LIBRARY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 MR. & MRS. HOWARD A. WILCOX
 
 p 
 
 I
 
 ITH THE WORLD'S 
 PEOPLE ^ ^ ^ 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE ETHNIC ORIGIN, PRIMI- 
 TIVE ESTATE. EARLY MIGRATIONS, SOCIAL 
 EVOLUTION, AND PRESENT CONDITIONS AND 
 PROMISE OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF MEN 
 
 TOGETHER WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE 
 TIME. PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING 
 
 By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "HISTORY OF THE WORLD " ETC. 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH COLORED PLATES, RACE MAPS 
 AND CHARTS. TYPE PICTURES, SKETCHES. AND DIAGRAMS 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 CLARK E. RIDPATH 
 
 1915
 
 Cn^inni.uit 1903-1311 
 
 SllP 3)iiiira UriitliriB }JiililiBhiiig Q!om;)aii!i 
 
 All Kiiiljla Striirrurft
 
 Jnri fi$tmh. 
 
 Primitive Estate of the Human Race. 
 
 BOOK III-PRIMEVAL MAN. 
 
 Chapter XV.— Divers Aspects oe Barbaric LiEEi. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 T is the purpose in 
 tliis book to present 
 as inuch as is known 
 relative to the prim- 
 itive condition of man- 
 kind in several quar- 
 ters of the earth. The 
 progress of historical science and archae- 
 ological research has now made us famil- 
 iar with many aspects of 4he earl)- life 
 of man hitherto unknown. It is pos- 
 sible, with our present light, to make a 
 tolerably accurate picture of the social 
 Essential inter- phenomena of several pec- 
 tototiXHo" pies in those stages of thei.r 
 conditions. development which lie com- 
 
 pletely beyond the horizon of formal 
 history. Nor can it be doubted that 
 such reconstruction and revival of the 
 
 M.— Vol. 
 
 -i8 
 
 primeval conditions of our race, passing 
 from the state of absolute unconscious* 
 ness into the semiwaking of the early 
 dawn, will prove of the keenest interest 
 if only the work be patiently and sym- 
 pathetically performed. 
 
 It must be understood at the outset 
 that the beginnings of civilization in dif- 
 ferent parts of the world are exceedingly 
 diverse in their aspects and Diverse aspects 
 tendencies. Nothing can °j;i;:,^^„^:S 
 be more striking than the ^^'^ of man. 
 contrasts which the early races of men 
 present to the student in their methods 
 and peculiarities of development. In- 
 deed, hardly any two of the primitive 
 tribes of men wrought in the same man- 
 ner or with the same results. Their 
 work in attempting to construct their 
 
 265
 
 266 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 social forms was as various as the con- 
 ditions of the primeval world in Avhich 
 they struggled for existence. 
 
 From these considerations it will be 
 necessary to an adequate imderstanding 
 Varying activi- of the primitive condition 
 tiesofmaninthe f mankind to sketch, in 
 
 Btruggle fores- ' 
 
 istence. the following chapters, 
 
 several distinct phases of the social and 
 economic life of man as we see the same 
 
 forest, Avith his rude implements and 
 utensils, and becomes a man of the 
 woods, a roving hunter, 
 
 ° Savages of the 
 
 traversmg hill and thicket, woods and sea- 
 eating the mast of the oak 
 a.nd the beech tree, living by the haz- 
 ards of migration and tribal warfare. 
 Still again, he gathers his' little group 
 around him on the shingly shore of the 
 northern seas. He rakes from the sand. 
 
 MAN IN •lilK A(;K ok the CAVE HKAK.— Drawn by Kiiiilc l!.i)..id. 
 
 obscurely outlined along the far horizon 
 of traJitional historj'. In one quarter 
 of the world wc shall see the newborn 
 man take to the caverns for ri habitation 
 and defense. We shall see him, with 
 huge clubs in his hands, fighting like a 
 giant with wild beasts, sometimes crush- 
 ing their skulls and sometimes himself 
 torn to death by their tremendous fangs. 
 In another quart<;r man takes to the 
 
 where the receding wave has been, the 
 shellfish left there by the tide. These 
 he breaks and devours for his subsist- 
 ence, lie builds him a lent, and con- 
 structs simple implements for the gather- 
 ing and preparation of his food. He 
 heaps up around him tlie waste of his 
 rude methods of life, the ddbri,^ of his 
 half-savage industry, until his tent is on 
 a .shell mound, mi.xed with broken frag-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.—DIVl'.RS ASPliCTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 267 
 
 ments of his utensils, and bearing lliiis 
 to future ages the sole evidence of his 
 existence and manner of life. 
 
 Still again we see the primitive man 
 driving piles in the margin of the moun- 
 primevaiman tain lake and building a 
 builds for him- platform upon them, and on 
 
 self a home over -l ^ ' 
 
 the water. this platform, above the 
 
 water, rearing rude huts, from which he 
 reaches the shore by a flattened log or 
 other simple means of transit. Here he 
 
 herds driven from place to place on the 
 plains of the East, as the spring line of 
 verdure fluctuated over the landscape 
 like the shadow of a cloud. 
 
 Again, we note those who built for 
 themselves abodes of mud and bitumen. 
 We see the low-lying plain Barbarian 
 with its cubical houses of Ts^^^l^^i 
 clay or sun-dried bricks, bricks. 
 and are surprised to observe that what 
 some primitive tribes of the Orient did in 
 
 ASPECTS OF BARRARIC LIFE.— Hut of Ostiaks.— Drawn by Durand Brager. 
 
 is comparatively safe from the attacks of 
 the wild beasts with which he finds 
 himself otherwise unable to contend. 
 Through the rude slabs in the floor in 
 his dwelling he also drops into the water 
 his broken implements of peace and war ; 
 and these vestiges of a primitive and 
 peculiar form of life are taken from the 
 mud in our own century to bear witness 
 of one of the strangest aspects of prim- 
 itive history. As to the so-called pa- 
 triarchs of antiquity, their well-known 
 method was that of keepers of flocks and 
 
 the dawn of their nationality thousands 
 of years ago, the Arizonian races of 
 vSouthwestern North America have re- 
 duplicated, in every particular, in their 
 attempted emergence from barbarism. 
 In all the central regions of the New 
 World the Red -Man will invite us with 
 his wigwam to scrutinize his manners 
 and customs and to note, not without 
 sympathy, his hopes and aspirations. 
 
 Far to the north the frozen ice huts 
 appear, with their stunted but resolute 
 inhabitants braving the rigors of the
 
 268 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKTXD. 
 
 frigid zone, kindling the fires within 
 them and without from the same heavy 
 carbonaceons elements furnished by the 
 monsters of the deep. All these and 
 many more are the peculiarities of pri- 
 meval life which will demand our atten- 
 tion in the the present book. 
 
 It can but be of interest in this con- 
 
 would, under the influence of instinct 
 correlated with their environment, adopt 
 almost identical methods in their strug- 
 gle for existence and progress, and 
 present a common type of development ; 
 but the facts are utterly at variance 
 with this hypothesis. To the casual ob- 
 server, indeed, it would seem that the 
 
 nection to discuss briefly the question 
 ti'/zi' /'/ is tliat such radical differences 
 Why do savages cxislcd among the primi- 
 aZrZ,";r tivc tribes of men in their 
 °"'f"'' methods of organizing 
 
 themselves into societies. What were 
 the causes of so great divergences in 
 the early life of man.' It would be in- 
 ferred, ii priori, thai all semibar1)arous 
 peoples in their emergence from savagery 
 
 Ii THtt Skulls. — Drawn by Riou, 
 
 diverse methods, the opposing manners 
 and customs, and the contradictory in- 
 stitutions of primitive mankind, were 
 the work of caprice rather than of I'ca- 
 son and order. A closer study of the 
 problem, however, will doubtless show 
 that in this also, as well as in all other 
 elements of human histoiy, law has 
 been the doniinaul priucipli- and reason 
 the guiding light.
 
 270 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKlND. 
 
 Doubtless the first great cai:se of the 
 divergences noticeable in the begin- 
 nings of civilization between the meth- 
 ods of one tribe or family of men and 
 those of another, is the varying influences 
 First cause the of nature reacting upon 
 reactions of na- ^j^ human frame and fac- 
 
 tore on homau 
 
 faculties. ultics. The aspects and 
 
 conditions of the external world are far 
 removed from regularity. Every region 
 has its own climate, its own aspect of 
 earth and sky. As to the earth itself, 
 its surface is variable in the last degree. 
 The soil has different potencies. The 
 water distribution passes through all 
 grades from scarcity to abi;ndance, from 
 the blistering desert to the dripping 
 humidity of rainy islands. The surface 
 in some parts spreads out on a dead 
 level of valley or plain, and anon rises 
 into hill and cliff and mountain. The 
 running streams are equally irregular in 
 their disposal. Some regions have the 
 rivers as the basal fact in their consti- 
 tution, while in others the range of 
 highlands, the rocky ridge or snow peaks 
 scattered at intervals, are the fundamen- 
 tal condition of geograi^h}'. Greater 
 still is the variation of heat and cold, 
 from the rigor of the hyperborean 
 regions to the furnace of the tropics; 
 and, if possible, the differences in the 
 electrical and magnetic forces that girdle 
 the earth and impart a certain nervous 
 tension to all animal existence are even 
 more pronounced and remarkable. 
 
 Under these varying circumstances of 
 the external world the plants on its sur- 
 Man ospeciaiiy facc and the living crea- 
 =CB':uhe tures that subsist thereby 
 natural world, fluctuate and change in 
 their instincts and manner of life. Par- 
 ticularly does that supreme animal 
 called man fit by multifarious adjust- 
 ments into his changeful environment. 
 From liis superior and more refined or- 
 
 ganization he is especially susceptible to 
 the influences of the external world. 
 More than any beast of the field does he 
 sway and bend and conform to the cli- 
 matic exigencies under which he is 
 placed. In him the sap of the world 
 circulates almost as palpably and po- 
 tently as in the plant that fixes its roots 
 in the soil. In him every varying con- 
 dition of the outer world is reflected; 
 and in him the very tone and rhythm 
 and pulsebeat of universal nature find a 
 perpetual echo and response. 
 
 These considerations are fully borne 
 out by an actual examination of the prim- 
 itive life of man in proc- aii parts of citU- 
 ess of development under ^^^.^eVSng 
 the varying conditions of conditions, 
 nature. Indeed, no stage of human 
 growth is exempt from the domination 
 of the natural world. Every part 
 and filament of the garb which civiliza- 
 tion wears has taken its form and 
 color and substance in large measure 
 froin the material elements and condi- 
 tions under which it is woven. It can 
 not be doubted that all the aspects of 
 the life and endeavor of man have in 
 them, when closely scrutinized, the out- 
 line and semblance of physical condi- 
 tions caught by reflection from the 
 external forms and circumstances of his 
 environment and home. 
 
 ,S() palpable and powerful have been 
 these influences of the external world on 
 the development and char- Theory of envi- 
 acter of the human race that T:r::^lX^.^ 
 many authors have been too for. 
 disposed to make them the be-all and 
 the end-all of tlie civilization of man. 
 By such writers the theory of a physical 
 basis for all things has been confidently 
 adopted ; and it is urged, without doubt 
 or hesitation, that even the highest and 
 most spiritual faculties and moods of the 
 human mind are resolvable by easy
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.—Dir/iRS ASJ'IiCTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 
 
 271 
 
 process into elemental parts derivaljle 
 from nature. 
 
 Under this h)-pothcsisman is regarded 
 simply as a plant with powers of lo- 
 comotion and consciousness. True, his 
 feet do not strike into the soil. He has 
 no local attachment to the ground out of 
 which he has sprung; but like those 
 vegetable anomalies which grow freely 
 in the open air or water without the for- 
 mality of roots and tendrils, so man, in 
 
 to which it is applied. Nature has, in- 
 deed, done much to give form and 
 fashion to the various and divergent as- 
 pects of human life ; but there are many 
 differences existing in the methods em- 
 ployed byprimitive, and even by civilized, 
 peoples which can not be so resolved and 
 explained. Another general cause comes 
 into the field of vision, and that is the 
 influence of innate instincts and dispo 
 sitions in mankind, working in some in- 
 
 VARIABILITY ILLUSTRATED IN MULTIPLE YOUNG OF SAME MOTHER.— Gi^inea Pigs 
 
 this view of his genesis and nature, 
 grows and develops into conscious life 
 and powerful activity by the mere ab- 
 sorption, from his free surroundings, of 
 all his elemental juices, his fibers, and 
 his faculties. 
 
 But this view of the case is inadequate 
 to the solution of the problem. The 
 Ethnic instincts theory of a physical basis of 
 fo^qintn"''" Civilization is by no means 
 ^^^- to be rejected as a chi- 
 
 mera. It is simply insufficient of it self 
 to explain and elucidate the phenomena 
 
 stances toward one end and in others to 
 an opposite or diverse result. That such 
 native and inherent differences do exist 
 in human kind can not be doubted, and 
 that the influence of the same has been 
 largely potential in producing the va- 
 rious aspects of early civilization is, it is 
 believed, susceptible of the clearest 
 proof. 
 
 If we descend into the germinal con- 
 ditions of the vegetable world we find 
 that even the plants are, in virtue of 
 their own nature, impressed with great
 
 272 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 2HXKIND. 
 
 variations. The seeds taken from the 
 same pod and planted in the same bed 
 
 tinct and unmistakable evidences of di-- 
 vergence and individuality. If we go 
 
 M HjK A I'l 1K\' II \KI1 \KJSM.— I'AMi' OF TUP. Kim;iii!KZ.— Drawn by F.milc Bayard, 
 
 and nurtured under identical conditions 
 exhibit in growth and development dis- 
 
 forward one stage and begin an exami- 
 nation of the phenomena of animal life,
 
 nUMIlVAL MAN.—DIVRKS ASPECTS OF nARBARIC LIFE. 
 
 273 
 
 we find the divergent principle still 
 more active and emphatic. In the mul- 
 Theiawofvaria- tiple young of the Same 
 mother we have the varia- 
 bility of nature illustrated 
 in every element of organization. The 
 color is different. Some are black, some 
 are parti-colored, and some are white. 
 
 tion independ- 
 ent of environ- 
 ment. 
 
 procreative act, develoiDcd in the same 
 matrix, and thrust into the world under 
 identical conditions, are more than ap- 
 proximately alike. 
 
 Take, for instance, the jDointers and 
 setters in which the hunter finds so great 
 delight. Never yet, perhaps, have two 
 of these animals, under the strictest dis- 
 
 
 SEDENTARY BARBARISM.— House of Greenland Esquimau. 
 
 Similar variations, though perhaps less 
 pronounced, will be discovered in form 
 and function. One outgrows the other. 
 One is of superior activity; one is 
 hardier, and another has by nature a 
 greater longevity. If we proceed to 
 scrutinize the instincts and dispositions 
 of the group the differences are still 
 more marked. In fact, no two of these 
 living creatures, produced by the same 
 
 cipline of the same master, been devel- 
 oped into identity of method and char- 
 acter. The law of animal Animal life un- 
 life in this respect is sus- tiJ^'^^^ZT 
 ceptible of infinite illustra- divergences, 
 tion. Every species of living creatures 
 is still in a state and process of differen- 
 tiation under that primal law of evolu- 
 tion which tends to individualize all 
 forms of life : and as we ascend in the
 
 274 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAX KIND. 
 
 scale of being'. the action of this law is 
 constantly increased in vigor and inten- 
 sity. 
 
 In man the presence of the divergent 
 and individualizing tendency has been 
 In man and especially powerful from 
 
 tTeTat'oT^re'i! the beginning. Theprimi- 
 Eity prevails. tive raccs had each its spe- 
 cial instinct and individual character. No 
 two of them were moved by the same 
 innate impulses or the same conscious 
 purposes. The ends of tribal endeavor 
 were as diverse as the methods employed 
 to reach them. And it is the existence, 
 radically, in the human family of this 
 difference of instinct and motive that, 
 combined with the powerful influence of 
 the natural world reacting upon the 
 sensitive faculties of man, has produced 
 the striking and peculiar differences, 
 oppositions, even antagonisms, which 
 we discover in the primitive history of 
 mankind. 
 
 As an illustration of the working of 
 these innate divergent tendencies in the 
 Migratory habit human race, take the great 
 on'r^te^'dlffer. fact of tribal migration. In 
 e>ices. the primitive history of 
 
 the world no other fact, perhaps, has so 
 great prominence as has the migratory 
 disposition exhibited by the early races ; 
 but the working of this instinct was 
 exhibited by them only in part. That 
 is, there were conservative tribes and 
 radical tribes in the primeval world, the 
 former of which gave no sign of the 
 migratory impulse, while the latter 
 were swayed thereby to the extent of 
 having no other history than that of 
 removal. 
 
 A closer analysis will show that in the 
 same tribe the migratory disposition 
 would appear, seizing like an insupport- 
 
 able passion upon some members of tht 
 clan and household, while others would be 
 exempt from its influence. A division 
 of sentiment would appear The moving pas- 
 among these unconscious .tTJ^™ 
 
 o the same com* 
 
 folk leading to a radical munity. 
 difference of tribal action and policy. A 
 break-up among the family would ensue, 
 a part drifting away under the action of 
 an instinct as natural and inevitable as 
 that which drives the bee swarm from 
 the parent colony to the distant forest. 
 That is, in a given household some 
 members, born under identical condi- 
 tions with the rest, would feel the mov- 
 ing passion and go, while the rest, un- 
 swayed by any such instinctive motive, 
 would remain in their native seats, 
 unable even to appreciate the impulse 
 and disposition which had separated 
 their kinsmen from them. The Orient 
 is to-day, in some sense, a residuum of 
 those peoples over whom the migratory 
 passion was never dominant, while all 
 Europe and America, even to the shore 
 line of the Pacific, is, in a like sense, 
 the result of a certain innate radicalism 
 which has forced the moving races 
 further and further onward, until at last 
 it threatens to leap the greatest of the 
 oceans and precipitate itself again upon 
 the East. 
 
 This division of mankind into a 
 migratory and nonmigratory part must 
 have been based, in its ultimate analysis, 
 upon innate differences and unconscious, 
 unreasoning impulses in those original 
 tribes from which Asia and Euroj^e 
 have alike been peopled. Nor can it 
 well be understood how the influence of 
 the external world can adequately ac- 
 count for the true genesis and primal 
 workings of this migratory habit.
 
 PRIM El -A L lUAN.—CArii DWJUJJlRS OF EUKOPIi. 
 
 275 
 
 CHAPTER XVI.— Thk Cave Dwellers oe Europe. 
 
 ONG before the incom- 
 ing of the first Aryan 
 peoples into Europe 
 tribes and races of men 
 were already diffused 
 over the country. Nor 
 is it possible for us, in 
 the present state of knowledge, to pierce 
 the bottom of these human strata and 
 
 For the present, archaeological and 
 ethnical inquiry has reached down only 
 to this epoch when the aborigines of 
 Western Europe were contemporaneous 
 with certain extinct species of animals. 
 It is here that we must begin our inquiry 
 relative to the primitive life of mai) in 
 those parts of the world with which we 
 are most familiar. It is well to repeat 
 
 IDEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE ACE OF REI'Tl lbs — Uraun by K 
 
 find the actual beginnings of the life of 
 man on the European continent. It is 
 now clear that the first men roaming 
 Contempo- about in a state of savagery 
 
 through the forests of 
 Denmark, of German3^ of 
 France, and of Britain were contempo- 
 raneous with several races of animals 
 that were extinct before the beginnings 
 of authentic history. 
 
 raneity of man 
 and certain eX' 
 tiuct animals. 
 
 that the period here referred to is an- 
 terior to the time when the first Aryans 
 — the Celts, the Italic tribes, and the 
 Teutones — made their first inroads into 
 the AVest. 
 
 It is only within the present century 
 that our knowledge relative to primeval 
 man in Western Europe has taken a 
 somewhat definite form. Such inquiry 
 has been impeded by many prejudices
 
 276 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and prepossessions of the human mind — 
 
 many beliefs which are no longer tenable 
 
 under the lis^ht of increas- 
 
 Modern leaders 
 
 of archaeological ing knowledge. The labors 
 nqiui-y. ^^ several eminent archaeol- 
 
 ogists and ethnologists, such as Sir 
 Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock in 
 England, Messieurs Toumal and Christol 
 in France, Dr. P. C. Schmerling in Ger- 
 man}-, and Professors Steenstrup and 
 Nilsson of Sweden, have brought the 
 resources of their genius to bear upon 
 the problem of the antiquity and prim- 
 itive life of man, and have succeeded in 
 reconstructing the primeval conditions 
 of civilization. 
 
 the cave dwellers of Western Europe 
 flourished. If we examine the crust of 
 the earth aboi'e those strata which con- 
 stitute the so-called age of reptiles, we 
 shall find the same to be divided into 
 two great layers, the lower of which is 
 called the Tertiary and the upper the 
 Post-Tertiary Period. The post-tertiary 
 period is itself composed of two strata, 
 the lower of which is called the Post- 
 Pliocene and the upper the Recent, which 
 latter embraces, in general terms, what 
 is popularly called the surface of the 
 earth. These two periods, the tertiary 
 and post-tertiary, cover the geologic 
 age of mammals. The mammalia are 
 
 Post-Tertiary . 
 
 Tertiary Period. 
 
 Pliocene. 
 
 Miocene. 
 
 Recent 
 
 Post-Pliocene [Epoch of the Cave Men] 
 Newer Pliocene 
 Older Pliocene 
 Upper Miocene 
 Lower Miocene 
 f Upper Eocene 
 
 Eocene < Middle Eocene 
 
 I Lower Eocene 
 
 Cenozoi'c Time — Age of Mammals. 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE TERTIARV AND POST-TERTIARY PERIODS, SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL PLACE OF THB 
 
 - CAVE DWELLERS. 
 
 In the present chapter it will be the 
 aim to present the leading features of 
 Place of the cave tribal life as the .same are 
 mZXtr illustrated in the story of 
 logical data. the Cavc D wellcrs of West- 
 em Europe. There was, in prehistoric 
 ages, in many parts of the western 
 European states a race of men of a low 
 grade of culture who chose the caverns 
 which natui'c had hollowed out as their 
 abodes, and within these dreary domiciles 
 enacted the domestic drama of their 
 lives. 
 
 It is desirable to note the geological 
 epoch, now well determined, in which 
 
 conterminous with it, having first made 
 their appearance in what is called the 
 Lower Eocene and having a continu- 
 ous existence through all the upper 
 strata. Chronologically speaking, the 
 period here referred to, beginning with 
 the bottom of the tertiary and reach- 
 ing to the present, is called Cenozoi'c 
 time. The above diagram, drawn ac- 
 cording to Sir Charles Lyell, will show 
 tlie various relations of these strata and 
 the place of the cave dwellers. 
 
 It mu.st be tinderstood with reference 
 to the above diagram that all existing 
 species of mammals and man himself
 
 PRIMEVAL AIAN.—CAVIl DWFJ.I.RRS OF EUROPE. 
 
 277 
 
 the recent, or 
 
 quaternary, 
 
 epoch. 
 
 belong to what is called the recent, or 
 quaternary, epoch. There were, how- 
 Man belongs to ever, several species of 
 great animals formerly well 
 known in Europe, whose 
 existence as distinct varieties reached up 
 from the pliocene period of the tertiary 
 epoch into the post-pliocene era, and in 
 that era ceased to exist. It appears that 
 certain climatic changes took place in 
 
 the extinct mammals above referred to 
 that the demonstration of this early 
 form of existence on the earth has been 
 made. The proof that man was con- 
 temporaneous with several varieties of 
 animal life no longer present in the 
 countries where it formerly flourished, 
 is clear and irrefragable, and it only re- 
 mains in the following pages to deter- 
 mine as much as we may of the primi- 
 
 IDEAL LANDSCAPE OK THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.— Drawn by 
 
 Europe, rendering the country untenable 
 to these forms of life. 
 
 Now it is in this post-pliocene epoch 
 that the cave dwellers had their career. 
 Extinct mam- It was at the time when 
 mais comhabit- the spccics of animals just 
 
 ants with man in x' J 
 
 Europe. mentioned were still prev- 
 
 alent in the west of Europe that the 
 cave man had his abode there. He was 
 their companion and fellow of the woods 
 and caverns; and it is by the commin- 
 gling of the debris and ruins of his sav- 
 ag-e life with the relics and vestiges of 
 
 tive condition in which the cave man 
 held his barbarous fortunes. 
 
 The savage races of men, on their way 
 from the low condition in which they 
 are still found in absolute savages pass 
 barbarity to civilized peo- t:^:XoZ^r 
 
 pies, pass through four civilization. 
 
 epochs of development. These are de- 
 termined by archaeologists chiefly by 
 the character of the implements and 
 utensils which are fabricated by primi- 
 tive peoples in the dift'erent stages of 
 their progress. It had been found that
 
 278 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 this progress is uniform in all parts of 
 the world, and that when barbarians are 
 discovered in a given stage of growth 
 the next stage mav ahvavs be inferred 
 by the general law which governs the 
 evolution. This movement forward 
 proceeds from a grade of life but little 
 above mere animality, and ends with 
 the emergence of the tribe into full his- 
 torical activity. 
 
 The various materials which the races 
 
 certain varieties of rock formation, and 
 by simple modifications, or even, at the 
 first, by no modification at all, converts 
 them into implements. 
 
 The materials first chosen are gener- 
 ally flint and obsidian, and the primitive 
 stage of workmanship consists in merely 
 breaking the substance into shape. It 
 is this fact of breakage into form, as dis- 
 tinguished from other methods of fabri- 
 cation, that marks the very first stage of 
 
 IDEAL LANDSCAPK OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD (AGE OF MAN).-Drawn by Ric 
 
 of men have employed in the fabrication 
 of tools and utensils arc principally stone, 
 Matfii-i.-iis fm- wood, bone, horn, copper, 
 
 SL'^^^nHiJ:™';^'",;. l^i-'>n^-^-. ^nd iron-in the 
 ing impiementa. order named. Among civ- 
 ilized peoples the latter metal is refined 
 into different forms of wrought iron, cast 
 iron, and finally the various grades of 
 steel. The primitive man, however, 
 begins with stone. He takes from the 
 ground, by a sort of naliiral selection, 
 
 man's development as a tool-making 
 animal. Perhaps in no quarter of the 
 world has a .savage tribe emerged from 
 barbarism without employing this very 
 obvious method of producing imjile- 
 ments. It is claimed by the most em- 
 inent naturalists that man, even in 
 the most rudimentary stages of his ev- 
 olution, has been a tool-making and 
 tool-using animal, and tliat he is dis- 
 crfminatcd by this fact— strongly dis-
 
 JMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS USED BY PRIMEVAL MAN. IN THE ORDER OF THE MATERIALS EMPLOYETX. 
 1, 2, Si^ne and wooden weapons of New Caledonians ; 3, bone skewers ; 4, harpoon of stag's horn ; 5, copper celt ; 6, carpen- 
 ter's bronze chisel ; 7, bronze dagger with iron handle ; 8, iron ornaments of Africans.
 
 280 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 criminated — from the highest grades of 
 living beings below him. 
 
 No animal except man has been 
 known to make or to use a tool. That 
 Man the tool- is, the conscious design of 
 doinor so has never been ob- 
 served in the most supe- 
 rior specimens of the lower grades of 
 animal intelligence. The monkey, the 
 
 making and 
 
 club-thro'wlng 
 
 animal. 
 
 this accidental and instinctive employ- 
 ment of clubs and missiles and the con- 
 scious fabrication of a tool lies a great 
 gap in intelligence — the gap between 
 the instinct of the inferior and the con- 
 scious reason of the superior creature. 
 
 Man, then, begins his career as an 
 artisan by the making of tools and im- 
 plements from the flinty forms of rock. 
 
 MANUI-ACTURE OF FLINT IMPLEMENTS BY PREHISTORIC MAN.— Drawn by Kmile liuyard.. 
 
 ape, the ourang, the gorilla, and the 
 chimpanzee arc all in some sense club- 
 using and club-throwing animals. They 
 grip and swing missiles with obvious 
 design to a certain end ; but in doing so 
 they merely seize what accident has 
 placed within their reach, and there is 
 no single instance recorded in wliicli an 
 animal has been known to adapt a stick 
 or stone to any intended use. Between 
 
 He soon discovers that this substance, 
 by a little skill, may be broken into 
 foi-ms approximatelyadapt- Artisanship be- 
 cd to his wants. Prog- gi"f.^iththe 
 
 o making of tools 
 
 ress begins — progress in and weapons, 
 the selection of materials and progress 
 in the methods of forming his utensils. 
 But for a long period breakage is the 
 general method wiiich lie employs, and 
 this fact of fracture in the fabrication of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 
 
 281 
 
 tools is the essential feature by which 
 the first stage of human development is 
 characterized. 
 
 This first epoch is called the old 
 Old stone age stone age, or, if we em- 
 inarks first stage | ^j Scientific term 
 
 in human devel- -t^ •' 
 
 opment. given thereto by natural- 
 
 ists, the palaeolithic age — a term derived 
 from the Greek roots sig- 
 nifying the same thing. It 
 is impossible to determine 
 for how long a period a 
 savage tribe will remain in 
 this primitive stage of ev- 
 olution. Doubtless the 
 palaeolithic era of devel- 
 opment is never precisely 
 the same in time in the 
 case of any two barbarous 
 tribes, but the process is 
 the same. The time re- 
 mains indeterminate. 
 Another fact of great im- 
 portance to be noted is that 
 this primeval epoch of 
 human growth has ap- 
 peared at different times, 
 in different quarters of the 
 earth, as already said. It 
 is highly likely — almost 
 certain — that all existing 
 peoples have, in their rudi- 
 mentary condition, passed 
 through the old stone age 
 as the first phase of their 
 growth into a national life ; 
 but at what era this oc- 
 curred in the case of any 
 given family of men it is impossible to 
 determine. 
 
 The chi-onology of such a development 
 Chronology of caii not be ascertained or 
 Ipo^hnotdeter- adjusted. In One quarter of 
 minabie. the earth a savage tribe 
 
 will be found at the present day in the 
 
 palseolithic state of growth. In another 
 M. — Vol. I — 19 
 
 quarter this epoch of emergence from 
 barbarism has been passed a century, 
 even several centuries ago, and in others 
 we must look back through many ages 
 if we would discover even the hint of 
 such a stage of evolution. This is to say 
 that the development of savage life is 
 never synchronous among the different 
 
 PALAEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS, FROM HOXNE. 
 
 raceg, but that such development is as 
 various in time as it is in place. The 
 process has been going on for many 
 thousands of years and is still going on, 
 under our own authentic observation, in 
 many parts of the unreclaimed conti- 
 nents and barbarous islands of the seas. 
 While this want of contemporaneity is
 
 282 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 an embarrassment in the construction of 
 tribal history, it is a great advantage in 
 the actual comprehension of the methods 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN — CHASE IN THE REINDEER PERIOD. 
 Drawn liy Emilc Uayard, 
 
 of the ])n'milive man. Wc arc able tn- 
 day to scnitinize these methods and to 
 ob.scrve and note the actual processes by 
 which the tool-making animal goes 
 
 forward from one stage of his develop- 
 ment to another. In the South Sea 
 islands the natives have been watched 
 
 in the act of con- 
 s t r u c t i n g old 
 stone imple- 
 ments, and the 
 process, withal, 
 is very different 
 from what might 
 have been sup- 
 posed. The 
 savage takes a 
 small block of 
 flint between his 
 naked feet and, 
 pressing it into a 
 certain position 
 w i t h his toes, 
 drops upon i t 
 endwise a long 
 pestle of wood 
 in such way as to 
 spall off a splinter 
 from the side. 
 The stroke is re- 
 peated, and 
 another spall, or 
 "flake," so- 
 called, is thrown 
 off; and so on 
 until, by careful 
 chipping, the 
 a r r o w h e a d or 
 s p e a r p o i n t or 
 whatever it is is 
 broken into 
 sliape. Doubt- 
 less this simple 
 process has been 
 practiced, with 
 slight modifica- 
 
 tinns of IIK-Ultxl, by all the Habits of prlme- 
 j M r i-1 ^.A A v.al man discov- 
 
 .savage tribes of the woild, „,^„i„i„hi« ^^ 
 
 and doubtless the same tennis and arts. 
 
 manner of fabrication will continue untile 
 
 
 
 
 if"
 
 PRIMEVAL M.LV.—CAFB DWJlLLERS UE EUROPE. 
 
 283 
 
 manship marks 
 second stage of 
 the evolution. 
 
 by the spread of civilization, this primi- 
 tive stage of humanity shall disappear 
 from the earth. 
 
 The palaeolithic, or old stone, age at 
 length gives place to a higher form of 
 manufacture — a more elegant and useful 
 Neolithic work- method of making utensils 
 and weapons. The primi- 
 tive man, in course of time, 
 discovers that by attrition or rubbing he 
 can reduce his tools to a more 
 and satisfactory pattern. 
 The forms which ho has 
 hitherto attained by the proc- 
 ess of breakage and chip- 
 ping have been only approx- 
 imate to the ideal forms 
 which he has had in mind. 
 In the second stage of his 
 development he labors to 
 reach a correct outline by 
 reducing the substance on 
 which he is working into 
 proper form by rubbing or 
 grinding against some other 
 material. The time rela- 
 tions of this discoveiy also 
 are unknown ; but that such 
 a transformation from the 
 rough or broken stone im- 
 plements of primeval man 
 to the smooth tools and uten- 
 sils of his secondary stage 
 of development does exist — has existed 
 in the case of every tribe — is clearly 
 demonstrable. Every museum, or even 
 small private collection, of ancient stone 
 workmanship gathered from the valleys 
 of the European ri\-crs, froin the peat 
 bogs of Denmark, or turned up by the 
 plow in the open fields of North America, 
 will show unmistakable evidences of the 
 change which has everywhere taken 
 place from the age of broken or chipped- 
 off fabrication to the age of smoothed 
 or polished manufacture. 
 
 To this second epoch of implement- 
 making archasologists have given the 
 name of the new .stone, 
 
 . Relation of the 
 
 or neolithic, age. That stone epochs to 
 it follows the older and "--e«°'°ey. 
 ruder era is clearly proved, but its dura- 
 tion, as in the case of the preceding 
 epoch of broken stonework, can never be 
 more than approximately determined. 
 The relative place of the neolithic era 
 in the evolution of the civilized forms 
 of life is as well known as tha't the 
 age of mammals succeeds the age 
 of reptiles in the geological his- 
 tory of the earth. Indeed, all of 
 the stages of human evolution 
 which we are here considering 
 have a striking likeness and anal- 
 (jgy to the successive eras in the 
 
 Stone axes, Ireland. Stone celt with h.indle. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 geological formation of our globe. The 
 one is as fixed and certain in its laws of 
 succession as the other, and we should no 
 more expect to find a deviation from the 
 orderly progress by which the savage 
 man proceeded from the old stone to 
 the new stone and from the new stone 
 to the subsequent ages of his develop- 
 ment than we should expect to find the 
 coal measures of the carboniferous age 
 on top of the chalk beds of the age of 
 reptiles. 
 
 There are many extraneous proofs,
 
 284 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 moreover, that the half-barbarous peo- 
 ples of the world, after passing- into 
 the neolithic age, have, in 
 other respects than that of 
 implement-making, entered 
 into a wider and more complex develop- 
 ment. It is not only in the making of 
 tools that the savage man on his way to 
 largfer and more rational activities dis- 
 
 Complex devel- 
 opment coinci- 
 dent vrith new 
 stone age. 
 
 Since most of the metals of the earth 
 exist in the form of ores, which hide 
 their actual contents from Great span be- 
 the unskilled eye of barba- ^r^anT^ge 
 rism,ithashappenedamong ofmetais. 
 all the primitive races that the discovery 
 and manufacture of stone implements 
 has preceded by many long stages the 
 production of metallic forms. In the 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN. — Koundeks of thr wiuE OF I'.imnzk.— iM-.tun by I'.milc B.iyurd. 
 
 plays his increasing skill. All the ele- 
 ments of his progress are correlated and, 
 in .some sen.se, kept even with his rate of 
 growth in the mere matter of manufac- 
 turing his wares and weapons. His ex- 
 pansion is in all directions, and it is easy 
 to di.scovcr by evidences deduced from 
 other sources the general course which 
 he is pursuing toward the civilized con- 
 ditions of life. 
 
 cases of silver and gold, which exist na- 
 tive in the earth — or at least the gold — 
 they have never been found in suflicient 
 quantities to justify the primitive -man 
 in the attempt to make implements 
 therefrom. The.se, from the rarity of 
 their distribution, have been precious 
 metals from the first. They were so to 
 all the savage races who first possessed 
 the earth, and have continued so, even
 
 PKIM l:\-AI. MAN. — CAVE DWIil.LEKS OF EUROPIi. 
 
 285 
 
 in the powerful civilization and activities 
 of the present. .Among other metals 
 copper, and even tin, also existed in the 
 native form, and it is to these substances 
 that the faculties and interest of the 
 primeval man were directed when he 
 came to the point of emergence from the 
 neolithic age. He had now wrought, as 
 much as might well be done, from the 
 
 faculties might find a freer exercise. 
 This other substance, as the primitive 
 history of man has now demonstrated, 
 was copper — coj^per first, and then tin, 
 or, more particularly, a mixture of the 
 two, called broiirjc. 
 
 Nothing is known of the original dis- 
 covery which seems to have been made 
 in many quarters of the earth, of the 
 
 MANNERS OF PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.— Feast in the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 Stone materials imder his hand by the 
 processes of breakage and polishing. It 
 is evident on reflection that mere stone, 
 such as flint or sandstone, will only 
 bear a certain amount of artisanship. 
 Whoever would attempt to go beyond 
 the natural limits existing in the nature 
 of these materials would come to an im- 
 passable barrier. He must turn, per- 
 force, to some other substance upon 
 which, in virtue of its own nature, his 
 
 great advantage to be gained by com- 
 mingling a certain percentage (about 
 one tenth) of tin with na- Art of com- 
 tive copper. Such a dis- ^^^^^^:^^l} 
 covery, however, is ver}- the bronze age. 
 certain as a fact and very remote in its 
 date. It is now known that the material 
 of the weaponry of the Trojan warriors, 
 called clialchys in the Homeric poems 
 and tradition, was bronze and not iron, 
 and the old word ces of the primitive
 
 286 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Latin race signified the same thing. At 
 any rate, the succession of an age of 
 bronze to the neolithic age is a fact 
 well established in archaeology. The 
 barbarous and now warlike peoples of 
 the prehistoric world made the great dis- 
 covery of a hard and tenacious metallic 
 compound, out of which they could manu- 
 facture at will substantial, effective, and 
 even beautiful implements so greatly 
 superior to those which they had hith- 
 erto employed as to constitute an epoch 
 in their civilization. This discovery of 
 bronze was accompanied with many 
 advances in the life and manners of 
 the people. New customs were intro- 
 duced ; the family was better organized, 
 and we contemplate the beginnings of 
 a rude society. vSo the third stage of 
 the human evolution which we are here 
 considering was that in which the half- 
 barbarous, peoples of the primitive world 
 passed out of the new stone age into 
 the age of bronze. 
 
 The inquiry naturally arises in this 
 connection why it is that in nearly all 
 parts of the earth the barbarous peoples 
 
 seem to have passed direct- 
 No intervening .... 
 ages of copper ly from the neolithic into 
 
 the bronze-making age of 
 development. Why was it — why is it — 
 that the primitive peoples did not pass 
 through a clearly defined age of copper 
 or an age of tin? Why should the 
 great leap have been made from so 
 primitive form of life as that exhibited 
 in the new stone age into the com- 
 paratively complex and highly devel- 
 oped activities of the age of bronze? 
 Bronze is a composite metal. We see 
 from the perfect composition which we 
 find in the implements which have come 
 to us from the age of its early manufac- 
 ture that the ancients understood per- 
 fectly the percentage of tlic (liffcrent 
 metals, and this knowledge would pre- 
 
 suppose a long series of trials and ex- 
 periments. True it is that in some 
 quarters of the world, particularly in the 
 peat measui"es of Denmark and along 
 the shores of the great lakes in North 
 America, many copper implements have 
 been discovered. But these finds have 
 been so irregular as rather to disprove 
 than to establish the existence of an age 
 of copper. It would seem that the 
 primitive man has only produced tools 
 and utensils of copper when he could 
 not procure the necessary tin to make 
 the compound. In general, the fact re- 
 mains, archasologically and historically, 
 that in nearly all parts of the habitable 
 globe the various races have leaped at 
 one stride from the making of smooth 
 stone implements to the manufacture 
 and use of bronze. What theory may 
 be advanced to account for this remark- 
 able fact in the prehistoric development 
 of mankind? 
 
 It has been suggested in answer, and 
 with much show of probability, that the 
 
 introduction of metals for Reasons why 
 
 tools and weapons is co- fZ^lUtT^ 
 incident in tribal develop- age of stone, 
 ment with the beginning of the age of 
 aggression and conquest. This is to 
 say that when men have once discov- 
 ered and used the metals the}' are at 
 that stage of tribal life in which the lust 
 of war and conquest begins to be felt as 
 a dominant passion. As a result of this, 
 when the discovery of bronze has once 
 been made, and a knowledge diffused of 
 its great superiority over cither of the 
 component metals of which it is consti- 
 tuted, a bronze-bearing soldiery would 
 at once spring into existence. Owing 
 to the higher development and aggres- 
 sive instincts of this soldiery, conquest 
 in foreign parts would very soon ensue, 
 aiid with this conquest would l)c carried 
 into distant regions a knowledge of
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWF.I.LERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 287 
 
 bronze and of the method of its manu- 
 facture. This rational, even probable, 
 explanation has been offered for the im- 
 mediate succession of the bronze age to 
 the age of stone. Tribes and races 
 still engaged in the fabrication and use 
 of flint implements and weapons would 
 be at so great disadvantage in compari- 
 
 glimpses of the actual historical move- 
 ments of men. The heroic conflicts 
 which we see in the far Historical con. 
 horizon, the sack and pil- '^^^^^ 
 lage of Troy, the early and age of bronze, 
 shadowy movements of mankind in 
 Asia Minor, in Hellas, and in Italy, 
 bring us, at least in tradition, into the 
 
 Eg>'plian knife. 
 
 W, I 
 
 Bracelets, Switzerland. 
 
 Bronze hairpins, Switzerland. 
 EXAMPLES OF BRONZE WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 \\ 
 
 Copper 
 spearhead. 
 
 Son with a bronze-beariiig nation as to 
 be easily overrun, and with this conquest 
 the knowledge and practice of bronze 
 manufacture would immediately follow. 
 However this may be, the age of 
 bronze has everywhere succeeded the 
 neolithic age in the development of 
 civilization. It is in this age that Ave 
 generally catch the first authentic 
 
 age of bronze, and it is safe to regard 
 this epoch in the evolution of man as 
 the substratum of authentic history. 
 
 After a long period in bronze-making 
 and bronze-using, the pre- _ 
 
 ° ^ The age of iron 
 
 historic tribes, or perhaps succeeds the 
 
 , , , . . epoch of bronze. 
 
 we should now say nations, 
 
 pass into the age of iron. Iron, except 
 
 in the form of meteorites, does not exist
 
 288 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 in the native state. For this reason its 
 discovery as a metal happens late in the 
 history of man. The extraction of iron 
 from the ore is, moreover, exceedingly 
 difficult even with the powerful appli- 
 
 Swcdcn. 
 EXAMII.F.S OF IRON WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 ances of modern metallurgy. The man 
 of antiquity was unable to produce the 
 requisite heat, and even had he Ix'cn 
 master of an adequate temperature he 
 could not have conjectured by h priori 
 reas(jning that such a substance as 
 
 metallic iron might be expected to issue 
 from the rust-colored stone constituting 
 the ore. 
 
 Doubtless the discovery was accidental. 
 Indeed, traditions exist to this effect. It 
 
 has been handed down that 
 
 a European 
 
 Evolution of 
 discovery of ironworu in pri- 
 1 1, meval Europe. 
 
 iron by smelt- 
 ing occurred in Bohemia 
 within the historical period. 
 However this may be, we 
 have unmistakable proofs 
 that somewhere in the early 
 dawn of the Grseco-Italic 
 development in Southern 
 Europe the discovery of 
 the process of extracting 
 iron was made and the fab- 
 rication of implements 
 therefrom begun. The 
 Greeks, at least of the post- 
 Homeric epoch, had a 
 soldiery bearing iron weap- 
 ons, and it appears that the 
 Romans from the first faint 
 limnings of tradition armed 
 themselves, for both offense 
 and defense, with the same 
 heavy and enduring metal. 
 In short, the age of iron is, 
 roughly speaking, the age 
 of authentic history. 
 Though the ancient Egyp 
 tians were unacquainted 
 with iron, and tlunigh the 
 extent of its use among the 
 Assyrians and Babylonians 
 has not been clearly deter- 
 mined, the fact remains that 
 in general terms the manufacture of iron 
 implements has been a circumstance co- 
 incident with the historic development 
 of our race. We are now and have been 
 for some three thou.sand years in the age 
 of iron, and it would seem that we are
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWJiLLEKS OE EUROPE. 
 
 289 
 
 destined to continue in the same epoch 
 itntil by a new evolution we sliall pass 
 into the age of aluminum. 
 
 This somewhat extended digressive 
 study of the four principal eras of dcvel- 
 Cave dwellers opmcnt through which the 
 the most pnmi- ^^^.^^ ^f xy\cn havc passcd 
 
 tive of the Euro- ': 
 
 pean races. \ya?, bccu made nccessaiy in 
 
 order to a clear understanding of the 
 true place of the cave dwellers of West- 
 ern Europe. They were men of the 
 old stone age. Their implements were 
 all palaeolithic. They flourished, or at 
 least lived, in an age before 
 the art of grinding and 
 polishing utensils of stone 
 had been discovered. This 
 is to say that they present 
 the most friinithc type of 
 mankind with which we are 
 acquainted. Nor is it likely 
 that ethnologists and an- 
 tiquarians will ever be able 
 to deduce from the prehis- 
 toric shadows a form of 
 human life more nearl\- 
 allied to the life of the 
 lower animals than is that 
 which we are now to ex- 
 amine. 
 
 The story of the investi- 
 gation of the cave dwell- 
 ings in Europe is full of interest. The 
 Interest of the care and zeal with which 
 the work has been carried 
 forward will always elicit 
 praise from those who are concerned to 
 know the true story of Ijhe human race 
 on the earth. As early as 1825 the at- 
 tention of antiquaries began to be called 
 to the fact of the mixed remains of men 
 and animals in various caverns which had 
 been explored for other than scientific 
 purposes. It was not, however, until 
 1833 that the distinguished antiquary, 
 Dr. P. C. Schmerling, of Belgium, forced 
 
 upon the consideration of scholars the 
 unmistakable lessons which the caves 
 had revealed to him and his colaborers. 
 
 The caverns in question exist in many 
 parts of the Continent and of England. 
 They abound in vSouthern character of the 
 France and along the -™e\T''' 
 borders of Belgium. They ^^'^• 
 are dark grottoes in limestone rock, and 
 seem in nearly all cases to have been 
 selected by the cave men because of the 
 narrowness and defensibility of the 
 openings. In many instances the mouths 
 
 investigation of 
 the man cay- 
 erns. 
 
 MAN CAVERN IN GALEINREUTll, BAVARIA. 
 
 of the caverns have been found closed by 
 the very stones which the rough inhab- 
 itants rolled and pushed into place as a 
 barrier against their enemies. The 
 floors are generally on a lower level than 
 the openings, which fact has led to the 
 accumulation of thick layers of mud and 
 debris on the bottom. Over this collec- 
 tion of earthy materials, mixed as they 
 are with the relics of the human and non- 
 human occupants in former ages, is 
 nearly always spread a layer of that 
 calcareous substance called stalagmite, 
 deposited there in the course of centuries
 
 290 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 by the lime-saturated exudations from 
 the roof of the cavern. This stalagmitic 
 floor, holding' its secrets underneath, is 
 generally quite hard, and is in many 
 cases two or three feet in thickness. 
 The cavern here described is typical, but 
 is subject in different localities to con- 
 siderable modifications in its character 
 and details. 
 
 It was such a cave dwelling as this, 
 called the Cavern of Engis, that Dr. 
 Schmerling entered and explored in 1832. 
 Exploration of It was situated near Liege, 
 by''Dr?lchrn;r at the junction of the 
 Ung. ileuse and the Ourthe, in 
 
 Belgium. The story of the exploration 
 is as heroic as the results were novel and 
 instructive. Schmerling had to be let 
 down into the cavern by a rope tied to 
 a tree outside. He was obliged to slide 
 in 'order to gain an entrance. Within 
 it was as dark as night. The explorer 
 had to creep from one apartment to an- 
 other through contracted and dangerous 
 passages. Into these .spectral vaults he 
 introduced his workmen. Some held 
 torches while the others worked. The 
 floor of stalagmite was as hard as marble. 
 The philosopher was obliged to stand 
 hour after hour with his feet in tlie mud 
 while the cold exudations from the roof 
 of the cavern dripped on his head. 
 Finally the stalagmitic crust was broken 
 ■up and the materials underneath brought 
 to exposure. Everything was done un- 
 der vSchmerling's personal dirccti'on, so 
 that no false statement or unfact of any 
 kind should mix with the results. 
 
 The results were marvelous. Human 
 skulls and indeed whole skeletons were 
 Careftiiness of found in the clay and muck 
 
 «onrrhrrduo. ""^i^^- ^i^« ^""'- ^f ^^^^^?.- 
 
 t'°ns- mite. And to make the 
 
 discovery more astounding, the bones of 
 several species of extinct animals were 
 found intermingled with those of men ! 
 
 It was noted, -moreover, and established 
 to a demonstration that the human parts 
 and the animal parts were in such jux- 
 taposition and relation as to prove the 
 coincident lodgment and preservation of 
 the remains. Eveiy fact tending to 
 throw light on the discovery was care- 
 fully recorded by Schmerling, and in 
 the following year he published a trea- 
 tise announcing as a scientific truth the 
 contemporaneous existence of man and 
 the mammoth in Western Europe. 
 
 A second digression is here desirable, 
 relating in this instance to some changes 
 which have taken place in significance of 
 the fauna of the continent t::::i^:io^. 
 since the close of the plio- an cUmate. 
 cene era of geology. It appears that 
 certain transformations have occurred in 
 the climate of Europe which have made 
 the country untenable to several species 
 of animals formerly prevalent therein. 
 About seventeen varieties of mammals 
 have disappeared since the old stone age. 
 These embrace several species of heavy 
 pachyderms and quite a number of 
 smaller animals, nearly all of which have 
 their habitat either in the tropics or in 
 regions much more tropical than any 
 part of Europe. That these species for- 
 merly abounded on the continent is 
 clearly demonstrable. That they could 
 not possibly exist under present climatic 
 conditions is also true: from which it 
 seems clearly established that a great 
 change toward frigid conditioiis has 
 taken place in the Eurojican countries. 
 This change, doubtless, is the very fact 
 which has caused the extinction of the 
 animals referred to and the perpetuation 
 of the varieties now existing.' 
 
 'The theory of llie existence of a trupical conch- 
 lion in the nortliern heniisplicie in tlie aj^e pracii- 
 hig tlie Inst glacial ejioch of our planet may now 
 be considered as a demonstrated scientific truth. 
 See the discussion of the subject, p. ante 57.
 
 rRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWPJJ.RRS OF EUROPE. 
 
 291 
 
 The seventeen species of mammalia 
 which have thus been extinguished by 
 the vicissitude of climate are as follows : 
 Species of ex- The cavc bear; a second 
 ^"ocfatTwith variety called Ursus prisons, 
 ^^^- or the ancient bear; the 
 
 cave hyena; the cave lion; the mam- 
 moth ; another species of the genus 
 Elcplias, called the old elephant; the 
 hairy rhinoceros ; two other species of 
 rhinoceros; the hippopotamus ; the musk 
 ox ; the Irish elk ; the wild horse ; the 
 glutton; the reindeer; the aurochs, or 
 European bison ; and the urus, or primi- 
 tive ox. It is thought by naturalists 
 that some of the species here enumer- 
 ated have perpetuated themselves in de- 
 flected varieties of the original until the 
 present, but the rest are manifestly and 
 indubitably extinct. Yet all of these ani- 
 mals were prevalent in the old stone age, 
 and it is the testimony of the cave dwell- 
 ing that man was their contemporary 
 and competitor for occupancy. 
 
 Dr. Schmerling continued his investi- 
 gations in other limestone caverns and 
 Evidence cmnu- with the Same general re- 
 'thi7h:ra^::Jof s^lts. in at least four or 
 primeval man. five of the caves near Liege 
 he found unmistakable proofs that they 
 had been used for dwellings in the pre- 
 historic ages. Evidences of the manner 
 of life of the primitive barbarians of 
 Western Europe accuinulated, and fact 
 was added to fact in illustration of the 
 conditions under which man contended 
 with the laws of his environment before 
 the first peoples of the Aryan race had 
 found a footing in the countries this 
 side of the Danube and the Rhine. 
 
 Before proceeding to note the partic- 
 ular contents of the various European 
 cave dwellings, and to elucidate their 
 significance, it will be proper to enu- 
 merate some of the principal caverns 
 which have been explored. The Bel- 
 
 gian government finally undertook the 
 work begun by Schmerling, and in 1 867 
 sent out a party of scien- sketch of the 
 tists under direction of the niosttoportant 
 
 cave awelhngs 
 
 naturalist, Dupont, to car- of Europe, 
 ry forward the investigation. Several 
 other caves like that of Engis were ex- 
 amined in the same region and the con- 
 tents transmitted to museums. The 
 cavern of Chaleux yielded in addition to 
 its animal relics a vast number of imple- 
 ments, all belonging to the old stone 
 age. That of Furfooz was almost 
 equally rich in prehistoric materials. 
 The cave called Frou du Frontal con- 
 tained parts of thirteen .skeletons. The 
 opening of this vault was still closed 
 with the block of stone which the cave 
 men had used to barricade the entrance. 
 The grotto of Aurignac, in the south of 
 France, yielded seventeen prehistoric 
 skeletons, but these were unfortunately 
 lost through the ignorance of the mayor 
 of the city. In the department of Dor- 
 dogne, in Southwestern France, a 
 number of cave dwellings have been 
 explored with results confirmatory of 
 those attained elsewhere; and in con- 
 nection with these caverns the addi- 
 tional interesting fact was noted that 
 artificial chambers connected with the 
 natural vaults in the limestone had been 
 excavated and used by the primitive oc 
 cupants. In 1S58 the philosoioher, Schaaf- 
 hausen, gave to the public an account of 
 the discoveries recently made in the 
 limestone cavern of Neanderthal, be- 
 tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, includ- 
 ing a description of one of the most re- 
 markable prehistoric skulls which schol- 
 ars have had the fortune to examine. 
 
 Turning to England, one of the most 
 important of the caverns 
 
 '■ . , . 1 Exploration of 
 
 formerly inhabited by men the man caverns 
 
 ,, , , T' ..' of England. 
 
 IS that known as Ivent s 
 
 Hole, near Torquay, in Devonshire.
 
 292 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKEND. 
 
 This was first explored by the scholar, 
 MacEnery, in the year 1825. No 
 published account of the results, how- 
 
 KOllU AND ROCK SHELTER OK BRUNKJLEI. — AN AliOIJE OK I'RIMl 
 
 Drawn by Kiou. 
 
 ever, was made until 1859, \vhen tlic 
 relics wei"e classified by Mr. Vivian. In 
 1862, a remarkable hyena den called 
 VVokey Hole, near Wells, was explored 
 
 and described by William Boyd Dawkins. 
 jNIeanwhile the naturalist, Goodwin- 
 Austen, had reexamined the cavern of 
 
 Kent's Hole, and 
 given the results 
 in a memoir to 
 the Geological So- 
 ciety, In 1858 
 Dr. Falconer in 
 formed the same 
 learned body of 
 the interesting 
 discoveries made 
 by himself in a 
 cave dwelling at 
 Brixham, also in 
 Devonshire ; and 
 afterward a Pro- 
 f e s s o r Ramsay 
 explored the 
 grotto and veri- 
 fied the former 
 conclusions r e - 
 specting its con- 
 tents. 
 
 Explorations 
 were next carried 
 into distant parts. 
 In the grotto of 
 Maccagnone, i n 
 Sicily, Dr. Fal- 
 coner made dis- 
 coveries in the 
 .same general line 
 with thosealready 
 recorded. The 
 peculiarity in this 
 instance was that 
 m a n y of the 
 relics of men and 
 animals were 
 found aggluti- 
 nated to llie toh, or roof, „ „ , . 
 
 ' Peculiar finds In 
 
 of the cavern, wliere they the grotto of 
 
 1 , . , , lit Macoagnone. 
 
 had seemingly been held 
 
 in place by the action of water until
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 
 
 293 
 
 cave life drawn 
 from three 
 sources. 
 
 tte precii^itation of lime had cemented 
 them to the ceiling! Some interesting 
 caves have been explored at Gibraltar 
 with results similar to those enumerated 
 above. 
 
 It is thus that antiquaries and scholars 
 have become acquainted with the condi- 
 lUustrations of tions Under which the cave 
 dwellers of the prehistoric 
 age passed their existence. 
 It will be seen at a glance that the illus- 
 trations of the life of these primitive 
 barbarians are drawn first from the char- 
 acter of the human remains themselves ; 
 secondly, from our knowledge of the 
 animals with the bones of which the 
 human relics are found intermingled; 
 and thirdly, from the character of the 
 implements and utensils which the cave 
 men left with their own skeletons in the 
 clay beds of the caverns. — Let us look 
 then, first, at the remains of the cave 
 men themselves and compare these 
 human relics of a prehistoric epoch and 
 people with the like parts of existing, 
 races. 
 
 One of the most interesting skulls 
 which has come to lis from the time of 
 Characteristics the cavc dwellers is that 
 o?thTfng.s°" found ^y Dr. Schmerling 
 sii^iii' in the limestone cavern of 
 
 Engis. A cast of this skull has been 
 made and duplicates distributed to the 
 leading museums of the world, and the 
 most skillful naturalists have passed 
 upon its character. On the whole, it is 
 of smaller capacity and less symmetrical 
 development than the average cranium 
 of the civilized man of to-day. It is 
 narrower in the forehead, and gives evi- 
 dent indications of weakness in other 
 respects. But still it is of better capacity 
 and much less forbidding than might be 
 expected in a case of a prehistoric inhab- 
 itant of a cavern. The skull plate is not 
 especially thick, and that part which is 
 
 supposed to indicate animality is not 
 more protuberant than in the case of 
 many skulls of existing races. Professor 
 Huxley has candidly remarked that " It 
 is a fair average human skull, which 
 might have belonged to a philosopher, 
 
 THE E.NGIS SKILL. 
 
 or might have contained the thoughtless 
 brains of a savage." 
 
 Very different from this, however, is 
 the skull described by Schaafhausen, 
 which was taken from the cave of Nean- 
 derthal, near Diisseldorf, in Rhenish 
 Prussia. The latter is so exceedingly
 
 294 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 gross in its form and structure as to 
 suo-eest, almost with tlae force of demon- 
 stration, a type of life but little above 
 
 ity indicated by 
 the Neanderthal 
 skull. 
 
 THE NKANIJKRTIIAt. SKUI.L. 
 
 that of the beasts of tlic fkld. Tlic 
 skull is almost as flat and thick and re- 
 cceding as that of a gorilla. No man 
 of any existing race, even the most bar- 
 
 barous, has a skull at all comparable 
 with the Neanderthal in its small ca- 
 pacity, outward-slopingocciput, and great 
 
 thickness PecuUar animal- 
 
 o f bone 
 The a c 
 
 companying cut of an 
 authentic cast will suf- 
 ficiently illustrate the 
 character of the skull 
 under consideration. 
 
 It is not needed in 
 this connection to enter, 
 into details respecting 
 the character of the 
 other parts of the hu- 
 man skeletons which 
 have been found in the 
 cave dwellings of Eu- 
 rope. It is sufficient to 
 note the fact that in 
 general these remains 
 depart somewhat from 
 the highly developed and 
 
 sym m e tr i- other features 
 
 1 f,...,, ^ of the skeletons 
 cal foims „f the cave 
 O f living dwellers. 
 
 types of men, and verge 
 off unmistakably in some 
 particulars toward the 
 forms of the lower ani- 
 mals. The arms, for 
 instance, of the cave 
 men were longer than 
 those of existing races. 
 'J'he hands also shared 
 the elongation of the 
 humerus and ulna, and 
 appear to have had less 
 of that lateral flexibility 
 which distinguishes the 
 human hand from the 
 f( irc i)a\v of tlie chimpanzee. The animal 
 quality is again ilhislralcd in tlie size 
 and slia])e of the under jaws of tiie cave 
 men. Tliere is in this respect a consid-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 
 
 296 
 
 erable departure from the square, lifjht, 
 and symmetrical lower jaw of existing 
 raees. The teeth also of the cave 
 dweller were, as a rule, larger and more 
 canine than the human teeth of the pres- 
 ent. The shape and armature of the 
 mouth were more distinctly carnivorous 
 than could be found in the case of any 
 living species of men, and the bones of 
 the body were, as a rule, stronger and 
 redder and armed with higher processes 
 for the attachment of muscles than we 
 find in skeletons of the historical period. 
 On the whole, the indications derived 
 from the bones of the cave dwellers 
 point convincingly to a type and man- 
 ner of life considerably more approx- 
 imated to the mere animal existence of 
 the creatures with which these prim- 
 itive savages contended than to the 
 highly organized bodies and refined 
 characteristics of living men. 
 
 Something has already been said of 
 the character and place of the animals 
 Extinct animals ^vith whicli the prehistoric 
 man was associated in 
 Western Europe. It is now 
 no longer doubted that he was a com- 
 panion of the mammoth and the hairy 
 rhinoceros at a time when these huge 
 pachyderms still prevailed in the coun- 
 try. Of all the animal remains with 
 which the bones and implements of man 
 are associated in the cave dwellings the 
 most numerous are those of the cave 
 bear. Perhaps not a single cavern in 
 which the relics of human life have been 
 found has been explored without the 
 discover}' of the bones of this extinct 
 animal. He seems to have roamed ev- 
 erywhere in the west of Europe, and to 
 have had a special liking for those lime- 
 stone vaults which the cave men chose 
 for their dwellings. The bones of this 
 Ursus spclams, or cave bear, indicate that 
 the possessor was sometimes killed and 
 
 associated v^ith 
 man ; the cave 
 bear. 
 
 eaten by the cave men, who dropped the 
 inedible parts on the cavern floor. But 
 in other in.stances the bear seems to 
 have died a natural death in the cavern 
 which had been inhabited in the same 
 period by men.' 
 
 The second of the extinct anitnals 
 with which the cave man was most as- 
 sociated was the cave hyena. 
 
 Cave hyena and 
 The bones of this Crea- cave lion ; their 
 . . ■, ... .1 r distribution. 
 
 ture, mixed with those of 
 man and with palaeolithic implements, 
 are plentifully distriljuted in the caverns 
 which have been above described. The 
 animal in question did not differ very 
 greatly from the spotted hyena of Africa 
 and Asia, and his habits, doubtless, 
 were of the same kind as those of his 
 prototypes. 
 
 AVE i;h:AK. 
 
 The cave lion, scientifically called 
 Fclis spckea, is the third of the animals 
 which were associated with the prehis- 
 toric man. This beast was much larger 
 and stronger than modern lions, if we 
 except the great beasts of Africa. The 
 ancient animal was even more strongly 
 discriminated from the tiger than is any 
 existing variety of lion. The primitive 
 beast roamed freely in France, in Ger- 
 
 ' It is almost certain that the cave hear of the old 
 stone age was the progenitor of the common brown 
 bear of Europe and America. The skeleton of Ursus 
 spelaus is somewhat larger and stronger than the 
 bone-frame of his descendants, and his jaws and 
 teeth had specific characteristics marking him as a 
 different, or at least more primitive, type of animal ; 
 but in other respects the naturalist finds little to dis- 
 criminate the ursus of the cavern from his modem 
 representatives — little except the size.
 
 296 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 many, in Italy, and in Sicily, and his re- 
 mains have been known and classified 
 since the seventeenth century. It is 
 thought that the bones of the same ani- 
 mal have been found at Natchez, on the 
 Mississippi, a fact which would seem to 
 indicate a very wide distribution of this 
 creature. Other varieties of the genus 
 Felis also existed in the epoch of the 
 cave dwellers, and their remains are 
 found associated with those of men. 
 
 Reference has already been made to 
 the contemporaneous existence of man 
 Greatpachy- and the mammoth. This 
 uo^of Efephas' crcaturc seems to have been 
 primigenius. distributed over the whole 
 of North America and the continent of 
 Europe fi-om Land's End to Siberia. 
 
 SKKTCH <1F C.WK 1:i:ai;, PRAWN ON A STOKE 
 FOUND IN THK CAVE OF MASSET. 
 
 From the north the mammoth crossed 
 the Alps, and his remains are found as 
 far south as Rome. But no traces of this 
 pachyderm have been found south of 
 the Pyrenees or in the Mediterranean 
 islands. As a rule, and for very obvious 
 reasons, the bones of the mammoth are 
 infrequently found in the cave dwellings 
 of Western Europe. As already noted, 
 the entrance to these abodes were gen- 
 erally too narrow to admit so huge a 
 beast; but there are instances in which 
 the bones of man and the relics of the 
 mammoth have been washed by water 
 into a contemporaneous deposit in the 
 bottom of caverns. In other localities 
 the skeletons of the mammoth or parts 
 
 thereof have been found in close and 
 frequent association with the skeletons 
 of prehistoric men, and in such localities 
 the age of the deposit can nearly always 
 be determined by the presence of old 
 stone implements. No fact in natural 
 history seems to be better established 
 than the coexistence of man and this 
 so-called Elcphas priniigcnius in most of 
 the European countries. The story of 
 the discovery of the hairy mammoth im- 
 bedded in a mass of frozen soil in Siberia 
 is well known. At the beginning of 
 the century this remarkable find was 
 brought to the knowledge of scientific 
 men, and a portion of the animal re- 
 covered from the dogs and Avild beasts 
 to which it had been abandoned. The 
 mammoth was a huge jDachyderm of the 
 elephant order, with a dark colored skin, 
 covered with reddish wool, mixed with 
 long black bristles stronger and coarser 
 than horsehair. A restoration, from 
 strictly scientific data, of this great 
 beast of primeval Europe has been 
 effected by Professor Henry A. Ward, 
 of the United States, and doubtless 
 the monstrous effigy thus produced 
 fitly represents the animal as he was 
 in the days of the cave men of Western 
 Europe. 
 
 The bones of the hairy rhinoceros are 
 found in the caverns in juxtaposition 
 
 with those of men. But other animal 
 
 like those of the mammoth, ;^,"?h''{k'ose of 
 the locality best suited "^au. 
 to such association of human and non- 
 human relics are the drift formations 
 and gravel beds of the open country. 
 The remains of the musk ox, or more 
 properly the musk sheep, now limited 
 in its habitat to arctic America and Si- 
 beria, are also found in imion with the 
 relics of the prehistoric inhabitants of 
 the Continent, and even of England. 
 Bones of this animal have been discovered
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE ECROPE. 
 
 297 
 
 former inhabit 
 ant of Central 
 Europe. 
 
 In Kent, on the banks of the Severn, 
 and in the gravel beds of Avon. 
 
 The hippopotamiis also, that is, an 
 ■extinct variety of the species, prevails 
 ^vithin the human epoch, and the relics 
 of this animal are associated with those 
 of the cave dwellers. In at least fonr 
 ■caverns in England bones of the ancient 
 hippopotamus have been foiind. The 
 caves pf Durdham Down, Kirkdale, 
 Kent's Hole, and Raven's Cliff, in Gower, 
 have all yielded specimens of this ex- 
 tinct beast of the post-pliocene era. 
 
 The reindeer was also contemporary 
 with the prehistoric tribes in the west of 
 
 Thereindeera Europe. He 
 
 belonged to 
 
 the age of 
 bronze. At the present 
 this animal ranges far to 
 the north, being wellnigh 
 limited in his habitat to 
 Siberia and Lapland. In 
 America also he beats far 
 up to the arctic regions, 
 but in the central parts of 
 our continent the caribou 
 is thought to be an in- 
 flected variety of this 
 same species of rangerine 
 6tag that has left his 
 remains with those of primeval man 
 in France and England. In the cav- 
 erns of Wales more than a thousand 
 horns of the reindeer have been discov- 
 ered, and traces of his existence are 
 everywhere abundant as far south as the 
 Alps and the Pyrenees. Of the extinct 
 animals that have flourished since the ap- 
 pearance of man only the mammoth and 
 the haiiy rhinoceros seem to have been 
 older species than the reindeer. The 
 latter appears to have had great endur- 
 ance, and as late as the time of the com- 
 position of Ciesar's Gallic fFf/r the animal 
 
 «till roamed in the Hercynian forest — at 
 M. — Vol. 1 — 20 
 
 least such was the information brought 
 to CiEsar. The primitive man captured 
 the reindeer, feasted on his flesh, took his 
 horns for implements, and his hide for a 
 cloak ; but the animal was not domesti- 
 cated in prehistoric times. 
 
 More noted still as a contemporary of 
 the cave dwellers was the great stag 
 called the Irish elk. This 
 
 Size and cnarac- 
 
 was, perhaps, the most mag- teristios of the 
 nificcnt animal of all that 
 we are here considering. He grew to a 
 stature of more than ten feet, and an 
 existing pair of his antlers measures 
 ckvcn feet from point to point! These 
 
 MAMMOTH, RESTORED. 
 
 tremendous horns were palmated like 
 those of the American moose, and the 
 hvige creature dashing about the Irish 
 peat bogs or through the oak woods of 
 Britain must have been terrible, even 
 sublime, in a.spect. His remains are 
 frequently found in the peat measures 
 of I:-eland and on the Continent, but still 
 more abundantly in the lacustrine shell 
 marl underlying the bog earth of the 
 marsh lands. 
 
 Next in order of these prehistoric 
 animals is the ghitton, called in Amer- 
 ica the wolverene. He appears to have 
 been a contemporaiy of the creatures
 
 298 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 above enumerated, and in many places 
 
 to have had a particular association with 
 
 man. But more impor- 
 
 The prehistoric r • 
 
 bison of Europe tant by far m such associ- 
 
 and America. , - .1 1 
 
 ation was the aurochs, or 
 European bison. This animal has been 
 long extinct in France and England, 
 and yet we have the remarkable fact of 
 his survival in a cognate species in 
 
 gravel yields some relic of this heavy 
 prehistoric animal. Oddly enough, his 
 name is omitted from the intei^esting list 
 which Caesar has enumerated as inhabit- 
 ing the Hercynian wood in the time of 
 his invasion. But the tradition of the 
 aurochs is given in the Niebelungen 
 Lied and other ancient documents. 
 It seems that the extinction of this an* 
 
 FEAST miRING TIIK EPOCH OF THE REINDEER. -Drawn by Emilc Ilayard. 
 
 America. The bison ju-iscus, or old 
 buffalo of America, is now known to be 
 a more ancient variety than the aurochs 
 of Europe, and yet the latter was con- 
 t(?mporary with man along with the 
 mammoth and the reindeer. The 
 aurochs was widely distributed. His 
 remains are found in Scotland, England, 
 France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
 Poland, Italy, and Rilssia. Nearly 
 svcry bone cave and bed of river-drift 
 
 imal is traceable wholly to the aggressions 
 
 of civilization and not to any vicissitude of 
 
 climate. The European . 
 
 "■ Lato extinction 
 
 bison is said to have been of the European 
 
 •»T ji -n • buffalo. 
 
 seen m Northern Prussia 
 as late as the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, and it is believed that a pre- 
 carious existence is still maintained 
 by the species in some iminliabited 
 parts of Western Asia. An interesting 
 ejiisode is furnished in the fact that in
 
 PRUrEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 
 
 299 
 
 the Polish revolution of 183 1 a herd of 
 more than seven hundred bisons which 
 had been preserved by the Empcnjr of 
 Russia in the g-rcat forest of Lithuania 
 was attacked by a body of the insur- 
 gents, and a hundred and fifteen of them 
 slaughtered. A refnnant of this herd 
 exists to the pi-esent day in the same 
 forest. 
 
 The urus, or primitive ox, seems to 
 
 have been limited in his range to the 
 
 European conti- 
 
 Primitive ox of -nt 
 
 Europe; Cesar's nent. No traces of 
 
 description. , . . ^ , 
 
 his existence have 
 been found in America and 
 none in Asia, but remains of 
 the animal are plentifully dis- 
 tributed in England, Scotland, 
 Denmark, France, Germany, and 
 Sweden, Bones of this species 
 have been discovered in North- 
 ern Africa. In the, museum of 
 Lund a skeleton is preserved, in 
 one of the vertebras of which a 
 wound, made, as is believed by 
 Professor Nilsson, by a flint 
 weapon, is plainly traceable. 
 CsEsar, in the sixth book of the 
 Gallic War, gives a full account 
 of the urus as follows : " Of these 
 animals, there is a third species 
 which are called uri. They are 
 in size only a little inferior to 
 the elephants ; in color and ap- 
 pearance and form they are bulls. 
 Great is their strength and great their 
 velocity. Nor do they stand in dread 
 of either man or beast. The inhabit- 
 ants take and slay them by skillful 
 contrivance and pitfalls." The tradi- 
 tion of the urus is also preserved in the 
 Niebelungen. The species has been 
 like the aurochs, especially -persistent, 
 and has only given way before the in- 
 vincible pressure of civilization. It is 
 said that wandering groups of uri were 
 
 known in Germany as late as the six- 
 teenth century, and there is little doubt 
 that the wild bulls which ran at large in 
 the neighborhood of London as late as 
 the twelfth century were identical, at 
 least in descent, with the uri of the Con- 
 tinent. Nor would it be possible to say 
 to what extent the blood of the extinct 
 animal courses in the various breeds of 
 cattle at the present time. 
 
 Thus we see that while some of the 
 
 THK IRISH ELK (.MEtJACEROS HIBERNICUS). 
 
 prehistoric animals above enumerated 
 are indubitably extinct, others have in 
 some sense transmitted someprehis- 
 themselves into the historic ''^11,1'^ZfLr.. 
 
 survive m living 
 
 era. The mammoth and species, 
 the hairy rhinoceros long since ceased 
 to exist in the countries which we are 
 now considering. But the cave bear, 
 not unlike the grizzly of the Yuba 
 mountains, has doubtless left reduced 
 varieties of himself to the present time. 
 So also the reindeer, and, as we have
 
 300 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 just seen, the aurochs and the primitive 
 ox. This is to say that if we look at 
 the current of prehistoric animal life in 
 Western Europe, and consider it as a 
 river flowing over a plain and dividing 
 into multifarious streams as it flows, we 
 shall see some of these streams sinking 
 anon into the sand and disappearing 
 forever, while others maintain for a 
 while a straggling and reduced volume 
 until they in turn disappear. A few 
 currents flow still further and are found 
 precariously wandering on the surface 
 even to the present day. The main 
 point to be borne constantly in mind in 
 this connection is that far back in the 
 midst of these branching currents of 
 animal life primeval man held his career 
 as contemporary even with the oldest 
 divisions of the stream. 
 
 From the earliest appearance of man 
 on the earth, he seems to have had a 
 Disposition of disposition to Subordinate 
 r^^^w^'^nTr,? *'■ and use the various animals 
 
 cate w^ila ani- 
 
 °"^is. with which he has been 
 
 associated. According to the sacred 
 writers, he was to have " dominion over 
 the beasts of the field and every creep- 
 ing thing." Certainly he has shown a 
 disposition to subdue and possess a 
 ■great number of the wild creatures of 
 his habitat. His success, however, has 
 been but partial. Some of the animals 
 have spurned his control and escaped 
 from him. The struggle for mastery has 
 gone on until an epoch in civilization 
 has been reached in which man has 
 given his energies to the subordination 
 of the forces of nature rather than the 
 forces of animal life. 
 
 The disposition to tame the wild crea- 
 tures has been deflected into an( )lhcr form 
 of activity. The present conflict of man 
 with the animals tends to destroy rather 
 tlian to domesticate. From the earli- 
 est ages of history and tradition, however. 
 
 some of the living creatures with which 
 man has been associated have been 
 tamed and brought under „ 
 
 ■=^ Early date CI the 
 
 his control. Even the ar- practice oi do- 
 
 1 1 . 1 1 • J- i- 1 mesticatioa. 
 
 chaeological and inferential 
 sort of history which we have been 
 developing in the preceding pages 
 shows conclusively that in the most 
 primitive condition of human life sev- 
 eral of the animals were domesticated 
 and used by primeval man at his will. 
 It is interesting in this connection to 
 note what these domesticated animals 
 were under the dominion of the cave 
 dwellers of Western Europe. 
 
 First of all, the men of the caverns 
 had tamed the dog and associated him 
 closely with their abodes.' It appears 
 that wild dogs, to say nothing of wol- 
 verenes, abounded in some 
 
 . The dog the first 
 
 localities, but as a rule the of the domesti- 
 
 . 1-1 cated animals. 
 
 canine bones which are 
 found associated with those of men are 
 of domesticated animals, and their 
 abodes seem to indicate that the cave 
 nian was accompanied by large packs of 
 
 ' U will interest the reader and strengthen his 
 confidence as well to know luno it is that the nat- 
 uralist is able to distinguish the bones of a wild 
 animal from those of one domesticated. To the 
 man of science the case is perfectly clear. The 
 characteristics of the wild and the tame skeletons 
 are so well marked as to leave no doubt whatever 
 relative to their respective antecedents. The bone 
 of the animal under domestication becomes smooth, 
 and the channels on the surface through which the 
 veins and arteries and nerves are distributed become 
 so shallow as to be no longer traceable. The proc- 
 esses and spines which nature has provided for 
 muscular attachments are at the same time reduced 
 in height and size, and tlie whole appearance of the 
 bone surface becomes as distinctly unlike that of the 
 corresponding species of the wild animal as the liv- 
 ing aspect of the domesticated variety Is unlike the 
 ferocity 'm\A vigor of his untamed kinsman. The 
 accompanying cut of the vertebra; of a cow and of 
 the corresponding part from the back of a buffalo 
 will suificienlly illustrate the marked difference in 
 the bone structure ol wild and ilomesticated ani- 
 mals.
 
 ]'RIM£]'AL MAX.— CAVE DWILLLILRS OF EUROPE. 
 
 301 
 
 dogs. He used them not only in liis 
 contests with wild animals but also for 
 food. The canine bones which are 
 found in the caverns show conclusively 
 that they were broken and sawed open 
 for the marrow in the same manner 
 with the bones of other species. The 
 goat also was almost universally domesti- 
 cated, but, contrary to what might have 
 been exjiected, the sheep in many parts 
 was still abroad with the wild animals. 
 It is doubtful whether any inclosures, 
 properly so called, were used by the 
 cave dwellers, and it appears that sheep, 
 by their native instincts, 
 
 Disposition of 
 
 certain animals are IcSS dlSpOSCd than 
 
 to domesticate. , . , . i ,1 
 
 goats to accept the control 
 and protection of man — more disposed 
 to straggle off and revert to the original 
 type. The same remark may be applied 
 to the cat in contradistinction to the dog. 
 The former, though regarded as a 
 special pet of the human family, 
 seems, after all, to fonn only a 
 strong local attachment for a given 
 place, but very little attachment 
 to human beings. The dog, on 
 the contrary, attaches himself to 
 his master, and not to any partic- 
 ular place. He follows his master 
 to the end of the earth, and cares 
 but little for his own kennel as 
 compared with his master's com- 
 pany. It seems that the goat has 
 much of this same instinct; and 
 for this reason, doubtless, the 
 prehistoric barbarians of Western 
 Europe held the goat almost always in 
 domestication. Though sheep were 
 domesticated and used for both their 
 flesh and their fleeces, they were 
 nevertheless wild animals rather than 
 tame. 
 
 The same classification must be ap- 
 plied to the primitive cattle. It appears 
 that in some places kine were at least 
 
 partly domesticated, but, as a rule, they 
 ran wild. This may be said also of the 
 swine of the prehistoric Many beasts 
 age. It is in evidence that 
 droves of domestic pigs 
 were owned and driven from place to 
 place by the barbarians; but for the 
 most part the hog had his native lair in 
 
 partly tamed by 
 
 prehistoric 
 
 races. 
 
 PART OF THE VERTEBRA 
 
 OF A COW. 
 
 CORRESPONDING PART OF VERTEBRA OF THE BISON. 
 
 the forest, and was ver}' little subject to 
 domestication. These wild swine were 
 frequently pursued and captured and 
 used for food by the cave men, as is at- 
 tested by the "broken and sawed bones 
 which are left in the caverns and gravel 
 beds. As for the horse, he also ran 
 wild, and it does not appear that in any 
 part of Western Europe, at least in the
 
 302 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 old stone age, this noble animal had 
 been reduced to domestication. But his 
 flesh -was eaten in common with that of 
 many other animals. 
 
 As a general fact the cave dwellers 
 were exceedingly carnivorous in their 
 Eating habits of habits. This is the ouechar- 
 wesfernEuf °^ acteristic of their method 
 rope. of life which discriminates 
 
 them so strongly from the Aryan house- 
 folk described in the preceding chapter. 
 
 already, remarked, the marrow of the 
 bones was sought with avidity, and 
 scarcely a single fragment was left un- 
 explored for this delicacy. In the rude 
 life of the cavern the bones were simply 
 broken or crushed by some of the heav- 
 ier stone implements employed by the 
 cave dwellers. But the more approved 
 method was to cut the bone longitudi- 
 nally with a stone saw. Specimens of 
 this work ai^e plentifully preserved in 
 
 HUNT Ol'' Till'; WILD 1;UAR.-I)r.uv,i by I'.jnilc Kayard. 
 
 It is doubtful whether by the ruder 
 type of the cave men the soil was culti- 
 vated at all. They availed themselves 
 of many vegetable growths, ate masts 
 and roots and wild fruits of the woods, 
 and even devoured the barks of trees ; 
 bnl it does not appear tliat the rational 
 cultivation of the .soil was practiced or 
 even known by these rude barbarians. 
 They lived for the most part on the flesh 
 of animals, and this was generally torn 
 from the skeleton and eaten raw. As 
 
 nearly all the principal museums of the 
 world. The bones of the ox, the sheep, 
 the goat, the reindeer, the fox, the wolf, 
 and ' especially of the dog, are found 
 treated in this manner in the debris of 
 the caverns. Nor is there any mis- 
 taking the ]nirpo.se and intent of the bar- 
 barians in this work. 
 
 We have now, in onr consideration of 
 this archaic type of man in Western 
 Europe, arrived at the point where the 
 implements ;tnd utensils of his household
 
 PRIMEl'AL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OP EUROPE. 
 
 303 
 
 "Sm 
 
 
 may be appropriately considered. The 
 one thing to be remembered and repeated 
 „ with emphasis in this con- 
 
 Plaoe of the cave . '■ 
 
 men zoologically nectioii is that the cave 
 and geologically. , ,, , . , , . 
 
 dwellers flourished m tlie 
 
 old stone age. Only in few instances and 
 in peculiar localities does this primeval 
 form of human life seem to have ex- 
 tended upward from the palaeolithic into 
 the new stone epoch, and 
 still less frequently into the 
 age of bronze. It must be 
 constantly borne in mind 
 that, on the zoological side 
 of this inquiry, the primitive 
 man of the western parts of 
 Europe was allied with the 
 extinct species of animals 
 described in the preceding 
 pages ; that in his geological 
 relations he held his career 
 in what is called the post- 
 pJiocene, or quaternary 
 period, and that in his 
 archaeological relations he 
 was associated with the old 
 stone era. We come, then, 
 to consider some of the 
 details of his implements 
 and household apparatus. 
 
 The utensils and weapons 
 of the 'cave men were made 
 from flint and analogous 
 varieties of stone. They 
 were broken and chipped 
 into form after the rude 
 manner described on a former page. 
 Extent and vari- Those who have given lit- 
 \^Zlr:Zl^:ik tie attentlon.to the subject 
 museums. and have seldom visited our 
 
 museums of archaeology can but be 
 astonished at the great abundance of 
 old stone implements which have been 
 recovered from the age which we are 
 here considering. In the museum of 
 Copenhagen, for instance, there were, 
 
 .1--, 
 
 in the year 1864, one thousand and 
 seventy flint axes aad wedges, two hun- 
 dred and eighty-live broad chisels, two 
 hundred and seventy hollow chisels, 
 three hundred and .sixty-five narrow 
 chisels, thirty-three hollow narrow chis- 
 els, two hundred and fifty poniards, six 
 hundred and fifty-six lanceheads, one 
 hundred and seventy-one arrowheads. 
 
 !-.^rx 
 
 
 o> 
 
 T:SA 
 
 V) 
 
 r— 
 
 Av-r' 
 
 Ux-:^ 
 
 •■>.. M 
 
 'ft^ 
 
 hS' s. 
 
 v- 
 
 ■^yiK 
 
 t 
 
 i y 
 
 PAL/EOLIimC UAGGERS. 
 
 
 
 two hundi"ed and five half-moon shaped 
 implements, seven hundred and forty- 
 six pierced axes and ax hammers, 
 three hundred flint flakes, four hundred 
 and eighty-nine sundries, three thou- 
 sand six hundred and seventj'^-eight 
 rough stone implements from the shell 
 mounds of Denmark, one hundred and 
 seventy-one bone implements, one hun- 
 dred and nine other bone articles from
 
 304 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the shell mounds, making in a single 
 museum a total of eight thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety-eight specimens 
 illustrative of the age of stone. 
 
 The Danish museums contain an 
 aggregate of about thirty thousand 
 stone implements, and these are but a 
 fragment of the great collections of 
 other countries. The museum of the 
 Royal Irish Academy contains seven 
 hundred flint flakes, five hundred and 
 twelve so-called "celts," or axes, more 
 than four hundred arrowheads, fifty 
 spearheads, seventy-five scrapers and 
 
 hALAOLliHlC AXliS FROM TUK bllKM. MuUNDS. 
 
 many sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, 
 grain-crushers, etc. The great museum 
 of Stockholm contains upward of fifteen 
 thousand specimens illustrative of the 
 weaponry and utensils of the age of 
 stone. Indeed, in all parts of the civil- 
 ized world, in public and in private 
 collections, vast numbers of a still vaster 
 aggregate remaining in the earth of 
 these stone-made relics of the prehistoric 
 times have been gathered, and it is not 
 io be doubted that other museums still 
 more capacious could easily be filled 
 with like materials. 
 
 Perhaps the most important single 
 
 implement used by the primitive in- 
 habitants of Europe was the stone ax. 
 This tool, even from the stone axes, and 
 palaeolithic era, had a cer- ^^.T^^^ 
 tain rude approximation in tiiem. 
 shape and character to the modern as 
 of steel. But the stone implement was 
 generally fastened to the helve by a 
 much more primitive method than that 
 employed in the case of metallic axes. 
 The stone ax, after having been chipped 
 into proper form from a block of 
 flint, was generally inserted in the limb 
 of a tree, broken or cut off to the proper 
 length. The blade was fastened 
 in the opening by the binding 
 around of strips of rawhide or the 
 tendons of some strong animal. 
 There was great variety in the size 
 and shape of the implement and 
 equally multifarious uses. The 
 barbarian seems to have employed 
 his ax for everything. When we 
 consider the rudeness of the tool and 
 the manner of its mounting, it 
 seems almost incredible that it could 
 have been so effective in the hands 
 of those who used it. It is well 
 known that these prehistoric people 
 cut down large trees, sharpened 
 heavy piles, and accomplished other 
 astonishing feats with their rude stone 
 axQS. Doubtless the time required to 
 do such work was considerable, and it 
 is known that in many cases fire was 
 employed to assist the process. The 
 barbarian used his ax, as already in- 
 dicated, to split or burst the bones of the 
 animals whose fi'csli he devoured and 
 whose marrow was regarded as a morsel. 
 The cave dwellers and their contem- 
 poraries also manufactured FUnt knives, 
 and :ised a great variety o?th*e^rp"o'."'*' 
 of knives. The patterns ductioa. 
 of these were almost as variable as in 
 the case of modern cutlery. Sometimes
 
 PRIMEVAL ]\rAN.—CAVIl DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 
 
 305 
 
 FLINT ARROWrOINTS 
 FROM THE BONE CAVERNS. 
 
 the knife was double, having a blade 
 fixed in either end of the handle. Gen- 
 erally it was single bladed, and in a great 
 many cases had no handle at all. The 
 blade was produced 
 from a flake of flint 
 or obsidian, and was 
 chipped into form 
 after the manner 
 already described. 
 It must ever be a 
 matter of astonish- 
 ment that the sav- 
 age man of the 
 prehistoric ages was 
 able to produce such 
 fine effects by the 
 mere breakage and 
 chipping of s ti c h 
 material as flint. 
 Next among his 
 implements may be mentioned the chisels 
 which he used and which are also of vari- 
 ous patterns — some narrow, some broad, 
 some hollowed along the center of the 
 shaft, and others convex. It was a gen- 
 eral peculiarity of these 
 stone implements that the 
 cutting edge was curvilin- 
 ear, either gibbous or 
 semilunar in shape. This 
 is true of the edges of the 
 axes and chisels and adzes 
 and knives, and indeed 
 nearly all lithic implements 
 and weapons. 
 
 Perhaps no complete 
 enumeration can be made 
 of the tools and utensils in 
 
 use among the prehistoric 
 
 Great variety of , 
 
 prehistoric tools peoplcs whosc manner of 
 an weapons. ijfe is here delineated. The 
 variety was wellnigh as great as that in 
 the shop of a modern artisan. There 
 were sledges and hammers and saws, 
 wedges and celts, spearheads, arrow- 
 
 heads, javelinpoints, daggers, poniards, 
 many varieties of cutting instruments 
 after the general pattern of the knife, 
 scrapers, picks, many kinds of hatchets, 
 sling-stones, weight-stones for nets and 
 fishing lines, harpoons, awls, lapstones, 
 and an infinity of the so-called flakes. 
 Nearly all the varieties here enumerated 
 can be seen in any ordinary museum of 
 antiquities, and the beholder, by their 
 inspection, can but feel himself drawn 
 near to the prehistoric race of men by 
 whose hands these implements were 
 wielded. 
 
 It is not intended in the present work 
 to enter into the details of archaeology. 
 
 It is not even the purpose Manner of Ufe 
 
 to give any elaborate ac- ::;';Shetan 
 count of the slow transfer- caverns, 
 mation by which the tribes of the old 
 stone age passed by evolution into the 
 new stone age and thence into the age 
 of bronze. It is sufficient to note 
 that the general manner of life of the 
 cave men and their contemporaries was 
 that of hunters and fishermen, men of 
 
 FINE PAL.EOLITHIC ARROWPOINTS. 
 
 the woods and stream. Doubtless it would 
 be improper to speak of the ' ' social sys- 
 tem " of a people that had no society at 
 all. The cave dwelling would seem to 
 indicate an exceedingly solitary life. It 
 appears that in the case of the larger 
 caverns quite a band of the barbarians
 
 306 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 lived together. The abundance of bones 
 and relics is much greater than we should 
 expect in the case of a single family or 
 
 l-khMtMluKIC MAN OK TUK MiuLlTl 
 Drawn by Etiiilc Ilayard. 
 
 even five families in the same abode. 
 "Kor .should wc forget that what we may 
 call the waste of implements would be 
 much less among a people where a single 
 
 tool was of so great importance than in 
 a modern household where an implement 
 1 can be immediately replaced. 
 
 The care whicll 
 
 these people be- 
 stowed upon their 
 utensils is well 
 illustrated in the 
 distance to which 
 they were carried 
 in the case 
 of migration. 
 Nothing is more 
 common than to 
 find flint imple- 
 ments and weap- 
 ons at a distance 
 of hundreds of 
 miles from the 
 quarry whence the 
 material Avas 
 taken. The man 
 o f antiquity sought 
 assiduously for the 
 best quarries and 
 ledges from which 
 to take the ma- 
 terials of his man- 
 ufacture, and the 
 old pits which the 
 prehistoric folk 
 dug in the chalk 
 beds, in order to 
 get at the layers 
 of flint under- 
 neath, arc plen- 
 tifully distributed 
 in parts of Eng- 
 land and France. 
 There appear, 
 lie AGi;. moreover, to have 
 
 been seats of man- 
 ufacture, .sometimes in connection with 
 tlie quarries and sometimes in other 
 places. This fact would indicate a rude 
 soi't of commerce in implements. But
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 807 
 
 over and above this circumstance the 
 fact remains that the barbarians them- 
 selves clunjj to their tools 
 
 Care taken of 
 
 utensils; places and weapons with great 
 
 of manufacture. . .. . . ,, 
 
 tenacity, carried them to 
 great distances, and only parted with 
 them by the necessities of accident or 
 death. 
 
 We are thus enabled to form a true 
 concept of the prehistoric man of West- 
 ern Europe. In stature, he is believed 
 to have been considerably larger than 
 the average man of to-day. His bones 
 have greater length and strength, and 
 his proportions indicate a rather gigan- 
 tic form. Doubtless he was brutal in 
 
 appearance, with hair growing low upon 
 his forehead and an animal leer on his 
 features. Whether the day- stature and per- 
 dawn of the higher senti- f °"^' ' ^ Jlt'^'f 1 
 
 o istics 01 the cave 
 
 ments, the nobler aspira- ""^n- 
 tions, had as yet arisen in his spirit we 
 can not know. But that he had in him 
 the potency and germ of human great- 
 ness, the possibility of light and free- 
 dom and knowledge, can not be doubted 
 or denied. He was the gross substratum 
 of that human life which even in the 
 present day is but half-refined from bar- 
 barism and half-redeemed from the 
 heavy weight of biiite passion and ani- 
 mal ity. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII.— LaKTS DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 
 
 HE delineation of prim- 
 itive life given in the 
 preceding chapter rep- 
 resents but one of 
 several types of hu- 
 man existence in the 
 prehistoric ages. The 
 men of the caverns were a single branch 
 of the barbarians who inhabited West- 
 em Europe in the old stone age. It is 
 not intended in the present work to de- 
 scribe all the aspects of half-savage life 
 which present themselves to the anti- 
 quarian and ethnologist, but to discuss 
 only a suiBcient number of the primeval 
 tribes and their methods of development 
 to enable the reader to form an adequate 
 idea of the whole. In the current chap- 
 ter we shall turn to two or three other 
 forms of aboriginal European life, and 
 present them in the light of what is 
 known or reasonably inferred concern- 
 ing their career. First of all, attention 
 will be called to the lake dwellers of 
 Switzerland and other similar situations. 
 
 It must be known that the bodies of 
 fresh water on the European conti- 
 nent have considerably di- General contrao- 
 minished in area and vol- IZtr^t'lT 
 lime since the age of the Europe, 
 mammoth and the reindeer. The cir- 
 cumference of all the lakes has con- 
 tracted, and the surface has sunk to a 
 lower level. The extent of this dimi- 
 niition has been much greater in some 
 localities than in others. The fall of a 
 few feet in the level of a lake will some- 
 times, owing to the flatness of the 
 shore, expose a considerable area of 
 land that was hitherto submerged, 
 whereas if the shores be precipitous, a 
 fall even of many feet will make no per- 
 ceptible difference in the position of the 
 water line. 
 
 Both of these conditions have occurred 
 in different localities. In character of the 
 some places around the ^^^T^^" 
 margin of lakes acres and lakes, 
 even square miles of territoiy are now 
 dr}' land that were formerly under water.
 
 SOS 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXIUXD. 
 
 More frequently this recently exposed 
 strip exists in the form of marshland or 
 bog, but half reclaimed from its ancient 
 submergence. Wherever the lake is 
 situated in a flat, open region, this con- 
 dition of a fenland border exists to a 
 greater or less extent. Lagoons and 
 marshes, sometimes grown up with trees 
 and sometimes covered with the reeds 
 and grasses peculiar to the region of the 
 bog, will be noted in close proximity to the 
 lake itself, and the observer will readily 
 note that the addition of a few feet to 
 the water level would restore the lake to 
 its primitive borders covering the low- 
 lands. 
 
 In other places, particularly in the 
 mountainous regions, the water line of 
 the lakes has had less fluctuation. Here 
 the waters are contained as in a cup of 
 stone, and the rising and sinking of the 
 lake surface has widened and contracted 
 the border line but little. In almost 
 every situation, however, some fluctua- 
 tion has occurred, and even a single un- 
 usual season, whether it be of rain or 
 aridity, will be clearly perceived in the 
 narrower or wider limit of the lake. 
 This is to say that around all of the 
 fresh-water bodies is a debatable shore, 
 of greater or less extent, which has been 
 in turn submerged and uncovered ac- 
 cording to the humidity or the dryness 
 of the epoch. More particularly has the 
 gradual recession of all superficial waters 
 into the inner parts of the earth told 
 upon the lakes, especially those of small 
 extent, in reducing their area and depth. 
 
 The primitive liuropean tribes, at least 
 that portion of them which we are now 
 to consider, were by instinct and prcfer- 
 Certainprimi- cncc led to establish them- 
 ruIieTh^rer ^^'^vcs in proximity with 
 for residence. great collections of water. 
 The advantages of such situations arc 
 obvious. If the water be fresh it fur- 
 
 nishes to man one of the prime essentials 
 of his existence and many conveniences. 
 It gives him, moreover, from the depths 
 a multitude of fishes, easy of capture 
 and good for food. If the water be salt, 
 though its direct use by man is impracti- 
 cable, it nevertheless yields him a great 
 store of shellfish and many valuables 
 besides. We are here to note what was 
 done on the margin of the lakes. 
 
 The winter of 1853-54 "^'^^s one of ex- 
 cessive rigor in Europe, but of small 
 precipitation of rain or snow. This was 
 followed the next summer by a season 
 of uni:sual drought. Since Great subsi- 
 the year 1674 no parallel ^^rsiake'^iu 
 had been furnished to the 1853-54. 
 draft which was thus made upon the 
 volume of the lakes and the paucity of 
 the return which nature made thereto. 
 As a result, the level of the mountain 
 lakes in Switzerland fell off many feet, 
 and quite an area of the bottom was ex- 
 posed as terra firma. It was here that 
 the discoveries were made by the anti- 
 quary. Dr. Keller, and other explorers 
 which led to the reconstruction of that 
 type of prehistoric communities called 
 the Lake Dwellings and Villages. 
 
 In different ages and in different quar- 
 ters of the world men have frequently 
 adopted the plan of con- siuiation ot the 
 structingtheirabodesabove |fj-™X= 
 the surface of the water rodotus. 
 near the shore. The plan is to build a 
 platfoi-m, supported by different meth- 
 ods, and on these to rear the huts in 
 which the people lived. Between the 
 platform and the shore communication 
 is easily effected by some narrow struc- 
 ture which is defensible. In the fifth 
 chapter of the book called Tcrpsich^ 
 ore, in Herodotus, we have the fol- 
 lowing paragraph descriptive of such 
 dwelling places. The author is describ- 
 ing the manners and customs cf the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 
 
 809 
 
 ancient Pjeonians : ' ' Their dwellings are 
 contrived after this manner: planks 
 fitted on lofty piles are placed in the 
 middle of the lake, with a narrow en- 
 trance from the main land by a single 
 bridge. These piles that support the 
 planks all the citizens anciently placed 
 there at the public charge ; but after- 
 ward they established a law to the fol- 
 lowing eiTect : whenever a man marries, 
 for each wife he sinks three piles, bring- 
 ing wood from a mountain called Orbe- 
 lus: but every man has several wives. 
 They live in the following manner: 
 every man has a hut on the planks, "in 
 which he dwells, with a trapdoor closely 
 fitted in the planks and leading down to 
 the lake. They tie the young children 
 with a cord round the foot, fearing lest 
 they should fall into the lake beneath. 
 To their horses and beasts of burden 
 the}- give fish for fodder ; of which there 
 is such an abundance that when a man 
 has opened his trapdoor he lets down an 
 empty basket by a cord into the lake, 
 and, after waiting a short time, draws it 
 up full of fish." 
 
 But we have no occasion to seek for 
 evidence in the ancient w'orld of the ex- 
 istence of such structures 
 as are here ascribed to 
 the Pseonians. Dwellings 
 over the water are constructed and in- 
 habited by existing tribes of men. The 
 fishermen on lake Prasias, in European 
 Turkey, build their cottages over the 
 water, and the town of Tcherkask is 
 constructed above the current of the 
 Don. In analog}- with such structures 
 we might cite the buildings of the peo- 
 ple of India, which, though not over the 
 water, are set on piles several feet above 
 the earth. The same kind of abodes 
 are found in South America and in the 
 East Indian islands. The city of Borneo 
 is so founded and built. The Dvaks 
 
 Lake d-wellings 
 of various coun- 
 tries in the pres 
 ent age. 
 
 have their houses on an elevated plat- 
 form twenty or thirty feet high, in a 
 long row above the edge of the river, 
 and the floors are so constructed that all 
 refuse and waste materials fall through 
 into the water. 
 
 Switzerland is a locality specially fitted 
 in its geographical structure for the du- 
 plication of the dwellings Switzerland fa- 
 described above by the ^suirs^tti:!^ 
 Father of History. The ments. 
 lakes in this mountainous region have 
 fluctuated in the manner already de- 
 scribed, and it was on the borders of 
 the lake of Zurich that the first impor- 
 tant discoveries were made. But at a 
 later date explorations around the 
 marshes of lakes Constance, Geneva, 
 Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, 
 Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, and others have 
 led to like results. A very ample dem- 
 onstration has thus been obtained of 
 the manner of life of the primitive 
 lake people. The sites of more than 
 tivo liundred settletnetits constructed as 
 above over the water have been deter- 
 mined and described. No fewer than 
 twenty prehistoric villages have been 
 found on the shores of lake Bienne; 
 twenty-four along the margin of lake 
 Geneva; thirty-two on lake Constance; 
 and forty-nine on lake Neufchatel. 
 
 It was between Ober-^Ieilen and 
 Dollikon, on the banks of lake Zurich, 
 
 that the inhabitants, taking Discoveries on 
 
 advantage of the low water i?^^ z>i"ch; 
 
 o the crannoges ol 
 
 follow-ing the dr}- sea- Ireland, 
 son of 1854, extended their gardens 
 down to the margin along the new 
 water line. They built a wall and then 
 filled the space to landward b}- dredginjf 
 up mud out of the bottom of the lake on 
 the water side. "While doing so they 
 were surprised to draw up vast numbers 
 of piles, or at least the lower ends of the 
 same, which had in some prehistoric
 
 PRIM EVA L MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAXD. 
 
 yii 
 
 epoch been driven down tlirongh the i which houses and defenses were erected. 
 water. Alon^; witli these sliarpencd I The name given to this floating residence 
 points of trees l^m^^^^^^J- .'',^;^^^^fTr*i|^gy||^^ ■ :rr^-rfrr-Ah.-f"T}-}k- '^ ji'lljl 
 
 came up a large 
 variety of deer 
 horn and stone 
 im plcments of 
 primitive work- 
 manship. The 
 fact that some 
 aboriginal people 
 had inhabited this 
 shore was thus 
 made clear, and 
 scientific explora- 
 tions, imder the 
 direction of Dr. 
 Keller and other 
 antiquaries, soon 
 extended and 
 verified the dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Before proceed- 
 ing to deseribe 
 the utensils and 
 weapons revealed 
 in the lake bot- 
 toms of Switzer- 
 land, it is proper 
 to note the anal- 
 ogous results 
 attained in Ire- 
 land. The man- 
 ner of over-water 
 building is here 
 somewhat differ- 
 ent from that 
 practiced by the 
 prehistoric moun- 
 taineers. Among 
 the primitive peo- 
 ple inhabiting the 
 Irish lake coun- 
 try the plan was to construct a plat- 
 form on the water, and o\\ this platform 
 to create a sort of artificial island upon 
 
 was CraiDiogc, and the remnants of such 
 structures are easily discoverable to the 
 present time
 
 312 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 The craunoges were the strongholds 
 of the primitive Irish chiefs, to which' 
 Likeness to they betook themselves in 
 
 Highland refa- ^^ Highlanders 
 
 gees ; the cran- ' ^ 
 
 noge findings. of a later day to their 
 castles. These prehistoric seats are very 
 rich in implements and weapons and 
 other works of the clans by which they 
 were inhabited. But it is in evidence 
 from the discoveries made in the cran- 
 noges that they are of a much later date 
 than the cave dwellings of the Continent 
 or even the lake dwellings of wSwitzer- 
 land. There are instances in which the 
 contents of the Irish crannoge, as for in- 
 stance that of Dunshaughlin, have been 
 digged up b}' the wagon load and dis- 
 tributed on the shore to enrich the soil. 
 
 In the support of the platform above 
 the water on which the habitations of 
 the Swiss lake people were built, two 
 Methods of sup. methods were employed. 
 t^^^l^. The first was to cut down 
 platforms. trees, lop the branches from 
 
 the trunks, sharpen one end of the same, 
 and drive them, with many others of 
 like sort, into the water after the manner 
 of a modern pile work. On the upper 
 end of these, above the surface of the 
 lake, the platform was laid and extended 
 according to the demands of the village. 
 The other method was to heap up from 
 the bottom of the lake a sort of rude 
 stone walls, running here and there, 
 rising to the surface, and furnishing 
 support for the platform. But this 
 method was only cmi^loyed in the more 
 sequestered waters, for the exposure to 
 storms rendered this variety of building 
 precarious. 
 
 There is little doubt that the bottom 
 Fear of wild motive ill Selecting such a 
 ^rodtwh-oice «ite and in building a vil- 
 of Buch sites. ijijre or cvcu a single house 
 ab(jve tlic water and at a distance from 
 the bank was the pro.spect of gaining a 
 
 vantage against ravenous beasts. In the 
 primeval world this was always a serious 
 question. For long ages the beast had 
 the advantage of the man in the struggle 
 for existence. Heroes whose fame is 
 coextensive with the traditions of man- 
 kind became such by their successful 
 warfare with wild beasts. Such was 
 Nimrod and such was Hercules. After 
 the hero, the next best thing was an 
 artifice. Building over the water was 
 an artifice. A single flattened trunk 
 reaching from the platform to the shore 
 or at most a narrow causeway, was easily 
 defended, and bears and Avolves would 
 hardly swim to the attack of men. 
 
 It appears that the lake villages were 
 numerous and extensive. An estimate 
 has been made by the antiquary, Troyon, 
 
 as to the extent and popula- 
 
 ^ Number and ex- 
 
 tions of these settlements, tent of the Swiss 
 
 The largest village on lake ^ ® '" ^^®^" 
 Gene^•a appears to have been twelve 
 hundred feet in length and a hundred 
 and fifty feet in breadth. Giving to each 
 hut a diameter of fifteen feet and allow- 
 ing one half the space to be covered, the 
 village would contain three hundred and 
 eleven houses, and with an estimate of 
 four persons to the cabin, we should 
 have a population in this settlement of 
 twelve hundred and forty-four. The 
 same calculations give for the village on 
 lake Neufchatel a population of nearly 
 five thousand. Carrying out the same 
 estimates, M. Troyon thinks that the 
 lake population in this region was more 
 than thirty thousand at the time Avhcn 
 the villages flourished in the age of 
 stone. 
 
 By the backward look we may still, 
 in the mind's eye, observe the process of 
 constructing these lake habitations. The 
 first thing would be, of course, the selec- 
 tion of a suitable site on the water's 
 edge. The shore must be accessible
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLliKS OP SWITZE.RLANl). 
 
 313 
 
 from the lake and the lake from the 
 shore. A forest must stand near by, 
 Materials em- fi"om which the trees are 
 ^ir'uV::";/ ^cHed. with almost infinite 
 the builders. labor, by the strokes of 
 stone axes and the assistance of fire. It 
 appears that these primeval men would 
 attack the tree at the base and cut it 
 
 It should be remarked in this con- 
 nection that the stroke of a stone ax 
 in wood is easily distinguishable from 
 
 that of the metallic blade. Distinction in 
 
 The modern steel ax ^^/-^a^nT 
 struck atjainst the side of metallic axes. 
 a tree, even at an anyle, makes a 
 That is, the bottom 
 of the cut is rectilin- 
 ear. In the case of 
 tlie stone ax, the 
 wound is always 
 curvilinear in the bottom. 
 The effect of tlie blow is 
 rather in the nature of a 
 
 straigfht wound. 
 
 AXES OF PREHISTORIC MAX, SHOWING STAGES OF IMPROVEMENT FROM STONE TO BROXZ.:. 
 
 t, Swiss sione ax with handle ; 2. e. iiper celt, from Wati^rford : 3, winged celt, from Ireland ; 4, sncketed celt, frtun Ireland ; 5, 6, 7, celts 
 
 with handles of different patterns ; 8, bronze ax, from Naples ; 9, bronze ax, from Le Puy. 
 
 around as much as possible, and then 
 burn the wounded part down to the solid 
 body. Scraping away the charred poi'- 
 tions, they would then cut again, i:ntil 
 finally the tree came down. Similar 
 methods were employed in sharpening 
 the trunk. Here also the axes were 
 employed and fire by turns tmtil a rude 
 point was obtained suitable for driving 
 in the mud. 
 
 M. — \'ol. I — 21 
 
 bruise, the wood where the ax falls 
 being scooped out in a furrow, deeper 
 in the bottom than at the edges 
 of the cut.' In nearly all cases the piles 
 supporting the platforms of the Swiss 
 
 ' It is claimed that no measure of sharpness which 
 may be imparted to a stone blade will secure a rec- 
 tilinear cut — like that so easily produced with metal- 
 lic axes^in the wood struck with such blade at an 
 angle ; but the reason for such difference is not clear.
 
 S14 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. 
 
 lake dwellings bear the marks of stone 
 and not metallic axes, and in nearly all 
 cases the process of sharpening the 
 trunks has been assisted by the applica- 
 tion of fire. 
 
 How it was that the primitive tribes 
 adopting this kind of structure sue- 
 Question of set- ceeded in raising their 
 
 ^^me^^' Pi^®^ °^ ^^^ ^"^ driving 
 houses. them into the lake has not 
 
 been ascertained. But the unmistakable 
 evidence furnished by the stumps of the 
 piles themselves shows that they were 
 raised in some way arid driven down. 
 The work appears not to have been truly 
 done, as many of the piles stand in the 
 mud at an angle and others appear to 
 have been bent soinewhat from their 
 original position by the weight of the 
 superstructure. As to the platform, it 
 was made of split timbers, rudely framed 
 together on the top of the piles, and no 
 doubt tole'"^bly firm for the reception of 
 houses. The latter appear to have been 
 circular in form, made somewhat after 
 the manner of Celtic huts.' They Avere 
 chinked between the cracks with small 
 branches of trees and moss, and were 
 pointed within with mud. As compared 
 with the cave dwellings described in the 
 preceding chapter, it can not be doubted 
 that the lake houses were a great ad- 
 vance, superior in comfort and safety, 
 and not wanting in a certain picturesque- 
 ness of situation and aspect. 
 
 We come now to consider the evidences 
 of ancient life which have been discovered 
 General charac- in the lake bottoms and 
 S^'r^ecUo'"^\h P'-'-'it beds over which the 
 lakevuiages. villages Were erected. In 
 general, these settlements belong to the 
 old stone age. This is clearly shown by 
 the preponderance of rough stone im- 
 plements which are found under them. 
 
 ' Si.(; the colored Plate at Uie beginning of tlie 
 present Ijook. 
 
 It appears, however, that the lake dwell- 
 ers continued to hold to their jDOsition 
 until progress was made into the new 
 stone age, and even into the age of 
 bronze. In several places it has been 
 demonstrated by the plentiful discovery 
 of utensils and weapons of bronze that 
 the lake A-illagers had advanced to the 
 manufacture and use of this metal. In 
 any event, all of these stages of develop- 
 ment were anterior to the epoch of the 
 Romans, and therefore to the daydawn 
 of history. 
 
 If we glance at the old stone imple- 
 ments found in the margin of the Swiss 
 lakes and in the peat bogs variety of the 
 where the over-water vil- Sr^aJ^f/^^^ 
 lages were built, we find ployed, 
 them to be of the same general pattern 
 as those already described in connection 
 with the cave dwellings. It has been 
 noted that the Swiss prehistoric imple- 
 ments, as a general rule, are smaller than 
 those used by the cave men. This is 
 true of the arrowheads, the spearpoints, 
 and the axes. The material employed 
 in the manufacture of these tools and 
 weapons Avas, for the most part, flint, 
 but in some cases rock crystal. It has 
 been noted that spindle-whirls of earth- 
 enware coexist in the same layer with 
 the rough stone implements. Other ev- 
 idences of spinning and weaving have 
 been discovered in the same situation, 
 and to this should be added the presence 
 of stone mortars and balls for crushing 
 corn. Sir John Lubbock has recapitu- 
 lated the articles found inider a lake 
 village in the peat measure of Wauwyl 
 as follows: Stone axes, forty-three; flint 
 arrowheads, thirty-si.x ; flakes, two hun- 
 dred ; corn crushers, sixteen ; hammers, 
 twenty; whetstones, twenty -si.x. ; sling- 
 sloncs. eighly-fi\-e; making a total of 
 four hundred and twenty-six articles of 
 .stone recovered from a single bed.
 
 PlUMIilAL MAN.— LAKH DlVJifJJ-RS OF SWITZERLAND. 315 
 
 In examining these relics we are 
 again impressed with the fact that rude 
 commercial relations, at least the begin- 
 nings of traffic, existed in the age of 
 Signs in the find- which we speak. Many 
 Seanrc-o:n- «f ^hc implements found 
 ™erce. around the Swiss lakes 
 
 were brought, at least as to their mate- 
 rial, from distant localities. Many of 
 the flint implements are known to have 
 been taken from the 
 quarries of France! 
 Some are found that 
 were imported from the 
 shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. It is impossi- 
 ble to tell, however, 
 whether these weapons 
 and utensils were carried 
 by trade or by the mi- 
 gration of tribes to the 
 mountain lakes of Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 By examination of the stone hatchet with 
 animal remains found '°^^^^ ^^° 
 
 HANDLE. 
 
 under the lake dwell- 
 ings, the inquirer discovers again the re- 
 lations which the primitive people here 
 held to the lower orders of life. As a rule, 
 the prehistoric men ate nearly all kinds 
 of animals with which they were asso- 
 ciated. The skins of 
 beasts were the principal 
 articles of clothing, and 
 the flesh was invariably 
 stripped away for food. 
 We note in the case of 
 the lake dwellers the 
 same appetite for marrow 
 which we have already 
 noted in the men of the 
 caverns. They picked out of the hol- 
 low bones every particle of the con- 
 tents, and evidently regarded the mar- 
 row as the principal delicacy. The 
 harder and better bones were made into 
 
 CHIPFED FLINT AK 
 ROWHEAD. 
 
 FLINT HATCHET FITTED 
 WITH stag's HOKN HANDLE. 
 
 implements, but the horns of the deer 
 were the principal resource in this line. 
 From these were made the handles of a 
 great number of other implements, and 
 also picks and awls and scrapei---. 
 
 In .some cases the 
 attempt was made 
 to produce a cutting 
 edge from bone. 
 But from the na- 
 ture of the sub- 
 stance this could 
 not succeed. Chis- 
 els w'ere also at- 
 tempted, but the 
 material lacked 
 strength and solid- 
 ity, and the tool so 
 formed could only 
 be applied to the softer substances. The 
 bone scraper was much used Use of bone in 
 in the dressing of hides, in ^^L'^S'"'' 
 which it appears that all of weapons, 
 the primitive Europeans had consider- 
 able skill. If the lake dwellers attempt- 
 ed the manu- 
 facture of 
 wood, it does 
 not appear in the relics 
 which they left behind. 
 Doubtless, however, the 
 eas\- deca}' of wood fiber 
 would in part account for 
 the absence of utensils 
 made therefrom. But it 
 appears, on the whole, that 
 the lake men preferred the 
 use of flint and bone and 
 horn. It has been noted 
 that tinder was employed 
 by the lake villagers in 
 the production of fire. 
 The appearance of broken fragments 
 of pottery in the lake margins and peat 
 beds shows conclusively that the people 
 of the age which we are here consid- 
 
 riCKAX OF 
 
 stag's horn.
 
 -316 
 
 GREAT RACES OF J/AXA'LVD. 
 
 ering- understood at least the rudiments 
 of that kind of manufacture. Very few 
 Pottery of the vessels have been discov- 
 lakedweuers: ^ whole, but manv in 
 
 rndftnfiss of the ^ ^ » ^ 
 
 pieces. 
 
 rudeness of the 
 lelics. 
 
 These all indicate 
 the rudest kind of work. The vessels were 
 evidently misshapen and unsymmetrical 
 in design. It is thought that the pot- 
 ter's wheel was unknown. Nor has any 
 evidence of furnace heat been discov- 
 ered in the imperfect burning' to which 
 the fragments seem to have been sub- 
 jected. Perhaps an open fire produced 
 the highest heat with which these peo- 
 
 IXIIM r MAM lA' ImKV of roMKuy, IN TllK CI.ACIIR C.AKDliN, AT I.UCIOKNE. 
 
 pie were acquainted. The forms of a 
 few vases have been determined which, 
 viewed from an artistic point, are clumsy 
 in the last degree. It is noticeable that 
 the earthenware of these villagers is 
 without feet or other .support than the 
 unfinished bottom of the vessel. It ap- 
 pears that the utensils were set upon the 
 floor or on the soft earth where there 
 was little danger of breakage. 
 
 Of human remains, strictly so called, 
 Scnrciiyorhn- Only a fcw havc been dis- 
 rh":;:™ma?.'" covered under the lake vil- 
 B'"»- lages. Nor might it be 
 
 reasonably expected that many would be 
 found. It will be seen at a glance that 
 
 the situation has been much less favor- 
 able for the preservation of human skel- 
 etons, in whole or in part, than the mud 
 beds under the stalagmite in the cave 
 dwellings. The free action of water, 
 the access of fishes to any bodies that 
 may have dropped into the lake, the 
 movement which would take place under 
 the wave, and the change of tempera- 
 ture, very great as it is in the situation, 
 would account for the destruction and 
 decay of any bodies that might have 
 gone to the bottom through the village 
 platforms. It is likely, moreover, that 
 
 the lake dwell- 
 ers had regular 
 methods of sep- 
 ulture. As has 
 been already 
 seen, they were 
 con siderably 
 more advanced 
 i n the hiiman 
 evolution than 
 the cave men, 
 and care for the 
 bodies of the 
 dead is one of 
 the s}'mptoms 
 which marks the 
 progressive people from the barbarians. 
 Some remains of men, however, have 
 been fninul in the mud of the lake mar- 
 gin in such relation with Bodily forms of 
 
 1 • . • 1 • < ^ : 1 ,, ln.ke dwellers 
 
 prehistoric relics as to iden- determined from 
 
 tify them witli the age skeletons. 
 of stone. Perhaps a lialf dozen skele- 
 tons, including the skulls, have been re- 
 covered, and from these a fair idea of 
 the stature, form, and characteristics of 
 the lake people have been determined. 
 On the whole, they were not as tall as 
 the Europeans of to-day, but tlie skel- 
 eton does not indicate that strong ani- 
 mal affiliation which we have noted in 
 the men of the cavern. The proportions
 
 PRIMIWAI. }r.\X.—I.AKF. DWr.I.I.I-.RS OF S\VITZI-.RLAXI\ 
 
 317 
 
 of the lake dwellers were fairly jjood, 
 and the skull shows a medium caj)acity. 
 Nor is the configuration specially differ- 
 ent from that of the mountaineers of the 
 present time. As to the personal as- 
 pect of these people there is nothing 
 better than conjecture to guide us. We 
 know by their manner of life that their 
 intellectual horizon was exceedingly lim- 
 ited ; that they had the carnivorous hab- 
 it, though not in that intense degree 
 peculiar to the cave dwellers; that the 
 social instinct was in some measure de- 
 veloped, as is shown in their aggrega- 
 tion in village communities, and that the 
 beginnings of agriculture among them 
 were sufficient to show the upward tend- 
 ency toward a higher level of existence. 
 As in the case of the cave men, much 
 light may be thrown on the life and 
 Animals with manners of the people of 
 
 which lake vil- 
 lagers were as- 
 sociated. 
 
 the lake villages by noting 
 
 the animals Avith which 
 they were associated and some produc- 
 tions of the soil which are known to 
 have been economized. A large list of 
 the beasts and birds and fishes peculiar 
 to the era which we are here discussing 
 has been determined by naturalists, and 
 much valuable information therefrom 
 deduced. The prevalent wild animals 
 were the brown bear, the badger, the 
 marten, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, 
 the beaver, the elk, the urus, the aurochs, 
 the European bison, the stag, the deer, 
 the wild boar, the marsh boar, the pole- 
 cat. The domestic animals were the 
 horse, the ox, the goat, the sheep, the 
 dog, and the common swine. In the 
 case of the horse, his domestication was 
 but partial, and the demonstration of the 
 existence of tame swine is not complete. 
 It will be noticed at a glance that the 
 wild animals here enumerated are of a 
 somewhat later epoch than those asso- 
 ciated with the cave dwellei'S. The 
 
 mammoth, the cave bear, the cave hyena 
 seem to have disappeared. Perhaps the 
 Irish elk and the reindeer at no time 
 held this region as a habitat. 
 
 Much may be inferred by a little clear 
 thought relative to the condition of the 
 villagers from the consider- Manner of lake 
 ation of their domestic ani- ^r^wn ft'om 
 
 mals. Such creatures must manifest data. 
 
 be cared for, especially in winter. They 
 must be fed, not to say housed against 
 the rigors of the season. Provisions 
 and shelter would, therefore, be neces- 
 sary, and people who make such provi- 
 sion and provide such shelter could not 
 be wholly barbarous. Closely allied with 
 this consideration is another drawn from 
 the discovery of various grains that 
 were used by the villagers. Many speci- 
 mens of charred cereals have been found 
 with other relics of this ancient life. 
 Grains of wheat have been recovered 
 from the finds at Meilan, Moosseedorf, 
 and Wangen. At the last named place 
 the antiquary had the good fortune to 
 discover several bushels of wheat pressed 
 together in a lump, the grains adhering 
 in a mass. The appearance of the wheat 
 is almost identical with that of modern 
 varieties of the same grain, ilany 
 specimens of what is known as six-rowed 
 barley have been recovered from like 
 situations, and it will interest the reader 
 to be informed that this variety of cereal 
 was still under cultivation in the primi- 
 tive days of Greece and Rome. Alto- 
 gether, three kinds of wheat have been 
 found under the lake dwellings, two va- 
 rieties of barle}', and two of millet. It 
 appears that rye and oats were as yet 
 unknown. 
 
 Reverting to the animals of the lake 
 regions in prehistoric times we note two 
 species of wild cattle, namely, the urus 
 and the bison. The former seems to 
 have been reduced to partial domestica-
 
 818 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JELVAVXD. 
 
 tion as early as the neolithic period, but 
 no indication of snch a fact has been 
 Deductions from found in the old stone age. 
 the animal life of rpj^g largest of the ani- 
 
 the lake-dwell- ^ 
 
 ing age. mals prevalent around the 
 
 Swiss lakes were these two varieties of 
 wild oxen, the elk and the stag. The 
 rhinoceros had disappeared and the 
 urus had been much reduced from the 
 
 vserved in the forests of Germany. It is 
 noticeable that the list of domestic ani- 
 mals has been extended and confirmed. 
 The horse has certainly become, in some 
 measure, the servant of man, and sheep 
 have been more positively reclaimed 
 from the wild condition. It is thus 
 evident that the mere barbarous life of 
 hunters and flesh-eaters was giving way 
 
 SWISS LAKE VILLAGE OF THE AGE OF BRONZE.-Drawn by Kiou. 
 
 great proportions which he bore in the 
 times of the cave men. Looking back 
 from our own point of view we note that 
 elks have not existed in Switzerland dur- 
 ing the historical period, though they 
 still maintained an existence in the low- 
 land forests as late as the Roman period. 
 Tiie ibex has al.so di.sappcarcd. The 
 smaller of the wild animals enumerated 
 above still prevail in their ancient habi- 
 tat, and even the wild boar has been pre- 
 
 to a higher and more rational mode of 
 existence among these villagers of the 
 Swiss lakes. 
 
 It will be of interest to add a few 
 words relative to the birds which came 
 by water or by air to the 
 
 •^ Species of birds 
 
 liabitations of the lake men. belonging to the 
 TA, , , . . , - same epoch. 
 
 1 he golden eagle circled 
 
 above them. The bones of at least four 
 
 varieties of hawk have been discovered. 
 
 Two kinds of owl were known, and two
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 
 
 319 
 
 varieties of crow. The common starling- 
 was present, and the wood pigeon. 
 There were two kinds of heatli cock, also 
 the white stork, the ashy heron, the dun 
 grouse, the black coot, two varieties of 
 meu, one kind of swan, one species of 
 goose, two kinds of duck, one kind of 
 diver. Of fishes and reptiles, the 
 remains of as many as ten species have 
 been recovered and identified. 
 
 Mention has been made of the iinding 
 of the cereals tinder the lake dwellings. 
 Significant It appears from the discov- 
 
 p^^lstoric^gri. erics that the grains were 
 cultural life. roasted for food. Beyond 
 this primitive method of preparing 
 kernels, it is known that the lake dwell- 
 ers used bread. Cakes, hard, flat, cir- 
 cular, unleavened, have been found just 
 as they were prepared for the board at 
 a date more remote than the founding of 
 Rome! Of the methods of cultivation 
 employed in this far time nothing is 
 known. No agricultural implements or 
 apparatus have been recovered, but tools 
 for the preparation of grain, such as 
 mortars and stones for grinding the 
 kernels,, are plentiful. Specimens of 
 dried fruit, such as carbonized apples 
 cut into halves or quarters, have been 
 found at both Wangen and on lake Neuf- 
 chatel. Such fruits appear to have been 
 of wild varieties, resembling the crab 
 apple of modern times. The vine had 
 not yet made its appearance. The Aval- 
 nut, the cherry, and the damson plum 
 were unknown, but seeds of the wild 
 plum have been discovered. .Shells of 
 the hazelnut and , beechnut ai"e fre- 
 quently found in the mud, and some- 
 times the seeds of the raspberry and 
 blackberry. Beans have been discovei^cd, 
 but only in the later relics of the age of 
 bronze, while peas are found farther 
 back, among the remains of the new 
 stone age. From a consideration of all 
 
 these elements we are able to make out 
 a tolerably fair schedule of the daily 
 subsistence, the means of supply, and 
 the method of preparation peculiar to the 
 prehistoric villagers of the Swiss lakes. 
 
 Bronze hairpin found ill 
 Swiss lake. 
 
 Bronze pin from a Scotch 
 shell mound. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF FINE WORKMANSiriP IN BRONZE. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the 
 fact that the lake dwellers continued to 
 hold their situation until 
 
 . . Lake d-welUngs 
 
 their implements of stone extend into the 
 were succeeded by the ^^° ronze. 
 manufacture and use of bronze. The 
 villages belonging to the age of bronze 
 are not so widely distributed as those of 
 the stone period. The former were 
 built, for the most part, on the lakes of 
 Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, and Sem- 
 pach. In Eastern Switzerland very few
 
 S20 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 evidences of the age of bronze liave been 
 discovered. It appears that for some 
 reason a kind of primitive conserva- 
 tism prevailed on lake Constance which 
 led to the continuance of stone nianu- 
 facture long after the introduction of 
 tronze in the western settlements. It 
 is in evidence that other improvements 
 besides the introduction of metal in 
 workmanship appeared in the bronze- 
 making villages. The platforms Avere 
 more substantially constructed and the 
 houses larger and of a more permanent 
 character. It seems, moreover, that the 
 \'illages of the age of bronze were built 
 farther from the shore than those of the 
 age of stone. At least the bronze relics 
 are nearly always taken otit from a 
 greater depth of water and farther out 
 than the stone implements peculiar to 
 the older age. 
 
 By examining the bronze implements 
 their superiority in design and workman- 
 Evidences of the ship to those of the peri- 
 '^:n::iXl:^" ^^^ preceding are quickly 
 barism. noted. The swords, dag- 
 
 gers, axes, spearheads, knives, sickles, 
 
 fishhooks, and articles of personal adorn- 
 ment are all of a pattern which may be 
 called well formed, if not artistic. Brace- 
 lets, brooches, and finger rings are found 
 which, though they may hardly be de- 
 scribed as beautiful, are not devoid of 
 tastefulness in design and elegance in 
 execution. It is noticeable, moreover, 
 that the supply of implements, weapons, 
 and personal decorations is far more 
 abundant in the case of the bronze-bear- 
 ing villages than under those of the stone 
 epoch. ]\Iany museums have been re- 
 plenished from the resources here re- 
 ferred to, and a single collection cited 
 by Sir John Lubbock contains four 
 thousand three hundred and forty-six 
 specimens; and it is an evidence of 
 what may be called the pei^sonal pride 
 of the villagers of the bronze age that of 
 the list of articles here enumerated more 
 than two thousand are hairpins and rings. 
 In the age of bronze the human race en- 
 tered upon its career of strength and 
 variety, but did not yet enter uiDon the 
 career of ambition and vain delusion 
 which it was to pursue in the age of iron. 
 
 Chapxkr XVIII.— Co^st People ok the North. 
 
 |E now turn to another 
 aspect of primitive life 
 quite different from 
 those discussed in the 
 preceding chapters. 
 We have reconstructed 
 as far as practicable 
 the conditions of the old Aryan house- 
 folk of India;. of the cave dwellers of 
 Western ICurope, and of the lake dwell- 
 ers who took advantage of tlie water 
 surface as a means of protection and 
 convenience. We now come to consider 
 a mode of prehistoric existence which 
 
 was developed along the seacoast, espe- 
 cially in the northern and northwestern 
 parts of ]uiroj:)e. 
 
 Of the forms of primeval life already 
 presented, the most barbarous was that 
 of the cave men ; the most Relative sav- 
 elevated, the house people '^:Z:^:^:i:t 
 of the East; and the most ditions. 
 progressive, tlie lake dwellers of .Switzer- 
 land and other like localities. In enter- 
 ing upon a review of the people of the 
 seashore, we shall again be carried back 
 to an exceedingly rude and aboriginal 
 type of human existence, perhaps not
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OE THE XORTH. 
 
 321 
 
 quite so gross, but equally primitive with 
 that of tlie cave dwellers. 
 
 About the time that the really scien- 
 
 tific investigation 
 
 of 
 
 archaeological re- 
 
 Discovery of the mains began in the second 
 
 S:cotrof°" q^ia^t'^r «f ^l"s ^-^i^tury, it 
 Denmark. -was noticed that on the 
 
 coast of Denmark and 
 
 situations 
 
 up. Sometimes the 
 
 in other similar 
 
 long, low dunes were thrown 
 
 elevations were 
 
 were too far from the surge to have 
 been thrown up by the action of the 
 water first drew the attention of archaeol- 
 ogists and naturalists to Mound con- 
 their peculiarities. It was "^Z^T 
 
 found that those of the Streenstrup. 
 
 mounds which lay within reach of the 
 tide were made up in part of sand, but 
 the larger portion of the material was 
 shells. In the case of those dunes that 
 
 KITCHEN MIDDENERS AND THEIR DWELLINGS. 
 
 nearly circular, sometimes they were 
 ring-shaped, having a crater-like depres- 
 sion in the center. But more frequently 
 they were elongated elevations, from 
 one hundred to three hundred yards in 
 length, perhaps two hundred feet in 
 breadth, and from two to ten feet in 
 height. The situation was along the 
 surf line of the sea, but generally outside 
 of the reach of the tide. 
 
 The fact that these dunes and mounds 
 
 were in the higher situations, beyond 
 the reach of the water, they were com- 
 posed almost entirely of shells, and a 
 very casual examination showed that 
 the mollusks inhabiting them had be- 
 longed to another age. Such was the 
 beginning of the discoveries. 
 
 The Danish naturalists led the way in 
 examining these strange formations; 
 and it was at once observed that the 
 shells were intermixed with the debris
 
 322 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JIANA'LVD. 
 
 of human life. Here, tlien, was a new 
 class of relics of prehistoric existence, 
 and a new field of inquiry opened before 
 the antiquary. Professor Steenstrup was 
 again in the van in the exploration of 
 the shell mounds. He gave them, in 
 the first place, the name which they 
 have ever since borne, of Kitchen 
 
 middens 
 
 own lanofuaee 
 
 Flint core or nucleus. 
 
 Flint flal<es, Denmark, 
 
 WORKMANSHIP OF THK KITCHEN MIDDKNERS. 
 
 word is Kjokkcimwddiiigs, which signifies 
 "kitchen refuse heaps." The idea of 
 the learned Dane was that these 
 mounds were the refuse of the food 
 and waste material of a people who had 
 built their huts on the seashore, and had 
 manifestly subsisted for the most part 
 on shellfish. This primary hypothesis 
 of the naturalist was borne out by all 
 subsequent investigations, and it was 
 Boon established beyond doulit lliat a 
 
 prehistoric people had chosen the shore 
 of this northern sea as the best vantage 
 ground which they could procure in 
 their struggle to preserve life and per- 
 petuate their tribes. 
 
 The shell mounds are b}- no means 
 isolated phenomena. They are rarely 
 found singly, but in groups, covering a 
 considerable extent of coast. This is to 
 say that the primitive people 
 dwelling here lived in ag- 
 gregations, or The kitchen 
 villages of huts T^ttlT,"™ 
 
 Ci cate village com- 
 
 on the beach, ^unities. 
 Sometimes a principal mound 
 will appear, and around this 
 others of smaller proportions. 
 The contents are abundant, 
 and the vast heap of shells is 
 in many cases carted away 
 by the inhabitants and used 
 to replenish the soil. 
 
 What strikes the beholder 
 in opening one of these 
 mounds is the fact that the 
 xvliolc contcnts,ox 
 
 The heaps made 
 
 the materials of up of the debris 
 
 ,, 1 .. of human life. 
 
 the elevation, 
 are the debris of human life. 
 Hardly any merely natural 
 substance is foiiiid inter- 
 mixed M'ith the shells and 
 other refuse of the kitchen 
 and the hut. Doubtless the 
 kitchen was tlic hut and the 
 hut was the kitchen. In a few in- 
 stances some gravel and other unmodi- 
 fied natural products are found in thin 
 layers or scattered among the waste of 
 the hovel. But for the most part every- 
 thing has had its use' in the hands and 
 mouths of tlie primitive tribes inhabit- 
 ing this coast. 'IMic people appear to 
 have subsisted almost exclusively upon 
 oysters and mussels, and to have flung 
 the sliclls (Hit tif the Inil until they ac-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF TJUL NORTH. 
 
 323 
 
 cumulated to a depth of several feet. It 
 would seem that in many instances the 
 hut itself would be half buried by the 
 accumulation around, and doubtless the 
 site of the dwelling is the crater which 
 is noticed in a dune here and there. 
 
 If we examine the implements and 
 weajjons which the coast people lost or 
 Character of the broke or cast asidc with the 
 tooisl^dutt" o^l^er debris of their vil- 
 s''s- lages, we shall find them to 
 
 be of the most primitive pattern and 
 rudest workmanship. They are nearly 
 or quite all of the old stone age, and the 
 method of fracture employed in making 
 them seems to have been less skillful 
 than that of the oldest lake villagers, 
 and fully as rude as the workmanship of 
 the cave men. Great quantities of flint 
 flakes, rough axes, lanceheads, arrow- 
 points, weights for fishing nets, sling- 
 stones, and awls have been recovered 
 from the mounds, and they are, without 
 exception, of the primitive pattern and 
 finish above described. From the shell 
 mound of Meilgaard, which was visited 
 and examined by Sir John Lubbock in 
 person, nineteen axes, a hundred and 
 thirty-nine flint flakes, six bone pins, 
 six horns, four pieces of rude potter}', 
 one stone hammer, and twenty sling- 
 stones were recovered. This mound is 
 merely specimental of scores of others 
 that existed and still exist along the 
 coast of Denmark. These, like the lake 
 villages and the cave dwellings, have 
 contributed thousands of specimens to 
 the European museums, and these have 
 been arranged and classified with re- 
 spect to their antiquity, so that he that 
 runs may read the story of a prehistoric 
 age. 
 
 The extreme simplicit)', not to say 
 barbarity, of the method of life of the 
 shell-mound people has already been in- 
 dicated. As compared with the lake 
 
 villagers of Switzerland, even of the old 
 
 stone age, they were far behind. The 
 
 lake men were acquainted 
 
 ... •, , , , Dednctio:. of a 
 
 With wheat and barley, and low grade of 
 
 even with the manufac- ^^ ^"° ^" 
 ture of bread. But in the shell mounds 
 no traces of grain have been discovered, 
 nor have any relics of vegetables such 
 as men would use for food been found 
 in the debris around the huts. The 
 people seem to have subsisted altogether 
 upon the shellfish which they gathered 
 along the shore, either by digging in the 
 sand with the recession of the tide, or by 
 rude nets which they dragged in shoal 
 water. These mollusks, together with 
 certain birds and Avild animals which they 
 were able to capture, constituted the only 
 food of the hut dwellers. 
 
 The four principal varieties of sea 
 mollusks which the mound builders ate, 
 and which indeed constitut- Nature o\ the 
 ed their chief supply, were fo^u^^fia^t^f^ 
 the oyster, the cockle, the iieaps. 
 mussel, and the periwinkle. All ol 
 these, as is indicated by the shells, were 
 of larger size than those now found on 
 the same coasts. The oyster has wholly 
 disappeared from these waters, and 
 doubtless the other species were of 
 different varieties from those now exist- 
 ing. It must not be understood, how- 
 ever, that the bones of birds and mam- 
 mals are wan-ting in the mounds. On 
 the contrary, these are rather plentiful. 
 Professor Steenstrup has estimated that 
 each cubic foot of the shell material con- 
 tains on the average ten or tAvelve bones. 
 The mound at Havelse has yielded 
 about three thousand five hundred speci- 
 mens of the bones of mammals, and 
 more than two hundred of birds. Fish 
 bones other than those of the sea mol- 
 lusks are also found intermixed in the 
 mounds. The remains of the herring, 
 the dorse, the dab, and the eel have
 
 824 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIAW. 
 
 known to tlia 
 Mtcheu mid- 
 deners. 
 
 been plentifully recovered in several 
 localities. 
 
 Of the relics of mammalia, the most 
 common are of the stag, the roedeer, and 
 wud beasts the wild boar. In addi- 
 tion to these, bones of the 
 urus, the bear, the dog, the 
 fox, the wolf, the marten, the otter, the 
 porpoise, the seal, the water rat, the 
 beaver, the lynx, the wild cat, the hedge- 
 hog, and the mouse have been found in 
 the shell mounds, but sparsely distrib- 
 uted. It will be at once observed from 
 these facts that the animals which the 
 
 DANISH SHKM.-MOUXIl AXES. 
 
 coast people were able to take and kill 
 were generally of the smaller species. 
 The extreme scarcity of the bones of 
 the heavier and fiercer beasts might well 
 beget a doubt as to whetlier the pre- 
 historic man of this coast dared to meet 
 them in combat at all. Another striking 
 feature revealed by the exploration of 
 the shell mound is that all of the animals 
 here enumerated were wild. It appears 
 VQVy dfuibtfnl whether even the dog had 
 become the friend of the dwellers in 
 these sea.shore huts. At any rate, his 
 bones have the .same aspect as tho.se of 
 the creatures of the woods. 
 
 The fact of the comiilctc destruction 
 
 or consumption of _ the animals with 
 which the shore people came in contact 
 is illustrated by the absence inferences as to 
 of entire skeletons and ^^^^t^^fof' 
 the miscellaneous distri- the race, 
 bution of the bones. It is generally the 
 long bones that are found scattered 
 among the shells. The heads of these 
 have been broken off and reduced to 
 edible conditions, or else have decayed 
 in the course of ages. In all cases the 
 bone shaft has been opened for the mar- 
 row; from which it appears that the 
 coast people had the same appetite for 
 this delicacy as did 
 the cave dwellers. 
 From the absence of 
 skeletons, or even 
 large parts thereof, 
 it has been more dif- 
 ficult for naturalists 
 to reconstruct the ani- 
 mals of the Danish 
 coast than of any other 
 situations ; but enough 
 has been gathered to 
 justify the foregoing 
 statement relative to 
 the wild creatures 
 with which the shell- 
 mound people were familiar. 
 
 An interesting illustration of the skill 
 of antiquaries in looking into the past 
 is furnished in their mcth- Methods of de- 
 od of determining the ^^0)^!^ 
 habits of the prehistoric sheu mounders. 
 tribes of Denmark. It is known, for in- 
 stance, that they were not migratory^^ 
 but that they held their abode in thfe 
 .same huts the year around. This fact 
 was ascertained from an examination of 
 tlie 1)ones of the birds tipon which these 
 pco])lc in part subsisted. Somcofthc.se 
 birds, as for instance tlie singing .swan, 
 visit this coast only in the winter. In 
 the 'nonth of March they leave for tiio
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— COAST PliOPLIl OF THE NORTH. 
 
 325 
 
 South, and return late in November, but 
 the distribution of wild swan bones is 
 frequent in the shell mounds. It ap- 
 pears certain, therefore, tliat they were 
 taken in winter. Therefore the coast 
 people had their residence here in win- 
 ter. Again, the horns of stags are cast 
 at certain seasons of the year, and one 
 or two other animal phenomena of like 
 sort have a periodical significance. 
 From the collation of these facts it is 
 proved that the hut dwellers in the lo- 
 calities here described remained in their 
 place throughout the year, and were not 
 merely fishermen of the summer season. 
 We thus see on the Danish coast an- 
 other type of primitive life quite distinct 
 Analogue of the from tliose wliich we have 
 Fuegians; de- i^jtherto Considered. It is 
 
 scription by 
 
 Darwin. likely, withal, that their 
 
 manner of existence was not very dif- 
 ferent from that of certain tribes still 
 living in the extreme of South America. 
 The Terra del Fuegians subsist in a 
 manner very analogous to that ascribed 
 above to the prehistoric tribes of Den- 
 mark. They have no domestic animals 
 except the dog. The}- live almost ex- 
 clusively on shellfish, and their huts 
 along the coast, if continuing imdis- 
 turbed for a sufficient period, would 
 doubtless be surrounded by a collection 
 of waste materials almost identical with 
 those of the remote age cf the shell- 
 mound people of the North. The great 
 naturalist, Charles Darwin, says of these 
 tribes: " The inhabitants, living chieily 
 upon shellfish, are obliged constantly to 
 change their place of residence; but 
 they return at intervals to the same 
 spots, as is evident from the pile of old 
 shells, which must often amount to some 
 tons in Aveight. These heaps can be 
 distinguished at a long distance by the 
 bright green color of certain plants which 
 invariably grow' on them. . . . The 
 
 Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and 
 dimensions, a haycock. It merely con- 
 sists of a few broken branches stuck 
 in the ground, and very imperfectly 
 thatched on one side with a few tufts of 
 grass and rushes. . . . Viewing such 
 men, one can hardly make oneself be- 
 lieve they are fellow-creatures and in- 
 habitants of the same world. ... At 
 night five or six human beings, naked 
 and scarcely protected from the wind 
 and rain of this tempestuous climate, 
 sleep on the wet ground coiled up like 
 animals. Whenever it is low water they 
 
 Bone harpoon of the Stone 
 Age of Denmark. 
 
 Arrowhead of remdee* 
 horn. 
 
 FINDS FROM THE KITCHEN MIDUK.NS. 
 
 must rise to pick shellfish from the rocks ; 
 and the women, winter and summer, 
 either dive to collect sea eggs or sit pa- 
 tiently in their canoes, and, with a baited 
 hair line, jerk out small fish. If a seal 
 is killed, or the floating carcass of a pu- 
 trid whale discovered, it is a feast; sucli 
 miserable food is assisted by a few taste- 
 less berries and fungi." 
 
 All attempts to construct an authentic 
 chronolog}^ for the age of the coast people 
 whose rude life is here depicted are 
 futile. The fact that such modes of
 
 326 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 tribal evolution exist in different ages 
 has already been dwelt upon. We have 
 Not possible to just seen that the Fuegian 
 f^=\"V°^°e5'f tribes in the extreme of 
 
 the sneU-mouna 
 
 tribes. South America are still in 
 
 this aboriginal state of development ; and 
 we know that in the north of Denmark 
 the shell-mound people had passed away 
 before the beginnings of history. The 
 evidence of this is complete and irre- 
 fragable. It is known, moreover, that 
 not only were these tribes prehistoric, 
 but that they held their rude career at a 
 ver}'- remote period, even archseologically 
 considered. 
 
 We are able in part to measure the 
 distance of the epoch of the coast men 
 Botanical indi- by Certain transformations 
 "^iT.lll'i^n'^ ^vhicli we know to have 
 
 remote antiq,- 
 
 'li'y- taken place in the vegetable 
 
 kingdom. Since the earliest references in 
 the works of the Roman naturalists the 
 countries of Northern Europe have been 
 heavily covered with a forest of beech. 
 This has been the prevailing growth of 
 these regions since about the time when 
 iron began to be used for implements 
 and weapons. It is well known in the 
 botanical history of the world that the 
 forest of beech is preceded in the plant- 
 cycle of nature by a forest of oak, which 
 in its turn has a long period of duration 
 as the prevalent growth. That is, be- 
 fore the beginnings of the present beech 
 forest of Northern Europe an oak for- 
 est prevailed in the same countries for 
 indefinite ages. It is also known that 
 in like manner the pine precedes the oak. 
 That is, the order of nature is, first, so 
 far as mc are able to discover, a forest of 
 pine, which at length falls into decrepi- 
 tude and is succeeded by a forest of oak. 
 This, in its turn, and after a long cycle, 
 grows old, maintains for a while a pre- 
 carious existence, then gives place to a 
 forest of beech. At the present time 
 
 the beech forest is growing old, and will 
 at length give place to some other. But 
 we know that the present prevailing 
 woods in Denmark and other regions of 
 the North have existed there since a 
 time long before the age of Pliny — even 
 before the founding of Rome. 
 
 Now an examination of the bones of 
 the birds Avhich were taken and eaten 
 by the coast people and shell-mound era 
 shows conclusively that some of the birds 
 in question were of spe- Bird-life bears 
 cies which are known to T^'T^^n^iu^' 
 feed upon the berries of sion. 
 the pine tree ! So slight a fact is one of 
 many sufficient indications that point un- 
 mistakably to the conclusion of the ex- 
 treme antiquity of the age which we are 
 here considering. It is by this kind of 
 patient research that our knowledge of 
 prehistoric peoples has been widened and 
 developed into its present amplitude; 
 and though it is by no means complete 
 and satisfactory, it is nevertheless suffi- 
 cient to enlighten the present races in- 
 habiting the earth with respect to the 
 manners and customs of those who 
 slumber in its bosom. 
 
 Coincident with the discoveries which 
 have led to the reconstruction of primi- 
 tive life in the manner Over-water hab- 
 hitherto described, have l^^Sn^i^er" 
 been others quite analo- banks also, 
 gous. Not only did primeval tribes 
 inhabit the shores of the sea and build 
 thereon their rude huts, scattering 
 around the waste and refuse of their 
 daily life, but others like them in habit 
 and character chose the river banks. It 
 is well known that the currents of rivers 
 vary somewliat in their place and direc- 
 tion. The bed of a running stream is 
 by no means a constant feature in geog- 
 raphy. Though in general it traverses 
 a valley, it will be found in one age 
 against the hills on one side, and in the
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 327 
 
 next age on the other. Moreover, the 
 volume of water is much greater in 
 some epochs than in otiiers. As a gen- 
 eral fact, the streams and rivers of the 
 early ages of the world were much fuller 
 and stronger than they are to-day. As 
 a world grows older its streams grow 
 weaker, until they finally disappear, and 
 the epoch of life is at an end. The 
 primeval age was one of humidity and 
 plentiful rainfall and full vol- 
 ume in the rivers. 
 
 One of the principal con- 
 comitant circumstances of the 
 river flow is the formation of 
 sand and gravel. Ledges of 
 Physical oondi- rock are broken 
 
 tions antecedent ^ff and thp frflcr. 
 
 totormationof on ana uie irag- 
 gravel beds. ments divided 
 into smaller parts. These are 
 rolled over and over by the 
 stream until they are worn into 
 pebbles and gravel and sand. 
 Vast accumulations of these 
 materials are deposited here 
 and there in the river elbows 
 and bends and cur\'es, in the 
 valley to the right hand and 
 into the left, and especially 
 about the debouchure of the 
 stream near the mouth. While 
 this process is going on the banks of the 
 river on this side and on that are worn 
 away and carried along with the current. 
 Sometimes a whole valley, by a change in 
 the course of the stream, is swept out 
 and deposited somewhere below. These 
 circumstances must be borne in mind if 
 we would apprehend clearly the nature 
 of the discoveries to which attention will 
 now be called. 
 
 As early as the beginning of this 
 century implements and weapons were 
 known to have been gathered from 
 river-drift gravel beds, but the signifi- 
 cance of such discoveries was unnoticed 
 
 or ignored. There has been a strange 
 disposition, even on the part of scholars, 
 to maintain old traditionary views about 
 tlie age of man on the earth. Every 
 new fact tending to show the antiquity 
 of the human race has been resisted and 
 resented as a sort of intrigue against 
 the integrity of existing beliefs. 
 
 In geological science this tendency 
 has been especially noticeable. Geolo- 
 
 v^l 
 
 K^'^ 
 
 PALAEOLITHIC RIVER-DRIFT SPEARHEADS. 
 
 gists 
 
 long time 
 
 themselves have for a 
 shut their eyes to the most palpable 
 facts, patent to their own Dogmatism con- 
 senses. It was from this irsplSn>ep. 
 supposable salutary con- drift findings, 
 servatism that the first discoveries of 
 prehistoric relics in the gravel beds, as 
 well as in other situations, were ignored 
 and denied. Those who were deter- 
 mined to maintain the old views respect- 
 ing the chronology of the earth and its 
 inhabitants put forward all sorts of ridic- 
 ulous hypotheses to account for that 
 which was unaccountable under their 
 own theory. They even published
 
 328 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 treatises ia which it was boldly alleged 
 that the old stone implements which 
 had been found in prehistoric situations 
 were forgeries which had been perpe- 
 trated against authentic science — that 
 those who were trying to disturb the 
 current beliefs of mankind had iitvcnied 
 the alleged discoveries to produce a new 
 hypothesis respecting the antiquity of 
 the human race ! 
 
 Gradually, however, light dawned and 
 the truth was acknowledged. One nat- 
 uralist after another became convinced 
 that the weapons and uten- 
 
 Careful examt- ... , . 
 
 nation of the flu- sils found in the gravel 
 vial deposits. i j • i i ^ • 
 
 beds were m such relation 
 with geological facts as to compel a be- 
 lief in their remote antiquity. Many of 
 the men most eminent for learning in 
 Europe visited distant localities and con- 
 ducted personal explorations in order to 
 establish the truth or falsitv of the new 
 view of the antiquity of man. The re- 
 sult has been corroborative of that de- 
 duced from other fields of inquiry; and 
 it is now as well known that prehistoric 
 races dwelt in Europe in the time of the 
 mammoth, and Avrought rough imple- 
 ments of flint in the post-pliocene era of 
 geolog)', as it is known that the As.syri- 
 ans flouri.shcd on the Tigris and that 
 Cae.sar led Roman legions across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 The evidences of the existence of 
 primitive trilDcs along the river valleys 
 of Western Europe have been discovered 
 
 more abundantly in France 
 
 Buch findings . •^ 
 
 extend to the than ill any otlier country ; 
 
 British Isles. i j. j.i ■ 11 e 
 
 but the river banks of 
 England have also yielded their testi- 
 mony. Before the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century a Britisli weapon 
 had been found in a gravel bed in con- 
 nection with an elephant's tooth, in a 
 situation described as being •' bpposite 
 to Black Mary's, near Graye's Inn 
 
 Lane." This Aveapon is described as a 
 large black flint, shaped into the figure 
 of a spearpoint. It is known to have 
 been engraved as early as 17 15, and a 
 print of it has been preserved in Leland's 
 Collectanea. Since the science of antiq- 
 uities has been developed in our own 
 day, this ancient implement has been 
 shown to be of the same pattern, work- 
 manship, and quality with those found 
 in like situations on the Continent. 
 
 Several of the rivers of France have 
 been specially rich in their yield of pre- 
 historic relics. The princi- River valleys of 
 
 pal of these are the Somme, ^^:-^^ 
 the Seine, and the Oise. reiics. 
 In the valley of the first of these streams 
 the explorations have been conducted 
 with scientific skill, and the discoveries 
 made have been fortified as to their 
 verity with all the care and penetration 
 which the best scholars of Europe have 
 been able to bring to the question. It 
 will be of interest in this connection, 
 therefore, to look briefly at the geologi- 
 cal character of the Somme valley, and 
 the position in which human relics have 
 been found therein, to the end that the 
 reader may have before him a clear 
 statement of the situation and proof of 
 the results. 
 
 The discoveries on the Somme have 
 been made for the most part in the 
 neighborhood of Amiens and Abbeville. 
 At these places the vallcv, character of the 
 from hill to hill, is about l^^lT^tt 
 a mile in breadth. The «omme. 
 main geological formation of the country 
 is chalk. Through this, in the glacial 
 period, the A-alley of the river was 
 jilowcd out, and in this Avide, low trough 
 the stream still makes its way to the sea. 
 P>ut in the course of ages many second- 
 ary formations have taken place in con- 
 nection with the river. What is properly 
 called the river bottom is filled up in
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 
 
 329 
 
 this neighborhood witli a broad, deep 
 bed of peat. This is in some places 
 thirty feet in depth and more than a third 
 of a mile in breadth. In this peat bed, 
 which has been slowly forming for many 
 centuries, at a great depth therein, stone 
 implements and other relics of a jore- 
 historic people have been found. The 
 bones of extinct mammalia are here 
 associated with the works of man in such 
 relation as to estab- 
 lish their contem- 
 poraneity. 
 
 The i^eat forma- 
 tion in the Somme 
 valley, however, is 
 one of the newer ac- 
 cretions peculiar to 
 the situation. If the 
 observer take his 
 stand on the low 
 peat bog near the 
 margin of the stream 
 and look to the hills 
 on either side he 
 shall find, at two or 
 three levels in the 
 chalk formation 
 which rises to the 
 height of two or 
 three hundred feet, 
 beds of gravel crop- 
 ping out of the banks. 
 Through these beds, 
 which were mani- 
 festly formed by the river in the older 
 Time relations ages of the tertiary epoch, 
 
 plateau spreading off in slight undula- 
 tions. Even the novice in geology is 
 able to perceive that the peat bogs in the 
 bottom of the valley are of recent origin 
 as compared with the old gravel beds 
 lying far above the present level of the 
 river. Yet it is in these gravel beds 
 that the discoveries of some of the most 
 ancient sj)ecimens of human workman- 
 ship in the world have been iriade : and 
 
 '■^.i... 
 
 tl^ttchaii.'''''' the stream has gradually 
 formations. worked its Way down, by 
 
 attrition, to lower and lowef levels, leav- 
 ing the gravel beds far above the present 
 position of the stream. Above the out- 
 croppings of these beds the old chalky 
 walls which constitute the barriers of the 
 valley are seen rising to the general 
 level of the country above, which is a 
 
 M. 
 
 -Vol. I 22 
 
 PAL/EOLITHIC RIVF.R-DRIFT LANCEHEADS AXD AX OF ARCHAIC PATTERNS. 
 
 the situation in which they have been 
 found has been scanned with so much 
 care, and the explorations conducted with 
 such scientific accuracy, as to preclude all 
 doubt relative to the verity and signifi- 
 cance of the facts in question. 
 
 Sir Charles Lyell estimates that more 
 than a thousand implements have been 
 taken from the gravel beds in the neigh- 
 borhood of Amiens. They are all of a 
 common type, and belong to the oldest
 
 330 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 epoch known to archaeology. They have 
 been classified under three heads, the 
 Character of the fii'st of which includes the 
 S4%'ol spearpoints: the second, a 
 »*s. sort of almond-shaped im- 
 
 plements which appear to have been 
 used as axes for general purposes, such 
 as breaking bones and cracking holes in 
 the ice ; and thirdly, flint flakes and ar- 
 rowheads. All of these are produced 
 by mere fracture, not a single specimen 
 bearing the marks of grinding or polish- 
 ing. The forms are rude, but the work- 
 manship unmistakably human. In many 
 instances the prehistoric artisan has taken 
 advantage of the natural form of the 
 flint, and merel}^ modified it by breaking 
 one part into a cutting form. It has 
 been noted that between the spearheads 
 and the almond-shaped axes several in- 
 termediate grades of implements exist, 
 which would seem to show that the end 
 in view was not clearly defined in the 
 minds of the makers. Yet in the midst 
 of the manifest barbarity of the epoch 
 in which these implements were created 
 there has been found a single evidence 
 of taste in certain small globular bodies, 
 with a tubular cavity in the center, which 
 appear to have been used for ornamen- 
 tation. 
 
 Notwithstanding the abundant proof 
 that the weapons and tools above de- 
 Reasons for scribed arc the relics of hu- 
 m^remaL^s^; m^n activity in a prehistoric 
 the river-drift, ^gc, Very few human re- 
 mains, properly so called, have been 
 found in the river-drift gravel beds. 
 Only an occasional tmderjaw, or some 
 other of the harder parts of the frame 
 of man have been recovered in these sit- 
 uations. The bones of animals are much 
 more frequent, and are easily defined ; 
 but a moment's reflection will show that 
 tliese facts would be indicated by right 
 reason. As for the animal remains 
 
 found in the gravel, they are evidently 
 the fragments of mammals that were 
 drowned by ordinary accident or in times 
 of flood. In such emergencies man is 
 more expert and cautious than the lower 
 orders. Even in his lowest estate he 
 has some measure of foresight, and es- 
 capes from a dangerous situation. The 
 gravel pits were not the places of burial. 
 They do not mark the exact sites of hu- 
 man dwellings. They represent mate- 
 rials that were carried to their present 
 place by the action of water. In many 
 cases these materials have been brought 
 from considerable distances. Even an 
 occasional human skeleton given to the 
 river would be tossed and broken and 
 worn, in its course onward, being ground 
 against stones and pebbles into elemen- 
 tary fragments. Moreover, decay does 
 its work. The hardest bone will not 
 survive forever, even under conditions 
 favorable to its preservation. 
 
 The paucity of human remains in the 
 gravel beds is in close analogy with th^ 
 like fact in the shell mounds sheu mounds 
 of Denmark. They, tZ'^.l^Z 
 too, have yielded in but mains of men. 
 rarest instances any actual fragments of 
 the human frame, and it is easy to see 
 that more might be expected from the 
 kitchen middens, with their abundant 
 detritus of man's habitation and localized 
 association with his life, than in the case 
 of river-drift heaped ujj at long dis- 
 tances from the place where he had his 
 abode. 
 
 Not only in the gravel pits of the val- 
 ley of the Somme, not onl}^ in like situa« 
 tions along the banks of Extent of the 
 the Seine and the Oise. have ^J^.^^^f^^L^o? 
 these relics of the prehis- England, 
 toric life of man been discovered. Like 
 revelations have been made in the river 
 bottoms and .sandpits of Great Britain, 
 In a gravel bed at Hoxne, in Sufliolk,
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TCMIIJ. 
 
 331 
 
 specimens of human workmanship lilce 
 those above described -were found as 
 early as tlie beginning of this century. 
 In similar formations between Guildford 
 and Godalming, flint implements of the 
 old stone age have been found and pre- 
 served. It must be borne in mind that 
 the special significance of such discov- 
 eries lies in the fact of the association in 
 the gravel beds of these human remains 
 with the bones of the mammoth and 
 other extinct species belonging to the 
 post-tertiary period of geology. In vari- 
 ous other localities like revelations have 
 been made by explorations of gravel beds, 
 such, for instance, as those at Ickling- 
 ham, at Heme Bay, at Abbot's-LanglcA', 
 and at Green Street Green, in Kent. In 
 a layer of river-drift, near Bedford, bones 
 of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the 
 hippopotamus, the primitive ox, the 
 horse, and the deer have been found in 
 prehistoric relations with flint imple- 
 ments belonging to the old stone age. 
 In short, the discoveries made in the 
 gravel beds of Great Britain have fully 
 corroborated and verified those made in 
 the valley of the Somme and on other 
 parts of the Continent. 
 
 We thus see that along: the river val- 
 
 leys of Europe, at a time before the in- 
 coming of the first Aryan tribes, prime- 
 val races had possession Deductions re- 
 of the country in various 7:.^!^^:^... 
 parts, and had begun those er-drift epoch, 
 rude activities out of which the civilized 
 condition was ultimately to spring. The 
 relics described in these last paragraphs 
 are of the most primitive pattern and 
 workmanship. They indicate, indeed, 
 the very first emergence of men from 
 the state of absolute nature and barbarity. 
 The tool-making and tool-using instinct 
 marks, perhaps, the very earliest stages 
 of human development. Whatever may 
 have been the origin of man in these 
 western parts of Europe, Ave see him, in 
 these far prehistoric times, either an ab- 
 solute savage or a barbarian, but slightly 
 elevated above the savage state. Per- 
 haps if our knowledge were more com- 
 plete we .should be able to delineate 
 inany other circumstances relative to 
 these hard beginnings of civilized life 
 in Europe. The future may still contrib- 
 ute something to our further enlighten- 
 ment relative to the habits and manners 
 of prehistoric peoples, but for the pres- 
 ent we must remain satisfied with an 
 approximate view of their condition. 
 
 Chaf-xer XIX.— ]\<Iex of the Tu:\iuli. 
 
 EFORE dismis.sing the 
 subject of the prehis- 
 toric life of man on the 
 continent of Europe, 
 still another field of 
 inquiry remains to be 
 considered. In all parts 
 of the European countries, from the Baltic 
 to the Mediterranean and from the Brit- 
 ish Isles to the Ural mountains, another 
 class of facts, bearing unmistakable evi- 
 
 dence of the ancient activities of men, 
 are plentifull}' distributed. These are 
 the mounds which the tribes builded, 
 in burial and for other Tumuii and oth- 
 purposes, generally called ^;^^^t^i:L 
 Tumuli: standing stone Europe, 
 structures of several varieties, known 
 as Menhirs, Cromlechs, and Dol- 
 mens: barrows, camps, fortifications, 
 dA'kes, and perhaps altars of sacrifice, 
 besides many other kinds of rude
 
 332 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. 
 
 architecture and memorials. Such re- 
 mains, hardly of sufficient dignity to be 
 known as ruins, are found not only in 
 Europe but everywhere in the world. 
 
 Abundance of 
 such remains 
 throughout the 
 world. 
 
 MENHIR, AT CROISIE, FRANCE. 
 
 Perhaps no country, great or small, is 
 without such manifest evidences and il- 
 lustrations of the long dead 
 activities of races and 
 tribes rinknown to history. 
 Everywere this siibstratum of human 
 life, more aboriginal than the aborigines, 
 existed. Traces of it are found on every 
 hand. America, as well as the older 
 lands, abounds in astonishing proofs 
 of nations that existed here, even in 
 strensfth, between whom and the Indian 
 races that held the continent on its open- 
 ing to civilization as wide a 
 space of time and character 
 exists as that between the 
 rudest of the Red men and 
 their Saxon conquerors. 
 The mound Iniildcrs have 
 been abroad ; and the long, 
 serpentine mole of earth, or 
 conical hill, of artificial con- 
 
 stniction, standing here and g^^ "* ■* 
 
 there in the civilized coun 
 
 tries of to-day, bear mute, 
 
 but everlasting testimony of the ancient 
 
 and undiscoverable peoples who have 
 
 gone down to dust. 
 
 It is .said by Sir John Lubbock that in 
 
 the Orkney islands more than a thousand 
 of these tumuli and stone heaps are 
 found. In the Danish 
 
 Meaning of the 
 
 peninsula the number is tumuu and stone 
 
 ,•11 J. 1 ' L 11 monuments. 
 
 still greater, and it would 
 be safe to say that in America more than 
 ten thousand such monuments of pre- 
 historic times exist. The variety ex- 
 hibited in these relics of a past age is 
 almost as great as their number. Per- 
 haps a majority of all Avere intended as 
 monuments to the dead, but the details 
 are different, and man}' volumes could 
 not contain an elaborate description of 
 all. We know from history that even 
 from the daydawn of authentic story 
 n:ien were disposed to mark the resting 
 place of the dead with a trophy. Pillars 
 were set up as the tangible evidence of 
 important transactions. In general, 
 every crisis in life, as well as its termi- 
 nation, demanded a testimonial. It is 
 said in the Assyrian annals that Semir- 
 amis buried her husband under a mound 
 of earth. A stone heap was made over 
 the tomb of the father of ffidipus. In 
 the heroic age the building of moimds 
 over the dead was the custom of the 
 time. Patroclus, friend of the crested 
 Achilles, was buried under a tumulus a 
 
 DANISM Dlll.MEN. 
 
 hundred feet in height; and it has been 
 reported in tradition that Alyattes, father 
 of Croesus, had a stone-and-earthen tomb 
 more than a mile in circumference.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN. —MEN OE Tin: TUMI [J. 
 
 333 
 
 Tlae mounds of which \vc arc here to 
 speak belong to a remoter and ruder age 
 The mounds than that of the Trojan War 
 fo'^ri'^of "' 01- the conquest of Canaan 
 bronze by the Hebrews. And 
 
 yet they are not of so great antiquity as 
 those prehistoric memorials which we 
 
 situated in .Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, 
 England. It is the most striking relic 
 of its kind in the world, Ruin of stone- 
 and has been many times ^:ef:;dtradi. 
 described by travelers and ^ions. 
 antiquaries. It consists of two great 
 circles of upright stones, one exterior to 
 
 
 CROMLECH OF HALSKOV, DENMARK. 
 
 have examined in the preceding chapter. 
 In general, the tumuli of Europe Avere 
 built in the age of bronze, and therefore 
 are posterior by a long epoch to the times 
 of the cave dwellers and coast people. 
 This is plainly evidenced in the utensils 
 and weapons which are 
 recovered from the 
 mounds, and which are 
 almost invariably of 
 bronze material. The 
 workmanship, more- 
 over, is of that half- 
 elegant design and exe- 
 cution which belong to 
 an age subsequent, by 
 many centuries, even to 
 the neolithic, or new 
 stone, epoch, it now 
 remains for us to exam- 
 ine, at least casually, 
 some of the existing 
 monuments belonging to the age of the 
 mound builders in Western Europe. 
 
 One of the most striking of these 
 memorials is the great megalithic ruin 
 known by the name of Stonehenge. 
 
 the other. The outer circle is abont 
 three hundred feet in circumference, 
 and the stones in this row are as much 
 as sixteen feet in height and six feet in 
 diameter. On the tops of the rude pil- 
 lars are laid other stones, horizontally. 
 
 DANISH TUMULUS. 
 
 The inner circle is nine feet distant 
 from the outer. The stones composing 
 it are of smaller dimensions than the 
 others, and are in the native condition, 
 while those of the outer circle have been
 
 334 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 roughly hewn. The capstones also bear 
 the marks of having been rudely cut 
 into their present shape. 
 
 Orig'inally the outer colonnade con- 
 tained thirty of these great pillars, with 
 their capstones, or imposts. Only sev- 
 enteen of them now remain in posi- 
 tion. The inner circle consisted at 
 first of forty pillars, only a part of 
 
 approach to the structure. Traces of 
 smaller avenues are also to be found, 
 and in the vicinity of the ruin are vari- 
 ous stones which seem to have consti- 
 tuted originally a part of the general 
 design. The whole aspect of the ruin 
 as seen to-day is weird and spectral in 
 the last degree, and the beholder can 
 but be imjaressed with the strangeness, 
 
 PREHISTORIC GRAVEYARD OF QUATERNARY PERIOD, NEAR LITTAI, IX CARNIOI.A, AUSTRIA. 
 
 which are now standing. Within the 
 inner circle another series of pillars, 
 oval in character, and originally nineteen 
 in number, are found, which rise in 
 height toward the center. Around tlu> 
 outside rim was drawn a moat and a 
 rampart about three hundred and sev- 
 enty yards in circumference. On the 
 northeast of the great circle and run- 
 ning out for a distance of about six 
 hundred yards, there are evidences of 
 
 as well as the anti(|uit}- of the monu- 
 ment before him. 
 
 Stonehengc has long been a fertile 
 topic in tradition. Tlie oldest story of all 
 is tliat given bv Ncnnius, 
 
 . . . ' , Stories of Nen- 
 
 m the nmth century. He mus and cam- 
 dcclares that the structure 
 was erected by Aurelianns Ambrosius, in 
 memory of four lunidrcd liritish chief- 
 tains who were slain tlicre by liengist 
 and his Saxon barl)arians, in 472. At
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 
 
 335 
 
 the close of the twelfth century, Giral- 
 dus Cambrensis. another annalist, tells 
 a long story of a great pile of stones 
 called the (iiant's Dance, anciently f(;und 
 
 BUKIAL URNS (ENLARGED FROM PRECEDING CUT). 
 
 in Ireland. He narrates that the stones 
 in question were brought to Ireland by 
 a company of Titans out of Africa, who 
 
 Britons, procured Merlin, by supernat- 
 ural means, to bring from Ireland into 
 Britain. And that he might leave some 
 famous monument of so great a treason 
 to future ages, in the same order and 
 art as they stood formerly, set them up 
 where the flower of the British nation 
 fell by the cutthroat practice of the 
 Saxons, and where, itnder the pretence 
 of peace, the ill-secured youth of the 
 kingdom, by murderous designs, were 
 slain." 
 
 This story happily illustrates the com- 
 pass and authenticity of mediaeval his- 
 tory. It is well known that Authenticity of 
 the pillars composing the ro:yS,'^t"d 
 ruin of Stonehenge were iiereby. 
 taken from stone quarries in the neigh- 
 borhood, so that no African giants were 
 needed to bring them across the sea. 
 It is also well established by an exami- 
 nation of the mounds in the vicinity 
 that the structure belongs to a period 
 not only earlier than the invasion of 
 Hengist and his Saxon maraiiders, but 
 long anterior to the conquest by the 
 Romans at the beginning of our era. 
 It is true that no mention is made 
 
 \IE\V OF STONKHKNGE. 
 
 set them up on the plains of Kildare, 
 not far from the castle of Naas. " These 
 stones," continues the story-teller, 
 "Aurelianus Ambrosius, King of the 
 
 of Stonehenge, by name, in the Latin 
 authors, but Hecataeus,. a Greek histo- 
 rian, who flourished at Miletus about 
 550 B. C, describes a magnificent cir-
 
 886 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 mounds in con- 
 nection "witli 
 Stonehenge. 
 
 « ^ I 
 
 GROUND PLAN OK 
 DANISH CROMLECH. 
 
 cular temple, situated in what he calls 
 " The island of the Hyperboreans, over 
 against Celtica," and the description is 
 of a kind to warrant the conclusion that 
 the edifice in question was no other than 
 Stonehenge. 
 
 Clustered around this great ruin of 
 prehistoric times are many tumuli, con- 
 Extent of burial taining the dead and the 
 relics which were buried 
 with them. No fewer than 
 three hundred burial mounds are found 
 within a radius of three miles from the 
 stone pillars marking the site of what 
 was doubtless a primitive temple. From 
 this it would appear that 
 the whole area round about 
 was an ancient cemetery, 
 with some sort of barbaric 
 temple in the center. The 
 tumuli are manifestly 
 tombs. In every case, on 
 opening one of these 
 mounds, the remains of the dead are 
 found. In the great majority of cases 
 the interment has been by cremation, 
 and the evidences show that the manner 
 of sepulture was identical with that gen- 
 erally employed in the age of bronze. 
 
 If we open one of the tumuli — and 
 
 hundreds of them have been explored — 
 
 we shall find invariably 
 
 Positions of the . ^ 
 
 primeval dead the remains of one or more 
 
 in sepulture. , i • tt 
 
 human beings. Here again 
 we discover that difference of instinct in 
 method which has al- 
 ways characterized the 
 doings of men. The dead / 
 are placed in two pos- 
 tures, one sitting and the 
 other prone, after the 
 manner employed in 
 modem burial. There seem to have 
 been pains taken in the adjustment of 
 the body in a posture befitting repose; 
 and in determining what this should be, 
 
 GROUND PLAN OK 
 DANISH DOLMEN. 
 
 some of the prehistoric tribes chose one 
 position and some another. The same 
 variety has been noticed in the case of 
 our Indian aborigines in America, many 
 of whom arrange the bodies of the dead 
 in a sitting posture. In the prehistoric 
 burial mounds which we are now con- 
 sidering, utensils and food were placed 
 
 SEPULCHRAL STONE CIRCLE. 
 
 about the body as if to serve the dead 
 in the land of the hereafter. It is here 
 that the best revelation of the manner 
 of life peculiar to these people has been 
 made, and the best evidence afforded of 
 the epoch to which they belonged. 
 
 As already said, the implements ex- 
 humed from the tumuli are almost inva- 
 riably of bronze. In a The mounds be- 
 few instances iron weapons ii'elge'of ^*° 
 have been discovered, but bronze, 
 it has been invariably found on closer 
 scrutiny that the same have resulted 
 from a subsequent burial in an old grave. 
 Not a single instance is known of tlie re- 
 
 POSIT'ON OK SKELETONS IN A TOMIl OK THE STONE AGE. 
 
 covery from a tvnnulus, either in Western 
 France or Creat Brilian, of implements 
 or other relics belonging to the period
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TUMULI. 
 
 337 
 
 of the Roman ascendency, and in only 
 a few cases have the discoveries carried 
 the antiquary back to a period more re- 
 mote than that of the age of bronze. 
 
 We may for a moment consider the 
 facts before its from a higlier point of 
 view. The tumuli of the 
 British Isles are only one of 
 several kinds of receptacle 
 for the prehistoric dead. The palaeolithic 
 and neolithic ages, as well as the age of 
 
 Diverse meth- 
 ods of races re- 
 specting death 
 and burial. 
 
 life the fact of death impressed the living 
 more seriously than any other jihcnome- 
 non whatsoever. This led, even in the 
 lowest stages of barbarism, to the insti- 
 tution of rites and ceremonies connected 
 with the final putting away of the body. 
 It was one of the points at which the 
 primitive tribes easily diverged in their 
 customs and methods. There was from 
 the first a contest of belief as to the best 
 manner of disposing of the dead. One 
 
 -■> -t--iff^ Sit ■'IT."/^ 
 
 KUXLRAL IN' I'HE PAL.tOLmilC AGE.— Draivn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 bronze, had their burial places, funerals, 
 and rude theories of death. Barbarism 
 developed into several forms of burial 
 method according to the locality and the 
 situation. The manner of disposing of 
 the dead was, indeed, one of the most 
 striking features of the barbaric life. It 
 would appear that from the earliest 
 emergence of man into the conscious 
 
 plan was to reduce the body to ashes, 
 and another was to preserve it in some 
 situation where it might be protected 
 from disturbance and, we might say, 
 sacrilege ; for we may well believe that 
 among the primal instincts of savages 
 one of the first of those sentiments which 
 tend to the elevation of mankind was 
 respect for the body.
 
 338 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Throughout primitive Europe the evi- 
 dences of aboriginal burial are discover- 
 able in hundreds of localities. These 
 Burial grounds have been studied with dil- 
 igence by antiquaries, and 
 the results of the inquiry 
 We are able to distinguish 
 the older places of sepulture from the 
 newer — the palocolithic cavern from tlie 
 
 of different ages 
 may be distin- 
 guishea. 
 
 generalized. 
 
 pare for the funeral. Generally, after 
 rude pagan ceremonies, a procession was 
 formed and the body was borne away to 
 be either burned with loud lamentation 
 or deposited in some tomb which nature 
 had prepared in the rocks. Could the 
 observer from a distant and civilized age 
 have been lifted up over Western Eu- 
 rope in the epochs of aboriginal barba« 
 
 FUNERAL IN THE NEOLITHIC AGE. -Drawn by Emile Bay.artl, 
 
 more recent neolithic burial place, and 
 .still more distinctly from the burial 
 places of the age of bronze. The con- 
 ditions of savage life in the respective 
 periods are sufficiently well known to 
 furnish the materials for the reconstruc- 
 tion of that primeval half-.savage society 
 which prevailed for many ages. 
 
 It was the cu.stom of the tribesmen 
 when one of their number died to as- 
 semble at the scene of death and pre- 
 
 rism he might have seen, winding here 
 and there in solemn manner, the funeral 
 processions on their way to the burial 
 places of the tribe. The scene Avas as 
 picturesque as instructive. The place 
 chosen for burial or incineration wa? 
 generally a solitude of cliff and wild 
 Tlicrc, about the entrance of the cavern, 
 might be seen llie gatliered friends of 
 the dead lamenting with wild gesticula- 
 tions that going forth of man-life which
 
 PRL\rilVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMULI. 
 
 339 
 
 they — though barbaricms — li;ul already 
 discovered to be without return. 
 
 The next point of interest to be noted 
 in our examination of the 
 
 Funeral prooes- . . , , 
 
 sions and rites prclllstonc buruil placeS IS 
 
 of sepulture. ^i i ^ c i.-\ 
 
 the character ot the remains 
 in such situations. As in the case of the 
 cave dwellers, we may here learn much 
 about the stature, form, and general 
 
 character of the aborigines of Kurope. 
 
 t}pc between the two extremes, called 
 orthocephalic, or medium-headed. The 
 orthocephalic skull is most nearly like 
 the skull of civilized peoples, whereas 
 the other two types depart very much 
 from the common standard. As far as 
 we are able to discover, the two extreme 
 varieties of crania belonged to very 
 primitive peoples, while the interme- 
 diate form is of more recent develop- 
 
 FUNERAL FEAST IN THE AGE OF BRONZE.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 The three types 
 of skulls discov- 
 ered in the 
 tombs. 
 
 The most striking fact in connection 
 with the skeletons of the people buried 
 in the tumuli of the Brit- 
 ish Isles is the variation pre- 
 sented in the skulls. There 
 seem to be three distinct types of skull 
 revealed by an examination of the tombs. 
 These are what are called long skulls, or 
 dolichocephalic crania; short skulls, or 
 those defined as brachycephalic ; and a 
 
 ment as well as more symmetrical char- 
 acter. 
 
 The long skull, such as has been 
 found in many of the tumuli of Great 
 Britain, has almost as great character of 
 a measurement as that L°dt°aX^cf ° 
 of the Neanderthal head phaiic crania, 
 described in a previous chapter. Not 
 that the long and narrow skulls of the 
 tumuli are so distinctlv animal as the
 
 340 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 shape of skulls 
 and burial 
 mounds. 
 
 one to which reference has just been 
 made, but their striking feature is the 
 long suture and great measurement 
 from front to rear. The brachycephalic 
 crania discovered in the mounds are ex- 
 actly the opposite of this. They are 
 peculiarly short from front to back, and 
 in many cases suggest to the antiquary 
 that they have been squeezed up into un- 
 natural dimensions. It seems, however, 
 that no marks of artificial pressure have 
 been discovered, and doubtless the short 
 skulls are just as nature produced them. 
 Another circumstance well calculated 
 to excite the keenest interest is now to 
 Coincidence in be notcd. Tlicre is a Constant 
 and curious relation between 
 the shape of the skiil/s and 
 the shape of the titniuli in iclcich they are 
 buried. There are two kinds of mounds : 
 a circular tumulus and an elongated 
 barrow; and it is found on examina- 
 tion that the dolichocephalic heads are 
 invariably in the long barroivs, while the 
 short heads are in the circular mounds ! 
 The evidence is conclusive that this ar- 
 rangement could not have been acciden- 
 tal, and it is almost equally clear that 
 two races, belonging perhaps to dif- 
 ferent prehistoric epochs, are repre- 
 sented in these tombs. Very careful 
 explorations have been made by skillful 
 antiquaries. Dr. Thurnam, of England, 
 has made accurate measurements of a 
 hundred and thirty-seven skulls just as 
 they were taken from the British 
 mounds. Of these, sixty-seven were 
 exhumed from long barrows and sev- 
 enty from circular tumuli. Not a single 
 long skull was found in a round tumu- 
 lus, or a single short skull in an elon- 
 gated barrow; from which it appears 
 conclusive that the long-headed tribes 
 buried their dead in the elongated tu- 
 muli, while the circular mounds were 
 used for the burial of the short-headed 
 
 people. It would be j^ressing the argu- 
 ment too far to say that these prehistoric 
 inhabitants of Great Britian made the 
 long barrows which they raised over 
 their dead in imitation of the shape of 
 their heads, but the fact remains that 
 such queer analog}^ does exist and re- 
 mains to be accounted for. 
 
 The tumuli contain almost invariably 
 a sort of stone sarcophagus in which the 
 human remains are depos- sarcophagi and 
 ited. In the cases where ''ontents; pro- 
 
 visions for the 
 
 cremation has been em- dead, 
 ployed, the ashes of the dead are put 
 into a rude urn and the latter buried in 
 the place of the body. In the stone 
 box are found the implements and 
 utensils which were left with the dead, 
 and this fact, as already indicated, 
 points to a belief in a hereafter. It is 
 perceived that these rude people had 
 hopes of a continuous existence or a re- 
 vival of existence beyond the event of 
 death. This does not, however, imply 
 any belief in what is called the doctrine 
 of the immortality of the soul. The 
 evidences about the dead in these 
 mounds all point to the confidence 
 which the living then had of the con- 
 tinued material existence of the person 
 buried. Every article found in connec- 
 tion with the body is clearly related to 
 the ordinary daily wants and con- 
 veniences of the deceased, and the 
 significance of such association of his 
 implements, and even of food, with the 
 person deceased, points only to the be- 
 lief tliat the dead would continue as he 
 had been, or at least revive at some 
 time, in his former state of being. 
 
 It must not be supposed that all of the 
 facts here referred to are General dist.ri- 
 deduced from the mounds '::::Z^'l. 
 
 locally associated with the em Europe. 
 
 old ruin of Stonehcnge. They have 
 been gathered rather from many sources.
 
 342 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JL-IXA'/XP. 
 
 and are typical of all. This species of 
 burial under mounds was practiced in all 
 parts of Great Britain and nearly every- 
 where on the Continent. The peninsula 
 of Denmark is almost picturesque with 
 tumuli, and under them all are the re- 
 mains of a prehistoric people. Perhaps 
 not a single county in England is with- 
 out its monuments of this kind. Not 
 only in Wiltshire, but in Gloucestershire 
 and Berkshire, and, indeed, everywhere 
 on the island such evidences of a prim- 
 itive people are discovered. In Ireland, 
 also, and in Scotland, the tumuli are 
 plentifully scattered over the country, 
 and are indeed in some places so abun- 
 
 TUMULUS WITH STONE ENTRANCE, NEAR UBI, DENMARK, 
 
 dant as to suggest the frequent burial 
 grounds of modern nations. 
 
 The suggestion has been made above 
 that two or three races contributed to 
 Evidence that people these ancient sepul- 
 ^rr^^Ln chcrs. This belief has well- 
 
 were concerned. 
 
 in the tumuli. nigh passed from theory 
 into fact. It has been noticed that all 
 the stone implements discoverable in the 
 burial mounds have been associated with 
 the long heads, whereas no weapon or 
 utensil of .stone has been found in any 
 sarcophagus whei-e the short-headed 
 tribes put away their dead. In the vaults 
 of the latter, on the contrary, the imple- 
 ments are all of bronze, and the woi'k- 
 manship indicates a very great advance 
 toward civilization as Compared with 
 thac <if the utensils found in the long- 
 
 head tombs. It should be said, more 
 over, that the stone tools and weapons 
 in connection Avith dolichocephalic skel- 
 etons are not by any means of so prim- 
 itive a pattern as those found in the shell 
 mounds or the cave dwellings of the Con- 
 tinent. They are, on the contrary, 
 neolithic, or new stone, implements, 
 which shows that the long-headed tribes 
 flourished in the epoch before, but ap- 
 proximate to, the age of bronze. It 
 might not be hazardous to infer that the 
 round heads came into the island as a 
 bronze-bearing soldiery, overcame the 
 long heads, or amalgamated with them, 
 and then adopted like methods of bur- 
 ial. It has been re- 
 marked that the 
 Lapps and Finns 
 and several other 
 existing races in 
 the north of Europe 
 are brachycephalic, 
 and the hypothesis 
 of an invasion from 
 this region and a 
 conquest of the pre- 
 historic Britons is by no means beyond 
 the limits of right reason. 
 
 After Stonehenge, perhaps one of the 
 most interesting monuments in the west 
 of Europe is that of Carnac, 
 in Bretagne. 
 
 eleven rows of iinhewn 
 stones, set up after the manner already 
 described, but not in circles. .Some of 
 the pillars are as much as twenty-two 
 feet in height. But in their pi'esent 
 state they differ greatly in dimensions, 
 some being scarcely discoverable above 
 the level of the ])lain. As far as the an- 
 tiquary has been able to trace a design 
 for the ruin, it appears to have been a 
 series of avenues several miles in length. 
 At the present time, however, it is diffi- 
 cult to make out the entire area or the 
 
 Megalithic ruin 
 It consists of of Carnacin Bre- 
 tagne.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OP THE rVMIIJ. 
 
 343 
 
 complete idea of the builders. The ad- 
 jacent farms have encroached upon what 
 was doubtless sacred ground, and many 
 of the stones, even whole sections of the 
 avenues, have been cleared away. In 
 other parts it is still easy to note the 
 direction and course of the rows of col- 
 umns, the width and character of the in- 
 tervening spaces, and something of tlie 
 general design. 
 
 It is believed by scholars best informed 
 on the subject that this ruin of Carnac 
 has an origin somewhat more remote 
 than that of Stonehengc. Around the 
 latter the tumuli belong, for the most 
 part, to the age of bronze. But the 
 mounds of Bretagne, and it is 
 thought Carnac itself, are rel- 
 ics and monuments of the neo- 
 lithic age of an earlier date. 
 
 The fact has been men- 
 tioned that in many of the tu- 
 muli more bodies than one 
 Practice of sue- have been de- 
 posited. It ap- 
 pears, however, 
 that in most cases these multi- 
 ple buryings in the same vault 
 took place at different times, 
 mary burial, perhaps, included but a sin- 
 gle person, but at a subsequent time 
 another body would be deposited in the 
 same rude sarcophagus which held the 
 first. This would involve the opening of 
 the mound. The stone box in the bottom 
 was generally large enough to contain 
 the remains of several persons, especial- 
 ly when the sitting posture had been 
 adopted in sepulture. The prehistoric 
 people had the same respect for the 
 bodies of the dead that modern races 
 have cherished. It appears that only in 
 rare instances were the original remains 
 displaced from the sarcophagus to make 
 room for a new occupant. In case of 
 second burial, there was merely a re- 
 
 arrangement of the old skeleton to make 
 room for the new. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that 
 cremation was practiced at the same 
 time with the common mode of burial. 
 The coexistence of these two methods of 
 disposing of the bodies of coincident 
 the dca.i has been noted in 1^:^:1:1^1 
 the case of many peoples, mation. 
 ancient and modern. The Eastern na- 
 tions employed both . The Greeks some- 
 times buried their dead and sometimes 
 burned them to ashes. So also the 
 Romans, and even at the present time 
 we note the reappearance of cremation 
 and its contest for the mastery as a 
 
 cessive buryings 
 in the same 
 mound. 
 
 RUINS OF CAKNAC, KKEIAG.M-,. 
 
 The pri- 
 
 scientific method opposed to the un- 
 scientific, and even superstitious, dis- 
 position of dead bodies in the earth. 
 
 In the case of the tumuli we know, 
 from the examination of the other relics 
 left in connection with the 
 
 Imperfect incin- 
 
 burial urns, that the latter erationof pre- 
 
 . ^ -I , J -f 1 historic remains. 
 
 belonged to the same epoch 
 as the commoner method of sepulture. It 
 must be noted in this connection that 
 incineration of the dead was by no- 
 means so complete in the times of 
 which we speak as by the superior proc- 
 esses of modern times. The ancients, 
 especially the barbarian ancients, were 
 unable to produce a high degree of arti- 
 ficial heat. The bodies of the dead were 
 simply exposed to the action of an open
 
 344 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JlfAXKLYI). 
 
 fire, and there was a larger residuum to 
 be put into the urn than the mere hand- 
 ful of ashes left from the cremation 
 furnace of the present time. In general, 
 the larger and heavier bones were mere- 
 ly charred, and these, together witli the 
 ashes, were put into tlie rude urn and 
 set in the stone box in the bottom of the 
 tumulus. 
 
 Another fact of much interest is that 
 the relics of human life and human 
 Deposition of need, so many times re- 
 Solrfor IJaT ferred to in the preceding 
 not universal. pages as accompanying the 
 remains of the dead, are by no mean§ 
 
 buried them. Doubtless it is improper 
 to use the words rich and poor in this 
 connection ; but even in the reduced 
 stages of human evolution distinctions 
 in property and respect begin to ap- 
 pear, and it was no doubt on this basis 
 that the distribution of relics in pre- 
 historic graves was made. The wealthy, 
 if we may use the term, had more re- 
 spect and more emblems of that respect 
 in the day of burial. The poor, as in 
 all ages, went down to the potter's field 
 without such tokens of esteem. It is to 
 be presumed that the articles deposited 
 generally belonged aforetime to the per- 
 
 liKOKKN SIOI'UI.CIIRAI. UKN, SHOWING INCIN KRATF.!) REMAINS. 
 
 always found in the tumuli. In \'cry 
 many, even a majority of ca.ses, nothing 
 at all is found except the skeleton or 
 skeletons of them that were buried. A 
 gradation is noticed in the number and 
 character of tlie weapons, utensils, and 
 articles of food deposited with the body. 
 Sometimes they are plentiful and some- 
 times scarce. This indicates a differ- 
 ence in rank and station among those 
 decea.scd and among their friends who 
 
 son buried, and inasmucli as one would 
 have many things and his less enter- 
 prising fellow have nothing but a spear or 
 an ax, the first would be buried with many 
 relics and the other with ivw or none. 
 
 The two English naturalists, Bateman 
 and (h-ccnwcll, have given classification of 
 us the results of their ..bscr- f'!!'f';™'f"'i 
 
 implements in 
 
 vations in about four hun- tue mounds, 
 dred tombs belonging to the prehistoric 
 age. Uf the two hundred and ninety-
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OE THE TUMIU. 
 
 345 
 
 seven examined by Mr. Bateman fully 
 one hundred had no relics of any sort 
 other than the bare skeletons of the per- 
 sons buried. In forty of the tumuli he 
 found drinking vessels and food vases. 
 A hundred and 
 five had imple- 
 ments and weap- 
 ons in connec- 
 tion with the 
 skeletons, and in 
 thirty-five i n - 
 stances articles 
 of pottery were 
 found. Of the 
 one himdred and 
 two mounds 
 opened by Mr. 
 Greenwell only 
 thirty contained 
 implements or 
 weapons, and the 
 other seventy- 
 two were devoid 
 of relics. In all 
 the tombs which 
 this naturalist 
 examined the 
 skeletons were 
 found in a sit- 
 ting posture; 
 never recum- 
 bent. 
 
 In some of the 
 m o 11 n d s there 
 are evidences of 
 what may be 
 called the begin- 
 nings of ideal- 
 ity. Instead of actual weapons and im- 
 Deposition of plements, models of the 
 Te'^fitin^ssU s^me are sometimes bur- 
 'I'fy- ied with the dead. It 
 
 has been noticed in modern times, 
 particularly among the Esquimaux, 
 that this usage prevails. A mock 
 
 weapon is put in the place of the real one 
 in the tomb. Another fact must be 
 borne in mind in this connection, and 
 that is that the presence of implements 
 and weapons in the graves of these an- 
 
 M.— Vol. I- 
 
 INCINKRAIION OF THE DEAli. IN IHE AGE Ub 1 HE UMIEI. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 cient peoples does not indicate positively 
 their belief that the dead would revive 
 to need and use their weapons again. 
 The symbolical idea, the idea of com- 
 memoration, and the influence of tradi- 
 tion may all combine to give another 
 significance to the presence of these 
 
 -23
 
 346 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JFAXKLYD. 
 
 relics in the grave. Doubtless at tlie 
 first they must have been buried with 
 the dead in the belief that they would 
 be useful to them in another life analo- 
 gous to the present. Custom in this re- 
 spect Avould soon grow into habit, and 
 habit would presently have the force of 
 law. The usage would perpetuate itself 
 after the belief had perished. To the 
 present day, and even ainong the inost 
 civilized peoples of the world, many 
 usages obtain with respect to the dead, 
 the significance of which could not be 
 deduced from the literal facts present 
 in the inquiry. Nothing is more com- 
 mon than to deposit with the dead va- 
 rious articles which have simply an 
 aflFectional and commemorative signifi- 
 cation. The marriage ring remains upon 
 the finger. Favorite ornaments are care- 
 fully adjusted as the owner was wont to 
 wear them. Particularly are the regalia 
 and insignia of rank put into the tomb 
 with the departed. The priest is buried 
 with his cross, the sailor with his com- 
 pass, and the warrior with his sword. 
 None of these things signify an existing 
 
 belief in the further usefulness of these 
 articles to the dead. They are com- 
 memorative merely, conventional marks 
 of rank, of association, and affection on 
 the part of the living. 
 
 To a certain extent these principles 
 no doubt operated with the prehistoric 
 peoples; and all inferences Meaning of ar- 
 relative to the meaning ^^,^,^--^^« 
 
 of the articles found in the Imman nature. 
 
 barbaric tombs of extinct races must be 
 checked and corrected by what we know 
 to be the general laws and tendencies of 
 human nature. Opinions and beliefs 
 pass through many mutations, and cus- 
 tom is known to be more persistent than 
 either. Long after the fervid convic- 
 tion of the truth of a certain doctrine 
 and theory of human life and death has 
 passed away or given place to a mild 
 and inoperative assent of the mind, the 
 ancient usages which were based on that 
 belief in the epoch of its pristine vigor 
 continue to be observed, and these might 
 well convey to distant ages an erroneous 
 impression of the current opinions of 
 the people. 
 
 Chapter XX.— Prehistoric Races oe America. 
 
 :i«i 
 
 I ESTIGEvS of prehistoric 
 races of men are by no 
 means limited to Eu- 
 rojDC and the countries 
 of the East. In the 
 three Americas also 
 such traces of peoples 
 unknown to history are abundantly dis- 
 tributed. It remains to note in the 
 present chapter at least the prominent 
 features of the ancient monuments of 
 our own country and of the continent 
 south of the isthmus of Panama. It is 
 the intenti(jn merely to sketch the out- 
 
 line of our primitive monuments, and to 
 deduce therefrom a few general conclu- 
 sions relative to the peoples by whom 
 they were built and the ages in which 
 they flourished. 
 
 In all parts of North America, from 
 the Allc'ghanics to the far West, and 
 from the great lakes to 
 
 ° . Abundance of 
 
 the gulf of Mexico, a class mounds in the 
 J. ,1 . three Americas. 
 
 of monumental remains 
 may be observed by the traveler and 
 antiquary sufficiently imj-jressive in 
 their extent and variety, and .strikingly 
 suggestive of a remote antiquity. Even
 
 PRLUFAWI. .\r.\.\'.— PREHISTORIC AMRRICANS. 
 
 347 
 
 in the countries east of the Appala- 
 chians many such monumentsare found. 
 Tlicy were noted on the first arrival of 
 the civilized races on this continent, but 
 their significance was long ignored. It 
 was supposed at the first that they were 
 the works of the then existing tribes 
 inhalnting the New World. In fact, 
 many of the remains which arc now the 
 subjects of antiquarian research were 
 the products of the barbarous peoples of 
 North America and the semicivilized 
 races of Mexico, the Central Isthmus, 
 and Peru. It re- 
 quires some de- ^^ ^ "'• ' 
 gree of acumen ^ 
 at the present -^*^- 
 day to distin- ^'^ 
 g u i s h between t 
 those monu- ^ 
 mental remains 
 wdiicli are refer- 
 able to the peo- 
 p 1 e s possessing 
 this continent in 
 the times of the 
 discovery of 
 America and sub- 
 seqiient, and 
 those other inore 
 monumental tro- 
 phies of the ages long before, ^tlodern 
 inquiry, however, has easih^ sifted this 
 question to the bottom, and the scholar 
 of to-day is no longer perplexed by the 
 confusion of the later with the earlier 
 monuments. 
 
 Perhaps at the beginning of the in- 
 quiry it may be well to note the extreme 
 Antiquity of the antiquity of the tumuli and 
 earthworks of America as 
 indicated by their geo- 
 logical relations. On this continent, as 
 well as in Europe, the great rivers were 
 aforetime much vaster in breadth and 
 volume than at the present day. They 
 
 filled the valleys from hill to hill with 
 great floods, sweeping on to the sea. In 
 the long course of ages the rivers shrank 
 to comparatively their present dimen- 
 sions, and in doing so withdrew their 
 waters from the hills which constituted 
 their barrier on either side, and .sought a 
 narrower valley and a lower level. There 
 have thus been formed what may be 
 called the first or lower river bottom 
 and the second plateau above. 
 
 It is, perhaps, impossible to determine 
 at what remote period this retreat from 
 
 
 mounds indica- 
 ted by their sit- 
 uation. 
 
 GREAT MOUND NEAR MIAMISBURG. OHIO. 
 
 the higher to the lower level and from the 
 broad floods of the earlier prehistoric 
 geologic epoch to the mod- ^,^7^^°* 
 em streams which trav- river levels, 
 erse the continent at the present time 
 occurred ; but such is the historv of the 
 change which has taken place. In no 
 single instance has one of the prehistoric 
 mounds of our country been discovered 
 on the lower terraces formed by the river. 
 They are found in many places on the 
 higher plateaus and on uplands round 
 about, but never on the present or recent 
 levels of an existing stream. From this 
 it has been clearlv inferred that the mon-
 
 348 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. 
 
 nments in question were bnilt before the 
 recession of the rivers into their present 
 channels ; and it can hardly be doubted 
 that the races Avho flourished in that 
 primeval age looked down from a hu- 
 mid atmosphere on a world abounding 
 in turbid waters. 
 
 The frequency of the American tu- 
 muli has already been remarked. They 
 
 General mystery abound. In all parts of 
 
 ^rttiTtl'e'"" the Mississippi valley the 
 mounds. outlines of earthworks and 
 
 burial mounds may be discovered. 
 
 *' -'A , P^'-' c-'i'^ n ^ ^C / <^ G^ "^ «'•' 
 - ^' * .i' V 'n 9. ^ "^ 
 
 EARTHWORKS AT CEOAR BANK, OHIO. 
 
 Their numbers reach easily into thou- 
 sands, and their importance was such long 
 ago as to constitute the subject-matter 
 of the first volume of the Smithsonian 
 Contributions to Knoivlcdgc. ^ ney have 
 Jemanded the attention of scholars and 
 antiquaries during a great part of the 
 present century. Though vast stores of 
 information have been gathered from 
 their exploration, the mystery of their 
 ultimate origin and design remains as 
 impenetrable as when they first drew 
 the attention of the pioneers. 
 
 In some localities the mounds and tu- 
 
 muli are much more frequent and im- 
 portant than in others. In general, the 
 upper terraces along the great streams 
 which contribute to the Father of 
 Waters are the sites of the most striking 
 and instructive of these monuments. 
 But beyond the limits of our own coun- 
 try, in Central America, in ]\Iexico, and 
 in Peru, and other parts of the southern 
 continent, these evidences of extinct 
 civilizations are plentiful. 
 
 The valley of the Ohio seems to have 
 been a favorite seat and strongliold of 
 the prehistoric peo- owo vaiiey a 
 pies by whom these jj^^^^^^"' 
 monuments were ■»^orks. 
 reared. One of the most famous 
 of them all is on the banks of the 
 Little Miami river, and from its 
 evident character is called Fort 
 Hill. Another work of great im- 
 portance is at Newark, Ohio. One 
 of the greatest of the mounds is 
 situated on the plain of Cahokia, 
 Illinois, opposite the city of St. 
 Louis. Another of striking char- 
 acter is found on Grave Creek, 
 near "Wheelings in West Virginia, 
 and still another at Miamisburg, 
 in Ohio. One of the most strik- 
 ing of all is in the same State, at 
 Cedar Bank, on the Scioto, and 
 in various parts of (^liio, Indiana, and 
 Illinois such remains are foimd, even at 
 random. Far to the northwest, in 
 Wisconsin and Iowa, the primeval race 
 left its imperishable vestiges; and some 
 of the most interesting moimds of the 
 kind arc discovered in tliose States. 
 Soutli of the river Ohio, also, such re- 
 mains of jn-imeval man are plentiful. 
 Tennessee abounds in mounds, and Ala- 
 bama and Mississippi have many such 
 remarkable monnments. Indeed, it 
 would be easier to specify in what ])arts 
 of the great valley of the Mississippi
 
 riilMlil'AL MAN.—PRRIIISTORrC AMERICANS. 
 
 349 
 
 such remains of an extinct race arc )iot 
 to be found, than to note all the locali- 
 ties where they exist. 
 
 The American monuments, like those 
 
 of the principal 
 circles and 
 mounds. 
 
 PLAN OF SQUAKE MOUND, NEAR MARIETTA. 
 
 of Europe, differ greatly in dimensions, 
 Military design importance, and general 
 character. The most strik- 
 ing of them all were man- 
 ifestly military fortifications. These 
 are laid off and executed as if by an en- 
 gineer of modern times, though the de- 
 sign is greatly different from any that 
 would now be used in military opera- 
 tions. Great is 
 the extent and 
 area covered by 
 some of these 
 works. The re- 
 markable mon- 
 ument at Fort 
 Hill, Ohio, has 
 a circumvalla- 
 tion of nearly S 
 four miles, and 
 the height of 
 the mole, or ag- 
 ger, is from ten 
 to twenty feet. 
 Outside of this 
 is a ditch, and 
 
 the whole arrangement was manifestly 
 one of defense against a powerful enemy. 
 In the first place, an exact circle of great 
 
 extent is drawn upon the hill ; and around 
 the circumference the earthworks are 
 constructed. The circle is not quite 
 closed on one side, but has a protected 
 entrance, flanked with long lines of 
 earthworks branching to the right and 
 left. These, in their turn, are defended 
 by other lines running out nearly in 
 the form of a great rectangle in front 
 of the entrance to the circle. Even be- 
 yond this rectangle, at two of the cor- 
 ners and in other positions, are .smaller 
 circles and long mounds of earth of pe- 
 culiar form. No one can view the situ- 
 :ition and consider its extent, and even 
 the skill with which the fortifications 
 were planned, without being amazed at 
 the strength, capacity, and even genius 
 of the people by whom they were con- 
 structed. 
 
 The great fortifications at Newark, 
 Ohio, are fully two miles square. More 
 than twelve miles of em- ohio fortifica- 
 bankment. ranging from ^""^^'^'of^ca. 
 two to twenty feet in height, iiotia. 
 mark the outline and nature of the de- 
 
 '.I. 
 
 "^ms^"^ . 
 
 EARTHWORKS AT HOPETON, 
 
 
 
 fenses. The mound on the plain of Ca- 
 hokia is seven hundred feet long and five 
 hundred feet in breadth. Its heio-ht is
 
 350 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ninety feet, the superficial area about 
 eight acres, and the contents neaiiy 
 twenty millions of cubic feet. The 
 mound on Grave creek, in West Virginia, 
 has an elevation of seventy feet, and the 
 one at IMiamisburg, Ohio, is nearly as 
 great in elevation and extent. 
 
 We come now to consider sonie of the 
 strangest monuments Avhich the human 
 Earth-wrorks in race has left in its track. 
 beL'^and ser. It has been discovered that 
 pents. many of the embank- 
 
 ments and outer works under considera- 
 tion have the form of men or animals. 
 
 C.RF.AT SERPENT MOUND, IN ADAMS COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 It is not uncommon in the States of Wis- 
 consin and Iowa to come upon one of 
 the.se ancient works which, considered 
 in its entirety, presents a huge effigy of 
 man or beast. There is no mistaking 
 the design. It was manifestly intended 
 to represent a living creature, laid prone 
 or in profile on tlie earth. The effect is 
 that of a huge bas-relief, developed from 
 
 the ground. Still more astonishing is 
 the great serpentine mound on the banks 
 of Brush creek, in Ohio. 
 
 The serpentine 
 
 The mole of earth repre- mound of Brush 
 
 .• ,1 J. ■ r creek, Ohio. 
 
 sentmg the serpent is, from 
 head to tail, over a thousand feet in 
 length. The figure is five or six feet in 
 height and nearly thirty feet in width 
 at the base, diminishing gradually to- 
 ward the tail. At the sides of the neck 
 are two flat, or ear-like, projections, 
 and the mouth stands wide open. Right 
 in front of the niouth, and placed as if 
 issuing therefrom, is a large circular ele- 
 vation four feet in height, in the shape 
 of an egg. It is as though the serpent 
 had either ejected or was about to swal- 
 low the great body partly inserted in its 
 jaws ! The long line of the woi^^k repre- 
 senting the serpent's body is arranged 
 on the cui'vilinear. crest of a natural ele- 
 vation, parallel with the stream, and the 
 whole may well be regarded as one of 
 the most astonishing relics of human 
 caprice. 
 
 In connection with these mounds and 
 earthworks are the remains of the dead. 
 The circular mounds when Religious pur- 
 opened generally reveal Pr^rasfhe"'' 
 skeletons of a prehistoric jniutary. 
 race, and in connection with these are 
 found the implements and utensils pe- 
 culiar to the ci^och in which the mounds 
 were erected. Another fact of interest 
 in connection with the greater works 
 which we are considering is the asso- 
 ciation of what appear to be religious 
 structures and designs. Within the cir- 
 cumvallation of what was manifestly a 
 military defense, will generally be found 
 what has been thought by antiquarians 
 to be the oiitlines of a sacred edifice or, 
 at any rate, a sacred site where the re- 
 ligious ceremonial of the ]icople was 
 doubtlessly celebrated. Many marks of 
 the significance and purpose of this
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 351 
 
 part of the works have been discovered 
 and explained, from which it is inferred 
 that there was something more jDcrma- 
 nent about the fortifications than wcnild 
 be expected in the case of transient de- 
 fenses thrown up against an enemy. 
 These earthworks appear to mark the 
 sites and strongholds of the people, 
 to which they rallied in the times of 
 national tumult, and which consti- 
 tuted a sort of military capital for the 
 country. 
 
 The American antiquities under 
 consideration have given rise to 
 many theories and speculations. 
 Ever and anon some new and em- 
 rorgery siibstu pirical vicw has been 
 Jrfictnv/strir P^^t forth as to the origin 
 tio"- of the mounds and for- 
 
 tifications and the people by whom 
 they were reared. It is surprising 
 to what extent these speculations 
 have been carried. Those who 
 have theorized on the subject have 
 in many instances been entirely un- 
 scrupulous in regard to the means 
 by which their theory was to be sub- 
 stantiated. Forgeries innumerable 
 have been perpetrated with a view 
 to bolstering up some preposterous 
 theory about the inound builders. 
 Inscriptions have been made to 
 order, in Greek and Hebrew and 
 Celtic, and even in the Runic char- 
 acters of the Northmen, to sub- 
 stantiate what the forgers had given oi:t 
 as an explanation of the mounds. But 
 meanwhile a truer interpretation has 
 been going forward imder the care of 
 scientific antiquaries, and the foolish 
 stories which have been invented rela- 
 tive to the prehistoric earthworks of 
 America will find no further credence 
 among intelligent people. 
 
 Many are the legitimate inferences 
 ■which may be drawn relative to the life 
 
 and manners of the people by whom the 
 American prehistoric monuments were 
 built. In the first place, there are evi- 
 dences of a vast and far- Far-reaching in- 
 reaching intercourse among l"f °'i''!,® I ^^® 
 
 o c» mouna pot- 
 
 them. The relics that are teries. 
 found in the mounds are drawn from dif- 
 ferent and distant localities, and their 
 character indicates, in general, a social 
 
 SCAlt 
 
 CSOfCtalln. 
 
 FORT HILL, BUTLER COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 and industrial state, in a tolerable stage 
 of development. 
 
 In the ttimuli and earthworks we find 
 many articles of pottery, greatly superior 
 to the corresponding relics in the primi- 
 tive tombs of Great Britain and the Con- 
 tinent. The American articles are fre- 
 quently of elegant design. ]\Iany carved 
 works in stone are found in the same 
 situations, and ornaments of silver and 
 copper, almost worthy of a modern jew-
 
 352 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 eler, are taken from their resting places 
 alongside of ancient skeletons. 
 
 The materials of these utensils and arti- 
 cles of adornment are derived from many- 
 Materials depos- and distant places. The 
 ited have been go^j-ce of the silver is not 
 
 brought from 
 
 great distances, known, but the native cop- 
 per has evidently been brought from 
 the mines of lake Superior. The mica, 
 of which other ornaments are made, is 
 from the AUeghanies. Beautiful shells 
 are found in the same situations, which 
 had their home in the gulf of Mexico. 
 Implements of obsidian and porphyry, 
 of Mexican origin, are frequently discov- 
 ered with the other relics. As to such 
 
 VASES FROM MOUNDS. 
 
 implements and specimens of art of Eu- 
 ropean origin as have occasionally been 
 found in the sejiulchral mounds of the 
 New World, they are to be traced unmis- 
 takably to later burials in the ancient 
 tombs. 
 
 Anotherdeduction i)f much imiiortance 
 
 is that which relates to the extent of these 
 
 prehistoric populations and the nature of 
 
 their industries. It must 
 
 The mounds 
 
 constructed by haVC bcCU a populoUS Ua- 
 
 populous races. .. l c \ i- -i- 
 
 tion out of whose activities 
 sprang these great mounds and fortifica- 
 tions. The amount of labor expended 
 on .such a monument as that in the plain 
 of Cahokia is like the sum of the toil 
 which reared the pyramid of Cheops, 
 
 Here we have a mass of twenty millions 
 of cubic feet of earthy material heaped 
 up in regular form and with a definite 
 design. The labor of many thousands 
 was required to do it; and when we re- 
 flect upon the imperfect facilities which 
 the old races possessed for the execu- 
 tion of such works, we are still further 
 astonished at the magnitude of the 
 enterprise. 
 
 It is known to all that tribes inhabit- 
 ing a country in the character of hunters 
 and fishermen are always Mound builders 
 sparsely distributed. The l^^.Tst^'X 
 most abundant natural development, 
 supplies are only sufficient for a small 
 population. The hunting 
 stage of society is, therefore, 
 always limited to a small and 
 widely scattered population. 
 It i^equires the agricultural 
 stage of development to pro- 
 duce and maintain a thickly 
 settled jDeople. The artificial 
 resources of the soil must be 
 added to the native resources 
 of the woods before a great 
 population can be created or 
 maintained. Therefore, these 
 prehistoric races who built the Amer- 
 ican mounds and forts must have come 
 out of a primitive stage of barbarian 
 life and entered upon the agricul- 
 tural epoch. Their industrial life must 
 have been large and regular to sup- 
 port and foster such enterprises as we 
 have before us; and the methods and 
 economy and distribution employed by 
 them must have resembled, if they did 
 not approximate, the methods and facili- 
 ties of the historical era. 
 
 Still a third consideration is clearly 
 deducible from the evidence of the 
 mounds. A great fortification laid out 
 with geometric precision and executed 
 as if by regular engineering implies not
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 353 
 
 gOOfllolMe Inch 
 
 A 
 
 coS- 
 
 ■.Ca 
 
 only a defensive array of the means by 
 which a people would protect itself from 
 Deductions from attack and destruction ; it 
 chtrTcte'ro'f the ^"^^ implies «« offensive and 
 ■works. Opposing poiuer, an enemy, 
 
 numerous and dangerous to be combat- 
 ted and warded off. It does not imply 
 such an enemy as would be encountered 
 in the hunting or nomadic stages of 
 tribal development. That is, the means of 
 defense would, imder the common law of 
 reason, be proportioned to the resources, 
 aggressiveness, and skill of the foe. 
 
 We can eas- 
 ily see, in these 
 considerations 
 at least, the 
 outline of great 
 nations con- 
 tending for the 
 mastery of the 
 Mississippi 
 valley. No 
 other hypoth- 
 esis will ex- 
 plain the facts. 
 There must 
 have been in 
 these regions, 
 in an epoch 
 long antedat- 
 ing the era of 
 the Red men, 
 great agricultural peoples, with institu- 
 tions of religion and war. There mi:st 
 Great peoples have been intercourse and 
 ^oTnTfofA^eT-- relations with other peo- 
 tcan antiquities, pigs like themselves, and 
 these must sometimes have been rela- 
 tions of hostility. Indeed, it would ap- 
 pear from the strong military character 
 of the greatest and most important of 
 the monuments that war was, even in 
 these prehistoric times, the most marked 
 and vehement activit}' of the human race. 
 
 A comparison of the skeletons found 
 
 in the earth mounds of the New World 
 with those discovered in the tumuli of 
 Great Britain indicates Evidences of 
 clearly the greater antiq- ^^^^j^,,. 
 uity of the former. The ican mounds, 
 earth surrounding the bones and other 
 human relics in the American mounds is 
 exceedingly dry and compact. The situ- 
 ation is generally favorable in the last 
 degree to the preservation of human re- 
 mains. Below the level of frost and en- 
 tirely impervious to water, the dry earth 
 surrounding and covering the vaults 
 
 
 ■^'"'"^il .-"■ 
 
 MILITARY WORKS ON PAINT CREEK, OHIO. 
 
 seems to have been untouched b}' any nat* 
 ural force forages. And yet the skeletons 
 in the American tumuli are nearly always 
 far gone in decay. It is difficult to preserve 
 them after their exposure to the air. They 
 generally crumble as soon as they are 
 taken from their long resting place. 
 Even the skull bones generally turn 
 to a white powder with a few days ex- 
 posure to the atmosphere. In the British 
 mounds the human remains are gen- 
 erally well preserved. Notwithstanding 
 the moisture to which they have been
 
 354 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 exposed in tlie earth and the humidity 
 of the air of England, the skeletons stand 
 well on being exhumed, and are safely 
 transferred to their places in museums. 
 In some instances this may be done 
 with the mound builders of America, 
 but not often. The naturalist will not 
 fail to discover in the conditions and 
 
 common type, but those taken from re- 
 mote tumuli show strong marks of eth- 
 nic divergence and peculiarity. As a 
 rule, the crania and arm bones are strict- 
 ly human in their development. They 
 conform to the ordinary standards of 
 measurement and proportion, but the 
 skulls are foreign, not to say aboriginal. 
 
 I'UTTERY OF THK MOINIj l;r 1 1,1 il KS. - Vx,m\ Magazine of Art. 
 
 facts before him the evidences of a great- 
 er antiquity in the case of the American 
 remains. 
 
 Considerable variety of race has been 
 Indications of remarked among the skcl- 
 
 cra'tlctor^fU- '^t""^ exhumed from tlie 
 historic crania. American mounds. They 
 differ muc)i in form and stature. Those 
 in a given locality generally belong to a 
 
 in their form and structure. They do 
 not correspond with the crania of any 
 existing race of people. On the whole, 
 tliey are more in analogy witli the skulls 
 of those Oriental peoples who inhril)it 
 tlic eastern sliores of the Pacific and the 
 outlying islands. vSonie well-preserved 
 skulls, taken from prehistoric mounds in 
 Indiana and preserved in the museum of
 
 PRIME 1 \1 L MA N.—PRlilllS TORIC AMERICA NS. 
 
 855 
 
 that State, have a striking likeness to 
 the heads of the Japanese, but are 
 smaller m capacity than the crania of 
 that people 
 
 On the whole, the prehistoric races of 
 North America were rather under the 
 The Little Men average stature of the Red 
 w L'aTet" m^-ii or the civilized peoples 
 nessee valleys, of our Continent. vSome- 
 times remains are found which are really 
 diminutive. Nor are the cases of this 
 kind isolated or peculiar. On the Cum- 
 berland river, in Tennessee, several i^re- 
 historic cemeteries have been examined, 
 in which the remains are uniformly of 
 a small race. So marked is this pecul- 
 iarit}- that some have supposed that the 
 skeletons in question are those of infants 
 and children. But a closer examination 
 has proved them to be adult. The re- 
 gion in which these pygmj^ cemeteries 
 are located is very favorable for the pres- 
 ervation of the dead. The soil is dry 
 and sandy. The remains are invariably 
 found in small stone boxes, and the ob- 
 server can hardly believe that they are 
 the skeletons of a full-grown, adult 
 people. 
 
 On thrusting down from the surface 
 a sharp iron rod the stone lid of one of 
 Character of the thcse small crypts may be 
 
 graves; the sar- fQ^j^^J j^^d On excavating 
 cophagi, and the ' o 
 
 remains therein, the earth the box Can be ex- 
 amined in its undisturbed condition. 
 The graves have been constructed orig- 
 inally by excavating small, oblong vaults 
 and placing thin, undressed slabs of 
 sandstone at the bottom, sides, and 
 ends. After the burial a flat capstone 
 was placed on top, thus completing the 
 box. The inside of one of these minia- 
 ture sarcophagi measures from ten to 
 fourteen inches in width, ten to twelve 
 inches in depth, and from fourteen 
 inches to two feet in length. The space 
 is so small that no well-grown person of 
 
 an existing race, unless it should be a 
 native Australian, could be buried in it, 
 even in a contracted position. But the 
 prehistoric skeleton which is found in- 
 closed has, generally, room enough, 
 though the parts are frequently flexed 
 and sometimes doubled back. The 
 mounds covering the prehistoric pygmies 
 are thickly strewn in favorable positions 
 along the banks of the Cumberland. 
 
 The manner and epoch of the disap- 
 pearance of the mound builders from 
 North America remains Manner of the 
 conjectural. Nor is it like- '^^^^^^^ 
 ly that the ingenuity and races unknown, 
 adroitness of human scholarship will 
 ever be able to exhume from the past 
 the manner and time of their disappear- 
 ance. On the whole, they would seem 
 to have been a people worthy of a his- 
 tor}- ; but their extinction was so com- 
 plete that whatever may have been the 
 extent and variety of their national life, . 
 all has gone out together. Philosophers 
 have devoted volumes to the causes of 
 national decline, and the question is 
 still open for rational solution. 
 
 It may be truthfully urged that the seeds 
 of ethnic decay exist in certain peoples 
 in virtue of their own constitutions and 
 the nature of their activities. "Whether 
 races grow old and die as the i,ndividual ; 
 whether diif erent families of men are de- 
 flected by evolutionary processes from 
 one phase of existence to another ; wheth- 
 er sudden metamorphoses take place, in 
 obedience to natural laws, such as are 
 alleged to occur at rare intervals in the 
 animal kingdom, are philosophical ques- 
 tions which the inquirer of the future 
 must solve, if indeed they are soluble at 
 all. 
 
 Certain circumstances, however, may 
 be cited which are at least effective 
 as assisting forces in the extinction of 
 races. The prevalence of vicious and
 
 356 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 luxurious habits, gradually supplanting 
 
 the early and robust virtues of a people, 
 
 tend unmistakably to na- 
 
 Forces that tend . 
 
 to the extermi- tioual overthrow. i lie ex- 
 
 nation of races. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^.^^. ^^^ 
 
 the great cataclysms of natui'e may also 
 account for the destruction and disap- 
 pearance of peoples. It is doubtless true 
 that in prehistoric ages great submer- 
 gences of peopled islands and continents 
 
 been threatened by the rage of epidemics. 
 Among uncivilized peoples the accumu- 
 lation of stores for the future is but little 
 attended to. That prudence and fore- 
 sight which keeps up the resources of 
 life against the day of calamity are but 
 little practiced by barbarians, or even by 
 races half emerged from barbarism. For 
 these reasons prehistoric peoples have 
 been greatly exposed to the ravages of 
 
 /^ 
 
 AZTEC KUINS AT PALENQUE, IN CHIAPAS, MEXICO. 
 
 have taken place, while others hav'e risen, 
 dripping, from the deep. Earthquakes 
 and volcanic disturbances of the gi'eat 
 crust of the globe have terrified and 
 driven away what they have not engulfed. 
 Finally, famine and pestilence have done 
 their work on prehistoric as well as his- 
 toric races. There are times within the 
 recorded story of national life when not 
 only the depopulation of great districts, 
 but the extinction of whole nations has 
 
 famine. At intervals the earth has 
 unaccountably withheld her gifts. A 
 few seasons of want in succession would 
 be sufficient to exterminate an isolated 
 and uncomnici'i'ial nalimi, and lliat such 
 calamities have actually fallen upon 
 peoples like the mound builders of Amer- 
 ica can not be doubted. 
 
 Beyond the limits of the United vStates 
 the tumuli and other evidences of by- 
 gone races are generally secondary. In
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.—PRr.IIfSTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 357 
 
 one sense they are prehistoric, but in 
 another they fall, for the most part. 
 Extinct peoples within the activities of peo- 
 rcTntrrfoThe ples ^vho have been known 
 present. within the historical epoch. 
 
 The Mexican races that flonrislied in the 
 days of the Spanish invasions, at tlie 
 beginnin<j of the sixteenth century, may 
 well be considered as the remote extreme 
 of the peoj^lc by whoin the monuments 
 of Mexico were erected. The same is 
 true of the peoples of Central America 
 and of the Peruvians. The Aztecs, the 
 Coztccs, the Guatemalian tribes, and the 
 Peruvians, though much more advanced 
 than the Red men of North America, 
 are collateral with them in time and 
 national development. In the case of 
 our North American Indians, we know 
 that they belonged to a different race 
 from the mound builders, and that they 
 flourished in an age long subsequent to 
 the prevalence of the former on this con- 
 tinent. We have not the same clear 
 evidence of the existence of a people 
 back of the ^Mexicans, the Central 
 Americans, and the Peruvians. Such a 
 people may have existed, and there are 
 evidences here and there of a truly pre- 
 historic basis for that type of national 
 life which was encountered by the 
 Spanish invaders under Cortez and 
 Pizarro. 
 
 The ancient monuments of ^Mexico 
 are among the most imposing of primi- 
 
 Mexioanmonu- tive ruins. They have a 
 
 ments indicate 
 the religious 
 purpose. 
 
 solidity and grandeur sug- 
 gestive of the vast stn;c- 
 tures which the antiquarian encounters 
 in the valleys of the Nile and the Eu- 
 phrates. They differ fundamentally in 
 their character from the mounds and 
 fortifications of Central North America 
 in this, that the latter were military 
 structures in their first intent, while 
 those of Mexico are based upon religion 
 
 and its ceremonials. In the case of the 
 
 North American tumuli, the long moles 
 and circumvallations were created under 
 the warlike jnirpose of the race that 
 reared them, and the religious part of 
 the monuments are only secondary to 
 the dominant ideas of warfare. In the 
 Mexican tumuli and pyramids the exact 
 reverse is true. Evidence is not wanting 
 that they at times subserv-ed a military 
 purpose — that within their ramparts the 
 nation retreated and defended itself 
 against the foe. But the general idea of 
 all the monumental remains in the 
 region under consideration is that of 
 religion and priestly ceremonial. A 
 general sketch of the character and pur- 
 pose of the Mexican monuments can not 
 fail to prove of interest. 
 
 The structures in question have all, 
 with very few exceptions, a common 
 plan. A great square is 
 
 ^ 7 , . , . Plan and mate- 
 
 laid Oil on the earth, with its rials of the pyra. 
 
 four sides to the cardinal ""^i^i ^^'"Pies. 
 points of the compass. This square is 
 surrounded with walls strong and high. 
 The stracture of the same is sun-dried 
 bricks, or even in some cases stone. 
 Centrally located within the great rec- 
 tangle thus inclosed is the site of the 
 temple. A square foundation of solid 
 masonry is laid, extending to two hun- 
 dred, three hundred, or even five hun- 
 dred feet on each side. From this 
 foundation a great structure like a pyra- 
 mid is carried up in a succession of 
 terraces. The design is almost identical 
 with some of the oldest monuments of 
 the human race found in the valley of 
 the lower Euphrates and attributed to the 
 ancient Chaldseans. In both instances 
 the successive platforms of masonry 
 grow smaller toward the top, and in both 
 there is generally a deflection of the 
 work toward one side, so that the pyra- 
 mid does not stand centrally over the
 
 358 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLLYA'LYD. 
 
 foundation, but nearer, as a rule, to the 
 western edge. The eastern side of the 
 pyramid, facing the morning sun, is 
 ascended by a flight of steps to the 
 upper square. The structure is trun- 
 cated ; that is, cut off above without be- 
 ing carried to an apex. On the upper 
 platform is built the temple proper, 
 
 AZTKC STRUCIURK — ARCH OF LAS MONJ 
 
 which also faces the cast. Sometimes 
 on the terrace more temples than one 
 are reared. It is in evidence that several 
 deities were worshiped from the same 
 platform, liach had his own fane and 
 ceremonial. 
 
 Temples of the kind here described 
 were plentiful at the time of the Spanish 
 invasion of Mexico. Cortcz declares that 
 
 he foi:nd fully four hundred of them in 
 the state of Cholula. Doubtless the num- 
 ber within the more im- plentiful distri- 
 portant state of Anahuac, ^,",l°rrel?u'' 
 embracing the plateau of Choiuia. 
 the ^Mexican capital, was still greater. 
 Torquemada estimates the number in the 
 empire of Montezuma at forty thousand ! 
 Bernal Diaz, the old Span- 
 ish historian of the times, 
 and Cortez himself in his 
 letters to Charles V, have 
 given us full descriptions 
 of the striking religious 
 edifices and ceremonials 
 with which they came into 
 contact. 
 
 Perhaps the most elab- 
 orate structure in all Mex- 
 ico at the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century was that 
 which Cortez describes 
 from the capital. It Avas 
 in the center of the an- 
 cient city. The inclosure 
 of the outer walls was so 
 great that Cortez esti- 
 mates the interior capacity 
 as sufficient for five hun- 
 dred hoiises. Another es- 
 timate made by vSolis is 
 that the S2:)ace inside of 
 the walls ami between 
 them and the pyramidal 
 foundation in the center 
 AS. Avas .suflicicnt to accom- 
 
 modate ten thousand dan- 
 cers on days of solemn cere- particular fea- 
 monies. This whole space ^::rt:°;ie:o1-" 
 was paved with dressed Me.\ico. 
 stone, and .so smooth was tlie work that as 
 Bernal Diaz declares, "the horses of the 
 Spaniards could not walk upon it for sliji- 
 ping." All the area within was .sacred 
 territory. It was the central institution 
 of the state, religiously, educationally,
 
 PRIME VA L MA N.—PK/illlS 1 ORIC A M URIC A NS. 
 
 359 
 
 ican ruins ; like- 
 ness to those of 
 the East. 
 
 and politically. Here the priests had 
 their abode. Here the soothsayers and 
 scribes of the ancient epoch congre- 
 gated ; and here the emperor himself was 
 admitted only with a ceremonial. The 
 terraces constituting the pyramid were 
 five in number. The broadest platform 
 was three hundred feet .square, and the 
 height of the whole to the 
 upper terrace was a hundred 
 and twenty feet. On the top 
 were two shrines, or towers, 
 which were dedicated to the 
 gods of preservation and de- 
 struction. 
 
 Central America, as well 
 as Mexico and tlie countries 
 
 Central Amer- of the North 
 
 abounds in 
 
 ruins and 
 luonumental evidences of 
 primitive peoples. The 
 style of building was here 
 the same as on the Mexican 
 plateau, but there is a greatei 
 display of art. The Central 
 American pyramids are gen 
 erally smaller than the Mex 
 ican structures, but the tem 
 pies on the itpper terraces 
 were larger in proportion 
 Great massiveness 
 and strength are the char- 
 acteristics of the masonry. 
 The exterior of the temples 
 were stuccoed and covered 
 with carved figures and or- 
 naments. It appeal's that the symbol- 
 ical imagination ran rampant among the 
 priests and architects. Within the tem- 
 ples were corridors and chambers with 
 arched roofs of stone. 
 
 The antiquary in examining these 
 ruins can but be impressed with their 
 striking analogy to the earliest monu- 
 ments of the human race in the valleys 
 
 of Western Asia. The corridors and 
 walls of the inner chambers are covered 
 with sculptures and hieroglyphics. It Ls- 
 not impossible that a truer understand- 
 ing of the significance of these inscrip- 
 tions may make the world better acquaint- 
 ed with the cliaracter and activities of 
 the abori<rinal races of our continent. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICAN ANTIQUmES — DOUBLE-HEADED FIGURE OF THE 
 CASA DEL GOBERNADOR. 
 
 In Honduras, also, many monuments 
 of the same nature have been discov- 
 ered and described. Here, too, the 
 carving is elaborate and Monumental re- 
 elegant. At Copan one Z^^^t""' 
 of the most striking mono- Colombia, 
 lithie effigies ever recovered from the 
 ancient world has been found and pre- 
 served. Around the shores of lake
 
 360 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MA.VKLYB. 
 
 Nicaragua abundant evidences of ex- 
 tinct peoples are scattered, and wher- 
 ever these occur they are found to be 
 covered with inscriptions. It is be- 
 
 •SCUI.l'lL'lUi OK THJv TCJI.TIXS — FROM TlIK RUINS OF 
 COl'AN. 
 
 lieved tliat those in the vicinity of 
 ■Copan arc tlic oldest nionunicnts that 
 have yet been found south of the Rio 
 Grande del Norte. In C<jlombia, also, 
 the traveler ever and anon .stumbles 
 
 upon some relic of human workmanship 
 of unknown origin. The ruins of a few 
 edifices and monuments have also been 
 examined in this land, but have not 
 added materially to our knowledge of 
 their builders. 
 
 Passing southward into the highlands 
 of Peru, we come upon additional evi- 
 dences of the activity and Temples of Cua. 
 
 genius of an extinct peo- ir\?.Tp7e^^. 
 pie. Perhaps the city of ic races. 
 Cuzco affords one of the best fields for 
 antiquarian research that may be found 
 in the world. Hererra declares that 
 there were aforetime in this city as many 
 as three hundred temples, and from the 
 nature and extent of the ruins the asser- 
 tion seems to be well grounded. 
 
 As a general fact, it appears that the 
 religious ceremonies of the peoples 
 whom we are here considering — Mexi- 
 can, Central American, Peruvian — were 
 a form of that sun worship which has 
 constituted the most rational idolatry of 
 the human race. Nearly all the tem- 
 ples seena to have been built with respect 
 to the sunrise ; and in so far as the cere- 
 monial of these ancient peoples has been 
 recovered, it reveals the same features 
 which belonged originally to the wor- 
 ship of the Chaldceans and Assyrians, 
 primarily to the Zoroastrians of the Ira- 
 nian plateau, and in a considerable de- 
 gree to the primitive peoples of India. 
 There can be no doubt that the rising 
 sun, coming up majestically after the 
 red dawn of day and ascending the east- 
 ern arch of heaven, triumphing over 
 mist and shadow, and fleecy cloud and 
 rainstorm, constituted the one tremen- 
 dous object of adoration which im- 
 l^ressed itself upon the imagination of 
 the early races of men. 
 
 It must not be understood that the 
 ruined monuments which we arc here 
 considering are the only memorials left
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.—PRlilllSTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 361 
 
 by the Southern races of the New World. 
 The outlines of great cities are discover- 
 able here and there. Some of these 
 have survived to within the historical 
 period. Others have gone down to in- 
 discriminate diist. In connection with 
 these ruins the outlines of public works 
 are found in many parts. Not 
 infrequently the antiquary is 
 able to trace the course of a 
 great aqueduct or of some other 
 evidence of the lal)or and skill 
 of a prehistoric peojale endeav- 
 oring to supply its common 
 wants. ^ 
 
 It appears clear from an ex- ^ 
 
 amination of all that we are able 
 to discover in the regions here 
 
 named, that man 
 Bad estate of the 
 
 people in prehls- himself in hlS 
 
 toric America. • •,• „„t„<-„ 
 
 primitive estate 
 was as much subordinated to 
 ecclesiastical domination and 
 political despotism as in the 
 better-known countries of the 
 East. It appears that the com- 
 mon lot was as hard and ig- 
 noble in ^Mexico and Central 
 America, in Colombia and Pern, 
 as on the Babylonian plain or 
 in the stone quarries of Egypt. 
 Even as late as the times of the 
 Spanish invasion the condition 
 of the common people was piti- 
 able in the last degree. The life 
 of the individual man had no 
 splendor or renown. Cortez and 
 the Spanish story-tellers who 
 panied him on his expedition speak 
 of the miserable houses in which the 
 people lived. They were mere huts 
 built of bamboo and covered with thatch, 
 temporary protections against a climate 
 never severe and always inviting to out- 
 door methods of life. All vestiges of 
 
 such lowly abodes have long since passed 
 M. — Vol. I — 24 
 
 away. Nor are there other means of 
 discovering the daily life of the common 
 people whom the merciless and bloody 
 waves of Spanish conquest totally en- 
 gulfed. 
 
 If we again turn our attention to the 
 regions north of the Rio Grande, we 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICAN STRUCTURE — CIRCULAR EDIFICE AT MAYAPAN. 
 
 accom- 
 
 shall find in Arizona one of the best fields 
 of exploration for the relics 
 
 ■^ _ _ Extinct cities 
 
 of a prehistoric people, of the Colorado 
 This is not said of the p^®^"^" 
 ruins which the Spaniards and their 
 descendants left in this region after the 
 beginning of the sixteenth centurjs but oi" 
 prehistoric memorials found in several 
 localities. On the Colorado plateau
 
 362 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JIFAXKEXD. 
 
 there are traces of extinct cities, reser- 
 voirs, terraces, and aqueducts. Still more 
 notable, in the valley of the Gila ai^e 
 scattered the monumental vestiges of a 
 vanished race. Along the river banks 
 are the outlines and actual debris of 
 stone houses and military fortifications 
 Avhich belonged to a peojjle long anterior 
 to the European conquerors who came 
 with Cortez and his successors. There 
 are in many places, in a sort of fast- 
 nesses Avhich seem to have been selected 
 with not a little care, the remains of 
 human habitations in great numbers cut 
 from the native ledges, and constituting 
 a species of abodes which are in good 
 measure without an analogue among the 
 habitations built by men. In other 
 
 ,i; i l.L 1 lia, — RI.MAINS OF FulilUl.iS WALLS, AT Cl'ZCO, 
 
 places walls of solid masonry, generally 
 rectangular in form, may be traced ; and 
 the foundations of buildings Avhich are 
 thought to have been two or three stories 
 in height are plainly discernible in many 
 localities. It can not be doubted, indeed, 
 chat along the river Gila in past ages, 
 as well as in many other parts of the 
 territory of the United States, of Mexico, 
 and of .South America, a great and even 
 flourishing 2)rehistoric j^^'P'^i'^^i"''^ t-'-"^- 
 isted, of whicli the only record is in the 
 crumbling monumental remains whicli 
 are left behind. 
 
 If we attempt to discriminate among the 
 ruins of Soutliweslern North America, of 
 Central America, and of Peru, and to 
 
 decide what proportion of them are refer- 
 able to the activities of the races inhab- 
 iting the AVestern conti- chronological 
 nents since the New World 'ulns of u°e '^^ 
 was revealed to the Euro- Southwest, 
 pean nations, and what part are the work 
 of the prehistoric races which preceded 
 them, we shall be likely, from the im- 
 perfect data in our possession, to fall 
 into error and misinterpretation. 
 Enough is known, however, to deter- 
 mine the general proposition that some 
 of the monuments in question are the 
 work of primitive peoples long anterior 
 to the epoch of Spanish conquest. 
 
 It is probable that Peru, or Avhat was 
 anciently Upper Peru, but is now in- 
 cluded in the state of Bolivia, furnishes 
 
 the best basis 
 for the study of 
 the truly pre- 
 historic m e - 
 morials in the 
 regions which 
 we have been 
 considering. 
 vS i n c e 1864, 
 when the mon- 
 uments of this 
 country were explored and described by 
 the American archaeologist Ephraira 
 George Scpier, it has been settled that 
 the relics of man's work in the high 
 places of Upper Peru are traceable in 
 their origin to a race that flourished in 
 the country long before the era of the 
 Incas. 
 
 The monuments in question are situ- 
 ated on the Andean plateau, high up in 
 Bolivia, on the shore of lake Titicaea. 
 The early Spanish invaders Remains on 
 were greatly surprised at 't::^^^\^ 
 tlic character and extent of region, 
 tliese remains. At the time of tlie in- 
 vasion of Pizarro, they differed little 
 from their aspect at the present time.
 
 PRIMliVAL jrAN.—J'RJ'If/STORlC AMERICANS. 
 
 368 
 
 The region is a broad, open, arid plain. 
 During the "wct season the weatlier is 
 cold, and becomes still more so as the 
 dry season of the year ai^proaches. No 
 fruits or grain will grow in this vicinity. 
 It is said that nothing edible has been 
 produced in the region except a small 
 variety of bitter potato. It is, perhaps, 
 the only region in the world where great 
 monumental remains are found in a 
 situation wholly improductive, and many 
 conjectures have been advanced to 
 explain the anomaly. It has been 
 
 The monuments in question consist of 
 stonework and moles of earth. The 
 stones are either rudely hewn into shape 
 or selected and set up with- stone and eanh- 
 out dressing. The inquirer Tth^idor""" 
 can not long have ex- "ways. 
 amined what is before him withf)ut dis- 
 covering the analogy of the ruins to the 
 great Druidical remains of England, 
 and notably to vStonehenge. The stones 
 are set erect in many places on the great 
 terrace, but others are built into Avails 
 with the most exact workmanship. One 
 
 l'UKi:L() M klL IL Kli.— Ki INS IN THE Valley of the Gila. 
 
 thought that perhaps the great people 
 by whom the monuments which we are 
 now to examine were created had pro- 
 found superstitions or religious ceremo- 
 nials which they celebrated on this 
 almost desert plateau. It has even been 
 suggested that the site of these monu- 
 mental remains may have been deter- 
 mined by augury — as the site of Rome 
 was fixed — and that superstition thus 
 determined the place where vast struc- 
 tures were created against the laws and 
 -suggestions of the natural world. 
 
 of the most peculiar of the discoveries is 
 that of heavy monolithic doorways. 
 That is, large slabs of stone have been 
 taken, and through these the temple en- 
 trances have been cut, with an arch 
 above, while on the front, and even re- 
 verse, of the block are carved a multi- 
 tude of symbolical characters. All over 
 the plain are scattered, even for miles 
 around, the relics of vast structures £nd 
 battlements, the position of which can 
 be plainly traced on the earth. 
 
 Among the monuments on this high
 
 364 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 Astonishing 
 character of the 
 ruin called the 
 Fortress. 
 
 plain of the Andes four principal struc- 
 tures, or at least the foundations of 
 them, have been developed 
 from the ground. The}- 
 are known to antiqua- 
 ries by the names of the Fortress, the 
 Temple, the Palace, and the Hall of 
 Justice — from the purposes which con- 
 jecture has assigned to them respec- 
 tively. The greatest of the ruins is the 
 Fortress. It rises in the center of the 
 
 substantial as that in the faces of the 
 terrace. 
 
 If the traveler takes his stand on the 
 summit of this tremendous monument 
 
 and looks to the north, he Features of the 
 
 ilnds at a short distance an- let-dthe^H^ll 
 other rectangular mound, of Justice, 
 measuring at the base four hundred and 
 forty-five by three hundred and eighty- 
 eight feet. The outline of the structure 
 is marked by I'ows of stones set erect in 
 
 OLD PERUVIAN STRUCTURE.— Ruins of Fortress, on Titicaca Kland. 
 
 plain, terrace on terrace, to the height 
 of fifty feet. The mound is rectangu- 
 lar, having a base measurement of six 
 hundred and fifty feet in length and 
 four hundred and fifty feet in widtli. 
 Tl ; faces of the terraces are laid with 
 massive stones, which are carefully and 
 skillfully cut and dovetailed the one into 
 the other in such a way as to make them 
 immovable for ages and ages. On each 
 side, running out from tlie base, isavast 
 sionc platform, known in architecture as 
 an *' apron," in which the masonry is as 
 
 the earth, vSome of them as rude as those 
 of vStonehenge, and others carved with 
 skill. These are tlie outer supports of 
 the structures which were reared within. 
 Some of the monoliths are as much as 
 foiirteen feet above the earlh. and are 
 something more than two by four feet in 
 their other dimensions. Tliis is the 
 structure to which anticpiarics have 
 given the name of the Temple. The 
 Palace next attracts the attention, and is 
 S])ccially noted for the e.xcellencc of the 
 stone cutting which is obscr\-ed in its
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.—CONDrnONS OF SAl'AGE LIFE. 
 
 365 
 
 foundations. No masons of ancient or 
 of modern times have, perhaps, excelled 
 what was done on this arid plateau be- 
 fore the dawn of history, and is still 
 preserved in the foundations of the 
 monument under consideration. 
 
 It is not far from the outer limits of 
 the Palace, so called, that the Hall of 
 Justice is situated. It also is rectangu- 
 lar in its ground plan, being four hun- 
 dred and twenty feet by three hundred 
 and seventy feet in dimensions. With- 
 in this inclosure has been developed the 
 foundation of still another structure, 
 called the Sanctum Sanctorum, one 
 hundred and thirty-one by twenty-three 
 feet in measurement, which presents the 
 finest stonework of all. For the excel- 
 lence of the cutting and fitting it may 
 well be compared with the ruins of Baiil- 
 bec. Some of the stones are twenty-five 
 and a half feet long, fourteen feet broad, 
 and six and a half feet in thickness. They 
 are fitted by the best rules of geometric 
 art, and are held in place by bronze 
 clamps that may well be compared with 
 the like devices found in the ruins of 
 ancient Egypt. 
 
 In the current chapter we have done 
 no more than glance at the monumental 
 remains of the three Americas. It is 
 
 believed, however, that the fragmentary 
 sketches of these memorials will be suffi- 
 cient to convey to the read- Purpose of this 
 
 cr a fair apprehension of ^r/st^.^iJ''' 
 the times and the people in follow, 
 which and by whom they were created. 
 The present volume is bj^ no means a 
 work devoted to antiquarian research. 
 It is merely intended in the present book 
 to present so much of the primitive his- 
 tory of mankind as shall furnish a satis- 
 factory basis for the consideration of the 
 great tribal migrations which are to oc- 
 cupy our attention hereafter. We have 
 in the preceding chapters reviewed the 
 conditions of aboriginal life as they have 
 presented themselves in the caverns and 
 wilds of Western Europe, along the 
 shores of the Baltic, in the tumuli of 
 Great Britain, and in the mounds and 
 among the monuinents of the New World. 
 We shall now conclude this book with a 
 brief sketch of the general conditions of 
 savagery as the same are presented 
 among the barbarous and half- barbarous 
 races of the present time. It is believed 
 that the prehistoric man will thus be bet- 
 ter realised in his far-off career by being 
 seen in a reflected form of activity among 
 the savage tribes and nations of the mod- 
 ern world. 
 
 Chapter XXI.— Gemeral Co>4ditions oe Savaoe 
 
 Like. 
 
 TRUE understanding 
 of the prehistoric con- 
 dition of mankind de- 
 pends in good measure 
 upon a knowledge of 
 the manners and cus- 
 toms of the existing 
 savasfe nations. These nations are to be 
 looked upon as the remnants and repre- 
 
 sentatives of an ancestry like themselves. 
 Doubtless the existing tribes have been 
 much deflected in the course of ages from 
 the original types to which they be- 
 longed. But it is also true that the3'have 
 preserved many of the leading features 
 of the original barbarism which has pre- 
 vailed in all parts of the earth. 
 
 Viewed from the animal side of exist-
 
 366 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ence, the barbarians of to-day bold ex- 
 actly the same relation to the dead races 
 that have preceded them as do many of 
 
 iMA.^. AM) UiiMAN (IK TlIK RKINliKKK Kl'OCII 
 Drawn by F.mile Bayard. 
 
 the living species of animals to the 
 extinct varieties from wliich they are de- 
 scended. Tlic mammoth and the mas- 
 
 todon and the hairy rhinoceros have 
 their living representatives in the ele- 
 phant, the Asiatic rhinoceros, and even 
 
 the common 
 swine. There has 
 1 >een an evolution- 
 11 y descent by 
 ^\ hich the tides of 
 life have been 
 turned aside into 
 new channel s . 
 The living crea- 
 tures are not the 
 same in stature, 
 in habit, in as- 
 pect or mode of 
 life as the extinct 
 t} pes from which 
 they have been 
 derived. But the 
 essential nature of 
 the original spe- 
 cies has been, in 
 large measure, 
 preserved. 
 
 So also of the dif- 
 ferent varieties of 
 men, aboriginal, 
 intermediate, and 
 modern. Sir John 
 Lubbock has de- 
 clared with great 
 force that the in- 
 habitants of Van 
 Dicmen's Land 
 and Terra del 
 Fuego are to the 
 prehistoric races 
 I if the age of stone 
 what the opossum 
 and the sloth and 
 the kangaroo are 
 to the extinct mar. 
 supials, known only to the geologist. 
 The flint weapon in the hands of a liv- 
 ing savage is to an antiquary precisely
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 367 
 
 what the horn-crowned nose of a rhinoc- 
 eros or the projecting- tusks of a boar 
 Relations of ex- are to a naturalist. The 
 SJaTurrlau ^^'^t Carries the mind back 
 ancestry. to prehistoric implements 
 
 found in the peat bogs of Denmark, and 
 the other reminds the inquirer of tlie 
 hairy rhinoceros and the tremendous 
 tusks of Elfphas priinigciiius. 
 
 ducible to two general considerations 
 which are easily apprehended. The 
 first of these is what may be called the 
 appearance of national consciousness 
 among a people. Whenever this hap- 
 pens — whenever a given tribe begins 
 to be conscious of itself — the national 
 tongue will for the first time find utter- 
 ance, and this utterance will take the 
 
 BEGINNINGS OF MKTALLUROY.— A Primitive Smithy.— Drawn by Emile Bj>aid. 
 
 tween prehistOT' 
 lo and historic 
 races. 
 
 One of the first inquiries with which 
 we have here to deal is the fixing of a 
 Demarkationbe- line between the prehistor- 
 ic and the historic races of 
 men. What is it to have 
 been a truly prehistoric people ? and what 
 is it to lie distinctly within the historic 
 era? The answers to these questions 
 involve several matters of much impor- 
 tance and interest, but they are all re- 
 
 form of narrative. The narrative may 
 be in the form of epic poetry. It may 
 be a half -formed anthropology or cos- 
 mology, or it may be rude annals, reciting 
 fragments of tradition and filling up the 
 spaces from imaginary materials. At 
 any rate, it is History. It is the earli- 
 est development in the form of language 
 of a nation's concept of itself and of its 
 own past
 
 368 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. 
 
 History may thus be regarded as the 
 first rational transcript of the national 
 The conscious consciousness of a people, 
 man requires an -phere is that in the mind, 
 
 explanation oi 
 
 the past. whether of the individual 
 
 or of the tribe, which on coming into 
 the conscious state immediately demands 
 some kind of narrative of its own origin 
 and previous development. When this 
 stage in the human evolution is reached, 
 written records appear as a concomitant 
 and inseparable incident of that particular 
 epoch of growth. Henceforth we have 
 the beginnings, at least, of those annals 
 and early chronicles and traditional forms 
 of literature which constitute the funda- 
 mentals of formal history. This circum- 
 stance may be taken as the first great 
 point of division between civilization and 
 its antecedent barbarism. 
 
 The second point has already been 
 alluded to in the preceding chapters. It 
 Use of metals is the tise of victals. So 
 
 coincident with q ^j.ggg ^youkl UOt bc 
 
 nistoncal con- 
 sciousness, laid upon this fact in the 
 
 progress and development of mankind 
 were it not for the coincidence of the 
 use of metals in the practical arts with 
 the beginnings of history referred to 
 above. It is a part of the general scheme 
 of the civilization of mankind that this 
 fact of the appearance and first expres- 
 sion of a national consciousness in the 
 form of annals and recorded traditions 
 shall be associated under law with the 
 earliest discovery and application of the 
 metals to the purposes of human life. 
 The metallic age, if we may so express 
 it, is coincident with the dawn of epic 
 poetry and the first records of legend 
 and tradition. When the primeval man 
 emerges from the shadows of barbarism 
 he begins to sing and to carry a me- 
 tallic battlc-ax. Thus it appears that 
 the manufacture of the metals by ration- 
 al or empirical processes, and their use 
 
 instead of the ruder materials employed 
 in the age of savagery, is the second cir- 
 cumstance which determines the line of 
 demarkation between the civilized forms 
 of life and the preceding barbaric ages. 
 In other words, the line which is drawn 
 between the savage and unconscious state 
 of the human race and its conscious and 
 enlightened activities has history as one 
 of its points of departure and the use of 
 the metals for the other. 
 
 The question will at once arise whether 
 savage nations have no traditional forms 
 of expression. Undoubted- Evanescent 
 ly they have. All tribes ^SS-"^'- 
 of men, in however low a' ti<"is. 
 condition of development, cultivate leg- 
 end and tradition. They are fond of 
 reciting stories about themselves and 
 the other races with whom they have 
 come in contact. They are even as chil- 
 dren telling unthinkable things about 
 wolves and bears and giants. But the 
 point to be observed is the impcrinanctice 
 of the traditions of barbarism. Contrary 
 to the popular apprehension, the legends 
 and stories of i-eally prehistoric peoples 
 are exceedingly evanescent. They gen- 
 erally pass away with the current gener- 
 ation, or at least take a new form with 
 the succeeding one. The absence of a 
 record to preserve and crystallize the 
 myths and imaginations of primeval 
 man is the circumstance which i:>rcvcnts 
 their perpetuity. Each age among bar- 
 barians has its own cycle of traditions, 
 but they have no continuance or fixed 
 form. All the legends of savagery com- 
 bined would be no other than (he bab- 
 blings of the living generation, or at most 
 the transmitted form of the babblings of 
 their fathers and grandfathers. It is 
 now a well-ascertained fact that the 
 most ajxK'ryphal stories told by savages 
 pretending to give an account of past 
 events in which their own people have
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGJi Llhli. 
 
 369 
 
 ■want of race 
 memory in sav- 
 ages. 
 
 borne a part, are only the current ex- 
 pression in a magnified and distorted 
 form of things that have liappened 
 within easy reach of the memories of 
 men. 
 
 Many instructive and even amusing 
 illustrations may be given from the an- 
 instances of n^ls of currcnt savagery of 
 the valueless and short- 
 lived character of barbarian 
 traditions. In November of 1642 Abel 
 Janssen Tasman discovered the island 
 which now bears the name of Tasmania, 
 southeast of Australia. The people 
 passed under the dominion of the Dutch, 
 and the vicissitude Avas as great as could 
 possibly happen to a barbarian race. In 
 1770, a hundred and twenty-eight years 
 after the discovery of the island, the great 
 navigator James Cook visited the Tas- 
 manians and acquainted himself with 
 their traditional knowledge. He found 
 nowhere in the island the slightest evi- 
 dence of a recollection of Tasman's visit. 
 Every trace of that great event had 
 lapsed into oblivion. Another instance 
 of like sort is furnished in the great in- 
 land voyage and exploration of De Soto 
 through the gi:lf region of the United 
 States. Long before the Revolution all 
 remembrance and tradition of this event 
 had passed from the minds of the Red 
 men. On being questioned, the most 
 intelligent chiefs in the region through 
 which De Soto had passed were found 
 to be totally ignorant of the romantic 
 expedition which had laid their own 
 country open to the aggressions of an- 
 other race. ' 
 
 ' The impermanence of the traditions of savages 
 is strongly contrasted with the persistency of tradi- 
 tion after a race has once entered the conscious 
 stage of development. When a tribe has reached 
 the epoch of race consciousness and has begun to 
 employ the metals in manufacture and art, then its 
 traditions become permanent and of high historical 
 interest. 
 
 It is clear that three or four genera- 
 tions constitute the limit to which a 
 
 knowledge of even great Transformation 
 
 national catastrophes is -noTKric 
 transmitted among savage legends, 
 peoples. Even during the continuance 
 of a tradition in barbarism it takes on 
 constantly new and exaggerated forms, 
 rendering it totally unfit for historical 
 purposes. The imagination of the abo- 
 rigines adds to and modifies the narra- 
 tive until it is distorted out of all sem- 
 blance to the original. It is narratea 
 by Sir Alexander Mackenzie that during 
 his travels among the Esquimaux they 
 were wont to describe the English to 
 him as giants wdth wings. They said 
 that the English soldiers could kill men 
 by looking a' them, and that one of 
 them could swallow a whole beaver at 
 a mouthful! The traveler Mansfield 
 Parkyns, in his account of the traditions 
 of the Abyssinians, relates one of their 
 stories to the effect that some German 
 inissionaries had in the course of a few 
 days made a tunnel from Adowa to 
 Massowah, on the Red sea, a distance of 
 more than a hundred and fifty miles! 
 In fact, all of the traditions and myths 
 of savage tribes are apocrA^phal in the 
 last degree ; and this fact, taken in con- 
 nection with their impermanence, de- 
 stroys all valiie that they might other- 
 wise possess for the antiquary and 
 historian. 
 
 While it is true that barbarous tradi- 
 tions are thus useless for purposes of 
 history, and misleading if depended on to 
 throw light upon the general conditions 
 of savage races, it is also true that the 
 manners and customs of these same 
 races are among the most persistent facts 
 which the student of human life will 
 ever encounter. A tradition or legend 
 will change its form like the figments of 
 the kaleidoscope. It will vanish with a
 
 370 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 brief lapse of time and never reappear. 
 But the manners of even wild and rov- 
 ing tribes hold their form through every 
 \acissitude and long generations. 
 
 Nothing is better calculated to aston- 
 ish the inquirer than the persistency and 
 integrity of customs. They 
 
 Persistency and , ^, , 
 
 integrity of cus- Can hardly be destroyed. 
 
 toms and habits, rrw. ii- i. ii- 
 
 ihey pass through the 
 severest crises, and come up after great 
 catastrophes in all their pristine vigor 
 
 shocks and revolutions, through migra- 
 tion and famine, through the ravages of 
 pestilence and the horrors of war, and is 
 indeed coexistent with the race of which 
 it is a part. A trivial custom easily out- 
 lasts the life of man. It survives the 
 mountain oak which has braved the 
 storms of a millennium. It outlasts the 
 granite obelisk which the conceit of a 
 mistaken people has reared as the most 
 permanent memorial of its greatness. 
 
 
 '^s^( MMMm&^^^^m^'^'m\ 
 
 1 LK.ilSri.NCV <-)!■ I'.lliNlC 1 I'.A 1 UKI..->.~(i) A.m-ikm Heiiki-.w bHBPHBRU WITH bi.lNG.— t>r:iwii by li, A. liaipcr. 
 
 and definiteness of outline. Even the 
 trivial circumstance of a peculiarity of 
 tribal speech will be perpetuated from 
 generation to generation, and the more 
 substantial elements of custom seem to 
 endure forever. Habit is, if possible, 
 more unchangeable with a tribe or 
 people than with the individual. It 
 seems to be a part of the blood and nerve 
 of national existence. It goes through 
 
 There are still present in human society 
 forms and customs and peculiarities — 
 modes of action and ceremonial habits — 
 that have been transmitted to the 
 modern world from the shadow and ob- 
 scurity of the imknowable ages that lie 
 below the daydawn of civilization ; and 
 in like manner the present will contrib- 
 ute to the coming ages its customs, its 
 methods, and its ceremonials.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 371 
 
 preservation of 
 Semitic man- 
 ners. 
 
 Tf we would see a striking illustration 
 of the 23ersistency of manners and cus- 
 toms, we have only to glance at some of 
 Examples of the the modern descendants 
 of ancient nations. The 
 Semitic race, for instance, 
 presents us in modern times with two 
 striking race developments. The Jews 
 and the Arabs still stand as the typical 
 representatives of a family of 
 men already old at the birth of 
 most of the ancient kingdoms. 
 In the case of the Jews, their 
 dispersion among other peoples 
 has to a considerable extent 
 conformed them in the practical 
 affairs of life to the methods and 
 manners of those among whom 
 they drift, but with whom they 
 are by no means amalgamated. 
 So we may look to the Arabs of 
 the present time as the living 
 expression of those ethnic 
 forces which were dominant in 
 the seed of Abraham, No one 
 who acquaints himself with 
 Arabian manners and customs, 
 and is at the same time conver- 
 sant with the manners and cus- 
 toms of the Israelitish nation 
 of antiquity, can fail to notice 
 that the forms of life among 
 the Arabians of to-day are iden- 
 tical with those of the Hebrews 
 fifteen centuries before the 
 Christian era. The very gar- 
 ments which the Arabs wear 
 might have been stripped from the 
 bodies of the patriarchs. Their fashion 
 is the same, and the material and its 
 method of manufacture are to all in- 
 tents and purposes identical. The 
 ceremonial of the house and the tent are 
 just as they were in Canaan before the 
 Egyptian bondage. An Arab sheik 
 meeting another clad and mounted like 
 
 himself and each followed by his retinue 
 across the deserts and valleys of Arabia, 
 might be photographed and the matter 
 and the manner of the interview re- 
 peated, and both would be a faithful 
 transcript of the meeting and compact 
 between Lot and Abraham. 
 
 If we descend into the particulars of 
 speech and the manners of daily life 
 
 rEKSlSTE.\CV Ul' tTH.N'lC ILAIL'UK.i — ^2) M 
 THE ABA. 
 Drawn by Paul Hardy. 
 
 among the Arabs we shall find the an- 
 cient ceremonial faithfully DaUy life of the 
 duplicated. The forms of ^J^tp^ of ^ha't of 
 salutation and of farewell the Hebrews, 
 have persisted in their integrity for 
 more than three thousand years. The 
 same views of life — of its origin, its na- 
 ture, and its destinj' — the same ideas of 
 dut}^ and obligation, of the nature and
 
 372 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 immediate presence of a personal deity 
 interfering Avith the affairs of the com- 
 mon lot and directing- even the details 
 of all events, are to-day in the Arabian 
 mind and on his tongue and in his ac- 
 tions with all the realism and vitality 
 and distinctness which those same ideas 
 possessed in the minds of the great 
 military leaders and prophets of primi- 
 tive Israel. The Elohim of the Hebrew 
 is the Allah of the Arab. The appeal 
 to the one for the protection of his tribe 
 and victory over the enemy is as con- 
 stant and confident in the camp of the 
 Arabian chieftain as was the appeal to 
 the other in the tent of Joshua or Saul. 
 
 To the ancient Hebrew and to the mod- 
 ern Arab alike this Allah, this almighty 
 Common reU- personal God, directs every- 
 giousTiewsof thing.. He brings pesti- 
 
 modern and an- f & i' 
 
 cient Semites, lencc, and is the giver of 
 health. He blesses and curses accord- 
 ing- to the righteousness or the wicked- 
 ness of his people. He speaks to the 
 sleeper in dreams. The dream is only 
 the voice of God in the darkness. Years 
 of plenty and years of drought are both 
 from his hand. He ripens the grain to 
 a perfect harvest or blasts the fields with 
 mildew. He sends the early and the 
 latter rain when the people have been 
 obedient, or the murrain and the locusts 
 when they have disobeyed. All this 
 and ten thousand other things which, 
 taken in their entirety, constitute the 
 tangible outer garment of Arabian 
 life, are in manner and substance virtii- 
 ally the same at the present day as they 
 ■were among the captives who sat down 
 and wept by the rivers of Babylon, or 
 among the strong soldiery who followed 
 the banners of the Maccabees in their 
 last struggle for independence through 
 the wilderness of Judaa. 
 
 Were we equally well actjuainted with 
 the tribal history of other races the same 
 
 plienomena — the same repetition in 
 modern life of the manners and cus- 
 toms of remote antiquity Primitive Teu- 
 
 could be discovered and TvesurTv^d 
 
 pointed out. Had we at to present day. 
 
 the present a record of the boisterous 
 manners and hilarious barbarism of the 
 Teutones who hovered darkly in the 
 forests beyond the Danube and the 
 Rhine in the days of the early republic 
 of Rome, we should be able to note the 
 repetition and persistence of these cus- 
 toms among the Ostrocjothic and Visi- 
 gothic invaders who, many centuries 
 later, devastated the empire. And 
 were we Avell acquainted, as we are ac- 
 quainted in part, with the primitive 
 barbarians who inliabited the lowlands 
 of Holland in the north, we should find 
 their manners and customs preserved, 
 not only in outline, but u\ detail and cir- 
 cumstance, among the broad-shouldered 
 and florid Saxons who followed Egbert 
 and Alfred in their battles with the 
 Danes, and upon whose rugged nature 
 still rests the superstructure of British 
 greatness. The clatter of their ale- 
 horns, the ring of their battle-axes, 
 their barbarian laughter, and their 
 snatches of savage song Avould be heard 
 repeated in the jocular hilarity and 
 boisterous mirth of Chaucer's bantering 
 pilgrims, in the wild uproar and vulgar- 
 ity of Shakespeare's taverns and battle- 
 fields, and even faintly echoed through 
 the mist and gauze of tlie refined and 
 beautiful epics of the late Laureate of 
 England. 
 
 By carefully weighing tlic foregoing- 
 considerations we are able to sec the 
 
 means by which the Monumental re- 
 ■^ mains the cer- 
 
 character and methods of tain evidence of 
 
 .. . , , . . . 1 ' prehistoric con« 
 
 life of prehistoric peoples ditions. 
 maybe in some measure comprehended. 
 The inquirer will, of course, in the first 
 place examine all the existing remains
 
 PRIMEVAL .^[ AN. —CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 373 
 
 which the peoples of antiquity have left 
 behind. A monument, unless misjudged 
 as to its design and character, consti- 
 tutes the fundamental evidence with re- 
 gard to the men who reared it. It gives 
 the only primary testimony, and may be 
 relied upon with absolute faith as to its 
 verity and significance. 
 
 Monumental remains are even more 
 certain in their testimony, more absolute 
 in their fidelity to the facts which they 
 represent, than are the best historical 
 
 indubitable as in the testimony deduced 
 from monumental remains. But man- 
 ners and customs are, nevertheless, 
 trustworthy indications of the past con- 
 dition of the human race. Mere tradi- 
 tion may not be trusted. We have seen 
 .the absurdity and brevity of the legend- 
 ary part of barbarian history. Traditional 
 forms of thought, as they are passed 
 from tongue to tongue among the bar- 
 barous tribes of men, have an indejjend- 
 ent interest of their own, just as the 
 
 PERSISTENCY OF CUSTOMS — MOURNING WOMEN OF OLD EGYPT. 
 From the emablature found in the tomb of Ptah-Hotep, at Thebes. 
 
 writings produced by man. The latter I fictions and extravagant imaginations of 
 
 are always in some sense 
 
 warped from the image of 
 
 truth. They bear the impress 
 
 of the annalist or historian 
 
 from whose brain they were 
 
 evolved. They are tinged with 
 
 a thousand prejudices of the 
 
 passing age. But the monu- 
 ment is iinconscious. It has 
 
 no prejudices or passions. It 
 
 belongs to no sect or party, and 
 
 is unbiased in its evidence by 
 
 any personal equation. No 
 
 conscious force of human caprice has 
 
 been impressed upon it. It stands in 
 
 naked austerity a solemn witness of the 
 
 purposes and genius of the people who 
 
 reared it. 
 
 In the second place the inquirer may, 
 
 as we have seen, depend in large meas- 
 
 Detiuctions ure upon the fidelity of man- 
 
 ners and customs. These 
 have been perpetuated from 
 
 age to age, and there is no doubt that 
 
 the earliest, even the unconscious, move- 
 ments of mankind on the earth are to a 
 
 considerable extent reflected and por- 
 trayed in the existing habits of barbari- 
 ans. Allowance must be made for the 
 
 deflection of human nature under the in- 
 fluences of time and circumstance. It 
 
 must always be remembered that the 
 
 evidence in this case is not absolute and 
 
 drawn from fidel- 
 ity of manners 
 and customs. 
 
 children may prove of interest to the 
 metaphysician and philosopher. But the 
 story told by the child must not be ac- 
 cepted in the court of higher reason as 
 an evidence' of its own origin or the 
 methods of its previous life. We are 
 thus virtually limited in our inquiry 
 concerning the prehistoric condition of 
 men to the two general conditions here 
 indicated, namely, the monumental re- 
 mains which are preserved on the sur- 
 face of the earth as evidences of the men 
 who produced them, and the persistency 
 of manners and customs among the peo- 
 ples now inhabiting the world. 
 
 Another consideration here presents 
 itself and demands a brief inquiry. It 
 is the source or primary origin of bar- 
 barity. There is no doubt that in the 
 remotest antiquity which we are able to
 
 374 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 discover by means of ethnic, linguistic, 
 
 and archaeological study, tribes of men 
 
 struggled for a precarious 
 
 Inquiry into the . . 
 
 primary origin existence ou the earth m a 
 
 of barbarism, j-x* r ai. r i 
 
 condition of the profound- 
 est savagery. Nor is there any doubt 
 that similar races still possess a consider- 
 able portion of the surface of our planet, 
 living thereon in a condition of animal- 
 ity which must be seen in order to be 
 realized in its profound abasement and 
 savage degradation. But what is the 
 origin of this degradation? How has it 
 happened that men have come into such 
 relations of depravity and gloom? In 
 what way may the degrading barbarism 
 of the ancient world or the equally low 
 condition of the outlying savage races of 
 the present time be rationally accounted 
 for and explained? 
 
 Two principal theories have been ad- 
 vanced in answer to these questions. 
 Two expiana- They are diametrically op- 
 ti:^rlT:uL posed in the views which 
 barbaric state, they present of the history 
 of the human race. The first is the 
 theory of the descent of mankind from 
 a primitive high estate to the fenlands 
 of barbarism. In this view of the case 
 the first condition of the human family 
 was one of elevation, of refinement, of 
 knowledge, of power. But from this high 
 plane of primitive purity, excellence, 
 and greatness mankind has descended 
 to lower and lower grades of being until, 
 in remote antiquity where the ethnolo- 
 gist first discovers the primeval peoples, 
 they wallowed in savagery and degrada- 
 tion. The first age was the age of gold. 
 Then came the lapse from the noble 
 estate with which the race was started, 
 the swift decline of the dispersed and 
 broken fugitives, the loss of former reason 
 and spirituality, until tlie gloom of bar- 
 barism settled around all the horizon of 
 human life, and naked savages were seen 
 
 by the river banks and in the shadows 
 of the forest. 
 
 All the evidences of barbarism — so 
 the hypothesis continues — which the his- 
 torian and archaeologist discover in exist- 
 ing and extinct races are Hypothesis of 
 but the results of this lapse ^^^^Sfrom 
 and ruin of the human anageofgoid. 
 family. All the efforts which have been 
 put forth for the elevation of mankind 
 are only the broken and half-hopeless 
 struggle to restore the human race to its 
 pristine glory; and the heavy forces 
 which impede the progress and the high- 
 er development of men are but the -re- 
 sidual poison and malevolent habits which 
 they have acquired, as they would ac- 
 quire the infection of disease, in the 
 course of their descent and the groveling 
 of their low estate. Such in brief is the 
 general view which has long prevailed 
 relative to the origin of savagery in the 
 human family. 
 
 Directly opposed to this hypothesis is 
 the theory that the true original condi- 
 tion of men in the Avorld Belief that the 
 was one of a low grade of S;^^^°asi« 
 animality, and that all sub- savagery. 
 sequent movements of mankind have 
 been along the lines of an evolution 
 which is gradually lifting the human 
 race through hard and tortuous proc- 
 esses to a higher plane. In some favored 
 situations this evolutionary force has al- 
 ready, in different ages, brought certain 
 peoples out of barbarism into the light 
 of reason and at least the beginnings of 
 civilization. In other places and under 
 less favorable conditions the primitive 
 state still abounds, and men have grown 
 but little from the merely animal life 
 with which they were projected into the 
 world. All the movements of history, 
 according to this hypothesis, have a 
 common trend toward the production of 
 a complete man and a perfect society.
 
 PRIMliVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 Zlh 
 
 In the struggle to reach this end some 
 peoples go to the front, others lag, and 
 still others drop into nonentity. Some 
 become self-conscious and display those 
 high and generous activities which in 
 the aggregate go by the name of civili- 
 zation, and others remain on lower levels, 
 or even in the original sloughs of bar- 
 barism. The civilized forms of life, ac- 
 
 stone, or half-naked fishermen dragging 
 their nets and boats to shore on solitary 
 coasts. The further the lines of human 
 life are traced backward the more pro- 
 foimdly do they penetrate a world where 
 reason is absent and bestiality prevails. 
 
 Out of this primitive state the more 
 vigorous of the savage peoples, by toil- 
 some ascent and painful struggles. 
 
 BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— ANCIENT FISHING SCENE.— Drawn by Riou. 
 
 cording to this view of human history, 
 are merely the survival and develop- 
 ment of those better activities which 
 have been found to be of benefit to the 
 race. 
 
 It thus happens that Avhen the eth- 
 nologist and the historian begin an 
 Elaboration of examination of the past 
 ^^'7it7;;!'!f,'i- thev find .savagerv as 
 
 ments m Its sup- ^ o .. 
 
 port. the bottom fact. The first 
 
 discoverable men are rude hunters 
 smiting wild beasts with weapons of 
 
 gradually emerge into conscious exist- 
 ence. They expand in their intellectual 
 powers, invent superior forms of utter- 
 ance and a pictorial representation of 
 thought, write their words by means of 
 symbols, record the stor}' of their own 
 deeds, mass themselves into strong com- 
 munities, begin to reason about the 
 origin of the world and the course of 
 nature, and finally take up the chant of 
 epic poetry. Which, then, of these two 
 contradictory theories will better ex-
 
 376 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 plain the existence and origin of bar- 
 barism ? 
 
 Alany arguments may be sincerely 
 advanced in favor of each hypothesis. It 
 is the duty of history to deal candidly 
 with all questions, to have no prejudice 
 and no fear. The time has arrived in 
 the coi:rse of human events when the 
 great problems of the past may be con- 
 sidered with calmness and courage. No 
 blind fanaticism for one or the other of 
 antagonistic theories should any longer 
 sway the decision of an inquiry which is 
 of so great an interest, and the solution 
 of which in one way or the other can 
 hardly change the great movement of 
 mankind toward the higher develop- 
 ments and grander activities of the 
 future. In behalf of the hypothesis of 
 the descent of mankind from an original 
 high estate into conditions of savagery, 
 several facts and arguments may be 
 truthfully advanced : 
 
 I. In the first place, the traditions of 
 nations, especially in that part of their 
 career when they have themselves just 
 emerged from the barbarous condition, 
 generally recount an original age of gold 
 which their fathers enioved 
 
 Race traditions . . ■' •' 
 
 generaUy point and in which they were the 
 to an age of gold. , ... , at i 
 
 great participants. Nearly 
 
 all the vigorous races of antiquity that 
 played important parts in the ancient 
 world had traditional beliefs of this 
 kind. They looked back through the 
 mists and obscurities of their own age 
 and the ages immediately preceding to 
 an epoch of splendor and renown in 
 which their heroic fathers were seen afar 
 as tall trees walking. All the early 
 theogony and cosmogony of the ancients 
 as depicted in their philo.sophical .sys- 
 tems, their myths, tlicir epic and dra- 
 matic poetry, were touched and flecked in 
 every part with the traces of this belief. 
 It can not be well explained why the 
 
 greatest peoples of the ancient world 
 should have held and propagated such 
 opinions respecting their Difficulty of ac 
 ancestry and the state of ^^rS^fof^' 
 society out of which they suchabeUet, 
 were descended, unless there had been 
 some ground for such belief. Looked 
 at as an abstract question, it appears 
 more rational that the bards and myth- 
 makers of the primitive world should 
 have chosen to glorify themselves and 
 the passing age by representing their 
 descent as issuing from darkness and 
 barbarism, rather than to picture them- 
 selves as degraded from a godlike an- 
 cestry. It is not certain in which way 
 the half-conscious intellect of the primi- 
 tive man would work or by what laws it 
 would be guided in the development of 
 traditional beliefs. But the fact remains 
 that the greater part of the best teach- 
 ers of antiquity believed themselves the' 
 offspring of a great paternity, and that 
 back of the barbarities of their own age 
 and the immediate ages of their fathers 
 lay a resplendent age of gold, from 
 whose heights and heroic activities men 
 had descended by gradations into a low 
 estate. 
 
 2. In the next place, it may be well 
 urged that many nations within the his- 
 torical era have actually Actual examples 
 declined from higher into °,^fexSoa 
 lower conditions. In fact, of races, 
 all the great nations once in possession 
 of tlie better parts of the world, once 
 organized into tremendous communities, 
 once filling the streets of magnificent 
 cities, once directing the commerce, 
 cultivating the arts and controlling the 
 energies of mankind, once gathering 
 into vast treasure-houses the resources 
 of the world and sending forth invinci- 
 ble armies for the conquest of Gentiles 
 and barbarians, have now disappeared 
 from among the powers, and are known
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 377 
 
 into Western Asia, surrounded the city 
 of Constantine and made it their capital, 
 are now degenerated into the opium 
 
 only by annals and memorials. It is 
 also true that these great nations have, 
 as a rule, not gone out by sudden eclipse 
 and extinction, but 
 they have rather fallen 
 away by degrees, re- 
 laxed, insensibly at 
 first and sensibly af- 
 terwards, their hold of 
 power, and crumbled 
 away until attack from 
 without and feeble- 
 ness from within have 
 joined their forces to 
 complete an inevitable 
 downfall. 
 
 It is hardly needed 
 to recite examples of 
 national decay. It is 
 almost superfluous to 
 recount the tremen- 
 dous domination once 
 established in the val- 
 ley of the Nile, now 
 represented by Arab 
 sheiks, miserable col- 
 lections of degenerate 
 Copts in squalid vil- 
 lages, and a few de- 
 graded fellahs plow- 
 ing with oxen in the 
 glebe by the river 
 banks. The early 
 Chaldaean empire at 
 the mouth of the Eu- 
 phrates has left only 
 scattered monumental 
 traces. The glory of 
 the Assyrians and of 
 the later Babylonians jf 
 has passed forever 
 from the valley of the 
 two great rivers. 
 
 EXAiMPLK OF RACE UETEkKJKATIOX— KrBKI.SH-UEAKLR uf EGVIT. 
 Drawn by Gustave Richler. 
 
 The tremendous Turcomans, iron for- 
 gers at the first from the mines 
 of the Altais, who came as conquerors 
 
 M.— Vol. 1—2; 
 
 smokers and harem builders of the Bos- 
 phorus. The splendor of Athens and 
 the glory of the Athenian intellect have
 
 878 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. 
 
 given way, through long ages, to for- 
 eisfn domination, and the traveler stands 
 sad-hearted among the ruins of the 
 Acropolis, or marks with astonishment 
 
 KXAMl'I.E I a- KACIC DlilKRlOKATlON — UOMAN BKGCIARS. 
 
 the miserable goat houses built over the 
 oracle of Delphi. The Rome of an- 
 tiquity, whose solid walls of stone and 
 tremendous legions clanking their armor 
 on the stone slabs of the Appian Way 
 have become only a tradition and a 
 
 name, has shrunk from her ancient cir- 
 cuit of the hills to a commonplace city, 
 the throne of superstition and conserva- 
 tism, and haunt of beggary. 
 
 3. The care- 
 ful reader of 
 the preceding 
 pages will not 
 have failed to 
 note that many 
 of the monu- 
 mental re- 
 mains of an- 
 tiquity betoken 
 unmistakably 
 the energies 
 and genius of 
 a superior peo- 
 ple. Some of 
 the most prim- 
 itive memori- 
 als of the hu- 
 man race are 
 among the 
 most convinc- 
 ing and sub- 
 stantial evi- 
 dence s of 
 power and 
 grandeur. The 
 granite obe- 
 lisks and pyra- 
 mids of Egypt, 
 the so-called 
 Cyclopean 
 ruins in 
 Greece, the old 
 Fltruscan aque- 
 -J ducts, such as 
 the Cloaca 
 Maxima at Rome, the great military 
 mounds and fortifications Monumentaire- 
 
 TvT i 1 A • 1 mains indicate 
 
 in North America, and ^he greatness of 
 particularly the Peruvian ancient peoples, 
 ruins on the plateau of the Andes, mark 
 and emphasize the activities of races of
 
 PRIMEVAL .^r AN. —CONDITIONS OF SAVAGIi LIFE. 
 
 379 
 
 men hardly inferior to the strongest and 
 most skillful known in history. It will 
 be remembered that in many of these 
 localities barbarism long flourished and 
 ran rampant .after the tremendous 
 monuments reared by preceding civil- 
 ized peoples had gone down to ruins. 
 The Peruvian monuments were in their 
 origin as far anterior to the domination 
 of the Incas as the Incas are remote 
 from the Peruvians of to-day. The 
 earthworks and mounds of North Amer- 
 ica antedate the epoch of the Red inen 
 by a span of ages. The massive foun- 
 dations laid by the Etruscans in their 
 own district and in Latium are far more 
 ancient than even the traditions of the 
 primitive Latin race. So also are the 
 Cyclopean remains of Greece far more 
 remote than even the age of the heroes ; 
 and as to the monuments of Egypt, it is 
 sufficient to say that the oldest of them 
 are the grandest and inost enduring. 
 
 4. In the fourth place, the evidence 
 of language points to a primitive condi- 
 tion of mankind in which 
 
 Language seems . 
 
 to have begun in the intelligence and 
 
 an age of reason. ,1 
 
 reason were the supreme 
 characteristics. AVhatever may have 
 been the origin of human speech, it is 
 clearly a rational product. The oldest 
 languages with which we are acquainted 
 are the most perfect in their kind. If 
 we consider that great group which we 
 call the Aryan, or the Indo-European, 
 languages, we find them to improve as 
 we trace up their descent toward their 
 origin. This is to say that, as a rule, the 
 older dialectical form is fuller, more 
 complete, and more rational than its 
 descendent derivative. The modern 
 languages of "Western Eui'ope are, as a 
 rule, devoid of grammatical structure, 
 and are in reality rather the detritus of 
 a perfect speech than the speech itself. 
 The Anglo-Saxon tongue had a more 
 
 extensive grammar, if not a fuller vo- 
 cabulary, than the English of to-day. 
 Moesogothic was richer in inflections and 
 rational forms than its descendent Ger- 
 man. Latin was more inflected and 
 developed than Gothic, and Greek pre- 
 served many of the forms which had 
 already decayed and fallen out of Latin. 
 Sanskrit was far more nearly perfect in 
 its structure and inflections than any 
 later Aryan tongue. With its eight 
 cases and three numbers for nouns, with 
 its full verbal development and its in- 
 flected adjectives, it stands to-day as 
 perhaps the most complete structural ex- 
 pression of human thought. Thus we 
 see that the higher we trace the streams 
 of the Indo-European languages, the 
 broader and fuller are the forms which 
 we encounter. Not a trace of evidence 
 is discoverable that any one of the multi- 
 farious languages descended from this 
 common source had an origin in bar- 
 barian ejaculations, or in any form of 
 irrational utterance. And if we look 
 still more closely into some standard 
 form of this speech we shall find that 
 it has been evolved by the logical proc- 
 esses of abstraction and generalization, 
 the noun being derived from the verb 
 and the adjective from the noun, by an 
 evident effort to abstract a substance or 
 thing from an action and a quality from 
 a substance. 
 
 It will thus be seen that many I'casons 
 may be assigned for accepting and per- 
 petuating the old-time be- Arguments may 
 liefs of the human race in HIHTJZ 
 the splendor of its own posmg theory, 
 ancestry and the reality of the age of 
 gold. But, on the other hand, many 
 reasons maj- be given for rejecting such 
 belief and putting in its place the hy- 
 pothesis of an ascent from barbarisrr. 
 instead of a descent from heroes, Titans, 
 and gods. The principal arguments in
 
 380 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 favor of the theory of savagery as the 
 original condition of mankind may be 
 stated as follows : 
 
 I. Our first actual historical knowl- 
 edge reaching into the past touches only 
 Backward look Conditions of barbarism. 
 elbLXTicTe^ To the historian or ethnol- 
 ginnings. ogist the primeval state of 
 
 man, as seen from his point of view, ap- 
 
 of progress and development have, mani- 
 festly, been borne forward by evolution- 
 ary forces out of barbarian conditions 
 only a little more remote than the peo- 
 ples themselves. Such nations as the 
 primitive Greeks were evidently result- 
 ant from an agglomeration of semicivil- 
 ized tribes who, settling down from 
 migratorv habits, entered into union 
 
 l: AKI;ARIAN' I.II-E II.I.USTKATF.H.-Chask in teik Agk of liKONZH.-llrawii liy Ki. 
 
 pears to be one of savagery. It is true 
 that many nations are discovered in the 
 far horizon of antiquity that on our ear- 
 liest acquaintance with them appear al- 
 ready in a state of intellectiial activity and 
 swift progress toward the civilized forms 
 of life. But close scrutiny will discover 
 just bcliiud tliciH a lower tribal condition, 
 and behind that a still lower. In other 
 words, the pef)p]es wlio on our first ac- 
 quaintance with them appear in a state 
 
 with each other and began to develop 
 into rational activities. So also of the 
 Roman gens in Latium and other parts 
 of the Italic peninsula. 
 
 All this is a statement of the case as it 
 stands in the backward vision of the his> 
 torian or ethnologist. His actual ac- 
 (juaintance with the races of men can 
 not well penetrate beyond tlie condition.s 
 of .savagery ivliich lie sees, and ascend \.c 
 a primeval of intellectual elevation and
 
 J'K/Jf/il'AL MAX.—COND/TfOXS OJ- SAl'AG/i LIFE 
 
 381 
 
 social haj^piness which //(■ docs not sec. 
 lie need not deily the existence of such 
 a primitive state, but his discernment 
 can not reach it through tlie intervening 
 darkness. 
 
 2. Not only is the lirst discernible con- 
 dition of mankind one of barbarism, but 
 Races are dis- the evidence of an emer- 
 ^^r^'f^^lni'Ll''^ gence therefrom is abun- 
 
 actual process t» 
 
 of evolution. dant. This is to say that 
 under the eye of history early peoples, 
 savage or half-savage in their manners, 
 are in many instances seen in the actual 
 process of evolntion toward the higher form 
 of rational existence. No condition in 
 tlie primitive annals of mankind is more 
 cei'tainly established than the fact that 
 peoples do improve. Theyareseen to do 
 it. If we- measure the condition of a 
 barbarous tribe and compare it with the 
 condition of the same people after a cen- 
 tury or two centuries of growth, we can 
 easily discover the process of evolution 
 and its results. 
 
 It must be confessed that the improve- 
 ment of barbarian races is in many cases 
 
 Slow rate of race slow-paced, Scarcely notice- 
 emergence from ^1 £^ ^^ I f J 
 primitive sav- " » 
 
 agery. period. It may even be 
 
 admitted that many barbarous peoples 
 have not improved at all. It is probably 
 true that the original forces Avith which 
 some tribes are impressed are not suffi- 
 cient to bring them out of the savage 
 state. They continue as they were from 
 age to age. They become as fixed in 
 their habits and methods of life as are 
 the birds and beasts. They build as the 
 beaver builds, and the concept of a high- 
 er state is totally wanting in their under- 
 standing. But in most instances there 
 is a forward march — slow it may be, but 
 still a movement that may be seen and 
 measured. 
 
 History is filled with illustrations of 
 human development. Tribes become 
 
 peoples. Peoples become states and 
 kingdoms and nations. The expan.sive 
 
 force of the social and civil History replete 
 
 instin.-t in man is seen ^f iiumaTcfi::!- 
 working powerfully in the opment. 
 evolution of higher forms of activity and 
 better expressions of right reason. The 
 whole story of the human career is in 
 good part a story of progress, ameliora- 
 tion, development. It is the law of life. 
 The human race shares it in common 
 with all other forms and modes of exi.st- 
 ence. Aye, it is most manifest in man. 
 In him the evolution is strongest, and 
 the tendency toward a higher state — the 
 dream of something beyond and above — • 
 is always discernible in his actions and 
 language. The roving tribes in ancient 
 Hellas became the bronze-clad warriors 
 of the heroic age. The returning war- 
 riors became the rhapsodists and orators 
 of the age of patriotism ; and the rhapso- 
 dists and orators became the philosophers 
 and poets of the most intellectual epoch 
 of the human race. The robbers gath- 
 ered on the Capitoline Hill plant a city 
 and organize a state. Their wolfish 
 manners give way to the culture of the 
 market place and the early forum. An- 
 other evolirtion, and we see the senate- 
 house, the tribune, and the temple. Still 
 another, and the marble-built city, with 
 its marching armies and citizens in toga, 
 its columns, its busts, its trophies, its 
 roaring circus with its multitudes are 
 seen — finally the domination of the 
 world. 
 
 In subject Gaul the half-savage and 
 wholly barbarous Franks hoist their chief- 
 tain on their shields, and Clovis appears 
 as the pi-imitive king of a The Greek evo- 
 primitive people. Further 'l'^\lT^tt 
 on are Charlemagne and Gauis. 
 his school of the palace. Already they 
 are reading the annals of the past, send, 
 ing polite messages to Haroun-al-Rashid,
 
 882 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and studying the stars. Still further on, 
 Godfrey and Raymond and Saint Louis 
 gather their helmeted warriors and, un- 
 der an ideal enthusiasm, would rescue the 
 tomb of the Christ from barbarians and 
 infidels. Further on stands forth the 
 French nation, breaking the fetters of 
 feudalism, rising through the bloodiest 
 of revolutions into a splendor and free- 
 dom hitherto unknown among the peo- 
 ples of the earth — Napoleon the Great, 
 
 splendor of the Plantagenets ; the greater 
 glory of Shakespeare and the bards ; the 
 establishment of liberty by war; over- 
 throw and rebuilding; emergence; Eng- 
 lish liberty ; the colonization of the 
 world ; the triumph of letters and art. 
 
 Everywhere the stor}' is the same. 
 Progress and development, the first law. 
 Foundations are laid; then comes con- 
 quest, first of savagery and then of the 
 forces of nature — the bending down of 
 
 TllRKE STAGES OF ClVILIZATluN ll.LUSTRATED-SKETCH I'ROM EORT LAKAMIE. 
 
 his conquering armies, victory, renown, 
 the republic. 
 
 In the oak woods of primeval Britain 
 are the barbarian Sa.xons gath ered around 
 RiseoftheSax- their chicfs. They have 
 barirt'oTriTt-' ^Hed thcmsclves with raw 
 "«ss. meats, coarse cheese, and 
 
 fiery drinks, but they found their petty 
 states — a hcjDtarchy of possibilkics. 
 Then come Egbei-t and Alfred and the 
 foundations of the immovable kingdom ; 
 the Conqueror; Chaucer; the mediaeval 
 
 the tremendous energies of the material 
 world to the purposes of hmnan will and 
 endeavor — the mastery of the earth and 
 its fullness. All these are the very 
 law, the fundamental method of human 
 existence on the earth. These facts are 
 palpable. They are seen and touched. 
 They are known and manifest ; and in so 
 far as they arc tlie demonstrable rule by 
 which mankind are guided, it appears 
 undeniable that the history of humanity 
 is the history of a development from a
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 
 
 383 
 
 lower into a higher form of life — from 
 barliarism to civilization. 
 
 3. In the third place it mtist be acknowl- 
 edged that the condition into which 
 many civilized nations have fallen and 
 The fallen estate relapsed is a condition very 
 t^^^Z.. different from that of primi- 
 ^g^'T- tive savagery. It would seem 
 
 that nations having once occupied a 
 high plane of political and intellectual 
 power do indeed lapse into effeminacy, 
 vice, slavery, and moral degradation; 
 but the}'' do not become barbarous or 
 savage. We should look in vain for a 
 single instance in which a civilized peo- 
 ple, whether of ancient or modern times, 
 has fallen back into an aspect of life at 
 all analogous to that of the cave dwell- 
 ers of Europe or the Red men of North 
 America. They do indeed relapse. The 
 heroic Greeks of the fourth century 
 B. C. have become the degenerate weak- 
 lings of modern Greece. The Romans 
 of the sturdy rejjublic have left as their 
 descendants the mendicant musicians of 
 Florence, the dirty boatmen of the 
 Venetian canals, and the lazzaroni of 
 Naples, The Spanish warriors and 
 navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries who found a new world and 
 took it for their soA-ereign, have as their 
 living • representatives the mandolin 
 players of Cadiz and the brandishers of 
 stilettos in the half-lighted streets of 
 Madrid. The evidence of retrogression 
 and decay is sufficiently striking to the 
 philosopher and painful to the philan- 
 thropist. But the modern Greeks, the 
 Italians, and the degenerate Spaniards of 
 to-day have no likeness or kinship Avith 
 the savage races whom we discover on 
 the further confines of history. This is 
 to say that the ascending and descend- 
 ing phases of national life present whol- 
 ly diverse aspects ; insomuch that one 
 can scarcely be compared with the 
 
 other. The true savage aj^pears to have 
 in him the potency of the time to come, 
 while the effeminated and degraded de- 
 scendant of a great ancestry has in him 
 only the potency of death. In so far as 
 this dissimilarity between the barbarian, 
 under the influence of forces that may 
 bring him into the civilized state, and 
 the depraved posterity of great ancestry 
 does exist as a fact, it seems to be an 
 evidence of the original barbarity of all 
 peoples and the evolution of a few into 
 the higher forms of life, rather than an 
 evidence of the relapse of races into 
 original savagery. 
 
 4. The believer in the hypothesis of 
 an ascending movement of human nature 
 
 from a primitive savage Monuments and 
 
 condition into light and r^ln^^twTow 
 freedom and greatness, conditions, 
 may well urge that the great monumental 
 remains of the remotest antiquity and 
 the perfected languages which we find 
 at the daydawn of civilization are the 
 work of races which had already passed 
 ilirougli the stages of developiiient from 
 original barbarism to the higher condi- 
 tions of life. In our present state of 
 knowledge it would be rash to allege 
 that the striking memorials of civiliza- 
 tion belonging to the remotest antiquity 
 are certainly the work of jDeoples who 
 had been developed from savagery 
 through preceding ages of discipline and 
 endeavor; but it would be equally rash 
 to allege that such memorials of pri- 
 meval greatness are the work of nations 
 who began their career in civilization 
 and enlightenment. So also of human 
 speech. It is true that such languages 
 as the Sanskrit appear as' the highest 
 grammatical and logical formulas which 
 have ever been invented for the expres- 
 sion of human thought, and that sub- 
 sequent linguistic developments have 
 been, so far as the structural forms of
 
 384 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 speecli are concerned, retrogressive 
 rather than progressive. But no one 
 can say that the apparition of Sanskrit 
 was not itself the result of preceding 
 ages of progress and development. 
 
 On the whole, it appears rather 
 aofainst ri^ht reason than in conformitv 
 Not reasonable with what we know of the 
 fa."g?iSgan li^man mind and its princi- 
 atonoe. pies of growth to suppose 
 
 that a vast structure of speech like the 
 Sanskrit should come forth at one effort 
 from the brain and tongue of a perfect 
 race. It would seem too much a marvel 
 that the Aryan house-folk of the primi- 
 tive Indian valleys should have begun to 
 speak with the perfected formulas of 
 language. It is not alleged that such a 
 phenomenon is impossible, but the 
 development of a language from small 
 beginnings and in constant correlation 
 with the opening powers of the mind 
 seems to conform more nearly with the 
 progressive order of human nature and 
 of universal nature than the sudden 
 phenomenal efflorescence and fruitage of 
 a full-grown language. 
 
 Such, then, are the principal argu- 
 ments for and against the theories which 
 have been advanced to explain the fact 
 of barbarism. Both views of the begin- 
 nings of the barbaric life have been sus- 
 tained with such hot contentions as are 
 born of preconception. The historian 
 mav franklv admit that the ariniments 
 on either side are weighty and important, 
 and if for the present he suspends a judg- 
 ment, it will not be thought to proceed 
 from a reluctance to decide according to 
 the evidence before him, but rather from 
 the incompleteness of the data thus far 
 attainable. ISIeanwhile the argument 
 strongly preponderates toward that the- 
 ory which makes barbarism and savagery 
 to have been the primitive condition of 
 mankind, and civilization to be the result- 
 ant of the slow processes of ethnic evolu- 
 tion. The statement of the various 
 reasons for and against such a view pre- 
 sented in the current chapter has been 
 given as a digressive study, preparatory 
 to a notice of some of the general and ac- 
 tual conditions of barbarism, and to that 
 great topic we now turn our attention. 
 
 Chapter XXII.— Barbarism Illustrated. 
 
 ■ T is painful to reflect 
 \\o\\ great a portion 
 I'f the earth is still 
 under the dominion of 
 savage races. Europe, 
 the smallest of the 
 continents, has long 
 emerged from her primitive condition. 
 Large tracts of Asia have been occupied 
 by civilized nations from a remote an- 
 tiquity. A new world has within the 
 last three centuries been reclaimed. A 
 powerful race has planted itself in place 
 of the scattered aborigines. South 
 
 America has, within the current century 
 at least, presented the redeeming aspect 
 
 of Latin civilization. But Lar-^e areas ot 
 
 the rest of the world is still fZ^^^t^ 
 dominated by races of men barbarism, 
 whose manners and customs lie close to 
 original barbarity. The islands of the 
 sea present some of the most striking 
 aspects of this current savagery of 
 mankind. Africa throughout nearly its 
 whole extent is untouched with the sun- 
 shine of the higher life. The boreal 
 regions, whether in the Old World or the 
 New, are still occupied by races on a
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 
 
 385 
 
 very low plane of dcvcloiiment. It is 
 among snch peoples that we must now 
 seek and find our examples of existing 
 
 native anstralian from the darling river 
 (headdress of feathers). 
 
 forms of barbarity in illustration of the 
 prehistoric life of man. 
 
 One of the most striking facts in con- 
 nection with the savagery of the human 
 puthinessof race is filth. There is 
 ellmpieofHot- peAaps no single example 
 tentots. among aboriginal tribes 
 
 of anything like cleanliness. Those 
 dispositions Avhich we observe in many 
 birds and animals to plume and cleanse 
 themselves and to protect their nests 
 and lairs from the grosser forms of filth 
 are strangely absent among the mder 
 savages. The historian Kolben has re- 
 marked of the Hottentots that they may 
 be regarded as the filthiest animals in 
 the world ! Not content with the offen- 
 sive accumulations of nature and con- 
 stant contact with the dirt, they actually 
 cultivate gross forms of defilement, ren- 
 dering them in their personal habits re- 
 
 pulsive and disgusting to the last degree. 
 In his description of these heathen the 
 author says : ' ' Their bodies ,were cov- 
 ered with grease, their clothes were 
 never washed, and their hair was loaded 
 from day to day with such a quantity of 
 soot and fat, and it gathers so much dust 
 and other filth, which they leave to clot 
 and harden in it, for they never cleanse 
 it, that it looks like a crust or cap of 
 black inortar. They wore a skin over 
 the back, fastened in front. They 
 carried this as long as they lived, and 
 were buried in it when they died. Their 
 only other garment was a square piece 
 of skin, tied around the waist by a 
 string, and left to hang down in front. 
 In winter, however, they sometimes 
 used a cap. For ornaments they wore 
 rings of iron, copper, ivory, or leather. 
 The latter had the advantage of serving 
 for food in bad times." 
 
 types of savagery — BUSHMAN WOMAN AND CHIIDREN. 
 
 The bath has been practiced by nearly 
 all peoples, whether savage or civilized. 
 But among heathen tribes the act is
 
 PRIME I 'A L MA N.—BA KB A RISM ILL US TRA TED. 
 
 387 
 
 performed with little respect to personal 
 purification . The sensuous change of 
 Savages bathe temperature, from cold to 
 rathir?hau'puri. ^^-^i""^ ^r from Warm to cold, 
 ftcatiou. with the mere- pleasure of 
 
 splashin<^ like a porpoise in the surf, 
 seems to constitute the barbarous idea 
 of the bath. Instead of desiring- to 
 purif}' themselves from all animal taint, 
 from defilement, from those offensive 
 odors which are peculiar to tribes in low 
 condition, such peoples seem to take 
 pleasure in intensifying the disgusting 
 peculiarities of the beast-life wdiich they 
 live. It requires many ages of develop- 
 ment, as a rule, to change this horrid 
 instinct and to substitilte therefor the 
 instinct of personal purity. It is in 
 proof that as low in race development 
 as the beginnings of barbarous song 
 savages are accustomed to refer, in their 
 rude rhapsodies, to the offensiveness of 
 their bodies, and to rejoice in it as an 
 element of merit and preeminence ! 
 
 The Hottentots are also a good ex- 
 ample of other debasing usages. The 
 Filth in food gathering, preparation, 
 fi^ht peTsonai '^^nd taking of food may be 
 i^a^'t- cited as a second strongly 
 
 discriminating feature of human life. 
 One must needs reflect upon the vast 
 difference in the method of refined eat- 
 ing and that of barbarism. The savage 
 man eats very much after the manner 
 of brutes. As to materials, he selects 
 first of all native roots and wild fruits, 
 such as yield themselves readily to his 
 appetite, without cultivation or much 
 search. The proportion of animal food 
 in tropical countries is always consider- 
 ably less than in higher latitudes, but 
 the Hottentots are none the less great 
 eaters of meat. As a rule, they take 
 their flesh food raw. If they cook it at 
 all they prefer a kind of broil in the blood 
 of the animal, the whole being mixed 
 
 with milk. No pains whatever are 
 taken for cleanliness, either of the meat 
 itself or of the utensils. Unless the 
 meat is thus taken fresh in the blood 
 they prefer to let it remain until it is 
 half-putrid, regarding the odor and 
 taste of decaying flesh as delicious. 
 Such other victuals as they possess are 
 boiled in leathern sacks, among heated 
 stones. Sometimes earthen pots are 
 used. The materials of the larder are 
 kept in leathern bags, in the bladders of 
 animals, or in baskets rudely constructed 
 of rushes. Tobacco is in common use 
 by the people, and is carried in pouches 
 made of the skins of animals. The pipe 
 is of stone or wood. The whole stock 
 of provisions is borne from hut to hut, 
 or from one camping place to another. 
 
 Australia, on the whole, furnishes one 
 of the most interesting and satisfactory 
 
 fields in which to study Australians an 
 
 the native aspects of hu- '^Itl'llll^'- 
 man life. The barbarians agery. 
 inhabiting this island-continent when it 
 became known to the European nations 
 were as truly aboriginal in their charac- 
 ter as any people with w^hom scientific 
 observation has had to deal. Nor can it 
 be said that the lajDse of time since the 
 coast regions of Australia fell under the 
 dominion of civilization has materially 
 changed the native inhabitants. They 
 are to-day virtually as they w^ere when 
 they were first made known to the West- 
 ern nations. And it is still possible to 
 study their manners and customs with- 
 out having to make allowance for the 
 influence of other peoples upon them. 
 
 The Australian houses are perhaps 
 the smallest and most insignificant which 
 have ever been tised as human abodes. 
 They are scarcely large enough to con- 
 tain a single person. They are shaped 
 much like an inverted oven. The frame- 
 work consists of a series of reeds, not
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN. — llAKDARISM II.I.rSTRA TliD. 
 
 389 
 
 more than an inch in diameter, bent 
 over so as to brin<;- the two ends to the 
 earth, in whicli they are driven. The 
 covering of the hut is of pahn leaves or 
 bark, and the protection afforded to the 
 inhabitant is very small. One side of 
 the hovel is open, and there is little pre- 
 tense of shelter. When the inhabitant 
 enters he must sit or lie down, as the 
 concavity overhead is not high enough 
 to permit him to stand. No evidences 
 of artistic taste or adornment have been 
 discovered in connection with these 
 primitive habitations. Nor could such 
 houses avail anything in a country whose 
 climate was less mild than that of Aus- 
 tralia. j\Iany inhabitants go without 
 houses at all, sleeping on the ground 
 and making no effort to secure a local 
 habitation of their own. In some places 
 the effort at housebuilding proceeds 
 only so far as setting up two or three 
 poles and leaning against them large 
 pieces of bark, forming a sloping roof, 
 which furnishes a simple protection from 
 the sun and wind. 
 
 In matters of taste and cleanliness, 
 the Australians are but little superior to 
 the Hottentots. Their personal appear- 
 ance approaches somewhat 
 
 Feeding as the 
 
 beasts; the the better type of hunian- 
 
 whale carnival. ., i_ i ^i i -i i i •.. 
 
 ity, but the ctaily habits 
 of life are low down among the elements 
 of savagery. The food of the people 
 consists of roots and nuts, certain kinds 
 of wood fungus, or mushroom, shellfish, 
 frogs, snakes, worms, moths, birds, 
 birds' eggs, turtles, dogs, kangaroos, 
 seals, and sometimes whales. All of 
 these things, however, or nearly all, are 
 eaten without preparation, and are taken 
 with no sense of cleanliness or decency. 
 It will be seen from their list of edibles 
 that most of the articles are such as may 
 be grabbled from the earth or the sea- 
 shore. The kangaroo is a wild, fleet 
 
 animal, and is taken with considerable 
 difficulty. The dog is only eaten under 
 stress of hunger and necessity. 
 
 The whale is, of course, beyond the 
 reach of capture to these barbarians, but 
 he is sometimes stranded from the deep 
 or washed up dead on the shore. When 
 this happens bonfires are kindled as a 
 signal, and there is a holiday for the na- 
 tives. It is their great providence, which 
 they accept with as much gratitude as 
 they are capable of knowing. The in- 
 habitants gather from the region about, 
 and pounce upon the carcass with the 
 avidity of beasts. It makes no differ- 
 ence in what stage of putridity the flesh 
 may be. They gorge themselves to ut- 
 ter repletion. They clamber about the 
 dead body, and quarrel for the choicer 
 parts. Notwithstanding the heat of the 
 climate, they stuff themselves with blub- 
 ber until they are distended with the 
 fatty mass. They eat holes into the in- 
 terior, and go inside to find what they 
 can not devour. They smear themselves 
 with the offensive oil, and remain for 
 days together half -suffocated around the 
 scene of their feast. Perhaps the an- 
 nals of barbarism furnish no example of 
 bestiality more gross and revolting. 
 
 It is by no means intended in this 
 connection to give a full description of 
 the manners and customs The Veddahs 
 of the Australians or of ,teTos3sfof 
 any other barbarous nation, barbaric ufe. 
 The whole object in this part is to illus- 
 trate the primitive life of man by a few 
 citations from the current conditions of 
 savagery. In another part of the work 
 it will remain to illustrate more fully the 
 tribal condition of the barbarous peoples 
 lying along the outskirts of the civilized 
 world. In further illustration of the 
 present state of savage peoples, a few 
 citations may be made from the life of 
 the Veddahs, or aboriginal inhabitants
 
 390 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 of the island of Ceylon. These people 
 are among the rudest and most primitive 
 of an}- v.-itli whom modern observers 
 have come in contact. They are small 
 "in stature, the adult .male rarely reach- 
 ing- the height of five feet. 
 
 With the exception of a piece of skin 
 suspended in front of the body the Ved- 
 dahs go entirely naked. Their habits 
 are as coarse and low as those of the 
 other barbarians whom we have been 
 describing. They live upon the wild 
 products of the woods and by gathering 
 shellfish from the shore. They are in 
 possession of axes and spears and bows 
 and arrows. These are employed almost 
 exclusively in the chase. The peculiar 
 feature of the Veddah life seems to be 
 its secretiveness, or silence. Even in 
 the hunt they are silent, attempting to 
 slip upon and strike their game un- 
 awares. The chase consists in a noise- 
 less approach to the animal which the 
 hunter wishes to take. In prosecuting 
 this kind of capture the natives adopt 
 several devices, the most prominent be- 
 ing the training of bison to the jDurposes 
 of the chase. The hunter hides behind 
 the tame animal, which is taught to feed 
 along so near to the wild one that the 
 hunter may spring from behind and 
 strike it down. It is a species of stalk- 
 ing, almost panther-like in its method 
 and success. 
 
 The Veddahs, like the Australians 
 and the Hottentots, have no social or 
 Marriage cus- civil institutions, but ouc or 
 troodfofth:" two customs arc marked 
 Veddahs. for thclr peculiarity. Tlicy 
 
 do not indulge in polygamy, each man 
 having one wife, and the tribal code be- 
 ing very severe in demanding fidelity of 
 the one to the other. 'J'hc rule, how- 
 ever, does not exclude intermarriage in 
 the family. Brothers and sisters may 
 marry with impunity, subject only to the 
 
 restriction that the sister must be the 
 younger of the two. Otherwise the tribe 
 is scandalized. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Andaman 
 islands have been cited by some travel- 
 ers as the lowest existing species of men. 
 In some respects it is doubt- 
 
 Debased condi- 
 
 less true that their habits tionoftheAu- 
 
 j r tj: £ daman islanders 
 
 and inanner or lite are ot 
 the most degraded and savage order. 
 They build their houses by planting four 
 rude posts, two being much lower than 
 the others. A rude, inclined roof is 
 thus formed of bamboo, palm leaves, and 
 bark. This is their only structure. 
 The people appear to live exclusively 
 iipon the wild gifts of nature and by 
 means of the primitive chase. There is 
 a species of wild pigs that live in the 
 jungles, which are sometimes taken and 
 eaten by the natives. The best piece of 
 Andaman workmanship is the rude 
 canoe, hollowed by means of a stone 
 ax and lire. The people use the bow 
 and arrow, and point their missiles with 
 such bits of glass and iron as they are 
 able to gather from the wrecks of vessels. 
 Travelers have admired their skill in 
 marksmanship, which is generally accu- 
 rate to the distance of fifty yards. They 
 take fish by means of hooks and nets 
 and harpoons. It has been noted that 
 they are exceedingly agile in the water, 
 and the tradition exists that the diving 
 native is sometimes able, by the rapidity 
 of his action, to clutch a fish Avith his 
 ^maided hand. 
 
 In their personal habits the Anda- 
 maners are exceedingly filthy and coarse. 
 They smear themselves 
 
 . , Fllthiness of 
 
 with mud, and wear no personal habits; 
 
 d,. . rr\ , , • • ii uses of the dead, 
 
 othing. iattooingis the 
 
 common practice of the tribe, but the 
 
 cicatrices exhibit less skill in design 
 
 than in the case of other tribes. It is 
 
 the custom of the people to dig up and
 
 392 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 distribute the bones of the dead, the 
 skull being reserved for the widow. 
 This she suspends by a cord around her 
 neck and uses as a casket for her orna- 
 ments and valuables ! It is believed that 
 these savages have not succeeded in 
 domesticating any of the animals, though 
 it has been noted that tame fowls are 
 seen about, their huts. For the rest, 
 their state is one of absolute savagery. 
 
 The same may be said of the Tasma- 
 nians. Captain Cook has left a record 
 Lowestateof to the effect that these 
 u^s:I:dTr:s:?!' people have neither houses 
 vationoffire. nor clothes. Nor does it 
 appear that they possessed canoes or 
 
 Dacota fire-drill bow. Iroquois fire-pump drill, 
 
 MANNER OF PRODUCING FIRE. 
 
 implements for taking fish. They seem 
 to subsist on mussels, cockles, and peri- 
 winkles. The bow and arrow were 
 wanting at the time of Cook's visit to 
 the island, the only weapon of the peo- 
 ple being a long wooden spear. 
 
 Most of the barbarians to whom we 
 have referred in the foregoing para- 
 graphs are acquainted with the use and 
 preservation of fire. The Australians 
 understand the method of kindling ma- 
 terials by friction. It is of record that 
 this knowledge does not extend to all 
 the tribes. In some districts the fire 
 goes out and must be relighted from the 
 resources of a neighboring tribe. Most 
 
 of the natives, especially those of Tas- 
 mania, are very careful to avoid the 
 loss of their fire, and it is generally car- 
 ried about from place to place. It has 
 been noted that in Tasmania the duty of 
 preserving the fire is assigned to the 
 women, and they are held responsible 
 for its loss. 
 
 It is not intended in this connection to 
 discuss what may be called the moral 
 ideas of barbarians. Indeed, it might 
 
 be difficult to speak intelli- Moral ideas and 
 
 gently of what has little or ^r^lf^ong bf" 
 no existence. It is still in barians. 
 doubt whether the barbarous peoples re- 
 ferred to in the preceding pages have 
 an}^ tnie concept of religion 
 or of its duties and ceremo- 
 nial. The matter is in dispute 
 even by observant travelers 
 who have visited these coun- 
 tries and familiarized them- 
 selves with the manners and 
 customs of the people. It 
 has been recorded that 
 among the Australians cer- 
 tain dances and ceremonies 
 are celebrated, which would 
 seem to imply a service of re- 
 ligion. But this is doubt- 
 It is not clear that the natives of 
 of Tasmania, and Ceylon 
 
 ful. 
 
 Australia, 
 
 have any notion of a Supreme Being 
 or of a life after death. If such notions 
 do really exist they are in such a germi- 
 nal and undeveloped condition as to be 
 little indicative of a higher nature in the 
 people. Certain customs and obliga- 
 tions do exist among them, which are 
 observed imder a sense of duty ; but it 
 may be fairly alleged that no general 
 morality or religious bond exists. 
 
 If we leave tlic natives of these east- 
 ern waters and turn to those of the South 
 Pacific, we find at least two princiiDal 
 races of barbarians. These are the Ne«
 
 PRIMEVAL MAX—BARIIARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 
 
 393 
 
 Buildings and 
 furnishings of 
 
 grilo peoples and the so-called Polyne- 
 sians. Among the most prominent of the 
 former may be mentioned 
 
 •Character of the , ' . 
 
 Pelagian Blacks, the Black inhabitants of 
 
 •or Sea Negroes. ,, —,..... -. , 
 
 the I'lji islands. In gen- 
 eral, they are of darker complexion than 
 the Polynesians, and are of larger stat- 
 tire and sti'onger frames. The features 
 .are more prominent and pronounced, 
 and the hair is frizzled. There are, 
 however, traces of Polynesian descent 
 discoverable in the Fijians, especially 
 in their language and in their manners 
 and customs. In their use of conso- 
 nants, and esiDccially in the peculiarity of 
 placing ;// oi' n before the consonants b, 
 d, and g, the people appear to be of the 
 same linguistic family Avith the African 
 Nigritians. 
 
 The structures of .the Fijians arc, first 
 of all, their dwellings. These, however, 
 are much larger and more 
 skillfully built than those 
 
 the Fijians. , . . ' « i 1 • 
 
 which we have noted m 
 Australia. They are made for the most 
 part of the trunks of cocoa trees and 
 ferns framed in a rectangular manner, 
 somewhat like the log houses of pioneers 
 in North America, but by no means so 
 substantially built. Regular doorways 
 are made in the sides, and the hou.ses 
 are as much as twenty or thirty feet in 
 length, and sometimes fifteen feet in 
 height. In another variety of house the 
 posts are set up at intervals, like the 
 framewoi-k of a like building designed 
 by a modern carpenter, and the spaces 
 ■between the posts are filled with wicker 
 ■work of bamboo and palm branches. 
 The roof is thatched with siigar cane ahd 
 fern leaves ; and, considering the mild- 
 ness of the climate, the abode may be 
 regarded as fairly convenient and com- 
 fortable. Hanging mats take the places 
 ■of door shutters. In the middle of the 
 
 floor some flat stones are laid down, 
 M.— Vol. 1—26 
 
 which serve the purpose of a hearth. 
 Here the fire is kej^t burning, and .such 
 I'ude cooking is done as is known to the 
 people. 
 
 The Fijians surpass most other native 
 islanders in the building and manage- 
 ment of boats. They build MaWngand 
 their canoes with consider- Zl^^::^t^ 
 able skill, and have small pottery, 
 masts and sails. The framing of the 
 bottom is strongly done, and the joints 
 are calked and filled with a kind of 
 gum prepared from the bread-fruit tree. 
 When the islands were first known to 
 White men stone tools were universally 
 employed, but these have given place 
 in part to the emploj'ment of iron. 
 Native materials are still used in the 
 fabrication of goods and in such rude 
 arts as are cultivated in the islands. The 
 natives have been observed in the work 
 of carving and engraving, using for 
 their tools the teeth of rats and mice. 
 They have a way of preparing knives 
 from the outside layer of the bamboo, 
 which is exceedingly hard and close. 
 After the blade of the implement has 
 been cut into shape, it is charred and 
 then bi'ought to an edge so fine and 
 strong that the instrument can be used 
 in surgery. The Fijians understand 
 the art of pottery, but are unacquainted 
 with the use of the wheel. Their earth- 
 en vessels are manufactured by mere 
 handicraft, flat stones and slips of wood 
 being used by the women in bringing 
 the vessels into shape. This work is so 
 skillfully done as to resemble the prod- 
 uct of the turning wheel, and it some- 
 times requires careful observation to 
 decide whether the vessel has been actu- 
 ally turned or wrought by hand. The 
 other tablewares of the Fijians are some- 
 what superior to those in common use 
 among barbarians. Forks are employed 
 in taking food, and other usages in-
 
 394 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 dicate at least the beginnings of refine- 
 ment. 
 
 The cannibalism of these islanders is 
 proverbial the world over. The eating 
 Open and as- of human flesh was iintil 
 recent times the imiversal 
 practice. It was done as a 
 matter of course, and without the slight- 
 
 tounding can- 
 nibalism of the 
 Fijians. 
 
 fowl among civilized peoples. Any one 
 might kill and eat his own women. It 
 is in evidence that the Fijian looked 
 upon his living companions with con- 
 stant regard to their edibility. It was 
 the custom of those who expected to 
 feast upon young women and boys to 
 speak of the lusciousness of their in- 
 
 ];AUl:AUlb.M illustrate:).— IMJIAN IN A Kanaka Gkuvi;. Di.iu ii Iiy Tliiii:u, fioiii a phnl..grai.h. 
 
 est repugnance or disgust. It was the 
 custom, first of all, to eat the bodies of 
 the enemy slain or taken in battle. 
 Those recently killed were preferred, 
 but it was not against usage to cat tho 
 bodies of those wlio had Itcen dead for 
 a considerable period. Young people, 
 especially girls, were chosen for the 
 feast. The preliminary murder was no 
 more regarded tlian the slaughter of a 
 
 tended victims. It has been declared, 
 with probable tnith, that the Fijians have 
 no word in their language to denote a hu- 
 man body except such as convey the notion 
 of food. One of the common descriptive 
 epithets f>f human flesh \^ /itiaka Ihi/niun, 
 which signifies "long pig!" it is impos- 
 sible to convey an impression sufliciently 
 horrifying of the cannibalism of these 
 people and its attendant degradation.
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM I L LUSTRA TED. 
 
 395 
 
 The manner of life among the Red 
 barbarians of North America is sulli- 
 ciently well known, at least to readers 
 in our own country. The investigations 
 Barbarism iUus. of Schoolcraft and Morgan 
 
 tivTrtcto^ '-i^id a s^oi-^ "f Other <lis- 
 America. tinguishcd and painstaking 
 
 writers have revealed to the American 
 people, in an imperishable record, the 
 customs, beliefs, and habits of tliose pe- 
 
 ing all the way around from Siberia to 
 Oreenland and from Greenland to Si- 
 beria. By race affinity they are allied 
 to the North American Indians, but it 
 is also clear from their physiognomy 
 and other ethnic traits that they have a 
 kinship to the Chinese and the Tartars. 
 It may be of interest, in passing, to 
 note the fact that in several other in- 
 stances in ethnic history we have the 
 
 BARBARISM ILLUSTRAl KD — Esi^iimau Huts at Etah.— Drawn by A. tie Nciiv 
 
 culiar tribes of the woods who preceded 
 the White race on this continent. It is 
 not needed, therefore, in this connec- 
 tion to make any extended citations 
 from the manners and customs of our 
 Indian races in illustration of the prob- 
 able methods of antiquity. In the case 
 of the Esquimaux, however, the matter 
 is different. The latter are perhaps the 
 most widely disseminated race of bar- 
 barians on the earth. They belong on 
 the shores of the arctic oceans, stretch - 
 
 same contradictory evidence in regard 
 to race descent. The Innuit language 
 has unmistakably the same Race features of 
 radical structure, and to Z:^^Z. 
 some extent the same origin, 
 vocabulary, with that of the Red men of 
 North America. But the stature, the 
 form, the features of the Esquimaux, 
 especially the physiognomy about the 
 eyes and the structure of the skull, are 
 clearly derivable from a common source 
 with the Tartars. The manner of life.
 
 BARRARISM ILLUSTRATRD— THE NORTH AMF.RICAN MANNER.— Tim Ghost Dance.— Drawn by J Steeple D«vl\
 
 PRIMITIVE MAX.— BARBARISM ILIJ'STRA 77;/;. 
 
 397 
 
 moreover, of the Esquimau nations is 
 as much in affinity with the customs and 
 usages of Northern Asia as with the 
 tribal habits of tlie New World.' 
 
 Living as they do in the most frigid 
 regions of our planet, the Esquimau bar- 
 barians are obliged to defend themselves 
 Bummer and from the rigor of the cli- 
 EsaulmauTar°' "^^ilc. The three great 
 barism. elements of such defense 
 
 against the hardships of nature are, of 
 course, food, clothing, and shelter. The 
 vicissitude of this region of the earth 
 makes it desirable for the inhabitant to 
 have one manner of life for the summer 
 and another for the winter. It is in a 
 large measure the difference between 
 day and night — between extreme rigor 
 of cold and a comparatively temperate 
 climate. Two kinds of houses are 
 therefore necessarj^ the one for the 
 mild and the other for the severe aspect 
 of nature. 
 
 The Esquimaux are, perhaps, the 
 greatest eaters in the world, and their 
 food is almost exclusively of fish and 
 
 ' The reader need not be especially surprised at 
 the fact of a race descent from one source and a 
 linguistic descent from another. Such phenomena 
 have actually occurred in the clear light of day and 
 under the open eye of historj'. The Northmen who 
 came down in a horde, in their pirate ships, from Scan- 
 dinavia, under the leadership of Rolph the Ganger, 
 in the ninth century, and who possessed themselves 
 of the fairest portion of France and founded in 
 Neustria a dominion which has projected itself far 
 and powerfully into the modern world, spoke a lan- 
 guage as certainly Teutonic, or Norse, as they were 
 themselves of that descent. But within a hundred 
 years after their settlement in the South, that speech 
 had strangely given way to another which they had 
 absorbed from the subject peasantry of Normandy, 
 and which became ever afterwards the vernacular of 
 the conquering race. So that when William the 
 Bastard came with his barons into England and 
 planted there the Norman dynasty, he brought with 
 him a race descent from the shores of the Baltic and a 
 linguistic utterance derived from the softened dialects 
 of the Southern Romance. 
 
 flesh. The reindeer, the musk ox, the 
 walrus, the seal, land and water fowl, and 
 
 salmon constitute the prin- Omnivorous 
 
 cipal varieties of living ^^^^^^VffhlEsI 
 creatures upon which they quimaux. 
 prey. But there is scarcely any kind of 
 animal, whether marine or dryland, that 
 they do not use for food. The fatty 
 portions, heavy in carbonaceous mate- 
 rials, are greatly preferred. As to the 
 bones of animals, the Esquimaux have 
 the exact method of antiquity: they 
 split them or burst them open by 
 pounding with stones, and take the 
 marrow as the greatest delicacy. 
 
 In the manufacture of their ittensils 
 the Esquimaux have considerable inge- 
 nuitv. The methods em- skoi in the man- 
 ployed are nearly identical ^[re"„7s°i„T 
 with those which we have utensils. 
 already described as peculiar to the age 
 of stone. Arrowheads and spearpoints 
 are produced by spalling off flakes from 
 blocks of flint. This is not done, how- 
 ever, by percussion, but by pressure. 
 The block is set in rest and pressed with 
 a beam of wood until it splits, flinging 
 oft" a flake. Iron and bone are consider- 
 ably emplo3'ed for pointing arrows, 
 spears, and harpoons. The method of 
 making and rigging the bow is nearly 
 identical with that of the North Ameri- 
 can Indians. The arrows are short, and 
 the flight of the shaft is made steady by 
 an arrangement of feathers. It has been 
 noted, however, that the Esquimaux are 
 by no means so expert in the use of the 
 bow and arrow as the primitive Red men 
 of our own country. The heads of ar- 
 rows and spears are frequently barbed. 
 The most formidable of the Esquimau 
 weapons is the harpoon, the point being 
 fixed to a rather hea\y shaft of wood 
 and secured by means of a line. 
 
 AVhen the hunters attack a whale it is 
 customary to affix bladders to the ends of
 
 PRIMEWIL ^FAN.— BARBARISM II. LUSTRA TED. 
 
 399 
 
 the harpoon lines so tluit the position 
 of the wounded animal may be seen at a 
 Manner of har- distance and liis course 
 XieandTha through the watcr impeded, 
 seal. The .same plan is used 
 
 in the les.s exciting and dangerous hunt 
 of the seal. In harpooning their game 
 the weapon is so arranged that the head, 
 or barb, generally loosens itself from the 
 shaft and is retained by the line which, 
 holds the bladder at the other end. In 
 seal hunting, it is the plan of the hunter 
 
 tion of music. They sing a sort of 
 monotonous .songs, in both solo and 
 chorus, accompanying themselves with 
 drums and other rude instruments. 
 The choral effect of this alleged music 
 is not unpleasant to the trained ear of 
 civilized travelers. Nor does it appear 
 that the Esquimau songs are intended 
 for ceremonial or for exciting the pa.s- 
 sions of the chase and war. It is amuse- 
 ment, or entertainment, projjerly so 
 called, and therefore falls in the same 
 
 -t-'=*^r?f:%><^^r'='^/r^---frfHr 
 
 ~P^ rgr^-T<#TT 
 
 "^MfT.^/////, 
 
 W^lf^n^ 
 
 Al^P'^^^^^kTt^ ^m>^W^ 
 
 -i-ti^^ 
 
 ^^^^^B^ ^lSi^ \W^\i^xH.u\ W HHLajil^ 
 
 :m.^^^:^^ :^1pWHH ..^ 
 
 ART WORK OF BARBARIANS. 
 
 to watch carefully for the reappearance 
 of the harpooned animal and to strike it 
 instantly on its emergence at the surface. 
 The Esquimaux are not withottt skill in 
 pursuing the dry land animals. Thc}^ 
 stalk the reindeer with considerable suc- 
 cess, and are able to deceive many ani- 
 mals by imitating their cry or call. 
 
 It may be noted that the Esquimaux 
 Songs and mti- have in their character and 
 customs the rudiments of 
 an ideal life. This is man- 
 ifest in at least two particulars. In 
 the first place, the}' have some apprecia- 
 
 sical instru- 
 ments; amuse- 
 ment the motive 
 
 category with the music of civilized peo- 
 ples. 
 
 But a still more remarkable evidence 
 of ideality among the Esquimaux is 
 found in their disposition Taste of the 
 to draw and sketch. The r=^°e ' Y''*'^'"'" 
 
 mg ana map- 
 
 taste for this kind of work making, 
 among them amounts almost to a pas. 
 sion. They have a real talent for de- 
 picting the outlines of natural objects. 
 This extends to a considerable degree 
 of skill in the production of maps. The 
 people have a fairl}^ accurate knowledge 
 of the topography of the neighborhood
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 401 
 
 and country in which they dwell. 
 Travelers in the arctic regions have 
 frequently drawn upon the natives in 
 the work of sketchinof the coasts and 
 physical features of the country. In 
 many instances the natives have pro- 
 duced maps for their visitors Avliich 
 have proved in application to be more 
 accurate than could have been expected 
 at the hands of barbarians. 
 
 Still more striking is their skill in the 
 work of drawing proper. Nearly all the 
 Drawing on Esquimau ornaments and 
 
 X's^oran' ^^tensils are decorated with 
 "vox^L. the outlines of men and 
 
 birds and beasts. The tusks of walruses 
 and the fossil ivory, which is frequently 
 obtained, are covered with such sketch- 
 ing, and no little degree of skill is dis- 
 played in the work. The Esquimau's 
 fancy takes up the scenes and incidents 
 of daily life, the little dramas of the hut 
 and seashore, the hazards of the chase 
 or of fishing, and even the farcical 
 happenings of their barbarous society, 
 and depicts the same, with no little 
 humor, on the surface of their drawing 
 materials. It is probably true that no 
 other people, ancient or modern, with 
 whom the ethnologist and historian have 
 acquaintance have exhibited in a corre- 
 sponding stage of development so much 
 aptitude and skill in the pictorial repre- 
 sentation of natural objects. 
 
 Otherwise the Esquimaux have little 
 intellectual force and no attainments. 
 Weakness of the It is surprising to the trav- 
 fbTri'^tlon: in- elerto obscrve their labored 
 ability to count, efforts in attempting to 
 grasp general ideas. They have no 
 mathematical ability whatever. Their 
 minds in respect to number and pennu- 
 tation are as weak ac those of children. 
 They are rarely able to count as much 
 as ten, and beyond this they are unable 
 to go. They have large families, which 
 
 in the northern regions are a blessing 
 rather than a discomfort. It has been 
 observed that the man of the hut can 
 rarely tell the number of his children. 
 He will attempt to enumerate them on 
 his fingers, will fail, and the matter will 
 result in an animated dispute between 
 himself and his wife! The perceptions 
 properly so called are in a better state of 
 development than the judgment. Those 
 faculties which have been brought into 
 exercise by the conditions of the Esqui- 
 mau environment have been quickened 
 into tolerable activity. But the rest of 
 the mind lies dormant, as in a state of 
 absolute savagery. 
 
 The social system of these people is 
 miserable in the last degree. They 
 
 practice polygamv. The Degradations 
 
 chief men particularly ^*;-f-\"P- 
 encumber themselves with polyandry, 
 multiple wives, and the usage attracts 
 no comment. Polyandry is also in 
 vogue, but is not so common as polyg- 
 amy. A woman of unusual attractive- 
 ness will frequently have two or three 
 husbands, but the common lot are con- 
 tent with one. The sanctity of the 
 relation of the man and the woman is 
 not regarded. The custom which has 
 been noted among many savage nations 
 of loaning to a visiting stranger the wife 
 of the man who is visited prevails among 
 the Esquimaux. The act is regarded as 
 a social compliment, and any refusal to 
 accept the same on the part of the 
 visitor would be a gross violation of 
 etiquette. 
 
 As to moral qualities, the Esquimaux 
 have very little appreciation of duty, 
 obligation, or dependence „^ , 
 
 '=' . ^ . Weakness of 
 
 on a higher power. Their moral nature; a 
 
 , . ■ rude humanity. 
 
 promise or pledge, how- 
 ever solemnly made, is generally worth- 
 less. It does not appear that they will- 
 fully deceive or purposely break their
 
 402 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 word. But the changing conditions of 
 to-morrow making it of advantage to 
 violate a pledge of to-day furnish an 
 easy reason to the barbarian for doing so. 
 Of religious dut}' and ceremony they 
 know but little or nothing. In their 
 relations with one another, howe^'er, they 
 are generally kind, humane, accom- 
 modating. The neighborly feeling pre- 
 vails in the Esquimau settlements. 
 There is much of common interest 
 among them. The people support each 
 other in their rude enterprises, and 
 
 Drs'A'ing of an ibex. 
 
 cru- 
 elty traceable to 
 ethnic indiffer- 
 of ence. 
 
 Group of figures, 
 ART WORK OF TIIIC KSQf;MAUX — DRAWING ON BONE AND IVORY 
 
 generosity is by no means unknown. 
 The poorer members of the tril^e are 
 supplied in times of want. The hunter 
 divides the rcsiilts of his successful pur- 
 suit with his less successful companion. 
 Two or three fishermen who have had 
 the good fortune to take a walrus arc by 
 no means niggardly in distributing to 
 others a portion of their fortune. 
 
 In one striking particular the Esqui- 
 maux rise above their contemporaries of 
 the American forest. They arc never 
 willfully and maliciously cruel. There 
 is, perhaps, no authentic instance on 
 
 record of vindictive and preconcerted 
 cruelty toward their fellows. The 
 absence of this disposition Absence of 
 among them, however, is 
 rather in the nature 
 apathy than of a positive virtue. They 
 are simply indifferent, and are incapable 
 of cruelt}^ or revenge because of their 
 passionless character. They are cold in 
 life and manners, and, though little dis- 
 posed to do actual harm or to inflict pain 
 upon their fellows, they are equally 
 indisposed to do them positive good. 
 Such, in brief, is the manner of life, the 
 habit, the taste, the intellectual capacity, 
 and general disposition of these widely 
 disseminated barbarians of the North. 
 
 The foregoing account of the general 
 condition of several barbarian races is 
 little more than a sketch of present disser- 
 superficial aspects. There J;:;^°S:2r:'" 
 is no pretense in this than a sketch, 
 connection of making a complete picture 
 of savage life as it exists at present in 
 various quarters of the 
 world. That work is re- 
 served for another part of 
 this treatise on the Great 
 Races. What is here pre- 
 sented is merely illustra- 
 tive of savage manners 
 and customs as they 
 now prevail, and the meaning of the 
 illustration is simply to throw light, by 
 reflection, npon the condition of man- 
 kind in prehistoric ages. In every epoch 
 since the appearance of human beings 
 on the globe men have been men. 
 Their essential characters, dispositions, 
 and tendencies have always been the 
 same, or at least in close analogy. The 
 human animal has always had his own 
 habits, peculiarities, and possibilities of 
 development. The present state of the 
 barbarous races, therefore, is of much 
 value to the historian and ethnologist in
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 
 
 403 
 
 determining the primitive condition of 
 tnanl<;ind, and it is for tliis jiurposc that 
 the foregoing imperfect sketches of 
 several savage peoples have been pre- 
 sented. The cnri'cnt savagery of the 
 world is exponential of that prehistoric 
 barbarism which prevailed before tlie 
 beginnings of authentic history; and, 
 although ^uch allowance must be made 
 for the varying conditions of environ- 
 ment and instinct in the prehistoric ages 
 and at the present time, it can not be 
 doubted that the current aspect of bar- 
 barous life is in most respects a faithful 
 picture of that wliich prevailed before 
 the Vcdas were chanted in the valley of 
 the Indus, before Abraham took his 
 journey from Ur of the Chaldees, before 
 the sea-beaten ^neas and his Trojan 
 companions had found a footing on the 
 western coasts of Latium. 
 
 Besides the condition of absolute sav- 
 agery described in the preceding para- 
 Place of semi- graphs, certain secondary 
 th^'tcenliiTg stages of barbarism may 
 scale of races. -well be noticed. We may 
 not say with certainty that the semi- 
 barbarity of tlie world is the resultant of 
 such antecedent savagery as we have de- 
 scribed ; but no doubt such is the fact. 
 Neither may we affirm certainly that the 
 semibarbarous peoples are to be the 
 progenitors of highly civilized races. It 
 is probable that the analogy of the tree 
 should here again be applied to the human 
 race as a whole. Branches put out and 
 are developed to a certain stage. Be- 
 yond this they do not expand. Pres- 
 ently they decay and die. Then they 
 fall away from the vital trunk which 
 supports the more vigorous and ex- 
 pansive branches above. 
 
 It will not do to say that all branches 
 of a vital organism are equally potent in 
 -development. It is only the more cen- 
 tral and stronger that shoot up and 
 
 spread and flourish. This is probably 
 true of the evolution of mankind con- 
 sidered as one organic, 
 
 ,. . . „ ., , ' Philosophy of 
 
 living thing. Possibly the the semlbarbar- 
 . •11 io estate of man. 
 
 present residual savagery 
 of the world will never reach much be- 
 yond its present stage of evolution. 
 This may be true also of the semibar- 
 barous peoples. For the present it suf- 
 fices that such peoples exist and occupy 
 a considerable part of the earth's surface. 
 Their manners, customs, and modes of 
 existence differ much from those of the 
 savages whom we have described above. 
 They also differ much from the usages 
 of the civilized races — most of all from 
 the refined and cultivated peoples of 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Sucla types as we here contemplate 
 may be found widely distributed 
 throughout Northern Asia. TheTungusea 
 They are of vast terri- ''^::r^,t 
 torial expansion and of a barbanty. 
 comparatively low manner of life. As 
 an example of the whole class the Tun- 
 guses of North-Central Asia may be 
 cited. Their customs are above the 
 horizon of savagery, but greatly below 
 the line of civilization. What is said of 
 their customs may be repeated of their 
 intellectual and moral qualities. We 
 note among them a considerable devel- 
 opment of the mental faculties and a 
 measure of moral obligation and duty. 
 But these terms must be defined, not 
 according to the standards with which 
 we are familiar, but by a criterion fixed 
 for the particular thing to be defined. 
 
 The Tungusic barbarians live the 
 wild life of hunters and fishermen. 
 They tame the reindeer, using that ani- 
 mal for both food and draught. In like 
 manner they train their dogs to draw 
 their sledges. They live a half-seden- 
 tary life, having a rude society and the 
 beginnings of usages that in higher
 
 404 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 progress would be defined as civil. The 
 domestic estate is in a corresponding 
 stage of development. The religious 
 life has been vaguely determined by a 
 native faith which is called Shamanism, 
 and b}' the vague outreaching influences 
 of Lamaism from the side of the Mon- 
 golian countries, and the touch of Greek 
 
 and others in the other ; that is, one as- 
 pect of the Moorish life seems to ap- 
 proximate the CT)nditions present in Eu- 
 rope and the Americas, while another 
 asjDect is distinctly barbarous. 
 
 In their commercial transactions, and 
 indeed in all of those parts of their pub- 
 lic life in which they are brought into 
 
 SEMIBARBARISM TI.I.USTRATF.n-THE NORTH ASIATIC MANNKR.^ I 
 Drawn by Victor Adam, after a .sketch of the Count de Rci.hbcrg, 
 
 Catholicism out of vSiberia and the 
 West. 
 
 We may note also a grade of semi- 
 barbarity peculiar to North Africa and 
 to some portions of Eastern 
 
 Semibarbarism ^ 
 
 of the Moors and and Southeastern Asia. 
 
 Berbers. -n 1 x i ■ i 
 
 Perhaps the semibar- 
 barous life of the Moors is the liigh- 
 est estate of mankind below the level of 
 civilization. Some of the usages of tlie 
 Moors and Berbers look in one direction 
 
 contact with foreign nations, the Moors 
 have the manners peculiar to the ruder 
 forms of civilization. But in their race 
 customs — those which they have de- 
 rived from the past — they are distinctly 
 barbaric. Their personal manners 
 among themselves have the sense and 
 ilavor of a remote and barbaric past. 
 Their wild dances and crude religious 
 ceremonies ally the race with the barlia- 
 rians, leaving only a small reason for
 
 406 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. 
 
 classifying them with the civilized peo- 
 ples of the world. 
 
 Several important inferences are now 
 to be drawn from the snbject-matter of 
 the present chapter. It remains to sum- 
 marize the results and to state their 
 meaning. The reader will, doubtless, 
 already have deduced several conclusions 
 from his study of the preceding chap- 
 ters ; but it will be of additional interest 
 to state in a few paragraphs the leading 
 truths which follow as a logical conclu- 
 sion from premises furnished by the 
 study and comparison of prehistoric and 
 modern barbarism. 
 
 repulsive features. What the cave men 
 of Western Europe and the shell-mound 
 people of the shores of the Baltic were 
 in the post-pliocene era — when .the 
 mammoth was still a denizen of West- 
 ern Europe and America, when the 
 hairy rhinoceros and the reindeer were 
 in the valleys of the Seine and the Loire, 
 when the cave bear and the cave hyena 
 and the Bos primigcnius still maintained 
 their existence from the northern ocean 
 to the Pyrenees — that the native Austra- 
 lians, the Veddahs of Ceylon, the savages 
 of the Andaman islands, and the Fue- 
 gians of South America are to the pres- 
 
 I'lCKikl W, WORK OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 I. In the first place, it will be noted 
 that the prehistoric age and the current 
 All ages furnish cpoch of huniau history 
 e^tTutLir ■ alike furnish examples of the 
 dition. loivest stuges of human devel- 
 
 opment. This is to say that at the two 
 extremes of human history, the one ly- 
 ing below the daydawn of authentic 
 annals and the other reaching to tlic 
 very feet of the present, tribes of men 
 arc found in similar stages of degradation 
 and savagery. This signifies that the 
 ■whole of human history has not been 
 sufficient to extinguish barlmrism from 
 the earth, or even to obliterate its most 
 
 en t day. Some variations and departures 
 of tribal character doubtless exist be- 
 tween the prehistoric barbarians and 
 their fellows of the modern world. No 
 doubt there are conditions prevalent, 
 forces operative in the processes of our 
 planet life which have effected changes 
 and diversities of character between the 
 ancient and the modern savages ; but the 
 fact remains of their characteristic and es- 
 sential identity. In food and clothing, 
 in weapons and utensils, in hut building 
 and the rude beginnings of artisanship, 
 in coarseness of manners and brutality 
 of life, the two extremes of the ethnic
 
 PRlM/il'AL Jf.LV.—BARBAR/SJ/ 1 1. LUSTRA TED. 
 
 407 
 
 history of man may be brought together, 
 and the difference might be hard to 
 seek. 
 
 2. The life of man in the prehistoric 
 ages and in the modern barbarian 
 Like extremes world prcsciits similar cx- 
 
 of development 
 
 present in an- trClllCS of dcVcloplllCnt . This 
 
 cient and mod- . , ^.i ^ • 1.1 • ■ 
 
 ern times. IS to Say that in the prmn- 
 
 tive world great variety is discovered in 
 the life of tribes and peoples, and in the 
 degree of development. In some, the 
 evolutionary forces had already worked 
 a considerable result at our earliest ac- 
 
 -iff^" 
 
 expansion and possibility. In general, 
 the aboriginal inhabitants of Western 
 Europe were as low in development as 
 may well be conceived. The cave men 
 and the coast people were in the extreme 
 of savagery, and it is difficult to point to 
 a single evidence among the relics and 
 memorials which they have left to ar- 
 chaeology and history of even a tendency 
 to reach a higher stage of life. 
 
 This same contrariety between the 
 higher and lower aspects of human 
 existence in the prehistoric world finds 
 
 NONPROGHESSIVE STA 1 E Of B.\KI;A Kl>.\l.— i. hiuilwa^ ok Sai li- :^Al^TE .Makie. 
 
 quaintance with a given people, while 
 in others the grossness of savagery 
 was unabated. If we scrutinize the 
 old house-folk of Arya or study the 
 characteristics of some of the better 
 peoples of Asia Minor and the West, 
 such as the Pelasgians of Greece, or 
 the Etruscans of Italy, we shall find 
 them to have been vigorous and growing 
 races, great builders of stone, makers of 
 towns and treasure-houses and fortifica- 
 tions and aqueducts. But if we glance 
 at other aspects of prehistoric humanity 
 we find no such promising symptoms of 
 
 an exact analogy among modern barba- 
 rians. Here, also, we have Existing barba- 
 mixed evidences of the ^.^e"^;:!^- 
 progressive and nonpro- nonprogressiva. 
 gressive disposition. Many of the exist- 
 ing barbarous races are as absolute in 
 their savagery as were any of the pre- 
 historic tribes, while others give proof 
 of a forward movement and of actual at- 
 tainment, which may well elicit hopeful- 
 ness and even challenge admiration. 
 The general principle is that the sanie 
 diversity which we find evidenced 
 among the races of the primitive world
 
 408 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. 
 
 exist among; the barbarous peoples of the 
 present time ; from which it would ap- 
 pear that beyond the pale and influence 
 of the civilized nations a state of human' 
 society still exists which is little dissimi- 
 lar to that which the ethnologist discov- 
 
 buiion of mankind. In contemplating 
 the barbarous races now inhabiting the 
 outskirts of the world, we The barbaric life 
 
 discover little or nothing does not reveal 
 
 ^ Its o-wn origin or 
 
 to inform the judgment as spread. 
 
 to Iiotv savagery begins or ends, or as to 
 
 PROGRESSIVt; I.I.KMLNT IN BARBARISM— ILLUSTRATED IN WEAPONS OF NF.W ZF.ALANDliRS. 
 I, saw ; 2, cliisci ; 3, knife ; 4, ax of chipped flint ; 5, spear of gronnd blunc ; 6, ax of polished stone. 
 
 ers on the remotest horizon of his in- 
 quiry. , 
 
 3. The study of the existing forms of 
 barbarism throws very little light on 
 fundamental questions relative to i/ie ori- 
 gin of savagery and t/ir primitive distri- 
 
 thc ethnic jw/rr^' from which such peo 
 pies have descended. Their traditions, 
 as already rcmai'ked are valueless, and 
 their monuments and arts serve only to 
 illustrate the jiassing phases of their 
 social condition. It is possible for the
 
 PRIMJil'AL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 409 
 
 historian to sec in the actions of existing 
 barbarians those unconscious movements 
 of man which, in some instances at least, 
 precede the birth and early struggles of 
 civilization. Savage tribes in such a 
 state of development — if, indeed, they 
 are developing at all — are in close anal- 
 ogy with the unconscious period in hu- 
 man life. There is a sense in which the 
 species is always epitomized and ex- 
 pressed in the individual. What the 
 child does without consciousness of its 
 own actions or tendencies, that the 
 species does in an analogous stage of de- 
 velopment. But the evidence of the 
 child with respect to its own past, or 
 even with respect to its own purposes, 
 would be little regarded by any candid 
 inquirer. It is a period in individual or 
 tribal life characterized by dreams and 
 vagaries of the fancy ; and it must not be 
 forgotten that the fancy is frequently 
 distorted by abnormal conditions and 
 even by disease and delirium. On the 
 whole, the impartial student of the 
 primitive condition of niankind is able 
 to discover as much evidence out of the 
 memorials of the prehistoric ages rela- 
 tive to the origin and essential charac- 
 ter of barbarism and the beofinningfs of 
 tribal life in different quarters of the 
 world, as he is able to discover from the 
 closest scrutiny of the actions and man- 
 ner of life of the existing barbarous 
 peoples. 
 
 4. The chief difference between the 
 aspect of modern barbarism and that of 
 Ancient and the primitive world is in 
 Tiffer^ntty '>^ geographical distribution. 
 The disposition of modern 
 savager}- is very different as it respects 
 the habitable surface of the globe from 
 that of the ancient world. In the earli- 
 est epochs accessible to our information 
 savagery was distributed into all parts 
 
 and places. It had possession of the 
 M. — Vol. I — 27 
 
 current barba- 
 rism 
 distributed 
 
 choicest regions of the globe. There was 
 a time when it was the central fact in 
 Asia, in Europe, and in the two Ameri- 
 cas. Until the present century it was 
 still the central fact in Au.stralia, but 
 the growth and spread of civilization 
 has displaced its barbaric competitor. 
 At the first the savage state gave away 
 in the river valleys of the East and in 
 those choice peninsulas which drop 
 down from the northern continents 
 into the southern waters. In a later 
 stage barbarism receded from the re- 
 
 UNPROGRESSIVE CONDITION — MINCOPA MAN, FROM THS 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 
 
 gions north of the great mountain 
 chains. The central portions of the 
 continents were reclaimed,, and there 
 Avas a recession, a retreat, of savagery 
 toward the borders of the world. 
 
 The general result has been the ex- 
 tirpation of the barbarous condition in 
 all the central and better Ci-rtii2ationhas 
 
 crowded sav- 
 
 partsof the habitable globe, ageryoutofthe 
 
 T . • • . 1 1 . better parts of 
 
 It IS m these best re- the world, 
 gions of the world that the great powers 
 are planted. Here they flourish, and in 
 proportion as they are vigorous and 
 possess the elements of perpetuity, they 
 extend themselves, by varjang con- 
 quests, toward the horizon. Savagery
 
 410 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 has fallen back before this movement 
 and is now compelled to occupy the fur- 
 ther coasts of the planet. In the far 
 regions of the north it is still able to 
 maintain itself, at least for a season. 
 In parts of South America and in nearly 
 the whole of Africa it still prevails, 
 flourishing as it were under the aegis of 
 a climate which seems to forbid the de- 
 velopment of a higher civilization. As 
 for the rest, barbarism plants itself in 
 what will perhaps prove its last strong- 
 hold, the remote islands of the great 
 oceans. It is easy to discover how .vastly 
 the position and relative importance of 
 civilization and the barbaric life have 
 been changed in their geographical 
 place, with a constant advantage in fa- 
 vor of the civilized condition. 
 
 5. The principal lesson deducible 
 from the present aspect of savagery is 
 the emphasis which it places on tlic dif- 
 Difference be- feroice between the pros[rcssive 
 
 fween progress- . 
 
 ive and nonpro- and the nonprogressive parts 
 Wanhfe!"^*^" of the human spceies. We 
 have seen above that many forms of ex- 
 isting savagery are as low and unprom- 
 ising as any which prevailed in the pre- 
 historic era. The flint implement of 
 to-day is in no wise superior to that 
 which the cave dweller used in his bat- 
 tle with the extinct mammalia of West- 
 
 ern Europe. The manners and customs 
 of the Andamaners and the Veddahs, 
 and the method of life of the Digger 
 Indians in Western America are in 
 eyeryvvise as gross and degrading as 
 any which are suggested by the memo- 
 rials and relics of the jDrimitive world. 
 
 It appears conclusive that a considera- 
 ble part of the human race is at the 
 present time in a condition Lowest savage- 
 as degraded and unpro- Zf^^H^i^to? 
 gressive as any which is '•^^ globe. . 
 suggested by our knowledge of the pre- 
 historic races of the Old World. On the 
 other hand, we have the fact of evolu- 
 tionary progress splendidly illustrated 
 in the history, tendencies, and prospects 
 of the civilized races. It is apart from 
 the jaresent purpose to speak of the in- 
 dustry, the enterprise, the letters, the 
 art, the triumph over the obdurate forces 
 of the natural world, which have been 
 practiced and achieved by the great peo- 
 ples now holding dominion in the earth. 
 It is sufficient to note and to emphasize 
 the contrast which is afforded by the de- 
 graded and the elevated aspects of hu- 
 man life, and this contrast is brought 
 most vividly to the mind of the inquirer 
 as he considers the aspect of barbarism 
 set darkly against the blazing disk of 
 civilization. 
 
 P^;:?^ 
 
 i-.tf---._-ix-. .i.
 
 KACE CHART NO. 1 
 
 SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND ON 
 
 THE HYPOTHESIS OF A COMMON ORIGIN. 
 
 •-»-♦ 
 
 Rudely Races on Red Lines 
 
 Brown Races on Brown Lines 
 
 Black Races on Blade Lines 
 
 Names of Existing Races in Red
 
 
 
 HODUOl/llila 
 

 
 RACE CnART No. 1. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 It is the purpose uf :liis Chart to show The Distribution of the 
 Races of Mankind, ou the theory that they have all proceeded from a 
 common source. That source is indicated by the heavy black line at the left, 
 marked " Original Stock of Mankind." From this original stock several 
 great divisions branch off, the first of which is the stem of the prehistoric 
 Black races; the second, the stem of the prehistoric Brown, or Mongoloid, 
 races; and the third, the stem of the prehistoric Ruddy, or White, races. 
 Each of these stems divides into many branches. 
 
 In general, the latitude of the given race is indicated in the Chart as on 
 an ordinary map; that is, those races having the most northeruly distribu 
 tion are above ; those in the temperate zones come next, as nearly as prac- 
 ticable ; and those in the tropical regions fall in the center or lower part of 
 the Chart. 
 
 Wherever the red lines extend, there the While, or Ruddy, races are 
 distributed ; wherever the brown lines reach, there the Brown, or Mongoloid, 
 races are found; while the black lines indicate the distribution of the Black 
 races. 
 
 Xearly one-fourth of the Chart at the left indicates the prehistoric, or 
 unknown, period of race distribution. Out of this prehistoric period the 
 various races emerge. There is an Aryan, or Indo-European, family ; a 
 Semitic family; a Hamitic f.miily; a Mongoloid family; and sundry Black 
 races, little known to the present day. 
 
 In the greater part of the center of the Chart, and to the right, wherever 
 the names of races or stocks are printed in black letters, those races, or 
 stocks, are extinct ; that is, they have either ceased to exist, or are repre- 
 sented only in their descendants. Examples of such are the Visigoths, the 
 Carthaginians, the Etruscans, etc. 
 
 All the names of races, families, and stocks, printed in red letters, are 
 existing, or living, peoples. These are found, for the most part, distributed 
 to the right at the end of race-stems. Thus we have, as examples of living 
 races, beginning above, the Welsh, the Icelanders, the Red Russians, the 
 Montenegrins, the English-speaking races, the High Germans, the Swiss, the 
 Brazilians, the Esquimaux, the Magyars, the Osmanlis, etc. 
 
 The Chart enables the reader, in particular, to trace the race descent 
 of any living variety of mankind. Thus, the English-speaking races are de- 
 rived (read back from right to left) from Anglo-Saxons, Saxons, Ingavo- 
 nians, Mceso-Goths, out of the German stem, of the Teuto-Slavic division, of 
 the West Aryan branch, of the Indo-European family, of the prehistoric 
 Ruddy, or White, races. 
 
 So, in all the cases of race-historj', the Chart is intended to show, at a 
 single survey, all of the leading developments of mankind. Many minor 
 varieties are necessarily omitted ; but all of the principal slocks of the human 
 race are here displayed in their proper ethnical and historical development. 
 (For the geographical distribution of the various races, see Race Charts Nos. 
 2 to g. inclusive.)
 
 
 BOOK IV.-DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. 
 
 Chapter XXIII. 
 
 -Classification of the Human 
 Species. 
 
 T has already been re- 
 marked that migration 
 constitutes one of the 
 leading facts in the 
 history of the primitive 
 world. Movement was 
 the mood of the first 
 men who possessed the earth. It was 
 by means of tribal and national migra- 
 tions that mankind were distributed into 
 the various regions where they subse- 
 quently established themselves in com- 
 munities and states. From certain cen- 
 ters the human streams arose and flowed 
 in different directions, bearing afar the 
 fecund waters of future national life. 
 
 Nearly all of these movements are 
 hidden under the obscurity that clouds 
 Obscurity of the the beginnings of history. 
 The very best penetration 
 of the historian and eth- 
 nologist can reach no further than the 
 shadowy confines of the countries and 
 ages in which these primitive motions of 
 
 early move- 
 ments of man' 
 kind. 
 
 the human race took their origin and 
 expended their force. The task of de- 
 lineating the migrations and dispersions 
 of the early races may well challenge 
 the profoundest inquiry, and the prob^ 
 lem must even then be attempted with 
 extreme diffidence and much distrust of 
 the existing resources of knowledge. — 
 It is the purpose in the present book to 
 delineate at least the leading migrations 
 of the early races of man. 
 
 In the nature of the case, the migratory 
 movements of primitive mankind have 
 left only incidental traces in 
 
 . . Why a classifica- 
 
 history and tradition. For tion of the races 
 this reason the evidences ^^^^'^^^^^^' 
 of human distribution have to be gath- 
 ered, for the most part, by indirection 
 out of collateral branches of inquiry. 
 As preparatory to a description of these 
 movements, upon which all future history 
 in some sense depended, it is necessary to 
 frame an adequate analysis of the hu- 
 man family according to those distinc* 
 
 411
 
 412 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. 
 
 tions upon wnich the tribal and national 
 life of one people is discriminated from 
 that of another. It is impossible to 
 speak intelligently of the early migra- 
 tions of mankind without a division and 
 classification of the human species, to 
 the end that its various parts may be 
 considered in detail and in relation the 
 one with another. Such a classification 
 into different races, families, and stocks 
 is the first task imposed upon the eth- 
 nologist, and is a work in ever}- way 
 
 race according to its true ethnic distinc- 
 tions has never been satisfactorily ac- 
 complished. The piinciple according 
 to which the division or divisions are to 
 be made has never been well determined, 
 and the problem at the present day is 
 still to be considered in its original 
 elements. 
 
 It can but be of interest in this con* 
 nection to present in brief some of the 
 leading methods which have been adopt- 
 ed in the attempted classification of the 
 
 A METHOD OF MIGRATION.— Eastern Caravan.— Drawn l.y \V. J. Morgan. 
 
 essential to the understanding of the 
 
 beginnings of human history. 
 
 The division of the vegetable kingdom 
 
 by Linnaeus, and the arrangement of the 
 
 No adequate animal World into genera 
 method of c!as- n-^^A r.«^^,',,^. «...,i ...«..;^.4-C^,. 
 
 Bifyingyetdis- ^^^ spccics and vanctics 
 covered. i^y Cuvicr, were not more 
 
 essential to the tmderstanding of those 
 two great departments of nature than is 
 an adequate classification of mankind 
 into races, families, and types essential 
 to a knowledge of ethnic history. Great, 
 therefore, is the embarrassment of the 
 inquirer to find that even to the present 
 day this work of classifying the human 
 
 human race. The most learned of the an» 
 cients were profoundh' ignorant of the af- 
 finities of the different fam- The ancients b&- 
 ilics of mankind, and found ^^^efs'ty oTthe 
 no pleasure in tracing races, 
 such relation.ships. On the contrary, the 
 mental tone of antiquity was against the 
 notion of the kinship and common 
 descent of the nations. Each people 
 disseminated the belief in its own prior- 
 ity and preeminence, and discarded as 
 much as possible those democratic tradi- 
 tions which seemed to reduce themselves 
 to a common level with barbarians and 
 heathen. Not until long after the eclipse
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THF. RACILS.—TTIINIC CLASSIFICATION. 413 
 
 ions conduced 
 to a belief 711 
 unity. 
 
 of the classical ages, not until the bar- 
 barism of mediaeval Europe had at length 
 been pushed back by the revival of 
 learning, did men -attemi^t in a iftore 
 thoughtful and philanthropic spirit to 
 investigate the beginnings of human 
 development and the affinities of the 
 different peoples who inhabited the 
 earth. 
 
 At the time of this rccnlightenmcnt 
 of the European nations the Roman Cath- 
 Scripturai opin- "lie Churcli was dominant 
 throughout the West. This 
 great organization was 
 based u;)oii the Scriptures of the Old and 
 New Testaments, and from these ancient 
 books were derived, either directly or 
 indirectly, the greater part of the learn- 
 ing of the Middle Ages. It came to pass, 
 therefore, that the first rational views 
 with regard to mankind considered as a 
 race and the dispersion and affinity of 
 the nations were derived from scriptural 
 sources. It was from this origin that 
 the prevalent opinions of several cen- 
 turies were deduced, and it will, there- 
 fore, be appropriate in this connection to 
 present, first of all, the long prevalent 
 beliefs which were derived from the 
 Hebrew Scriptures. 
 
 I. The Biblical Ethnology. — In the 
 tenth chapter of Genesis we have an ac- 
 The biblical eth- count of the departures and 
 migrations of primitive 
 mankind. The narrative 
 begins with the descendants of Noah, 
 the survivors of a deluge. His three 
 sons become the progenitors of the three 
 dominant races which go forth to people 
 the world. The progenies of Shem, 
 Ham, and Japheth, according to their 
 families and tribes, are dispersed in 
 the various countries of Western Asia, 
 Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe. 
 
 In general, this account assigns to 
 Shem and his family the Elamites, the 
 
 nology; distri 
 bution of Shem 
 and Ham. 
 
 A.ssyrians, "Arphaxad and Lud and 
 Aram." According to this scheme Eber 
 is the grandson or descendant of Arphax- 
 ad, from which we are able to see emerg- 
 ing dimly at least three historical peoples 
 — the Elamites, the Assyrians, and the 
 Hebrews. Among the sons of Ham are 
 mentioned Cush, and ilizraim, and Phut, 
 and Canaan, with their respective de- 
 scendants. To Cush is assigned Nimrod 
 and his historical progeny, ilizraim is 
 doubtless the original tribal name of the 
 Egyptians, while Canaan, whose sons are 
 Sidon and Heth, is clearly the ancestor 
 
 ( 
 
 '\ 
 
 CUSHITE TYPE — SUFIK OF CHAMARS. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Mougal. 
 
 of the Canaanitish races of subsequent 
 times. 
 
 The generations of Japheth are said 
 to be Gomer and Magog and Madai 
 and Javan and Tubal and japheth dissem. 
 Meshech and Tiras. To jp.ated into the 
 
 isles of the 
 
 each of these is given a fam- gentiles." 
 ily of sons and descendants, and they 
 are said to have distributed themselves 
 among the " isles of the gentiles," " ev- 
 ery one after his tongue, after their fam- 
 ilies, in their nations." In the case of 
 Japheth, also, we are able to detect the
 
 414 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 historical beginning of nations, especial- 
 ly in the case of his son Madai, who is 
 thought to have given his. name to the 
 ancient Medes. Besides what is here 
 presented in outline, a place must be left 
 in the ethnic scheme for the direct de- 
 scendants of Noah, who is said to have 
 lived for more than a century after the 
 Deluge, and to have begotten sons and 
 daughters. 
 
 Such, in a word, is the biblical scheme 
 which the first ethnologists of modern 
 Europe emploj-ed to account for the dis- 
 Summaryofthe persion of the human race 
 TT^^. in the earth. It gives a fair- 
 peoples. ly adequate outline of the 
 
 ;;ieopling of Western and Soutliwestern 
 Asia and of the countries around the 
 eastern parts of the Mediterranean. We 
 may even allow for the dissemination of 
 the descendants of Noah eastward from 
 Armenia, and thus cover a still wider 
 area of the habitable globe. A sum- 
 mary, then, of the biblical schedule of 
 the primitive peoples will give the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 1. JaphctJiitcs, with seven tribal divi- 
 sions, migratory in habit, journeying to 
 the west, and peopling the gentile lands 
 beyond the limits of Asia. 
 
 2. Ilaniitcs, with four family, or tribal, 
 divisions, three of which, at any rate, 
 may be located, resj^ectively, in Cush and 
 Canaan and Egyjit. 
 
 3. Scmitis, with five tribal branches, 
 of which the Assyrians, the Elamites, the 
 people of ancient Aram, called Aramae- 
 ans, and the Hebrews, became, in their 
 respective countries, the leading repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 4. Noac kites proper, of the divisions of 
 which the biblical narrative has given us 
 no outline, but concerning which a ra- 
 tional inference of eastern migration 
 may be drawn. 
 
 ■- he account in Genesis indicates 
 
 clearly a disposition of the Noachite 
 families to part company and disperse 
 into various reefions. The 
 
 . . . ^ Value of the eth- 
 
 difterentiation of tribes nic scheme out- 
 
 1 1 -, lined iu Genesis. 
 
 IS clearl}- announced as 
 the fundamental fact in the first epoch 
 after the traditional destruction of the 
 Old AVorld by water. There is thus a 
 certain conformity in the account given 
 in Genesis to the actual facts which we 
 discover on the furtherest horizon of the 
 primeval world. The jostling and di- 
 vision of tribes under the impulse of the 
 migratory instinct is a fact which pre- 
 sents itself with equal clearness to the 
 historian, the ethnologist, and the an- 
 tiquary ; and the correspondence of the 
 primitive Hebrew narrative Avith this 
 manifest tendency among the primeval 
 families of men gives force and credibil- 
 ity and corroboration to both branches 
 of the inquiry. 
 
 Concerning the above biblical scheme 
 of the dispersion of mankind in the 
 primitive world, it may be fairly urged 
 that it is hardly as ample as the facts to 
 which it is applied. Within the limits 
 of the peoples and countries referred to 
 in the tenth chapter of Genesis, it ap- 
 pears to cover approximately the facts 
 as they have been revealed by other 
 methods of investigation, but it leaves 
 many parts of the world unprovided 
 with the populations which they are 
 known to have possessed even before 
 the dawn of authentic history. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to strain 
 and exaggerate the biblical ethnology, 
 and to comi^el it, by attenuation and hy- 
 pothesis, to cover all parts points of inap- 
 
 of tlie habitable 
 
 'lobe 
 
 plioability in the 
 Hebrew classifi- 
 
 These efforts appear to have cation. 
 been inspired by a zeal bej-ond knowl- 
 edge, and to have had little success in 
 application, except in the minds of those 
 who had been already fixed in belief by
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 415 
 
 preconceived opinions. This is to say 
 that the attempt to derive such races as 
 the primitive inhabitants of Western 
 Europe — the cave men, the people of 
 the shell mounds, and the tumuli — from 
 some branch of the Semites, the Japheth- 
 ites, or the Hamites, as those families 
 are outlined in the tenth chapter of 
 Genesis, ^vould have no ground on 
 which to rest — at least in the pres- 
 ent state of human knowledge. In 
 like manner, the attempted deriva- 
 tion of the North American In- 
 dians, of the Aztecs, of the South 
 Pacific Islanders, of the Fuegians, 
 of the native Australians, or of the 
 Hottentots, from the Hebrew plan 
 of dispersion would be equally 
 without avail, at least with such 
 data as are now in the possession 
 of scholars. 
 
 The scheme of famil)^ and tribal 
 
 division given in the tenth chapter 
 
 of Genesis appears to 
 
 The scheme sat- . ^ 
 
 isfactory withia the historian aud eth- 
 
 narrow limits. . • i j. i ^ • j? 
 
 nologist to be satisfac- 
 tory witJiin the narrow limits of the 
 races and countries to ivhich it ap- 
 plies; but it also appears that there 
 are many parts of the globe which 
 are known to have been inhabited 
 at a time even more remote than 
 current chronology assigns to the 
 rise of the Noachite nations for 
 which the plan of dispersion pre- 
 sented above seems to provide no 
 likelihood or even possibility of 
 inhabitants. How far the Hebrew 
 scheme of dispersion and development 
 from a Noachite origin through its three 
 leading branches of Hamites, Semites, 
 and Japhethites conforms to other ethno- 
 logical outlines derived from different 
 data and by means of different methods 
 of investigation, remains to be elucidated 
 in the following pages. 
 
 II. Historical Ethnology. — With 
 the progress of historical investigation 
 during the last three or four origin and de- 
 centuries so much infor- ^^H^ZT.t. 
 mation has been gathered noiogy. 
 relative to the first races of men and 
 their movements across the ancient land- 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN TYPE — THE SULTAN MACOUD MIRZA. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, 
 
 scape, that a system of ethnic classifica- 
 tion has been advanced from a purely 
 historical basis. It was known, or sus- 
 pected, by the Romans and Greeks two 
 thousand years ago that they were re- 
 lated in their descent. Later on it be- 
 came known that such peoples as the 
 ^ledes and Persians were of the same 
 race-origin with the Macedonians and
 
 416 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the Hellenes. In still more recent times 
 it was discovered that the Teutonic races 
 had an ethnic afhnit}- with the Grasco- 
 Italic family and with the Celts of West- 
 em Europe. Still more recently it be- 
 came known that the Hindu races were 
 descended, in all probability, from a 
 common origin with the Greeks, the Ro- 
 mans, and the Teutonic branches of man- 
 kind. A still hisfher view 
 
 Glimpses of a . 
 
 wide appUcation of the wliole question has 
 smet o . 1^^ to the belief of the ul- 
 timate affinity of the Semitic nations with 
 the great peoples mentioned above, and 
 
 SEMITIC TYPE — THE ARAB BENI LAAM. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat. from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 of the Hamites with all the rest. As 
 the historical horizon has widened and 
 the vision of the observer has become 
 clearer with the increase of knowledge, 
 the true relations of the various families 
 of men have been discov-ered to the ex- 
 tent of warranting a classification on the 
 basis of actual history; and many at- 
 tempts have been made to produce on 
 this basis a scheme of ethnic dispersion 
 as broad and comprehensive as the far- 
 reaching facts which it is intended to 
 explain. 
 
 As a result of this method, several 
 
 races of men have been distinguished 
 from each other and classified according 
 to their ethnic descent and affinities. 
 
 1. TJie Indo-European Race. — It has 
 been definitely ascertained that two of 
 the gi'eat Asiatic families Meaning and 
 and at least four of the pre v- terr"°indo- 
 
 alent peoples of Europe European race.** 
 
 have had a common descent from a com- 
 mon ancient origin. To this community 
 of nations the name Indo-European, or 
 Indo-Germanic, has been applied by his- 
 torical writers. The term signifies the two 
 extremes in place and time of the nation- 
 al dispersion from the common origin 
 referred to. It signifies that an Indie 
 branch of the human family, including 
 with this term the Iranic, or Persic, di- 
 vision of mankind, has been derived 
 primarily from the same fountain with 
 the Graeco-Italic race and with the Celtic 
 and Teutonic divisions of mankind ia 
 Europe. From the common fountain, 
 two Asiatic streams flowing to the south 
 and the east are known to have arisen in 
 common with the four westward flow- 
 ing streams that were destined to bear 
 into Europe and through all the west 
 the primitive waters of Hellenic, Italic, 
 Teutonic, and Celtic nationality. The 
 term Indo-European is thus devised to 
 cover the wide extremes of human de- 
 velopment which span the world from 
 the valley of the Indus to California. 
 
 2. The Semitic Race. — Under this head 
 the historians have developed a classifi- 
 cation very nearly analogous to that em- 
 braced under the same Clas- Races included 
 sification in biblical cthnol- "i^^l'^t^l 
 ogy. There is, historically 't'°- 
 speaking, some indistinctness on the 
 further borders of Semitic development. 
 Whether, for instance, the ancient Chal- 
 dees were to be included under this 
 designation may be regarded as doubt- 
 ful. It is sufficient to note that the He-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 417 
 
 brew race, in its several divisions, ancient 
 and modern, is included under the 
 Semitic division of mankind, and consti- 
 tutes, indeed, its most striking repre- 
 sentatives. So also tlie more recent 
 Arabs are included as a cognate branch 
 of the same great family; and tlie an- 
 cient Aramaeans prevalent in Syria, 
 Mesopotamia, and other western dis- 
 tricts of Asia must in like manner be 
 classified with the Semitic division of 
 mankind. The reader will not fail to 
 observe that history, considered as- a sci- 
 ence, and the scriptural account of the 
 dispersion of the human race are very 
 nearly in accord as it respects the divi- 
 sions, migrations, and historical devel- 
 opment of the Semitic family of men. 
 
 3 . The Hainitic Race. — This division of 
 mankind is known to history chiefly by 
 its greatest representatives, the ancient 
 Who the Ham- Egyptians. As planters 
 of the strongest and most 
 enduring civilization of re- 
 mote antiquity, these people could but 
 make a strong impression on the earliest 
 historical developments of the world. 
 Cognate with the Egyptian race were 
 several other branches of Hamites, 
 but nearly all of them are obscured 
 with doubt as to their origin and classi- 
 fication. Such are the old Chaldaeans, 
 who planted their empire on the Lower 
 Euphrates as much as two thousand 
 years before our era ; and such are the 
 Joktanian Arabs of the south, bordering 
 on the ocean, and such are several of 
 the Canaanitish rations, with whom the 
 greater historical peoples came into con- 
 tact from the seventh to the third cen- 
 tury B. C. Many historians have re- 
 garded the Phoenicians, the Sidonians, 
 and the Carthaginians as of Hamitic 
 descent, and it is highly probable that 
 some of these peoples were at least com- 
 posite in their ethnic origin. As a gen- 
 
 ites-were; 
 doubts as to 
 certain races. 
 
 eral fact, it appears that the Semitic and 
 Hamitic peoples of antiquity were less 
 completely separated from each other's 
 influence, less perfectly differentiated 
 
 HAMITIC TYPE — THE EGVrTIAN SAIS. 
 Drawn by A. de Bar. 
 
 into diverse types of race development, 
 than any other two branches of thes 
 primitive family of men. 
 
 4. The Altaian Races. — The great no- 
 madic peoples having the highlands of
 
 418 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 the Altais as their original habitat have 
 been designated by many terms, and 
 The Altaian there is yet much confusion 
 ZZ^tiZt' in their attempted classifi- 
 Tartars. cation. Even the major 
 
 divisions of these races are not well 
 made out. One of the broadest divisions 
 is the Tartar family, spreading to the 
 north and east over a great part of 
 • Asia. It is still in dispute whether 
 
 WIS voov^BS^eoB^o 1 
 **«iae«BSQC£e£BaB5£^ 
 
 '.1«^J/^T 
 
 ALTAIAN TYPE — OI.T) TARANTCHI. 
 Drawn by !■".. Ronjat, from a pholograpli. 
 
 the Tartars and Mongolians should be 
 considered as primary ethnic divisions 
 of mankind, or whether the Mongolian 
 branch of the south has been deflected 
 from the Tartar gr(Hi]> of ihc nortli. As 
 we shall presently see, this great assem- 
 blage of semicivilized races, nomadic 
 over the va.st steppes of ilu' muth and 
 in a low grade of development in the 
 sioutli, is defined bv the term Turanian 
 
 in the linguistic division of men. But 
 for historical purposes the whole group 
 may best be classified and named from 
 its geographical center on the northern 
 slopes of the Altais. The "White Tar- 
 tars, or Turcomans, as the westernmost 
 division of the great Altaian group, 
 have, by their aggressions in Asia Minor, 
 Syria, and Eastern Europe, brought the 
 family of nations to Avhich they belong 
 into historical relationship with the Indo- 
 European race, and have thus preserved 
 unto the present time at least the rem- 
 iniscence of the prowess for which 
 they were characterized in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 5. Western Aborigines. — Besides the 
 greater peoples with whom historyhas had 
 to deal in Western Asia and 
 
 Aboriginal races 
 
 Europe, the progress of na- of the western 
 
 . • . Ill 1 i hemisphere. 
 
 tions westward has brought 
 them into contact with new varieties of 
 the human famih', unknown in ancient 
 times. The limited geographical knowl- 
 edge of the ancient peoples shut them 
 out from an acquaintance with the wide- 
 ly sjaread barbarian races occupying the 
 New World, the continent of Australia, 
 and the islands of the sea. It is not 
 meant that the inhabitants of the vast 
 regions here referred to are of a common 
 ethnic descent. On the contrary, as we 
 shall see hereafter, many original stocks 
 of mankind are represented in the exist- 
 ing savagery of the world. But for his- 
 torical purposes tlic aborigines of the 
 West and of the ocean lands of the 
 South and west may, for convenience, be 
 grouped together and considered as an 
 unclassified mass of peoples, in varying 
 stages of evolution. 
 
 It will be remembered that what is 
 licrc attempted is merely to indicate 
 such results in the way of classification 
 as are afforded from a purely historical 
 point of view; and for this purpose all 
 
 I
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 419 
 
 method ; impep- 
 feotions in the 
 scheme. 
 
 the outlying barbarous peoples that have 
 been revealed sinee the beginning of 
 Results of the geographical diseovery at 
 the close of the fifteenth 
 century may be grouped as 
 one, and considered as a single fact in 
 the analysis of the human race. If, 
 then, we collect the results derivable 
 from this historical view of the disper- 
 sion of mankind, we shall find the fore- 
 going five groups of peoples, the first 
 three of which, the Indo-European, the 
 Semitic, and the Hamitic branches, are 
 tolerably clearly defined and separated 
 by ethnic lines, while the remaining 
 two, the Altaian group of nations and 
 the Western aborigines, are banked to- 
 gether rather for convenience of consid- 
 eration than by exact principles of clas- 
 sification. 
 
 III. Linguistic Ethnology. — Within 
 the present century the study of lan- 
 guage has thrown new light on all the 
 In what manner disputed questions relative 
 c^rXsrst;- to the dispersion and race 
 classification. developments of mankind. 
 The scientific investigation of speech 
 has made clear many vexed questions in 
 the primitive history of men that to all 
 seeming could have found no other so- 
 lution. The general eft'ect has been to 
 confirm and establish many of the views 
 already received from tradition and his- 
 torical inquiry, and to disprove and ren- 
 der untenable many other opinions con- 
 cerning the movements and affinities of 
 the early races. ]\Iuch that was conjec- 
 tural has become known as fact. The- 
 ories have been demonstrated or de- 
 stroyed, and new views of the extent, 
 variety, and true character of tribal and 
 national evolution have been projected. 
 In some departments of inquiry the new 
 knowledge has amounted to a revolu- 
 tion. On the whole, it is almost impos- 
 sible to overestimate the value of lin- 
 
 guistic science in the exiDosition of all 
 questions relative to the prehistoric con- 
 ditions and movements of mankind. 
 
 If we take up the results of this study 
 of human speech as it respects the eth- 
 nic classification of the race, we find a 
 certain general parallelism to what has 
 been presented above as proceeding 
 from biblical and historical investiga- 
 tion. To begin with, the science of 
 
 WEST ARYAN TVrK — ALCIUIAUES. 
 
 language declares with emphasis and 
 demonstrates the existence of — 
 
 I. Tlic Aryan Race. — This term, as 
 elucidated in the preceding book, relates 
 primarily to a primitive nobility claimed 
 and maintained by the peo- The Aryan race 
 pies called Aryan, which ^^^^^:l^Z. 
 nobility was based upon esses, 
 the agricultural life as distinguished 
 from nomadic and pastoral jDursuits. It 
 is not needed to illustrate further in this 
 connection the meaning and application 
 of the term. It suffices to note the fact
 
 420 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKLXD. 
 
 that the study of langi:age has defined 
 and proved be3'ond a doubt the funda- 
 mental affinity and kinship of the Aryan 
 folk of Asia — that is, the great Hindu 
 family of Arj-ans in the valleys of India 
 and the Iranian, or Persic, division of 
 mankind — ^vith the Graeco-Italic race 
 and the Teiitones and Celts of Europe. 
 
 The community of the original speech 
 of all these peoples, spi'eading in its Avid- 
 est development from the base of the 
 Himalayas "westward over the table-lands 
 of Iran, through the southern peninsulas 
 Race move- and the transmontane for- 
 
 by^phe^omena ' ^sts of Europe to the Atlan- 
 of language. tic, and through the New 
 World to the Pacific coast, has been es- 
 tablished by proofs irrefragable as those 
 which determine the truths of geology 
 or the laws of the physical world. The 
 course of the tribal movements by which 
 from the countries east of- the Caspian 
 these great and progressive streams of 
 human life pursued their Avay to their 
 destination can be traced by the linguis- 
 tic phenomena which they left in their 
 track, and the elimination of the great 
 family of men to which scholars have in 
 recent times given the name Aryan 
 from the remaining races has been com- 
 pletely effected. 
 
 It can but be of interest at this point 
 to state the linguistic facts upon which 
 What facts in the classification of man- 
 itnfet^iTar ^i^^ ^as been attempted. ' 
 conclusions. Jt is found that certain peo- 
 ples, like the Aryan family above defined, 
 speak dialects of a common language. 
 In general, they have a vocabulary and 
 a grammar in common. When we find 
 two peoples living in different and dis- 
 tant parts of the earth naming tlie objects 
 of sense and reflection with the same 
 words, and combining those words in 
 sentences under the same laws of gram- 
 matical and logical structure, wc are com- 
 
 pelled to conclude that the two languages 
 have had a common origin somewhere 
 in the past ; and if the languages have 
 thus arisen from a common source, the 
 two peoples who spoke them had also an 
 original tribal identity. This is exactly 
 the case with the great nations called 
 Aryan. The six branches of this vast 
 family of mankind, nameh-, the Indie, 
 the Iranic, the Hellenic, the Italic, the 
 Teutonic (including the Slavonic), and 
 the Celtic, are not only identified by the 
 laws of histor}', but also by the laws of 
 speech. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient 
 India, the Persic dialects of the plateau 
 of Iran, the different varieties of Greek 
 peculiar to Hellas and the . .^gean 
 islands, the Latin tongue of the West, 
 the various Teutonic languages, and the 
 Celtic, with its two or three derivatives, 
 have all. a fundamental linguistic iden- 
 tity. Their vocabulary as it respects 
 the primary objects of sense and the 
 common actions of life is virtually the 
 same in all. 
 
 More striking still are the fundamen- 
 tal peculiarities of their respective 
 grammars. The great fea- inflection the 
 ture of all these tongues ^^^rof aI/:" 
 is inflection. The varia- speech, 
 tions of thought as, for instance, num- 
 ber, gender, and case in nouns, mood 
 and tense in verbs, comparison in adjec- 
 tives and adverbs, are indicated by 
 terminational changes in the words of 
 the language, and these changes obey 
 the same laws and present the same 
 phenomena in all the speeches above 
 referred to. Only the student of lan- 
 guage can fully appreciate the striking 
 similarities which present themselves in 
 all branches of the Indo-luiropean, or 
 Aryan, tongues. It is as though we 
 should study a single language with 
 dialectical variations. And so indeed it 
 is. The original speech of all these peo-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 421 
 
 pies was one. Somewhere in the past 
 and somewhere on the surface of the 
 earth, before the era of tribal migration, 
 a family of men had, by reason and 
 experience, developed a language of the 
 inflectional variety, had given names to 
 the objects of nature and the concepts 
 of the mind, had defined by certain 
 words the actions and thoughts peculiar 
 to their volitions and imaginations. 
 
 The general result of this evolution 
 
 was the production of a great typical 
 
 speech, which was spoken 
 
 How languages , ,, ,, , . 
 
 are modified by by all the memberS' of 
 
 environment. ,-, , ■■, • ■, , -i 
 
 the tribe m its ancestral 
 home. From this region the migrations 
 began, and each band of emigrants 
 carried with them the ancestral speech. 
 As they entered into new relations with 
 nature and new experiences in life, 
 passing through belts of different cli- 
 mate, encountering new landscapes and 
 familiarizing themselves with new con- 
 ditions and environments, their tongues 
 began to modify the original language, 
 and to adapt it to the changing panorama 
 of nature and the varying concepts of 
 the mind. Generations went by. Differ- 
 ent regions of the earth were reached. 
 National developments ensued. But 
 still the fundamental identity of the 
 speech of all these peoples was main- 
 tained. So that in India, in Persia, in 
 Macedonia and Greece, in Italy, in the 
 forests of Northern Europe, and in the 
 outlying portions of Spain and Gaul 
 and Britain, the scholar of after times 
 discovers the broken, but clearly identi- 
 cal, fragments of a common language 
 once spoken by the ancestors of all these 
 peoples. Thus it is that the study of 
 language has furnished one of the surest 
 criteria by which to determine the ethnic 
 classification of mankind. 
 
 2. T/ie Semitic Race. — Follo^\'^ng this 
 same clue, we discover by means of lan- 
 
 guage another family of men, to which is 
 given the name of Semitic. Here we no- 
 tice the recurrence of the Semitic races 
 same term which was given ^y^t^^'^r/''" 
 us in the biblical ethnol- their languages, 
 ogy and repeated in the historical divi- 
 sion of the races. The linguistic inquirer 
 finds in the East a group of nations 
 speaking languages totally different in 
 structure and vocabulary from the Aryan 
 tongues above defined. The speech of 
 the Hebrews, the old Aramaeans, and the 
 Arabs is as distinct in its essential char- 
 acter from Sanskrit and Greek and Latin 
 as though it belonged to a wholly differ- 
 ent class of phenomena. The words of 
 the Semitic languages, instead of being 
 of all lengths as to syllables and letters, 
 consisted fundamentally of triliteral sym- 
 bols. Every word is essentially a word 
 of three letters and three only. These 
 constitute the skeleton, so to speak, of 
 the vocal symbol, and around this skele- 
 ton the vocalic elements are arranged. 
 
 Inflection is almost unknown to the 
 Semitic languages. The grammar of 
 these tongues is construct- contrast be- 
 ed upon a totally different ^irAryaTmlth- 
 principle from that of the °^^ °^ speech. 
 Aryan languages. Even the superficial 
 student of human speech must be struck 
 and astonished from the very first with 
 the essential difiference and contrast be- 
 tween the Semitic method of expressing 
 thought and the method of the Arj^an 
 peoples. It is from this distinction that 
 the linguistic inquirer has constructed 
 the classification of the Semitic races. 
 The Hebrews, the Aramaeans, and the 
 Arabs, with their derivatives in ancient 
 and modern times, are grouped by them- 
 selves, and are as certainly defined by 
 means of the langnages which they speak 
 or have spoken as they are clearty divid- 
 ed from the other nations in historic de- 
 velopment.
 
 422 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JIAXKLYD. 
 
 3. The Turaman Races. — The progress 
 of linguistic science has revealed another 
 Peculiarities of great group of languages, 
 Uie so-called differing entirely in struc- 
 
 Turanian Ian- » ■' 
 
 guages- tural character from the 
 
 two varieties above described. It is 
 found that in general the languages of 
 
 TUti^MAN TYPE — KIROIIKKZ I'ALCONKR. 
 Drawn by Dclort, from a pholugraph and descripuon. 
 
 the nomadic nations of Northern Asia 
 are monosyllabic. Tliey consisted origi- 
 nally of words of a single syllable, and 
 are never inflected. In order, however, to 
 
 express the necessary inflection of ideas 
 and to effect the construction of the 
 sentence, they adopted what is called 
 the agglutinative method of combina- 
 tion. That is, several monosyllables are 
 put in juxtaposition to express the com- 
 plex or compound notion which in the 
 Aryan languages would 
 be denoted by means of 
 inflectional terminations. 
 This feature of combin- 
 ing monosyllables in 
 long, compound expres- 
 sions, partly resembling 
 words and partly sen- 
 tences, is common to the 
 languages of nearly all 
 the nomadic nations of 
 the earth. 
 
 It is believed by schol- 
 ars that such languages 
 have not yet reached the 
 
 inflectional Features of ag- 
 Stage 01 ue- tongues ; mean- 
 
 velopment, »»£ of "tura." 
 and that, in obedience to 
 natural laws, they will 
 ultimately pass into a 
 form of structure similar 
 to that of the Aryan vo- 
 cabulary and grammar. 
 No example of such trans- 
 mutation, however, has 
 been noted in any quar- 
 ter of the world. The 
 agglutinative languages 
 hold fast to their original 
 character, and the peo- 
 pics who speak them 
 prefer to retain their te- 
 dious, periphi-astic meth- 
 ods of expression to the 
 adoption of the briefer and more elegant 
 inflectional forms of speech. Based on 
 these agglutinative dialects, the ethnic 
 classification of races has been extended to
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSHICA J/Ua . 423 
 
 include the great group called Turanian. 
 The word is derived from tura, "a 
 horseman," and has respect to the nation- 
 al habit of life peculiar to the semibar- 
 barous races of . .,rp,„^vjyy«j^-r^,g:;^„.^. 
 
 Northern Asia. ^ -'"' 
 
 In general, the 
 Turanian fam- 
 ily, as deter- 
 mined by the 
 peculiarities of 
 language, con- 
 forms with tol- 
 erable identity 
 to the Altaian 
 group of na- 
 tions as deter- 
 mined by his- 
 torical relation- 
 ships. 
 
 4. The Gan- 
 oiuanian Races. 
 — In addition to 
 the three major 
 divisions of 
 mankind thus 
 determined by 
 the evidence of 
 language, a 
 fourth division 
 has been sug- 
 gested to in- 
 clude the bar- 
 barian races of 
 theNew World; 
 and for this 
 branch of man- 
 kind the name 
 Gauowanianhas ^^ 
 been proposed ^ 
 by Pro f e ssor 
 Lewis H. ]\Ior- 
 gan, of the United .States. In the Seneca- 
 Iroquois dialects the word gano-zcano sig- 
 nifies " bow-and-arrow," and Professor 
 Morgan has seized upon this expression 
 
 as indicating the most universal charac- 
 teristic of the Indian races. They are, 
 and have always been, the wearers of 
 the bow. Just as the root ar has fur- 
 
 GANOWANIAN TYPES — UCAYLI INDIANS. 
 Drawn by P. Fritel. 
 
 nished to Max iliiller and other Euro- 
 pean scholars the hint for the ethnic 
 name Aryan, meaning the races of the 
 plow, lust as tura, meaning a horseman.
 
 424 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. 
 
 has furnished the root of the word Tu- 
 ranian, descriptive of the nomadic races 
 of Asia, so the word Gan- 
 
 The Ganowan- 
 
 lan, or bow-and- owanian may properly be 
 
 arrow, races. , j ^ j • i ii 
 
 employed to designate the 
 races of the bow and arrow. Ling-uis- 
 
 SEA NKGRO TYI'KS — NATIVKS Ol' DOUI'.Y. 
 Drawn hy P. SL-llicr, aflL-r a skctcli tif Duniunt cl'Urvillc. 
 
 tically considered, the various tongues 
 of the Indian family of men belong by 
 analogy to the same group with the 
 Turanian languages of A.sia. They 
 have the same peculiarities. They are 
 monosyllabic, and all c<;mplex and com- 
 
 pound ideas are expres.sed by the agglu- 
 tinative process ; that is, the mere jux- 
 taposition of one monos}'llable with 
 another, until the mind of the speaker 
 is satisfied with the modification. 
 
 IV. Geographical Ethnology. — We 
 have thus considered three of the 
 general methods which have been 
 adopted for classifving 
 
 ■■ . General theory 
 
 the human race into of geographical 
 
 „ ■ 1 • ,• ethnology. 
 
 Species and varieties. 
 Still another plan has been proposed 
 by a certain class of writers with a 
 view to the ethnic division of man- 
 kind. This we will now consider 
 as the fourth attempt to group the 
 different families of men according 
 to their origin and race descent. It 
 has appeared more feasible to many 
 inquirers to use geography as the 
 basis of a classification rather than 
 alleged affinities of blood or actual 
 identities of language. It has been 
 thought that for practical results the 
 arrangement of the human race ac- 
 cording to its continental distribu- 
 tion and its local developments 
 would be of greater value than the 
 somewhat theoretical analysis of 
 mankind according to linguistic 
 distinctions. The result has been 
 a more elaborate but less valuable 
 classification than by any of the 
 other methods. The plan in ques- 
 tion begins with a hy^^iothctical cen- 
 ter for the human race, located hr 
 the Indian ocean, west of Hindu- 
 stan. From this supposed origin 
 of mankind streams of ethnic de- 
 scent are carried shorewards from 
 Lcmuria until, touching the various 
 continents, they are defiectcd and dis- 
 tributed into all parts of the earth. 
 According to this scheme we have the 
 following results : 
 
 I. The Papuans, with their derivative
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF Tllli RACFS.—IITIINIC CLASSIFICATION. 425 
 
 suits by the geO' 
 
 graphical 
 
 method. 
 
 families of Negritos, Papuans propei% 
 Melancse, and Tasmanians. These 
 Summary of re- peoples, as their names 
 indicate, are distributed 
 in Malacca, the Philippine 
 islands, Papua, Melanesia, and Tas- 
 mania. 
 
 2. The Hottentots, with their two lead- 
 ing branches, the Hottentots j^roper 
 and the Bushmen, both inhabiting Cape- 
 land. 
 
 3. The Kaffirs, with their three divi- 
 sions, the Zulu-Kaffirs, the Bechuanas, 
 and the Congo Kaffirs, inhabiting re- 
 spectively the eastern, the central, and 
 the western districts of South Africa. 
 
 4. The Negroes, 
 with their four 
 principal divisions 
 of Tibbu Negroes, 
 Sudan Negroes, 
 Senegambians, 
 and Nigritians, 
 inhabiting the re- 
 gions indicated by 
 their respective 
 names. 
 
 5. The Austra- 
 lians, with the two 
 geographical 
 branches of North 
 
 Australians and South Australians. 
 
 6. The Malayans, with their three divi- 
 sions of Sundanese, Polynesians, and 
 Madagascans, the first two inhabiting 
 the Sunda archipelago and the Pacific is- 
 lands, and tlie latter the island of Mad- 
 agascar. 
 
 7. The Mongchans, with their three va- 
 rieties of Indo-ChinesBi Coreo-Japanese, 
 Altaians, and Uralians, the first belong- 
 ing to Thibet and China, the second to 
 Corea and Japan, the third to Central 
 and Northern Asia, and the fourth to 
 Northwestern Asia and Hungary in 
 
 Europe. 
 
 M.— Vol. I— 2S 
 
 8. The Arctics, with the two principal 
 divisions of Ilyperboreans and Esqui- 
 maux, belonging resjjcctively to North- 
 eastern Asia and Northeastern America. 
 
 9. The Americans, with four leading 
 divisions, the North Americans (In- 
 dians), Central Americans, South Amer- 
 icans, and Patagonians, distributed ac- 
 cording to their several ethnic nam^es. 
 
 10. The Dravidians, with two race de- 
 velopments, the Deccanese of India and 
 the Singalese of Ceylon. 
 
 1 1 . The Nubians, with their three va- 
 rieties, the Shangallas and Dongolese of 
 Nubia, and the Fulahs of Fulah. 
 
 12. The Mediterraneans, divided ac- 
 
 ESQUIMAU TYPES. 
 
 cording to this scheme into Caucasians, 
 Basques, Semites, and Indo-Europeans; 
 the first of these foiir being named from 
 the range of the Caucasus, the second 
 belonging to the northeastern portion of 
 Spain, the third being limited to Eastern 
 Europe and portions of Northern Africa, 
 and the Indo-European branch being 
 nearly coincident with the European 
 division of the Aryan race as defined in 
 the linguistic scheme above. 
 
 We thus have, according to the geo- 
 graphical scheme, no fewer than twelve 
 major divisions of human kind, repre- 
 sented by thirty-seven different races,
 
 426 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JMAXKIXD. 
 
 many of -which are in turn divided and 
 subdivided into various peoples and 
 tribes, according to their localities, lan- 
 guages, and ethnic peculiarities. 
 
 On the whole, this method of classifica- 
 tion according to the geographical basis is 
 Unsatisfactory less Satisfactory in its re- 
 sults than an}- of the others 
 presented. It assumes that 
 tribes of a given stock will, as a rule, mi- 
 
 character of gee. 
 graphical classi- 
 fication. 
 
 associated. A classification like the 
 above, Avhich places so old and radical a 
 stock as that of the Semites in the same 
 group with the Indo-European races, 
 lacks every element of accuracy, and 
 tends to perpetuate the worst vices of the 
 old system of ethnology. None the less, 
 such a division of mankind as that pre- 
 sented in the geographical scheme above 
 has its value when set in comparison and 
 
 NUBIAN BOY— TYPE. -Drawn by rshmaci Ccntz. 
 
 grate in ♦he same direction and occui)y 
 the same territories. It is based upon the 
 hypothesis that an aggregation of peo- 
 ples in any given part of the world is of 
 itself Sl. proof of a common race descent. 
 On the contrary, it is well known that in 
 many parts of the world races and tribes 
 of men, as wide apart as the poles in 
 their ethnic affinities, are geographically 
 
 parallelism with other and more rational 
 ethnic classifications. 
 
 V. SciKNTiFic Ethnology. — In the 
 schemes of race descent thus far pre- 
 sented the linguistic plan Elements of un- 
 
 of division most nearly ^^31":^"^ 
 approaches a scientific ba- of race division. 
 sis. There are in the same, however, 
 certain unscientific conditions that must
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETIIXIC CLASSIFICATION. 427 
 
 be eliminated before the division of the 
 human race by language only could be 
 accepted as a finality. One of these con- 
 ditions is the patent fact that a people of 
 a given ethnic origin may, in the vicissi- 
 titdes of history, adopt a speech other 
 than its own, and thus be thrown in a 
 classification very different from that to 
 which it really belongs. 
 
 Several instances might be cited in 
 which this phenomenon has actually 
 
 and probability of error in classifying by 
 means of language only. 
 
 But there are other means of a more 
 strictly scientific character which may be 
 employed in classifying the possibility of 
 divisions of the human tll^^lJZl,^ 
 
 variations in 
 
 race. Differences or identi- f°"^- 
 ties in anatomical structure, persistently 
 transmitted from generation to genera- 
 tion, constitute a valid evidence of eth- 
 nic divergence or relationship. The 
 stature of a given people is generally 
 uniform. The men are of a uniform 
 height, and so are the women. In this 
 respect the different families of man- 
 kind have presented remarkable varia- 
 
 Dolicocephalic skull. Brachycephalic skulL 
 
 CRANIAL CONFIGURATION, SHOWING VARIATIONS IN HUMAN FORM. 
 
 presented itself. At times the conquer- 
 ing race absorbs the language of the 
 conquered people, and, in such a case, 
 siibsequent investigation would be put 
 at fault if the linguistic affinity of the 
 people were accepted as the sole criterion 
 of its race relationship. The conspicu- 
 ous modern example of the Normans, 
 who abandoned their own Teutonic 
 speech and adopted French as their ver- 
 nacular, carrying the same with them 
 into England, and effecting in the Eng- 
 lish language a permanent modification 
 by the infusion therein of linguistic ele- 
 ments which they had borrowed from 
 another people, is sufficiently well known, 
 and completely establishes the possibility 
 
 tions. Some approximate the stature ol 
 giants, and others of pygmies. The pro- 
 portions of the skeletons likewise con- 
 stitute a fair basis of distinction between 
 people of one race and those of another. 
 The character of the hands and the feet, 
 the length and proportion of the arm 
 bones and the legs, the particular figure 
 of the chest, and especially the facial 
 angle, are peculiarities Avhich may well 
 be employed in a scientific way in dis- 
 tinguishing people of one race descent 
 from those of another. 
 
 ilore especially the figure and capac- 
 ity of the skull are typical, each family 
 of men having a cranial configuration 
 and development peculiar to itself.
 
 428 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Careful investigations have shown the 
 limits of these variations, and have de- 
 Crania and termined those features of 
 ofdeteT^^rnr ^^^ skull and brain which 
 race. are distinctive of several 
 races of men. The hair of the head, 
 likewise, has furnished a distinguishing 
 mark in different peoples. It is found 
 that the hair in different races ranges 
 all the way from a woolly fiber, present- 
 ing a triangular section and having its 
 vital channel on the exterior surface, to 
 the straight, tubular filament which 
 constitutes the head covering of some of 
 the superior races. Between these ex- 
 tremes are all varieties of capillary for- 
 mation. These varieties are found to 
 
 I'AMAN IVIK, SIIOWINC CklSl' HAIK. 
 
 be persistent from generation to genera- 
 tion and from century to century. Spec- 
 imens of human hair recovered from the 
 
 granite crj-pts of Egypt, where they 
 were laid more than two thousand years 
 before our era, exhibit the same pecul- 
 
 \- f>: ■ '^ 
 
 iQ 
 
 
 AMERICAN INDIAN TYPE, SHOWING STRAIGHT HAIR. 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 iarities and diversities of structure as are 
 found on the heads of living races. Such 
 specific differences in the external cov- 
 ering of the skull may well be used in a 
 scientific way as a mark or criterion by 
 which the different families of mankind 
 may be discriminated the one from the 
 other. 
 
 The human skin also has its particu- 
 lar features and peculiarities, unlike in 
 the different tvpcs of man- 
 
 Color of the skin 
 
 kind. Tliis is said more a true test of 
 
 ..^1 1 /..I > r^c ethnic affinity. 
 
 particularly of the color. Of 
 all the features with respect to which 
 men differ in physiological constitution 
 the pigmentary character of -the cttticle 
 is perhaps the most marked, invariable, 
 and persistent. This fact has been se- 
 lected by many ethnographers as the 
 best consideration from which to frame 
 :i scheme of division for the human 
 species. It is found that the different 
 races have different colored skins; that 
 a given race is sufficiently uniform in its 
 hue; that the color once determined, is 
 persistent, reproducing itself from age to 
 age, and being recognizable even a%er 
 thousands of years as belonging to a cer- 
 tain species. Why not, therefore, adopt 
 the color of the body as the most marked
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIITCATION. 429 
 
 and invariable characteristic by which to 
 distinguish the ethnic classification of 
 the various peoples? 
 
 Such a principle of division appears to 
 
 be in every wise scientific. The color 
 
 of the skin is a physical fact 
 
 Bcientific classi- *■ . 
 
 ficationmaybe in naturc, and its invaria- 
 
 made from color. , . , . ^ . 
 
 biuty in a given species 
 assures the constancy of the fact and 
 furnishes a guarantee against error. ^^ 
 anomalous depar- 
 tures from the 
 given standard of 
 color need be ex- 
 pected except in 
 the case of indi- 
 viduals, and such 
 exceptions would 
 in no wise disturb 
 the regularity of 
 the law. More- 
 over, the other 
 sources of infor- 
 mation, the other 
 bases of division 
 of the human fam- 
 ily, may well be 
 used as auxiliary 
 to the truly scien- 
 tific classification 
 of mankind by 
 means of color. 
 All that is known 
 historically of the different races, all 
 that is known of the various branches 
 of the human family as determined by 
 means of the languages which they 
 speak, may be brought to bear upon the 
 problem to rectify and amend whatever 
 may be suspected of error in the classi- 
 fication by means of color. 
 
 Such a method of division has been 
 many times attempted by scholars, but 
 until recently the results have been 
 variable and uncertain. The reason of 
 this is found in the imperfect observa- 
 
 fi Sources of for- 
 ;, mer error in thi8 
 method of clas- 
 
 tion which has first been given to the 
 question. What are the different colors 
 presented on the coverin 
 of the bodies of men 
 What primary or secondary sifying. 
 hues are really characteristic of the hu- 
 man skin in different races and coun- 
 tries? Error in deciding these questions 
 has been at the bottom of all diversity 
 in n-sults. 
 
 MGRIIIAN TYPES, SHOWINC WOOLLY HAIR. 
 DrawnTjy Madame Paule Crampel. 
 
 It appears strange to the thoughtful 
 inquirer of the present day that so little 
 accuracy has been displayed by those 
 who have attempted to note and de- 
 scribe the different natural colors of the 
 human skin. It will readily be allowed 
 that an examination of the Avhole race 
 now occupying the earth will discover 
 nearl}' all colors and shades of color, 
 from one extreme of the spectrum to 
 another; but a very casual examina- 
 tion will show that these various tints 
 are reducible to a few, and these to
 
 430 
 
 GREAT RACES OF 3TANKTXD. 
 
 still fewer primary pigmentar}- distinc- 
 tions. 
 
 The great error made by those eth- 
 nographers who have attempted to use 
 color of the skin as a basis 
 
 Only three pri- -n,- ^ i 
 
 mary colors of of classification lias been 
 the human skin. ■ ^^ • , a- 
 
 m allowing too many dis- 
 tinctions of tint. Inability on their part 
 to generalize the facts, and to reduce the 
 
 ENGLISH TYPE (MRS. blUDUNS), blluWlNtJ WAVY HAIR. 
 
 different hues to a few radical distinc- 
 tions, has been the fruitful source of all 
 inaccuracy and confusion. The first 
 classifications attempted on this basis 
 of color resulted in multiplying rather 
 than in simplifying the classification of 
 the human race. According to these 
 first efforts there were white men, yel- 
 low men, olivc-colorcd men, red men, 
 
 orange-colored men, copper-colored men, 
 brown men, black men, and many other 
 slighter distinctions which tended to 
 confuse rather than to establish a scien- 
 tific division. All this turned upon in- 
 accuracy of perception. It is the feature 
 of modern inquiry that the sense-percep- 
 tion with which it begins has become 
 constantly more accurate and penetrating 
 in recent times. It is now 
 clearly perceived that there 
 are by no means so many 
 fundamental colors to be 
 recognized as the distin- 
 guishing characteristics of 
 the different races. On the 
 contrary, there are but few. 
 Without passing through all 
 stages of the inquiiy, it is 
 sufficient to say that the 
 very best scrutiny' of the 
 actual facts shows that there 
 are only tlircc primary colon 
 peculiar to the huiitan body ; 
 and that these colors are 
 ruddy, black, and brown. 
 From these fundamental 
 and characteristic tints of 
 the human skin all the 
 other varieties are easily 
 derived, and to them all 
 minor distinctions are read- 
 ily referred. 
 
 What, then, is the tnie 
 nature of these three fun- 
 damental colors peculiar to 
 the races of mankind? It 
 will be noted that the term ivhitc is 
 rejected. This is done The term ruddy 
 for the sufficient reason ;^,^iteintM/°' 
 that there are not now treatise. 
 and never were any tribes of people 
 on tlic earth to whom the term white 
 could properly be applied. The fairest- 
 skinned specimens of the human race 
 are very far from white. He who has
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 431 
 
 not himself looked candidly and care- 
 fully at the fact here referred to must 
 needs be surprised to note how great the 
 error is in describing the color of any 
 people as -vhite. The races that have 
 been recognized as white are in reality 
 rtiddy in color, and approach much more 
 nearly to the standard 
 of red than the Indian 
 peoples, who have been 
 erroneously defined as 
 red men. 
 
 The so-called Cauca- 
 sians, for instance, who 
 perhaps present the skin 
 in its fairest tint, are 
 truly a ruddy people. 
 The peculiarity of the 
 skin is its transparency 
 and the consequent rev- 
 elation of the blood in 
 the capillaries. The red 
 tinge of the blood is 
 thus discernible 
 through the cuticle, and 
 the flush of color, slight- 
 er or more emphatic, is 
 itlways ruddy in its char- 
 ftcter. The peoples hav- 
 ing this quality of skin 
 tU'e the bh(sJdn^ races. 
 With every varying de- 
 gree of excitement the 
 blood appears or re- 
 cedes in the skin at the 
 surface, giving a deeper 
 or paler tinge to the 
 body. But imder no 
 conditions can the skin be said to be 
 white. The fairest in- 
 born into the 
 
 to disabuse the judgment of the be« 
 holder. The term white, therefore, aa 
 one of the definitive epithets descriptive 
 of the color of the human race, must be 
 rejected, and its place be taken with the 
 more accurate term ruddy. We thus 
 have in a scientific classification of maU' 
 
 ever 
 
 No races may be 
 properly defined failt 
 
 ^^ ^' world, even when bloodless 
 
 and cold in death, is so far from being 
 white that a really white object placed 
 alongside of the skin furnishes a con- 
 trast so striking as at once and forever 
 
 THE RUDDY TYPE — PAUL CRAMPEL. 
 Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. 
 
 kind based on the distinction of color, 
 first of all : 
 
 I. The Ruddy Races. — It is found 
 when this distinction of color is applied to 
 the great facts tinder consideration that 
 the larger part of the historical nations of 
 the earth come under the classification 
 of ruddy. The great races who first
 
 432 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 redeemed the world from barbarism 
 were of this color. It is quite certain 
 that those strong and heroic peoples who 
 What races may appear in the remote hori- 
 "^llfl zon of the primitive world 
 "iddy. were ruddy in their 
 
 complexions. Speaking from a biblical 
 point of view, all three of the Noachite 
 
 THE IIROVVN TYI'K — MISTRKSS SKNKI. 
 Drawn by E. Ronjai. 
 
 races, with their several divisions, had 
 complexions of this hue. This is true 
 alike of Hamites, Semites, and Japheth- 
 itcs. The long prevalent notion that 
 the Ilamitcs were a black race, corre- 
 sponding roughly to what we call 
 African, in modern history, is utterly 
 untenable. They had, on the contrary, 
 the same general complexion — some- 
 
 what intensified by the scorching sun of 
 the climates in which they were for the 
 most part developed — with the cognate 
 races of Shem and Japheth. Or, if we 
 speak from the historical point of view, 
 we shall find the same indications of the 
 fundamental identity in color of the 
 early races who developed civilization in 
 the earth. The Indo-Europeans 
 were all ruddy in complexion. 
 From the foothills of the Him- 
 alayas across the table-lands of Per- 
 sia into Ionia and Macedonia and 
 Greece and Italy and the " isles of 
 the gentiles " the same fundamen- 
 tal race complexion is discover- 
 able. Likewise, the Semites and 
 the Hamitic races, noted from the 
 historical point of view, are found 
 to be of the same bodily color. 
 Language contributes its evidence 
 also to establish the same general 
 fact as to the complexion of the 
 Indo-Euroi^ean and other Noachite 
 families of men. They were all 
 ruddy, and the hint in Genesis of 
 the rcd-carih color of the Adamite 
 would seem to be justified by the 
 facts observable in several of the 
 principal divisions of the human 
 family. 
 
 II. The Brown Races. — The 
 second fundamental division of 
 mankind determined on the line of 
 color is by the broicii complexion, 
 which characterizes many of the 
 leading races. It will be observed 
 from the selection of this hue that many 
 varieties of color may be referred there- 
 to. Several shades of yel- „ , . , 
 
 •' General aualysl» 
 
 low and of red may be cor- of the Brown 
 rcctly carried back into a 
 fundamental brown, which is the com- 
 posite of black with one of the two tints 
 referred to. Careful observation will 
 show that this is the actual color of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ILTIIXIC CLASSIFICATION. 433 
 
 great races of Northern and Eastern 
 Asia, as well as of all the aborigines of 
 the two Americas and Polynesia. As 
 the major division of these races we 
 may cite : 
 
 1. 'YYiQ Asiatic Mongoloids, correspond- 
 ing in general terms with the Mon- 
 golian race indicated by historical in- 
 quiry, or with the two divisions of the 
 Turanians according to the linguistic 
 division. 
 
 2. The Polynesian Mongoloids, or the 
 peoples scattered through the islands of 
 the South Pacific, with the exception of 
 the Melanesians and the Australians. 
 
 3. The Dravidians, or the Deccanese 
 and the people of the Micronesian is- 
 lands north and east of Australia. 
 
 III. The Black Races. — It is clear, 
 on an examination of the facts, that 
 „^ ^ many of the peoples, 
 
 The four groups ^ . 
 
 of the Black even the primitive races 
 distributed in portions of 
 the Avorld lying in the equatorial re- 
 gions, are properly defined as Black. 
 The pigmentar)^ deposit under the cuti- 
 cle is of such a character as to absorb all 
 or the greater portion of the rays of 
 light, and to return to the eye only that 
 negative sensation which we define as 
 blackness. The line of chromatic division 
 between these races of Black men and 
 those who were defined as Brown, is that 
 under the cuticle of the skin of the latter 
 peoples a certain percentage of coloring 
 matter is combined with the black pig- 
 ment, producing the various shades of 
 color known as brown. 
 
 This characteristic difference between 
 the two colors is constant, and tends to 
 perpetuate itself by the physiological 
 law called "reversion to the original 
 type." This is to say that in a contact 
 of the various races. Black and Brown 
 and Ruddy, and in their intermingling 
 of blood, there is a tendency for one or the 
 
 other of the elements of ethnic constitu- 
 tion to declare itself and become domi- 
 nant over the rest. Given a sufficient 
 lapse of time, and these intermediate 
 varieties return to the one or the other of 
 the original types from which they are 
 derived. Geographically speaking, the 
 Black races are distributed throughout 
 the larger part of Africa and through 
 the whole of Australia and that portion 
 of the Pacific archipelago called Melane- 
 sia. These are the limits of the natural 
 dispersion of the Black races. The eth- 
 nic divisions of this third primary family 
 of men are : 
 
 1 . The Negroes, who occupy the larger 
 band of Central Africa from east to west, 
 and are also distributed through a great 
 portion of the southern division of the 
 continent. 
 
 2. The Australians, occupying all of 
 Central and .Southern Australia, except 
 the coast region on the east and north. 
 
 3. The Hottentots, distributed through 
 the larger part of the southern extrem- 
 ity of Africa. 
 
 4. The Papuans, occupying the island 
 of New Guinea, the nortliern and eastern 
 maritime districts of Australia, the is- 
 land of Tasmania, and, in general, the 
 Melanesian archipelago. 
 
 The foregoing classification of the hu- 
 man race on the scientific method and 
 by the distinction of color is, perhaps, as 
 nearly a satisfactory solution of the prob- 
 lem as can be given in the otter plans of 
 present state of knowledge. beTa^oS^d" 
 The three distinctions of with this. 
 Ruddy, Brown, and Black races are 
 fundamental. They are broad enough 
 to include the whole race of man, with 
 its multiform developments in ancient 
 and modern times. The classification is 
 sufficiently ample to embrace in its major 
 and minor divisions all the races and 
 peoples which have been distinguished
 
 434 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 from each other by means of historical 
 and ling^uistic inquiry. It is easy to con- 
 form to this plan of division all the others 
 that have been suggested, and to make 
 them consistent with the wider and more 
 scientific scheme. Thus, for instance, 
 the biblical race of Japheth, the histori- 
 cal divisions of mankind called Indo- 
 
 THE BLACK TYPE — NEGRO MAKUTULU. 
 Drawn by Riou. 
 
 European, the ethnic branches of men 
 called Aryan in the linguistic clas.sifica- 
 tion, all fall under the common designa- 
 tion of Ruddy races. With these are 
 grouped by means of the same color 
 distinction the Semitic families of men, 
 and also the Hamitic divisions. These 
 ten races taken together con.stitute the 
 whole group, ^hich may be defined by 
 the tciTU Ruddy and considered as of a 
 primary, common descent. 
 
 In the second place, the widely dis- 
 seminated Brown races, covering nearly 
 the whole of Asia, the 
 
 GeneraJ distrl- 
 
 two great continents of the butionof the 
 West, and the greater part 
 of Polynesia, may be grouped together 
 on the line of color and considered as a 
 common family in its origin and race 
 descent. It will be the purpose in 
 the following pages of the present 
 book to trace out the lines of the 
 great tribal and race divergencies 
 and migrations which in the lapse 
 of ages have carried these Brown 
 peoples over by far the largest dis- 
 tricts of the earth. It will be un- 
 derstood, of course, that the race 
 classification of the peoples of the 
 two Americas as here presented re- 
 lates to the original peoples of these 
 continents, and not to the Indo- 
 European nations that have taken 
 possession of them in recent times 
 by migration and conquest. 
 
 The third general division as indi- 
 cated in this analysis on the basis of 
 color has already been pointed out 
 in its ethnic and geographical dis- 
 tribution. No branch of the Black 
 races has of its own motion crossed 
 the equator of the earth to a point 
 higher than the twentieth degree of 
 north latitude. It will be found in 
 the subsequent chapters of this 
 book that the dispersion of this divi- 
 sion of mankind was by means of a west- 
 ward sti-eam flowing in from „ ,_ 
 
 '^ Outline of the 
 
 Eastern Africa and spread- dispersion of the 
 
 . . Blacks. 
 
 ing m many branches 
 through all those parts of the continent 
 between the equatorial region and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, while the eastern 
 stream bore off by way of Southern Hin- 
 dustan into the great, closely distributed 
 islands lying to the .south of Asia. It is be- 
 lieved that suiificient is now known of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NO A CHI TE DISPERSION. 435 
 
 movements of the Black races to delin- 
 eate their tribal divergencies and mi- 
 grations with tolerable certainty, and 
 although much will remain to be rectified 
 and amended by subsec^uent investiga- 
 tions, something may be at present ad- 
 vanced to enlarge the borders of com- 
 mon knowledge relative to this the least 
 known and least progressive of the great 
 divisions of mankind. 
 
 From these considerations and others 
 that may be readily deduced therefrom, 
 Maiikind to be jt has been determined to 
 
 dividea into 
 
 Ruddy races, employ in the present work 
 
 Brown races, ., . ^.~ ,i i • 
 
 and Black races, the Scientific method in 
 classifying the different races of men, 
 and to use the color of the body as the 
 fundamental fact in considering the 
 scheme of division. In all the sub- 
 sequent parts of the present work, in 
 
 the description of the migrations of the 
 primitive tribes and families of men, in 
 the delineation of manners and customs, 
 and the peculiarities of national develop- 
 ment which will in great measure fill 
 up the body of the work, it is purposed 
 to keep always in mind this fundamental 
 division of mankind into, I. RuDDY 
 Races; II. Browx R^\ces; III. Black 
 Races; with their manifest divisions 
 into the three branches, Hamite, Semite, 
 and Aryan in the first; three divi- 
 sions of Asiatic Mongoloids, Polynesian 
 Mongoloids, and Dravidians, in the 
 second; and four branches, Negroes, 
 Australians, Hottentots, and Papuans, in 
 the third. These ten race classes of man- 
 kind will constitute the basis of much 
 of the discussion in the present and the 
 succeedinsr volumes. 
 
 Chapter XXIV.— Noachite Dispersion Consid- 
 ered. 
 
 |0 far as the present re- 
 sources of human 
 knowledge have indi- 
 cated the primary seat 
 and early movements 
 |J of the Ruddy races of 
 mankind, the same be- 
 gan on the north shores of the western 
 gulf of the Indian ocean. The scene of 
 this important primitive aspect of the 
 race was probably in the southern part 
 of Beluchistan, eastward from the Per- 
 sian gulf. When these statements are 
 made the whole of our knowledge on the 
 subject may be said to 
 ^he Adamrt^s. ^^^ve been delivered. His- 
 tory knows little besides of 
 the time or the advent of this primary 
 stream of human existence; but it can 
 nardlv be doubted that this is the real 
 
 seat of the Adamite and his descendants. 
 Ethnologists have generally been dis- 
 posed to go further, to trace backwards the 
 stream of this division of the race to the 
 shores of ocean, and thence to carry it 
 by hypothesis far out into the so-called 
 Lemuria, a supposed submerged region 
 in the bed of the Indian ocean. 
 
 On the theory that the Black, the 
 Brown, and the Ruddy races of man- 
 kind have all had a single 
 
 , . . - . Apparent point 
 
 ancestral origin, there is of origin forau 
 some ground for such a ^®'^®^' 
 hypothesis. The first tribes of Black 
 men appear to have struck the continent 
 of Africa from the east. In like manner 
 the Brown races seem to have touched 
 the continent on the coast line eastward 
 of the Persian gulf ; while the ancestors 
 of the Australians and Papuans appear
 
 436 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 to have reached their destination from 
 the northwest. Thus the observer, stand- 
 ing- on the -western shore of India, the 
 eastern shore of Africa, or the southern 
 shore of Beluchistan, would seem to see 
 the tliree major divisions of mankind ap- 
 proaching from the deep, as if from some 
 common origin under the sea. 
 
 Nor has tradition been wholly silent in 
 witnessing to such a primeval movement 
 Berosusre- of the race landwards from 
 
 of theUa^go.T'' t^is ^^^- One of the oldest 
 Oan. traditions on record is pre- 
 
 served in a fragment of Berosus, and 
 indicates the ocean origin, not only of 
 
 the day with men. But he took no nour- 
 ishment, and at sunset went again into 
 the sea, and there remained for the 
 nisrht. This animal taught men Ian- 
 guage and science, the harvesting of 
 seeds and fruits, the rules for the bound- 
 aries of land, the modes of building 
 cities and temples, arts, and writing, 
 and all that pertains to civilization." 
 
 In the fifth chapter of the book of 
 Genesis we have an account of the Adamic 
 race from the beginning down to the 
 Deluge. This space is occupied with 
 ten successive patriarchs and their ex- 
 panding families. To these great 
 
 LANUSCAl'E OV THE NOACHITE DISPERSION.— Dender-Dilem.— Drawn by Taylor, after a sketch o( liuussay. 
 
 the arts, but of man himself, A portion 
 of the storj' is as follows : 
 
 "Then there appeared to them from 
 the sea, on the shore of Babylonia, a fear- 
 ful animal of the name of Oan. His 
 body was that of a fi.sh, but under the 
 fish's head another head was attached, 
 and on the fins were feet like those of a 
 man, and he had a man's voice. The 
 image of the creature is still preserved. 
 The animal came at morning, and passed 
 
 longevity is attributed, and the nar- 
 rative indicates in various „ , , ^ 
 
 Outline In Gen- 
 
 ways the rapid tribal de- esisofthe 
 
 , .p.-, Ti Adaujic races, 
 
 velopment of the race, it 
 
 will be noted also by a comparison of the 
 
 fifth chapter with the fourth that, two 
 
 parallel lines of descent are recorded, 
 
 the one through Cain, and the other 
 
 througli Reth. "For," .said Eve, "God 
 
 hath appointed me another seed instead 
 
 of Abel, whom Cain slew."
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 437 
 
 The Adamic descendants are traced in 
 the fourth chapter down to the children 
 of Adah and Zilkih, tlie two wives of 
 Lamech; that is, to Jabal, "the father 
 of such as dwell in tents and such as 
 have cattle;" to Jubal, "the father of 
 all such as handle the harp and organ;" 
 and to Tubal-cain, "an instructor of ev- 
 ery ai'tificer in brass and iron." Here 
 the narrative ends, and the other branch 
 of the Adamites, that is, the descendants 
 of Seth, are taken up, down to Noah, the 
 son of Lamech. The recurrence of 
 common names in both lines of descent 
 introduces a good deal of confusion, but 
 the line of Seth, considered by itself, is 
 straight through ten generations. 
 
 The Hebrew narrative of the Adamite 
 and his posterity to the Deluge is here 
 Value of the cited in part because of its 
 ^ZT^Z striking parallelism with 
 chaidseans. the sccular tradition 
 handed down by Berosus. This cele- 
 brated ancient author Avas a priest of 
 Bel, at Babylon, and ilourished there in 
 the first half of the third century before 
 our era. He was a native of the coun- 
 try and well acquainted with its earlier 
 and later history. He knew as well as 
 one might know in an uncritical and 
 credulous age the annals not only of the 
 later Babylonian empire, but also of the 
 older Chaldcean dominion which had 
 been established on the lower Euphrates 
 in the very earliest stages of human 
 history. 
 
 In that part of his work devoted to 
 the chronology of the Chaldogan king- 
 Ten chaidee dom, Berosus describes the 
 mythical kings; 
 conformity to epocli bcforc the flood ; for, 
 
 scheme. like the Hebrew author 
 
 of Genesis, he has an account of a uni- 
 versal deluge of waters, through which 
 a single great captain named Xisuthrus, 
 with his family, came safely in a ship 
 and descended from a mountain, to re- 
 
 people the earth. To the antedeluvian 
 era Berosus also assigns a dynasty of 
 ten kings. To these reigns of fabulous 
 duration are given the ten eons of their 
 dominion, being as follows: 
 
 Vcare. 
 
 1. .'Vlorus, a ChakUt-an, who reigned'. 36,000 
 
 2. Aloparus, son of Alorus, who reigned. . . 10,800 
 
 3. Aimelon.anativeofSippara, who reigned. 46,800 
 
 4. Ammenon, a Chaldsan, who reigned .... 43,200 
 
 5. Amegalarus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 
 
 6. Daonus, of Sippara, who reigned 36,000 
 
 7. Edorankhus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 
 
 8. Amempsinus, a Chaltlaean, who reigned 36,000 
 
 9. Otiartes, a Chaldaj.in, who reigned 28,000 
 
 10. Xisuthrus, the Chaldajan Noah, who 
 
 reigned 64,800 
 
 A total of ten kings, reigning 431,20a 
 
 The general conformity of these two 
 schemes of ethnic descent must be pat- 
 ent at a glance. The ChaldcX-an and the 
 Hebrew accounts of this dim age of an 
 ancestral race agree in the important 
 consideration of ten successive patri- 
 archical kingships. It is easy to observe 
 the more moderate conception and out- 
 line of the Hebrew scheme of descent and 
 longevity, and the wild extravagance of 
 the ChaldEean tradition. But the pattern 
 and outline of the progress of the race 
 are alike in both, and in either case this 
 line of long-lived mythical rulers ends 
 with a righteous captain, whose virtue 
 and wisdom, in the wickedness of his 
 surroundings, enable him to go safely 
 through the waters of a deluge and re- 
 people a new world on the hither side 
 of the catastrophe. 
 
 The identity of the two narratives in 
 
 their essential spirit and leading features 
 
 can hardly be doubted. We 
 
 The headmen 
 
 thus see in the maritime oftheAdamita 
 parts of Beluchfstan, at a 
 time almost unimaginably remote, even 
 from the standpoint of the oldest histo- 
 rians who have attempted to trace the 
 course and development of mankind.
 
 438 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXn. 
 
 the apparition of a ruddy race of men 
 expanding through a mythical age of 
 unknown duration, and entering at least 
 three stages of civilizing activity. Jabal 
 was the "father of such as dwell in 
 tents and of such as have cattle." This 
 is manifestly an outline of the begin- 
 ning of the pastoral life which occupied 
 so large a part in the subsequent his- 
 tory of the races of Western Asia. Ju- 
 
 instruments as have pleased the senses 
 of men in all subsequent ages with the 
 concord of sweet sounds. 
 
 To the same epoch, or a little later, in 
 the tribal evolution, is assigned Tubal- 
 cain. He is represented as Question of the 
 a worker in brass and iron, fu'^gy "fth'^^*^' 
 Very notable is the fact Semites, 
 that the composite metal brass is here 
 mentioned as the material of the earliest 
 
 THE FATHERS OF "SUCH AS DWELL IN TENTS"— OLD SEMITIC TYPES. 
 
 bal, the brother of Jabal, is represented 
 as being the "father of all such as 
 handle the harp and the organ." From 
 this we are to infer that at least the 
 musical branches of art made their ap- 
 pearance in the East contemporaneou.sly 
 with the development of the pastoral 
 life. The makers of tents and the 
 keepers of flocks and herds discovered 
 harmony, and became the makers of such 
 
 metal work of the Adamites, Iron also 
 is named as the other substance in which 
 Tubal-cain and his succes.sors became 
 proficient as workmen. It would ai:)pear 
 in accord with right reason that both of 
 these names of the metals are errone- 
 ously deduced from some original which 
 has been misunderstood in translation. 
 The primitive men could hardly have 
 begun as workers in brass, since the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACIIITE DISPERSION. 439 
 
 copper and zkic of which it is composed 
 must first have been employed and the 
 ratio of their combination discovered 
 before brass could have an existence. 
 Moreover, the extraction of iron from 
 the matrix is a process so difficult and so 
 late in the order of metallic discovery 
 ■that, as we have already seen in another 
 part of this work, it follows and does 
 not precede the discovery of copper, of 
 tin, of the precious metals, and, indeed, 
 of nearly all the other metallic ele- 
 rients common to the surface of the 
 '.artli. 
 
 At the close of this Adamite period in 
 
 i\\e history of the Ruddy race we come 
 
 to that ofreat catastrophe, 
 
 Dissemination .^ . 
 
 Of traditions of the Deluge of waters. In 
 e uge. respect to this event tradi- 
 
 tion was busy throug-hout the primitive 
 world. Among almost every people 
 there was a mythical reminiscence of a 
 flood by which their ancestors were 
 destroyed from the earth. The diluvian 
 legend generally assigned the wickedness 
 of the race as a cause of its overthrow. 
 The tradition of such a visitation always 
 presented itself most emphatically in 
 countries so situated as to be subject to 
 inundations. Perhaps the greatest seat 
 of such a belief was in the valleys of 
 the Lower Ettphrates and Tigris. It 
 was from this region that the Hebrew 
 account of the Deluge was transmitted by 
 Abraham and his posterity to the west,, 
 and there recorded in the annals of that 
 people. At the same time a like tradi- 
 tion was handed down among the 
 Chaldseans, and at a later epoch in 
 history was repeated and modified by 
 the Assyrian seers, on the Upper Tigris. 
 The story of Deucalion and his survival 
 of the Deluge was rife among the primi- 
 tive Greeks, and other primeval nations 
 had like accounts of a like disaster. 
 To this general dissemination of the 
 
 belief in a deluge of waters by which 
 the race of man was swept away, the 
 ancient l'>gyptians furnish whytheEgyp- 
 a remarkable exception. ^SnXth 
 Their legends and mythol- tradition, 
 ogy furnish no account of any such 
 event, cither in the primitive or later 
 ages of their country. It is easy to see 
 in this fact the action and reaction of 
 natural and suiDcrnatural elements in the 
 primitive history of a people. The Nile 
 is, perhaps, the only river in the world 
 whose swellings and fallings obey a 
 certain law, the knowledge of waich 
 secures the inhabitants of the valley 
 from disastrous consequences. The 
 regularity of the coming and the reces- 
 sion of the waters furnishes a guarantee 
 against all harm. A curse is thus con- 
 verted into a blessing; and the river 
 becomes, instead of an object of dread 
 and superstition, an object of reverence 
 and worship ! The uniformity of nature 
 stood guard over the welfare of the 
 people who built the pyramids, and even 
 if a prehistoric deluge had occurred be- 
 fore the civilized development of the 
 Egyptian race, the tradition of it would 
 have perished in the presence of the 
 future beneficent conduct of the great 
 river. In other valleys of the East 
 irregularity rather than uniform flood 
 and subsidence was the law, and where- 
 ever, as a result, disaster on many oc- 
 casions and from natural causes must 
 necessarily have ensued to the people 
 living on the river banks, the tradition 
 of a great catastrophe overwhelming all 
 would be perpetuated and handed down 
 as a distinct and memorable crisis in the 
 past history of the world. 
 
 However this may be, we find a 
 remarkable conformity between the 
 Chaldasan and the Hebrew account of 
 the disaster by which the race of man was 
 swept away at the close of the Adamite
 
 440 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 era. The ^vell-kno\vn narrative of the 
 Deluge given in the seventh chapter of 
 the Book of Genesis need not be here 
 General bar- repeated. Nor is it desir- 
 
 mony ot Glial- . . ^, , 
 
 daeanandHe- able to recount in full the 
 of the^flood!^'^^ story of the flood as recorded 
 by the ancient Chaldasans and Assyr- 
 ians. The principal features of the 
 
 destroy the world by a flood. The great 
 
 captain was ordered to bury the records 
 of his country in Sippara and to embark 
 in a ship, with his kindred and friends. 
 He was also directed to take into the ark 
 with him all manner of living creatures. 
 When everything was completed and the 
 ship, nine thousand feet in length, was 
 
 Ml;SOI"OTAMIAN LANDSCAPE.— View of Mossul.— Prawn by K. Kl.iiulin. 
 
 latter, however, will serve to show the 
 fundamental identity of the three prin- 
 cipal narratives of the Deluge. The 
 Chaldccan and Assyrian accounts differ 
 in tliis, that the latter assigns as a cause 
 for the destruction of the human race 
 by a flood the wickedness of mankind in 
 the earth, whereas the older, or Clial- 
 da:an, account simjily recites that tlie god 
 Bel re\xalcd to Xisullirus his purpose to 
 
 closed, the Deluge came. In course of 
 
 time Xisuthrus sent out birds, which at 
 flrst came back Avithout evidence of rest- 
 ing, but afterwards with mud on their 
 feet. At length tlie ship rested on the 
 Gordya;an mountain, and the inhabitants 
 came forth to rcpeople the earth. 
 
 In the Assyrian account the divinity 
 who revealed the flood is Ilea, and the 
 Assyrian Noah is named Sisit. lie, as
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACIIITE DISPERSION. 441 
 
 in the case of his Chaldsean prototype, 
 gathered all manner of living creatures 
 The Assyrian '"^nd secds of the Vegetable 
 ^ar^fronf^he world into his ship. Then 
 older forms, Samas, the sun god, 
 sent the flood. There was a great storm 
 that went over the nations, and the 
 waters reached up to heaven. Even the 
 gods had to ascend to their highest 
 thrones and sit there until the subsid- 
 ence. All living things outside wei'e 
 drowned. At last the waters abated ; 
 the ark rested on Mount Nizir, and Bel 
 led forth Sisit by the hand to ref)oj)ulate 
 the. country. It is sufficient to note that 
 the narrative given of the great catas- 
 trophe in the seventh chapter of Genesis 
 is much more serious and elevated than 
 the two forms of tradition which were 
 preserved to after times in the valleys of 
 the Euphrates and the Tigris. 
 
 Apart from these traditional accounts 
 of the manner in which the Adamite 
 Early division of race Came to its termina- 
 into'th^^"^^ tion, we turn to a more scien- 
 branches. tific aspect of the question. 
 
 It appears that before the destruction of 
 this people, before they had reached the 
 scene — at least the central scene — of 
 their disaster, they had already begun 
 to part into the three branches of ethnic 
 life already mentioned as the major 
 divisions of the Ruddy family of man- 
 kind. It is in evidence that the Noa- 
 chite race, from its old maritime ddboti- 
 chiire on the shores of Gedrosia, the 
 modern Baluchistan, made its way first 
 to the north, in the direction of the Car- 
 manian desert, and was thence deflected 
 to the west. It was here, on the table- 
 land of ancient Iran, in the district of 
 country east of Yezd, that the ancestors 
 of the Ruddy races of mankind seem to 
 have felt for the first time the impulse 
 of westward migration. Here, at any 
 
 rate, they were deflected toward the 
 M. — Vol. 1—29 
 
 setting sun. Here, too, they appear to 
 have begun that threefold ethnic separa- 
 tion which was destined, in far ages 
 and countries, to give to history some of 
 its most vigorous and highly developed 
 peoples. 
 
 If we fall back again for a moment 
 upon the classification the nomenclature 
 of which is derived from uncertain eth. 
 the three sons of Noah. fX^'^^^^^ 
 we find here the begin- tamians. 
 nings of the division. So that if we re- 
 gard the valley of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris as the center, qv seat, of the great 
 diluvian disaster -which subsequently oc- 
 curred, we must conclude that the Ruddy 
 peoples who made their way into these 
 valleys from the east had already sepa- 
 rated, or at least begun to separate, into 
 Hamites, Semites, and possibly Japheth- 
 ites. The adoption of such a hypothe- 
 sis would tend to explain or remove the 
 difficulty which historians, ethnologists, 
 and linguists alike have experienced in 
 the attempted classification of the most 
 ancient peoples of the Tigrine and Eu- 
 phratine valleys. This work has never 
 been satisfactorily and conclusively ac- 
 complished. In a general way it has been 
 decided that the oldChaldasans were Ham- 
 itic in their origin and development. In 
 like manner the preponderance of eAri- 
 dence has tended to show that the Assyri- 
 ans were Semitic in their race descent and 
 character. But the evidences also indi- 
 cate much mixture and confusion in the 
 primitive history of these regions. 
 
 It is extremely difficult, either by 
 means of historical traditions, ethnic 
 traces, or linguistic proofs, point of disper- 
 to determine satisfactorily fto^Ass^"* 
 to which branch of the orig- and chaidaea. 
 inal threefold division the Assyrians 
 and the Chaldaeans respectively belong. 
 Moreover, at later periods, when the 
 Hamitic race has well emerged from this
 
 442 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 region, and is discovered with all its pecul- 
 iar traits in Southeastern and Southern 
 Arabia and in Egypt, and when the Sem- 
 ites have likewise appeared, with their 
 distinctive peculiarities well developed, in 
 the West, the course from which the two 
 races have manifestly come into subse- 
 quent fields of activity, when traced back- 
 
 the center, and the Japhethites close up 
 to the Caspian. 
 
 From these evidences and by this just 
 train of reasoning, it would appear con- 
 clusive that the primaiy division of the 
 Noachite family took place in the up- 
 lands of ancient Iran, at a point more 
 than ten degrees of latitude eastward 
 
 IN KUK-DISTAN.— ViBW op Lutle AltAuAT. with Cuoup of Kukus in Fokeguound.— Prawn by Alfred Paris. 
 
 wards, shows a conjuncture jiiiich to the 
 east of the Mesopotamian region and 
 not in the valleys of the Euphrates and 
 the Tigris. This is to say that at the 
 time wlicn the Ilamite, the Semite, and 
 the Japhcthite races made their way 
 through Mesopotamia to the West, they 
 were already separated geographically, 
 the Hamites being on the south, pressing 
 close to tlie Persian gulf, the Semites in 
 
 from the ]\Iesopotamian region, which 
 may be regarded as the center of the tra- 
 ditions of the Deluge. It is safe, there- 
 fore, in the ethnic scheme, to mark the 
 division of the Noachitcs far beyond and 
 to the eastward of the low-lying alluvial 
 plains of Mesopotamia. 
 
 If, then, the observer should take his 
 
 stand in the Arabirm desert west of 
 
 . Mesopotamia and look thitherward in
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—NOACHITli DISPliRSION. 443 
 
 the earliest epoch of human develop- 
 ment, he might see emerging from the 
 shadows the vanguard of 
 
 Issuance of the ^ ^ 
 
 Noachites to the two races, witli possibly a 
 ^ ' third on the north. The 
 
 Hamitie division of mankind would be 
 seen making its way to the westward, 
 close to the head- waters of the Persian 
 gulf and bending, as if by preference, to 
 the south into Old Arabia, next to the 
 sea. The central phalanx Avould be the 
 descendants of vShcm, heading for the 
 west, and, perhaps, deflected somewhat 
 to the north, on its way from Ur of the 
 Chaldecs into Canaan. The Japhetic 
 division, if seen at all, would be well to 
 the north, close to the southern shores 
 of the CasjDian, and bending in a north- 
 westerly direction toward the eastern 
 limits of the Black sea. This may be 
 called the Xoachite dispersion of the 
 human race. The lines of its progress 
 westward lie between the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Caspian and the northern 
 limits of the Persian gulf. This region 
 is to Europe and Sotithwestern Asia 
 what the wrist is to the extended palm. 
 Mesopotamia, considered longitudinally 
 from east to west and in connection 
 with Kurdistan, is a sti-ait, and through 
 this strait the streams of the Ruddy 
 races of men flowed out toward the open 
 regiops in the prehistoric ages. 
 
 It is from this point of view that we 
 may, in part at least, apprehend the 
 Probable direc- ethnic characteristics of the 
 Hritfcd^lt primitive peoples of Elam 
 persion. and Chaldcca. Through 
 
 these most ancient countries the Ham- 
 itie division of men made their way 
 in their earliest departure and migra- 
 tion from the parent stock. It is, per- 
 haps, safe to say that the Elamites were 
 the first development of a Hamitie na- 
 tionality in the world. This earliest 
 lodgment of the oldest branch of the 
 
 Noachites was in the country afterwards 
 called Susiana by the Greeks, and the 
 dominion established here remained for 
 many ages a seat and stronghold of the 
 primitive race. Historical traditions in- 
 dicate that the Hamites came into this 
 region by invasion, and that they dis- 
 placed, by conquest, the original Semitic 
 and possibly Turanian peoples v;ho were 
 there before them. 
 
 This view, however, is a doubtful 
 hypothesis. As already stated, it is 
 likely that the disentangle- Traces of ethnic 
 ment of the Semitic and !,!:"i'^'"rJ" 
 
 primitive Slazn- 
 
 Hamitic tribes had not yet "^s. 
 been completely effected when the Elam- 
 ite nationality was founded; and it 
 may well be confessed that Semitic 
 influences were afterwards discoverable 
 in the development of what was truly 
 a Hamitie dominion. Geographically 
 considered, the country here referred to 
 was bounded on the north by the river 
 Diyalah, on the east by the Kebir Kuh 
 mountains, on the west by the Tigris, 
 and on the south by the Persian gulf. 
 It was a low-lying country, fertile and 
 inviting, identical almost in character 
 with those other regions of the world — 
 Chaldsea, Southeastern Arabia, the val- 
 ley of the Nile — where the Hamites es- 
 tablished in subsequent ages the seats 
 of their dominion. 
 
 Primitive Assyria may be assigned to 
 the Semites. Asshur was the son of 
 Shem. The position of First distnbu- 
 Assyria, east of the Tigris "t^^^ltz.v^f 
 rather than in Mesopotamia <^i"tes. 
 Proper, would indicate its planting by 
 early tribes of the Semitic race coming 
 from the east. There are evidences 
 that such a dominion, north of the 
 Greater Zab and east of the Tigris, was 
 planted as early as the fourteenth cen- 
 tury before our era. 
 
 The Japhetic branch is generally re-
 
 444 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 garded as the oldest division of the No- 
 achite family. The movements of this 
 race have been by far the most compli- 
 cated and difficult to trace. The first 
 deflection from the parent stem was 
 doubtless to the north or northwest of 
 the common stream flowing westward. 
 The point of departure of the Japheth- 
 ites has already been indicated. It is 
 more than likely that their first course 
 after separation from the ancestral 
 tribes was so well to the north as to 
 bring them into contact Avith the lower 
 extremity of the Caspian, in which 
 event they would be turned back or de- 
 flected more directly toward Northern 
 Asia. It may be fairly conjectured 
 that this geographical circumstance lies 
 at the bottom of the formation of that 
 great ethnic whirl, or center, from 
 which the Aryan races of subsequent 
 times were all descended. It is not pur- 
 posed in this connection to trace out the 
 after ramifications of the Japhethites, or, 
 indeed, of the cognate races of the soutli. 
 It is sufficient to note that from the 
 Japhetic center the subsequent m'gra- 
 tions took place in both directions, east 
 and west, while the Semitic and Hamitic 
 movements followed a more orderly 
 progress, the one toward Canaan and 
 the other into Southeastern Arabia. 
 
 It has been intimated above that the 
 Old Chaldaean dominion on the Lower 
 Indications that Euphrates was Hamitic in 
 the Old chai- -^^ origin. .Several circum- 
 
 daeans ■were o 
 
 Hamitic. stanccs bcsidcs the mere 
 
 course which the tribal migi-ations were 
 then pursuing may be cited for assign- 
 ing Chalda;a to the Hamites. Historical 
 evidence shows almost conclusively that 
 there were race prejudices and frettings 
 between the Chakheans and the Assyri- 
 ans on the north. The two peoples were 
 hardly ever at peace. There was a di- 
 vergence of language, of tradition, and 
 
 of religious ceremonials, but at the same 
 time such striking analogies in all as to 
 indicate close affinities of race. 
 
 It was the preponderance and pressure 
 of the stronger Assyrian nationality on 
 the north that, at the close Race troubles 
 of the fourteenth century ''^ll^^Z^^' 
 B. C, finally overpowered ern Semites, 
 the Chaldaean dominion and replaced it 
 with Semitic influence in the south. By 
 careful observation we are able to see, 
 long anterior to this period, the race 
 troubles between the northern and the 
 southern people. There are indications 
 of invasion and oppression on the part 
 of the Assyrians respecting their south- 
 ern kinsmen. It is not improbable that 
 these difficulties were at the bottom of 
 some ot the earliest migrations to the 
 west. Perhaps Eber, the father of 
 Abraham, had drifted from beyond the 
 Tigris into the low-lying country of the 
 soutn. His name is said to signify 
 "from bej'ond;'* that is, from beyond 
 the rivers. -Doubtless he was either an 
 immigrant into the low country or an 
 invader. A family so situated, expand- 
 ing into a patriarchical tribe, would soon 
 find itself with unpleasant surroundings, 
 and a cure for local troubles might be 
 sou"-lit and found in a further migration 
 into the freer west. Hence the Abra- 
 hamic exodus from Ur of the Chaldees. 
 
 Another proof of the race diversity 
 already existing between the Old Chal- 
 dseans and the people of As- Diirerences in 
 shur is found in the monu- rans^nd'S-''" 
 mental remains of the two Syrians, 
 countries. There is already a clear de- 
 parture in the typical physiognomy of 
 the Chalda^ans and the Assyrians. The 
 former are like the Klamitcs in per.sonal 
 characteristics, while the latter are of 
 the well-known Semitic type, with Iiints 
 of Medo-Persian modifications. It is 
 easy for the ethnographer to see in the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 445 
 
 features and person of the ancient Chal- 
 diean the antitype of the Cushite, the 
 Old Arabians, tlae Hamitic Canaanites, 
 and even the Ethiopians and Egyptians. 
 It will be readily agreed that the Semitic 
 peoples became, in the course of time, 
 predominant throughout Mesopotamia. 
 It is likely that the Hamitic race, by pres- 
 sure from the north, became attenuated 
 even to actual separation around the head 
 of the Persian gulf, and that the Elamite 
 dominion on the east preserved the prin- 
 . cipal, if not the only, remnants of that 
 race beyond the meridian of Chaldsea 
 and Assyria. 
 
 Several facts of some interest come to 
 
 light on an examination of the ethnic 
 
 names of the three branches of the No- 
 
 achite family. The word 
 
 SigniScance of 
 
 the Noachite Sliem means a " name, ' or 
 
 patronymics. i ,, e 
 
 more properly, " sons of a 
 name." The sense is, that this division 
 of the Noachites was an aristocracy 
 having a name, that is, a lineal descent 
 from reputable fathers, as distinguished 
 from the no-name, or base-born, descend- 
 ants of other stocks. The early Sem- 
 ites evidently regarded themselves as 
 peculiarly the representatives of the 
 Noachite race, and perpetuated the be- 
 lief in the nameless, that is, the gentile, 
 character of the cognate families of their 
 own descent. The innuendo was direct- 
 ed against both the Japhethites and the 
 Hamites, particularly against the de- 
 scendants of Canaan in the west, whom 
 the sons of Shena afterwards overcame 
 and expelled from their territories. 
 
 The evidence of this race contention 
 and feud is plentifully scattered in the 
 Contention for Hebrew writings. The old 
 
 precedence _ *-* 
 
 among shem, prejudice lies at the bot- 
 
 Ham, and Ja- . » ^ . i , • • • , 
 
 phetii. tom ot the relative priority 
 
 of the sons of Noah. As a matter of 
 fact, the Japhethites were the eldest, 
 the Hamites second, and the Semites 
 
 the youngest division of the Noachite 
 family. But there was a constant effort, 
 extending through many centuries, on 
 the part of the Hebrew scribes and 
 chroniclers to change this order and to 
 give to Shem the rank peculiar to the 
 eldest son. In the biblical ethnography 
 the order of the three descendants is 
 always given thus: Shem, Ham, Ja- 
 pheth. But it will be observed that even 
 in the tenth chapter of Genesis, while 
 the first verse preserves this order, giv- 
 ing priority to Shem, the analysis of 
 tribes which immediately follows places 
 Japheth in his true position, and assigns 
 the place of youngest son to Shem. 
 Such primitive quarrels as to the senior- 
 ity of descendants were very common 
 among the early families of men, and 
 are of little value to modern scholarship 
 except as illustrative of a striking and 
 persistent feature of organization and 
 belief existing in the earliest ages of 
 human development. 
 
 All the ancient nations strenuously 
 insisted that they were respectively the 
 most ancient of all. Pri- strife of thn 
 ority seems to have been ^^^T^^2l^ 
 
 J ngnts 01 pnor- 
 
 an idea which sufficed to "?• 
 establish right, and make all things 
 legitimate in primeval society. " We 
 were here first, and therefore possess 
 this region, and are greater than you." 
 was the language of every primitive 
 people to its neighbors. As a result of 
 this disposition, claims to extravagant 
 antiquity were advanced by all, and 
 were attested by long lines of successive 
 monarchs, in successive dynasties, ex- 
 tending through fabulous ages. One of 
 the principal devices to make good such 
 claims was to extend the lives of their 
 rulers to hundreds and thousands of 
 3'ears. The Berosian scheme presented 
 above of the Noachite dynasty in 
 Chaldaea down to the epoch of tho
 
 DISTRnU-JfOX OF Tim RACES.— NOACIim-: D/SJ'RKSION. 447 
 
 Deluge is a sample of the plan which 
 the ancients adopted to make good their 
 claim of primogeniture and proseriptive 
 right. The Egyptians, ' not satisfied 
 with even the fanciful expansion of their 
 dynasty, were wont to abandon terres- 
 trial criteria and appeal to the planets for 
 their antiquity. It was a common boast 
 among the Egyptian priests that their 
 peoj^le were Prosch-itoi, that is, prc- 
 Moonites, older than the moon in their 
 occuiiancy and possession of Mizraim. 
 
 In the discussion of the ]\Iesopotamian 
 development of the different branches of 
 Chronology at the Noachitc races, no at- 
 r SrJ"" tempt has been made to es- 
 races. tablish the chronological 
 
 relations of the several ethnic divisions 
 in the dispersion, or even to date the 
 general epoch, to which they all be- 
 longed. In fact, chronology is wholly 
 at fault in considering such primitive 
 movements of the race. As to the time 
 when the Noachites may be said to have 
 been deflected to the west, and to have 
 begun their sejjaration into different 
 peoples, nothing can be alleged with 
 even approximate certainty. The whole 
 tendency of recent inquiiy has been to 
 extend the time relations of these early 
 events. It is clearly perceived that the 
 notions formerly prevalent about the 
 time required for the peopling of differ- 
 ent and distant regions of the earth, and 
 the development therein of distinct na- 
 tionalities, must be abandoned as totally 
 inadequate for the ethnic evolutions to 
 which they refer. It is known that the 
 first progress of men gathering into tribes 
 and nations is exceeding slow as com- 
 pared with subsequent stages of human 
 development. There is an accelerating 
 tendency in the progress of mankind, 
 and this manifest fact emphasizes the 
 necessity of widening and enlarging the 
 w-hole scheme of ancient chronology. 
 
 As it resiDects the Semitic and Hamitic 
 peoples who created the earliest civil so- 
 cieties in Elam, Chaldaja, and A.s.syria, a 
 few suggestions maybe of- Evidence of 
 fered as to the time when ^f Egyptian"' 
 the same occurred. If we Hamites. 
 look at the rise of the Hamitic race in 
 the valley of the Nile we discover the 
 most cinphatic evidence of a very remote 
 antiquity. It is safe to affirm that almost 
 as early as four thousand years before 
 the common era the primitive Egyp- 
 tians, who themselves seem to have taken 
 possessior of the valley by conquest, 
 were already a strong and progressive 
 people. They had civil organizations 
 and many well-developed institutions of 
 religion and secular society. They were 
 magnificent btiilders in stone, and appear 
 to have been, from the earliest date 
 of their d(fboiicluire into Northeastern 
 Africa, in possession of considerable sci- 
 entific knowledge. These Eg}-ptians 
 were descendants of the older Hamites 
 in Asia. They came by migration and 
 invasion into the country of their sub. 
 sequent development. For this move- 
 ment out of Asia mtich time mtist be 
 allowed. 
 
 A greatly extended period must have 
 elapsed between the founding of the first 
 Hamitic societies in Lower ^Mesopotamia 
 and that subsequent time probabie deriva- 
 when the Hamitic tribes, ^IrLomS' 
 making their way westward ^^ea. 
 through Syria, established themselves in 
 Egypt. It is trtie that the formal chro- 
 nology, so far as it has been recovered 
 and reconstrttcted for the Chaldasan as- 
 cendency, does not by any means reach 
 a period so remote as that of Egypt. But 
 the movement of the race to the west- 
 ward points unmistakably to the fact 
 that the Chaldtean ascendenc}- and the 
 dominion of Elam were long anterior to 
 the creation of political power in the val-
 
 448 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 ley of the Nile. This indicates for the 
 primitive peoples of Mesopotamia an an- 
 tiquity far greater than history, or even 
 ethnology in its current phases, has been 
 accustomed to assign or accept. 
 
 The country lying between Arme- 
 nia and the head of the Persian gulf 
 Effects of en-ri- fumishes a good examjjle 
 of the influence of phys- 
 ical environment on the 
 movements and development of the 
 early races. Mesopotamia constituted a 
 
 ronment on the 
 migrant Noa- 
 Cliites. 
 
 its way, while through the gaps of the 
 Zagros the Semites would precipitate 
 themselves into Upper Mesopotamia. 
 
 Before the immigrants would spread 
 an open country, traversed by two great 
 streams of living water, fertile in natu- 
 ral products, and inviting to settlement. 
 The alluvial plain in Lower Mesopotamia 
 would in a special manner provoke to 
 permanent residence from the ease with 
 which multiplying tribes could here sup- 
 port themselves by the resources of the 
 
 PASS IN THE ZAOROS MOUNTAINS.— Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a pliolograph, 
 
 natural, perhaps an inevitable, stopping- 
 place in the westward movement of the 
 Noachitcs. vSuch was the situation as 
 to make it necessary for them to pause, 
 and to pause meant the growth of fixed 
 societies. On the east of this region the 
 country is defended by the bulwark of 
 the Zagros and Keljir Kuli mountains. 
 It is easy to sec how the already half- 
 separated races, drifting from the east, 
 would be impeded for a time by the in- 
 terposition of the mountain range. Pres- 
 ently, however, tlirough tlic southern 
 passes. Ihe Ilamitic division would make 
 
 earth. Adventure would soon carry the 
 still half-nomadic peoples across the 
 country to the western borders. Here, 
 however, there would be a pause. Even 
 the civilized man hesitates long, and the 
 compulsion mu,st be extreme ere he 
 throws himself into the desert. Perhaps 
 of all the natural landscapes presented 
 on the surface of the globe the most for- 
 bidding and repcllant is the desert. 
 
 West and southwest of Mesopotamia 
 is a wide stretch of desert country. It 
 fatigues the eye and scorches the feet. 
 On the nortli is the Assyrian desert, and
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 449 
 
 to the south and west stretches away the 
 seemingly infinite waste of Arabia. Here 
 chaidaeaand ^re thc fundamental con- 
 f^'^'r'tv "»r>t" ditions which made Chal- 
 
 «lty of the early 
 
 peoples. tla;a and Assyria a sort 
 
 of necessity in the progress of the early 
 race. It is not needed in this connection 
 to enter elaborately into the geography 
 of the valleys of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris and the adjacent upland coun- 
 ■tries. On the north, from thc Caspian 
 to the Black sea, stretch the Armenian 
 mountains; on the south, is the sea; on 
 the east, the Zagros range, and beyond, 
 the great plateau of Iran ; on the west, 
 the boundary line is the long stretch of 
 the Syrian desert. 
 
 At the time of the development of the 
 early empires in these valleys and for 
 TheRnddy ages aftcrwards the two 
 
 themse'i^l to S^at rivers still discharged 
 Mesopotamia, their Waters by separate 
 channels into the Persian gulf. Meso- 
 potamia reached to the sea, and the 
 mouths of the rivers were fully a hun- 
 
 dred miles south of the present shore 
 line. Along the banks of these streams, 
 high lip to the foothills out of which 
 their upper waters arc drawn, especially 
 on the cast by a multitude of smaller 
 streams, the earliest, or at least one of 
 the earliest, civilizations was developed 
 in the world. It was the work of the 
 Ruddy races coming from the east. 
 Here they planted themselves at the 
 north and the south, according to their 
 race descent, and became in course of 
 time much more strongly marked by 
 ethnic differences than they were on 
 their first arrival in the countr}^ It is 
 from this region that the different races 
 belonging to the Ilamitic and Semitic 
 families of mankind made their way at 
 length into the western foreground of 
 history, where we shall discover them in 
 a somewhat clearer light than that in 
 which they have thus far been revealed. 
 Here, then, is the end of what may be 
 appropriately called the Noachite dis- 
 persion of mankind. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV.— The HAMITIC NllGRATIONS. 
 
 iN the current chapter 
 the attempt will be 
 made to trace out 
 geographically the va- 
 rious lines by which 
 the Hamitic race w-as 
 distributed, first into 
 Southwestern Asia, and thence through 
 a large part of Northern Africa, to the 
 borders of the Western ocean. The 
 aamitioraoesue inquiry will begin with the 
 nearest the movements of the Hamitic 
 
 Blacks In race 
 
 distribution. division of mankind, not 
 from any preference for that race as a 
 dominant people of antiquity, not be- 
 cause their civilization reached a higher 
 
 stage than that of the cognate races, but 
 rather for geographical reasons. The 
 Hamites were distributed to the south 
 and west, and are thus the southernmost 
 branch of the Ruddy races. It will, 
 therefore, be convenient to begin on that 
 side of the ethnic distribution which lies 
 nearest to the lines marking the disper- 
 sion of the Black races, and thence to 
 pursue the inquiry northward until the 
 Hamitic movements have been ex- 
 hausted. In the next place, the various 
 branches of the Semitic family may be 
 taken up and considered in like order, 
 leaving the Aryan, or Indo-European, 
 divisions of mankind, most important of
 
 450 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 all, historically considered, for the con- 
 cluding chapters on distribution. 
 
 The historical circumstances which 
 gave rise to the first departure of the 
 Historical rea- Hamitic emigrants from 
 sons for the mi- Lower Mesopotamia for the 
 
 grations of the '■ 
 
 Hamites. southwest are not known. 
 
 It is not unlikely, however, that the 
 pressure of the stronger Assyrians on 
 the north, who by repeated invasions 
 and conquests reduced the old Chaldasan 
 empire to a condition first of dependency 
 and then of actual subversion, may have 
 been the occasion, if not the real cause, 
 of the first migratory movements of the 
 Hamites in the direction of Arabia. It 
 is not known whether this primitive 
 impulse was coincident with the Chal- 
 daean ascendency in Lower Mesopotamia 
 or subsequent thereto, but the former 
 supposition is more in accord with right 
 reason and with such other facts as bear 
 upon the question. At any rate, the first 
 dispersive migration of the Hamitic family 
 was from the primitive seat of the Chal- 
 daeans toward the south and into the 
 maritime parts of Arabia. 
 
 It is likely that the first progressive 
 people in the Arabian peninsula were 
 Primitive Ara- the descendants of the mi- 
 bian population g^atorv movement here de- 
 
 of Hamitic de- * 
 
 scent. scribed, and that they be- 
 
 longed to the maritime parts adjacent 
 to the Persian gulf. The primitive 
 Arabians of the eastern parts next to the 
 sea were of Semito-Hamitic origin, and 
 that they antedated the Central and West- 
 ern Arabians may be safely inferred from 
 the ethnic movements then prevailing in 
 the world, and also from an old prefer- 
 ence of the early races for the seashore 
 and the regions adjacent. A glance at 
 the geography of the peninsula will 
 show a range of mountains between the 
 modern Arab state of Ilasa and the great 
 desert. It was through the strip of 
 
 territory lying between these mountains 
 and the Persian gulf that the earliest 
 tribes of the Hamitic family made their 
 way to the southwest. In the lower part 
 of the peninsula the migration divided, 
 throwing off one branch into the modern 
 province of Oman, while the major di- 
 vision was deflected somewhat in conform- 
 ity with the coast line to the southwest, 
 toward the modern state of Yemen, adja- 
 cent to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Such 
 in general was the direction of the oldest 
 ethnic line in the Arabian peninsula, and 
 it was from this primitive migration 
 that the Old Arabs, as contradistinguished 
 from the more recent Ishmaelites, were 
 derived. The former were, in general 
 terms, a maritime people, and to the 
 present day the distinctions between their 
 descendants and the Arabians of the re- 
 gions bordering on the Red sea are suffi- 
 ciently marked. 
 
 Throughout the whole of Southern 
 Arabia, especially toward the south- 
 western termination of the Himyaritic writ- 
 peninsula, are found lin- mgs show traces 
 ^ of Hanutic pro- 
 
 guistic traces of this ancient duction. 
 people. A class of primitive writings, 
 called Hituyaritic Inscriptions, testify un- 
 mistakably of the presence of a peculiar 
 people in th.e regions where they are 
 found. These writings, generally en- 
 graved on stone, have been one of the 
 most interesting and puzzling studies pre- 
 sented to modern students of language, 
 and there has been great diversity of 
 views in regard to classifying the origi- 
 nal speech to which these writings belong. 
 Many most eminent linguists have re- 
 garded them as of a Semitic origin. An- 
 other plausible view is that of Renan, 
 who holds that the inscriptions in ques- 
 tion differ too widely from Arabic and 
 cognate varieties of Semitic s])cccli to be 
 classified therewith. 
 
 These facts open a (question of much
 
 
 iXi (. 
 
 I.:, i^w 
 
 .:J
 
 45-2 
 
 GREAT J? ACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 importance respecting the affinities of 
 the Hamitic and Semitic languages. It 
 appears that the linguistic separation of 
 Affinities and thesc two races was never 
 
 connection of 
 
 Hamitic and SO Complete as the division 
 gnages. of either of them from the 
 
 Aryan families of the north. It is likely 
 that in manners, institutions, language, 
 and laws the primitive Hamitic tribes 
 held together with their Semitic kins- 
 men until common linguistic forms had 
 been in a considerable measure fixed in 
 each, from which circumstance consider- 
 able similarity would appear in the sub- 
 sequent development of the respective 
 languages. On the whole, it is safer to 
 classify the Himyaritic inscriptions with 
 the other Semitic dialects, and to admit 
 the influence of the Hamitic Arabs in 
 giving particular features to the writings 
 of Southern Arabia. 
 
 Wherever the inscriptions in question 
 may be placed in linguistic classification, 
 it is certain that their origin is extremely 
 Wide distribu- ancient, and that they were 
 ScinscHr deduced geographically 
 *'°"^- from Lower Mesopotamia. 
 
 The line of these writings has been 
 traced from about the junction of the 
 EujArates and the Tigris all the way 
 around through Southeastern and South- 
 ern Arabia to Yemen, and even across 
 into Africa. The explorer Loftus found 
 a sandstone slab covered with Himyaritic 
 inscriptions in one of the mounds of 
 Warka. in ancient Clialdasa. Two speci- 
 mens of gems covered with like charac- 
 ters are preserved in the British Museum. 
 Coghlan and Playfair made similar dis- 
 coveries at Amran, near Sana. In short, 
 the identity of the writings along the 
 line of the extreme southern dispersion 
 of the Hamitcs is clearly established. 
 
 The Himyarites, as a people, occupied 
 the southwestern extremity of the Ara- 
 bian peninsula. They are nearly iden- 
 
 tified geographically with the inhabit- 
 ants of the modern Yemen, though 
 the Himyarites were fur- Geographical 
 ther south and more mar- P°s'tio;^ of the 
 
 ancient Himya- 
 
 itime than the modern "t^s. 
 Arabic state. It will thus be seen that 
 the Hamitic branch of mankind which 
 we have been tracing was brought, 
 in its southwestern migration, to the 
 southern neck of the Red sea. It was 
 not likely that so narrow a strait of water 
 would prevent the further dispersion of 
 the ancient stock. The opposite African 
 shore is embraced in the small maritime 
 districts called Samara. More generally, 
 it is Abyssinia to the north and vSomali- 
 land to the south. 
 
 The fact has long been recognized that 
 there was an ancient race identity be- 
 tween the peoples inhabit- Race kinship of 
 ing the countries on the f^dEastenr""" 
 
 two sides of the strait of Africans. 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb. The belief that the 
 Old Abyssinians were of Semitic deri- 
 vation, and the knowledge that they 
 were of the same race with the people 
 of the Himyaritic district in Arabia, 
 has led to the conclusion that the lat- 
 ter were Semites, and this belief has 
 been perpetuated by the discovery of 
 strong Semitic traces in the Himyaritic 
 writings. The Abyssinians and other 
 ancient Ruddy races of this region of 
 Africa were clearly in some sort of race 
 affinity with the Egyptians, the Canaan- 
 ites, and the Old Arabians, as well as 
 with the Semites proper. The ,whole 
 question clears up on the hypothesis that 
 this most southerly division of the Noa- 
 chite descendants was Semito-Hamitic, 
 and that the vSemites proper were dis- 
 persed towa2"d tlic south alxnit to tlic cen- 
 ter of the Arabian peninsula. It is true 
 that some ethnographers have carried the 
 Ishmaclite migration southward along 
 the eastern shores of the Red sea to the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACIIS.—IIAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 453 
 
 stniit, and thence into Africa, wliich 
 would bring the Semitic tribes into the 
 same country with the cognate Hamites, 
 but it may be doubted whetlier the true 
 line of Ishmacl was ever carried so far 
 in that direction. 
 
 If we attempt to trace the Hamitic dis- 
 persion beyond tlie crossing into Africa, 
 cistributionof we shall find the migration 
 pursuing the same general 
 course to the southwest 
 which it had taken while in Southern 
 Arabia. It appears that the peoples of 
 this stock were thinly distributed from the 
 
 Hamitio blood 
 In Eastern 
 Afi-iceu 
 
 bearing divisions of the Black races. The 
 ancestors of the Hottentots and the Ne- 
 groes made their way from the east 
 through this same region of Gallaland, 
 and their migratory intersection with the 
 south-bearing progress of the Hamitic 
 family must have constituted one of the 
 earliest, if not, indeed, the very first, 
 contact of the Ruddy with the Black 
 races of antiquity. 
 
 Meanwhile Syria, almost directly 
 west from Chaldtea, had also been pre- 
 occupied by Hamitic tribes. While the 
 movement into the maritime parts of 
 
 DESERT COUNTRY OF THE SYRIAN BORDERS— The Plain of Tortose.— Lirawu by A. de Bar, from a photograph by 
 
 Lockroy. 
 
 strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in the general 
 direction of the Victoria Nyanza, and 
 that the westward progress of the Ham- 
 itic race was finally checked in this re- 
 gion. The Somalian peoples of the 
 extreme eastern portion of Africa Avere 
 doubtless derived from a deflected branch 
 of this Semito-Hamitic migration ; and, 
 in general, the Noachite races of Galla- 
 land had the same origin. 
 
 One peculiar feature of this African 
 distribution of the Ruddy 
 
 Crossing of the . i . ,i 
 
 ethnic lines in peoples from Arabia wastho 
 
 Gallaland. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ jj^^^g ^f ^^^j^. 
 
 progress to the southwest into the con- 
 tinent must have crossed the westward- 
 
 Arabia had been going on, another di- 
 vision of the Hamitic stock had made its 
 way out of Mesopotamia to syriaispre- 
 the west. It appears that °^^^^.^^,. 
 this migration divided in grants. 
 the desert country on the Syrian borders, 
 one branch being deflected into "Western 
 Arabia, and the other pursuing its direct 
 course toward the sea at Suez. If we 
 take up the first division, we shall find 
 the line of its dispersion drawn through 
 Southeastern Syria and thence in the 
 direction of Medina and Mecca. There 
 can be no doubt about the race descent 
 of the original peoples of this region. 
 They were prior to the first Semitic mi-
 
 454 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 grations or invasions of the Avest; and 
 ihe aboriginal substratum of the more 
 recent Ishmaelites and Joktanians was 
 undoubtedly of Hamitic origin. 
 
 It \vas the peculiarity of the westward 
 course of the Hamites from Central 
 Divisions and re- IMcsopotamla that they di- 
 fnTsTAK:. vided north and south in 
 gration. their progress. At first, 
 
 the volume of national life which flowed 
 off toward Syria contained the potency 
 of the Western Arabs, the Canaanites, 
 and the Egyptians. The Canaanitish 
 dellection from the main migratory line 
 was northward, and occurred in the re- 
 gion of Central Syria. The northward- 
 bearing branch from this point entered 
 Canaan Proper and Phoenicia ; and here 
 began the development of one of the 
 most prominent divisions of the Hamitic 
 family. 
 
 Traditional Canaan takes its name 
 from the son of Ham. In the chronicles 
 Ham founds ca- of the Hebrew race this 
 SrS^'theT; t^ivision of the Hamites is 
 kinsmen. most promiucnt. They 
 
 were greatly disparaged by the early an- 
 nalists of the Hebrew race, and through all 
 subsequent ages were despised and con- 
 temned by them as gentiles and servants 
 of servants. It Avas against these de- 
 scendants of Canaan in their tribes and 
 generations that the wrath of invading 
 Israel was turned, after the Egyptian 
 exodus. 
 
 The progress of the Hamitic migra- 
 tions to the northwest, around the east- 
 ern extremity of the Med- 
 
 Extent of Ham- . 
 
 itiG migrations itcrrancan, introduces the 
 
 Into Asia Minor. . ■ , r . i . 
 
 inquirer to one of the most 
 difficult passages in the ethnic distribu- 
 tion of mankind. Tlie problem is the ex- 
 {(■II f of the migration in the direction of 
 Asia Minor. litlmographcrs are not 
 agreed as to how far the Hamitic move- 
 ment in this direction continued. One 
 
 class of writers are of the opinion that 
 the traces of this branch of the human 
 family extend no further than the south- 
 ern regions of Asia Minor, or, at most, 
 the eastern borders of the yEgean sea. 
 Some are of opinion that the line waj 
 deflected into the island of CyjDrus, 
 and there tenninated so far as its west- 
 ward progress was concerned. Still an- 
 other class of inquirers hold that the 
 Hamitic progress extended westward 
 through the ^gean archipelago and into 
 Southern Greece. This view of the case 
 makes the Pelasgians, to whom consid- 
 erable space was devoted in a chapter of 
 the preceding book, to be the descend- 
 ants of the Hamitic stock. It will be 
 remembered that the view of a northern, 
 that is, a Thessalian, origin for the Pe- 
 lasgic race was advanced in the former 
 account of that people. This view of 
 the case is not fully established. Nor 
 can it Avell be said that the opposite 
 opinion, namely, that the Pelasgians 
 came from the archipelago into Argolis, 
 and thence continued their progress to 
 the West, is more than tentative. 
 
 Winchell, in his Chart of the Pro- 
 gressive Dispersion of Mankind, holds to 
 the view that the Hamitic migration was 
 carried through the south- Wincheii's 
 
 '^ _ _ views regarding 
 
 ern parts of Asia Minor, the European 
 
 . ,, 1 ji /-> 1 1 dispersionofthe 
 
 and thence by the Cycladcs Hamites. 
 into Peloponnesus. From Southern 
 Hellas this distinguished ethnographer 
 extends the Hamitic line first into 
 Northwestern Greece, where, in Epirus, 
 as wc have seen, one of the principal 
 Pelasgic developments occurred. But 
 the main line is carried across the 
 Southern Adriatic into Italy, whence 
 one branch is turned to the left, to fur- 
 nish an aboriginal stock for the island 
 of Sicily, while the other line bifurcates 
 on the twosidcsof the Apennines, giving 
 in Central Italy an origin for the prob-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF Tllli RACIiS.—IIAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 455 
 
 leraatical Etruscans and their primitive 
 development. It may be possible, even 
 probable, that this scheme furnishes the 
 best solution as to the race-origin of the 
 first peoples of the Ruddy race in South- 
 ern Greece and Central Italy. If so, we 
 may regard the valley of the Po, the in- 
 land region of Etruria, and the remote 
 parts of Sicily as the westernmost limits 
 
 Egypt. But a better view of the whole 
 subject shows that if any such race 
 movement occurred it was of a later, and 
 perhaps a Semitic, origin, from Arabia 
 into Nomth Central Africa. 
 
 The original occupancy, then, of the 
 Nile valley by the Ruddy races was 
 certainly by the incoming of the Ham- 
 ites, first into the eastern delta, and 
 
 'F 'IHE HAMITE MH;kAT10N', M.AK ;>UEZ.— Lake Tim<aii.— Drawn by Ii m r.rene!. 
 
 of the European excursion of the Ham- 
 itic race. 
 
 We now turn to the central progress 
 
 of the same race to the west. From 
 
 Syria, the Hamitic movement continued 
 
 directly through the isthmus of Suez 
 
 into the vallev of the Nile. 
 
 The race enters ' - , . 
 
 and occupies the It has been believed by 
 ^^" some historians that the 
 
 invasion by which the aboriginal Egyp- 
 tians were expelled from their country 
 was carried, in part at least, across the 
 Red sea into Central, or even Upper 
 
 thence southward along both banks of 
 the river to Upper Egypt. The progress 
 of Hamitic civilization from the vicinity 
 of lilemphis and Cairo southward to its 
 extreme limit at Elephantis has been 
 traced by ethnographers and historians 
 until its course and character are no 
 longer doubtful. The oldest occupation 
 was in that part of the delta lying next 
 to the isthmus, and from hence the prog- 
 ress of the race was constant until the 
 whole valley was populated by tribes of 
 a common descent.
 
 456 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The account of the original dispersion 
 of mankind may well pause at this point, 
 that the attention of the reader may be 
 Extreme antiq- once more Called to the cx- 
 moLle^ntstere ^'-'''"^ antiquity of the move- 
 described. ments here described. It is 
 
 worthy of special note that the civiliza- 
 tion of Egypt tended, in virtue of its 
 own character, to transm.it better evi- 
 dences of time-relations and the succes- 
 sion of events than that of any other 
 country. One of the fundamental ideas 
 of the civilization created in the Nile 
 valley was architectural grandeur, and 
 closely connected with this was the no- 
 tion of perpetuating the records of hu- 
 man life by naeans of colossal tombs and 
 imperishable inscrii^tions. Fortunate- 
 ly the granite quarries of the country, 
 especially in Central Egypt, gave oppor- 
 tunity to gratify this disposition, if 
 indeed the presence of such materials 
 did not first provoke the habit. The 
 peculiar priestly organization of the 
 race, in close union as it was Avitli the 
 secular dynasty, also tended to the crea- 
 tion and preservation of records. 
 
 From these circumstances the great 
 
 antiquity of Egypt became a marvel to 
 
 tl:e earliest historians and 
 
 Old travelers 
 
 marvel at the travelers of other races, 
 age of Egypt. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^g Egyptian 
 
 scribes profited by the credulity of the 
 age in which they flourished, and en- 
 larged as much as possible the ancient 
 records which they possessed. When 
 Herodotus came into the country, about 
 the middle of the fifth century B. C, he 
 was shown the records of the old dy- 
 nasties, from the founding of the first by 
 Menes down to the reign of Seti. From 
 this scheme he made up his estimate of 
 the antiquity of the nation, producing as 
 a result something over 12000 B. C. 
 q.s the epoch of !Mencs. Four centuries 
 aiterwards, when Diodorus traveled 
 
 in Egypt, he also studied the records 
 of the country, and made out the found- 
 ing of the first dynasty to have been 
 more than twelve thousand years before 
 the common era. According to Manetho, 
 a native historian,- the span between 
 ]\Ienes and our era is reduced about one 
 half, the accession of the first dynasty 
 being fixed at about 5706 B. C. 
 
 The mediaeval historians did nothing 
 with the question, but in recent times 
 many learned inquirers have taken up 
 the subject, and the result Modemiuquiry 
 has been the almost concur- ^TtlTa'trfor 
 rent agreement of modern Menes. 
 scholars that the epoch of ]\Ienes, founder 
 of the oldest dynast}'-, goes back to the 
 year 3892 B. C. This date is now ac- 
 cepted as approximately correct. Indeed, 
 it appears to be rather within than be- 
 yond the true limits. Meanwhile a fact 
 in astronomy has thrown perhaps the 
 strongest light on the true era of the 
 founding of Egyptian nationality. By 
 the rate of the great movement called 
 the precession of the equinoxes, it is 
 now known that the equator of the 
 heavens accomplished on the ecliptic a 
 complete circuit in about twenty-five 
 thousand years. It is also known that a 
 certain star, which was polar at the time 
 of the building of the oldest pyramids in 
 Lower Egypt, has been, at the present 
 time, turned by torsion just about one 
 fourth of the way around the circuit of 
 the heavens. This would imply the 
 lapse of a little over six thousand years 
 since the constniction of the first pyra- 
 mids ; and the date indicated would be 
 somewhat more than four thousand 
 years before the common era. 
 
 It is safe to fix upon this date as a fair 
 approximation for the time of the in- 
 coming of the tribes and the beginning 
 of the great architectural era of the 
 Hamitic race in Egypt. And it will be
 
 VISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 457 
 
 remembered that the ethnic movements 
 which have furnished the subject-matter 
 of the preceding paragraphs belonged to 
 a still earlier period in the history of the 
 race ; all of which facts tend most 
 strongly to emphasize the necessity of a 
 great extension and widening out of the 
 whole scheme of ancient chronology. 
 
 It is difficult for one removed to mod- 
 ern times and distant countries to realize 
 the nature and method 
 
 True nature of 
 
 primitive tribal of the cthnic migrations of 
 
 migrations. .• ■. -, , . . 
 
 antiquity. It is not pur- 
 
 posed in this connection to attempt to 
 
 hard to obtain. But ever and anon this 
 rapid volume of the moving race, most 
 rapid in the vanguard, would flow into 
 a region which, from its geographical 
 situation and its fertility, would invite to 
 settlement. Here there would be a 
 pause. The tribe would spread over the 
 surface of the ' country like a lake of 
 water running into an inclosed lowland. 
 For a long time the incoming tribes 
 would pour along and discharge their 
 volume into the reservoir. If the situa- 
 tion were sufficiently auspicious, there 
 would be, in a short time, the begin- 
 
 VERTICAL SECTION OF THE GREAT PYKAMID FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. 
 A. debris; B, vault ; C, passage of entry ; D, abutments ; E, chamber of the queen ; F, chamber of the king; G, ancient entrance ; H. 
 
 primitive facing of granite ; I, K, ventilators. 
 
 depict the actual manner of tribal 
 removal from place to place to final 
 settlement. One great feature, how- 
 ever, of the migratory progress of ancient 
 peoples was the alternate speed and 
 cessation of the movement. Sometimes 
 the migrating horde would pour along 
 like a swift stream, traversing in a short 
 time vast stretches of country. Such 
 was the rate of progress in desert regions 
 and in mountainous districts where the 
 
 means of subsistence were scattered and 
 M — Vol. 1—30 
 
 nings of a national development. The 
 more conservative elements of the tribes 
 
 would establish themselves in ^rhat manner 
 
 on the soil. Hunting would ^JXcomepV 
 give place to the pastoral elated, 
 pursuit, and the pastoral pursuit to agri- 
 culture. Permanence wovild assert it- 
 self, and vacillation cease. Institutions 
 would soon be planted. Architecture 
 and the other practical arts would arise, 
 and society would emerge from the tribal 
 chaos which had preceded it.
 
 458 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND, 
 
 Into such situations, howevei-, a rest- 
 less element is always poured, along 
 with the calmer varieties of humanity. 
 The radical eie- This radicalism would first 
 T'tJTr^X. flow to the furthest— gen- 
 
 aw^ay irom the o 
 
 conservative. erally the western — limit 
 of the locality. Ere long, dissatisfied 
 with the situation and longing for the 
 old tribal freedom, these elements would 
 burst away from the restraints of the 
 civilizing communities and resume the 
 migratory habits of antiquity. They 
 would draw after them all adventurers, 
 all the unprosperous parts of the half- 
 formed societies behind them. They 
 would strike out into new regions, driven 
 by an impulse which they had no dis- 
 position to iinderstand or check. 
 
 "We may conceive that ancient Egypt 
 furnished one of the most striking ex- 
 amples of this debouchure 
 
 Egypt a striking . '■ ^ .. . , ^^ 
 
 example of the oi tribal Avaters. Here 
 
 ethnic sack, . . ,11 t 
 
 they were gathered, and 
 here, out of the fecund soil, the ele- 
 ments of primitive life drew at first the 
 means of subsistence and afterwards of 
 development. How long the general 
 progress of the Hamitic race to the west 
 was checked and liindercd by the out- 
 spread of the incoming volume in the 
 valley of the Nile, it were, perhaps, vain 
 to conjecture. For many centuries, no 
 doubt, the outline was sufficient, and 
 the auspicious character of the valley for 
 succeeding ages appeased and satisfied 
 the cupidity and restlessness of the im- 
 migrants. 
 
 In course of time, however, the more 
 nomadic elements of Egyptian life 
 Migration at climbed the Avestern slope 
 SghNrth" "f ^lie valley, and found 
 ern Africa. the Sand Avaste of Africa 
 
 before them. Migration Avas resumed, 
 and tlie first line of the neAv movement 
 was stretched along the Mediterranean 
 in the direction of Barca. It may be 
 
 safely affirmed that the first tribes AA-hich 
 A\-ere dropped into permanence in the 
 country Avest of Lower Egypt Avere the 
 ancient ]\Iarmaricans. It is Avell knoAvn 
 that in after times Cyrenaica Avas col- 
 onized by the Greeks, but the primitiA^e 
 people Avhom they- expelled from the 
 coast and forced back into the interior 
 were the descendants of the ancient 
 Hamitic exodus from Egyj^t. 
 
 The main line of migration continued 
 to the Avest, branching into the interior 
 south of the modern Greek Branchings and 
 colony, and also turning ~:f^^^3^! 
 into the peninsula toAvard itic dispersion. 
 Ptolemais. When Ave consider the ge- 
 ography of Northern Africa we shall 
 find the country Avell adapted to the 
 maintenance and perpetuation of such a 
 moA'ement. Throughout the Avhole ex- 
 tent of the region, from Eg3-pt to the At- 
 lantic, a mountain range of greater or 
 less elcA'ation defines the coast region 
 from the desert to the south. ToA\'ard 
 the eastern terminus this range is of 
 slight elcA'ation, being in the plain of 
 Barca no more than a thousand feet in 
 height. Toward the western' exlreme 
 the peaks of the Atlas rise to a much 
 greater elcA'ation, reaching the line of 
 perjictual snow. Throughout the whole 
 extent the range approximates the sea, 
 and the country betAveen the mountains 
 and the Mediterranean slopes down rap- 
 idly to the IcA'el of the ocean. It A\'as 
 through this region that the African 
 Hamites made their Avay to the Avest, 
 through Barca and Tripoli, into the an- 
 cient state of Africa Proper, and thence 
 into Mauritania, and finally to the ex- 
 treme west. 
 
 This region, thus peopled in the pre- 
 historic ages, became one of the most 
 important of tlie subsequent historical 
 countries. The ancient states along the 
 soutliern shores of the Mediterranean
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— 1 1 AM 1 1 It MK.RAIIONS. 
 
 459 
 
 never attained — with the exception of 
 Egypt — the power and importance of 
 those situated on the north- 
 ern coasts, but they readied 
 a considerable degree of 
 development, and were able to compete 
 with the Mediterranean peninsular pow- 
 ers for the mastery of the west. Funda- 
 
 Rank and char- 
 acter of North 
 Airicaii states 
 and peoples. 
 
 Stream flowed still further to the south. 
 It may also be noted that the seafaring 
 Semitic Phoenicians who passed west- 
 ward through the Southern Mediterra- 
 nean skirted the coast of Africa, and 
 touched the islands rather than estab- 
 lished colonies or built states on the 
 mainland. 
 
 TUNISIAN COAST.— Gulf of Ha^hmamet.— Drawn by Eugene Girardet, after a sketch of Saladin. 
 
 mentally, the people of the North Afri- 
 can provinces were Hamitic in their 
 origin. It is true, as we shall see here- 
 after, that parallel streams of a different 
 race descent Avere at a subsequent time 
 led westward through the same region. 
 But the Brown race division of mankind 
 carried its migration toward the Atlantic 
 on the soutlicni slope of the North 
 African mountains, while the Semitic 
 
 The main stream, of Hamitic migration 
 may be said to have reached its terminus 
 with the Atlantic, or at TheHamites 
 least with the islands west \^^^^l,^^ 
 of Morocco. It is believed *i»e ^^a. 
 that the original tribes inhabiting the 
 Canary islands were the westernmost dis- 
 persion of the human race, so far as the 
 Hamitic migration from the east was 
 concerned. As a rule, the Hamites no-
 
 460 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 where took to the sea. They were a 
 land people, and while preferring the 
 coast regions of the ancient world, they 
 avoided the open ocean and formed very 
 few insular settlements. They had far 
 less dread of the perils of the desert than 
 of those peculiar to the deep. An exam- 
 ination of the movement of the race west- 
 ward through Northern Africa will show 
 a much greater number of tribal de- 
 partures towai'd the south than toward 
 the north. The inviting character of the 
 Mediterranean islands seems to have 
 appealed less strongly to the people of 
 this descent than did even the desert 
 wastes of Sahara. 
 
 It is possible that the Hamitic move- 
 ment, considered as a whole, was some- 
 what determined by latitude and tem- 
 perature. The race appears 
 
 Hamitic prefer- '■ ^^ 
 
 encesforthe to have had a preference 
 
 equatorial trend. /• ,i .1 ,• , 
 
 for the southern climates. 
 If we consider the ccnti-al line of migra- 
 tion from the original seat of the race 
 to its extreme western limit in the 
 Canaries, we shall find only one or two 
 considerable developments toward the 
 north. The whole expansion of the 
 Hamites was in the direction of the 
 equatorial regions. If we allow the 
 Pelasgians and the Etruscans to have 
 been of this descent, we shall find this 
 single stream to have attained a north- 
 ern limit of a little more than forty-five 
 degrees, in the valley of the Po. Other- 
 wise, the northernmost deflections were 
 scarcely above thirty-five degrees north. 
 The main line of westward population 
 was about the parallel of thirty degrees, 
 and from this line nearly all the depar- 
 tures, both in Asia and Africa, were to 
 the south and soutliwest. From the 
 main course, the various tribal migra- 
 tions into the regions of the equator and 
 their ramifications filled a considerable 
 portion of the old cminlries from the 
 
 Persian gulf to the Atlantic south of the 
 thirtieth parallel and north of the equa- 
 tor. None of the Hamites crossed the 
 equatorial line southward in their origi- 
 nal dispersion, the nearest approach 
 thereto being made by the Galla tribes 
 of Eastern Africa. 
 
 Among these various lines of southern 
 deflection, the two principal were, first, 
 the great Cushite departure The Berber 
 into Southeastern Arabia ^.^rdXcted 
 and Eastern Africa; and movements, 
 secondly, the West African division, 
 which left the parent stem on the bor- 
 ders of the Libyan desert, in the modern 
 state of Algeria. From this point the 
 secondary current turned to the south- 
 west into the Moorish states and again 
 divided in the Sahara, one stream con- 
 tinuing the original course and the 
 other bending back toward the east, 
 forming a loop whose southern line 
 reached nearly to the parallel of twenty 
 degrees north. It was thus that the 
 aboriginal population of the Moorish 
 and Berber states was supplied. Here 
 sprang the desert people of the African 
 waste, and from this source have been 
 derived at least a majority of all the 
 Berber, Tuareg, and Imoshag nations. 
 
 In following the course of the Ham- 
 itic progress toward the Atlantic, the 
 etlmosfrapher meets some 
 
 ° ^ Ethnic place of 
 
 peculiar difiicultieS. The the Carthanin- 
 
 ... 1 • n ^- r ii ians considered, 
 
 ethnic classification 01 the 
 
 Carthaginians has been the source of 
 much perplexity ; and there are even yet 
 unsolved elements in the problem. By 
 language and many of their institutions 
 the ancient Carthaginians seem to have 
 been closely allied witli the Semitic 
 races of the Orient. Tradition has dis- 
 tinctly and emphatically assigned to 
 them a Phoenician origin. Many ripe 
 scholars have not hesitated to classify 
 tlu'ni as Semitic.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— IIAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 461 
 
 In the first place, it must be remem- 
 bered that the institutions and languages 
 Institutional of the Hamitic race were 
 
 and linguistic 
 
 Intimacy of by no means clearly sepa- 
 
 Semites and ^ i j- ^i r ^i 
 
 Hamites. rated from those of the 
 
 Semites. Linguistically and institution- 
 ally, as well as ethnically, these two 
 branches of the human family appear to 
 have hung together until the forms and 
 characteristics of each had to a consider- 
 able degree become fixed by develop- 
 ment. The selvages, so to speak, of 
 the various Hamitic and Semitic migra- 
 tions lay together and overlapped each 
 other in a measure that could not be ex- 
 pected in the case of the Aryan nations. 
 For these reasons, identities and analo- 
 gies of language and of institutional 
 forms of both public and private life are 
 abundant between the earliest Hamitic 
 and Semitic nations. The Phoenicians 
 were doubtless in the first place Hamitic 
 in their origin. With the Semitic con- 
 quest of Canaan, that race became domi- 
 nant to the sea. To what extent they 
 were modified in their Phoenician de- 
 velopment by Hamitic Canaanites it were 
 impossible to tell, but doubtless the 
 more recent Phoenician character was in 
 its ethnic origin the product of both 
 elements. 
 
 Moreover, in this region, the common 
 forms of the two races were especially 
 Semitic influ- abundant. So if we con- 
 ence prevails j j ^j Phoenicians in the 
 
 over the Hamit- 
 ic at Carthage, act of colonization in the 
 
 west, as at Carthage, we shall find them 
 planting on that shore a mixed race in 
 which the oldest blood was Hamitic, and 
 the more recent Semitic, in its deriva- 
 tion. Again, the later commercial 
 relations of the Phoenicians brought 
 many of their merchants and not a few 
 Eastern institutions into the mart of 
 Carthage. If, then, we look at the Car- 
 thaginian state, particularly at the city. 
 
 in the time of its ascendency, we shall 
 find a people marked in all of their civic 
 and private life with the unmistakable 
 traces of Shem. But it need not be 
 
 ¥]W-' 
 
 HAMITIC TYPE OF THE IT'I'ER NICER — BAMBARRA. 
 Drawn by Riou, after a sketch of Valliere. 
 
 forgotten, at the same time, that the 
 westward progress of the Hamites along 
 this coast must, almost of necessity, 
 have furnished the aboriginal element 
 and germs of all the states primarily
 
 462 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JIAXKLYD. 
 
 created between Egj'pt and the Pillars 
 of Hercules. 
 
 Continuing the course of Hamitic 
 miarration in the west of Africa, we find 
 the main line of progress passing to the 
 south from the IMoorish states across the 
 Extreme limits twentieth parallel and into 
 triSnL'^h; the more habitable coun- 
 ■v^est. tries of the Upper Niger. 
 
 Here there was another bifurcation, the 
 western branch reaching out to the coast 
 and furnishing the original elements of 
 the Fulah tribes of Western Guinea. 
 This was the second extreme limit in 
 westward extent of the Hamitic migra- 
 tions, being almost as far in that direc- 
 tion as the Canary islands. The other 
 branch of the race appears to have turned 
 eastward in the lake region of the 
 Upper Niger, and to have thence de- 
 scended the valley of that river into the 
 Sudan and as far east as the country 
 drained by the streams which flow into 
 lake Chad. It is likely that the Baghirmi 
 nations, lying southeast of the lake just 
 named, mark the remotest point to 
 which the original impulse carried the 
 race of Ham into Central Africa. 
 
 The whole coiirsc of the migration, 
 
 considered from the standijointof Lower 
 
 Egypt, resembles a fisliliook bending 
 
 southward around the larti'- 
 
 dispersion in cr part of the desert region 
 Alrican interior. r ii \ e • i- i. 
 
 of the African continent 
 and presenting an interior and an ex- 
 terior line, the latter of which reaches 
 back toward tlic country of the original 
 exodus, about one half way from the 
 western coast of the continent to the 
 Red sea. The final distribution of tribes, 
 by means of this great migration in the 
 prehistoric ages, was in a region of Africa 
 into which the I'.lack races, coming from 
 the cast, had already been poured, and 
 with which the Hamitic peoples have in 
 all subsequent ages been intermingled, 
 
 until it were difficult, if not impossible, 
 in modern times to discriminate the 
 diverse race elements in the peoples 
 of this region. 
 
 This, then, concludes the summary of 
 Hamitic migrations in Southwestern 
 Arabia and Northern Africa. No doubt 
 all such movements are Ethnic move- 
 more clearly drawn,_ more ^r^a',;! fog. 
 definitely indicated, in- dis- »cai. 
 cussions of the kind here presented than 
 they were in fact. In the physical 
 world nature abhors a line, and the 
 same may be affirmed with emphasis of 
 the movements and phenomena of the- 
 world of life. Of a certainty, tribes 
 migrate from place to place. They flow 
 here and there into favorable localities, 
 and there possibly develop into nations. 
 But the movement is not so exact and log- 
 ical as it appears to be when viewed 
 through the medium of description. 
 There is, on the contrary, much that is 
 desultory and irregular in the course of 
 migration from one country to another. 
 Much allowance must be made for de- 
 lays and deflections, and still more for 
 the intermingling of one tribe with an- 
 other on the wa}-. The incoming peo- 
 ple frequently disperse themselves 
 among the original inhabitants, and are 
 mixed with tlicm in the race develop- 
 ment of the future. 
 
 In some cases the migration is more 
 exact and definite, and in such instances 
 the facts correspond more General sum- 
 nearly to the concept of the S^^^^fc mfgra- 
 movement as it is trans- t'°"s- 
 mitted by descrij^tiou. In the case of 
 the Hamitic disisersion over the coun- 
 tries to which we have referred in the 
 current chapter, it must be constantly 
 remembered that these people were not 
 so different typically from their vSemitic 
 kinsmen as the latter were from the 
 Indo-Euroix;an races. From this source
 
 DfSTRlBUriOX OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 463 
 
 also much confusion has necessarily 
 arisen in the attempted classification of 
 these people by their ethnic affinities. 
 But it is believed tliat, on the Avhole, the 
 Hamitic race took in prehistoric times 
 the general lines of distribution which 
 are here indicated ; that it was distribu- 
 ted first into Southeastern and Southern 
 Arabia, then into the western portions 
 of the same peninsula, and then into 
 Canaan, From this position the lines 
 of migration part ai-ound the Mediter- 
 ranean north and south, the lower de- 
 parture being into Egypt, and after- 
 wards into Northern Africa. In the 
 course of ages the movement continued 
 to the west, along the southern shores of 
 the Mediterranean, to the Atlantic, and 
 
 was thence dcllccted to the south into 
 the equatorial regions, and iiiially turned 
 back into the desert wastes covering the 
 central and north-central parts of the 
 continent. 
 
 It is not intended in this connec- 
 tion to trace further the historical de- 
 velopment of the various peoples who 
 sprang up on the line of these migra- 
 tions. That part of the work will be at- 
 tempted in another book. For the 
 present, we turn from this cursory out- 
 line of the Hamitic distribution of man- 
 kind to consider another of the great 
 primitive races in its similar dispersion, 
 first tlirough a great part of the Orient, 
 and afterwards into different parts of the 
 Western continents. 
 
 Chapter XXVI.— JMigrations ok the Semites. 
 
 OUGHLY considered, 
 the great monarchies 
 in the valleys of the 
 Euphrates and the Ti- 
 gris were planted and 
 developed by people 
 of the Semitic race. 
 It was in Mesopotamia that the first 
 striking evolution of this branch of man- 
 kind was manifested. This is said of 
 civil and political expansion, and of the 
 establishment of social and linguistic 
 forms. It is here that ancient histoiy 
 Mesopotamia finds its first great buttress 
 against the unknown. If 
 we look at the upper part 
 of the valley, below the Armenian 
 mountains on the north and the range of 
 the Zagros on the east, we find a region 
 in which Semitic elements followed their 
 natural coui-se of evolution and were un- 
 adulterated by foreign nations. In the 
 south of Mesopotamia, as we have seen. 
 
 essentially a 
 land of the 
 Semites. 
 
 there was a mixture with the Hamitic 
 stock. But in the later Babylonian as- 
 pect of these nations the influence of the 
 Hamites had waned to such an extent 
 as to leave the Semitic races dominant 
 throughout the whole region drained by 
 the great rivers. 
 
 We have already noticed the fact of 
 the prevalence of this division of the 
 race in the Tigrine and Euphratine val- 
 leys. It remains in the present chapter 
 to take up the course of Semitic life and 
 follow it on its migration central position 
 into western lands. For a ^^sS/' '''^ 
 long time after their de- movement, 
 parture from the Jilesopotamian regions 
 the different branches of the traditional 
 Noachite descent were held well together 
 by the geographical environment. On 
 the whole, the Semitic stock was cen- 
 tral in its movement to the west. The 
 Syrian desert was entered from about 
 the middle of the valley of the Euphrates,
 
 464 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and was traversed by the migrating fam- 
 ily directly into Canaan. 
 
 It is here, moreover, that the eth- 
 nographer, in his attempted delineation 
 of the prehistoric move- 
 
 Tradltion of the J- .... 
 
 outgoing of the mcnts of mankmd, IS rcm- 
 Abrahamites. forced by tradition. One of 
 the oldest and most authentic of these is 
 the story of the migration of Abraham 
 
 el-Hie. The place is called Miigheir, 
 meaning "supplied with bitumen." The 
 outline of a most ancient 
 
 Place and char- 
 temple is still discoverable acter of Ur of 
 . , 1 J ii 1 the Chaldees. 
 
 m the place ; and the plan 
 of the foundations, and indeed of the 
 whole structure, has been made out by 
 Rawlinson and other Oriental scholars. 
 It was from this vicinity that the Abra- 
 
 RUINS AND PLAIN OF MUOHEIR.— Drawn by W. H. Boot. 
 
 from Ur of the Chaldees into Canaan. 
 This, viewed from the Semitic stand- 
 point, is one of the most famous move- 
 ments of the early world. The tradition 
 of it exists among all the cognate races 
 of the Hebrews, and with themselves it 
 is the virtual founding of their race. 
 
 TIic position of Ur in Mesopotamia is 
 well known. It is identical, in site at 
 lea.st, with the extensive ruins about si.x 
 miles to the west of the luiphratcs and 
 nearly opposite its junction with the Shat- 
 
 hamic tribe took its way, first ascending 
 the valley of the Euphrates for a consid- 
 erable distance, and" thence traversing 
 the country into Canaan. 
 
 All, or nearly all, the names that have 
 been preserved to us of this jjeriod ai-e 
 significant of tribal move- special signifi- 
 mcnts. Eber, the ancestor ^^i^ra'patV 
 from whom the name of nymios. 
 Hebrew is taken, means " from be- 
 yond," that is, he was an emigrant 
 from beyond the Euphrates, perhaps the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 465 
 
 Tigris. The name of his elder son, Pe- 
 leg, signifies "division," "because in 
 his time the earth was divided." The 
 name of Salah, the father of Eber, sig- 
 nifies "departure," and evidently refers 
 to a title which that patriarch received 
 in departing, or setting out, with his 
 tribe for a new home. Everything per- 
 tains to migration. If the meaning of 
 the name Arphaxad has not been ascer- 
 tained, the position of his tribe at least is 
 known. Arphaxad is a mountain district 
 of Southern Armenia, between lakes 
 
 finally of his really serious battle with 
 Chedorlaomer, or according to the As- 
 syrian spelling, Kudur-Lagamer, is suffi- 
 ciently striking and impressive. Kudur- 
 Lagamer was king of Elam, or rather 
 the Elamite king of Chaldaja, and had 
 followed the Abrahamic tribe out of the 
 East, with the hope of falling upon it and 
 gathering great spoil. There is little 
 doubt that this Elamite dynasty in Chal- 
 dsea was of Hamitic origin ; and the de- 
 parting Abraham was thus the object of 
 race antipathy, as well as the possessor of 
 
 LAND OF THE ARPHAXAD.— View op Kopans Kale.— Drawn by T. Deyrolle, from nature. 
 
 Van and Urumiah ; and there is no doubt 
 that the primitive clan of this ancient 
 Semite had its original locus at this place. 
 Nahor, the son of Serug, means "the 
 river," that is, the Euphrates — and so of 
 scores of other proper names referring 
 to llesopotamian localities or to family 
 or tribal movements in that region. 
 
 The pastoral picture which is drawn 
 Contact of the in Gcnesis of Abraham on 
 his way to the Promised 
 Land, and of the troubles 
 which beset him on his journey, of his 
 contention with his "kinsman Lot, and 
 
 Abrahamites 
 with the races 
 of Canaan. 
 
 flocks and herds. According to the He- 
 brew account of this migration, which 
 was the origin of Israelitish greatness in 
 Palestine, there was a di-vision of the 
 family which appears to have been on 
 the borders of Canaan, about the time 
 of the invasion. Ishmael, the oldest 
 son of the patriarch, had married an 
 Eg}-ptian bondwoman and had become 
 the head of a tribe. The troubles 
 arising out of this heathen alliance 
 led to a separation of the families, and 
 Ishmael was carried oflF into the south, 
 into Arabia.
 
 466 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JLlXKLyD. 
 
 Several generations before this time, 
 however, another branch of the Eberites 
 Outgoing and had ah-eady made a de- 
 piantings of parture into Arabia. This 
 
 Joktan in r 
 
 A-rabia. movement was made by 
 
 laktan, or Joktan, his elder brother 
 being that Peleg who was the ancestor 
 of the Abrahamites. Joktan was thus 
 five generations before the patriarch of 
 Israel. A large list of twelve sons and 
 a daughter are assigned to Joktan as the 
 heads of the tribes which he led off into 
 Northern and Western Arabia. 
 
 The movement was at a very early 
 date. Joktan was the great grandson of 
 Arphaxad, and the latter, as is well 
 known, belonged to the extreme north 
 of Mesopotamia, in the mountainous re- 
 gion of Armenia. So the Joktanites 
 must have been strongly in the migra- 
 tory spirit. Eber, the father, had come 
 "from beyond." Salah, the grandfather, 
 was the "departer." It is thus evident 
 that the whole race of Ai-phaxad was in 
 process of removal and migration. 
 
 Ethnographers, ancient and modern, 
 
 have made out and identified several of 
 
 the tribes having their or- 
 
 Modern traces ... _ , . 
 
 of the ancient igiii in the Joktauian de- 
 
 Joktanians. ■, , -n. i 
 
 scendants. rtolemy men- 
 tions the Almodoeci dwelling in the cen- 
 tral portions of Arabir. Felix, and it can 
 hardly be doubted that the name is de- 
 rived from Almodad, the oldest son or 
 tribe of Jdktan, Another people called 
 the Salapcni by the same geographer, 
 are thought to have been derived from 
 Shelepli, the second son of the same 
 patriarch. This branch of the race was 
 set down by Ptolemy as having its abode 
 near tlie modern Mecca. A third divi- 
 sion called the Cathramitaewere presum- 
 ably the descendants of the tliivd son of 
 Joklan, named Ilazarmavcth. It is like- 
 ly that the modern provincial name of 
 Hadramaut preserves the reminiscence 
 
 of the original Semitic tribe by whom 
 this region was peopled. There is also 
 a modern tribe called Yarab, having its 
 territories on the Arabian -gulf border 
 and thought to have been descended 
 from Jerah, the fourth division of the 
 Joktanian progeny. 
 
 The Semitic inhabitants of Yemen are 
 believed to have descended from Uzal, 
 sixth son of Joktan. The The Joktanidse 
 Himyaritic tribe, called the ^etveVnaTe's 
 Dulkhelitas, are believed and races. 
 to be the descendants of Diklah, the sev- 
 enth branch of the original family. The 
 tribe called Mali by Theophrastus, the 
 Malichce of Ptolemy, stand for the de- 
 scendants of Abimael, the ninth Joktan- 
 ian. The name of the modern town 
 Malai, in the vicinity of Medina, pre- 
 serves the same word. The tenth issue 
 of Joktan was that Sheba, which is men- 
 tioned in the ?Iebrew writings and still 
 more frequently among the local names 
 of Southwestern Arabia. The eleventh 
 Joktanian branch was called Ophir, and 
 preserves another name famous in the 
 Hebrew writings of the time of the king- 
 dom of David and Solomon. It is be- 
 lieved that Havilah, a name common 
 to one of the descendants of Ham, is 
 represented by the modci^n Semitic peo- 
 ple at Chaulan, in Arabia Felix. The 
 tribe of the lobarito;, mentioned by 
 Ptolemy, have their ancestral represent- 
 ative in lobab, or Jobab, the thii-teenth 
 member of the Joktanian tribe. 
 
 \Vc thus see, with more than usual 
 certainty, considering the extreme re- 
 moteness of the time, the „ . 
 
 Relations of the 
 outlines of a distribution Joktanians and 
 . ,-,, ., . , ,T ,, the Eberites. 
 
 of Eberites into Northern 
 and Western Arabia. If "we accept the 
 extreme longevity assigned by the sacred 
 writings to the patriarchs of this era, we 
 shall find that the six generations be- 
 tween Joktan and Ishmael would cover a
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF Til II RACJiS.—SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 407 
 
 period of thousands of years. However 
 this may be, it can not be doubted 
 that the Joktanians deixirted from the 
 parent stem at a date mueh more re- 
 mote than the more recent Abraham- 
 ites, and that when Ishmael, Avith 
 the descendants of the Egyptian bond- 
 woman, turned off into the "wilder- 
 ness," he found already in Arabia 
 Felix the half-nomadic and half-set- 
 tled descendants of the older branch of 
 the Eberite race. It will be borne in 
 mind, however, that the progeny of Jok- 
 tan, the younger brother of Peleg, would 
 be displaced in rights and prerogatives 
 by the descendants of the senior branch 
 of the family; so that the Ishmaelites 
 would have precedence in these regions 
 as the representatives of the common 
 father Arphaxad. The accompanying 
 diagram will illustrate the tribal rela- 
 tionships of the descendants of the Joktan 
 and the Ishmaelites : 
 
 Ishmaclitic migration was fnjm the bor- 
 ders of vSyria to the southwest and thence 
 to the south, until the coast of the Red 
 sea was reached, and skirted southward 
 to the extreme limit of that body of 
 water. If, as some ethnographers main- 
 tain, the Semitic race crossed at Bab-el- 
 Mandeb into Africa, it was an Ishmael- 
 ite removal, and whatever elements there 
 may be of Semitic descent among the 
 Galla races of Eastern Africa, the same 
 must be traced to Ishmael rather than 
 to the Joktanian branch of the original 
 Semitic family. 
 
 In the course of their progress through 
 the peninsula, the Ishmaelites appear to 
 have divided east and west The western 
 about the eastern border ^^eTmosrat" 
 of Ilejaz, and to have Africa, 
 thrown off one branch toward the cen- 
 tral desert and another across the Red 
 sea into Africa. This latter movement 
 of the race must not be confounded with 
 
 Aram 
 
 Elam 
 
 Asshur 
 
 Hul 
 
 Gether 
 
 ^rash 
 
 Arphaxad 
 Salah 
 
 Eber 
 i 
 
 Lud 
 
 Peleg 
 
 Reu ] 
 
 Serug Almodad Sheleph Hazarmaveth Jerah Hadorara Uzal D:klah Obal Abimael Sheba Opl 
 
 Nahor 
 Terah 
 
 JOKTAH 
 
 I air 
 
 I i 
 
 HavUah Jcwab 
 
 8arEU*Abraham=Hasar 
 , I I 
 
 Isaac Ishmael 
 
 Naho 
 
 Haran 
 Lot 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING TRIBAL RELATIONSHIPS OF JOKTAN ANDISHMAEU 
 
 The career of the Ishmaelites in 
 
 Arabia was one of aggression. They 
 
 encroached, /especially in 
 Spread of the . , 
 
 Ishmaelites the northern part ot the 
 
 through Arabia. . , ii. i i _ 
 
 peninsula, upon the older 
 Joktanians and also upon the original 
 Hamitic Arabians, who were anterior to 
 both branches of the Semitic immigrants. 
 In general terms, the course of the 
 
 the supposed one at the southwest angle 
 of the peninsula. The real Semitic line 
 was carried into the continent about the 
 parallel of twenty-four degrees north, 
 across Middle Egy^pt, and almost directly 
 west into the Great Desert. The migra- 
 tio"n of the Ishmaelites in this direction 
 appears to have extended as far as the 
 Imoshag races, to the southwest of
 
 468 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 Fezzan ; and this point may be regarded 
 as the extreme landward progress of the 
 Semitic race south of the Mediterra- 
 nean. 
 
 In general, the modern Arabs are 
 regarded as the lineal descendants of the 
 Ishmaelitic branch of the Semitic family. 
 In the main, this opinion is verified by 
 
 extent the Joktanian influence of later 
 ages. Finally, in the north and west of 
 Arabia, the immigrant Ishmaelites over- 
 came and subordinated all the peoples 
 that had previously occupied the country. 
 The antipathy between Sheni and Ham, 
 however, was never great — except in 
 matters of religious dogma and cere- 
 
 ARAI'AT DURING A TILGRIMAGE (LAND OF OPIIIR).— Drawn I>j- D. I.nnccloi, from a pliotOKraph. 
 
 monial. For this reason the original in- 
 
 the facts in possession of the ethnogra- 
 pher and historian. But the Arab char- 
 Composite race acter is, to a considerable 
 mo":Sa-'''' extent, composite. Several 
 *>*^s- ethnic elements have con- 
 
 tributed to its formation. The Ilani- 
 itic race, especially in the soutlicrn part 
 of the peninsula, underlay the national 
 development of subsequent times. With 
 this oldest stock was blended to some 
 
 habitants, already a composite people in 
 Arabia Felix, may be supposed to have 
 contributed not a little to the ultimate 
 formation of that type known in modern 
 times as Arabian. But the dominant 
 stock, at least in the important regions 
 bordering the Red sea from Suez to 
 Yemen, was Ishmaelitic in its origin and 
 development.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 469 
 
 We have thus considered the south- 
 ernmost migratory movements of the 
 Vicissitudes of Semitic race. The Abra- 
 
 tl'^lt^^t" h^™i^ tribe entered and 
 Canaan. possessed Canaan. This 
 
 movement of the principal stock, repre- 
 sentative of the family of 
 Eber, is better understood 
 in its character and re- «; 
 
 suits than any other sin- 
 gle migration at a time 
 equally remote from the 
 present. The story is 
 elaborately expanded in 
 the Book of Genesis. All 
 the principal episodes in 
 the career of the Abra- 
 hamic tribe are narrated, 
 even to details. The pa- 
 triarch became the pro- 
 genitor of a famous race 
 which he planted in Ca- 
 naan. The extent and 
 variety of his tribe are 
 indicated by the conduct 
 toward him of Melchize- 
 dek. King of Salem, and 
 by many other incidents 
 and events. A great de- 
 velopment of the immi- 
 grant race took place in 
 the time of Israel, grand- 
 son of Abraham, whose 
 twelve sons became the 
 progenitors of the twelve 
 tribes and the origin of 
 the twelve geographical 
 divisions of the rising 
 race. It is not needed to recount the epi- 
 sode of the sojourn in Egypt and of the 
 rapid multiplication of the foreigners 
 about Pelusium. The return out of 
 bondage and the repossession of Canaan 
 by conquest furnished the material for 
 the heroic aspect and story of the Israel- 
 itish nation, which became domin.-vnt 
 
 from the borders of the Syrian desert to 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 It is worthy to be noted in this connec- 
 tion that the Hebrews were never a seafar- 
 ing people. It was against the economy 
 of the state, and regarded perhaps as in- 
 
 
 ■^/i^Kl^ 
 
 ^ -t 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 LIFE OF THE AnRAHAMITES — SHK.PHF.Rn WiTIt LAMBS. 
 Drawn by Paul Hardy. 
 
 jurious to the theocratic principle upon 
 which the government was founded, to 
 make commercial excur- Noncommerciaj 
 sionsand contract relations p^f^tti'v^He!'* 
 with foreign powers. A brews, 
 student of history will not forget tha< 
 the narrow strip of coast called Phoeni- 
 cia, with its great seaports, lay lietweeu
 
 •470 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JELYAVXE. 
 
 brew influence 
 on the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 Israel and the Western ocean. This 
 fact has an ethnic signification also ; for 
 the Tyrians and Sidonians and other old 
 stocks of mankind, hanging in their 
 rookeries along the eastern end of the 
 Mediterranean, represented races long 
 anterior in their western distribution 
 and development to the immigration and 
 conquest of Canaan by the Eberites. 
 
 In course of time the Semitic stock 
 became dominant to the sea. Btit the 
 spirit of navigation which prevailed in 
 Extent of He- the ports of Tyre and Sidon 
 must be attributed to a 
 race impulse other than 
 that of the Hebrews. To the extent 
 that the Phoenicians had accepted the in- 
 stitutions and blood of the invaders who 
 conqiiered Canaan, we may regard the 
 outgoing fleets from these shores as car- 
 rjing Semitic influences through the 
 Mediterranean. But it is doubtful if 
 these fleets of outbound merchants car- 
 ried to the western parts anything t/is- 
 tinctively Hebrew. All the traces of the 
 Semitic race which have been found in 
 the Mediterranean islands, on the shores 
 of Spain, and beyond the straits of Gib- 
 raltar, in Wales, and in the littoral 
 islands of Western Africa, must be at- 
 tributed to that community of language 
 and institutions which the Phoenicians, 
 particularly the Sidonians, possessed in 
 common with the race of Abraham. 
 
 Time and again we have shown that the 
 Hamitcs had common forms of language 
 The Azores ^^,^1 a common institutional 
 
 mark the Atlan- 
 tic limit of He- development With the cog- 
 
 turel ^^^'^' rvvA.Q. nations of Shorn, and 
 
 the original Canaanites could thus carry 
 
 into western waters evidences of a race 
 
 affinity with the dominant .Semitic stock. 
 
 However this may be, ethnographers 
 
 have agreed in extending the vSemitic 
 
 line of dispersion through the Phoenician 
 
 coa.st and around the northern sliores of 
 
 Africa by water. As just indicated, 
 this line extends beyond the Pillars of 
 Hercules, and is deflected northward to 
 Britain and southward to the twentieth 
 degree of latitude. The western limit 
 of this maritime migration is thought to 
 have been in the Azores ; and this group 
 of islands may be said to mark the ex- 
 treme Atlantic progress in the natural 
 dispersion of the .Semitic family. 
 
 It must be noted in connection with 
 the foregoing schemes of dispersion that 
 most of the names employed appear as 
 the names of individuals. — use and signif- 
 as the sons of a household. ^TeTtrfb^" 
 This fact gives to the dis- names, 
 cussion a &Vx\q.\\x fainily aspect which is too 
 exact and too narrow for the facts which it 
 represents. !Many of the names in the 
 above classifications are known to be the 
 names of tribes and of whole divisions, 
 or even of whole peoples. It is impos- 
 sible from a study of primitive Semitic 
 records to make out precisely which of 
 the ancestral names employed in geneo- 
 logical tables are intended to represent 
 single ancestors, and which are designed 
 to specify households, tribes, and peoples. 
 It is the custom in the Semitic languages 
 to prefix to many personal names, espe- 
 cially such as have a descriptive significa- 
 tion, the definite article, thereby giving 
 to the word an ethnic turn of sense dif- 
 ferent from what would be expressed in 
 the Aryan languages. Such names, 
 moreover, are frequently in titc plural ; 
 and the Hebrew Scriptures, taken as an 
 example of all such records, have, in 
 manj^ instances, intermixed these tribal 
 or ethnic epithets with individual names 
 until even the closest criticism is jjiit at 
 fault in determining precisely wiiat is 
 nieant. - On the whole, it is safe to 
 make considerable allowance fcr this 
 circumstance in estimating the value of 
 the names, apparently individual, given
 
 DISTKinUTlOX OF TIIF. RACIiS.—SEM/TIC MIGRATIONS. 
 
 471 
 
 to the ancestors of the Semitic and Ham- 
 itic races. This fact must always be 
 taken into account in attempting to esti- 
 mate the /////(• and the extent of a given 
 migratory movement. 
 
 If we look to tlie north of the central 
 line of the Semitic dispersion into Ca- 
 
 and it has already been suggested that 
 in Cyprus itself the aboriginal develop- 
 ment was of Hamitic origin. The primi- 
 tive histoiy of the island is exceedingly 
 obscure, but all that is known with 
 reference thereto points to an early 
 colonization by the Phctnicians from lli»> 
 
 ' LAND OF THE SCORCHED FACES." — Abu Senoi'm, on Frontier of Koruofan, towako Dakfuk. — Drawn by Karl 
 
 Girardet, after a sketch of Lejean. 
 
 naan and the west, we shall lind only a 
 single significant dei^arture. This leaves 
 The Hebrew the main stem on the north 
 wnhtrnrr^ in the Syrian desert, and 
 itio in Cyprus. bears off in the direction of 
 the northeastern extremity of the Medi- 
 terranean, where it touches the coast, 
 and is thence carried over to the island 
 of Cyprus. It is hardly to be doubted 
 that along the line of this migration 
 other peoples had preceded the Semites, 
 
 neighboring coast. The ancient wor-> 
 shij^ of Ashtaroth in Cyprus seems to be 
 identical with the corresponding cult in 
 Phoenicia, and it may be concluded that 
 the first race, by which is meant the first 
 progressive race, in the island was of 
 the old Canaanitish stock which fixed 
 itself in the earliest ages along the 
 eastern shore of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Such, then, is the general view of 
 the dispersion of the Semitic nations-
 
 472 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 Geographically considered, the race 
 was narrow and intense. Its migra- 
 Summaryand tory excursions did not 
 outline of the }^ ^ go extensively 
 
 Hebraic dis- •' 
 
 tribution. as those of Other peo- 
 
 ples. The extreme western continental 
 limit was, as we have seen, in North 
 Central Africa. The sotithern departure 
 dropijed down as far as the limits of 
 Arabia. The northern limit was the 
 island of Cyprus; and the maritime 
 expeditions — if we regard the Phoeni- 
 cians as representatives of this race — 
 extended through the Mediterranean and 
 to a certain distance around the western 
 coasts of Europe and Africa. Taken 
 altogether, the dispersion is the smallest, 
 that is, the most limited in geographical 
 extent, of all the great ethnic departures. 
 The dispersion of Japheth in compari- 
 son with that of Shem was, as we shall 
 presently see, world-wide in its extent. 
 But within the limited territories oc- 
 cupied by the Semitic race a very intense 
 form of religious and civil development 
 ensued, making the Semites conspicuous 
 among ancient peoples for their pecul- 
 iarities and persistence and force of 
 character. 
 
 In the course of the current chapter 
 little has been intimated relative to the 
 Question of the primitive populations of 
 TfTheEirp? lithiopia. This name was 
 ans. given by the Greeks to the 
 
 region lying immediately south of 
 Egypt. The word means "the land of 
 the scorched faces," and was doubtless 
 applied by the Hellenic ethnographers 
 ;o the Ethiopians on account of their 
 swarthy hue. Tliis, however, by no 
 means implies that they were a branch 
 of the, Black races of mankind. It is 
 well known, on tlie contrary, that tliis 
 people were allied witli tlic ITamitic and 
 Semitic families of men, and not with 
 the Negroes or Hottentots. 
 
 The early history of Egypt indicates 
 close relationship between that couniry 
 and Ethiopia. At one epoch an Ethi- 
 opian dynasty is found in westem ish- 
 the ascendant in the Nile Xrei^^urtL 
 valley. There was much Hamites. 
 community of religions and of civil in- 
 stitutions between the two peoples, who, 
 however, frequentl}' went to war. To 
 what extent, in the prehistoric ages, the 
 Hamitic race had made its way up the 
 valley beyond the falls of the Nile and 
 contributed a first population to Ethi- 
 opia can not be well ascertained. But 
 that the original race of this region was 
 at least to some extent Hamitic in its 
 origin can hardly be doubted. We may, 
 nevertheless, accept the current view of 
 ethnographers that the western division 
 of the Ishmaelites crossed the Red sea 
 and gave a Semitic character to the first 
 Ethiopian tribes. It is possible, more- 
 over, that the same race, after making 
 its way to the southern extremity of the 
 Red sea and passing thence into Africa, 
 doubled back into Ethiopia and dis- 
 seminated certain tribal elements in this 
 obscure but important region of the 
 earth. 
 
 We thus note three great divisions of 
 the vSemitic stock. The primary depar- 
 ture sent off the Aramaic Aram the seat 
 branch of the race. In gen- t^^^:'^:^"- 
 eral terms the people of opment. 
 Aram, known ethnically as Aramaeans, 
 were distributed from the Zagros and 
 Kebir Kuh on tlic east, to the borders of 
 Canaan on the west. Aram eml^raced 
 all of Mesopotamia except Chaldasa, 
 subsequently known as Babylonia, and 
 all of .Syria in the west except Palestine 
 and Phoenicia. The scat of Aramaic cul- 
 ture was Mesopotamia. Here was ex- 
 hibited the strongest develojimcnt of the 
 race. Geographically, Aram w;is the 
 northern division of the Semitic family,
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF Tlf/i RACES.— EAST ARYAN DI.I'A RTURE. 473 
 
 as the Hebraic stock was the central and 
 the Arabic division the southern evolu- 
 tion of Shem. 
 
 In considering the race characteristics 
 and historical progress of these peoples, 
 we shall have occasion to revert to this 
 division of the Semitic family, and to 
 make the same the basis of a discussion of 
 
 the national life of the Mesopotamian 
 nations, the Hebrews and the Arabs. 
 We turn, then, in the next place, to a 
 discussion of the far wider, and in many 
 senses more important, development of 
 the oldest branch of the Noachite 
 family of mankind — the Aryans, or 
 Japhethites. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII,— The Kasx Aryan Departure. 
 
 HE dispersion of the 
 Japhetic, Aryan, or 
 Indo-European race — 
 for the three ethnic 
 names are virtually 
 synonymous — consti- 
 tutes the most pictur- 
 esque chapter in the prehistoric annals 
 of the world. We are brought in the 
 investigation to what appears to have 
 iDcen an inexhaustible fountain of hu- 
 man life, and are led to view the issu- 
 ance from this common source of at 
 Determination least six of the great races 
 of the origin of ^^.|^|^j^ bccamc in their de- 
 
 trie Aryan mi- 
 grations, velopment the principal his- 
 torical forces in the ancient world. It 
 will be of primary interest in this in- 
 quiry to note, first of all, the geograph- 
 ical location of this common foi:ntain 
 wherefrom issued the best, or at least 
 the strongest, peoples who have, by 
 their energy and genius, transformed 
 the primeval world into its present civil- 
 ized and auspicious condition. 
 
 With the map of Asia before him the 
 student need not be long in fixing the 
 o^reat ethnic center which we are about 
 to consider. Regarding the ancient 
 country of Carmania as the seat of the 
 Noachite division of peoples, and fixing 
 the line of Japheth on the north, it may 
 
 be easily perceived that its westward- 
 M. — Vol. I — 31 
 
 bearing course would come against the 
 Hyrcanian mountains and the Lower 
 Caspian, and be deflected or doubled 
 back toward the Upper Oxus into .Mar- 
 giana and Bactria. It was in this region 
 that the great ethnic whirl was estab- 
 lished, where the Aryan race seems to 
 have found itself turned by torsion for a 
 season under the dominion of cosmic 
 forces, which it were, perhaps, vain to 
 attempt to analyze and define. 
 
 Ethnographers have differed some- 
 what as to the true seat of the great 
 races which we are now to Region of the 
 consider. The better opin- .^T^jS'lt 
 ion places the center of parture. 
 the distribution about the Lower Cas- 
 pian, or eastward toward the borders of 
 Bactria. It is likely that the rapidly 
 multiplying race covered geographically 
 the larger part of the country between 
 the Bactrian borders and the Lower Cas- 
 pian. At least this is the general local- 
 ity from which the most powerful ethnic 
 forces have ever proceeded. In viewing 
 the situation, we may discover once more 
 how the laws of physical environment 
 cooperated with the laws of instinct in 
 producing such marvelous results. 
 There is little doubt, in the first place, 
 that evenness of surface and approxima- 
 tion to sea level have a marked influence 
 in preserving the aggregationor compact-
 
 474 
 
 GREAT RACES OF JL4NKIND. 
 
 ness of tribes in the formative stnte, and 
 in conducing to certain religious and po- 
 litical types of development. 
 
 In the next place latitude, with its 
 
 invariable concomitant of temperature, 
 
 contributes much to modify the peoples 
 
 who are subject to given 
 
 Hamites are eth.- "^ 
 
 nicauy modified degrees of heat and cold. 
 
 by enrironment. tm • • , • ,■ ^ <• 
 
 i his IS true m particular ot 
 tribes who are still in the plastic state. 
 There can be no doubt that there is a 
 childhood and a vouth to mankind — an 
 
 men. They also grew sedate and aus- 
 tere, less disposed to highly developed 
 forms of society, and, in brief, more 
 like the desert and rainless countries in- 
 to which they penetrated than were the 
 races which distributed themselves fur- 
 ther northward. 
 
 Among the oldest monuments of the 
 Egyptians there are pictorial represen- 
 tations of the differences which had al- 
 ready been produced among the Noa- 
 chite descendants by the influences of 
 
 LANDSCAPE OF OLD ARVA.— Ruins of Tous.— Drawn by A. de liar, from .i pholograph. 
 
 impressionable stage of evolution in 
 which the influences of the external 
 •world are more potent in their reaction 
 •upon the mental and physical constitu- 
 tion than they are in later stages of de- 
 velopment. In these early stages of so- 
 ciety there arc infantine susceptibilities 
 and diseases from which the race re- 
 covers at a stage of fuller maturity. For 
 this reason the early peoples in their 
 migratory epochs have developed a con- 
 Btilution peculiarly significant of the 
 climate and region f)f their tribal so- 
 journ. The races of Ham 1:)ccamc much 
 darker in color than their Semitic kins- 
 
 environment. The sculptors, in these 
 representations, have unwittingly borne 
 evidence of the tendencv of Egyptian sculp 
 
 tures eT>idenoe 
 
 races in the plastic stage of the early ditrer- 
 
 ... ... . entiationof 
 
 their evolution to con- races, 
 form to climatic conditions. The 
 Egyptians defined themselves as Rot/i, 
 meaning red, or ruddy, as to complexion. 
 They pictured the cognate Semites as 
 Naiiialiu, meaning yellow; and the 
 Japhethites, or North ISIcditerrancan 
 peoples, as Tuiiia/iii, or white. Yet it is' 
 now well known that these three types 
 of color and the associated form, feature, 
 and stature of the three peoples to
 
 DISTRinUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 475 
 
 which they belong, were all of a com- 
 mon ethnic descent. 
 
 The race of Jai^heth on the north and 
 east of Mesopotamia was, in its earliest 
 stages of development, tlirown into a 
 
 Primitive Ja- 
 
 phethites alTect 
 
 ed by climate 
 
 and surround- . , . 
 
 ings. ot the coimtnes where the 
 
 Semitic and Hamitic families were dis- 
 persed. It was a region of uplands, ris- 
 
 region where nature had 
 s;rialcr I'aricly than in any 
 
 mer, the quick oncoming of the .storm, 
 the biting frost of a comparatively early 
 autumn, the high winds, the blasts of 
 snow and .sleet peculiar to the winter 
 months. It is in some sense a climatic 
 maelstrom, and the Japhetic race was 
 whirled and beaten in its childhood by 
 the wild elements that dashed and 
 turned from alternate calm to tempest, 
 and from warm airs to biting blasts and 
 
 V * -^ • •: "JVC* J.- "U 
 
 m 
 
 ■ . -A- . . . - * 
 
 jt^-<. ^ 
 
 ft^T 
 
 FA^s 111' 1 HE AKAXK^. 
 
 ing easily into mountain ranges of con- 
 siderable elevation. It was a country of 
 snows, and particularly of storms in 
 winter. There are few parts of the 
 earth in which vicissitude in temperatitre 
 and the whole external mood of nature 
 are more pronounced than in the region 
 south and east of the Caspian. 
 
 The primitive Japhethites were ex- 
 posed from the beginning to the full 
 force of these climatic changes — to the 
 flush of early spring, the heat of .sum- 
 
 freezing .sleets. For the.se reasons the 
 early Japhethites would, by the turbu- 
 lence of nature, be impressed with great- 
 er restlessness, hardihood, and adven- 
 ture than might be expected in the case 
 of any other primitive people. 
 
 How great must have been the influ- 
 ence of such an environment upon sen- 
 sitive peoples recentl}- liberated from a 
 parent stock in a more genial latitude '. 
 We have already seen that the Adamite 
 seems to have come up from the low-
 
 476 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 lying seashore, where the Ichthyophagi 
 
 afterwards roamed, half -naked in ihe 
 seashore sunshine, gathering shellfish 
 from the brine. Many of these moder- 
 ating influences had been carried by the 
 Noachites into the Carmanian uplands; 
 and it was from thence that the Japheth- 
 ites were deflected to the northwest into 
 the region of snow and mountains. 
 
 Before beginning a review of the 
 wider aspects of the Japhetic dispersion 
 indefiniteness jj^to remote Continents, it 
 
 of biblical refer- 
 ences to the can but prove of interest to 
 
 Japhetic disper- ^ , , ' 
 
 sion. note, as we have already 
 
 done in the case of the Joktanian migra- 
 tions, the narrower biblical plan of dis- 
 tribution presented in the tenth chapter 
 of Genesis. Japheth signifies, etymo- 
 logically, " widespreading," from which 
 meaning of the word the inference is 
 drawn that the name was applied to the 
 Northern Aryans after they had shown 
 the migratory disposition. Far back in 
 the Noachitic era there was a prophecy 
 that -Japheth should be enlarged. Every- 
 thing from the biblical point of view 
 points to the expansion of this branch 
 of the Noachite family. The close 
 relation of the western division of the 
 race with European tribes is shown in 
 the fact that the Greeks had a myth of 
 their own ancestor under the name of 
 lapetus, which is clearly the same as 
 Japheth. In general terms, the countries 
 assigned to the descendants of this 
 branch of mankind are called the "isles 
 of the gentiles." Doubtless the expres- 
 sion is poetical. The Oriental imagi- 
 nation substituted " isles " for countries 
 in genei-al, no doubt from the remote 
 and seagirt meaning suggested by the 
 word. 
 
 If we scrutinize carefully the Japhetic 
 family as recorded in Genesis, we shall 
 find seven sons, or founders of tribes, 
 assigned to the head of tlic race. These 
 
 are, first of all, Gomer. Among the de- 
 scendants of this ancestor many names 
 are found, even in Europe, seven tribes of 
 which preserve the ety- the'^ra^eof'"^^' 
 mology of the ancestral Gomer. 
 title. Rawlinson has noted the presence 
 of the Gimirians among the cuneiform 
 inscriptions, belonging to the age of 
 Darius Hystaspes. The Cimmerians, 
 dwelling on the northern shores of the 
 Black sea, are believed to have their name 
 from Gomer. The word Cymri (Kymri), 
 one of the Celtic names of Western Eu- 
 rope, is thought to have the same origin ; 
 and the words Cambria, in England, and 
 Cambrai, in France, preserve, perhaps, 
 an etymological tradition of the oldest 
 branch of the Japhethites. 
 
 The first son of Gomer was Ashkenez, 
 from whom, no doubt, the ancient tribe 
 of Ascanians, dwelling to the south of the 
 Black sea, Avere descended. These are 
 believed to have been the ancestors of 
 the Phrygians, and were therefore closely 
 related with the Hellenic emigrants 
 who subsequently peopled Greece. The 
 country of Ascania extended over the 
 land of Troy, from which circumstance 
 we may deduce something of the ethnic 
 relations existing between the Trojans 
 and the Hellenes. It is worthy of note 
 that "the boy Ascanius," the son of 
 .^neas, founder of mythical Rome, per- 
 petuated the ancestral name of Ashkenez. 
 It is not impossible that the classical 
 name Euxine, formerly spelled Axenus, 
 is also derived from the ethnic designa- 
 tion of the early race dwelling on the 
 southern borders of this sea. 
 
 The second branch of the Gomerites 
 was, according to Genesis, deduced from 
 the tribal ancestor Riphath. „ , , „. 
 
 ' Place of the Ri- 
 
 From him are tliought phacesintue 
 
 . 1 11,1 ethnic scheme. 
 
 to have descended llie 
 
 ancient Paphlagonians, wliom Josephus 
 
 designates as Rii)liaces. This pe()2)le,
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 477 
 
 like the Ashkenites, dwelt on the south- 
 ern borders of the Black sea, though the 
 location has not been so definitely deter- 
 mined as that of the first Gomeritic 
 division. On the whole, it is likely that 
 the Riphaces had their dwelling- place 
 somewhat toward the east, in a district 
 which was properly included in Arme- 
 nia. Tlie third son 
 of Gonier was To- 
 garmah, who is be- 
 lieved to have 
 founded an Arme- 
 nian tribe which 
 may be identified 
 with the modem 
 Thorgonites inhab- 
 iting the same re- 
 gion. 
 
 The next brancli 
 of the Japhethites 
 was deduced from 
 the second son, 
 called Magog. But 
 it is difficult to de- 
 termine into which 
 of the Black sea 
 provinces this di- 
 vision was led and distributed. There 
 is general consent that the famous savage 
 race of Scythians were the 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 the Magog and offsprmg of Magog. Some 
 
 the Madai. . -, . , 
 
 ethnographers have re- 
 ferred the Turanians in general to this 
 origin, and others have derived the 
 Circassians, inhabiting the mountainous 
 district between the Caspian and the 
 Black sea, from the Magogian stock. 
 
 Concerning the Madai, who are record- 
 ed as the third tribe of Japheth, there can 
 be little doubt that these were the ances- 
 tors of the great race of Medes, whose 
 country spread from the Upper Zagros 
 toward the east, as far as Hyrcania and 
 the desert of Aria. Subsequently, in the 
 development of the Median race, the 
 
 nation spread southward over the Irani- 
 an plateau, and passed by conquest into 
 Assyria, and even to Babylonia. But 
 the prehistoric tribes descended from 
 Madai were limited to the northern prov- 
 inces east of the mountains. 
 
 The fourth son of Japheth was Javan, 
 easily identified with the Greek ancestral 
 
 /^c/i/rvs^^jjMmi:] 
 
 OLD MEDIAN TYPES — THE SASSANIAN PRINCES (OF THE SCULPTURES). 
 Drawn by H. Chapuis, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. 
 
 name laones, from whom, according to 
 the Hellenic tradition, the lonians of 
 
 Asia Minor and the ^gean 
 
 Traces of the 
 dispersion of the 
 Javanites. 
 
 islands were descended. 
 Traces of the Javanites 
 have been discovered among the inscrip- 
 tions of Egypt; and the Greeks as a race 
 were called Javanas among the ancient 
 Hindus. The Arabic word for Greeks 
 is Yunan, which is evidently of the .same 
 etymology with Javan. In later times 
 the Hellenic ethnographers were dis- 
 posed to accept laones as the ancestor of 
 their Avhole race, and to make Ionian 
 and Greek equivalent terms. 
 
 From the Javan, several ancestral 
 stocks are said to have been derived. The 
 first son bore the name of Elishah , and it is
 
 478 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIhW. 
 
 possible that the Greek state of Elis, in 
 the eastern part of Peloponnesus, perpet- 
 uated this name. Some have suggested 
 that Hellas itself is a derivative from 
 Elishah. Tarsus, on the Cilieian coast, 
 has been derived from the word Tarsliisli, 
 assigned as the name of a second son of 
 Javan. A third tribe was called Kittim, 
 which is believed to have been distrib- 
 uted near Paphlygonia, or possibly into 
 the island of Cyprus. A fourth division 
 of Javanites were the Dodanim, which 
 we may possibly identify with the Do- 
 donians of Macedonia. The tribal name 
 
 GAIEWAV OK THE EAST ARYANS INTO INDIA — THE BOLAN I'ASS. 
 
 is sometimes spelled Rodauim, which 
 would point to the island of Rhodes as 
 the locality of this branch of Javan. 
 
 The race of Tibareni, mentioned by 
 the Greek historians, have generally 
 Probable identi- bccn referred to the Tubal, 
 or^^ran'swHh fifth tribe of Japheth. 
 the Tubaiites. Tlicv havc been identified 
 with tlie original Georgians, but the 
 name in itself docs not indicate the 
 descent. In the Iberians we may dis- 
 cover traces of the original name. Tlic 
 latter had their h.abitation bordering on 
 the Black sea and reaching out on the 
 southern s]o])e of the Caucasus. 
 
 The sixth son of Japheth is called 
 IMeshech, whose descendants were doubt- 
 less the ancient Moschi. The territory 
 of this tribe lay next to that of the 
 Tibareni. The Moschian range of 
 mountains preserves the word in the 
 north of Armenia to the present time. 
 According to a conjecture of Rawlinson, 
 the modern national name of IMusCovite 
 is derived, through Moschi, from the 
 Japhetic Meshech. 
 
 It is believed that the great Thracian 
 stock of mankind may be traced up to 
 Tiras, the seventh and last of the Japhetic 
 
 progeny. It is 
 thought that the 
 country into 
 which this 
 branch of the 
 race was distrib- 
 uted was on the 
 n o r t h of the 
 Black sea, on 
 the banks of the 
 Dniester, the 
 name of which 
 river is believed 
 to preserve the 
 e t y m o 1 o g y o f 
 Tiras. After- 
 wards the same 
 geographical name was carried into Eu- 
 rope. The ThracianS were Possible deriva- 
 originally distributed over ^^^t^rcn 
 a wide range of countr}-, Tiras. 
 extending from the Black sea as far as 
 the borders of the Cimmerians. 
 
 It will be seen that according to this 
 genealogical scheme, deduced from the 
 Book of Genesis, the dis- Biblical scheme 
 
 represents the 
 
 pcrsion of the Japhcthitcs Japhethites as 
 
 , ,, ^ ," , developed west- 
 
 was wholly to tllC l^'CStlVard -ward. 
 
 from llie point of deixirluiv. This in- 
 dicates that the eastward migrations of 
 the race, so important in the subsequent 
 development of the Medo-Persian up-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 479 
 
 lands and India, were unknown to the 
 Hebrews, or at least omitted from the 
 ethnic tables which they preserved. As 
 a general fact, the Hebrew accounts of 
 peoples other than themselves were lim- 
 ited to the necessity of the case, while 
 the movements of the Abrahamites were 
 expanded and developed in full propor- 
 tions. 
 
 A second observation relative to the 
 Japhetic dispersion is that according to 
 this sevenfold tribal scheme all, or near- 
 ly all, the races of Indo-European origin 
 How far the He- are located in Armenia and 
 brew outline of ^round the shores of the 
 
 Japnetix ex- 
 tended. Black sea. The territory 
 
 contemplated by the Hebrew author ex- 
 tended westward into Phrygia and at 
 least as far as the ^gean islands. It is 
 safe to mark out the wilds of Thrace and 
 the island of Rhodes as the western- 
 most boundaries of the Japhetic disper- 
 sion as deduced from the tribal refer- 
 ences in Genesis. But if we examine 
 the geographical knowledge which was 
 possessed in the times of the composi- 
 tion of the earlier Hebrew books, and 
 join to this the comparative indifference 
 of the race to the movements and distri- 
 bution of the Japhethites, we can dis- 
 cover sufficient reasons for the imperfec- 
 tion or inadequacy of the ethnic scheme. 
 It now remains to look at the question 
 in the broader light of historical and 
 linguistic indications. 
 
 It has already been indicated in the 
 first chapter of the preceding book that 
 Great contribu- the study of language has 
 S:nce"rth-"° led to many rectifications 
 nography. jn the general scheme of 
 
 knowledge. In no other department of 
 science has this correction and emenda- 
 tion of previous opinion been more 
 manifest than in ethnography. One of 
 the most striking examples of the im- 
 provement of the old scheme of learning 
 
 by the new linguistic contribution is 
 found in the discovery that the Indie 
 peoples of Hindustan have certainly 
 been derived from the same origin with 
 the great nations of Europe and Amer- 
 ica. The bringing to light of the iden- 
 tity of Sanskrit in its elements as a lan- 
 guage with the Greek and Latin opened 
 up a. totally different view of the move- 
 ments and distribution of the Indo-Eu- 
 ropean family of men. The slightly 
 subsequent demonstration of the iden- 
 tity of the language in which are re- 
 corded the sacred writings of the Iranic 
 or Persic race, added proof to proof of 
 the great community of the six or seven 
 branches which are now known to com- 
 pose the Aryan family of nations. 
 
 Ethnographers Avere quick to seize 
 upon these additions to their previous 
 knowledge ; and one of their first works 
 was to trace backward the Discovery of 
 Indie streams of mankind fi^lTi'w^t^'na 
 
 nnities by means 
 
 through the passes of the of Sanskrit. 
 Hindu-Kush to its confluence with the 
 Iranic stream, and then to follow up the 
 Old Indo-Persic family in its descent 
 from an ancestral home common to 
 themselves and the Graeco-Italic stock in 
 Europe. These ancient and shadowy 
 movements, most important in the dis- 
 semination of the strongest peoples in 
 the world, have now been sufficiently 
 delineated, and the scholar of to-day 
 may trace w'ith comparative certainty 
 the ethnic lines which mark the course 
 of primitive peoples from the great cen- 
 ter which they had in common, east- 
 ward of the Lower Caspian, to their sev- 
 eral destinations in distant continents. 
 
 The primary movement of the Old Ar- 
 yans in the geographical First move- 
 vortex just referred to ap- ^r?he'l^^^^ 
 pears to have been a sort of i»i<i«s. 
 spiral, throwing off streams east and 
 west from its circumference. The oldest
 
 480 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 of these departures was that toward the 
 southeast. It contained the potency of 
 two principal developments, an older 
 and a younger; the former finding its 
 geographical area of expansion on the 
 table-lands of Iran, and the latter con- 
 tinuing in migratory movements to the 
 east, until it descended from the inoun- 
 tain gaps into the Punjab, and thence 
 down the Indian valleys to the sea. 
 
 The first peculiarity of this remarka- 
 ble departure is the fact that it stands 
 alone of all the Aryan migrations in 
 halving a general direction toward the 
 cast. All the other dispersive move- 
 ments of this race were to the west, the 
 tendency being in common with that 
 of the Semitic and Hamitic families on 
 the south. The Eastern Aryans, how- 
 ever, made their departure against the 
 course of nature, and followed it per- 
 sistently across nearly a third of Asia to 
 their final lodgment and distribution in 
 the East. 
 
 The reason for this reversal of the 
 general migratory movement to the 
 Hints of physic- West, and of the departure 
 fng\h:rvr- of the Eastern Aryans 
 ments of races, from what appears to be a 
 common ethnic law, is difficult to deter- 
 mine. The earth is held in equipoise by 
 the electric currents with which it is 
 girdled and by which all its magnetic 
 elements are polarized. These encircling 
 influences, which are doubtless deter- 
 mined in their fundamental direction by 
 the diurnal course of the sun, extend into 
 and control all the vegetable and animal 
 life on the surface of the planet. Every 
 vine and tendril that springs from the 
 earth and seeks a support twines around 
 the object to which it fastens in obedi- 
 ence to a common law which determines 
 the tnethod and direction of the growth. 
 No mechanical means or contrivance can 
 prevail against this obvious and invinci- 
 
 ble tendenc}' of a vine to turn in its own 
 direction about the object on which it 
 seizes. In general, the tendrils of the 
 vegetable kingdom follow the course of 
 the sun, from left to right in a circle. In 
 the animal kingdom the same phenom- 
 ena recur. Bees departing from the 
 parent colony follow, in every country, 
 a given line of migration. Birds and 
 quadrupeds also obey these cosmic in- 
 fluences, but are somewhat more variable 
 in the directions of their tribal move- 
 ments. As we shall see further on, the 
 Brown races of mankind have in general 
 carried the lines of their migration to the 
 east instead of the west ; and the same 
 is true of the Australian and Papuan 
 streams of dispersion among the Blacks. 
 But the Aryans have shown almost 
 a passion for the westward course. All 
 
 the original ethnic move- Possible reason 
 
 ments of this great division '^S:i^t^^ 
 of mankind were toward migration, 
 the setting sun, with the single excep- 
 tion of that which we are now consider' 
 ing. Why should the Indo-Persian ini- 
 gration have disobeyed the general law? 
 Why should the Ruddy I'ace have con- 
 tributed to populate the valleys of India 
 at a distance so great from the original 
 tribal departure ? It may be said in 
 answer, that the vegetable kingdom is 
 not quite uniform in the directions of its 
 growth. There are a few exceptional 
 instances in which vines and tendrils are 
 specifically opposed in their method of 
 growth to the action of the common 
 law, and when such reversal of the 
 usual order is di.scovered in a given 
 plant, it is found to be as obsti- 
 nate in its manifestation as ai^e those 
 which conform to the usual methods of 
 development. It is possililc thai some- 
 thing analogous to this may have pre- 
 vailed among the Eastern Aryans to the 
 extent of a prevalent instinct contrary
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 481 
 
 in its action to the usual desires and dis- 
 positions of the race. 
 
 At any rate, the first great migration 
 
 of this family of mankind was toward 
 
 the rising sun. The epoch in time in 
 
 which the movement began 
 
 Light derived . 
 
 from irauio and cau not DC ascertained, 
 
 Vedio literature, i j. ^i j-,- i i\ 
 
 but the condition oi the 
 
 migrating nation has fortunately been, 
 to some extent, 
 preserved in the 
 language. The uld 
 books of the Iranic 
 and Indie races 
 have been to the 
 ethnographer what 
 the stone -leaves of 
 the earth are to the 
 geologist. There 
 are even to be dis- 
 covered in these 
 works some hints 
 of chronology. It 
 is now conceded 
 that the Rig- Veda 
 is the oldest book 
 in the possession 
 of the human race. 
 It may be that in- 
 vestigations here- 
 after among Ori- 
 entals, particular!}' 
 the Chinese, may 
 substitute some 
 other work for the 
 Hindu Bible. It is 
 now generally ad- 
 mitted that the 
 earliest hymns of the Vedic collection 
 go back to wellnigh three thousand 
 years before our era. The sacred 
 books of Zoroastrianism were compiled 
 at a later date. The evidence of lan- 
 guage is sufficient to show that the 
 Iranic speech and religious institutions 
 were developed at a period considerably 
 
 subsequent to that from which the Rig- 
 Veda proceeded. It is possible that the 
 hymns and ceremonials composing this 
 most ancient book were sung or chanted 
 by the Aryan tribes long before they 
 descended into the valleys of India. It 
 is certain at least that the language was 
 well forward in evolution of structure 
 and determination of vocabularv while 
 
 TYPE OK THE ANCIENT UKAHM — LEPER KING OF ANGCOR WAT. 
 Drawn by E. Tournois, after a sketch of Delaportc. 
 
 the Iranians and Indicans still drifted in 
 a common migration toward the south 
 and east. 
 
 The distribution of the Indie peoples, 
 first into the Punjab and afterwards 
 into the lower valleys, thence into the 
 uplands, and finally eastward to the 
 foothills of the Himalayas, has already
 
 482 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. 
 
 been described. It was here that the 
 
 great race of Brahm expanded through 
 
 centuries of progress into 
 
 Expansion of ^ , . 
 
 the race of that lixed national form 
 
 Brahm in India. i • i t • xi 
 
 ■svhich we discover m the 
 earlier epochs of authentic history. 
 Here the Brahmanic form of worship 
 prevailed. Here the Indian castes were 
 established in society. Here those 
 peculiar philosophical theories of life 
 and duty and destiny were evolved 
 which seemed to be an exact reversal of 
 the beliefs and dogmas of the Western 
 nations. It will be the work of a sub- 
 sequent chapter to trace out this eastern- 
 most development of the Aryan peoples, 
 to note its peculiarities and tendencies, 
 and to contrast the life of the Hindu 
 peoples with the more aggressive and 
 active social phenomena exhibited by the 
 primitive races of Eui-ope. 
 
 In the case of this migration we have 
 another example of the disposition of 
 Primitive tribes primitive tribes to hang 
 the"mSr;"" together and maintain their 
 movement. Solidarity for a consider- 
 
 able distance toward their unknown 
 destination, and then to depart into two 
 or more courses of independent develop- 
 ment. While the Indie branch of the 
 
 eastward-bearing Aryans had been mak- 
 ing its way farther and farther toward 
 the Indian valleys, the Iranic division 
 gradually spread from the common 
 movement and turned into the half- 
 desert plateaus on the south. The move- 
 ment was first into Media Proper, and 
 then into Persia. The course of this 
 branch of the race, which may be defined 
 as Indo-Iranian, appears to have been 
 almost exactly the reverse of that of the 
 original Ruddy stock making its way 
 north and westward from the shores of 
 the Indian ocean. 
 
 It is not the purpose at the present 
 time to note in extenso the establish- 
 ment of the Median tribes The Medes pre- 
 and their organization ^f^^f^t'hTstoric- 
 
 first into a political com- al development. 
 
 munity and then into a kingdom. It is 
 well known that the Medes preceded the 
 Persians in the formation of a body pol- 
 itic and in the development of the arts. 
 We are here, however, on the borders 
 of history, and pass, for the present, 
 from the eastward dispersion of the 
 Aryans, to note the still wider and more 
 significant distribution of the race into 
 the westernmost parts of Asia and thence 
 into Europe. 
 
 Chapter XXVIII.— The West Aryan Migrations. 
 
 T is clear from the evi- 
 dence in possession of 
 modern scholars that 
 Llicre was an attempt 
 on the part of the 
 (iriginal >\ryans to 
 make tlicir way around 
 the ea.stern shores of the Caspian and 
 thence westward across the Ural river; 
 and it is also clear llial this movement 
 did not succeed. Tlie migrations in 
 
 this direction reached no further to the 
 north than tlic sea of Aral, wlicrc the 
 course of the tribes was permanently 
 checked. It is more than likely that 
 the climate in this region was so severe 
 as to prevent furtlicr jirogrcss in tliat 
 directif)n. The country between the 
 Lower Ural and the Aral sea is one of 
 the bleakest and most forbidding in tlie 
 world, and Aryan adventure was stayed 
 in tliis direction.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 483 
 
 In these facts we discover another ex- 
 ample of the peculiarities of migratory 
 Sense in which tribal movements. Eth- 
 I'otf und°e" " " "i'^ progress is by no means 
 stood- so rapid and exact as the 
 
 word viigration would imply. These 
 north-bound Aryans, if they had been 
 " emigrants " in the modern sense of that 
 word, would have 
 continued their 
 course aroimd the 
 Caspian to the north, 
 and would have found 
 an ample vent foi 
 westward expansion 
 afterwards. But the 
 movement of primi- 
 tive tribes is a prog- 
 ress rather than a im- 
 gration. The removal 
 from place to place is 
 slow. It involves 
 camping, temporary 
 settlement, and a test 
 of the locality as to 
 its resources and suit- 
 ableness for perma- 
 nent abode. The 
 ethnic movement is 
 thus tentative in its 
 whole course. It puts 
 out in this direction 
 and in that, testing 
 the climate and the 
 resources of the re- 
 gion, and spreading 
 into different tracts adjacent until the 
 course of further migration is determined 
 by the inviting or uninviting character of 
 the borders beyond. There is a sense in 
 which the migrating tribe is always 
 tempted to proceed on its way in a given 
 direction. ' The imagination is allured 
 to the extent of inciting a new depar- 
 ture. While the natural instinct of the 
 race, in the form of cupidity or the 
 
 spirit of adventure, furnishes the bottom 
 impulse of the progress, the suggestions 
 of the natural world determine its course 
 and the rapidity and oscillations of the 
 forward movement. 
 
 The north-bound migration which we 
 have here described, and which ended 
 with the Aral sea, contributed an abo- 
 
 KARAKALPACK TYPES — TWO USBEKS. 
 Drawn by A. Ferdinandus. 
 
 riginal race between the Oxus and the 
 Caspian. Here a single Indo-European 
 familv is represented which 
 
 J - ' . . . Northern limits 
 
 doubtless owes its origin of Aryan disper- 
 (.« fu« • -i* sioninAsia. 
 
 to the very primitive . 
 movement just described. The Kara- 
 kalpacks, whose territor)- lies immedi- 
 ately north of the Atrek river, which 
 empties into the Lower Caspian from 
 the east, are probably of Aryan descent.
 
 484 
 
 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. 
 
 as are also a second tribe, called the Us- 
 beks, who have their habitat further to 
 the north ; also the Tadshiks, holding the 
 country immediately south of the sea of 
 Aral, at the dcboncJnirc of the Oxus, are 
 Indo-Europeans, and are the northern- 
 most of the Ar3-an peoples of Asia east- 
 ward of the Caspian sea. 
 
 the Caucasus. Defined in terms of an- 
 cient geography, the course was across 
 Media, through Atropatene and Ar- 
 menia Major. In all this region — such 
 was its geographical constitution — the 
 migratory race appears to have held to- 
 gether. Indeed, it was not possible that 
 there should be dispersion in a country 
 
 CAUCASIAN TYPES.— Geoucian Women.— Drawn by Eugene Burnand, from a pliotograph. 
 
 In the meantime a .still .stronger mi- 
 
 gratoiy movement of the Arj^ans had 
 
 taken place directlv to the 
 
 Sources of the \tm 
 
 race movement West. The Stream of de- 
 
 Into Europe. , • ii • • i 
 
 pai-turc in this case earned 
 in its current the potency of all the Y.w- 
 ropean nations. It extended primarily 
 south of the Casjiian along the upper 
 parts of Mesopotamia, and was held 
 from northern deflection by tlie spurs of 
 
 so confined. All of the ancient .state."? 
 which we have just mentioned were 
 strongly Aryan in their original popula- 
 tion, from which circumstance it is easy 
 to discern how Aryan influences would 
 press upon ancient Assyria from the 
 cast and modify that nationality by the 
 infusion of many foreign elements. The 
 modern countries of Mazandenm, Arda- 
 lan. and Adarbijan hold a similar rela-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF TIf/i RACES.— U'liST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 485 
 
 planted on the 
 lines of the out' 
 going. 
 
 tion to the Mesopotamian regions, and 
 the pressure of the Kurds upon the peo- 
 ples between the Tigris and tlie Euphra- 
 tes has in progress of ages amounted to 
 a conquest. 
 
 After reaching the more open region 
 midway between the Caspian and the 
 Black sea, the Aryans divided into two 
 major streams, one continuing the west- 
 ward course, and the other passing 
 through the Caucasus mountains into 
 Armenia. It is at this point that the 
 line of departure to the right enters the 
 Russian empire of modern times. 
 
 The first peoples of Aryan stock de- 
 posited in the region of this divergence 
 First races Were the Armenians and 
 
 Georgians. Here is the 
 seat of that great division 
 of mankind to which the ethnographers 
 of the last century gave the name of 
 Caucasian. Until the more compre- 
 hensive scholarship of recent times 
 had thrown a stronger light on the 
 question, it was supposed that the 
 White, or Ruddy, races had all issued 
 from this source, the southern branch 
 passing into Asia Minor, and the north- 
 ern being carried around the Black sea 
 into Europe. It is now seen, however, 
 that the real origin of the Aryans lay 
 further to the east, and that the startine 
 point of dispersion in the Caucasian re- 
 gion was only secondary to an older de- 
 parture beyond the Caspian. 
 
 It will be desirable in following out 
 the great migrations which we are now 
 Origin of the to cousidcr to take Up first 
 the western branch of de- 
 parture and follow the same 
 into Asia Minor, and thence into penin- 
 sular Europe. If from the eastern ex- 
 tremity of the Black sea to the north- 
 eastern limit of the Mediterranean a line 
 be drawn, we shall find that all of the 
 original peoples of peninsular Asia lying 
 
 Minor Asians ; 
 Hamitic iiiflu- 
 ences. 
 
 west of the line and east of the Black 
 sea were contributed by the principal 
 stream of Aryan migration to the west. 
 This movement entered the peninsula 
 centrally from the east and was distrib- 
 uted into all parts, especially around the 
 southern shores of the Black sea. The 
 only exception to the ethnic distribution 
 here stated is the possible Pelasgic line 
 of the Hamites, carried around from 
 Syria into the archipelago. Otherwise, 
 all of the prominent nations who, out of 
 prehistoric shadows, came into view 
 with the beginning of authentic history 
 in Asia Minor were of a common Aryan 
 descent, and this descent was immedi- 
 ately from the point in the Caucasus 
 where the primitive races of Northern 
 Europe took their departure into Great 
 Russia and the West. 
 
 The Aryans, once in Asia Minor, 
 found themselves in a region inviting to 
 development. The result Multiplicity of 
 was that in the earliest fn^theYJsTef ^^ 
 ages of historj' many states -A-^ia. 
 were created within a comparatively 
 limited territory. Kingdoms and em- 
 pires that even contended with the great 
 powers of ilesopotamia arose in several 
 parts of this Lesser Asia; and if the 
 country had been as fortunate in the 
 preservation, by literature and monu- 
 ments, of the story of its past as were 
 the states of Assyria, Egypt, and Greece, 
 we might expect some of the most strik- 
 ing contributions to the ethnography 
 and annals of primitive times. It Avill 
 be fitting in this connection to notice a 
 few of the leading peoples who were 
 developed from the Aryan stem in the 
 countiy between the Black sea and the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 If any of the nations within the limits 
 here defined belonged, in whole or in 
 part, to other than an Aryan stock, it 
 was the 'Cilicians, lying at the extreme
 
 486 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 east of the peninsula and along the 
 
 Mediterranean border. The physical 
 
 features of this country are 
 
 Place and race , m ■ n 
 
 composition of the Taurus mountains and 
 
 the Cilicians. .■, ■ /^ j i ii 
 
 the river Cydnus, both 
 famous from the remotest ages for their 
 historical associations. The belief is 
 prevalent that the Phoenicians were first 
 to colonize these regions, and it is quite 
 likely that their adventurers and seamen 
 passed around the coast and established 
 settlements as far west as Lycia. To 
 the extent that the Phoenicians had as 
 the basal element in their race character 
 an element of Hamitic descent, it will be 
 proper to regard the Cilician race, espe- 
 cially of the seacoast provinces, as de- 
 scended from the southern branch of the 
 Noachites. But subsequently the in- 
 coming Aryans gave another complexion 
 to the people. Cilicia was Aryanized, 
 and remained ever afterwards virtually 
 an Indo-European state. In the times 
 of Hellenic colonization the Greeks sent 
 around maritime bands, who settled 
 along the Cilician coasts, and thus com- 
 pleted the race revolution -which their 
 ancestors had begun in prehistoric ages. 
 North of Cilicia lay the still greater 
 country of Cappadocia. The primitive 
 Beginnings of racc inhabiting this region 
 was contributed directly 
 from the Aryan migration 
 westward. Indeed, the region lay im- 
 mediately in the path of the great move- 
 ment, and the people sprang up from 
 the elements which were dropped by the 
 race on its progress toward the Black sea. 
 The .same may be said of Paphlagonia, 
 lying in the inner curve of that sea 
 on the south. We have already seen 
 that these countries were assigned by 
 the Hebrew account to the .sons of 
 Japheth. Paphlagonia is believed to 
 have belonged to the Kittim of tlie 
 Japhetic dispersion, while the same 
 
 Cappadocian 
 and PapUago- 
 niau races. 
 
 country is by other writers assigned to 
 the Riphaces, descendants of Riphath, 
 the second tribal head of the Gomerites. 
 
 Immediately west of Cappadocia lay 
 the still more important country of Phryg- 
 ia, with its northern penin- Rise of the 
 sula next to the Propontis. ^^^nThf wilh^le 
 This region also lay imme- Armenians, 
 diately under the center of the migratory 
 line, and the primitive population was 
 distributed in the manner already de- 
 scribed for Cappadocia. The political 
 power subsequently developed in this 
 part of Asia Minor was of great impor- 
 tance in the earlier historical times. The 
 state was touched on its various borders 
 by Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, 
 Lyconia, Pisidia, Lycia, Caria, Lydia, 
 and Mysia. It was the center of the 
 Lesser Asia. The country of Avhich we 
 here speak was called Greater Phrygia, 
 to distinguish it from the extension of 
 the same region along the Propontis, 
 which was known as Lesser Phrygia. 
 
 According to the traditions of the 
 various races of the peninsula, the Phryg- 
 ians were the most ancient nation of 
 Asia Minor. They were thought by the 
 Greeks to be in close race affinity with the 
 Thracians. There are also hints of their 
 relationship with the Armenians on the 
 east. Both of these conjectures of the 
 ancients were correct. The Phrygians 
 were the result of a migratory move- 
 ment out of Armenia into the countries 
 of the West, and the people were accord- 
 ingly allied, by race descent, on the east 
 with the Armenians, and on the west 
 with the Thracians. It is not the place 
 to review the important historical bear- 
 ings of Phrygia in the earlier ages of 
 Grecian history, or to repeat the tradi- 
 tions and legends which have been pre- 
 .scrved of the nation. 
 
 vSnnth of Phrygia lay the smaller states 
 of Caria, Lycia, and Pisidia ; and to the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ylRYAN MIGRA TIONS. 487 
 
 north, on the shores of the Black sea and 
 reaching to the Bosphorus, was the coun- 
 try of Bithynia. All of these 
 
 other Minor ,. . , -, , 
 
 Asians ; Lydi- Qistncts Were peopled by 
 
 ans in particular. ^^..^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^ dispersed 
 
 rig-ht and left from the original Aryan 
 migration which brought the ancestors 
 
 the ^gean were from the earliest ages 
 intimate. The Lydians were to the 
 yEgean sea what the Phoenicians were to 
 the Eastern Mediterranean. In the arts 
 and sciences they antedated the Greeks, 
 and their history is only second in im- 
 portance to that of the Hellenic states. 
 
 ROUTE OF WEST ARYANS THROUGH ASIA MINOR.— Pass of Hadjin, in Capiadocia. 
 Drawn by LJrandsire, after Langlois. 
 
 of the Europeans to the eastern bor- 
 ders of the .^gean sea. Immediately 
 west of Phr3-gia, next the archipelago, 
 was the important state of Lydia. The 
 history of the people who were here de- 
 veloped is better known than those who 
 grew into importance further east. The 
 Lydians were nearly allied to the Greeks. 
 The Ionian cities were on the Lydiau 
 coast, and the commercial relations be- 
 tween the peoples on the two sides of 
 
 We have thus noted the westward 
 progress of the Aryans through the 
 whole country from Upper Mesopotamia 
 
 to the ^gean sea. This Minor Asians 
 
 region of Lesser Asia pre- ''°I^T^:1^:L 
 sented one of the earliest ansandindicans. 
 fields of Aryan development. While 
 the Medes and Persians on the east of 
 the Zagros, and the Indie Aryans in 
 the Punjab, were laj'ing the foundations 
 of their respective nationalities, the
 
 488 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 various peoples of Asia Minor, all 
 closely allied by race descent and com- 
 mon institutions, were settling from the 
 nomadic state into pemianent residence, 
 discovering the native resources which 
 were richly distributed in their country, 
 and creating those institutional forms 
 •out of which great monarchies, rivaling 
 those of the valley of the Euphrates and 
 the Nile, were to spring and flourish. 
 
 It is probable that the westward prog- 
 ress of the Aryan race was considerably 
 Reasons for the delayed by its course 
 st™'ofHei. through Asia Minor. The 
 lenic migration, richncss of the Country in 
 resources, the fertility of the soil, the 
 abundance of the forests which prevailed 
 in prehistoric times, the acceptability of 
 the climate, and the general beauty of 
 the landscape invited to residence ; and 
 here the migratory and adventurous 
 spirit would be checked. It was only 
 after the peninsula began to be well 
 filled with the immigrant race, when the 
 nations began to contend and displace 
 each other by conquest, that the old 
 migratory impulse revived and progress 
 toward the west was continued. These 
 circumstances may account for the fact 
 of tlie different streams of migration which 
 appear to have discharged their volume 
 into the Hellenic peninsula. 
 
 With the resumption of the movement 
 to the west from the shores of Lydia we 
 Race progress have the picturesque epi- 
 Cyc°iaIest'to ^^^^ "^ ^ race crossing the 
 Hellas. MgcsiTi by means of the 
 
 archipelago. The Cyclades are gener- 
 ally within easy sail the one of the 
 other, and the passage of a primitivc 
 people would be easy. The gradual 
 spread of Phrygian and Lydian adven- 
 turers into these waters presents an 
 a.spect of dispersion quite as unique as it 
 is poetical. Some ethnographers main- 
 tain that the incoming of the Hellenic 
 
 race into Hellas Proper was by means of 
 this island progress across the ^gean, 
 while others hold that the true Hellenes 
 dropped into Greece from the north, out 
 of Thrace, whither they had drifted out 
 of Lesser Phrygia, across the Helles- 
 pont. 
 
 Perhaps the truer view would be to 
 ascribe the Hellenic peoples to both of 
 these origins. vSeveral Principal migra- 
 kinds-of evidence point ^-^-'i,*^^'^/^^ 
 unmistakably to the con- andXhessaiy. 
 elusion that the Hellenes were out of 
 Phrygia. The Greeks themselves, 
 though many of them held to the myth- 
 ological opinion of an earth-born, or 
 autochthonic, origin, recited the legend 
 of a northern descent, and it is almost 
 certain that a majority of the incoming 
 tribes descended out of Thrace through 
 Thessaly, where they had found a foot- 
 ing and partial development, after their 
 migration from Asia. But that the 
 general progress of the Aryan peoples 
 was continued out of Asia Minor across 
 the .^gean archipelago into the main- 
 land, thus making the two streams con- 
 fluent in the Hellenic peninsula, can 
 hardly be doubted. 
 
 Great was the restlessness of the early 
 races in Greece. They were, perhaps, 
 the most turbulent tribes of Ethnic restiess- 
 wlu.m history has made ""^^^^l^l^,^, 
 a record. Ages elapsed ing of the name, 
 before permanence of settlement was at- 
 tained. They were ages of myth and 
 adventure. The gods were mixed with 
 the men, and the Titans stood between. 
 It now appears that the older name of 
 the ])coplc Avas in their own language 
 Graikoi, a tcvm whicli the immigrants 
 had evidently applied to themselves 
 with a \'icw to distinction from more 
 barbarous peoples. The word Graikoi, 
 which subsequently, in the Latin form of 
 Graeei, became the designativo of the
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 489 
 
 Hellenic race amonf^ all peoples, signi- 
 fied old, or honorable. It was thus very 
 nearly equivalent to the Latin senator. 
 Aristotle declares that ancient Hellas 
 was the country about Dodona and 
 Achelous. "Here," he adds, "lived 
 the Sclloi^wA the people then called the 
 Graikoi, afterwards the Hellenes." Thus 
 
 itself the elements which were after- 
 wards to be distributed in Italy and to 
 become the ecerms of the The Greek mi- 
 
 ° gration con- 
 
 Italic, or Latin, race. The tainedthepo- 
 
 , /• , 1 ■ teiicy of the 
 
 exact shape oi the mi- uaucan. 
 gration in this respect is, of course, un- 
 known. It is sufficient to allege that 
 the migratory wave out of Asia carried 
 
 : 'S 
 
 
 
 ROUTK OF THE GREEK ARYANS INTO HELLAS.— Pass of Kalabak a, TinssALv.-Dr.Mi I.; r.,yljr, from a photograph. 
 
 it appears that the Greeks, in course of 
 time, rejected the older national name 
 and substituted Hellenes as the title by 
 which they would be known among the 
 nations. 
 
 We may here pause to anticipate what 
 will appear in a subsequent part of the 
 present chapter ; that is, that this Greek, 
 or Hellenic, volume of tribal life flow- 
 ing into Hellas contained along with 
 
 M. — \ol. I — 32 
 
 the potency of both the Greek and 
 Latin peoples. The uncertainty is as to 
 which foreran the other. It is possible 
 that those tribes which were destined to 
 plant themselves in Italy were the van- 
 guard of the whole movement. Again, 
 it is possible that the Celts of the ex- 
 treme west went before the Latins, but 
 the likelihood is that the Celtic stem 
 was bent around from the north of Eu-
 
 490 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. 
 
 rope and did not cross by way of the 
 peninsulas. It is possible also that the 
 prehistoric Greek and Latin stocks held 
 together as far west as the Hellenic 
 peninsula, from which point the Latin 
 branch continued its course to the 
 west. It is sufficient to know that the 
 name Grasco-Italic, designating the whole 
 stock, is appropriate as descriptive of its 
 ethnic character, until the two peoples 
 were differentiated and distributed into 
 their respective countries. 
 
 Students of language have been curi- 
 ous to inquire into the relative^antiquity 
 of the two races as determined by their 
 Linguistic hints respective dialects. It is 
 Greeks"oTRo°^ ^ remarkable fact that the 
 mans- evidence points both icays. 
 
 There are parts of the Greek grammar 
 and vocabulary which are manifestly 
 older than the corresponding parts in 
 Latin, and, on the other hand, there are 
 Latin constructions and words which are 
 just as clearly of a higher antiquity than 
 those of Greek. Thus the preservation 
 of the ablative case in Latin points to 
 the retention of a form of grammar 
 which had died out of the more recent 
 grammar of the Greeks. Sinnus, the 
 first person, plural, of the verb to be, is 
 much more nearly identical with the 
 Sanskrit asamas than is the correspond- 
 ing isiiibii of Greek ; that is, csiiibn is the 
 more recent grammatical inflection. On 
 the other hand, the retention in Greek 
 of the dual number in nouns and of the 
 middle voice in verbs indicates an older 
 grammatical structure than that exhib- 
 ited in Latin grammar, where no such 
 nominal and verbal inflections exist. 
 Likewise, the much more complete evo- 
 lution of the Greek verb, considered in 
 its entirety, and of the adjective, with 
 its one hundred and thirty-five inflec- 
 tional blossoms, shows a closer alliance 
 willi the full tables of the older Sanskrit 
 
 than the narrower and later forms of 
 Latin. There is, however, nothing 
 really paradoxical in this seemingly con- 
 tradictory testimony of language as to 
 the relative age of the two races ; for it is 
 easy to perceive that in some respects the 
 Greek tongue might preserve the older 
 forms, while in other peculiarities 
 Latin would retain the ancient structure 
 and vocabulary less impaired by time 
 and migration than in the corresponding 
 lingt:istic development of the Hellenes. 
 Early in the mythical age, the incom- 
 ing tribes' superimposing themselves 
 upon the Pelasgian peoples 
 
 Xvis6 or Xa16 sys" 
 
 already in the peninsula, tem of ancestral 
 ceased to designate their "^ ° °^^' 
 race as Graik, and took up a sort of 
 ancestral mythology, which they ever 
 afterwards zealously disseminated. The 
 story ran thus : The ancestor of their 
 race was the immigrant hero Hellen. 
 He was the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. 
 He led his tribe into Hellas after the 
 Deluge. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, 
 ^^olus, and Xuthus. Dorus became the 
 founder of one race and .^olus of 
 another, while the two sons of Xuthus, 
 Ion and Achasus — like Ephraim and 
 Manassah, sons of Joseph, in the Hebrew 
 scheme — rose to equal rank with their 
 uncles, Dorus and .^Eolus, and became 
 the heads of the lonians and Achseans. 
 It will be noticed in this table of family 
 dispersion that tlie name Ion reappears, 
 recalling the Hebrew Javan and also the 
 Hindu name Javanas, which occurs in 
 the Laws of Menu, and is thought to 
 designate the lonians. This legendary 
 account of the origin of the principal 
 Greek races was accepted by the credulous 
 Hellenes as an ample and final ex- 
 planation of their origin and diversities 
 of national development. 
 
 Historically considered, tlie Hellenes 
 present two great branches of race
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF TJIIi KACIiS.— WJ^ST ARVAX MICKATIOXS. 401 
 
 evolution: the one Dorian, and the other 
 
 Ionian. These two are separated from 
 
 each other by sucli marked 
 
 Place and char- . . i • • 
 
 acteristics of characteristics as to distm- 
 
 the Cohans. ^^.^j^ ^^^^ .^^ ^^^ ^p^^,,^^ 
 
 of Greek history. The .^olian tribes 
 do not appear to have diverged greatly 
 fnini the common ancestral type. The 
 term ^-Eolian may well be regarded 
 as discriminative of a number of partly 
 developed Greek peoples dwelling in 
 the northern part of Hellas, particularly 
 in the plains of Thessaly. With the 
 ■"ostling of the other races from their 
 original seats, however, the ^^olians 
 became more distinct as a people. When 
 the Dorians possessed themselves of the 
 Peloponnesus, the ^olians passed over 
 to the northwest coast of Asia Minor and 
 established there a confederation of 
 cities under the name of JEoWa. They 
 also populated the islands of Lesbos and 
 Tenedos, from which insular seats the 
 ^olic dialect of Greek spread into other 
 regions, and left behind some scanty 
 specimens in Hellenic literature. 
 
 The ^olian was the least important 
 
 development of the Hellenic race. The 
 
 Dorians were far more powerful and 
 
 famous. Their native seats 
 
 Kvolution and 
 
 race character m the penmsula appear 
 
 of the Dorians. . , . -, , ., 
 
 to have been between the 
 ranges of Olympus and Ossa. Atone 
 period they invaded Macedonia and 
 took possession of a part of the country, 
 but were afterwards expelled. They 
 established themselves in the island of 
 Crete, and made the little state of Doris 
 the seat of their power until the so- 
 called " return of the Heraclidae " carried 
 them into Peloponnesus. Here they 
 became predominant, and were the 
 virtual founders of the powerful states 
 of Sparta, Argos, and Messenia. 
 
 It was from this epoch in their de- 
 velopment that the Dorians became so 
 
 strongly discriminated in their diaracter 
 from the other Hellenes. They became 
 austere, rough in manners, and lac(jnic 
 in speech, to the extent of transmitting 
 their name to all after times as a synonym 
 for the peculiarly selfish, stoical, and in- 
 different character which they presented 
 in their own age. Even the architecture 
 which they cultivated retained unmis- 
 
 «ff 
 
 P^Ot^'j 
 
 AT 
 
 ■rrms- 
 
 MonF.R>J ACH.T.AN TYPE — ODTSSE. 
 Drawn by E. Runjat, from a photograph. 
 
 takable traces of the simplicity and 
 severity of the Doric race, and the same 
 may be said of that variety of Greek 
 which they spoke, and out of which the 
 dramatists, especially the tragedians, of 
 the literary age were prone to draw 
 those archaic and rude forms of versi- 
 fication peculiar to the Greek tragical 
 chorus. 
 
 Ancient Ionia was on the coast of Asia 
 Minor, between the rivers Hermus and
 
 492 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JLLrREVn. 
 
 Maeander. 
 
 Chios and 
 
 Bituation of 
 Ionia; the Do- 
 decapolis. 
 
 The adjacent islands of 
 Samos ■were included "with 
 this dependency. How far 
 the lonians, or Javanites, 
 had been distributed alono- 
 
 o 
 
 this shore before their migration into 
 European Greece can not be stated with 
 certainty. The coiintry above defined 
 was determined in its limit after the 
 return of the lonians, in later times, and 
 their resettlement in the region of their 
 ancient home. Here it was that they 
 founded the Ionian confederacy of twelve 
 states or cities called the Dodecapolis. 
 
 tions of the 
 Achseans among 
 This race also ex- the Greeks. 
 
 It remains to note the geographical 
 situation of the Achasans. It is believed 
 that in the heroic age Mycenae, Argos, 
 and Sparta were peopled Rank and reia. 
 by tribes of Achaean de 
 scent 
 
 tended into Thessaly. Indeed, the 
 latter country is thought by ethnog- 
 raphers to have been their original 
 seat, whence they migrated into Pelo- 
 ponnesus. The importance of this 
 branch of the Greek race was greatly 
 lessened in the time of the Hellenic 
 ascendency. In the Homeric age the 
 
 ROUTE OF THE GR.KCO-ITALICANS.— Si-bemco, on the Dal.matjas Coast. — Drawn by Charles W. Wyllie. 
 
 Many of the most important maritime 
 towns of the fifth, fourth, and third 
 centuries B. C. were included in the list. 
 Here were Miletus and Ephesus, Clazom- 
 ena2 and Phocaea. The city of Smyrna 
 was transplanted, about 700 B. C, from 
 the .(Eolic to the Ionian confederation. 
 In course of time this assemblage of 
 important communities became subject 
 to Lvdia, and after tlie overthrow of 
 Croesus they were annexed to tlie Per- 
 sian empire by C3TUS. Ionia furnished 
 the field of broken faitli and conflicting 
 interests from which began the great 
 .struggle for the sulijugation of Greece 
 by tlic Persian kings. 
 
 leadership of the Achaeans was con- 
 stantly recognized, and in the Iliad their 
 name is many times employed as a 
 synonym for the whole Greek host 
 engaged in the Trojan War. They 
 ajDpear, however, to have been lacking 
 in the elements of intellectual greatness. 
 In the later epochs of Greek history the 
 term Achaean .sank from its old heroic 
 sense into a name of contempt. But it 
 is of interest to note that, geograpliically 
 at least, the relative im])ortancc of the 
 race was acknowledged by tlie Rom.-ms, 
 who, on their conquest of (Treece, gave 
 the name of Acliaia to the whole prov- 
 ince.
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 493 
 
 Such is the outline of the distribution 
 
 of the early Aryan tribes in Hellas. The 
 
 t^eotjraphical relations be- 
 Easy ethnic re- 
 lations of Greece tween that peninsula and 
 
 ^' Italy were always easy. 
 
 The Adriatic is, even in its widest part, 
 a narrow body, easily crossed from shore 
 to shore. The course out of Epirus 
 around the coast into Upper Italy is 
 crossed with no barriers and attended 
 with no difficulty. It can not be known 
 by which of these routes the primitive 
 peoples of Italy were distributed to their 
 several tribal localities in the West, prob- 
 ably by both. It is safe to assume 
 that a race which had made its way from 
 beyond the Caspian, passing centuries 
 en route in a contest with the forces of 
 nature and crossing from island to island 
 in more remote ages, would easily navi- 
 gate the Adriatic. And this is the more 
 likely highway of the prehistoric Ital- 
 icans. 
 
 According to our best information 
 there were four principal groups of peo- 
 ples in primitive Italy. On the south we 
 find the lapygians, or CEnotrians, with 
 their several branching tribes, occupying 
 first the peninsular projection next to 
 Greece, and afterwards the 
 
 Place of the 
 
 lapygians; races whole COUUtry acrOSS tO the 
 
 of the north. rr^ ^ ■ n 
 
 1 yrrhenian sea. Some 
 ethnographers have concluded that these 
 soiithern peoples were not of Aryan de- 
 scent, and it is possible that the Hamitic 
 lines which we have agreed to carry into 
 Italy distributed some branches in the 
 southern parts as well as in Etruria. 
 Upper Italy was occupied on the east by 
 Gaulish, that is, Celtic, tribes, of which 
 "the Lingones and Insubres constituted 
 the chief. On the west, as we have al- 
 ready seen, were the Etruscans, who 
 were clearly a foreign race, differing 
 radically in language and development 
 from the other Italic peoples. 
 
 The greatest group of primitive tribes 
 belonged to Central Italy and were nearly 
 allied in ethnic descent. 
 
 Distribution of 
 
 Of these peoples there theumbro-sa- 
 
 c 1 • i • i i 1 bellian tribes. 
 
 were nve distinct stocks, 
 namely, the Umbrians, the .Sabines, the 
 Latins, the Volscians, and the Sabellians, 
 commonly called Oscans, with their two 
 branches of Samnitcs and Campanians. 
 This scheme covers in general the popu- 
 lations which were distributed in the 
 country stretching across from the Cen- 
 tral Adriatic to the western shores of 
 Italy. 
 
 The first of these nations, called Um- 
 brians, had their original seats on the 
 Adriatic, between the Rubicon and the 
 ^^sis. The western boundaiy was the 
 Apennine range and the Tiber. It is 
 likely that in early times their territories 
 were still more extensive. But before 
 the rise of the Roman gens the Umbri- 
 ans had already declined, and were easily 
 subordinated by the^ dominant people. 
 The territory of the Sabines lay close to 
 Latium, and they and the Latins had in- 
 timate relations from the earliest times. 
 The Sabine district was rugged in phj-si- 
 cal features and inclement in climate, 
 and the opportunities of development 
 were much less favorable than those of 
 the people on the west. 
 
 The origin of the Latins is involved in 
 inextricable myths. Poets and fable- 
 makers of republican and 
 
 . , _ , , T Myth and tradl. 
 
 imperial Rome elaborated tionoftheprim- 
 and inflected the legendary ^ "^ ^ '""" 
 lore which they had received from antiq- 
 uity until it resembled the Greek fables 
 in complexit}^ and contradiction. One 
 myth assigned to the Latins a Pelasgic 
 origin, in common with the Pelopon- 
 nesian Greeks and the Etruscans. More 
 famous was the tradition of a descent 
 from the heroic families of Troy. A 
 more obscure legend assigned the moun-
 
 I AND OF TIIK ANCIENT LIGI'KIANS Massa, NHAk Carkar* — I'rawii h\ I H"llf viovt 
 I
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 495 
 
 tainous parts of Central Italy as the native 
 seat from which the founders of Latium 
 had descended into the low countries of 
 the west. There was an attempt in all 
 this to bring in, after the Greek fashion, 
 the agency of the gods, and to make it 
 appear that the Latins were of divine 
 origin and fatherhood. It is sufficient 
 to recognize the kinship of these peoples 
 with the other races associated with 
 them in historical development in Cen- 
 tral Italy. 
 
 The Volscians were prominent among 
 the prehistoric peoples of the peninsula. 
 They had for their neighbors the Sabel- 
 scantyknowi- Hans, or Oscans. Their 
 ltS.s-X^°'- li«^e was in the forbid- 
 situation. ding mountain district with 
 
 which their name is geographically asso- 
 ciated. At the beginning of authentic 
 history they had ceased to be a separate 
 people, and the remains of the race are 
 scanty and imperfect. It may be said, 
 however^ that their isolated situation in 
 the mountains tended to preserve their 
 dialect from the mutations to which the 
 languages of the neighboring tribes were 
 subjected. 
 
 In the earliest times the Oscans pos- 
 sessed the largest territory in Central 
 Predominance Italy. Their Country ex- 
 ^heitaSan^''^' tended well to the south, 
 Ga-'ois. and this wide region they 
 
 continued to dominate until Rome be- 
 gan by conquest to become mistress of 
 Italy. Of the various Oscan peoples, 
 the Samnites were the most powerful 
 tribe, though the Campanians, Luca- 
 nians, and Bruttians were all impor- 
 tant peoples before the ascendency of 
 Rome. 
 
 If we glance to Northern Italy, we 
 find three peoples of different ethnic de- 
 scent in that region. The Gauls proper 
 occupied the great plains in the valley of 
 the Po and its tributaries. Their coun- 
 
 try extended from the Alps to the Apen- 
 nines and the Adriatic. It was com- 
 monly conceded that their immigration 
 into Italy had been of a later date than 
 that which must be assigned for the 
 coming of the central nations. The 
 principal divisions of the Gaulish race 
 were the Insiibres and the Senomani 
 on the north of the Po, and the Boiiand 
 the Lingones on the south of that river. 
 The second general division of the 
 peoples of Upper Italy were the Veneti, 
 whose country covered the 
 
 Place and deri- 
 whole head of the Adriatic vationof the 
 
 from Istria on the east 
 to the valley of the Po in the west. Cor- 
 responding with what is now the south- 
 ern part of Piedmont lay the territory 
 of the Ligurians, of whose origin not 
 much is known. They came into the 
 country, however, before the Gauls, 
 and were doubtless allied in their 
 race descent with the peoples of Cen- 
 tral Italy. Such in general was the 
 tribal distribution of those primitive races 
 which in process of time w-ere consoli- 
 dated under the leadership of the Latins, 
 and ultimately forged into the most pow- 
 erful nationality of the ancient world. 
 
 It appears tolerably conclusive that the 
 Grasco-Italic migration reached its limit 
 with the Alps on the north , , , 
 
 . '■ Limits of the 
 
 and LigTiria on the west. Graeco-itaiio 
 Other Arj-an tribes in ™'STations. 
 course of time found their way through 
 the Alpine passes, and penetrated the 
 civilizations established by their kins- 
 men in the south of Europe. But the 
 Italic race proper was stayed with Italy. 
 We therefore return to the East and 
 again take our stand in the region of the 
 transcaucasus. Here, on the northern 
 slopes of the Armenian mountains, we 
 find the Aryan dispersion pressing bold- 
 ly to the north. 
 
 In the country between the Caspian
 
 496 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 and the eastern shore of the Black sea 
 at least two ethnic departures were made 
 from the main branch of migration . The 
 Origin and hrst of these was to the right 
 
 NoTt'h Aryan ^f the hne of progrcss, and 
 distribution. contributed the Ossetes and 
 perhaps one or two other stocks of Indo- 
 Europeans on the western borders of the 
 Caspian. The other division seems to 
 have been maritime in its plan, to have 
 entered the Black sea, and to have car- 
 ried itself in the direction of the Bos- 
 phorus. It is not unlikely that the 
 ancient Phrygians, especially that part of 
 the race inhabiting the Black sea coast, 
 were contributed by this deflected move- 
 ment out of Upper Armenia. 
 
 By the course of the line we are now 
 pursuing we are unexpectedly brought 
 into proximity with that country in Asia 
 Ethnic move- Minor which received the 
 Sie"certs'^^''^ final migratory impulse of 
 reached Gaiatia. the Celtic race. Though we 
 have not yet reached the point in ethnic 
 dispersion from which that race took its 
 departure from the main northwestern 
 stem of Aryan progression, we may well 
 anticipate sufficiently to account for the 
 presence in Asia Minor, on the southern 
 borders of Bithynia and Paphlygonia, of 
 a country peopled by Celts, This is the 
 province of Gaiatia. The population of 
 this country was contributed by the bend- 
 ing back of the Celtic race from its west- 
 ern limits of migration in the remote 
 parts of Europe. The movement in 
 question presents one of the strangest 
 aspects of race progress. It is that of 
 an ethnic line carried backward from the 
 lower parts of Spain, in the old country of 
 the Iberians, around the northern coasts 
 of the Mediterranean, across Upi^er Italy, 
 and down through the valley of the Dan- 
 ube to the Bosphorus. 'i'lie latter part 
 of this movement took place in tlie his- 
 torical era. In the third century B. C. 
 
 the Gallic people crossed over into Asia 
 Minor and conquered the province to 
 which they gave their own name. This 
 invading migration was carried forward 
 by three principal tribes and twelve 
 tetrarchies, each directed by a chief, 
 after the Celtic manner of warfare. It 
 is instructive to reflect, while we here 
 have oiir stand on the highlands of 
 Phrygia or Pontus, that we are able to 
 observe, as with a field glass, the north- 
 ward movement of the old Aryan stock 
 on the eastern borders of the Black sea, 
 while, on the other hand, we can look 
 down into Gaiatia, which was the ter--- 
 minus, after perhaps two thousand 
 years, of one branch of the great migra- 
 tion. 
 
 If then, for a moment, we anticipate 
 the departure of the Celts from the main 
 Aryan stem, which we are now tracing, to 
 the north, we shall find the point of depar- 
 same to have occurred about 'cTRic'ilplrsion 
 the valley of the Upper i" Europe. 
 Dnieper. From this point the migra- 
 tory impulse bore off almost due west, 
 across the larger part of Europe. It 
 traversed Germanv, and crossed the 
 Rhine in general conformity with the- 
 coast line of the Baltic. It is probable 
 that by this first movement to the west 
 no races were deposited in anything like 
 permanence until tlie stream was dis- 
 persed in Gaul. • If we seek for time rela- 
 tions in this gi'cat movement we are at 
 fault, but the period of the Celtic migra- 
 tion could hardly have been less than 
 two thousand years B. C. 
 
 It would appear from the invasion of 
 Gaul and Britain by the Romans, in the- 
 first century B. C, that the complete devei- 
 Celtic race had already re'tuGauitd 
 been long established in Britain, 
 those regions, and that it had matured 
 its institutional forms witliout disturb- 
 ance. This is especially true of the-
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 4!t7 
 
 ■western parts of Gavil and of Britain, 
 where the completeness of the druidical 
 ceremonial and perfect condition of 
 tribal government indicated a long oc- 
 cupation of the country. Ethnographers 
 have not attemj)tcd to decide with cer- 
 tainty the priority _ 
 
 of the respective rf- 
 movements by 
 which the British 
 Isles received their , 
 primitive Celtic 
 population and 
 Central Italy 
 p a s & e d under 
 the dominion of 
 Grajco - Italic im- 
 migrants. 
 
 In the begin- 
 nings of authentic 
 history the Celts 
 had already trav- 
 ersed Northern 
 Europe, and had 
 left traces of their 
 progress in the 
 east and actual 
 tribes in the west. 
 It was from this 
 source that the 
 Gauls (Celtae), 
 whom C?esar de- 
 clares to have been 
 divided into three 
 races of Galli, 
 Aquitani, and 
 Belgfe, were dis- 
 tributed. In all of 
 
 Europe Avest of the Rhine the Celtic 
 Wide distribu- race became predominant, 
 almost to the exclusion of 
 other people. If we ex- 
 cept the Basques and Iberians, it may 
 be said that the whole country between 
 the Rhine and the Atlantic was Celtic 
 as to its primitive population. 
 
 In the preceding book we have already 
 pointed out the fact that prehistoric 
 
 races occupied this I>art of The Celtic races 
 
 Europe before the Aryan r.^^ij^^^r' 
 migrat-ion. What the con- barbarians, 
 dition of the aborigines was at the time 
 
 tionof the Celts 
 throughout the 
 West. 
 
 THE CELTIC VANGUARD, OF THE AGE OF KROXZE. 
 Drawn by Eniile liayard. 
 
 of the incoming of the Celts we are left to 
 determine by conjecture. "We have seen 
 the extreme barbarity which character- 
 ized the aboriginal life of the cave 
 dwellers and other savages to whom 
 Drimeval Europe seems to have belonged. 
 Upon these rude races the Celtic tribes 
 were superimposed, and the foundations
 
 498 
 
 GREAT RACES OF .UAXKLYD. 
 
 were laid of that condition which we 
 perceive when the expanding power of 
 Rome brought her legions into Gaulish 
 territoiy. 
 
 As the Celtic race continued its way to 
 the south, several streams of migration 
 put off laterally to the coast. The most 
 Ramifications of important of these crossed 
 inth^BritSr'^ the Channel into Britain, 
 Isles. where it again divided, one 
 
 branch being carried over into Ireland, 
 and the other penetrating the Highlands 
 of .Scotland. An examination of the 
 Celtic languages has enabled the modern 
 ethnographer to determine with toler- 
 
 OI.DEST CELTIC TYPES. 
 From the Gaulish bas-reliefs found at Entremonl, near Aix. 
 
 able certaint)' the original distribution 
 of the race in the British islands. There 
 were two general Celtic stocks. The 
 first of these was the Gadhelic, or Gaelic, 
 branch, which was divided into three 
 departures : the Irish stem proper, called 
 the Erse, the Scottish Gael, and the 
 Manx. These linguistic divisions point 
 unmistakably to the tribal separation of 
 the Gael of the Highlands, the Irish folk, 
 and the inhabitants of the Isle of Man. 
 The second stem presents the British 
 division proper of Celtic. This also 
 parted into three: the fir.st of which was 
 the Kymrieg, .softened into Cymric, 
 meaning the original speech of the 
 
 Welsh ; the second was the Cornish ; 
 and the third the Armorican, being the 
 language of Bretagne. 
 
 We thus note the dispersion of the 
 Celts in our ancestral islands, and dis- 
 cover the parts of the COUn- Bending back of 
 try appropriated by the "^^^T 
 several tribes. Meanwhile, beginning, 
 far down in Spain the main continental 
 stream of Celtic migration was bent 
 backwards, as we have seen above, 
 through the greater part of Southern 
 Europe, making its way finally to the 
 valley of the Danube and thence to the 
 Bosphorus. From this point migration 
 and warfare carried the race, as has been 
 said, into Galatia, thus bringing it in 
 its final distribution to a point so near to 
 the original Aryan movement east of the 
 Black sea that the old departure of the 
 race to the northwest and its last distribu- 
 tion in Galatia after thousands of years of 
 wandering might almost be seen with a 
 field glass in the hands of the observer 
 from the highlands of Eastern Pontus ! 
 
 In resuming the consideration of the 
 movement of the great northwestern 
 branch of the Aryan race. Question of the 
 
 •' race connection 
 
 making its way between of Teutons and 
 the Black sea and the Cas- ered. 
 pian, from the transcaucasus toward 
 the Don, we are confronted by another 
 of the disputed (questions in ethnogra- 
 phy. This relates to the independent 
 or dependent origin of the Slavic peo- 
 ples in their relations with the great 
 Teutonic family. Were the Slavs and 
 Germans involved originally in a com- 
 mon movement out of Asia? Were 
 they still a common people in their 
 progress from their Asiatic origin to 
 their European dominions? If so, 
 where and when did tlicy ])art com- 
 pany in linguistic and institulional de- 
 velopment ? Which is the older of the 
 two races ? Which, if either, is derived
 
 1)1 S TKIB UTION OF rilE RA CF.S. — ( / WiS T A R YA N M/GRA TIONS. 499 
 
 from the other ? Was the migration 
 common to both, or Avere there iiuo vii- 
 s;rations, one Slavonic and the other 
 Teutonic ? These problems have been 
 variously solved by different ethnogra- 
 phers, and the whole ground has been 
 hotly contested since the question of 
 race distribution assumed its pi'esent 
 scientific aspect. 
 
 On the whole, it appears that the 
 movement was common which carried 
 
 Branches and thcSC tWO raceS OUt of 
 
 ?^uS.°o"c' Asia into Europe. It may 
 stem. Tje safely alleged that the 
 
 Teutonic and Slavonic peoples held to- 
 gether on their way to the north and far 
 into the heart of Great Russia. It would 
 be proper to call the whole line of prog- 
 ress from the Caucasus to the north, well 
 lip to the northern borders of the Russian 
 empire, thence westward and southward 
 to the borders of Poland, the Slavo- 
 Teutonic stem. It certainly carried the 
 volume of both races, both languages, 
 both varieties of institutional forms. 
 Above the sea of Azof, on the left as 
 the migratory progress continued, a 
 branch was thrown off into Sarmatia, 
 from which that division of the modern 
 Slavs, called Little Russians, have 
 sprung. But the main line continued 
 northward in the direction of the sub- 
 sequent site of Moscow, and afterwards 
 toward the gulf of Riga, on the Baltic. 
 It was, however, to the south of the 
 gulf of Finland, and perhaps nearly 
 midway between that water and the 
 northern bend of -the Black sea that the 
 final separation took place between the 
 Germanic and the Slavonic races. In 
 the meantime, a branch had been thrown 
 off northward toward that collection of 
 inland waters extending from the White 
 sea to lake Ladoga, and another divi- 
 sion to the west, into the country of the 
 Letts. 
 
 If, then, we take our stand on the 
 head-waters of the Dnieper, we .shall 
 not be far from the ethnic division on 
 which was ba.sed the subse- Point of division 
 qucnt separation of the oft^e two races; 
 
 1 ^ the Kussian 
 
 Slavonic and Teutonic peo- family. 
 pies. The two stocks were both char- 
 acterized for extreme fecundity and 
 power of development. There are at 
 the present time within the limits of 
 European Russia and Poland about sev- 
 enty-five million of people of Aryan 
 descent. These may be divided into 
 Russians proper, Poles, Bulgarians, 
 Czechs, and Serbs, all of which are 
 Slavonic in their ethnic origin. 
 
 The Russians are subdivided into 
 Great Russians, Little Russians, and 
 White Russians. The Letto-Lithua- 
 nian peoples are divided into Lithua- 
 nians proper, Zhmuds, and Letts, with a 
 total of over three million. This is the 
 summary of populations which have 
 sprung in modern times from the sin- 
 gle ethnic stem called Letto-Slavonic. 
 The Great Russians themselves number 
 forty-two million, and the Little Rus- 
 sians more than seventeen million. 
 Besides the above peoples, the Graeco- 
 Roman population in Russia numbers 
 considerably over a million, while the 
 Germans, in admixture with the Arme- 
 nians, Georgians, and Tsigans are repre- 
 sented by considerable communities. 
 
 Geographically, the Great Russians 
 are grouped in the states and provinces 
 around ^Moscow, extending Distribution of 
 northwardtoNovgorodand ^J^^S^f^i*; 
 
 Vologda, southward to Russians. 
 
 Kiev, eastward to Penza and Vyatka, 
 westward to the Baltic provinces and 
 the borders of Poland. The Little Rus- 
 sians are distributed chiefly in Galicia 
 and Bukovina. In general, they belong 
 to the southern parts of Russia, next to 
 the Caucasus. The White Russians are
 
 500 
 
 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 distributed throughout the western gov- 
 ernments of the empire. The Bulgari- 
 ans inhabit Bulgaria Proper, Eastern 
 Roumelia, and Roumania, and are scat- 
 tered into Austria, Russia, and Mace- 
 donia. The other ethnic divisions are 
 dispersed into the countries to which 
 they have given their respective names 
 — Sfervia, Lithuania, Croatia, etc. 
 
 Second only in importance as to num- 
 bers and first in importance in civiliz- 
 Dispersion of ing energy are the Teutonic 
 
 thretbranches ^'^CeS which isSUed in COm- 
 
 of the race. mon with the peoples de- 
 
 scribed above from the Slavo-Germanic 
 stem. A glance at the map will show 
 that Europe is divided from southeast to 
 northwest by the two great rivers Dan- 
 ube and Rhine, whose waters issue from 
 the same upland region, in the central 
 part of the continent. It was on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, extending 
 down to the Baltic from the great cen- 
 tral region, that the Germanic nations 
 were first distributed. As the left bank 
 of that river and hitherward to the west- 
 ern parts of Europe belonged roughly 
 to the Celtic race, so the right bank east- 
 ward to the Vistula was Germania. 
 
 Into this great region Avas extended 
 and dispersed the Teutonic .stream of 
 immigration. Roughly speaking, the 
 whole Teutonic stock was parted into 
 three divisions, which correspond rough- 
 ly with the modern linguistic distinc- 
 tions of High German, Low German, and 
 Scandinavian. In prehistoric times, 
 however, one of the first distinct de- 
 partures of the primitive stock was that 
 which carried down the great race of the 
 Goths into the valley of the Danube. 
 They issued from the southern portion 
 of the Baltic region, and appeared on 
 the scene of their .sub.sequcnt activities 
 during the fourth century B. C. 
 
 Tlie family known as (ic^thic has been 
 
 somewhat unscientifically divided into 
 the Vandals, the Heruli, the Rugii, the 
 Gepidse, the Alani, the 
 
 . Analysis and 
 
 buevi, the Longobards, the distribution of 
 
 T, 1 ■ J ii tlie Goths. 
 
 Burgundians, and the 
 Franks. On their arrival on the Lower 
 Danube the Gothic race began to di- 
 vide into the two major families of Os- 
 trogoths and Visigoths, meaning the 
 Eastern and Western Goths. The for- 
 mer had a habitation originally in South- 
 ern Russia, between the Dniester and the 
 Don, while the latter held their terri- 
 tories from the Lower Danube to the 
 Carpathian mountains. In course of 
 time the Goths were pressed on their 
 eastern frontiers by various invasions, 
 until they were aggregated and heaped 
 up on the left bank of the Danube, 
 whence they ultimately burst into the 
 Roman empire. After this event, as is 
 well kn(jwn, the Ostrogoths found an ul- 
 timate lodgment in Italy, Avhile the Vis- 
 igoths continued their progress into the 
 Spanish peninsula and became a sub- 
 stratum of population in the modern 
 ethnic development of that peninsula. 
 
 The Franks apjDcarcd as an aggrega- 
 tion of Teutonic tribes on the Lower 
 Rhine as early as the middle of the third 
 
 century B. C. At the first Franlrs people 
 
 they were confined to the JiV';"^!;^";:^^-^ 
 right bank of the river, distribution, 
 but in course of time passed over and 
 began their settlements in the northern 
 part of Gaul. They were ultimately 
 divided into two families, known as the 
 Salian Franks and the Ripuarians. It 
 was the former division of the race that 
 was thrown by impact on Gaul, and that 
 was established within the limits of that 
 country as a barbarian empire under 
 Clovis and his successors. The Ripua- 
 rians spread southward and occupied first 
 the right and afterwards the left bank of 
 the Rhine, whence they carried their
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— IVJiST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 501 
 
 incursions on the west to the Meuse and 
 on the cast to the Main. It was from the 
 Ripuai'iau Franks that tlic Teutonic 
 state called Franconia took its name. 
 The Salians constituted one of the ethnic 
 elements in the 
 formation of the 
 French people. 
 
 It will prove of 
 interest to note 
 only the ultimate 
 distribution of the 
 other branches of 
 the Teutonic stock. 
 The Vandals were 
 essentially of this 
 race, but had taken 
 into their constitu- 
 tion Slavonic and 
 Celtic elements. 
 They belonged to 
 the general divi- 
 sion of Goths. One 
 of their oldest seats 
 was in the Riesen- 
 Gebirge. After- 
 wards they occu- 
 pied Pannonia and 
 Docia. In the fifth 
 century of our era 
 j:hey played an im- 
 portant part in the 
 overthrow of the 
 Roman empire, in 
 the Spanish penin- 
 sula they founded 
 the state of Anda- 
 lusia. Under Gen- 
 seric they crossed 
 into Africa, and 
 there developed 
 their greatest strength and nationality. 
 
 The Heruli were the earliest of the 
 German races to make their way into 
 Italy. There they established themselves 
 under their great leader Odoacer, and 
 
 the llerulian kingdom was the first bar- 
 barian empire created within the limits 
 of the home government of Rome. The 
 Gepidaj were likewise of Gothic extrac- 
 tion. Historically, they are first known 
 
 THE PRANKISH VANGUARD. 
 Drawn by Emile Bayard. 
 
 to US in the third century B. C., in their 
 territories on the Baltic. The}- also 
 came into Pannonia, and were interposed 
 for a while between the Ostrogothic and 
 Visigothic divisions of the race. They
 
 502 
 
 GREAT RACES OF J/AA'KLVD. 
 
 were joined to the armies of Attila, and 
 
 were subsequently successful in gaining 
 
 a province for themselves, 
 
 Movements of . 
 
 theHeruUaud ou the Lower Theiss and 
 epi ae. Danube. Here they were 
 finally ovenam by the Longobards and 
 the Avars, with whom the remnants of 
 the race were amalgamated. 
 
 One of the most powerful of the Ger- 
 man migratory tribes was the Siievi. 
 Their territories lay between the Rhine 
 and the We.ser. In their 
 
 Progress of the 
 
 Suevi; theLon- progress and development 
 
 gobards iu Italy. ., j ii i 
 
 they spread southward as 
 far as the Upper Danube. On the north 
 they reached the coasts of the Baltic. It 
 was with the Suevians that Ctesar had 
 one of his hardest contests in his 
 struggle for dominion north of the Alps. 
 The Longobards, commonly called Lom- 
 bards, were nearly related to the Suevic 
 branch of the German race. From their 
 seats in the valley of the Elbe they 
 made their way into Ital}', within the 
 historical period, overthrew the Heru- 
 lian monarchy, and established one of 
 their own on the ruins of the empire. 
 In later times they contributed their 
 name to the modern state of Lombardy 
 in Italy, and it is likely that their ethnic 
 influence entered more largely into the 
 formation of the northern Italian race 
 than did the qualities of any other bar- 
 barian people. 
 
 The Burgundians were a branch of the 
 Gothic family, and first established 
 Ethnic place and them.selves in Europe, in 
 rheBurgun:"' the country between the 
 dians. Oder and the Vistula. The 
 
 Gepidte drove them from their seats, and 
 they .sought refuge in the territory lying 
 between the Main and Neckar. Here 
 they were combined in common enter- 
 prises with the Suevi and Alani and the 
 Vandals in their wars with the remain- 
 ing powers of Rome. Afterwards they 
 
 struggled with the Franks, by whom 
 they were restricted to the province 
 bearing their name. Such, in brief, was 
 the European distribution of the prin- 
 cipal barbarian nations of the Gothic 
 stock. 
 
 Meanwhile, another division of the 
 Teutonic race had made its Avay along 
 the shores of the Baltic, outspread of 
 and in Jutland, Friesland, ^J^^.i^Jdthe- 
 Angleland, and in Hollow- Norse, 
 land had posses.sed themselves of the 
 country and begun the formation of in- 
 stitutions. This is the so-called Low 
 Germanic branch of the Aryan family. 
 The tribal ramification in these lowlands 
 Avas extraordinary. It was from this re- 
 gion that the Angles and Saxons and 
 Jutes took their rise, and, in the fifth 
 century, carried their battle-axes and 
 spears into the forests of Britain. 
 
 From the southern coast line of the 
 North sea the race next made its way 
 into Scandinavia. Two branches of mi- 
 gration sprang from this region, one 
 penetrating the great poninsula of Nor- 
 waj' and Sweden, and the other making 
 its way by water to Iceland. It was in 
 the latter island that the Norse, or Scan- 
 dinavian, race presented, and does until 
 the present exhibit, the purest aspect of 
 Scandinavian life and manners. There 
 have always been such intimate race re- 
 lations between the southern and north- 
 ern shores of the Baltic that the Low 
 Germans inhabiting the two countries 
 have intermingled almost to the extinc- 
 tion of ethnic differences. But in Ice- 
 land the old Norse, or Scandinavian, 
 stock has been allowed to develop accord- 
 ing to its own laws into an independent 
 race character. 
 
 Such, then, was the distribution of the 
 great Teutonic and .Slavonic races in the 
 northern parts of ICuropc. It will be of 
 interest to note i/te extent of the complete
 
 DISTRlllUTION OF THE KALhS.-WlLSr ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 503 
 
 dispersion of the Aryan family of men. 
 
 On the east the Indie brancli of the race 
 
 readied tlie meridian of 
 
 Extent of the 
 
 dispersion of the ninety degrees east from 
 lyan aim y. Greenwieli. On the west 
 the extreme limit of the primary Indo- 
 European development was in Iceland 
 and Ireland, under the meridian of ten 
 
 tively. In the latter country the race was 
 dispersed as far south as Beluehistan, 
 and in the former to the bay of Bengal, 
 in latitude twenty degrees north. But 
 turning to the westward branches of the 
 Indo-Europeans, we find them invaria- 
 bly bending to the north. Perhaps the 
 only exception to this general law was 
 
 NORTHERN LnnX OF THE ARYAN DISPERSION.— View in Upper Norway.- Dr.nm by Myrbach, from a photograph. 
 
 degrees west, making a complete diver- 
 gence east and west of one hundred de- 
 grees of longitude. 
 
 It was a peculiarity of the Aryan race 
 General and ex- never to be deflected to the 
 Zuroftr^" south: that is, in its west- 
 Aryans. ward movements. The In- 
 
 dican and Iranian branches of the family 
 dropped into India and Persia respec- 
 
 in the case of the Celts, who, from their 
 somewhat northern range in Germany, 
 turned to the southwest across the Rhine 
 into Gaul, and thence continued their 
 course in the same direction as far as the 
 country of the Basques and Iberians in 
 Spain. 
 
 The northernmost limit of the whole 
 movement was reached in the upper parts
 
 604 
 
 GREAT RACES OE JLIXKLYD. 
 
 of Norway and Sweden, about the parallel 
 of seventy degrees north. The migra- 
 tion thus, in its entirety, 
 STtentand 
 ooundaries of presents a band very nearly 
 
 the Aryan belt. coincident with the UOrth 
 
 temperate zone. The belt is forty-five 
 degrees in width, reaching a little above 
 and extending a little below the limits of 
 the zone referred to. The next conspicu- 
 ous feature of this great distribution is 
 the fact that it is essentially European. 
 The exceptions within the borders of 
 that continent of peoples derived from 
 any other than Aryan stock are so few 
 and insignificant as to be neglected with- 
 out hurt to the general scheme. Europe 
 is Aryan, and the Western Aryans are 
 Europeans. 
 
 It is, of course, not the purpose to 
 extend the lines of race movement by 
 Only conscious tracing out the continental 
 rcrstdlredin Colonization and develop, 
 migration. meiit of the two Americas 
 
 by people of Indo-European blood, or to 
 note the world-wide colonization which 
 has been effected within the last two or 
 three centuries by people of the same 
 race. These secondary movements, if 
 developed in this connection, would con- 
 fuse the concept of the original or 
 natural distribution of mankind in the 
 prehistoric ages. There is a sense in 
 which men have moved from place to 
 place on the surface of the earth nncon- 
 sciously. That is, the movement has 
 been accomplished while the race was 
 still in the uncon.sciousness of childhood. 
 There is another sense in which civiliza- 
 tion lias consciously carried forward the 
 work of peopling the earth. All the 
 latter movements are of record in the open 
 annals uf authentic history, and with 
 such development and expansion the 
 ethnographer has not mucli to do. His 
 work is primarily with those prehistoric 
 movements in whitli the races of men 
 
 were distributed, under the influence of 
 instinct and environment, to their 
 destination in different quarters of the 
 earth. 
 
 At this point, then, we touch the 
 limit of the primeval excursions and 
 settlements of the Ruddy races of man- 
 kind. To these races we General viewof 
 
 have given the general eth- ^^ ^y "" °' 
 nic name of Noachites, but ^^.ces. 
 have chosen to define them more scien- 
 tifically by the term Ruddy, as indica- 
 tive of their color. We have now traced 
 out the dispersion of the three families 
 to which ethnography has assigned the 
 popular and traditional names of Ham- 
 ites, Semites, and Japhethites. We 
 have seen the first dropping southward 
 into a form of geographical development 
 very similar to that which the ■sjapheth- 
 ites, or Aryans, have exhibited in the 
 north. The whole scheme of migratory 
 dispersion resembles the two sides of a 
 leaf, having its stem between the Cas- 
 pian and the Persian gulf, its point in 
 the Atlantic west of the Pillars of 
 Hercules, its left-hand side in Arabia 
 and Africa, and its right division in 
 Europe. The central lines of this leaf 
 correspond in general with the move- 
 ments of the Semitic races to the west. 
 The right-hand lines are those of the 
 Aryans, and the left-hand departures 
 those of the Hamites. 
 
 The limits of the present chapter are 
 reached wlien we have marked out 
 the migratory movements by which 
 they were distributed into their re- 
 spective countries. It now remains 
 to take up another general division of 
 mankind, and to note in like manner 
 the course which the Brown races liave 
 pursued on their way to their destina- 
 tion in the great arena of Asia, in the 
 islands of the Pacific, and ultimately in 
 tlic two Americas.
 
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