Latin Grammar FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR BY J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH REVISED EDITION BOSTON PUBLISHED BY GINN, HEATH, & CO 1884 22)nCA!PI0IT IiIBB< Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 0^^ Prtss of Berwick &» Smith, rrS Purchase StrMt. Al2(l to Lib. PREFACE EAm-Cj^ TO THE REVISED EDITION. ^ VCMl^^i^M The editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the plates to make some improvements in the present edition, which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the book has been made. The principal changes are the following: i. The matter of each part has been cast in chapters, with sub-divisions by numbered paragraphs, the former sections being indicated in the margin. 2. A very considerable expansion has been given to several portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Formation of Words ; inflectional forms have been more fully exhibited, and sections have been added on the syntax of Pronouns and Particles. 3. Strictly philo- logical matter, not intended for class use, has been put in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of the Syntax are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we consider to be the true theor)^ of the constructions : these are not designed for class use, and are not included in the num- bered sections. 5. Some important additions and illustrations have been given in the Prosody. The substance of the book remains as before. The form of expression, however, has been carefully revised ; and a few sections have been trans- ferred to a different connection. 121 iv Preface, The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experi- enced teachers, who have generously aided us by their criticism, and have contributed many valuable practicable suggestions. The editors have pleasure in acknowledging also their special indebtedness to Professor Caskie Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee, whose correspondence has made a very full running commentary ex- tending over the greater portion of the book, including all the Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental topics. His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented them, have urged important points upon their attention, and have not seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antagonism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail, but not less valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nash- ville, from the Principals of the academies at Andover, Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cordial thanks are due for the interest they have testified in the work. Cambridge, September 25, 1877. NOTE. For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to consult original sources on the history and development of the Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author- ities is here subjoined : — BoPP : Vergleichende Grammatik des Satiskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- guages]. 4 vols. 3d Ed. Berlin, 186S-70. The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have cor- rected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London : 1862. The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Breal. Paris: 1866. CoRSSEN : Atcssprache, Vokalismus und Bctoimngder Lateitiischen Sprache, 2 vols. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1868. The greatest work on Latin alo?ie, treating the language in reference to its own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Z-(7;('/'/6'//r^). In the com- parative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators. CuRTius, G. : Grwidzuge der Griechischen Etyi7iologie. 3d Ed. Leipsic : 1869. Treats of Latin only by comparison ; but is one of the most valuable works on the general subject. Erldntertingen zii meiner Griechischen Schid-grammatik. 2d Ed. Prag. 1870. English translation (" Elucidations "), London : 1870. Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the doctrine of forms. Das Griechische Verbum. Delbrijck : Das Conjimctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. Halle : 1871. Origin of the Moods treated scientifically ; should be read in connection with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive," bv J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870. Ablativ,Localis, Instrumentalis im indischen^ etc. Berlin : 1867. Origin of the various Ablative constructions. Ellis, A. J. : Practical Hints on the Quantitative Pronicnciation of Latin. London (MacMillan) : 1874. Ferrar : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. London 5 1869. Vol. L, including as far as Pronouns. The work was left un. finished at the author's death. A convenient hand-book in English. FiCK : Vergleichendes Wdrterbuch der Lndo- Germanischen Sprachen. Got- tingen : 1870. A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various Ian- vi Note. giiages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however, IS safe to use without careful itudy of the laws of consonant and vowel changes. Hadley, James : Essays, Philological and Critical. New York (Holt & Williams): 1873. Hoffman : Die Construction der Lateiniscken Zeitpartikdn. Vienna > i860 (Pamphlet). KUHN : See Zeitschrift. LUBBERT : Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau : 1870. Neue : Formenlehre der Lateiniscken Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart: 1866. Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text- ual criticism. The standard work. Papillon : A Manual of Comparative Philology, as applied to the II lustra- tion of Greek and Latin Injlections. Oxford ; 1876. Behind the time, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of Forms. Peile : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. Macmillan : London and Cambridge, 1872. — Philology (pp. 164). New York (Appleton): 1877. One of the series of the *' Literature Primers " edited by J.R. Green. A very useful manual to those desiring a general acquaintance with the subject. ROBY : A Grammar of the Latin Language , froyn Flautus to Suetonius. Macmillan: London and New York : Vol. L 1871 ; Vol. IL 1873. A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1S72. Schleicher : Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Ger- manischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866. ScHWEiZER-SiDLER : Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateiniscken Sprache, fiir Schulen. Halle: 1869. The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to Latin in short compass (137 pages). Vanicek : Etymologisches Worterbuck der Lateiniscken Sprache. Leipzig; 1874. Suggestive, but to be used with caution. Westphal : Metrik der Griechen. 2d Ed. 1867. 2 vols. The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literary and musical illustration. A convenient summary, with sonic modifications, will be found in Schmidt's Riiythmik und Metrik, now translated by Prof. J. W. White, and published by the publishers of this book. Williams : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 3d Ed. Oxford : 1864. A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung Edited by Dr. A. KuHN. Vols. L to XXV. Berlin, 1851-1S76, and "still continued. The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philologv. Indispensable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume h.is an index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes. CONTENTS. PART I. —ETYMOLOGY. PAGE Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds i-8 Alphabet; Classification, Phonetic Changes i-6 Pronunciation ; Quantity and Accent T,^ Chapter II. — Words ajid their Forms 9-13 Inflection ; Root and Stem 9 The Parts of Speech ' . 10 Gender; Number and Case 11 Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns 14-36 General Rules of Declension 14 First Declension 15 Second Declension 16 Third Declension : Mute Stems 19 Liquid Stems 20 Vowel Stems 21 Greek Forms 25 Rules of Gender ..26 Fourth Declension 30 Fifth Declension 32 Defective and Variable Nouns 33 Proper Names 36 Chapter IV. — Adjectives 37-49 First and Second Declensions 37 Third Declension 39 Comparison 43 Numerals 46 Chapter Y. — Pro?touns 50-57 Personal, Reflexive, Demonstrative 50 Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 54 Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 5^ viii Contents. PAG< Chapter VI. — Verbs 58-96 Structure : Voice, Mood, Tense 58 Personal Endings 63 Forms : Verb-Endings 65 Esse and its Compounds 67 Regular Verb : The Three Stems 70 The Four Conjugations 71 Formation of the Stems 72 First Conjugation 76 Second Conjugation 80 Third Conjugation 82 Fourth Conjugation 86 Deponent Verbs » 88 Irregular Verbs 90 Defective Verbs 93 Impersonal Verbs 95 Chapter WW. —Particles 97-106 Adverbs 97 Prepositions loo Conjunctions 103 Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words 107-116 Roots and Stems ; Primary Suffixes 107 Significant Endings: Nouns, Adjectives 109 Derivation of Verbs 113 Compound Words 115 PART II. — SYNTAX. Introductory Note 117 Chapter I. — The Sentence 119-144 Definitions : Subject and Predicate 119 Agreement : the Four Concords 122 Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement .... 123 Adjectives : Rule of Agreement 124 Special Uses 126 Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative 129 Reflexive 131 Possessive 132 Relative 133 Indefinite 136 Contents. ix PAGE Verbs : Subject-Nominative 138 Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negative .... 140 Questions 142 Chapter II. — Construction of Cases 145-183 Introductory Note 145 I Genitive : With Nouns, Subjective c . 146 I Partitive 148 Objective 150 With Adjectives 151 With Verbs of Accusing, &c.; of Memory . 152 Verbs of Feeling ; Impersonals • • • • 153 Dative: Indirect Object . .......... 154 With Intransitives 156 With Compounds 158 Of Possession ; of Agency 160 Of Service ; of Fitness and Nearness ... 161 Of Reference 162 ^ Accusative : Direct Object 164 I Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives . ... 165 Idiomatic and Special Uses ....... 166 Vocative 167 Ablative : its Several Uses 167 1. Of Separation and Privation 168 Source, Material, Cause 170 Of Agency; of Comparison .... 171, 172 2. Of Instrument, Means, Accompaniment . . . 173 Of Quality, Price, Specification. . . . 174, 175 3. Locative: Special Uses 175 Ablative Absolute 176 Time and Place 177 Use of Prepositions 181 [ Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb 184 Note on the Moods 184 Moods : Indicative 185 Subjunctive : General Use 186 „ Hortatory 187 „ Optative 188 „ Dubitative 189 Imperative 190 Infinitive 191 Contents, PAGB Tenses : Introductory Note 194 Tenses of Continued Action 195 Tenses of Completed Action 198 Sequence of Tenses 200 Tenses of the Infinitive 202 Participles : Distinctions of Tense 204 Adjective and Predicate Use .... 205 Future Participle ; Gerundive .... 207 Gerund and Gerundive 209 Supines 212 Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences 214-226 Introductory Note 214 Protasis and Apodosis, 215 ; Classification of Forms . 216 Simple Conditions : Future Conditions 217 Conditions Contrary to Fact 219 General Conditions 221 Implied Conditions 222 Use of Conditional Particles 224 Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions 227-257 Relative Clauses : Introductory Note 227 Clauses of Protasis 227 Clauses of Purpose 228 Clauses of Result 230 Clauses of Characteristic 332 Cause or Reason 233 Relations of Time 234 Substantive Clauses : Introductory Note .... 238 Infinitive Clauses 239 Clauses with ut : Purpose 240 Result 242 Clauses with quod 244 Indirect Questions 245 Indirect Discourse : Introductory Note 247 Narrative : Main Clause 248 Conditions, Questions, Commands 250 Intermediate Clauses 251 Synopsis of Constructions 254 General Rules of Syntax 256 Contents, xi PAGE Chapter VI. — Arratigement 258-262 Normal Order 258 Emphasis 259 Special Rules 260 Structure of the Period 261 PART III. — PROSODY. Chapter I. — Quantity 263-270 Introductory Note 263 General Rules of Quantity 264 Quantity of Final Syllables 265 Quantity of Penultimates 267 Chapter II. — Rhythm 271-275 Measures of Rhythm : Feet 272 The Musical Accent 274 Chapter ill. — Versification 276-291 The Verse 276 Dactylic Verse : Hexatneter 277 Elegiac Stanza 279 Iambic Verse : Trimeter 280 Trochaic Verse 282 Mixed Measures 283 Logaoedic Verse 284 Metres of Horace 287 Miscellaneous 291 Early Prosody 292 Miscellaneous : Reckoning of Time 294 Measures of Value 296 Abbreviations 297 Glossary of Terms 298 Appendix : Latin and Kindred Tongues 301 Principal Roman Writers 3°^ Index 307 PART FIRST. FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY). Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds, Alphabet. Note. — The Latin Alphabet, as usually written, is the same as the English, except that it has no W. It consists, strictly, of but twenty-three letters, J and V being used as the conso)iant forms of I and U (see 4, below^). Cicero (N. D. ii. 37) reckons only twenty-one letters; Y and Z being added after his time, in words derived from the Greek. Clasriifiication of the lietterg. 1. The Vowels {litterce vocales) are a, e, i, o, u, y. The combinations ae (.e), au, ei, eu, oe (ce), ui, are called Diphthongs. In early Latin, ai, 01, and ou are also found as diphthongs. Note. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be A, as in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate^ we form in succession the sound of E (a) and l {ee), leading to the semi-vowel j {y). By contracting the lips^ we in like manner form the sound of o and u {00), leading to the semi- vowel V (w). By contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of w, — in Greek v, and in Latin Y. This, which is called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It may b« represented thus : — Open A Medial E O Close I Y U The Aspirate (or breathing) n follows in inflection the rule of palatals ; and vras originally, in many words, a harsh guttural (kh), like the Greek x or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared. Sometimes, as in aheneus {=aeneus), it seems to be used by modern copyists only to separate two vowels. ' The references are to the numbered paragraphs. 2 Etymology : Letters and Sounds, 1/ 2. Consonants {litterce consonantes) are classified according to the organ of speech with which they are spoken, as Labial (lip). Lingual {tongue), or Palatal {palate) ; and according to the mode of utterance, as Surd, Sonant, or Nasal : thus — SURD. SONANT. P B T D C, K, Q G 3. The letters b, c, d, g, k, p, NASAL. M N N adulterinum} ( Labial Consonants \ Lingual {^Palatal Q, T (surds and sonants), are called Mutes ; l, m, n, r, are called Liquids ; f, ph, th, h, s (surd), and v, z (sonant), are Fricatives (Spirants), s and z being also Sibilants ; X (cs) and z (ds or sd) are Double Consonants. 4. The letters i (j) and u (v) may be used before a vowel in the same syllable, as in iuuenis {Jjivenis), and are then consonants (sometimes called semi-vowels). The u in quis^ anguis, sttavis, &c., forms a compound sound with the preceding letter, and is strictly neither vowel nor consonant. 5. Vowels and Consonants are not separated by any sharp line from each other, but form a continuous scale from the most open vowel to the closest mute, as in the following Table. ^ The ten- dency of phonetic change has been from the extremes of open vowel and close mute towards the fricatives and semi-vowels in the middle. A {ah) ^{hat) ^{aw) e {eh) o i {ee) n {but) u {oo) y (Eng.) r, 1 w Sonant. ng Surd, h Sonant. Surd. Sonant Sonant. Surd. kh gh r,l n s z th dh d t LINGUAL. Vowels. Semivowels- m Nasals. f ) Fricatives V I {Spirants). ph I Aspirates bh J (lost in Latin). b. Mutes. P LABIAL. ' Before a Palatal, as in ink, thing. " Adapted from Professor VV. D. Whitney's Oritntal and Unguistic Studies, ad Series, page rJ;6. Early Forms ; Phonetic Changes. 3 Early Forms. 6. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from G. After the distinction was made, C was still used con- ventionally, as the initial of names {Caius, Cnaeus) beginning properly with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of K, which was retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it precedes a. 7. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never in good use preceded in the same syllable by u or v ; but o was written where later custom allows u : as in volty servos^ quom (for cuni) and quor (for cur\ or c was regularly used for QU in such words as cum (for quu?n), ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locmt- tur (for loquuntur), and the like ; also in cotidie (for quotidte), and a few other words. 8. At the end of a few words, — as sed, apud, illud, — T was anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s, final s was often elided (sometimes with further change), as in qualist {qualis est)^ plenu^ fidei (Cat. Maj. § i). Phonetic Changes. 9. Letters are often changed according to general laws of inflection and derivation ; or have been altered through long use, securing an easier utterance {phonetic decay, euphonic change). Thus, 10. Vowels are changed by — a. Vowel-increase : as, emo, emi ; l^go, legi ; ago, egij pendo, pondus; sono, persona; perftdus, ftdtis, foedusj due-is, duco (compare tell, told ; fell, fall ; bind, band, bound') . b. Substitution, generally following the vowel-scale (see page i) in the direction from A to i on one side, or to u on the other, but sometimes across from o to e : as, factum, confectumj agmen, agminis ; capio, incipio j cano, concino ; lego, colligoj salio, ex- sulto J pello, pulsu7ttj servos, servus j eboris, ebur; vorto, verto. c. Contraction or omission : as, obit (obiit), cogo {co-ago), nil {nihil), debeo {de-hdbeo), coetus {coitus); — audacter {audaciter) ; jurgium {jurigium), disciplina {discipulina). d. Suppression of the semi-vowel (sometimes with contrac- tion) : as, obicit (objicit), cuttctus {co-June tus, i. e. conjunctus), contio {conventio), rursus {reversus), amarat {amaverat). 4 Etymology: Letters and Sounds, 11. Consonant changes are made by — a. Substitution : as of R for s between two Vowels, and before m or n : as, in eram (root es), generis {genus), maereo (fnaestus), dirimo {dis-emd), diribeo {dis-habeo), veternus {yetus- nus) ; — or s for d or T, a smoother combination : as, cas?is {cad-tus\ cessum {ced-ium\ mansus {?nan-tus), passjis {pat-tus), missus {rnit-tus), equester {equet-ter). b. Omission: exa?nen {exagmen)^ caetnentum {caed-inentujn\ semestris {ses-mestris) , lana (Juc-nd), deni {dec-ni), hoc (abl. for hod-ce), autumnus {auctumjius : root A.VG) ^ fulmen {fulg-men)y pergo {per-rego), lis (st/is), cor {cord-), lac {lad-), pes {peds). c. Insertion : as, sumo, surnpsi, sumptum {sum-si, sum-turn) ; hiems, hiemps (a transition sound, as in Thompson), d. Transposition: as, sterno, stravi{STAR); sperno^ sprevi; cerno, crevij misceo, mixtus {misc-tus). e. Dissimilation (to avoid repetition of a sound) : as, parilia (from Pales) ; meridies {medi-dies). f. Assimilation — 1. Partial : as, scriptus {scrib-tus), actus {ag-tus), auxi {aug-si), i?npero {in-pero), contero {com-tero), segmentum {sec-mentum), quantus {quam-tus). 2. Complete : as, cessi {ced-si), stimmus {sujhmus), sella {sed-la), puella {puer{u)la), pressi {pr em-si). 3. Especially of the final consonant of the preposition in Compounds : as, accedo {ad-cedo), officio {ad-facio), occurro {ob- curro), corruo {com-ruo), effero {ec-fero), suppono {sub-pono). Note. — The rules for this assimilation may be given as follows : ad is assimilated before c, g, /, / ; less regularly before /, r, s, and rarely before m ; while before/, «, g, the form ad is to be preferred ; — ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, au, or abs ; — in com (con, co), m is retained before b, /, m ; is assimilated before /, n, r; is changed to n before c, d,f,g, j, q, s, v ; some- times becomes n before/; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before /and r; com loses the final m in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium ; — in usually changes n to tn before b, m, /»; before / the better orthography retains n ; — ob and sun are assimilated before c,f, g, /, and sometimes before m ; su» also before r ; and, in early I^tin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes / before s or /. The inseparable amb loses* before a consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated; — ciRCUM loses m before / (often) ; — J of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a consonant is lost or assimilated ; — the d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions pref«r the unaltered forms throughout ; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as a^sum for adsutti), would better be avoided. Lexicon.^ vary in the spellinc «»f tliese comhinations. Phonetic Changes; Combinations. 5 12. Variations of spelling occur as follows : — a. Interchange of ci and Ti before a vowel : as, nuntio^ nuncio j contio, concio J dicio^ ditto; condicio, conditio; susplcio^ suspftio. In these cases, the former is the more approved spelHng, though the latter may still be frequently found. Note. — The substitution of c for t (or the converse) is an example of phonetic decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combinations : as in nazione, nacion. The sound of s or of sh traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular sound of c before e or / {assibilation). b. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes without an initial H : as, arena or harena, erus or herus, umerus or humerus^ umor or hUmor. The combinations PH, TH, are found only in words taken from the Greek. c. Many words are variously spelled in different editions : as, adotescens, adulescens ; anulus, annultis ; caelum^ coelum ; epistola^ epistula ; femina^ foemina ; litera, littera; milia^ inillia; nequi- quam, nequicquam, nequidquam ; paulus^ paullus ; qiiicqitam, quidqjiam; umquam, unquam; verto, vorto ; volnus, vulnus ; also the gerund-forms -endus or -iindus, and the superlative -imus or -umus. The old form lubet is often used for libet^ Combinations. 13. Two words are often united in writing, and sometimes in sound. Thus — a. Conjunctions or other particles are connected : as in etenim^ jamdiu^ siquisy siquidem; also a few short phrases : as, quare, quamobrem, respublica, jusjurandum, paterfamilias. b. The verb est, is^ is joined with the preceding word, espe- cially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by elision : as, homost, periculumst, ausust (like thou'rt, Pve). c. Similar contractions are found in vin^ {visne)^ scin^ (scisne), sis (si vis), sodes {si audes). So in English, don't, wonH.^ ' Many of the above variations are due to the practice of writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, — a single reader often dictating to numerous copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority. The tendency of the more approved editions is to restorq the forms of the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or Augustus), so far as this can be determined by inscriptions, &c. The choice among the forms appears often to be arbitrary. * Old English, woll not. / Etymology : Letters and Sounds. SyUables. 14. In the division of syllables, a single consonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter. a. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word : as, ho-spes, ma-gnus^ di-xit. b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est^ ob-latus. c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called pure, ^s, pi-US ; when preceded by a consonant, impure, as constat. d. An initial syllable ending, or any other syllable beginning, with a vowel, is called openj otherwise, it is called close. Kindred Forms. 15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters are retained (as ambition from ambitio)?- But in true English words which come from the same source as the Latin (see Appendix), the original letters are rarely represented by the same but usually by closely related letters, which regularly correspond. Sometimes a consonant lost in the Latin appears in the English word. Thus — LATIN ENGLISH c, k,qu H, WH : qui, who; cos, hone; carpo, harvest; calo (kalendae), hail ; cord-, heart. g K, CH : genus, kin; genu, knee ; gusto, choose. t TH : tu, thou; tres, three ; tenuis, thin. T or D (rarely) : stare, stand \ torreo, dry, d T : duo, two; dens, tooth; sedeo, sit. p f: ^2^.tT, father; ^nWns^foal; pauci,/lf«/. f (for bh) B : fero, bear; frater, brother. f (for dh) D : fores {Bvpa), doors; fera (^^p), deer, h G : veho, wagon; hortus, garden; hostis, guest i (j) ; u (v) Y ; w: ]ug\im, yoke ; ovis, ewe. Lost : (s)niv-, snow; (h)an8er, goose; (s)nervo-, snare. Sounds of the Letters. Note. — The pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among us, it usually follows one of tvro ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English. ' Many words, however, coming through the French follow French changes : as, fashion, fa^on {/actio) ; chivalry^ cluval icabaUutf \ chimney, cheminie {eaminutx Pronunciation, 7 / /" ^ 16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter has always the same sojmd, as follows : — Vowels : a as in father; a as in idea. e as eh ? (prolonged) ; they j e as eh ? (clipped). i as in machine j I as in holiest. 6 as in holy ; 6 as in obey. u as 00 in boot ; ii as ^^ in foot. N.B. — Vowels marked thus, a, e, i, 6, u, are longj marked thus, a, e, X, 6, u, are short. A long syllable is reckoned equal to two short ones. Diphthongs : ae like ay^; oe like oy j au like ow in now. ei as in eight; eu as ew^j ui as we (pdee). ' Consonants : c and g are always hard, as in come, get. s is always sharp, as in sea, lips. j is like jy v like «/ ; qu as in English. bs is WkQps; ch like k; ph like/I Note. — In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by being sounded with the lips only, instead of lip and teeth. In many words (as abietis, temiis), I and u sometimes had the consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels. The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use the long sound of E. When two consonants come together (as in condo, magmcs), or a consonant is doubled (as in anmcs, ullus, mitto), care should be taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronuncia- tion of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position (i8. ) » 5- » 14 Etymology : Declension of Nou7is, Chapter III. — Declensimt of Nouns, ^32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- guished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.^ Decl. I. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic a (anciently a) Is „ i or a Consonant us (uis) „ tl ei „ e a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omitting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel. b. The Nominative of most mascuhne and feminine nouns (ex- cept in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding 8.2 Note. — Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids, L, n, r, — the original s (sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost through phonetic decay. In some (as in servus) the stem-vowel is modified before the final s ; and in some, as in ager, imber, a vowel is inserted in the stem. V 33. The following are general Rules of Declension : a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension.^ b. In neuters the nominative and accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in S. ' Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several forms of declension ; but it is proba- ble that originally there was only one form, with perhaps a few variations. The original terminations (answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with certainty, though some earlier forms may be known. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem. Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chapter IV.). *'' The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit /^rjo«dr/ /row*?;///, in the Greek article^ and in the Knglish she. * In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the (modified) stem- vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these forms ; and, in practice, few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for the take of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining. First Declension. 15 c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends in m, and the accusative plural in s. d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the dative singular ends in L e. The dative and ablative plural are always ahke. f. The genitive plural always ends in um. g. The final i, o, u of inflection are always lotigj the final a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; the final e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. ^^ 34. The case-endings of the several declensions are the follow- ing, rare forms being given in parenthesis, Greek form^ in italics : — Decl. I. 11. y ' IV. V. Sing. N. a e, as, es. us,um, er<»5,<»«,«/j S (or modified Stem) us, u es G. ae (ai) es i (ius) 0, u, ei Is yos, t>s us (uis) ei(e) D. ae (ai) 6 (i) ei, eo i ui(u) ei(S) A. am an, en um. on ea era (im) in, yn a. um, u em V. a e 6 (i) er eu (asnom.) t, y iisju es A. a e 6 eo e(i),i ye u e Plur. N. V. ae i & es, a, la is us, ua es G. arum (um) orum (um, cm) on um, ium edn h)us uum erum D. A. is (abus) is (obus) ft>us(tlbus) ebus A. as OS es (is), a, la as us, ua es FIRST DECLENSION. \^ Note. — The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in S: Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem. 35. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus decHned : — SINGULAR. Nominative. stella. a (or the^ star. Genitive. stellae, of a star. Dative. stellae, to a star. Accusative. stellam, a star. Vocative. stella, thou star ! Ablative. stella, with a star. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Femi- nine. Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their signification : as, nauta (sailor). Also, Hadria (the Adriatic), and a few family or personal names : as, Murena, Sulla. 36. Case-Forms, a. The genitive singular anciently ended in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulai. The same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. PLURAL. stellae, stars. stellarum, of stars. stellis, to stars. Stellas, stars. stellae, J^'^ stars / stellis, with stars. 1 6 Etymology : Declettsion of Nouns. b. There is also an old genitive in as, found in the word familids used in certain combinations : as, pater {inciter^ filius, ftlid) familias. c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the plural in is: as, Romae, at Rome j Athenis, at Athens. d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of arum, especially in compounds with -c61a and -gSna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum (heavenly ones), Troju- genum (sons of Troy) ; with amphora and drachma. ^e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter^ — also, rarely, of several other words: as, liberta, freed-woman^ mula, she-mule, — end in an older form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in formulas, documents, &c.) are mentioned together, the form in is is preferred in all but dea, filia. N. B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV. Greek Nouns. f ' 37. Greek nouns of the first declension retain traces of their Greek formation** and are thus declined : — comet {u.). laurel (¥^. yEneas {m.). A ncA/ses (m.). NoM. cometes (a) daphne Aeneas Anchises Gbn. cometae daphnes (ae) Aeneae . Anchisae Dat. cometae daphne (ae) Aeneae Anchisae Ace. cometen (am) daphnen Aenean (am) Anchisen Voc, cometfip daphne Aenea (ft) Anchise (&) Abl. cometa (e) daphne (a) Aenea . Anchise (a) These forms are found only in the singular; the plural is regular: as, cometae, arum, &c. There are of tliis kind (besides proper names) about thirty-five words, several being names of plants, or names of arts : as, miisice. Most have also regular Latin forms in a : as, cometa. ^ SECOND DECLENSION. Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 6 (as of vir, vird-, and of servus, servd-^.^ The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s (in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to tl (see lo. b). In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the s is not added, but the o is. lost, and e is inserted before r. Thus ager (stem agro-) is the same as the Greek dypos. The exceptions are hcsperusy humerus, juniperus, mdrus, Humerus, uterus^ tauruSy virus. ' This form i« an original S-stem, to which the Jl-stem of the first declension is the corresponding feminine. Second Decle7tsio7t. 17 38. Latin nouns of the Second Declension are thus declined : — Sing. slave (m.). boy (M.); Jield (M.). man{u.). war (n.). NoM. serviia puer aggr vir bellum Gen. servi pueri agri viri belli DAT. servo puero agro viro bell5 Ace. servum puerum agrum virum bellum Voc. servS puer ager vir bellum Abl. servo puero agro viro bello Plur. NoM. servi pueri agri viri beim Gen. servorum puerorum agrorum virorum bellorum DAT. servis pueris agris viris bellis Ace. servos pueros agros viros bella Voc. servi pueri agri viri bella Abl. servis pueris agris viris bellis Note. — The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used after u or v : as, servos, servotn. The case-ending s or m is some- times omitted in inscriptions, &c., as Cornelio, for Cornelius or Cornelium. /39. Gender. — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are masculine ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. But — a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corinthus. Also many names of Plants and Gems, with the following : — arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly; oarbasus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground; vanuus, winnowing-shovel. b. The following in us are Neuter ; their accusative, as of all neuters, is the same as the nominative : — pelagus,^ j-^^y v^Ixms, poison ; vulgus (rarely m.), />^^ ^r^w*^. 40. Case-Forms, a. The Locative form of this declension for the singular ends in i : as, humi, on the groutid; Corinthi, at Corinth. For the plural, in is : as, Philippis, at Philippi. "^b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use with a single i : as, fili, of a son ; inge'ni, of genius. "^ The same con- traction occurs with the genitive singular and the dative and abla- tive plural of nouns in aius and eius : as, Grais, Pompei. 1 This has a Greek plural pelage : virus and vulgus have no plural. 2 The genitive in it occurs twice in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, The accent remains (as in ingeni) on the syllable preceding the contraction. •f 1 8 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative, as Vergi'li ; also, filius, son; genius, divine guardian. The possessive meus, my, has mi : as, audi, mi f ili, hear^ my son. d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie ; and adjectives derived from proper names — as Lacedaemonius — also form the vocative in ie. ^. In the genitive plural, um or (after v) cm is often found for 5nim, especially in poets, and in certain words of money, measure, and weight : as, nummum, jugertim, deum. f. BeuB,god, has vocative deus ; plural : nominative and vocative dei or di (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dis (diis). For the geni- tive plural deorum, divum or divom (from divus), is often used. ^ 41. The following stems in gro-, in which e belongs to the stem, retain e throughout : compounds in -fer and -ger, as lucifer, -fgri, light-bringer J armlger, -gSri, armor-bearer. Also, adulter, adulterer j gener, son-in-law ; puer, boy; fioa^x, father-in-law J vesper, evening. a. Some of these have an old nominative In 6ruB : as, socerus. b. Vir, 7nan, has the genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, has sattlri ; vesper has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi). c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive LibSri ; so, too, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children., is the plural. ^; 42. The following insert e in the nominative and vocative : — ^^'^x, field. coluber, snake. liber, book. aper, boar. conger, sea-eel. magister, master, aihitex, Judge. culter, kmfe. minister, servant. auster, south-wind, faber, smith. oleaster, wild-olive cancer, crab. fiber, beaver. onager (grus), wild-ass. C3ipex, goat. ^eoxxietex, geometer. Bcomhex{hxvM), mackerel. N.B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV. 43. Greek nouns — including many names in eus^ are declined as follows in the singular, the plural being regular : — /ai/e{M.). mock-sun (n.). Dfhs (f.). AiAos (m.). Orfk^us (m.). NOM. mythos parelion DeloB Ath68(6) Orpheus Gkn. mythi parelii DeU Ath6(I) Orpheoa'er DAT. myths parelio Del6 Atho Orphei Ace. mython parelion Delon(um) Ath6(6n) Orphea \\)C. mythe parelion Dele Athoa Orpheu Abl. mythd parelid Deld Ath6 Orphed Third Declension : Mute- Stems. 19 a. Many names in es belonging to the Third Declension have also a genitive in i, as Thilcydides, Thucydidl (compare 52). b. Several names in er have also a form in us : as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthil. c. The genitive plural of certain titles takes the Greek ter- mination on : as, Georgicon. THIRD DECLENSION. Note. — Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveniently classed according to their stems, as ending either in a Vowel (i), a Liquid (1, n, r), or a Mute. A few whose stems ends in u (gr7is, , siis) are treated as consonant-stems. ( The Nominative (except of neuters and of Hquid-stems) is found by adding s to the stem. \ 1. — Mute-Stems. ^^%^. Masculine or feminine nouns, whose stem ends in a Mute, form the nominative by adding s. If the mute is a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before s ; if it is a palatal (c, g), it unites with s, forming x. fl^euters have for nominative the simple stem.^ Examples : op-is, ops ; custod-is, custos ; reg-is, rex.^ Q 45. The vowel before the final consonant of the stem is often modified : — a. Labials. — Stems in Ip- have e in the nominative : as, adip-is, adeps. Most stems in cip- are compounds of the root CAP (in oapio, take) : as, particip-is^ particeps. In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-, as aucup-is, auceps. b. LiNGUALS. — Stems in it- (m. or f.) have e in the nomina- tive : as, hospit-is, hospes. (The neuter capit-is has caput. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in St- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual : as, cord-is^ cor ; poemat-is, poema/) c. Palatals. — Stems in 3lo- (short i) have the nominative in ex,2 and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is, apex. Those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine : as, cormc-is, cornix.^ 1 In these examples the genitive form is given to show the stem as it occurs in practice. 2 With a few exceptions (see 67. e). 3 In nix, nivis, the nominative contains a palatal lost in the other cases (original stem snig-, compare nmgit). Snpcllex {ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly 20 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. i^. 46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — Slug. help (F.). king (m.). guide (c.), soldier {yi..\ ). head (n.). NOM. [op8.]i rSx dux miles caput Gen. opia regis ducis mllitis capitis DAT. opi regi duci mlliti capiti Ace. opem regem ducem militem caput Voc. ops rex dux miles caput Abl. ope rege duce mllite capite Plur. wealth. NOM. opes reges duces milites capita Gen. opum regum ducum militum capitum DAT. opibuB regibus ducibus mllitibus capitibus Ace. opes reges duces milites capita Voc. opes reges duces milites capita Abl. opibus regibus ducibus mllitibus capitibus 47. In like manner are declined princeps, ipis (c), chief. lapis, idis (m,), stone. custos, odis (c), guard. comes, itis (c), cojnpanion. aries, etis (m.), ram. apex, apicis (m.), peak. cornix, icis (f.), raven. poema, atis {yi.\poem (47. b). a. Many apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in ium, are to be classed with i-stems (54). b. Greek neuters (as poema), with nominative singular in a, frequently end the dative and ablative plural in is, and the genitive rarely in orum. y, J8. — liiquid-Stems. 48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), the nominative is the same as the stem, except when modified as follows : — a. Stems in on- (m. and F.) drop n : as, in ledn-iSy lea; legion-isy legio. b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostiy feminine) have o in the nom- inative : as, virgin-is, virgo. Other stems in In- have e : as, cornicin-is, comicen (m.) ; carmin-is, carmen (n.). an i-stem. Of apparent s-stems in Latin, as (assis) is an /-stem ; the original stem of OS, ossis, is os/i- (cf. oartov and Sanskrit ast/ii); while the others have either (i) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of the cases, as honor, oris, corpus, 6ris (see liquid stetns); or (2) have broken down into /'-stems, as molts (cf. molestus), nitbes (Sanskrit nabhas^, sides (cf. t5o«), vis {x^res\ &c. ' The singular (meaning /id/) is not used in the nominative, except as the name of a divinity. Third Declension: Liquid- Stems. 21 c. Stems in tr- retain an original e : as, patr-is., pater. d. Many neuter stems in er and or have the nominative inj us : as, oper-is, opus; corpor-is, corpus. A few masculine andj feminine stems also have the nominative in s as well as r : as, honor-is, honos (or honor') ; arbor-is, arbos (or arbor). ^ e. Stems in 11, rr (n.) lose one of their hquids in the nomina- tive : as farr-is, far j fell-is, fel. "^9. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — Sing. NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. Plur. NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. 50. consul (m.). lion (m.). maiden{¥.). name (n.). body (n.). consul consulis consul! consulem consul c5nsule consules consulum leo leonis leoni leonem leo le5ne leonea leonum Virgo Virginia virgin! virginem virgo virgine Virginia nomen nominia nomin! nomen nomen nomine nomma nominum corpus corporia corpor! corpus corpus corpore corpora corporum consulibus lednibua virginibua n5minibus corporibus c5nsules leones virgines nomina corpora consules leones virgines nomina corpora c5nsulibua leonibua virginibua nominibus corporibua In like manner are declined — pater, patria (u.), father. arbor (oa), oria (f.), tree. ebur, oria (n,), ivory. honor (oa), oria (m.), honor. opua, eria (n.), work. aequor, oria (y^.), plain. The following apparent liquid-stems have the genitive plural in ium, and are to be classed with i-stems : — imber, littter, titer, venter; with the monosyllables filr, glis, Idr, mas, mils, [ren'] ; also vtres (from vis : see 6i). Vowel-Stems. U< 51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i (as of turris, turri- ; mare, mari-). The nominative, except in neuters, is formed by adding s to the stem. a. Thirty-seven nouns change i to e in the nominative. ^ 1 These stems originally ended in s. (See Note 3, page 19.) 2 These are acindces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clddes, comfdges, contdges^ crates, fames, feles, fides, indoles, labes, lues, meles, moles, nubes, palumbes, proles, propdges, pubes, sedes, sepes, sordes, strdges, strues, sub^les, stides, tdbes^ torques, tudes, vdtes, vehes, vepres, verres, vulpes {aedes has also nom. is). 22 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. b. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add s, but loses i, inserting e before r : viz., imber, linter, titer ^ venter {^\). c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the change of I- to 6- (as in mare). But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is lost, as in animal (53. b^.^ ^^ 52. Nouns of this class are inflected as follows : — Sing. thirst (F.). tower (p.). cloud (p.). sea (n.). animal (n.). NOM. sitis turris nubes mare animal Gen. sitis turris nijbis maris animalis DAT. siti turri nubi mari animaii Ace. sitim turrem (im) nubem mare animal Voc. sitis turris nubes mare animal Abl. siti turre (i) nube mari (e) animaii Plur. NOM. turres nubes maria animalia Gen. turrium* nubium marium animalium DAT. turribus nubibus maribus animalibus Ace. turres (is) nubes (is) maria animalia Voc. turres nubes maria animalia Abl. turribus nubibus maribus animalibus 53. Nouns of this class include the following : — a. All nouns of the Third Declension having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive {parisyllabic), except- ing /rti/^r, mater, /rater, accipiter. They end in the nominative in la or es (mostly feminine), e (neuter). b. Neuters in al and ar (originally adjectives in alls, aris), which have lost a final e.^ 54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were originally i-stems.^ These are — 1 Except augurSle, colldre, focSle, mare, nav&le, penctrdle, scutdU, tibidU; alvedre, capilldre, cochledre. 2 These are animal, bacchdnal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal, piitcal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, lucar, luminar, lupdnar, palear, pulv'tnar, torcular ; with the plurals denialia, frontalia, genualia, rdmalia, sponsalia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, tdlaria, 8 The 1 -declension was confused even \o the Romans themselves, nor was it '•■table at all periods of the lanjjuage, the early language having i-forms which after\vards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in idjectives to gain them. The accusative form (/w) was most thoroughly lost, lu'xt the ablative (/), next the nominative {is) ; while the genitive and accusative plural {ium. Is) were retained in almost all. Third Declension : Vowel-Stems. 23 1. Monosyllables with stem ending in two consonants : as, urbs^ mons {montis), fiox {fioctis)^ arxj together with imber, linter, iiter, venter (51. b^. 2. Stems in tat- (as civitds, -aiis),^ or in d or t preceded by a consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; the mono- syllables dos^ {faux~\, fur, glfs, Its, mas, 7nus, nix, [ren], strix, vis. 3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, origi- nally adjectives (as Arpinds, dtis^, with Penates and Optimdies. They are thus declined : — ^^Sing. city (f.). night (f.). age (f.). NOM. urbs nox aetas mus Gen. urbia noctis aetatis muris DAT. urbi nocti aetati miiri Ace. urbem noctem aetatem murem Voc. urbs nox aetas mus Abl. urbe nocte aetate mure Plur. NOM. urbes noctea aetates mures Gen. urbium noctium aetatium (um) mQrium DAT. urbibu3 noctibus aetatibus muribus mouse {u.). shower {ta.). imber imbria imbri imbrem imber imbre (i) imbres imbrium imbribus mures (is) imbres (is) mures imbres muribus imbribus Ace. urbes (is) noctes (is) aetates (is) Voc. urbes noctes aetates Abl. urbibus noctibus aetatibus N.B. — The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no respect from that of vowel-stems. V55. Vowel-stems show the i of the stem in the follow- ing forms : — a. All have the genitive plural in -ium (but see 59). "" b. All neuters have the nom. and ace. plural in -ia; -**" c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is often written -is ; d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (56) ; e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculinei and feminines, ends in -i (see $j). 4. — Case Forms. 56. The regular form of the accusative singular (m. or F.) would be im : as of sitis, sitim ; but in most nouns this is changed to em. .,.,^,^ 1 These, however, more commonly have the genitive pkiral in urn. 24 Etymology: Declension of Nouns, a. The accusative in im is found exclusively — 1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers ; 2. In biiris^ cucumis, rdvis, sitis, tussis, vis j 3. In adverbs in tim (being accusative of nouns in tis), as partimj and in amussim. b. The accusative in im is sometimes found \n febris, restis, turris, secilris, sementis, and (in a few passages) in many other words. 57. The regular form of the ablative singular would be i: as of sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to e. a. The ablative in i is found exclusively — 1. In nouns having the accusative in im (56) ; also securisj 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aeqtidlis, anndlis, aqudlis, consuldris, getttllis, moldris, prlmipildris, tribulis j 3. In neuters (nominative in e, al, ar)\ except baccar, Jubar, and sometimes (in verse) fnare, rete. b. The ablative in i is sometimes found — 1. In avis, cldvis, febris, finis, ignis, ^ imber, ndvis, ovis^ pelvis, sementis, strigilis, turris. 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis^ candlis, familidris, natdlis, rivdlis, sapiens, triretnis, vocdlis. c. The ablative of fames is always fame. The defective mane has sometimes ablative mani (probably locative). d. Most names of towns in e, — as Praeneste^ Caere^ — and Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in e. 58. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is eis (diphthong). 59. The following have um (not ium) in the genitive plural : canis, juvenis (original consonant-stems) ; ambages, volucrisj also (sometimes) apis, caedes, clddes, vtensis, sides, strues^ suboles, v&tes^ and (very rarely) patrials in ds, dtis ; is, itis. 6. — Peculiar Forms. 60. In many nouns the stem is variously modified in the nominative or other cases. Thus — a. The vowel-stems gni-, su-, add a in the nominative, and are inflected like mute-stems : grUs has also a nominative gruisj siis has both suibus and subiis in the dative and ablative plural. * Always a^A et igni inttrdfci. Third Declension : Greek Forms, 25 ^. In bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 5 {bos^ bovis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added {ndvis, is). In J6v- (= Zeus) the diphthong becomes u in Ju-piter {pater), gen. Jovis, &c. c. \n iter, itineris (n.), jecur, jecinoris (n.), supellex, supellec- tilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in jecor-is. d. Of the many original s-stems, only vds, vdsis (n. pi. vasa^ jrum), retains its proper form in the nominative (see 48. d). ^61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined — Sing. ox, c old man, u . yiesh, F. bone, N. force, F. swine, c N., V. bos sSnex caro ds vis sus Gen. be vis senis carnis osbis vis (rare) suis DAT. bovi seni C9.rni ossi sui Ace. bovem senem camem OS vim suem Abl. bove sene came osse vi sue Plur. cattle. strength. N.,A., V. boves senes carnes ossa Vires sues Gen. bourn senum camium ossium virium suum DAT., Abl . bobus senibus carnibus ossibus viribus siibus (bubus) (suibus) 62. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends indifferently like the dative or ablative : as, ruri, in the country j Carthagini or Carthagiiie, at Carthage j Tredlibus, at Tralles. The singular form in g appears to have been first used in poetry. 6. — Greek FormSo 63. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — retain Greek forms of inflection. a. Stems in in- (i long) : delphinus, i (m.), has also the form delphin, inis ; Salamis, is (f.), has ace. Salamina. Phorcys has gen. Phorcyos and Phorcydos. b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as, tigris, idis (idos) or is : ace. idem (ida) or im (in) ; abl. ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. idem (ida), abl. ide, — not im and i. (These follow the forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent^ c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n : as, Agamemnon (or Agamemino), 5nis, accusative ona. d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in on : as, horizon, Xenophon ; but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nominative o) • as Draco, onia. 26 Etyrnoilogy : Declension of Nouns. e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in as, fe : as, ad^mas, antis; Simols, entis. So a few in unt- (contracted from oent-) have us; as, Trapezus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is also found : as, Atlans, elephans. f. Case Forms. — Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets) have gen. 68, ace. a ; plur. nom. Ss, ace. ^ : as, aer, aether, crater, heros (ois), lampaa (adis or ados), lynx (cis or cSs), naXs (idos), Orpheus (eos : see 43). g. A few in ys have ace. yn, voc. y ; abl. ye : as, chelys, yn, y ; Capys, yos, yi, yn, y, ye. h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing, us, all the other cases ending in 6 ; they may also have regular forms : as, Dido, gen. Didonis or Didus ; dat. Didoni or Dido, &c. 64. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : — Slngr. hero^ M. torch, F. base, F. tiger, c. naiad, F. lyre, f. N., V. heros lampas basis tigris nais chelys Gen. herois lampados baseos tigris (idos) nilidnn DAT. heroi lampadi basi tigri naidi Ace. heroa lampada basin tigrin (ida) naida chelyn Abl. heros lampade basi tigri (ide) naide V. chely Plur. N. V. herogs lampadgs bases tigres naides Gbn. heroum lampadum basium(eon)tigrium naidum D., Abl. heroism lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus Ace. hero&s lampad&s basis (eis) tigris id&s) PROPER NAMES. naid&s Nom. Atlas Dido Simois Capys Daphnis Gen. Atlantis Didonis (us) Simoentis Capyos Daphnidis DAT. Atianti Didoni (6) Simoenta Capyi Daphnidi Aec. Atlanta Didonem(6) Simoenta Capyn Daphnim (in) Voe. AUas Dido Simois Capy DaphnI Abl. Atlanta Did6ne(6) Simoente Capye Daphni Note. — The regular Latin forms can be used for most of tlie abov«. 7. — Rules of Gender. 65. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to the termination of the nominative} 1 Rules of Gender are mostly only rules of memory, as there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. But the preference of masculine and feminine (especially feminine) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare long A of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine ; ti, feminine; men (originally man), muter. Third Declension : Rules of Gender. 27 a. Masculine endings are o, or, os, er, gs (gen. idis, Xtis). b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (following a consonant) ; also, do, go (inis), io (abstract and collective), and us (udis, utis). c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar, ur, us (6ris, 6ris) . 66. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems, a. Vowel Stems. — Stems in i-, having s in the nominative, are Feminine, except those mentioned below {(i^^ a). Those having nominative in g, or which drop the e, are neuter. b. Liquid Stems. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except j//, /^/, mel^ and sometimes sal (n.). Those in min- are Neuter, except homo^ nemo, fidtnen (m.). Others in in- are Mascuhne, except pollen, unguen (n.). Those in en- are Masculine. Those in din-, gin-, ion- (abstract and collective) are Feminine. Others in on-, with cardo, margo, ordo, unto, senio, quaternio, are Mascu- line. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about 30 given below. Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are Masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, telliis, f. ; crus, Jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is ohie to contraction), n. c. Labial Stems (no neuters). — Stems in b and m are Femin- ine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly Masculine (excep- tions below). d. Lingual Stems. — Stems in Sd-, gd-, id-, nd-, tid-, aud-, are Feminine, but vas, dromas,pes, quadrupes, obses,praeses, lapis (m.). Those in at-, ut-, are Feminine, except patrials (as Arpinds), with penates and optimates (m.). Those in ed-, et-, are Masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds (p.). Those in gt-, it-, are Mas- culine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (p.), and those which are Common from signification. Those in at- are Neuter; those in nt- various (see List) ; those in It-, rt-, Feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see List.) e. Palatal Stems. — Stems in c preceded by a consonant or long vowel are feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax, vervex, m. Those in o preceded by a short vowel are chiefly Mas- cuhne (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g, Mascuhne, except \,frux\ lex, phalatix, syrinx j also nix, ntvis (p.) . 28 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems : — a. VOWEL-STEMS. 68, is: — about 35 nouns (see list 51. tz), Feminine, except tudes^ vdtes, verres, m. i3, is : — about 100 nouns, chiefly Feminine. Exc. — aedtlis, amnis, ajiguis, c, anndlis, antes, assis, axis, dun's, callis, C, candlis, c, canis, c, cassis, caulis, civis, c, cl finis, c, collis, crlnis, c, ensis, fascis, finis, c, foftis, funis, c, fjistis, hostis, c, ignis, juvenis, c, lades c, lares, manes (pl.)» ntensis, moldris, ndtdlis, orbis, pdnis, pedis, c, piscis, postis, sentis, c, soddlis, testis, c, torris, unguis, vectis, vepres, c. (pi.)? "vermis, m. [Those marked c. are sometimes feminine ; the rest are masculine.] g, is : — upwards of 20 nouns, all Neuter. al, alia ; Sr, aris : — 24 neuter, with several used only in the plural (see list, 53. b : for those in Sr, Sjris, see Liquid Stems). Sr.ris : — imber, linter, titer, venter, — all m. except linter, which is commonly f. [For other apparent consonant-stems see below.] Peculiar : — grus, gruis, f. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum), m. ; sus, suis, c. ; herds, herois, m. ; misy,yos, F. ; oxys,yos, F. ; cinnabdri, gummi, sindpi (indecL), n. ; chelys, yn, y, f. ; bos, bovis^ c. b. LIQUID-STEMS. 1, lis : — 9 nouns. Masculine, except sil, and (sometimes) sal, n. en, enia: — \ren\ splen; hymen (Jnis), M. 6n, Inia : — 10 nouns, M., except /<7//^«, unguen, N. mgn, minis (verbal) : — about 60 nouns, N. ; hnif amen, m. on, 6nia (Greek) : — canon, daemon, gnomon, M. ; — aedon, alcyon, ancon, sindon, F. o, onis : — about 70 nouns, all Masculine ; with many family names, as Cicero. io, ionia (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, Masculine, io, ionia (abstract and collective) :— upwards of 180, Feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts. o, Inia : — homo, turbo, nemo, Apollo, M. do, dinia : — nearly 50 nouns. Feminine except cardo, ordo, M. go, ginia : — about 40 nouns, Feminine ; with margo, M. or F. ar, 5ria : — baccar, jubar, nectar, N. ; lar, salar, M. 8r, ria : — accipiter, frdter, pater, M., mdter, f. er, eria (Greek) : —crdter, halter, pr ester, m., ver, N. Third Declension : Forms of Inflection. 29. gr, eris : — acipcnser,{aer\ aether^ ^gg^^j anser, asser, aster, cancer, career, later, passer, vesper, vomer, m. ; — ?nulier, f. ; — acer, I cadaver, cicer, laver, papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber, tuber, tuber, uber, verber, n. IS, eris : — cittis, cucumis, pulvis, vomis, M. 6r (6s), oris : — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, formed upon verb-stems), all m., except soror, uxor, f. 6r, 6ris : — castor, rhetor, m. ; arbor, f. ; ador, aequor, marmor, N. OS, oris : — flos, mos, ros, m. ; glos, f. ; os, N. tlr, 6ris: — ebur, femur, jecur, robur (us), N. iir, iiris : — 8 m.; with guttur, fulgur, murmur, sulfur, N. us, 6ris : — 20 Neuter ; also, Venus, f. us, 5ris : — 14 nouns. Neuter, except lepus, M. us, uris ; — vms, M. ; tellus, f. ; crtts, jus, pus, rus, tus, N. |. Peculiar : — delphin, inis; fur, filrisj sanguis {en), inis; ' senex, senis, m. / caro, carnis, f. ; aes, aerisj f ar, f arris j fel,fel- lis; met, mellis ; iter, itineris ; jecur, jecinoris {Jecoris), N. ; glis, gliris, M. C. LABIAL. bs, bis : — chalybs, m. ; plebs, trabs, urbs, f. ; scrobs, c. scohs, F. ms, mis : — hie?ns (often written hiemps), f. ps, pis : — 15 nouns, Masculine, except \daps\ merops, ops, stips, I F. ; forceps, stirps, c. f d. LINGUAL. as, adis (Greek) : — 14 nouns. Feminine, except dramas, vas, m. es, edis : — cUpes, hires, praes, M. ; merces, f. es, 6dis : — pes, quadrupes, m. ; cojupes, F. es, Idis : — obses, praeses, c. is, Idis : — nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), F. ; lapis, M. OS, odis : — custos, c. OS, Otis : — nepos, M. ; cos, dos, F. ; sacerdos, c. lis, udis : — incus, palus, subscus : with/r^«j, laus, pedis (Jidis), F a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns. Neuter. as, atis : — about 20 (besides derivatives), f. ; also, aftas (dtis), c. es, etis : — celes, lebes, magnes, m. ; quies, requies, inquies, f. es, 6tis : — aries, paries, m. ; abies, seges, teges, F. ; interpres, c. es, itis : — about 20 nouns, Masculine or Common. us, utis : — juventus, salus, senectus, servitus, virtus, f. ns, ndis : — frons, glans, juglans, f. ns, ntis : — nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), Common ; dens,fons, mons,pons, m. ', frons, gens, lens, mens, F^ 30 Etymology : Declension of Notins. rs, rtis (originally i-stems) : — ars^ cohors^fors^ mors, sors, F. ya, fA\B\ B, ntis (Greek) : — chlamys, F. ; Atlas, antis, m. Peculiar : — as, assts, m. ; tts, litis j nox, 7ioctis j puis, pultis, F. ; caput, itis ; cor, cordis j hepar, atis j os, ossisj vas, vasis, N. ; also, compounds of -pus, -podis, m., Gr. for pes (foot), lac, lactis, n. e. PALATAL. ax, acis : a?ithrax, corax, frax (pL), panax, scolopax, m. ; fax^ sty rax {storax), F. ax, acis : — cfiodax, cordax, Umax, thorax, m. ; pax, F. ex, ecis : — alex, M. or F. ; vervex, m. ex, icis : — upwards of 40 nouns, Masculine, except cdrex, for/ex, flex, imbrex, nex {7i^cis), pellex, f. ix, Icis : — appendix, coxendix, Jilix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, varix, f. ix, icis : — about 30 nouns, Feminine ; besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in tor. ox, ocia : — celox, vox, F. ux, ucis : — diix, c. ; crux, nux, F. iix, ucis : — balux, lux, f. X, cis : — arx, calx,falx, lynx, merx (def.), F. ; calyx, calx, M. X, gis : — conjux (nx), grex, remex, rex, m. or c. ; frux (def.), lex, phalanx, F., with a few rare names of animals. Other nouns in x are nix, nivis ; nox, noctis j supellex, ectilis, F. ; onyx, ychis, M. FOURTH DECLENSION. Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by adding 8 ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with ii (long). 68. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows : — knee (n.). genu genu (lis) genu genu genu genQ Sing. hand {t.). lake (m.). NOM. manua lacus Gen. manus lacus DAT. manui lacui Ace. manum lacum Voc. mantw lacna Abl. manii lacil Fourth Declension. 31 Plur. NOM. manus lacus genua Gen. manuum lacuum genuum DAT. manibus lacubus genibus Ace. manus lacus genua Voc. manuB lacus genua Abl. manibus lacubus genibus Note. — The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in uis. The Dative Singular is also found contracted to u. 69. Gender. — a. Most nouns in us are Masculine. The following are Feminine : — acus^ anus, colus, domus, idus (pi.), manus, nurus, porticus, quinqudtrus, socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and"l:rees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. b. The only neuters are cornu, genu, pecu (def.), veru.^ 70. Case-Forms. —«. A genitive in^os^ (an earlier form) is sometimes found : as, senatuos j and an old (irregular) genitive in 1 is used by some writers. b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into um. d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural in iibus : artus, partus, partus, tribus, veruj also dissyllables in -cus, as lacus (but sometimes /^r/Z^j", veribus^. e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension. f. Domus, house, has two stems, ending in u and o, and is declined as follows : ^ — SINGULAR. PLURAL. NoM. domus domus Gen. domus (domi, loc.)... domuum (domorum) DAT. domui (dome) domibus Ace. domum domos (domus) Voc. domus domus Abl. domo (domu) domibus 71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- stems, with the suffix -tus (sus) : as, cantus, song, from cano, sing; casus (for cad- tus), chance, from cado, fall; exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by false analogy : as, con- suldtus, sendtus, incestus. 1 Some others are mentioned by grammarians, and the form ossua, as from ossu^ occurs in inscriptions. 2 The forms in parenthesis are less common. The form domt is regularly locative,. genitive only in Plautus ; domut is also locative ; domorum is poetic. 32 Etymology : Declension of Notms, a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in tus (sus) : as, auditum, memordtu. b. Of many only the ablative is used as a noun : as, jussu (meo), by my comtnand; so injussu (populi), without the people's order. Of some only the dative : as, memordtui^ divisui. FIFTH DECLEN6I0N. Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e, which appears in all the cases. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s. N/'72. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are thus de- clined : — SING, thing ( F.) PLUR. SING, day (m. ) PLUR. faith (f.) NOM. res res dies dies fides Gen. rgP rerum diei (die) dierum fidgi DAT. rSi rebus diei (die) diebus fidgi Ace. rem res diem dies fidem Voc. res res dies dies fides Abl. re rebus die diebus fide 73. Gender. — All nouns of this declension are feminine, ex- cept dies (usually m.), and meridies (m.). Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general : as, longa dies, co7istitutd die; also in the poets : as, pulcra dies. 74. Case- Forms. — a. The genitive singular anciently ended in ea (of. as of first declension) ; and ei was sometimes contracted into i or e, as in dii {JEn. i. 676), and in the phrase plebi-scitnm (Fr. pUbiscite^. An old dative in i or e also occurs. b. Several nouns ot the fifth declension have also forms of the first, of which this is only a variety : as, materia, -ies, saevitia, -ies.^ The genitive and dative in 51 are rarely found in these words. ' The e has been shortened in the gen. and dat. singular in fides, sj>es, res. 2 Nouns in ies (except dies) are original A-stems. The others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles, moles-tus ; dies, diurnus; sj>es, spero. Some vary between this and the third declension : as, requies, saties (sa/ias, atis\ plebes {plebs, pl'ebis), fame {fames, is) ; with others, as saties (for sati^as), &c. Fifth Declension ; Defective Nouns. 33 c. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, as in hodie, to-day j perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarto (antiquated quarti), the fourth day j pridie, the day before. -y d. The only nouns of this declension complete in all their /parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, which is, how- ever, found in the nominative and accusative in the following: acies^ effigies^ eluvies, fades ^ glacies, series, species, s^es.^ Defective Nouns. 75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only. These are — 1. Proper names : as, Caesar, Ccesar j Gallia, Gaul. 2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass {con- tinud) : as, ^wxvlvsx, gold ; far, corn; aer, air. 3. Abstract nouns : as, ambitio, ambition; fortitude, courage; calor, heat. But many of these can be used in the plural in some other sense. Thus — a. A proper name may be apphed to two or more persons or places, and so becomes strictly common : as, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Ccesars ; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans-alpine) ; Cast5res, Castor and Pollux ; Joves, linages of Jupiter. b. Particular objects or kinds of a thing may be denoted : as, aera, brazen utensils ; nives, snow-flakes ; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold. c. The plural of Abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like : as, quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; 0^9., periods of rest. 76. Some are commonly found only in the Plural : — 1. Many proper names, including names of Festivals and Games : as, Bacchanalia, y^j-ZzW/^?/" Bacchtis ; Quinquatrils, fes- tival of Minerva ; ludi Romani, the Roman Gaines. 2. Names of Classes : as, optimates, the upper classes; ma- \bies, ancestors ; Yibexi, children ; -ge-aSLtes, household gods. 3. Words plural from signification : as, arma, weapons ; artiis, joints; divitiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors ; fores, door-way. 1 The forms facierum, specierum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited ; also spheres, speribus. 3 34 Etymology : Declension of Noufis, These often have a corresponding singular in some form or other, as nouns or adjectives : — a. As nouns, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat. b. As adjectives : as, Cato Major, Cato the Elder. c. In a sense rare or obsolete : as scala, a ladder j valva, a door; ^xtviB, a joint (Lucan). 77. The following are defective in Case-Forms : — 1. Indeclinable nouns : fas, nefds, instar, necesse, nihil, opus (" need "), secus. 2. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : glos (f.), infitias (f.), mane (n. nom., ace, and abl.), nauci (n.), pondo (n.), suppetids (f.), dtcis (gen.). 3. In two cases only {diptotes) : astus, u {u.),dicam, as (f.), foras, ts {¥.), f or s, forte (f.), spontis, e (f.), venui, urn (m.). 4. In three cases {trip totes) : grdtiae, as, Is (f.), impetus, urn, il {M..),jugera, um, ibus (n.), lues, em, e (f.). 5. The following are defective only in the singular: ambdge {¥.), fauce (f.), obice (m. or f., nom. rare), cassefn, e {m.), precem, i, e (f.), sordem, e (f.), opis, em, e (dat. fare), dapis, i, em, e (p., nom. rare), dicionis, i, em, e {F.),fn7gis, i, em, e (f.). 6. The following are defective in the plural : jura, rura (n. nom. and ace.) ; sentis, e?n; es, ibus (m.), vicis, em, e; is, ibus (f.). Cor, cos, fax, faex, lux, nex, os, pax, praes, ros, sal, sol, tils, vds, ver, are not found in the genitive plural (see also 74. d; 75). Some other forms of these words are rarely found. Variable Noons. 78. Some nouns have two or more forms of Declen- sion if leter oolites)} These are — Colus, with many names of plants (f. of second or fourth declension) \ femur, oris, or inis (n.) ; jugerujn, i (n.), abl. e, pi. a, um; Mulciber, beri, or beris (m.) ; mUnus, munia ; pubes, eris, em, e (m.) ; penus, i, or oris (n.) ; saevitia, ae; -ies, tern; -itado, inis (f.) ; sequester, tri, or tris; with many in ia or lis (see 74. b), and a few other rare forms. ' These variations often result from tlie confusion of two stems from the same root: as, domi (o-stam), domul (w-stem). Compare such words as iter, itineris ; j4fur,J4C0ris, oxjecinoris. The gender is an accidental peculiarity. Variable Nouns. 35 79. Some nouns are found of more than one Gender {heterogeneotis) . a. The following have a masculine form in us and a neuter in um : — balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, jugulufn, pileus^ tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence. b. The following have the plural in a different gender from the singular : — balneum (n.), balneae (f.) ; caelum (n.), caelos (m. ace.) ; carbasus (f.), carbasa, orum (n.), delictum (n.), deliciae (f.) ; epulum (n.), epulae (f.) ; frenum (n.), freni (m. or frena, N.) ; jocus {u.),joca (n. or J oci, m.) ; rastrum (n.), rastri (m.) ; /(C?^«j (m.), /^^^ (n. : loci, M.. is usually /^/zVj- or detached spots). c. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the singular or plural : as, aedes, ium, house. aquae, a watering-place. auxilia, auxiliaries. bona, property. carceres, barriers (of race-course). castra, camp. codicilli, tablets. aedes, is (f.), te?nplej aqua (f.), water; auxilium (n.), help; bonum (n.), a good; career (m.), dungeon; castrum {^.),fort; codicillus (m.), bit of wood; co\m\xvim{ii.), place of asse7nbly ; comitia, a political assembly. copia (y.), plenty; fides (f.), harp-string; finis (m.), end; fortuna (¥.), fortune; gratia (¥.'), favor; hortus (m.), a garden; impedlmentum (n.), hinderance; littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ; locus (m.), place [pi. loca (n.)] ; Indus (m.), sport; natalis (m.), birthday; opera (f.), task; opis (f. gen.), help; pars (f.), apart; plaga (f.), region [plaga, blow"] ; r5strum (n.), beak of a ship ; sal (m. or N.), salt; tabella (f.), tablet; copiae, troops. fides, lyre. fines, bounds, territories. fortijnae, possessions. gratiae, thanks. horti, pleasure-grounds. impedimenta, baggage. litterae, epistle. loci, passages in books. (In early writers this is the regular plur.). ludi, public games. natales, descent. operae, day-laborers ("hands "). opes, resources, wealth. partes, part (on the stage), /^r/y. plagae, snares. rostra, speaker* s platform. sales, witticisms. tabellae, documents. 36 Etymology: Proper Names, flestertius (m.) means the sum of 2^ asses, = about 5 cents. sestertium (n.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50. decies sestertiuin (sc. centena fnillid) means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $50,000 (nearly). d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus- jurandum, jurisjurandi, oaih; respublica, reipublicae, co?mnon- wealth. Proper Names. 80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the person, the gens, and the family. a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have Marcus, the prcsnomen, or personal name ; Tullius, the nomen (properly an adjective), i.e. the name of the Gens, or house, whose original head was Tullus ; Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. b. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was sometimes given. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio Africdnus ^milidnus ; Africdnus, from his exploits in Africa ; ^milidnus, as adopted from the iCmilian gens. c. Women had no personal names, but were known only by that of their Gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger sister would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, and so on. d. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : — A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. C. (G.) Gaius {Caius). M. Marcus. Sen Servius. Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus {Cneius). M'. Manius. Sex. Sextus. D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. K. Kkso. N. Numerius. T. Titus. App. Appius. P. PubUus. Ti. Tiberius. e. A feminine praenomen is sometimes abbreviated with an inverted letter: as, 3 for Caia or Gaia. hiflection of Adjectives, 37 Chapter IV. — Adjectives. INFLECTION. Note. — Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in their use. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, corresponding with their nouns in gender, number, and case. They are (i) of the First and Second Declen- sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.^ y^ 1. — First and Second Declensions. 81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (o-stems) have the feminine in a; they are decHned Uke servus (m.), stella (f.), bellum, (n.) : as, Sing. MASC. FEM. NEUT. NOM. bonus bona \iorvxva., good. Gen. boni bonae boni DAT. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Voc. bonS bona bonum Abl. bono bona bono Plur. NOM. boni bonae bona Gen. bonomm bonarum bonorum DAT. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Voc. boni bonae bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis a. The masculine, genitive of adjectives in ius ends in 11, and the vocative in ie; not in 1 as in nouns : as, Lacedae7nonius, it, ie. But the possessive mens, my, has the vocative masculine mi. b. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of this form by changing the case-ending to e : as, vallde, strongly (from valldus) ; mlsere, wretchedly (from miser : see 82). 1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with the cor- responding feminine fl-stems (originally a and a), or /-stems. Many, however, were originally stems in m or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the z-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Com- pare the endings es and Is of the third declension with the Greek e? and as ; ndvis (nominative) with the Greek vaOs ; /Spaxu's with brevis ; cornu with bicornis ; lingua with bilingtiis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -diutn; sudvis with 176VS ; f evens, -entia, with ^i^mv, -ovra. ) A few, which in other languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, vetus = eros. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most of their cases. 38 Etymology : Adjectives. 82. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like that of ro- stems of the second declension {zLpuer^ ager) : as, Sing. N. miser G. miseri D. misero Ac. miserum V. miser Ab. misero Plur. N. miseri Miser, wretched. misera miserum miserae miseri miserae misero miseram miserum misera miserum misera misero Niger, black. niger nigra nigrum nigri nigrae nigri nigro nigrae nigrd nigrum nigram nigrum niger nigra nigrum nigro nigra nigro nign nigrae nigra miserae misera G. miserorum miserarum miserorum nigrorum nigrarum nigrorum D. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris Ac. miseros miseras misera nigros nigras nigra V. miseri miserae misera nigri nigrae nigra Ab. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris a. Stems in ero (as procerus)^ with morig^rus, propHrus^ pqst^rus, have the regular nominative in us. ^ b. Like miser are declined asper, gibber^ lacer, liber, miser, prosper {ems), satur {ura, urum), tener, with compounds of -ifer and -ger; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dexter it is often syncopated : dextra, dextrum. y c. Like niger are declined aeger, dter, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer, macer, niger, noster, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, teter, vafer, vester. d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nomina- tive in classic use : — cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases : as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lecticA octophdro (Verr. v. 1 1). ^/83. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the genitive singular in ius and the dative in i in all the genders : — aiiuB (n. aliud), other, totus, whole, alter,' other (of two). nuUus, none. uUus, any. neuter,- triuB, neither. Bolus, alo7ie. unus, one. titer,- trius, which (of two). ' The suffix TER, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the Greek comparative suffix -Tepo(«). The stem of alius appears in early Latin and in derivatives as AL1-, in the forms alls, alid (for aliud), aliter, &c. The regular forms of the genitive and dative are also found in early writers. Instead of a^us (genitive), alterius is commonly used, or (for the possessive) the adjective alienus. These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pronouns, which accords with tht pronominal forms of the genitive in ms, the dative in i, and the neuter Inflection of Adjectives, 39 a. Of these the singular is thus declined : — M. F. N. M. F. N. NOM. unus una VJrmTTi uter utra utrum Gen. iinius finius unius utrius utrius utrius DAT. uni uni uni utri utri utri Ace. unum linam unum utrum utram utrum Abl. uno una iino utro utra utro NoM. alius alia aUud alter altera alterum Gen. alivLS alius alius alterius alterius alterius DAT. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri Ace. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum Abu ali5 aUa alia altera altera altera b. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus, a. — Third Declension. ^^ 84. Adjectives of the third declension having stems in i — distinguished by being parisyllabic — have prop- erly no distinct form for the feminine, and hence are called adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter the nominative ends in e. They are declined as follows : — Sing. M., F. light. N. M. keen. F. N. N., V. ISvis ISve acer Gen. levis DAT. levi Ace. levem Abl. levi Plur. N., V. leves Gen. levium DAT. levibus Ace. leves (is) Abl. levibus levis levi leve levi levia levium levibus levia levibus acris acri acrem acri acns acris acri acrem acri acre acris acri acre acri acres acres acria acrium acrium acrium acribus acribus acribus acres (is) acres ^s) acria acribus acribus acribus a. The following stems in -ri have the masc. nom. in er : deer., alacer, campester, celeber, equester, pahlster, pedester, puter, salu- ber, Silvester, terr ester, volUcer. Also, celer, ceteris, cel^rej and, in certain phrases, the names of months in -ber (compare 51. b). Note. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets, and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris^ lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form. d in aliud. The / in the genitive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ; and alterius is generally accented on the antepenult. In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. 40 Etymology: Adjectives, b. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain i in the ablative singular, the neuter-plural ia, the genitive plural ium, and often in the accusative plural ia. For metrical reasons, an ablative in e sometimes occurs in poetry. c. When celer is used as an adjective, it has the regular genitive plural in ium; as a noun, denoting a military rank, it has celirum; as a proper name, it has the ablative in e. d. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declension with the ending ter or iter : as, leviter, lightly j priidenter, wise- ly j acriter, eagerly (see Chap. VII). 85. The remaining adjectives of the third declension (except comparatives) are consonant-stems, but have the form of i-stems in the ablative singular i, the plural neuter ia, and the genitive ium. In other cases they follow the rule of consonant-stems. a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the nominative singular is alike for all genders : hence they are called adjectives of one termination?- Except in the case of stems in 1 and r, it is formed from the stem by adding s (compare 44) : as. ^Sing. M., F. fierce. N. M., F. needy, n. N., V. atroz egena Gen. atrocia egenti* DAT. atroci egenti Ace. atrdcem atrox egentem egena Abl. atrdci or atroce egenti or egente Plor. N., V. atrdces atrocia egentea egentia Gen. atrocium egentium DAT. atrdcibofl egentibua Ace. atrdcea (ia) atrdcia egentea (ia) egentia Abl. atr5cibii8 egentibua ' The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, would end in ia : this form does not appear in Latin adjectives, but is found in the abstracts Smeniia, disidia^ socordia^ 6v., and in proper names, as Fldrcntia (cf. Greek 4>ipovaa for ^cpovr-ta). The neuter would regularly have in the nomina- tive and accusative singular the simple stem as ca/ut, cor{d), allec^ Greek <^«po»'(t) ; but in all except liquid stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon the neuter nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal. Inflection of Adjectives. 41 b. Other examples are the following : — ^'^'Sing. '^.^Y. going. N. M.,F. equal, in. M.^¥. headlong. N. N. V. iens par praeceps Gen. euntis paris praecipitis DAT. eunti pari praecipiti Ace. euntem iens parem par praecipitem praeceps Abl. eunte (i) pari praecipiti Plur. N.,A.,V. euntes euntia pares paria praecipites praecipitia Gen. euntium parium praecipitium D., Abl. ©untibus paribus praecipitibus Sing. M., F. rich. N. M., Y. fertile. N. M., F. old. N. N., V. dives uber vetus Gen. divitis uberis veteris Dat. diviti uberi veteri Ace. divitem dives uberem uber veterem vetus Abl. divite ubere vetere Plur. N.jA.jV. divites [ditia] uberes ubera veteres vetera Gen. divitum uberum veterum D., Abl. divitibus uberibus veteribus c. A few of these words, used as nouns, have a feminine form in a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative yuno Sospita. v^ 3. — Comparatives. 86. Comparatives are declined as follows : — M., F. more. n. Sing. M., F. better. n. N., V. melior melius Gen. melioris DAT. meliori Ace. meliorem melius Abl. meliore or meliori Plur. N., V. meliSres meliora Gen. meliorum DAT. melioribus Ace. meliores (is) meliora Abl. melioribus plus pluris plus plure plures plura plurium pluribus plures (is) plura pluribus a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os, which became or in all cases except the neuter singular (n., a., v.), where s is retained, and 6 is changed to u (compare honor., oris j corpus., dris^. Thus they appear to have two terminations. b. The neuter singular accusative of comparatives is used as an Adverb : as, melius, better j acrius, more keenly. 43 Etymology: Adjectives, c. The neuter singular plua is used only as a noun ; the genitive (rarely ablative), as an expression of value. The dative is not found in classic use. Its derivative, complures, several^ has sometimes the neuter plural compluria. All other comparatives are declined like melior. Case-Forms* 87. In adjectives of consonant stems the following case-forms are to be remarked : — a. Their ablative singular commonly ends in i; but, when used as nouns (as, superstes, survivor), they have e. Participles in US used as such (especially in the ablative absolute), or as nouns, regularly have e ; but as adjectives, regularly i. So adjectives in ns, e ; anceps, praeceps, ingens, always i. b. In the following, e is the regular form of the ablative: — caeles, compos, discs, dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, prtnceps^ superstes, supplexj also in patrials(see § 54. 3), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes as adjectives. c. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium; the accusative often ends in is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to the i-declension. d. In the following, the genitive plural ends in um: — 1. Always in dives, compos, inops, praepes, supplex, and com- pounds of nouns which have um, as quadru-pes, bi-color. 2. Sometimes, in poetry, of participles in na. e. In vetus {iSris'), pubes (Jris), fiber (Jfris), which did not be- come i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but ilber and vetus rarely have the ablative in i /. Several adjectives are declined in more than one form : as, gracilis (us), hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indeclinable or defective : as, damnas (esto, sunto),frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.), exlex (nom. and ace), mactus (nom. and voc), nequam (indecl.), pernox (pernocte), potis, pate (indecl. or m. f. potis^ N. pote), priinorisy semin^ci, &c. Special Uses* 88. The following special uses are to be observed : — a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construc- tion of nouns : as, amicus, a friend; aequilis, a contemporary; mSjSres, ancestors (see Note p. 37). b. Many adjectives, from the signification, are used only in the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common Comparison of Adjectives. 43 gender. Such are adulescens, youthful; deses, Idis, slothful; inops, o^is, poor; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis may be called tnasculine adjectives. c. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare Syntax of adjectives) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot; especially nouns in tor (m.) and trix (f.), denoting the agent : as victor exercitus, the conquering army; viotrix causa, the winning cause. "^ d. Certain forms of many adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs. These are, the accusative and ablative of the neuter singular: as, multum, multo, much; the N. sing, of comparatives (see 86. b) : as, melius, better; ISvius, more lightly. Adverbs end- ing in e from o-stems, and ter from i-stems, were also once case- forms : as, care, dearly; leviter, lightly; acerrime, most eagerly. COMPARISON. Regular Comparison. -ij 89. The Comparative is formed by adding, for the |f nominative, ior (neuter ius^), and the Superlative by adding issimus (a, um) to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel : as, carus, dear ; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest. levis, light ; levior, lighter; levissimus, lightest. felix, happy ; felicior, happier; felicissimus, happiest. hebes, dull; hebetior, duller; hebetissimus, dullest. a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative ; the comparative is regular ; as, acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus ; miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus. So vetus {veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form veter; and, rarely, maturrimus (also mdturissimus) is formed from maturus. For comparative of vetus, vetustior is used. b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel : facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis (comparative regular): as, facilis, easy; facilior, facillimus. ^ The comparative suffix (earlier los) is the same as the Greek iwv, or the Skr. tyans. That of the superlative {issitmis) is a double form, but what is the com- bination is not certain ; perhaps it stands for ios-timus (comparative and superla- tive), or possibly for ist-timus (i-^o superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus. The comparative and super- lative are thus formed upon new stems, and are not to be strictly regarded as forms of inflection. 44 Etymology: Adjectives. c. Compounds in -dXcus {saying)^ -flcus {doing), -vblus {willingly take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, which were anciently used as adjectives : as, maledicus, slanderous j maledlcentior, maledicentissimus. malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus. d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs magis, more; mazime, most : as, id6neus,y?/y magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. Most derivatives in -icus, -Idus, alls, -aria, His, iilus, -undus, -timus, -inus, -xvus, -orus, with compounds, as degener, inops, are also compared with magis and maxime. Pius has piissimus, e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : as, patientior, patientissimus ; apertior, apertissimus. Note. — Many adjectives — as aureus, golden — are from their meaning incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candidus, white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior). f. A form of Diminutive is made upon the stem of some com- paratives : as, majusculus, somewhat larger. Irregrular and Defective Comparison. 90. Several adjectives are compared from dijfferent stems, or contain irregular forms : as, bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. mElus, pejor (peior), pessimus, bad, worse, worst. magnus, major (maior), m-aixSmxis, great, greater, greatest. parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. multus, plus (n.), plurimus, much, more, most. multi, plures, plurimi, tnany, more, most. nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless. frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 91. The following are formed from roots or stems not used as adjectives : — cis, citra : eiterior, citimus, hither, hithermost. in, intra : interior, intimus, inner, inmost. prae, pro : prior, primus, former, frst. prope : propior, proximus, nearer, next. ultra: ulterior, \i\\\m\is, farther, farthest. Comparison of Adverbs. 45 a. Of the following the positive forms — themselves originally comparative — are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural) : — ezterus, exterior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost. inferus, inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest. posterus, posterior, postremus (postumus), latter, last* superus, superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. The plurals, exteri, foreigners; posteri, posterity; superi, the heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common. b. From juvenis, youth, senez, old man, are formed the com- paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- tive, the phrase minimus or maximus ndtii is used {jiatu being often understood), as also major and minor in the comparative. c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is wanting: — 1. The positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus ; ocior, ocissi- mus; potior, potissimus. 2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus, inclutus (or inclitus'), invictus, invltus, novus, plus, sacer, vafer, vetus. 3. The Superlative is wanting in actuosus, agrestis, alacer, arcd- nus, caecus, diUturnus, extlis, ingens, jejunus, longinquus, obliquus, opimus, proclivis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus, supinus, surdus, taciturnus, tempesttvus, teres, vicinus, and some in His. Comparison of Adverbs. 92, Adverbs formed from adjectives are compared as follows (see 81. ^, 84. d) : as, carus, dear : care, carius, carissime. miser, wretched: misere (miseriter), miserius, miserrime. levis, light : leviter, levius, levissime. audax, bold : audacter (audaciter), audacius, audacissime. bonus, ^^<9^.- bene, melius, optime. malus, bad : male, pejus (peius), pessime. Aljo, in hke manner — diu, long (in time) : diiitius, diutissime. potius, rather; potissimum,yfri'/' (or chiefs of all. saepe, often : saepius, saepissime. ^ditiB, enough ; ^2d\\is, preferable. secus, otherwise ; secius, worse. multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most. parum, minus, minime 46 Etymology: Numerals. Sigmification. 93. Besides their regular signification, the forms of comparison are used as follows : — a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality : as, brevier, rather short; audacior, too bold. It is Used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of. b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without a distinct comparison : as, mazimus numerus, a very great 7iujnber. With quam or vel it means the highest degree : as, quam plurimi, as many as possible; quam mazime potest (quam potest), as -much as can be. c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest; primus quisque, all the first (each in his order),' Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as, sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur, the wisest men die with the greatest eqtiatiimity (Cat. Maj. 23). d. A high degree of a quahty is denoted by such adverbs as admSdum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as, permagnus, very great ; praealtus, very high (or deep). e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, aub- ruBticus, r^M^r clownish; or by minus, «^/ very; minime, not at all ; parum, not enough; non satis, 7iot jnuch. f. The comparatives majores and minores have the special signification of ancestors and descendants. NUMERALS. Cardinal and Ordinal. 94. Cardinal Numbers answer to the interrogative ^uot, how many ? Ordinal Numbers^ to quotus, ivhich in order y or one of how many ? They are as follows : — * As in taking one by one off a pile, each piece is uppermost when you take it. * The Ordinals (except secvndus^ tertius, octSvus) are formed by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (compare the form infimtts) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pr'tmus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tus (quart us, quint us, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -to« and trpwrof, superlative of irpo ,- non us is contracted from norimus ; while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative form (compare repot in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of tUctm : as, viginti = dvi-ginti {dui-decem-ti). Numerals, 47 CARDINAL. 1. unus, una, unum, one, 2. duo, duae, duo, two. 3. tres, tria, three^ &^c. 4. quattuor 5. quinque 6. sex . . 7. septem 8. octo 9. novem 10. decern 11. undecim 12. duodecim 13. tredecim 14. quattuordecim 15. quindecim 16. sedecim 17. septendecim 18. duodevTginti (octodecim) 19. undevTginti (novendecim) 20. vTginti 21. viginti unus ^r unus et viginti 30. trlginta 40. quadraginta 50. quinquaginta 60. sexaginta 70. septuaginta 80. oct5ginta 90. ndnaginta 100. centum 200. ducenti, ae, a 300. trecenti 400. quadringenti 500. quingenti 600. sexcenti 700. septingenti 800. octingenti 900. nongenti 1000. mille 5000. quinque millia (mllia) 10,000. decern millia (mllia) 100,000. centum millia (milia) ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. primus, a, vim^ first. i. secundus (alter), second. 11. tertius, third. iii. quartus iv. quintus v. sextus VI. Septimus vii. octavus viii. nonus IX. decimus x. undecimus xi. duodecimus xii. tertius decimus xiii. quartus decimus xiv. quintus decimus xv. sextus decimus xvi. Septimus decimus xvii. duodevTcesimus xviii. undevicesimus xix. vicesimus (vTgesimus) xx. vTcesimus primus, etc. xxi. trlcesimus xxx. quadragesimus XL. quinquagesimus l. sexagesimus lx. septuagesimus LXX. octogesimus Lxxx. nonagesimus xc. centesimus c. ducentesimus cc. trecentesimus ccc. quadringentesimus cccc. quingentesimus ID, or d. sexcentesimus dc. septingentesimus * dcc. octingentesimus DCCC. nongentesimus Dcccc. millesimus cio, or m. quinquies millesimus 133. decies millesimus CCioo. centigs millesimus ccciddd. 48 Etymology: Numerals, NOM. duo duae Gen. duorum duarum DAT. duobus duabus Ace. duos (duo) duas Abl. duobus duabus a. For the inflection of unua, see 83. a. It often has the meaning of same or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, flna caatra, one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other. b. Duo,' two^ and ambo, both^ are thus dechned : — duo duonun duobus duo duobus c. Ties, tria, three^ is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the plural of levis (see 84). The other cardinal numbers, up to centum (100), are indeclinable. The forms octodecim, novendccim, are rare, duodeviginti, undevtgttiti (and some higher) being used. d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus. e. Mille, a thousand, is an indeclinable adjective. In the plural (milia or millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, with a genitive plural : as, cu?n duobus tnilibus hominum.^ Note. — The singular mille is also sometimes found as a noun in the nomina- tive and accusative : as, mille hominum mi sit ; but in the other cases only in con- nection with the same case of millia: as, cum octo millibus peditum, mille equitum. Distributives. 95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. They answer to the interrogative quoteni, how many of eachy or at a time : as, I. singuli, one by one. 13. terni deni, &c, 200. duceni 2. blni, two-and'two. 18. duodevTceni 300. treceni 3- terni, trini 19. undevTceni 400. quadringeni 4. quaterni 20. vTceni 500. quingeni 5. quini 30. triceni 600. scsceni 6. seni 40. quadrageni 700. septingeni 7. septeni 50. quinquageni 800. octingeni 8. octoni 60. sexageni 900. nongeni 9- noveni 70. septuageni 1000. milleni 10. deni 80. octogeni 2000. bina millia II. undeni 90. nonageni 10,000. dena millia 12. duodeni 100. centeni 100,000. centena millia * This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. 2 Or, in poetry, cum bis mille hominibus. Numeral Adverbs. 49 Distributives are used as follows : — a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side : as, sin- gula singulis, one apiece j agri septena jugera plebi divisa sunt, i. e. seven acres to each citizen. b. Instead of Cardinals, when a noun is plural in form but singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). But the plural uni is used (instead of singuli), and trini (not terni), to signify one and three (See 94. «). c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two j ter septenis '^iebus, in thrice seven days, i.e. in three weeks. d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each person usually carrying two). Numeral Adverbs. 96. The Numeral Adverbs answer to the interrogative quotiens (quoties), how often. They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher numbers : as, ter et tricies {centena millid) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. 1. semel, once. 12. duodecies 40. quadragies 2. bis, twice. 13. terdecies 50. quinquagies 3. ter, thrice. 14. quaterdecies 60. sexagies 4. quater 15. quindecies 70. septuagies 5. quinquies (ens) 16. sedecies 80. octogies 6. sexies 17. septiesdecies 90. nonagies 7. septies 18. duodevTcies loo. centies 8. octies 19. undevTcies 200. ducenties 9. novies 20. vTcies 300. trecenties 10. decies 21. semel et vTcies, &c. 1000. millies 11. undecies 30. tricies 10,000. decies millies 97. The adjectives simplex (single), duplex, triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decern-, centu-, sesqui- (i)4), multi-plex, are called Multiplicatives. They are compounds of -plico (as in English twofold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination. Other derivatives are — a. Proportionals : duplus, triplus, &c., twice or thrice as great. b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or thre'e years' age ; biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years. c. Partitives : binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. d. Fractions : dimidia pars (dimidium), a half-, tertia pars, a third. e. The following : unio, unity; binio, the two (of dice); binarius, consisting of two; primanus, of the first (legion) ; primarius, of the fir ^t rank ; denarius, a sum of lo asses ; binus (distrib.), double, See. 4 50 Etymology: Pronouns. Chapter V. — Pronouns, Personal and Reflexive. 98. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nos, we ; of the second person^ tu, thoUy vos, ye or yon. FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. NOM. ego, / noB, we ixi,thou ■voa,ye ox you Gen. mei, of ?ne nostrum (tri), of us tui vestnim (tri) DAT. mihi, to me nobis, to us tibi vobis Ace. me, 7ne no8, us te vos Voc. t& vos Abl. me, by 7ne nobis, by us te vobis a. These pronouns are also used reflexively : as, ipse te nimium laudas, you praise yourself too much. b. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they — are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used. c. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring to the subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only in the oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural : viz., Gen. sui, of himself herself the?nselves. Dat. sibi, to „ „ „ Ace. se (sese) „ „ „ Abl. se (sese), by „ „ „ d. The plural nos is often used for the singular Ij the plural vos never for the singular tu.' 99. In the meaning and use of these Pronouns it is to be observed that — a. For the genitive of possession (Subjective), the Adjectives meus, tuus, suus, nosier, vester (voster'), are to be used, declined as in 8i. 82. But meus has the vocative singular masculine mE (rarely meus). b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted genitive plural of the possessives noster, vester. (So in early and late Latin we find una vestrarum.^ They are Mstd partitk^ely : as, ilnusquisque nostrum, each one of us. 1 There is an old form of genitive in is t as mis, tis, sis ; also an accusative and ablative med, ted, sed. The earlier form vostrum, vostri, is sometimes used for V€strum, vestri. Prenouns : Demonstrative. 51 c. The genitives mei^ tut, sui, nostri, vestri, are the genitive singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my^ your, gur, interest or concern^ and chiefly used objectively : as, memor sis nostri, be mindful of us. d. One another {each other) is expressed by inter se or alter . . . alterum: as, inter se amant, they love each other. e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative of these pronouns : as, tecum loquitur, he talks with you. f To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns encHtics are joined for emphasis : — met to all except tu (nom.) ; -te to tu {tute, also tutijttet) ; -pte to the ablative singular of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the others : as, vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own very selves, suopte pondere, by its own weight. Demonstrative. 100. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this ; is, ille, iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same.^ a. Ille is a later form of ollus (oUe), which is sometimes used by the poets ; a genitive singular in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste. b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c., with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and ille is very often found shortened. c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same root as potis), meaning self. The former part was originally de- cHned, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 101. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their signification, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They are thus declined : — 1 These demonstratives are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative ce, which appears in full in early Latin {like), and when followed by the enclitic -ne {hicine). In most of the cases ce is shortened to c, and in many lost ; but it is appended for emphasis to those that do not regularly retain it {hujusce). In early Latin c alone is retained in some of these {horunc). Ille and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic : illic, illaee^ illuc ; also illoc (ace. or abl. : loi. a). 52 Etymology : P7'o?iotins. Sing:. M. F. N. M. NoM. hic haec hoc, this, is Gen. hujus hujus hujus ejus Dat. huic huic huic ei Acc. hunc hanc hoc eum Abl. hoc hac hoc eo Plur. NoM. hi hae haec, these. Gen. honim harum horum Dat. his his his Acc. hos has haec Abl. his his his ejus ei earn ea N. id, that. ejus ei id eo ii (ei) eae ea, those. eorum earum eorum eis or iis eos eas ea eis or iis Note. — For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old forms hibus and ibus are sometimes found ; also (rarely) haec for hae. Sing. NOM. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl. M. Ule illius ilU ilium illo F. ilia illius illi illam ilia N. illud, that. illius illi illud Ulo M. ipse ipsius ipsi ipsum ipso F. ipsa ipsius ipsi ipsam ipsa N. ipsum, self. ipsius ipsi ipsum ipso Plnr. N., V. illi illae ilia ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. illorum illarum illorum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum Dat. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis Acc. illos illas ilia ips5s ipsas ipsa Abl. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis Sing. N. idem eSdem Idem G. ejusdemejusdem ejusdem D. eidem eidem eidem A. eundem eandem Idem A. eodem eadem eodem the sajne. Plur. iidem (ei-) eaedem eidem eorundem earundem eorundem eisdem or iisdem eosdem easdem eidem eisdem or iisdem a. Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille. By combination with the demonstrative -ce,^ ille and iste have the following forms : — Sing* M. F. N. NoM. illio illaeo m6o(muo) Acc. illuno illanc illoo (illuo) Abl. iUdc iliac ill6o Plur. NoM. or Acc. iUaeo M. F. N. istlo (isthio) istaeo istdo(i8tuo) istuno istano istoc (istuo) istoo istao istoo istaeo ^ The intensive-CB is also found in numerous combinations : as, hujusce^ huncce^ horunce., hdrunce^ hosce^ Aisce, iliiusce, iisce ; also with the interrogative -NE, in hocincy hescine^ istucine^ Wicine^ &c. The intensive pse is found in the forms ea/>se (nom.), aumfse^ eam^stf ebpu, 4dfte (abl.) i &)«• in rtg^se — re i/>sa. Pronouns: Demonstrative, 53 b. The normal forms illi^ isti (gen.), and illae^ istae (dat.), are found ; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae^ illae). c. The forms iidem, iisdem^ are often written idem^ tsdem. Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for ei), and eabus or ibus (for iis). d. By composition with ecce or en, behold ! are found eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas j eccillum, ellum, ellam^ ellos, ellas j eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. e. The combinations hujusmodi {hujuscetnodi^^ ejusmodi^ &c., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such : as, res ejusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare 215). 102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be observed that — a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself ; sometimes for " the latter " of two things mentioned ; more rarely for " the former." t b. nie is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean " the former ; " also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean " the following." c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demonstrative of the second person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, &c.), and frequently implies contempt. d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun (see 98. b') ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative qui : as, eum quern, one whom; eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cic.) , a consul who will not hesitate. e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as nos ipsi (nosmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the verb containing the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi adestis, j^z/ are yourselves present ; or with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains. Note. — In English, the pronouns himself^ &c., are used both intensively (as, he will cojne himself )2indrt^eyiiy f^Y{?ts^ he will kill himself )•. in Latin the former would be translated ipse ; the latter se, or sese* 54 Etymology : Pronouns, Relative, Interrogrative, and Indefinite. Note. — The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same Stem, and the forms for the most part are the same (compare 103 with 104) ; viz., qui, quis^ {who^ who? any)f with their compounds and derivatives. 103. The relative pronoun qui is thus declined : — SINGULAR. who, which. PLURAL. NOM. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cujus ciijus ciijus quorum quarum quorum DAT. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus NOM. Gen. DAT. quis (qui) ciijus cui Ace. Abl. quern quo 104. The interrogative or indefinite quis (qui) is de- clined in the singular as follows (plural as above) : — who ? which ? any. quae quid (quod) ciijus cujus cui cui quam quid (quod) qua quo Case Forms. — a. The Relative has always qui and quod in the nominative singular. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis, quid, substantive, and qui, quod, adjective. But quis and qui are sometimes used for each other. Thus — quis vooat? who calls? quid vides? what do you see? but — qui (or quis) homo vocat? quod templum vides? nescio qui sis, / know not who you are. b. Old forms for the genitive and dative are quoius, quoL c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders ; but especially as an adverb (Jio^u, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or indefinite relative. d. A nominative plural quis (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. The dative and ablative quia (stem qu5-) is old, but not infrequent. * The stem has two forms, qno« and qnl-. From the latter are formed guts, quid, guem, quibus, qui (abl.) ; while qui, quae, are probably lengthened forms of fud, qud (see 32, decl. i ), made by the addition of the demonstrative particle !• Pronouns: Relative and Interrogative. 55 e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the ablative, as with the personal pronouns : as, quocum, qutcum, qui- buscum. f. The accusative form quum (cum) is used only as a conjunc- tion, meaning when or since. 105. The stems qjio- and qui- are thus compounded : a. The suffix -cumque (-cunque) added to the relative makes an Indefinite Relative, which is declined as the simple word : as, quicumique, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever. This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative : as, qualiacumque, of whatever sort ; quandocumque (quandoque), whenever j ubicumque, wherever. b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher- ever^. Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is wanting in classic use : as, NOM. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quioquid) Acc. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) Abl., quoquo quSqua quoquo Plur. NoM. quiqui Dat., Abl. quibusquibus This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, and quoquo. The case-form quamquam is used only as a conjunc- tion. Quiqui (nom. sing.) is an early and quaqua a late form. The grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. Cuicuimodi appears as a genitive, but is probably locative. c. Indefinite Compounds are the following : — quidam, a, a certain j quispiam, any; quivis, quillbet, any-you-please ; quisquam, any-at-all. Of these, the former part is inflected like quis, qui, with quid or quod in the neuter. ^. In aliquis, any; siquis, if any ; nequis, lest any; ecquis, uumquis, whether any, the second part is declined like quis, but with qu5 for quae, except in the nominative plural feminine . The simple form quis, any, is rare except in these combinations ; and the compounds quispiam, aliquis, are often used in these, being rather more emphatic (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if some one). The forms ali-, ec-quae (nom. sing. F.), occur rarely. 56 Etymology: Pronouns; Correlatives. These compounds are thus declined : — 8ing. some. Plur. N. aliquis aliqua aliquid G. alicujus D. alicui A. aliquem aliquam aliquid A. aliquo aliqua aliquo ediqui aliquae sdiqua aliquorum aliquarum aliquoruxsi aliquibus aliquos aliquas aliqua aliquibus Note. — Aliquis is compounded with £di-, old stem of alius, but with weakened meaning. As an adjective, the form in quod is used instead of quid : as, aliquod bonum, some good thing; but — aliquid boni, something good {something of good^. e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal : as, quisque, every one ; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of two, or both^. Of quisque the first part is declined. In the com- pound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined, and sometimes separated by other words. Quotus quisque has the signification how many pray ? often in a disparaging sense. f. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective cujus (a, um), whose ; and a patrial cujas (cujat-), of what country. g. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to the adverbial case-form tarn, so. h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without; vix, scarcely. i. Quisnam is emphatic : pray, who ? Ecquis and numquis are compounded from the indefinite particle en and the interroga- tive num ; they mean not who, but any : as, ecquis nos videt ? does any one see us f num quid hoc dubitas, do you at all doubt this f Correlatives. 106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and adverbs have corresponding forms, as demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. These are called Correlatives. They are shown in the following Table : Correlatives. 57 DEMONSTR. RELAX. INTERROG. INDEF. REL INDEF. is, that qui quis ? quisquis aliquis tantus, so great quantus quantus ? * aliquantus talis, such qualis qualis ? ^ ibi, there ubi ubi? ubiubi alicubi eo, thither qu5 quo ? quoquo aliquo ea, that way qua qua? quaqua aliqua inde, thence unde unde ? % alicunde turn, then quum, cum quando ? * aliquando tot, j^ many quot quot? quotquot aliquot toties, so often quoties quoties ? * aliquoties * Compounds with -cumque. a. The forms tot (originally toti), quot, aliquot, totidem, are indeclinable, and may take any gender or case : as, per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatSres (Cic), so many commanders^ for so many years, in so many battles. b. The correlative of the second member is often to be rendered simply as : thus, tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper. c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with comparatives (rendered in English the . . . the) : ^ as, quo magis conaris, eo longius progrederis, the more you try, the farther on you get. 107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correlatively, serving as conjunctions: as, ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as {while') . . . so (yet). tam (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) . . . as. cum (rel.) . . . tum (dem.), both . . . and;' while . . . so also. Compare et . . . et, both . . . and; aut (vel) . . . aut (vel), either ...or; sive (seu) . . . sive ; utrum . . . an, whether . . .or. Note. — For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax (203). 1 In this phrase the is not the definite article, but a pronominal adverb, being &e Anglo-Saxon instrumental case, thy. 58 Etymology : Structure of the Verb, Chapter VI.— Verbs. I. -STRUCTURE OF THE VERB. Voice, Mood, Tense. 108. The inflections of the Verb denote Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. a. The Voices are two, Active and Passive. b. The Moods are four, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.^ c. The Tenses are six, viz. : — 1. Present, Imperfect, Future (of continued action) ; '•^ 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect (of completed action). — d. Person and Number. — There are separate terminations for each of the three Persons — first, second, and third — both in the singular and in the plural. Noun and Adjective Forms. 109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the structure of the Latin Verb : — a. Four Participles,^ viz. ; — Active : the Present and Future Participles ; Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.' b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular, its nominative being supplied by the Infinitive (see 114. N.). c. The Supine : this is in form a defective noun of the fourth declension (see 71. a). Defective Forms. 110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting in certain parts of the verb, viz. : — 1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb ; but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it is properly treated as a part of the verb. " The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see 25. ^), but have the powor ef Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. ■ The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or duty (Me 113. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle. Verbs : Voice and Mood. 59 a. Thfr Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect.-^ In some constructions, these tenses are supplied by the future participle with corresponding tenses of the verb signifying TO BE : as, cum secuturus sit, since he will follow. b. In the Passive voice, tenses of completed action (Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect Parti- ciple with corresponding tenses (present, imperfect, and future) of the verb signifying to be : as, occisus est, he was killed, c. In the Imperative moed, the only tenses are the Present and the Future. d. In the Infinitive mood only the Present and the Perfect are formed by inflection. A Future in the active voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying to be ; in the passive, by the Former Supine with iri (infin. pass, of ire, to go). Voices. 111. The active and passive Voices in Latin are equivalent to the corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the passive are used with more exactness. Thus — a. In the Present : domus aedificatur means, not the house is built, but is [in course of] being built. b. In the Perfect : domus aediiicata est, the house is built, i. e. the building is now completed ; or, the house was built j i. e. at some time indicated. Note. — i. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning : as, induitur vestem, he puts on his [own] clothes. 2. Many verbs are only used in the passive form, but with an active or reflexive meaning. These are called Deponents, i. e., as laying aside {deponere) the active form and passive meaning. Moods. 112. The Moods of the Latin verb are used as follows : — a. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertions or interro- gations : as, valesne ? valeo, Are you well? I am well. 1 These are wanting, because the original meaning and most of the uses of the Subjunctive are future. 6o Etymology : Structure of the Verb. b. The Subjunctive Mood is idiomatically used in comjnands^ conditions^ and various dependent clauses. It is frequently trans- lated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by the Potential, with the auxiliaries may^ fnight^ would, should; sometimes by the rare Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and is often used for the Imperative, especially in prohibitions : as, eamus, let us go. si adesses, if you were [now] here. cum venisset, when he had come. adsum ut videam, / am here to see {that I may see). tu ne quaesieris, do not thou i?iquire. nemo eat qui ita existimet, there is no one who thinks so^ Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by the English potential forms, may^ mighty could, would, &c., to distinguish it from the Indica- tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb. Thus, / may -urrite (except when it follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri* bere ; / catt write is possum scribere ; / Tvould write is scribam, scribe- rem, or scribere velim (vellem); / should write, if, &c., scriberem si . . . , or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few examples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following : — 1. beatus sis, may you be blessed. 2. ne abeat, let him not depart. 3. quid morer, why should I delay ? 4. sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 5. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write. 6. nescio quid scribam, / know not what to write. 7. licet t^,you may go ; cave cadas, don't fall. 8. vereor ne eat, I fear he will go. 9. vereor ut eat, I fear he will not go. 10. si moneam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear. 11. si vocarem audlret (imperf.), if J werc\xiovi\ calling, he would hear. 12. quae cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this, he went away. c. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command; but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive. d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or object of another verb ; but in special constructions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see " Indirect Discourse "). Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see pp. 184-204. The Verb: Participles. 6't Participles. 113. The Participles of the Latin verb are used as follows : — a. The Present participle (ending in ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the EngHsh participle in ing : as, vo- cana, calling; legentes, reading. (For its inflection see 85.) b. The Future participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used as an adjective, to express what is likely or about to happen : as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall.^ It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose : as, venit auditurus, he came to hear. (c. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses of the J passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning : as, / vocatua eat, he ivas {has been) called j tectua, sheltered; acceptua, acceptable; ictua, having been struck. Note. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases some different construction is used for these missing participles : as, cum veiiisset, having come (when he had come) ; equitatn praemisso^ having sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry having been sent forward) ; dum verberatur, while being struck (= TVTrroMej'o?). d. The Gerundive (ending in ndus) has, as an adjective, the meaning ought or must : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. "^ But, in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were an active participle, governing the word it agrees with : as, ad petendam pacem, to seek peace. e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives, and the present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjec- tives : as, amantior, more fond; dilectisaimus, dearest. f. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often used as nouns, especially in the plural : as, regentea, rulers (those ruling) ; mortui, the dead. g. As an adjective, the participle is often used to describe some special circumstance : as, morituri vos salutamus, we at the point of death salute you. 1 In this construction it is used with the tenses of the verb TO be, forming what is called the " First Periphrastic Conjugation " (see page yj). 2 The Gerundive, used as a predicate with the verb to be, forms the " Second Periphrastic Conjugation." 7, 62 Etymology : Structure of the Verb. Oernnd and Supine* 114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : — a. The Gerund is, in form, the neuter singular of the Gerund- ive. It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the Enghsh " participial infinitive " in -ing : as, loquendi causa, yi?r the sake of speaking. Note. — In this use the Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. The nominative is supplied by the Infinitive : as, scribere est utile, writing {to write) is useful; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing. b. The Supine is in form a noun of the Fourth declension, found only in the accusative (ending in turn, sum) and ablative (ending in tu, sfl), which are sometimes called the Former and the Latter Supine. The former is used after verbs and the latter after adjectives: as, 1 . venit spectatum, he came to see. 2. mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell. Tenses. 115. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz. : 1. Of continued action. 1 . Present : scribo, / am writing. 2. Imperfect: acifbehsini, / was writing. 3. Future: acnhsua^i, / sha// wrife. 2. Of completed action. 4. Perfect : scrips!, / have written. 5. Pluperfect: scxiTpBeiaxn, / had written. 6. Future Perfect: BciipBexo, I shall have written. a. The tenses have, in general, the same meaning as the coi^ responding tenses in English ; but are in some cases distinguished more accurately in their use. Thus — 1. The Future or Future Perfect is used where we may use the Present in subordinate clauses : as, si quid habebo dabo, if I have [shall have] any thing, I will give. cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come], / will write. 2. The Present and Imperfect are used to express continued action where English uses tenses of completed action : as, jam diu aegrSto, / have long been [and still am] sick. Here the Perfect, aegrotavi, would imply that I am now well. \ Tenses ; Personal Endings, 63 b. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote past time ; the former to tell a simple fact, the latter to describe a continued or customary action, or a condition of things} Thus — Perfect : scripsit, he wrote. Imperfect : scribebat, he was writing, or used to write. c. The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and historical, corresponding to the Perfect (compound) and the simple Past (or preterite) in English : as, scripsit, he has written (definite) ; he wrote (historical). d. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule of the Sequence of Tenses ; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax, 286). Personal Endings. 116. Verbs have regular terminations for each of the three Persons,^ both singular and plural, active and passive, viz. : — Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 1. m, o, or i ^ : am-o, / love. r : amo-r, / am loved. 2. B : ama-s, thou lovest. ris or re : ama-ris, thou art loved. 3. t :* ama-t, he loves. tur : ama-tur, he is loved. Plur. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 1. mus : ama-mus, we love, mur : ama-mur, we are loved. 2. tis : ama-tis, you love, mini : ama-mini, you are loved, 3. nt : ama-nt, they love, ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved. ' In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as Italian and French), there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Preterite {aorist) which merely states ih-iit the fact took place ; and the Imperfect, which is used for description^ or to indicate that the action was in progress: as, longius prosequi VETun, quod loci naturam ignorabat (B. G. v. 9). In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, including English), the same tense serves for both, 2 These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the Verb-stem (compare page 14, Note i). 8 The present indicative of the active voice has lost the m, and ends in the modified stem-vowel o, except in sum and inqjiam. Here o stands for m blended in sound with a preceding vowel {amo = ama-m). The perfect, future perfect, and the future in bo have also lost the m. 4 All Latin words ending in t, except at (ast), aut, sat, et, -met, posf, tot; quot, ut, caput, and their compounds, are verbs in the third person ; all in nt are in the 3d person plural. In dumtaxat, licet, and the indefinite pronouns in -libet the meanings of the verbs are disguised (See also 8, p. 3). 64 Etymology : Forms of the Verb. a. The perfect Indicative (active voice) has the special termina- tions : — Sing. 2. -sti: zm^cw-i-sti^ thou lovedsf. Plur. 2. -stis : amav-i-atis, you loved. 3. -erunt or -ere : amav-emnt (ere), they loved. b. The Imperative has the following terminations ; Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 2. — : ama, love thou. re : ama-re, be thou loved. 3. to : ama-to, let him love. tor : ama-tor, let him be loved. Plur. 2. te, tote : ama-te, love ye. mini : ama-mini, be ye loved. 3. nto : ama-nto, let them love, ntor : ama-ntor, let them be loved. 2.-F0RMS OF THE VERB. 117. All Latin Verb-forms are made up of three parts, viz. : — 1. The Root (see 22) ; often variously modified, so as to form what is called a Stem. 2. The Signs of Tense or Mood. 3. The Personal Endings. Thus in the word voca-vi-t, the Root is voc, modified into the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of ui (vi) becomes the perfect tense vocavi; and to this is added the personal ending (t) of the third person singular. Nature and Origin of Verb-Forms. In the Indicative and Subjunctive Present, in the Imperative, and, in some cases, in the Future, the terminations are added directly to a modified form of the Root, called the Present Stem. This Stem, in three out of four methods of conjugation (the ist, 2d, and 4th conjugations), also appears in all parts of the verb, including the noun and adjective forms, and is accordingly called the Verb- Stem. In the Present Subjunctive of all the conjugations, and in the Future of the 3d and 4th, however, there are modifications of the verb-stem of various origin. I In the Perfect in a few verbs, the terminations are added directly to a different modification of the Root, called the Perfect Stem : as in do^ dcdi. 1 These modifications, in the ist conjugation, and the Future of the 3d and 4th, are caused by the addition of a verbal form (optative from the root ya, to go) to the Stem. In the other cases, their origin is not certain ; but it is supposed to be the same as that of the stem-vowels themselves, corresf>onding to that fouad in the Greek Subjunctive. (See Note, p. 72 ; p. 74 : ia6. a-d). Note on the Verb- Sterns. 6$ All other true verb-forms are compounded with a suffix (auxiUary), originally a verb, which already contained the personal endings : as vocd-bat^ vocd-bit, vocd-ret, vocd-verat, vocd-verit, vocd-visset. Thus the signs of mood and tense appear to be inserted between the Verb-stem (or Root) and the personal endings, though strictly they were not so inserted. But the first person of the Perfect, whether formed by a modification of the root as in de-di^ or a verbal suffix as in vocd-vi, man-si, loses its final vowel, and is treated as a new stem, to which other verbal suffixes are added, likewise containing the personal endings. The Perfect and Future Participles, and the Supine, though strictly noun- forms with separate suffixes, agree in having the first letter of their suffix (t) the same, with the same phonetic changes, as cds-um (for cad-tum), cds-iirus. These forms naturally divide into three groups, in which in fact they appeared to tlie Romans themselves, who had very early become unconscious of their deriva- tion. Hence, verbs may be formed upon three Stems (partly real, partly supposed) by adding Verbal Endings, which include signs of Tense and Mood as well as Personal Endings, and (in the case of the Infinitive and Participles) even noun and adjective terminations. These Stems are the Present, the Perfect, and the Supine Stem. Verb-£ndings. 118. The scheme of Verb-Endings,^ as they are formed by suffixes, together with personal endings, is as follows : 1 The origin and meaning of some of these verb-endings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of bhu, which appears in fui, futurus, fto, the Greek uw, and English be; — rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunc- tive imperfect of es, which appears in sum, einC, am, &c. ; — bo is a future, and vi a perfect, of bhu ; — si is a perfect of es, and is kindred with the aorist- ending a-a, though not of the same formation ; — erim is an optative form or subjunctive present of es, the same form originally as sim ; — ero (for es>io) is the future of esse ; issem = essem ; isse = esse. Thus these terminations are seen to have the same force as Auxiliary verbs in English. The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long (ei, i, e) except before mus^ is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti^ where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (=fui) and si (=Skr. dsa), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es ; but it may be, like the others, of pronominal origin. The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, sva, like self, was not limited to the third person). Thus amor = amo-se, amaris = amasi-se, amatur = amati-se. The above view seems the most probable, in spite of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -/btevos, supplanting the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. 66 Etymology : Forms of the Verb, i.— Verbal Foimis, ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJ. Present. INDIC. SUBJ. Sing. I. o' •C«i^ ml or r 2. s ^BZ s ris ^r re |)^ ris or re 3. t .1-- t tur ^"5 tur Plur. I. mus ^.. mus mur .^ c mur 2. tis goo tis mini |"i mini 3. nt ^:i. nt ntur !^ ntur Imperfect. Sing. I. bam' rem bar rer 2. bas res baris (re) reris (re) 3. bat ret batur retur Plur. 1. bamus remus bamur remur 2. batis retis bamini remini 3. bant rent Fut bantur rentur are. i. ii. iii. iv. ' /** • i. ij. lii iv. Sing, I. bo «m' bor ar^ - 2. bis ^s beris (re) irxs (re) 1=1 3- bit ei bitur aur >^.« P/wr. I. bimus /mus ■^i « "5 bimur /mur 15 2. 3. bitis bunt ais ^nt lj|l biminl /mini buntur ^ntur Perf ect. ^/w^. I. 1 erim *""^) iest sit 2. isti eris 3. it erit /•/«r. I. 2. imus istis erimus eritis -ti rtie (s"'"us simus *\^\^^' - estis sitis ^^^ i sunt sint 3- erunt or ere erint Plupe rfect. Sing. I. eram issem -tus(ta, ^^""^"^ ^^^!"^ \„,^xWeras esses *"'^) lerat esset 2. eras isses 3- erat isset Plur. I. eramus issemus ♦; /to^ (eramus essemus ti\ \ ^^^^'^ ^^^^^'^ ^ ( erant essent 2. eratis issetis 3- erant issent Future Perfect. ^/«^. I. 2. 3- ero eris erit -tus(.a. 1^™ /'/vr. I. 2. erimus eritis '^'^ ( erunt 3- erint For some changes of Stem see 126. Forms of the Verb ; The Verb esse. 67 Imperative. Sing. 2. 3- to re tor Plur, 2. te, tote mini 3. nto ntor Pres. re (Pres. stem) Perf. isse (Perf. stem) Fut. turus (a, um) esse 2.^ Noun and Adjective Forms, Infinitive. i. ii. iv. ri, iii. 1 {old rier, ier) tus (ta, turn) esse turn Irl (see 147. c) Participle. Pres. ns, ntis Perf. Fut. turus, a, um tus, ta, turn Ger. ndus, a, um Supine, turn, tu SUM and its Compounds. 119. The verb sum,^ to be, is both irregular and de- fective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. 1 The root of the verb sum is es-, which in the imperfect is changed to er- (see II. a), and in many cases is shortened to s-. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less distinctly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table; — the "Indo-European" being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form sydm corresponding to the Latin sim (stem) : — Ind-Eur. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Lithuanian. as-mi as-mi sydm (opt.) C/i/itt s-um es-mi as-si as-i syds eVart es es-i as-ti as-ti sydt iari es-t es-ti as-masi s-mas sydma fV/itV s-umus es-me as-tasi s-tha sydta eVre es-tis es-te as-auti s-anti syus eVWt t Old Form s-unt es-ti The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futuro-, are kindred with the Greek ^^v, and with the English be. The present participle, which should be sens (compare Sanskrit sanf), appears in that form in ab-sens, prae-sens ; and as ens (compare ^v) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a parti- ciple or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things -which are. 6S Etymology: The Verb esse. PRESENT. Principal Parts : sum Indicative. Sing. 1. sum, I am. 2. Ss, thou art {you are). 3. est, he {she, it) is. Plur. I . sumus, we are. 2. estis, j and the conjugation ; 3. The Perfect Indicative, showing tho. perfect stem ; 4. The Supine, showing the supine stem. c. The regular forms of the conjugation are seen in the following : 1. amo, amare, amavi, amatum, to love. Present and Verb-stem, amd-^ Perfect stem, amdv-, Supine stem, amdt-. 2. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to destroy. Present and Verb-stem, dele-, Perfect stem, delev-^ Supine stem, delet-. 3. tego, tegSre, texi, tectum, to cover. Root TEG : Present stem, tegl^-, Perfect stem, tex-, Supine stem, tect-. 4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, to hear. Present and Verb-stem, audi-, Perfect stem, audtv-, Supine stem, audit-. In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic e rarel)) appears in the perfect and supine : thus the type of this conjuga tion is — 2. moneo, monere, monui, monitum, to warn. d. In many verbs the principal parts take the forms of two ot more different conjugations (See 134, p. ^"J^ : as, 1. 2. domo, domare, domui, domitum, to subdue. 2. 3. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, to remain. 3. 4. peto, petere, petivi, petitum, to seek. 4. 3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, to bind. In these the conjugation is denoted by the first ox present stem. Note. — The conjugation of verbs used only in the Passive (deponents) is determined by the passive form of the infinitive ; thus patior, pati, paBsus is of the Third conjugation. stem to the form in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal tos-j that in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as victor, Tictums) ; that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth declension (see 125). 72 Etymology : The Regular Verb. Present Stem. 123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regular verbs in one of the following ways : ^ — a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (a, e. i) to the Root whose vowel is sometimes changed : as, vocd-re (voc), mone-re (men, orig. man), sopi-re (sop). ^. In the Third conjugation, by adding a short vowel (6, I) : as, teg^-re, all-tis This may be preceded — 1. By «, /, J<:, or >/.- * as, te?n-ne-re (tem), cre-sce-re (cre), 2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see 126. c.) : as, fug-i-o, fug-S-re (fug).* c. The root may also be changed — 1. By lengthening the vowel : as, dic-e-re (dic), caed-e-re (cad). 2. By reduplication : as, gi-gn-e-re (gen). 3. By inserting m or n (nasal) : 2iS, Jind-e-re (fid) ; tang-e-re (tag). d. Some verbs are formed from a noun-stem irregularly treated as a Root : as, statu-e-re {status), aestuare (aestu-s). e. A few isolated forms have the simple root : as, fer-rCy fer-t; esse, vel-le, vul-t. A few have roots ending in a vowel. Perfect Stem. 124. The Perfect Stem * is formed as follows : — ' The so-called * * connecting vowel ' ' is really a part of the stem. The long vow- els rt, ?, ?, of the First, Second^ and Fourth conjugations, are different corruptions of a suffix AYA, which in the original language was added to Roots in one form of Present Stems. The ? of tlie Third conjugation comes from an original A, or some other suffix ending in a added to the Root to form other kinds of Present Stems {fero = bhardmi. fcrimtis = bharamas) : as, cap'to^ iollo (VA), temno (NA), mitto (TA). These suffixes may be traced in the following parallel inflections : — spec-i-o spec-is spec-i-t spec-i-mus spec-i-tis spec-i-unt In all other cases where there appears to be a connecting vowel, it comes from a verb-stem being used irregularly as a Root, — just as in_/f//.r/ (root fig, present fingo\ the N of the present has intruded into the perfect: as in soni-tus^ moni-tus^ ori-tiirus (compare or-tus : so domi-tor compared with orator) \ feri-mus (compare /tr/), edi-mus (compare est = edt). ^ K%, pel-io iot pel-yo. » For the verbs thus formed, see p. 83. The i stands for an original y sound, * The final i of the Perfect is probably to be regarded as a part of the stem. Its origin, however, is doubtful ; and it may be more convenient in practice to lake for the Stem the part preceding the tense endings », eram, ero, &c. vach-ay5-mi vach-aya-si vach-aya-ti voc\a)-o voc-S-s voc-a-t 2. vah-a-mi vah-a-si vah-a-ti veh-o vch-i-s • vch-i-t 3. pa^-ya-mi pa5-ya-si pa^-ya-ti vach-ay5-mas vach-aya-tha vach-aya-nti voc-d-mus voc-d-tis voc-a-nt vah-5-mas vah-a-tha vah-a-nti yeh-i-mus veh-i-tis veh-u-nt paj-ya-mas pa^-ya-tha pas-ya-nti Formation of Tenses. 73 a. The suffix v (u) is added to the stem : as, vocd-v-i, audl-v-i; or to the root : as, son-u-i {sond-re)^ mon-u-i {mone-re). Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened : as, strd-v-i {sterno, star), spre-v-i {sperno, spar). b. The suffix s is added to the Root : as, carp-s-i, tex-i (teg). Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or hnaginary stem, sometimes appear in the perfect : as, finx-i (fig), sanx-i (sAc), peti-v-i (pet). c. The Root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally with e, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i {cado), to-tond-i {tondeo). Note. — in Jid-i (Jindo), scid-i {scindo), the reduplication has been lost, leaving the root merely. d. The root- vowel is lengthened : as, eg-i ( dg-o),fug-i {fugio). e. The root has the same form as in the present : as, vert-i {verto), solv-i {solvo). Supine Stem. 125. The Supine Stem^ is -formed by adding t (or euphonically s) — a. To the verb-stem : as, amd-i-um, dele-t-um, audt-t-um. b. To the Root, with or without \ : as, cap-t-um (capid), moni- t-um (moned), cds-um (for cad-t-uin). Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or imaginary one, sometimes appear in the Supine : as, tinc-t-um {tingd), tens-um (Jendd), peti-t-um {petd). Formation of the Tenses. Note. — The tenses of the regular verb may be formed upon the several verb-stems by adding to these stems the verb-endings (p. 66), making in the Present stem the changes indicated below. 126. The forms in the several conjugations, as deter^ mined by the Present Stem, with the regular formation of the Perfect and Supine stems, and the changes of the stem-vowel, may be given thus : — a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a to the root to form the present stem, as ajnd-re j with a few whose root 1 For the modifications of the Supine Stem, see 121. t, Note. 74 Etymology : The Regular Verb. ends in a.^ In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add V, t, to the present stem : ' as, afnd-v-i, amd-t-um. The stem- vowel a is lost before o (as amo = ama-o), and in the present subjunctive is changed to e : as, ame-s^ ame-tnus. b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e to form the present stem : as, mone-re ; with a few whose root ends in e.' In a few the Perfect and Supine stems add v (u), t : as, dele-v-i^ dele-t-um j but, in most, they are added to the root in the perfect, and to a weaker stem in I in the supine : as, mon-u-i, moni-t-um.^ In the pres. subj. a is added : as, mone-ds, mone-dmus. c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular) which add 5 to form the Present stem : as, teg^-re, capg-rej with a few whose root ends in 6 : as, se-re-re? All the forms of the per- fect and supine stems are found in this conjugation.* The stem vowel 6 is lost before o, becomes u before nt, and I before the other endings of the indicative and imperative : as, tego^ tegit^ tegunt j in the imperfect indicative it becomes e: as, tegebarn; pres. subj. a. Verbs in ic retain i before a, o, u, and e : as, capiat, capiunt^ capiebat^ capies^ capiet; but lose it elsewhere : as, capita caperet. d. The P'ourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i: as, audl-re.'' In these the Perfect and Supine stems regularly add V, t, to the verb stem : as, audi-v-i^ audi-t-um.^ The endings of the third conjugation are added in the 3d person plural of the pres- ent (indie, and imperat.), in the imperf. and fut. indicative, and in the pres. subjunctive : as, audi-unt^ audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at. ^ e. The Imperative (2d person singular) is the same as the /Present Stem : as, amd, mone, teg^, audi. But verbs in io of the Third Conjugation omit i : as, cape. ^ f. The tenses of completed action are all regularly formed by /adding the tense-endings (given on p. 66) to the Perfect Stem : as, amdv-i, amdv-eram, amdv-ero^ amdv-erim, amdv-isseniy amdv-isse. /g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the Perfect Participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse : as, Perfect, amdtus sum; Plup. amdtus eram, etc. » Viz., dit-re, fa-ri, fid-re, nd-rg, stOT-re. ^ The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see p. 79. * These zttfie-re, ne-re, re-ri. * For exceptions, see p. 81. ^ Reduplicated from 5^ (d. sdtum). • See Lists, pp. 84, 85 ; the perfect, however, is never formed from the present stem. ' A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re, and a few roots end in i ) but these are not 4istinguishable in form. ^ F'or exceptions, see p. 87. K Synopsis ; Special Forms. 75 127. A Synopsis of the forms of the Verb (regular of the first conjugation), arranged according to the several Stems, may be given as follows : — Present Stem, ama- Active Voice. Perfect Stem, amav- PRES. IMPERF. FUT. PERF. PLUPERF. FUT. PERF. Indic. amo amabam amabo amavi, amaveram, amavero SuBj. amem amarem amaverim, amavissem Imper. 2. ama amato Infin. amare amaturus amavisse Passive Voice. Supine Stern, amat Indic. amor amabar amabor amatus sum, — eram, — ero SuBj. amer amarer amatus sim, — essem Imper. 2. amare amator Infin. amari amatus esse — amStumni Part. Act. amans, amaturus ; Pass, amatus, amandus 128. The following special forms are found in the conjugation of many verbs : — ^. 'In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two vowels is often suppressed, and (unless a or e follows i or u) the second vowel is merged in the first : as, amasse = amavisse ; flestis = flevistis ; audieram = audiveram ; nosse = novisse. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conjugation, and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit. b. In many forms is, iss, sis are lost in like manner when s would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti; traxe for traxisse. c. Four verbs — dico, duco, facio, fero — with their com- pounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, diic, fac, fer ; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as confice. The forms dice, diice, face (never fere), occur in early Latin. d. For the Imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used in the singula^ and scitote usually in the plural. e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry : — 1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.). 2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim, re- tained in religious formulas (compare sim, velim'). 3. In the perf subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim. 4. In the passive infinitive -ier : as, vocdrier for vocdri. 5. A form in asso, assere is found as a future. 76 Etymology : The Regular Verb. First Conjugation, — I. Active Voice, PRESENT. : amo Principal Parts Indicative. amo, / love. nmsiB,you love. amat, he {she, it) loves. amamus, we love. ^ma.\^B, you love. amant, they love. amabam, / loved. a.nia.haB,you loved. amabat, he loved. amabamus, we loved. . 3.ma.ha.tia, you loved. amabant, they loved. amabo, / shall love. amabis, you will love. amabit, he will love. amabimus, we shall love. amabitis, you will love. amabunt, they will love. amavi, / loved. amfivista, jed. amaverit, he will have loved. amaverimua, we shall have loved. amaveritia, ^e been lm>ed. First Conjugation ; Passive Voice. 79 Singular. Imperative. Plural. Pres. 2. amare, be thou loved. amamini, be ye loved. FuT. 2. amator, thou shall be loved. 3. amator, he shall be loved, amantor, they shall be loved. Noun and Adjective Forms. Infinitive. Present, amari, to be loved. Perfect, amatus esse, to have been loved. Future, amatum iri (amatus fore), to be about to be loved. Participles. Perfect, amatus, loved {beloved^ or having bee^i loved^. Future (Gerundive), amandus, a, um, to-be-loved {lovely). Supine. amatu, to love or to be loved (with adjectives). 130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, to which they generally give the force and meaning of an active verb : as, armo, to ar7n (arma) ; caeco, to blind (caeous) ; exsu^, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo; though of many only a few parts are found in use. Those verbs which form their Perfect and Supine stems differ- ently are the following. Those marked f have also regular forms, and forms preceded by a hyphen are found only in compounds : — neco, t necui, f nect-, kill. crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. cubo, cubui, cubit-, lie down. do, dare, dedi, dat-, give [da]. domo, domui, domit-, subdue. frico, fricui, ffrict-, rub. juvo (ad-juvo), juvi, \vX-^help. labo, avi (no sup.), totter. mice, micui, glitter. plico, t-plicui, t-plicit-,y<7/^. poto, potavi, t pot-, drink. seco, secui, sect-,V«/. sono, sonui, ?>ox\\i-y sound. sto, steti, Stat- (-stit-), stand. tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder. veto, vetui, \&i\t-, forbid. * Forms in Siurtis. Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms : crepo : dis-crepui or crepdvi. do : circutn-y inter-^ pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, dedi, dat-, of the ist conjugation; other compounds are of the 3d {-dere, -didi, -dit-). mico : di-micdvi, micdt- ; e-micui, micdt-. plico: re-, sub- {sup-), multi-plico, plicdvi, plicdt- ; ex-plico (unfold), ui, it- ; (explain), dvi, dt-; impli-co, dvi (ui), dtum (itum). Sto: con-sto, stiti, stit- (stdt-) ; ad-, re-sto, stiti, — ; atite- {anti-), inter-, super-sto, steti, — ; circum-sto, steti (stiti), — ; di-sto, no perf. or sup. 8o Etymology : The Regular Verb, Second Conjugation. Principal Parts : Act. moneo monere monui monitum Pass, rnoneor moneri monitus sum INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ. INDlC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. Present. moneor moneo, I warn, monea, y 021 warn. monet, he wartis. monemus monetia monent monebam monebas monebat monebamus monebatis monebant nionebo monebis ijionebit monebimuB monebitis monebunt monui monuisti monuit monuimuB monuiatis monuerunt (re) monueram monueraa hfionuerat monueramuB monueratia monuerant monuero monuerifl monuerit monuerimua monueritis monuerint moneam moneaa moneat moneamus moneatis moneant moneria (re) monetur monemur monemini monentur monear monearia (re) moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur Imperfect. monerem monerea moneret moneremua moneretia monerent monebar monerer monebaris (re)monereria (re) monebatur moneietur monebamur moneremur monebamini moneremini monebantur monerentur monuenm monueria monuerit monuerimua monueritia monuerint Future. monebor moneberia (re) monebitur monebimur monebimini monebuntur Perfect. monitua aum monitus ea monitus eat moniti aumua monitl eatia moniti aunt Pluperfect. monulaaem monuiaaea monuiaaet monuiaaemua monuiaaetia monuiaaent monitus aim monitus aia monitus ait moniti aimua moniti sitia moniti aint monitus eaaem monitus easea monitus eaaet monitus eram monitus eraa monitus erat moniti eramua moniti eaaemus moniti eratia moniti easetia moniti erant moniti eaaeut Future Perfect. monitus ero monitus eria monitus erit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. Sing. IMPERATIVE. Plur. Sing. PASSIVE Plur. Pr. mone monete monere monemini F. moneto moneto monetote monento monetor monetor monentor INFINITIVE. Pr. monere Pf. monuisse I Pr. moneri Pf. monitus esse F. monitiirus esse I F. monitum iri (monitus fore) PARTICIPLES. Pr. monens Fut. moniturus | Pf. monitus Ger. monendus G. monendi, do, dum Supine, monitum, monitii 131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of conditio?t, having a corre- sponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -SCO : as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco ; timeo, timor, timidus. Most of the verbs of the second conjugation form their perfect and supine like moneo. The following have evi and etum : deleo, destroys fieo, weep; neo, spin; \rieo,plat; and compounds of -pleo, Jill; -oleo, grow. The remainder are : — algeo, alsi, be cold. ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn. audeo, ausus sum, dare. augeo, auxi, auct-, increase. caveo, cavi, caut-, care. censeo, censui, cens-, value. cieo, civi, cit-, excite. doceo, docui, doct-, teach. faveo, favi, izMi-, favor. ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glow. foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. frigeo, frixi, be cold. fulgeo, falsi, shine. gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. haereo, haesi, haes-, cling. indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, indtdge. jiibeo, jussi, juss-, order. iangueo, langui, be faint. liqueo, liqui (-licui), melt. luceo, luxi, -luct-, shiiie. lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. maneo, mansi, mans-, ivait. misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mix. mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite. moveo, movi, mot-, move. mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), mdk. niveo, nivi (nixi), wink. paveo, pavi,y^ar. pendeo, pependi, pens-, hang. prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine. rideo, rlsi, ris-, laugh. sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit. soleo, solitus sum, be wont. sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), sorpt-, suck. spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge. strldeo, stridi, whiz. suadeo, suasi, suas-, tirge. teneo (-tineo), tenui, tent-, hold. tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe. tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. torreo, torrui, tost-, roast. turgeo, tursi, swell. urgeo, ursi, urge. video, vidi, vis-, see. voveo, vovi, vot-, vow. Note. — The following (perfect in ^^/) have no supine : caveo, arceo, calleo, egeo, floreo, horreo., pateo, sileo, studeo, timeo. ^ A few (including macreo) have neither perfect nor supine. 1 So also caveo. 82 Etymology : TJic Regular Verb, Third Conjugation, Principal Parts : Act. tego tegere texi tectum Pass. tegor tegi tectus sum INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. Present. tego, / cover. tegam tegor tegar tegis.^^w cover tegaa tegeria (re) tegaria (re) tegit, he covers. tegat tegitur tegatur tegimus tegamuB tegimur tegamur tegitis tegatia tegimini tegamiuX tegunt tegant teguntur tegantur Imperfect. tegebam tegerem tegebar tegerer tegebas tegerea tegebaris (re) tegereria (re) tegebat tegeret tegebatur tegeretur tegebamus tegeremua tegebamur tegeremur tegebatis tegeretia tegebamini tegeremini tegebant tegerent tegebantur tegerentur Future. tegam tegar teges tegeria (re) teget tegetur tegemus tegemur tegetis tegemini tegent tegentur Perfect. tesd texerim tectua aum tectus Bim texisti texeria tectua ea tectus 81S texit texerit tectua eat tectus ait teximus texerimua tecti aumua tecti Bimus texiatis texeritia tecti eatia tecti aitia texerunt (re) texerint tecti sunt tecti sint Pluperfect. texeram texissem tectus eram tectus esaem texer&s texiaaea tectus eraa tectus eaaes texerat texiaaet tectus erat tectus eaaet texeramus texiaaemus tecti eramus tecti eaaemua texeratis texiaaetia tecti eratia tecti eaaetia texerant texiaaent tecti erSnt tecti esaent Fatur© Terfect. texero tectus ero texeris tectus eria texerit tectus erit texerimua tecti erimua texeritia tecti eritia texerint tecti erunt Third Conjugation. 83 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. Sing. Plur. Sing. Pr. 2. tege, cover, tegite tegere F. 2. tegito tegitote tegitor 3. tegito tegunto tegitor INFINITIVE. Pr. tegere Pf. texisse | Pr. tegi F. tectums esse PASSIVE. Plur. tegimini teguntor Pf. tectus esse F. tectum iri (tectus fore) PARTICIPLES. Pres. tegens Fut. tecturus | Perf. tectus Ger. tegendus Ger. tegendi, do, dum Supine, tectum, tectu Verbs ending in io. capio capere cepi captnm 1 capior capi captus sum Present. capio, / take. capiam capior capiar capis,/^/^ take. capias caperis (re) capiaris (re) capit, he takes. capiat capitur capiatur capimus capiamus capimur capiamur capitis capiatis capimini capiamini capiunt capiant Impe capiuntur rfect. capiantur capiebam caperem Fut 1 capiebar ure. caperer capiam capiemus capiar capiemur capies capietis capieris (re) capiemini capiet capient capietur capientur Perf. cepi ceperim captus sum captus Sim Plup. ceperam cepissem captus eram captus essem F. P. cepero captus ero Imp. cape capite capere capimini capito capitote capitor capito capiunto capitor capiuntor Infin. capere . cepisse capi captus esse Fut. capturus esse captum iri Part, capiens capturus captus capiendus Ger. capiendi, do, dum Sup. captum, tu Note. — Verbs of the 3d conjugation ending in io are the following : capio ^ cupio, facio, fodio^ fugio., jacio, pario, quatio, rapio, sapio, with compounds of -ciitio, -licio, -spicio. For their Principal Parts, see the following list. 84 Etymology : The Regular Verb. 132. The following list includes most simple verbs of the third conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect stem. a. Forming the Perfect stem in s (x) : — ango, anxi, anct-, choke. carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pltick. cedo, cessi, ctss-, yield. cingo, cinxi, cinct-, bind. clango, clanxi, sound. claudo, clausi, claus-, shut. clepo, clepsi, clept-, steal. como, compsi, compt-, comb, deck. coquo, coxi, coct-, cook. -cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away. dico, dixi, diet-, say. divido, divisi, divis-, divide. duco, duxi, duct-, guide. figo, fixi, i\\-,Jix. fingo [fig], finxi, hci-, fashion. flecto, flexi, flex-, bend. fluo, fluxi, flux-,yf«3w. frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. frigo, frixi, frict- {ix\x-),/ry. gero, gcssi, gest-, carry. laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice (elicui| cit-). lingo, linxi, linct-, lick. ludo, lusi, lus-,//(rzj/. mergo, mersi, mtrs,- , plunge. mitto, mlsi, miss-, send. [weave. necto [necj, nexi (nexui), nex-, to nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry. peeto, pexi (pexui), pex-, comb. pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. b. Reduplicated in the Perfect cado, cecidi, czs-yfall. caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. cano, cecini, cant-, sing. curro, cucurri, curs-, run. disco [dtc], didici, (discit-), /mr«. -do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, &c., with credo, vendo), /«/ [DHA]. fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. pango [pag], pegi (pepigi), pact-, fasten, fix y bargain. parco, parsi, i)ep€rci, parcit-, pars-, spare. pingo [pig], pinxi, pict-, paint. plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud. plecto, plexi (xui), plex-, braid. premo, pressi, press-, /r^jj. promo, mpsi, mpt-, bring out. quatio, [-cussi], quass-, shake. rado, rasi, ras-, scrape. rego, rexi, rect-, rule. repo, repsi, rept-, creep. rodo, rdsi, ros-, gnaw. sarpo, sarpsi, sarpt-, prune. scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape. scribo, scripsi, script-, write. serpo, serpsi, serpt-, crawl. spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter. -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view. -stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench. stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind. struo, struxi, struct-, btuld. sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take. surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise. tego, texi, tect-, shelter. temno, tempsi, -tempt-, despise, tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe. tingo, tinxi, tinct-, stain. traho, traxi, tract-, drag. trudo, trusi, trus-, thrust. uro, ussi, ust-, burn. vado,-vasi,-vas-, go. veho, vexi, vect-, draw. vivo, vixi, vict-, live. pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), to bring forth. pello, pepuli, puis-, drive. pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh. posco, poposci, (posciturus,) de- mand. pungo [pug], pupugi, punct-,/r/VX-. sisto [sta], stiti, Stat-, stop. tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch. tendo (ten), tetendi (-tendi), tens- (tent-), stretch. \beat. tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns- (tus-), c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root : — alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. -cello, -celhii (-culi), -cels-,/wj^. cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. colo, colui, cult-, drveUy till. compesco, compescui, restrain. consulo, lui, consult-, consult. Third Conjugation. 8s cresco, crevi, cret-, increase, [down. -cumbo [cub], cubui, cubit-, lie depso, depsui, depst-, knead. fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. furo, furui, rage. gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. gigno [gen], genui, genit-, beget. meto, messui, mess-, reap. molo, molui, molit-, grind. occulo, occului, occult-, hide. pasco, pavi, past-,y^^^. pono, [Pos], posui, posit-, /«/. quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize. scisco, sclvi, scit-, decree. sero, sevi, sat-, sow. sero, serui, sert-, entwine. sino, sivi, sit-, permit. sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn. sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. sterto, stertui (sterti), snore. strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. -suesco, -suevi, -suet-, be wont. texo, texui, text-, weave. tremo, tremui, tremble. vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit. d. Adding iv to tlie verb-root : — peto, petivi, petit-, seek. quaero, quaeslvi, quaesit-, seek. arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, summon. capesso, capessivi, undertake. cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire. incesso, incessivi, attack. lacesso, lacessivi, \z.z^'s,'s,\\.- , provoke rudo, rudivi, rudit-, bray. sapio, sapivi (sapui), be wise. tero, trivi, trit-, rtcb. e. Lengthening the vowe[ of the root ago, egi, act-, drive. capio, cepi, capt-, take. edo, edi, esum, eat (see 140). emo, emi, empt-, buy. facio, feci, fact-, make. fodie, fodi, foss-, dig. frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break. fugio, fugi, fugit-, /^/V^«/. scaturio, gush. tinnio, tinkle. tussio, cough. vagio, cry. Those verbs not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the follow- ing : — amicio, nmixi (cui), amict-, clothe. aperio, aperui, apert-, open. comperio, peri, compert-,yf«^. farcio, farsi, farct-, (-turn), stuff. ferio, strike (no perfect or supine), fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. haurio, hausi, haust- (haus-), drain. operio, operui, opert-, cover. raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse. reperio, reperi, xt^txt-^find. salio (-silio), salui (salii), salt-, leap. sancio (SAC), sanxi, sanct-, sanction. sarcio, sarsi, s,2iXt-, patch. sarrio, ivi (ui), Itum, hoe. sentio, sensi, sex\s-,feel. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in. singultio, ivi, singultum, sob. venio, veni, vent-, come. vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind. Note. — The following have no supine stem (perfect regular) caecutio, to be purblind. dementio, to be mad. ferocio, to be fierce. gestio, to be overjoyed. glocio, to cluck (as a hen), ineptio, to play the trifier. Parallel Forms. 134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use : as, lavo, lavare, or lavSre, to wash. scateo, scatere, or scatSre, to gush forth. ludifico, are, or liidificor, ari, to mock. S8 Etymology : Deponent Verbs, K DEPONENT VERBS. 135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as, 1 miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 2 vereor, vereri, veritus, fear. 3 sequor. sequi, secutus, follow. 4 potior, potiri, potitus, possess. Indicative. PRES. miror vereor niiraris (re) vereria (re) mlratur verStur mlramur verSmur mlramini veremini mirantur verentur Imp't mirSbar verebar FuT. mirabor vergbor Perf. miratus sum veritus sum Plup. miratus eram veritus eram F P. miratus ero veritus ero sequor potior sequeris (re) potiris (re) sequitur sequimur sequimiiii sequuntur sequgbar sequar secutus sum secutus eram. secutus ero potitur potimur potimini potiuntur potiSbar potiar potitus sum potitus eram potitus ero Sabjunctive. pRES. mirer verear sequar potiar iMP'T.mTrarer verSrer sequerer potirer Perf. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim potitus sim Plup. miratus essem veritus essem secutus essem potitus essem Imp. mirare ator verSre, Stor sequere, itor potire, Itor iNFiN.mirarl vergri sequi potiri Fut. miratarus esse veriturus esse secuturus esse potiturus esse Pf. miratus esse veritus esse secfLtus esse potitus Part. Pres. mirans verSns sequSns I'lit. mlratur us veritiirua secuturus Perf miratus veritus seciltus Ger, mirandus verendus sequendus (iER. mirandum verendum sequendum Sup. miratum, tu veritum, tu secutum, tu potigns potiturus potitus potiendus potieudum potitum, tu a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : as, Beqviena, folloTving ; aecCltClnis, adout to follow. secHtus, having followed \ sequendus, to-be-followed. b. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often passive: as, mercatus, ^<7//^^/ , ^.Ae^tMB, gained {or havitig gained). c. The future infinitive is always to be given in the active form : thus of sequor it is secHttlrus esse (not secdtum Irl^. •Rtymology : Deponent Verbs. 89 d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally : as, hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. moriendum est omnibus, all must die. e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice. f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused. g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve. h. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following list contains all the irregular deponents : — adsentior, Iri, adsensus, assent. apiscor, (-ip-), i, aptus (-eptus), get. expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. experior, Iri, expertus, try. [con/ess. fateor (-fiteor), eri, fassus (-fessus), fruor, i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. fungor, i, iunctus, /ut^t. gradior (-gredior), i, gressus, step. irascor, i, iratus, de angry, labor, i, lapsus, y?z//. loquor, i, locutus (loquutus), speak. -miniscor, i, -mentus, think. metior, Iri, mensus, measure, {die. iriorior, i (Iri), mortuus,(moritrirus), nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus),y?«a'. nascor, i, natus, be born. nitor, i, nisus (nixus), strive. obllviscor, i, ohWins, forget. opperior, iri, oppertus, await. ordior, Iri, orsus, begin, [rise, orior (3d), Iri, ortus, (oriturus), paciscor, i, pactus, bargain, {stcffer, patior (-petior),i, passus (-pessus), -plector, i, -plexus, clasp, proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out, queror, i, questus, complain. reor, reri, ratus, think, revertor, i, reversus, return, [low. sequor, i, secutus (sequutus), /ol- tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge. utor, i, usus, use, employ. Note. — The passive form co7nperior, fri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio. The perfect, &c., of revertor,, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active form, reverti, reverter am,, &c. /. The following deponents have no supine stem : — devertor, ti, turn aside (to lodge), diffiteor, eri, deny. liquor, i, melt (neut.). medeor, eri, heal. reminiscor, i, call to mind vescor, \, feed upon. Semi-Deponents. 136. A few verbs having no perfect stem form the tenses of completed action like the passive : these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives, viz., audeo, audere, ausus, dare, gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice, fido, fidere, fisus, trust. soleo, solera, solitus, be wont. 90 Etymology : Irregular Verbs. a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive perfect ausim. The form B5des (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere. b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to be sold (venum ire,^^ to sale), having a passive meaning, are some- times called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri (see 142), to be fnade, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile). Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi- deponents : jUro, jurdtusj nUbo, nuptaj placeo, piacitus. [For the regular Derivative Forms, see page 114.] Irregxilar Verbs. [For sum and its compounds, see pp. 67-70.] 137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root, or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are, besides sum, the following. 138. Volo and its compounds : viz., 1. volo, velle, volui,^ to wish. 2. nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. 3. malo (magis or mage volo), malle, malui, to wish rather. These three are inflected as follows : — PRESENT. INDIC. SUBJ. volo velim vi8(for»o/j) veils vult {volt) velit volumus velimua vultis {volt is) velitis volunt velint volebam vellem volam, voles, etc. INDIC. nolo nonvis nonvult nolumus nonviiltis nolunt SURJ. nolim nolis nolit n61imus nolitis nSlint INDIC. malo mavis ma vult malumus ma vultis malunt 5UBJ. malim mails malit malimus malitis malint IMPERFECT. ndldbam ndUem * FUTURE. n61am, noles, etc. malebam mallem malam, males, etc volul volueram voluerim n61ul PERFECT. n61uerim malul PLUPERFECT, voluissem ndlueram ndluissem m&lueram maluerim m&luissem FUTURE PERFECT, voluero n61uero m&luero ' The supine stem appears in vuUus. Irregular Verbs : Fero^ Edo. 91 Pres. Fut. IMPERATIVE. noli, nolite, do not. nolito, nolitote, thou shalt not, ye sfmll not. nolitO, nolunto, he shall not., they shall not. Pres. velle voluisse nolle INFINITIVE. noluisse malle maluisse Pres. VOlenS, tuilling. Ger. volendl (late). PARTICIPLES. nolens, unwilling-. 139. Pero, ferre, tuli, latum,i to bear. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. Pres. fero feram feror ferar fers feras ferris feraris (re) fert ferat fertur feratur ferimus feramus ferimur feramur fertia feratis ferimini feramini ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur Imperf. ferebam ferrem ferebar ferrer Fut. feram ferar Per/. ttili tulerim latus sum latus Sim Plup. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem F.Perf. tulero latus ero Imp. Pres ,fer ferte ferre ferimini Fut. ferto fertote fertor ferto ferunto fertor - feruntor Inf. Pres. ferre Perf. tulisse Pres. ferri Perf. latus esse Fut. laturus esse Fut. latum iri (latus fore) PART./*r^j-.ferensF«/. laturus /^^r/l latus 6^^r. ferendus Ger. ferendi, do, dum Sup. latum, tu 140. Edo, edere, edi, esum, to eat (regular of third conjuga- tion), has also some forms directly from the root (ed) without a characteristic vowel : viz. , INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ. edo edam (edim) edis (es) edas (edis) edit (est) edat (edit) edimus edamus (edimus) editis (estis) edatis (editis) edunt edant (edint) INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. edor ederis (re) editur (estur) edar edaris (re) edatur edimur edimini eduntur edamur edamini edantur 1 The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from tul in tollo, the supine latum for tlatum (cf. tAtjto's). 92 Etymology : Irregular' Verbs. Imperfect. edebam ederem (easem) edebas ederes (esses) edebat ederet (esset) etc. Fut. edam, edes, edet, etc. Per/. edi ederim Plup. ederam edissem F. Per/, edero esus ero Imp. ede (es) edite (este) edere edito (esto) editote (estote) editor edito (esto) edunto editor Part. Pres. edens Fut. esurus Per/, esus Gbr. edendi, o, mn 141. Eo, ire, ivi, Itwax, to go.^ edebar ederer edebaris (re) edereris (re) edebatur ederetur (essetur) edar, ederis, edetur, etc. esus sum esus sim esus eram esus essem edimini eduntor Ger. edendus Sui-. esum, su The forms of eo are used impersonally in the passive ; the infinitive iri with the supine in um making the future infinitive. They are also found in veneo, to be sold (i. e. venum eo, go to sale'). The compounds adeo, ineo, and some others, are transitive, and are regularly used also in the passive. Pro with eo retains its original d. INDICATIVB. SUBJUNCnVB. Pres. S. P. eo, is, it imus, itis, eunt earn, eas, eat eamus, eatis, eant Imperf. ibam, ibas, ibat ibamus, ibatis, ibant irem, ires, iret iremus, iretis, irent Future ibo, ibis, ibit ibimus, ibitis, ibunt Per/. Pluperf. ivi (ii) iveram (ieram) iverim (ierim) ivissem (issem) Fut. Per/, ivero (iero) Imperat. i, ite, ito; ito.itote, eunto Infin. Pres. ire Per/, ivisae (iaae) Fut. ituma eaae Part. Pres. iSna, euntis Fut itflrua Ger. eundum (-eundus) 142. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, is regular, with these peculiar forms : future perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive fazim, im- perative fac. It has for its passive f io, fieri, factua aum, to be made^ or become., of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- jugation, but with the subjunctive imperfect fierem. 1 Root t, cf. «Tm* ; the e stands for el produced by vowel -increase from i. Irregular and Defective Verbs. 93 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. f 10, f is, fit flam, f las, fiat P. f iinus, f itis, f iunt f iamus, f iatis, f iant Imp. f iebam, f iebas, etc. fierem, fieres, etc. Fut. fiam, f ies, etc. Per/. factus sum factus Sim Plup. factus eram factus essem Fut. Per/, factus ero Imperat. f i, f ite, f ito, fito, f itote, f iunto Infin. Pres. fieri P^rf. factus esse Part. Per/, factus Ger. facieudus a» Most compounds of facie with prepositions change a to i (present stem), or e (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as, conficio, conficere, confeci, confectum, to finish. b. Other compounds retain a, and have -f 10 in the passive : as, bene-facio (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum; pass, benefio, to benefit. c. A few isolated forms of -f io occur in other compounds : viz., COnflt, it happens, defit, it lacks. Infit, he begins (to speak). confiet defiant infiunt conf iat def let eflBLeri, to be effected. confieret deflat interfleri, ^^/^rwA. oonfieri defieri interfiat, let him perish. Defective Verbs. 143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are in- flected regularly. They are — a. Coepi,^ / began; Infin. coepisse; Fut. Part, coepturus. A passive participle coeptus is used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used. b. Odi, / hate ; ^ with the participles osus, hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful^., osurus, likely to hate. c. Memini, / remember j * with the Imperative memento, me- mento te ; Part, meminens. Note. — Odi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present meaning, are called preteritive verbs, Novi and consuevi have present meaning. * Root co-AP as in apiscor. 2 Root od in Mium. 8 Root MEN, as in mens. 94 Etymology: Defective Verbs. 144. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : as, a. Aio,' I say : Indic. Pres. aio, ais, ait ; aiiint hnperf. aiebam, (^bam), aiebas, &c. SuBj. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant Imperat. ai. — Part, aigns b. Inquam, say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quota- tions, as the English quothy which is perhaps from the sam root) : Ind. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt Itnperf. Inquiebat. — /«/. inquies, et. — Pf. inquisti, inquit. Imperat. inque, inquito. c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as, fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also — Ind. Pres. fatur, fantur. — Fut. fabor, fabitur. Imperat. fare. — Infin. fari. — Part, fauti (with the com- pound iufans, usually as a noun), fatus. — Ger. fandi, -do. Gerund, fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds iufau- dus, nefandus, unspeakable, abominable). — Supine, fatu. Several compounds with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, occur : as, praefdtur, affdri, profdtus, interfdtur, &c. d. Quaeso, / ask, beg (an original form of quaere), has — quaeso, quaesilmus, quaesere, quaesens. e. Ovare, to triinnph, has the following : ovat, ovet, ovaret ; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovatiirus. /. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, salve, salvete, hail! also salvere (from salvus). ave (or have), avete, aveto, hail ox farewell. cede, cedite (cette), give, tell. apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). 1 Root AGH found in adagium and in ntgo, which has passed into the first conjugation. Defective and Impersonal Verbs, 95 g. Queo, I can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. They \ are rarely used except in the Present. Pres. Imperf. Fut. Per/. Plup. Infin. Part. INDIC. queo quia quit quimus quitis queunt quibam quibat quibant quibo quibunt quivi quivit quiverunt SUBJ. INDIC. queam nequeo (regular) iiouquis nequit nequimus nequitis nequeunt nequibam nequibat uequibant nequibunt nequivi nequivisti nequivit nequiverunt quirem quiret quirent SUBJ. nequeam (regular) nequirem quiverit quissent nequisset quire quivisse (quisse) nequire nequivisse quiena, queuntis uequieus [A few passive forms occur in old writers, as quitus.] Impersonal Verbs. 145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in \ the third person singular, with the iftfijiitive and gernnd. ^ These are called Impersonal Verbs. ^ Their synopsis may be given as follows : — Pass. i. it is fought. pugnatur pugnabatur pugnabitur pugnatum est pugnatum erat pugnatum erit pugnetur pugnaretur pugnatum sit pugnatum esset pugnari pugnatum esse esse pugnatum In i. it is^lain. ii. // is allowed. iii. it chances iv. it results. constat Hcet accidit evenit constabat licebat accidebat eveniebat constabit licebit accidet eveniet constitit licuit accidit evenit constiterat licuerat acciderat evenerat constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit constet liceat accidat eveniat constaret liceret accideret eveniret constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit constitisset licuisset accidisset evenisset constare licere accidere evenlre constitisse licuisse accidisse evenisse -staturum esse liciturum esse eventurum 1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no rep- resentative in Latin, though id, hoc, ilhid, are often used nearly in the same way. 96 Impersonal Verbs ; Periphrastic Forms. 146. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature: as, pluit, it rains J ningit, it snows y grandinat,il /laitsy fnlgxxxdit, it tightens j vesperascit (incept.), it grows late. In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes the name of a deity is expressed; and, in poetic use, of. other agents also : as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slitigs rain stones. b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb. Such are, — miseret, // grieves; paenitet (poenitet), // repents ; piget, // disgusts j pudet, it sha?nes j taedet, // wearies: as, miseret me, / pity (it distresses me) . Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, / pity {am tnoved to pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, libens, licens, paeniturus, paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est. c. By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally : as, pugnatur, there is fghting ; ItaXf some one goes; parcitur mihi, I am spared."^ d. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject : as, accidit (contiiiglt, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit), // happens; libet, it pleases ; licet, // is permitted ; oertum est, // is resolved; constat, it is clear; placet, videtur, // seems good ; decet, // is becoming ; delectat, juvat, it delights ; oportet, necesse est, // is needful; praestat, // is better; interest, refert, /'/ concerns ; vacat, there is leisure ; restat, superest, // remains. Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally. Libet and licet have also the passive forms Ubitum (licitum) est, &c. Periphrastic Forms. 147. The following periphrastic forms are found in the inflection of the verb: — a. The so-called "Periphrastic Conjugations" (seep. 77). b. The tenses of completed action in the Passive formed by the tenses of esse with the Perfect Participle. c. The Future Infinitive Passive, formed — i. by the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used impersonally with the Supine in um; 2. by fore (or futunim esse), with the Perfect participle ; 3. by fore with ut and the subjunctive. * This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive meaning, the ac- tion being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French ceta se fait). Particles : Adverbs. 97 Chapter VII. — Particles. Note. — What are called Particles — that is, all Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct case-forms , or else compounds and phrases. Many Particles cannot always be distinctly classified ; many prepositions and conjunctions bein;^^ classed also among adverbs. I. -ADVERBS. Derivation. 148. Very many adverbs of manner are formed from Adjectives,^ as follows : — a. Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the /^ characteristic vowel of the stem into e (originally an ablative in d) : as, from carus, dear^ care, dearly.^ b. Adjectives of the ////r^^^^/^«j-z^« add -ter^ to the stem. All -^^ are treated as i-stems, except those in nt (properly participles), which lose the t : as, fortiter, bravely ; acriter, eagerly j vigi^ lanter, watchfully j prudenter, prudently j frequenter, numer- ously. c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms : as, from duruB, dure., dilriter j from miser, miser e., miser iter. '^ d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative., see Syntax) : as, multum, much ; facile, easily ; acriua, ?nore keenly, e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used adverbially: as, falso, falsely y o\th, quickly ; recta. {\ria.), straight {straightway) ; qua (parte), where; crehxo, frequently. Note. — In many Adverbs and other Particles the case-form is less obvious, and in some is doubtful. Examples may be seen in the following : — a. Accusative forms : actutum, 7idn {ne unum), iterum (comparative of is\. 1 For the comparison of these adverbs, see 92 (p. 45). 2 So abunde, saepe, profie, from adjectives not in use. 8 This suffix is of uncertain ori-«j'/r/J,(?) cUids, fords. 7}. Of uncertain formation : (i) those in -tus (usually preceded by /), as: penitus, funditus, divinitus, — which are ablative in meaning; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, do-nee), dum, jam (perhaps from the same root with dies, diu, &c.). 0. Phrases or Clauses which have grown into adverbs : anted (ace. pi. or abl.), postmodo, denuo (de novo), prorsus, quotannis, quamobrem^ comimis, eminus, obviam, pridem, forsan, forsitan (^fors sit an), scilicet {set re licet). ^Yq^ Numeral Adverbs, see p. 49.J Classlflcation. 149. Adverbs, other than those regularly formed from adjectives, are classified as follows : — a. Adverbs of Place.* hic, here hue, hither hinc, hence hae, by this 7vay ibi, there eo, thither inde, thence ea, by that way istic „ istiie „ istine „ ista „ illlc „ illuc „» illinc „ ilia (iliac) „ ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence qua, by what way zWc\x\i\, somervhere aliquo, /t», &c. alicunde,yr^//, &c. aliqua, /^', &c. '■^y^A&vci, in the same place eodem „ indidem „ eadem ,, alibi, else7uhere alio „ aliunde „ alia ubiubi, 7vherever quoquo ,, undecunque „ quaqua „ ubivis, anynohere quovis „ undique „ quavis „ sicubi, if anyivhere sTquo „ sicunde „ siqua „ x\itz\x\y\, lest anynohere nequo ,, necunde „ nequa ,, usquam, anywhere; nusquam, naivhere ; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); citro, to this side; intro, inwardly; porro, further on. quorsum (quo vox^wrti, whither turned)? to what end? horsum, Mw tw/v ; i^xox-^wm, fonvard (prorsus, utterly)', introrsum, imvardly ; retr«>r- sum, bachuard ; sursum, up^vard ; deorsum, do^vmtuird ; seorsunt, apart ; aliorsum, another way. ' The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, iUic, and their correlatives, corre- spond in signification witli the pronouns hic, is, isie, tile (see 102), and are often ecpuvalent to these pronouns witli a preposition : as, imle — ab eo, &c. So the rela- tive or interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with q/tisquif, si-ctd't witli siqnis (see 104, 105, with the table of Correlatives in 106). All these adverbs arc originally case-forms of pronouns. Adverbs. 99 b. Adverbs of Time. quando ? when? (interrog.) ; cum (quom, quum), when (relat.) ; ut, as. nunc, now; tunc (turn), then ; mox, presently ; jam, already ; dum, while. prlmum (primo), first ; deinde (postea), next after ; postremum (post- remo), finally ; posteaquam, postquam, when {after that). umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always. aliquando, at some time, at length ; quaiidoque (quandocumque), whenever. quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, a number quotidie, every day ; in dies, from day to day. \of times. VkOxv^^xva., not yet ; necdum, nor yet ; shi 112 Etymology: Formation of Words. f. atus, itus, utus (participial forms from imaginary verb-stems, like the English horned), provided with : as, galea, a helmet; galeatus, helmed. auris, a7i ear ; aurltus, long-eared (a hare) . barba, a beard; barbatus, bearded (old-fashioned), versus, a turning ; versutus, crafty, adroit. g. eus, ius, inus, aceus, icius (participial), material or rela- tion : as, anmra., gold ; aureus, golden. rex, a kifig ; regius, royal. bombyx, silk ; bombycinus, silken. patres, the Fathers (Senators) ; patricius, patrician. coUatus, brought together; collaticius, got by contribution. h. alius, oriuB, ius, icus, belonging to (m., of trades, &c. ; n., often of place) : as, argentum, sili'er ; argentarius, broker, silversmith. ordo, rank^ series ; ordinarius, regular. tepidus, lukewarm; tepid^rium, place /or a' Tvarm bath. uxor, wife ; uxorius, uxorious. bellum, war ; beliicus, warlike; bellicum, battle-signal. i. etum, PLACE : as, quercus, oak-tree; quercetum, an oak-grove. k. osus, Glens, olentus, full of, prone to : as, fluctus, wave ; fluctu5sus, billowy. periculum, /^r/// \>Qr\cu\b?,u^, full of danger, •via, force ; violens, violentus, violent. vmum, wine; vTnolentus, vxnbsus, given to drink, ira, anger ; Iracundus, passionate, wrathful. verbal. /. az, idus, ulus, vus (uus, ivus), adjectives, expressing the action as quality or tendency, — az, often faulty or aggressive ; ivus, oftener passive : as, pugno, tof^ht; pugnax, pugnacious. audeo, to dare ; audax, bola. cupio, to desire; cupidus, eager. bibo, to drink; bibulus, thirsty (as dry earth, &c.). protero, to trample ; pr6tervus, violent, wanton. noceo, do harm ; nocuus, hurtful, injurious. capio, take; captlvus, captive; VL., a prisoner of war. m. ilia, bills, ius, passive qualities (rarely active) : as, frango (frag), to break ; fragilis,/)-/!^//. nosco ((JNo), to know ; nobilis, well known, famous. ezimo, to take out, select; eximius, choice, rare. Adjective Endings ; Formation of Verbs. 1 1 j tt. minus, mnus, properly participles/ but no longer used as such : as, FE (obsolete root) , produce ; femina, woman. alo, to nourish; alumnus, a foster-child. o. ndus (endus, undus, the Gerund ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives : as, seqxxoXf to follow ; secundus, second, favorable (secundo flu- mine, down stream). roto, to whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotundus, round (cf. vol- vendis mensibus, revohnng ?nonths). p. bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting continuance of the act or quality : as, vito, to shun; vitabundus, (Sail.), dodging about. vagor, to roam ; vagabundus, vagrant, vagabond. morior, to die; moribundus, in the agony of death. 4. — Derivation of Verbs. 165. Most verbs of the Third Conjugation, the Irregular verbs, and a few vowel-stems,'-^ are primitive.^ Most others are either cmtsative or denominative (formed from nouns or adjectives). 166. The following are the regular Conjugational forms : — a. Verbs of the First conjugation may be formed from a great number of nouns or adjectives of the first or second declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a : as, stimulus, a goad ; stimulare, incite. aequus, just; aequare, to make equal. sal turn (salio), leaP; saltare (freq.), to dance. A few by a false analogy add the vowel to the noun- stem : as, vigil, watchful ; vigil-a-re, to keep guard, exsul, an exile ; exsul-a-re, to be in banishment. aestus, tide^ seething; aestu-a-re, to surge, boil. hiems, winter; hiem-a-re, /^i-j" the winter. ' Compare Greek -^ei'o?. * As dd-re, stS-re,Jle-re, nd-re, ne-re, re-ri. 3 The consciousness of Roots was lost in Latin, so that of verbs not primitive in forming the parts only Stems are dealt with. Thus moneo (Skr. man-aya-mi), monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens ; caedo, cecldi (not ccctdi), from root CAD (as in cddo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, see pp. 8,i, 85. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is original ya added either to the root, the Present stem in a, or a Noun-stem. 114 Etymology: Formation of Words. b. A few verbs of the Second conjugation are formed in like manner from noun-stems ; but most are formed from the Root by adding the characteristic e, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning : as, algere, to be cold; sedere, to sit. c. Some verbs in uo (Third conjugation) are primitive, formed from the Root by adding the stem-vowel 6, originally S : as, flu-e-re^ rv~e-re. Others add this vowel to a noun-stem; this is regular with u stems : as, statu-s, condition; statu-e-re, to establish, resolve, d. Most verbs of the Fourth conjugation add the character- istic i to the Root : as, sop-ire, to put to sleep; sal-i-re, to leap. Some are formed from i-stems (nouns) : as, fini-s, etid, limit ; f ini-re, to bound. siti-s, thirst; siti-re, to be thirsty, 5. — Derivatlvf Verbs. 167. The following classes of regular derivatives have meanings corresponding to their form : — a. Inceptives or Inchoatives end in -sco, and denote the beginning of an action : as, calesco, / grow tuarm (caleo) ; ves- perascit, // is getting late (vesper). They are of the third conju- gation, and have only the present stem, though often completed by forms of simple verbs : as, calesco, calui (from caleo, to be hot).^ b. Intensives or Iteratives* end in -to or -ito (rarely-so), and denote a forcible or repeated action : as, jacto, to hurl (jacio) ; dictito, to keep on saying (dice) ; quasso, to shatter (quatio). They are of the first conjugation, and are properly Denominative, derived from the participle in tus. c. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs oi practice — ends in esso (rarely isso), denoting a certain energy or eagerness of action : as, capesso, to lay hold on ; facesso, to do (with energy) ; petisso, to seek (eagerly). They are of the 3d conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the 4th : as, lacesso, lacessere. lacessivi, lacessitum, to pro^foke. d. Diminutive:s (derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns) end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty action : as, can- tillare, to chirp or warble (cano. sing). 1 In the narrative tenses, the inceptive and complete action naturally become confounded. 2 Itcratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form. Compound Words. 115 e. Desideratives end in urio, expressing longing or wish^ and are of the fourth conjugation. Only three are in common use : viz., empturio (emo, buy)^ esurio (edo, eat^^ parturio (pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the dramatists. They are derived from some noun of agency in tor or sor (as empturio., from e??tptor). Viso is a regular inherited desiderative of an earlier formation. 6. — Compound Words. 168. New stems are formed by composition as fol- lows : ^ — a. The second part is simply added to the first : as, 8u-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hog, sheep, bull. septen-decim (septem, decem), sevetiteen. b. The first modifies the second as an adjective or adverb : as, latifundiutu (latus, fundus), a large landed estate. paeninsula (paene, insula), a peninsula. SJcindly. benevolua (bene, volus, from root of volo), well-wishing, c The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal force : as, agricola (ager, colo), a farmer. armiger (arma, gero), arriior-bearer. cornicen (cornu, cano), horn-blower. carnifex (caro, facio), executioner. d. Compounds of either of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning possessed of the property denoted : as, alipes (ala, pes), wing-footed. magnanimus (magnus, 2in\xw\?>)., great-souled. concors (cum, cor), harmonious. ancepa (amb-, caput), doubtful (having a head at both ends). ' In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most commonly the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen., -cinis ; hicifer, -feri ; judex, -diets), from stems not occur- ring in Latin. Especially do adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems : as> animus, exanimis ; norma, abnormis (See Note, p. 37). The stems regularly have their uninflected form. But o- and a-stems weaken the vowels to i as in ali^ pes ; and i is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it : as, foedi-fragus (for foederis fragus: foedus, frango). Il6 Etymology: Compound Words, 169. In many compounds, words already inflected have grown together more closely. Examples are — a. Compounds of facie, facto, with an actual or formerly exist- ing verbal stem in e. These are Causative in force : as, consue- facio (consuesco), to habituate ; calefacio, calefacto, to heat. b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : as, benedico (bene, dico), to bless; satago (satis, ago), to be busy enough. c. Many apparent stem-compounds : as, fidejubeo ( ndei, jubeo), to give surety ; mansuetua (manui, suetus), tame. 170. Many compounds are formed by prefixing a Particle to some other part of speech : viz., a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives, retaining their original adverbial sense : ^ as, a. ab, AWAY : au-ferre (ab-fero), to take away. ad, TO, TOWARDS : af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring. ante, before : ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel. circum, around : circum-mQnlre, to fortify completely. com, con (cum), together or forcibly : con-ferre, to bring together; col-locare, to set firm. de, down, utterly : de-spicio, despise; destruo, destroy. e, ex, OUT : ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth., uplift. in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against. inter, between, to pieces : inter- rumpere, to interrupt. ob, towards, to meet : of-ferre, to offer ; ob-venire, to meet. sub, under, in low degree: i=,\xh-sir\xQ\e, to build beneath. super, upon, over and above : super-fluere, to overflow; superstes, a survivor. b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable Particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : amb (am, an), around : ambire, to go about (cf. uf^pi). dis, di, asunder, apart : discedere, to depan (cf. duo), por, forward : portendere, to hold forth., predict {zi. porro). red, re, back : redlre, to return. aed, ae, apart : secerno, to separate (cf. aed, but^. c. An adjective is sometimes modified by an adverb prefixed. Of these, per (less commonly prae), very, aub, somewhat^ in, not^ are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective : as, per-magnua, very large; piae-longua, very long. aub-ruaticuB, rather cloivnish ; in-f initua, boundless. ' They sometimes, however, have the force of prepositions, especially ad, in, circuttif trans, and govern tlic case of a noun. PART SECOND. USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and deals with language as fully developed. The terms of Syntax correspond accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax as thus developed is not essential to language as such, A form of words — like O puerum pul- crum ! — may express a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence ; while it does not logically declare any thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all. At a very early period of spoken language, there is no doubt that Roots were significant in themselves, and constituted the whole of the language, — just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two simple roots put side by side ^ make a rudimentary form of proposition : as a child might say Jire bright ; horse run. With this begins the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there is no distinction between noun and verb either in form or function. Roots are presently specialized, or modified in meaning, by addition of other roots either pronominal or verbal, and Stems are formed : but the same stem could still be either noun-stem or verb- stem. Still later — by combination chiefly of different pronominal ele- ments with verb-stems and with noun-stems — Inflections are developed to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations,^ and we have true parts of speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came ^ Q.-s!\tdi parataxis, in contrast with Syntaxis, "combination." 2 Sometimes called accidents: hence the " accidence " of the language. Com- pare pp. 14, N. I ; 63, N. 2 ; 65, N. i. Ii8 Syntax: Introductory Note. to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses ; and rules were established for combining words in what we now call Sentences.! These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) ; and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.2 In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence ; that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. These, starting with the simple noun and verb, undergo successive modifications and combinations corresponding with our habitual forms of thought, and constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the annexed Outline. L A Sentence may be either Simple or Compound : viz., 1. Simple : containing a single statement (Subject and Predicate). rr^vfoniivr, S ^- Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses. 2. i^ompound: ^ ^ Modified by Subordinate Clauses {com/>Ux). IL The Essential Parts of the Sentence are — 1. The Subject : consist- ( a. Noun or its equivalent. ing of \ b. Pronoun contained in verb-ending. rr.1 T> { O" Neuter (intransitive) Verb. 2. The Predicate: con- I ^ Copula with Complement. s.stmg of I ^ V^[b ^^itl^ Object III. The Subject and Predicate may be Modified as follows : — [. The Noun {Subject or Object) by a. Noun in Apposition. b. Adjective or Participle. c. Noun in Oblique Case. d. Preposition with its ^ase. e. Relative Clause. ia. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase. b. Predicate Adjective. c. Subordinate Clause. r a. Rules of Agreement {the Four Concords). IV. Hence : j ^ ^y^\^^ of Government {Construction of Ccues). ' The meaning of Sentence is " Thought " {sentent'ta from sentire). The grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed. ' In piost languages there still remain traces of the unorganized forms of expression ; as for example the nominative or accusative in Exclamations, the use of 1 nterjections generally, and the omission of the Copula. These are some- times wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis. The Sentence : Subject and Predicate. 119 Chapter I. — The Sentence, Definitions. 171. A Sentence is a form of words which contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command. a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declar- ative Sentence : as, equus currit, tke horse runs. b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Inter- rogative Sentence : as, equusne currit ? does the horse runf c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence : as, quam celeriter currit equus ! how fast the horse runs ! d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an Impera- tive Sentence : as, currat equus, let the horse run. Subject and Predicate. 172. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of ; the Predicate is that which is stated of the Subject. 173. Every complete sentence must contain a Subject and a Verb.^ The Subject (when declined) is in the Nominative Case : as, equus currit, the horse runs. regina sedet, the queen sits. Note. — In certain constructions the verb is in the Infinitive mood, and its subject is put in the Accusative. 174. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun, or some word or phrase used for a noun. But in Latin it may be contained ^ in the termination ^ of the verb itself : as, sedemus, w^j-zVy cvixxixha, you run. ^ The meaning of Verb {verbum) is "word," as being the only part of speech that strictly declares (predicates) any thing. ' This is true, however, in general, only when the verb is of the first or second person (cf, 206). With the third person on account of the variety of possible subjects a definite one must be expressed, unless implied in what goes before or follows. ' See p. 63, n. 2 I20 Syntax: The Sentettce. 175. The Verb may contain an entire statement in itself, and require no other word to complete the sense (a Neuter or Intransitive verb) : as, aro, I plough {am ploughing). sol lucet, the sun shines. sunt viri fortes, there are brave men. Thus, as in the first example, a sentence in Latin may consist of a verb alone. The verb to be, used as in the last example to make a complete statement, is called the Substantive Verb. 1176. A Neuter verb is often followed by a noun or an adjective to define the subject. This is called the Complement : as, Quintus sedet judex, Quintus sits [as] judge. Caesar victor incedit, Casar advances victorious. hi viri sunt fortes, these men are brave. a. The verb to be, when thus followed by a complement, is ' called the Copula (i.e. link). In like manner, verbs signifying to become, to be ?nade, to be named, to appear, and the like, which serve to connect a Subject with a Predicate, are called Copula- TiVK (i.e. cotipling or connecting) Verbs. b. The case of the Predicate after esse and similar verbs is the same with that of the Subject (see 184) : as, Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our native place. stellae lucidae erant, t/ie stars were bright. puerum decet esse modestum, // becomes a boy to be modest. 177. The action of many verbs (called transitive, pass- ing over) immediately affects some person or thing called the Direct Object. Intransitive verbs may have an Indirect Object. Cf.^ and 224. pater vocat f ilium, the father calls (his) son. videmus lunam et Stellas, we see the moon and stars. Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive is not fixed, but most transitive verbs can be used without an object, and many intransitive verbs with one (see 237. b). a. The direct Object of atransitive verb becomes its Subject when in the Passive voice, and is put in the Nominative Case : as, filius apatre vocatur, the son is called by [his]/rt///rr. luua et stellae videntur, the moon and stars appear {are seen). The Object: Modification. 12 1 b. With certain verbs, the genitive, dative, or ablative may be Used where the corresponding English verbs from a difference in meaning require the objective. Thus — *. hominem video, I see the man (Accusative). 1. homini servio, I serve the man (Dative). 3. hominls misereor, I pity the 7nan (Genitive). 4. homine amico utor, / treat the man as a friend (Ablative). c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by a verb requiring a preposition (intransitive) : as, petit aprum, he aims at the boar. Note. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical com- pleteness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted : this is called Ellipsis, and the sentence is called an Elliptical Sentence. Modification. 178. A Subject or a Predicate of any kind may be modified by single words, or by a Phrase or a Clause. The modifying w^ord or group of words may itself be modified in the same way. a. A single modifying word is either an Adjective, an Adverb, an Appositive, or the oblique case of a Noun. Thus in the sen- tence of the sentence with the described, it is called an Ap- posiTiVE, and the use is called Apposition : as, externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, jungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the subject.] quattuorliic, primum onien,equos vidi (^n. iii. 537), I saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in \.\\t predicate. \ litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), / learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of didici, expressing the time, condition, Sec, of the act.] a. An appositive with two or more nouns is in the plural : as, Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius. b. The appositive generally agrees in Gender and Number when it can : as, sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best guide. omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), Athens, discoverer of all learning. c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at Antioch, once a famous city. Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at Alba, a fortified town. 1 124 . Syntax: Adjectives. d. The genitive can be used in apposition with PossKssivrs, taking the gender and number of the implied noun or pronoun (197. a) : as, in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all. ex Anniana Milonis domo ( Att. iv. 3), out of Annius Milo^s house. Note. — The proper Appositive is sometimes put in the Gen- itive (see 214. O- Predicate Agreement. 185. When the descriptive noun is used to form a predicate, it is called a Predicate Nominative (or other case, as the construction may require) : as, consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. i), Ccesar and Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is predicate-nominative after creantur.] Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people made Ancus Marcius king. [Here regem is the predicate accusative.) ADJECTIVES. Rule of Agnr^ement. 186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. vir fortis, a brave man, urbium magnarum, of great cities. cum ducentlB militibuB, with 200 soldiers. a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without the intervention of a verb : as, bonus imperator, a good commander. b. A Predicate adjective is connected with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or implied : as, stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright. c. A predicate adjective may also be used in Apposition like a noun : as, Scipionem vivum vidi, I saw Scipio in his life-time. d. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural ; also, rarely, when they are connected by cum : as, Nisus et Euryalus primi (^^n. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first. Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken. Agreement of Adjectives. 125 187. When nouns are of different genders, an attrib- utive adjective agrees with the nearest : as, multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. vita moresque mei, my life and character. si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any things if any Tnan, if any time luas ft. a. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest of two nouns if the two form one connected idea : as, factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a noise of assent was made. N. B. This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest subject. b. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings j neuter, if things without life : as, uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced htm. labor (m.) voluptasque (f.), societate quadam inter se naturali sunt juncta (n.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance. c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter ad- jective (see 189. ^.) : as, stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11), folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned. d. A masculine or feminine adjective may conform (by Synesis) to the gender or number of the persons implied in a noun of different gender or number : as, pars certare parati (^n. v. 108), a part ready to contend. duo millia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left. coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several colonies were led out [of men ] called Old Latins. magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized. omnis aetas currere obvii (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to meet them. e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of a partitive genitive : as, velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is the swiftest of creatures. 126 Syntax: Adjectives, Special Uses. 188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns, the mascu- line usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter thifigs : as, omnes, all men {everybody), omnia, all things (everything). majores, ancestors. minores, descendants. Romaui, Romans. barbari, barbarians. liberta, a freedwofnan. Sabinae, the Sabine wives. sapiens, a sage {philosopher), amicus, a friend. Remark. — The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare, except with a few words which have become practically nouns, such as afftnisy amicus^ avdrus, familidrisy propinquus, sapiens^ vicimts, and neuters like those in 189. a ; the plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle, to denote those in general described by it. a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives : as, meus aequalis, a man of my own age. familiaris tuus, an intimate friend 0/ yours (comp. 218. d). b. When any ambiguity would arise from the use of the adjec- tive alone, a noun must be added : as, boni, the good ; omnia, everything [alt things) ; but — vir bonus, a good man (cf. Remark above), potentia omnium rerum, power over everything. c. Many adjectives are used alone in the singular, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association : as, Africus [ventus], the south-west wind. vitulina [caro], veal [calf s flesh). fera [bestia], a wild beast. patria [terra], the fatherland. hiberna [castra], winter quarters. triremis (navis], a three-banked galley. argcntarius [faber], a silversmith. regia [domus,] the palace. Note. — These are specific in meaning, not generic like those above. d. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may be quali- fied by an adverb : as, victor exercitus, the victorious army. servum pecus, a servile troop. admodum puer, quite a boy [childish). magis vir, more of a man. Adjectives: Special Uses. 127 189. A Neuter adjective has the following special uses : — a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quahty : as, rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground. honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality). opus est maturato, there is need of haste (cf. impersonal passives). b. The noMt^x plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as, honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past. omnes'fortia laudant, all men praise bravery. c. A neuter Appositive or Predicate may be used with a noun of different gender : as, turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is [a thing] worse than pain. d. A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive or a Substantive Clause : as, aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), it is one thing to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity. Possessives. 190. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used in Latin where English has a possessive case, or noun with a preposition (compare 184. d; 197. a) : as, pugna Cannensis, the fight at Cannce. C. Blossius Cumanus, Caius Blossius of Cumcs. aliena domus, ajiother Tumi's house. Caesarina celeritas (Att. xvi. 10), a despatch like CcEsar's. a. Possessive adjectives are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation (see 197. d') : as, nostri, our countrymen or men of our party. Sullani, the veterans of Sy lid's army. Pompeiani, the partisans of Pompey. b. A possessive adjective is sometimes apparently used for the Objective Genitive by a different conception of the idea : as, metus hostilis (Jug. ^i),fear of the enemy. feminea in poena ( Virg.), in the punishment of a woman. periculo invidiae meae (Cat. ii. 2), at the risk of odium against me. 128 Syntax: Adjectives ; Pronouns, 191. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb : as, primus venit, he canu first {was the first to come). nullus dubito, / no way doubt. laeti audiere, they were glad to hear. erat Romae frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at Rome. serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), may'st thou return late to heaven. 192. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as, longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad ). a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : as, clari, magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may be connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as, vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed. Claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), 0/ a family more famous than old. 193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) de- noting order and succession — also medms, ceterus, reli- quus — usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant: as, summus mons, the top of the hill. in ultima platea, at the end of the place. prior actio, the earlier part of an action. reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisotters. in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill. inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. Note. — A similar use is found in such expressions as sera {multa) node. But also, medium viae, multum diet. PRONOUNS. Note. — Pronouns indicate some person or thing without either naming or describing. They are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction, and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. Pronouns may there- Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative. 1 29 fore stand for Nouns when the object, being present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out. Some indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They therefore stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Some indicate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They therefore stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Some are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated. Personal. 194. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same construction as nouns. a. The personal pronouns are not expressed in Latin, except for distinction or emphasis (compare 346. d') : as. te voco, I call you ; but — quis me vocat ? ego te voco, who calls me ? it is I. b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in um being used partitively, and that in i oftenest objec- tively : as, major nostrum, the elder of us, habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. g), you have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself pars nostrum, a part of us. nostri melior pars animus est (Sen.), the better part of us is the soul. Note. — " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex se) or suorum. The genitives nostrum^ vestrum, are rarely used objectively : cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 96), custos vestrum (Cat. Hi. 12). Demonstrative. 195. The Demonstrative Pronouns^ are treated as adjectives in agreement, but are often used as personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : as, Caesar et exercitus ejus, Ccesar and his army. vidi eum rogavique, / saw him and asked [him]. * For the special significations of these demonstratives, see page 53. 130 Syntax: Pronouns. a. The demonstratives are used as pronouns of reference^ to indicate a noun or phrase with emphasis, like the English THAT : as, nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 1 1 ), Virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] of praise. b. The demonstrative as a pronoun of reference is commonly omitted, or some other construction is preferred : as, memoriae artem quam oblivionis male, I prefer the art of memory to that of forgetfulness. Caesaris exercitus Pompeianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Ccesar defeated that of Pompey at Pharsalus. c. When a quality is ascribed with emphasis to an object already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that object : as, vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv.4), imprisonment^ and that perpetual. d. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with a word in apposi- tion or 2l predicate rather than with its antecedent : as, rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the head of things^ this the source. earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est con- secutus [for id . . . quod] (Lael. 5), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained. e. Idem is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial phrase {also^ too^ yety at the same time) : as, oratio splendida et grandis at eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 79), an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too. cum [haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. i. 43), when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God. f. Ipse, self (intensive), is used with any of the other pronouns or a noun for the sake of emphasis : as, turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Cic), ei>en to me it seems disgraceful. id ipsum, that very thing. quod ipsum, which of itself alone. in eum ipsum locum, to that very place. Remark. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by fust, very, mere, &c. (see above examples). g. Ipse is used alone as an emphatic pronoun of the third person : as, mihi satis, ipsis non satis (Cic), enough for me, not for themselves. omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), all good men so far as was in their power. Pronouns : Demonstrative and Reflexive. 131 beatos illos qui cum adesse ipsis non Hcebat aderant tamen (id.), happy they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person^ still were there. Di capiti ipsius generique reservent {M.. vii. 484), may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his awn and his son-in-lav/s head. h. Ipse is used alone to emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : as, vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic), remember in your ownminds. i. Ipse sometimes refers to a principal personage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons : as, ipse dixit (cf. ahT))% €f^ ^ ^^ ^^ <^^' "^^h them. tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), // is a point of skill to yield to the weather. omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so far as man's nature is superior to brutes. nee unquam succumbet inimicis (Dej. 13), he will never bend before his foes. illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their own name to those papers. cur mihi te offers, ac meis coramodis officis et obstas (Ros. Am. 38), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my advantage ? Remark. — When a verb with ^preposition in English is represented by one of these compounds, it is commonly followed by the Dative, as in the above examples. If, however, the compound represents a verb qualified by an adverb, it retains its original construction : as, convocat suos (see also 237. d and 225. b). * Many take also the Accusat ve, being originally transitive. Dative with Compounds. 159 a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, acquire a transitive meaning, and take the accusative : ^ as, nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter a man well attended ? munus obire (Lael. 2), to attend to a duty. b. The adjective obvius — also the adverb obviam — with a verb takes the dative : as, si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was not intending t( get in his way. mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), j/^« came to meet me. 229. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the dative (especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation : ^ as, mulieri anulum detraxit, he took a ring from the woman. bona mihi abstulisti, you have robbed me of my gains. vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), violence deprives young men oflife. nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. i), for age has robbed you c^ nothing. nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do 1 wish this error forested from me. a. The distinct idea of place, — and, in general, names of things, — require the ablative with a preposition : as, ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. b. Sometimes the dative of a person and the ablative with a preposition are used in the same construction : as, victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be wrested from his hands (compare 243. b). c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would strictly require another case with a preposition : as, differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4, 48), differs from prose [a sermone]. tibi certet (Eel. v. %), vies ivith you [tecum]. lateri abdidit ensem (^n. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side [in latere], solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from the flock [a pecore]. Note. — The poets regard the action as done to the thing affected, for greater vividness of expression. 1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio^ ineo, obeoy cffendo, oppugno, subeo^ praeceao. 2 The action is here more vividly represented as done t» the object affected by it. i6o Syntax: The Dative. 230. Verbs governing the dative can be used in the Passive only impersonally : as, cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared? non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 13), that age [youth] is not only not envied, but is even favored. tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time. Dative of Possession. ^ 231. The dative is used with esse and similar words "^ to denote possession or other special relation : as, homini cum deo similitudo est (Cic), man has a likeness to God. quibus opes nuUae sunt (Sail.), [those] who have no wealth, est mihi domi pater (Virg.), I have a father at home. Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possessiofi : as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, / have a book (among other things). This is the usual form to denote ^\vcv^\^ possession ; habeo, ///^t//?, generally signifying Z/^/dT, often with some secondary meaning : as, legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with him. domitas habere Hbidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control. a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and posse) : as, deest mihi pecunia, I lack money. b. After noipien est, and similar expressions, the name is usually put in the dative by a kind of apposition with iht person : as, puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy was called Egerius from his poverty. cui African© fuit cognomen (id. xxv. 2), whose surname was Africanus. c. The name may be in apposition with nomen ; or in the genitive : as, cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my name is Mercury. puero nomen est Marcus (Marco, Marci), the boy's name is Marcus. Dative of Agrency. 232. The dative is used with the Gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests : as, haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is for you to defond [to be defended by you], mihi est pugnandum, T have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting is mine ; compare mihi est li6or}. r ' * Dative of Service. i6i a. The dative of the agent is often used -aSx^x perfect participles^ especially when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other parts of the verb : as,' mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), I have deliberated and resolved. b. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after almost any passive verb : as, neque cernitur ulli {^n. i. 440), nor is seen by any. felix est dicta sorori (Fast, iii.), she was called happy by her sister. c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after the passive of video (usually to be rendered seeni) : as, videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me. Dative of Service. 233. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or End : often with another dative of the person or thing affected : ^ as, rei publicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State. magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men. tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men. omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. iv, 29), all things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. Dative with Adjectives. 234. The dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, or for which it exists. ^ The following characteristics have been observed in the use of the Predicate Dative (dative of Service) : i. the noun is semi-abstract ; 2. it is so used only in the singular; 3. it is " used predicatively " ; 4. generally with ^J5^ ; 5. rarely qualified by an adjective ; 6. or by a genitive or a phrase ; 7. but few nouns are used in this way ; 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any principle. It is common with about 4o^nouns, and is found with 185 in all. Of these dono.1 muneri, vitio, are not used with esse. The verbs with which it exists are habeo^ do, dico, duco, pono, verto, with esse and its equivalents, as feri, &c. The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, adjumento, auxilio, cordi, crimini, curae, damno, decori, dedecori, dona, exemplo, exitio, fraudi (damage), honori, indicia, invidiae, impedimenta, laudi, ludibrio, malo, morae, adio, oneri, ornamento, praedae, praesidio, prabro, pudori, receptut, remedia, saluti, subsi- dio, terrori, vitia, voluptati, usui. — Roby's Latin Grammar, ii. xxxvii, seq. 1 62 Syntax: The Dative, a. The dative is used with words of Fitness, Nearness, Like- ness, Service, Inclination, and their opposites ; also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 5), nothing is so fitted to nature. nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), I think nothing hard to a lover. pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. yt^)^ fitter for a procession than for battle. rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech equal and level with the subject. in eadem arma nobis (Cic), to the same arms with us. b. Adjectives of Fitness or Use take oftener the accusative with ad to denote the end ; but regularly the dative of persons : as, nobis utile est ad hanc rem, // is of use to us for this thing. aptus ad rem militarem,y?/y^r a soldier^ s duty. locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying in wait. castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. i. 49), he selects a suitable camp- ing-grotmd. c. Adjectives and nouns of Inclination may take the accusative with in or erga : as, comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife. divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 23), the divine goodness towards men. d. Many adjectives especially when used as nouns may take also the possessive genitive.' Remark. — After similis, like^ with early writers, the genitive is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of living objects^ and the genitive or dative of things. e. The adjectives propior^ proximus (sometimes), and the ad- verbs propius^ proxivte (more commonly), take the accusative, as if prepositions, like prope (see 91). Dative of Reference. 235. The dative is often required not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence {dativus commodi aut htcommodi) \ as, tibi aras (PI. Merc. i. \\ you plough for yottrself res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself . laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive]. * Such are aequalis, affiniSy amicus, cognatus, communis, con sanguineus, dispar, familiar is, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, proprius, similis, super- ties (compare 1S8, 218. e explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and the genitive in Greek. 2 This is perhaps in imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit, and is probably original : as, alium sapiente bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16). Under comparatives probably belong the adverbs anted ^ antideS, postiUd, posted^ praetereS, though these may be accusative neuter. Ablative of Means. 173 Ablative of Means. 248. The ablative is used to denote Accompaniment, Manner, Means, or Instrument : as, vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo. probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities by con- jecture. Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od- i. 4), to sacrifice to Faiinus with a ewe lamb. pol pudere quam pigere praestat totidem litteris (Plaut. Trin. 345), by Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters count the sa?ne [lit. with as many letters]. Remark. — The Ablative of Manner commonly takes cum, unless it has a modifying adjective. But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, etc., with certain expressions as silejttio, injuridy — hardly ever have cu7n. a. The ablative of accompafmnent regularly takes cum (except sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, especially in the early writers) : as, cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers. subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), he followed close with all his forces. hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr, ii. 34), with this convoy he set out. Remark. — Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes the Dative : as, fletum cruori miscuit (Ov.), humano capiti cervicem equinam jungere (Hor.). b. Words of Contention require cum, but often take the dative in poetry : as, armis cum hoste certare (Cic), to fightwith the enemy in arms. est mihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you. solus tibi certat Amyntas (Eel. v. 8), Amyntas alone vies with you. - c. The ablative of Means is used with words of Filling, Abounding, and the like : as, Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled the world with all good things . opimus praeda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil. vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest. 10), a life full and croivded with delight. Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen. Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the poets by a Greek idiom ; while compleo, impleo^ and plenus often take the genitive in prose. 1/4 Syntax : The Ablative. 249. The deponents utor^ frtwr, fungor, potior ^ vescor^ with several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as, utar vestra benignitate (Cic), I will avail myself of your kindness. Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), ty'ie Numidians fed mostly on milk and game. sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abiitimur (N. D. ii. 6o), we take advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. a. Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get the power. b. In early Latin, these verbs are often found as transitive, t'ollowed by the accusative. 250. The ablative is used, with comparatives and words implying comparison, to denote the Degree of Difference : as, duobus millibus plures, 2000 more {more numerous by 2000). quinque millibus passuAim distat (Liv.), // ispve miles distant. Remark. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives quo . . . eoj quanto . . . tanto (see 106. c) : as, quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed the more weight. N. B. — The ablative of Comparison and the ablative of Differ- ence, expressing different relations, may be used together with the same adjective : as, multo divitior Crasso, much richer than Crassus. Ablative of Quality. 251. The Ablative, with an Adjective or limiting Genitive, is used to denote quality : ^ as, aninio meliore, of better mind. more hominum, after the manner of men. non quaero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur, / do not ask haw great a memory he is said to have had. a. The Ablative of description (quality) is oftener used when physical characteristics are denoted ; other qualities may be in the genitive: as, vuhu sereno, of calm face. capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging locks. * Compare Genitive of Quality (215) with Note. Ablative of Price ; Locative. 175 Ablative of Price. 252. The price of a thing (or that which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative : as, agrum vendidit sestertium sex millibus, he sold the field for 6000 sesterces. exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q. C. iii. 8), he exchanged his native land for exile. Remark. — Either the thing taken or given may be in the ablative, and the other in the accusative. a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to denote Indefinite Value (see 215. c). Such genitives are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, piuris, minoris : as, est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), it is worth my while. mea magni interest, /'/ is of great consequence to me. b. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as, non flocci faciunt (PI. Trin.), they care not a straw. The genitives so used are nihili, nothing; assis, a farthing; flocci, a lock of wool., and a few others. c. Verbs of exchange take the ablative of Price with or without cum : as, mortem cum vita commutare (Sulp. ad Cic), to exchange life for death. d. With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of Price {niagno^ &c.) must be used, except the following genitives : tantiy quanti, piuris, minoris. Ablative of Specification. 253. The ablative denotes that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or in accordance with which anything happens : as, virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i), they excel in courage. claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot. lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i.), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice. [So m,ed sententid, ed condicione, and the like.] tanta caritas patriae est, ut eam non sensu nostro sed salute ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is oiir love of country that we measure. it not by our own feeling, but by her own welfare. liocative Ablative. 254. The locative ablative is used to denote the place where (usually with a preposition), and the time when. 176 Syntax: The Ablative. a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idio- matic expressions (compare 259. a) : as, pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind. socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I will be present with you a companion in dangers. premit altum corde dolorem {Na\. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart. b. The following verbs are followed by the ablative : acquiesco, detector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, ?naneo, Jido {co7ifidd)^ consisto, contineor, — with the verbals /r^/«i-, contentus, laetus : as, spe niti (Att. iii, 9), to rely on hope. prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence. laetari bonis rebus (Lael. 13), to rejoice in good things. Remark. — The above verbs sometimes take the preposition in. Ablative Absolute. 255. A noun or pronoun, with a participle,' is put in the ablative, to define the Time or Circumstances of an action : as, vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called to him the traders from all quarters. a. An adjective, or another noun, may take the place of the par- ticiple : ^ as, exigua parte aestatis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the summer was left. M. Messala et M. Pisone consuHbus (id. i. 2), in the consulship of Messala and Piso. b. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction of the Ablative Absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or clause, or is used adverbially : as, incerto quid peterent, since it %vas uncertain zvhat they sought. consulto et cogitato (Off. i. 8), on purpose and with reflection [the mattb/ having been deliberated ancf thought on], serene (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky. ' The noun is originally locative denoting circumstance^ considered as place or time ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (compare ab urbe Condita, from the founding of the city, lit. from the founded city). After the construction was established, other ablatives (of cause, instrument, &c.), were occasionally used in the same way. The construction was so developed in Latin, that a subordinate clause is often represented by it. In such cases the noun is equivalent to the subject, and the participle, adjective,or noun to the Predicate, and should so be translated (see examples on the next page). * The participle of esse, wanting in Latin, would be used in Sanskrit and Greek. The Ablative ; Tirne and Place. 177 P Note. — As the Nominative absolute is less common in Eng- lish, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the per- fect active participle in English. These changes may be seen in the following example : — ** At illi, iiitermisso spatio, impru- ** But they, having paused a space, dentibus nostris, atque occupatis in while our men were unatvare and munitione castrorum, subito se ex busted in fortifying the camp, sud- silvis ejecerunt ; impetu<\\xQ in eos denly threw themselves out of the facto, qui erant in statione pro cas- woods ; then mahing an aUac^ upon tris collocati, acriter pugnaverunt ; those who were on guard in front duabusque missis subsidio cohortibus of the camp, fought fiercely ; and, a Caesare, cum hae {perexiguo in- though two cohorts had been sifit to termisso loci spatio inter se) con- their relief by Caesar, after these stitissent, novo genere pugnae had taken their position [leavi/ig perterritis nostris, per medios auda- very little space of ground between cissime perruperunt, seque inde ihexn), as our men were alarmed hy incolumes receperunt." — C^sar, the strange kind of fighting, they B. G. V. 15. dashed most daringly through the midst of them, and got off safe." [For the Ablative with Prepositions, see p. loi.] TIME AND PLACE. 1. — Time. ^ 256. Time when (or within which) is put in the Abla- ,^ tive ; time how long in the Accusative : ^ as, constituta die, on the set day. quota hora ? at what o'clock ? tribus proxumis annis (Jug. ii), within the last three years. dies continuos triginta,y^?' a month together. a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- ness : as, in diebus proximis decem (Sail.), within the next ten days. ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days. b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as, milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B, C. i. 47), the men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative^ ^ The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same as that of extent of space (see below, 259. d). 178 Syntax: Time and Place. 2. — Space. / 257. Extent of space is put in the Accusative :^ as, fossas quindecira pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches \^ feet broad. in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should not depart a naiPs breadth from straightforward conscience. a. Measure is often expressed as quality by the Genitive (215.^): as, vallo pedum duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of \z feet [in height]. b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or in the Ablative (as degree of difference) : as, quinque dierum iter abest2(Liv. xxx. 29), // is distant five days* march, triginta millibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below that place. S. — Plaoe. ^ 258. To express relations of Place, prepositions are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small Islands ; except also with domns, rns, and a few other words in special relations;^ except also in Poetry. a. The name of the place /r^;« which is in the Ablative : as, Roma profectus, having set out from Rome.^ rure reversus, having returned from the country. b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as, Romam rcdiit, he returned to Rome. rus ibo, I shall go into the country. Remark. — Tlie old construction is retained in the phrases exsequias ire, infitias ire, pessum ire, pessum dare, venum dare (vendere), venum ire {veneo), foras, and with the Supine in «»/, and in poetry. 1 This accusative is the object through or ox>er which the action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of motion, * From Rome, a Roma. * Originally these relations were expressed with all words by the cases alone^ — the Accusative denoting the and of motion as in a certain sense the object of the action ; and the Ablative (in its proper meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place -where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note, p. 168). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define more exactly the direction of the motion, and by long usage at length became necessary, except in the cases given above. < To be absent from Rome, Roma aheKse Locative Uses. 179 c. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the Genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the Dative or Ablative : as, Romae, at Rome. Athenis, at Athens. Rhodi, at Rhodes. Curibus, at Cures. Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Remark. — The names of small islands, as Capreae, Satnos, Salamis, are regularly used in this construction ; sometimes also larger distant islands, which might be thought of as a single spot : thus, Cretae, Cypri. But, when regarded as a district or province, the name of a large island (like Sicily) always requires a preposition, like names of countries. So too a small island, when thought of as territory : as, in Ithaca lepores illati morhmtur (Plin. : cf. 256. a). d. The words domi (rarely domui), at homej belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad., in ?nilitary service; humi, on the ground; ruri, in the country ; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique, by land and sea^ are used like nanies of towns, without a preposi- tion ; also heri., vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.). e. A genitive or possessive may be used with domus in this construction ; but, when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- tion is generally used : as, domi Caesaris, at C(ssar''s house. domi suae vel alienae, at his owft or another'' s house (compare 184. d). in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lceca's house. f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote iht place where, in many general words — as loco, parte — regularly ; fre- quently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (regularly where totus is used) ; and in poetry in any case : as, quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), zuhen these are set in position. qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were beaten. exercitum castris continuit (B. G. i. 48). media urbe (Liv. i. ^yZ), in the midst of the city. tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily. litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the bending shore. Remark. — To denote the neighborhood of a place {to, from, in the neighborhood), Prepositions must be used. g. The way by which is put in the Ablative {oi instrument) : as, via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), 7 sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road. Aegeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way ofthc/^gean sea. i8o Syntax : Time and Place, Special Uses. 259. The following special uses require to be ob- served : — a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of ti7ne when, where in English time is not the main idea: as, pugna Cannensi {or apud Cannas), in the fight at Canna. ludis Romanis, at the Roman games. omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the wars of Gaul. b. In many expressions of time, the accusative with ad, in, or cub, is used. Such are the following : — supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas ]2in\x2iX\^^, a thanksgiving was voted for the 1st of January. convenerunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day. ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards (about) evening. sub idem tempus, about the same time. c. Time either during or within which may be expressed by a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : as, quinto die, within {just) four days (counting both ends, see 376. d). regnat jam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years. But also, regnavit jam sex annos, he has already reigned for six years. d. Distance of time before or after any thing is variously ex- pressed : as, post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno, three years after. tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (post quam ejectus est), three years after his banishment. his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years. paucis annis, a few years hence. abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), // is three years since. e. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition. The year is expressed by the names of the Consuls in the ablative absolute, often without a conjunction : as, is dies erat a. d. quintum kalendas AprilTs L. Pisone A. Gabinio consulibus (H. G. i. 6), that day was the ^th before the calends of April [March 28], /// the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. in a. d. V. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the ^th day before the calends of No- vember [Oct. 28]. XV. kal. Sex tills, the \^th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form, quinto decimo die ante kalendas.] Use of Prepositions, i8i f. With names of Places (except towns, &c., see 258), to is expressed by in or ad with the accusative ; in by in or ab with the ablative ; from by ab, de, ex, with the ablative. But at, meaning near (not /«), is expressed with all names of place by ad or apud, with the accusative. g. When motion to a place is implied in English, though not ex- pressed, in Latin, the accusative must be used, with or without a l)i'cposition : as, conjurati in curiam convenerunt, the conspirators met in the Senate house. concilium domum suam convocavit, he called a council at his own house. h. When several names of place follow a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction. Thus — quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sul- lae Volaterras defertur (Ros. Am. 7), within a few days after this was done, the matter zvas reported to Chrysogonus in SyllcCs camp AT Volaterrce. USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 260. Prepositions are used with either the Accusative or Ablative.^ [For the list of Prepositions, see page loi.] a. Verbs of placing^ — such as pono and its compounds (ex- cept impono), loco, statuo, &c., — though implying motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which : as, qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Farad, iii. 2), who put one into his place and home. b. Position is frequently expressed in Latin with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning from :^ as, a tergo, in the rear. a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. a sinistra (compare hinc, on this side), on the left hand. ex altera parte, on the other side. magna ex parte, in a great degree. c. When it means concerning., super takes the Ablative ; other- wise the Accusative (except in poetry) : as, hac super re (Cic), concerning this thing. super culmina tecti {Mxi. ii. 695), above the house-top. ^ The force lies strictly with the Case, and the preposition only indicates more clearly direction ox place. ^ Apparently the direction whence the sensual impression comes. 1 82 Syntax: Use of Prepositions. d. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in poetry : as, subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle. subter litore (Catull.), below the shore. e. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative, sometimes the Genitive : as, Tauro tenus (Dei. 13), as far as Taurus. capulo tenus (Aen. v. 55), up to the hilt. Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra. Note. — Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as, hactenus, hitherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c. 261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi- tions or as Adverbs : as, a. The adverbs pridie^ postridie, propius, proxime, usque — also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — may be followed by the Accusative : as, pridie Nonas Junias (Cic), the day before the Nones of June (Jun. 4). postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games (or genitive : see 214.^). terminos usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya (a late use), ipse propior montem suos collocat (Sail. Jug. 49), he stations his men nearer the hill (used also with the genitive or dative, or with ab). proxime Pompeium sedebam (Att. i. 14), I sat next Pomfey (used also with the dative, or with ab). b. The adverbs pala?n, procul, simul^ may take the Abla- tive : as, rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt in the presence of the people. [This use is comparatively late.] haud procul castris in modum municipii exstructa (Tac. IL iv. 22), not far from the camp, built up like a town. [But procul is regularly fol- lowed by ab in classic use.] simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10, 29), close among us dwells the barbarian. [But simul regularly takes cum.] c. The adverb clam is found with the Accusative or Ablative, rarely with the Genitive or Dative: as, clam matrem suam (Plaut.), unknown to his mother. clam mihi (id.), in secret front me. clam patris (id.), in secret from his father. clam vobis (Caes. B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge. Prepositions. 183 d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. This is especially the case with ante and post^ in relations of Time ; adversus, contra, circiter, propej and, in general, those ending in a. Clam and versus are often excluded from the list of Prepositions. [For the use of Prepositions in Composition, see 170, p. 116 ] 262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- parison are followed, Uke comparatives, by qtiam, — several words, or even clauses, sometimes coming be- tween : as, neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did> he let him go until he gave a pledge. post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. i6), the third day after he said it. [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15. J Note. — Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridiej also magis and prae in compounds : as, Cato ipse jam servire quam pugnare mavult ( Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this time would rather be a slave than fight. si jam principatum Galliae obtinere non possint, Gallorum quam Ro- manorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), if they can no longer hold the chief rank in Gaid, they prefer the ride of Gauls to that of Romans. 263. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after passive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as a person : as, jussus a patre, bidden by his father. Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the preposition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which stands by itself : as, occisus gladio, slain by a sword. occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. [For the Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 232.] Note. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns : — ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), inter, juxta, penes, propter, ultra, tenus, and occasionally others : as, [usus] quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. cujus a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M. 23), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (lit. contrary to which) mine shotdd have been by him. 184 Syntax: The Verb. Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb, 1. — Moods and Tenses, Note. — The syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (expressing the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the Infinitive, are only specialized tenses ; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, see 311. r; future for imperative, see 269./) ; and the moods express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). The original language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct forms with what we call modal signification : the Subjunctive, expressing an action willed or vividly conceived ; and the Optative, expressing an action wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was developed from a Present tense, by which an action continued in present time was represented as Future : compare in English, the army marches to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as Command : compare the military order, the regiment will advance ; and in the other as a Possibility or a mere Conception : compare anybody will understand that. The Optative has had a similar development from a tense-form compounded with ya, to go. But it is probable that it originally had the signification of a Past tense : compare the English should and would. At any rate, the optative has, in the same way as the subjunctive, acquired the two meanings of Conception and Command. It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either of the moods was used because it denoted a conception or possibility ; but each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible forms of thought to more vague and ideal. Thus in English the expression I would do this has come to be almost equivalent to a mild command ; while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact : if I were you, &c. By a still further analysis, / would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished to gOy or / did wish. In Latin, these two moods have become confounded in form and mean- ing in the Present Subjunctive ; and new tense-forms of the subjunctive have been produced by composition, • to which the original as well as derived meanings of these moods have become attached (see 265). All the independent uses of the subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. ' JPor the signification of these tense endings, see page 63, Note x. Moods ; The Indicative. i8s The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from its use in one of these independent senses, — at first co-ordinately with a main statement [parataxis), afterwards in subordinate relations {syntaxis). In time, the second has become so closely connected in thought with the first, that the two have become one compound statement ; the original meaning of the mood has disappeared, and a new meaning has arisen by implication : as, tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (remove this notion, you will have done away with grief: i. e. if you remcrve, &c ) ; or, misit legates qui dicerent (i e. who would say in a supposed case). The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun, modifying a verb like other nouns ; volo videre, lit. " I wish for seeing : " compare English 7uhat went ye out for to see ? But in Latin it has been surprisingly devel- oped, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal character- istics, and to be used as a substitute for other moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various special directions, which are treated under their respective heads below. The several verbal constructions proper are the follow- ing : — 1. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time. a. Independent: Wish, Exhortation, Command, Ques- tion. ' Purpose or Result (with ut, ne). Characteristic (Relative Clause). 2. Subjunctive : \ Relative Time (with cum). Conditions \ ^"^f ^ (primary tenses). I Contrary to Fact. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse). Indirect Questions or Commands. b. Dependent (Chap. V.) 3. Imperative 4. Infinitive: {! Direct Commands (often subjunctive). Statutes, Laws and Wills (Future). Prohibitions (early or poetic use). a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs. b. Object I Complementary Infinitive. I Indirect Discourse (with subject-accusative^. ( Purpose (poetic or Greek use). c. Idiomatic Uses -j Exclamation (with subject-accus.). 1 Historical Infinitive. MOODS. I. — THE INDICATIVE. 264. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time. a. The tenses of the Indicative denote Absolute Time ; thai lis, present, pajst, or future, with rjeference to the speaker. 1 86 Syntax of Moods. b. The indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the subjunctive, chiefly in conditional sentences (compare 307. b^ c) : as, longum est, itrvould be tedious \if^ &c.]. satius erat, // would have been better [if, &c.]. persequi possum, / might follow up [in detail]. c. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative (see 269./). d. The indicative is used in some kinds of Conditions (see 306, 308). e. The place of the indicative in narration is sometimes supplied by the Infinitive (see 275). /. In Indirect Discourse (see Chap. V.), a narrative clause takes the Infinitive. II. — THE SUBJUNCTIVE. General Use. 265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification ^ such as is expressed in English by potential auxiliaries, by the Infinitive, or by the rare Subjunctive. a. The subjunctive is used Independently to express — 1. An Exhortation, Concession, or Command {Hortatory) \ 2. A Wish {Optative) ; 3. A Question of doubt or deliberation {Dubitative). These (with the exception of some forms of Dubitative Sub- junctive) are closely akin to one another, and are different phases of the same use. Remark. — In the conclusion {Apodosis) of Conditional Sen- tences, the Subjunctive is grammatically independent, though logically it depends on a Condition expressed or implied. The so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under this head (see 311. «). ' These modifications, however, are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special development (compare introfluctory Note, p. 184). The Stibjimclive in I-itln has besides m.iny idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Relative Time), where we do not modify the verbal idea at all, but express it directly ; but in these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed its construction differently from English. Moods: The Subjunctive, 187 b. The subjunctive is used in Dependent Clauses to express — 1. Purpose or Result (/^^««/ or Consecutive) \ 2. Relative Time {Temporal) ; 3. Characteristic ; 4. Indirect Question ; 5. Condition : Future or Contrary to Fact. c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison, and in Subordinate Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Hortatory. 266. The Subjunctive is used in the Present — less commonly in the Perfect — to express an Exhortation, a Concession, or a Command : as, hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 58), let us kill these robbers. caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 34), let them shun excess and cherish modesty. Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this. Note. — The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future ; but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present. a^ The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject^ except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. 269. b) : as, injurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 41), the wrongs of for tune ^ which you cannot bear, you may leave behind by flight. nihil ignoveris (Mur. t^i), pardon nothing. b. In Prohibitions, addressed to a definite person, the perfect is more common than the present (compare 269. a) : as, hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shall do this ; thou shall not do that. nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me. c. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with ut, quamvis, quamlibet, and similar words — to express a Concession : ^ as, nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such a one [you will say] ; granted. quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amiable as he may have been in keeping his friendships. \ ' In this iise, the Present refers to future or indefinite time : the Imperfect to present or past time, — the concession being impHedly untrue ; the Perfect to past time or completed future time ; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually untrue). 1 88 Syntax of Moods. ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was [so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ? ut rationem Plato nullam afferret (Tusc. i. 21), though Plato adduced no reasons. quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (de Or. i. 53), however guilty they might have been. Remark. — Concessions with si and its compounds belong to Prota- sis (see 204) J with licet, to Substantive Clauses (see p. 225). d. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo, modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone — to denote a Proviso : as, valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good. modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he be not of brutish stock. manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 7), old men retain their mind if they only retain their zeal and diligence. e. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an obligation in past time., — the latter more clearly repre- senting the time for the action as past : as, moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 10), he should have died you will say. ne poposcisses (Att. ii. \),yoii should not have asked. potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said. saltem aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he should have taken something from the weight. Remark. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from its use in Apodosis (Potential), as is indicated by the translation, should instead of would. Optatlye. 267. The Subjunctive is used to denote a Wish, — the present, a wish conceived 2iS possible ; the imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present ; the pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the past: as, ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live (as true as I live]. ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if T know. di te perduint (Deiot.), the gods confound thee ! valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), fare- well [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm. di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father I Moods: The Subjunctive. 189 Note. — The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is hardly found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse : as, ac vcnerata Ceres ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2, 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, male di tibi faxint (Plant. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si/ often precede the sub junctive of Wish : as, falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), / wish I may be a false prophet. utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 38), would that Clodius were now alive. utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen me dead. ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the weapon unused perish with rust. c. Velim and vellem,^ also their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to a proper optative subjunctive : as, de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. iv. 16), about Memdemus I wish it had been true ; about the queen I hope it may be. nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never had come. [For Concessive Subjunctive., see p. 187 ; for Potential Subjunc- tive^ see p. 223.] Dubitative. 268. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being done : as, quid hoc homine facias ? quod supplicium dignum libidini ejus inve- nias (Verr. ii. 16), what are you to do with this man? what fit pen- alty can you devise for his wantonness ? quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ? an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), what, should I not have come? quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say ? mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 34), could I think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ? Remark. — This use is apparently derived from the hortatory subjunc- tive : quid faciamus = faciamus [aliquid] — quid? Once established, it is readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? quid facerem? Some of the uses, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. 305). 1 In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical construction, except that the clause with O si is probably a Protasis. See 312. Note. 2 These are strictly Apodoses, the thing wished being in a dependent clause, and the Protasis omitted. 7 190 Syntax of Moods. III.— THE IMPERATIVE. 269. The Imperative is used in Commands ; also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as, consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion overmuch. a. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed — r. by ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunc- tive ; 2. by noli with the Infinitive ; 3. by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive (see 266. b.) : as, ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), de not frightened. noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. cave faxis (Ter Heaut. 187), do not do it. fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), pray attend to nothing else. b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the Present subjunctive is also used (see 266. a) : as, denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (C. M. 10), in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it. c. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic : ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people shall be their first law. justa itnperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them. d. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct ref- erence to future time : viz., 1. In connection with a future or future-perfect; 2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time ; 3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : as, cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigationi (Fam. xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. is juris civilis custos e.sto (Leg. iii. 3), let him (the praetor) be the guardian of civil right. e. The Future form of the imperative is regularly used of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as, filiolo me auctum scito ( Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little b<^. sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.),/rrty, dear, remember the go7vn. f. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin {why not?) with the present indicative may have the force of an imperative : as, si quid acciderit novi, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you Tvili let me know if any thing ne7c> happetu. quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here^ take it. The Infinitive. 191 IV. -THE INFINITIVE. Note. — The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (i) It admits, in many cases, of the distinction of tense; (2) It is modified by adcerbs and not by adjectives ; (3) It governs the case of its verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions. The In- finitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases, into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become attached to it : as, jubeo te valere, lit., / command you for being well (i. e. that you may be well), just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose becomes the object of command. 270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusa- .tive, may be used as the Subject of a verb, or in predi- cate apposition : aS; nihil est aliud bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), to live well and happily, is nothing else than to live honorably \ and rightly. nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 6),fof I think this very thing most wretched, not to be zvhen one has been. a. The infinitive as Subject is found chiefly vf\\h. esse and impersonal verbs, — rarely with others. b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and ex- pressions, partly as Subject and partly as Complement : as, id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen fir si in poets. reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut, tf)), he found what needed to be said. haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), one who observes these precepts may live nobly. Complementary Infinitive. / 271. The infinitive, without a subject, is used with ^ verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning : ^ as, hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say. mitto quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in one's own presence. oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), pray make haste to come. 1 The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these infinitives is in general admissible or conceivable ; though the same verbs, in other senses, and rarely also by analogy in the same sense, may take an infinitive with a subject. 192 Syntax of Moods. Note. — Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and (in general) verbs which have another action of the same subject closely connected with them. a. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also take a Subjunctive Clause. Such are those signifying willing- ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort^ and the like : ^ as, quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom they should protect. student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel. istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 18), he had it in mind to deprive him of the inheritance. cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), / desire to be merciful. b. Some verbs of these classes — jubeo and veto regularly — may take the infinitive with another subject : * as, signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. \ Subject-Accusative. 272. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of Knowing, Thinking, Telling, and Perceiving : ^ as, dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy [direct, mons ab hostibus tenetur]. Remark. — The Infinitive Clause may be either — i. the Direct Object of the verb: as, Caesarem adesse nuntiavit ; 2. the Subject of the same verb in the passive : as, Caesarem adesse nuntiattim est ; 3. the Predicate after some such phrase as rumor est; &c. ; as, rumor erat Caesarem adesse. In the last case, it is sometimes called the Object of the Verbal Phrase rumor erat. 1 The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when it is the same as that of the principal verb. 2 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object ; but its meaning is developed from the original one oj purpose. Hence the distinction between the uses is not always clearly marked. * The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and per- son (sec Chap. V.). The Infijiitive, 193 a. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative ; as, non libet mihi deplorare vitam {Cat. M. 23), / have no desire to be- wail life. mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be negligent (also neglige/itt/n, and regularly so where the subject is indefinite). non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), // is not necessary for all to speak standing. b. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- cate noun or adjective takes the case of the subject of the leading /erb. This is rarely found (by a Greek idiom) even in Indirect Discourse : as, vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and wise man says he is prepared, &c. sensit medios delapsus in hostes {M.\\. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the foe. Purpose. 273. In a few cases, the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose : viz. a. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages : as, tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. [Here the )nore formal construction would be quod pollicear.\ b. The Infinitive is found after paratus, suetua (used as adjec- tives), and their compounds : as, id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do. c. In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of simpler meaning that take it in prose : as, furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee (a forcible way of saying cupit). d. Many adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry following a Greek idiom : as, durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing verse. cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. Remark. — Rarely, in poetry, the Infinitive is used to denote Result. 13 194 Syntax of Tenses, 274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative,^ may be used in Exclamations (compare 240. d) : as, mene incepto desistere victam {M,n. i. 37), what ! I desist beaten from my purpose ? te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), a/as f that you should fall into such grief for me. Historical Infinitive. 275. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nominative: as, turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers], ego instare ut mihi responderet ( Verr. ii. 77 ), I kept urging him to answer. Remark. — This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded together in rapid narrative : as, pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines servare ; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti ; nihil consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks ; where danger overtook, there each would stand and fight ; arms, weapons^ horses^ men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion ; nothing went by counsd | or command ; chance ruled all. ^ TENSES. Note. — The number of possible Tenses, in the ordinary meaning of the word, is very great. For in each of the three times. Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic) ; as absolute or relative to some other time; or the past and future times may be near or remote. Thus a possible scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised. But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : — I. Definite (fixing the time of the action). 2. Indefinite. Incomplete. Complete. Aoristic. Present, a. / am 7oriting. 8. / ha^e written. i\. I write. Past. /S. I was writing. €. / had written. 0. I wrote. Future. '^. J shall be writing. ^. I shall have 7vritten. k. I shall write- \ 1 This Constniction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect \ Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, or perhaps is thought of \ (compare the French dire que). The Present, 195 This scheme does not, indeed, give all the distinctions in use ; nor do most languages furnish forms for all of these. Most languages disre- gard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The language from which Latin sprang had a Present tense to express o and ??, a Perfect to express S, an Aorist to express Q, a Fu- ture to express 7 and /c, and an Imperfect to express ^. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form [scripsi), thus losing the distinction between S and Q. The nature of this confu- sion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the same root dik), with €5et|a, adiksham, SdSeixa, di'defa. Latin also developed other forms for e {scripseram) and ^ {scripsero), giving six tenses, as seen in 115 (p. 62). The line between these, moreover, is not a hard and fast one, nor is it precisely the line which we draw in English. Thus in many verbs, on account of a peculiarity of meaning, the form for S has the sense of o or 77, and the form for e the sense of j8. Again, Latin often uses^the form for ^to express k, or even 7. Thus novi ('* I have learned ") is used for "I know;" constiterat ("he had taken his position") for "he stood;" cognovero ("I shall have learned") for "I shall be aware." The idio- matic uses of the language are in all cases to be noticed. Present. 276. The Present denotes an action or state as now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite (without reference to time) : as, Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. i), the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives. tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange a case, he arrays an army. a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past : as, ■ patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we stiffer now these many years (the perfect would mean we no longer suffer). I anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand. b. The present sometimes denotes an action not completed at all, but only attempted {Conative Present) : as, decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 11), I move for fifty days'' thanksgiving. [Senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.^ c. The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes used for the Future : as, imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat ? 196 Syntax of Tenses, ecquid me adjuvas ? (Clu. 26), wonU you give me a little help ? in jus voco te. non eo. non is ? (PI. As. 480), I summon you to th^ ^court. I won't go. You won't? (See also under cum, antequam, dum, Chap. V.) d. The present in lively narrative is often used for the historical perfect {Historical Present) : as, affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes, quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet ; includit se domi ( Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syracuse ; they ru?i to head- quarters ; Cleomenes, though it was nighty does not venture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at home. e. The present is regularly used with dum, while^ though the time referred to is past : as, haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus pervenerat (id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum. Note. — When the time referred to is emphatically ^tf«/r Syntax of Tenses. Sequence of Tenses. 285. The forms which denote Absolute time may be used in any connection. But those denoting Relative time follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two classes — 1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and the Per- fect {definite). 2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, the Perfect {historical), and the Pluperfect. 286. In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as, Bcribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us. scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. rogo quid fac turns sis, I ask what you are going to do. Remark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : — TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. Primary. Action not complete {time rela- ) Present. tively present or future). Secondary. Imperfect. 2. Action complete (time relatively ) Perfect. I Pluperfect. past). ) I In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider ( i ) whether the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. relatively past), or itt- complete (relatively present or future). By taking the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage will usually be found. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes relatively completed zc\\ox\, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Plu- perfect. 287. In the Sequence of Tenses, the following points are to be observed : — Sequence of Tenses. 20 1 a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but, as its action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly followed by secondary tenses : as, ut satis esset praesidii provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. i), / have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copi? vinceremur (Cic), weseefn to have advanced so far that even in fuh ness of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks. b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action (either as Perfect definite or historical^ depending on a verb in a primary tense : as, ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 4), // may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. c. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often (the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagran- tius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burnittg ardor in any ma)t. Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the present is used in describing a state of things actually existing.] Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact stated as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is often represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the general rule : as, Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 20), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised [contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country, so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the State. Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare 279> d\ ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, on the con- trary, who made everything depend on virtue alone. d. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as, ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. 202 Syntax of Tenses. ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. yj), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. e. The historical present may be followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more commonly by secondary : as, rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept off. f. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as, quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, etc. (Fin. ii. 15), became it is such that even if men were ignorant, $^c. g. The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, though referring to present time, is regularly followed by secondary tenses : as, si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exci- peres (Tusc. i. 5), if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one. h. After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the writer's thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of Synesis: as, sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), btit yet that you may knoiv, I write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect]. cujus praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this precept, that it ■'.tas ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god [the precept was an old one]. Tenses of the Infinitive. 288. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which they depend : as, nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained that our men were not inferior. quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (iEn. i. 15), which Juno, 'tis said, cherished above all lands. sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 21), they hope they shall receive the greatest advantage. a. The present infinitive, after certain verbs in the past, must be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as, scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might haz^e known. qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed [one that] ought not to have died at ail. Tenses of the Infinitive. 203 Remark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit). b. The perfect infinitive represents in Indirect Discourse any past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is sometimes represented by the present infinitive, — regularly after memiui where the memory recalls the action, but not where it recalls the mere fact : * as, quis potest credere senatum putasse (Mil. 5), who can believe the Senate thought? \p\x . ^\'&z. putabai\. memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lael. 3), / remember Gate's dis- coursing with me (so dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3). meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rose. Am. 42), you remember that I so laid out the case. c. Except in indirect discourse the present infinitive only is generally used, with no distinct reference to time : est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), it is the duty of the young to reverence their elders. d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect passive infinitive is often used instead of the present: as, domestica curate levatum [esse] volo (Q. F. iii. 9), I wish you relieved of household care (compare I pray thee have me excused). quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought to have been done long ago (compare a). Remark. — In early Latin, and in Poetry, the perfect active is also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as, commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59), / would not by crushing another exalt myself. sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who would not touch. AoUem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), I would not say. e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote a completed action after verbs of Feeling ; also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where this distinction is important : as, quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing. pudet me . . . non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), / am ashamed not to have shozun. ^ Compare Goodwin's Gr. Grammar, 203, n. i. I. Participles 204 Syntax of Participles, sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor. Od. i. I ), there are those who delight , ^c. nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I go wrongs J cannot have done it in ignorance. f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futunim esse) ut — necessarily, where there is no supine stem : as, spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), / hope thai will be our happy lot. [But, sperat se posse (B. G. i. 3).] \\, — Noun and Adjective Forms. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the Verb are employed as follows : — {Simple Predicate. Periphrastic Perfect (passive). Predicate of Circumstance. Descriptive ( Indirect Discourse). <5. Future (^^"Pj'^^^'^^.i^f^^; ^, ^^ e u- , j Penphrastic with/«/ (= Pluperfect Subj.). !as Descriptive Adjective. Periphrastic with esse. of Purpose with certain verbs. ( a. Genitive as Objective Genitive. 2. Gerund or ! b. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs. Gerundive : | c. Accusative, with certain Prepositions. { d. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions. c:tTPTiMr • i "• Fori^er Supine (in um), with Verbs of Motion. 3. ouFiNE . I ^ •L2Xtex Supine (in u), chiefly with Adjectives. PARTICIPLES. 289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinc- tion of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb. Distinctions of Tense. 290. The Present participle denotes the action as not completed ; the Perfect as completed ; the Future as still to take place. a. The Present participle has several of the irregular uses of the present indicative (compare 276. ^, c^. quaerenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he resisted Flaminitis when attempting to diride, &*c. iens in Pompeianum bene mane haec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), I write this when abcut going very early to my place at Pompeii. Participles : Adjective Use. 205 b. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritusj commonly, Jisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers : as, cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed, &=€. iratus dixisti (Mur. '>p)^you spoke in a passion. oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. \i), forgetting the auspices. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. I'i), fearing atnbuscade. imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command. ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C. 48), thinking it incredible. c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually supplied by a clause with dum or cum ; rarely by the participle in dus : as, Die, hospes, Spartae, nos te hie vidisse jaeentes, Dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimtir is a translation of the Greek cruclbus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire (in flames : compare note 3 under 296). d. The perfect active participle (which was lost in Latin except in deponents) is supplied either by the Ablative Absolute with change of voice (255, Note), or by a clause with cum or dum. The perfect participle of several deponents may be either active or passive (see 135. b). Adjective IJge. 291. The present and perfect participles are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives : as, cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5), a view at once most ancient and approved. signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever deceitful. auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices. a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be compared as such, or used, like other adjectives, as nouns : as, sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self-indulgent, and slaves to the body. recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. i), right deeds ought to be like in value (see 207. c). male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill spent. consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health. 2o6 Syntax of Participles. b. A participle may, as a predicate adjective, be connected with a noun by esse or any similar verb : as, Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), a// Gaul is divided. locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. ^)fyou see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. Remark. — From the predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, — the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed^ lit., he is having-been-killed [i.e., already slain]. In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with ful, &c., retains its proper force ; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or f ui) are often used indiscriminately to form periphrastic tenses in the passive : as, [leges] cum quae latae sunt turn vero quae promulgatae fuerunt (Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and those which were published. [The proposal of the laws was a single act : hence latae sunt is a pure perfect. The publishing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by promulgatae, and fuerunt is the pure perfect.] arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 34), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 17) : the differ- ence between this and the preceding is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective.] Predicate Use. 292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession^ characteristic, inanner^ circtimstance : as, vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. i), I fear it may he a dis- honor [to me] when beginning to speak. salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored a safety which we did not hope. nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one would have disbelieved him when he denied. Remark — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute. A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle ; and a participle with a negative expresses the same idea which in Eng- lish is given by without : as, imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not looking. miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything. Participles : Predicate Use. 207 instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. C. 59), he draws up the lines ^ and leads them to level ground. ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry them over and put them to death. a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : * as, ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building. illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt ; vos vi- tam ereptam negligetis (Manil. z^),they did not endure the infringement of the citizens'' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ? b. The participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus {need) : as, opus est viatico facto (Plant. Trin.), there is need of laying in provision. maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the verb : ^ as, fidem quern habent spectatam jam et din cognitam (Div. C. 4), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known. d. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting^ effort., or the like ; also with volo where esse may be understood, expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb : as, praefectos suos multi misses fecerunt (Verr, iv. 58), many discharged their officers. hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he will get it all done. me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I wish to be excused (compare I pray thee have me excused). e. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly after verbs of sense, also facio, induco, and the like used of authors : as, Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D, i. 11), Xenophon repre- sents Socrates disputing. Future Participle. 293. The Future Participle (except futurus and ven- turns) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by later writers. 1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (G. 280) ; and the Eng- lish, " 'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won " (Dryden), i. e. for the canqtiest of Persia. 2 The perfect with have, in modem languages, has grown out of this use of haheo. 208 Syntax of Participles. a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a periphras- tic conjugation (see page ']']) : as, morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 46), (//>, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man hopes to live long. neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), and seemed unlikely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. b. By later writers the future participle is also used in simple agreement to express likelihood, purpose, or even an apodosis : as, cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. i), when a lion rushed on to attack the king. rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he returned to try the chances of war anew. ausus est rem plus famae habituram (id. ii. 10), he dared a thing which would have more repute. disperses per agros milites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields (a rare use of the Ablative Absolute). c. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equiv- alent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see 308. d^ : as, conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si ire perrexisset (Div. i. 15), that chamber where he would have stayed if he had persisted in going. quid facturi fuistis (Lig. 8), what were you going to do? \=^ quid fecissetis ; which would be logically followed by si venissetisy <5r»r.]. Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). 294. The Gerundive, in its participial or adjective use, denotes necessity or propriety. Note. — The participle in dus has two distinct uses, viz., i. the Pre- dicate (participial or adjective) use, in which it is always passive; 2. the Gerundive use (see 295), in which it is always active in meaning, having for its apparent Object the noun with which it agrees in form. In the latter, it is exactly equivalent to the Gerund — which is its neuter used impersonally — governing the noun as direct object. a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), /? brave man, and worthy to be preserved. b. The most frequent use of this form by far is with esse in a sec- ond periphrastic conjugation (p. Tj) (Passive Periphrastic) : as, non agitanda res crit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing httve to be agi- tated? Gerund a?id Geriuidive, 209 c. The neuter of the gerundive ^ is occasionally (chiefly in early Latin) used with the case of its verb. In this use it is regular with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative : as, agitandumst vigilias (PI. Tr. 869), I have got to stand guard. via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (C. M. 2), the way we have to enter. utendum exercitationibus modicis (id. 11), we must use moderate exer- cise. legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), it is for the young to get J for the old to enjoy. d. The gerundive denotes (Fut. Pass.) Purpose after verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand : ^ as, redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 21), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column [the regular construction with this class of verbs], aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the temple of Castor to take care of. naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he took care thai the ships and cargoes should be kept. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 295. The Gerund is a verbal noun, governing the same case as its verb, but governed itself like a noun : as, ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. [Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomina- tive, would be expressed by the infinitive disserere and dijudicare.] Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, corresponds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (see 273), its nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the participle in dus. 296. When the Gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive^ is generally used instead, agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund would have had : as, 1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Gerund. (Compare Greek verbal in Tio<:, G. 281.) 2 Such verbs are accipio, adnata, attribuo, conduca, euro, denata, deposca, do, divido, edico, edocea, fera, habeo, laco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, propono., relinqiio, rogo, sitscipio, trado, voveo, dono. ^ The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in das seems to have had a present passive force as in ante condcndam urbem. 2IO Gerundive Constructions. paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the gerund would be, aa subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing t^e accusative pericula^ exercendae memoriae gratia (Off. i. 15), /or the sake of training tJu memory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exercendi memo- riam.\ These forms may be seen in the following : — Gen. consilium I ;;jbfJ"^^=^F„^^di ]^ a design of taking tlu cU,. DAT. dat operam | a|rU toSs | he attended to tUling the fields. Acc. veniunt ad \ ^^ ^^^^^ \ '^0- -^ to seek peace. ABL. terittempus {^^^^f^^] he spends tin,ein^UingUUers. Remark. — The verbs utor, f ruor, &c., are treated like verbs gov- erning the Accusative, as they do in early Latin ': as, cxpetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches are sought for the enjoyment of pleasure. Gerund and Gerundive Constructions. 297. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in some of the constructions of nouns. 298. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives in the constructions of the objective genitive ; more rarely in the predicate after sum : as, neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms [object- ive genitive after spatio\. ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Off. i 45), not even in order to save the country (originally subjective, see 214,^). Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), // is the best end of life. non tarn commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (id. ii. I ), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), flammandi (Tac), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis dclcndae would have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be destroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused together as in ab iirbe conditA. The genmd is simply an impersonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the case of its verb, the same as in agitandum tst vigilias ; quid opus est facto ? Gerundive Constructions, 21 1 Remark. — In the predicate use of the genitive, it nearly or quite acquires the meaning of Purpose : as, quae res vertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which things genei-ally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. si arborum trunci deiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case trunks of trees should be sent dozvn [with the object] of setting the work adrift (Cf. quas sui cofnmodi fecerat, B. G. v. 8). cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. a. The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor number : as, ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec), eager to see her. reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of challenging three jurors. sui colligendi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recauer them- selves. [Here sui, though referring to a plural subject, is really the genitive singular neuter of suus.\ b. In the genitive of gerundive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about equally common. 299. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns : as, genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii, 10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body. te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), / desire that thou (Venus) be my partner in writing verses. a. The dative is used also in a few expressions after verbs : as, reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest. diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day for jioing the work. praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage. esse solvendo, to be able to pay. , b. The dative is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after nouns meaning officers^ offices., elections, &c. : as, comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nominating consuls. triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. 212 Gerund and Supine, 300. The Accusative is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after ad, denoting Purpose : as, vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring, inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), while driving. me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you summon me to write. nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake these things. 301. The Ablative is used to express Manner,^ Means, Cause, &c., and after Comparatives ; and after the prepo- sitions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) /re] here it will be well. N. B. Eng. uses pres. for fut. 2. Less vivid (Improbable) : si adsit^ bene sit, if he should [here- after] be here it would be well. * These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; and in most lan- guages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, va particular conditions, present or past tenses of the In- dicative are regularly used in Protasis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity ; and the Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an independent sentence. In general conditions (or at least what would be such in Greek), also, referring to Present or Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin's Greek Grammar, % 220.) * Corresponding to the Greek Optative. Forms of Conditions. 217 c. Condition contrary to fact, unfulfilled in present or past (im- perfect and pluperfect Subjunctive) : — 1. Present, si adesset ^ bene esset, if he were [now J here it would be well. 2. Past, si adfuisset ^ bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here it would have been well. d. General condition : — 1 . Indefinite, si hoc dicas ^ creditur, if one says this it is [always] believed. 2. Repeated, si quid diceret* credebatur, if [whenever] he said any thing { = whatever he said) // was believed (a late use). Remark. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative ; if he is alive next year is a future condition, and would be expressed by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus is a future con- dition, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so too, if you advised him he would attend may be future. Simple Conditions. 306. In a Present or Past condition whose falsity is NOT implied, the appropriate tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis; the apodosis expressing the re- sult in any grammatical form required: as, si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well it is well. si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting it [bravery] is in fault. si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if you please, let us see. fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. i6), grant that it was the censor's duty in case he judged it false. Future Conditions. 307. A Future condition may either, i. make a dis- tinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the result ; or, 2. the supposition may be less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed. * Corresponding to the Greek Imperfect (Indicative), with av in apodosis. * Corresponding to the Greek Aorist (Indicative), with a.v in apodosis. 3 Corresponding to the Greek Subjunctive with av. * Corresponding to the Greek Optative. 2i8 Coftditional Sentences, a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as actually about to take place (English present indicative, rarely fut- ure with shall), the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis : as, sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we wish. quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6), if you read or hear, you will find. b. The present subjunctive, in both protasis and apodosis, ex- presses a future condition less vividly^ or as less probable, than when the future indicative is used (English should) : as, haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail? quod si quis deus mihi largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 23), but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse. Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker. 1 ^. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the future., and the Perfect subjunctive for the Present: as, sin cum potuero, non venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly. si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it I will excuse you. Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing to the tendency of the language to represent an action as complettd^ rather than as in progress. d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition (so the participles in dua and rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like) : as, non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), / cannot accuse him if I should desire. alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxinie reprehendere Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lael. 16), another limit must be set if I first slate what Scipio was wont most to find fault with. * It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as In the proverbial "If the sky falls we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is iron- ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condition stated by some one else. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 219 e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as already accomplished : as, si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered [ior you will have conquered]. si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered. f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause (retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as, non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he %vished (com- pare d, above). Caesar si peteret . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 3), if even Ccesar were to ask he would gain nothing. [Here the construc- tion is not contrary to fact, but is simply si petat non proficiat, thrown into past time.] tumulus apparuit . . si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by light the enemy %vould prevent. [Independent of apparuit, this would be, si eatzir, praeventurus est, for praeveniat.\ Conditions Contrary to Fact. 308. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used,^ — the imperfect referring to Present Time, the pluperfect to Past : as, quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. M. 11), if I could not [now] follow this [an active life] yet my couch would afford me pleasure. nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had lost it, I shotdd not have recovered it. si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be a beggar, we shotdd be free, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders and armies. qui nisi revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima nocte conruit : ruina igitur oppressus esset ; at id neque si fatum fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. ii. 8), if it had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, dx^c. [The apodosis of fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional sentence of which effugisset is the apodosis ; the real protasis of effugisset is revertisset, above.] ^ The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the Sub- junctive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already 220 Conditional Sentences. «. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : as, hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21), if he were of sane mind woiUd he have dared to lead out the army ? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. i), [the power of Carthage] wotdd not have fallen, mdess that station had been open to our fleets (without the condition, patebat). Remark. — This necessarily arises from the fact that the pluperfect is equivalent to a future perfect in prceterito, and so represents the action as completed and momentary, rather than continuing. b. The past tenses of the Indicative in apodosis (after a Sub- junctive in protasis) may be used to express what ought to have been done, was intended or already begun (see 31 1. ^) : as, si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 17), if he [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what ought to be the main point if it could be proved. si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers were coming f it had been allowed (see 305. c ^). in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed. Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive may how- ever be used as well (see Note, above) : as, satius erat ( = esset), it were better. c. The use of the indicative in apodosis is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting the necessity, propriety, desirableness^ duty, possibility, of an action, where it is implied that what was necessary, &c., has not been done.^ It is sometimes carried still further in poetry : as, nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it wotdd befit us to mourn. si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. __________ ^ — ^^^___^___^^^_^— ^« passed ; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apo- dosis in this construction (seerf, below, and head-note). ' Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of Futurity. Compare note above. General Conditions. 221 d. The participle in urus with fui is nearly equivalent to a pluperfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent clause, requiring the infinitive or subjunctive, a pluper- fect subjunctive may be represented by the Future Participle with the proper form of fui (compare Indirect Discourse: ZTH)' quid enim futurum fuit [=fuissetj, si . . . (Liv. ii. \)^ what would have happened if , )y provided [in pleasure] he be not of the herd of cattle. oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, if only th^ fear. dum de patris morte quaereretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry only be of a father's death. dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided only the city wall is between us. Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in temporal clauses (compare colloquial "so long as": see 266. d). Use of 81 and its Compounds. 315. The use of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows : — a. Si is used for affirinative, nisi and si non for negative con- ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, — i. e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with si non, the Protasis is negative, — /. e. the conclusion is limited to the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con- ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si, except if unless., occurs : as, noli putare me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me plura scripsit, cui puto rescribi oportere (Fam. xiv. 2), don't suppose that I 7vritc anybody longer letters^ except in case ottt writes more to me, and so J think he must be ansivered. ^ b. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regularly \ introduce an objection or exception^ ironically, and take the Indica- tive : as, nisi forte volumus Epicureorum opinionem sequi (De Fato, 16), un- less to be sure wc choose tofollo7v the notion of the Epicureans. c. Sive . . . sive (sen) introduce conditions in the form of an ^ alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two branches, often also without a verb : as, nam illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut lego (De Leg. ii. \),for I enjoy myself most i in that place, 7vhether J am thinking by myself or am either writing of \ reading. \Sive . . . sen is late or poetic] Relative Clauses. 227 Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions, l. — Melative Clauses. The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in some cases, an interrogative), may be used alike with the indicative and the subjunctive. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, takes the Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. But the Subjunc- tive appears in many relative constructions, indicating a closer logical connection between the relative clause and the main clause. These constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive, each with its own special development. In general they are of two kinds, not, however, very distinct in meaning: viz., i. clauses where the implied logical connection is that of Purpose ; 2. clauses which express more or less distinctly some Characteristic of the antecedent, of which the most frequent is the ordinary clause of Result. 3. Besides these, however, there are general relatives of Protasis ; the indefinite relatives whoever^ whenever, &c., being regarded as conditional expressions, equiv- alent to, if any one, if at any time, ^c^ This leads to the following scheme of dependent relative constructions : — 1. General Relatives of Protasis. 2. Relative Clauses of Purpose [Final Clauses). 3. Relative Clauses of Characteristic, including — a. Simple Result (Consecutive) Clauses. b. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance). c. Clauses of Relative Time. Conditional Kelative Clauses. 316. A clause introduced by an Indefinite Relative is treated as a Conditional clause, and may take any of the forms of Protasis : as, quisquis hue venerit vapulabit (PI. Am. 153), whoever ( = if any one) comes here he shall be thrashed. quaecumque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 4), I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did], philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat. M. i), philosophy , which IF any one obeys, he will be able to spend his whole life without vexation. virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis diligetur (N. D. i. 44), i.e. if any one shall have attained virtue, &^c. ' As in the analogy of the Greek os av, orav, &c. ; and in statutes, where the phrases if any person shall, or whoever shall, are used indifferently. 228 Dependent Constructions. Clauses of Purpose- Note. — The Subjunctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the original future meaning of the subjunctive, or from its hortatory use. Grammarians are not agreed upon the point ; but it must have originated from one or the other, and either affords a satisfactory analysis. If it was developed from the hortatory subjunctive, it has come through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 340) : thus misit legatos qui dicerent means either he sent ambassadors who would say (future use), or, he sent ambassadors who should say , i.e. let them say (compare hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, 266. e^ with the thought and hortatory clauses in Indirect Discourse, 336, 339). As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is, no doubt, in origin, a hortatory subjunctive. 317. Final Clauses, or those expressing Purpose, take the Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction ut (uti), in order that (negatively ut ne or ne, tJiat noty lest) : as, ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), ?u wrote speeches for other men to deliver. huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you. nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to write. habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee. ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not with impunity. ne qua ejus adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in the main clause : as, legum idclrco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. 53), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that 7oe may be free. ea causa . . . ne,for this reason, lest, dr'c. b. The ablative quo ( = iit eo) is used as a conjunction in final clauses, especially with comparatives : as, libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset {Qmx^cX. 2), he availtd himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity. Compare quominus (=» ut eo minus), after verbs of hindering (see 331.0- Final Clauses, 229 c. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context : as, ac ne longum sit . . . jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be tedious, we ordered, &>€. [strictly, " not to be tedious, I say."] sad ut ad Dionysium redeamus, . . . (Tusc. v. 22), but to return to Dionysius, &=€. satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), it was the act of one rash enough, not to say daring. Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum (sometimes ne), still less, not to mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted : as, nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less couldwe be safe. nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. '}i^),far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal. nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea, and on a journey. quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant ; ne illi corruptis moribus victoriae temperarent (Sail. C. ii),for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory. d. Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of Wishing, Commanding, &c. (see 331. a, b). Remark. — The clause of Purpose is sometimes rendered in English by that, or in order that, with may or might (Potential) ; but more fre- quently by the Infinitive with to : as, veni ut viderem, I came to see {that I might see). 318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various virays ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered — (i) venerunt ut pacem peterent [final clause with ut] ; (2) „ qui pacefn peterent [final clause with Relative] ; (3) ,, ad petendum paceni (rare) [gerund with ad] ; (4) „ ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad] ; (5) „ pacem petendi causa ^ [gerund with causa] ; (6) „ pads petendae causa ^ [gerundive with causa] ; (7) „ pacem petituri [future participle : not in Cicero] ; (8) „ pacem petitum [former supine] . ^ Or gratia. 230 Dependeftt Constructions. In the choice of these forms the following suggestions are to be observed : — a. The most general way of expressing purpose is by ut (negatively ne), unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which case the relative is more common. Thus — 1. Arria gladium dedit marito ut se interficeret, Arria gave her hus- band a sword to kill himself [that he might kill himself). 2. Arria gladium dedit marito quo se interficeret, Arria gave her hus- band a sword to kill himself WITH. b. The Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited to short concise expressions, where the literal translation of the phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange. c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions. d. The Future Participle, used to express purpose, is a late construction of inferior authority. Characteristic and Result. Note. — The clause of Characteristic is a development peculiar to Latin, and has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive. A Pro- tasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and the Indicative of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses what would happen in a supposed case, while the indicative states what did in fact take place. The most common and obvious use of this con- struction is to express a quality or characteristic of an indefinite antece- dent (either expressed or implied), which shows itself as a Result. Thus, is [Epicurus] qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate would mean, literally, a man who, would, in any supposable case, <5r»reparation must be used (compare § 309). 238 Stibstantive Clauses, 328. Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt, or futurity, take the subjunctive ; otherwise, except in later writers, the indicative. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunc- tive ; quamdiu, the indicative : as, dum haec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on. donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence until he returned. dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 27), so long as the facts re- main, let them fashion words. hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13). / did this so long as it was allowed, J discontinued so long as it was not. dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans {^xwt. '^2), provided it be polished, refitted, elegant. Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often found, depending on other principles of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses below, p. 251.) 1 1. — Substantive Clauses. 329. A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition with a subject or object. Note. — In these the form of expression will depend on the meaning of the dependent words, or clause. Thus, if the words can be put in an independent form as the words of some person making an assertion in the Indicative, they form what is called Indirect Discourse, and the clause is in the Accusative and Infinitive, as the Object of some verb of sayings &c. (see 272. with Remark). If they can be put in an independent form as a Question, they require the Subjunctive as Indirect Questions. If they can be put in an independent form as the words of some person in the Imperative, of can be conceived as a Purpose or Result, they usually take the Subjunctive with ut, more rarely the Infinitive. If they could be expressed independently in the Indicative, but as a fact, and not as the words of some other person, they regularly require quod with the Indicative. Many expressions which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin : thus, " he was accused of treason against his country," will be acatsatus est quod patriam prodidisset. The common expression FOR with the infinitive also introduces a true substantive clause : as, " it is left for me to speak of the piratic war," reliquum est ut de bello dicam piratico. When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which it ia subject is called Impersonal, and its sign, in English, is it ; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb of knowing, 6r*c., or of imsAing or ejecting, and its sign, in English, is that, or to (Infinitive). Substantive Clauses: Infinitive, 239 Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : — !a. Infinitive as Subject (270). b. Infinitive as Object (271). c. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (272). 2. Subjunctive Clauses : \ a. oi Purpose (command, wish, fear). {ut, ne, quo^ quiit, quominus). [ b. of Result (happen, effect, hinder). 3. Indicative Clause with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling. 4. Indirect Questions : Subjunctive, introduced by Interrogative Word. Infinitive Clauses. 330. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used as the Subject chiefly of sum, or of Impersonal Verbs ; and as the Object of the following : ^ 1. Of all verbs and expressions of Knowing, Thinking, Telling, and Perceiving (^Indirect Discourse). 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other verbs of Command- ing, Requesting, Admonishing, and the like. 3. Sometimes of verbs of Wishing : as, me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), I trust I have beenfreea from fear. dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the height is held by the enemy. Labienum jugum mentis adscendere jubet (id, 21), he orders Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill. judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or. 33), I wish to be a judge, not a teacher. negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), he says that no ports are open. hie accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), he was not allowed to accuse. Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such. a. If the main verb is changed to the Passive, either — 1. The subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs) becomes nominative., and the infinitive is retained ; or, 2. The passive is used impersonally., and the clause retained as its subject. ' The accusative with infinitive is found with about 80 verbs or verbal phrases, the most common being accipio, affirmo, animadverto, arbitror, audio, censeo, cogito, cnpio, decet, dice, dispnto, doceo, doleo, existimo, fama est, faieor, intelligi- tur, jiivat, memini, narro, nego, nolo, oportet, opus est, patior, puto, recordor, rumor est, sentio, sino, spero, suspicor, traditur, verum est^ veto, video, videtur, volo, fas est, nefas est, jubeo. 240 DepeiidetU Constructions. b. With verbs of saying, &c., the personal construction of the pas- sive is more common (regular in the tenses of incomplete action); with jubeo and veto it is always used : as, primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. yt^), they first are related to have joined words with a certain skill. jussus as renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), yoit were under orders to be declared consul. in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse. ceterae Illyrici legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), the rest of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow. nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), // is told that the ships of the pirates are in port. c. In the compound tenses the impersonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : as, traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 39), // is a tra- dition, too, that Homer was blind. ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse rempublicam (Rep. iii. 31), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that the Commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all. d. The poets and later writers extend the use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. : as, colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that /pleased my mistress. e. The indirect discourse may depend on any word implying speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, etc. : as, eos redire jubet : se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), he orders them to return, [promising] that he will be at hand in season. orantes ut urbibus saltem — jam enim agros deploratos esse — opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the cities — for the fields fthey said] were alrecuiy given up as lost. f. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearings and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom ; but sometimes a simple complemen- tary infinitive : as, minatur sese abire ( Asin. iii. 3), he threatens to go away. [Direct, abeo, / am going away.] ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 21), front tvhich they hope to giin the utmost advantage. quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondee (Mur. 41), 7vho /promise and rvarrant will be the bitterest of enemies. dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 27), pain threatens to wear daivn fortitude. pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages [compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs]. Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 241 Clauses of Purpose. 331. The clause with ut (negative ne), developed from PURPOSE, is used as the object of all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future} Such are — a. Verbs of commanding^ askings admonishing, urging, and in general those denoting an influence upon some one. These verbs rarely take the infinidve (except jubeo and veto, which take it regularly) : as, his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. monet ut omnes suspitiones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all suspicion. b. Verbs of Wishing and the like. These take also the simple Infinitive : more commonly when the subject remains the same, less commonly when it is different (see 331, above) : as, cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), I wish he may get it. cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men wished it to be seen. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), / would rather you feared Cerberus. quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I do not care so much to punish as to cure. c. Verbs oi permission, concession., and necessity (with or without ut). These take also the Infinitive : as, permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to make di- visions. vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allotu wine to be imported. nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be tangled in no business. sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist if they are wretched. [Here the clause is subject of oportet.] Remark. — The clause with licet (usually without ut) is regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although. d. Verbs of determining., resolving., bargaining, which also take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the pardciple in dus, on the principle of Indirect Discourse : as, edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none should fight without orders. ^ Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, caveo {ne), ceitseo, cogo, concedo, constttito, euro, decerno, edico,flagito, hortor, impcro,impetro, insio, mando, mettio {ne), negotium do, operant do, oro, perstiadeo, peto, postulo, prae- cipio, precor, pronuntio, qitaero, rogo, scisco, timeo, video, volo, oportet. 16 242 Dependent Cofisti'tcctions. pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id.xxviii. 21), having bargairud thcU the property should belong to the victor. Regulus captives reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus voted thai the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his opinion, captiz'i non reddendi sunt.] e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to hinder may also take quominus or ne or the Infinitive : as, cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing. non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc. i. 38), death does not deter the wise man from, dr'c. ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. i), prevented me from doing. f. Verbs of Fearing take the subjunctive/ with ne affirmative and ne non or ut negative : as, ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared he should hurt the feelings, dr'r. vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), I fear I cannot grant you. haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 40), there is no danger of not thinking death desirable. Remark. — The particle ut is often omitted, — generally after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with die, fac; and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding and the like. So also ne after cave. g. With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the Infinitive : as, hortamur far! (y^n. ii. 74), we exhort [him] to speak, Clan»eR of Result 332. The clause with ut (negative ut non, etc.), devel- oped from RESULT, is used as the object of verbs denot- ing the accomplishment of an effort? commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made it possi- ble thai supplies could be brottght. [Lit., he effected that, &c.] ' With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is hortatory : timeo ne acctdat is literally / fear, Ut it not happen. With ut it may have been either hortatory or derived from Purjiosc. 2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result are accedit, accidit, additur^ altera est res, commiito, consctjtior, conitngit, efficlo, nc. 244 Dependent Co7istructions. g. Expressions which formally or virtually deny hindering and the like may take quin (compare 319. d). Notice that the main clause is negative : as, facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, &^c. nihil praetermisi quin scribam . . . (Q. F. iii. 3), / have left nothing uttdone to write. ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hindered by nothing from, dr^c. non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent^ but thaty &^c. Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non du- bito and similar expressions making a kind of Indirect Discourse : as, non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt that we believed him. illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not doubt that I will do all. quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignorant that, &'c. ? neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fuerit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. i), tior is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it with the worst results to the state [direct discourse, y^rw^/J. h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as words of commanding, effecting, and the like, and may be construed accordingly : as, sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular construction with sequor used of a logical sequence.] laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold that th^ glory of wisdom is the greatest. statuunt ut decem millia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), they re- solve that 10,000 men shall be sent. res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it was time [monere ut, warn to do something^ fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose thai I am persuaded of that [facere ut, accomplish that], hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they wish to convince that souls do not perish, huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades him to pass (wer to the enemy. Note. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is indirect discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. Substantive Clauses: Indirect Questions. 245 Indicative with Quod. 333. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the statement is re- garded as a fact : as, alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 6), it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, ^'c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to do it abstractly ; quod makes it a fact that men do, 6^r.] inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), this is the chief difference, 6^r., that an animal aims at something. quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 31), that he [Regulus] re- turned seems wonderful to us. vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, qui mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (de Div, ii. 24), 'tis an old and shrewd saying of Cato, that he wondered a soothsayer did not laugh when he looked another in the face. [Here rideret is in the subjunctive of indirect discourse : see 336.] a. \n colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas (compare 326. a) : as, quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house. quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis prae- claris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5}, as to your congratulating me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your own noble works. b. Verbs oi feeling ^.nd its expression take either quod (quia) (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. F. iii. i), I am glad that you write. quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly re- joice that this is finished. facio libenter quod eam non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24), I am glad that I camtot pass it by. Remark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I wonder if he could ever have a friend (originally. If this is so, I wonder at it). Indirect Questions. Note. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, &c.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or which depends on any expression imply- ing uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative, as in the third example given below. 246 Dependent Constructions, 334. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub- junctive : as, quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), I will explain what I think [direct, quid sentid\. id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted whether it could be done \6.\r tct, potestne]. quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31), all could understand how bold you are [direct, quam es audax !\. doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is 0/ no account whether I suffer or not [double question], a. The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions by the participle in urns with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by the simple subjunctive : as, prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Caec), I foresee what throngs there will be [erunt]. quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what xvill be on the morrozu [erit or futurum est]. b. The Dubitative Subjunctive (see 268 and examples) remains unchanged except in tense : as, [quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be destroyed^ or re- stored to the Carthaginians. nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7 ), nor is any one well assured what he shaH hope or fear, [Here the participle with sit could not be used.] incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was doubt- ful [abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun. c. The subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object {accusative of anticipation') : as, nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you knaiv hozv slow Marcel ins is. [Compare, I know thee who thou art.] potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse praesensic (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur? [A similar use of the object-genitive.] Remark. — In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interroga- tive construction is the result : as, quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint levcs (Lael. 17), ;■/ is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are. quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they cUtacked Pompey. Indirect Discourse. 247 d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as, non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not consider what a task it is. vineam quo in agro couseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R. 6), in what soil a vineyard should be set you imcst observe thus. Note. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions; but they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as direct without distortion of the meaning. e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used parentheti- cally as indefinites^ and do not take a subjunctive : such are nescio quis, etc., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane quan- tum, etc. : as, qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 6), who greatly extol that painless7iess {whatez'er it is). mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), it helped marvellously. f. Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by ai in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 333. r) : as, circumfunduntur hostes si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. y]), the enemy pour round [to see] if they cajt find entrance. visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home. III. — Indirect Discourse, Note. — The Indirect Discourse {Oratio Obliqua), yi'iih. the accusa- tive and infinitive, is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in the older members of the family, but some forms like it have grown up later in English and German. Its essential char- acter is that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. In any case, the per- son of the verb is necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons. This construction, however, is not limited to the language of some other person ; but may be used in any case where the idea may be conceived of as expressed in the form of an independent statement, whether by another or by oneself Thus / see, or / think may take the same con- struction as he said, whenever the object of seeing or thinking can be expressed in the form of a sentence ; since any thing that can be said can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case form to complete or modify the action expressed by the 248 Dependeftt Constructiotu. verb and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of Saying and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as, " The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses." The simple form of indirect statement with the infinitive was after- wards amplified by introducing any dependent or modifying clause* also ; and in Latin it became a common construction, which could be expanded to any length, and could report whole speeches, &c., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of re- porting speeches in English, where only the person or tense is changed, as is also rarely the case in Sanskrit.) The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses probably came from regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker, or gram- matically, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis, like if we may believe the speaker. So the French conditional is often equivalent to " it is said " : as, ainsi il aurait a peti prh doubli, "it is said to have nearly doubled," lit. "would have," i.e. if we should believe the report. So in German, Er soil krank sein, *' he is said to be sick." The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with change of person and tense (if neces- sary), as in the reporter's style, and in Sanskrit. 335. A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect Quotation is one which adapts the original words to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. Remark. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqua) is used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence of dif- ferent construction — which indirectly express the word or thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be extended to a narrative or address of any length, — as found in the Speeches of Caesar and Livy, — the form being dependent on some word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced. Such words are dico, respondeo, nuntio, aio ; while inquam always serves (in pro.se) to introduce a Direct Quotation. The term Direct Discourse (oratio recta) includes ail other forms of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or command. Indirect Discourse. 249 Indirect Narrative. 336. In a Declaratory Sentence in indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Sub- junctive : as, esse nonullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct discourse, sunt nonnulli . . . valet. \ nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath [direct; nisi Juravero, faciam\. Stoici negant quidquam [esse] bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 21), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with a negative.] a. The Subject of the Infinitive in indirect discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is wanting in the direct. But it is omitted, rarely, when it would be easily understood : as, orator sum, I am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] he is an orator. ignoscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness. rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 12), / asked whether they [the curtains] had come to Agrigentum : he answered that they had. Remark. — After a relative, or quam {than), where the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : as, te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. M. i), / suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I. b. A subordinate clause merely explanatory^ and containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quota- tion, takes the Indicative. It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the Indicative or Sub- junctive (compare 340-342) : as, quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods ? cujus ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9), by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation ; quae gessis set would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] 250 Dependent Constructions. Remark. — Some clauses introduced by relatives are really inde- pendent, and take the accusative and infinitive (see 180. /). Rarely subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with qucun: as, Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quem cum audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex quo [ = et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. \Qi) , the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this mxt- urally follows. quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends. addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured. The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see 332. b). Conditions. 337. In a Conditional Sentence, the indicative in Apodosis is in any case represented by the corresponding tense of the Infinitive. The subjunctive is represented by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the participle in urus with fui for the pluperfect subjunOtive) . The Protasis, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive : as, se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint (B. C. i. I ), he promises not to fail, if they will speak their minds boldly [non deero si voletis]. Note. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunctive in apodosis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with fuisse is quite common, even when in the Direct we should expect the Imperfect. Questions. 338. A Question coming immediately after a verb of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see above, 334) ; but questions — generally rhetorical — coming in course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory Sentences : as, num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (B. G. i. 14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [num pos- sum ? ] quem signum daturum fugientibus } quem ausurum Alexandro suc- ccdere (Q.C.iii. 5). who rvill give the signal on the retreat i who will ftqrp to succeed Alexander t Indirect Discourse. 251 Remark. — Generally real questions, expecting an answer (chiefly in the second person)^ take the subjunctive. Questions asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive (see 334. b). Commands. 339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Sub- junctive in indirect discourse: as, reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13), remem- ber [said he] the ancient disaster, ^c. [reminiscere]. ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] bring it about [noli committere]. finem orandi facial (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty [fac]. The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- going principles in a connected address : — Indirect Discourse. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn par- tem ituros atque ibi futures Helve- tiosy ubi eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello per- sequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Ro- mani, et pristinae virtutis Helveti- orum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus esset^ cum ii qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut suae magno opere virtuti tri- buerety aut ipsos despiceret : se ita a patribus majoribusque suis didi- cisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenderent, aut insidiis niterentur. Quare ne committeret, ut is locus ubi constitissent ex calamitate pop- uli Romani et internecione exerci- tus nomen caperet, aut memoriam proderet. B. G. i. 13. Si Direct Discourse. pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam par- tem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos Caesar constituerit atque esse voluerit : sin bello persequi per s ever a.bit, reminiscere [inquit] et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum ador- tus es, cum ii qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut tuae magno opere virtuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris : nos ita a patribus majoribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare noli committere, ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calami- tate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen capiat, aut memo- riam prodat. Intermediate Clauses. Note. — Besides the modal dependent clauses now mentioned, another construction is found in Latin, which has no English equivalent what- ever ; namely, that of a subjunctive clause subordinate to another which is itself subordinate. This is found when any infinitive or subjunctive con- 252 Dependent Constrtictions, struction — itself dependent on some leading verb — has another clause dependent on it. In this case the verb of the latter is almost invariably in the subjunctive, subject, however, to the following conditions : i. that if the subordinate clause is inserted for mere definition or explanation, BO that it may be regarded as true independently of the connection in which it stands, its verb will be in the indicative ; 2. that if, on the other hand, it depends on an infinitive or subjunctive so as to become logi cally a part of the same expression, its verb must regularly be in the sub- junctive. It often depends entirely upon the feeling of the writer whether the Indicative or Subjunctive shall be used. 340. A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer {Informal In- direct discourse), or when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive^ {Attraction). 341. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to express the thought of some other person — a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see 336). b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect discourse proper : as, animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animal feels what it is that is fit. hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pun- gat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.] c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it : as, nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii. 67), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, " that he will inflict punishment," is contained in minatur.] prohibitio toUcndi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain. d. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) : ^ as, 1 See note at head of Indirect Discourse, p. 247. I ' This usage probably originates in Apodosis, the condition being the supposed | truth of the speaker, the main subject. (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 248.) '■ Intermediate Clauses. 253 Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter auccensuit (Att. iii. i), Favo- nius gently chided me for my defence. Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (id.), Paetus presented me all the books which [he said] his father had left. Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause^ but with nearly the same meaning as non quod : as, pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus inten- ditur . . . (Tusc. ii. 23), boxers groan not with pain, but, ^r'c. non quia philosophia . . . percipi non posset (id. i. i), not that philos- ophy cannot be acquired, S'c. non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is necessary. 342. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause (or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the sub- junctive if it is regarded as an integral part of that clause : ^ as, non pugnabo quominus utrum veils eligas (Div. C. 18), / will not oppose your taking which you will. imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum judica- tum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders themy lo/iile the affair is under Judgment, to keep the man ; when he is judged, to bring him to him. etenim quis tarn dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum vldeat, tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose. Am. 1 1 ), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ? si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis probare deberent (Div. C. 6), if the Sicilians said this to you, would they noi say a thing which they tnust prove to everybody ? mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui slnt in proeliis interfecti (Or. 44), // is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. ' The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends, — or at least of its original nature. In all cases except Purpose and Result, this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same ; as the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch of characteristic. (See Note at head.) It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the preceding. Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt^ and then will be Indirect Discourse (under 356. b) ; or it may stand for erunt^ and will then be Protasis (under 337). 254 Synopsis of Constructions. SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. I. Subjective r I. of 1 '.{2. of 5 I3. or( I. — Constructions of Cases. Genitive. Possession, 214; ' 2. Partitive: 3. Objective: Source developed into Material, 214. e ; Quality (with Adjectives), 215. of the Whole, after words designating a Part, 216. 1. with Nouns of action and feeling, 217. •i^u A i-„«..- ^ i Relative adjective or Verbal, 218. 2. with Adjectives | ^^^ Specification (later use), 218. i -x with Verbs \ °^ Memory and Feeling, 219, 221. ^' \ of Accusing, &c. (secondary obj.), 220. Dative. As iNm^ECT OBJECT (general use,: I l' ^j;!; ^raSlrWes^.k a. of Possession (with ^jj^?), 231. b. of Agency (with Gerund), 232. c. of Service (predicate use), 233. d. of Fitness, &c. (with Adjectives), 234. e. of Reference {dativus commodi), 235. Accusative. Special or Uses: Idiomatic I. Primary Object r a. Directly affected by the Action, 237. = I*. Effect o£ the Action \ l^:;^l?jf^J:'±^l^: 2. Secondary Object Idiomatic Uses I. Ablative (from) : 2. Instrumental (w/M) 3. Locative (/>/, ou, at) r a. Pre '.{ b. of \c. of ( Cognate Accusative,238. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, &c.),239.a. ' Asking or Teaching (the Thing), 239. c. Concealing (the Person), 239. d. a. Adverbial, 240. a. b. of Specification (Greek Accusative), 240. c. c. of Extent and Duration, 240. e. d. of Exclamation, 240. d. e. Subject of Infinitive ( Indirect Discourse), 240./. Ablative. a. of Separation, Privation, and Want, 243. b. of Source (participles of origin, &c.), 244. c. of Cause (gaudeo, diapius, &c.), 245. d. of Agent (with ab after Passives), 246. e. of Comparison (than), 247. a. of Means and Instrument, 248. b. of Accompaniment (with cum), 248. a. c. of Object of the Deponents utor, &c., 249. d. of Degree of Difference, 250. e. of Quality (with Adjectives), 251. f. of Price and Exchange, 252. g. of Specification, 253. a. of Place 7vtifrf (commonly with In), 254. b. of Idiomatic Expressions, 254. a. c. of Time and Circumstance, 255. d. Ablative Absolute, 255. The figures refer to Sections of the Revised Grammar. Synopsis of Constructions. 255 II. — Syntax of the Verb. I. — Moods and Tenses. *. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time, 264. Independent : Wish, Exhortation, Command, Question {dubitative), 265-268. ' Purpose or Result (with tit, ne), 317-319. Characteristic (Relative Clause), 320. r Subjunctive : ■{ Relative Time (with r«w), 325. Conditions \ ^"*f ^ (primary tenses), 307. / Contrary to Fact, 308. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse), 340. Indirect Questions, 334. b. Dependent (Chap. V.) J. Imperative : (. Infinitive: Direct Commands (often subjunctive), 269. Statutes, Laws and Wills (Future), 289. d. Prohibitions (early or poetic use), 269. a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs, 270. Object I Cornplementary Infinitive, 271. / Indirect Discourse (with subj. -accusative), 272. Idiomatic Uses ' Purpose (poetic or Greek use), 273. Exclamation (with subject-accus. ), 274. Historical Infinitive, 275. I I. Participles : Gerund or Gerundive 3. Supine 2. — Noun and Adjective Forms. I" Simple Predicate, 291. a. Present and Perfect J Periphrastic Perfect (passive). I Predicate of Circumstance, 292. [ Descriptive ( Indirect Discourse). b Future \ Periphrastic with esse, 293. } Periphrastic with/«/ (= Pluperfect Subj.). !as Descriptive Adjective, 294. Periphrastic with esse. of Purpose with certain verbs. Genitive as Objective Genitive, 298. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs, 299. Accusative, with certain Prepositions, 300. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions, 301. Former Supine (in um)^ with Verbs of Motion, 302, Latter Supine (in u), chiefly with Adjectives, t^t^. a. b. c. d. {b. 3. — Conditional Sentences. Simple Present or Past Conditions, nothing implied as to fulfilment ; Indicative, Present or Past Tenses, 306. 2. Future Conditions: 3. Conditions Contrary to Fact : 4. General Conditions 5. Implied Conditions ; a. More vivid (probable) : Future Indicative, 307, b. Less vivid (improbable) : Present Subjunctive. a. Present : Imperfect Subjunctive, 308. b. Past : Pluperfect Subjunctive, 308. Indefinite : 2d person. Subjunctive, 309. Repeated Action : Imperfect or Pluperfect with Indicative in Apodosis. a. Disguised ( jn clause of Fact, Wish, &c., 310. ^ \ m Participial Expression, 310. A rk«,:**»j I Potential Subjunctive, 31 T. b. Omitted j Subjunctive of Modesty, 311. I'- 256 General Rules of Syntax. General Rules of Syntax. 1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in Case. 2. Adjectives agree with nouns in Gender, Number, and Case. 3. Possessive adjectives are used for the Genitive, and in any case may have a genitive in agreement. 4. Relatives agree with their antecedent in Gender and Number ; their Case depending on the construction of their clause. 5. A Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person. 6. Two or more singular subjects — also collective nouns, with quisque and uterque — may take a plural verb. 7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative. 8. A Noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same thing, is put in the Genitive. 9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and (with adjectives) measure or quality. 10. Words denoting a Part are followed by the genitive of the word denoting the Whole. 1 1. Certain genitives of Quantity — as, magni, parvi, nihili, pluris^ minoris, — are used to denote indefinite Value. 12. Many words of memory and feehng, knowledge or ignorance, likeness or nearness, fulness and want — also verbals, and participles used as adjectives — take the genitive. 13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and admonishing take the genitive of the Charge or Penalty. 14. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object. 15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, and help, are followed by the dative. 16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, trust, and their con- traries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the dative. 17. The dative is used with esse to denote the Owner ; also with the participle in dua to denote the Agent. 18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, /«, inters obypost^ prae, pro, sub, super, take the dative. 19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like — sometimes of comparmg and taking away — take the accusative and dative, 20. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or End ; often with another dative of the person or thing affected. 21. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. 22. The Subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative. 23. Duration of time and extent of space are in the accusative. 24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification. 25. Verbs of asking and teaching take two accusatives, one of a person, and the other of a thinj^. G enteral Rules of Syntax. 257 26. The Ablative is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, quality, specification, and price. 27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative with ab. 28. Words denoting separation, and plenty or want, — also opus and usus, signifying need, — govern the ablative. 29. Participles denoting birth or origin take the ablative. 30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, with many verbals, as con- tentus, laettis, praeditus, take the ablative. 31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds, take the ablative. 32. The comparative degree may be followed by the ablative. 33. Degree of difference is put in the ablative. 34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative. 35. A subject and predicate in the ablative are used to define the time or circumstances of an action {Ablative Absolute). 36. The name of the Town where is in form Hke the genitive of singular names in «j-, a, um, otherwise dative or ablative ; of that WHITHER in the accusative, and whence in the ablative. So of domus riis (also, htimi, belli, militiae), and many names of Islands. 37. With Other words (including names of countries) Prepositions must be used to denote where, whither, or whence. 38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or Object, or to complete the action of a verb. 39. The Infinitive is used, with subject-accusative, with expres- sions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving. 40. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the indicative in narration {Historical Infinitive). 41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerund- ive in agreement with a noun, is construed as a verbal noun. 42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion, to express the purpose of the motion ; the Supine in u with adjectives. 43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, command, or concession, also in questions of doubt. 44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result — also of characteristic and of relative time — require the Subjunctive. 45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the Subjunctive. 46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect, in those contrary to fact. 47. Dependent Clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunc- tive construction, take the Subjunctive. 48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed in the Subjunctive by primary, and secondary by secondary. For the government of Prepositions, see page loi. For the constructions of Cases, see pages 145-183. 258 Arrangement. Chapter VI. — Arrangement » Note. — While in Latin the words do not follow the order ot construction, yet they have a regular arrangement ; which, however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, and clearness. Normal Order. 343. Regularly the subject stands ^rj^f, followed by its modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words which depend upon it : as, civis Romanus sum [not sum Romanus civis). voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a virtute de- torquent (Off. ii. 10). Remark. — This is the order usually to be followed where no empha- sis is thrown on any particular word, as in simple narration of fact : as, Hannibal, imperator factus, | proximo triennio omnes gentes Hispa- niae | bello subegit (Nep. Hann. 3). a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the predicate, is often placed after the copula : as, qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). haec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6). b. The forms of sum meaning there is^ 6-»r., often come first in the sentence: as, sunt quaedam ofiicia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur (id. i. 18). c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the phrase, goes before its noun ; one simply descriptive commonly follows : as, omnes homines decet. est vlri magni rebus agitatis punirc sontes (Off. i. 24). omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29). cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38). Laelius et sapiens ct amtcitiae gloria excellens (Lael. i). d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives or Interrogativcs stand first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the word they qualify. Emphasis, 259 Emphasis. Note. — Though the order of words in a Latin sentence often seems quite arbitrary, yet it will be observed that almost every arrangement preduces some effect, such as must usually be given in English by em- phasis, or stress of voice. In actual practice, what may be called the normal order is rarely found. It is continually altered, either for the sake of Emphasis, — to throw stress on the more important words ; or for the sake of Euphony, — to make the sentence more agreeable to the ear. 344. The normal order of words may be changed or reversed for the sake of emphasis. a. Particularly, the verb comes first, and the subject last. This makes either or both emphatic : as, dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence comes first, and with the following last : as, ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. i. 32). objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset ; duxerat autem consul ille in ^Etoliam ut scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2). maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tribuere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum, contra officium est (Off. iii. 10). c. A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound tenses becomes emphatic : as, ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as, de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24). de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17). e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as possible, so as to include less important words : as, objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 38). f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the same order {anaphora)^ or in exactly the opposite order {chiasmus). The latter, which is very common, has its name from the Greek X, on account of the cross arrangement. Thus, rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31). pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Fin. »i- 5)- non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lael. 14). Here the arrangement of cases only is chiastic, that of ideas is regular.] 26o Arrangement. g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together, also words from the same root. h, A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other. This is often joined with chiasmus : as, et superjecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2, 11). arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. i, 5). /. Almost universally the main word of the sentence is put first (rarely last). This may be simply the emphatic word, con- taining the idea most prominent in the writer's mind {efnphasis) ; or it may be contrasted with some other word preceding or follow- ing {antithesis). Special Rules. 345. The following are special rules of arrange- ment : — a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tonus and versus) ; but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and adjective : as, quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus cum copiis ; nulla in re. b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause ; enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word ; ne - . . quidem include the emphatic word or words. c. Inquam, inquit, credo, opinor, quaeso, used parenthetically, always follow one or more words. d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence. ), I incas (udis). But pecus^ udis. 1 10. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except i o, are Short : as, &d, So, istHc, amiit, sunSLttir. Exceptions. — donh.fdc, nic, sometimes Mc\ en, ndn^quln, iln ; crds, plus ; car, pdr, air. 3. — Penultimate Syllables. 349. A Noun is said to increase, when in any case I it has more syllables than in the nominative singular. Penultimate Syllables. 267 A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more syllables than in the Stem, inclusive of the fifial vowel : as, amd-, teg^-, capi-} a. The final syllable of an inflected word is called the Termina- tion ; that immediately preceding is called the Increment. b. In such words as stelldrum, corporis, amdtis, tegitis, the penultimate syllable is called the increment. In ittnSribus, amav^ritis, the syllables marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the noun or verb. 350. In the increment of nouns and adjectives, a and o are generally Long ; e, i, u, y, generally Short : as, aetatis, honoris, servorum ; opSris, carminis, murmtiris, peciidis, chlamydia. Exceptions are : — a: — baccar (arts), hepar (dtis), jubar {dris), lar {Idris)^ mas {mdris), nectar {dris), par {pdris), sal {satis), vas {vddis), daps {ddpis), fax {facts), anthrax (dcis). 6 : — neuters of the third declension (except os, oris) : as, cor- pus {oris) ; also, arbor {oris), scrobs {scrobis), ops {dpts\ bos ipdvis). e: — increments of fifth declension; also heres {edis), lex {legis), locuples {etis), merces {edis), plebs (plebis), quies{etis), rex {regis), ver {veris), crater {-eris). But see § 347. 2. i : — most nouns and adjectives in ix : 2iS,felfcis, radicis (except flix, nix, strix); dis {ditis), glis {gliris), lis {litis), vis {vires), Quirites, Sammies. u: — forms from nouns in us: as, paludis, tellUris, virtutis j also, lux {lucis),frux {frUgis). 351. In the increments of Verbs the characteristic vowels are as follows: — 1. Of the first conjugation a : as, amdre, amdtur. 2. Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur. 3. Of the third conjugation S, I : as, tegSre, tegttur. 4. Of the fourth congugation i : as, audire, auditur, Exc. — do and its compounds have S : as, ddre, circumddbat. 1 The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (see 67) ; and that of terminations is seen under the various Inflections, where it is better to learn them. For quantities of Greek stems, see 63 (p. 25). 268 Prosody, a. In other verbal increments (not stem-vowels) — a is always Long : as, monearis, tegamua. e is Long : as, tegebam, audiebar. But it is short before -ram, -rim, -ro; in the future personal endings -bgris, -bgre; and some- times in the perfect -grunt (as stH^runtque comae, Mn. ii. 774). i is Long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation : as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short : as, monitus) ; also in the subjunctive present of esse and velle {simus, veltmus) ; and (rarely) in the endings -rimus, -ritis ; but short in the future forms amabitis, etc. o is found only in imperatives, and is always Long. u is Short in silmus, volttmus, quaestlmus ; in the Supine and its derivatives it is long : as, solutiirus. b. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the first syllable : ^ as, juvi, jutum {juvo), vidi, visum {video) ; fugi ifiigid). Exceptions. — btbi,dSdi{do),fidi(Jindo), sctdi{scindd), stHi (sto), stUi {sisio), tUli {fero)j — clium {cieo\ ddtum {do\ Itum {ed), litum {lino), quUum {queo), rdtum {reor), rututn {ruo\sAtum sero), si turn {sino), stdtum (jto or sisto). In some compounds of sto, stdtum is found long, ?lS prostdtum. c. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables : as, c6cldi {cddo\ didici {disco), pttpttgi {pungo) ; also ctlcurri {curro), tgtendl {tendo\ mSmordi {mordeo). But cScidi from caedo, pe- pedi from pido. 352. The following terminations are preceded by a long vowel. 1. -al, -ar : as vectlgal, pulvlnar; and numeral endings, as vicesimus. Exceptions. — antmal^ cdpttal, jUbar. 2. -brum, -crum, -trum : as, Idvdcrum, dilubrum^ vir&trum. 3. -do, -ga, -go : 2^,formldo, aurlga, imdgo. Exceptions. — cddo, divide, ido, mddo, sdltdo, spddo, tripldo; canga,fiiga, tdga,pldga; dgo, igo, tigo, nigo, rigo, 4. -le, -les, -lis : as, anclle, miles, crudilis, hosHlis. * Either by contraction or vowel-increase, perhaps both. Penultimate Syllables. 269 Exceptions. — mdl^j indoles, sicbdlesj gracilis, hUmilis, stmi- liSf st^rtlis; and verbal adjectives in ills : as, dmdbUis, docilis, fdcUis, terrlbilis. 5. -ma, -men, -mentum : 2iS, poe?na,Jltimen,jumentum. Exceptions. — dntma, lacrima, victtmaj tdmen, columen; with rSgtmen and the like from verb-stems. 6. -muB, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus , -neus, -rius : as, extremus, siipi- nus, octoni, s^verus, fumosus, pSrttus, sendrius, extrdneus. Exceptions. — (^.) I before -mus : as, finitimus, mdrttimus, (except bfrnus, trimus guadrimus, dpinius, ?mmus, limus) ; and in superlatives (except imus, primus) ; domus, humus, nimus, cdldmus, thdldmus. (b.) i before -nus: as in crastlnus, fraxinus, &^c. (except divi- nus, mdtutmus, vespertinus, repentmus) ; dstnus, comtnusy emtnus, domtnus, f acinus, protmus, termtnus, vdticinus j mdnus, ocednus, Pldtdnus ; gSnus ; bonus, onus, sonus. But divinus and the like. (^.) g before -rus : as, m^rus, hM^ra (except procerus, since- rus, sSverus') ; also, barbdrus, chorus, nurus, plrus j sdttra, am- phora, ancora, lyra, purpura; forum, pdrum. {d.) Id tus, mStus, vStus, digitus, servUus, splrttus ; quo tus, tdtusj habitus, and the like, anhelitus. 7. -na, -ne, -nis : as, carina, mane, indnis. Exceptions. — adv^na, dotntna, femina, mdcMna, mtna, gSna, pdgtnaj b^ne, sine; cdnis, cinis, juv^nis. 8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis : as, altdre, sdlutdris, moneta, immitis. Exceptions. — mdre, hildris, rota, nota, sitis, potis, and most nouns in -ita. 9. -tim, -tum, and syllables beginning with v : as, privdtim, quercetum, oliva. Exceptions. — affdtim, stdtim; nivis {nix); brSvis, grdvis, l^vis {light) ; ndvus, novem; and several verb roots (as, Jiivo, fdveo)y also dvis, bovis, Jdvis, 10. -dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix : and the numeral endings -ginti, ginta : as, judex, ilex, rddix, viginti, triginta. Exceptions. — cHlex, silex, riimex. 353. The following terminations are preceded by a «hort vowel : — I. -CUB, -dus, -lus : as, rusticus, cdlidus, glddidlus. 270 Prosody. Exceptions, — dpdcus, dmicus ; apricus,ftcus, mendlcus ^ pudi- cusj fidusy nidus, sidus j and u before -dus : as, crudus, nudus; e before -lus, 2iS phdselus {except ^^/us, scilus); dstlus ; lilcus, 2. -no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs : as, destlno, erf minor, giro, quiror. Exceptions. — festino^ prdplno, sdglno, oplnor, inclinoj decldro, spero, sptro, oro, duro, mlror. 3. -ba, -bo, -pa, -po : 2i%,fdba, Mbo, liipa, cripo. Exceptions. — ^/ee 10. a, 158. a); as, dlco (cf. maledlcus)^ duco {diicis), fldo {perfldus), vocis (vdco), legio {ligo.) c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which com- pose them : as, occXdo {cddo), occldo {caedo)y iniquus {aeguus). d. Greek words compounded with -npo have o short, ^^ prdpheta, prdldgus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short, as prd- ficiscor, prdjiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, nifas, nigo, niqueo, nequis, nequam. So dejiro and pejiro from juro. Rhythm, 271 Chapter II. — Rhythm. Note. — The essence of the Rhythm of poetry is the regular recur- rence of syllables which are pronounced with more stress than those in- tervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the applica- tion of rhythm to words to form poetry, the exactness of the intervals of time is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words ; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronun- ciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. These two adaptations take place in very different degrees ; one language disre- garding more the intervals of time, and another more the pronunciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, — as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, — was not so restricted. But the pure metrical forms were after- wards adopted from the Greek, so that all the principal poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which re- quire the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. In poetry that was sung doubtless the strict rhythm was more closely followed in practice than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ; and there are some cases In which the regularity of the true time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans bothdistinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the length of time required for their pronunciation, viz., longs and shorts, in the ratio of two to one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often a long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though doubtless distinguishable in time from one short (see 355. c, d.). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregu- larity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word : Hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (see 358). 272 Prosody. Measures. 355. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into MEASURES or FEET. The most natural division of musical time is into measures consisting of either two or three equal parts,^ besides which, the ancients also dis- tinguished those of five equal parts.^ Remark. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure, called the ICTUS ^beat)y or metrical accent (see 358). a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign ^, orin musical nota- tion by the quaver^ f . b. A long syllable is regularly equal to two 7norce^ and is repre- sented by the sign _ , or by the crotchet j* . c. A long syllable may be protracted^ so as to occupy the time of three or four morcB j this is represented by the sign i_ (j* *), t_j (P). d. A long syllable may be contracted^ so as to occupy only the time of a short one : this has been represented by the sign >. e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora. f. Pauses sometimes occur at the end of verses or series to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign A ; one of two morce by the sign ~R. g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude.^ It is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. 1 Making what is called in music " double " or " triple " time. These measures in Prosody are commonly called "feet," following the usage of the Greek and Latin grammarians. 2 This division is not unknown to modem music, although rare. ■ The same thing occurs in modem poetry, and in modem music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacnisis, i. e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would leem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic in its structure, ot at least accented the second syllable rather tlian the first Rhythm. 2/^ 356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin verse, together with their musical notation, are the fol- lowing : — a. Triple or Unequal Measures (|).^ 1. Trochee {J_ \j -ff): as, regis. 2. Iambus (w ± =P P): as, duces. • 3. Tribrach'' (^ ^ ^ = i^ • •) : as, hofmnts. h. Double or Equal Measures (|). 1. Dactyl {1_ ^^^ = f P f) : as, consults, 2. Anapaest {\j\j L ^f f f) ■ as, monttds. 3. Spondee (_^ _ =P P)\ as, reges. c. Six-timed Measures (f ). 1. Ionic a majore ( v^ w = f j* f f) : as, confecSrdt, I I yJ 2. Ionic = I N • Cyclic Dactyl : _^ ^ ^ | j^ ^ (or nearly N IS JS). 3 Cyclic Anap^st : ^ the same reversed. Irrational Trochee : _ > = J^ Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire verse, and controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, assuming \ to be the unit of musical time : — 3, 4, S, «, % 10, 12, 1«, 16, 18, «o. 25. 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said con- ventionally to •* sing." Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse gives us the exact time, though not the tttne, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relation of length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remem- ber that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Do not scan^ but read metrically. 357. In many cases measures of the same time may be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place Rhythm. 275 of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long one* In the former case the measure is said to be con- tracted ; in the latter, to be resolved. Thus : — a. A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl ( w w) or anapaest (v^ vy _) ; and a Tribrach (w w w) of a trochee (_ w) or Iambus (w _). The optional substitution of a long for two short syllables is represented by the sign 00. d. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee — a spondee also being admissible — is represented thus, _ ^X^. c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (358. a) is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but the accent to indicate it is placed on the former : as, nunc experJar | sftn^ Sceto | tibJ cor acr^ in | pdctore. Bacch. 405. Tlie Musical Accent. 358. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the other part is called the Arsis.^ a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus {beat). It is marked thus : _!_ w w b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When this coincides with a, rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in Prosody is called Diaeresis. 1 The Thesis signifies properly, the putting down of the foot in beating time, in the march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis the raising of the foot ("upward beat"). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, re- spectively, the ending and beginning of a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as is now becoming more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. The prevailing error arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a dcfisi tion which was true only of iambic or anapaestic. 276 Prosody, Chapter III. — Versification, The Terse. 359. A single line in poetry — that is, a series of meas- ures set in a recognized order — is called a Verse.^ Note. — Most of the common verses, however, originally consisted of two series, but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic verse by the Diceresis^ in dactylic Hexameter by the Ccesiira. a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, there is a pause to fill the measure ; if complete it is called AcATALECTic, and needs no pause. b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of Quantity and Versification, is called Scanning or Scan- sion (i. e. a cli?nbing or advance by steps). Remark. — In reading verse rhythmically care should be taken, while preserving the measure or time of the syllables, not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. Elided syllables should be sounded but lightly ; and if it is remembered that final m had a nasal and feeble sound, its partial suppression before an initial vowel (see d ) will be easy. c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision {bruising)} Remark. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha {smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next begins with a vowel : this is called Synapheia {binding). d. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner : ^ this is called Ecthlipsis {squeezing out) : as, monstr«w horrend«w, informs, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. — jEn. iii. 658. 1 The word Verse {x>ersus) signifies a turning back, \. e- to recommence in like manner, as opposed to Prose {prorsus ox proversus\ which means straight ahead. 2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some- times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets : as, To inveigle and invite th^ unwary sense. — Comus, 538. In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a consonant (compare 13, ^) : as, senio confectuj quiescit — Ennius (C. M. 5). • Hence a final syllable in m is said to have no quantity of its own — its vowd, in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position. Versification: Hexameter, 277 Remark. — The monosyllables do, dem^ spe, sj>em, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural) are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a w^ord ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called Hiatus {gapi?tg.) The final vowel is sometimes shortened. f. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause : ' it is then said to be long by Diastole : as, nostror««« obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short {syllaba anceps). Formg of Verse. 360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental measure: as, Dactylic, Iambic^ Trochaic, AnapcBstic ; and from the number of measures (single or double) vvhich it contains : as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter. Remark. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter. 361. A Stanza or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the name of some eminent poet : as, Sapphic, Alcaic, Archilochian, Horatian. 1. — Dactylic Hexameter. 362. The Dactylic Hexameter {Heroic Verse) consists regularly of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : — or in musical notation as follows : — ir-iTircj'irrjir^'ir'i/irj^i a. For either of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be sub- stituted, and must be for the last. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place, when the verse is called spondaic. 1 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. 2^8 Prosody. b. The verse must have one principal caesura — sometimes two — almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. Usually the principal caesura is after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another in the second, thus dividing the line into three parts : as, parts fe|rox II arldensqw^ 6cu|lls || et | siblla | coUa. JSn. v. 277. Remark. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense. A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot (as in the fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses in c) is called feminine. A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse except the first. When the fourth foot ends a word,the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes improperly called bucolic ccesura^ from its frequency in pastoral poetry. c. The introductory verses of the ^Eneid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in each verse being marked by double lines : — Arma vl|rumqug cajno || Trojjae qui | primus Sb | oris ItaiT|am fri|t6 pr6fu|gus || La|vTn?aqug | venJt litSrS, j rnvXtum ill^ | et ter|ris || jacftatus St | alto VI supe|rum sae|vae || mgm6|rem Ju|nonIs 6b ( iram ; multa qu6|qu^ et bel|l6 pas|sus || dum | cond^rgt | urbem, Tnfer|retquS dg|5s LjltI|o, || ggnus | undS La|tinum, Alba|nTqu6 pajtres, || at|qu^ altae | moenia | Romae. The feminine caesura is seen in the following : — Dis genl|tl p6tu|erg : || t6|nent mgdr|a 5mnm | sllvae. ^n. vi. 131. Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : — " Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired i^thiop people, Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus, Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athen^, Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ; Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water." Kingsley*s Andromeda. Versification. 279 ^. — £legiac Stanza. 363. The Elegiac Stanza is constructed by alternating the hexameter verse with the so-called Pentameter,^ which is the same with it, only omitting the last half of the fourth and sixth feet : as, \70 I — \7D I — II A I — wwj — \J \j\ A r Lj ii u 1 1 I u .•r a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two half-verses, of which the latter always consists of two dactyls followed by a sin- gle syllable. b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura; but the first half- verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to complete the measure.'' c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : — cum subit I nil I us trIs|tTssima | noctis ijmago qua mihls\ipre|miim | A || tempus in | urbe fu|It, cum repel to nocltem qua | tot mlhl | cara rejliqui, labitur | ex 6cu|lis A || nunc quoque | gutta me|is. jam prope | \vlx ade|rat qua | me dlsjcedere Caesar finlbus I extre|mae a || jusserat | Ausonijae. Ovid. Trist. i. 3. Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary, amatory, or mournful, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German : — " In the Hexlameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column ; In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back." 1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows : — II wwl ww| il |vyw Iww II 2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by ^q protraction of the pre- ceding syllable, thus : — \j \j \ vyv^|i_j|| v^wl wv^l — A 28o Prosody. 3. — Other Dactylic Terseg. 364. Rarely other dactylic verses or half-verses are used by the lyric poets. Thus : — a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, form- the Alcmanian Strophe^ as follows : — O for|tes pe|j5raque | passi, mecum | saepe vl|rl || nunc | vino | pellltS | curas ; eras in I gens itelrablmus | aequor. HoR. — 6>f/. i. 7 (so 28 ; Ep. 12). Note. — This is a single measure, its time being represented by -^ b. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter, forming the First Archilochian Strophe : as, difFuIgerS nl|ves || redelunt jam | gramtna | campis, arb6rl|busque colmae; mutat I terra vT|ces || et | decres|centia | ripas flumlna | praetergjunt. HoR. — Oii. iv. 7. [For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alter- nating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see 372. il.] 4. — Iambic Trimeter. 365. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double iambus {iambic dipody) : as, It is seen in the following : — jam )am efftca|cl do mSnus | scIentTae supplex dt 5|ro regna per | Pr6serplnae, p€r et DIa|nae non mdvenlda numtna, p$r atqu2 iTlbrds carmlnum | vSlentlum de|fix<1 cae|lo dev6ca|r6 stdSra, ClnTd/^ par|c5 vocTbus | tandem sScrTs, cItumquS re|tr6 retrS s6l|vt5 turbTnem. HoR. Epod. 17. It is represented in English by the Alexandrine: as, ** Hyperion's march they spy, and glittering shafts of war." — Gray. Versification: Iambic. 281 a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry, alternating with the Dimeter, making the Iambic Strophe^ as follows : — beatus il|le qui procul | negotHs, ut prisca gens | mortalium, paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suis, solutus om|ni fenore ; neque exclta|tur classico | miles truci, j nequ^ horret i|ratum mare ; ' forumque vl|tat, et super |ba cMum p6tenti5|rum limlna. HOR. Epod. 2. b. In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee or its equivalent (anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of either pair ; also a Tribrach {^ ^ sj) anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets these substitutions may be made in any foot except the last : as, O liicls all me rdctor || et | caeli decus ! qu2 altdrna cur|ru sp^tia || flam|mlfer^ dmbiens, illustre lae|tis || ^xseris | terris capiit. Seneca. Here. Fur. 592 - 94. quid quadrls ? an|n6s sdxSgTnlta ndtus es aut plus ut conjficl*? ; i.gxum In his | regidnlbus. Terence. — Heaut. 10, 11. homd s,um: huma|ni || n/hil a m/? ali|enum piitd. vel md monejr^ hoc || v^l perc5n|tari puta. id. Heaut. 77, 78. c. The Choliambic {lame Iambic^ substitutes a trochee for the last iambus : as, 11^ — w— l^_w_|w_i_|_AII ! aequ^ ^st beajtus dc p6e|ma cum scribit : ! tam gaudet In ] se, tumque s^ ip|se miratur. Catull. xxii. 15, 16. d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : — II )^ —\j |:^_w_|wL_v>: II It is used in combination with other measures (see 372, 11), and is shown in the following : — Vulcdniis arjdens urTt ofifltcfnas. HoR. — Od. i. 4. or in English : — " On purple peaks a deeper shade descending." — Scott, 282 Prosody. Note. — The Iambic Trimeter may be regarded, metrically, as " a sin- gle foot " (its time being represented by V). consisting of three dipodies, and having its principal accent, probably, on the second syllable of the verse, though this is a matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being a substitute for an iambus, is irrational^ and must be shortened to fit the measure of the iambus (represented by > ). 5. — Other Iambic Verse. 366. Some other forms of Iambic verse are used, as follows : — a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic {Septenarius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue : as, i\afn idcirc^ arces|s5r, nuptlas | qu5d m/ddpara|rl sdnslt. quibus qutdem quam facl|le pdtuerat | qul^scl si hie | quidsset ! Ter. Andria^ 690, 691. The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be represented according to our musical notation (see note 3, p. 272) : — llwi^w_w|JLw_w|^w_w|i A II Its movement is like the following : — " New principles I found would fit full well my constitution." Vicar of Bray. b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic {Octonarius) consists of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in lively dialogue : as, hSctndst humalnum fdctw aut Tn|cept;/ ? hdctnest oflflfclum pStrls ? quid illud est? pro 1 d^um fidem, | quid ^st, si hoc n5n conjtu- m^llast ? Andria^ 236, 237. c. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four {acatalectic) or three and a half {catalectic) iambic feet. The former is used (as above, 365. a) in combination with a longer verse, and the latter only in choruses: as, qudniim crQenlti Mannas, praec^ps Xm6|rS sadv5, rSpItur qu6d im|p5tdntl fiiclnus pJUat I fiirdrg ? Sen. Medea^ 850 - 853. Versification : Mixed Measures. 283 6. — Trochaic Verse. , 367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius)^ consisting of four dipodies lacking a syllable. It is represented metrically thus : — liLw_>|I.w_>lli.w_>Uw_AII or in musical notation, ir'rnr'rjir'r'ir'f'i dd Xe advenio, spem, salutem, c6nsili«/^z B.uxilmm ^xpetens. Ter. Andr. ii. 18. In English verse : — " Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an ei npty dream." Longfellow. a. Strictly the spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every foot but the last : as, itidem habet petal s«»z dc vestitum : | tdm consimilist | dtqu^ ego. sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, | dculi, nasum, | vdl labra, mdlae, mentum, | bd,rba,collus ; | tdtus ! quid verjbis opust? si tergum ci|cdtricosum, | nihil hoc similist | similius. Plaut. Amphitr. 443 - 446. b. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : as, ndn ebur nejqw^ aureum \dim. catal.'] mei reni|det in domo la|cunar {^lamb. trim, catal.']. HOR. — Od. ii. 18. 7. — Mixed Measures. Note. — Different measures are combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either a series of one kind was simply joined to a series of another kind — analogous to the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music ; or single feet of other times were combined with the pre- vailing measures, in which case these odd feet were adapted by a change in their quantity, becoming irrational (see 356, Note). When measures of one kind occur, enough to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm ; where they are isolated we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry. 284 Prosody. 368. The following Verses, composed of different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry : — 1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody) : — ll_ow|_vX/|_c7o|_c^:/ll_v^|_w|_>ll soMtiir ] acris hi | ems grajta vice || veris | et Fa|voni. Hor. — Od. i. 4. It is possible that the dactyls may have been cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable. 2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Tetrameter catalectic {Dactylic Penthemim) ; Iambic Dimeter : — II wv^l KJ \j\ — II w — \j — \\D — \j — II scribSr; | versIcu|los || amorS per|culsum jiivat. id. Ep. II. 8. — liOgaoedic Verse. 369. Trochaic verses containing irrational measures or feet in regular prescribed positions are called Logacedic. The principal logacedic forms are: — 1. Logacedic Tetrapody (J'our feet) : Glyconic. 2. Logacedic Tripody {three feet) : Pherecratic. 3. Logacedic Dipody {two feet) : this may be considered a sAort Pherecratic. Note. — Irrational measures are those in which the syllables do not correspond strictly to the normal ratio of length (see 355), such as the Irrational Spondee and the Cyclic Dactyl. This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approaching that of prose : hence the name Logacedic (X6yos, doiSif). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logace- dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, or two feet Those of five feet (Pentapody) are to be regarded as composed of two of the others. 370. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic : viz., 1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- tated by the Romans as existing metres. Versification: Logaoedic Forms. 285 Glyconic. Pherecratic. \.-^Kj\-KJ |_v^ |_(w) ll^.w|_w I -Mil ii. _ w I -^ w I _ vy I _ (w) II _ vy I -v> w I _ (w) II iii. _ v^ I _ w I -v/ w I _ (w) II -w ^ I _ (w) II Note. — The shorter Pherecratic {dipody), if catalectic, appears a simple Choriambus ( w w | A) > and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They may be read (scanned), there- fore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logaoedic measures ; and that course is followed here in accordance with the most approved opinion on the subject. 371. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms or models are the following: — 1. Glyconic {Second Glyconic, catalectic) : — ll_.|-..|_w|_ll[»5|.-^.|p.|p-(orp7,| Romae | principis | urbijum || In English : — " Forms more real than living man." — Shelley. Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee { >). 2. Aristophanic {First Pherecratic) : — ll-wwl_w[_v:.ll ••• J I • J I •51 / 1^ / II / I I /I temperat | ora | frenis. — Hor. Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the pre- ceding by protracting the last two syllables : thus, ,1 -..!_. |_,_|,,. -5. |p.||.-l|.7 3. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened) : — II ^ w I _ w II f • 5 f I f f I Terruit | urbem. — Hor. Or perhaps : — "--l-l-AIIJ-^JIf li' 286 Prosody. 4. Pherecratic (^Second Pherecratic) : — ii_ei^.l^l.Aiif.|-^j|.-||»7| crds dondberis ha^do. — Nor. 5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second and P'irst Pherecratic, both natalectic) : — II _ > I -V> ^ I L_ II -^ W I _ W I ^ A II Madcends atavis ^dite rdgibus. — Hor. 6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same, interposing a Logaoedic Dipody) : — II _ > I ^ w I L_ II -^ w I L_ II -vy w I -_ w I _ A II tu ne quadsieris — scire nefds — qu^m mihi qu^m tibf. — //or. 7. Lesser Sapphic {Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : — ll_w|_>|-^v^|_w|l_|wAII fnteg^r vitad scelerisque purus. — //or. Or in English : — " Brilliant hopes, all woven in gorgeous tissues." — Longfellow, 8. Greater Sapphic {Third Glyconic j First Pherecratic): — II _ w I _ > I -w w 1 L_ II -w W I _ w I l_ I O A II t^ de6s or6 Sybarin || cur properds amdndo. — //or. 9. Lesser Alcaic {/^ogacedic Tetrapody, two dactyls, two tro- chees) : — II -w w I -w v^ I _ w I _ ^ II virginibiis puerfsque cdnto. — //or. In English (nearly) : — " Blossom by blossom the Spring begins." — Atalanta in Calydon, 10. Greater Alcaic (Logaoedic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana- crusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Z^jj^r^^r//^^): — ll^:_w|_>|-vy^l-v^l^AII just«/« ^t tendcem propositi virum. — I/or. Or, in English : — " Of calling shapes, and beckoning shadows dire."— Owwj, 207. Note. — Only the above Logaoedic forms are employed by Horace. 11. PHALiECiAN {/.ogaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) : — II ^> |-^v>|-w|->v|l_|_ A II Metres of Horace. 287 quadnam te mala mdns, misdlli Rdwidi, dgit praecipit^w in meds idmbds ? — CatulL xl. In English : — " Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining." — Longfellow. 12. Glyconic Pherecratic {Metrum Satyricurn) : — II _ W I -v> ^ I _ W I L_ II _ w I -^ W 1 L_ I _ A II O Coldnia qude cupis || pdnte liidere Idngo. — CatulL xvii. Metres of Horace. 372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza : viz., 1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Tro- chaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) ^ : as, ]ustum 6t tendcem prdpositi virum non civ'ium ^rdor prdva jubdntiiim non vultus instantis tyrdnni mdnte quatit solidd neque Auster. — Od. iii. 3. Note. — The Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form.2 It is sometimes called the Horatiati Stanza. The verses were formerly described as, i, 2, spondee, bacchius, two dactyls ; 3. spondee, bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two dactyls, two trochees. 2. Sapphic {minor)., consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3): as, jdm satis tern's nivis dtque dfrae grdndinis misit pater dt rubdnte ddxterd sacrd.s jaculdtus drees tdrruit urbem. — Od. i. 2. Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients, being used by Horace in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except the foregoing. The Lesser Sapphic verse was formerly described as consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed by a bacchius. 1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (371). ' See the List below (pp. 289-291 ). 288 Prosody. 3. Sapphic {major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8) : as, Lydia die, per dmnes t€ de<5s ord, Sybarin cur properds amdndo. — Od. i. 8. 4. AscLEPiADEAN I. {minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiad- ics (5) : as, dxegi monumdntww adre perdnnids rdgalique situ — pyramidww dltius. — Od. iii. 20. 5. AscLEPiADEAN II., consisting of One Glyconic (i) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5) : as, Ndvis quad tibi crdditum ddbes Virgilium, — finibus Atticfs rdddas fncolumdm, precdr, dt servds animad — dimidium mead. — Od. i. 3. 6. ASCLEPIADEAN III., Consisting of three Lesser Asclepia. dies (5) and one Glyconic (i) : as, Quis desiderid sft pudor dut modus tdm cari capitis ? — pradcipe liigubrds cdntus, Mdlpomend, — cui liquiddm patdr vdcem cum cythard dedit. — Od. i. 24. 7. ASCLEPIADEAN IV., Consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (i) : as, O fons Bdndusiad spldndididr vitrd, ddlci digne merd, ndn sine fldribus, crds dondberis haddo cuf frons turgida cdmibus. — Od. iii. 13. 8. ASCLEPIADEAN V. {major), consisting of Greater Asclepia- dics (6) : as, tu ne quadsierfs — scfre nefds ! — quern mihi, qi5em tibf ffnem di dederfnt — Leuconod — ndc Babyldnids tdntarfs numerds. — Od. i. 11. 9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (362) alter- nating with Tetrameter (364. a). 10. Archilochian I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alter- nating with Trimeter Catalectic {Dactylic Penthcmim^ see 364. d). Metres of Horace, 289 11. Archilochian IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochian {heptameter, 368. i), followed by Iambic Trimeter catalectic (365. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses : as, sdlvitur acris hi^ms gratd, vice || Vdris dt Favdni, trahuntque siccas machinae carinas ; do neque jam stabulis gauddt pecus, || dut ardtor igni, nee prata canis albicant pruinis. — Od. i. 4. 12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see 365). 13. Iambic Strophe (see 365. a). 14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : as, n6x erat, €t caeld fulg^bat luna serdno intdr minora sidera, cum tu, mdgnorum num^n laesura dedrum, in vdrba jurabds mea. — Epod, 15. 15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (365) ; as, dltera jdm teritur bellis civilibus adtas, suis et ipsa Rdma viribus ruit. — Epod. 16. 16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics : as, miserar«/« est | neque amori | dare liidum I neque dulci mala vino I laver^ aut exlanimari I metuentes. — Od. iii. 12. 17. Iamb. trim. (365); Dact. penthem. (364. d); Iamb. dim. : as, Pecti nihil me sicut anted juvat scribere vdrsiculos — amdre perculsum gravi. — Epod. 1 1. 18. Dactylic Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthe- mim (364. b) : as, hdrrida tdmpestas caelum contrixit, et imbres nivdsque deduciint Jovem : nunc mare, nunc siliiae. . . . Epod. 13. 19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see 367. b). INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE. Lib. I. 1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 9. Videsutalta: i. 2. Jam satis terns: 2. 10. Merciiri facunde nepos : 2. 3. Sic te diva: 5. it. Tu ne quaesieris : 8. 4. Solvitur acris hiems : 11. 12. Quemvirum: 2. 5. Quis multa : 7. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5. 6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 14. O navis : 7. 7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 15. Pastor cum traheret : 6. 8. Lydia die: 3. 16. O matre pulcra : i. 19 290 Prosody. 17. Velox amoenum : i. 28. Te maris : 9. 18. Nullam Vare: 8. 29. Icci beatis: i. 19. Mater saeva : 5. 30- Venus: 2. 20. Vile potabis : 2. 31- Quid dedicatum : 1. 21. Dianam tenerae : 7. 32. Poscimur : 2. 22. Integer vitae : 2. IZ- Albi ne doleas : 6. 23- Vitas hinnuleo : 7. 34- Parcus deorum : 1. 24. Quis desiderio : 6. 35- Odiva: I. 35- Parcius junctas : 2. 36. Etthure: 5. 26. Musis amicus: i. 37. Nunc est bibendum : i 27. Natis in usum: i. 38- Persicosodi: 2. Lib. IL • I. Motumex Metdlo: i. II. Quid bellicosus : i. 2. NuUus argento : 2. 12. Nolis longa : 6. 3- Aequam memento : i. 13- Hie et nefasto : i. 4- Ne sit ancillae : 2. 14. Eheu fugaces : i. 5- Nondum subacta: 1. 15- Jam pauca : i. 6. Septimi Gades : 2. 16. Otium divos : i. 7. saepe mecum: i. 17. Cur me querelis : i. 8. Ulla si juris : 2. 18. Non ebur : 19. 9. • Non semper imbres : i. 19. Bacchum in remotis : I. 10. Rectius vives : 2. 20. Non usitata : i. Lib. in. I. Odi profanum : i. 16. Inclusam Danaen : 6. 2. Angustam amice : i. 17. Aeli vetusto : i. 3- Justiim et tenacem : i. 18. Faune nympharum : 2. 4- Descende caelo : i. 19. Quantum distet : 5. 5- Caelo tonantem : i. 20. Non vides : 2. 6. Delicta majorum : i. 21. nata meaim : i. 7. Quidfles: 7. 22. Montium custos : 2. 8. Martiis caelebs : 2. 23- Caelo supinas : i. 9. Donee gratus : 5. 24. Intactis opulentior : 5. 10. Extremum Tanain : 6. 25. Quo me Bacche : 5. II. Mercuri nam te : 2. 26. Vixi puellis : i. 12. Miserarum est : 16. 27. Impios parrae : 2. 13- fons Bandusiae : 7. 28. Fes to quid : 5. 14. Herculis ritu : 2. 29. Tyrrhena regum : i. «5 Uxor pauperis: 5. 30- Exegi monumentum : 4 Lib. IV. I. Intennissa Venus : 5. 9- Ne forte credas : i. 2. Pindarum quisquis : 2. 10. crudelis adhuc : 8. 3- Quem tu Melpomene : 5. II. Est mihi nonum : 2. 4- Qualem ministrum : i. 12. Jam Areris comites : 6. 5- Divis orte bonus : 6. 13- AudivSre Lyce : 7. 6. Dive quem proles : 2. 14. Qua cura patrum : i. 7. Diffuger6re nives : 10. 15- Phoebus volentem : 1. 8. Donarem pateras : 4. Carmtn Saccular ei 2. Metres of Horace. 291 Epodes. I. Ibis liburnis : 13. ID. Mala soluta : 13. 2. Beatus ille : 13. II. Pecti nihil : 17. 3- Parentis olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis ; 9. 4- Lupis et agnis : 1-3. n- Horrida tempestas 5- At deorum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14. 6. Quid immerentes : 13. 15- Nox erat : 14. 7 Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera jam : 15. 8. Rogare longo : 13. 17. Jam jam efficaci : 9- Quando repostum : 13. 373. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above-mentioned verses. a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : as, DTalnae sumus | in fide puell W et puen 1 integrl : Dial nam, puer/ I TntegrT puelllaeque calnalmus. — Catull. 34. b. Sapphics^ in series of single lines, closing with zxs. Adonic : as, An ma(gTs diln tremu|ere | Manes ■ Herculk/^ ? et vTlsum canis I Tnfelrorum fugit I abrupltis treplldus caltenis ? fallllmur: laelte venit I ecce | vultu, quern tullit Poelas; hume I risque I tela gestat I et noitas popullTs phalretras Herculis I heres. — Sen. Here. (Et. 1600-6. c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). Miscellaneous. 374. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry : viz : — a. Anap^STIC verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapaest : as, hic homost I orar^um homllnum praelclpuos voluptaitlbus gauldzTsqu^ anitepotens. tta comlmoda quae Icupl^ evenlunt, quod ago I subit, adlsecue I sequltur : Tta gauldmm supipedltat. — Plaut. Trin. 1115-19. 292 Prosody. b. Bacchiac verses (five-timed) occur in dramatic poets, — very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus — either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted : as, multas res | slmltw in | m€6 c6r|dS v5rso, multum In c5|gTtand5 | d61or^/« Tnldtpiscor egomet me | cog^ et ma|cer^ et delfatigo ; maglster I mlh/exerlcltor anl|mus nunc est. Plaut. Trin. 223-226. c. Cretic measures occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : as, amor amilcus mthi | ne fuas | unquam. his eg5 I de artTbus I gratlam | facto. nil eg^ Isltos moror I faeceos I mores. — id. 267, 293, 297. d. Saturnian Verse. — In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not like the others borrowed from the Greek. The rhythm is Limbic tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), from the Greek ; but the Arsis is often syncopated, especially in the middle and end of the verses : as, da I bunt ma Hum Meitdlllf — 1| Na^vild poldtae. Early Prosody. 375. The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several respects from that of the later.^ a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it does not make position with a following consonant, and is sometimes cut off before a vowel. This usage continued in all poets till Cic- ero's time. b. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made short, if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words like putd^ cav^, valtf, vid^.) Thus — &b€st {Cist. ii. I, 12); Spiid test {Trin. 196); s6r5r dlctast {Enn. 157) ; bdnis {Stick. 99) ; d6mr d€aeque {Pseud. 37) ; | d6mT {Mil. 194). ^ ' Before the language was used in literature, it had become very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of final syllables under the influence j of accent ; which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to | the penult and antepenult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar \ and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In many this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. Early Prosody. 293 c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- cedes a long syllable : as, Id est profecto {Merc. 372) ; ertt et \Voi exoptatum {Mil. loi i) ; si o^idietn hercle {Asin. 414) ; quid est si hoc {Andria, 237). d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such are ille, tste, inde, Unde, nempe, esse (?). (Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.) Thus : — ecquTs his in aedibust {Bacch. 581.) e. In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced- ing it in a word of more than three syllables : as, in sen^ctuti, Syrdcusae. f. At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position stand for short ones : as, Jdne tu {Pseud. 442) ; estne consimilis {Epid. v. I. 18). g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is retained. Thus : — 1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as, ne epistula quid^;;^ ulla sit in addibus {Asin. 762). 2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there seems no etymological reason for it) : as, nunc et amico | prdsperab*? et | gdnio meo mul | ta bona faciam {Pers. 263) 3. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem (either with original r or original s) : as, mddo quom dict^ in m^ ingerebas odium non uxor eram {As. 927.) fta mz in pector^ dtque corde, facit amor inc^ndium {Merc. 500). dtque quanto nox fuisti longior hoc proxuma {Ainph. 548). 4. The termination es (itis) is sometimes retained long : as in miles., superstes. 5. All verb-endings in r, s, and t, may be retained long, where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection : as, regredior audisse me (Capt. 1023) ; atqu^ ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id. 248) ; me nominat haec [Epid. iv. i, 8) ; faciat ut semper (Poen. ii. 42); infuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 21); qui amet [Merc. 1021) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filius {Capt. 25) ; tibi sit ad me revisas ( True. ii. 4, 79). h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.) MISCELLANEOUS. 1. — Beckoning of Time. Note. — The Year was dated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (at) urbe conditd, anno urbis condita), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754 : e.g. a.u.c. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) = B.C. 63. Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days : March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days ; February having 28, and each of the remainder 29; with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after Feb- ruary 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The "Julian year," by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called Bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name jfttltus (July), in honor of Julius Caesar ; and Sextilis of Augtistus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year once in every century. 376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows : — a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae {Calends\ from calare, to call^ — that being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which which they did, originally, from actual observation. b. Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on iht fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, — were the Idua {Ides), the day of Full Moon. c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the Ides — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months — were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). Reckoning of Time. 295 d. From the three points thus determined the days of the month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following rule for determining the date : — If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date : — thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (33— 8)= Jan. 25. iv. Non. Mar. (8 — 4) = Mar. 4. iv. Id. Sept. (14—4) == Sept. 10. e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : — January. February. March. April. I. Kal. Jan. Kal Feb. Kal Martin Kal Apriles 2. IV. Non. Jan. IV. Non. Feb. VI. Non. Mart. IV. Non. Apr. 3- I"- ., ,. III. » J > V. M » III. »i >» 4. priA „ „ prid. >> > IV. i» » prid. >> » J. Non. Jan. Non Feb. III. >> » NoN Apriles 6. VIII. Id. Jan. VIII. Id. Feb. prid. >» >> VIII. Id. Apr. 7. VII. „ „ VII. I> M NON . Martin VII. )> M 8. VI. „ „ VI. >» >» VIII. Id. Mart. VI. >» » 9- V. „ „ V. » »> VII. » >> V. » » 10. IV. „ „ IV. » » VI. » >> IV. M M II. III. „ „ III. M M V. » >» III. ,, „ 12. prid. „ „ prid. M » IV. » »» prid. „ „ 13. IdusJan. Idus Feb. III. M » Idus Apriles. 14. XIX. Kal. Feb. XVI. Kal. Martias prid. J) »> XVIII Kal. Maias 15. XVIII. „ „ XV. ,, >> Idus Martin XVII. >> >» 16. XVII. „ „ XIV. ,, XVII Kal. Aprilis. XVI. 17. XVI. „ „ XIII. „ „ XVI. >» » XV. >> 5> 18. XV. „ „ XII. »> „ XV. »j » XIV. >> »> 19. XIV. „ „ XI. „ „ XIV. >> >» XIII. » J» 20. XIII. „ „ X. „ „ XIII. >i » XII. >» »> 21. XII. „ „ IX. „ „ XII. >> >» XI. » >1 22. XI. „ „ VIII. „ „ XI. M » X. >» M 23. X. „ „ VII. „ „ X. «> » IX. >> »» 24. IX. „ „ VI. „ „ IX. » >) VIII. » >» 25. VIII. „ „ V. „ 'J VIII. » >» VII. >» >» 26. VII. „ „ IV. „ VII. l> )> VI. l> >> 27. VI. „ „ III. „ M VI. >» » V. »» M 28. V. „ „ prid. „ „ V. »J J> IV. » »> 29. IV. „ „ [prid. Kal. Mart. IV. »> >• III. M >> 30. III. „ „ in leap-year, the III. » » prid. » >» 31. prid.,, „ vi. Kal. (24th) being prid. >> >» So June, Sept., Nov. (So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month. 296 Miscellaneous, 2. Measures of Value. 377. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 y4j"j"^j, and the Sestertius or sesterce {seinis-tertius^ or half-third^ represented by IIS or HS== duo et sefnis) == 2}i Asses. 378. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit of value : hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- tius. Afterwards, by reductions in the standard, four asses became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : — 2% asses = I sestertius or nummus (hs), value nearly 5 cents. 10 asses or 4 sestertii = i denarius . . . „ » 20 „ 1000 sestertii = i sestertium „ ,, $50.00. 379. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia = %i $0.00. When com- bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands {centeua miilia) is to be understood : thus decies sestertium (decies HS) = $50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often omitted : thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagies [centena millia ] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) =$300,000 (nearly). 380. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred- thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii; hs. dc. = 600,000 jj 195-^59 C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) 148-103 L. Attius (or Accius), Tragedies (Fragments) . . . 170-75 M.Ttr&x\W\i?,W2irro, Husbandry, Antiquities, 6r*c. . 116-28 M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues . . 106-43 C. Julius Caesar, Comwentaries 100-44 T. Lucretius Carus, Poem " De Rerum Natura " . . 95-52 C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems .... 87-47 C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories .... 86-34 Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . . P. Vergilius Maro (Virgil), Eclogues, Georgics, JSneid 70-19 Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satires, Odes, Epistles 65-8 Albius Tibullus, Elegies 54-i8 Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies 51-15 T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History . . . 59-A.D. 17 P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, dr'c. 43-A.D. 18 M. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, dr'c -31 C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 19-31 Pomponius Mela, Husbandry 6r» Geography . . . -50 A. Persius Flaccus, Satires a.d. 34-62 L. Annaeus Seneca, Philos. Letters, &*c.j Tragedies . -65 M. Annaeus Lucanus, Historical Poem "Pharsalia" . 39-^5 Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander .'' C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Nat. Hist., ^c. . . . 23-79 C. Valerius F'laccus, Heroic Poem " Argonautica " . -88 P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems " Thebais," &c. . 61-96 C. Silius Italicus, //r^//rt«/>j, '*' Noctes Atticae " . . . . about -180 t Q. Septimius Florens TertuUianus, Apologist . . 160-240 i M. M\m\c'\ui^ Vehx, Apologetic Dialogue .... about -250 t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology 250-325 Vi.^-x^rwi^ h}x^ox\\\\?>. Miscellaneous Poems . . . . -380 Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History -395 Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, 6r*c. . . . -408 f Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems . . 348-410 X Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions^ Discourses, dr*c. . 354-43° Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogues . 470-520 t Christian writers. INDEX. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. Note. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the page (p.) is referred to. The letters refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note ; R., Remark. Ace. or accus. = accusative ; adj. = adjective ; conj. = conjugation ; constr. = construction ; gen. = genitive ; gend. =: gender ; loc. = locative ; prep. == prep- osition ; subj. = subjunctive. -a, characteristic of decl. I., 32; ace. of Gr. nouns in, 63. /; stem- vowel of conj. I., 122, 123, 126. a ] in subj., 126. d, c; quantity of a final, 348. 4 ; in increments, 350, 351- a (ab, abs), use of, 153, 260. b, 263 ; with abl. of agent, 246, 263 ; in composition, with dat., 229 ; with abl. of gerund, 301. Abbreviations of praenomens, 80. d; other abbreviations, p. 297. Ablative, meaning, 31./; in -abus, 36. e ; of i-stems, decl. III., 55. e ; rules of form, 57 ; nouns having abl. in i, 57. a,d; of decl. IV., in -ubus, 70. d; abl. used as supine, 7 1 . a ; of adjs., decl. III., 87. a, b ; quo . . . eo (correlative), 106. c\ prepositions followed by, 152. b \ with ex or e for part, gen., 216. c ; of crime or penalty, 220. b ; with dono, etc., 225. d ; with pro (for defence), 236. R. ; Syntax, 242-255 ; meaning and classification, 242 and N. ; of sep- aration, 243 ; source and material, 244 ; cause, 245 ; with dignus, etc., 24^. a; of agent with ab, 246, 263 ; comparison, 247 ; means, manner, &c., 248 ; with utor, etc.. 249 ; deg. of diff., 250 ; of quality, 251; price, 252; specification, 253; locative use of, 254 ; abl. ab- solute, 255 ; time and place, 256- 259 ; way by which, 258. g; with preps., 260-263; with palam, etc., 261. b; to denote agent, 263 ; of gerund, 301. (See N., p. 167.) Abounding, words of, with abl., 248. c ; with gen., 223. Absolute time denoted by indie, 264. a ; in independent clauses by subj., 283 ; absol. and relative time, 323-325, with foot-note, p. 234. Abstract nouns in plural, 75. c; endings of, 163. b, e, f \ with neut. adj., 187. c, 189. a, b. -abus in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I., 36. e. ac, see atque; acsi, 312. Acatalectic verse, 359. a. Accent, rules of, 19 ; marks of, id. N.; musical, 358; foot-note, p. 292. accidit, synopsis of, 145 ; constr. of, 332. a. Accompaniment, abl. of, 248. Accusative, 31. d; in im, decl. III., 56. a, b', in is (plur.), 58; in a, 63. /; ace. of decl. IV., used as supine, 71. « ; neut. used as adv., 148. d\ fem. used as adv., id. 3IO Index, N. € ; prepositions followed by, 152. a-y as object, 177; with verbs of remembering, 219 ; with impersonals, 221. b, 237, e-y with dat., 225 ; with juvo, etc., 227. a ; with compounds of ad, ante, ob, 228. a ; with ad for dat., 234. d ; after propior, etc., id. e; Syntax, 237-240; direct object, 237 ; with verbs oi feeling and taste, id. b, c ; with comps. of circum and trans, id. d\ with impersonals, id. e; cognate ace, 238 ; two aces., 239 ; with pass, of verbs of asking, &.C., 239. R. ; adverbial use of, 240. a, b; synecdochical ace, id. c; in exclamations, id. d; duration and extent, id. e, 256, 257 ; subject of inf., 240. /, 272, 330; with pridie, propius, etc., 261. a; ace. of gerund, 300; of anticipation, 334. c ; in indirect discouree, 336. Accusing and acquitting, verbs of, 220. acer, decl., 84. -aceus, adj. ending, 164.^. acquiesco with abl., 254. b. Actions, names of, 163 ; nouns of, with gen., 217. Active voice, 11 1. acus, gender, 69. a. ad, use of, 153; in compounds with dat., 228; meaning mar, 259./. adamas, decl., 63. e. -ades patronymic, 164. b. adimo, constr. of, 229. Adjectives, defined, 25. ^ ; of 1st and 2d decls., 81-83 ; of 3d decl., 84- 87 ; of two or three terminations, 84 ; of one termination, 85 ; in- flection of comparative, 86. a; used as adverbs, 86. b, 88. t/, 148. , N., 191 ; used as nouns, 88. a, 188, 218. ^ ; of decl. I., 36. c-y decl. II., 40; decl. III., 62; decl. IV. (domi), 70. f, foot- note ; decl. v., 74. c ; as adverb, 148. S; with abl. in apposition, 184. c\ relative adverb used to refer to, 201./; compared v^^ith dat., 224. N. ; locative used to express where^ 254, 258. ^; do- mi, etc., id. d. loco, without prepos., 258. y] Logaoedic verse, 369-371. Note on, p. 284. longius, without quam, 247. c. M, final, elision of, 359. b, R., d. -m, (verb-ending), lost, 116. foot- note 3. magis, as signs of comparative, 89. d\ compounds of, with quam, 262. N. magni, gen. of value, 215. ^, 252. a. magnus, comparison, 90. majestatis, with words of accusing, &c., 220. a. majores, signification of, 93. /. male, compounds of, with dat., 227. e. malo, conj., 138. mialus, comparison, 90. maneo, with abl., 254. b. mansuetus, 159. c. manus, decl., 68 ; gender, 69. Manner, abl. of, 248. and R. mare, decl., 52. Masculines, rule for gender, 29. Masculine adjectives, 88. b. Masculine caesura, 362. r. Material, adjectives denoting, 164.^; gen. of, 214. e\ abl. of, 244. c. maxime, as sign of superl., 89. d. May (potential), how expressed in Latin, 112. N. Means, abl. of, 248. and c. Measure, gen. of, 215. b. Measures in Prosody, 355-357 ; names of, 356 ; contracted or re- solved, 357. Measures of value, 377-380; of length, 381; of weight, 382 ; of capacity, 383. medeor, medicor, with dat. or ace, 227. b. Meditative verbs, 167. c. medius {middle part of^, 193. melior, decl., 86. melius est, with infin., 288. e. memini, conj., 143. c; imper. of 269. e ; for pres., 143. n., 279. d, r.; with pres. infin., 288. b. Memory, verbs of, constr., 219. -men, -mentum, noun-endings, 163. c. -met (enclitic), 99./ Metathesis, 11. d, 124. a, N. Metre, see Prosody. metuo, with dat. or ace, 227. c. metus, with dat. or ace, 227. c. meus (voc, mi), 40. c, 81. a, 99. a ; syntax of, 197. a, 214. a. Mile, English feet in, 381. miles, decl., 46. militiae (locative), 258. d. mille, decl. and constr., 94. e. -mini, as personal ending, 118. foot-note. minime, compar.,92; signif., 209.^; in answer ("no"), 212. a. minoris, gen. of value, 215. c, 252. a. minores, signification, 93./. minus, compar., 92; with si and quo, = not, 209. e ; constr. with- out quam, 247. c. -minus, -mnus, verbal adjective- endings, 164. n, miror si, 333. r. 324 Index. minim quam, 210. f, r., 334.