LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA PRESENTED BY MR. & MRS. HOWARD A. WILCOX p I ITH THE WORLD'S PEOPLE ^ ^ ^ AN ACCOUNT OF THE ETHNIC ORIGIN, PRIMI- TIVE ESTATE. EARLY MIGRATIONS, SOCIAL EVOLUTION, AND PRESENT CONDITIONS AND PROMISE OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF MEN TOGETHER WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME. PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. AUTHOR OF "HISTORY OF THE WORLD " ETC. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH COLORED PLATES, RACE MAPS AND CHARTS. TYPE PICTURES, SKETCHES. AND DIAGRAMS WASHINGTON, D. C. CLARK E. RIDPATH 1915 Cn^inni.uit 1903-1311 SllP 3)iiiira UriitliriB }JiililiBhiiig Q!om;)aii!i All Kiiiljla Striirrurft Jnri fi$tmh. Primitive Estate of the Human Race. BOOK III-PRIMEVAL MAN. Chapter XV.— Divers Aspects oe Barbaric LiEEi. 1 T is the purpose in tliis book to present as inuch as is known relative to the prim- itive condition of man- kind in several quar- ters of the earth. The progress of historical science and archae- ological research has now made us famil- iar with many aspects of 4he earl)- life of man hitherto unknown. It is pos- sible, with our present light, to make a tolerably accurate picture of the social Essential inter- phenomena of several pec- tototiXHo" pies in those stages of thei.r conditions. development which lie com- pletely beyond the horizon of formal history. Nor can it be doubted that such reconstruction and revival of the M.— Vol. -i8 primeval conditions of our race, passing from the state of absolute unconscious* ness into the semiwaking of the early dawn, will prove of the keenest interest if only the work be patiently and sym- pathetically performed. It must be understood at the outset that the beginnings of civilization in dif- ferent parts of the world are exceedingly diverse in their aspects and Diverse aspects tendencies. Nothing can °j;i;:,^^„^:S be more striking than the ^^'^ of man. contrasts which the early races of men present to the student in their methods and peculiarities of development. In- deed, hardly any two of the primitive tribes of men wrought in the same man- ner or with the same results. Their work in attempting to construct their 265 266 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. social forms was as various as the con- ditions of the primeval world in Avhich they struggled for existence. From these considerations it will be necessary to an adequate imderstanding Varying activi- of the primitive condition tiesofmaninthe f mankind to sketch, in Btruggle fores- ' istence. the following chapters, several distinct phases of the social and economic life of man as we see the same forest, Avith his rude implements and utensils, and becomes a man of the woods, a roving hunter, ° Savages of the traversmg hill and thicket, woods and sea- eating the mast of the oak a.nd the beech tree, living by the haz- ards of migration and tribal warfare. Still again, he gathers his' little group around him on the shingly shore of the northern seas. He rakes from the sand. MAN IN •lilK A(;K ok the CAVE HKAK.— Drawn by Kiiiilc l!.i)..id. obscurely outlined along the far horizon of traJitional historj'. In one quarter of the world wc shall see the newborn man take to the caverns for ri habitation and defense. We shall see him, with huge clubs in his hands, fighting like a giant with wild beasts, sometimes crush- ing their skulls and sometimes himself torn to death by their tremendous fangs. In another quart<;r man takes to the where the receding wave has been, the shellfish left there by the tide. These he breaks and devours for his subsist- ence, lie builds him a lent, and con- structs simple implements for the gather- ing and preparation of his food. He heaps up around him tlie waste of his rude methods of life, the ddbri,^ of his half-savage industry, until his tent is on a .shell mound, mi.xed with broken frag- PRIMEVAL MAX.—DIVl'.RS ASPliCTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 267 ments of his utensils, and bearing lliiis to future ages the sole evidence of his existence and manner of life. Still again we see the primitive man driving piles in the margin of the moun- primevaiman tain lake and building a builds for him- platform upon them, and on self a home over -l ^ ' the water. this platform, above the water, rearing rude huts, from which he reaches the shore by a flattened log or other simple means of transit. Here he herds driven from place to place on the plains of the East, as the spring line of verdure fluctuated over the landscape like the shadow of a cloud. Again, we note those who built for themselves abodes of mud and bitumen. We see the low-lying plain Barbarian with its cubical houses of Ts^^^l^^i clay or sun-dried bricks, bricks. and are surprised to observe that what some primitive tribes of the Orient did in ASPECTS OF BARRARIC LIFE.— Hut of Ostiaks.— Drawn by Durand Brager. is comparatively safe from the attacks of the wild beasts with which he finds himself otherwise unable to contend. Through the rude slabs in the floor in his dwelling he also drops into the water his broken implements of peace and war ; and these vestiges of a primitive and peculiar form of life are taken from the mud in our own century to bear witness of one of the strangest aspects of prim- itive history. As to the so-called pa- triarchs of antiquity, their well-known method was that of keepers of flocks and the dawn of their nationality thousands of years ago, the Arizonian races of vSouthwestern North America have re- duplicated, in every particular, in their attempted emergence from barbarism. In all the central regions of the New World the Red -Man will invite us with his wigwam to scrutinize his manners and customs and to note, not without sympathy, his hopes and aspirations. Far to the north the frozen ice huts appear, with their stunted but resolute inhabitants braving the rigors of the 268 GREAT RACES OE MAXKTXD. frigid zone, kindling the fires within them and without from the same heavy carbonaceons elements furnished by the monsters of the deep. All these and many more are the peculiarities of pri- meval life which will demand our atten- tion in the the present book. It can but be of interest in this con- would, under the influence of instinct correlated with their environment, adopt almost identical methods in their strug- gle for existence and progress, and present a common type of development ; but the facts are utterly at variance with this hypothesis. To the casual ob- server, indeed, it would seem that the nection to discuss briefly the question ti'/zi' /'/ is tliat such radical differences Why do savages cxislcd among the primi- aZrZ,";r tivc tribes of men in their °"'f"'' methods of organizing themselves into societies. What were the causes of so great divergences in the early life of man.' It would be in- ferred, ii priori, thai all semibar1)arous peoples in their emergence from savagery Ii THtt Skulls. — Drawn by Riou, diverse methods, the opposing manners and customs, and the contradictory in- stitutions of primitive mankind, were the work of caprice rather than of I'ca- son and order. A closer study of the problem, however, will doubtless show that in this also, as well as in all other elements of human histoiy, law has been the doniinaul priucipli- and reason the guiding light. 270 GREAT RACES OE MAXKlND. Doubtless the first great cai:se of the divergences noticeable in the begin- nings of civilization between the meth- ods of one tribe or family of men and those of another, is the varying influences First cause the of nature reacting upon reactions of na- ^j^ human frame and fac- tore on homau faculties. ultics. The aspects and conditions of the external world are far removed from regularity. Every region has its own climate, its own aspect of earth and sky. As to the earth itself, its surface is variable in the last degree. The soil has different potencies. The water distribution passes through all grades from scarcity to abi;ndance, from the blistering desert to the dripping humidity of rainy islands. The surface in some parts spreads out on a dead level of valley or plain, and anon rises into hill and cliff and mountain. The running streams are equally irregular in their disposal. Some regions have the rivers as the basal fact in their consti- tution, while in others the range of highlands, the rocky ridge or snow peaks scattered at intervals, are the fundamen- tal condition of geograi^h}'. Greater still is the variation of heat and cold, from the rigor of the hyperborean regions to the furnace of the tropics; and, if possible, the differences in the electrical and magnetic forces that girdle the earth and impart a certain nervous tension to all animal existence are even more pronounced and remarkable. Under these varying circumstances of the external world the plants on its sur- Man ospeciaiiy facc and the living crea- =CB':uhe tures that subsist thereby natural world, fluctuate and change in their instincts and manner of life. Par- ticularly does that supreme animal called man fit by multifarious adjust- ments into his changeful environment. From liis superior and more refined or- ganization he is especially susceptible to the influences of the external world. More than any beast of the field does he sway and bend and conform to the cli- matic exigencies under which he is placed. In him the sap of the world circulates almost as palpably and po- tently as in the plant that fixes its roots in the soil. In him every varying con- dition of the outer world is reflected; and in him the very tone and rhythm and pulsebeat of universal nature find a perpetual echo and response. These considerations are fully borne out by an actual examination of the prim- itive life of man in proc- aii parts of citU- ess of development under ^^^.^eVSng the varying conditions of conditions, nature. Indeed, no stage of human growth is exempt from the domination of the natural world. Every part and filament of the garb which civiliza- tion wears has taken its form and color and substance in large measure froin the material elements and condi- tions under which it is woven. It can not be doubted that all the aspects of the life and endeavor of man have in them, when closely scrutinized, the out- line and semblance of physical condi- tions caught by reflection from the external forms and circumstances of his environment and home. ,S() palpable and powerful have been these influences of the external world on the development and char- Theory of envi- acter of the human race that T:r::^lX^.^ many authors have been too for. disposed to make them the be-all and the end-all of tlie civilization of man. By such writers the theory of a physical basis for all things has been confidently adopted ; and it is urged, without doubt or hesitation, that even the highest and most spiritual faculties and moods of the human mind are resolvable by easy PRIMEVAL MAX.—Dir/iRS ASJ'IiCTS OF BARBARIC LIFE. 271 process into elemental parts derivaljle from nature. Under this h)-pothcsisman is regarded simply as a plant with powers of lo- comotion and consciousness. True, his feet do not strike into the soil. He has no local attachment to the ground out of which he has sprung; but like those vegetable anomalies which grow freely in the open air or water without the for- mality of roots and tendrils, so man, in to which it is applied. Nature has, in- deed, done much to give form and fashion to the various and divergent as- pects of human life ; but there are many differences existing in the methods em- ployed byprimitive, and even by civilized, peoples which can not be so resolved and explained. Another general cause comes into the field of vision, and that is the influence of innate instincts and dispo sitions in mankind, working in some in- VARIABILITY ILLUSTRATED IN MULTIPLE YOUNG OF SAME MOTHER.— Gi^inea Pigs this view of his genesis and nature, grows and develops into conscious life and powerful activity by the mere ab- sorption, from his free surroundings, of all his elemental juices, his fibers, and his faculties. But this view of the case is inadequate to the solution of the problem. The Ethnic instincts theory of a physical basis of fo^qintn"''" Civilization is by no means ^^^- to be rejected as a chi- mera. It is simply insufficient of it self to explain and elucidate the phenomena stances toward one end and in others to an opposite or diverse result. That such native and inherent differences do exist in human kind can not be doubted, and that the influence of the same has been largely potential in producing the va- rious aspects of early civilization is, it is believed, susceptible of the clearest proof. If we descend into the germinal con- ditions of the vegetable world we find that even the plants are, in virtue of their own nature, impressed with great 272 GREAT RACES OF 2HXKIND. variations. The seeds taken from the same pod and planted in the same bed tinct and unmistakable evidences of di-- vergence and individuality. If we go M HjK A I'l 1K\' II \KI1 \KJSM.— I'AMi' OF TUP. Kim;iii!KZ.— Drawn by F.milc Bayard, and nurtured under identical conditions exhibit in growth and development dis- forward one stage and begin an exami- nation of the phenomena of animal life, nUMIlVAL MAN.—DIVRKS ASPECTS OF nARBARIC LIFE. 273 we find the divergent principle still more active and emphatic. In the mul- Theiawofvaria- tiple young of the Same mother we have the varia- bility of nature illustrated in every element of organization. The color is different. Some are black, some are parti-colored, and some are white. tion independ- ent of environ- ment. procreative act, develoiDcd in the same matrix, and thrust into the world under identical conditions, are more than ap- proximately alike. Take, for instance, the jDointers and setters in which the hunter finds so great delight. Never yet, perhaps, have two of these animals, under the strictest dis- SEDENTARY BARBARISM.— House of Greenland Esquimau. Similar variations, though perhaps less pronounced, will be discovered in form and function. One outgrows the other. One is of superior activity; one is hardier, and another has by nature a greater longevity. If we proceed to scrutinize the instincts and dispositions of the group the differences are still more marked. In fact, no two of these living creatures, produced by the same cipline of the same master, been devel- oped into identity of method and char- acter. The law of animal Animal life un- life in this respect is sus- tiJ^'^^^ZT ceptible of infinite illustra- divergences, tion. Every species of living creatures is still in a state and process of differen- tiation under that primal law of evolu- tion which tends to individualize all forms of life : and as we ascend in the 274 GREAT RACES OF MAX KIND. scale of being'. the action of this law is constantly increased in vigor and inten- sity. In man the presence of the divergent and individualizing tendency has been In man and especially powerful from tTeTat'oT^re'i! the beginning. Theprimi- Eity prevails. tive raccs had each its spe- cial instinct and individual character. No two of them were moved by the same innate impulses or the same conscious purposes. The ends of tribal endeavor were as diverse as the methods employed to reach them. And it is the existence, radically, in the human family of this difference of instinct and motive that, combined with the powerful influence of the natural world reacting upon the sensitive faculties of man, has produced the striking and peculiar differences, oppositions, even antagonisms, which we discover in the primitive history of mankind. As an illustration of the working of these innate divergent tendencies in the Migratory habit human race, take the great on'r^te^'dlffer. fact of tribal migration. In e>ices. the primitive history of the world no other fact, perhaps, has so great prominence as has the migratory disposition exhibited by the early races ; but the working of this instinct was exhibited by them only in part. That is, there were conservative tribes and radical tribes in the primeval world, the former of which gave no sign of the migratory impulse, while the latter were swayed thereby to the extent of having no other history than that of removal. A closer analysis will show that in the same tribe the migratory disposition would appear, seizing like an insupport- able passion upon some members of tht clan and household, while others would be exempt from its influence. A division of sentiment would appear The moving pas- among these unconscious .tTJ^™ o the same com* folk leading to a radical munity. difference of tribal action and policy. A break-up among the family would ensue, a part drifting away under the action of an instinct as natural and inevitable as that which drives the bee swarm from the parent colony to the distant forest. That is, in a given household some members, born under identical condi- tions with the rest, would feel the mov- ing passion and go, while the rest, un- swayed by any such instinctive motive, would remain in their native seats, unable even to appreciate the impulse and disposition which had separated their kinsmen from them. The Orient is to-day, in some sense, a residuum of those peoples over whom the migratory passion was never dominant, while all Europe and America, even to the shore line of the Pacific, is, in a like sense, the result of a certain innate radicalism which has forced the moving races further and further onward, until at last it threatens to leap the greatest of the oceans and precipitate itself again upon the East. This division of mankind into a migratory and nonmigratory part must have been based, in its ultimate analysis, upon innate differences and unconscious, unreasoning impulses in those original tribes from which Asia and Euroj^e have alike been peopled. Nor can it well be understood how the influence of the external world can adequately ac- count for the true genesis and primal workings of this migratory habit. PRIM El -A L lUAN.—CArii DWJUJJlRS OF EUKOPIi. 275 CHAPTER XVI.— Thk Cave Dwellers oe Europe. ONG before the incom- ing of the first Aryan peoples into Europe tribes and races of men were already diffused over the country. Nor is it possible for us, in the present state of knowledge, to pierce the bottom of these human strata and For the present, archaeological and ethnical inquiry has reached down only to this epoch when the aborigines of Western Europe were contemporaneous with certain extinct species of animals. It is here that we must begin our inquiry relative to the primitive life of mai) in those parts of the world with which we are most familiar. It is well to repeat IDEAL LANDSCAPE OF THE ACE OF REI'Tl lbs — Uraun by K find the actual beginnings of the life of man on the European continent. It is now clear that the first men roaming Contempo- about in a state of savagery through the forests of Denmark, of German3^ of France, and of Britain were contempo- raneous with several races of animals that were extinct before the beginnings of authentic history. raneity of man and certain eX' tiuct animals. that the period here referred to is an- terior to the time when the first Aryans — the Celts, the Italic tribes, and the Teutones — made their first inroads into the AVest. It is only within the present century that our knowledge relative to primeval man in Western Europe has taken a somewhat definite form. Such inquiry has been impeded by many prejudices 276 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and prepossessions of the human mind — many beliefs which are no longer tenable under the lis^ht of increas- Modern leaders of archaeological ing knowledge. The labors nqiui-y. ^^ several eminent archaeol- ogists and ethnologists, such as Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock in England, Messieurs Toumal and Christol in France, Dr. P. C. Schmerling in Ger- man}-, and Professors Steenstrup and Nilsson of Sweden, have brought the resources of their genius to bear upon the problem of the antiquity and prim- itive life of man, and have succeeded in reconstructing the primeval conditions of civilization. the cave dwellers of Western Europe flourished. If we examine the crust of the earth aboi'e those strata which con- stitute the so-called age of reptiles, we shall find the same to be divided into two great layers, the lower of which is called the Tertiary and the upper the Post-Tertiary Period. The post-tertiary period is itself composed of two strata, the lower of which is called the Post- Pliocene and the upper the Recent, which latter embraces, in general terms, what is popularly called the surface of the earth. These two periods, the tertiary and post-tertiary, cover the geologic age of mammals. The mammalia are Post-Tertiary . Tertiary Period. Pliocene. Miocene. Recent Post-Pliocene [Epoch of the Cave Men] Newer Pliocene Older Pliocene Upper Miocene Lower Miocene f Upper Eocene Eocene < Middle Eocene I Lower Eocene Cenozoi'c Time — Age of Mammals. DIAGRAM OF THE TERTIARV AND POST-TERTIARY PERIODS, SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL PLACE OF THB - CAVE DWELLERS. In the present chapter it will be the aim to present the leading features of Place of the cave tribal life as the .same are mZXtr illustrated in the story of logical data. the Cavc D wellcrs of West- em Europe. There was, in prehistoric ages, in many parts of the western European states a race of men of a low grade of culture who chose the caverns which natui'c had hollowed out as their abodes, and within these dreary domiciles enacted the domestic drama of their lives. It is desirable to note the geological epoch, now well determined, in which conterminous with it, having first made their appearance in what is called the Lower Eocene and having a continu- ous existence through all the upper strata. Chronologically speaking, the period here referred to, beginning with the bottom of the tertiary and reach- ing to the present, is called Cenozoi'c time. The above diagram, drawn ac- cording to Sir Charles Lyell, will show tlie various relations of these strata and the place of the cave dwellers. It mu.st be tinderstood with reference to the above diagram that all existing species of mammals and man himself PRIMEVAL AIAN.—CAVIl DWFJ.I.RRS OF EUROPE. 277 the recent, or quaternary, epoch. belong to what is called the recent, or quaternary, epoch. There were, how- Man belongs to ever, several species of great animals formerly well known in Europe, whose existence as distinct varieties reached up from the pliocene period of the tertiary epoch into the post-pliocene era, and in that era ceased to exist. It appears that certain climatic changes took place in the extinct mammals above referred to that the demonstration of this early form of existence on the earth has been made. The proof that man was con- temporaneous with several varieties of animal life no longer present in the countries where it formerly flourished, is clear and irrefragable, and it only re- mains in the following pages to deter- mine as much as we may of the primi- IDEAL LANDSCAPE OK THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.— Drawn by Europe, rendering the country untenable to these forms of life. Now it is in this post-pliocene epoch that the cave dwellers had their career. Extinct mam- It was at the time when mais comhabit- the spccics of animals just ants with man in x' J Europe. mentioned were still prev- alent in the west of Europe that the cave man had his abode there. He was their companion and fellow of the woods and caverns; and it is by the commin- gling of the debris and ruins of his sav- ag-e life with the relics and vestiges of tive condition in which the cave man held his barbarous fortunes. The savage races of men, on their way from the low condition in which they are still found in absolute savages pass barbarity to civilized peo- t:^:XoZ^r pies, pass through four civilization. epochs of development. These are de- termined by archaeologists chiefly by the character of the implements and utensils which are fabricated by primi- tive peoples in the dift'erent stages of their progress. It had been found that 278 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. this progress is uniform in all parts of the world, and that when barbarians are discovered in a given stage of growth the next stage mav ahvavs be inferred by the general law which governs the evolution. This movement forward proceeds from a grade of life but little above mere animality, and ends with the emergence of the tribe into full his- torical activity. The various materials which the races certain varieties of rock formation, and by simple modifications, or even, at the first, by no modification at all, converts them into implements. The materials first chosen are gener- ally flint and obsidian, and the primitive stage of workmanship consists in merely breaking the substance into shape. It is this fact of breakage into form, as dis- tinguished from other methods of fabri- cation, that marks the very first stage of IDEAL LANDSCAPK OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD (AGE OF MAN).-Drawn by Ric of men have employed in the fabrication of tools and utensils arc principally stone, Matfii-i.-iis fm- wood, bone, horn, copper, SL'^^^nHiJ:™';^'",;. l^i-'>n^-^-. ^nd iron-in the ing impiementa. order named. Among civ- ilized peoples the latter metal is refined into different forms of wrought iron, cast iron, and finally the various grades of steel. The primitive man, however, begins with stone. He takes from the ground, by a sort of naliiral selection, man's development as a tool-making animal. Perhaps in no quarter of the world has a .savage tribe emerged from barbarism without employing this very obvious method of producing imjile- ments. It is claimed by the most em- inent naturalists that man, even in the most rudimentary stages of his ev- olution, has been a tool-making and tool-using animal, and tliat he is dis- crfminatcd by this fact— strongly dis- JMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS USED BY PRIMEVAL MAN. IN THE ORDER OF THE MATERIALS EMPLOYETX. 1, 2, Si^ne and wooden weapons of New Caledonians ; 3, bone skewers ; 4, harpoon of stag's horn ; 5, copper celt ; 6, carpen- ter's bronze chisel ; 7, bronze dagger with iron handle ; 8, iron ornaments of Africans. 280 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. criminated — from the highest grades of living beings below him. No animal except man has been known to make or to use a tool. That Man the tool- is, the conscious design of doinor so has never been ob- served in the most supe- rior specimens of the lower grades of animal intelligence. The monkey, the making and club-thro'wlng animal. this accidental and instinctive employ- ment of clubs and missiles and the con- scious fabrication of a tool lies a great gap in intelligence — the gap between the instinct of the inferior and the con- scious reason of the superior creature. Man, then, begins his career as an artisan by the making of tools and im- plements from the flinty forms of rock. MANUI-ACTURE OF FLINT IMPLEMENTS BY PREHISTORIC MAN.— Drawn by Kmile liuyard.. ape, the ourang, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee arc all in some sense club- using and club-throwing animals. They grip and swing missiles with obvious design to a certain end ; but in doing so they merely seize what accident has placed within their reach, and there is no single instance recorded in wliicli an animal has been known to adapt a stick or stone to any intended use. Between He soon discovers that this substance, by a little skill, may be broken into foi-ms approximatelyadapt- Artisanship be- cd to his wants. Prog- gi"f.^iththe o making of tools ress begins — progress in and weapons, the selection of materials and progress in the methods of forming his utensils. But for a long period breakage is the general method wiiich lie employs, and this fact of fracture in the fabrication of PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 281 tools is the essential feature by which the first stage of human development is characterized. This first epoch is called the old Old stone age stone age, or, if we em- inarks first stage | ^j Scientific term in human devel- -t^ •' opment. given thereto by natural- ists, the palaeolithic age — a term derived from the Greek roots sig- nifying the same thing. It is impossible to determine for how long a period a savage tribe will remain in this primitive stage of ev- olution. Doubtless the palaeolithic era of devel- opment is never precisely the same in time in the case of any two barbarous tribes, but the process is the same. The time re- mains indeterminate. Another fact of great im- portance to be noted is that this primeval epoch of human growth has ap- peared at different times, in different quarters of the earth, as already said. It is highly likely — almost certain — that all existing peoples have, in their rudi- mentary condition, passed through the old stone age as the first phase of their growth into a national life ; but at what era this oc- curred in the case of any given family of men it is impossible to determine. The chi-onology of such a development Chronology of caii not be ascertained or Ipo^hnotdeter- adjusted. In One quarter of minabie. the earth a savage tribe will be found at the present day in the palseolithic state of growth. In another M. — Vol. I — 19 quarter this epoch of emergence from barbarism has been passed a century, even several centuries ago, and in others we must look back through many ages if we would discover even the hint of such a stage of evolution. This is to say that the development of savage life is never synchronous among the different PALAEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS, FROM HOXNE. raceg, but that such development is as various in time as it is in place. The process has been going on for many thousands of years and is still going on, under our own authentic observation, in many parts of the unreclaimed conti- nents and barbarous islands of the seas. While this want of contemporaneity is 282 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. an embarrassment in the construction of tribal history, it is a great advantage in the actual comprehension of the methods PRIMEVAL MAN — CHASE IN THE REINDEER PERIOD. Drawn liy Emilc Uayard, of the ])n'milive man. Wc arc able tn- day to scnitinize these methods and to ob.scrve and note the actual processes by which the tool-making animal goes forward from one stage of his develop- ment to another. In the South Sea islands the natives have been watched in the act of con- s t r u c t i n g old stone imple- ments, and the process, withal, is very different from what might have been sup- posed. The savage takes a small block of flint between his naked feet and, pressing it into a certain position w i t h his toes, drops upon i t endwise a long pestle of wood in such way as to spall off a splinter from the side. The stroke is re- peated, and another spall, or "flake," so- called, is thrown off; and so on until, by careful chipping, the a r r o w h e a d or s p e a r p o i n t or whatever it is is broken into sliape. Doubt- less this simple process has been practiced, with slight modifica- tinns of IIK-Ultxl, by all the Habits of prlme- j M r i-1 ^.A A v.al man discov- .savage tribes of the woild, „,^„i„i„hi« ^^ and doubtless the same tennis and arts. manner of fabrication will continue untile if" PRIMEVAL M.LV.—CAFB DWJlLLERS UE EUROPE. 283 manship marks second stage of the evolution. by the spread of civilization, this primi- tive stage of humanity shall disappear from the earth. The palaeolithic, or old stone, age at length gives place to a higher form of manufacture — a more elegant and useful Neolithic work- method of making utensils and weapons. The primi- tive man, in course of time, discovers that by attrition or rubbing he can reduce his tools to a more and satisfactory pattern. The forms which ho has hitherto attained by the proc- ess of breakage and chip- ping have been only approx- imate to the ideal forms which he has had in mind. In the second stage of his development he labors to reach a correct outline by reducing the substance on which he is working into proper form by rubbing or grinding against some other material. The time rela- tions of this discoveiy also are unknown ; but that such a transformation from the rough or broken stone im- plements of primeval man to the smooth tools and uten- sils of his secondary stage of development does exist — has existed in the case of every tribe — is clearly demonstrable. Every museum, or even small private collection, of ancient stone workmanship gathered from the valleys of the European ri\-crs, froin the peat bogs of Denmark, or turned up by the plow in the open fields of North America, will show unmistakable evidences of the change which has everywhere taken place from the age of broken or chipped- off fabrication to the age of smoothed or polished manufacture. To this second epoch of implement- making archasologists have given the name of the new .stone, . Relation of the or neolithic, age. That stone epochs to it follows the older and "--e«°'°ey. ruder era is clearly proved, but its dura- tion, as in the case of the preceding epoch of broken stonework, can never be more than approximately determined. The relative place of the neolithic era in the evolution of the civilized forms of life is as well known as tha't the age of mammals succeeds the age of reptiles in the geological his- tory of the earth. Indeed, all of the stages of human evolution which we are here considering have a striking likeness and anal- (jgy to the successive eras in the Stone axes, Ireland. Stone celt with h.indle. EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC WORKMANSHIP. geological formation of our globe. The one is as fixed and certain in its laws of succession as the other, and we should no more expect to find a deviation from the orderly progress by which the savage man proceeded from the old stone to the new stone and from the new stone to the subsequent ages of his develop- ment than we should expect to find the coal measures of the carboniferous age on top of the chalk beds of the age of reptiles. There are many extraneous proofs, 284 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. moreover, that the half-barbarous peo- ples of the world, after passing- into the neolithic age, have, in other respects than that of implement-making, entered into a wider and more complex develop- ment. It is not only in the making of tools that the savage man on his way to largfer and more rational activities dis- Complex devel- opment coinci- dent vrith new stone age. Since most of the metals of the earth exist in the form of ores, which hide their actual contents from Great span be- the unskilled eye of barba- ^r^anT^ge rism,ithashappenedamong ofmetais. all the primitive races that the discovery and manufacture of stone implements has preceded by many long stages the production of metallic forms. In the PRIMEVAL MAN. — Koundeks of thr wiuE OF I'.imnzk.— iM-.tun by I'.milc B.iyurd. plays his increasing skill. All the ele- ments of his progress are correlated and, in .some sen.se, kept even with his rate of growth in the mere matter of manufac- turing his wares and weapons. His ex- pansion is in all directions, and it is easy to di.scovcr by evidences deduced from other sources the general course which he is pursuing toward the civilized con- ditions of life. cases of silver and gold, which exist na- tive in the earth — or at least the gold — they have never been found in suflicient quantities to justify the primitive -man in the attempt to make implements therefrom. The.se, from the rarity of their distribution, have been precious metals from the first. They were so to all the savage races who first possessed the earth, and have continued so, even PKIM l:\-AI. MAN. — CAVE DWIil.LEKS OF EUROPIi. 285 in the powerful civilization and activities of the present. .Among other metals copper, and even tin, also existed in the native form, and it is to these substances that the faculties and interest of the primeval man were directed when he came to the point of emergence from the neolithic age. He had now wrought, as much as might well be done, from the faculties might find a freer exercise. This other substance, as the primitive history of man has now demonstrated, was copper — coj^per first, and then tin, or, more particularly, a mixture of the two, called broiirjc. Nothing is known of the original dis- covery which seems to have been made in many quarters of the earth, of the MANNERS OF PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.— Feast in the Age of Bronze.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. Stone materials imder his hand by the processes of breakage and polishing. It is evident on reflection that mere stone, such as flint or sandstone, will only bear a certain amount of artisanship. Whoever would attempt to go beyond the natural limits existing in the nature of these materials would come to an im- passable barrier. He must turn, per- force, to some other substance upon which, in virtue of its own nature, his great advantage to be gained by com- mingling a certain percentage (about one tenth) of tin with na- Art of com- tive copper. Such a dis- ^^^^^^:^^l} covery, however, is ver}- the bronze age. certain as a fact and very remote in its date. It is now known that the material of the weaponry of the Trojan warriors, called clialchys in the Homeric poems and tradition, was bronze and not iron, and the old word ces of the primitive 286 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Latin race signified the same thing. At any rate, the succession of an age of bronze to the neolithic age is a fact well established in archaeology. The barbarous and now warlike peoples of the prehistoric world made the great dis- covery of a hard and tenacious metallic compound, out of which they could manu- facture at will substantial, effective, and even beautiful implements so greatly superior to those which they had hith- erto employed as to constitute an epoch in their civilization. This discovery of bronze was accompanied with many advances in the life and manners of the people. New customs were intro- duced ; the family was better organized, and we contemplate the beginnings of a rude society. vSo the third stage of the human evolution which we are here considering was that in which the half- barbarous, peoples of the primitive world passed out of the new stone age into the age of bronze. The inquiry naturally arises in this connection why it is that in nearly all parts of the earth the barbarous peoples seem to have passed direct- No intervening .... ages of copper ly from the neolithic into the bronze-making age of development. Why was it — why is it — that the primitive peoples did not pass through a clearly defined age of copper or an age of tin? Why should the great leap have been made from so primitive form of life as that exhibited in the new stone age into the com- paratively complex and highly devel- oped activities of the age of bronze? Bronze is a composite metal. We see from the perfect composition which we find in the implements which have come to us from the age of its early manufac- ture that the ancients understood per- fectly the percentage of tlic (liffcrent metals, and this knowledge would pre- suppose a long series of trials and ex- periments. True it is that in some quarters of the world, particularly in the peat measui"es of Denmark and along the shores of the great lakes in North America, many copper implements have been discovered. But these finds have been so irregular as rather to disprove than to establish the existence of an age of copper. It would seem that the primitive man has only produced tools and utensils of copper when he could not procure the necessary tin to make the compound. In general, the fact re- mains, archasologically and historically, that in nearly all parts of the habitable globe the various races have leaped at one stride from the making of smooth stone implements to the manufacture and use of bronze. What theory may be advanced to account for this remark- able fact in the prehistoric development of mankind? It has been suggested in answer, and with much show of probability, that the introduction of metals for Reasons why tools and weapons is co- fZ^lUtT^ incident in tribal develop- age of stone, ment with the beginning of the age of aggression and conquest. This is to say that when men have once discov- ered and used the metals the}' are at that stage of tribal life in which the lust of war and conquest begins to be felt as a dominant passion. As a result of this, when the discovery of bronze has once been made, and a knowledge diffused of its great superiority over cither of the component metals of which it is consti- tuted, a bronze-bearing soldiery would at once spring into existence. Owing to the higher development and aggres- sive instincts of this soldiery, conquest in foreign parts would very soon ensue, aiid with this conquest would l)c carried into distant regions a knowledge of PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWF.I.LERS OF EUROPE. 287 bronze and of the method of its manu- facture. This rational, even probable, explanation has been offered for the im- mediate succession of the bronze age to the age of stone. Tribes and races still engaged in the fabrication and use of flint implements and weapons would be at so great disadvantage in compari- glimpses of the actual historical move- ments of men. The heroic conflicts which we see in the far Historical con. horizon, the sack and pil- '^^^^^ lage of Troy, the early and age of bronze, shadowy movements of mankind in Asia Minor, in Hellas, and in Italy, bring us, at least in tradition, into the Eg>'plian knife. W, I Bracelets, Switzerland. Bronze hairpins, Switzerland. EXAMPLES OF BRONZE WORKMANSHIP. \\ Copper spearhead. Son with a bronze-beariiig nation as to be easily overrun, and with this conquest the knowledge and practice of bronze manufacture would immediately follow. However this may be, the age of bronze has everywhere succeeded the neolithic age in the development of civilization. It is in this age that Ave generally catch the first authentic age of bronze, and it is safe to regard this epoch in the evolution of man as the substratum of authentic history. After a long period in bronze-making and bronze-using, the pre- _ ° ^ The age of iron historic tribes, or perhaps succeeds the , , , . . epoch of bronze. we should now say nations, pass into the age of iron. Iron, except in the form of meteorites, does not exist 288 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. in the native state. For this reason its discovery as a metal happens late in the history of man. The extraction of iron from the ore is, moreover, exceedingly difficult even with the powerful appli- Swcdcn. EXAMII.F.S OF IRON WORKMANSHIP. ances of modern metallurgy. The man of antiquity was unable to produce the requisite heat, and even had he Ix'cn master of an adequate temperature he could not have conjectured by h priori reas(jning that such a substance as metallic iron might be expected to issue from the rust-colored stone constituting the ore. Doubtless the discovery was accidental. Indeed, traditions exist to this effect. It has been handed down that a European Evolution of discovery of ironworu in pri- 1 1, meval Europe. iron by smelt- ing occurred in Bohemia within the historical period. However this may be, we have unmistakable proofs that somewhere in the early dawn of the Grseco-Italic development in Southern Europe the discovery of the process of extracting iron was made and the fab- rication of implements therefrom begun. The Greeks, at least of the post- Homeric epoch, had a soldiery bearing iron weap- ons, and it appears that the Romans from the first faint limnings of tradition armed themselves, for both offense and defense, with the same heavy and enduring metal. In short, the age of iron is, roughly speaking, the age of authentic history. Though the ancient Egyp tians were unacquainted with iron, and tlunigh the extent of its use among the Assyrians and Babylonians has not been clearly deter- mined, the fact remains that in general terms the manufacture of iron implements has been a circumstance co- incident with the historic development of our race. We are now and have been for some three thou.sand years in the age of iron, and it would seem that we are PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWJiLLEKS OE EUROPE. 289 destined to continue in the same epoch itntil by a new evolution we sliall pass into the age of aluminum. This somewhat extended digressive study of the four principal eras of dcvel- Cave dwellers opmcnt through which the the most pnmi- ^^^.^^ ^f xy\cn havc passcd tive of the Euro- ': pean races. \ya?, bccu made nccessaiy in order to a clear understanding of the true place of the cave dwellers of West- ern Europe. They were men of the old stone age. Their implements were all palaeolithic. They flourished, or at least lived, in an age before the art of grinding and polishing utensils of stone had been discovered. This is to say that they present the most friinithc type of mankind with which we are acquainted. Nor is it likely that ethnologists and an- tiquarians will ever be able to deduce from the prehis- toric shadows a form of human life more nearl\- allied to the life of the lower animals than is that which we are now to ex- amine. The story of the investi- gation of the cave dwell- ings in Europe is full of interest. The Interest of the care and zeal with which the work has been carried forward will always elicit praise from those who are concerned to know the true story of Ijhe human race on the earth. As early as 1825 the at- tention of antiquaries began to be called to the fact of the mixed remains of men and animals in various caverns which had been explored for other than scientific purposes. It was not, however, until 1833 that the distinguished antiquary, Dr. P. C. Schmerling, of Belgium, forced upon the consideration of scholars the unmistakable lessons which the caves had revealed to him and his colaborers. The caverns in question exist in many parts of the Continent and of England. They abound in vSouthern character of the France and along the -™e\T''' borders of Belgium. They ^^'^• are dark grottoes in limestone rock, and seem in nearly all cases to have been selected by the cave men because of the narrowness and defensibility of the openings. In many instances the mouths investigation of the man cay- erns. MAN CAVERN IN GALEINREUTll, BAVARIA. of the caverns have been found closed by the very stones which the rough inhab- itants rolled and pushed into place as a barrier against their enemies. The floors are generally on a lower level than the openings, which fact has led to the accumulation of thick layers of mud and debris on the bottom. Over this collec- tion of earthy materials, mixed as they are with the relics of the human and non- human occupants in former ages, is nearly always spread a layer of that calcareous substance called stalagmite, deposited there in the course of centuries 290 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. by the lime-saturated exudations from the roof of the cavern. This stalagmitic floor, holding' its secrets underneath, is generally quite hard, and is in many cases two or three feet in thickness. The cavern here described is typical, but is subject in different localities to con- siderable modifications in its character and details. It was such a cave dwelling as this, called the Cavern of Engis, that Dr. Schmerling entered and explored in 1832. Exploration of It was situated near Liege, by''Dr?lchrn;r at the junction of the Ung. ileuse and the Ourthe, in Belgium. The story of the exploration is as heroic as the results were novel and instructive. Schmerling had to be let down into the cavern by a rope tied to a tree outside. He was obliged to slide in 'order to gain an entrance. Within it was as dark as night. The explorer had to creep from one apartment to an- other through contracted and dangerous passages. Into these .spectral vaults he introduced his workmen. Some held torches while the others worked. The floor of stalagmite was as hard as marble. The philosopher was obliged to stand hour after hour with his feet in tlie mud while the cold exudations from the roof of the cavern dripped on his head. Finally the stalagmitic crust was broken ■up and the materials underneath brought to exposure. Everything was done un- der vSchmerling's personal dirccti'on, so that no false statement or unfact of any kind should mix with the results. The results were marvelous. Human skulls and indeed whole skeletons were Careftiiness of found in the clay and muck «onrrhrrduo. ""^i^^- ^i^« ^""'- ^f ^^^^^?.- t'°ns- mite. And to make the discovery more astounding, the bones of several species of extinct animals were found intermingled with those of men ! It was noted, -moreover, and established to a demonstration that the human parts and the animal parts were in such jux- taposition and relation as to prove the coincident lodgment and preservation of the remains. Eveiy fact tending to throw light on the discovery was care- fully recorded by Schmerling, and in the following year he published a trea- tise announcing as a scientific truth the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth in Western Europe. A second digression is here desirable, relating in this instance to some changes which have taken place in significance of the fauna of the continent t::::i^:io^. since the close of the plio- an cUmate. cene era of geology. It appears that certain transformations have occurred in the climate of Europe which have made the country untenable to several species of animals formerly prevalent therein. About seventeen varieties of mammals have disappeared since the old stone age. These embrace several species of heavy pachyderms and quite a number of smaller animals, nearly all of which have their habitat either in the tropics or in regions much more tropical than any part of Europe. That these species for- merly abounded on the continent is clearly demonstrable. That they could not possibly exist under present climatic conditions is also true: from which it seems clearly established that a great change toward frigid conditioiis has taken place in the Eurojican countries. This change, doubtless, is the very fact which has caused the extinction of the animals referred to and the perpetuation of the varieties now existing.' 'The theory of llie existence of a trupical conch- lion in the nortliern heniisplicie in tlie aj^e pracii- hig tlie Inst glacial ejioch of our planet may now be considered as a demonstrated scientific truth. See the discussion of the subject, p. ante 57. rRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWPJJ.RRS OF EUROPE. 291 The seventeen species of mammalia which have thus been extinguished by the vicissitude of climate are as follows : Species of ex- The cavc bear; a second ^"ocfatTwith variety called Ursus prisons, ^^^- or the ancient bear; the cave hyena; the cave lion; the mam- moth ; another species of the genus Elcplias, called the old elephant; the hairy rhinoceros ; two other species of rhinoceros; the hippopotamus ; the musk ox ; the Irish elk ; the wild horse ; the glutton; the reindeer; the aurochs, or European bison ; and the urus, or primi- tive ox. It is thought by naturalists that some of the species here enumer- ated have perpetuated themselves in de- flected varieties of the original until the present, but the rest are manifestly and indubitably extinct. Yet all of these ani- mals were prevalent in the old stone age, and it is the testimony of the cave dwell- ing that man was their contemporary and competitor for occupancy. Dr. Schmerling continued his investi- gations in other limestone caverns and Evidence cmnu- with the Same general re- 'thi7h:ra^::Jof s^lts. in at least four or primeval man. five of the caves near Liege he found unmistakable proofs that they had been used for dwellings in the pre- historic ages. Evidences of the manner of life of the primitive barbarians of Western Europe accuinulated, and fact was added to fact in illustration of the conditions under which man contended with the laws of his environment before the first peoples of the Aryan race had found a footing in the countries this side of the Danube and the Rhine. Before proceeding to note the partic- ular contents of the various European cave dwellings, and to elucidate their significance, it will be proper to enu- merate some of the principal caverns which have been explored. The Bel- gian government finally undertook the work begun by Schmerling, and in 1 867 sent out a party of scien- sketch of the tists under direction of the niosttoportant cave awelhngs naturalist, Dupont, to car- of Europe, ry forward the investigation. Several other caves like that of Engis were ex- amined in the same region and the con- tents transmitted to museums. The cavern of Chaleux yielded in addition to its animal relics a vast number of imple- ments, all belonging to the old stone age. That of Furfooz was almost equally rich in prehistoric materials. The cave called Frou du Frontal con- tained parts of thirteen .skeletons. The opening of this vault was still closed with the block of stone which the cave men had used to barricade the entrance. The grotto of Aurignac, in the south of France, yielded seventeen prehistoric skeletons, but these were unfortunately lost through the ignorance of the mayor of the city. In the department of Dor- dogne, in Southwestern France, a number of cave dwellings have been explored with results confirmatory of those attained elsewhere; and in con- nection with these caverns the addi- tional interesting fact was noted that artificial chambers connected with the natural vaults in the limestone had been excavated and used by the primitive oc cupants. In 1S58 the philosoioher, Schaaf- hausen, gave to the public an account of the discoveries recently made in the limestone cavern of Neanderthal, be- tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, includ- ing a description of one of the most re- markable prehistoric skulls which schol- ars have had the fortune to examine. Turning to England, one of the most important of the caverns '■ . , . 1 Exploration of formerly inhabited by men the man caverns ,, , , T' ..' of England. IS that known as Ivent s Hole, near Torquay, in Devonshire. 292 GREAT RACES OF MANKEND. This was first explored by the scholar, MacEnery, in the year 1825. No published account of the results, how- KOllU AND ROCK SHELTER OK BRUNKJLEI. — AN AliOIJE OK I'RIMl Drawn by Kiou. ever, was made until 1859, \vhen tlic relics wei"e classified by Mr. Vivian. In 1862, a remarkable hyena den called VVokey Hole, near Wells, was explored and described by William Boyd Dawkins. jNIeanwhile the naturalist, Goodwin- Austen, had reexamined the cavern of Kent's Hole, and given the results in a memoir to the Geological So- ciety, In 1858 Dr. Falconer in formed the same learned body of the interesting discoveries made by himself in a cave dwelling at Brixham, also in Devonshire ; and afterward a Pro- f e s s o r Ramsay explored the grotto and veri- fied the former conclusions r e - specting its con- tents. Explorations were next carried into distant parts. In the grotto of Maccagnone, i n Sicily, Dr. Fal- coner made dis- coveries in the .same general line with thosealready recorded. The peculiarity in this instance was that m a n y of the relics of men and animals were found aggluti- nated to llie toh, or roof, „ „ , . ' Peculiar finds In of the cavern, wliere they the grotto of 1 , . , , lit Macoagnone. had seemingly been held in place by the action of water until PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 293 cave life drawn from three sources. tte precii^itation of lime had cemented them to the ceiling! Some interesting caves have been explored at Gibraltar with results similar to those enumerated above. It is thus that antiquaries and scholars have become acquainted with the condi- lUustrations of tions Under which the cave dwellers of the prehistoric age passed their existence. It will be seen at a glance that the illus- trations of the life of these primitive barbarians are drawn first from the char- acter of the human remains themselves ; secondly, from our knowledge of the animals with the bones of which the human relics are found intermingled; and thirdly, from the character of the implements and utensils which the cave men left with their own skeletons in the clay beds of the caverns. — Let us look then, first, at the remains of the cave men themselves and compare these human relics of a prehistoric epoch and people with the like parts of existing, races. One of the most interesting skulls which has come to lis from the time of Characteristics the cavc dwellers is that o?thTfng.s°" found ^y Dr. Schmerling sii^iii' in the limestone cavern of Engis. A cast of this skull has been made and duplicates distributed to the leading museums of the world, and the most skillful naturalists have passed upon its character. On the whole, it is of smaller capacity and less symmetrical development than the average cranium of the civilized man of to-day. It is narrower in the forehead, and gives evi- dent indications of weakness in other respects. But still it is of better capacity and much less forbidding than might be expected in a case of a prehistoric inhab- itant of a cavern. The skull plate is not especially thick, and that part which is supposed to indicate animality is not more protuberant than in the case of many skulls of existing races. Professor Huxley has candidly remarked that " It is a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, THE E.NGIS SKILL. or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage." Very different from this, however, is the skull described by Schaafhausen, which was taken from the cave of Nean- derthal, near Diisseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia. The latter is so exceedingly 294 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. gross in its form and structure as to suo-eest, almost with tlae force of demon- stration, a type of life but little above ity indicated by the Neanderthal skull. THE NKANIJKRTIIAt. SKUI.L. that of the beasts of tlic fkld. Tlic skull is almost as flat and thick and re- cceding as that of a gorilla. No man of any existing race, even the most bar- barous, has a skull at all comparable with the Neanderthal in its small ca- pacity, outward-slopingocciput, and great thickness PecuUar animal- o f bone The a c companying cut of an authentic cast will suf- ficiently illustrate the character of the skull under consideration. It is not needed in this connection to enter, into details respecting the character of the other parts of the hu- man skeletons which have been found in the cave dwellings of Eu- rope. It is sufficient to note the fact that in general these remains depart somewhat from the highly developed and sym m e tr i- other features 1 f,...,, ^ of the skeletons cal foims „f the cave O f living dwellers. types of men, and verge off unmistakably in some particulars toward the forms of the lower ani- mals. The arms, for instance, of the cave men were longer than those of existing races. 'J'he hands also shared the elongation of the humerus and ulna, and appear to have had less of that lateral flexibility which distinguishes the human hand from the f( irc i)a\v of tlie chimpanzee. The animal quality is again ilhislralcd in tlie size and slia])e of the under jaws of tiie cave men. Tliere is in this respect a consid- PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 296 erable departure from the square, lifjht, and symmetrical lower jaw of existing raees. The teeth also of the cave dweller were, as a rule, larger and more canine than the human teeth of the pres- ent. The shape and armature of the mouth were more distinctly carnivorous than could be found in the case of any living species of men, and the bones of the body were, as a rule, stronger and redder and armed with higher processes for the attachment of muscles than we find in skeletons of the historical period. On the whole, the indications derived from the bones of the cave dwellers point convincingly to a type and man- ner of life considerably more approx- imated to the mere animal existence of the creatures with which these prim- itive savages contended than to the highly organized bodies and refined characteristics of living men. Something has already been said of the character and place of the animals Extinct animals ^vith whicli the prehistoric man was associated in Western Europe. It is now no longer doubted that he was a com- panion of the mammoth and the hairy rhinoceros at a time when these huge pachyderms still prevailed in the coun- try. Of all the animal remains with which the bones and implements of man are associated in the cave dwellings the most numerous are those of the cave bear. Perhaps not a single cavern in which the relics of human life have been found has been explored without the discover}' of the bones of this extinct animal. He seems to have roamed ev- erywhere in the west of Europe, and to have had a special liking for those lime- stone vaults which the cave men chose for their dwellings. The bones of this Ursus spclams, or cave bear, indicate that the possessor was sometimes killed and associated v^ith man ; the cave bear. eaten by the cave men, who dropped the inedible parts on the cavern floor. But in other in.stances the bear seems to have died a natural death in the cavern which had been inhabited in the same period by men.' The second of the extinct anitnals with which the cave man was most as- sociated was the cave hyena. Cave hyena and The bones of this Crea- cave lion ; their . . ■, ... .1 r distribution. ture, mixed with those of man and with palaeolithic implements, are plentifully distriljuted in the caverns which have been above described. The animal in question did not differ very greatly from the spotted hyena of Africa and Asia, and his habits, doubtless, were of the same kind as those of his prototypes. AVE i;h:AK. The cave lion, scientifically called Fclis spckea, is the third of the animals which were associated with the prehis- toric man. This beast was much larger and stronger than modern lions, if we except the great beasts of Africa. The ancient animal was even more strongly discriminated from the tiger than is any existing variety of lion. The primitive beast roamed freely in France, in Ger- ' It is almost certain that the cave hear of the old stone age was the progenitor of the common brown bear of Europe and America. The skeleton of Ursus spelaus is somewhat larger and stronger than the bone-frame of his descendants, and his jaws and teeth had specific characteristics marking him as a different, or at least more primitive, type of animal ; but in other respects the naturalist finds little to dis- criminate the ursus of the cavern from his modem representatives — little except the size. 296 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. many, in Italy, and in Sicily, and his re- mains have been known and classified since the seventeenth century. It is thought that the bones of the same ani- mal have been found at Natchez, on the Mississippi, a fact which would seem to indicate a very wide distribution of this creature. Other varieties of the genus Felis also existed in the epoch of the cave dwellers, and their remains are found associated with those of men. Reference has already been made to the contemporaneous existence of man Greatpachy- and the mammoth. This uo^of Efephas' crcaturc seems to have been primigenius. distributed over the whole of North America and the continent of Europe fi-om Land's End to Siberia. SKKTCH <1F C.WK 1:i:ai;, PRAWN ON A STOKE FOUND IN THK CAVE OF MASSET. From the north the mammoth crossed the Alps, and his remains are found as far south as Rome. But no traces of this pachyderm have been found south of the Pyrenees or in the Mediterranean islands. As a rule, and for very obvious reasons, the bones of the mammoth are infrequently found in the cave dwellings of Western Europe. As already noted, the entrance to these abodes were gen- erally too narrow to admit so huge a beast; but there are instances in which the bones of man and the relics of the mammoth have been washed by water into a contemporaneous deposit in the bottom of caverns. In other localities the skeletons of the mammoth or parts thereof have been found in close and frequent association with the skeletons of prehistoric men, and in such localities the age of the deposit can nearly always be determined by the presence of old stone implements. No fact in natural history seems to be better established than the coexistence of man and this so-called Elcphas priniigcnius in most of the European countries. The story of the discovery of the hairy mammoth im- bedded in a mass of frozen soil in Siberia is well known. At the beginning of the century this remarkable find was brought to the knowledge of scientific men, and a portion of the animal re- covered from the dogs and Avild beasts to which it had been abandoned. The mammoth was a huge jDachyderm of the elephant order, with a dark colored skin, covered with reddish wool, mixed with long black bristles stronger and coarser than horsehair. A restoration, from strictly scientific data, of this great beast of primeval Europe has been effected by Professor Henry A. Ward, of the United States, and doubtless the monstrous effigy thus produced fitly represents the animal as he was in the days of the cave men of Western Europe. The bones of the hairy rhinoceros are found in the caverns in juxtaposition with those of men. But other animal like those of the mammoth, ;^,"?h''{k'ose of the locality best suited "^au. to such association of human and non- human relics are the drift formations and gravel beds of the open country. The remains of the musk ox, or more properly the musk sheep, now limited in its habitat to arctic America and Si- beria, are also found in imion with the relics of the prehistoric inhabitants of the Continent, and even of England. Bones of this animal have been discovered PRIMEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE ECROPE. 297 former inhabit ant of Central Europe. In Kent, on the banks of the Severn, and in the gravel beds of Avon. The hippopotamiis also, that is, an ■extinct variety of the species, prevails ^vithin the human epoch, and the relics of this animal are associated with those of the cave dwellers. In at least fonr ■caverns in England bones of the ancient hippopotamus have been foiind. The caves pf Durdham Down, Kirkdale, Kent's Hole, and Raven's Cliff, in Gower, have all yielded specimens of this ex- tinct beast of the post-pliocene era. The reindeer was also contemporary with the prehistoric tribes in the west of Thereindeera Europe. He belonged to the age of bronze. At the present this animal ranges far to the north, being wellnigh limited in his habitat to Siberia and Lapland. In America also he beats far up to the arctic regions, but in the central parts of our continent the caribou is thought to be an in- flected variety of this same species of rangerine 6tag that has left his remains with those of primeval man in France and England. In the cav- erns of Wales more than a thousand horns of the reindeer have been discov- ered, and traces of his existence are everywhere abundant as far south as the Alps and the Pyrenees. Of the extinct animals that have flourished since the ap- pearance of man only the mammoth and the haiiy rhinoceros seem to have been older species than the reindeer. The latter appears to have had great endur- ance, and as late as the time of the com- position of Ciesar's Gallic fFf/r the animal «till roamed in the Hercynian forest — at M. — Vol. 1 — 20 least such was the information brought to CiEsar. The primitive man captured the reindeer, feasted on his flesh, took his horns for implements, and his hide for a cloak ; but the animal was not domesti- cated in prehistoric times. More noted still as a contemporary of the cave dwellers was the great stag called the Irish elk. This Size and cnarac- was, perhaps, the most mag- teristios of the nificcnt animal of all that we are here considering. He grew to a stature of more than ten feet, and an existing pair of his antlers measures ckvcn feet from point to point! These MAMMOTH, RESTORED. tremendous horns were palmated like those of the American moose, and the hvige creature dashing about the Irish peat bogs or through the oak woods of Britain must have been terrible, even sublime, in a.spect. His remains are frequently found in the peat measures of I:-eland and on the Continent, but still more abundantly in the lacustrine shell marl underlying the bog earth of the marsh lands. Next in order of these prehistoric animals is the ghitton, called in Amer- ica the wolverene. He appears to have been a contemporaiy of the creatures 298 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. above enumerated, and in many places to have had a particular association with man. But more impor- The prehistoric r • bison of Europe tant by far m such associ- and America. , - .1 1 ation was the aurochs, or European bison. This animal has been long extinct in France and England, and yet we have the remarkable fact of his survival in a cognate species in gravel yields some relic of this heavy prehistoric animal. Oddly enough, his name is omitted from the intei^esting list which Caesar has enumerated as inhabit- ing the Hercynian wood in the time of his invasion. But the tradition of the aurochs is given in the Niebelungen Lied and other ancient documents. It seems that the extinction of this an* FEAST miRING TIIK EPOCH OF THE REINDEER. -Drawn by Emilc Ilayard. America. The bison ju-iscus, or old buffalo of America, is now known to be a more ancient variety than the aurochs of Europe, and yet the latter was con- t(?mporary with man along with the mammoth and the reindeer. The aurochs was widely distributed. His remains are found in Scotland, England, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Italy, and Rilssia. Nearly svcry bone cave and bed of river-drift imal is traceable wholly to the aggressions of civilization and not to any vicissitude of climate. The European . "■ Lato extinction bison is said to have been of the European •»T ji -n • buffalo. seen m Northern Prussia as late as the latter part of the eighteenth century, and it is believed that a pre- carious existence is still maintained by the species in some iminliabited parts of Western Asia. An interesting ejiisode is furnished in the fact that in PRUrEVAL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OE EUROPE. 299 the Polish revolution of 183 1 a herd of more than seven hundred bisons which had been preserved by the Empcnjr of Russia in the g-rcat forest of Lithuania was attacked by a body of the insur- gents, and a hundred and fifteen of them slaughtered. A refnnant of this herd exists to the pi-esent day in the same forest. The urus, or primitive ox, seems to have been limited in his range to the European conti- Primitive ox of -nt Europe; Cesar's nent. No traces of description. , . . ^ , his existence have been found in America and none in Asia, but remains of the animal are plentifully dis- tributed in England, Scotland, Denmark, France, Germany, and Sweden, Bones of this species have been discovered in North- ern Africa. In the, museum of Lund a skeleton is preserved, in one of the vertebras of which a wound, made, as is believed by Professor Nilsson, by a flint weapon, is plainly traceable. CsEsar, in the sixth book of the Gallic War, gives a full account of the urus as follows : " Of these animals, there is a third species which are called uri. They are in size only a little inferior to the elephants ; in color and ap- pearance and form they are bulls. Great is their strength and great their velocity. Nor do they stand in dread of either man or beast. The inhabit- ants take and slay them by skillful contrivance and pitfalls." The tradi- tion of the urus is also preserved in the Niebelungen. The species has been like the aurochs, especially -persistent, and has only given way before the in- vincible pressure of civilization. It is said that wandering groups of uri were known in Germany as late as the six- teenth century, and there is little doubt that the wild bulls which ran at large in the neighborhood of London as late as the twelfth century were identical, at least in descent, with the uri of the Con- tinent. Nor would it be possible to say to what extent the blood of the extinct animal courses in the various breeds of cattle at the present time. Thus we see that while some of the THK IRISH ELK (.MEtJACEROS HIBERNICUS). prehistoric animals above enumerated are indubitably extinct, others have in some sense transmitted someprehis- themselves into the historic ''^11,1'^ZfLr.. survive m living era. The mammoth and species, the hairy rhinoceros long since ceased to exist in the countries which we are now considering. But the cave bear, not unlike the grizzly of the Yuba mountains, has doubtless left reduced varieties of himself to the present time. So also the reindeer, and, as we have 300 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. just seen, the aurochs and the primitive ox. This is to say that if we look at the current of prehistoric animal life in Western Europe, and consider it as a river flowing over a plain and dividing into multifarious streams as it flows, we shall see some of these streams sinking anon into the sand and disappearing forever, while others maintain for a while a straggling and reduced volume until they in turn disappear. A few currents flow still further and are found precariously wandering on the surface even to the present day. The main point to be borne constantly in mind in this connection is that far back in the midst of these branching currents of animal life primeval man held his career as contemporary even with the oldest divisions of the stream. From the earliest appearance of man on the earth, he seems to have had a Disposition of disposition to Subordinate r^^^w^'^nTr,? *'■ and use the various animals cate w^ila ani- °"^is. with which he has been associated. According to the sacred writers, he was to have " dominion over the beasts of the field and every creep- ing thing." Certainly he has shown a disposition to subdue and possess a ■great number of the wild creatures of his habitat. His success, however, has been but partial. Some of the animals have spurned his control and escaped from him. The struggle for mastery has gone on until an epoch in civilization has been reached in which man has given his energies to the subordination of the forces of nature rather than the forces of animal life. The disposition to tame the wild crea- tures has been deflected into an( )lhcr form of activity. The present conflict of man with the animals tends to destroy rather tlian to domesticate. From the earli- est ages of history and tradition, however. some of the living creatures with which man has been associated have been tamed and brought under „ ■=^ Early date CI the his control. Even the ar- practice oi do- 1 1 . 1 1 • J- i- 1 mesticatioa. chaeological and inferential sort of history which we have been developing in the preceding pages shows conclusively that in the most primitive condition of human life sev- eral of the animals were domesticated and used by primeval man at his will. It is interesting in this connection to note what these domesticated animals were under the dominion of the cave dwellers of Western Europe. First of all, the men of the caverns had tamed the dog and associated him closely with their abodes.' It appears that wild dogs, to say nothing of wol- verenes, abounded in some . The dog the first localities, but as a rule the of the domesti- . 1-1 cated animals. canine bones which are found associated with those of men are of domesticated animals, and their abodes seem to indicate that the cave nian was accompanied by large packs of ' U will interest the reader and strengthen his confidence as well to know luno it is that the nat- uralist is able to distinguish the bones of a wild animal from those of one domesticated. To the man of science the case is perfectly clear. The characteristics of the wild and the tame skeletons are so well marked as to leave no doubt whatever relative to their respective antecedents. The bone of the animal under domestication becomes smooth, and the channels on the surface through which the veins and arteries and nerves are distributed become so shallow as to be no longer traceable. The proc- esses and spines which nature has provided for muscular attachments are at the same time reduced in height and size, and tlie whole appearance of the bone surface becomes as distinctly unlike that of the corresponding species of the wild animal as the liv- ing aspect of the domesticated variety Is unlike the ferocity 'm\A vigor of his untamed kinsman. The accompanying cut of the vertebra; of a cow and of the corresponding part from the back of a buffalo will suificienlly illustrate the marked difference in the bone structure ol wild and ilomesticated ani- mals. ]'RIM£]'AL MAX.— CAVE DWILLLILRS OF EUROPE. 301 dogs. He used them not only in liis contests with wild animals but also for food. The canine bones which are found in the caverns show conclusively that they were broken and sawed open for the marrow in the same manner with the bones of other species. The goat also was almost universally domesti- cated, but, contrary to what might have been exjiected, the sheep in many parts was still abroad with the wild animals. It is doubtful whether any inclosures, properly so called, were used by the cave dwellers, and it appears that sheep, by their native instincts, Disposition of certain animals are IcSS dlSpOSCd than to domesticate. , . , . i ,1 goats to accept the control and protection of man — more disposed to straggle off and revert to the original type. The same remark may be applied to the cat in contradistinction to the dog. The former, though regarded as a special pet of the human family, seems, after all, to fonn only a strong local attachment for a given place, but very little attachment to human beings. The dog, on the contrary, attaches himself to his master, and not to any partic- ular place. He follows his master to the end of the earth, and cares but little for his own kennel as compared with his master's com- pany. It seems that the goat has much of this same instinct; and for this reason, doubtless, the prehistoric barbarians of Western Europe held the goat almost always in domestication. Though sheep were domesticated and used for both their flesh and their fleeces, they were nevertheless wild animals rather than tame. The same classification must be ap- plied to the primitive cattle. It appears that in some places kine were at least partly domesticated, but, as a rule, they ran wild. This may be said also of the swine of the prehistoric Many beasts age. It is in evidence that droves of domestic pigs were owned and driven from place to place by the barbarians; but for the most part the hog had his native lair in partly tamed by prehistoric races. PART OF THE VERTEBRA OF A COW. CORRESPONDING PART OF VERTEBRA OF THE BISON. the forest, and was ver}' little subject to domestication. These wild swine were frequently pursued and captured and used for food by the cave men, as is at- tested by the "broken and sawed bones which are left in the caverns and gravel beds. As for the horse, he also ran wild, and it does not appear that in any part of Western Europe, at least in the 302 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. old stone age, this noble animal had been reduced to domestication. But his flesh -was eaten in common with that of many other animals. As a general fact the cave dwellers were exceedingly carnivorous in their Eating habits of habits. This is the ouechar- wesfernEuf °^ acteristic of their method rope. of life which discriminates them so strongly from the Aryan house- folk described in the preceding chapter. already, remarked, the marrow of the bones was sought with avidity, and scarcely a single fragment was left un- explored for this delicacy. In the rude life of the cavern the bones were simply broken or crushed by some of the heav- ier stone implements employed by the cave dwellers. But the more approved method was to cut the bone longitudi- nally with a stone saw. Specimens of this work ai^e plentifully preserved in HUNT Ol'' Till'; WILD 1;UAR.-I)r.uv,i by I'.jnilc Kayard. It is doubtful whether by the ruder type of the cave men the soil was culti- vated at all. They availed themselves of many vegetable growths, ate masts and roots and wild fruits of the woods, and even devoured the barks of trees ; bnl it does not appear tliat the rational cultivation of the .soil was practiced or even known by these rude barbarians. They lived for the most part on the flesh of animals, and this was generally torn from the skeleton and eaten raw. As nearly all the principal museums of the world. The bones of the ox, the sheep, the goat, the reindeer, the fox, the wolf, and ' especially of the dog, are found treated in this manner in the debris of the caverns. Nor is there any mis- taking the ]nirpo.se and intent of the bar- barians in this work. We have now, in onr consideration of this archaic type of man in Western Europe, arrived at the point where the implements ;tnd utensils of his household PRIMEl'AL MAN.— CAVE DWELLERS OP EUROPE. 303 "Sm may be appropriately considered. The one thing to be remembered and repeated „ with emphasis in this con- Plaoe of the cave . '■ men zoologically nectioii is that the cave and geologically. , ,, , . , , . dwellers flourished m tlie old stone age. Only in few instances and in peculiar localities does this primeval form of human life seem to have ex- tended upward from the palaeolithic into the new stone epoch, and still less frequently into the age of bronze. It must be constantly borne in mind that, on the zoological side of this inquiry, the primitive man of the western parts of Europe was allied with the extinct species of animals described in the preceding pages ; that in his geological relations he held his career in what is called the post- pJiocene, or quaternary period, and that in his archaeological relations he was associated with the old stone era. We come, then, to consider some of the details of his implements and household apparatus. The utensils and weapons of the 'cave men were made from flint and analogous varieties of stone. They were broken and chipped into form after the rude manner described on a former page. Extent and vari- Those who have given lit- \^Zlr:Zl^:ik tie attentlon.to the subject museums. and have seldom visited our museums of archaeology can but be astonished at the great abundance of old stone implements which have been recovered from the age which we are here considering. In the museum of Copenhagen, for instance, there were, .1--, in the year 1864, one thousand and seventy flint axes aad wedges, two hun- dred and eighty-live broad chisels, two hundred and seventy hollow chisels, three hundred and .sixty-five narrow chisels, thirty-three hollow narrow chis- els, two hundred and fifty poniards, six hundred and fifty-six lanceheads, one hundred and seventy-one arrowheads. !-.^rx o> T:SA V) r— Av-r' Ux-:^ •■>.. M 'ft^ hS' s. v- ■^yiK t i y PAL/EOLIimC UAGGERS. two hundi"ed and five half-moon shaped implements, seven hundred and forty- six pierced axes and ax hammers, three hundred flint flakes, four hundred and eighty-nine sundries, three thou- sand six hundred and seventj'^-eight rough stone implements from the shell mounds of Denmark, one hundred and seventy-one bone implements, one hun- dred and nine other bone articles from 304 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the shell mounds, making in a single museum a total of eight thousand seven hundred and ninety-eight specimens illustrative of the age of stone. The Danish museums contain an aggregate of about thirty thousand stone implements, and these are but a fragment of the great collections of other countries. The museum of the Royal Irish Academy contains seven hundred flint flakes, five hundred and twelve so-called "celts," or axes, more than four hundred arrowheads, fifty spearheads, seventy-five scrapers and hALAOLliHlC AXliS FROM TUK bllKM. MuUNDS. many sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, grain-crushers, etc. The great museum of Stockholm contains upward of fifteen thousand specimens illustrative of the weaponry and utensils of the age of stone. Indeed, in all parts of the civil- ized world, in public and in private collections, vast numbers of a still vaster aggregate remaining in the earth of these stone-made relics of the prehistoric times have been gathered, and it is not io be doubted that other museums still more capacious could easily be filled with like materials. Perhaps the most important single implement used by the primitive in- habitants of Europe was the stone ax. This tool, even from the stone axes, and palaeolithic era, had a cer- ^^.T^^^ tain rude approximation in tiiem. shape and character to the modern as of steel. But the stone implement was generally fastened to the helve by a much more primitive method than that employed in the case of metallic axes. The stone ax, after having been chipped into proper form from a block of flint, was generally inserted in the limb of a tree, broken or cut off to the proper length. The blade was fastened in the opening by the binding around of strips of rawhide or the tendons of some strong animal. There was great variety in the size and shape of the implement and equally multifarious uses. The barbarian seems to have employed his ax for everything. When we consider the rudeness of the tool and the manner of its mounting, it seems almost incredible that it could have been so effective in the hands of those who used it. It is well known that these prehistoric people cut down large trees, sharpened heavy piles, and accomplished other astonishing feats with their rude stone axQS. Doubtless the time required to do such work was considerable, and it is known that in many cases fire was employed to assist the process. The barbarian used his ax, as already in- dicated, to split or burst the bones of the animals whose fi'csli he devoured and whose marrow was regarded as a morsel. The cave dwellers and their contem- poraries also manufactured FUnt knives, and :ised a great variety o?th*e^rp"o'."'*' of knives. The patterns ductioa. of these were almost as variable as in the case of modern cutlery. Sometimes PRIMEVAL ]\rAN.—CAVIl DWELLERS OF EUROPE. 305 FLINT ARROWrOINTS FROM THE BONE CAVERNS. the knife was double, having a blade fixed in either end of the handle. Gen- erally it was single bladed, and in a great many cases had no handle at all. The blade was produced from a flake of flint or obsidian, and was chipped into form after the manner already described. It must ever be a matter of astonish- ment that the sav- age man of the prehistoric ages was able to produce such fine effects by the mere breakage and chipping of s ti c h material as flint. Next among his implements may be mentioned the chisels which he used and which are also of vari- ous patterns — some narrow, some broad, some hollowed along the center of the shaft, and others convex. It was a gen- eral peculiarity of these stone implements that the cutting edge was curvilin- ear, either gibbous or semilunar in shape. This is true of the edges of the axes and chisels and adzes and knives, and indeed nearly all lithic implements and weapons. Perhaps no complete enumeration can be made of the tools and utensils in use among the prehistoric Great variety of , prehistoric tools peoplcs whosc manner of an weapons. ijfe is here delineated. The variety was wellnigh as great as that in the shop of a modern artisan. There were sledges and hammers and saws, wedges and celts, spearheads, arrow- heads, javelinpoints, daggers, poniards, many varieties of cutting instruments after the general pattern of the knife, scrapers, picks, many kinds of hatchets, sling-stones, weight-stones for nets and fishing lines, harpoons, awls, lapstones, and an infinity of the so-called flakes. Nearly all the varieties here enumerated can be seen in any ordinary museum of antiquities, and the beholder, by their inspection, can but feel himself drawn near to the prehistoric race of men by whose hands these implements were wielded. It is not intended in the present work to enter into the details of archaeology. It is not even the purpose Manner of Ufe to give any elaborate ac- ::;';Shetan count of the slow transfer- caverns, mation by which the tribes of the old stone age passed by evolution into the new stone age and thence into the age of bronze. It is sufficient to note that the general manner of life of the cave men and their contemporaries was that of hunters and fishermen, men of FINE PAL.EOLITHIC ARROWPOINTS. the woods and stream. Doubtless it would be improper to speak of the ' ' social sys- tem " of a people that had no society at all. The cave dwelling would seem to indicate an exceedingly solitary life. It appears that in the case of the larger caverns quite a band of the barbarians 306 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. lived together. The abundance of bones and relics is much greater than we should expect in the case of a single family or l-khMtMluKIC MAN OK TUK MiuLlTl Drawn by Etiiilc Ilayard. even five families in the same abode. "Kor .should wc forget that what we may call the waste of implements would be much less among a people where a single tool was of so great importance than in a modern household where an implement 1 can be immediately replaced. The care whicll these people be- stowed upon their utensils is well illustrated in the distance to which they were carried in the case of migration. Nothing is more common than to find flint imple- ments and weap- ons at a distance of hundreds of miles from the quarry whence the material Avas taken. The man o f antiquity sought assiduously for the best quarries and ledges from which to take the ma- terials of his man- ufacture, and the old pits which the prehistoric folk dug in the chalk beds, in order to get at the layers of flint under- neath, arc plen- tifully distributed in parts of Eng- land and France. There appear, lie AGi;. moreover, to have been seats of man- ufacture, .sometimes in connection with tlie quarries and sometimes in other places. This fact would indicate a rude soi't of commerce in implements. But PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAND. 807 over and above this circumstance the fact remains that the barbarians them- selves clunjj to their tools Care taken of utensils; places and weapons with great of manufacture. . .. . . ,, tenacity, carried them to great distances, and only parted with them by the necessities of accident or death. We are thus enabled to form a true concept of the prehistoric man of West- ern Europe. In stature, he is believed to have been considerably larger than the average man of to-day. His bones have greater length and strength, and his proportions indicate a rather gigan- tic form. Doubtless he was brutal in appearance, with hair growing low upon his forehead and an animal leer on his features. Whether the day- stature and per- dawn of the higher senti- f °"^' ' ^ Jlt'^'f 1 o istics 01 the cave ments, the nobler aspira- ""^n- tions, had as yet arisen in his spirit we can not know. But that he had in him the potency and germ of human great- ness, the possibility of light and free- dom and knowledge, can not be doubted or denied. He was the gross substratum of that human life which even in the present day is but half-refined from bar- barism and half-redeemed from the heavy weight of biiite passion and ani- mal ity. CHAPTER XVII.— LaKTS DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. HE delineation of prim- itive life given in the preceding chapter rep- resents but one of several types of hu- man existence in the prehistoric ages. The men of the caverns were a single branch of the barbarians who inhabited West- em Europe in the old stone age. It is not intended in the present work to de- scribe all the aspects of half-savage life which present themselves to the anti- quarian and ethnologist, but to discuss only a suiBcient number of the primeval tribes and their methods of development to enable the reader to form an adequate idea of the whole. In the current chap- ter we shall turn to two or three other forms of aboriginal European life, and present them in the light of what is known or reasonably inferred concern- ing their career. First of all, attention will be called to the lake dwellers of Switzerland and other similar situations. It must be known that the bodies of fresh water on the European conti- nent have considerably di- General contrao- minished in area and vol- IZtr^t'lT lime since the age of the Europe, mammoth and the reindeer. The cir- cumference of all the lakes has con- tracted, and the surface has sunk to a lower level. The extent of this dimi- niition has been much greater in some localities than in others. The fall of a few feet in the level of a lake will some- times, owing to the flatness of the shore, expose a considerable area of land that was hitherto submerged, whereas if the shores be precipitous, a fall even of many feet will make no per- ceptible difference in the position of the water line. Both of these conditions have occurred in different localities. In character of the some places around the ^^^T^^" margin of lakes acres and lakes, even square miles of territoiy are now dr}' land that were formerly under water. SOS GREAT RACES OF MAXIUXD. More frequently this recently exposed strip exists in the form of marshland or bog, but half reclaimed from its ancient submergence. Wherever the lake is situated in a flat, open region, this con- dition of a fenland border exists to a greater or less extent. Lagoons and marshes, sometimes grown up with trees and sometimes covered with the reeds and grasses peculiar to the region of the bog, will be noted in close proximity to the lake itself, and the observer will readily note that the addition of a few feet to the water level would restore the lake to its primitive borders covering the low- lands. In other places, particularly in the mountainous regions, the water line of the lakes has had less fluctuation. Here the waters are contained as in a cup of stone, and the rising and sinking of the lake surface has widened and contracted the border line but little. In almost every situation, however, some fluctua- tion has occurred, and even a single un- usual season, whether it be of rain or aridity, will be clearly perceived in the narrower or wider limit of the lake. This is to say that around all of the fresh-water bodies is a debatable shore, of greater or less extent, which has been in turn submerged and uncovered ac- cording to the humidity or the dryness of the epoch. More particularly has the gradual recession of all superficial waters into the inner parts of the earth told upon the lakes, especially those of small extent, in reducing their area and depth. The primitive liuropean tribes, at least that portion of them which we are now to consider, were by instinct and prcfer- Certainprimi- cncc led to establish them- ruIieTh^rer ^^'^vcs in proximity with for residence. great collections of water. The advantages of such situations arc obvious. If the water be fresh it fur- nishes to man one of the prime essentials of his existence and many conveniences. It gives him, moreover, from the depths a multitude of fishes, easy of capture and good for food. If the water be salt, though its direct use by man is impracti- cable, it nevertheless yields him a great store of shellfish and many valuables besides. We are here to note what was done on the margin of the lakes. The winter of 1853-54 "^'^^s one of ex- cessive rigor in Europe, but of small precipitation of rain or snow. This was followed the next summer by a season of uni:sual drought. Since Great subsi- the year 1674 no parallel ^^rsiake'^iu had been furnished to the 1853-54. draft which was thus made upon the volume of the lakes and the paucity of the return which nature made thereto. As a result, the level of the mountain lakes in Switzerland fell off many feet, and quite an area of the bottom was ex- posed as terra firma. It was here that the discoveries were made by the anti- quary. Dr. Keller, and other explorers which led to the reconstruction of that type of prehistoric communities called the Lake Dwellings and Villages. In different ages and in different quar- ters of the world men have frequently adopted the plan of con- siuiation ot the structingtheirabodesabove |fj-™X= the surface of the water rodotus. near the shore. The plan is to build a platfoi-m, supported by different meth- ods, and on these to rear the huts in which the people lived. Between the platform and the shore communication is easily effected by some narrow struc- ture which is defensible. In the fifth chapter of the book called Tcrpsich^ ore, in Herodotus, we have the fol- lowing paragraph descriptive of such dwelling places. The author is describ- ing the manners and customs cf the PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 809 ancient Pjeonians : ' ' Their dwellings are contrived after this manner: planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in the middle of the lake, with a narrow en- trance from the main land by a single bridge. These piles that support the planks all the citizens anciently placed there at the public charge ; but after- ward they established a law to the fol- lowing eiTect : whenever a man marries, for each wife he sinks three piles, bring- ing wood from a mountain called Orbe- lus: but every man has several wives. They live in the following manner: every man has a hut on the planks, "in which he dwells, with a trapdoor closely fitted in the planks and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a cord round the foot, fearing lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To their horses and beasts of burden the}- give fish for fodder ; of which there is such an abundance that when a man has opened his trapdoor he lets down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a short time, draws it up full of fish." But we have no occasion to seek for evidence in the ancient w'orld of the ex- istence of such structures as are here ascribed to the Pseonians. Dwellings over the water are constructed and in- habited by existing tribes of men. The fishermen on lake Prasias, in European Turkey, build their cottages over the water, and the town of Tcherkask is constructed above the current of the Don. In analog}- with such structures we might cite the buildings of the peo- ple of India, which, though not over the water, are set on piles several feet above the earth. The same kind of abodes are found in South America and in the East Indian islands. The city of Borneo is so founded and built. The Dvaks Lake d-wellings of various coun- tries in the pres ent age. have their houses on an elevated plat- form twenty or thirty feet high, in a long row above the edge of the river, and the floors are so constructed that all refuse and waste materials fall through into the water. Switzerland is a locality specially fitted in its geographical structure for the du- plication of the dwellings Switzerland fa- described above by the ^suirs^tti:!^ Father of History. The ments. lakes in this mountainous region have fluctuated in the manner already de- scribed, and it was on the borders of the lake of Zurich that the first impor- tant discoveries were made. But at a later date explorations around the marshes of lakes Constance, Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, and others have led to like results. A very ample dem- onstration has thus been obtained of the manner of life of the primitive lake people. The sites of more than tivo liundred settletnetits constructed as above over the water have been deter- mined and described. No fewer than twenty prehistoric villages have been found on the shores of lake Bienne; twenty-four along the margin of lake Geneva; thirty-two on lake Constance; and forty-nine on lake Neufchatel. It was between Ober-^Ieilen and Dollikon, on the banks of lake Zurich, that the inhabitants, taking Discoveries on advantage of the low water i?^^ z>i"ch; o the crannoges ol follow-ing the dr}- sea- Ireland, son of 1854, extended their gardens down to the margin along the new water line. They built a wall and then filled the space to landward b}- dredginjf up mud out of the bottom of the lake on the water side. "While doing so they were surprised to draw up vast numbers of piles, or at least the lower ends of the same, which had in some prehistoric PRIM EVA L MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OF SWITZERLAXD. yii epoch been driven down tlirongh the i which houses and defenses were erected. water. Alon^; witli these sliarpencd I The name given to this floating residence points of trees l^m^^^^^^J- .'',^;^^^^fTr*i|^gy||^^ ■ :rr^-rfrr-Ah.-f"T}-}k- '^ ji'lljl came up a large variety of deer horn and stone im plcments of primitive work- manship. The fact that some aboriginal people had inhabited this shore was thus made clear, and scientific explora- tions, imder the direction of Dr. Keller and other antiquaries, soon extended and verified the dis- coveries. Before proceed- ing to deseribe the utensils and weapons revealed in the lake bot- toms of Switzer- land, it is proper to note the anal- ogous results attained in Ire- land. The man- ner of over-water building is here somewhat differ- ent from that practiced by the prehistoric moun- taineers. Among the primitive peo- ple inhabiting the Irish lake coun- try the plan was to construct a plat- form on the water, and o\\ this platform to create a sort of artificial island upon was CraiDiogc, and the remnants of such structures are easily discoverable to the present time 312 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. The craunoges were the strongholds of the primitive Irish chiefs, to which' Likeness to they betook themselves in Highland refa- ^^ Highlanders gees ; the cran- ' ^ noge findings. of a later day to their castles. These prehistoric seats are very rich in implements and weapons and other works of the clans by which they were inhabited. But it is in evidence from the discoveries made in the cran- noges that they are of a much later date than the cave dwellings of the Continent or even the lake dwellings of wSwitzer- land. There are instances in which the contents of the Irish crannoge, as for in- stance that of Dunshaughlin, have been digged up b}' the wagon load and dis- tributed on the shore to enrich the soil. In the support of the platform above the water on which the habitations of the Swiss lake people were built, two Methods of sup. methods were employed. t^^^l^. The first was to cut down platforms. trees, lop the branches from the trunks, sharpen one end of the same, and drive them, with many others of like sort, into the water after the manner of a modern pile work. On the upper end of these, above the surface of the lake, the platform was laid and extended according to the demands of the village. The other method was to heap up from the bottom of the lake a sort of rude stone walls, running here and there, rising to the surface, and furnishing support for the platform. But this method was only cmi^loyed in the more sequestered waters, for the exposure to storms rendered this variety of building precarious. There is little doubt that the bottom Fear of wild motive ill Selecting such a ^rodtwh-oice «ite and in building a vil- of Buch sites. ijijre or cvcu a single house ab(jve tlic water and at a distance from the bank was the pro.spect of gaining a vantage against ravenous beasts. In the primeval world this was always a serious question. For long ages the beast had the advantage of the man in the struggle for existence. Heroes whose fame is coextensive with the traditions of man- kind became such by their successful warfare with wild beasts. Such was Nimrod and such was Hercules. After the hero, the next best thing was an artifice. Building over the water was an artifice. A single flattened trunk reaching from the platform to the shore or at most a narrow causeway, was easily defended, and bears and Avolves would hardly swim to the attack of men. It appears that the lake villages were numerous and extensive. An estimate has been made by the antiquary, Troyon, as to the extent and popula- ^ Number and ex- tions of these settlements, tent of the Swiss The largest village on lake ^ ® '" ^^®^" Gene^•a appears to have been twelve hundred feet in length and a hundred and fifty feet in breadth. Giving to each hut a diameter of fifteen feet and allow- ing one half the space to be covered, the village would contain three hundred and eleven houses, and with an estimate of four persons to the cabin, we should have a population in this settlement of twelve hundred and forty-four. The same calculations give for the village on lake Neufchatel a population of nearly five thousand. Carrying out the same estimates, M. Troyon thinks that the lake population in this region was more than thirty thousand at the time Avhcn the villages flourished in the age of stone. By the backward look we may still, in the mind's eye, observe the process of constructing these lake habitations. The first thing would be, of course, the selec- tion of a suitable site on the water's edge. The shore must be accessible PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLliKS OP SWITZE.RLANl). 313 from the lake and the lake from the shore. A forest must stand near by, Materials em- fi"om which the trees are ^ir'uV::";/ ^cHed. with almost infinite the builders. labor, by the strokes of stone axes and the assistance of fire. It appears that these primeval men would attack the tree at the base and cut it It should be remarked in this con- nection that the stroke of a stone ax in wood is easily distinguishable from that of the metallic blade. Distinction in The modern steel ax ^^/-^a^nT struck atjainst the side of metallic axes. a tree, even at an anyle, makes a That is, the bottom of the cut is rectilin- ear. In the case of tlie stone ax, the wound is always curvilinear in the bottom. The effect of tlie blow is rather in the nature of a straigfht wound. AXES OF PREHISTORIC MAX, SHOWING STAGES OF IMPROVEMENT FROM STONE TO BROXZ.:. t, Swiss sione ax with handle ; 2. e. iiper celt, from Wati^rford : 3, winged celt, from Ireland ; 4, sncketed celt, frtun Ireland ; 5, 6, 7, celts with handles of different patterns ; 8, bronze ax, from Naples ; 9, bronze ax, from Le Puy. around as much as possible, and then burn the wounded part down to the solid body. Scraping away the charred poi'- tions, they would then cut again, i:ntil finally the tree came down. Similar methods were employed in sharpening the trunk. Here also the axes were employed and fire by turns tmtil a rude point was obtained suitable for driving in the mud. M. — \'ol. I — 21 bruise, the wood where the ax falls being scooped out in a furrow, deeper in the bottom than at the edges of the cut.' In nearly all cases the piles supporting the platforms of the Swiss ' It is claimed that no measure of sharpness which may be imparted to a stone blade will secure a rec- tilinear cut — like that so easily produced with metal- lic axes^in the wood struck with such blade at an angle ; but the reason for such difference is not clear. S14 GREAT RACES OF MANKIXD. lake dwellings bear the marks of stone and not metallic axes, and in nearly all cases the process of sharpening the trunks has been assisted by the applica- tion of fire. How it was that the primitive tribes adopting this kind of structure sue- Question of set- ceeded in raising their ^^me^^' Pi^®^ °^ ^^^ ^"^ driving houses. them into the lake has not been ascertained. But the unmistakable evidence furnished by the stumps of the piles themselves shows that they were raised in some way arid driven down. The work appears not to have been truly done, as many of the piles stand in the mud at an angle and others appear to have been bent soinewhat from their original position by the weight of the superstructure. As to the platform, it was made of split timbers, rudely framed together on the top of the piles, and no doubt tole'"^bly firm for the reception of houses. The latter appear to have been circular in form, made somewhat after the manner of Celtic huts.' They Avere chinked between the cracks with small branches of trees and moss, and were pointed within with mud. As compared with the cave dwellings described in the preceding chapter, it can not be doubted that the lake houses were a great ad- vance, superior in comfort and safety, and not wanting in a certain picturesque- ness of situation and aspect. We come now to consider the evidences of ancient life which have been discovered General charac- in the lake bottoms and S^'r^ecUo'"^\h P'-'-'it beds over which the lakevuiages. villages Were erected. In general, these settlements belong to the old stone age. This is clearly shown by the preponderance of rough stone im- plements which are found under them. ' Si.(; the colored Plate at Uie beginning of tlie present Ijook. It appears, however, that the lake dwell- ers continued to hold to their jDOsition until progress was made into the new stone age, and even into the age of bronze. In several places it has been demonstrated by the plentiful discovery of utensils and weapons of bronze that the lake A-illagers had advanced to the manufacture and use of this metal. In any event, all of these stages of develop- ment were anterior to the epoch of the Romans, and therefore to the daydawn of history. If we glance at the old stone imple- ments found in the margin of the Swiss lakes and in the peat bogs variety of the where the over-water vil- Sr^aJ^f/^^^ lages were built, we find ployed, them to be of the same general pattern as those already described in connection with the cave dwellings. It has been noted that the Swiss prehistoric imple- ments, as a general rule, are smaller than those used by the cave men. This is true of the arrowheads, the spearpoints, and the axes. The material employed in the manufacture of these tools and weapons Avas, for the most part, flint, but in some cases rock crystal. It has been noted that spindle-whirls of earth- enware coexist in the same layer with the rough stone implements. Other ev- idences of spinning and weaving have been discovered in the same situation, and to this should be added the presence of stone mortars and balls for crushing corn. Sir John Lubbock has recapitu- lated the articles found inider a lake village in the peat measure of Wauwyl as follows: Stone axes, forty-three; flint arrowheads, thirty-si.x ; flakes, two hun- dred ; corn crushers, sixteen ; hammers, twenty; whetstones, twenty -si.x. ; sling- sloncs. eighly-fi\-e; making a total of four hundred and twenty-six articles of .stone recovered from a single bed. PlUMIilAL MAN.— LAKH DlVJifJJ-RS OF SWITZERLAND. 315 In examining these relics we are again impressed with the fact that rude commercial relations, at least the begin- nings of traffic, existed in the age of Signs in the find- which we speak. Many Seanrc-o:n- «f ^hc implements found ™erce. around the Swiss lakes were brought, at least as to their mate- rial, from distant localities. Many of the flint implements are known to have been taken from the quarries of France! Some are found that were imported from the shores of the Mediter- ranean. It is impossi- ble to tell, however, whether these weapons and utensils were carried by trade or by the mi- gration of tribes to the mountain lakes of Swit- zerland. By examination of the stone hatchet with animal remains found '°^^^^ ^^° HANDLE. under the lake dwell- ings, the inquirer discovers again the re- lations which the primitive people here held to the lower orders of life. As a rule, the prehistoric men ate nearly all kinds of animals with which they were asso- ciated. The skins of beasts were the principal articles of clothing, and the flesh was invariably stripped away for food. We note in the case of the lake dwellers the same appetite for marrow which we have already noted in the men of the caverns. They picked out of the hol- low bones every particle of the con- tents, and evidently regarded the mar- row as the principal delicacy. The harder and better bones were made into CHIPFED FLINT AK ROWHEAD. FLINT HATCHET FITTED WITH stag's HOKN HANDLE. implements, but the horns of the deer were the principal resource in this line. From these were made the handles of a great number of other implements, and also picks and awls and scrapei---. In .some cases the attempt was made to produce a cutting edge from bone. But from the na- ture of the sub- stance this could not succeed. Chis- els w'ere also at- tempted, but the material lacked strength and solid- ity, and the tool so formed could only be applied to the softer substances. The bone scraper was much used Use of bone in in the dressing of hides, in ^^L'^S'"'' which it appears that all of weapons, the primitive Europeans had consider- able skill. If the lake dwellers attempt- ed the manu- facture of wood, it does not appear in the relics which they left behind. Doubtless, however, the eas\- deca}' of wood fiber would in part account for the absence of utensils made therefrom. But it appears, on the whole, that the lake men preferred the use of flint and bone and horn. It has been noted that tinder was employed by the lake villagers in the production of fire. The appearance of broken fragments of pottery in the lake margins and peat beds shows conclusively that the people of the age which we are here consid- riCKAX OF stag's horn. -316 GREAT RACES OF J/AXA'LVD. ering- understood at least the rudiments of that kind of manufacture. Very few Pottery of the vessels have been discov- lakedweuers: ^ whole, but manv in rndftnfiss of the ^ ^ » ^ pieces. rudeness of the lelics. These all indicate the rudest kind of work. The vessels were evidently misshapen and unsymmetrical in design. It is thought that the pot- ter's wheel was unknown. Nor has any evidence of furnace heat been discov- ered in the imperfect burning' to which the fragments seem to have been sub- jected. Perhaps an open fire produced the highest heat with which these peo- IXIIM r MAM lA' ImKV of roMKuy, IN TllK CI.ACIIR C.AKDliN, AT I.UCIOKNE. pie were acquainted. The forms of a few vases have been determined which, viewed from an artistic point, are clumsy in the last degree. It is noticeable that the earthenware of these villagers is without feet or other .support than the unfinished bottom of the vessel. It ap- pears that the utensils were set upon the floor or on the soft earth where there was little danger of breakage. Of human remains, strictly so called, Scnrciiyorhn- Only a fcw havc been dis- rh":;:™ma?.'" covered under the lake vil- B'"»- lages. Nor might it be reasonably expected that many would be found. It will be seen at a glance that the situation has been much less favor- able for the preservation of human skel- etons, in whole or in part, than the mud beds under the stalagmite in the cave dwellings. The free action of water, the access of fishes to any bodies that may have dropped into the lake, the movement which would take place under the wave, and the change of tempera- ture, very great as it is in the situation, would account for the destruction and decay of any bodies that might have gone to the bottom through the village platforms. It is likely, moreover, that the lake dwell- ers had regular methods of sep- ulture. As has been already seen, they were con siderably more advanced i n the hiiman evolution than the cave men, and care for the bodies of the dead is one of the s}'mptoms which marks the progressive people from the barbarians. Some remains of men, however, have been fninul in the mud of the lake mar- gin in such relation with Bodily forms of 1 • . • 1 • < ^ : 1 ,, ln.ke dwellers prehistoric relics as to iden- determined from tify them witli the age skeletons. of stone. Perhaps a lialf dozen skele- tons, including the skulls, have been re- covered, and from these a fair idea of the stature, form, and characteristics of the lake people have been determined. On the whole, they were not as tall as the Europeans of to-day, but tlie skel- eton does not indicate that strong ani- mal affiliation which we have noted in the men of the cavern. The proportions PRIMIWAI. }r.\X.—I.AKF. DWr.I.I.I-.RS OF S\VITZI-.RLAXI\ 317 of the lake dwellers were fairly jjood, and the skull shows a medium caj)acity. Nor is the configuration specially differ- ent from that of the mountaineers of the present time. As to the personal as- pect of these people there is nothing better than conjecture to guide us. We know by their manner of life that their intellectual horizon was exceedingly lim- ited ; that they had the carnivorous hab- it, though not in that intense degree peculiar to the cave dwellers; that the social instinct was in some measure de- veloped, as is shown in their aggrega- tion in village communities, and that the beginnings of agriculture among them were sufficient to show the upward tend- ency toward a higher level of existence. As in the case of the cave men, much light may be thrown on the life and Animals with manners of the people of which lake vil- lagers were as- sociated. the lake villages by noting the animals Avith which they were associated and some produc- tions of the soil which are known to have been economized. A large list of the beasts and birds and fishes peculiar to the era which we are here discussing has been determined by naturalists, and much valuable information therefrom deduced. The prevalent wild animals were the brown bear, the badger, the marten, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, the beaver, the elk, the urus, the aurochs, the European bison, the stag, the deer, the wild boar, the marsh boar, the pole- cat. The domestic animals were the horse, the ox, the goat, the sheep, the dog, and the common swine. In the case of the horse, his domestication was but partial, and the demonstration of the existence of tame swine is not complete. It will be noticed at a glance that the wild animals here enumerated are of a somewhat later epoch than those asso- ciated with the cave dwellei'S. The mammoth, the cave bear, the cave hyena seem to have disappeared. Perhaps the Irish elk and the reindeer at no time held this region as a habitat. Much may be inferred by a little clear thought relative to the condition of the villagers from the consider- Manner of lake ation of their domestic ani- ^r^wn ft'om mals. Such creatures must manifest data. be cared for, especially in winter. They must be fed, not to say housed against the rigors of the season. Provisions and shelter would, therefore, be neces- sary, and people who make such provi- sion and provide such shelter could not be wholly barbarous. Closely allied with this consideration is another drawn from the discovery of various grains that were used by the villagers. Many speci- mens of charred cereals have been found with other relics of this ancient life. Grains of wheat have been recovered from the finds at Meilan, Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the last named place the antiquary had the good fortune to discover several bushels of wheat pressed together in a lump, the grains adhering in a mass. The appearance of the wheat is almost identical with that of modern varieties of the same grain, ilany specimens of what is known as six-rowed barley have been recovered from like situations, and it will interest the reader to be informed that this variety of cereal was still under cultivation in the primi- tive days of Greece and Rome. Alto- gether, three kinds of wheat have been found under the lake dwellings, two va- rieties of barle}', and two of millet. It appears that rye and oats were as yet unknown. Reverting to the animals of the lake regions in prehistoric times we note two species of wild cattle, namely, the urus and the bison. The former seems to have been reduced to partial domestica- 818 GREAT RACES OE JELVAVXD. tion as early as the neolithic period, but no indication of snch a fact has been Deductions from found in the old stone age. the animal life of rpj^g largest of the ani- the lake-dwell- ^ ing age. mals prevalent around the Swiss lakes were these two varieties of wild oxen, the elk and the stag. The rhinoceros had disappeared and the urus had been much reduced from the vserved in the forests of Germany. It is noticeable that the list of domestic ani- mals has been extended and confirmed. The horse has certainly become, in some measure, the servant of man, and sheep have been more positively reclaimed from the wild condition. It is thus evident that the mere barbarous life of hunters and flesh-eaters was giving way SWISS LAKE VILLAGE OF THE AGE OF BRONZE.-Drawn by Kiou. great proportions which he bore in the times of the cave men. Looking back from our own point of view we note that elks have not existed in Switzerland dur- ing the historical period, though they still maintained an existence in the low- land forests as late as the Roman period. Tiie ibex has al.so di.sappcarcd. The smaller of the wild animals enumerated above still prevail in their ancient habi- tat, and even the wild boar has been pre- to a higher and more rational mode of existence among these villagers of the Swiss lakes. It will be of interest to add a few words relative to the birds which came by water or by air to the •^ Species of birds liabitations of the lake men. belonging to the TA, , , . . , - same epoch. 1 he golden eagle circled above them. The bones of at least four varieties of hawk have been discovered. Two kinds of owl were known, and two PRIMEVAL MAN.— LAKE DWELLERS OE SWITZERLAND. 319 varieties of crow. The common starling- was present, and the wood pigeon. There were two kinds of heatli cock, also the white stork, the ashy heron, the dun grouse, the black coot, two varieties of meu, one kind of swan, one species of goose, two kinds of duck, one kind of diver. Of fishes and reptiles, the remains of as many as ten species have been recovered and identified. Mention has been made of the iinding of the cereals tinder the lake dwellings. Significant It appears from the discov- p^^lstoric^gri. erics that the grains were cultural life. roasted for food. Beyond this primitive method of preparing kernels, it is known that the lake dwell- ers used bread. Cakes, hard, flat, cir- cular, unleavened, have been found just as they were prepared for the board at a date more remote than the founding of Rome! Of the methods of cultivation employed in this far time nothing is known. No agricultural implements or apparatus have been recovered, but tools for the preparation of grain, such as mortars and stones for grinding the kernels,, are plentiful. Specimens of dried fruit, such as carbonized apples cut into halves or quarters, have been found at both Wangen and on lake Neuf- chatel. Such fruits appear to have been of wild varieties, resembling the crab apple of modern times. The vine had not yet made its appearance. The Aval- nut, the cherry, and the damson plum were unknown, but seeds of the wild plum have been discovered. .Shells of the hazelnut and , beechnut ai"e fre- quently found in the mud, and some- times the seeds of the raspberry and blackberry. Beans have been discovei^cd, but only in the later relics of the age of bronze, while peas are found farther back, among the remains of the new stone age. From a consideration of all these elements we are able to make out a tolerably fair schedule of the daily subsistence, the means of supply, and the method of preparation peculiar to the prehistoric villagers of the Swiss lakes. Bronze hairpin found ill Swiss lake. Bronze pin from a Scotch shell mound. SPECIMENS OF FINE WORKMANSiriP IN BRONZE. Mention has already been made of the fact that the lake dwellers continued to hold their situation until . . Lake d-welUngs their implements of stone extend into the were succeeded by the ^^° ronze. manufacture and use of bronze. The villages belonging to the age of bronze are not so widely distributed as those of the stone period. The former were built, for the most part, on the lakes of Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, and Sem- pach. In Eastern Switzerland very few S20 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. evidences of the age of bronze liave been discovered. It appears that for some reason a kind of primitive conserva- tism prevailed on lake Constance which led to the continuance of stone nianu- facture long after the introduction of tronze in the western settlements. It is in evidence that other improvements besides the introduction of metal in workmanship appeared in the bronze- making villages. The platforms Avere more substantially constructed and the houses larger and of a more permanent character. It seems, moreover, that the \'illages of the age of bronze were built farther from the shore than those of the age of stone. At least the bronze relics are nearly always taken otit from a greater depth of water and farther out than the stone implements peculiar to the older age. By examining the bronze implements their superiority in design and workman- Evidences of the ship to those of the peri- '^:n::iXl:^" ^^^ preceding are quickly barism. noted. The swords, dag- gers, axes, spearheads, knives, sickles, fishhooks, and articles of personal adorn- ment are all of a pattern which may be called well formed, if not artistic. Brace- lets, brooches, and finger rings are found which, though they may hardly be de- scribed as beautiful, are not devoid of tastefulness in design and elegance in execution. It is noticeable, moreover, that the supply of implements, weapons, and personal decorations is far more abundant in the case of the bronze-bear- ing villages than under those of the stone epoch. ]\Iany museums have been re- plenished from the resources here re- ferred to, and a single collection cited by Sir John Lubbock contains four thousand three hundred and forty-six specimens; and it is an evidence of what may be called the pei^sonal pride of the villagers of the bronze age that of the list of articles here enumerated more than two thousand are hairpins and rings. In the age of bronze the human race en- tered upon its career of strength and variety, but did not yet enter uiDon the career of ambition and vain delusion which it was to pursue in the age of iron. Chapxkr XVIII.— Co^st People ok the North. |E now turn to another aspect of primitive life quite different from those discussed in the preceding chapters. We have reconstructed as far as practicable the conditions of the old Aryan house- folk of India;. of the cave dwellers of Western ICurope, and of the lake dwell- ers who took advantage of tlie water surface as a means of protection and convenience. We now come to consider a mode of prehistoric existence which was developed along the seacoast, espe- cially in the northern and northwestern parts of ]uiroj:)e. Of the forms of primeval life already presented, the most barbarous was that of the cave men ; the most Relative sav- elevated, the house people '^:Z:^:^:i:t of the East; and the most ditions. progressive, tlie lake dwellers of .Switzer- land and other like localities. In enter- ing upon a review of the people of the seashore, we shall again be carried back to an exceedingly rude and aboriginal type of human existence, perhaps not PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OE THE XORTH. 321 quite so gross, but equally primitive with that of tlie cave dwellers. About the time that the really scien- tific investigation of archaeological re- Discovery of the mains began in the second S:cotrof°" q^ia^t'^r «f ^l"s ^-^i^tury, it Denmark. -was noticed that on the coast of Denmark and situations up. Sometimes the in other similar long, low dunes were thrown elevations were were too far from the surge to have been thrown up by the action of the water first drew the attention of archaeol- ogists and naturalists to Mound con- their peculiarities. It was "^Z^T found that those of the Streenstrup. mounds which lay within reach of the tide were made up in part of sand, but the larger portion of the material was shells. In the case of those dunes that KITCHEN MIDDENERS AND THEIR DWELLINGS. nearly circular, sometimes they were ring-shaped, having a crater-like depres- sion in the center. But more frequently they were elongated elevations, from one hundred to three hundred yards in length, perhaps two hundred feet in breadth, and from two to ten feet in height. The situation was along the surf line of the sea, but generally outside of the reach of the tide. The fact that these dunes and mounds were in the higher situations, beyond the reach of the water, they were com- posed almost entirely of shells, and a very casual examination showed that the mollusks inhabiting them had be- longed to another age. Such was the beginning of the discoveries. The Danish naturalists led the way in examining these strange formations; and it was at once observed that the shells were intermixed with the debris 322 GREAT RACES OF JIANA'LVD. of human life. Here, tlien, was a new class of relics of prehistoric existence, and a new field of inquiry opened before the antiquary. Professor Steenstrup was again in the van in the exploration of the shell mounds. He gave them, in the first place, the name which they have ever since borne, of Kitchen middens own lanofuaee Flint core or nucleus. Flint flalep. supposable salutary con- drift findings, servatism that the first discoveries of prehistoric relics in the gravel beds, as well as in other situations, were ignored and denied. Those who were deter- mined to maintain the old views respect- ing the chronology of the earth and its inhabitants put forward all sorts of ridic- ulous hypotheses to account for that which was unaccountable under their own theory. They even published 328 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. treatises ia which it was boldly alleged that the old stone implements which had been found in prehistoric situations were forgeries which had been perpe- trated against authentic science — that those who were trying to disturb the current beliefs of mankind had iitvcnied the alleged discoveries to produce a new hypothesis respecting the antiquity of the human race ! Gradually, however, light dawned and the truth was acknowledged. One nat- uralist after another became convinced that the weapons and uten- Careful examt- ... , . nation of the flu- sils found in the gravel vial deposits. i j • i i ^ • beds were m such relation with geological facts as to compel a be- lief in their remote antiquity. Many of the men most eminent for learning in Europe visited distant localities and con- ducted personal explorations in order to establish the truth or falsitv of the new view of the antiquity of man. The re- sult has been corroborative of that de- duced from other fields of inquiry; and it is now as well known that prehistoric races dwelt in Europe in the time of the mammoth, and Avrought rough imple- ments of flint in the post-pliocene era of geolog)', as it is known that the As.syri- ans flouri.shcd on the Tigris and that Cae.sar led Roman legions across the Rhine. The evidences of the existence of primitive trilDcs along the river valleys of Western Europe have been discovered more abundantly in France Buch findings . •^ extend to the than ill any otlier country ; British Isles. i j. j.i ■ 11 e but the river banks of England have also yielded their testi- mony. Before the beginning of the eighteenth century a Britisli weapon had been found in a gravel bed in con- nection with an elephant's tooth, in a situation described as being •' bpposite to Black Mary's, near Graye's Inn Lane." This Aveapon is described as a large black flint, shaped into the figure of a spearpoint. It is known to have been engraved as early as 17 15, and a print of it has been preserved in Leland's Collectanea. Since the science of antiq- uities has been developed in our own day, this ancient implement has been shown to be of the same pattern, work- manship, and quality with those found in like situations on the Continent. Several of the rivers of France have been specially rich in their yield of pre- historic relics. The princi- River valleys of pal of these are the Somme, ^^:-^^ the Seine, and the Oise. reiics. In the valley of the first of these streams the explorations have been conducted with scientific skill, and the discoveries made have been fortified as to their verity with all the care and penetration which the best scholars of Europe have been able to bring to the question. It will be of interest in this connection, therefore, to look briefly at the geologi- cal character of the Somme valley, and the position in which human relics have been found therein, to the end that the reader may have before him a clear statement of the situation and proof of the results. The discoveries on the Somme have been made for the most part in the neighborhood of Amiens and Abbeville. At these places the vallcv, character of the from hill to hill, is about l^^lT^tt a mile in breadth. The «omme. main geological formation of the country is chalk. Through this, in the glacial period, the A-alley of the river was jilowcd out, and in this Avide, low trough the stream still makes its way to the sea. P>ut in the course of ages many second- ary formations have taken place in con- nection with the river. What is properly called the river bottom is filled up in PRIMEVAL MAN.— COAST PEOPLE OF THE NORTH. 329 this neighborhood witli a broad, deep bed of peat. This is in some places thirty feet in depth and more than a third of a mile in breadth. In this peat bed, which has been slowly forming for many centuries, at a great depth therein, stone implements and other relics of a jore- historic people have been found. The bones of extinct mammalia are here associated with the works of man in such relation as to estab- lish their contem- poraneity. The i^eat forma- tion in the Somme valley, however, is one of the newer ac- cretions peculiar to the situation. If the observer take his stand on the low peat bog near the margin of the stream and look to the hills on either side he shall find, at two or three levels in the chalk formation which rises to the height of two or three hundred feet, beds of gravel crop- ping out of the banks. Through these beds, which were mani- festly formed by the river in the older Time relations ages of the tertiary epoch, plateau spreading off in slight undula- tions. Even the novice in geology is able to perceive that the peat bogs in the bottom of the valley are of recent origin as compared with the old gravel beds lying far above the present level of the river. Yet it is in these gravel beds that the discoveries of some of the most ancient sj)ecimens of human workman- ship in the world have been iriade : and '■^.i... tl^ttchaii.'''''' the stream has gradually formations. worked its Way down, by attrition, to lower and lowef levels, leav- ing the gravel beds far above the present position of the stream. Above the out- croppings of these beds the old chalky walls which constitute the barriers of the valley are seen rising to the general level of the country above, which is a M. -Vol. I 22 PAL/EOLITHIC RIVF.R-DRIFT LANCEHEADS AXD AX OF ARCHAIC PATTERNS. the situation in which they have been found has been scanned with so much care, and the explorations conducted with such scientific accuracy, as to preclude all doubt relative to the verity and signifi- cance of the facts in question. Sir Charles Lyell estimates that more than a thousand implements have been taken from the gravel beds in the neigh- borhood of Amiens. They are all of a common type, and belong to the oldest 330 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. epoch known to archaeology. They have been classified under three heads, the Character of the fii'st of which includes the S4%'ol spearpoints: the second, a »*s. sort of almond-shaped im- plements which appear to have been used as axes for general purposes, such as breaking bones and cracking holes in the ice ; and thirdly, flint flakes and ar- rowheads. All of these are produced by mere fracture, not a single specimen bearing the marks of grinding or polish- ing. The forms are rude, but the work- manship unmistakably human. In many instances the prehistoric artisan has taken advantage of the natural form of the flint, and merel}^ modified it by breaking one part into a cutting form. It has been noted that between the spearheads and the almond-shaped axes several in- termediate grades of implements exist, which would seem to show that the end in view was not clearly defined in the minds of the makers. Yet in the midst of the manifest barbarity of the epoch in which these implements were created there has been found a single evidence of taste in certain small globular bodies, with a tubular cavity in the center, which appear to have been used for ornamen- tation. Notwithstanding the abundant proof that the weapons and tools above de- Reasons for scribed arc the relics of hu- m^remaL^s^; m^n activity in a prehistoric the river-drift, ^gc, Very few human re- mains, properly so called, have been found in the river-drift gravel beds. Only an occasional tmderjaw, or some other of the harder parts of the frame of man have been recovered in these sit- uations. The bones of animals are much more frequent, and are easily defined ; but a moment's reflection will show that tliese facts would be indicated by right reason. As for the animal remains found in the gravel, they are evidently the fragments of mammals that were drowned by ordinary accident or in times of flood. In such emergencies man is more expert and cautious than the lower orders. Even in his lowest estate he has some measure of foresight, and es- capes from a dangerous situation. The gravel pits were not the places of burial. They do not mark the exact sites of hu- man dwellings. They represent mate- rials that were carried to their present place by the action of water. In many cases these materials have been brought from considerable distances. Even an occasional human skeleton given to the river would be tossed and broken and worn, in its course onward, being ground against stones and pebbles into elemen- tary fragments. Moreover, decay does its work. The hardest bone will not survive forever, even under conditions favorable to its preservation. The paucity of human remains in the gravel beds is in close analogy with th^ like fact in the shell mounds sheu mounds of Denmark. They, tZ'^.l^Z too, have yielded in but mains of men. rarest instances any actual fragments of the human frame, and it is easy to see that more might be expected from the kitchen middens, with their abundant detritus of man's habitation and localized association with his life, than in the case of river-drift heaped ujj at long dis- tances from the place where he had his abode. Not only in the gravel pits of the val- ley of the Somme, not onl}^ in like situa« tions along the banks of Extent of the the Seine and the Oise. have ^J^.^^^f^^L^o? these relics of the prehis- England, toric life of man been discovered. Like revelations have been made in the river bottoms and .sandpits of Great Britain, In a gravel bed at Hoxne, in Sufliolk, PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TCMIIJ. 331 specimens of human workmanship lilce those above described -were found as early as tlie beginning of this century. In similar formations between Guildford and Godalming, flint implements of the old stone age have been found and pre- served. It must be borne in mind that the special significance of such discov- eries lies in the fact of the association in the gravel beds of these human remains with the bones of the mammoth and other extinct species belonging to the post-tertiary period of geology. In vari- ous other localities like revelations have been made by explorations of gravel beds, such, for instance, as those at Ickling- ham, at Heme Bay, at Abbot's-LanglcA', and at Green Street Green, in Kent. In a layer of river-drift, near Bedford, bones of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the primitive ox, the horse, and the deer have been found in prehistoric relations with flint imple- ments belonging to the old stone age. In short, the discoveries made in the gravel beds of Great Britain have fully corroborated and verified those made in the valley of the Somme and on other parts of the Continent. We thus see that along: the river val- leys of Europe, at a time before the in- coming of the first Aryan tribes, prime- val races had possession Deductions re- of the country in various 7:.^!^^:^... parts, and had begun those er-drift epoch, rude activities out of which the civilized condition was ultimately to spring. The relics described in these last paragraphs are of the most primitive pattern and workmanship. They indicate, indeed, the very first emergence of men from the state of absolute nature and barbarity. The tool-making and tool-using instinct marks, perhaps, the very earliest stages of human development. Whatever may have been the origin of man in these western parts of Europe, Ave see him, in these far prehistoric times, either an ab- solute savage or a barbarian, but slightly elevated above the savage state. Per- haps if our knowledge were more com- plete we .should be able to delineate inany other circumstances relative to these hard beginnings of civilized life in Europe. The future may still contrib- ute something to our further enlighten- ment relative to the habits and manners of prehistoric peoples, but for the pres- ent we must remain satisfied with an approximate view of their condition. Chaf-xer XIX.— ]\ outside rim was drawn a moat and a rampart about three hundred and sev- enty yards in circumference. On the northeast of the great circle and run- ning out for a distance of about six hundred yards, there are evidences of as well as the anti(|uit}- of the monu- ment before him. Stonehengc has long been a fertile topic in tradition. Tlie oldest story of all is tliat given bv Ncnnius, . . . ' , Stories of Nen- m the nmth century. He mus and cam- dcclares that the structure was erected by Aurelianns Ambrosius, in memory of four lunidrcd liritish chief- tains who were slain tlicre by liengist and his Saxon barl)arians, in 472. At PRIMEVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMI LI. 335 the close of the twelfth century, Giral- dus Cambrensis. another annalist, tells a long story of a great pile of stones called the (iiant's Dance, anciently f(;und BUKIAL URNS (ENLARGED FROM PRECEDING CUT). in Ireland. He narrates that the stones in question were brought to Ireland by a company of Titans out of Africa, who Britons, procured Merlin, by supernat- ural means, to bring from Ireland into Britain. And that he might leave some famous monument of so great a treason to future ages, in the same order and art as they stood formerly, set them up where the flower of the British nation fell by the cutthroat practice of the Saxons, and where, itnder the pretence of peace, the ill-secured youth of the kingdom, by murderous designs, were slain." This story happily illustrates the com- pass and authenticity of mediaeval his- tory. It is well known that Authenticity of the pillars composing the ro:yS,'^t"d ruin of Stonehenge were iiereby. taken from stone quarries in the neigh- borhood, so that no African giants were needed to bring them across the sea. It is also well established by an exami- nation of the mounds in the vicinity that the structure belongs to a period not only earlier than the invasion of Hengist and his Saxon maraiiders, but long anterior to the conquest by the Romans at the beginning of our era. It is true that no mention is made \IE\V OF STONKHKNGE. set them up on the plains of Kildare, not far from the castle of Naas. " These stones," continues the story-teller, "Aurelianus Ambrosius, King of the of Stonehenge, by name, in the Latin authors, but Hecataeus,. a Greek histo- rian, who flourished at Miletus about 550 B. C, describes a magnificent cir- 886 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. mounds in con- nection "witli Stonehenge. « ^ I GROUND PLAN OK DANISH CROMLECH. cular temple, situated in what he calls " The island of the Hyperboreans, over against Celtica," and the description is of a kind to warrant the conclusion that the edifice in question was no other than Stonehenge. Clustered around this great ruin of prehistoric times are many tumuli, con- Extent of burial taining the dead and the relics which were buried with them. No fewer than three hundred burial mounds are found within a radius of three miles from the stone pillars marking the site of what was doubtless a primitive temple. From this it would appear that the whole area round about was an ancient cemetery, with some sort of barbaric temple in the center. The tumuli are manifestly tombs. In every case, on opening one of these mounds, the remains of the dead are found. In the great majority of cases the interment has been by cremation, and the evidences show that the manner of sepulture was identical with that gen- erally employed in the age of bronze. If we open one of the tumuli — and hundreds of them have been explored — we shall find invariably Positions of the . ^ primeval dead the remains of one or more in sepulture. , i • tt human beings. Here again we discover that difference of instinct in method which has al- ways characterized the doings of men. The dead / are placed in two pos- tures, one sitting and the other prone, after the manner employed in modem burial. There seem to have been pains taken in the adjustment of the body in a posture befitting repose; and in determining what this should be, GROUND PLAN OK DANISH DOLMEN. some of the prehistoric tribes chose one position and some another. The same variety has been noticed in the case of our Indian aborigines in America, many of whom arrange the bodies of the dead in a sitting posture. In the prehistoric burial mounds which we are now con- sidering, utensils and food were placed SEPULCHRAL STONE CIRCLE. about the body as if to serve the dead in the land of the hereafter. It is here that the best revelation of the manner of life peculiar to these people has been made, and the best evidence afforded of the epoch to which they belonged. As already said, the implements ex- humed from the tumuli are almost inva- riably of bronze. In a The mounds be- few instances iron weapons ii'elge'of ^*° have been discovered, but bronze, it has been invariably found on closer scrutiny that the same have resulted from a subsequent burial in an old grave. Not a single instance is known of tlie re- POSIT'ON OK SKELETONS IN A TOMIl OK THE STONE AGE. covery from a tvnnulus, either in Western France or Creat Brilian, of implements or other relics belonging to the period PRIMEVAL MAX.— MEN OF THE TUMULI. 337 of the Roman ascendency, and in only a few cases have the discoveries carried the antiquary back to a period more re- mote than that of the age of bronze. We may for a moment consider the facts before its from a higlier point of view. The tumuli of the British Isles are only one of several kinds of receptacle for the prehistoric dead. The palaeolithic and neolithic ages, as well as the age of Diverse meth- ods of races re- specting death and burial. life the fact of death impressed the living more seriously than any other jihcnome- non whatsoever. This led, even in the lowest stages of barbarism, to the insti- tution of rites and ceremonies connected with the final putting away of the body. It was one of the points at which the primitive tribes easily diverged in their customs and methods. There was from the first a contest of belief as to the best manner of disposing of the dead. One -■> -t--iff^ Sit ■'IT."/^ KUXLRAL IN' I'HE PAL.tOLmilC AGE.— Draivn by Emile Bayard. bronze, had their burial places, funerals, and rude theories of death. Barbarism developed into several forms of burial method according to the locality and the situation. The manner of disposing of the dead was, indeed, one of the most striking features of the barbaric life. It would appear that from the earliest emergence of man into the conscious plan was to reduce the body to ashes, and another was to preserve it in some situation where it might be protected from disturbance and, we might say, sacrilege ; for we may well believe that among the primal instincts of savages one of the first of those sentiments which tend to the elevation of mankind was respect for the body. 338 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Throughout primitive Europe the evi- dences of aboriginal burial are discover- able in hundreds of localities. These Burial grounds have been studied with dil- igence by antiquaries, and the results of the inquiry We are able to distinguish the older places of sepulture from the newer — the palocolithic cavern from tlie of different ages may be distin- guishea. generalized. pare for the funeral. Generally, after rude pagan ceremonies, a procession was formed and the body was borne away to be either burned with loud lamentation or deposited in some tomb which nature had prepared in the rocks. Could the observer from a distant and civilized age have been lifted up over Western Eu- rope in the epochs of aboriginal barba« FUNERAL IN THE NEOLITHIC AGE. -Drawn by Emile Bay.artl, more recent neolithic burial place, and .still more distinctly from the burial places of the age of bronze. The con- ditions of savage life in the respective periods are sufficiently well known to furnish the materials for the reconstruc- tion of that primeval half-.savage society which prevailed for many ages. It was the cu.stom of the tribesmen when one of their number died to as- semble at the scene of death and pre- rism he might have seen, winding here and there in solemn manner, the funeral processions on their way to the burial places of the tribe. The scene Avas as picturesque as instructive. The place chosen for burial or incineration wa? generally a solitude of cliff and wild Tlicrc, about the entrance of the cavern, might be seen llie gatliered friends of the dead lamenting with wild gesticula- tions that going forth of man-life which PRL\rilVAL MAN.— MEN OF THE TUMULI. 339 they — though barbaricms — li;ul already discovered to be without return. The next point of interest to be noted in our examination of the Funeral prooes- . . , , sions and rites prclllstonc buruil placeS IS of sepulture. ^i i ^ c i.-\ the character ot the remains in such situations. As in the case of the cave dwellers, we may here learn much about the stature, form, and general character of the aborigines of Kurope. t}pc between the two extremes, called orthocephalic, or medium-headed. The orthocephalic skull is most nearly like the skull of civilized peoples, whereas the other two types depart very much from the common standard. As far as we are able to discover, the two extreme varieties of crania belonged to very primitive peoples, while the interme- diate form is of more recent develop- FUNERAL FEAST IN THE AGE OF BRONZE.— Drawn by Emile Bayard. The three types of skulls discov- ered in the tombs. The most striking fact in connection with the skeletons of the people buried in the tumuli of the Brit- ish Isles is the variation pre- sented in the skulls. There seem to be three distinct types of skull revealed by an examination of the tombs. These are what are called long skulls, or dolichocephalic crania; short skulls, or those defined as brachycephalic ; and a ment as well as more symmetrical char- acter. The long skull, such as has been found in many of the tumuli of Great Britain, has almost as great character of a measurement as that L°dt°aX^cf ° of the Neanderthal head phaiic crania, described in a previous chapter. Not that the long and narrow skulls of the tumuli are so distinctlv animal as the 340 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. shape of skulls and burial mounds. one to which reference has just been made, but their striking feature is the long suture and great measurement from front to rear. The brachycephalic crania discovered in the mounds are ex- actly the opposite of this. They are peculiarly short from front to back, and in many cases suggest to the antiquary that they have been squeezed up into un- natural dimensions. It seems, however, that no marks of artificial pressure have been discovered, and doubtless the short skulls are just as nature produced them. Another circumstance well calculated to excite the keenest interest is now to Coincidence in be notcd. Tlicre is a Constant and curious relation between the shape of the skiil/s and the shape of the titniuli in iclcich they are buried. There are two kinds of mounds : a circular tumulus and an elongated barrow; and it is found on examina- tion that the dolichocephalic heads are invariably in the long barroivs, while the short heads are in the circular mounds ! The evidence is conclusive that this ar- rangement could not have been acciden- tal, and it is almost equally clear that two races, belonging perhaps to dif- ferent prehistoric epochs, are repre- sented in these tombs. Very careful explorations have been made by skillful antiquaries. Dr. Thurnam, of England, has made accurate measurements of a hundred and thirty-seven skulls just as they were taken from the British mounds. Of these, sixty-seven were exhumed from long barrows and sev- enty from circular tumuli. Not a single long skull was found in a round tumu- lus, or a single short skull in an elon- gated barrow; from which it appears conclusive that the long-headed tribes buried their dead in the elongated tu- muli, while the circular mounds were used for the burial of the short-headed people. It would be j^ressing the argu- ment too far to say that these prehistoric inhabitants of Great Britian made the long barrows which they raised over their dead in imitation of the shape of their heads, but the fact remains that such queer analog}^ does exist and re- mains to be accounted for. The tumuli contain almost invariably a sort of stone sarcophagus in which the human remains are depos- sarcophagi and ited. In the cases where ''ontents; pro- visions for the cremation has been em- dead, ployed, the ashes of the dead are put into a rude urn and the latter buried in the place of the body. In the stone box are found the implements and utensils which were left with the dead, and this fact, as already indicated, points to a belief in a hereafter. It is perceived that these rude people had hopes of a continuous existence or a re- vival of existence beyond the event of death. This does not, however, imply any belief in what is called the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The evidences about the dead in these mounds all point to the confidence which the living then had of the con- tinued material existence of the person buried. Every article found in connec- tion with the body is clearly related to the ordinary daily wants and con- veniences of the deceased, and the significance of such association of his implements, and even of food, with the person deceased, points only to the be- lief tliat the dead would continue as he had been, or at least revive at some time, in his former state of being. It must not be supposed that all of the facts here referred to are General dist.ri- deduced from the mounds '::::Z^'l. locally associated with the em Europe. old ruin of Stonehcnge. They have been gathered rather from many sources. 342 GREAT RACES OF JL-IXA'/XP. and are typical of all. This species of burial under mounds was practiced in all parts of Great Britain and nearly every- where on the Continent. The peninsula of Denmark is almost picturesque with tumuli, and under them all are the re- mains of a prehistoric people. Perhaps not a single county in England is with- out its monuments of this kind. Not only in Wiltshire, but in Gloucestershire and Berkshire, and, indeed, everywhere on the island such evidences of a prim- itive people are discovered. In Ireland, also, and in Scotland, the tumuli are plentifully scattered over the country, and are indeed in some places so abun- TUMULUS WITH STONE ENTRANCE, NEAR UBI, DENMARK, dant as to suggest the frequent burial grounds of modern nations. The suggestion has been made above that two or three races contributed to Evidence that people these ancient sepul- ^rr^^Ln chcrs. This belief has well- were concerned. in the tumuli. nigh passed from theory into fact. It has been noticed that all the stone implements discoverable in the burial mounds have been associated with the long heads, whereas no weapon or utensil of .stone has been found in any sarcophagus whei-e the short-headed tribes put away their dead. In the vaults of the latter, on the contrary, the imple- ments are all of bronze, and the woi'k- manship indicates a very great advance toward civilization as Compared with thac 4ditions oe Savaoe Like. TRUE understanding of the prehistoric con- dition of mankind de- pends in good measure upon a knowledge of the manners and cus- toms of the existing savasfe nations. These nations are to be looked upon as the remnants and repre- sentatives of an ancestry like themselves. Doubtless the existing tribes have been much deflected in the course of ages from the original types to which they be- longed. But it is also true that the3'have preserved many of the leading features of the original barbarism which has pre- vailed in all parts of the earth. Viewed from the animal side of exist- 366 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ence, the barbarians of to-day bold ex- actly the same relation to the dead races that have preceded them as do many of iMA.^. AM) UiiMAN (IK TlIK RKINliKKK Kl'OCII Drawn by F.mile Bayard. the living species of animals to the extinct varieties from wliich they are de- scended. Tlic mammoth and the mas- todon and the hairy rhinoceros have their living representatives in the ele- phant, the Asiatic rhinoceros, and even the common swine. There has 1 >een an evolution- 11 y descent by ^\ hich the tides of life have been turned aside into new channel s . The living crea- tures are not the same in stature, in habit, in as- pect or mode of life as the extinct t} pes from which they have been derived. But the essential nature of the original spe- cies has been, in large measure, preserved. So also of the dif- ferent varieties of men, aboriginal, intermediate, and modern. Sir John Lubbock has de- clared with great force that the in- habitants of Van Dicmen's Land and Terra del Fuego are to the prehistoric races I if the age of stone what the opossum and the sloth and the kangaroo are to the extinct mar. supials, known only to the geologist. The flint weapon in the hands of a liv- ing savage is to an antiquary precisely PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 367 what the horn-crowned nose of a rhinoc- eros or the projecting- tusks of a boar Relations of ex- are to a naturalist. The SJaTurrlau ^^'^t Carries the mind back ancestry. to prehistoric implements found in the peat bogs of Denmark, and the other reminds the inquirer of tlie hairy rhinoceros and the tremendous tusks of Elfphas priinigciiius. ducible to two general considerations which are easily apprehended. The first of these is what may be called the appearance of national consciousness among a people. Whenever this hap- pens — whenever a given tribe begins to be conscious of itself — the national tongue will for the first time find utter- ance, and this utterance will take the BEGINNINGS OF MKTALLUROY.— A Primitive Smithy.— Drawn by Emile Bj>aid. tween prehistOT' lo and historic races. One of the first inquiries with which we have here to deal is the fixing of a Demarkationbe- line between the prehistor- ic and the historic races of men. What is it to have been a truly prehistoric people ? and what is it to lie distinctly within the historic era? The answers to these questions involve several matters of much impor- tance and interest, but they are all re- form of narrative. The narrative may be in the form of epic poetry. It may be a half -formed anthropology or cos- mology, or it may be rude annals, reciting fragments of tradition and filling up the spaces from imaginary materials. At any rate, it is History. It is the earli- est development in the form of language of a nation's concept of itself and of its own past 368 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. History may thus be regarded as the first rational transcript of the national The conscious consciousness of a people, man requires an -phere is that in the mind, explanation oi the past. whether of the individual or of the tribe, which on coming into the conscious state immediately demands some kind of narrative of its own origin and previous development. When this stage in the human evolution is reached, written records appear as a concomitant and inseparable incident of that particular epoch of growth. Henceforth we have the beginnings, at least, of those annals and early chronicles and traditional forms of literature which constitute the funda- mentals of formal history. This circum- stance may be taken as the first great point of division between civilization and its antecedent barbarism. The second point has already been alluded to in the preceding chapters. It Use of metals is the tise of victals. So coincident with q ^j.ggg ^youkl UOt bc nistoncal con- sciousness, laid upon this fact in the progress and development of mankind were it not for the coincidence of the use of metals in the practical arts with the beginnings of history referred to above. It is a part of the general scheme of the civilization of mankind that this fact of the appearance and first expres- sion of a national consciousness in the form of annals and recorded traditions shall be associated under law with the earliest discovery and application of the metals to the purposes of human life. The metallic age, if we may so express it, is coincident with the dawn of epic poetry and the first records of legend and tradition. When the primeval man emerges from the shadows of barbarism he begins to sing and to carry a me- tallic battlc-ax. Thus it appears that the manufacture of the metals by ration- al or empirical processes, and their use instead of the ruder materials employed in the age of savagery, is the second cir- cumstance which determines the line of demarkation between the civilized forms of life and the preceding barbaric ages. In other words, the line which is drawn between the savage and unconscious state of the human race and its conscious and enlightened activities has history as one of its points of departure and the use of the metals for the other. The question will at once arise whether savage nations have no traditional forms of expression. Undoubted- Evanescent ly they have. All tribes ^SS-"^'- of men, in however low a' ti<"is. condition of development, cultivate leg- end and tradition. They are fond of reciting stories about themselves and the other races with whom they have come in contact. They are even as chil- dren telling unthinkable things about wolves and bears and giants. But the point to be observed is the impcrinanctice of the traditions of barbarism. Contrary to the popular apprehension, the legends and stories of i-eally prehistoric peoples are exceedingly evanescent. They gen- erally pass away with the current gener- ation, or at least take a new form with the succeeding one. The absence of a record to preserve and crystallize the myths and imaginations of primeval man is the circumstance which i:>rcvcnts their perpetuity. Each age among bar- barians has its own cycle of traditions, but they have no continuance or fixed form. All the legends of savagery com- bined would be no other than (he bab- blings of the living generation, or at most the transmitted form of the babblings of their fathers and grandfathers. It is now a well-ascertained fact that the most ajxK'ryphal stories told by savages pretending to give an account of past events in which their own people have PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGJi Llhli. 369 ■want of race memory in sav- ages. borne a part, are only the current ex- pression in a magnified and distorted form of things that have liappened within easy reach of the memories of men. Many instructive and even amusing illustrations may be given from the an- instances of n^ls of currcnt savagery of the valueless and short- lived character of barbarian traditions. In November of 1642 Abel Janssen Tasman discovered the island which now bears the name of Tasmania, southeast of Australia. The people passed under the dominion of the Dutch, and the vicissitude Avas as great as could possibly happen to a barbarian race. In 1770, a hundred and twenty-eight years after the discovery of the island, the great navigator James Cook visited the Tas- manians and acquainted himself with their traditional knowledge. He found nowhere in the island the slightest evi- dence of a recollection of Tasman's visit. Every trace of that great event had lapsed into oblivion. Another instance of like sort is furnished in the great in- land voyage and exploration of De Soto through the gi:lf region of the United States. Long before the Revolution all remembrance and tradition of this event had passed from the minds of the Red men. On being questioned, the most intelligent chiefs in the region through which De Soto had passed were found to be totally ignorant of the romantic expedition which had laid their own country open to the aggressions of an- other race. ' ' The impermanence of the traditions of savages is strongly contrasted with the persistency of tradi- tion after a race has once entered the conscious stage of development. When a tribe has reached the epoch of race consciousness and has begun to employ the metals in manufacture and art, then its traditions become permanent and of high historical interest. It is clear that three or four genera- tions constitute the limit to which a knowledge of even great Transformation national catastrophes is -noTKric transmitted among savage legends, peoples. Even during the continuance of a tradition in barbarism it takes on constantly new and exaggerated forms, rendering it totally unfit for historical purposes. The imagination of the abo- rigines adds to and modifies the narra- tive until it is distorted out of all sem- blance to the original. It is narratea by Sir Alexander Mackenzie that during his travels among the Esquimaux they were wont to describe the English to him as giants wdth wings. They said that the English soldiers could kill men by looking a' them, and that one of them could swallow a whole beaver at a mouthful! The traveler Mansfield Parkyns, in his account of the traditions of the Abyssinians, relates one of their stories to the effect that some German inissionaries had in the course of a few days made a tunnel from Adowa to Massowah, on the Red sea, a distance of more than a hundred and fifty miles! In fact, all of the traditions and myths of savage tribes are apocrA^phal in the last degree ; and this fact, taken in con- nection with their impermanence, de- stroys all valiie that they might other- wise possess for the antiquary and historian. While it is true that barbarous tradi- tions are thus useless for purposes of history, and misleading if depended on to throw light upon the general conditions of savage races, it is also true that the manners and customs of these same races are among the most persistent facts which the student of human life will ever encounter. A tradition or legend will change its form like the figments of the kaleidoscope. It will vanish with a 370 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. brief lapse of time and never reappear. But the manners of even wild and rov- ing tribes hold their form through every \acissitude and long generations. Nothing is better calculated to aston- ish the inquirer than the persistency and integrity of customs. They Persistency and , ^, , integrity of cus- Can hardly be destroyed. toms and habits, rrw. ii- i. ii- ihey pass through the severest crises, and come up after great catastrophes in all their pristine vigor shocks and revolutions, through migra- tion and famine, through the ravages of pestilence and the horrors of war, and is indeed coexistent with the race of which it is a part. A trivial custom easily out- lasts the life of man. It survives the mountain oak which has braved the storms of a millennium. It outlasts the granite obelisk which the conceit of a mistaken people has reared as the most permanent memorial of its greatness. '^s^( MMMm&^^^^m^'^'m\ 1 LK.ilSri.NCV <-)!■ I'.lliNlC 1 I'.A 1 UKI..->.~(i) A.m-ikm Heiiki-.w bHBPHBRU WITH bi.lNG.— t>r:iwii by li, A. liaipcr. and definiteness of outline. Even the trivial circumstance of a peculiarity of tribal speech will be perpetuated from generation to generation, and the more substantial elements of custom seem to endure forever. Habit is, if possible, more unchangeable with a tribe or people than with the individual. It seems to be a part of the blood and nerve of national existence. It goes through There are still present in human society forms and customs and peculiarities — modes of action and ceremonial habits — that have been transmitted to the modern world from the shadow and ob- scurity of the imknowable ages that lie below the daydawn of civilization ; and in like manner the present will contrib- ute to the coming ages its customs, its methods, and its ceremonials. PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 371 preservation of Semitic man- ners. Tf we would see a striking illustration of the 23ersistency of manners and cus- toms, we have only to glance at some of Examples of the the modern descendants of ancient nations. The Semitic race, for instance, presents us in modern times with two striking race developments. The Jews and the Arabs still stand as the typical representatives of a family of men already old at the birth of most of the ancient kingdoms. In the case of the Jews, their dispersion among other peoples has to a considerable extent conformed them in the practical affairs of life to the methods and manners of those among whom they drift, but with whom they are by no means amalgamated. So we may look to the Arabs of the present time as the living expression of those ethnic forces which were dominant in the seed of Abraham, No one who acquaints himself with Arabian manners and customs, and is at the same time conver- sant with the manners and cus- toms of the Israelitish nation of antiquity, can fail to notice that the forms of life among the Arabians of to-day are iden- tical with those of the Hebrews fifteen centuries before the Christian era. The very gar- ments which the Arabs wear might have been stripped from the bodies of the patriarchs. Their fashion is the same, and the material and its method of manufacture are to all in- tents and purposes identical. The ceremonial of the house and the tent are just as they were in Canaan before the Egyptian bondage. An Arab sheik meeting another clad and mounted like himself and each followed by his retinue across the deserts and valleys of Arabia, might be photographed and the matter and the manner of the interview re- peated, and both would be a faithful transcript of the meeting and compact between Lot and Abraham. If we descend into the particulars of speech and the manners of daily life rEKSlSTE.\CV Ul' tTH.N'lC ILAIL'UK.i — ^2) M THE ABA. Drawn by Paul Hardy. among the Arabs we shall find the an- cient ceremonial faithfully DaUy life of the duplicated. The forms of ^J^tp^ of ^ha't of salutation and of farewell the Hebrews, have persisted in their integrity for more than three thousand years. The same views of life — of its origin, its na- ture, and its destinj' — the same ideas of dut}^ and obligation, of the nature and 372 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. immediate presence of a personal deity interfering Avith the affairs of the com- mon lot and directing- even the details of all events, are to-day in the Arabian mind and on his tongue and in his ac- tions with all the realism and vitality and distinctness which those same ideas possessed in the minds of the great military leaders and prophets of primi- tive Israel. The Elohim of the Hebrew is the Allah of the Arab. The appeal to the one for the protection of his tribe and victory over the enemy is as con- stant and confident in the camp of the Arabian chieftain as was the appeal to the other in the tent of Joshua or Saul. To the ancient Hebrew and to the mod- ern Arab alike this Allah, this almighty Common reU- personal God, directs every- giousTiewsof thing.. He brings pesti- modern and an- f & i' cient Semites, lencc, and is the giver of health. He blesses and curses accord- ing- to the righteousness or the wicked- ness of his people. He speaks to the sleeper in dreams. The dream is only the voice of God in the darkness. Years of plenty and years of drought are both from his hand. He ripens the grain to a perfect harvest or blasts the fields with mildew. He sends the early and the latter rain when the people have been obedient, or the murrain and the locusts when they have disobeyed. All this and ten thousand other things which, taken in their entirety, constitute the tangible outer garment of Arabian life, are in manner and substance virtii- ally the same at the present day as they ■were among the captives who sat down and wept by the rivers of Babylon, or among the strong soldiery who followed the banners of the Maccabees in their last struggle for independence through the wilderness of Judaa. Were we equally well actjuainted with the tribal history of other races the same plienomena — the same repetition in modern life of the manners and cus- toms of remote antiquity Primitive Teu- could be discovered and TvesurTv^d pointed out. Had we at to present day. the present a record of the boisterous manners and hilarious barbarism of the Teutones who hovered darkly in the forests beyond the Danube and the Rhine in the days of the early republic of Rome, we should be able to note the repetition and persistence of these cus- toms among the Ostrocjothic and Visi- gothic invaders who, many centuries later, devastated the empire. And were we Avell acquainted, as we are ac- quainted in part, with the primitive barbarians who inliabited the lowlands of Holland in the north, we should find their manners and customs preserved, not only in outline, but u\ detail and cir- cumstance, among the broad-shouldered and florid Saxons who followed Egbert and Alfred in their battles with the Danes, and upon whose rugged nature still rests the superstructure of British greatness. The clatter of their ale- horns, the ring of their battle-axes, their barbarian laughter, and their snatches of savage song Avould be heard repeated in the jocular hilarity and boisterous mirth of Chaucer's bantering pilgrims, in the wild uproar and vulgar- ity of Shakespeare's taverns and battle- fields, and even faintly echoed through the mist and gauze of tlie refined and beautiful epics of the late Laureate of England. By carefully weighing tlic foregoing- considerations we are able to sec the means by which the Monumental re- ■^ mains the cer- character and methods of tain evidence of .. . , , . . . 1 ' prehistoric con« life of prehistoric peoples ditions. maybe in some measure comprehended. The inquirer will, of course, in the first place examine all the existing remains PRIMEVAL .^[ AN. —CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 373 which the peoples of antiquity have left behind. A monument, unless misjudged as to its design and character, consti- tutes the fundamental evidence with re- gard to the men who reared it. It gives the only primary testimony, and may be relied upon with absolute faith as to its verity and significance. Monumental remains are even more certain in their testimony, more absolute in their fidelity to the facts which they represent, than are the best historical indubitable as in the testimony deduced from monumental remains. But man- ners and customs are, nevertheless, trustworthy indications of the past con- dition of the human race. Mere tradi- tion may not be trusted. We have seen .the absurdity and brevity of the legend- ary part of barbarian history. Traditional forms of thought, as they are passed from tongue to tongue among the bar- barous tribes of men, have an indejjend- ent interest of their own, just as the PERSISTENCY OF CUSTOMS — MOURNING WOMEN OF OLD EGYPT. From the emablature found in the tomb of Ptah-Hotep, at Thebes. writings produced by man. The latter I fictions and extravagant imaginations of are always in some sense warped from the image of truth. They bear the impress of the annalist or historian from whose brain they were evolved. They are tinged with a thousand prejudices of the passing age. But the monu- ment is iinconscious. It has no prejudices or passions. It belongs to no sect or party, and is unbiased in its evidence by any personal equation. No conscious force of human caprice has been impressed upon it. It stands in naked austerity a solemn witness of the purposes and genius of the people who reared it. In the second place the inquirer may, as we have seen, depend in large meas- Detiuctions ure upon the fidelity of man- ners and customs. These have been perpetuated from age to age, and there is no doubt that the earliest, even the unconscious, move- ments of mankind on the earth are to a considerable extent reflected and por- trayed in the existing habits of barbari- ans. Allowance must be made for the deflection of human nature under the in- fluences of time and circumstance. It must always be remembered that the evidence in this case is not absolute and drawn from fidel- ity of manners and customs. children may prove of interest to the metaphysician and philosopher. But the story told by the child must not be ac- cepted in the court of higher reason as an evidence' of its own origin or the methods of its previous life. We are thus virtually limited in our inquiry concerning the prehistoric condition of men to the two general conditions here indicated, namely, the monumental re- mains which are preserved on the sur- face of the earth as evidences of the men who produced them, and the persistency of manners and customs among the peo- ples now inhabiting the world. Another consideration here presents itself and demands a brief inquiry. It is the source or primary origin of bar- barity. There is no doubt that in the remotest antiquity which we are able to 374 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. discover by means of ethnic, linguistic, and archaeological study, tribes of men struggled for a precarious Inquiry into the . . primary origin existence ou the earth m a of barbarism, j-x* r ai. r i condition of the profound- est savagery. Nor is there any doubt that similar races still possess a consider- able portion of the surface of our planet, living thereon in a condition of animal- ity which must be seen in order to be realized in its profound abasement and savage degradation. But what is the origin of this degradation? How has it happened that men have come into such relations of depravity and gloom? In what way may the degrading barbarism of the ancient world or the equally low condition of the outlying savage races of the present time be rationally accounted for and explained? Two principal theories have been ad- vanced in answer to these questions. Two expiana- They are diametrically op- ti:^rlT:uL posed in the views which barbaric state, they present of the history of the human race. The first is the theory of the descent of mankind from a primitive high estate to the fenlands of barbarism. In this view of the case the first condition of the human family was one of elevation, of refinement, of knowledge, of power. But from this high plane of primitive purity, excellence, and greatness mankind has descended to lower and lower grades of being until, in remote antiquity where the ethnolo- gist first discovers the primeval peoples, they wallowed in savagery and degrada- tion. The first age was the age of gold. Then came the lapse from the noble estate with which the race was started, the swift decline of the dispersed and broken fugitives, the loss of former reason and spirituality, until tlie gloom of bar- barism settled around all the horizon of human life, and naked savages were seen by the river banks and in the shadows of the forest. All the evidences of barbarism — so the hypothesis continues — which the his- torian and archaeologist discover in exist- ing and extinct races are Hypothesis of but the results of this lapse ^^^^Sfrom and ruin of the human anageofgoid. family. All the efforts which have been put forth for the elevation of mankind are only the broken and half-hopeless struggle to restore the human race to its pristine glory; and the heavy forces which impede the progress and the high- er development of men are but the -re- sidual poison and malevolent habits which they have acquired, as they would ac- quire the infection of disease, in the course of their descent and the groveling of their low estate. Such in brief is the general view which has long prevailed relative to the origin of savagery in the human family. Directly opposed to this hypothesis is the theory that the true original condi- tion of men in the Avorld Belief that the was one of a low grade of S;^^^°asi« animality, and that all sub- savagery. sequent movements of mankind have been along the lines of an evolution which is gradually lifting the human race through hard and tortuous proc- esses to a higher plane. In some favored situations this evolutionary force has al- ready, in different ages, brought certain peoples out of barbarism into the light of reason and at least the beginnings of civilization. In other places and under less favorable conditions the primitive state still abounds, and men have grown but little from the merely animal life with which they were projected into the world. All the movements of history, according to this hypothesis, have a common trend toward the production of a complete man and a perfect society. PRIMliVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. Zlh In the struggle to reach this end some peoples go to the front, others lag, and still others drop into nonentity. Some become self-conscious and display those high and generous activities which in the aggregate go by the name of civili- zation, and others remain on lower levels, or even in the original sloughs of bar- barism. The civilized forms of life, ac- stone, or half-naked fishermen dragging their nets and boats to shore on solitary coasts. The further the lines of human life are traced backward the more pro- foimdly do they penetrate a world where reason is absent and bestiality prevails. Out of this primitive state the more vigorous of the savage peoples, by toil- some ascent and painful struggles. BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED— ANCIENT FISHING SCENE.— Drawn by Riou. cording to this view of human history, are merely the survival and develop- ment of those better activities which have been found to be of benefit to the race. It thus happens that Avhen the eth- nologist and the historian begin an Elaboration of examination of the past ^^'7it7;;!'!f,'i- thev find .savagerv as ments m Its sup- ^ o .. port. the bottom fact. The first discoverable men are rude hunters smiting wild beasts with weapons of gradually emerge into conscious exist- ence. They expand in their intellectual powers, invent superior forms of utter- ance and a pictorial representation of thought, write their words by means of symbols, record the stor}' of their own deeds, mass themselves into strong com- munities, begin to reason about the origin of the world and the course of nature, and finally take up the chant of epic poetry. Which, then, of these two contradictory theories will better ex- 376 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. plain the existence and origin of bar- barism ? Alany arguments may be sincerely advanced in favor of each hypothesis. It is the duty of history to deal candidly with all questions, to have no prejudice and no fear. The time has arrived in the coi:rse of human events when the great problems of the past may be con- sidered with calmness and courage. No blind fanaticism for one or the other of antagonistic theories should any longer sway the decision of an inquiry which is of so great an interest, and the solution of which in one way or the other can hardly change the great movement of mankind toward the higher develop- ments and grander activities of the future. In behalf of the hypothesis of the descent of mankind from an original high estate into conditions of savagery, several facts and arguments may be truthfully advanced : I. In the first place, the traditions of nations, especially in that part of their career when they have themselves just emerged from the barbarous condition, generally recount an original age of gold which their fathers enioved Race traditions . . ■' •' generaUy point and in which they were the to an age of gold. , ... , at i great participants. Nearly all the vigorous races of antiquity that played important parts in the ancient world had traditional beliefs of this kind. They looked back through the mists and obscurities of their own age and the ages immediately preceding to an epoch of splendor and renown in which their heroic fathers were seen afar as tall trees walking. All the early theogony and cosmogony of the ancients as depicted in their philo.sophical .sys- tems, their myths, tlicir epic and dra- matic poetry, were touched and flecked in every part with the traces of this belief. It can not be well explained why the greatest peoples of the ancient world should have held and propagated such opinions respecting their Difficulty of ac ancestry and the state of ^^rS^fof^' society out of which they suchabeUet, were descended, unless there had been some ground for such belief. Looked at as an abstract question, it appears more rational that the bards and myth- makers of the primitive world should have chosen to glorify themselves and the passing age by representing their descent as issuing from darkness and barbarism, rather than to picture them- selves as degraded from a godlike an- cestry. It is not certain in which way the half-conscious intellect of the primi- tive man would work or by what laws it would be guided in the development of traditional beliefs. But the fact remains that the greater part of the best teach- ers of antiquity believed themselves the' offspring of a great paternity, and that back of the barbarities of their own age and the immediate ages of their fathers lay a resplendent age of gold, from whose heights and heroic activities men had descended by gradations into a low estate. 2. In the next place, it may be well urged that many nations within the his- torical era have actually Actual examples declined from higher into °,^fexSoa lower conditions. In fact, of races, all the great nations once in possession of tlie better parts of the world, once organized into tremendous communities, once filling the streets of magnificent cities, once directing the commerce, cultivating the arts and controlling the energies of mankind, once gathering into vast treasure-houses the resources of the world and sending forth invinci- ble armies for the conquest of Gentiles and barbarians, have now disappeared from among the powers, and are known PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 377 into Western Asia, surrounded the city of Constantine and made it their capital, are now degenerated into the opium only by annals and memorials. It is also true that these great nations have, as a rule, not gone out by sudden eclipse and extinction, but they have rather fallen away by degrees, re- laxed, insensibly at first and sensibly af- terwards, their hold of power, and crumbled away until attack from without and feeble- ness from within have joined their forces to complete an inevitable downfall. It is hardly needed to recite examples of national decay. It is almost superfluous to recount the tremen- dous domination once established in the val- ley of the Nile, now represented by Arab sheiks, miserable col- lections of degenerate Copts in squalid vil- lages, and a few de- graded fellahs plow- ing with oxen in the glebe by the river banks. The early Chaldaean empire at the mouth of the Eu- phrates has left only scattered monumental traces. The glory of the Assyrians and of the later Babylonians jf has passed forever from the valley of the two great rivers. EXAiMPLK OF RACE UETEkKJKATIOX— KrBKI.SH-UEAKLR uf EGVIT. Drawn by Gustave Richler. The tremendous Turcomans, iron for- gers at the first from the mines of the Altais, who came as conquerors M.— Vol. 1—2; smokers and harem builders of the Bos- phorus. The splendor of Athens and the glory of the Athenian intellect have 878 GREAT RACES OE MANKIND. given way, through long ages, to for- eisfn domination, and the traveler stands sad-hearted among the ruins of the Acropolis, or marks with astonishment KXAMl'I.E I a- KACIC DlilKRlOKATlON — UOMAN BKGCIARS. the miserable goat houses built over the oracle of Delphi. The Rome of an- tiquity, whose solid walls of stone and tremendous legions clanking their armor on the stone slabs of the Appian Way have become only a tradition and a name, has shrunk from her ancient cir- cuit of the hills to a commonplace city, the throne of superstition and conserva- tism, and haunt of beggary. 3. The care- ful reader of the preceding pages will not have failed to note that many of the monu- mental re- mains of an- tiquity betoken unmistakably the energies and genius of a superior peo- ple. Some of the most prim- itive memori- als of the hu- man race are among the most convinc- ing and sub- stantial evi- dence s of power and grandeur. The granite obe- lisks and pyra- mids of Egypt, the so-called Cyclopean ruins in Greece, the old Fltruscan aque- -J ducts, such as the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, the great military mounds and fortifications Monumentaire- TvT i 1 A • 1 mains indicate in North America, and ^he greatness of particularly the Peruvian ancient peoples, ruins on the plateau of the Andes, mark and emphasize the activities of races of PRIMEVAL .^r AN. —CONDITIONS OF SAVAGIi LIFE. 379 men hardly inferior to the strongest and most skillful known in history. It will be remembered that in many of these localities barbarism long flourished and ran rampant .after the tremendous monuments reared by preceding civil- ized peoples had gone down to ruins. The Peruvian monuments were in their origin as far anterior to the domination of the Incas as the Incas are remote from the Peruvians of to-day. The earthworks and mounds of North Amer- ica antedate the epoch of the Red inen by a span of ages. The massive foun- dations laid by the Etruscans in their own district and in Latium are far more ancient than even the traditions of the primitive Latin race. So also are the Cyclopean remains of Greece far more remote than even the age of the heroes ; and as to the monuments of Egypt, it is sufficient to say that the oldest of them are the grandest and inost enduring. 4. In the fourth place, the evidence of language points to a primitive condi- tion of mankind in which Language seems . to have begun in the intelligence and an age of reason. ,1 reason were the supreme characteristics. AVhatever may have been the origin of human speech, it is clearly a rational product. The oldest languages with which we are acquainted are the most perfect in their kind. If we consider that great group which we call the Aryan, or the Indo-European, languages, we find them to improve as we trace up their descent toward their origin. This is to say that, as a rule, the older dialectical form is fuller, more complete, and more rational than its descendent derivative. The modern languages of "Western Eui'ope are, as a rule, devoid of grammatical structure, and are in reality rather the detritus of a perfect speech than the speech itself. The Anglo-Saxon tongue had a more extensive grammar, if not a fuller vo- cabulary, than the English of to-day. Moesogothic was richer in inflections and rational forms than its descendent Ger- man. Latin was more inflected and developed than Gothic, and Greek pre- served many of the forms which had already decayed and fallen out of Latin. Sanskrit was far more nearly perfect in its structure and inflections than any later Aryan tongue. With its eight cases and three numbers for nouns, with its full verbal development and its in- flected adjectives, it stands to-day as perhaps the most complete structural ex- pression of human thought. Thus we see that the higher we trace the streams of the Indo-European languages, the broader and fuller are the forms which we encounter. Not a trace of evidence is discoverable that any one of the multi- farious languages descended from this common source had an origin in bar- barian ejaculations, or in any form of irrational utterance. And if we look still more closely into some standard form of this speech we shall find that it has been evolved by the logical proc- esses of abstraction and generalization, the noun being derived from the verb and the adjective from the noun, by an evident effort to abstract a substance or thing from an action and a quality from a substance. It will thus be seen that many I'casons may be assigned for accepting and per- petuating the old-time be- Arguments may liefs of the human race in HIHTJZ the splendor of its own posmg theory, ancestry and the reality of the age of gold. But, on the other hand, many reasons maj- be given for rejecting such belief and putting in its place the hy- pothesis of an ascent from barbarisrr. instead of a descent from heroes, Titans, and gods. The principal arguments in 380 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. favor of the theory of savagery as the original condition of mankind may be stated as follows : I. Our first actual historical knowl- edge reaching into the past touches only Backward look Conditions of barbarism. elbLXTicTe^ To the historian or ethnol- ginnings. ogist the primeval state of man, as seen from his point of view, ap- of progress and development have, mani- festly, been borne forward by evolution- ary forces out of barbarian conditions only a little more remote than the peo- ples themselves. Such nations as the primitive Greeks were evidently result- ant from an agglomeration of semicivil- ized tribes who, settling down from migratorv habits, entered into union l: AKI;ARIAN' I.II-E II.I.USTKATF.H.-Chask in teik Agk of liKONZH.-llrawii liy Ki. pears to be one of savagery. It is true that many nations are discovered in the far horizon of antiquity that on our ear- liest acquaintance with them appear al- ready in a state of intellectiial activity and swift progress toward the civilized forms of life. But close scrutiny will discover just bcliiud tliciH a lower tribal condition, and behind that a still lower. In other words, the pef)p]es wlio on our first ac- quaintance with them appear in a state with each other and began to develop into rational activities. So also of the Roman gens in Latium and other parts of the Italic peninsula. All this is a statement of the case as it stands in the backward vision of the his> torian or ethnologist. His actual ac- (juaintance with the races of men can not well penetrate beyond tlie condition.s of .savagery ivliich lie sees, and ascend \.c a primeval of intellectual elevation and J'K/Jf/il'AL MAX.—COND/TfOXS OJ- SAl'AG/i LIFE 381 social haj^piness which //(■ docs not sec. lie need not deily the existence of such a primitive state, but his discernment can not reach it through tlie intervening darkness. 2. Not only is the lirst discernible con- dition of mankind one of barbarism, but Races are dis- the evidence of an emer- ^^r^'f^^lni'Ll''^ gence therefrom is abun- actual process t» of evolution. dant. This is to say that under the eye of history early peoples, savage or half-savage in their manners, are in many instances seen in the actual process of evolntion toward the higher form of rational existence. No condition in tlie primitive annals of mankind is more cei'tainly established than the fact that peoples do improve. Theyareseen to do it. If we- measure the condition of a barbarous tribe and compare it with the condition of the same people after a cen- tury or two centuries of growth, we can easily discover the process of evolution and its results. It must be confessed that the improve- ment of barbarian races is in many cases Slow rate of race slow-paced, Scarcely notice- emergence from ^1 £^ ^^ I f J primitive sav- " » agery. period. It may even be admitted that many barbarous peoples have not improved at all. It is probably true that the original forces Avith which some tribes are impressed are not suffi- cient to bring them out of the savage state. They continue as they were from age to age. They become as fixed in their habits and methods of life as are the birds and beasts. They build as the beaver builds, and the concept of a high- er state is totally wanting in their under- standing. But in most instances there is a forward march — slow it may be, but still a movement that may be seen and measured. History is filled with illustrations of human development. Tribes become peoples. Peoples become states and kingdoms and nations. The expan.sive force of the social and civil History replete instin.-t in man is seen ^f iiumaTcfi::!- working powerfully in the opment. evolution of higher forms of activity and better expressions of right reason. The whole story of the human career is in good part a story of progress, ameliora- tion, development. It is the law of life. The human race shares it in common with all other forms and modes of exi.st- ence. Aye, it is most manifest in man. In him the evolution is strongest, and the tendency toward a higher state — the dream of something beyond and above — • is always discernible in his actions and language. The roving tribes in ancient Hellas became the bronze-clad warriors of the heroic age. The returning war- riors became the rhapsodists and orators of the age of patriotism ; and the rhapso- dists and orators became the philosophers and poets of the most intellectual epoch of the human race. The robbers gath- ered on the Capitoline Hill plant a city and organize a state. Their wolfish manners give way to the culture of the market place and the early forum. An- other evolirtion, and we see the senate- house, the tribune, and the temple. Still another, and the marble-built city, with its marching armies and citizens in toga, its columns, its busts, its trophies, its roaring circus with its multitudes are seen — finally the domination of the world. In subject Gaul the half-savage and wholly barbarous Franks hoist their chief- tain on their shields, and Clovis appears as the pi-imitive king of a The Greek evo- primitive people. Further 'l'^\lT^tt on are Charlemagne and Gauis. his school of the palace. Already they are reading the annals of the past, send, ing polite messages to Haroun-al-Rashid, 882 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and studying the stars. Still further on, Godfrey and Raymond and Saint Louis gather their helmeted warriors and, un- der an ideal enthusiasm, would rescue the tomb of the Christ from barbarians and infidels. Further on stands forth the French nation, breaking the fetters of feudalism, rising through the bloodiest of revolutions into a splendor and free- dom hitherto unknown among the peo- ples of the earth — Napoleon the Great, splendor of the Plantagenets ; the greater glory of Shakespeare and the bards ; the establishment of liberty by war; over- throw and rebuilding; emergence; Eng- lish liberty ; the colonization of the world ; the triumph of letters and art. Everywhere the stor}' is the same. Progress and development, the first law. Foundations are laid; then comes con- quest, first of savagery and then of the forces of nature — the bending down of TllRKE STAGES OF ClVILIZATluN ll.LUSTRATED-SKETCH I'ROM EORT LAKAMIE. his conquering armies, victory, renown, the republic. In the oak woods of primeval Britain are the barbarian Sa.xons gath ered around RiseoftheSax- their chicfs. They have barirt'oTriTt-' ^Hed thcmsclves with raw "«ss. meats, coarse cheese, and fiery drinks, but they found their petty states — a hcjDtarchy of possibilkics. Then come Egbei-t and Alfred and the foundations of the immovable kingdom ; the Conqueror; Chaucer; the mediaeval the tremendous energies of the material world to the purposes of hmnan will and endeavor — the mastery of the earth and its fullness. All these are the very law, the fundamental method of human existence on the earth. These facts are palpable. They are seen and touched. They are known and manifest ; and in so far as they arc tlie demonstrable rule by which mankind are guided, it appears undeniable that the history of humanity is the history of a development from a PRIMEVAL MAN.— CONDITIONS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 383 lower into a higher form of life — from barliarism to civilization. 3. In the third place it mtist be acknowl- edged that the condition into which many civilized nations have fallen and The fallen estate relapsed is a condition very t^^^Z.. different from that of primi- ^g^'T- tive savagery. It would seem that nations having once occupied a high plane of political and intellectual power do indeed lapse into effeminacy, vice, slavery, and moral degradation; but the}'' do not become barbarous or savage. We should look in vain for a single instance in which a civilized peo- ple, whether of ancient or modern times, has fallen back into an aspect of life at all analogous to that of the cave dwell- ers of Europe or the Red men of North America. They do indeed relapse. The heroic Greeks of the fourth century B. C. have become the degenerate weak- lings of modern Greece. The Romans of the sturdy rejjublic have left as their descendants the mendicant musicians of Florence, the dirty boatmen of the Venetian canals, and the lazzaroni of Naples, The Spanish warriors and navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries who found a new world and took it for their soA-ereign, have as their living • representatives the mandolin players of Cadiz and the brandishers of stilettos in the half-lighted streets of Madrid. The evidence of retrogression and decay is sufficiently striking to the philosopher and painful to the philan- thropist. But the modern Greeks, the Italians, and the degenerate Spaniards of to-day have no likeness or kinship Avith the savage races whom we discover on the further confines of history. This is to say that the ascending and descend- ing phases of national life present whol- ly diverse aspects ; insomuch that one can scarcely be compared with the other. The true savage aj^pears to have in him the potency of the time to come, while the effeminated and degraded de- scendant of a great ancestry has in him only the potency of death. In so far as this dissimilarity between the barbarian, under the influence of forces that may bring him into the civilized state, and the depraved posterity of great ancestry does exist as a fact, it seems to be an evidence of the original barbarity of all peoples and the evolution of a few into the higher forms of life, rather than an evidence of the relapse of races into original savagery. 4. The believer in the hypothesis of an ascending movement of human nature from a primitive savage Monuments and condition into light and r^ln^^twTow freedom and greatness, conditions, may well urge that the great monumental remains of the remotest antiquity and the perfected languages which we find at the daydawn of civilization are the work of races which had already passed ilirougli the stages of developiiient from original barbarism to the higher condi- tions of life. In our present state of knowledge it would be rash to allege that the striking memorials of civiliza- tion belonging to the remotest antiquity are certainly the work of jDeoples who had been developed from savagery through preceding ages of discipline and endeavor; but it would be equally rash to allege that such memorials of pri- meval greatness are the work of nations who began their career in civilization and enlightenment. So also of human speech. It is true that such languages as the Sanskrit appear as' the highest grammatical and logical formulas which have ever been invented for the expres- sion of human thought, and that sub- sequent linguistic developments have been, so far as the structural forms of 384 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. speecli are concerned, retrogressive rather than progressive. But no one can say that the apparition of Sanskrit was not itself the result of preceding ages of progress and development. On the whole, it appears rather aofainst ri^ht reason than in conformitv Not reasonable with what we know of the fa."g?iSgan li^man mind and its princi- atonoe. pies of growth to suppose that a vast structure of speech like the Sanskrit should come forth at one effort from the brain and tongue of a perfect race. It would seem too much a marvel that the Aryan house-folk of the primi- tive Indian valleys should have begun to speak with the perfected formulas of language. It is not alleged that such a phenomenon is impossible, but the development of a language from small beginnings and in constant correlation with the opening powers of the mind seems to conform more nearly with the progressive order of human nature and of universal nature than the sudden phenomenal efflorescence and fruitage of a full-grown language. Such, then, are the principal argu- ments for and against the theories which have been advanced to explain the fact of barbarism. Both views of the begin- nings of the barbaric life have been sus- tained with such hot contentions as are born of preconception. The historian mav franklv admit that the ariniments on either side are weighty and important, and if for the present he suspends a judg- ment, it will not be thought to proceed from a reluctance to decide according to the evidence before him, but rather from the incompleteness of the data thus far attainable. ISIeanwhile the argument strongly preponderates toward that the- ory which makes barbarism and savagery to have been the primitive condition of mankind, and civilization to be the result- ant of the slow processes of ethnic evolu- tion. The statement of the various reasons for and against such a view pre- sented in the current chapter has been given as a digressive study, preparatory to a notice of some of the general and ac- tual conditions of barbarism, and to that great topic we now turn our attention. Chapter XXII.— Barbarism Illustrated. ■ T is painful to reflect \\o\\ great a portion I'f the earth is still under the dominion of savage races. Europe, the smallest of the continents, has long emerged from her primitive condition. Large tracts of Asia have been occupied by civilized nations from a remote an- tiquity. A new world has within the last three centuries been reclaimed. A powerful race has planted itself in place of the scattered aborigines. South America has, within the current century at least, presented the redeeming aspect of Latin civilization. But Lar-^e areas ot the rest of the world is still fZ^^^t^ dominated by races of men barbarism, whose manners and customs lie close to original barbarity. The islands of the sea present some of the most striking aspects of this current savagery of mankind. Africa throughout nearly its whole extent is untouched with the sun- shine of the higher life. The boreal regions, whether in the Old World or the New, are still occupied by races on a PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 385 very low plane of dcvcloiiment. It is among snch peoples that we must now seek and find our examples of existing native anstralian from the darling river (headdress of feathers). forms of barbarity in illustration of the prehistoric life of man. One of the most striking facts in con- nection with the savagery of the human puthinessof race is filth. There is ellmpieofHot- peAaps no single example tentots. among aboriginal tribes of anything like cleanliness. Those dispositions Avhich we observe in many birds and animals to plume and cleanse themselves and to protect their nests and lairs from the grosser forms of filth are strangely absent among the mder savages. The historian Kolben has re- marked of the Hottentots that they may be regarded as the filthiest animals in the world ! Not content with the offen- sive accumulations of nature and con- stant contact with the dirt, they actually cultivate gross forms of defilement, ren- dering them in their personal habits re- pulsive and disgusting to the last degree. In his description of these heathen the author says : ' ' Their bodies ,were cov- ered with grease, their clothes were never washed, and their hair was loaded from day to day with such a quantity of soot and fat, and it gathers so much dust and other filth, which they leave to clot and harden in it, for they never cleanse it, that it looks like a crust or cap of black inortar. They wore a skin over the back, fastened in front. They carried this as long as they lived, and were buried in it when they died. Their only other garment was a square piece of skin, tied around the waist by a string, and left to hang down in front. In winter, however, they sometimes used a cap. For ornaments they wore rings of iron, copper, ivory, or leather. The latter had the advantage of serving for food in bad times." types of savagery — BUSHMAN WOMAN AND CHIIDREN. The bath has been practiced by nearly all peoples, whether savage or civilized. But among heathen tribes the act is PRIME I 'A L MA N.—BA KB A RISM ILL US TRA TED. 387 performed with little respect to personal purification . The sensuous change of Savages bathe temperature, from cold to rathir?hau'puri. ^^-^i""^ ^r from Warm to cold, ftcatiou. with the mere- pleasure of splashin<^ like a porpoise in the surf, seems to constitute the barbarous idea of the bath. Instead of desiring- to purif}' themselves from all animal taint, from defilement, from those offensive odors which are peculiar to tribes in low condition, such peoples seem to take pleasure in intensifying the disgusting peculiarities of the beast-life wdiich they live. It requires many ages of develop- ment, as a rule, to change this horrid instinct and to substitilte therefor the instinct of personal purity. It is in proof that as low in race development as the beginnings of barbarous song savages are accustomed to refer, in their rude rhapsodies, to the offensiveness of their bodies, and to rejoice in it as an element of merit and preeminence ! The Hottentots are also a good ex- ample of other debasing usages. The Filth in food gathering, preparation, fi^ht peTsonai '^^nd taking of food may be i^a^'t- cited as a second strongly discriminating feature of human life. One must needs reflect upon the vast difference in the method of refined eat- ing and that of barbarism. The savage man eats very much after the manner of brutes. As to materials, he selects first of all native roots and wild fruits, such as yield themselves readily to his appetite, without cultivation or much search. The proportion of animal food in tropical countries is always consider- ably less than in higher latitudes, but the Hottentots are none the less great eaters of meat. As a rule, they take their flesh food raw. If they cook it at all they prefer a kind of broil in the blood of the animal, the whole being mixed with milk. No pains whatever are taken for cleanliness, either of the meat itself or of the utensils. Unless the meat is thus taken fresh in the blood they prefer to let it remain until it is half-putrid, regarding the odor and taste of decaying flesh as delicious. Such other victuals as they possess are boiled in leathern sacks, among heated stones. Sometimes earthen pots are used. The materials of the larder are kept in leathern bags, in the bladders of animals, or in baskets rudely constructed of rushes. Tobacco is in common use by the people, and is carried in pouches made of the skins of animals. The pipe is of stone or wood. The whole stock of provisions is borne from hut to hut, or from one camping place to another. Australia, on the whole, furnishes one of the most interesting and satisfactory fields in which to study Australians an the native aspects of hu- '^Itl'llll^'- man life. The barbarians agery. inhabiting this island-continent when it became known to the European nations were as truly aboriginal in their charac- ter as any people with w^hom scientific observation has had to deal. Nor can it be said that the lajDse of time since the coast regions of Australia fell under the dominion of civilization has materially changed the native inhabitants. They are to-day virtually as they w^ere when they were first made known to the West- ern nations. And it is still possible to study their manners and customs with- out having to make allowance for the influence of other peoples upon them. The Australian houses are perhaps the smallest and most insignificant which have ever been tised as human abodes. They are scarcely large enough to con- tain a single person. They are shaped much like an inverted oven. The frame- work consists of a series of reeds, not PRIMEVAL MAN. — llAKDARISM II.I.rSTRA TliD. 389 more than an inch in diameter, bent over so as to brin<;- the two ends to the earth, in whicli they are driven. The covering of the hut is of pahn leaves or bark, and the protection afforded to the inhabitant is very small. One side of the hovel is open, and there is little pre- tense of shelter. When the inhabitant enters he must sit or lie down, as the concavity overhead is not high enough to permit him to stand. No evidences of artistic taste or adornment have been discovered in connection with these primitive habitations. Nor could such houses avail anything in a country whose climate was less mild than that of Aus- tralia. j\Iany inhabitants go without houses at all, sleeping on the ground and making no effort to secure a local habitation of their own. In some places the effort at housebuilding proceeds only so far as setting up two or three poles and leaning against them large pieces of bark, forming a sloping roof, which furnishes a simple protection from the sun and wind. In matters of taste and cleanliness, the Australians are but little superior to the Hottentots. Their personal appear- ance approaches somewhat Feeding as the beasts; the the better type of hunian- whale carnival. ., i_ i ^i i -i i i •.. ity, but the ctaily habits of life are low down among the elements of savagery. The food of the people consists of roots and nuts, certain kinds of wood fungus, or mushroom, shellfish, frogs, snakes, worms, moths, birds, birds' eggs, turtles, dogs, kangaroos, seals, and sometimes whales. All of these things, however, or nearly all, are eaten without preparation, and are taken with no sense of cleanliness or decency. It will be seen from their list of edibles that most of the articles are such as may be grabbled from the earth or the sea- shore. The kangaroo is a wild, fleet animal, and is taken with considerable difficulty. The dog is only eaten under stress of hunger and necessity. The whale is, of course, beyond the reach of capture to these barbarians, but he is sometimes stranded from the deep or washed up dead on the shore. When this happens bonfires are kindled as a signal, and there is a holiday for the na- tives. It is their great providence, which they accept with as much gratitude as they are capable of knowing. The in- habitants gather from the region about, and pounce upon the carcass with the avidity of beasts. It makes no differ- ence in what stage of putridity the flesh may be. They gorge themselves to ut- ter repletion. They clamber about the dead body, and quarrel for the choicer parts. Notwithstanding the heat of the climate, they stuff themselves with blub- ber until they are distended with the fatty mass. They eat holes into the in- terior, and go inside to find what they can not devour. They smear themselves with the offensive oil, and remain for days together half -suffocated around the scene of their feast. Perhaps the an- nals of barbarism furnish no example of bestiality more gross and revolting. It is by no means intended in this connection to give a full description of the manners and customs The Veddahs of the Australians or of ,teTos3sfof any other barbarous nation, barbaric ufe. The whole object in this part is to illus- trate the primitive life of man by a few citations from the current conditions of savagery. In another part of the work it will remain to illustrate more fully the tribal condition of the barbarous peoples lying along the outskirts of the civilized world. In further illustration of the present state of savage peoples, a few citations may be made from the life of the Veddahs, or aboriginal inhabitants 390 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. of the island of Ceylon. These people are among the rudest and most primitive of an}- v.-itli whom modern observers have come in contact. They are small "in stature, the adult .male rarely reach- ing- the height of five feet. With the exception of a piece of skin suspended in front of the body the Ved- dahs go entirely naked. Their habits are as coarse and low as those of the other barbarians whom we have been describing. They live upon the wild products of the woods and by gathering shellfish from the shore. They are in possession of axes and spears and bows and arrows. These are employed almost exclusively in the chase. The peculiar feature of the Veddah life seems to be its secretiveness, or silence. Even in the hunt they are silent, attempting to slip upon and strike their game un- awares. The chase consists in a noise- less approach to the animal which the hunter wishes to take. In prosecuting this kind of capture the natives adopt several devices, the most prominent be- ing the training of bison to the jDurposes of the chase. The hunter hides behind the tame animal, which is taught to feed along so near to the wild one that the hunter may spring from behind and strike it down. It is a species of stalk- ing, almost panther-like in its method and success. The Veddahs, like the Australians and the Hottentots, have no social or Marriage cus- civil institutions, but ouc or troodfofth:" two customs arc marked Veddahs. for thclr peculiarity. Tlicy do not indulge in polygamy, each man having one wife, and the tribal code be- ing very severe in demanding fidelity of the one to the other. 'J'hc rule, how- ever, does not exclude intermarriage in the family. Brothers and sisters may marry with impunity, subject only to the restriction that the sister must be the younger of the two. Otherwise the tribe is scandalized. The inhabitants of the Andaman islands have been cited by some travel- ers as the lowest existing species of men. In some respects it is doubt- Debased condi- less true that their habits tionoftheAu- j r tj: £ daman islanders and inanner or lite are ot the most degraded and savage order. They build their houses by planting four rude posts, two being much lower than the others. A rude, inclined roof is thus formed of bamboo, palm leaves, and bark. This is their only structure. The people appear to live exclusively iipon the wild gifts of nature and by means of the primitive chase. There is a species of wild pigs that live in the jungles, which are sometimes taken and eaten by the natives. The best piece of Andaman workmanship is the rude canoe, hollowed by means of a stone ax and lire. The people use the bow and arrow, and point their missiles with such bits of glass and iron as they are able to gather from the wrecks of vessels. Travelers have admired their skill in marksmanship, which is generally accu- rate to the distance of fifty yards. They take fish by means of hooks and nets and harpoons. It has been noted that they are exceedingly agile in the water, and the tradition exists that the diving native is sometimes able, by the rapidity of his action, to clutch a fish Avith his ^maided hand. In their personal habits the Anda- maners are exceedingly filthy and coarse. They smear themselves . , Fllthiness of with mud, and wear no personal habits; d,. . rr\ , , • • ii uses of the dead, othing. iattooingis the common practice of the tribe, but the cicatrices exhibit less skill in design than in the case of other tribes. It is the custom of the people to dig up and 392 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. distribute the bones of the dead, the skull being reserved for the widow. This she suspends by a cord around her neck and uses as a casket for her orna- ments and valuables ! It is believed that these savages have not succeeded in domesticating any of the animals, though it has been noted that tame fowls are seen about, their huts. For the rest, their state is one of absolute savagery. The same may be said of the Tasma- nians. Captain Cook has left a record Lowestateof to the effect that these u^s:I:dTr:s:?!' people have neither houses vationoffire. nor clothes. Nor does it appear that they possessed canoes or Dacota fire-drill bow. Iroquois fire-pump drill, MANNER OF PRODUCING FIRE. implements for taking fish. They seem to subsist on mussels, cockles, and peri- winkles. The bow and arrow were wanting at the time of Cook's visit to the island, the only weapon of the peo- ple being a long wooden spear. Most of the barbarians to whom we have referred in the foregoing para- graphs are acquainted with the use and preservation of fire. The Australians understand the method of kindling ma- terials by friction. It is of record that this knowledge does not extend to all the tribes. In some districts the fire goes out and must be relighted from the resources of a neighboring tribe. Most of the natives, especially those of Tas- mania, are very careful to avoid the loss of their fire, and it is generally car- ried about from place to place. It has been noted that in Tasmania the duty of preserving the fire is assigned to the women, and they are held responsible for its loss. It is not intended in this connection to discuss what may be called the moral ideas of barbarians. Indeed, it might be difficult to speak intelli- Moral ideas and gently of what has little or ^r^lf^ong bf" no existence. It is still in barians. doubt whether the barbarous peoples re- ferred to in the preceding pages have an}^ tnie concept of religion or of its duties and ceremo- nial. The matter is in dispute even by observant travelers who have visited these coun- tries and familiarized them- selves with the manners and customs of the people. It has been recorded that among the Australians cer- tain dances and ceremonies are celebrated, which would seem to imply a service of re- ligion. But this is doubt- It is not clear that the natives of of Tasmania, and Ceylon ful. Australia, have any notion of a Supreme Being or of a life after death. If such notions do really exist they are in such a germi- nal and undeveloped condition as to be little indicative of a higher nature in the people. Certain customs and obliga- tions do exist among them, which are observed imder a sense of duty ; but it may be fairly alleged that no general morality or religious bond exists. If we leave tlic natives of these east- ern waters and turn to those of the South Pacific, we find at least two princiiDal races of barbarians. These are the Ne« PRIMEVAL MAX—BARIIARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 393 Buildings and furnishings of grilo peoples and the so-called Polyne- sians. Among the most prominent of the former may be mentioned •Character of the , ' . Pelagian Blacks, the Black inhabitants of •or Sea Negroes. ,, —,..... -. , the I'lji islands. In gen- eral, they are of darker complexion than the Polynesians, and are of larger stat- tire and sti'onger frames. The features .are more prominent and pronounced, and the hair is frizzled. There are, however, traces of Polynesian descent discoverable in the Fijians, especially in their language and in their manners and customs. In their use of conso- nants, and esiDccially in the peculiarity of placing ;// oi' n before the consonants b, d, and g, the people appear to be of the same linguistic family Avith the African Nigritians. The structures of .the Fijians arc, first of all, their dwellings. These, however, are much larger and more skillfully built than those the Fijians. , . . ' « i 1 • which we have noted m Australia. They are made for the most part of the trunks of cocoa trees and ferns framed in a rectangular manner, somewhat like the log houses of pioneers in North America, but by no means so substantially built. Regular doorways are made in the sides, and the hou.ses are as much as twenty or thirty feet in length, and sometimes fifteen feet in height. In another variety of house the posts are set up at intervals, like the framewoi-k of a like building designed by a modern carpenter, and the spaces ■between the posts are filled with wicker ■work of bamboo and palm branches. The roof is thatched with siigar cane ahd fern leaves ; and, considering the mild- ness of the climate, the abode may be regarded as fairly convenient and com- fortable. Hanging mats take the places ■of door shutters. In the middle of the floor some flat stones are laid down, M.— Vol. 1—26 which serve the purpose of a hearth. Here the fire is kej^t burning, and .such I'ude cooking is done as is known to the people. The Fijians surpass most other native islanders in the building and manage- ment of boats. They build MaWngand their canoes with consider- Zl^^::^t^ able skill, and have small pottery, masts and sails. The framing of the bottom is strongly done, and the joints are calked and filled with a kind of gum prepared from the bread-fruit tree. When the islands were first known to White men stone tools were universally employed, but these have given place in part to the emploj'ment of iron. Native materials are still used in the fabrication of goods and in such rude arts as are cultivated in the islands. The natives have been observed in the work of carving and engraving, using for their tools the teeth of rats and mice. They have a way of preparing knives from the outside layer of the bamboo, which is exceedingly hard and close. After the blade of the implement has been cut into shape, it is charred and then bi'ought to an edge so fine and strong that the instrument can be used in surgery. The Fijians understand the art of pottery, but are unacquainted with the use of the wheel. Their earth- en vessels are manufactured by mere handicraft, flat stones and slips of wood being used by the women in bringing the vessels into shape. This work is so skillfully done as to resemble the prod- uct of the turning wheel, and it some- times requires careful observation to decide whether the vessel has been actu- ally turned or wrought by hand. The other tablewares of the Fijians are some- what superior to those in common use among barbarians. Forks are employed in taking food, and other usages in- 394 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. dicate at least the beginnings of refine- ment. The cannibalism of these islanders is proverbial the world over. The eating Open and as- of human flesh was iintil recent times the imiversal practice. It was done as a matter of course, and without the slight- tounding can- nibalism of the Fijians. fowl among civilized peoples. Any one might kill and eat his own women. It is in evidence that the Fijian looked upon his living companions with con- stant regard to their edibility. It was the custom of those who expected to feast upon young women and boys to speak of the lusciousness of their in- ];AUl:AUlb.M illustrate:).— IMJIAN IN A Kanaka Gkuvi;. Di.iu ii Iiy Tliiii:u, fioiii a phnl..grai.h. est repugnance or disgust. It was the custom, first of all, to eat the bodies of the enemy slain or taken in battle. Those recently killed were preferred, but it was not against usage to cat tho bodies of those wlio had Itcen dead for a considerable period. Young people, especially girls, were chosen for the feast. The preliminary murder was no more regarded tlian the slaughter of a tended victims. It has been declared, with probable tnith, that the Fijians have no word in their language to denote a hu- man body except such as convey the notion of food. One of the common descriptive epithets f>f human flesh \^ /itiaka Ihi/niun, which signifies "long pig!" it is impos- sible to convey an impression sufliciently horrifying of the cannibalism of these people and its attendant degradation. PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM I L LUSTRA TED. 395 The manner of life among the Red barbarians of North America is sulli- ciently well known, at least to readers in our own country. The investigations Barbarism iUus. of Schoolcraft and Morgan tivTrtcto^ '-i^id a s^oi-^ "f Other <^^r'='^/r^---frfHr ~P^ rgr^-T<#TT "^MfT.^/////, W^lf^n^ Al^P'^^^^^kTt^ ^m>^W^ -i-ti^^ ^^^^^B^ ^lSi^ \W^\i^xH.u\ W HHLajil^ :m.^^^:^^ :^1pWHH ..^ ART WORK OF BARBARIANS. to watch carefully for the reappearance of the harpooned animal and to strike it instantly on its emergence at the surface. The Esquimaux are not withottt skill in pursuing the dry land animals. Thc}^ stalk the reindeer with considerable suc- cess, and are able to deceive many ani- mals by imitating their cry or call. It may be noted that the Esquimaux Songs and mti- have in their character and customs the rudiments of an ideal life. This is man- ifest in at least two particulars. In the first place, the}' have some apprecia- sical instru- ments; amuse- ment the motive category with the music of civilized peo- ples. But a still more remarkable evidence of ideality among the Esquimaux is found in their disposition Taste of the to draw and sketch. The r=^°e ' Y''*'^'"'" mg ana map- taste for this kind of work making, among them amounts almost to a pas. sion. They have a real talent for de- picting the outlines of natural objects. This extends to a considerable degree of skill in the production of maps. The people have a fairl}^ accurate knowledge of the topography of the neighborhood PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 401 and country in which they dwell. Travelers in the arctic regions have frequently drawn upon the natives in the work of sketchinof the coasts and physical features of the country. In many instances the natives have pro- duced maps for their visitors Avliich have proved in application to be more accurate than could have been expected at the hands of barbarians. Still more striking is their skill in the work of drawing proper. Nearly all the Drawing on Esquimau ornaments and X's^oran' ^^tensils are decorated with "vox^L. the outlines of men and birds and beasts. The tusks of walruses and the fossil ivory, which is frequently obtained, are covered with such sketch- ing, and no little degree of skill is dis- played in the work. The Esquimau's fancy takes up the scenes and incidents of daily life, the little dramas of the hut and seashore, the hazards of the chase or of fishing, and even the farcical happenings of their barbarous society, and depicts the same, with no little humor, on the surface of their drawing materials. It is probably true that no other people, ancient or modern, with whom the ethnologist and historian have acquaintance have exhibited in a corre- sponding stage of development so much aptitude and skill in the pictorial repre- sentation of natural objects. Otherwise the Esquimaux have little intellectual force and no attainments. Weakness of the It is surprising to the trav- fbTri'^tlon: in- elerto obscrve their labored ability to count, efforts in attempting to grasp general ideas. They have no mathematical ability whatever. Their minds in respect to number and pennu- tation are as weak ac those of children. They are rarely able to count as much as ten, and beyond this they are unable to go. They have large families, which in the northern regions are a blessing rather than a discomfort. It has been observed that the man of the hut can rarely tell the number of his children. He will attempt to enumerate them on his fingers, will fail, and the matter will result in an animated dispute between himself and his wife! The perceptions properly so called are in a better state of development than the judgment. Those faculties which have been brought into exercise by the conditions of the Esqui- mau environment have been quickened into tolerable activity. But the rest of the mind lies dormant, as in a state of absolute savagery. The social system of these people is miserable in the last degree. They practice polygamv. The Degradations chief men particularly ^*;-f-\"P- encumber themselves with polyandry, multiple wives, and the usage attracts no comment. Polyandry is also in vogue, but is not so common as polyg- amy. A woman of unusual attractive- ness will frequently have two or three husbands, but the common lot are con- tent with one. The sanctity of the relation of the man and the woman is not regarded. The custom which has been noted among many savage nations of loaning to a visiting stranger the wife of the man who is visited prevails among the Esquimaux. The act is regarded as a social compliment, and any refusal to accept the same on the part of the visitor would be a gross violation of etiquette. As to moral qualities, the Esquimaux have very little appreciation of duty, obligation, or dependence „^ , '=' . ^ . Weakness of on a higher power. Their moral nature; a , . ■ rude humanity. promise or pledge, how- ever solemnly made, is generally worth- less. It does not appear that they will- fully deceive or purposely break their 402 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. word. But the changing conditions of to-morrow making it of advantage to violate a pledge of to-day furnish an easy reason to the barbarian for doing so. Of religious dut}' and ceremony they know but little or nothing. In their relations with one another, howe^'er, they are generally kind, humane, accom- modating. The neighborly feeling pre- vails in the Esquimau settlements. There is much of common interest among them. The people support each other in their rude enterprises, and Drs'A'ing of an ibex. cru- elty traceable to ethnic indiffer- of ence. Group of figures, ART WORK OF TIIIC KSQf;MAUX — DRAWING ON BONE AND IVORY generosity is by no means unknown. The poorer members of the tril^e are supplied in times of want. The hunter divides the rcsiilts of his successful pur- suit with his less successful companion. Two or three fishermen who have had the good fortune to take a walrus arc by no means niggardly in distributing to others a portion of their fortune. In one striking particular the Esqui- maux rise above their contemporaries of the American forest. They arc never willfully and maliciously cruel. There is, perhaps, no authentic instance on record of vindictive and preconcerted cruelty toward their fellows. The absence of this disposition Absence of among them, however, is rather in the nature apathy than of a positive virtue. They are simply indifferent, and are incapable of cruelt}^ or revenge because of their passionless character. They are cold in life and manners, and, though little dis- posed to do actual harm or to inflict pain upon their fellows, they are equally indisposed to do them positive good. Such, in brief, is the manner of life, the habit, the taste, the intellectual capacity, and general disposition of these widely disseminated barbarians of the North. The foregoing account of the general condition of several barbarian races is little more than a sketch of present disser- superficial aspects. There J;:;^°S:2r:'" is no pretense in this than a sketch, connection of making a complete picture of savage life as it exists at present in various quarters of the world. That work is re- served for another part of this treatise on the Great Races. What is here pre- sented is merely illustra- tive of savage manners and customs as they now prevail, and the meaning of the illustration is simply to throw light, by reflection, npon the condition of man- kind in prehistoric ages. In every epoch since the appearance of human beings on the globe men have been men. Their essential characters, dispositions, and tendencies have always been the same, or at least in close analogy. The human animal has always had his own habits, peculiarities, and possibilities of development. The present state of the barbarous races, therefore, is of much value to the historian and ethnologist in PRIMEVAL MAN.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRA TED. 403 determining the primitive condition of tnanl<;ind, and it is for tliis jiurposc that the foregoing imperfect sketches of several savage peoples have been pre- sented. The cnri'cnt savagery of the world is exponential of that prehistoric barbarism which prevailed before tlie beginnings of authentic history; and, although ^uch allowance must be made for the varying conditions of environ- ment and instinct in the prehistoric ages and at the present time, it can not be doubted that the current aspect of bar- barous life is in most respects a faithful picture of that wliich prevailed before the Vcdas were chanted in the valley of the Indus, before Abraham took his journey from Ur of the Chaldees, before the sea-beaten ^neas and his Trojan companions had found a footing on the western coasts of Latium. Besides the condition of absolute sav- agery described in the preceding para- Place of semi- graphs, certain secondary th^'tcenliiTg stages of barbarism may scale of races. -well be noticed. We may not say with certainty that the semi- barbarity of tlie world is the resultant of such antecedent savagery as we have de- scribed ; but no doubt such is the fact. Neither may we affirm certainly that the semibarbarous peoples are to be the progenitors of highly civilized races. It is probable that the analogy of the tree should here again be applied to the human race as a whole. Branches put out and are developed to a certain stage. Be- yond this they do not expand. Pres- ently they decay and die. Then they fall away from the vital trunk which supports the more vigorous and ex- pansive branches above. It will not do to say that all branches of a vital organism are equally potent in -development. It is only the more cen- tral and stronger that shoot up and spread and flourish. This is probably true of the evolution of mankind con- sidered as one organic, ,. . . „ ., , ' Philosophy of living thing. Possibly the the semlbarbar- . •11 io estate of man. present residual savagery of the world will never reach much be- yond its present stage of evolution. This may be true also of the semibar- barous peoples. For the present it suf- fices that such peoples exist and occupy a considerable part of the earth's surface. Their manners, customs, and modes of existence differ much from those of the savages whom we have described above. They also differ much from the usages of the civilized races — most of all from the refined and cultivated peoples of Europe and America. Sucla types as we here contemplate may be found widely distributed throughout Northern Asia. TheTungusea They are of vast terri- ''^::r^,t torial expansion and of a barbanty. comparatively low manner of life. As an example of the whole class the Tun- guses of North-Central Asia may be cited. Their customs are above the horizon of savagery, but greatly below the line of civilization. What is said of their customs may be repeated of their intellectual and moral qualities. We note among them a considerable devel- opment of the mental faculties and a measure of moral obligation and duty. But these terms must be defined, not according to the standards with which we are familiar, but by a criterion fixed for the particular thing to be defined. The Tungusic barbarians live the wild life of hunters and fishermen. They tame the reindeer, using that ani- mal for both food and draught. In like manner they train their dogs to draw their sledges. They live a half-seden- tary life, having a rude society and the beginnings of usages that in higher 404 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. progress would be defined as civil. The domestic estate is in a corresponding stage of development. The religious life has been vaguely determined by a native faith which is called Shamanism, and b}' the vague outreaching influences of Lamaism from the side of the Mon- golian countries, and the touch of Greek and others in the other ; that is, one as- pect of the Moorish life seems to ap- proximate the CT)nditions present in Eu- rope and the Americas, while another asjDect is distinctly barbarous. In their commercial transactions, and indeed in all of those parts of their pub- lic life in which they are brought into SEMIBARBARISM TI.I.USTRATF.n-THE NORTH ASIATIC MANNKR.^ I Drawn by Victor Adam, after a .sketch of the Count de Rci.hbcrg, Catholicism out of vSiberia and the West. We may note also a grade of semi- barbarity peculiar to North Africa and to some portions of Eastern Semibarbarism ^ of the Moors and and Southeastern Asia. Berbers. -n 1 x i ■ i Perhaps the semibar- barous life of the Moors is the liigh- est estate of mankind below the level of civilization. Some of the usages of tlie Moors and Berbers look in one direction contact with foreign nations, the Moors have the manners peculiar to the ruder forms of civilization. But in their race customs — those which they have de- rived from the past — they are distinctly barbaric. Their personal manners among themselves have the sense and ilavor of a remote and barbaric past. Their wild dances and crude religious ceremonies ally the race with the barlia- rians, leaving only a small reason for 406 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. classifying them with the civilized peo- ples of the world. Several important inferences are now to be drawn from the snbject-matter of the present chapter. It remains to sum- marize the results and to state their meaning. The reader will, doubtless, already have deduced several conclusions from his study of the preceding chap- ters ; but it will be of additional interest to state in a few paragraphs the leading truths which follow as a logical conclu- sion from premises furnished by the study and comparison of prehistoric and modern barbarism. repulsive features. What the cave men of Western Europe and the shell-mound people of the shores of the Baltic were in the post-pliocene era — when .the mammoth was still a denizen of West- ern Europe and America, when the hairy rhinoceros and the reindeer were in the valleys of the Seine and the Loire, when the cave bear and the cave hyena and the Bos primigcnius still maintained their existence from the northern ocean to the Pyrenees — that the native Austra- lians, the Veddahs of Ceylon, the savages of the Andaman islands, and the Fue- gians of South America are to the pres- I'lCKikl W, WORK OF THE ESQUIMAUX. I. In the first place, it will be noted that the prehistoric age and the current All ages furnish cpoch of huniau history e^tTutLir ■ alike furnish examples of the dition. loivest stuges of human devel- opment. This is to say that at the two extremes of human history, the one ly- ing below the daydawn of authentic annals and the other reaching to tlic very feet of the present, tribes of men arc found in similar stages of degradation and savagery. This signifies that the ■whole of human history has not been sufficient to extinguish barlmrism from the earth, or even to obliterate its most en t day. Some variations and departures of tribal character doubtless exist be- tween the prehistoric barbarians and their fellows of the modern world. No doubt there are conditions prevalent, forces operative in the processes of our planet life which have effected changes and diversities of character between the ancient and the modern savages ; but the fact remains of their characteristic and es- sential identity. In food and clothing, in weapons and utensils, in hut building and the rude beginnings of artisanship, in coarseness of manners and brutality of life, the two extremes of the ethnic PRlM/il'AL Jf.LV.—BARBAR/SJ/ 1 1. LUSTRA TED. 407 history of man may be brought together, and the difference might be hard to seek. 2. The life of man in the prehistoric ages and in the modern barbarian Like extremes world prcsciits similar cx- of development present in an- trClllCS of dcVcloplllCnt . This cient and mod- . , ^.i ^ • 1.1 • ■ ern times. IS to Say that in the prmn- tive world great variety is discovered in the life of tribes and peoples, and in the degree of development. In some, the evolutionary forces had already worked a considerable result at our earliest ac- -iff^" expansion and possibility. In general, the aboriginal inhabitants of Western Europe were as low in development as may well be conceived. The cave men and the coast people were in the extreme of savagery, and it is difficult to point to a single evidence among the relics and memorials which they have left to ar- chaeology and history of even a tendency to reach a higher stage of life. This same contrariety between the higher and lower aspects of human existence in the prehistoric world finds NONPROGHESSIVE STA 1 E Of B.\KI;A Kl>.\l.— i. hiuilwa^ ok Sai li- :^Al^TE .Makie. quaintance with a given people, while in others the grossness of savagery was unabated. If we scrutinize the old house-folk of Arya or study the characteristics of some of the better peoples of Asia Minor and the West, such as the Pelasgians of Greece, or the Etruscans of Italy, we shall find them to have been vigorous and growing races, great builders of stone, makers of towns and treasure-houses and fortifica- tions and aqueducts. But if we glance at other aspects of prehistoric humanity we find no such promising symptoms of an exact analogy among modern barba- rians. Here, also, we have Existing barba- mixed evidences of the ^.^e"^;:!^- progressive and nonpro- nonprogressiva. gressive disposition. Many of the exist- ing barbarous races are as absolute in their savagery as were any of the pre- historic tribes, while others give proof of a forward movement and of actual at- tainment, which may well elicit hopeful- ness and even challenge admiration. The general principle is that the sanie diversity which we find evidenced among the races of the primitive world 408 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLYD. exist among; the barbarous peoples of the present time ; from which it would ap- pear that beyond the pale and influence of the civilized nations a state of human' society still exists which is little dissimi- lar to that which the ethnologist discov- buiion of mankind. In contemplating the barbarous races now inhabiting the outskirts of the world, we The barbaric life discover little or nothing does not reveal ^ Its o-wn origin or to inform the judgment as spread. to Iiotv savagery begins or ends, or as to PROGRESSIVt; I.I.KMLNT IN BARBARISM— ILLUSTRATED IN WEAPONS OF NF.W ZF.ALANDliRS. I, saw ; 2, cliisci ; 3, knife ; 4, ax of chipped flint ; 5, spear of gronnd blunc ; 6, ax of polished stone. ers on the remotest horizon of his in- quiry. , 3. The study of the existing forms of barbarism throws very little light on fundamental questions relative to i/ie ori- gin of savagery and t/ir primitive distri- thc ethnic jw/rr^' from which such peo pies have descended. Their traditions, as already rcmai'ked are valueless, and their monuments and arts serve only to illustrate the jiassing phases of their social condition. It is possible for the PRIMJil'AL MAX.— BARBARISM ILLUSTRATED. 409 historian to sec in the actions of existing barbarians those unconscious movements of man which, in some instances at least, precede the birth and early struggles of civilization. Savage tribes in such a state of development — if, indeed, they are developing at all — are in close anal- ogy with the unconscious period in hu- man life. There is a sense in which the species is always epitomized and ex- pressed in the individual. What the child does without consciousness of its own actions or tendencies, that the species does in an analogous stage of de- velopment. But the evidence of the child with respect to its own past, or even with respect to its own purposes, would be little regarded by any candid inquirer. It is a period in individual or tribal life characterized by dreams and vagaries of the fancy ; and it must not be forgotten that the fancy is frequently distorted by abnormal conditions and even by disease and delirium. On the whole, the impartial student of the primitive condition of niankind is able to discover as much evidence out of the memorials of the prehistoric ages rela- tive to the origin and essential charac- ter of barbarism and the beofinningfs of tribal life in different quarters of the world, as he is able to discover from the closest scrutiny of the actions and man- ner of life of the existing barbarous peoples. 4. The chief difference between the aspect of modern barbarism and that of Ancient and the primitive world is in Tiffer^ntty '>^ geographical distribution. The disposition of modern savager}- is very different as it respects the habitable surface of the globe from that of the ancient world. In the earli- est epochs accessible to our information savagery was distributed into all parts and places. It had possession of the M. — Vol. I — 27 current barba- rism distributed choicest regions of the globe. There was a time when it was the central fact in Asia, in Europe, and in the two Ameri- cas. Until the present century it was still the central fact in Au.stralia, but the growth and spread of civilization has displaced its barbaric competitor. At the first the savage state gave away in the river valleys of the East and in those choice peninsulas which drop down from the northern continents into the southern waters. In a later stage barbarism receded from the re- UNPROGRESSIVE CONDITION — MINCOPA MAN, FROM THS ANDAMAN ISLANDS. gions north of the great mountain chains. The central portions of the continents were reclaimed,, and there Avas a recession, a retreat, of savagery toward the borders of the world. The general result has been the ex- tirpation of the barbarous condition in all the central and better Ci-rtii2ationhas crowded sav- partsof the habitable globe, ageryoutofthe T . • • . 1 1 . better parts of It IS m these best re- the world, gions of the world that the great powers are planted. Here they flourish, and in proportion as they are vigorous and possess the elements of perpetuity, they extend themselves, by varjang con- quests, toward the horizon. Savagery 410 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. has fallen back before this movement and is now compelled to occupy the fur- ther coasts of the planet. In the far regions of the north it is still able to maintain itself, at least for a season. In parts of South America and in nearly the whole of Africa it still prevails, flourishing as it were under the aegis of a climate which seems to forbid the de- velopment of a higher civilization. As for the rest, barbarism plants itself in what will perhaps prove its last strong- hold, the remote islands of the great oceans. It is easy to discover how .vastly the position and relative importance of civilization and the barbaric life have been changed in their geographical place, with a constant advantage in fa- vor of the civilized condition. 5. The principal lesson deducible from the present aspect of savagery is the emphasis which it places on tlic dif- Difference be- feroice between the pros[rcssive fween progress- . ive and nonpro- and the nonprogressive parts Wanhfe!"^*^" of the human spceies. We have seen above that many forms of ex- isting savagery are as low and unprom- ising as any which prevailed in the pre- historic era. The flint implement of to-day is in no wise superior to that which the cave dweller used in his bat- tle with the extinct mammalia of West- ern Europe. The manners and customs of the Andamaners and the Veddahs, and the method of life of the Digger Indians in Western America are in eyeryvvise as gross and degrading as any which are suggested by the memo- rials and relics of the jDrimitive world. It appears conclusive that a considera- ble part of the human race is at the present time in a condition Lowest savage- as degraded and unpro- Zf^^H^i^to? gressive as any which is '•^^ globe. . suggested by our knowledge of the pre- historic races of the Old World. On the other hand, we have the fact of evolu- tionary progress splendidly illustrated in the history, tendencies, and prospects of the civilized races. It is apart from the jaresent purpose to speak of the in- dustry, the enterprise, the letters, the art, the triumph over the obdurate forces of the natural world, which have been practiced and achieved by the great peo- ples now holding dominion in the earth. It is sufficient to note and to emphasize the contrast which is afforded by the de- graded and the elevated aspects of hu- man life, and this contrast is brought most vividly to the mind of the inquirer as he considers the aspect of barbarism set darkly against the blazing disk of civilization. P^;:?^ i-.tf---._-ix-. .i. KACE CHART NO. 1 SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND ON THE HYPOTHESIS OF A COMMON ORIGIN. •-»-♦ Rudely Races on Red Lines Brown Races on Brown Lines Black Races on Blade Lines Names of Existing Races in Red HODUOl/llila RACE CnART No. 1. EXPLANATION. It is the purpose uf :liis Chart to show The Distribution of the Races of Mankind, ou the theory that they have all proceeded from a common source. That source is indicated by the heavy black line at the left, marked " Original Stock of Mankind." From this original stock several great divisions branch off, the first of which is the stem of the prehistoric Black races; the second, the stem of the prehistoric Brown, or Mongoloid, races; and the third, the stem of the prehistoric Ruddy, or White, races. Each of these stems divides into many branches. In general, the latitude of the given race is indicated in the Chart as on an ordinary map; that is, those races having the most northeruly distribu tion are above ; those in the temperate zones come next, as nearly as prac- ticable ; and those in the tropical regions fall in the center or lower part of the Chart. Wherever the red lines extend, there the While, or Ruddy, races are distributed ; wherever the brown lines reach, there the Brown, or Mongoloid, races are found; while the black lines indicate the distribution of the Black races. Xearly one-fourth of the Chart at the left indicates the prehistoric, or unknown, period of race distribution. Out of this prehistoric period the various races emerge. There is an Aryan, or Indo-European, family ; a Semitic family; a Hamitic f.miily; a Mongoloid family; and sundry Black races, little known to the present day. In the greater part of the center of the Chart, and to the right, wherever the names of races or stocks are printed in black letters, those races, or stocks, are extinct ; that is, they have either ceased to exist, or are repre- sented only in their descendants. Examples of such are the Visigoths, the Carthaginians, the Etruscans, etc. All the names of races, families, and stocks, printed in red letters, are existing, or living, peoples. These are found, for the most part, distributed to the right at the end of race-stems. Thus we have, as examples of living races, beginning above, the Welsh, the Icelanders, the Red Russians, the Montenegrins, the English-speaking races, the High Germans, the Swiss, the Brazilians, the Esquimaux, the Magyars, the Osmanlis, etc. The Chart enables the reader, in particular, to trace the race descent of any living variety of mankind. Thus, the English-speaking races are de- rived (read back from right to left) from Anglo-Saxons, Saxons, Ingavo- nians, Mceso-Goths, out of the German stem, of the Teuto-Slavic division, of the West Aryan branch, of the Indo-European family, of the prehistoric Ruddy, or White, races. So, in all the cases of race-historj', the Chart is intended to show, at a single survey, all of the leading developments of mankind. Many minor varieties are necessarily omitted ; but all of the principal slocks of the human race are here displayed in their proper ethnical and historical development. (For the geographical distribution of the various races, see Race Charts Nos. 2 to g. inclusive.) BOOK IV.-DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES. Chapter XXIII. -Classification of the Human Species. T has already been re- marked that migration constitutes one of the leading facts in the history of the primitive world. Movement was the mood of the first men who possessed the earth. It was by means of tribal and national migra- tions that mankind were distributed into the various regions where they subse- quently established themselves in com- munities and states. From certain cen- ters the human streams arose and flowed in different directions, bearing afar the fecund waters of future national life. Nearly all of these movements are hidden under the obscurity that clouds Obscurity of the the beginnings of history. The very best penetration of the historian and eth- nologist can reach no further than the shadowy confines of the countries and ages in which these primitive motions of early move- ments of man' kind. the human race took their origin and expended their force. The task of de- lineating the migrations and dispersions of the early races may well challenge the profoundest inquiry, and the prob^ lem must even then be attempted with extreme diffidence and much distrust of the existing resources of knowledge. — It is the purpose in the present book to delineate at least the leading migrations of the early races of man. In the nature of the case, the migratory movements of primitive mankind have left only incidental traces in . . Why a classifica- history and tradition. For tion of the races this reason the evidences ^^^^'^^^^^^' of human distribution have to be gath- ered, for the most part, by indirection out of collateral branches of inquiry. As preparatory to a description of these movements, upon which all future history in some sense depended, it is necessary to frame an adequate analysis of the hu- man family according to those distinc* 411 412 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIND. tions upon wnich the tribal and national life of one people is discriminated from that of another. It is impossible to speak intelligently of the early migra- tions of mankind without a division and classification of the human species, to the end that its various parts may be considered in detail and in relation the one with another. Such a classification into different races, families, and stocks is the first task imposed upon the eth- nologist, and is a work in ever}- way race according to its true ethnic distinc- tions has never been satisfactorily ac- complished. The piinciple according to which the division or divisions are to be made has never been well determined, and the problem at the present day is still to be considered in its original elements. It can but be of interest in this con* nection to present in brief some of the leading methods which have been adopt- ed in the attempted classification of the A METHOD OF MIGRATION.— Eastern Caravan.— Drawn l.y \V. J. Morgan. essential to the understanding of the beginnings of human history. The division of the vegetable kingdom by Linnaeus, and the arrangement of the No adequate animal World into genera method of c!as- n-^^A r.«^^,',,^. «...,i ...«..;^.4-C^,. Bifyingyetdis- ^^^ spccics and vanctics covered. i^y Cuvicr, were not more essential to the tmderstanding of those two great departments of nature than is an adequate classification of mankind into races, families, and types essential to a knowledge of ethnic history. Great, therefore, is the embarrassment of the inquirer to find that even to the present day this work of classifying the human human race. The most learned of the an» cients were profoundh' ignorant of the af- finities of the different fam- The ancients b&- ilics of mankind, and found ^^^efs'ty oTthe no pleasure in tracing races, such relation.ships. On the contrary, the mental tone of antiquity was against the notion of the kinship and common descent of the nations. Each people disseminated the belief in its own prior- ity and preeminence, and discarded as much as possible those democratic tradi- tions which seemed to reduce themselves to a common level with barbarians and heathen. Not until long after the eclipse DISTRIBUTION OF THF. RACILS.—TTIINIC CLASSIFICATION. 413 ions conduced to a belief 711 unity. of the classical ages, not until the bar- barism of mediaeval Europe had at length been pushed back by the revival of learning, did men -attemi^t in a iftore thoughtful and philanthropic spirit to investigate the beginnings of human development and the affinities of the different peoples who inhabited the earth. At the time of this rccnlightenmcnt of the European nations the Roman Cath- Scripturai opin- "lie Churcli was dominant throughout the West. This great organization was based u;)oii the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, and from these ancient books were derived, either directly or indirectly, the greater part of the learn- ing of the Middle Ages. It came to pass, therefore, that the first rational views with regard to mankind considered as a race and the dispersion and affinity of the nations were derived from scriptural sources. It was from this origin that the prevalent opinions of several cen- turies were deduced, and it will, there- fore, be appropriate in this connection to present, first of all, the long prevalent beliefs which were derived from the Hebrew Scriptures. I. The Biblical Ethnology. — In the tenth chapter of Genesis we have an ac- The biblical eth- count of the departures and migrations of primitive mankind. The narrative begins with the descendants of Noah, the survivors of a deluge. His three sons become the progenitors of the three dominant races which go forth to people the world. The progenies of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, according to their families and tribes, are dispersed in the various countries of Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe. In general, this account assigns to Shem and his family the Elamites, the nology; distri bution of Shem and Ham. A.ssyrians, "Arphaxad and Lud and Aram." According to this scheme Eber is the grandson or descendant of Arphax- ad, from which we are able to see emerg- ing dimly at least three historical peoples — the Elamites, the Assyrians, and the Hebrews. Among the sons of Ham are mentioned Cush, and ilizraim, and Phut, and Canaan, with their respective de- scendants. To Cush is assigned Nimrod and his historical progeny, ilizraim is doubtless the original tribal name of the Egyptians, while Canaan, whose sons are Sidon and Heth, is clearly the ancestor ( '\ CUSHITE TYPE — SUFIK OF CHAMARS. Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Mougal. of the Canaanitish races of subsequent times. The generations of Japheth are said to be Gomer and Magog and Madai and Javan and Tubal and japheth dissem. Meshech and Tiras. To jp.ated into the isles of the each of these is given a fam- gentiles." ily of sons and descendants, and they are said to have distributed themselves among the " isles of the gentiles," " ev- ery one after his tongue, after their fam- ilies, in their nations." In the case of Japheth, also, we are able to detect the 414 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. historical beginning of nations, especial- ly in the case of his son Madai, who is thought to have given his. name to the ancient Medes. Besides what is here presented in outline, a place must be left in the ethnic scheme for the direct de- scendants of Noah, who is said to have lived for more than a century after the Deluge, and to have begotten sons and daughters. Such, in a word, is the biblical scheme which the first ethnologists of modern Europe emploj-ed to account for the dis- Summaryofthe persion of the human race TT^^. in the earth. It gives a fair- peoples. ly adequate outline of the ;;ieopling of Western and Soutliwestern Asia and of the countries around the eastern parts of the Mediterranean. We may even allow for the dissemination of the descendants of Noah eastward from Armenia, and thus cover a still wider area of the habitable globe. A sum- mary, then, of the biblical schedule of the primitive peoples will give the fol- lowing results : 1. JaphctJiitcs, with seven tribal divi- sions, migratory in habit, journeying to the west, and peopling the gentile lands beyond the limits of Asia. 2. Ilaniitcs, with four family, or tribal, divisions, three of which, at any rate, may be located, resj^ectively, in Cush and Canaan and Egyjit. 3. Scmitis, with five tribal branches, of which the Assyrians, the Elamites, the people of ancient Aram, called Aramae- ans, and the Hebrews, became, in their respective countries, the leading repre- sentatives. 4. Noac kites proper, of the divisions of which the biblical narrative has given us no outline, but concerning which a ra- tional inference of eastern migration may be drawn. ■- he account in Genesis indicates clearly a disposition of the Noachite families to part company and disperse into various reefions. The . . . ^ Value of the eth- difterentiation of tribes nic scheme out- 1 1 -, lined iu Genesis. IS clearl}- announced as the fundamental fact in the first epoch after the traditional destruction of the Old AVorld by water. There is thus a certain conformity in the account given in Genesis to the actual facts which we discover on the furtherest horizon of the primeval world. The jostling and di- vision of tribes under the impulse of the migratory instinct is a fact which pre- sents itself with equal clearness to the historian, the ethnologist, and the an- tiquary ; and the correspondence of the primitive Hebrew narrative Avith this manifest tendency among the primeval families of men gives force and credibil- ity and corroboration to both branches of the inquiry. Concerning the above biblical scheme of the dispersion of mankind in the primitive world, it may be fairly urged that it is hardly as ample as the facts to which it is applied. Within the limits of the peoples and countries referred to in the tenth chapter of Genesis, it ap- pears to cover approximately the facts as they have been revealed by other methods of investigation, but it leaves many parts of the world unprovided with the populations which they are known to have possessed even before the dawn of authentic history. Many attempts have been made to strain and exaggerate the biblical ethnology, and to comi^el it, by attenuation and hy- pothesis, to cover all parts points of inap- of tlie habitable 'lobe plioability in the Hebrew classifi- These efforts appear to have cation. been inspired by a zeal bej-ond knowl- edge, and to have had little success in application, except in the minds of those who had been already fixed in belief by DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 415 preconceived opinions. This is to say that the attempt to derive such races as the primitive inhabitants of Western Europe — the cave men, the people of the shell mounds, and the tumuli — from some branch of the Semites, the Japheth- ites, or the Hamites, as those families are outlined in the tenth chapter of Genesis, ^vould have no ground on which to rest — at least in the pres- ent state of human knowledge. In like manner, the attempted deriva- tion of the North American In- dians, of the Aztecs, of the South Pacific Islanders, of the Fuegians, of the native Australians, or of the Hottentots, from the Hebrew plan of dispersion would be equally without avail, at least with such data as are now in the possession of scholars. The scheme of famil)^ and tribal division given in the tenth chapter of Genesis appears to The scheme sat- . ^ isfactory withia the historian aud eth- narrow limits. . • i j. i ^ • j? nologist to be satisfac- tory witJiin the narrow limits of the races and countries to ivhich it ap- plies; but it also appears that there are many parts of the globe which are known to have been inhabited at a time even more remote than current chronology assigns to the rise of the Noachite nations for which the plan of dispersion pre- sented above seems to provide no likelihood or even possibility of inhabitants. How far the Hebrew scheme of dispersion and development from a Noachite origin through its three leading branches of Hamites, Semites, and Japhethites conforms to other ethno- logical outlines derived from different data and by means of different methods of investigation, remains to be elucidated in the following pages. II. Historical Ethnology. — With the progress of historical investigation during the last three or four origin and de- centuries so much infor- ^^H^ZT.t. mation has been gathered noiogy. relative to the first races of men and their movements across the ancient land- INDO-EUROPEAN TYPE — THE SULTAN MACOUD MIRZA. Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy, scape, that a system of ethnic classifica- tion has been advanced from a purely historical basis. It was known, or sus- pected, by the Romans and Greeks two thousand years ago that they were re- lated in their descent. Later on it be- came known that such peoples as the ^ledes and Persians were of the same race-origin with the Macedonians and 416 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the Hellenes. In still more recent times it was discovered that the Teutonic races had an ethnic afhnit}- with the Grasco- Italic family and with the Celts of West- em Europe. Still more recently it be- came known that the Hindu races were descended, in all probability, from a common origin with the Greeks, the Ro- mans, and the Teutonic branches of man- kind. A still hisfher view Glimpses of a . wide appUcation of the wliole question has smet o . 1^^ to the belief of the ul- timate affinity of the Semitic nations with the great peoples mentioned above, and SEMITIC TYPE — THE ARAB BENI LAAM. Drawn by H. Thiriat. from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. of the Hamites with all the rest. As the historical horizon has widened and the vision of the observer has become clearer with the increase of knowledge, the true relations of the various families of men have been discov-ered to the ex- tent of warranting a classification on the basis of actual history; and many at- tempts have been made to produce on this basis a scheme of ethnic dispersion as broad and comprehensive as the far- reaching facts which it is intended to explain. As a result of this method, several races of men have been distinguished from each other and classified according to their ethnic descent and affinities. 1. TJie Indo-European Race. — It has been definitely ascertained that two of the gi'eat Asiatic families Meaning and and at least four of the pre v- terr"°indo- alent peoples of Europe European race.** have had a common descent from a com- mon ancient origin. To this community of nations the name Indo-European, or Indo-Germanic, has been applied by his- torical writers. The term signifies the two extremes in place and time of the nation- al dispersion from the common origin referred to. It signifies that an Indie branch of the human family, including with this term the Iranic, or Persic, di- vision of mankind, has been derived primarily from the same fountain with the Graeco-Italic race and with the Celtic and Teutonic divisions of mankind ia Europe. From the common fountain, two Asiatic streams flowing to the south and the east are known to have arisen in common with the four westward flow- ing streams that were destined to bear into Europe and through all the west the primitive waters of Hellenic, Italic, Teutonic, and Celtic nationality. The term Indo-European is thus devised to cover the wide extremes of human de- velopment which span the world from the valley of the Indus to California. 2. The Semitic Race. — Under this head the historians have developed a classifi- cation very nearly analogous to that em- braced under the same Clas- Races included sification in biblical cthnol- "i^^l'^t^l ogy. There is, historically 't'°- speaking, some indistinctness on the further borders of Semitic development. Whether, for instance, the ancient Chal- dees were to be included under this designation may be regarded as doubt- ful. It is sufficient to note that the He- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 417 brew race, in its several divisions, ancient and modern, is included under the Semitic division of mankind, and consti- tutes, indeed, its most striking repre- sentatives. So also tlie more recent Arabs are included as a cognate branch of the same great family; and tlie an- cient Aramaeans prevalent in Syria, Mesopotamia, and other western dis- tricts of Asia must in like manner be classified with the Semitic division of mankind. The reader will not fail to observe that history, considered as- a sci- ence, and the scriptural account of the dispersion of the human race are very nearly in accord as it respects the divi- sions, migrations, and historical devel- opment of the Semitic family of men. 3 . The Hainitic Race. — This division of mankind is known to history chiefly by its greatest representatives, the ancient Who the Ham- Egyptians. As planters of the strongest and most enduring civilization of re- mote antiquity, these people could but make a strong impression on the earliest historical developments of the world. Cognate with the Egyptian race were several other branches of Hamites, but nearly all of them are obscured with doubt as to their origin and classi- fication. Such are the old Chaldaeans, who planted their empire on the Lower Euphrates as much as two thousand years before our era ; and such are the Joktanian Arabs of the south, bordering on the ocean, and such are several of the Canaanitish rations, with whom the greater historical peoples came into con- tact from the seventh to the third cen- tury B. C. Many historians have re- garded the Phoenicians, the Sidonians, and the Carthaginians as of Hamitic descent, and it is highly probable that some of these peoples were at least com- posite in their ethnic origin. As a gen- ites-were; doubts as to certain races. eral fact, it appears that the Semitic and Hamitic peoples of antiquity were less completely separated from each other's influence, less perfectly differentiated HAMITIC TYPE — THE EGVrTIAN SAIS. Drawn by A. de Bar. into diverse types of race development, than any other two branches of thes primitive family of men. 4. The Altaian Races. — The great no- madic peoples having the highlands of 418 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. the Altais as their original habitat have been designated by many terms, and The Altaian there is yet much confusion ZZ^tiZt' in their attempted classifi- Tartars. cation. Even the major divisions of these races are not well made out. One of the broadest divisions is the Tartar family, spreading to the north and east over a great part of • Asia. It is still in dispute whether WIS voov^BS^eoB^o 1 **«iae«BSQC£e£BaB5£^ '.1«^J/^T ALTAIAN TYPE — OI.T) TARANTCHI. Drawn by !■".. Ronjat, from a pholograpli. the Tartars and Mongolians should be considered as primary ethnic divisions of mankind, or whether the Mongolian branch of the south has been deflected from the Tartar gr(Hi]> of ihc nortli. As we shall presently see, this great assem- blage of semicivilized races, nomadic over the va.st steppes of ilu' muth and in a low grade of development in the sioutli, is defined bv the term Turanian in the linguistic division of men. But for historical purposes the whole group may best be classified and named from its geographical center on the northern slopes of the Altais. The "White Tar- tars, or Turcomans, as the westernmost division of the great Altaian group, have, by their aggressions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Eastern Europe, brought the family of nations to Avhich they belong into historical relationship with the Indo- European race, and have thus preserved unto the present time at least the rem- iniscence of the prowess for which they were characterized in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 5. Western Aborigines. — Besides the greater peoples with whom historyhas had to deal in Western Asia and Aboriginal races Europe, the progress of na- of the western . • . Ill 1 i hemisphere. tions westward has brought them into contact with new varieties of the human famih', unknown in ancient times. The limited geographical knowl- edge of the ancient peoples shut them out from an acquaintance with the wide- ly sjaread barbarian races occupying the New World, the continent of Australia, and the islands of the sea. It is not meant that the inhabitants of the vast regions here referred to are of a common ethnic descent. On the contrary, as we shall see hereafter, many original stocks of mankind are represented in the exist- ing savagery of the world. But for his- torical purposes tlic aborigines of the West and of the ocean lands of the South and west may, for convenience, be grouped together and considered as an unclassified mass of peoples, in varying stages of evolution. It will be remembered that what is licrc attempted is merely to indicate such results in the way of classification as are afforded from a purely historical point of view; and for this purpose all I DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 419 method ; impep- feotions in the scheme. the outlying barbarous peoples that have been revealed sinee the beginning of Results of the geographical diseovery at the close of the fifteenth century may be grouped as one, and considered as a single fact in the analysis of the human race. If, then, we collect the results derivable from this historical view of the disper- sion of mankind, we shall find the fore- going five groups of peoples, the first three of which, the Indo-European, the Semitic, and the Hamitic branches, are tolerably clearly defined and separated by ethnic lines, while the remaining two, the Altaian group of nations and the Western aborigines, are banked to- gether rather for convenience of consid- eration than by exact principles of clas- sification. III. Linguistic Ethnology. — Within the present century the study of lan- guage has thrown new light on all the In what manner disputed questions relative c^rXsrst;- to the dispersion and race classification. developments of mankind. The scientific investigation of speech has made clear many vexed questions in the primitive history of men that to all seeming could have found no other so- lution. The general eft'ect has been to confirm and establish many of the views already received from tradition and his- torical inquiry, and to disprove and ren- der untenable many other opinions con- cerning the movements and affinities of the early races. ]\Iuch that was conjec- tural has become known as fact. The- ories have been demonstrated or de- stroyed, and new views of the extent, variety, and true character of tribal and national evolution have been projected. In some departments of inquiry the new knowledge has amounted to a revolu- tion. On the whole, it is almost impos- sible to overestimate the value of lin- guistic science in the exiDosition of all questions relative to the prehistoric con- ditions and movements of mankind. If we take up the results of this study of human speech as it respects the eth- nic classification of the race, we find a certain general parallelism to what has been presented above as proceeding from biblical and historical investiga- tion. To begin with, the science of WEST ARYAN TVrK — ALCIUIAUES. language declares with emphasis and demonstrates the existence of — I. Tlic Aryan Race. — This term, as elucidated in the preceding book, relates primarily to a primitive nobility claimed and maintained by the peo- The Aryan race pies called Aryan, which ^^^^^:l^Z. nobility was based upon esses, the agricultural life as distinguished from nomadic and pastoral jDursuits. It is not needed to illustrate further in this connection the meaning and application of the term. It suffices to note the fact 420 GREAT RACES OF MANKLXD. that the study of langi:age has defined and proved be3'ond a doubt the funda- mental affinity and kinship of the Aryan folk of Asia — that is, the great Hindu family of Arj-ans in the valleys of India and the Iranian, or Persic, division of mankind — ^vith the Graeco-Italic race and the Teiitones and Celts of Europe. The community of the original speech of all these peoples, spi'eading in its Avid- est development from the base of the Himalayas "westward over the table-lands of Iran, through the southern peninsulas Race move- and the transmontane for- by^phe^omena ' ^sts of Europe to the Atlan- of language. tic, and through the New World to the Pacific coast, has been es- tablished by proofs irrefragable as those which determine the truths of geology or the laws of the physical world. The course of the tribal movements by which from the countries east of- the Caspian these great and progressive streams of human life pursued their Avay to their destination can be traced by the linguis- tic phenomena which they left in their track, and the elimination of the great family of men to which scholars have in recent times given the name Aryan from the remaining races has been com- pletely effected. It can but be of interest at this point to state the linguistic facts upon which What facts in the classification of man- itnfet^iTar ^i^^ ^as been attempted. ' conclusions. Jt is found that certain peo- ples, like the Aryan family above defined, speak dialects of a common language. In general, they have a vocabulary and a grammar in common. When we find two peoples living in different and dis- tant parts of the earth naming tlie objects of sense and reflection with the same words, and combining those words in sentences under the same laws of gram- matical and logical structure, wc are com- pelled to conclude that the two languages have had a common origin somewhere in the past ; and if the languages have thus arisen from a common source, the two peoples who spoke them had also an original tribal identity. This is exactly the case with the great nations called Aryan. The six branches of this vast family of mankind, nameh-, the Indie, the Iranic, the Hellenic, the Italic, the Teutonic (including the Slavonic), and the Celtic, are not only identified by the laws of histor}', but also by the laws of speech. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India, the Persic dialects of the plateau of Iran, the different varieties of Greek peculiar to Hellas and the . .^gean islands, the Latin tongue of the West, the various Teutonic languages, and the Celtic, with its two or three derivatives, have all. a fundamental linguistic iden- tity. Their vocabulary as it respects the primary objects of sense and the common actions of life is virtually the same in all. More striking still are the fundamen- tal peculiarities of their respective grammars. The great fea- inflection the ture of all these tongues ^^^rof aI/:" is inflection. The varia- speech, tions of thought as, for instance, num- ber, gender, and case in nouns, mood and tense in verbs, comparison in adjec- tives and adverbs, are indicated by terminational changes in the words of the language, and these changes obey the same laws and present the same phenomena in all the speeches above referred to. Only the student of lan- guage can fully appreciate the striking similarities which present themselves in all branches of the Indo-luiropean, or Aryan, tongues. It is as though we should study a single language with dialectical variations. And so indeed it is. The original speech of all these peo- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 421 pies was one. Somewhere in the past and somewhere on the surface of the earth, before the era of tribal migration, a family of men had, by reason and experience, developed a language of the inflectional variety, had given names to the objects of nature and the concepts of the mind, had defined by certain words the actions and thoughts peculiar to their volitions and imaginations. The general result of this evolution was the production of a great typical speech, which was spoken How languages , ,, ,, , . are modified by by all the memberS' of environment. ,-, , ■■, • ■, , -i the tribe m its ancestral home. From this region the migrations began, and each band of emigrants carried with them the ancestral speech. As they entered into new relations with nature and new experiences in life, passing through belts of different cli- mate, encountering new landscapes and familiarizing themselves with new con- ditions and environments, their tongues began to modify the original language, and to adapt it to the changing panorama of nature and the varying concepts of the mind. Generations went by. Differ- ent regions of the earth were reached. National developments ensued. But still the fundamental identity of the speech of all these peoples was main- tained. So that in India, in Persia, in Macedonia and Greece, in Italy, in the forests of Northern Europe, and in the outlying portions of Spain and Gaul and Britain, the scholar of after times discovers the broken, but clearly identi- cal, fragments of a common language once spoken by the ancestors of all these peoples. Thus it is that the study of language has furnished one of the surest criteria by which to determine the ethnic classification of mankind. 2. T/ie Semitic Race. — Follo^\'^ng this same clue, we discover by means of lan- guage another family of men, to which is given the name of Semitic. Here we no- tice the recurrence of the Semitic races same term which was given ^y^t^^'^r/''" us in the biblical ethnol- their languages, ogy and repeated in the historical divi- sion of the races. The linguistic inquirer finds in the East a group of nations speaking languages totally different in structure and vocabulary from the Aryan tongues above defined. The speech of the Hebrews, the old Aramaeans, and the Arabs is as distinct in its essential char- acter from Sanskrit and Greek and Latin as though it belonged to a wholly differ- ent class of phenomena. The words of the Semitic languages, instead of being of all lengths as to syllables and letters, consisted fundamentally of triliteral sym- bols. Every word is essentially a word of three letters and three only. These constitute the skeleton, so to speak, of the vocal symbol, and around this skele- ton the vocalic elements are arranged. Inflection is almost unknown to the Semitic languages. The grammar of these tongues is construct- contrast be- ed upon a totally different ^irAryaTmlth- principle from that of the °^^ °^ speech. Aryan languages. Even the superficial student of human speech must be struck and astonished from the very first with the essential difiference and contrast be- tween the Semitic method of expressing thought and the method of the Arj^an peoples. It is from this distinction that the linguistic inquirer has constructed the classification of the Semitic races. The Hebrews, the Aramaeans, and the Arabs, with their derivatives in ancient and modern times, are grouped by them- selves, and are as certainly defined by means of the langnages which they speak or have spoken as they are clearty divid- ed from the other nations in historic de- velopment. 422 GREAT RACES OF JIAXKLYD. 3. The Turaman Races. — The progress of linguistic science has revealed another Peculiarities of great group of languages, Uie so-called differing entirely in struc- Turanian Ian- » ■' guages- tural character from the two varieties above described. It is found that in general the languages of TUti^MAN TYPE — KIROIIKKZ I'ALCONKR. Drawn by Dclort, from a pholugraph and descripuon. the nomadic nations of Northern Asia are monosyllabic. Tliey consisted origi- nally of words of a single syllable, and are never inflected. In order, however, to express the necessary inflection of ideas and to effect the construction of the sentence, they adopted what is called the agglutinative method of combina- tion. That is, several monosyllables are put in juxtaposition to express the com- plex or compound notion which in the Aryan languages would be denoted by means of inflectional terminations. This feature of combin- ing monosyllables in long, compound expres- sions, partly resembling words and partly sen- tences, is common to the languages of nearly all the nomadic nations of the earth. It is believed by schol- ars that such languages have not yet reached the inflectional Features of ag- Stage 01 ue- tongues ; mean- velopment, »»£ of "tura." and that, in obedience to natural laws, they will ultimately pass into a form of structure similar to that of the Aryan vo- cabulary and grammar. No example of such trans- mutation, however, has been noted in any quar- ter of the world. The agglutinative languages hold fast to their original character, and the peo- pics who speak them prefer to retain their te- dious, periphi-astic meth- ods of expression to the adoption of the briefer and more elegant inflectional forms of speech. Based on these agglutinative dialects, the ethnic classification of races has been extended to DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSHICA J/Ua . 423 include the great group called Turanian. The word is derived from tura, "a horseman," and has respect to the nation- al habit of life peculiar to the semibar- barous races of . .,rp,„^vjyy«j^-r^,g:;^„.^. Northern Asia. ^ -'"' In general, the Turanian fam- ily, as deter- mined by the peculiarities of language, con- forms with tol- erable identity to the Altaian group of na- tions as deter- mined by his- torical relation- ships. 4. The Gan- oiuanian Races. — In addition to the three major divisions of mankind thus determined by the evidence of language, a fourth division has been sug- gested to in- clude the bar- barian races of theNew World; and for this branch of man- kind the name Gauowanianhas ^^ been proposed ^ by Pro f e ssor Lewis H. ]\Ior- gan, of the United .States. In the Seneca- Iroquois dialects the word gano-zcano sig- nifies " bow-and-arrow," and Professor Morgan has seized upon this expression as indicating the most universal charac- teristic of the Indian races. They are, and have always been, the wearers of the bow. Just as the root ar has fur- GANOWANIAN TYPES — UCAYLI INDIANS. Drawn by P. Fritel. nished to Max iliiller and other Euro- pean scholars the hint for the ethnic name Aryan, meaning the races of the plow, lust as tura, meaning a horseman. 424 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. has furnished the root of the word Tu- ranian, descriptive of the nomadic races of Asia, so the word Gan- The Ganowan- lan, or bow-and- owanian may properly be arrow, races. , j ^ j • i ii employed to designate the races of the bow and arrow. Ling-uis- SEA NKGRO TYI'KS — NATIVKS Ol' DOUI'.Y. Drawn hy P. SL-llicr, aflL-r a skctcli tif Duniunt cl'Urvillc. tically considered, the various tongues of the Indian family of men belong by analogy to the same group with the Turanian languages of A.sia. They have the same peculiarities. They are monosyllabic, and all c<;mplex and com- pound ideas are expres.sed by the agglu- tinative process ; that is, the mere jux- taposition of one monos}'llable with another, until the mind of the speaker is satisfied with the modification. IV. Geographical Ethnology. — We have thus considered three of the general methods which have been adopted for classifving ■■ . General theory the human race into of geographical „ ■ 1 • ,• ethnology. Species and varieties. Still another plan has been proposed by a certain class of writers with a view to the ethnic division of man- kind. This we will now consider as the fourth attempt to group the different families of men according to their origin and race descent. It has appeared more feasible to many inquirers to use geography as the basis of a classification rather than alleged affinities of blood or actual identities of language. It has been thought that for practical results the arrangement of the human race ac- cording to its continental distribu- tion and its local developments would be of greater value than the somewhat theoretical analysis of mankind according to linguistic distinctions. The result has been a more elaborate but less valuable classification than by any of the other methods. The plan in ques- tion begins with a hy^^iothctical cen- ter for the human race, located hr the Indian ocean, west of Hindu- stan. From this supposed origin of mankind streams of ethnic de- scent are carried shorewards from Lcmuria until, touching the various continents, they are defiectcd and dis- tributed into all parts of the earth. According to this scheme we have the following results : I. The Papuans, with their derivative DISTRIBUTION OF Tllli RACFS.—IITIINIC CLASSIFICATION. 425 suits by the geO' graphical method. families of Negritos, Papuans propei% Melancse, and Tasmanians. These Summary of re- peoples, as their names indicate, are distributed in Malacca, the Philippine islands, Papua, Melanesia, and Tas- mania. 2. The Hottentots, with their two lead- ing branches, the Hottentots j^roper and the Bushmen, both inhabiting Cape- land. 3. The Kaffirs, with their three divi- sions, the Zulu-Kaffirs, the Bechuanas, and the Congo Kaffirs, inhabiting re- spectively the eastern, the central, and the western districts of South Africa. 4. The Negroes, with their four principal divisions of Tibbu Negroes, Sudan Negroes, Senegambians, and Nigritians, inhabiting the re- gions indicated by their respective names. 5. The Austra- lians, with the two geographical branches of North Australians and South Australians. 6. The Malayans, with their three divi- sions of Sundanese, Polynesians, and Madagascans, the first two inhabiting the Sunda archipelago and the Pacific is- lands, and tlie latter the island of Mad- agascar. 7. The Mongchans, with their three va- rieties of Indo-ChinesBi Coreo-Japanese, Altaians, and Uralians, the first belong- ing to Thibet and China, the second to Corea and Japan, the third to Central and Northern Asia, and the fourth to Northwestern Asia and Hungary in Europe. M.— Vol. I— 2S 8. The Arctics, with the two principal divisions of Ilyperboreans and Esqui- maux, belonging resjjcctively to North- eastern Asia and Northeastern America. 9. The Americans, with four leading divisions, the North Americans (In- dians), Central Americans, South Amer- icans, and Patagonians, distributed ac- cording to their several ethnic nam^es. 10. The Dravidians, with two race de- velopments, the Deccanese of India and the Singalese of Ceylon. 1 1 . The Nubians, with their three va- rieties, the Shangallas and Dongolese of Nubia, and the Fulahs of Fulah. 12. The Mediterraneans, divided ac- ESQUIMAU TYPES. cording to this scheme into Caucasians, Basques, Semites, and Indo-Europeans; the first of these foiir being named from the range of the Caucasus, the second belonging to the northeastern portion of Spain, the third being limited to Eastern Europe and portions of Northern Africa, and the Indo-European branch being nearly coincident with the European division of the Aryan race as defined in the linguistic scheme above. We thus have, according to the geo- graphical scheme, no fewer than twelve major divisions of human kind, repre- sented by thirty-seven different races, 426 GREAT RACES OF JMAXKIXD. many of -which are in turn divided and subdivided into various peoples and tribes, according to their localities, lan- guages, and ethnic peculiarities. On the whole, this method of classifica- tion according to the geographical basis is Unsatisfactory less Satisfactory in its re- sults than an}- of the others presented. It assumes that tribes of a given stock will, as a rule, mi- character of gee. graphical classi- fication. associated. A classification like the above, Avhich places so old and radical a stock as that of the Semites in the same group with the Indo-European races, lacks every element of accuracy, and tends to perpetuate the worst vices of the old system of ethnology. None the less, such a division of mankind as that pre- sented in the geographical scheme above has its value when set in comparison and NUBIAN BOY— TYPE. -Drawn by rshmaci Ccntz. grate in ♦he same direction and occui)y the same territories. It is based upon the hypothesis that an aggregation of peo- ples in any given part of the world is of itself Sl. proof of a common race descent. On the contrary, it is well known that in many parts of the world races and tribes of men, as wide apart as the poles in their ethnic affinities, are geographically parallelism with other and more rational ethnic classifications. V. SciKNTiFic Ethnology. — In the schemes of race descent thus far pre- sented the linguistic plan Elements of un- of division most nearly ^^31":^"^ approaches a scientific ba- of race division. sis. There are in the same, however, certain unscientific conditions that must DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETIIXIC CLASSIFICATION. 427 be eliminated before the division of the human race by language only could be accepted as a finality. One of these con- ditions is the patent fact that a people of a given ethnic origin may, in the vicissi- titdes of history, adopt a speech other than its own, and thus be thrown in a classification very different from that to which it really belongs. Several instances might be cited in which this phenomenon has actually and probability of error in classifying by means of language only. But there are other means of a more strictly scientific character which may be employed in classifying the possibility of divisions of the human tll^^lJZl,^ variations in race. Differences or identi- f°"^- ties in anatomical structure, persistently transmitted from generation to genera- tion, constitute a valid evidence of eth- nic divergence or relationship. The stature of a given people is generally uniform. The men are of a uniform height, and so are the women. In this respect the different families of man- kind have presented remarkable varia- Dolicocephalic skull. Brachycephalic skulL CRANIAL CONFIGURATION, SHOWING VARIATIONS IN HUMAN FORM. presented itself. At times the conquer- ing race absorbs the language of the conquered people, and, in such a case, siibsequent investigation would be put at fault if the linguistic affinity of the people were accepted as the sole criterion of its race relationship. The conspicu- ous modern example of the Normans, who abandoned their own Teutonic speech and adopted French as their ver- nacular, carrying the same with them into England, and effecting in the Eng- lish language a permanent modification by the infusion therein of linguistic ele- ments which they had borrowed from another people, is sufficiently well known, and completely establishes the possibility tions. Some approximate the stature ol giants, and others of pygmies. The pro- portions of the skeletons likewise con- stitute a fair basis of distinction between people of one race and those of another. The character of the hands and the feet, the length and proportion of the arm bones and the legs, the particular figure of the chest, and especially the facial angle, are peculiarities Avhich may well be employed in a scientific way in dis- tinguishing people of one race descent from those of another. ilore especially the figure and capac- ity of the skull are typical, each family of men having a cranial configuration and development peculiar to itself. 428 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Careful investigations have shown the limits of these variations, and have de- Crania and termined those features of ofdeteT^^rnr ^^^ skull and brain which race. are distinctive of several races of men. The hair of the head, likewise, has furnished a distinguishing mark in different peoples. It is found that the hair in different races ranges all the way from a woolly fiber, present- ing a triangular section and having its vital channel on the exterior surface, to the straight, tubular filament which constitutes the head covering of some of the superior races. Between these ex- tremes are all varieties of capillary for- mation. These varieties are found to I'AMAN IVIK, SIIOWINC CklSl' HAIK. be persistent from generation to genera- tion and from century to century. Spec- imens of human hair recovered from the granite crj-pts of Egypt, where they were laid more than two thousand years before our era, exhibit the same pecul- \- f>: ■ '^ iQ AMERICAN INDIAN TYPE, SHOWING STRAIGHT HAIR. Drawn by Riou. iarities and diversities of structure as are found on the heads of living races. Such specific differences in the external cov- ering of the skull may well be used in a scientific way as a mark or criterion by which the different families of mankind may be discriminated the one from the other. The human skin also has its particu- lar features and peculiarities, unlike in the different tvpcs of man- Color of the skin kind. Tliis is said more a true test of ..^1 1 /..I > r^c ethnic affinity. particularly of the color. Of all the features with respect to which men differ in physiological constitution the pigmentary character of -the cttticle is perhaps the most marked, invariable, and persistent. This fact has been se- lected by many ethnographers as the best consideration from which to frame :i scheme of division for the human species. It is found that the different races have different colored skins; that a given race is sufficiently uniform in its hue; that the color once determined, is persistent, reproducing itself from age to age, and being recognizable even a%er thousands of years as belonging to a cer- tain species. Why not, therefore, adopt the color of the body as the most marked DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIITCATION. 429 and invariable characteristic by which to distinguish the ethnic classification of the various peoples? Such a principle of division appears to be in every wise scientific. The color of the skin is a physical fact Bcientific classi- *■ . ficationmaybe in naturc, and its invaria- made from color. , . , . ^ . biuty in a given species assures the constancy of the fact and furnishes a guarantee against error. ^^ anomalous depar- tures from the given standard of color need be ex- pected except in the case of indi- viduals, and such exceptions would in no wise disturb the regularity of the law. More- over, the other sources of infor- mation, the other bases of division of the human fam- ily, may well be used as auxiliary to the truly scien- tific classification of mankind by means of color. All that is known historically of the different races, all that is known of the various branches of the human family as determined by means of the languages which they speak, may be brought to bear upon the problem to rectify and amend whatever may be suspected of error in the classi- fication by means of color. Such a method of division has been many times attempted by scholars, but until recently the results have been variable and uncertain. The reason of this is found in the imperfect observa- fi Sources of for- ;, mer error in thi8 method of clas- tion which has first been given to the question. What are the different colors presented on the coverin of the bodies of men What primary or secondary sifying. hues are really characteristic of the hu- man skin in different races and coun- tries? Error in deciding these questions has been at the bottom of all diversity in n-sults. MGRIIIAN TYPES, SHOWINC WOOLLY HAIR. DrawnTjy Madame Paule Crampel. It appears strange to the thoughtful inquirer of the present day that so little accuracy has been displayed by those who have attempted to note and de- scribe the different natural colors of the human skin. It will readily be allowed that an examination of the Avhole race now occupying the earth will discover nearl}' all colors and shades of color, from one extreme of the spectrum to another; but a very casual examina- tion will show that these various tints are reducible to a few, and these to 430 GREAT RACES OF 3TANKTXD. still fewer primary pigmentar}- distinc- tions. The great error made by those eth- nographers who have attempted to use color of the skin as a basis Only three pri- -n,- ^ i mary colors of of classification lias been the human skin. ■ ^^ • , a- m allowing too many dis- tinctions of tint. Inability on their part to generalize the facts, and to reduce the ENGLISH TYPE (MRS. blUDUNS), blluWlNtJ WAVY HAIR. different hues to a few radical distinc- tions, has been the fruitful source of all inaccuracy and confusion. The first classifications attempted on this basis of color resulted in multiplying rather than in simplifying the classification of the human race. According to these first efforts there were white men, yel- low men, olivc-colorcd men, red men, orange-colored men, copper-colored men, brown men, black men, and many other slighter distinctions which tended to confuse rather than to establish a scien- tific division. All this turned upon in- accuracy of perception. It is the feature of modern inquiry that the sense-percep- tion with which it begins has become constantly more accurate and penetrating in recent times. It is now clearly perceived that there are by no means so many fundamental colors to be recognized as the distin- guishing characteristics of the different races. On the contrary, there are but few. Without passing through all stages of the inquiiy, it is sufficient to say that the very best scrutiny' of the actual facts shows that there are only tlircc primary colon peculiar to the huiitan body ; and that these colors are ruddy, black, and brown. From these fundamental and characteristic tints of the human skin all the other varieties are easily derived, and to them all minor distinctions are read- ily referred. What, then, is the tnie nature of these three fun- damental colors peculiar to the races of mankind? It will be noted that the term ivhitc is rejected. This is done The term ruddy for the sufficient reason ;^,^iteintM/°' that there are not now treatise. and never were any tribes of people on tlic earth to whom the term white could properly be applied. The fairest- skinned specimens of the human race are very far from white. He who has DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION. 431 not himself looked candidly and care- fully at the fact here referred to must needs be surprised to note how great the error is in describing the color of any people as -vhite. The races that have been recognized as white are in reality rtiddy in color, and approach much more nearly to the standard of red than the Indian peoples, who have been erroneously defined as red men. The so-called Cauca- sians, for instance, who perhaps present the skin in its fairest tint, are truly a ruddy people. The peculiarity of the skin is its transparency and the consequent rev- elation of the blood in the capillaries. The red tinge of the blood is thus discernible through the cuticle, and the flush of color, slight- er or more emphatic, is itlways ruddy in its char- ftcter. The peoples hav- ing this quality of skin tU'e the bh(sJdn^ races. With every varying de- gree of excitement the blood appears or re- cedes in the skin at the surface, giving a deeper or paler tinge to the body. But imder no conditions can the skin be said to be white. The fairest in- born into the to disabuse the judgment of the be« holder. The term white, therefore, aa one of the definitive epithets descriptive of the color of the human race, must be rejected, and its place be taken with the more accurate term ruddy. We thus have in a scientific classification of maU' ever No races may be properly defined failt ^^ ^' world, even when bloodless and cold in death, is so far from being white that a really white object placed alongside of the skin furnishes a con- trast so striking as at once and forever THE RUDDY TYPE — PAUL CRAMPEL. Drawn by H. Thiriat, from a photograph. kind based on the distinction of color, first of all : I. The Ruddy Races. — It is found when this distinction of color is applied to the great facts tinder consideration that the larger part of the historical nations of the earth come under the classification of ruddy. The great races who first 432 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. redeemed the world from barbarism were of this color. It is quite certain that those strong and heroic peoples who What races may appear in the remote hori- "^llfl zon of the primitive world "iddy. were ruddy in their complexions. Speaking from a biblical point of view, all three of the Noachite THE IIROVVN TYI'K — MISTRKSS SKNKI. Drawn by E. Ronjai. races, with their several divisions, had complexions of this hue. This is true alike of Hamites, Semites, and Japheth- itcs. The long prevalent notion that the Ilamitcs were a black race, corre- sponding roughly to what we call African, in modern history, is utterly untenable. They had, on the contrary, the same general complexion — some- what intensified by the scorching sun of the climates in which they were for the most part developed — with the cognate races of Shem and Japheth. Or, if we speak from the historical point of view, we shall find the same indications of the fundamental identity in color of the early races who developed civilization in the earth. The Indo-Europeans were all ruddy in complexion. From the foothills of the Him- alayas across the table-lands of Per- sia into Ionia and Macedonia and Greece and Italy and the " isles of the gentiles " the same fundamen- tal race complexion is discover- able. Likewise, the Semites and the Hamitic races, noted from the historical point of view, are found to be of the same bodily color. Language contributes its evidence also to establish the same general fact as to the complexion of the Indo-Euroi^ean and other Noachite families of men. They were all ruddy, and the hint in Genesis of the rcd-carih color of the Adamite would seem to be justified by the facts observable in several of the principal divisions of the human family. II. The Brown Races. — The second fundamental division of mankind determined on the line of color is by the broicii complexion, which characterizes many of the leading races. It will be observed from the selection of this hue that many varieties of color may be referred there- to. Several shades of yel- „ , . , •' General aualysl» low and of red may be cor- of the Brown rcctly carried back into a fundamental brown, which is the com- posite of black with one of the two tints referred to. Careful observation will show that this is the actual color of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— ILTIIXIC CLASSIFICATION. 433 great races of Northern and Eastern Asia, as well as of all the aborigines of the two Americas and Polynesia. As the major division of these races we may cite : 1. 'YYiQ Asiatic Mongoloids, correspond- ing in general terms with the Mon- golian race indicated by historical in- quiry, or with the two divisions of the Turanians according to the linguistic division. 2. The Polynesian Mongoloids, or the peoples scattered through the islands of the South Pacific, with the exception of the Melanesians and the Australians. 3. The Dravidians, or the Deccanese and the people of the Micronesian is- lands north and east of Australia. III. The Black Races. — It is clear, on an examination of the facts, that „^ ^ many of the peoples, The four groups ^ . of the Black even the primitive races distributed in portions of the Avorld lying in the equatorial re- gions, are properly defined as Black. The pigmentar)^ deposit under the cuti- cle is of such a character as to absorb all or the greater portion of the rays of light, and to return to the eye only that negative sensation which we define as blackness. The line of chromatic division between these races of Black men and those who were defined as Brown, is that under the cuticle of the skin of the latter peoples a certain percentage of coloring matter is combined with the black pig- ment, producing the various shades of color known as brown. This characteristic difference between the two colors is constant, and tends to perpetuate itself by the physiological law called "reversion to the original type." This is to say that in a contact of the various races. Black and Brown and Ruddy, and in their intermingling of blood, there is a tendency for one or the other of the elements of ethnic constitu- tion to declare itself and become domi- nant over the rest. Given a sufficient lapse of time, and these intermediate varieties return to the one or the other of the original types from which they are derived. Geographically speaking, the Black races are distributed throughout the larger part of Africa and through the whole of Australia and that portion of the Pacific archipelago called Melane- sia. These are the limits of the natural dispersion of the Black races. The eth- nic divisions of this third primary family of men are : 1 . The Negroes, who occupy the larger band of Central Africa from east to west, and are also distributed through a great portion of the southern division of the continent. 2. The Australians, occupying all of Central and .Southern Australia, except the coast region on the east and north. 3. The Hottentots, distributed through the larger part of the southern extrem- ity of Africa. 4. The Papuans, occupying the island of New Guinea, the nortliern and eastern maritime districts of Australia, the is- land of Tasmania, and, in general, the Melanesian archipelago. The foregoing classification of the hu- man race on the scientific method and by the distinction of color is, perhaps, as nearly a satisfactory solution of the prob- lem as can be given in the otter plans of present state of knowledge. beTa^oS^d" The three distinctions of with this. Ruddy, Brown, and Black races are fundamental. They are broad enough to include the whole race of man, with its multiform developments in ancient and modern times. The classification is sufficiently ample to embrace in its major and minor divisions all the races and peoples which have been distinguished 434 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. from each other by means of historical and ling^uistic inquiry. It is easy to con- form to this plan of division all the others that have been suggested, and to make them consistent with the wider and more scientific scheme. Thus, for instance, the biblical race of Japheth, the histori- cal divisions of mankind called Indo- THE BLACK TYPE — NEGRO MAKUTULU. Drawn by Riou. European, the ethnic branches of men called Aryan in the linguistic clas.sifica- tion, all fall under the common designa- tion of Ruddy races. With these are grouped by means of the same color distinction the Semitic families of men, and also the Hamitic divisions. These ten races taken together con.stitute the whole group, ^hich may be defined by the tciTU Ruddy and considered as of a primary, common descent. In the second place, the widely dis- seminated Brown races, covering nearly the whole of Asia, the GeneraJ distrl- two great continents of the butionof the West, and the greater part of Polynesia, may be grouped together on the line of color and considered as a common family in its origin and race descent. It will be the purpose in the following pages of the present book to trace out the lines of the great tribal and race divergencies and migrations which in the lapse of ages have carried these Brown peoples over by far the largest dis- tricts of the earth. It will be un- derstood, of course, that the race classification of the peoples of the two Americas as here presented re- lates to the original peoples of these continents, and not to the Indo- European nations that have taken possession of them in recent times by migration and conquest. The third general division as indi- cated in this analysis on the basis of color has already been pointed out in its ethnic and geographical dis- tribution. No branch of the Black races has of its own motion crossed the equator of the earth to a point higher than the twentieth degree of north latitude. It will be found in the subsequent chapters of this book that the dispersion of this divi- sion of mankind was by means of a west- ward sti-eam flowing in from „ ,_ '^ Outline of the Eastern Africa and spread- dispersion of the . . Blacks. ing m many branches through all those parts of the continent between the equatorial region and the Cape of Good Hope, while the eastern stream bore off by way of Southern Hin- dustan into the great, closely distributed islands lying to the .south of Asia. It is be- lieved that suiificient is now known of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NO A CHI TE DISPERSION. 435 movements of the Black races to delin- eate their tribal divergencies and mi- grations with tolerable certainty, and although much will remain to be rectified and amended by subsec^uent investiga- tions, something may be at present ad- vanced to enlarge the borders of com- mon knowledge relative to this the least known and least progressive of the great divisions of mankind. From these considerations and others that may be readily deduced therefrom, Maiikind to be jt has been determined to dividea into Ruddy races, employ in the present work Brown races, ., . ^.~ ,i i • and Black races, the Scientific method in classifying the different races of men, and to use the color of the body as the fundamental fact in considering the scheme of division. In all the sub- sequent parts of the present work, in the description of the migrations of the primitive tribes and families of men, in the delineation of manners and customs, and the peculiarities of national develop- ment which will in great measure fill up the body of the work, it is purposed to keep always in mind this fundamental division of mankind into, I. RuDDY Races; II. Browx R^\ces; III. Black Races; with their manifest divisions into the three branches, Hamite, Semite, and Aryan in the first; three divi- sions of Asiatic Mongoloids, Polynesian Mongoloids, and Dravidians, in the second; and four branches, Negroes, Australians, Hottentots, and Papuans, in the third. These ten race classes of man- kind will constitute the basis of much of the discussion in the present and the succeedinsr volumes. Chapter XXIV.— Noachite Dispersion Consid- ered. |0 far as the present re- sources of human knowledge have indi- cated the primary seat and early movements |J of the Ruddy races of mankind, the same be- gan on the north shores of the western gulf of the Indian ocean. The scene of this important primitive aspect of the race was probably in the southern part of Beluchistan, eastward from the Per- sian gulf. When these statements are made the whole of our knowledge on the subject may be said to ^he Adamrt^s. ^^^ve been delivered. His- tory knows little besides of the time or the advent of this primary stream of human existence; but it can nardlv be doubted that this is the real seat of the Adamite and his descendants. Ethnologists have generally been dis- posed to go further, to trace backwards the stream of this division of the race to the shores of ocean, and thence to carry it by hypothesis far out into the so-called Lemuria, a supposed submerged region in the bed of the Indian ocean. On the theory that the Black, the Brown, and the Ruddy races of man- kind have all had a single , . . - . Apparent point ancestral origin, there is of origin forau some ground for such a ^®'^®^' hypothesis. The first tribes of Black men appear to have struck the continent of Africa from the east. In like manner the Brown races seem to have touched the continent on the coast line eastward of the Persian gulf ; while the ancestors of the Australians and Papuans appear 436 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. to have reached their destination from the northwest. Thus the observer, stand- ing- on the -western shore of India, the eastern shore of Africa, or the southern shore of Beluchistan, would seem to see the tliree major divisions of mankind ap- proaching from the deep, as if from some common origin under the sea. Nor has tradition been wholly silent in witnessing to such a primeval movement Berosusre- of the race landwards from of theUa^go.T'' t^is ^^^- One of the oldest Oan. traditions on record is pre- served in a fragment of Berosus, and indicates the ocean origin, not only of the day with men. But he took no nour- ishment, and at sunset went again into the sea, and there remained for the nisrht. This animal taught men Ian- guage and science, the harvesting of seeds and fruits, the rules for the bound- aries of land, the modes of building cities and temples, arts, and writing, and all that pertains to civilization." In the fifth chapter of the book of Genesis we have an account of the Adamic race from the beginning down to the Deluge. This space is occupied with ten successive patriarchs and their ex- panding families. To these great LANUSCAl'E OV THE NOACHITE DISPERSION.— Dender-Dilem.— Drawn by Taylor, after a sketch o( liuussay. the arts, but of man himself, A portion of the storj' is as follows : "Then there appeared to them from the sea, on the shore of Babylonia, a fear- ful animal of the name of Oan. His body was that of a fi.sh, but under the fish's head another head was attached, and on the fins were feet like those of a man, and he had a man's voice. The image of the creature is still preserved. The animal came at morning, and passed longevity is attributed, and the nar- rative indicates in various „ , , ^ Outline In Gen- ways the rapid tribal de- esisofthe , .p.-, Ti Adaujic races, velopment of the race, it will be noted also by a comparison of the fifth chapter with the fourth that, two parallel lines of descent are recorded, the one through Cain, and the other througli Reth. "For," .said Eve, "God hath appointed me another seed instead of Abel, whom Cain slew." DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 437 The Adamic descendants are traced in the fourth chapter down to the children of Adah and Zilkih, tlie two wives of Lamech; that is, to Jabal, "the father of such as dwell in tents and such as have cattle;" to Jubal, "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ;" and to Tubal-cain, "an instructor of ev- ery ai'tificer in brass and iron." Here the narrative ends, and the other branch of the Adamites, that is, the descendants of Seth, are taken up, down to Noah, the son of Lamech. The recurrence of common names in both lines of descent introduces a good deal of confusion, but the line of Seth, considered by itself, is straight through ten generations. The Hebrew narrative of the Adamite and his posterity to the Deluge is here Value of the cited in part because of its ^ZT^Z striking parallelism with chaidseans. the sccular tradition handed down by Berosus. This cele- brated ancient author Avas a priest of Bel, at Babylon, and ilourished there in the first half of the third century before our era. He was a native of the coun- try and well acquainted with its earlier and later history. He knew as well as one might know in an uncritical and credulous age the annals not only of the later Babylonian empire, but also of the older Chaldcean dominion which had been established on the lower Euphrates in the very earliest stages of human history. In that part of his work devoted to the chronology of the Chaldogan king- Ten chaidee dom, Berosus describes the mythical kings; conformity to epocli bcforc the flood ; for, scheme. like the Hebrew author of Genesis, he has an account of a uni- versal deluge of waters, through which a single great captain named Xisuthrus, with his family, came safely in a ship and descended from a mountain, to re- people the earth. To the antedeluvian era Berosus also assigns a dynasty of ten kings. To these reigns of fabulous duration are given the ten eons of their dominion, being as follows: Vcare. 1. .'Vlorus, a ChakUt-an, who reigned'. 36,000 2. Aloparus, son of Alorus, who reigned. . . 10,800 3. Aimelon.anativeofSippara, who reigned. 46,800 4. Ammenon, a Chaldsan, who reigned .... 43,200 5. Amegalarus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 6. Daonus, of Sippara, who reigned 36,000 7. Edorankhus, of Sippara, who reigned. . . 64,800 8. Amempsinus, a Chaltlaean, who reigned 36,000 9. Otiartes, a Chaldaj.in, who reigned 28,000 10. Xisuthrus, the Chaldajan Noah, who reigned 64,800 A total of ten kings, reigning 431,20a The general conformity of these two schemes of ethnic descent must be pat- ent at a glance. The ChaldcX-an and the Hebrew accounts of this dim age of an ancestral race agree in the important consideration of ten successive patri- archical kingships. It is easy to observe the more moderate conception and out- line of the Hebrew scheme of descent and longevity, and the wild extravagance of the ChaldEean tradition. But the pattern and outline of the progress of the race are alike in both, and in either case this line of long-lived mythical rulers ends with a righteous captain, whose virtue and wisdom, in the wickedness of his surroundings, enable him to go safely through the waters of a deluge and re- people a new world on the hither side of the catastrophe. The identity of the two narratives in their essential spirit and leading features can hardly be doubted. We The headmen thus see in the maritime oftheAdamita parts of Beluchfstan, at a time almost unimaginably remote, even from the standpoint of the oldest histo- rians who have attempted to trace the course and development of mankind. 438 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXn. the apparition of a ruddy race of men expanding through a mythical age of unknown duration, and entering at least three stages of civilizing activity. Jabal was the "father of such as dwell in tents and of such as have cattle." This is manifestly an outline of the begin- ning of the pastoral life which occupied so large a part in the subsequent his- tory of the races of Western Asia. Ju- instruments as have pleased the senses of men in all subsequent ages with the concord of sweet sounds. To the same epoch, or a little later, in the tribal evolution, is assigned Tubal- cain. He is represented as Question of the a worker in brass and iron, fu'^gy "fth'^^*^' Very notable is the fact Semites, that the composite metal brass is here mentioned as the material of the earliest THE FATHERS OF "SUCH AS DWELL IN TENTS"— OLD SEMITIC TYPES. bal, the brother of Jabal, is represented as being the "father of all such as handle the harp and the organ." From this we are to infer that at least the musical branches of art made their ap- pearance in the East contemporaneou.sly with the development of the pastoral life. The makers of tents and the keepers of flocks and herds discovered harmony, and became the makers of such metal work of the Adamites, Iron also is named as the other substance in which Tubal-cain and his succes.sors became proficient as workmen. It would ai:)pear in accord with right reason that both of these names of the metals are errone- ously deduced from some original which has been misunderstood in translation. The primitive men could hardly have begun as workers in brass, since the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— XOACIIITE DISPERSION. 439 copper and zkic of which it is composed must first have been employed and the ratio of their combination discovered before brass could have an existence. Moreover, the extraction of iron from the matrix is a process so difficult and so late in the order of metallic discovery ■that, as we have already seen in another part of this work, it follows and does not precede the discovery of copper, of tin, of the precious metals, and, indeed, of nearly all the other metallic ele- rients common to the surface of the '.artli. At the close of this Adamite period in i\\e history of the Ruddy race we come to that ofreat catastrophe, Dissemination .^ . Of traditions of the Deluge of waters. In e uge. respect to this event tradi- tion was busy throug-hout the primitive world. Among almost every people there was a mythical reminiscence of a flood by which their ancestors were destroyed from the earth. The diluvian legend generally assigned the wickedness of the race as a cause of its overthrow. The tradition of such a visitation always presented itself most emphatically in countries so situated as to be subject to inundations. Perhaps the greatest seat of such a belief was in the valleys of the Lower Ettphrates and Tigris. It was from this region that the Hebrew account of the Deluge was transmitted by Abraham and his posterity to the west,, and there recorded in the annals of that people. At the same time a like tradi- tion was handed down among the Chaldseans, and at a later epoch in history was repeated and modified by the Assyrian seers, on the Upper Tigris. The story of Deucalion and his survival of the Deluge was rife among the primi- tive Greeks, and other primeval nations had like accounts of a like disaster. To this general dissemination of the belief in a deluge of waters by which the race of man was swept away, the ancient l'>gyptians furnish whytheEgyp- a remarkable exception. ^SnXth Their legends and mythol- tradition, ogy furnish no account of any such event, cither in the primitive or later ages of their country. It is easy to see in this fact the action and reaction of natural and suiDcrnatural elements in the primitive history of a people. The Nile is, perhaps, the only river in the world whose swellings and fallings obey a certain law, the knowledge of waich secures the inhabitants of the valley from disastrous consequences. The regularity of the coming and the reces- sion of the waters furnishes a guarantee against all harm. A curse is thus con- verted into a blessing; and the river becomes, instead of an object of dread and superstition, an object of reverence and worship ! The uniformity of nature stood guard over the welfare of the people who built the pyramids, and even if a prehistoric deluge had occurred be- fore the civilized development of the Egyptian race, the tradition of it would have perished in the presence of the future beneficent conduct of the great river. In other valleys of the East irregularity rather than uniform flood and subsidence was the law, and where- ever, as a result, disaster on many oc- casions and from natural causes must necessarily have ensued to the people living on the river banks, the tradition of a great catastrophe overwhelming all would be perpetuated and handed down as a distinct and memorable crisis in the past history of the world. However this may be, we find a remarkable conformity between the Chaldasan and the Hebrew account of the disaster by which the race of man was swept away at the close of the Adamite 440 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. era. The ^vell-kno\vn narrative of the Deluge given in the seventh chapter of the Book of Genesis need not be here General bar- repeated. Nor is it desir- mony ot Glial- . . ^, , daeanandHe- able to recount in full the of the^flood!^'^^ story of the flood as recorded by the ancient Chaldasans and Assyr- ians. The principal features of the destroy the world by a flood. The great captain was ordered to bury the records of his country in Sippara and to embark in a ship, with his kindred and friends. He was also directed to take into the ark with him all manner of living creatures. When everything was completed and the ship, nine thousand feet in length, was Ml;SOI"OTAMIAN LANDSCAPE.— View of Mossul.— Prawn by K. Kl.iiulin. latter, however, will serve to show the fundamental identity of the three prin- cipal narratives of the Deluge. The Chaldccan and Assyrian accounts differ in tliis, that the latter assigns as a cause for the destruction of the human race by a flood the wickedness of mankind in the earth, whereas the older, or Clial- da:an, account simjily recites that tlie god Bel re\xalcd to Xisullirus his purpose to closed, the Deluge came. In course of time Xisuthrus sent out birds, which at flrst came back Avithout evidence of rest- ing, but afterwards with mud on their feet. At length tlie ship rested on the Gordya;an mountain, and the inhabitants came forth to rcpeople the earth. In the Assyrian account the divinity who revealed the flood is Ilea, and the Assyrian Noah is named Sisit. lie, as DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACIIITE DISPERSION. 441 in the case of his Chaldsean prototype, gathered all manner of living creatures The Assyrian '"^nd secds of the Vegetable ^ar^fronf^he world into his ship. Then older forms, Samas, the sun god, sent the flood. There was a great storm that went over the nations, and the waters reached up to heaven. Even the gods had to ascend to their highest thrones and sit there until the subsid- ence. All living things outside wei'e drowned. At last the waters abated ; the ark rested on Mount Nizir, and Bel led forth Sisit by the hand to ref)oj)ulate the. country. It is sufficient to note that the narrative given of the great catas- trophe in the seventh chapter of Genesis is much more serious and elevated than the two forms of tradition which were preserved to after times in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Apart from these traditional accounts of the manner in which the Adamite Early division of race Came to its termina- into'th^^"^^ tion, we turn to a more scien- branches. tific aspect of the question. It appears that before the destruction of this people, before they had reached the scene — at least the central scene — of their disaster, they had already begun to part into the three branches of ethnic life already mentioned as the major divisions of the Ruddy family of man- kind. It is in evidence that the Noa- chite race, from its old maritime ddboti- chiire on the shores of Gedrosia, the modern Baluchistan, made its way first to the north, in the direction of the Car- manian desert, and was thence deflected to the west. It was here, on the table- land of ancient Iran, in the district of country east of Yezd, that the ancestors of the Ruddy races of mankind seem to have felt for the first time the impulse of westward migration. Here, at any rate, they were deflected toward the M. — Vol. 1—29 setting sun. Here, too, they appear to have begun that threefold ethnic separa- tion which was destined, in far ages and countries, to give to history some of its most vigorous and highly developed peoples. If we fall back again for a moment upon the classification the nomenclature of which is derived from uncertain eth. the three sons of Noah. fX^'^^^^^ we find here the begin- tamians. nings of the division. So that if we re- gard the valley of the Euphrates and the Tigris as the center, qv seat, of the great diluvian disaster -which subsequently oc- curred, we must conclude that the Ruddy peoples who made their way into these valleys from the east had already sepa- rated, or at least begun to separate, into Hamites, Semites, and possibly Japheth- ites. The adoption of such a hypothe- sis would tend to explain or remove the difficulty which historians, ethnologists, and linguists alike have experienced in the attempted classification of the most ancient peoples of the Tigrine and Eu- phratine valleys. This work has never been satisfactorily and conclusively ac- complished. In a general way it has been decided that the oldChaldasans were Ham- itic in their origin and development. In like manner the preponderance of eAri- dence has tended to show that the Assyri- ans were Semitic in their race descent and character. But the evidences also indi- cate much mixture and confusion in the primitive history of these regions. It is extremely difficult, either by means of historical traditions, ethnic traces, or linguistic proofs, point of disper- to determine satisfactorily fto^Ass^"* to which branch of the orig- and chaidaea. inal threefold division the Assyrians and the Chaldaeans respectively belong. Moreover, at later periods, when the Hamitic race has well emerged from this 442 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. region, and is discovered with all its pecul- iar traits in Southeastern and Southern Arabia and in Egypt, and when the Sem- ites have likewise appeared, with their distinctive peculiarities well developed, in the West, the course from which the two races have manifestly come into subse- quent fields of activity, when traced back- the center, and the Japhethites close up to the Caspian. From these evidences and by this just train of reasoning, it would appear con- clusive that the primaiy division of the Noachite family took place in the up- lands of ancient Iran, at a point more than ten degrees of latitude eastward IN KUK-DISTAN.— ViBW op Lutle AltAuAT. with Cuoup of Kukus in Fokeguound.— Prawn by Alfred Paris. wards, shows a conjuncture jiiiich to the east of the Mesopotamian region and not in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. This is to say that at the time wlicn the Ilamite, the Semite, and the Japhcthite races made their way through Mesopotamia to the West, they were already separated geographically, the Hamites being on the south, pressing close to tlie Persian gulf, the Semites in from the ]\Iesopotamian region, which may be regarded as the center of the tra- ditions of the Deluge. It is safe, there- fore, in the ethnic scheme, to mark the division of the Noachitcs far beyond and to the eastward of the low-lying alluvial plains of Mesopotamia. If, then, the observer should take his stand in the Arabirm desert west of . Mesopotamia and look thitherward in DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.—NOACHITli DISPliRSION. 443 the earliest epoch of human develop- ment, he might see emerging from the shadows the vanguard of Issuance of the ^ ^ Noachites to the two races, witli possibly a ^ ' third on the north. The Hamitie division of mankind would be seen making its way to the westward, close to the head- waters of the Persian gulf and bending, as if by preference, to the south into Old Arabia, next to the sea. The central phalanx Avould be the descendants of vShcm, heading for the west, and, perhaps, deflected somewhat to the north, on its way from Ur of the Chaldecs into Canaan. The Japhetic division, if seen at all, would be well to the north, close to the southern shores of the CasjDian, and bending in a north- westerly direction toward the eastern limits of the Black sea. This may be called the Xoachite dispersion of the human race. The lines of its progress westward lie between the southern ex- tremity of the Caspian and the northern limits of the Persian gulf. This region is to Europe and Sotithwestern Asia what the wrist is to the extended palm. Mesopotamia, considered longitudinally from east to west and in connection with Kurdistan, is a sti-ait, and through this strait the streams of the Ruddy races of men flowed out toward the open regiops in the prehistoric ages. It is from this point of view that we may, in part at least, apprehend the Probable direc- ethnic characteristics of the Hritfcd^lt primitive peoples of Elam persion. and Chaldcca. Through these most ancient countries the Ham- itie division of men made their way in their earliest departure and migra- tion from the parent stock. It is, per- haps, safe to say that the Elamites were the first development of a Hamitie na- tionality in the world. This earliest lodgment of the oldest branch of the Noachites was in the country afterwards called Susiana by the Greeks, and the dominion established here remained for many ages a seat and stronghold of the primitive race. Historical traditions in- dicate that the Hamites came into this region by invasion, and that they dis- placed, by conquest, the original Semitic and possibly Turanian peoples v;ho were there before them. This view, however, is a doubtful hypothesis. As already stated, it is likely that the disentangle- Traces of ethnic ment of the Semitic and !,!:"i'^'"rJ" primitive Slazn- Hamitic tribes had not yet "^s. been completely effected when the Elam- ite nationality was founded; and it may well be confessed that Semitic influences were afterwards discoverable in the development of what was truly a Hamitie dominion. Geographically considered, the country here referred to was bounded on the north by the river Diyalah, on the east by the Kebir Kuh mountains, on the west by the Tigris, and on the south by the Persian gulf. It was a low-lying country, fertile and inviting, identical almost in character with those other regions of the world — Chaldsea, Southeastern Arabia, the val- ley of the Nile — where the Hamites es- tablished in subsequent ages the seats of their dominion. Primitive Assyria may be assigned to the Semites. Asshur was the son of Shem. The position of First distnbu- Assyria, east of the Tigris "t^^^ltz.v^f rather than in Mesopotamia <^i"tes. Proper, would indicate its planting by early tribes of the Semitic race coming from the east. There are evidences that such a dominion, north of the Greater Zab and east of the Tigris, was planted as early as the fourteenth cen- tury before our era. The Japhetic branch is generally re- 444 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. garded as the oldest division of the No- achite family. The movements of this race have been by far the most compli- cated and difficult to trace. The first deflection from the parent stem was doubtless to the north or northwest of the common stream flowing westward. The point of departure of the Japheth- ites has already been indicated. It is more than likely that their first course after separation from the ancestral tribes was so well to the north as to bring them into contact Avith the lower extremity of the Caspian, in which event they would be turned back or de- flected more directly toward Northern Asia. It may be fairly conjectured that this geographical circumstance lies at the bottom of the formation of that great ethnic whirl, or center, from which the Aryan races of subsequent times were all descended. It is not pur- posed in this connection to trace out the after ramifications of the Japhethites, or, indeed, of the cognate races of the soutli. It is sufficient to note that from the Japhetic center the subsequent m'gra- tions took place in both directions, east and west, while the Semitic and Hamitic movements followed a more orderly progress, the one toward Canaan and the other into Southeastern Arabia. It has been intimated above that the Old Chaldaean dominion on the Lower Indications that Euphrates was Hamitic in the Old chai- -^^ origin. .Several circum- daeans ■were o Hamitic. stanccs bcsidcs the mere course which the tribal migi-ations were then pursuing may be cited for assign- ing Chalda;a to the Hamites. Historical evidence shows almost conclusively that there were race prejudices and frettings between the Chakheans and the Assyri- ans on the north. The two peoples were hardly ever at peace. There was a di- vergence of language, of tradition, and of religious ceremonials, but at the same time such striking analogies in all as to indicate close affinities of race. It was the preponderance and pressure of the stronger Assyrian nationality on the north that, at the close Race troubles of the fourteenth century ''^ll^^Z^^' B. C, finally overpowered ern Semites, the Chaldaean dominion and replaced it with Semitic influence in the south. By careful observation we are able to see, long anterior to this period, the race troubles between the northern and the southern people. There are indications of invasion and oppression on the part of the Assyrians respecting their south- ern kinsmen. It is not improbable that these difficulties were at the bottom of some ot the earliest migrations to the west. Perhaps Eber, the father of Abraham, had drifted from beyond the Tigris into the low-lying country of the soutn. His name is said to signify "from bej'ond;'* that is, from beyond the rivers. -Doubtless he was either an immigrant into the low country or an invader. A family so situated, expand- ing into a patriarchical tribe, would soon find itself with unpleasant surroundings, and a cure for local troubles might be sou"-lit and found in a further migration into the freer west. Hence the Abra- hamic exodus from Ur of the Chaldees. Another proof of the race diversity already existing between the Old Chal- dseans and the people of As- Diirerences in shur is found in the monu- rans^nd'S-''" mental remains of the two Syrians, countries. There is already a clear de- parture in the typical physiognomy of the Chalda^ans and the Assyrians. The former are like the Klamitcs in per.sonal characteristics, while the latter are of the well-known Semitic type, with Iiints of Medo-Persian modifications. It is easy for the ethnographer to see in the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— NOACHITE DISPERSION. 445 features and person of the ancient Chal- diean the antitype of the Cushite, the Old Arabians, tlae Hamitic Canaanites, and even the Ethiopians and Egyptians. It will be readily agreed that the Semitic peoples became, in the course of time, predominant throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely that the Hamitic race, by pres- sure from the north, became attenuated even to actual separation around the head of the Persian gulf, and that the Elamite dominion on the east preserved the prin- . cipal, if not the only, remnants of that race beyond the meridian of Chaldsea and Assyria. Several facts of some interest come to light on an examination of the ethnic names of the three branches of the No- achite family. The word SigniScance of the Noachite Sliem means a " name, ' or patronymics. i ,, e more properly, " sons of a name." The sense is, that this division of the Noachites was an aristocracy having a name, that is, a lineal descent from reputable fathers, as distinguished from the no-name, or base-born, descend- ants of other stocks. The early Sem- ites evidently regarded themselves as peculiarly the representatives of the Noachite race, and perpetuated the be- lief in the nameless, that is, the gentile, character of the cognate families of their own descent. The innuendo was direct- ed against both the Japhethites and the Hamites, particularly against the de- scendants of Canaan in the west, whom the sons of Shena afterwards overcame and expelled from their territories. The evidence of this race contention and feud is plentifully scattered in the Contention for Hebrew writings. The old precedence _ *-* among shem, prejudice lies at the bot- Ham, and Ja- . » ^ . i , • • • , phetii. tom ot the relative priority of the sons of Noah. As a matter of fact, the Japhethites were the eldest, the Hamites second, and the Semites the youngest division of the Noachite family. But there was a constant effort, extending through many centuries, on the part of the Hebrew scribes and chroniclers to change this order and to give to Shem the rank peculiar to the eldest son. In the biblical ethnography the order of the three descendants is always given thus: Shem, Ham, Ja- pheth. But it will be observed that even in the tenth chapter of Genesis, while the first verse preserves this order, giv- ing priority to Shem, the analysis of tribes which immediately follows places Japheth in his true position, and assigns the place of youngest son to Shem. Such primitive quarrels as to the senior- ity of descendants were very common among the early families of men, and are of little value to modern scholarship except as illustrative of a striking and persistent feature of organization and belief existing in the earliest ages of human development. All the ancient nations strenuously insisted that they were respectively the most ancient of all. Pri- strife of thn ority seems to have been ^^^T^^2l^ J ngnts 01 pnor- an idea which sufficed to "?• establish right, and make all things legitimate in primeval society. " We were here first, and therefore possess this region, and are greater than you." was the language of every primitive people to its neighbors. As a result of this disposition, claims to extravagant antiquity were advanced by all, and were attested by long lines of successive monarchs, in successive dynasties, ex- tending through fabulous ages. One of the principal devices to make good such claims was to extend the lives of their rulers to hundreds and thousands of 3'ears. The Berosian scheme presented above of the Noachite dynasty in Chaldaea down to the epoch of tho DISTRnU-JfOX OF Tim RACES.— NOACIim-: D/SJ'RKSION. 447 Deluge is a sample of the plan which the ancients adopted to make good their claim of primogeniture and proseriptive right. The Egyptians, ' not satisfied with even the fanciful expansion of their dynasty, were wont to abandon terres- trial criteria and appeal to the planets for their antiquity. It was a common boast among the Egyptian priests that their peoj^le were Prosch-itoi, that is, prc- Moonites, older than the moon in their occuiiancy and possession of Mizraim. In the discussion of the ]\Iesopotamian development of the different branches of Chronology at the Noachitc races, no at- r SrJ"" tempt has been made to es- races. tablish the chronological relations of the several ethnic divisions in the dispersion, or even to date the general epoch, to which they all be- longed. In fact, chronology is wholly at fault in considering such primitive movements of the race. As to the time when the Noachites may be said to have been deflected to the west, and to have begun their sejjaration into different peoples, nothing can be alleged with even approximate certainty. The whole tendency of recent inquiiy has been to extend the time relations of these early events. It is clearly perceived that the notions formerly prevalent about the time required for the peopling of differ- ent and distant regions of the earth, and the development therein of distinct na- tionalities, must be abandoned as totally inadequate for the ethnic evolutions to which they refer. It is known that the first progress of men gathering into tribes and nations is exceeding slow as com- pared with subsequent stages of human development. There is an accelerating tendency in the progress of mankind, and this manifest fact emphasizes the necessity of widening and enlarging the w-hole scheme of ancient chronology. As it resiDects the Semitic and Hamitic peoples who created the earliest civil so- cieties in Elam, Chaldaja, and A.s.syria, a few suggestions maybe of- Evidence of fered as to the time when ^f Egyptian"' the same occurred. If we Hamites. look at the rise of the Hamitic race in the valley of the Nile we discover the most cinphatic evidence of a very remote antiquity. It is safe to affirm that almost as early as four thousand years before the common era the primitive Egyp- tians, who themselves seem to have taken possessior of the valley by conquest, were already a strong and progressive people. They had civil organizations and many well-developed institutions of religion and secular society. They were magnificent btiilders in stone, and appear to have been, from the earliest date of their d(fboiicluire into Northeastern Africa, in possession of considerable sci- entific knowledge. These Eg}-ptians were descendants of the older Hamites in Asia. They came by migration and invasion into the country of their sub. sequent development. For this move- ment out of Asia mtich time mtist be allowed. A greatly extended period must have elapsed between the founding of the first Hamitic societies in Lower ^Mesopotamia and that subsequent time probabie deriva- when the Hamitic tribes, ^IrLomS' making their way westward ^^ea. through Syria, established themselves in Egypt. It is trtie that the formal chro- nology, so far as it has been recovered and reconstrttcted for the Chaldasan as- cendency, does not by any means reach a period so remote as that of Egypt. But the movement of the race to the west- ward points unmistakably to the fact that the Chaldtean ascendenc}- and the dominion of Elam were long anterior to the creation of political power in the val- 448 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. ley of the Nile. This indicates for the primitive peoples of Mesopotamia an an- tiquity far greater than history, or even ethnology in its current phases, has been accustomed to assign or accept. The country lying between Arme- nia and the head of the Persian gulf Effects of en-ri- fumishes a good examjjle of the influence of phys- ical environment on the movements and development of the early races. Mesopotamia constituted a ronment on the migrant Noa- Cliites. its way, while through the gaps of the Zagros the Semites would precipitate themselves into Upper Mesopotamia. Before the immigrants would spread an open country, traversed by two great streams of living water, fertile in natu- ral products, and inviting to settlement. The alluvial plain in Lower Mesopotamia would in a special manner provoke to permanent residence from the ease with which multiplying tribes could here sup- port themselves by the resources of the PASS IN THE ZAOROS MOUNTAINS.— Drawn by D. Lancelot, from a pliolograph, natural, perhaps an inevitable, stopping- place in the westward movement of the Noachitcs. vSuch was the situation as to make it necessary for them to pause, and to pause meant the growth of fixed societies. On the east of this region the country is defended by the bulwark of the Zagros and Keljir Kuli mountains. It is easy to sec how the already half- separated races, drifting from the east, would be impeded for a time by the in- terposition of the mountain range. Pres- ently, however, tlirough tlic southern passes. Ihe Ilamitic division would make earth. Adventure would soon carry the still half-nomadic peoples across the country to the western borders. Here, however, there would be a pause. Even the civilized man hesitates long, and the compulsion mu,st be extreme ere he throws himself into the desert. Perhaps of all the natural landscapes presented on the surface of the globe the most for- bidding and repcllant is the desert. West and southwest of Mesopotamia is a wide stretch of desert country. It fatigues the eye and scorches the feet. On the nortli is the Assyrian desert, and DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— HAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 449 to the south and west stretches away the seemingly infinite waste of Arabia. Here chaidaeaand ^re thc fundamental con- f^'^'r'tv "»r>t" ditions which made Chal- «lty of the early peoples. tla;a and Assyria a sort of necessity in the progress of the early race. It is not needed in this connection to enter elaborately into the geography of the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris and the adjacent upland coun- ■tries. On the north, from thc Caspian to the Black sea, stretch the Armenian mountains; on the south, is the sea; on the east, the Zagros range, and beyond, the great plateau of Iran ; on the west, the boundary line is the long stretch of the Syrian desert. At the time of the development of the early empires in these valleys and for TheRnddy ages aftcrwards the two themse'i^l to S^at rivers still discharged Mesopotamia, their Waters by separate channels into the Persian gulf. Meso- potamia reached to the sea, and the mouths of the rivers were fully a hun- dred miles south of the present shore line. Along the banks of these streams, high lip to the foothills out of which their upper waters arc drawn, especially on the cast by a multitude of smaller streams, the earliest, or at least one of the earliest, civilizations was developed in the world. It was the work of the Ruddy races coming from the east. Here they planted themselves at the north and the south, according to their race descent, and became in course of time much more strongly marked by ethnic differences than they were on their first arrival in the countr}^ It is from this region that the different races belonging to the Ilamitic and Semitic families of mankind made their way at length into the western foreground of history, where we shall discover them in a somewhat clearer light than that in which they have thus far been revealed. Here, then, is the end of what may be appropriately called the Noachite dis- persion of mankind. CHAPTER XXV.— The HAMITIC NllGRATIONS. iN the current chapter the attempt will be made to trace out geographically the va- rious lines by which the Hamitic race w-as distributed, first into Southwestern Asia, and thence through a large part of Northern Africa, to the borders of the Western ocean. The aamitioraoesue inquiry will begin with the nearest the movements of the Hamitic Blacks In race distribution. division of mankind, not from any preference for that race as a dominant people of antiquity, not be- cause their civilization reached a higher stage than that of the cognate races, but rather for geographical reasons. The Hamites were distributed to the south and west, and are thus the southernmost branch of the Ruddy races. It will, therefore, be convenient to begin on that side of the ethnic distribution which lies nearest to the lines marking the disper- sion of the Black races, and thence to pursue the inquiry northward until the Hamitic movements have been ex- hausted. In the next place, the various branches of the Semitic family may be taken up and considered in like order, leaving the Aryan, or Indo-European, divisions of mankind, most important of 450 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. all, historically considered, for the con- cluding chapters on distribution. The historical circumstances which gave rise to the first departure of the Historical rea- Hamitic emigrants from sons for the mi- Lower Mesopotamia for the grations of the '■ Hamites. southwest are not known. It is not unlikely, however, that the pressure of the stronger Assyrians on the north, who by repeated invasions and conquests reduced the old Chaldasan empire to a condition first of dependency and then of actual subversion, may have been the occasion, if not the real cause, of the first migratory movements of the Hamites in the direction of Arabia. It is not known whether this primitive impulse was coincident with the Chal- daean ascendency in Lower Mesopotamia or subsequent thereto, but the former supposition is more in accord with right reason and with such other facts as bear upon the question. At any rate, the first dispersive migration of the Hamitic family was from the primitive seat of the Chal- daeans toward the south and into the maritime parts of Arabia. It is likely that the first progressive people in the Arabian peninsula were Primitive Ara- the descendants of the mi- bian population g^atorv movement here de- of Hamitic de- * scent. scribed, and that they be- longed to the maritime parts adjacent to the Persian gulf. The primitive Arabians of the eastern parts next to the sea were of Semito-Hamitic origin, and that they antedated the Central and West- ern Arabians may be safely inferred from the ethnic movements then prevailing in the world, and also from an old prefer- ence of the early races for the seashore and the regions adjacent. A glance at the geography of the peninsula will show a range of mountains between the modern Arab state of Ilasa and the great desert. It was through the strip of territory lying between these mountains and the Persian gulf that the earliest tribes of the Hamitic family made their way to the southwest. In the lower part of the peninsula the migration divided, throwing off one branch into the modern province of Oman, while the major di- vision was deflected somewhat in conform- ity with the coast line to the southwest, toward the modern state of Yemen, adja- cent to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Such in general was the direction of the oldest ethnic line in the Arabian peninsula, and it was from this primitive migration that the Old Arabs, as contradistinguished from the more recent Ishmaelites, were derived. The former were, in general terms, a maritime people, and to the present day the distinctions between their descendants and the Arabians of the re- gions bordering on the Red sea are suffi- ciently marked. Throughout the whole of Southern Arabia, especially toward the south- western termination of the Himyaritic writ- peninsula, are found lin- mgs show traces ^ of Hanutic pro- guistic traces of this ancient duction. people. A class of primitive writings, called Hituyaritic Inscriptions, testify un- mistakably of the presence of a peculiar people in th.e regions where they are found. These writings, generally en- graved on stone, have been one of the most interesting and puzzling studies pre- sented to modern students of language, and there has been great diversity of views in regard to classifying the origi- nal speech to which these writings belong. Many most eminent linguists have re- garded them as of a Semitic origin. An- other plausible view is that of Renan, who holds that the inscriptions in ques- tion differ too widely from Arabic and cognate varieties of Semitic s])cccli to be classified therewith. These facts open a (question of much iXi (. I.:, i^w .:J 45-2 GREAT J? ACES OF MANKIND. importance respecting the affinities of the Hamitic and Semitic languages. It appears that the linguistic separation of Affinities and thesc two races was never connection of Hamitic and SO Complete as the division gnages. of either of them from the Aryan families of the north. It is likely that in manners, institutions, language, and laws the primitive Hamitic tribes held together with their Semitic kins- men until common linguistic forms had been in a considerable measure fixed in each, from which circumstance consider- able similarity would appear in the sub- sequent development of the respective languages. On the whole, it is safer to classify the Himyaritic inscriptions with the other Semitic dialects, and to admit the influence of the Hamitic Arabs in giving particular features to the writings of Southern Arabia. Wherever the inscriptions in question may be placed in linguistic classification, it is certain that their origin is extremely Wide distribu- ancient, and that they were ScinscHr deduced geographically *'°"^- from Lower Mesopotamia. The line of these writings has been traced from about the junction of the EujArates and the Tigris all the way around through Southeastern and South- ern Arabia to Yemen, and even across into Africa. The explorer Loftus found a sandstone slab covered with Himyaritic inscriptions in one of the mounds of Warka. in ancient Clialdasa. Two speci- mens of gems covered with like charac- ters are preserved in the British Museum. Coghlan and Playfair made similar dis- coveries at Amran, near Sana. In short, the identity of the writings along the line of the extreme southern dispersion of the Hamitcs is clearly established. The Himyarites, as a people, occupied the southwestern extremity of the Ara- bian peninsula. They are nearly iden- tified geographically with the inhabit- ants of the modern Yemen, though the Himyarites were fur- Geographical ther south and more mar- P°s'tio;^ of the ancient Himya- itime than the modern "t^s. Arabic state. It will thus be seen that the Hamitic branch of mankind which we have been tracing was brought, in its southwestern migration, to the southern neck of the Red sea. It was not likely that so narrow a strait of water would prevent the further dispersion of the ancient stock. The opposite African shore is embraced in the small maritime districts called Samara. More generally, it is Abyssinia to the north and vSomali- land to the south. The fact has long been recognized that there was an ancient race identity be- tween the peoples inhabit- Race kinship of ing the countries on the f^dEastenr""" two sides of the strait of Africans. Bab-el-Mandeb. The belief that the Old Abyssinians were of Semitic deri- vation, and the knowledge that they were of the same race with the people of the Himyaritic district in Arabia, has led to the conclusion that the lat- ter were Semites, and this belief has been perpetuated by the discovery of strong Semitic traces in the Himyaritic writings. The Abyssinians and other ancient Ruddy races of this region of Africa were clearly in some sort of race affinity with the Egyptians, the Canaan- ites, and the Old Arabians, as well as with the Semites proper. The ,whole question clears up on the hypothesis that this most southerly division of the Noa- chite descendants was Semito-Hamitic, and that the vSemites proper were dis- persed towa2"d tlic south alxnit to tlic cen- ter of the Arabian peninsula. It is true that some ethnographers have carried the Ishmaclite migration southward along the eastern shores of the Red sea to the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACIIS.—IIAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 453 stniit, and thence into Africa, wliich would bring the Semitic tribes into the same country with the cognate Hamites, but it may be doubted whetlier the true line of Ishmacl was ever carried so far in that direction. If we attempt to trace the Hamitic dis- persion beyond tlie crossing into Africa, cistributionof we shall find the migration pursuing the same general course to the southwest which it had taken while in Southern Arabia. It appears that the peoples of this stock were thinly distributed from the Hamitio blood In Eastern Afi-iceu bearing divisions of the Black races. The ancestors of the Hottentots and the Ne- groes made their way from the east through this same region of Gallaland, and their migratory intersection with the south-bearing progress of the Hamitic family must have constituted one of the earliest, if not, indeed, the very first, contact of the Ruddy with the Black races of antiquity. Meanwhile Syria, almost directly west from Chaldtea, had also been pre- occupied by Hamitic tribes. While the movement into the maritime parts of DESERT COUNTRY OF THE SYRIAN BORDERS— The Plain of Tortose.— Lirawu by A. de Bar, from a photograph by Lockroy. strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in the general direction of the Victoria Nyanza, and that the westward progress of the Ham- itic race was finally checked in this re- gion. The Somalian peoples of the extreme eastern portion of Africa Avere doubtless derived from a deflected branch of this Semito-Hamitic migration ; and, in general, the Noachite races of Galla- land had the same origin. One peculiar feature of this African distribution of the Ruddy Crossing of the . i . ,i ethnic lines in peoples from Arabia wastho Gallaland. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ jj^^^g ^f ^^^j^. progress to the southwest into the con- tinent must have crossed the westward- Arabia had been going on, another di- vision of the Hamitic stock had made its way out of Mesopotamia to syriaispre- the west. It appears that °^^^^.^^,. this migration divided in grants. the desert country on the Syrian borders, one branch being deflected into "Western Arabia, and the other pursuing its direct course toward the sea at Suez. If we take up the first division, we shall find the line of its dispersion drawn through Southeastern Syria and thence in the direction of Medina and Mecca. There can be no doubt about the race descent of the original peoples of this region. They were prior to the first Semitic mi- 454 GREAT RACES OF MAXKIXD. grations or invasions of the Avest; and ihe aboriginal substratum of the more recent Ishmaelites and Joktanians was undoubtedly of Hamitic origin. It \vas the peculiarity of the westward course of the Hamites from Central Divisions and re- IMcsopotamla that they di- fnTsTAK:. vided north and south in gration. their progress. At first, the volume of national life which flowed off toward Syria contained the potency of the Western Arabs, the Canaanites, and the Egyptians. The Canaanitish dellection from the main migratory line was northward, and occurred in the re- gion of Central Syria. The northward- bearing branch from this point entered Canaan Proper and Phoenicia ; and here began the development of one of the most prominent divisions of the Hamitic family. Traditional Canaan takes its name from the son of Ham. In the chronicles Ham founds ca- of the Hebrew race this SrS^'theT; t^ivision of the Hamites is kinsmen. most promiucnt. They were greatly disparaged by the early an- nalists of the Hebrew race, and through all subsequent ages were despised and con- temned by them as gentiles and servants of servants. It Avas against these de- scendants of Canaan in their tribes and generations that the wrath of invading Israel was turned, after the Egyptian exodus. The progress of the Hamitic migra- tions to the northwest, around the east- ern extremity of the Med- Extent of Ham- . itiG migrations itcrrancan, introduces the Into Asia Minor. . ■ , r . i . inquirer to one of the most difficult passages in the ethnic distribu- tion of mankind. Tlie problem is the ex- {(■II f of the migration in the direction of Asia Minor. litlmographcrs are not agreed as to how far the Hamitic move- ment in this direction continued. One class of writers are of the opinion that the traces of this branch of the human family extend no further than the south- ern regions of Asia Minor, or, at most, the eastern borders of the yEgean sea. Some are of opinion that the line waj deflected into the island of CyjDrus, and there tenninated so far as its west- ward progress was concerned. Still an- other class of inquirers hold that the Hamitic progress extended westward through the ^gean archipelago and into Southern Greece. This view of the case makes the Pelasgians, to whom consid- erable space was devoted in a chapter of the preceding book, to be the descend- ants of the Hamitic stock. It will be remembered that the view of a northern, that is, a Thessalian, origin for the Pe- lasgic race was advanced in the former account of that people. This view of the case is not fully established. Nor can it Avell be said that the opposite opinion, namely, that the Pelasgians came from the archipelago into Argolis, and thence continued their progress to the West, is more than tentative. Winchell, in his Chart of the Pro- gressive Dispersion of Mankind, holds to the view that the Hamitic migration was carried through the south- Wincheii's '^ _ _ views regarding ern parts of Asia Minor, the European . ,, 1 ji /-> 1 1 dispersionofthe and thence by the Cycladcs Hamites. into Peloponnesus. From Southern Hellas this distinguished ethnographer extends the Hamitic line first into Northwestern Greece, where, in Epirus, as wc have seen, one of the principal Pelasgic developments occurred. But the main line is carried across the Southern Adriatic into Italy, whence one branch is turned to the left, to fur- nish an aboriginal stock for the island of Sicily, while the other line bifurcates on the twosidcsof the Apennines, giving in Central Italy an origin for the prob- DISTRIBUTION OF Tllli RACIiS.—IIAMITIC MIGRATIONS. 455 leraatical Etruscans and their primitive development. It may be possible, even probable, that this scheme furnishes the best solution as to the race-origin of the first peoples of the Ruddy race in South- ern Greece and Central Italy. If so, we may regard the valley of the Po, the in- land region of Etruria, and the remote parts of Sicily as the westernmost limits Egypt. But a better view of the whole subject shows that if any such race movement occurred it was of a later, and perhaps a Semitic, origin, from Arabia into Nomth Central Africa. The original occupancy, then, of the Nile valley by the Ruddy races was certainly by the incoming of the Ham- ites, first into the eastern delta, and 'F 'IHE HAMITE MH;kAT10N', M.AK ;>UEZ.— Lake Timj- D. I.nnccloi, from a pliotOKraph. monial. For this reason the original in- the facts in possession of the ethnogra- pher and historian. But the Arab char- Composite race acter is, to a considerable mo":Sa-'''' extent, composite. Several *>*^s- ethnic elements have con- tributed to its formation. The Ilani- itic race, especially in the soutlicrn part of the peninsula, underlay the national development of subsequent times. With this oldest stock was blended to some habitants, already a composite people in Arabia Felix, may be supposed to have contributed not a little to the ultimate formation of that type known in modern times as Arabian. But the dominant stock, at least in the important regions bordering the Red sea from Suez to Yemen, was Ishmaelitic in its origin and development. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— SEMITIC MIGRATIONS. 469 We have thus considered the south- ernmost migratory movements of the Vicissitudes of Semitic race. The Abra- tl'^lt^^t" h^™i^ tribe entered and Canaan. possessed Canaan. This movement of the principal stock, repre- sentative of the family of Eber, is better understood in its character and re- «; suits than any other sin- gle migration at a time equally remote from the present. The story is elaborately expanded in the Book of Genesis. All the principal episodes in the career of the Abra- hamic tribe are narrated, even to details. The pa- triarch became the pro- genitor of a famous race which he planted in Ca- naan. The extent and variety of his tribe are indicated by the conduct toward him of Melchize- dek. King of Salem, and by many other incidents and events. A great de- velopment of the immi- grant race took place in the time of Israel, grand- son of Abraham, whose twelve sons became the progenitors of the twelve tribes and the origin of the twelve geographical divisions of the rising race. It is not needed to recount the epi- sode of the sojourn in Egypt and of the rapid multiplication of the foreigners about Pelusium. The return out of bondage and the repossession of Canaan by conquest furnished the material for the heroic aspect and story of the Israel- itish nation, which became domin.-vnt from the borders of the Syrian desert to the Mediterranean. It is worthy to be noted in this connec- tion that the Hebrews were never a seafar- ing people. It was against the economy of the state, and regarded perhaps as in- ■^/i^Kl^ ^ -t '^^^ LIFE OF THE AnRAHAMITES — SHK.PHF.Rn WiTIt LAMBS. Drawn by Paul Hardy. jurious to the theocratic principle upon which the government was founded, to make commercial excur- Noncommerciaj sionsand contract relations p^f^tti'v^He!'* with foreign powers. A brews, student of history will not forget tha< the narrow strip of coast called Phoeni- cia, with its great seaports, lay lietweeu •470 GREAT RACES OE JELYAVXE. brew influence on the Mediter- ranean. Israel and the Western ocean. This fact has an ethnic signification also ; for the Tyrians and Sidonians and other old stocks of mankind, hanging in their rookeries along the eastern end of the Mediterranean, represented races long anterior in their western distribution and development to the immigration and conquest of Canaan by the Eberites. In course of time the Semitic stock became dominant to the sea. Btit the spirit of navigation which prevailed in Extent of He- the ports of Tyre and Sidon must be attributed to a race impulse other than that of the Hebrews. To the extent that the Phoenicians had accepted the in- stitutions and blood of the invaders who conqiiered Canaan, we may regard the outgoing fleets from these shores as car- rjing Semitic influences through the Mediterranean. But it is doubtful if these fleets of outbound merchants car- ried to the western parts anything t/is- tinctively Hebrew. All the traces of the Semitic race which have been found in the Mediterranean islands, on the shores of Spain, and beyond the straits of Gib- raltar, in Wales, and in the littoral islands of Western Africa, must be at- tributed to that community of language and institutions which the Phoenicians, particularly the Sidonians, possessed in common with the race of Abraham. Time and again we have shown that the Hamitcs had common forms of language The Azores ^^,^1 a common institutional mark the Atlan- tic limit of He- development With the cog- turel ^^^'^' rvvA.Q. nations of Shorn, and the original Canaanites could thus carry into western waters evidences of a race affinity with the dominant .Semitic stock. However this may be, ethnographers have agreed in extending the vSemitic line of dispersion through the Phoenician coa.st and around the northern sliores of Africa by water. As just indicated, this line extends beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and is deflected northward to Britain and southward to the twentieth degree of latitude. The western limit of this maritime migration is thought to have been in the Azores ; and this group of islands may be said to mark the ex- treme Atlantic progress in the natural dispersion of the .Semitic family. It must be noted in connection with the foregoing schemes of dispersion that most of the names employed appear as the names of individuals. — use and signif- as the sons of a household. ^TeTtrfb^" This fact gives to the dis- names, cussion a &Vx\q.\\x fainily aspect which is too exact and too narrow for the facts which it represents. !Many of the names in the above classifications are known to be the names of tribes and of whole divisions, or even of whole peoples. It is impos- sible from a study of primitive Semitic records to make out precisely which of the ancestral names employed in geneo- logical tables are intended to represent single ancestors, and which are designed to specify households, tribes, and peoples. It is the custom in the Semitic languages to prefix to many personal names, espe- cially such as have a descriptive significa- tion, the definite article, thereby giving to the word an ethnic turn of sense dif- ferent from what would be expressed in the Aryan languages. Such names, moreover, are frequently in titc plural ; and the Hebrew Scriptures, taken as an example of all such records, have, in manj^ instances, intermixed these tribal or ethnic epithets with individual names until even the closest criticism is jjiit at fault in determining precisely wiiat is nieant. - On the whole, it is safe to make considerable allowance fcr this circumstance in estimating the value of the names, apparently individual, given DISTKinUTlOX OF TIIF. RACIiS.—SEM/TIC MIGRATIONS. 471 to the ancestors of the Semitic and Ham- itic races. This fact must always be taken into account in attempting to esti- mate the /////(• and the extent of a given migratory movement. If we look to tlie north of the central line of the Semitic dispersion into Ca- and it has already been suggested that in Cyprus itself the aboriginal develop- ment was of Hamitic origin. The primi- tive histoiy of the island is exceedingly obscure, but all that is known with reference thereto points to an early colonization by the Phctnicians from lli»> ' LAND OF THE SCORCHED FACES." — Abu Senoi'm, on Frontier of Koruofan, towako Dakfuk. — Drawn by Karl Girardet, after a sketch of Lejean. naan and the west, we shall lind only a single significant dei^arture. This leaves The Hebrew the main stem on the north wnhtrnrr^ in the Syrian desert, and itio in Cyprus. bears off in the direction of the northeastern extremity of the Medi- terranean, where it touches the coast, and is thence carried over to the island of Cyprus. It is hardly to be doubted that along the line of this migration other peoples had preceded the Semites, neighboring coast. The ancient wor-> shij^ of Ashtaroth in Cyprus seems to be identical with the corresponding cult in Phoenicia, and it may be concluded that the first race, by which is meant the first progressive race, in the island was of the old Canaanitish stock which fixed itself in the earliest ages along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Such, then, is the general view of the dispersion of the Semitic nations- 472 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. Geographically considered, the race was narrow and intense. Its migra- Summaryand tory excursions did not outline of the }^ ^ go extensively Hebraic dis- •' tribution. as those of Other peo- ples. The extreme western continental limit was, as we have seen, in North Central Africa. The sotithern departure dropijed down as far as the limits of Arabia. The northern limit was the island of Cyprus; and the maritime expeditions — if we regard the Phoeni- cians as representatives of this race — extended through the Mediterranean and to a certain distance around the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Taken altogether, the dispersion is the smallest, that is, the most limited in geographical extent, of all the great ethnic departures. The dispersion of Japheth in compari- son with that of Shem was, as we shall presently see, world-wide in its extent. But within the limited territories oc- cupied by the Semitic race a very intense form of religious and civil development ensued, making the Semites conspicuous among ancient peoples for their pecul- iarities and persistence and force of character. In the course of the current chapter little has been intimated relative to the Question of the primitive populations of TfTheEirp? lithiopia. This name was ans. given by the Greeks to the region lying immediately south of Egypt. The word means "the land of the scorched faces," and was doubtless applied by the Hellenic ethnographers ;o the Ethiopians on account of their swarthy hue. Tliis, however, by no means implies that they were a branch of the, Black races of mankind. It is well known, on tlie contrary, that tliis people were allied witli tlic ITamitic and Semitic families of men, and not with the Negroes or Hottentots. The early history of Egypt indicates close relationship between that couniry and Ethiopia. At one epoch an Ethi- opian dynasty is found in westem ish- the ascendant in the Nile Xrei^^urtL valley. There was much Hamites. community of religions and of civil in- stitutions between the two peoples, who, however, frequentl}' went to war. To what extent, in the prehistoric ages, the Hamitic race had made its way up the valley beyond the falls of the Nile and contributed a first population to Ethi- opia can not be well ascertained. But that the original race of this region was at least to some extent Hamitic in its origin can hardly be doubted. We may, nevertheless, accept the current view of ethnographers that the western division of the Ishmaelites crossed the Red sea and gave a Semitic character to the first Ethiopian tribes. It is possible, more- over, that the same race, after making its way to the southern extremity of the Red sea and passing thence into Africa, doubled back into Ethiopia and dis- seminated certain tribal elements in this obscure but important region of the earth. We thus note three great divisions of the vSemitic stock. The primary depar- ture sent off the Aramaic Aram the seat branch of the race. In gen- t^^^:'^:^"- eral terms the people of opment. Aram, known ethnically as Aramaeans, were distributed from the Zagros and Kebir Kuh on tlic east, to the borders of Canaan on the west. Aram eml^raced all of Mesopotamia except Chaldasa, subsequently known as Babylonia, and all of .Syria in the west except Palestine and Phoenicia. The scat of Aramaic cul- ture was Mesopotamia. Here was ex- hibited the strongest develojimcnt of the race. Geographically, Aram w;is the northern division of the Semitic family, DISTRIBUTION OF Tlf/i RACES.— EAST ARYAN DI.I'A RTURE. 473 as the Hebraic stock was the central and the Arabic division the southern evolu- tion of Shem. In considering the race characteristics and historical progress of these peoples, we shall have occasion to revert to this division of the Semitic family, and to make the same the basis of a discussion of the national life of the Mesopotamian nations, the Hebrews and the Arabs. We turn, then, in the next place, to a discussion of the far wider, and in many senses more important, development of the oldest branch of the Noachite family of mankind — the Aryans, or Japhethites. CHAPTER XXVII,— The Kasx Aryan Departure. HE dispersion of the Japhetic, Aryan, or Indo-European race — for the three ethnic names are virtually synonymous — consti- tutes the most pictur- esque chapter in the prehistoric annals of the world. We are brought in the investigation to what appears to have iDcen an inexhaustible fountain of hu- man life, and are led to view the issu- ance from this common source of at Determination least six of the great races of the origin of ^^.|^|^j^ bccamc in their de- trie Aryan mi- grations, velopment the principal his- torical forces in the ancient world. It will be of primary interest in this in- quiry to note, first of all, the geograph- ical location of this common foi:ntain wherefrom issued the best, or at least the strongest, peoples who have, by their energy and genius, transformed the primeval world into its present civil- ized and auspicious condition. With the map of Asia before him the student need not be long in fixing the o^reat ethnic center which we are about to consider. Regarding the ancient country of Carmania as the seat of the Noachite division of peoples, and fixing the line of Japheth on the north, it may be easily perceived that its westward- M. — Vol. I — 31 bearing course would come against the Hyrcanian mountains and the Lower Caspian, and be deflected or doubled back toward the Upper Oxus into .Mar- giana and Bactria. It was in this region that the great ethnic whirl was estab- lished, where the Aryan race seems to have found itself turned by torsion for a season under the dominion of cosmic forces, which it were, perhaps, vain to attempt to analyze and define. Ethnographers have differed some- what as to the true seat of the great races which we are now to Region of the consider. The better opin- .^T^jS'lt ion places the center of parture. the distribution about the Lower Cas- pian, or eastward toward the borders of Bactria. It is likely that the rapidly multiplying race covered geographically the larger part of the country between the Bactrian borders and the Lower Cas- pian. At least this is the general local- ity from which the most powerful ethnic forces have ever proceeded. In viewing the situation, we may discover once more how the laws of physical environment cooperated with the laws of instinct in producing such marvelous results. There is little doubt, in the first place, that evenness of surface and approxima- tion to sea level have a marked influence in preserving the aggregationor compact- 474 GREAT RACES OF JL4NKIND. ness of tribes in the formative stnte, and in conducing to certain religious and po- litical types of development. In the next place latitude, with its invariable concomitant of temperature, contributes much to modify the peoples who are subject to given Hamites are eth.- "^ nicauy modified degrees of heat and cold. by enrironment. tm • • , • ,■ ^ <• i his IS true m particular ot tribes who are still in the plastic state. There can be no doubt that there is a childhood and a vouth to mankind — an men. They also grew sedate and aus- tere, less disposed to highly developed forms of society, and, in brief, more like the desert and rainless countries in- to which they penetrated than were the races which distributed themselves fur- ther northward. Among the oldest monuments of the Egyptians there are pictorial represen- tations of the differences which had al- ready been produced among the Noa- chite descendants by the influences of LANDSCAPE OF OLD ARVA.— Ruins of Tous.— Drawn by A. de liar, from .i pholograph. impressionable stage of evolution in which the influences of the external •world are more potent in their reaction •upon the mental and physical constitu- tion than they are in later stages of de- velopment. In these early stages of so- ciety there arc infantine susceptibilities and diseases from which the race re- covers at a stage of fuller maturity. For this reason the early peoples in their migratory epochs have developed a con- Btilution peculiarly significant of the climate and region f)f their tribal so- journ. The races of Ham 1:)ccamc much darker in color than their Semitic kins- environment. The sculptors, in these representations, have unwittingly borne evidence of the tendencv of Egyptian sculp tures eT>idenoe races in the plastic stage of the early ditrer- ... ... . entiationof their evolution to con- races, form to climatic conditions. The Egyptians defined themselves as Rot/i, meaning red, or ruddy, as to complexion. They pictured the cognate Semites as Naiiialiu, meaning yellow; and the Japhethites, or North ISIcditerrancan peoples, as Tuiiia/iii, or white. Yet it is' now well known that these three types of color and the associated form, feature, and stature of the three peoples to DISTRinUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 475 which they belong, were all of a com- mon ethnic descent. The race of Jai^heth on the north and east of Mesopotamia was, in its earliest stages of development, tlirown into a Primitive Ja- phethites alTect ed by climate and surround- . , . ings. ot the coimtnes where the Semitic and Hamitic families were dis- persed. It was a region of uplands, ris- region where nature had s;rialcr I'aricly than in any mer, the quick oncoming of the .storm, the biting frost of a comparatively early autumn, the high winds, the blasts of snow and .sleet peculiar to the winter months. It is in some sense a climatic maelstrom, and the Japhetic race was whirled and beaten in its childhood by the wild elements that dashed and turned from alternate calm to tempest, and from warm airs to biting blasts and V * -^ • •: "JVC* J.- "U m ■ . -A- . . . - * jt^-<. ^ ft^T FA^s 111' 1 HE AKAXK^. ing easily into mountain ranges of con- siderable elevation. It was a country of snows, and particularly of storms in winter. There are few parts of the earth in which vicissitude in temperatitre and the whole external mood of nature are more pronounced than in the region south and east of the Caspian. The primitive Japhethites were ex- posed from the beginning to the full force of these climatic changes — to the flush of early spring, the heat of .sum- freezing .sleets. For the.se reasons the early Japhethites would, by the turbu- lence of nature, be impressed with great- er restlessness, hardihood, and adven- ture than might be expected in the case of any other primitive people. How great must have been the influ- ence of such an environment upon sen- sitive peoples recentl}- liberated from a parent stock in a more genial latitude '. We have already seen that the Adamite seems to have come up from the low- 476 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. lying seashore, where the Ichthyophagi afterwards roamed, half -naked in ihe seashore sunshine, gathering shellfish from the brine. Many of these moder- ating influences had been carried by the Noachites into the Carmanian uplands; and it was from thence that the Japheth- ites were deflected to the northwest into the region of snow and mountains. Before beginning a review of the wider aspects of the Japhetic dispersion indefiniteness jj^to remote Continents, it of biblical refer- ences to the can but prove of interest to Japhetic disper- ^ , , ' sion. note, as we have already done in the case of the Joktanian migra- tions, the narrower biblical plan of dis- tribution presented in the tenth chapter of Genesis. Japheth signifies, etymo- logically, " widespreading," from which meaning of the word the inference is drawn that the name was applied to the Northern Aryans after they had shown the migratory disposition. Far back in the Noachitic era there was a prophecy that -Japheth should be enlarged. Every- thing from the biblical point of view points to the expansion of this branch of the Noachite family. The close relation of the western division of the race with European tribes is shown in the fact that the Greeks had a myth of their own ancestor under the name of lapetus, which is clearly the same as Japheth. In general terms, the countries assigned to the descendants of this branch of mankind are called the "isles of the gentiles." Doubtless the expres- sion is poetical. The Oriental imagi- nation substituted " isles " for countries in genei-al, no doubt from the remote and seagirt meaning suggested by the word. If we scrutinize carefully the Japhetic family as recorded in Genesis, we shall find seven sons, or founders of tribes, assigned to the head of tlic race. These are, first of all, Gomer. Among the de- scendants of this ancestor many names are found, even in Europe, seven tribes of which preserve the ety- the'^ra^eof'"^^' mology of the ancestral Gomer. title. Rawlinson has noted the presence of the Gimirians among the cuneiform inscriptions, belonging to the age of Darius Hystaspes. The Cimmerians, dwelling on the northern shores of the Black sea, are believed to have their name from Gomer. The word Cymri (Kymri), one of the Celtic names of Western Eu- rope, is thought to have the same origin ; and the words Cambria, in England, and Cambrai, in France, preserve, perhaps, an etymological tradition of the oldest branch of the Japhethites. The first son of Gomer was Ashkenez, from whom, no doubt, the ancient tribe of Ascanians, dwelling to the south of the Black sea, Avere descended. These are believed to have been the ancestors of the Phrygians, and were therefore closely related with the Hellenic emigrants who subsequently peopled Greece. The country of Ascania extended over the land of Troy, from which circumstance we may deduce something of the ethnic relations existing between the Trojans and the Hellenes. It is worthy of note that "the boy Ascanius," the son of .^neas, founder of mythical Rome, per- petuated the ancestral name of Ashkenez. It is not impossible that the classical name Euxine, formerly spelled Axenus, is also derived from the ethnic designa- tion of the early race dwelling on the southern borders of this sea. The second branch of the Gomerites was, according to Genesis, deduced from the tribal ancestor Riphath. „ , , „. ' Place of the Ri- From him are tliought phacesintue . 1 11,1 ethnic scheme. to have descended llie ancient Paphlagonians, wliom Josephus designates as Rii)liaces. This pe()2)le, DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 477 like the Ashkenites, dwelt on the south- ern borders of the Black sea, though the location has not been so definitely deter- mined as that of the first Gomeritic division. On the whole, it is likely that the Riphaces had their dwelling- place somewhat toward the east, in a district which was properly included in Arme- nia. Tlie third son of Gonier was To- garmah, who is be- lieved to have founded an Arme- nian tribe which may be identified with the modem Thorgonites inhab- iting the same re- gion. The next brancli of the Japhethites was deduced from the second son, called Magog. But it is difficult to de- termine into which of the Black sea provinces this di- vision was led and distributed. There is general consent that the famous savage race of Scythians were the Distribution of the Magog and offsprmg of Magog. Some the Madai. . -, . , ethnographers have re- ferred the Turanians in general to this origin, and others have derived the Circassians, inhabiting the mountainous district between the Caspian and the Black sea, from the Magogian stock. Concerning the Madai, who are record- ed as the third tribe of Japheth, there can be little doubt that these were the ances- tors of the great race of Medes, whose country spread from the Upper Zagros toward the east, as far as Hyrcania and the desert of Aria. Subsequently, in the development of the Median race, the nation spread southward over the Irani- an plateau, and passed by conquest into Assyria, and even to Babylonia. But the prehistoric tribes descended from Madai were limited to the northern prov- inces east of the mountains. The fourth son of Japheth was Javan, easily identified with the Greek ancestral /^c/i/rvs^^jjMmi:] OLD MEDIAN TYPES — THE SASSANIAN PRINCES (OF THE SCULPTURES). Drawn by H. Chapuis, from a photograph by Madame Dieulafoy. name laones, from whom, according to the Hellenic tradition, the lonians of Asia Minor and the ^gean Traces of the dispersion of the Javanites. islands were descended. Traces of the Javanites have been discovered among the inscrip- tions of Egypt; and the Greeks as a race were called Javanas among the ancient Hindus. The Arabic word for Greeks is Yunan, which is evidently of the .same etymology with Javan. In later times the Hellenic ethnographers were dis- posed to accept laones as the ancestor of their Avhole race, and to make Ionian and Greek equivalent terms. From the Javan, several ancestral stocks are said to have been derived. The first son bore the name of Elishah , and it is 478 GREAT RACES OF MANKIhW. possible that the Greek state of Elis, in the eastern part of Peloponnesus, perpet- uated this name. Some have suggested that Hellas itself is a derivative from Elishah. Tarsus, on the Cilieian coast, has been derived from the word Tarsliisli, assigned as the name of a second son of Javan. A third tribe was called Kittim, which is believed to have been distrib- uted near Paphlygonia, or possibly into the island of Cyprus. A fourth division of Javanites were the Dodanim, which we may possibly identify with the Do- donians of Macedonia. The tribal name GAIEWAV OK THE EAST ARYANS INTO INDIA — THE BOLAN I'ASS. is sometimes spelled Rodauim, which would point to the island of Rhodes as the locality of this branch of Javan. The race of Tibareni, mentioned by the Greek historians, have generally Probable identi- bccn referred to the Tubal, or^^ran'swHh fifth tribe of Japheth. the Tubaiites. Tlicv havc been identified with tlie original Georgians, but the name in itself docs not indicate the descent. In the Iberians we may dis- cover traces of the original name. Tlic latter had their h.abitation bordering on the Black sea and reaching out on the southern s]o])e of the Caucasus. The sixth son of Japheth is called IMeshech, whose descendants were doubt- less the ancient Moschi. The territory of this tribe lay next to that of the Tibareni. The Moschian range of mountains preserves the word in the north of Armenia to the present time. According to a conjecture of Rawlinson, the modern national name of IMusCovite is derived, through Moschi, from the Japhetic Meshech. It is believed that the great Thracian stock of mankind may be traced up to Tiras, the seventh and last of the Japhetic progeny. It is thought that the country into which this branch of the race was distrib- uted was on the n o r t h of the Black sea, on the banks of the Dniester, the name of which river is believed to preserve the e t y m o 1 o g y o f Tiras. After- wards the same geographical name was carried into Eu- rope. The ThracianS were Possible deriva- originally distributed over ^^^t^rcn a wide range of countr}-, Tiras. extending from the Black sea as far as the borders of the Cimmerians. It will be seen that according to this genealogical scheme, deduced from the Book of Genesis, the dis- Biblical scheme represents the pcrsion of the Japhcthitcs Japhethites as , ,, ^ ," , developed west- was wholly to tllC l^'CStlVard -ward. from llie point of deixirluiv. This in- dicates that the eastward migrations of the race, so important in the subsequent development of the Medo-Persian up- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— EAST ARYAN DEPARTURE. 479 lands and India, were unknown to the Hebrews, or at least omitted from the ethnic tables which they preserved. As a general fact, the Hebrew accounts of peoples other than themselves were lim- ited to the necessity of the case, while the movements of the Abrahamites were expanded and developed in full propor- tions. A second observation relative to the Japhetic dispersion is that according to this sevenfold tribal scheme all, or near- ly all, the races of Indo-European origin How far the He- are located in Armenia and brew outline of ^round the shores of the Japnetix ex- tended. Black sea. The territory contemplated by the Hebrew author ex- tended westward into Phrygia and at least as far as the ^gean islands. It is safe to mark out the wilds of Thrace and the island of Rhodes as the western- most boundaries of the Japhetic disper- sion as deduced from the tribal refer- ences in Genesis. But if we examine the geographical knowledge which was possessed in the times of the composi- tion of the earlier Hebrew books, and join to this the comparative indifference of the race to the movements and distri- bution of the Japhethites, we can dis- cover sufficient reasons for the imperfec- tion or inadequacy of the ethnic scheme. It now remains to look at the question in the broader light of historical and linguistic indications. It has already been indicated in the first chapter of the preceding book that Great contribu- the study of language has S:nce"rth-"° led to many rectifications nography. jn the general scheme of knowledge. In no other department of science has this correction and emenda- tion of previous opinion been more manifest than in ethnography. One of the most striking examples of the im- provement of the old scheme of learning by the new linguistic contribution is found in the discovery that the Indie peoples of Hindustan have certainly been derived from the same origin with the great nations of Europe and Amer- ica. The bringing to light of the iden- tity of Sanskrit in its elements as a lan- guage with the Greek and Latin opened up a. totally different view of the move- ments and distribution of the Indo-Eu- ropean family of men. The slightly subsequent demonstration of the iden- tity of the language in which are re- corded the sacred writings of the Iranic or Persic race, added proof to proof of the great community of the six or seven branches which are now known to com- pose the Aryan family of nations. Ethnographers Avere quick to seize upon these additions to their previous knowledge ; and one of their first works was to trace backward the Discovery of Indie streams of mankind fi^lTi'w^t^'na nnities by means through the passes of the of Sanskrit. Hindu-Kush to its confluence with the Iranic stream, and then to follow up the Old Indo-Persic family in its descent from an ancestral home common to themselves and the Graeco-Italic stock in Europe. These ancient and shadowy movements, most important in the dis- semination of the strongest peoples in the world, have now been sufficiently delineated, and the scholar of to-day may trace w'ith comparative certainty the ethnic lines which mark the course of primitive peoples from the great cen- ter which they had in common, east- ward of the Lower Caspian, to their sev- eral destinations in distant continents. The primary movement of the Old Ar- yans in the geographical First move- vortex just referred to ap- ^r?he'l^^^^ pears to have been a sort of i»i\ryans to make tlicir way around the ea.stern shores of the Caspian and thence westward across the Ural river; and it is also clear llial this movement did not succeed. Tlie migrations in this direction reached no further to the north than tlic sea of Aral, wlicrc the course of the tribes was permanently checked. It is more than likely that the climate in this region was so severe as to prevent furtlicr jirogrcss in tliat directif)n. The country between the Lower Ural and the Aral sea is one of the bleakest and most forbidding in tlie world, and Aryan adventure was stayed in tliis direction. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 483 In these facts we discover another ex- ample of the peculiarities of migratory Sense in which tribal movements. Eth- I'otf und°e" " " "i'^ progress is by no means stood- so rapid and exact as the word viigration would imply. These north-bound Aryans, if they had been " emigrants " in the modern sense of that word, would have continued their course aroimd the Caspian to the north, and would have found an ample vent foi westward expansion afterwards. But the movement of primi- tive tribes is a prog- ress rather than a im- gration. The removal from place to place is slow. It involves camping, temporary settlement, and a test of the locality as to its resources and suit- ableness for perma- nent abode. The ethnic movement is thus tentative in its whole course. It puts out in this direction and in that, testing the climate and the resources of the re- gion, and spreading into different tracts adjacent until the course of further migration is determined by the inviting or uninviting character of the borders beyond. There is a sense in which the migrating tribe is always tempted to proceed on its way in a given direction. ' The imagination is allured to the extent of inciting a new depar- ture. While the natural instinct of the race, in the form of cupidity or the spirit of adventure, furnishes the bottom impulse of the progress, the suggestions of the natural world determine its course and the rapidity and oscillations of the forward movement. The north-bound migration which we have here described, and which ended with the Aral sea, contributed an abo- KARAKALPACK TYPES — TWO USBEKS. Drawn by A. Ferdinandus. riginal race between the Oxus and the Caspian. Here a single Indo-European familv is represented which J - ' . . . Northern limits doubtless owes its origin of Aryan disper- (.« fu« • -i* sioninAsia. to the very primitive . movement just described. The Kara- kalpacks, whose territor)- lies immedi- ately north of the Atrek river, which empties into the Lower Caspian from the east, are probably of Aryan descent. 484 GREAT RACES OE MAXKIXD. as are also a second tribe, called the Us- beks, who have their habitat further to the north ; also the Tadshiks, holding the country immediately south of the sea of Aral, at the dcboncJnirc of the Oxus, are Indo-Europeans, and are the northern- most of the Ar3-an peoples of Asia east- ward of the Caspian sea. the Caucasus. Defined in terms of an- cient geography, the course was across Media, through Atropatene and Ar- menia Major. In all this region — such was its geographical constitution — the migratory race appears to have held to- gether. Indeed, it was not possible that there should be dispersion in a country CAUCASIAN TYPES.— Geoucian Women.— Drawn by Eugene Burnand, from a pliotograph. In the meantime a .still .stronger mi- gratoiy movement of the Arj^ans had taken place directlv to the Sources of the \tm race movement West. The Stream of de- Into Europe. , • ii • • i pai-turc in this case earned in its current the potency of all the Y.w- ropean nations. It extended primarily south of the Casjiian along the upper parts of Mesopotamia, and was held from northern deflection by tlie spurs of so confined. All of the ancient .state."? which we have just mentioned were strongly Aryan in their original popula- tion, from which circumstance it is easy to discern how Aryan influences would press upon ancient Assyria from the cast and modify that nationality by the infusion of many foreign elements. The modern countries of Mazandenm, Arda- lan. and Adarbijan hold a similar rela- DISTRIBUTION OF TIf/i RACES.— U'liST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 485 planted on the lines of the out' going. tion to the Mesopotamian regions, and the pressure of the Kurds upon the peo- ples between the Tigris and tlie Euphra- tes has in progress of ages amounted to a conquest. After reaching the more open region midway between the Caspian and the Black sea, the Aryans divided into two major streams, one continuing the west- ward course, and the other passing through the Caucasus mountains into Armenia. It is at this point that the line of departure to the right enters the Russian empire of modern times. The first peoples of Aryan stock de- posited in the region of this divergence First races Were the Armenians and Georgians. Here is the seat of that great division of mankind to which the ethnographers of the last century gave the name of Caucasian. Until the more compre- hensive scholarship of recent times had thrown a stronger light on the question, it was supposed that the White, or Ruddy, races had all issued from this source, the southern branch passing into Asia Minor, and the north- ern being carried around the Black sea into Europe. It is now seen, however, that the real origin of the Aryans lay further to the east, and that the startine point of dispersion in the Caucasian re- gion was only secondary to an older de- parture beyond the Caspian. It will be desirable in following out the great migrations which we are now Origin of the to cousidcr to take Up first the western branch of de- parture and follow the same into Asia Minor, and thence into penin- sular Europe. If from the eastern ex- tremity of the Black sea to the north- eastern limit of the Mediterranean a line be drawn, we shall find that all of the original peoples of peninsular Asia lying Minor Asians ; Hamitic iiiflu- ences. west of the line and east of the Black sea were contributed by the principal stream of Aryan migration to the west. This movement entered the peninsula centrally from the east and was distrib- uted into all parts, especially around the southern shores of the Black sea. The only exception to the ethnic distribution here stated is the possible Pelasgic line of the Hamites, carried around from Syria into the archipelago. Otherwise, all of the prominent nations who, out of prehistoric shadows, came into view with the beginning of authentic history in Asia Minor were of a common Aryan descent, and this descent was immedi- ately from the point in the Caucasus where the primitive races of Northern Europe took their departure into Great Russia and the West. The Aryans, once in Asia Minor, found themselves in a region inviting to development. The result Multiplicity of was that in the earliest fn^theYJsTef ^^ ages of historj' many states -A-^ia. were created within a comparatively limited territory. Kingdoms and em- pires that even contended with the great powers of ilesopotamia arose in several parts of this Lesser Asia; and if the country had been as fortunate in the preservation, by literature and monu- ments, of the story of its past as were the states of Assyria, Egypt, and Greece, we might expect some of the most strik- ing contributions to the ethnography and annals of primitive times. It Avill be fitting in this connection to notice a few of the leading peoples who were developed from the Aryan stem in the countiy between the Black sea and the Mediterranean. If any of the nations within the limits here defined belonged, in whole or in part, to other than an Aryan stock, it was the 'Cilicians, lying at the extreme 486 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. east of the peninsula and along the Mediterranean border. The physical features of this country are Place and race , m ■ n composition of the Taurus mountains and the Cilicians. .■, ■ /^ j i ii the river Cydnus, both famous from the remotest ages for their historical associations. The belief is prevalent that the Phoenicians were first to colonize these regions, and it is quite likely that their adventurers and seamen passed around the coast and established settlements as far west as Lycia. To the extent that the Phoenicians had as the basal element in their race character an element of Hamitic descent, it will be proper to regard the Cilician race, espe- cially of the seacoast provinces, as de- scended from the southern branch of the Noachites. But subsequently the in- coming Aryans gave another complexion to the people. Cilicia was Aryanized, and remained ever afterwards virtually an Indo-European state. In the times of Hellenic colonization the Greeks sent around maritime bands, who settled along the Cilician coasts, and thus com- pleted the race revolution -which their ancestors had begun in prehistoric ages. North of Cilicia lay the still greater country of Cappadocia. The primitive Beginnings of racc inhabiting this region was contributed directly from the Aryan migration westward. Indeed, the region lay im- mediately in the path of the great move- ment, and the people sprang up from the elements which were dropped by the race on its progress toward the Black sea. The .same may be said of Paphlagonia, lying in the inner curve of that sea on the south. We have already seen that these countries were assigned by the Hebrew account to the .sons of Japheth. Paphlagonia is believed to have belonged to the Kittim of tlie Japhetic dispersion, while the same Cappadocian and PapUago- niau races. country is by other writers assigned to the Riphaces, descendants of Riphath, the second tribal head of the Gomerites. Immediately west of Cappadocia lay the still more important country of Phryg- ia, with its northern penin- Rise of the sula next to the Propontis. ^^^nThf wilh^le This region also lay imme- Armenians, diately under the center of the migratory line, and the primitive population was distributed in the manner already de- scribed for Cappadocia. The political power subsequently developed in this part of Asia Minor was of great impor- tance in the earlier historical times. The state was touched on its various borders by Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Lyconia, Pisidia, Lycia, Caria, Lydia, and Mysia. It was the center of the Lesser Asia. The country of Avhich we here speak was called Greater Phrygia, to distinguish it from the extension of the same region along the Propontis, which was known as Lesser Phrygia. According to the traditions of the various races of the peninsula, the Phryg- ians were the most ancient nation of Asia Minor. They were thought by the Greeks to be in close race affinity with the Thracians. There are also hints of their relationship with the Armenians on the east. Both of these conjectures of the ancients were correct. The Phrygians were the result of a migratory move- ment out of Armenia into the countries of the West, and the people were accord- ingly allied, by race descent, on the east with the Armenians, and on the west with the Thracians. It is not the place to review the important historical bear- ings of Phrygia in the earlier ages of Grecian history, or to repeat the tradi- tions and legends which have been pre- .scrved of the nation. vSnnth of Phrygia lay the smaller states of Caria, Lycia, and Pisidia ; and to the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ylRYAN MIGRA TIONS. 487 north, on the shores of the Black sea and reaching to the Bosphorus, was the coun- try of Bithynia. All of these other Minor ,. . , -, , Asians ; Lydi- Qistncts Were peopled by ans in particular. ^^..^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^ dispersed rig-ht and left from the original Aryan migration which brought the ancestors the ^gean were from the earliest ages intimate. The Lydians were to the yEgean sea what the Phoenicians were to the Eastern Mediterranean. In the arts and sciences they antedated the Greeks, and their history is only second in im- portance to that of the Hellenic states. ROUTE OF WEST ARYANS THROUGH ASIA MINOR.— Pass of Hadjin, in Capiadocia. Drawn by LJrandsire, after Langlois. of the Europeans to the eastern bor- ders of the .^gean sea. Immediately west of Phr3-gia, next the archipelago, was the important state of Lydia. The history of the people who were here de- veloped is better known than those who grew into importance further east. The Lydians were nearly allied to the Greeks. The Ionian cities were on the Lydiau coast, and the commercial relations be- tween the peoples on the two sides of We have thus noted the westward progress of the Aryans through the whole country from Upper Mesopotamia to the ^gean sea. This Minor Asians region of Lesser Asia pre- ''°I^T^:1^:L sented one of the earliest ansandindicans. fields of Aryan development. While the Medes and Persians on the east of the Zagros, and the Indie Aryans in the Punjab, were laj'ing the foundations of their respective nationalities, the 488 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. various peoples of Asia Minor, all closely allied by race descent and com- mon institutions, were settling from the nomadic state into pemianent residence, discovering the native resources which were richly distributed in their country, and creating those institutional forms •out of which great monarchies, rivaling those of the valley of the Euphrates and the Nile, were to spring and flourish. It is probable that the westward prog- ress of the Aryan race was considerably Reasons for the delayed by its course st™'ofHei. through Asia Minor. The lenic migration, richncss of the Country in resources, the fertility of the soil, the abundance of the forests which prevailed in prehistoric times, the acceptability of the climate, and the general beauty of the landscape invited to residence ; and here the migratory and adventurous spirit would be checked. It was only after the peninsula began to be well filled with the immigrant race, when the nations began to contend and displace each other by conquest, that the old migratory impulse revived and progress toward the west was continued. These circumstances may account for the fact of tlie different streams of migration which appear to have discharged their volume into the Hellenic peninsula. With the resumption of the movement to the west from the shores of Lydia we Race progress have the picturesque epi- Cyc°iaIest'to ^^^^ "^ ^ race crossing the Hellas. MgcsiTi by means of the archipelago. The Cyclades are gener- ally within easy sail the one of the other, and the passage of a primitivc people would be easy. The gradual spread of Phrygian and Lydian adven- turers into these waters presents an a.spect of dispersion quite as unique as it is poetical. Some ethnographers main- tain that the incoming of the Hellenic race into Hellas Proper was by means of this island progress across the ^gean, while others hold that the true Hellenes dropped into Greece from the north, out of Thrace, whither they had drifted out of Lesser Phrygia, across the Helles- pont. Perhaps the truer view would be to ascribe the Hellenic peoples to both of these origins. vSeveral Principal migra- kinds-of evidence point ^-^-'i,*^^'^/^^ unmistakably to the con- andXhessaiy. elusion that the Hellenes were out of Phrygia. The Greeks themselves, though many of them held to the myth- ological opinion of an earth-born, or autochthonic, origin, recited the legend of a northern descent, and it is almost certain that a majority of the incoming tribes descended out of Thrace through Thessaly, where they had found a foot- ing and partial development, after their migration from Asia. But that the general progress of the Aryan peoples was continued out of Asia Minor across the .^gean archipelago into the main- land, thus making the two streams con- fluent in the Hellenic peninsula, can hardly be doubted. Great was the restlessness of the early races in Greece. They were, perhaps, the most turbulent tribes of Ethnic restiess- wlu.m history has made ""^^^^l^l^,^, a record. Ages elapsed ing of the name, before permanence of settlement was at- tained. They were ages of myth and adventure. The gods were mixed with the men, and the Titans stood between. It now appears that the older name of the ])coplc Avas in their own language Graikoi, a tcvm whicli the immigrants had evidently applied to themselves with a \'icw to distinction from more barbarous peoples. The word Graikoi, which subsequently, in the Latin form of Graeei, became the designativo of the DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 489 Hellenic race amonf^ all peoples, signi- fied old, or honorable. It was thus very nearly equivalent to the Latin senator. Aristotle declares that ancient Hellas was the country about Dodona and Achelous. "Here," he adds, "lived the Sclloi^wA the people then called the Graikoi, afterwards the Hellenes." Thus itself the elements which were after- wards to be distributed in Italy and to become the ecerms of the The Greek mi- ° gration con- Italic, or Latin, race. The tainedthepo- , /• , 1 ■ teiicy of the exact shape oi the mi- uaucan. gration in this respect is, of course, un- known. It is sufficient to allege that the migratory wave out of Asia carried : 'S ROUTK OF THE GREEK ARYANS INTO HELLAS.— Pass of Kalabak a, TinssALv.-Dr.Mi I.; r.,yljr, from a photograph. it appears that the Greeks, in course of time, rejected the older national name and substituted Hellenes as the title by which they would be known among the nations. We may here pause to anticipate what will appear in a subsequent part of the present chapter ; that is, that this Greek, or Hellenic, volume of tribal life flow- ing into Hellas contained along with M. — \ol. I — 32 the potency of both the Greek and Latin peoples. The uncertainty is as to which foreran the other. It is possible that those tribes which were destined to plant themselves in Italy were the van- guard of the whole movement. Again, it is possible that the Celts of the ex- treme west went before the Latins, but the likelihood is that the Celtic stem was bent around from the north of Eu- 490 GREAT RACES OF MAXKLXD. rope and did not cross by way of the peninsulas. It is possible also that the prehistoric Greek and Latin stocks held together as far west as the Hellenic peninsula, from which point the Latin branch continued its course to the west. It is sufficient to know that the name Grasco-Italic, designating the whole stock, is appropriate as descriptive of its ethnic character, until the two peoples were differentiated and distributed into their respective countries. Students of language have been curi- ous to inquire into the relative^antiquity of the two races as determined by their Linguistic hints respective dialects. It is Greeks"oTRo°^ ^ remarkable fact that the mans- evidence points both icays. There are parts of the Greek grammar and vocabulary which are manifestly older than the corresponding parts in Latin, and, on the other hand, there are Latin constructions and words which are just as clearly of a higher antiquity than those of Greek. Thus the preservation of the ablative case in Latin points to the retention of a form of grammar which had died out of the more recent grammar of the Greeks. Sinnus, the first person, plural, of the verb to be, is much more nearly identical with the Sanskrit asamas than is the correspond- ing isiiibii of Greek ; that is, csiiibn is the more recent grammatical inflection. On the other hand, the retention in Greek of the dual number in nouns and of the middle voice in verbs indicates an older grammatical structure than that exhib- ited in Latin grammar, where no such nominal and verbal inflections exist. Likewise, the much more complete evo- lution of the Greek verb, considered in its entirety, and of the adjective, with its one hundred and thirty-five inflec- tional blossoms, shows a closer alliance willi the full tables of the older Sanskrit than the narrower and later forms of Latin. There is, however, nothing really paradoxical in this seemingly con- tradictory testimony of language as to the relative age of the two races ; for it is easy to perceive that in some respects the Greek tongue might preserve the older forms, while in other peculiarities Latin would retain the ancient structure and vocabulary less impaired by time and migration than in the corresponding lingt:istic development of the Hellenes. Early in the mythical age, the incom- ing tribes' superimposing themselves upon the Pelasgian peoples Xvis6 or Xa16 sys" already in the peninsula, tem of ancestral ceased to designate their "^ ° °^^' race as Graik, and took up a sort of ancestral mythology, which they ever afterwards zealously disseminated. The story ran thus : The ancestor of their race was the immigrant hero Hellen. He was the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. He led his tribe into Hellas after the Deluge. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, ^^olus, and Xuthus. Dorus became the founder of one race and .^olus of another, while the two sons of Xuthus, Ion and Achasus — like Ephraim and Manassah, sons of Joseph, in the Hebrew scheme — rose to equal rank with their uncles, Dorus and .^Eolus, and became the heads of the lonians and Achseans. It will be noticed in this table of family dispersion that tlie name Ion reappears, recalling the Hebrew Javan and also the Hindu name Javanas, which occurs in the Laws of Menu, and is thought to designate the lonians. This legendary account of the origin of the principal Greek races was accepted by the credulous Hellenes as an ample and final ex- planation of their origin and diversities of national development. Historically considered, tlie Hellenes present two great branches of race DISTRIBUTION OF TJIIi KACIiS.— WJ^ST ARVAX MICKATIOXS. 401 evolution: the one Dorian, and the other Ionian. These two are separated from each other by sucli marked Place and char- . . i • • acteristics of characteristics as to distm- the Cohans. ^^.^j^ ^^^^ .^^ ^^^ ^p^^,,^^ of Greek history. The .^olian tribes do not appear to have diverged greatly fnini the common ancestral type. The term ^-Eolian may well be regarded as discriminative of a number of partly developed Greek peoples dwelling in the northern part of Hellas, particularly in the plains of Thessaly. With the ■"ostling of the other races from their original seats, however, the ^^olians became more distinct as a people. When the Dorians possessed themselves of the Peloponnesus, the ^olians passed over to the northwest coast of Asia Minor and established there a confederation of cities under the name of JEoWa. They also populated the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos, from which insular seats the ^olic dialect of Greek spread into other regions, and left behind some scanty specimens in Hellenic literature. The ^olian was the least important development of the Hellenic race. The Dorians were far more powerful and famous. Their native seats Kvolution and race character m the penmsula appear of the Dorians. . , . -, , ., to have been between the ranges of Olympus and Ossa. Atone period they invaded Macedonia and took possession of a part of the country, but were afterwards expelled. They established themselves in the island of Crete, and made the little state of Doris the seat of their power until the so- called " return of the Heraclidae " carried them into Peloponnesus. Here they became predominant, and were the virtual founders of the powerful states of Sparta, Argos, and Messenia. It was from this epoch in their de- velopment that the Dorians became so strongly discriminated in their diaracter from the other Hellenes. They became austere, rough in manners, and lac(jnic in speech, to the extent of transmitting their name to all after times as a synonym for the peculiarly selfish, stoical, and in- different character which they presented in their own age. Even the architecture which they cultivated retained unmis- «ff P^Ot^'j AT ■rrms- MonF.R>J ACH.T.AN TYPE — ODTSSE. Drawn by E. Runjat, from a photograph. takable traces of the simplicity and severity of the Doric race, and the same may be said of that variety of Greek which they spoke, and out of which the dramatists, especially the tragedians, of the literary age were prone to draw those archaic and rude forms of versi- fication peculiar to the Greek tragical chorus. Ancient Ionia was on the coast of Asia Minor, between the rivers Hermus and 492 GREAT RACES OE JLLrREVn. Maeander. Chios and Bituation of Ionia; the Do- decapolis. The adjacent islands of Samos ■were included "with this dependency. How far the lonians, or Javanites, had been distributed alono- o this shore before their migration into European Greece can not be stated with certainty. The coiintry above defined was determined in its limit after the return of the lonians, in later times, and their resettlement in the region of their ancient home. Here it was that they founded the Ionian confederacy of twelve states or cities called the Dodecapolis. tions of the Achseans among This race also ex- the Greeks. It remains to note the geographical situation of the Achasans. It is believed that in the heroic age Mycenae, Argos, and Sparta were peopled Rank and reia. by tribes of Achaean de scent tended into Thessaly. Indeed, the latter country is thought by ethnog- raphers to have been their original seat, whence they migrated into Pelo- ponnesus. The importance of this branch of the Greek race was greatly lessened in the time of the Hellenic ascendency. In the Homeric age the ROUTE OF THE GR.KCO-ITALICANS.— Si-bemco, on the Dal.matjas Coast. — Drawn by Charles W. Wyllie. Many of the most important maritime towns of the fifth, fourth, and third centuries B. C. were included in the list. Here were Miletus and Ephesus, Clazom- ena2 and Phocaea. The city of Smyrna was transplanted, about 700 B. C, from the .(Eolic to the Ionian confederation. In course of time this assemblage of important communities became subject to Lvdia, and after tlie overthrow of Croesus they were annexed to tlie Per- sian empire by C3TUS. Ionia furnished the field of broken faitli and conflicting interests from which began the great .struggle for the sulijugation of Greece by tlic Persian kings. leadership of the Achaeans was con- stantly recognized, and in the Iliad their name is many times employed as a synonym for the whole Greek host engaged in the Trojan War. They ajDpear, however, to have been lacking in the elements of intellectual greatness. In the later epochs of Greek history the term Achaean .sank from its old heroic sense into a name of contempt. But it is of interest to note that, geograpliically at least, the relative im])ortancc of the race was acknowledged by tlie Rom.-ms, who, on their conquest of (Treece, gave the name of Acliaia to the whole prov- ince. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 493 Such is the outline of the distribution of the early Aryan tribes in Hellas. The t^eotjraphical relations be- Easy ethnic re- lations of Greece tween that peninsula and ^' Italy were always easy. The Adriatic is, even in its widest part, a narrow body, easily crossed from shore to shore. The course out of Epirus around the coast into Upper Italy is crossed with no barriers and attended with no difficulty. It can not be known by which of these routes the primitive peoples of Italy were distributed to their several tribal localities in the West, prob- ably by both. It is safe to assume that a race which had made its way from beyond the Caspian, passing centuries en route in a contest with the forces of nature and crossing from island to island in more remote ages, would easily navi- gate the Adriatic. And this is the more likely highway of the prehistoric Ital- icans. According to our best information there were four principal groups of peo- ples in primitive Italy. On the south we find the lapygians, or CEnotrians, with their several branching tribes, occupying first the peninsular projection next to Greece, and afterwards the Place of the lapygians; races whole COUUtry acrOSS tO the of the north. rr^ ^ ■ n 1 yrrhenian sea. Some ethnographers have concluded that these soiithern peoples were not of Aryan de- scent, and it is possible that the Hamitic lines which we have agreed to carry into Italy distributed some branches in the southern parts as well as in Etruria. Upper Italy was occupied on the east by Gaulish, that is, Celtic, tribes, of which "the Lingones and Insubres constituted the chief. On the west, as we have al- ready seen, were the Etruscans, who were clearly a foreign race, differing radically in language and development from the other Italic peoples. The greatest group of primitive tribes belonged to Central Italy and were nearly allied in ethnic descent. Distribution of Of these peoples there theumbro-sa- c 1 • i • i i 1 bellian tribes. were nve distinct stocks, namely, the Umbrians, the .Sabines, the Latins, the Volscians, and the Sabellians, commonly called Oscans, with their two branches of Samnitcs and Campanians. This scheme covers in general the popu- lations which were distributed in the country stretching across from the Cen- tral Adriatic to the western shores of Italy. The first of these nations, called Um- brians, had their original seats on the Adriatic, between the Rubicon and the ^^sis. The western boundaiy was the Apennine range and the Tiber. It is likely that in early times their territories were still more extensive. But before the rise of the Roman gens the Umbri- ans had already declined, and were easily subordinated by the^ dominant people. The territory of the Sabines lay close to Latium, and they and the Latins had in- timate relations from the earliest times. The Sabine district was rugged in phj-si- cal features and inclement in climate, and the opportunities of development were much less favorable than those of the people on the west. The origin of the Latins is involved in inextricable myths. Poets and fable- makers of republican and . , _ , , T Myth and tradl. imperial Rome elaborated tionoftheprim- and inflected the legendary ^ "^ ^ '""" lore which they had received from antiq- uity until it resembled the Greek fables in complexit}^ and contradiction. One myth assigned to the Latins a Pelasgic origin, in common with the Pelopon- nesian Greeks and the Etruscans. More famous was the tradition of a descent from the heroic families of Troy. A more obscure legend assigned the moun- I AND OF TIIK ANCIENT LIGI'KIANS Massa, NHAk Carkar* — I'rawii h\ I H"llf viovt I DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 495 tainous parts of Central Italy as the native seat from which the founders of Latium had descended into the low countries of the west. There was an attempt in all this to bring in, after the Greek fashion, the agency of the gods, and to make it appear that the Latins were of divine origin and fatherhood. It is sufficient to recognize the kinship of these peoples with the other races associated with them in historical development in Cen- tral Italy. The Volscians were prominent among the prehistoric peoples of the peninsula. They had for their neighbors the Sabel- scantyknowi- Hans, or Oscans. Their ltS.s-X^°'- li«^e was in the forbid- situation. ding mountain district with which their name is geographically asso- ciated. At the beginning of authentic history they had ceased to be a separate people, and the remains of the race are scanty and imperfect. It may be said, however^ that their isolated situation in the mountains tended to preserve their dialect from the mutations to which the languages of the neighboring tribes were subjected. In the earliest times the Oscans pos- sessed the largest territory in Central Predominance Italy. Their Country ex- ^heitaSan^''^' tended well to the south, Ga-'ois. and this wide region they continued to dominate until Rome be- gan by conquest to become mistress of Italy. Of the various Oscan peoples, the Samnites were the most powerful tribe, though the Campanians, Luca- nians, and Bruttians were all impor- tant peoples before the ascendency of Rome. If we glance to Northern Italy, we find three peoples of different ethnic de- scent in that region. The Gauls proper occupied the great plains in the valley of the Po and its tributaries. Their coun- try extended from the Alps to the Apen- nines and the Adriatic. It was com- monly conceded that their immigration into Italy had been of a later date than that which must be assigned for the coming of the central nations. The principal divisions of the Gaulish race were the Insiibres and the Senomani on the north of the Po, and the Boiiand the Lingones on the south of that river. The second general division of the peoples of Upper Italy were the Veneti, whose country covered the Place and deri- whole head of the Adriatic vationof the from Istria on the east to the valley of the Po in the west. Cor- responding with what is now the south- ern part of Piedmont lay the territory of the Ligurians, of whose origin not much is known. They came into the country, however, before the Gauls, and were doubtless allied in their race descent with the peoples of Cen- tral Italy. Such in general was the tribal distribution of those primitive races which in process of time w-ere consoli- dated under the leadership of the Latins, and ultimately forged into the most pow- erful nationality of the ancient world. It appears tolerably conclusive that the Grasco-Italic migration reached its limit with the Alps on the north , , , . '■ Limits of the and LigTiria on the west. Graeco-itaiio Other Arj-an tribes in ™'STations. course of time found their way through the Alpine passes, and penetrated the civilizations established by their kins- men in the south of Europe. But the Italic race proper was stayed with Italy. We therefore return to the East and again take our stand in the region of the transcaucasus. Here, on the northern slopes of the Armenian mountains, we find the Aryan dispersion pressing bold- ly to the north. In the country between the Caspian 496 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. and the eastern shore of the Black sea at least two ethnic departures were made from the main branch of migration . The Origin and hrst of these was to the right NoTt'h Aryan ^f the hne of progrcss, and distribution. contributed the Ossetes and perhaps one or two other stocks of Indo- Europeans on the western borders of the Caspian. The other division seems to have been maritime in its plan, to have entered the Black sea, and to have car- ried itself in the direction of the Bos- phorus. It is not unlikely that the ancient Phrygians, especially that part of the race inhabiting the Black sea coast, were contributed by this deflected move- ment out of Upper Armenia. By the course of the line we are now pursuing we are unexpectedly brought into proximity with that country in Asia Ethnic move- Minor which received the Sie"certs'^^''^ final migratory impulse of reached Gaiatia. the Celtic race. Though we have not yet reached the point in ethnic dispersion from which that race took its departure from the main northwestern stem of Aryan progression, we may well anticipate sufficiently to account for the presence in Asia Minor, on the southern borders of Bithynia and Paphlygonia, of a country peopled by Celts, This is the province of Gaiatia. The population of this country was contributed by the bend- ing back of the Celtic race from its west- ern limits of migration in the remote parts of Europe. The movement in question presents one of the strangest aspects of race progress. It is that of an ethnic line carried backward from the lower parts of Spain, in the old country of the Iberians, around the northern coasts of the Mediterranean, across Upi^er Italy, and down through the valley of the Dan- ube to the Bosphorus. 'i'lie latter part of this movement took place in tlie his- torical era. In the third century B. C. the Gallic people crossed over into Asia Minor and conquered the province to which they gave their own name. This invading migration was carried forward by three principal tribes and twelve tetrarchies, each directed by a chief, after the Celtic manner of warfare. It is instructive to reflect, while we here have oiir stand on the highlands of Phrygia or Pontus, that we are able to observe, as with a field glass, the north- ward movement of the old Aryan stock on the eastern borders of the Black sea, while, on the other hand, we can look down into Gaiatia, which was the ter--- minus, after perhaps two thousand years, of one branch of the great migra- tion. If then, for a moment, we anticipate the departure of the Celts from the main Aryan stem, which we are now tracing, to the north, we shall find the point of depar- same to have occurred about 'cTRic'ilplrsion the valley of the Upper i" Europe. Dnieper. From this point the migra- tory impulse bore off almost due west, across the larger part of Europe. It traversed Germanv, and crossed the Rhine in general conformity with the- coast line of the Baltic. It is probable that by this first movement to the west no races were deposited in anything like permanence until tlie stream was dis- persed in Gaul. • If we seek for time rela- tions in this gi'cat movement we are at fault, but the period of the Celtic migra- tion could hardly have been less than two thousand years B. C. It would appear from the invasion of Gaul and Britain by the Romans, in the- first century B. C, that the complete devei- Celtic race had already re'tuGauitd been long established in Britain, those regions, and that it had matured its institutional forms witliout disturb- ance. This is especially true of the- DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— WEST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 4!t7 ■western parts of Gavil and of Britain, where the completeness of the druidical ceremonial and perfect condition of tribal government indicated a long oc- cupation of the country. Ethnographers have not attemj)tcd to decide with cer- tainty the priority _ of the respective rf- movements by which the British Isles received their , primitive Celtic population and Central Italy p a s & e d under the dominion of Grajco - Italic im- migrants. In the begin- nings of authentic history the Celts had already trav- ersed Northern Europe, and had left traces of their progress in the east and actual tribes in the west. It was from this source that the Gauls (Celtae), whom C?esar de- clares to have been divided into three races of Galli, Aquitani, and Belgfe, were dis- tributed. In all of Europe Avest of the Rhine the Celtic Wide distribu- race became predominant, almost to the exclusion of other people. If we ex- cept the Basques and Iberians, it may be said that the whole country between the Rhine and the Atlantic was Celtic as to its primitive population. In the preceding book we have already pointed out the fact that prehistoric races occupied this I>art of The Celtic races Europe before the Aryan r.^^ij^^^r' migrat-ion. What the con- barbarians, dition of the aborigines was at the time tionof the Celts throughout the West. THE CELTIC VANGUARD, OF THE AGE OF KROXZE. Drawn by Eniile liayard. of the incoming of the Celts we are left to determine by conjecture. "We have seen the extreme barbarity which character- ized the aboriginal life of the cave dwellers and other savages to whom Drimeval Europe seems to have belonged. Upon these rude races the Celtic tribes were superimposed, and the foundations 498 GREAT RACES OF .UAXKLYD. were laid of that condition which we perceive when the expanding power of Rome brought her legions into Gaulish territoiy. As the Celtic race continued its way to the south, several streams of migration put off laterally to the coast. The most Ramifications of important of these crossed inth^BritSr'^ the Channel into Britain, Isles. where it again divided, one branch being carried over into Ireland, and the other penetrating the Highlands of .Scotland. An examination of the Celtic languages has enabled the modern ethnographer to determine with toler- OI.DEST CELTIC TYPES. From the Gaulish bas-reliefs found at Entremonl, near Aix. able certaint)' the original distribution of the race in the British islands. There were two general Celtic stocks. The first of these was the Gadhelic, or Gaelic, branch, which was divided into three departures : the Irish stem proper, called the Erse, the Scottish Gael, and the Manx. These linguistic divisions point unmistakably to the tribal separation of the Gael of the Highlands, the Irish folk, and the inhabitants of the Isle of Man. The second stem presents the British division proper of Celtic. This also parted into three: the fir.st of which was the Kymrieg, .softened into Cymric, meaning the original speech of the Welsh ; the second was the Cornish ; and the third the Armorican, being the language of Bretagne. We thus note the dispersion of the Celts in our ancestral islands, and dis- cover the parts of the COUn- Bending back of try appropriated by the "^^^T several tribes. Meanwhile, beginning, far down in Spain the main continental stream of Celtic migration was bent backwards, as we have seen above, through the greater part of Southern Europe, making its way finally to the valley of the Danube and thence to the Bosphorus. From this point migration and warfare carried the race, as has been said, into Galatia, thus bringing it in its final distribution to a point so near to the original Aryan movement east of the Black sea that the old departure of the race to the northwest and its last distribu- tion in Galatia after thousands of years of wandering might almost be seen with a field glass in the hands of the observer from the highlands of Eastern Pontus ! In resuming the consideration of the movement of the great northwestern branch of the Aryan race. Question of the •' race connection making its way between of Teutons and the Black sea and the Cas- ered. pian, from the transcaucasus toward the Don, we are confronted by another of the disputed (questions in ethnogra- phy. This relates to the independent or dependent origin of the Slavic peo- ples in their relations with the great Teutonic family. Were the Slavs and Germans involved originally in a com- mon movement out of Asia? Were they still a common people in their progress from their Asiatic origin to their European dominions? If so, where and when did tlicy ])art com- pany in linguistic and institulional de- velopment ? Which is the older of the two races ? Which, if either, is derived 1)1 S TKIB UTION OF rilE RA CF.S. — ( / WiS T A R YA N M/GRA TIONS. 499 from the other ? Was the migration common to both, or Avere there iiuo vii- s;rations, one Slavonic and the other Teutonic ? These problems have been variously solved by different ethnogra- phers, and the whole ground has been hotly contested since the question of race distribution assumed its pi'esent scientific aspect. On the whole, it appears that the movement was common which carried Branches and thcSC tWO raceS OUt of ?^uS.°o"c' Asia into Europe. It may stem. Tje safely alleged that the Teutonic and Slavonic peoples held to- gether on their way to the north and far into the heart of Great Russia. It would be proper to call the whole line of prog- ress from the Caucasus to the north, well lip to the northern borders of the Russian empire, thence westward and southward to the borders of Poland, the Slavo- Teutonic stem. It certainly carried the volume of both races, both languages, both varieties of institutional forms. Above the sea of Azof, on the left as the migratory progress continued, a branch was thrown off into Sarmatia, from which that division of the modern Slavs, called Little Russians, have sprung. But the main line continued northward in the direction of the sub- sequent site of Moscow, and afterwards toward the gulf of Riga, on the Baltic. It was, however, to the south of the gulf of Finland, and perhaps nearly midway between that water and the northern bend of -the Black sea that the final separation took place between the Germanic and the Slavonic races. In the meantime, a branch had been thrown off northward toward that collection of inland waters extending from the White sea to lake Ladoga, and another divi- sion to the west, into the country of the Letts. If, then, we take our stand on the head-waters of the Dnieper, we .shall not be far from the ethnic division on which was ba.sed the subse- Point of division qucnt separation of the oft^e two races; 1 ^ the Kussian Slavonic and Teutonic peo- family. pies. The two stocks were both char- acterized for extreme fecundity and power of development. There are at the present time within the limits of European Russia and Poland about sev- enty-five million of people of Aryan descent. These may be divided into Russians proper, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs, and Serbs, all of which are Slavonic in their ethnic origin. The Russians are subdivided into Great Russians, Little Russians, and White Russians. The Letto-Lithua- nian peoples are divided into Lithua- nians proper, Zhmuds, and Letts, with a total of over three million. This is the summary of populations which have sprung in modern times from the sin- gle ethnic stem called Letto-Slavonic. The Great Russians themselves number forty-two million, and the Little Rus- sians more than seventeen million. Besides the above peoples, the Graeco- Roman population in Russia numbers considerably over a million, while the Germans, in admixture with the Arme- nians, Georgians, and Tsigans are repre- sented by considerable communities. Geographically, the Great Russians are grouped in the states and provinces around ^Moscow, extending Distribution of northwardtoNovgorodand ^J^^S^f^i*; Vologda, southward to Russians. Kiev, eastward to Penza and Vyatka, westward to the Baltic provinces and the borders of Poland. The Little Rus- sians are distributed chiefly in Galicia and Bukovina. In general, they belong to the southern parts of Russia, next to the Caucasus. The White Russians are 500 GREAT RACES OF MANKIND. distributed throughout the western gov- ernments of the empire. The Bulgari- ans inhabit Bulgaria Proper, Eastern Roumelia, and Roumania, and are scat- tered into Austria, Russia, and Mace- donia. The other ethnic divisions are dispersed into the countries to which they have given their respective names — Sfervia, Lithuania, Croatia, etc. Second only in importance as to num- bers and first in importance in civiliz- Dispersion of ing energy are the Teutonic thretbranches ^'^CeS which isSUed in COm- of the race. mon with the peoples de- scribed above from the Slavo-Germanic stem. A glance at the map will show that Europe is divided from southeast to northwest by the two great rivers Dan- ube and Rhine, whose waters issue from the same upland region, in the central part of the continent. It was on the right bank of the Rhine, extending down to the Baltic from the great cen- tral region, that the Germanic nations were first distributed. As the left bank of that river and hitherward to the west- ern parts of Europe belonged roughly to the Celtic race, so the right bank east- ward to the Vistula was Germania. Into this great region Avas extended and dispersed the Teutonic .stream of immigration. Roughly speaking, the whole Teutonic stock was parted into three divisions, which correspond rough- ly with the modern linguistic distinc- tions of High German, Low German, and Scandinavian. In prehistoric times, however, one of the first distinct de- partures of the primitive stock was that which carried down the great race of the Goths into the valley of the Danube. They issued from the southern portion of the Baltic region, and appeared on the scene of their .sub.sequcnt activities during the fourth century B. C. Tlie family known as (ic^thic has been somewhat unscientifically divided into the Vandals, the Heruli, the Rugii, the Gepidse, the Alani, the . Analysis and buevi, the Longobards, the distribution of T, 1 ■ J ii tlie Goths. Burgundians, and the Franks. On their arrival on the Lower Danube the Gothic race began to di- vide into the two major families of Os- trogoths and Visigoths, meaning the Eastern and Western Goths. The for- mer had a habitation originally in South- ern Russia, between the Dniester and the Don, while the latter held their terri- tories from the Lower Danube to the Carpathian mountains. In course of time the Goths were pressed on their eastern frontiers by various invasions, until they were aggregated and heaped up on the left bank of the Danube, whence they ultimately burst into the Roman empire. After this event, as is well kn(jwn, the Ostrogoths found an ul- timate lodgment in Italy, Avhile the Vis- igoths continued their progress into the Spanish peninsula and became a sub- stratum of population in the modern ethnic development of that peninsula. The Franks apjDcarcd as an aggrega- tion of Teutonic tribes on the Lower Rhine as early as the middle of the third century B. C. At the first Franlrs people they were confined to the JiV';"^!;^";:^^-^ right bank of the river, distribution, but in course of time passed over and began their settlements in the northern part of Gaul. They were ultimately divided into two families, known as the Salian Franks and the Ripuarians. It was the former division of the race that was thrown by impact on Gaul, and that was established within the limits of that country as a barbarian empire under Clovis and his successors. The Ripua- rians spread southward and occupied first the right and afterwards the left bank of the Rhine, whence they carried their DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES.— IVJiST ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 501 incursions on the west to the Meuse and on the cast to the Main. It was from the Ripuai'iau Franks that tlic Teutonic state called Franconia took its name. The Salians constituted one of the ethnic elements in the formation of the French people. It will prove of interest to note only the ultimate distribution of the other branches of the Teutonic stock. The Vandals were essentially of this race, but had taken into their constitu- tion Slavonic and Celtic elements. They belonged to the general divi- sion of Goths. One of their oldest seats was in the Riesen- Gebirge. After- wards they occu- pied Pannonia and Docia. In the fifth century of our era j:hey played an im- portant part in the overthrow of the Roman empire, in the Spanish penin- sula they founded the state of Anda- lusia. Under Gen- seric they crossed into Africa, and there developed their greatest strength and nationality. The Heruli were the earliest of the German races to make their way into Italy. There they established themselves under their great leader Odoacer, and the llerulian kingdom was the first bar- barian empire created within the limits of the home government of Rome. The Gepidaj were likewise of Gothic extrac- tion. Historically, they are first known THE PRANKISH VANGUARD. Drawn by Emile Bayard. to US in the third century B. C., in their territories on the Baltic. The}- also came into Pannonia, and were interposed for a while between the Ostrogothic and Visigothic divisions of the race. They 502 GREAT RACES OF J/AA'KLVD. were joined to the armies of Attila, and were subsequently successful in gaining a province for themselves, Movements of . theHeruUaud ou the Lower Theiss and epi ae. Danube. Here they were finally ovenam by the Longobards and the Avars, with whom the remnants of the race were amalgamated. One of the most powerful of the Ger- man migratory tribes was the Siievi. Their territories lay between the Rhine and the We.ser. In their Progress of the Suevi; theLon- progress and development gobards iu Italy. ., j ii i they spread southward as far as the Upper Danube. On the north they reached the coasts of the Baltic. It was with the Suevians that Ctesar had one of his hardest contests in his struggle for dominion north of the Alps. The Longobards, commonly called Lom- bards, were nearly related to the Suevic branch of the German race. From their seats in the valley of the Elbe they made their way into Ital}', within the historical period, overthrew the Heru- lian monarchy, and established one of their own on the ruins of the empire. In later times they contributed their name to the modern state of Lombardy in Italy, and it is likely that their ethnic influence entered more largely into the formation of the northern Italian race than did the qualities of any other bar- barian people. The Burgundians were a branch of the Gothic family, and first established Ethnic place and them.selves in Europe, in rheBurgun:"' the country between the dians. Oder and the Vistula. The Gepidte drove them from their seats, and they .sought refuge in the territory lying between the Main and Neckar. Here they were combined in common enter- prises with the Suevi and Alani and the Vandals in their wars with the remain- ing powers of Rome. Afterwards they struggled with the Franks, by whom they were restricted to the province bearing their name. Such, in brief, was the European distribution of the prin- cipal barbarian nations of the Gothic stock. Meanwhile, another division of the Teutonic race had made its Avay along the shores of the Baltic, outspread of and in Jutland, Friesland, ^J^^.i^Jdthe- Angleland, and in Hollow- Norse, land had posses.sed themselves of the country and begun the formation of in- stitutions. This is the so-called Low Germanic branch of the Aryan family. The tribal ramification in these lowlands Avas extraordinary. It was from this re- gion that the Angles and Saxons and Jutes took their rise, and, in the fifth century, carried their battle-axes and spears into the forests of Britain. From the southern coast line of the North sea the race next made its way into Scandinavia. Two branches of mi- gration sprang from this region, one penetrating the great poninsula of Nor- waj' and Sweden, and the other making its way by water to Iceland. It was in the latter island that the Norse, or Scan- dinavian, race presented, and does until the present exhibit, the purest aspect of Scandinavian life and manners. There have always been such intimate race re- lations between the southern and north- ern shores of the Baltic that the Low Germans inhabiting the two countries have intermingled almost to the extinc- tion of ethnic differences. But in Ice- land the old Norse, or Scandinavian, stock has been allowed to develop accord- ing to its own laws into an independent race character. Such, then, was the distribution of the great Teutonic and .Slavonic races in the northern parts of ICuropc. It will be of interest to note i/te extent of the complete DISTRlllUTION OF THE KALhS.-WlLSr ARYAN MIGRATIONS. 503 dispersion of the Aryan family of men. On the east the Indie brancli of the race readied tlie meridian of Extent of the dispersion of the ninety degrees east from lyan aim y. Greenwieli. On the west the extreme limit of the primary Indo- European development was in Iceland and Ireland, under the meridian of ten tively. In the latter country the race was dispersed as far south as Beluehistan, and in the former to the bay of Bengal, in latitude twenty degrees north. But turning to the westward branches of the Indo-Europeans, we find them invaria- bly bending to the north. Perhaps the only exception to this general law was NORTHERN LnnX OF THE ARYAN DISPERSION.— View in Upper Norway.- Dr.nm by Myrbach, from a photograph. degrees west, making a complete diver- gence east and west of one hundred de- grees of longitude. It was a peculiarity of the Aryan race General and ex- never to be deflected to the Zuroftr^" south: that is, in its west- Aryans. ward movements. The In- dican and Iranian branches of the family dropped into India and Persia respec- in the case of the Celts, who, from their somewhat northern range in Germany, turned to the southwest across the Rhine into Gaul, and thence continued their course in the same direction as far as the country of the Basques and Iberians in Spain. The northernmost limit of the whole movement was reached in the upper parts 604 GREAT RACES OE JLIXKLYD. of Norway and Sweden, about the parallel of seventy degrees north. The migra- tion thus, in its entirety, STtentand ooundaries of presents a band very nearly the Aryan belt. coincident with the UOrth temperate zone. The belt is forty-five degrees in width, reaching a little above and extending a little below the limits of the zone referred to. The next conspicu- ous feature of this great distribution is the fact that it is essentially European. The exceptions within the borders of that continent of peoples derived from any other than Aryan stock are so few and insignificant as to be neglected with- out hurt to the general scheme. Europe is Aryan, and the Western Aryans are Europeans. It is, of course, not the purpose to extend the lines of race movement by Only conscious tracing out the continental rcrstdlredin Colonization and develop, migration. meiit of the two Americas by people of Indo-European blood, or to note the world-wide colonization which has been effected within the last two or three centuries by people of the same race. These secondary movements, if developed in this connection, would con- fuse the concept of the original or natural distribution of mankind in the prehistoric ages. There is a sense in which men have moved from place to place on the surface of the earth nncon- sciously. That is, the movement has been accomplished while the race was still in the uncon.sciousness of childhood. There is another sense in which civiliza- tion lias consciously carried forward the work of peopling the earth. All the latter movements are of record in the open annals uf authentic history, and with such development and expansion the ethnographer has not mucli to do. His work is primarily with those prehistoric movements in whitli the races of men were distributed, under the influence of instinct and environment, to their destination in different quarters of the earth. At this point, then, we touch the limit of the primeval excursions and settlements of the Ruddy races of man- kind. To these races we General viewof have given the general eth- ^^ ^y "" °' nic name of Noachites, but ^^.ces. have chosen to define them more scien- tifically by the term Ruddy, as indica- tive of their color. We have now traced out the dispersion of the three families to which ethnography has assigned the popular and traditional names of Ham- ites, Semites, and Japhethites. We have seen the first dropping southward into a form of geographical development very similar to that which the ■sjapheth- ites, or Aryans, have exhibited in the north. The whole scheme of migratory dispersion resembles the two sides of a leaf, having its stem between the Cas- pian and the Persian gulf, its point in the Atlantic west of the Pillars of Hercules, its left-hand side in Arabia and Africa, and its right division in Europe. The central lines of this leaf correspond in general with the move- ments of the Semitic races to the west. The right-hand lines are those of the Aryans, and the left-hand departures those of the Hamites. The limits of the present chapter are reached wlien we have marked out the migratory movements by which they were distributed into their re- spective countries. It now remains to take up another general division of mankind, and to note in like manner the course which the Brown races liave pursued on their way to their destina- tion in the great arena of Asia, in the islands of the Pacific, and ultimately in tlic two Americas. «50iiT»cDM"i?i®'^y °' California LOS ANGELES, 'cT^.l^^rsooslVsr''' DEC 5 2003 SRLF 2 WEEK LOAI Series !I4H2 Ijn WillTHERN BEGIOHAUieRARV FACILITY D 000 819 591 9