when some knotty point requires ready solution." Bell's Life. Pawnbrokers Legal Guide. THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS', and MERCHANTS' GUIDE to the LAW of LOANS and PLEDGES. With the Statutes and a Digest of Cases on Rights and Liabilities, Civil and Criminal, as to Loans and Pledges of Goods, Debentures, Mercan- tile, and other Securities. By H. C. FOLKARD, Esq., of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law, Author of the " Law of Slander and Libel," &c. I2mo, cloth boards, price 'js. \Just published. The Laws of Mines and Mining Companies. A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the LAW RELATING to MINES and MINING COMPANIES. By WHITTON ARUN- DELL, Attorney-at-Law. Crown 8vo. 4-r. cloth, cfi Bradbury, Agnew, & Co., Printers, Whitefriars .London. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. <00 o*^r O CO Q CO S Z CN 12 IAJCM ! Q O C tno & < o LD 21-100m-7,'40 (6936s) YA 01466 ,37*36 79 S THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY -