CHASE & STUABT'S OLASSIOAL SEEIES, LATIN GEAMMAE. BY THOMAS CHASE, LTT.D., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF HAVERFORD COLLEGE. PHILADELPHIA: ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No. 17 North Seventh Street. 1882. CHASE & STUART'S CLASSICAL SERIES COMPRISES A FIRST LATIN BOOK, A LATIN GRAMMAR, A LATIN READER, And Editions of all the Latin Authors usually read in Schools. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by ELDREDGE & BROTHER, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 6- 7 author of this treatise has endeavored to state clearly - and directly those facts of Grammar which a student of Latin most needs to know, and thus to conduct him by the surest path to a mastery of the language.. The discoveries of recent philological science have not been neglected, but care has been taken not to overlay and obscure the facts which form the proper subject of the book with a mass of matter belonging only to a treatise on Comparative Phi- lology. Unnecessary definitions have been avoided; the para- digms are set forth clearly, in distinct type ; the rules of Syntax have been stated as simply as possible. In Prosody, the views of the new school have been to a great extent adopted. One word of warning, however, is due, that the theory of irrational times should not be pressed so far as to destroy the variety which the introduction of different feet produced, in measures which would otherwise be monotonous. Horace says of the iambic trimeter, " Tardior ut paulo graviorque veniret ad aures, Spondeos stabiles in jura paterna recepit." IV PREFACE. Perhaps the greatest merit of recent metrists is their recog- nition of the value of pauses, and of the fact that a single syllable by prolongation may stand for a whole foot. \o work on Grammar could be meritorious or complete, whose author was not greatly indebted to the labors of his predecessors. It gives me pleasure to acknowledge my obligation to the treatises of the great grammarians of Germany, and to Key, Kennedy, and Roby among the English. Finally, this book is committed, not without confidence, to the judgment of the accomplished teachers of our land, and of the intelligent students whose happiness it will be to learn the great tongue of Rome under their guidance. T. C. ORTHOGRAPHY. Alphabet 9 Vowels and Consonants 9 Ancient Method of Pronunciation.. 10 English Method . 11 "Continental" Method 12 PAGE Syllables 12 Quantity 12 General Rules of Quantity 13 Accentuation 14 ETYMOLOGY. Parts of Speech 15 Gender 15 Numbers and Cases 16 Roots and Stems 17 Declension 17 First Declension 18 Greek Nouns 19 Second Declension 20 Greek Nouns 23 Third Declension 23 Consonant Stems 23 I- Stems 25 Case Terminations 27 Rules for Gender 32 Irregular Nouns 33 Greek Nouns 34 Fourth Declension 35 Fifth Declension 36 General View of the Declensions... 37 Defective Nouns 37 Heterogeneous Nouns 40 Heteroclites 41 Redundant Nouns 41 Nouns with Different Meaning in the Singular and Plural 42 Declension of Adjectives 43 Adjectives of the First and Second Declension 43 Adjectives of the Third Declension 45 Irregular Adjectives 48 Comparison of Adjectives 49 1* Irregular or Defective Comparison. 49 Comparison by prefixing Magis and Maxime 51 Comparison of Adverbs 52 Notes on the Comparative and Su- perlative 53 Numerals 53 Cardinal Numbers 54 Ordinals, Distributives, and Nume- ral Adverbs 55 Declension of Numerals 57 Compound Numbers, etc 58 Numeral Expression of Fractions... 59 Personal Pronouns 60 Possessive Pronouns 61 Demonstrative Pronouns 61 Definitive Pronouns 62 Relative Pronouns 64 Interrogative Pronouns 64 Indefinite Pronouns 64 Compound Pronouns 65 Table of Correlative Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs 66 Pronominal Adverbs of Place 67 Pronominal Adverbs of Time 68 Verbs * 68 Voices 68 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.. 68 Moods 68 Participles, Gerund, and Supines... 69 Tenses 69 VI CONTENTS. PACK Present Stem 70 Perfect Stem ....: 70 Supine Stem 70 Principal Parts 70 Inflection of Sum 71 Inflection of Possum 73 Conjugations 75 First Conjugation 75 Inflection of Amo 76 Second Conjugation 81 Inflection of Moneo 81 Third Conjugation 86 Inflection of Rego 86 Inflection of Capio 91 Fourth Conjugation 93 Inflection of Audio 94 Deponent Verbs 98 Inflection of Deponents 99 Remarks on Deponents 101 Quasi-Passive or Neutral Passive Verbs 101 Semi-Deponents or Neuter Passive Verbs 101 Tabular Scheme of the Four Con- jugations 102 Periphrastic Conjugations 106 Supine 106 Compound Tenses :.. 106 Special Forms and Abbreviations of Verbs 107 Irregular Verbs 108 Defective Verbs 119 Praeteritive Verbs 121 Impersonal Verbs 122 Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs 124 Frequentative or Intensive Verbs... 124 PAGE Intensives in -essoand -isso 125 Desiderative Verbs 125 Diminutive Verbs 125 Imitative Verbs 125 Inflections of Verbs 125 Terminations indicating Person, Number, and Voice 125 Mood Characteristics 128 Tense Endings from the Present Stem 130 Tense Endings from the Perfect Stem 132 Participles and Tenses from the Su- pine Stem 133 Verb Stems 134 The Present Stem 134 Formation of the Perfect Stem 137 Formation of the Supine Stem 137 Table of Verbs with Principal Parts. 138 Particles 148 Adverbs 149 Conjunctions 149 Prepositions ; 151 Prepositions in Composition 151 Inseparable Particles 153 Interjections 153 Formation of Words 156 Suffixes 156 Significant Endings 156 Nouns derived from Verbs 156 Nouns derived from Nouns 158 Nouns derived from Adjectives 161 Adjectives formed from Verbs 162 Adjectives formed from Nouns 162 Formation of Verbs 165 Compound Words 165 SYNTAX. Sentences 167 Subject and Predicate 167 Subject of a Finite Verb 169 Subject of an Infinitive 169 Subject Nominative and Verb 169 Predicate Noun and Adjective 170 Apposition 171 Agreement of Adjectives 172 Agreement of Relative Pronouns... 174 Use of Personal and Possessive Pro- nouns 174 Demonstrative Pronouns. 175 Reflexives 176 The Definitive Ipse 177 Indefinite Pronouns 177 Pronominal Adjectives 178 Nominative Case 179 Vocative Case 179 Accusative of Direct Object 179 Compound Verbs becoming Transi- tive 180 Cognate Accusative 181 Limiting or Defining Accusative.... 181 Accusative after Passives used Re- fiexively 181 Two Accusatives. 182 Accusative of Specification 182 Adverbial Accusative 182 Accusative of Extent of Time or Space 183 Terminal Accusative 183 Accusative after Prepositions 184 CONTENTS. Vll PAOB Accusative in Exclamations 184 Adnominal Genitive 184 Gfenitive of Possession 185 Subjective Genitive 185 Objective Genitive 185 Genitive after Partitives 186 Genitive of Definition 187 Genitive of Material 187 Genitive after Prepositional Nouns. 187 Genitive of Quality or Description. 187 Genitive as a Predicate 188 Genitive after Adjectives 188 Genitive after Verbs 189 Accusative and Genitive after Verbs 189 Genitive after Refert and Interest.. 190 Special Uses of the Genitive 191 Genitive of Value -. 191 Genitive or Ablative with Verbs of Buying and Selling 191 Locative Genitive or Genitive of . Place 192 Dative Defined 192 Dative of Advantage or Disadvan- tage 192 Accusative and Dative after Verbs. 193 Accusative and Dative or Accusa- tive and Ablative 193 Dative after Verbs 193 Dative after Verbs Compounded with Prepositions 194 Dative of the Possessor 195 Dative of the Agent (so called) 195 Dative Limiting the whole Predi- cate 196 Ethical Dative 196 Dative or Accusative after Verbs 197 Two Datives after Verbs 197 Dative after Adjectives 197 Dative after Adverbs, Interjections, and Verbal Nouns 198 Ablative Defined 198 Ablative of Cause, Manner, and In- strument 198 Ablative after certain Verbs and Adjectives 199 Ablative after Opus and Usus 199 Ablative of the Material 200 Ablative of the Voluntary Agent with Ab 200 Ablative after Comparatives 200 Ablative of Quality 201 Ablative of the Degree of Difference. 201 Ablative of Separation 201 Ablative of Source 202 Ablative of Price 202 Ablative with Dignus and Indignus 202 Ablative of Specification 202 Ablative after Adjectives 203 Ablative of Place W hence 203 Ablative of Place Where 203 Ablative of Route 204 Ablative of Time 204 Ablative after Prepositions 205 Ablative Absolute 205 Indicative Mood 206 Present Tense 206 Imperfect 207 Future 208 Perfect and Aorist 208 Pluperfect... 209 Future Perfect 209 Indicative as an Auxiliary 210 Periphrastic Conjugations 210 Passive Compound Tenses 210 Tenses in Letters 211 Subjunctive Mood 211 Potential Subjunctive 212 Optative Subjunctive 212 Concessive Subjunctive 213 Questions of Deliberation or Appeal. 214 Potential Questions 214 Subjunctive of Purpose 214 Subjunctive of Result .' 215 Subjunctive in Substantive Clauses. 215 Ut and Ne after Verbs of Fearing... 216 Moods in Clauses denoting Time.... 216 Cum Causal 218 Conditional Sentences 219 Mixed Conditional Constructions... 220 Various Ways of Denoting Condi- tions 221 Gnomic Subjunctive 221 Unexpressed Protasis 221 Omitted Apodosis 222 Relatives in the Protasis 222 Relative Clauses of Purpose 222 Relative Clauses Denning a Quality. 222 Relative Clauses Denoting the Rea- son 224 Adversative Relative Clauses 224 Subjunctive Dependent on another Subjunctive or on an Infinitive... 224 Relatives with the Indicative 225 Oratio Obliqua 225 Conditional Sentences in Oratio Ob- liqua 226 Persons and Pronouns in Oratio Ob- liqua 227 Virtual Oratio Obliqua 228 Indirect Questions 228 Causal Clauses 229 Vlll CONTEXTS. Quod meaning the Fact That 229 Sequence of Tenses 230 Infinitive Defined 231 Infinitive as Subject, Predicate, or Appositive 231 Infinitive as Object 231 Infinitive with a Subject Accusative. 231 Infinitive after Verbs of Will, Pow- er, Duty 233 Infinitive, Accusative with Infini- tive, or Ut with Subjunctive 233 Historic Infinitive.- 234 Special Uses of the Infinitive 234 Personal Construction of Passives for Impersonal 235 Tenses of the Infinitive 235 The Imperative Present 236 The Imperative Future 236 Substitutes for the Affirmative Im- perative 236 Substitutes for the Negative Imper- ative 237 Periphrases of the Imperative 237 Participles 237 The Circumstantial Participle 238 Some Participial Constructions 239 Gerunds and Gerundives 240 Accusative Supine 242 Ablative Supine 243 Adverbs 243 Two Negatives 243 Conjunctions 244 Interrogative Particles 244 Order of Words 246 i Periods 251 Position of Subordinate Sentences. 251 I Arrangement of Clauses 251 PROSODY. Quantity in Verse 253 Quantity by Position 2-54 Diphthongs and Contracted Sylla- bles 255 Derivatives and Compounds 255 Monosyllables 256 Final Syllables in Polysyllables 257 Increments 258 Penults and Autepenults 260 Natural Quantity 260 Authority 261 Elision 261 Hiatus 261 Synaeresis 262 Dialysis or Diaeresis 262 Syncope 262 Systole 262 Diastole 263 Tmesis 263 Synaphia 263 Versification 263 Arsis and Thesis 263 List of Feet 264 Technical Terms 264 The Dactylic Hexameter 266 Caesura 267 Hypermetrical Verses 268 The Elegiac Distich 268 Other Dactylic Metres 268 Trochaic Metres.... 269 Dactylo-Trochaic or Logaoedic Ver- ses 270 Trochaeo-Dactylic Metres 270 Choriambic Metres ~ 271 Cretic aud Greater Ionic Metres 272 Anapaestic Metres 272 Iambic Metres 272 Anapaesto-Iambic Metre 273 Bacchiac and Lesser Ionic Metres... 273 larnbsaud Dactyls 273 lambico-Trochaic Metre 274 Horatian Metres 274 Early Dramatic Verse 275 Metrical Reading 276 APPENDIX. Grammatical Terms and Figures.... 277 Rhetorical Terms or Figures of Speech 279 Value of Coins 282 The Naming of Sums of Money 283 Interest 283 Weights Measures of Length 284 Measures of Surface Measures of Capacity 284 Computation of Time >"> Roman Calendar 287 Principal Extant Latin Authors 288 Abbreviations .. 291 Index of Subjects 295 OF THB X UNIVERSITY A LATIN GRAMMAR. THE ALPHABET. 1. THE Latin Alphabet now in use has the same letters as the English, except that it has no W. 1. I and J were originally represented by one character, I, as were also U and V by V. 2. X and Y are found only in words derived from the Greek. 3. K is used chiefly in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few words, as Kalendae, JZarthago. 4. Q always blends with U (V). 5. The letters have two forms : the capital, which alone was used in ancient times ; and the small. VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 2. The vowels, sounding by themselves, are A, E, I, O, U, Y. The remaining letters are called consonants, as sounding with vowels. 1. The diphthongs are AE (^E), OE (Lelex have egis ; nex, foenisex, and the obsolete prex have ecis; vervex and Myrmex, ecis. Eemex has remigis : senex, senis ; supellex, snppe lie c tills. 3. Nouns in ix have Tcis, less frequently icis. Nix has nivis, and strix, strigis. 4. The words in ox have ocis ; but Cappadox and the adjective praecox have ocis. Nox has noctis ; Allobrox, Allobrogis. 5. Crux, dux, nux, and the adjective trox have the genitive in ucis; the n before o is long only in the genitive of lux, lucis, and Pollux, Pollucis. Conjunx (or conjux) has conjugis ; the obsolete frux hasfrugis. 6. The words in yx are Greek ; the genitive may be ycis, ycis, ygis, ygis, or ychis. 7. Faex, faecis is the only word ending in aex; the only word in aux is faux, faucis. III. The dative singular had an old form in e, retained in some phrases. IV. The termination -im in the accusative singular is retained 1. Always in amussis, buris, ravis, tussis, cucumis, sitis, vis, and the adverb partim (originally an accusative) ; 2. For the most part, but interchanging with -em, in febris, pelvis, puppis, restis, securis, turris ; CASE-ENDINGS. 31 3. Sometimes, but more often changed to -em, in clavis, navis, and sementis ; 4. In some Greek nouns and names of rivers. V. The termination -i in the ablative singular is retained. 1. In nouns which have -im in the accusative (rest! is doubtful) ; 2. Often in amnis, avis, axis, bilis, bipennis, canalis, civis, fustis, imber, and (in certain formulas) in ignis ; 3. In neuter nouns in -e, -rA, and -ar ; with the exception of jubar, baccar, and nectar, names of towns ending in e, and sometimes mare and rete ; 4. In nouns in -is (-alis, -aris, -His, -ensis), and names of months in -is, -er, which were originally adjectives ; but such nouns often (aedHis generally), and proper names of this kind almost always, have e. Juvenis has always juvene. VI. The pure locative in -I is found in such forms as orbi, ruri, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi. VII. The nominative and accusative plural of neuter nouns generally end in a ; but nouns in e, al, and ar, have ia. VIII. A nominative plural in is or eis occurs sometimes in Plautus and Lucretius. IX. The genitive plural in ium is found 1. In parisyllabic nouns in -es and -is; except canis, juvenis, mensis, sedes, strues, suboles, vates, sometimes apis, and usually volucris ; 2. In imber, linter, uter, venter, sequester, Insuber ; 3. In gentile nouns in -as and -is, as Arpmas, Quiris (but not in names of men ; thus, Maecenatum, of Maecenases] ; 4. In dos, Us, often in abstracts in -tas, as ci vitas, less frequently in abstracts in -tus, as virtus ; 5. In ars, as, dens, nox, os, puls, semis ; most frequently in original participles in -ns, as parens, sapiens ; in fraus, frons, laus ; rarely in compes, palus ; 6. In arx, falx, faux, merx ; 7. In urbs, stirps ; 8. In glis, vis, mas, lar, nix, and sometimes in lien, mus, renes. X. Some plural words in -alia, -ilia, -aria, follow the second declension in their genitive plural : as, Compitali-orum ; ancili-orum. 32 LATiy GRAMMAR. XI. Xouns which have -ium in the genitive plural have in the classical period -is as well as -es in the accusative plural. A still older form in -eis occurs. 30. RULES FOR GENDER. 1. Concrete nouns in -io are masculine ; as, scorpio, a scorpion ; pugio, a dagger. 2. Abstract and collective nouns in -io are feminine; as, ratio, reason; legio, a legion. 3. Nouns in -do and -go, with the genitive in -inis, are feminine : as, magnitude, greatness; imago, a likeness. 4. Other nouns in -o, together with ordo, cardo, and margo, are masculine. "). Xouns in -as -atis, -es -etis, -is -itis, -6s -5tis, -us -utis, and -us -udis, are feminine. 6. Parisyllables in -es are feminine. 7. Parisyllables in -is are feminine. But the following are masculine : nouns ending in -nis ; also axis, buris, caulis, collis, ensis, fascis, follis, fustis, mensis, mugilis, orbis, piscis, postis, sentis, torris, unguis, vectis, vermis. 8. Xouns in -is -idis are feminine ; except lapis, masculine. 9. Nouns in -is -eris, and -is -inis are masculine. 10. Nouns in -es -itis are masculine ; except merges, feminine. 11. Nouns in s with a consonant before it are feminine ; except dens, fons, mons, and pons, which are masculine. 12. Nouns in x are feminine ; but calix, fornix, grex, and most in -ex -icis and -ix -icis are masculine. 13. Nouns in -6s -oris, -or -oris, -er -ris are masculine. 14. Nouns in -er -eris ; -or -oris ; -ur -uris and oris ; -us -eris and -oris ; -us -uris (monosyllabic) ; -al -alis ; -ar -aris ; -e -is ; and -en -inis are neuter. But arbor is femi- nine ; and agger, career, furfur, later, and pecten, are masculine. 15. The monosyllables as, mus, ren, sol, and sal, are mas- culine ; fraus, grus, laus, sus, and vis, feminine ; aes, cor, far, fel, lac, mel, 6s, 6s, vas, and ver, neuter. 16. Paries and pis are masculine ; anas, pecus, seges, and teges, feminine ; and caput, neuter. THE THIRD DECLENSION. 33 Note 1. Names of animals with neuter terminations are masculine : as, lepus, leporis, a hare. Note 2. Nouns derived from the Greek retain their original gender. Note 3, No rules of this kind can supersede the use of the Lexicon. 31. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN DECLENSION. Note. The stems of bos, grus, and sus end in u (v). So the stem Jov in Jupiter (for Jovpater). Bos, m,or f., ox or cow. . bos, GEN. boVfs, DAT. bbVT, Ace. bbVSm, Voc. bos, ABL. boVS. Jupiter, m., Jupiter. Singular. JupttSr, JoVYs, JoVT, JbVem, Jupiter, Jove. Sus, m. or f., a swine. sus, sfiis, sttT, suem, sus, Plural. NOM. GEN. DAT. bubus or bobfis, Ace. bbVes, Yoc. boves, ABL. bubiis or bobus. VTs, f., strength. NOM. vis, GEN. (vis, rare), DAT. (vT, rare), Ace. vim, Voc. (wanting), ABL. vi. Nix, f., snow. Singular. ,nix, nfvfs, ntvT, ntve'm, nix, sttes, suum, suibus or subus, sues, siffbvis or subtts. Senex, c., old man or woman. sSnex, senYs, sen!, sen^m, sSnex, sSne. 34 LATIN GRAMMAR. NOM. vires, GEN. viriihn, DAT. virtbtts, Ace. vires, Voc. vires, ABL. vlrtbiis. Tethys, f. NOM. Tethys, GEN. Tethyisor Tethyos, DAT. Tethyi, Ace. Tethymor Tethyn, Voc. Tethy, Plural. ntves, ntvium, ntvtbiis, ntves, ntves, ntvtbiis. 32. GREEK NOUNS. Atreus, m. Socrates, m. Atreus, AtreT (el) or Atrgos, Atr6o (eo), Atreum or Atrfia, Atreu, ABL. Tethye. Atreo (eo). Socrates, SocratT or Socratis, SocrSti, SocrStem or Socraten, Socrates or Socrate, Socrate, Heros, m., hero. Singular.' NOM. heros, GEX. herois, DAT. heroT, Acc. heroem or heroa, Voc. heros, ABL. heroe. Plural, heroes, heroum, heroibus (tsin), heroes, -as, heroes, heroibus (isin). TigrTs, a tiger. Singular, tigris, tigrts or tigrtdts, tigrl (tigridi), tigrim or tigrin, sSnes, s^ntlm, sentbfis, sSnes, senes, sSntbfis. AchiUes, m. Achilles or Achilleus, Achillis, -I or Achilleos,-el, AchillT or AchilleT, Achillgm, -en or Achillea, Achille,-es or Achilleu, Achille or AchiUi. Plural, tigres, tigrium, tigribus, tigres or tigrtdas, tigris, tigres, tigre or tigride. tigribus. 33. Many Greek nouns of the third declension prefer the gen. in -\ (as of the secon 1 declension) to that in -is : as, Pericles, gen. PericlT (rather than Pencils). 1. The Greek gen. in -os, the ace. in -a, the nom. plur. in es, e, and the ace. plur. in -as, e, are often preferred to the Latin terminations. 2. As the Greek gen. plur. in -on is sometimes found in the second de- clension, so is that in -eon in the third : as, Metamorphoseon, of the Meta- morphoses. 3. In poetry, the dat. and abl. plur. sometimes end in -si, before vowels -stn. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. 17- STEMS. 34. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in us, Masculine or Feminine, and u, Neuter. They are thus declined : Gradus, m., a step. Genii, n., knee. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. NOM. gradus, gradus, g8nu, ggnua, GEN. gradus, graduum, gSnus, gSnuum, DAT. gradui, gr&dibus, g&nu, g&nibus, Ace. graduxn, gradus, gSnu, gSnua, Voc. gradus, gradus, g8nu, gSnua, ABL. gradu. gradibus. ggnu. genibus. 1. Several nouns of this declension have also forms belonging to the second : as, caestus, abl. plur. caestibus and caestis. Domus, a house, f., is thus declined: Singular. Plural. NOM. d5mus, d5mus, GEN. d5mus, d5inuum or domorum, Loc. domi (rarely dfonul), DAT. d5muT (rarely d5m5), domibus, Aoo. domum, d5mos or dSmus, Voo. dSmus, d5mus, ABL. d5m5 (rarely d5mu). d6mibus. 2. Many u stems in the earlier Latin had the genitive singular in i : as, senatus, gen. senatl. 3. The dative in ui is often contracted into u: as, parce metu, Yerg. 4. The dative and ablative plural in ubus is retained always by acus, arcus, and tribus ; usually by artus, lacus, partus, portus, specus, and veru ; and sometimes by genu, tonitrus, and Quinquatrus. 5. Most nouns of this declension in us are masculine ; but the following are feminine : acus, domus, manus, porticus, 36 LATIN GRAMMAR. tribus, Idus (plural), Quinquatrus (plural); and words de- noting females or plants. Specus, m., is rarely feminine. THE FIFTH DECLENSION. E- STEMS. 35. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in es, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are thus declined : Dies, c., Res, f., Fides, f., a day. a thing. faith. Singular. NOM. dies, res, fides, GEN. die!, rei, fidei, DAT. diei, rei, f idei, Ace. diem, rem, fidem, Voc. dies, res, fides, ABL. die. re. fide. Plural. NOM. dies, res, (no plural.) GEN. dierum, rerum, DAT. diebus, rebus, Ace. dies, res, Voc. dies, res, ABL. diebus. rebus. 1. Dies and res are the only nouns of the fifth declension which have all the cases in both numbers. 2. In the termination ei of the genitive and dative, e is long after i, as, progeniei ; but short, in the classical period, after a consonant. 3. The termination ei was also contracted into e, and an- ciently into I, as die, dii. Examples : constantis juvenem fide, and commissa fide, Hor. ; munera laetitiamque dii, Verg. 4. The phrases die crastini, die proximi, die septimi, DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS. 37 are examples of the locative case in this declension. So cotidie, postridie. 5. All nouns of the fifth declension are feminine ; except dies, which, if it means a day, is in the singular usually, and in the plural always, masculine ; but if it means time, dies is feminine. 36. GENERAL VIEW OF ALL THE DECLENSIONS. Singular. 1st Decl. 2d Decl. 3d Decl. 4th Decl. 5th Decl. NOM. mensa, servus, hSnSr, fructus, dies, GEN. mensae, servi, h&norts, fructus, diei, DAT. mensae, servo, hSnorl, fructuT, diei, Ace. mensam, servum, hSnSrem, fructum, diem, VOC. mensa, serve, hSnSr, fructus, dies, ABL. mensa. servo. hSnore. fructu. die. Plural, NOM. mensae, servT, hftnores, fructus, dies, GEN. mensarum, servorum, hSnorum, fructuum, dierum, DAT. mensTs, servls, h6nortbus, frucubus, diebus, Ace. mensas, servos, hSnores, fructus, dies, Voc. mensae, servT, hSnores, ' fructus, dies, ABL. mensTs. servis. h6noribus. fructibus. diebus. 37. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS. 1. Some nouns are defective in number, or case, or both. 2. The following have the singular, but rarely the plural : a Most proper names : as, Cicero, Roma. 6 Abstract nouns : as, justitia, justice. c Words which indicate material: as, aurum, gold; hor- deum, barley. d Words signifying a whole, without reference to the indi- vidual: as, plebs, the people; siipellex, furniture. e Other words which from their signification are never used in the plural: as, pontus, the sea; sanguis, blood; sopor, sleep; limus, mud; humus, the ground. Note 1. But proper names haye a plural when several of one name are mentioned: as, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars; also when they are used as common nouns: as, multi Cattllnae, many Catilines, i. e., many abandoned men. 4 38 LATIN GRAMMAR. Note 2. When different things of a kind, or different manifestations of the same thing, are specified, the plural is used : as, vlna, wines ; odia, various instances of hatred. Note 3. The poets often use plurals which are not met with in prose : as, silentia, silences or silence. 3. The following are used almost solely in the plural : a Words denoting individuals appearing in great numbers, in groups, or in pairs : as, majores, ancestors; llberi, children (also sing.) ; excubiae, night-watch; artus, limbs (rarely sing.) ; Hia, the loins. b Names of things which have many parts : as, anna, armor ; balneae, a bath-house; exuviae, spoils (stripped from the dead) ; moenia, fortifications. c Names of festivals and periods : as, Saturnalia, the feast of Saturn; Kalendae, the Calends; Nonae, the Nones; Idus, the Ides. d The following, with many more, come under one or other of the above heads ; those marked s. are sometimes, though rarely, used in the sing. : ambages, a round-about way (see 5, below) ; evasive language or con- duct. angustiae, a strait, s. argutiae, witticisms, acuteness, s. blgae (quadrigae), etc., a chariot and pair (or and four), B. blanditiae, flattery, s. clltellae, a pack-saddle. compedes, shackles, B. crepundi-a, -orum, n., a (child's) rattle. cunabul-a, and incunabul-a. orum, n., a cradle. cunae, a cradle. delTciae, darling, s. dTvitiae, wealth, s. epulae, a banquet, s. exsequiae, funeral rites. ext-a, -orum, n., entrails. 4. Many names of towns (as consisting of parts), mountains (as groups or ridges), and hills, have no singular ; as, fasti, a calendar. fauces, the throat, B. grates, thanks. habenae, reins, s. induciae, a truce. inferiae, offering to the dead. nnmTcttiae, enmity, s. instdiae, ambush, s. ITberi, m., children, s. minae, threats. muni-a, -orum, n., duties. nugae, trifles. nuptiae, a marriage-feast. preces, prayers, s. reltquiae, remnant, s. sallnae, salt-pits. scalae, a ladder, a. tenebrae, darkness, s. valvae, folding-doors, s. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS. 39 Acrocerauni-a, -orum, n. Alp-es, -ium (s. rare). Amycl-ae, -arum. Athen-ae, -arum. Ecbatan-a, -orum. Esquili-ae, -arum. Gabi-i, -orum. Parisi-i, -orum. Phtlipp-i, -orum. Syracus-ae, -arum. Thermopyl-ae, -arum. Vei-i, -orum. 5. The following nouns, among others, want some of their cases : admonttu, abl. only, admonition. aes, brass; wants gen. plur. ambage, abl., a round-about; plur. complete, aplustre, nom. and ace., curved stern of a ship; plur., aplustr-a, or -ia. astu, nom., ace., abl. s., a city. astus, nom. sing., and ace. plur., craft; abl. sing., astu. cacoeth.es, nom. and ace., bad habit; plur., nom. and ace., cacoethe; ace., also -es. caellte, abl., inhabitant of heaven ; plur. complete, canities, -em (ace.), -e (abl.), hoari- ness. chaos, nom. and ace. ; chao, abl. ; chaos. compedis, gen., and compede, abl., a fetter ; plur. complete, (daps), nom. wanting, a feast; rest of sing, and plur. complete, (dtcio), nom. wanting ; rest of sing. complete ; no plur. ; power. diu, abl., by day. far, corn ; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. fas, right; only nom. and ace. s. fauce, abl., the throat; plur. com- plete, foras, (to) out of doors; foris, abroad; ace. and abl. fors, chance; abl. forte, (frux), fruit; nom. wanting. grates, thanks; nom., ace., and abl- plur. (gratibus). hiemps, winter; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. impetis, gen., and impete, abl., ve- hemence; plur. impetibus. infitias, ace. plur., a denial. ingratiis, abl. plur., against one's will. injussu, abl., without orders. instar, nom. and ace., likeness. jugeris, gen., and abl. jugere, an acre; plur. -a, -um, -ibus, etc. jussu, abl., by command. lux, light; wants gen. plur. mane, nom. and ace. ; abl., rarely mane or mani, the morning. mel, honey; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. melos, melody, nom. and ace. ; melo, dat. ; plur., nom. and ace., mele. metus, fear ; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. monitu, abl., admonition. natu, abl., by birth. nauci, gen., as in the phrase, Non nauci est, It is not worth a nut- shell. nefas, nom. and ace., wrong (by di- vine law). nemo, nobody; wants voc. sing, and all the plur. The gen. and abl. are rare. mini, nom. and ace., nothing. 40 LATIN GRAMMAR. noctu, abl., by night. opis, gen.; opem, ace.; ope, abl., help ; plur. complete, opus, need, nom. and ace. 6s, the mouth; wants gen. plur. pax, peace ; wants gen. plur. pessum, to the bad; ace. preci, dat. ; precem, ace. ; and prece, abl., prayer ; plur. complete, promptu, abl., with readiness. pus, matter from suppuration; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. repetundarum, gen. plur. ; and re- petundis, abl., extortion. (Supply rerum, rebus.) rogatu, abl., by request. rus, the country; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. secus, sex; only nom. and ace. situs, situation, nom.; -um, ace.; -u, abl. ; -us, nom. and ace. plur. sol, the sun; wants gen. plur. sordis, gen.; sordem, ace.; sord-e and -i, abl., filth; plur. complete. spontis, gen. (very rare); sponte, abl., of one's own accord. suboles, offspring ; wants gen. plur. Tempe, a valley in Thessaly; only in nom., ace., and voc. plur. thus, frankincense ; wants gen., dat., and abl. plur. venui and veno, dat. ; venum, ace. ; and veno, abl., sale. veprem, ace.; vepre, abl., a brier; plur. complete. vesper, evening; vesperum, ace.; vesper-e, -i, or -o, abl. vesper-a, -am, -a (abl.), the even- ing. vTcis, gen. ; vTci, dat. ; vTcem, ace. ; and vtce, abl., change; plur. com- plete except gen. vis, vim, vi; gen. and dat. rare; plur., vires, vlrium, etc., strength. 6. Some nouns have a plural differing in gender and in for- mation from the singular. These are called Metaplasts or Heterogeneous : Singular. Mane. Avernus, Avernus (lake). Dindymus, Dindymus (nU.). Ismarus, Ismarus (mt.). Maenalus, Maenalm (mt.). Tartarus, Tartarus. Masc. intubus, (the plant) endive. jocus, a joke. locus, a place. slbilus, a hissing. Fern. carbasus, a species of flax. Hierosolym-a, -ae, Jerusalem. Plviral. Neut. Averna. Dindyma. Ismara. Maenala. Tartara, etc. Masc. or NeuL intuba and intubi. joci and joca. [sages in books. loca, places, and loci, spots, or pas- slbila (and sibili). Fern. orNeuL (carbasi) and carbasa (n.). Hierosolym-a, -orum (n.). DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS. 41 Neut. Masc. Argos, Argos. Argi. oaelum, Heaven. caeli. Elysium, Elysium. Elysii. porrum, a leek. porri. slser, (the plant) skirret. siseres. Neut. Masc. or Neut. frenum, a bridle. freni and frena. rastrum, a rake. rastri and rastra. Neut. Fern. balneum, a bath. balneae and balnea (u.). epulum, a feast. epulae. nundmum, a market. nundmae, a fair. So also vas, vasis, n., a vessel (3d vas-a, -orum (2d Decl.), n. Decl.). 7. Some nouns have two or more forms in one or more of the oblique cases, derivable from the same form in the nom. These are called Heteroolites : as, domus, f., a house (see 34). fames, f., hunger; abl., fame (3d Decl.), or fame (5th). pecus, pecudis, f., a single head of cattle ; and pecus, pecoris, n., cattle collectively. pinus, a pine ; also flcus, a Jig-tree ; and laurus, a bay (2d Decl.) ; but in abl. sing., nom. and ace. plur. (4th Decl.). requi-es, -etis, f., rest ; ace., -em (5th), or -etem (3d), satrap-es, -ae (1st), and satrap-es, -is (3d), a satrap or governor. senat-us, -i, or -us, the senate. 8. Some nouns have two forms of the same or different declen- sions. They are called Abundantia, or Redundant : as, bacul-us, or -urn (2d), a staff. balte-us, or -um (2d), a girdle. clYpe-us, or -um (2d), a shield. diluvi-um, -i (3d) ; -o, -onis (3d) ; and diluvi-es, -ei (5th), a flood. duriti-a, -ae (1st), or duriti-es, -ei (5th), hardness. event-us, -us (4th), or -um, -i (2d), an occurrence. juvent-us, -utis (3d), or juvent-a, -ae (1st), youth. luxuri-a, -ae (1st), and luxuri-es, -ei (5th), luxury. materi-a, -ae (1st), or materi-es, ei (5th), material, stuff. plebs, pleb-is or pleb-es, pleb-is (3d), or pleb-es, -ei (5th), the commons. sestertius (2d m.), a sesterce, about four cents; sestertium (2d n.), a thou- sand sesterces. 4* 42 LATIN GRAMMAR. vesper, gen. vesper-i (2d) ; or vesper, gen. vesper-is (3d) ; or vesper-a, -ae (1st), the evening ; with many others. 0. Some nouns have a meaning in the plural more or less different from that of the singular : as, Singular, aedes, a temple. aqua, water, aux ilium, help, bonum, a good, a blessing, career, a prison, castrum, a fort, cera, wax. codtcillus, a bit of wood, comitium, a place of meeting, copia, plenty. facultas, a power or faculty, fides, harp-string, finis, an end. fortuna, fortune, gratia, favor. impedimentum, a hindrance, littera, a letter of the alphabet. ludus, play, a fencing-school. lustrum, a period of five years. naris, a nostril. natalis, a birthday. opera, labor, toil. opis, gen., help. pars, a part. plaga, region, rostrum, a beak. sal, salt, tabella, tablet, tabula, a board, plank. torus, a couch. Plural. aedes, temples, or a house. aquae, waters, or medicinal springs. auxtlia, auxiliary troops. bona, goods, property. career es, a starting-post, barriers. castra, a camp. cerae, waxen tablets or busts. codicilli, tablets. comitia, the Assembly at Rome. copiae, troops, stores, resources. facultates, means or resources. fides, lyre. fines, boundaries or territory. fortunae, gifts of fortune. gratiae, thanks. impedimenta, baggage. litterae, letters of the alphabet, or an epistle, or literature. ludi, public games. lustra, lairs, dens. nares, the nose. natales, pedigree, descent. operae, workmen. opes, wealth, resources, power. partes, parts ; the part of an actor in a play ; a party or faction. plagae, snares. rostra, the hustings, or place from which the orators at Rome ad- dressed the people. sales, wit, witticisms. tabellae, documents. tabulae, boards : an account-book, register; writing-tablets. tori, muscles. Note. Many nouns in this list have occasionally in the singular the same meaning as that which is found in the plural. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 43 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 38. Adjectives and Participles are declined like Nouns of similar terminations. 1. The study of the declension of adjectives is therefore like a review of the corresponding declensions of nouns. 39. Adjectives of the First and Second Declension end in us or er, Masculine ; a, Feminine ; and urn, Neuter ; and are thus declined : Bonus, m., bona, f., bonum, n., good. Singular. Hose. Fern. NOM. b6nus, bSna, GEN. bSnT, b5nae, DAT. bSno, bSnae, AGO. bSnum, bSnara, Voc. bone, b6na, ABL. bono. b5na. Plural. NOM. bftni, bSnae, GEN. b&n5rum, bSnariim, DAT. bSnis, bSnis, AGO. bonos, b5nas, Voo. b5ni, b5nae, ABL. bSnis. b5nis. Neut. b6num, b5ni, bono, bonum, bonum, b6no. bSna, b6n5riim, bSnis, b6na, bona, b5nls. Tener, tenera, tenerum, tender. Singular. NOM. GEN. DAT. AGO. Voo. tengr, ABL. tSnSrum, 44 LATIN GRAMMAR. Plural. Mate. Fern. Netd. NOM. tengri, tSnSrae, tgnera, GEN. tnerorum, tnerarum, tenerorum, DAT. tenSris, tgnSris, teneris, Aco. tSneYos, t&neras, tSngra, Voc. tenSri, tgn&rae, tgngra, ABL. tneris. tfeneris. tgngris. PIgSr, pigra, pigrum, lazy. Singular. NOM. pigeV, pigra, pigrum, GEN. pigri, pigrae, pigri, DAT. pigro, pigrae, pigro, Ace. pigrum, pigram, pigrum, Voc. piger, pigra, pigrum, ABL. pigro. pigra. pigro. Plural. NOM. pigri, pigrae, pigra, GEN. pigrorum, pigrarum, pigrorum, DAT. pigris, pigris, pigris, Ace. pigros, pigras, pigra, Voc. pigri, pigrae, pigra, ABL. pigris. pigris. pigris, 40. Participles ending in us, a, um are declined like bonus. 1. Dexter, on the right hand, has the two forms dextera and dextra in the feminine, and dexterum and dextrum in the neuter. 41. The following adjectives have the genitive singular hi ms and the dative in I: alius, nullus, solus, totus, ullus, unus, alter, liter, neuter. Thus : Totus, tota, totum, whole. Singular. Masc. Fern. NeuL NOM. totus, tota, totum, GEN. totius, totius, totius, DAT. toti, tots, toti, Ace. totum, totam, totum, Voc. tote, tota, totum , ABL. toto. tota. toto. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. The plural is regular, like that of bonus. 45 1. The T of the penult in these genitives is long, and takes the accent in prose, except in altertus. In poetry it is sometimes shortened. 2. Alius has in its genitive singular alius, and in the dative alii. In the nominative and accusative neuter it has aliud. 3. Some of these adjectives and pronominal words are occasionally found with the common endings in the genitive or dative. 42. Adjectives of the Third Declension are of three classes : (1) a small number with three terminations in the nomina- tive singular, one for each gender, -er, -ris, -re; (2) many with two terminations, -is Masculine and Feminine, -e Neuter, and comparatives in -or Masculine and Feminine, -us Neuter ; and (3) many in r, 1, s, or x, with one termination for all genders. They are thus declined : Acer or acris, acris, acre, sharp. Masc. NOM. acSr, GEN. acris, DAT. acrl, Aco. acrem, Voo. acgr, ABL. acrl. Singular. Fem. acris, acris, acrl, acrem, acris, acrl. Neut. acre, acris, acrl, acre, acre, acrl. NOM. acres, GEN. acrium, DAT. acribus, Ace. acres, is, Voc. acres, ABL. acribus. Plural, acres, acrium, acribus, acres, Is, acres, acribus. acria, acrium, acribus, acria, acria, acribus. 1. Celer, celerts, celere, swift, is the only adjective of this class which retains e before r through all the cases. Its genitive plural ends in ium when it is used merely as an adjective, but in um when it signifies the an- cient body-guard at Konie, called Celeres. 46 LATIN GRAMMAR. 43, Mitis, mite, mild. Singular. Plural. Masc. and Fern. Neut. Masc. and Fern. Neut. NOM. mitis, mite", mites, mitia, GEX. mitis, mitis, mltium, mltium, DAT. miti, miti, mltibus, mltibus, Ace. mltem, mite, mites, Is, mitia, Voc. uritis, mite, mites, mitia, ABL. miti. miti. mltibus, mitibus. 1. An ablative singular in e is sometimes found in poetry. 44 1. Mitior, mltius, milder. Singular. Plural. Mate, and Fern. Newt. Masc. and Fern. Neat. NOM. mitior, mltitis, mltiores, mltiora, GEX. mitior is, mitioris, mltiorum, mltiorum, DAT. mitiori, mitiori, mitior ibus, mltioribus, Ace. mitiorem, inltiiis, mltiores, -is, mltiora, Voc. mltiSr, mltiiis, mltiores, mltiora, ABL. inltiore, -T. mltiore", -I. mltioribus. mltioribus. 2. The comparative plus, more, plural, plures, plura, is thus declined : Singular. NeuL NOM. plus, GEN. pluris, DAT. wanting, Ace. plus, ABL. plure. 3. The comparative degree was formed by adding to the dipt stem the termination -tos, which was changed in the nom. sing., masc. and fern., to tor, in the oblique cases to ior, and appears in the neut. nom. sing, as ins. 4. Complures, several, is declined like plures. 5. The ablative in -i in comparatives is rare. 6. Plures and complures are the only comparatives which have the gen. plur. in ium. Plural, Masc. and Fern. Neut. plures, plurS (-15), plurium, plurium, pluribus, pluribus, plures, -Is, plura (-ia), pluribus. plurYbus. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 47 45. Felix, happy ; (x = cs). Prudens, wise. Vetus, old. Masc. and Fern. Neut. NOM. felix, GEN. felicis, DAT. felic!, Ace. felicem, felix, Voc. felix, ABL. felic!, -e. Singular. Masc. and Fern. Neut. Masc. and Fern. Neut. prudens, v6tus, prudentts, veteris, prudent!, vSt6r!, prudentem, prudens, v8t8rem, vSttis, prudens, vetiis, prudent!, -e. vetere. Plural. NOM. fellces, fellcia, prudentes, prudentia, v6tgres, v5t6ra, GEN. felicinm, prudentium, v6t6rSm, DAT. fellcibus, prudentibus, v6t6ribus, Ace. fellces, -is, fellcia, prudentes, -is, prudentia, v6tgres, v8t6ra, Voc. fiellces, fellcia, prudentes, prudentia, v6t6res, v6t6ra, ABL. fellcibus. prudentibus. veteribus. Amans, loving. Singular. Masc. and Fern. Neut. NOM. mans, GEN. Smantis, DAT. amantl, Aoo. Smantem, amans, Voo. amans, ABL. &mante, -T. NOM. amantes, Smantia, GEN. Smantium, DAT. amantibus, Aoo. Smantes, araantia, Voo. amantes, amantia, ABL. amantibus. Plural. lens, going. Masc. and Fern. Neut. iens, euntis, eunti, , iens, iens, eunte, -T. euntes, euntia, euntium, euntibiis, euntes, euntia, euntes, euntia, euntibiis. 1. The ablative singular of adjectives of one termination ends commonly in -! ; but when used as nouns they have -e. 2. Participles, used as such, have -e in the ablative; when used as adjectives or nouns, more commonly -!. 3. Consonant-stems, in which the vowel before the final consonant is long, or which end in two consonants, have -ium in the genitive plural ; 48 LATIN GRAMMAR. as, audac-ium, prudent-inm. Those which have a short vowel before the final consonant have -um. These rules, however, have some exceptions. Participles also have -ium ; but when used as nouns they have some- times -um. 4. Composite adjectives follow in the genitive plural the declension of the nouns or adjectives from which they are derived : as, concors, con- cordum; anceps, ancipitum; quadrupes, quadrupedum. Their neuter plural, however, has generally ia : as, anctpitia, verstcoloria, quadru- pedia. 46. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 1. Some adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other like tristis or prudens : acclivts (us), steep; imbecillus (IB), weak; bljugts (us), two-yoked; imberbts (us), beardless ; eflrenus (is), unbridled; Inermus (is), unarmed; unanlmus (is), of one mind; Cpulentus (Spulens), wealthy ; hllaris (us), cheerful; viftlentus (violens), violent. So exanlm-us, ts; sgmianlm-us, ts; sublim-is, us; and others. The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens. 2. Some adjectives are defective in Number : pauci, few, is rarely sing. (Hor. ad Pis. 203) ; plerlque, most, is found sing, with collective words : " pleraque nobllltas " (for plerlque noblles), SaUust 3. Some adjectives are defective hi Case and Number : a. Two cases : Nom. Sing, pernox, Abl. pernocte, all night. Nom. and Ace. Sing, ne- cesse, necessary, from necessis (obsolete). Necessum, from necessus (obs.), is found in old poetry. 6. One case : Nom. sing, damnas, condemned (for damnat(u)s), with esto : but used also idiomatically as Nom. PI. with sunto; exspes, hopeless; potis, pote, able, possible. c. Of some, the Nominatives are not found, but other cases only: (sons), guilty; sontes, the guilty: but insons, innocent, has full cases. Macte, Voc. Sing., macti, Voc. PI., are used with esto, este, be blessed, be lucky, etc. Macte (macti) virtute esto (este), good luck to you for your valor. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 49 d. The Dat. Sing. frngi,/or good, is used as an indeclinable adjective of all cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to this is the inde- clinable adjective nequam, good for nothing. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 47. Adjectives are compared regularly by adding to the consonant-stem* of the Positive the terminations -ior, Mascu- line and Feminine, and -ins, Neuter, for the Comparative, and -issimus, -a, -mn, for the Superlative : as, Pos. Comp. Superl. durus, durior, durissimus, hard, harder, hardest. tristis, tristiSr, tristissimus, sad, sadder, saddest. felix, flicior, fellcissimus, happy, happier, happiest. 1. Before Augustus, the superlative ended in nmus instead of Tmus. 48. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative : f as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative, celer, swift; celerior, celerrimus. pulcher, beautiful; pulchrior, pulcherrimus. Note. Vetus has in the superlative veterrnnns (comparative vetustior, rarely veterior); matnrns, matnrissimus and maturrimus ; salubris, saluberrimus. 1. Six adjectives in ills form the superlative by changing is into limus ; f they are facilis, easy ; similis, like; graoilis, slender; difficilis, hard; dissimilis, unlike; humilis, lowly. Thus : Pos. facilis, COMP. facilior, SUPERL. facillimus. 49. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 1. The following adjectives are either deficient in the positive degree, or form their comparative and superlative irregularly or from a different stem : Positive. Comparative. Superlative, bonus, good, melior, better, optimus, best, mains, bad, pejor, worse, pessnnns, worst. * That is, the dipt stem, left after the removal from the full stem of the vowel after its last consonant. f In other words, they double the last consonant of the uncontracted stem, and change the termination to tmns. 5 D 50 LATIN GRAMMAR. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. magnus, great, major, greater, maxYmus, greatest. parvus, small, mYnor, less, mYnYmus,* least. multus, much, plus (neut.), more, plurYmus, most. nequam (indecl.), wicked, nequior, nequissYmus. dis, I" 6 ' I divYtior, 1 ditior, idlvYtissYmus (Cic.). ditissYmus (Aug. and post- Aug.). senex, old, senior, (natu maxYmus). {junior (sometimes juvenis, young, post- Aug. juve- (natu mYnYmus). nior), adulescens, young, adulescentior, (natu mYnYmus). potis, pote (indecl.), J able, possible, ) potior, better, potissYmus, best. (no positive, cf. uwuj), ocYor, swifter, ocissYmus. frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissYmus. egens, J egenus, J egentior, egentissYmus. bcHcvolus i benevolens (Plaut., Ter.), j benevolentior, benevolentissYmus. malevolus i malevolens (Plaut.), J malevolent! or, male volentissYmus . maledicens (Plaut.), J maledlcentior, maledicentissYmus. benefYcus, beneficentior, benencentissYmus. malefYcus, malencentissYmus. magnYfYcus, magnificentior, magnificentissYmus. mnnYfYcus, munincentissYmus. mirYfYcus, f mirificissYmus (Ter. 1 once). honorYfYcus, honorificentior, honorificentissYmus. provYdus, | provYdens, J providentior, providentissYmus. cltra (adv.), on this side, cYterior, cYtYmus. de (prep.), down from, deterior, worse, deterrYmus. extra (adv.), exter (adj.), "| outside (very rare in \ exterior, f ex trim us. 1 extYmus. sing.), ex tennis, infra (adv.), infer (adj.), 1 low, (chiefly used in plur., the beings, places, f inferior, f infYmus. 1 Tmus. etc., below), j Also parvisslmus (Varro and Lucretius). COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 51 Positive, intra (adv.), within, post, posterus, next (in time), prae (prep.), before, prope (adv.), near, supra (adv.), super (adj.), high, (chiefly used in plur. the beings, places, etc., above), ultra (adv.), beyond, Comparative. interior, inner, f posterior, hinder, 1 later, prior, former, propior, superior, Superlative. inttmus, inmost. f postremus, last. 1 postumus, last-born. primus, first. proxnnus. {supremus, highest, last (in time). summus. ultimus, farthest. ulterior, farther, 2. The following have the superlative, but not the comparative : bellus, caesius, diversus, falsus, inclutus, iuvictus, invltus, meritus, novus, sacer, vafer. 3. The following have the comparative, but not the superlative : Verbals in -ilis (except amabilissimus, mobilissimus, fertilissimus, utilissimus, nobilissimus) : alacer, agrestis, arcanus, caecus, diuturnus, exilis, jejunus, juvenis, longinquus, obliquus, opimus, proclivis, pronus, satur, segnis, senex, serus, supmus, surdus, tacYturnus, tempest! vus, vicinus. Sinister has the superlative smisttmus only in augurial language. 50. Many adjectives, which express an absolute state or quality (as material, e. g., aureus ; time, e. g., nocturnus ; special relationship, e. g., paternus), which does not readily admit the idea of a higher or lower degree, have no comparative or superlative. In some others they are wanting without any such apparent reason. If a comparison is required in such adjectives, the defect is supplied by adding magis and max i me. Thus, magis mlrus, more wonderful, ma- xime mirus, most wonderful. Adjectives used only in the positive are chiefly of the following classes : 1. Derivatives ending in -Ycus, -Tnus, -Tvus, -orus, -tnnus, -ulus, -alis or -aris, -Tlis, and (from nouns) in -atus and -Ttus, as civtcus, naturalis, etc., barbatus, crlnltus. Exceptions: aequalior; capitalior; civilior (Ov.) ; familiarior, famili- arissimus ; frugalior, frugalissimus ; hospitalissimus (Cic.) ; juvenilior (Ov.); liberalior, liberalissimus ; popularior; puerilior (Hor.); salu- tarior. 2. Compounds ; as, inops, magnantmus, etc. Except those named above from volo, dico, facio (49, 1). Except also amentior, amentissimus ; concordior, concordissimus ; deformior ; dementior, dementissimus ; immanior, immanissimus ; iner- tior, inertissimus ; ingentior; insignior; misericordior ; perennior; sollertior, sollertissimus. 52 LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Adjectives ending in -us, preceded by a vowel. Exc. or. U often is, or becomes, consonantal, and thus allows a compara- tive or superlative without difficulty ; as in -quus and -guis ; e. g. antT- quior, antiquissimus ; pinguior, pinguissinms ; propinquior ; salutarior ; tenuis, tenuior, tenuissimus. ft. industrior (Plant.) ; piisimus (condemned by Cic. Phil. 13, 19, but used by Antony, Sen., Curt., Tac.). 4. The following, also, have at least ordinarily only the positive : albus, almus. calvus, canus, claudus, curvus, ferus, gnarus, gnavus, lassus, mediocris, memor, immemor. mirus, rudis, trux. 51. Many present and past participles have comparatives and superla- tives; as, 1. Present Participle : amans, appetens, ardens. continens, egens. fervens, flagrans, florens, indulgens. neglegens, patiens, temperans, tuens, valens, etc. 2. Past Participle : acceptus, accuratus, adstrictus, apertns, aversus, concitatus, conjun- ctus, contemptus. dissolutus. doctus, effusus, eruditus, exoptatus, expe- ditus, instmctus, intentus, munltus, obstinatus, paratus, perditus, per- fectus, promptus, refertus, remotus, etc. 52. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 1. Adverbs in e, o, e, ter, etc., derived from Adjectives, often follow their Comparison, with Comparative ending us, Superlative e (o, urn) : Adj. Adv. Compar. Superl. dignus digne worthily dignius dignisslme vSfer vafre cunningly vafrius vaferrlme tutus tuto safely tutius tutisslme (6) fdcUis facile easily facilius facilllme forties fortlter bravely fortius fortisslme constans constanter firmly constantius constantisslme audax audacter boldly audacius audacisslme mtrltus merlto deservedly meritisslmo(e) uber ubertim abundantly uberius uberrlme Adj. Adv. Compar. Superl. bfaius b6n6 well mglius better optJme best malus male /// pejus worse pesslme worst magnus magnopr6 greatly magls more maxlme most parvu* {P aulum H ( parum too little J multus multum much plus mlnus iess fmlnlme very little < minimum least more plurlmum very much - ocius quicker ocisslme very quickly COMPARISON. NUMERALS. 53 Adv. Compar. Superl. prius sooner pStius rather detSrius worse interius Iprlmo at first potisslmum preferably deterrime very badly intlme posterius propius postremo proxlme intus within post after pr&pe nearly So also : saepg, often, saepiiis, saepissfme ; diu, long, difititts, diutisstme ; pgnttfls, deeply, pgnttiiis, pgnltisslme ; sfttTs, enough, sjUitts ; sficiis, other- wise, setiils ; tempgri, betimes, tempgritts ; nupgr, lately, nuperrlme. Note. Magts means more in degree; plus, more in quantity. 53. NOTES ON COMPARISON. 1. The Comparative may imply a degree too high (higher than is right), or rather high, somewhat high (higher than ordi- nary) : as, voluptas cum major est atque longior, etc., when pleasure is too great and too long continued; senectus est loquacior, old age is rather talkative. 2. When two adjectives or adverbs are compared with each other, both are often put in the comparative : as, longior quam latior, rather long than broad; fortius quam felicius, with more courage than success. But with xnagis quam, each word is in the positive : as, magis audacter quam parate. 3. The Superlative may denote simply a very high degree : as, vir doctissimus, a very learned man (i. e., in the highest grade of learning). 4. Vel, eyen, and quam, with or without possum, as much as possible, before the Superlative, render it more emphatic. 5. The Superlative with quisque denotes each single one who possesses the quality in the highest degree, but is best translated with all or always: as, opttmus quisque, fill the best men, or the best man always. 6. Per and prae in composition often denote a high degree of a quality; sub a low degree. NUMERALS. 54. The Cardinal Numerals are adjectives answering the question Quot, how many f as, unus, one ; quinque, five. 1. The Ordinal Numerals are adjectives answering the ques- tion Quotus, which in order of number f as, quintus, the fifth. 5* LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. The Distributive Numerals are adjectives answering the question Quoteni, how many each? or how many each time/ as, quini, Jive apiece, or by fives, five at a time. 3. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question Quotiens, how often f as, semel, once ; quinquies (or quinquiens), five times. CARDINAL NUMERALS. Arabic. Roman Symbols. Cardinals. 1 I unus, a, um, one. 2 II du6, ae, o, two. 3 III tres, tria. 4 IIII or IV quattuor. 5 V quinque. 6 VI sex. 7 VII septem. 8 VIII octo. 9 VIIII or IX nftvem. 10 X decem. 11 XI undgcim. 12 XII duodecim. 13 XIII trgdecim ; decem et tres ; tres et decem. 14 XIIII or XIV quattuordecirn ; decem et quattuor. 15 XV quindecim. 16 XVI sedgcim ; sexdScim ; decem et sex. 17 XVII decem et septem; s. etd. ; septemd&cim. 18 XVIII duodeviginti (decem et octo). 19 XVIIII or XIX undeviginti (decem et novem). 20 XX viginti. 21 XXI unus et viginti ; viginti unus. 22 XXII duo et viginti ; viginti duo. 28 XXVIII duodetrlginta (octo et viginti). 29 XXIX undetriginta (novem et viginti). 30 XXX triginta. 40 XL quadraginta. 50 L quinquaginta. 60 LX sexaginta. 70 LXX septuaginta. 80 LXXX octoginta. 90 XC nonaginta. 98 IIC nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta. 99 1C nonaginta novem ; undecentum. NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMBERS-(Continued). 55 Arabic. Roman Symbols. Cardinals. 100 C centum. 101 CI centum et unus; centum unus. 136 CXXXVI centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s. 200 CC ducenti, ae, a. 300 CCC trgceuti, ae, a 400 CCCC quadringenti, ae, a. 500 lOorD quingenti, ae, a. 600 IQC or DC sescenti, ae, a. 700 lOCC or DCC septingenti, ae, a. 800 IQCCC or DCCC octingenti, ae, a. 900 lOCCCC or DCCCC nongenti, ae, a. 1,000 CI3 or M mille. 2,000 CIoCIo or MM duo millia (bis mille). 5,000 IDO quinque millia. 10,000 ccioa decem millia. 50,000 IODO quinquaginta millia. 100,000 CCCIooo centum millia ; centena millia. 1,000,000 CCCCIoooo dgcies centum millia ; dficies. ORDINALS, DISTRIBUTIVES, AND NUMERAL ADVERBS. 6 '2 Ordinals. Distributives. Nunneral Adverbs. 2 us, -a, -urn. -i, -ae, -a. (-ies or-iens.) i primus, first singuli, one by one sgmel, once. 2 sgcundus (or alter), second bini, two by two bis, twice. 3 tertius, third terni or trini ter, thrice. 4 quartus quaterni quater, four times. 5 quintus quini quinquies or quinquiens. 6 sextus seni sex ies. 7 septlmus septeni septies. 8 octavus octoni octies. 9 nonus nSveni n6vies. 10 dedmus deni dgcies. 56 LATIN GRAMMAR. ORDINALS, DISTRIBUTIVES, AND NUMERAL ADVERBS (Continued). o s Ordinals. Distributives. Numeral Adverbs. I -us, -a, -um. -i, -ae, -a. (-ies or-iens.) 11 undScImus undeni undecies. 12 duodecimos duodeni duodecies. 13 tertius decimus (deci- mus et tertius) temi deni terdecies ortr6decies. 14 quartus decimus (decimus et quar- tus) quatemi deni quattuordecies or quater d. 15 quintus decimus quini deni quindecies or quinquies d. 16 sextus decimus seni deni sedecies or sexies decies. 17 septimus decimus septeni deni septiesdecies. IS duodeviceslmus (oc- tavus decimus) duodeviceni duodevicies or octies d. 19 undevicesimus (no- nus decimus) undeviceni undevicies or novies d. ^0~ vicesimus (vigesi- mus) or vicensi- mus viceni vicies. 21 unus et vicesimus (primus et vie. ; vie. pr.) viceni singuli semel et vicies or v. s. 22 alter et vicesimus (v. a.; duo et vie.) viceni bini bis et vicies or v. b. 28 duodetricesimus (oc- tavus et vicesimus) duodetriceni octies et vicies. 29 undetricesimus (no- nus et vicesimus) undetriceni novies et vicies. 30 tricesimus (trigesi- mus) or tricensi- mus triceni tricies. 40 quadragesimus quadrageni quadragies. 50 quinquagesimus quinquageni quinquagies. 60 sexagesimus sexageni sexagies. 70 septuagesimus septuageni septuagies. 80 octogesimus octogeni octogies. 90 nonagesimus nonageni nonagies. 98 nonagesimusoctavus nonageni octoni nonagies octies. 99 undecentesimus undecenteni undecenties. NUMERALS. 57 A Pcibic. Ordinals. Distributives. Numeral Adverbs. -us, -a, -urn. -i, -ae, -a. (-ies or -iens.) 100 centesimus or cen- centeni centies. tensimus 101 centesimus primus centeni singuli centies semel. 136 centesimus tricesi- mus sextus centeni triceni seni centies tricies sexies. 200 ducentesimus duceni ducenties. 300 trgcentesimus treceni trecenties. 400 quadringentesimus quadringeni quadringenties. 500 quingentesimus quingeni quingenties. 600 sexcentesimus: sesc. seceni sescenties. 700 septingentesimus septingeni septingenties. 800 octingentesimus octingeni octingenties. 900 nongentesimus nongeni nongenties. 1,000 millesimus or mil- singula millia (milia) millies. lensimus 2,000 t>is millesimus bina millia bis millies. 5,000 quinquies millesi- mus quina millia quinquies millies. 10,000 decies millesimus dena millia decies millies. 50,000 quinquagies millesi- mus quinquagena millia quinquagies millies. 100,000 centies millesimus centena millia centies millies. 500,000 quingeuties millesi- mus quingena millia quingenties millies. 1,000,000 millies millesimus decies centena millia decies centies millies. 55. 1. Unus, one, duo, two, and tres, three, are thus declined : Singular. Masc. Fern. Newt. NOM. unus, GEN. unius, DAT. uni, una, unius, uni, unum, unius, uni, Ace. unum, unam, unum, ABL. uno. una. uno. Masc. uni, unorum, unis, unos, unis. Masc. Fern. Plural. Neut. Plural. Fern. Neut. unae, una, unarum, unorum, unis, unis, unas, una, unis. unis. Masc. and Fern. Neut. NOM. du5, duae, GEN. duorum (duum), diiarum, DAT. dttobiis, duabiis, Ace. duos or dii6, dtlas, ABL. duobiis. duabus. dii6, tres, tria, duorum (duum), trittm, trium, duobus, trlbus, trlbus, dii6, tres (tris), tria, duobus. trlbus. trlbtis. 58 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. The vocative fine is found in Catullus xxxvii. 17. Ambo, both, is de- clined like duo. 3. The other cardinal numbers from quattuor,/oitr, to cen- tum, a hundred, are undeclined ; the hundreds, beginning with ducenti, are declined like the plural of bonus ; mille, a thou- sand, is an indeclinable adjective (sometimes noun) ; the ne^iter plural millia (sometimes milia), thousands, is a noun, declined like mar ia, the plural of mare. 4. The plural of unus is used with nouns which have only the plural number : as, fina castra, one camp; uni Fbii, the Ubii alone. For higher numbers, such nouns use the distributives: as, blnae litterae, tiro epistles. Trlni is used for terni. a. BIni is used to express a pair: as, blna manu crispans hastllia. 5. Multiplication is expressed by prefixing numeral adverbs to the dis- tributives : as, bis denis navtbus, with twice ten ships. 6. In compound numbers above twenty and under one hundred, either the smaller number with et comes first, or the larger without et. 7. In compound numbers above one hundred, the larger with or without et generally precedes the smaller. 8. The thousands are expressed by prefixing the cardinal numbers to millia, or (chiefly in poetry) by prefixing the numeral adverbs to mille. 9. The numbers above one hundred thousand are expressed by the numeral adverbs joined to centum millia (mllia) or centena millia (mllia). Centena millia is often omitted after the numeral adverb ; thus, decies, may stand for decies centena millia, one million. 10. Unus is often used in compound numbers for primus : as, fino et octogesimo anno, in (his) eighty-first year. 11. The numbers compounded with eight and nine are commonly ex- pressed by a subtraction of duo and unus from the next multiple of ten : as, duodeviginti, eighteen; undecentum, ninety-nine', but octodecim, novendecim, etc., are sometimes found. 12. The ordinal numbers, not the cardinal, are used in giving a date ; thus in the year 1883 is anno millesimo octingentesimo octogesimo tertio. 13. In manuscripts, thousands were sometimes indicated by a line over the Roman numerals : as, LX, sixty thousand ; and hundreds of thou- sands by lines on three sides : as, |XX|, two millions. 14. Multiplicatives, compounded with a root of number and plic-, an- swer the question quotuplex, how many fold ? They are simplex, simple ; duplex, twofold; triplex, quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decem- plex, centuplex, multiplex, and sescuplex or sesquiplex. 15. Proportionals answer the question how much more f They are sim- plus, duplus, triplus, quadruplus, quincuplus, septuplus, octuplus, and sescuplus. NUMERALS. 59 56. NUMERAL EXPRESSION OF FRACTIONS. The Romans expressed fractions in words in several ways : 1. All fractions, with 1 for numerator, are denoted by ordinal numbers, with or without pars, as i, dimidium (not dimidia) or dimidia pars ; J, tertia or tertia pars ; i, quarta, etc. 2. All fractions with a numerator less by one than the denominator are denoted by the cardinal with partes simply, as , duae partes ; I, tres partes ; , quattuor partes ; I, quinque partes. 3. All fractions with 12 or its multiples for a denominator, are denoted by the parts of an as, the Roman unit of weight, length, or measure. (The as of weight is called libra, of length, pes, of area, jugerum.) The as con- sisted originally of 12 unciae,* and there were distinct names and signs for each multiple of the uncia and for some fractions of it. Unciae. Value. Sign. 12 assis or as, a pound (etc.), . . . . 1 as. 1 11 deunx (de-uncia), an ounce off, . . . ^ S ~ 10 dextans (desextans), a sixth off, . . . S= = 9 dodrans (dequadrans), a fourth off, . . f S=: 8 bessis or bes (dui-assis), a two-as f, . . f S ^ 7 septunx (septem unciae), a, seven-ounce, . -fa S 6 semissis or semis (semi-assis), a half-as, . S 5 quincunx (quinque unciae), a five-ounce, . & ~ 4 triens (tri-), a third, | rr 3 quadrans (quattuor-) or teruncius, a fourth, . \ 2 sextans (sexto-), a sixth, i li sescuncia (sesqui-uncia), one and a half ounce, % S 1 uncia, an ounce, ^ or o \ semuncia, a half ounce, -fa S or sicilYcus, a Sicilian farthing, ^ 3 6 sextula, a little sixth, ?V ? Of the above, the sicilicus was not used till imperial times. The scri- ptSlum or scripulum (yprf/ifw) was also used for -fa of the uncia, = ^ as. The fraction -fa as was denoted by binae sextulae, or duella ; T ? as by dimidia sextula, or duo scripula. The above-named parts of the as were used as mere duodecimal fractions, applicable without any specific concrete meaning to any unit. Hence heres ex asse, heir to the whole inheritance; ex triente, to a third; ex dimidia et sextante, to two-thirds (a half and a sixth). 4. Other fractions, not expressible by one of the above methods, are de- * Hence inch as well as ounce is derived from uncia. t This term must either have been formed when the as was equal to 4 unciae ; or be short for two-thirds of an as. 60 LATIN GRAMMAR. noted by the cardinal for a numerator, and the ordinal for the denominator, as, 4, quattnor septimae ; , septem nonae. 5. Some fractions are denoted by resolution into their components, as, |, dimidia et quarta ; ? , pars dimidia et sezta ; f , pars tertia et nona ; f , pars tertia et septima. 6. Sometimes further division is resorted to, as, ^5, dimidia quinta. And dimidia tertia is used for sexta ; dimidia quarta for octava. 7. Sesqui, li, is used only in compounds, as, sesquilibra, H fts. 8. Sesquialtera ratio is li : 1 : : 3 : 2. [RoBY ; KENNEDY. PRONOUNS. 57, 1. The Personal Pronouns are thus declined: FIEST PERSON. Singular. Plural. NOM. ego, /. nos, we. GEN. mei, of me. nostri or nostrum, of us. DAT. mihl, to or for me. nobis, to or for us. Ace. me, me. nos, us. ABL. me, from, with, or by me. nobis, from, with, or by us. SECOND PERSON. NOM. tu, thou. vos, ye or you. GEN. tuT, of thee. vestri or vestrum, of you. DAT. tibl, to or for thee. vobls, to or for you. Ace. te, thee. vos, you. Yoc. tu, thou. vos, O ye. ABL. ie,from, with, or by thee. vobis, from, with, OT by you. REFLEXIVE. Singular and Plural. GEN. siil, of himself, herself, itself, or themselves. DAT. sibf, to or for himself, etc. Ace. se or sese, himself, etc. ABL. se or sese, from, with, or &?/ himself, etc. 2. The nominative and vocative of the reflexive pronoun are wanting. 3. The old genitive of the first and second persons was mis, tis. 4. MI for mini is found in Cicero and in the poets. 5. The forms med and ted occur as accusatives and ablatives in Plautus. PRONOUNS. 61 6. Nostrum and vestrum are used only after partitives. They are the contracted genitives plural of the possessive pronouns noster and vester. In like manner mei, tui, and sui are the genitives singular of the neuter possessive pronouns. 7. The preposition cum, with, is affixed to the ablative of these pronouns in both numbers : as, mecum, with me; vobiscum, with you. 8. The suffix -met may be joined (1) to ego and its cases, except the gen. plural: as, egomet, I myself ; (2) to the cases of tu, except the nom. sing. : as, vosmet, ye yourselves ; (3) to se and sibi, as sibtmet. 9. The suffix -te may be joined to tu : as, tute. We find also tutemet, thou thyself. 58. The Possessive Pronouns meus, mea, meum, my or mine; tuns, tua, tuum, thy or thine; suus, sua, suum, his own, her own, its own, their own ; and cujus, cuja, cujum, whose, whose ? are declined like bonus. 1. Meus has ml, rarely meus, in the vocative singular mas- culine. Tuus and suus have no vocative. 2. The Possessive Pronouns noster, nostra, nostrum, our, and vester, vestra, vestrum, your, are declined like piger. 3. The Demonstratives have no corresponding Possessives, but their Genitives supply the want: as, ejus liber, his book; eorum opes, their wealth. 4. From the possessives noster, vester, and cujus are derived the Pa- trials, nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country; cujas, of what country ? 5. The intensive suffix -met may be joined to the cases of suus: as, suamet faota ; the suffix -pte to the abl. sing, of the possessive pronouns : as, meopte consilio, by my advice. 59. The Demonstrative Pronouns are thus declined : I. UNEMPHATIC. Is, that; or, he, she, it. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Newt. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. ts, ea, fd, e! or ii, eae, eS, GEN. ejus, ejus, ejtts, eorum, earum, eorum, DAT. el, - el, el, els or ils, els or ils, els or iis, Ace. eiim, earn, Id, eos, eas, ea, ABL. eo, ea, eo. els or iis, els or ils, els or ils. 6 62 LATIN GRAMMAR. II. EMPHATIC. Hie, this (near me) ; or, he, she, it. Singular. Masc. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. hie, haec, hoc, GEN. hujus, hujiis, hujue, DAT. hulc, hulc, hulc, Ace. hunc, hanc, hoc, ABL. hoc, hac, hoc. Plural. Fern. Neut. hi, hae, haec, horum, harum, horum, his, his, his, hos, has, haec, his, his, his. Jfasc. Fern. Neut. NOM. iste, ista, istud, GEN. istius, istlus^ istms, DAT. isti, isti, isti, Aoc. istiim, istam, istiid, ABL. isto, ista, isto. Iste, that (near you} ; or, he, she, it. Masc. Fern. NeuL isti, istae, ista, istorum, istariim, istorum, istis, istis, istis, istos, istas, ista, istis, istis, istis. Hie, that (yonder) ; or, he, she, it. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. illS, ilia, illud, GEN. illms, illiiis, illms, DAT. ill!, Uli, illi, Aoc. ilium, illam, illiid, ABL. illo, ilia, illo. Masc. Fern. Neui. illi, illae, ilia, illoriim, illarum, illoriim, illls, illis, illis, illos, illas, illS, illis, illis, illis. 60. 1. The Definitive Pronouns are thus declined: Idem, same. Mate. Fern. Newt. NOM. idem, eSdem, Idem, GEN. ejusdgm, ejusdem, ejusdem, DAT. eldem, eidfim, eldem, Ace. eundem, eandfem, Idem, ABL. eodem, eadem, eddem. Masc. Fern. Neut. iidem(eidem), eaedem, eadem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem, eisdem or eisdem or eisdem or iisdem, iisdem, iisdem, eosdem, easdem, eadem, eisdem or eisdem or eisdem or iisdem, iisdem, iisdem. PRONOUNS. 63 Ipse, self. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, ipsT, ipsae, ipsa, GEN. ipsliis, ipsms, ipsitts, ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsorum, DAT. ipsT, ipsT, ipsT, ipsls, ipsis, ipsis, Ace. ipsiim, ipsam, ipsum, ipsos, ipsas, ipsa, Voc. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, ipsT, ipsae, ipsa, ABL. ipso, ipsa, ipso. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis. 2. The demonstrative affix c (for ce) is added to iste and ille, making a pronominal declension as follows : Singular. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. istic, istaec, istoc or istuc, illic, illaec, illoc or illuc, Ace. istunc, istanc, istoc or istuc, illunc, illanc, illoc or illuc, ABL. istoc, istac, istoc. illoc, iliac, illoc. Plural. NOM. and Ace. istaec. illaec. Ce sometimes appears in full : as, istiusce, illosce, etc. 61. The adverbs ibi, hie, illic, and istic are locative cases of is, hie, illto, and isttc respectively. 1. Of hie, the fuller forms hosce, hasce, hnjusce are found in Cicero ; the nom. pi. fern, haec is found in Varro, Lucretius, and Vergil. Plautus has hioe (nom. sing, m.), hoce (nom. n.), hisce (nom. pi. m.), hlbus (dat. and abl. pi.). 2. Old forms of ille, in Ennius, Lucretius, and Vergil, are olli (dat. sing, and nom. pi. m.), ollis (dat. and abl. pi.), and in Lucretius, ollas, olla, ace. pi. 3. Ipse is also called an intensive pronoun. It has an old nominative, ipsus. It is compounded of is and pse for pte ; and the is was, in the ear- lier times, declined. Thus, Plautus has eumpse, eampse, eapse, etc. The phrase, reapse, i. e., re eapse, in reality, occurs in Cicero. Ipse sometimes takes the suffix met. 4. A superlative, ipsissimus, is found in the comic poets. 5. The interjection ecce, lo ! coalesces, in comic poetry, with cases of is, ille, iste : as, ecca, eccum, eccam, etc. ; eccilla, eccillum, etc. ; eccistam, etc. En, lo ! also coalesces with ille in the accusative forms ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas. 64 LATIN GRAMMAR. 62. 1. The relative pronoun is thus declined : Qui, who, which. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. qul, quae, quod, quT, quae, quae, GEN. cujus, cujus, cujus, quorum, quarum, quorum, DAT. cul, cui, cul, qutbus, quibus, quibiis, Ace. quern, quam, quod, quos, quas, quae, ABL. quo, qua, quo. quYbus, qutbus, quibus. 2, The interrogative substantive pronoun is thus declined : (Juis, who? what* Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Newt. NOM. quis, (quae), quYd, qui, quae, quae, GEN. cujus, cujus, cujus, quorum, quarum, quorum, DAT. cui, cul, cui, quibus, quibus, qutbus, Ace. quern, quam, quid, quos, quas, quae, ABL. quo, qua, quo. quYbus, quibus, quYbus. 3. Quis is sometimes feminine in the comic poets. 4. The interrogative adjective pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what f which f is declined like the relative pronoun. 5. The indefinite substantive pronoun, quis, (qua), quid, any one, some one, is declined like the interrogative quis, but in the neut. plur. it has qua as well as quae. 6. The indefinite adjective pronoun, qui, qua or quae, quod, any, some, is declined like the relative pronoun, but has qua as well as quae in the singular and plural. 7. Exceptionally, quis is found as an adjective pronoun, and qui as an interrogative substantive pronoun. 8. The gen. and dat. sing, quoius and quoi are found in old writers. 9. QuT is sometimes found as an abl., in all genders, and in old writers even in the plural, of the relative and interrogative pronouns, also as an adverbial interrogative, how? and occasionally as an indefinite adverb, in any way. 10. The preposition cum is affixed to the ablative, as in the personal pronouns, thus : quocum, quacum, quicum, quibuscum. PRONOUNS. 65 11. A nom. and ace. plural, ques, occurs in Cato and Pacuvius; a dat. and abl. plural, quls, in Varro, Sallust, and Tacitus, rarely in Cicero. 12. The compounds of qui, quis, are mainly declined like them. 13. Aliquis, some one, something, a compound of the indefi- nite quis with the stem all-, is thus declined : Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. NOM. allquis, allqua, allquld, allqui, allquae, allquS,, GEN. alicujus, alicujus, alicujus, aliquorum, aliquarum, aliquorum, DAT. allcui, allcui, allcul, aliqulbus, aliqulbus, aliqulbus, Ace. allquem, allquam, allquid, allquos, aliquas, allqua. ABL. allquo, allqua, allquo. aliqulbus, aliqulbus. aliqulbus. Note. The adj. pronoun has generally aliqui, aliquod. The fern. sing, aliquae occurs rarely. 14. Other relative, interrogative, and indefinite com- pound pronouns are : 1. a. quisnam, quiduam: quinam, quaenam, quodnam, who, what f b. uternam, utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two ? 2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid: ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, any one? So numquis, siquis, ne quis, etc. 3. alteruter, one or other ; Gen. alterutrlus or alter rus utrius, etc. 4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), any one (positively). 5. quisquam, quicquam, any one at all (with non, baud, vix, etc.). 6. quidani, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one. 7. a. quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, whatsoever. (Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the relative : Quae te cumque domat Venus. Hor.) 6. utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two. 8. quisquis, whosoever, quidquid, whatsoever; Ace. (quemquem), quid- quid; Gen. (ouicuimodi) ; Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quoquo), etc.; Plur., Dat. and Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these forms are rare. 9. a. qui vis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any you will. b. utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will. 10. a. quilTbet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please. b. uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please. 11. a. quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each. (Plaut. and Ter. use quisque of a woman ; and in other compounds quis occurs as fern.) b. unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each one; Ace. unumquemque, unamquamque, etc. Gen. uniuscujusque, etc. c. uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two. 15. These compound pronouns are declined as the simple forms, the undeclined affix or prefix accompanying each case: Gen. cujuscumque, utrius vis, Abl. ecquo, etc. 6* E 66 LATIN GRAMMAR. !.IP ~^J>3'pS>>3~ PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 67 LATIN GRAMMAR. 4. The following are the chief (pronominal) adverbs of time : quandS, j when? quamdiu, {how I when. ( as long as. quom, cum, when, altquamdiu, for some nunc, now. length of time. tune,") then quousque, till when? turn, J adhuc, hitherto, antehac, before this, posthac, after this, subinde, immediately afterwards, nondum, not yet. alias, at another time, interim, | meanwMle interea, J quondam, ) sometime, i. e., formerly, olim, ) or hereafter. VERBS. quoties, {how often? ( as often as. toties, so often. all quo ties, several times. Tdentidem, repeatedly. nonnunquam, -\ sometimes aliquando, > (i. e. t not un- quandoque, J frequently). interdum, sometimes (i. e., occasionally). unquam, ever (after nega- tives, etc.). usque, ever (of progressive continuance). 64. Latin Verbs have Two Voices : the Active, as amo, JZouc, and the Passive, as amor, Jam loved. 1. Deponent Verbs have the meaning of the Active Voice, but the forms chiefly of the Passive: as, venor, I hunt; vereor, I fear. 2. The Passive has sometimes a reflexive use, like the Greek Middle Voice : as, vertor, I turn myself; lavor, I wash myself, bathe. 3. A Verb is called Transitive when its action passes on to an Object in the Accusative Case : as, puerum laudo, I praise the boy; te hortor, I urge thee. 4. An Intransitive Verb requires no Object : as, surgo, I rise; proficiscor, I set out. 5. Intransitive Verbs are not used in the Passive Voice, except sometimes impersonally : as, surgttur, lit. there is a rising, i. e., we rise or they rise. 65. The Indicative Mood states a fact or condition as real or absolute. 1. a The Subjunctive Mood states a fact or condition as thought of or contingent. b The Subjunctive is also used in various dependent con- structions, in which it is rendered in English by the Indicative. 2. The Imperative Mood is used in command or entreaty. MOODS AND TENSES. 69 3. The Infinitive Mood is strictly a verbal noun, express- ing action or state. 4. The Participles are verbal adjectives. There are two in the Active Voice, the Present and the Future ; and two in the Passive, the Perfect and the Gerundive. 5. The Gerund is a verbal noun, of the second declension neuter. 6. The Supines are the Accusative and Ablative of a verbal noun of the fourth declension. 66. Of the Tenses, the Present, Future, and Imperfect denote Incomplete Action ; the Perfect, Future Perfect, and Pluperfect denote Completed Action. 1. The Present Tense denotes an action as now going on. It may also state a general truth; an action attempted; a past action, in lively narration. 2. The Future represents an action in future time, either as continuing, or as indefinite ; I shall ~be reading, or I shall read. 3. The Imperfect denotes an action as going on at some past time referred to. It may also state a customary past action; an action begun (and continued) at some definite past time ; an action attempted at some definite past time. In letters, it is often used where we should use the present, the writer putting himself in the position of the receiver. 4. The Perfect Definite corresponds to our Perfect with have : as, I have seen ; the Historical Perfect or Aorist states a past action simply : as, I saw. 5. The Future Perfect corresponds for the most part to the same tense in English, but is used more frequently and pre- cisely. 6. The Pluperfect is used as the same tense in English. In epistolary style it may take the place of the Latin Perfect. 7. The Present, Futures, and Perfect Definite are called Primary Tenses ; the Imperfect, Historical Perfect, and Pluperfect, Secondary Tenses. 8. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood have peculiar uses, which will be explained under Syntax. 67. The Inflections of the Verb are attached to the Stem in the following order : inflections of tense, of mood, of person, of number, of voice. 70 LATIN GRAMMAR. 1. The simplest forms are of the present indicative singular active ; thus, dat is the third person singular, present indicative active, of a verbal stem meaning give. It is composed of da-, verb stem, and t, abbreviated pro- noun of the third person ; and thus is strictly give-he (she, it), for which give-s is, originally, the English equivalent, but English, having lost its sense of the meaning of the final s, now prefixes in addition the pronoun for the like purpose. 2. Da-r-e-m-us is the imperfect subjunctive, first person plural, active voice of the same stem, da-, give. The sound r denotes past time, e the mood of thought (instead of fact), m the speaker himself (it being the same m as in our word me), us the action of others with the speaker. Thus, daremus analyzed is give-did-in-thought-I-they. If for -us we have -nr (daremur), the speaker and others are passive instead of active. ROBY. 68. The Yerb Stem has three forms, the Present Stem, the Perfect Stem, and the Supine Stem. 1. The Present Stem is often identical with the Verb Stem, but sometimes more or less modified. From it are formed all the tenses and verbal forms which express incom- plete action : namely, both in the Active and the Passive Voice, the Indicative Present, Imperfect, and Future; the Subjunctive Present and Imperfect ; the Imperative ; and the Present Infini- tive; also the Present Participle Active, the Gerunds, and the Gerundive. 2. The Perfect Stem is sometimes identical with the Verb Stem and with the Present Stem, but usually is considerably modified. From it are formed all the tenses in the Active Voice, denoting completed action : namely, the Indicative Per- fect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect; the Subjunctive Perfect and Pluperfect; and the Perfect Infinitive. 3. The Supine Stem is always a modification of the Verb Stem, and from it are formed certain verbal nouns and adjec- tives, of which the Future Participle Active, the Perfect Passive Participle, and the Accusative and Ablative Supines are reckoned with the Verb. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, in the Passive Voice, are formed with tenses of the auxiliary verb esse, to be, and -the Perfect Passive Participle; the Future Infinitive Passive is formed by adding to the Accusative Supine the auxiliary iri. 69. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Per- fect Indicative, and Accusative Supine are called the TEE VERB SUM. 71 Principal Parts of the Verb, as, they being known, all the other parts of the Verb may be formed from them. 70. The Irregular Verb sum is formed from two Roots,* es- (Sanskrit as, Greek 5 v-), to be or become. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Infin. Perf. Ind. Flit. Part, sum, lam; esse, to be; fuT, I have been, I was; futurus, about to be. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. sum, lam, 2. Ss, thou art (you are), 3. est, he (she, it) is, PLUR. 1. sumiis, we are, 2. estKs, you are, 3. sunt, they are. sim, / may be, may I sis, [be, I am, etc.f stt, simiis, sitts, sint. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. erSm, I was, 2. eras, thou wast, 3. Srat, he was, PLUR. 1. eramus, we were, 2. gratts, you were, 3. erant, they were. essSm, / should be, etc.f esses, essSt, essemiis, essetts, essent. FUTURE. SING. 1. Src, I shall be, 2. erts, thou wilt be, 3. SrYt, he will be, PLUR. 1. erfmus, we shall be, 2. erttts, you will be, 3. erunt, they will be. * The English forms am, art, is, are, belong to the root as ; be to the root bhu. t The tenses of the Subjunctive have many different translations in English, according to the construction of the sentences in which they stand. Their various uses are explained under Syntax of the Subjunctive Mood. 72 LATIN GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. ful, / have been, I was, fue'rYm, 2. fuistl, thou hast been, thou wast, fuerls, 3. fuit, he has been, he was, fuertt, PLUB. 1. fuimus, we have been, we were, fuerlmiis, 2. fuistis, you have been, you were, fuerftts, 3. fuerunt or fuere, they have been, they were, fuerint. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. fue'ram, / had been, fuissem, Ishould have been, 2. fu&ras, thou hadst been, fuisses, [etc. 3. fuerat, he had been, fuisse't, PLUR. 1. fueramus, we had been, fuissemiis, 2. fue'ratis, you had been, fuissetis, 3. fuerant, they had been, fuissent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. fuero, / shall have been, 2. fuerfs, thou wilt have been, 3. fuertt, he will have been, PLUR. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been t 2. fuerltts, you will have been, 3. fuerint, they will have been. IMPERATIVE. PRES. sing. 2. &s, be thou. FUT. 2. esto, thou shalt be. 3. esto, he shall be or let him be. PRES. plur. 2. estS, be ye. FUT. 2. estote, ye shall be. 3. sunto, they shall be or let them be. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRES. esse, to be. FUT. futurus, -a, iim, PERF. fuisse, to have been. about to be. FUT. futurus essS, to be about to be. SUM AND POSSUM. 73 1. A form of the pres. subj. siem, sies, siet is frequent in Plautus and Terence. The pres. subj. fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant is also frequent in Plau- tus; (G. Curtius regards it as an aorist.) Forms like fuvit, fuverit, fu- visset, from the old Perfect stem, are met with in old writers. 2. For theimperf. subj., forem, fores, foret, forent are frequently used. 3. Fore is often used for the future infinitive. 4. In old writers the forms escit, escunt occur, for erit, erant. 5. Es in the pres. indie, is always long in Plautus and Terence. 6. When est came after a vowel or m, the e was omitted in speaking and sometimes in writing : as, nata st, natum st, oratio st. So sometimes with es after a vowel, and perhaps after m : as, nacta's, lignum's. In the comic writers a short final syllable in s coalesces with est : as, factust, opust, similist, forfactus est, opus est, sim/tlis est; and occasionally with es : as, naotu's, simili's, for nactus es, similis es. 71. Like sum are inflected its compounds absnm (perf. abfui or afui), adsum or assum (perf. adfui or affui), desum (de-est, de-eram, etc., pro- nounced dest, deram, etc.), insum, intersum, obsum (perf. obfui or offui), praesum (3d sing, praest, often written praeest), prosum (which inserts d before a vowel : as, prodes, prodero, prodesse), subsum (no perfect), super- sum. Of these absum and praesum alone have a present participle, absens, praesens. 72. Possum, I am able or I can, is a compound of pot- (potis, pote) and sum, and usually retains the t before a vowel, but assimilates it to a following s. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. possum, posse, potuT. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. possum, I can, I am able, posstm, 2. potes, thou canst, possis, 3. potest, he can, posstt, PLUR. 1. possumus, we can, posslmiis, 2. potestfs, you can, possltts, 3. possunt, they can. possint. 7 LATIN GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. poteram, / could, 2. poteras, thou couldst, 3. poterat, he could, PLUB. 1. poteramus, we could, 2. poteratis, you could, 3. poterant, they could. SUBJUNCTIVE. possSm, posset, possemiis, possetis, possent. FUTURE. SING. 1. poteYo, I shall be able, 2. pSteris, thou wilt be able, 3. poterit, he will be able, PLUB. 1. poterTmiis, we shall be able, 2. poteritis, you will be able, 3. poterunt, they will be able. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. potuT, I have been able, I could, potuerim, 2. pStuisti, thou hast been able, thou pStuerfs, couldst, 3. potuit, he has been able, he could, potuerit, PLUR. 1. potuimiis, we have been able, we could, potuerimus, 2. potuistis, you have been able, you potuerftis, could, 3. potuerunt, they have been able, they potuSrint. could. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. potueram, I had been able, pb'tuisse'm, 2. potueras, thou hadst been able, potuisses, 3. potuerat, he had been able, potuissSt, PLUR. 1. potueramus, we had been able, potuissemiis, 2. potueratis, you had been able, potuissetts, 3. potuerant, they had been able. potuissent. CONJUGATIONS. 75 FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. pbtuero, / shall have been able, 2. potueris, thou wilt have been able, 3. potuerit, he will have been able, PLUR. 1. potuerimus, we shall have been able, 2. potueritis, you will have been able, 3. potuerint, they will have been able. INFINITIVE:. PRESENT, posse, to be able. PERFECT, potuisse, to have been able. PARTICIPLE. PRESENT, potens, powerful (used only as an adjective). 1. Early writers have sometimes potesse in the infinitive; Plautus and Terence sometimes possiem and possies in the pres. subjunctive. The full forms potis sum, etc., are found in prae- Augustan poets ; and potis and pote are even found as predicates without sum. Fotestur occurs once in Lucretius. Foterint is found for poterunt. \ CONJUGATIONS. 73. There are Four Conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before -re in the Present Infinitive Active. This vowel in the First Conjugation is a long, as amare, to love ; in the Second Conjugation is e long, as monere, to warn ; in the Third Conjugation is e short, as regere, to rule; in the Fourth Conjugation is i long, as audlre, to hear. FIRST CONJUGATION. 74. In the First Conjugation the Present Stem is the same as the Verb Stem, and ends in a. Its final vowel is united by contraction with the following vowel : as, ama-o, amo j ama- im, amem. The regular Perfect is formed by adding -vi to the Verb Stem, the regular Supine by adding -turn : as, voco, I call, Pres. Inf. voca-re, Perf. Ind. voca-vi, Supine voca-tum. 76 LATIN GRAMMAR. ^ THE FIRST CONJUGATION. A- VERBS. ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine, amo, amare, amavi, ainatuin. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. * PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. am5, I love, amem, 2. amas, thou lovest, ames, 3. amat, he loves, amet, PLUB. 1. amamus, we love, amemus, 2. amatis, you love, ametis, 3. amant, they love. ament. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. amabam, I was loving, I loved, amarexn, 2. amabas, thou wast loving, etc., amares, 3. amabat, he was loving, etc., amaret, PLUB. 1. amabamus, we were loving, etc., amaremus, 2. amabatis, you were loving, etc., SmaretTs, 3. amabant, they were loving, etc. amarent. FUTURE. SING. 1. amabo, I shall love, 2. arnabis, thou wilt love, 3. amabit, he will love, PLUB. 1. amabimus, we shall love, 2. amabitis, you will love, 3. amabunt, they will love. SING. PERFECT AND AORIST. 1. amavi, I have loved, I loved, amaverim, 2. amavisti, thou hast loved, thou lovedst, amaveris, 3. amavit, he has loved, he loved, amaverit, THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 77 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PLTJE. 1. amavimus, we have loved, we loved, Smaverimus, 2. amavistis, you have loved, you loved, amaveritis, 3. amaverunt, -ere, they have loved, they loved, amaverint. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. Smaveram, I had loved, 2. amaveras, thou hadst loved, 3. amaverat, he had loved, PLUK. 1. amaveramus, we had loved, 2. amaveratis, you had loved, 3. amaverant, they had loved. r^-tft Zx a'mavisse'm, amavisses, amavisset, amavissemus, amavissetls, Smavissent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. SmaverS, I shall have loved, 2. amaveris, thou wilt have loved, 3. auiaverit, he will have loved, PLUE. 1. Smaverlinus, we shall have loved, 2. amaveritis, you will have loved, 3. amaverint, they will have loved. Singular. PEES. 2. ama, love thou, FUT. 2. amato, thou shalt love or do thou love, 3. amat6, he shall love or let him love. IMPERATIVE. Plural. amate, love ye, amatote, you shall love or do ye love, ainant5, they shall love or let them love. INFINITIVE. PEES. Smare, to love, PEEF. amavisse, to have loved, FUT. amaturus esse, to be about to love. 7* PARTICIPLES. PEES, amans, -antis, loving, ' FUT. &maturus,-a,-um, about to love. 78 LATIN GRAMMAR. GERUND. GEN. amandi, of loving, DAT. amando, for loving, Aco. amandiim, loving, ABL. amando, by loving. SUPINE. Aoo. amatum, to love, ABL. amatu, in the loving, to be loved. Pres. Ind. amor, PASSIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Inf. amari, Perf. Ind. am at us sum. INDICATIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. amor, lam loved, 2. amaris or -re, thou art loved, 3. amatur, Tie is loved, PLUE. 1. amamur, toe are loved, 2. Smamini, 2/01* are loved, 3. amaritur, f/^ey are loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. amer, Smeris or -re, ametur, amemiir, amemini, amentur. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. amabar, Twos loved, Smare'r, 2. amabaris or -re, thou wast loved, amareris or -re, 3. Smabatur, he was loved, amaretur, PLUE. 1. amabamur, we were loved, amaremur, 2. amabamini, you were loved, amaremini, 3. amabantur, they were loved. amarentur. FUTURE. SING. 1. Smabo'r, I shall be loved, 2. amaberis or -re, thou wilt be loved, 3. amabitur, he will be loved, PLUB. 1. amabimiir, we shall be loved, 2. amabimini, you will be loved, 3. amabuntur, they will be loved. THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 79 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. &matus sum, I have been loved, I was amatus sim, loved, 2. amatus es, thou hast been loved, etc., amatus sTs, 3. amatus est, he has been loved, etc., amatus sit, PLUR. 1. amati sumus, we have been loved, etc., amatT simus, 2. &matT est is, you have been loved, etc., amatT sit is, 3. amatT sunt, they have been loved, etc. amatT sint. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. amatus eraxn, I had been loved, amatus essem, 2. Smatus eras, thou hadst been loved, amatus esses, 3. amatus erat, he had been loved, a"matus esset, PLUE. 1. amati eramiis, we had been loved, amatT essemus, 2. amatT eratis, you had been loved, SmatT essetis, 3. amatT erant, they had been loved. amatT essent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. amatus er6, I shall have been loved, 2. amatus eris, thou wilt have been loved, 3. amatus erit, he will have been loved, PLUE. 1. amatT ermms, we shall have been loved, 2. amatT eritis, you will have been loved, 3. amatT erunt, they will have been loved. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PEES. 2. amar, be thou loved, FTIT. 2. amator, thou Shalt be loved, 3. amator, he shall be loved or let him be loved. Plural. amaminT, be ye loved, amantor, they shall be loved or let them be loved. INFINITIVE. PEES. amarT, to be loved, PEEF. amatus esse, to have been loved, FUT. amatum TrT, to be about to be loved. 80 LATIN GRAMMAR. PARTICIPLES. PERFECT. amatus, having been loved. GERUNDIVE, amandus, to be loved or worthy to be loved. Note 1. In all the conjugations, the auxiliaries fai, fueram, fuero, fuerim, fuissem, and fuisse are occasionally found instead of sum, eram, ero, aim, essem, and ease : as, INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PERF. amatus fui, amatus fugrim, amatus fuisti, etc., amatus fugris, etc., PLUP. amatus fugram, amatus fuissem, amatus fugras, etc., amatus fuisses, etc. FUT. PEEF. amatus fugro, amatus fuerls, INFINITIVE. amatus fugrit, etc. PEEF. amatus fuisse. The meaning of compound tenses thus made is sometimes indistinguish- able from that of the more common forms ; but sometimes it differs very much as the auxiliaries themselves differ in meaning. Note 2. Forem is sometimes used as an auxiliary with the perfect pas- sive participle, forming either a pluperfect subjunctive, like essem, or a future perfect subjunctive. In a very few cases fore is used instead of esse as the auxiliary in the future active infinitive. With the perfect participle, fore forms a future perfect infinitive passive. Note 3. The participle in compound tenses is varied in gender, to agree with the subject of the verb. (See 83, 1.) FORMATION OF THE TENSES. From the present stem, ama-, are formed Active. Passive. IND. PRES. amo, amor, IMPEEF. amabam, amabar, Fur. amabo, amabor, SUBJ. PEES. amem, amer, IMPERF. amarem, amarer, IMPERAT. PEES. ama, amare, Fur. amato, amator, INF. PEES. amare, amari, PEES. PART. aruans, GERUNDIVE. amandi. amandus. THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 81 From the perfect stem, amav-, are formed From the supine stem, amat-, are formed Active. Passive. IND. PEKF. amavi, amatus sum, PLUP. am aver am, amatus eram FUT. PERF. amavero, amatus ero, SUBJ. PERF. amaverim, amatus sim, PLUP. amavissem, amatus essen INF. PERF. amavisse. amatus esse. From the supine stem, amat-, are formed INF. FUT. amaturus ease, amatum irT, FUT. PART. amaturus, PERF. PART. amatus, SUPINE. (Ace.} amatum. (Abl.) amatu. 75. In the Second Conjugation, the Present Stem is the same as the Verb Stem, and ends in e ; the Perfect drops the vowel characteristic of the Verb Stem, and adds ui (as mon- ui), or adds vi to the full Stem (as dele-vi); the Supine drops the characteristic and adds itum (as mon-itum), or adds turn to the full Verb Stem (as dele-turn). THE SECOND CONJUGATION. E- VERBS. ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. mSneo, m5nere, monul, mSnitum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. mftneo, I remind, mSneam, 2. m5n.es, thou remindest, mSneas, 3. m5net, he reminds, m6neat, PLUR. 1. mSnemus, we remind, mSneamus, 2. mfinetis, you remind, m6neatis, 3. mSnent, they remind. mSneant. F 82 LATIN GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. mtfnebam, I was reminding, I reminded, mSnerem, 2. m6nebas, thou wast reminding, etc. mSneres, 3. m6nebat, he was reminding, etc. moneret, PLUB. 1. mSnebamus, we were reminding, etc. mSneremus, 2. mSnebatis, you were reminding, etc. moneretis, 3. inftnebant, they were reminding, etc. mSnerent. FUTURE. SING. 1. mSnebo, I shall remind, 2. m5nebis, thou wilt remind, 3. monebit, he will remind, PLUB. 1. monebimiis, we shall remind, 2. mSnebitis, you will remind, 3. monebunt, they will remind. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. mftirai, I have reminded, I reminded, mSnuerim, 2. mSnuisti, thou hast reminded, etc. mftnueris, 3. mSnuit, he has reminded, etc. mSnuerit, PLUB. 1. mSnuimus, we have reminded, etc. mSnuerimus, 2. m6nuistis, you have reminded, etc. inSnueritis, 3. mSnuerunt (re) , they have reminded, etc. monuerint . PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. m5nueram, I had reminded, momiissem, 2. monueras, thou liadst reminded, mSnuisses, 3. mSnuerat, he had reminded, mftnuisset, PLUB. 1. mSnueramus, we had reminded, m6nuissemus, 2. monueratis, you liad reminded, mftnuissetis, 3. monuerant, they had reminded. monuissent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. mSnuero, I shall have reminded, 2. mSnueris, thou wilt have reminded, 3. mdnuerit, he will have reminded, PLTJR. 1. m6nuerimus, we shall have reminded, 2. rnftnueritis, you will have reminded, 3. mdnuerint, they will have reminded. THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 83 IMPERATIVE. Singular. PEES. 2. mone, remind thou, FUT. 2. mdnetS, thou slialt remind or do thou remind, 3. mftnetd , he shall remind or let him remind. Plural. PEES. 2. m5nete, remind ye, FUT. 2. mftnetote, 2/e shall remind or $o 2/e remind, 3. monent5, t/iey s/iaZZ remind or Zei t/iem remind. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PEES, monere, to remind, PEES, monens, reminding, PEEF. monuisse, to have re- FUT. monlturus, about to remind. minded, FUT. mSnituriis esse, to be about to remind. GERUND. SUPINE. GEX. monendi, of reminding, DAT. monendo, for reminding, Aco. monendura, reminding, mSnituin, to remind, ABL. monendo, by reminding. m5nitu, in the reminding, to be reminded. PASSIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. moneor, mSneri, mSnitus sum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. mftneor, I am reminded, monear, 2. m5neris (re), thou art reminded, monearis (re), 3. monetur, he is reminded, moneatur, PLUE. 1. monemur, we are reminded, m5neamur, 2. in5nemini, you are reminded, mSneammi, 3. m5nentur, they are reminded, mSneantur. 84 LATIN GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. mftnebar, I was reminded, SUBJUNCTIVE. mSnerer, 2. mdnebaris (re), thou wast reminded, monereris (re), 3. mftnebatur, he was reminded, mfoieretur, PLUE. 1. inSnebamiir, we were reminded, mSneremur, 2. mSnebamim, you were reminded, mSneremim, 3. monebantur, they were reminded. monerentur. FUTURE. SING. 1. mSnebor, I shall be reminded, 2. moneberis (re) , thou wilt be reminded, 3. m5nebitur, he will be reminded, PLUR. 1. monebimur, we shall be reminded, 2. monebimim, you will be reminded, 3. m6nebuntur, they will be reminded. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. mSnitiis sum, I have been reminded, I was reminded, monitus sim, 2. mSnitiis es, thou hast been reminded, tJwu wast reminded, monitus sis, 3. mSnitus est, fie has been reminded, he was reminded, mSnitus sit, PLUE. 1. rnSniti sumus, wehavebeenreminded, we were reminded, moniti sixnus, 2. moniti estis, you have been reminded, you were reminded, m6mti sitis, 3. mSniti sunt, they have been reminded, they were reminded, mSniti sint. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. m5nitus eram, I had been reminded, monitus essem, 2. mftnitus eras, thou hadst been re- minded, monitus esses, 3. mSnitus erat, he had been reminded, mSnitus esset, PLUE. 1. moniti eramiis, we had been re- minded, mftniti essemus, 2. moniti eratis, you had been reminded, m5niti essetis, 3. moniti erant, they had been reminded. m5niti essent. THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 85 FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. mftnitiis ero, I shall have been reminded, 2. momtus eris, thou wilt have been reminded, 3. mftmtus erit, he will have been reminded, PLUE. 1. mftniti erimus, we shall have been reminded, 2. m5mtl eritis, you will have been reminded, 3. m&niti erunt, they will have been reminded. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PEES. 2. mftnere, be thou reminded, FUT. 2. mftnetor, thou shalt be reminded, ' 3. mftnetor, he shall be reminded or let him be reminded. Plural. PEES. 2. mftnemml, be ye reminded, FUT. 3. mSnentor, they shall be reminded or let them be reminded. INFINITIVE. PEES, mftneri, to be reminded, PEEF. m5mtus esse, to have been reminded, FTIT. m5nitum IrT, to be about to be reminded. PARTICIPLES. PEEF. mftnitus, having been reminded, GEETJNDIVE. m5nendus, to be reminded or worthy to be reminded. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. From the present stem, mone-, are formed Passive, moneor, monebar, monebor, monear, monerer, monere, monetor, moneri, monendus. Active. IND. PEES. moneo, IMPEEF. monebam, FUT. monebo, SUBJ. PEES. inoneam, IMPEEF. monerem, IMPEEAT. PEES. mone, FUT. mone to, INF. PEES. monere, PEES. PAET. monens, GEEUNDIVE. GEEUND. monendi. 8 86 LATIN GRAMMAR. From the perfect stem, monu-, are From the supine stem, monit-, are formed formed Active. Passive. IND. PERF. monui, monltus sum, PLUP. monueram, monltus eram, Fur. PKRF. monuero, monltus ero, SUBJ. PERF. monuerim, monltus aim, PLUP. mouuissem, monltus essem, INF. PEEP. monuisse, monltus esse. From the supine stem, montt-, are formed INF. Fur. moniturus esse, monltum iri, Fur. PART. moniturus, PERF. PART. monltus, SUPINES. (Ace.) monltum. (Abl.) monltu. 76. In the Third Conjugation, the Present Stem is some- times the same as the Verb Stem, and sometimes modified (94). It ends (or is regarded as ending) in a consonant, or in u or i. The endings of the Perfect and Supine are various. THE THIRD CONJUGATION. CONSONANT VERBS. ACTIVE VOICE. * PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres.Jnd. Pres. Infin. Perf. Ind. Supine. rSgo, r&gere, rexT, rectum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. rSgo, I rule, regam, 2. rSgis, fhou rukst, regas, 3. rggit, he i-ules, rSgat, PLUS. 1. rggimiis, we rule, regamus, 2. rggitis, you rule, rggatis, 3. rggunt, they rule. rfcgant. THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 87 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. rggebam, I ivas ruling, I ruled, rSgerSm, 2. rggebas, thou wast ruling, etc., rSgeres, 3. regebat, he was ruling, etc., regeret, PLUE. 1. rggebamus, we were ruling, etc., regeremus, 2. rSgebatis, you were ruling, etc., rggeretis, 3. regebant, they were ruling, etc. rSgerent. FUTURE. SING. 1. rggam, I shall rule, 2. rgges, thou wilt rule, 3. r&get, he ivill rule, PLUE. 1. rggemus, we shall rule, 2. rggetis, you will rule, 3. regent, they will rule. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. rexT, I have ruled, I ruled, rexerim, 2. rexisti, thou hast ruled, thou ruledst, rexeris, 3. rexit, he has ruled, he ruled, rexerit, PLUE. 1. reximus, we have ruled, we ruled, rexerimus, 2. rexistis, you have ruled, you ruled, rexeritis, 3. rexerunt or (re), they have ruled, they ruled, rexerint. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. rexeram, I had fried, rexissSm, 2. rexeras, thou hadst ruled, rexisses, 3. rexerat, he had ruled, rexisset, PLUE. 1. rexeramus, we had ruled, rexissemiis, 2. rexeratis, you had ruled, rexisset is, 3. rexerant, they had ruled. rexissent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. rexero, I shall have ruled, 2. rexeris, thou wilt have ruled, 3. rexerit, he will have ruled, PLUE. 1. rexerimus, we shall have ruled, 2. rexeritis, you will have ruled, 3. rexSrint, they will have ruled. 88 LATIN GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PEES. 2. rSgS, rule thou, FUT. 2. rggit6, t/iow s/iaft rule or do t/ww ntfe, 3. rSgito, fa s/iaW rwZe or let him rule. Plural. PEES. 2. rggite, rwfe ye, FUT. 2. rSgitote, ye s/iaZJ rule or do t/e ritfe, 3. r&guntd, t/ie?/ s/iaW ntZe or let them rule. INFINITIVE. PEES, rggere, to rwZe, PEEF. rexisse, to have rukd, Fur. recturus esse, to 6e a6o^ to rule. PARTICIPLES. PEES, rfcgens, ruling, Fur. rectiirus, aoout to rule. GERUND. SUPINE. GEN. rggendl, of ruling, DAT. rggendo, for ruling, Aoc. rggendum, ruling, Aoc. rectum, to rwZe, ABL. rggendo, 6?/ ruling. ABL. rectu, in t/ie ruling, to be ruled. PASSIVE V0ICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Inf. rggor, rggi, rectus sum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. rg5r, lam ruled, rggar, . 2. rggeris (re), tkou art ruled, rggaris (re), 3. rggitur, he is ruled, rggatur, PLUB. 1. rggimur, we are ruled, rSgamur, 2. rggiminl, you are ruled, rggamini, 3. rgguntur, they are ruled. rggantur. THE THIRD CONJUGATION. SUBJUNCTIVE. rggerer, rggereris (re), r&geretur, regeremur, regeremim, regerentur. INDICATIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. r&gebar, I was ruled, 2. regebaris (re), thou wast ruled, 3. regebatur, he was ruled, PLUE. 1. regebamur, we were ruled, 2. rggebamim, you were ruled, 3. regebantiir, they were ruled. FUTURE. SING. 1. rSgar, I shall be ruled, 2. rggeris (re), thou wilt be ruled, 3. rSgetur, he will be ruled, PLUE. 1. regemur, we shall be ruled, 2. rSgemini, you will be ruled, 3. regentiir, they will be ruled. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. rectus Bum, I have been ruled,! was ruled, rectus sim, rectus sis, rectus sit, recti simus, recti sit is, recti sint. 2. rectus es, thou hast been ruled, etc., 3. rectus est, he has been ruled, etc., PLUE. 1. recti sumus, we have been ruled, etc., 2. recti estis, you have been ruled, etc., 3. recti sunt, they have been ruled, etc. PLUPERFECT. SING. 1. rectus eram, I fad been ruled, 2. rectus eras, thou hadst been ruled, 3. rectus erat, he had been ruled, PLUE. 1. recti eramus, we had been ruled, 2. recti erat is, you had been ruled, 3. recti erant, they had been ruled. rectus essem, rectus esses, rectus esset, recti essemus, recti esset is, recti essent. FUTURE PERFECT. SING. 1. rectus ero, I shall have been ruled, 2. rectus eris, thou wilt have been ruled, 3. rectus erit, he will have been ruled, PLUE. 1. recti erimus, we shall have been ruled, 2. recti eritis, you will have been ruled, 3. recti erunt, they will have been ruled. 8* 90 LATIN GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PEES. 2. rggerS, be thou ruled, FUT. 2. rSgitor, tfiow shalt be ruled, 3. rggitor, he shall be ruled or let him be ruled. Plural. PEES. 2. rggimim, 6e 2/e ruled, FUT. 3. reguntor, -istT -it -Tmus -istis -erunt or -ere W rex -T * audiv -T J g had hadst Ao -eras -erat -eramus -eratis -erant 3 rex -eram I audiv -eram ) shall ^ wilt will shall will will have loved. w amav -ero J etc. 1 monu -ero rex -ero t-erts -erit -erimus, -eritis -erint H ,- w ^ audiv -ero ) SCHEME OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. 103 INDICATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. / thou he, etc. we ye they are am art is are are loved, etc. am -or -arts -atur -amur -aminl -antur mon -eot -eris -etur -emSr -emTni -entur reg -or -eris -Ttur -imur -imin! -untur aud -ior -IrTs -Itur -Imur -ImTni -iuntur was wast was aina -bar \ mone -bar /,_, - rege -bar [ - tar - -res -ret rege -rem i -remus -retis -rent ~ H audi -rem / H g amav -erim \ 1 monu -erTm ( w rex -erim f ~* is -erit -erlmus -eritTs -erint '1 audlv -erim ) PLUPERFECT. amav- -\ monu - lissem-isses -isset rex-_ f audlv- ) -issemus -issetis -issent IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. S. 2. PI. 2. S.2. S. 3. PI. 2. PI. 3. love thou ye thou he ye ^ they am -a -ate am -ato -ato -atote -anto \ *r <- mon -e -etc mon -eto -eto -etote -ento 1 -1 reg -e -ite reg -ito -ito -itote -unto^ r ^^ 1 1 5 o aud -I -Ite aud -Ito -Ito -Itote -iunto ) HJ PRES. (IMPF.) to love, etc. ama -re mone -re rege -re audi -re INFINITIVE. PERF. (PLUP.) to have loved, etc. amav -isse monu -isse rex -isse audlv -isse VERB FUTURE. to be about to love, etc. amat -urns ^ momt -urus rect -urus audit -urus ease GERUNDS. loving, of, by, etc. t amand -I -o -um monend -I -o -um regend -I -6 -um audiend -I -o -um SUPINES. o love, in loving, amat -um -u montt -um -u rect -um -u audit -um -u PARTIC. PRES etc. loving, ama -ns mone -ns rege -ns audie -ns PARTIC. Fur. tc. about to Ime, etc. amatur -us -a -um monitur -us -a -um rectur -us -a -um auditur -us -a -um SCHEME OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 105 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Singular. 1. 2. am -er -er-is(e) mono Plural. reg audi -ar -ar -ar-is(e) -ar-ts(e) w , w , ar-is(e) 3. -etur -atur -atur -atur l. -emur -amur -Emur 2. -emmT -aniTnT -aminT -amur -annni 3 -entur -antur -antur -antur ama -rer mone -rer rege -rer audi -rer -remur -reminl -rentur amatus, moiutus, rectus, audltus sim sis sit (fuerim) (fueris) (fuerit) amatl, monitT, rectT, audit! slmus sltis sint (fuerimus) (fueritts) (fuerint) amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus v__ , _-/ essem esses esset (fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset) amatT, monitT, rectT, audit! essemus essetis essent (fuissenius) (fuisset is) (fuissent IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. S. 2. PL 2. thou ye loved, etc. ama -re -mtnl mone -re -mYnT be reg audi \x v^ w w -ere -imini -re -mtnT FUTUEE. S. 2. S. 3. PI. 3. thou he they ama -tor -tor -ntor ^ mone -tor -tor -ntor I reg -Ytor -it?r -untor f || 1 audi -tor -tor -untor J " -2 INFINITE. PRES. (IMPF.) to be loved, etc. ama -rl mone -r! reg -T audi -rT INFINITIVE. PERP. (PLUP.) to have been loved, etc. amat -us ^ monit -us rect -us ( audit -us ) esse GERUNDIVE. meet to be loved, etc. amand -us -a -urn monend -us -a -urn regend -us -a -urn audiend -us -a -um FUTURE. to be about to be loved, etc. amat -um ^ monit -um I - - w f rect -um ( audit -um J PARTIC. PERF. (PLUP.) loved, etc. , v^ ^ ^ amat -us -a -um monit -us -a -um rect -us -a -um audit -us -a -um 106 LATIN GRAMMAR. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 82. The Participles in -urus and -dus may be combined with all the tenses of the verb sum. Thus are formed (1) the Periphrastic Future Conjugation and (2) the Peri- phrastic Gerundive Conjugation. 1. amaturus, -a, -urn esse, to be about to love. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES. amaturus sum, / am about to love, amaturus sim, IMPERF. amaturus eram, I was about to love, amaturus essem, Fur. amaturus ero, / shall be about to love, PERF. AND ) amaturus ful, / have been (was) about AOR. ) to love, amaturus fuernn, PLTJPERF. amaturus fueram, / had been about to love, amaturus fuissem. Fur. PERF. amaturus fuero, I shall have been about to love. INFINITIVE. PRES. amaturus, a, -um esse, to be about to love, PERF. amaturus, -a, -um fuisse, to have been about to love. 2. amandus, -a, -um esse, to deserve to be loved. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES. amandus sum, I have to be loved, amandus snn, IMPERF. amandus eram, / had to be loved, amandus essem, Fur. amandus ero, I shall deserve to be loved, PERF. AND ) amandus fuT, / have had (I had) to be AOR. ) loved, amandus fnerim, PLUPERF. amandus fueram, / had been worthy to be loved. amandus fuissem. INFINITIVE. PRES. amandus, -a, -urn esse, to have (or to deserve) to be loved, PERF. amandus, -a, -um fuisse, to have been worthy to be loved. 83. The Supine in -um is found in comparatively few verbs, not more, it is said, than about three hundred, but is often mentioned in giving the Principal Parts of a verb whenever there is a perfect participle (or, more properly, the neuter of the participle is given in its stead). 1. In the compound tenses of the indicative and subjunctive passive the participle is always in the nominative case, but may be used in both numbers and in all genders to suit the subject : as, amata erat, she was SPECIAL FORMS. 107 loved; negotium confectum est, the business has been finished ; laudati sunt viri, the men have been (or are) praised; accepta sunt vulnera, wounds were received. 2. The participles in the compound infinitive are used either in the nominative or (commonly) in the accusative of both numbers and all genders. 84, SPECIAL FORMS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 1. In the older writers the present subjunctive is occasionally made in -im, -is, -it, etc. : as, edim, edls, edit, edlmus, edltis, edint, for edam, edas, edat, etc. So comedim, exedint. Also from duo, duim, etc., and interduim, perduim (as, Di te perduint (= perdant), creduis, etc. This form was retained in sum and volo, with their compounds. 2. The imperfect indicative of the fourth conjugation is often made by the older writers in -Tbam, -Ibar, instead of -iebam, -iebar. So in the future, -Tbo and -Tbor were used for -iam and -iar ; Tbam and Tbo remain in eo, queo, and nequeo. 3. The termination -re (for -ris) in the second person singular of the passive voice is very common in all tenses except the present indicative, in which it is rarely found. In the fourth conjugation it is almost always avoided, unless in deponents, where it could not be taken for the infinitive active. 4. The four verbs dlco, duco, facio, and fero take in the second singular imperative the abbreviated forms die, due, fac, and fer ; so also the com- pounds of these verbs (except those compounds of facio which change a into i ; as, effice, confice). The old writers, and the poets occasionally, use the full forms dice, duce, and face. Scio has scito instead of sci, and in the plural usually scitote. 5. The active form of the future imperative was often used by early writers instead of the passive, in deponent verbs : as, arbttrato, for arbi- trator; utunto, for utuntor. The forms -nuno, for the second and third persons singular, and -mfnor, for the second person plural were used rarely. 6. The antique infinitive often ended in -ier instead of -i : as, amarier, for amari. Vergil and Horace sometimes use this form, as well as older writers. 7. In those verbs which have a v in the perfect stem a contraction often takes place, by omitting v and absorbing the first vowel of the termination in the final vowel of the stem : as, amasti, for amdvi-sti; amasse, for amd- vsse; implessem, for implevi-ssem ; nosse, for novi-sse; mostis, for movi- stis; summosses, for submovi-sses ; isse, for ivi-sse; amaram, for amdve- ram; implero, for impleve-ro ; complerunt, for compleve-runt : norunt, for nove-runt; adjuris, for adjuve-ris ; admorunt, for admove-runt; sirYs, for slve-ris (from sino). But this contraction is never made before the termination ere (for erunt) in the third plural of the perfect indicative. 108 LATIN GRAMMAR. When the v is preceded by i, the v is frequently omitted without contrac- tion: as, finiero, for firiiv-ero ; audieram, for audiv-eram ; iero, for Iv-Sro ; ieram, for Iv-Sram. The i also before v is sometimes dropped : as, audisse, for aud-iv-isse ; audisti, for aud-iv-isti. 8. In perfect stems ending in s or x the letters is, si, iss, and sis are occasionally omitted in the perfect and derived tenses, more particularly in verbs of the third conjugation : as, dixti for dixisti; evasti for evasisti; surrexe for surrexisse ; erepsemus for erepsissemus ; exstinxe for extinx- isse ; divisse for divisisse ; accestis for accessistis. 9. In the perfect of the first, third, and fourth conjugations we sometimes find such contracted forms as fumat, cupit, audit, for fumdvtt, cuplvit (cupiit), audlvit (audiit). So rarely in the first person, as sepeli. 10. In the third person plural of the perfect indicative the form in ere is less common than that in erunt, especially in prose. 11. An older form of the termination of the gerund and gerundive in -undi, -undus is common in Plautus, Terence, and Sallust. The same ter- minations, after i, and in the words gerundus and ferundus, occur fre- quently in the manuscripts of Caesar, Cicero, and Livy. The verb Ire, to go, and its compounds, always have this form : as, eundum, adeundus. Some law phrases also : as, rerum repetundarum ; familiae erciscundae ; finibus regundis ; in jure dicundo. But after u or v no other form of the suflix is found than -endi, -endus. 12. In the older language, of Plautus and ancient laws and formularies, a future perfect indicative in -so (-sso), subjunctive perfect in -aim (-ssimj, future or future perfect infinitive in -sere (-ssere), and passive indicative future perfect in -situr (-ssitur) are found. a. Of all these forms faxo, faxim (= facso, facsim), and ausim, almost alone occur after the time of Terence. Instances are found in laws and other antique documents and formulae in Livy and Cicero, but these do not belong to the age of their real or feigned recorders. b. These forms are made by suffixing s to the verb-stem, as in the Greek future and aorist, a short t or sometimes e of the stem being omitted. The double s in the forms from a- and (a few) e- verbs is either a mode of mark- ing the place of the accent, or due to a mistaken etymology, as if the form were analogous to amasse, from amavisse. Possibly both causes may have combined. 85. IRREGULAR VERBS. 1. Fero* (Sansk., bhar-; Greek, I bear or bring. The peculiarities of this verb are, (1) that in the forms from the present stem it casts out i before s and t, as fers (feris), fertur (feritur) ; also e between r and r, as ferre (ferere) : (2) it takes its perfect stem, tul-, from * The irregular forms are given in italics. IRREGULAR VERBS. 109 the root tol-, and the supine stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the same root (tal- or tla-). PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf. Ind., Supine. ferO, ferre, tuli, latum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. fero, I bear, feram, 2. fers, thou bearest, feras, 3. fert, he bears, fSrat, PLUR. 1. fSrimus, we bear t feramiis, 2. fertis, you bear, Gratis, 3. ferunt, they bear. fSrant. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. f&rebam, / was bearing, I bore, . ferr$m, 2. ferebas, thou wast bearing, didst bear, ferres, 3. fSrebat, he was bearing, he bore, ferret, PLUR. 1. ferebamus, we were bearing, etc., f err emus, 2. ferebatis, you were bearing, etc., ferretis, 3. ferebant, they were bearing, etc. ferrent. FUTURE. SING. 1. fSram, / shall bear, 2. feres, thou wilt bear t 3. feret, he will bear, PLUR. 1. feremus, we shall bear t 2. feretis, you will bear t 3. ferent, they will bear. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. tiilT, / have borne, I bore, tulerYm, 2. tiilisti (etc., regularly).* tiilerls, etc. % * Give the inflections in full : tuli, tulisti, tulit, tulimus, tulistis, tulerunt or Mere. 10 110 LATIN GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PLUPERFECT. tuleram, etc. tulissem, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. tulero, etc. IMPERATIVE. PRES. 2. ftr, bear thou, ferte, bear ye, FUT. 2. ferto, thou shalt bear or fertote, ye shall bear or do thou bear, do ye bear, 3. ferto, he shall bear or fZrunto, they shall bear let him bear. or let them bear. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES. ferre, to bear, PRES. ferens, bearing, PERF. tfilisse, to have borne, FUT. laturus esse, to be about FUT. laturiis, about to bear, to bear. GERUND. SUPINES. GEN. ferendi, of bearing, etc. Ace. latiim, ABL. latu. PASSIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf. Ind., f eror, fern, latus sum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. feror, I am borne, ferar, 2. ferris, thou art borne, feraris or -re, 3. fertur-, he is borne, f eratiir, PLUR. 1. ferirnur, we are borne, feramur, 2. f eriminT, you are borne, f eramYnl, 3. f eruntur, they are borne. ferantiir. THE VERB FERO. Ill INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. ferebar, / was borne, ferrZr, 2. f erebaris or -re, thou wast borne, ferrerls or -r$, 3. f erebatiir, he was borne, ferrMur^, PLUR. 1. ferebamiir, we were borne, ferremur, 2. f erebaminl, you were borne, ferreminl, 3. ferebantiir, they were borne. ferrentur. FUTURE. SING. 1. f erar, I shall be borne, 2. fereris or -re, thou wilt be borne, 3. feretiir, he will be borne, PLUR. 1. feremiir, we shall be borne, %. 4%Temx&fyfiu will be borne, 3. ferentiir, they will be borne. PERFECT AND AORIST. latiis siim, etc. latiis sYm, etc. PLUPERFECT. latiis eram, etc. latiis essSra, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. latiis ero, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PRES. 2. ferr%, be thou borne, FUT. 2. fertor, thou shalt be borne or do thou be borne, 3. fertor, he shall be borne or let him be borne. Plural. PRES. 2. f erimim, be ye borne, FUT. 3. f eruntor, they shall be borne or let them be borne. 112 LATIN GRAMMAR. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES. ferri, to be borne, PEBF. latiis esse, to have PEBF. latiis, borne, having been borne, been borne, FUT. latum irl. GERUNDIVE, ferendusjobeborne. Note 1. In like manner are inflected the compounds of fero ; as, affero (adfero),afferre, attuli, allatum; aufero (ab-ffero), auferre, abstuli, abla- tum ; differo, differre, distuli, dTlatum ; refero, referre, rettnli, relatum, etc. Note 2. An archaic perfect, tetuli, is found ; also tetulero, tetulissem, tetulisse. 2. Flo (Sansk., bhd; Greek, f -), I am niade, become. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf. Part., fio, fieri, factus. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. fio, I am made, I become, fiam, 2. fis, thou art made, etc., fias, 3. fit, he is made, etc., fiat, PLUR. 1. (flmiis),* we are made, etc., flamus, 2. (fitis), you are made, etc., flatls, 3. f mnt, they are made, etc. flant. IMPERFECT. SING. 1. f tebam, / was made, I became, f terem, 2. f lebas, thou wast made, etc., f leres, 3. fYebat, f lergt, PLUR. 1. fiebamus, fieremiis, 2. f lebatfs, f teretts, 3. fiebant. fierent. * Forms in parentheses are seldom used. THE VERB FIO. 113 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE; FUTURE. SING. 1. flam, / shall be made, I shall become, 2. fles, thou wilt be made, thou wilt become, 3. f let, etc. PLUR. 1. fiemus, 2. f TetYs, 3. flent. PERFECT AND AORIST. SING. 1. factus sum, I have been made (or was made), I have become (or became^), 2. factus es, thou hast been made, etc., 3. factus est, - ,w v PLUR. 1. fact! sumus, 2. fact! estis, 3. fact! sunt. PLUPERFECT. factus eram, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. facttis Sro, etc. IMPERATIVE. PRES. 2. fT, FUT. 2. (fits), 3. (fits). factus sis, factfis sit, fact! simtts, fact! sitis, fact! sint. factus essem, etc. (fit), (fltotS), (flunto). INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PERF. factus, GERUNDIVE, f aciendus. PRES. fitri, PERF. factus esse, FUT. factum iri. Note 1. The i is long except before er and in f it. In fierem and fieri, Plautus and Terence often have the i of the stem long. Note 2. Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fa-. Hence fore and futurus may be assigned to fio as well as to sum. Cf. Cic.: neque ego ea, quaefacta sunt, fore cum dicebam, divinabam futura ; and quid fiat, factum, futurumve sit. [KENNEDY.] 10* H 114 GRAMMAR. Note 3. Fit, it happens, and fiebat, it happeiwd, are often used im- personally. Note 4. Fio is used as the passive of facio, from which verb it takes the participles. The compounds of facio with verbal roots have -fio for their passive : as, calefacio, / warm, calefio, I become warm, I am warmed. So liqueflo, satisf To. The compounds of fio with prepositions are only some forms of confieri, defieri, ecfieri, interfieri, superfieri, and infit, begins (to speak). 3. Volo (Sansk., vri; Greek, -), I wish, I will. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf. Ind. volo, velle, volut volebam, etc. vSlam, voles, etc. IMPERFECT. FUTURE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. volo, / wish, will, or am willing, 2. vis, thou wishest, etc., 3. vult, PLUR. 1. volumus, 2. vultis, 3. volunt. PLUPERFECT. volueram, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. vSluerS, etc. velU, v%limus, vttitis, veltem, etc. PERFECT AND AORIST. , etc. voluerlm, etc. voluissem, etc. VOLO AND NOLO. 115 INFINITIVE. PRES. veltt, to wish, etc. PERF. voluisse. PARTICIPLE. PRES. volens. Special Forms. Volt, voltis, were used before the time of Augustus. In conversational language vin' is used for visne, will you f; sis, sultis for si vis, si vultis ; capsls for cape si vis. (Compare pergin' for pergisne.) 4. Nolo, / am unwilling, is compounded of ne (non) with volo, PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., nolo, Pres. Inf., nolle, Perf. Ind., nolul. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. nolo, / am willing, 2. non vis, 3. non vult, PLUR. 1. nolumus, 2. non vultis, 3. nolunt. nolebam, etc. SING. 1. (not used), noles, etc. IMPERFECT. FUTURE. PERFECT AND AORIST. noluT, etc. PLUPERFECT. nolueram, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. noluero, etc. nolim, noils, nollt, nolimus, nolitis, nolint. , etc. noluissem, etc. 116 LATIN GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE. Singular. PRES. 2. noli, . FUT. 2. nolito, 3. nolito. Plural. nolite,- nolitote; nolunto. PARTICIPLE. PEES, nolens (rare). INFINITIVE. PRES. nolle, PERF. noluisse'. Special Forms. For non vis, non vult, Plautus has frequently nevis, nevult; for nolis, nolit, nolint, nollem, he has sometimes the fall forms non velis, etc. 5. Malo, / am more willing, I prefer, is compounded of magis (mage, ma) with volo. PRINCIPAL, PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf. Ind., malo, malle, INDICATIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. malo, I prefer, 2. mavis, 3. mavult, PLUR. 1. mdlumus, 2. mavultis, 3. malunt. malebam, etc. SING. 1. (not used), males, etc. IMPERFECT. FUTURE. malul. SUBJUNCTIVE. malim, malls, malit, malimus, malitis, indlint. mallem, etc. PERFECT AND AORIST. malm, etc. maluertm, etc. PLUPERFECT. malueram, etc. maluissem, etc. maluero, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. THE VERB EO. 117 INFINITIVE. PRES. mallS. PERP. maluissS. PARTICIPLE (not used). Special Forms in old Latin are mavolo, mavolet, mavelim, mavelis, mavelit, mavellem, mavelle. 6. Pervolo, I wish much, has pervelim, pervellem, pervelle. 7. The root of eo (for To), to go, is T- (found both in San- skrit and Greek), which becomes e before a, o, u. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf., Supine. eB, Ire, . IvT or TT, itum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT TENSE. SING. 1. &?, I go, earn, 2. Is, eas, 3. it, eat, PLUR. 1. Tmiis, edmus, 2. itis, eatis, 3. Vunt. eant. IMPERFECT. IbSm, etc. irSni, etc. FUTURE. Tbo, ibis, etc. PERFECT AND AORIST. TvT or ii, Tvertm or ierim, Tvisti or istT, etc. Tverls or iSrfs, etc. PLUPERFECT. Tv^rSm or ierSm, etc. IvissSm or issem, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. ivero or iero, etc. 118 LATIN GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. PRES. 2. T, It, FUT. 2. ito, Itote^ 3. ito. eunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES. ire, PRES. iens, Gen. euntls, PERF. Tvisse or isse, FUT. fturiis, FUT. Iturus esse. GERUNDIVE, eundus (in compo- sition). GERUND. GEN. eundi, DAT. eundo, ' Ace. eundum, ABL. eundo. SUPINES. Acc. ftum, ABL. ftu. 1. The v is usually dropped by eo and its compounds : as, ii, ieram, issem, redii, redistis, redisse, etc. 2. The impersonal passive ttur, Ytum est, TrT, etc., is often used. Iri with the supine supplies a future passive to verbs. The active eo also with the supine expresses a future action : thus, injurias istas ultum eunt, they are going to avenge those wrongs; aiunt injurias istas ultum iri, they say that those wrongs are going to be avenged (literally, that there is a tend- ing to avenge those wrongs'). 3. Transitive compounds of eo have a personal passive voice, as adeor. 4. Besides the form Tbit, a future in -iet is sometimes found in com- pounds : as, veniet (or vaeniet) from veneo, to be sold ; transiet, etc. 5. Ambio, I go round, I canvas, is the only compound of eo which is in- flected regularly, like audio. 8. Edo (Sansk., ad, Greek, <$-), lecrt, is inflected regularly, and also has some contracted forms, which omit the vowel after the root, and either change d to s or omit it. In the present subjunctive, in addition to the regular edam, edas, etc., it has a form with the old termination im, found also in sim and velim. The Principal Parts are Pres. Ind., Pres. Inf., Perf., Perf. Part. edo, edere or esse, edl, esus. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 119 The following are the anomalous forms : IND. PEES. Sing. 2. es, thou eatest, 3. est, he eats, Plur.. 2. estis, you eat. SUBJ. PEES. Sing. 1. edim, may I eat, 2. edis, etc. 3. edit, Plur. 1. edimus, 2. editis, 3. edint. SUBJ. IMP. essem, etc. IMPEEAT. Sing. 2. es, Plur. 2. este, 2 and 3. est5. 2 and 3, estotg. INF. PEES. esse. PASSIVE. estur (for editur), essetur (for ederetur). Note. The contracted forms are found also from comedo, and some {exest, exesse, exesset) from exedo. 86. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1. Aio, Isay, say yes, affirm. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PKESENT TENSE. SING, a-io, als, Sit, a-i&s, a-iat, PLUR. a-iunt. a-iant. IMPERFECT. SING, a-iebam, a-iebas, a-iebat, PLUR. a-iebamus, a-iebatis, a-iebant. IMPERATIVE PRESENT, ai (rare). PRESENT PARTICIPLE, a-iens, a-ientis (as adjective). Note 1. The i is consQnans (pronounced like English y), except in the second and third persons singular of the present indicative. Note 2. Ain'tu (= aisne tu), do you say so ? was a familiar expres- sion. 120 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. Inquam, / say. PRES. inquam, inquls, inqult, inqulnras, inqultis, inqulunt. SUBJ. PRES. inqulat. IND. IMPERF. inquiebat. Fur. inqules, inqulet. PERF. (inquii), inquisti, inquit. IMPERAT. FUT. inqulto. Note. Inquam is used in direct quotations, in which it is inserted paren- thetically. 3. Queo, I cew, and Nequeo, J cannot. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. IND. SUBJ. PRES. 1. qu6o, qugam, ngqueo, n6qu6am, 2. queas, non quls, nequeas, 3. queat, nequit, nequeat, 1. quimus, queamus, nequimus, nequeamus, 2. queatis, nequitis, nequeatis, & queunt. queant. nequeunt. nequeant. IMPERF* 1. nequibam, nequirem, 2. etc. nequlbas, etc. nequires,e praestat, it is best. So usu venit, in mentem venit, etc. 4. Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather ; such are fulgurat, it lightens. ningit, it snows. lucescit, it dawns. tonat, it thunders. pluit, it rains. illucescit, it gets light. grandinat, it hails. rorat, there falls dew. vesperascit, it gets late. 5. Intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the passive voice : as, luditur, from ludo, I play : IND. SUBJ. INFIN. PRESENT luditur, ludatur, ludi, IMPEEF. ludebatur, luderetur, FUTUEE ludetur, lusum iri, PEEFECT lusum est, lusum sit, lusum esse, PLUPEEF. lusum erat, lusum esset. lusum fuisse. FUT. PEEF. lusum erit. The persons may be expressed by an ablative case with the preposition a or ab following the verb : PRESENT INDICATIVE. SING, luditur a me, there is playing by me = I play, luditur ate, " " thee = thou playest, luditur abeo, " " him = he plays, 124 LATIN GRAMMAR. PRESENT INDICATIVE. PLTJE. luditur a nobis, there is playing by us = we play, luditur a vobis, " you = ye play, luditur ab iis, " " them = they play ; and so in the other tenses. The case is generally understood, and the verb is rendered usually as expressing the first or third person plural : as, luditur, we play or they play; sometimes, one plays: as the French, on joue. 6. The neuter gerundive is similarly used to express duty or necessity, with a dative or ablative of the person : PRESENT INDICATIVE. SING, ludendum est mini, there must be playing by me = / ludendum est tibi, " thee = thou ludendum est ei, " him = he PLUR. ludendum est nobis, " us = we ludendum est vobis, " you = ye ludendum est iis, " them = they and so in the other tenses. In this construction the case often occurs ; but here, too, it may be absent, and we, they, or one supplied, as in the former instance. So French, on doitjouer. 88. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 1. Inceptive (or Inchoative) Verbs denote 'the beginning of an action or state. They are all of the third conjugation. Those derived from verbs add sco or isco to the Present stem : as, labasco, I begin to totter, from labare ; calesco, I grow warm, from calere ; tremisco, J begin to tremble, from treme- re ; obdormisco, I get sleepy, from dormire. Those derived from nouns or adjectives add esco, more rarely asco, to the clipt stem : as, duresco, become hard, from durus ; juvenesco, grow young, from juvenis ; puerasco, become a boy, from puer. 2. Frequentative or Intensive Verbs express repeated or intense action. They are of the first conjugation ; and are formed either by adding -ito or -itor to the clipt stem ; as, rogito, ask often, from rogo; mmitor, threaten much, from minor ; or to the Supine stem : as, lusito, play often, from ludo, lusum ; or by adding o to supine stems in t or s : as, curso, run often, from curro, cursum ; dicto, keep saying, from dico, dictum. THE INFLECTIONS OF VERBS. 125 a. Frequentatives may be formed from frequentatives : as, cantito, cursito, dictito. 3. There are a few Intensives in esso and isso, denoting eager action, as capesso, catch eagerly, take in hand ; facesso, make haste to do; petisso, seek eagerly. They are of the third conjugation, but with perfect and supine of the fourth. Some- times such derivatives differ little in meaning from the primi- tive verb. 4. Desiderative verbs denote desire after a thing, and are formed by adding iirio to the Supine stem : as, esurio, desire to eat, from edo, esum ; cenatiirio, wish to dine, from ceno, cenatum. They are of the fourth conjugation. Such verbs are sometimes coined for rhetorical or comic effect, as sulla- tiirit, he wants to be a Sulla. 5. Diminutive verbs denote a diminution or pettiness of the action. They are of the first conjugation, and are formed by adding illo to the Present stem : as, cantillo, sing low, from canto ; conscribillo, scribble, from conscribo ; sor- billo, to sip, from sorbeo. 6. A few verbs form what are at once diminutives and frequentatives, with the suffix too: as, fodYco, keep wedging, from, fodio, dig; velltco, keep plucking, from vello, putt. So misstculo, keep sending, from mitto, missum. These are all of the first conjugation. 7. Imitative verbs add isso to the clipt stem of nouns or adjectives : as, attfcisso, to imitate the Attics; graecisso, to adopt a Grecian manner; patrisso, to take after one's father. They are of the first conjugation. Compare Demosthenes's verb, Philippize. THE INFLECTIONS OF VERBS. 89. INFLECTIONS OF PERSON, NUMBER, AND VOICE. 1. The personal terminations of verbs were originally personal pronouns ; they have become modified in their form for smoothness of sound or from gradual changes in utterance. 2. The terminations in the different conjugations in the classical period will be seen by observation of the paradigms. The supposed primitive forms of the present indicative lego are thus given by G. Curtius, together with the supposed primitive forms of the Greek Afyw and the actual forms of the Sanskrit present bharami, I bear: 11* 126 LATIN GRAMMAR. Classical Latin. Primitive Latin. Primitive Greek. Sanskrit SING. 1. lego, lego-m (i), Atyo-///, bhara-mi, 2. legi-s, lege-s (i), \eyc-oi, bhara-si, 3. legi-t, lege-t (i), \eyt-n, bhara-ti, PLTJR. 1. legi-mus, lego-mas, \eyo-nx, bhara-mas, 2. legi-tis, lege-tes, Xeye-rt, bhara-tha, 3. legu-nt. lego-nt (i). Aeyo-m. bhara-nti. 3. The -m in the First Person singular and plural is the same as is seen in the oblique cases of the pronoun me. This -m is dropped in the singular of the present indicative of all verbs (as reg-o) ; (except two; viz., sum (for es-om), I am, and inqua-m, quoth I;) also in the future perfect of all verbs: as, amavero ; and in the future indicative of all verbs with stems ending in -a or -e, and of some with stems ending in -i ; amabo, monebo, Tbo. In a- verbs the final a has blended with the suffix, and both are now represented simply by -o. Other vowel verbs retain their characteristic vowel : as, trib-u-o, mon-e-o, aud-i-o, cap-i-o. But three i- verbs change i to e; viz., eo (stem i-), queo (stem qui-), and its compound nequeo. In- quam has apparently a stem in a, which except in the first singular present passes into T. The perfect indicative always ends in T. The proper personal suffix (m) has dropped off altogether. It is probable that this final T is part of the stem ; but in practice it is more convenient to regard it as the personal termination. In the Passive Voice the only change from the active is the addition of r, if the m has dropped away, or the substitution of it for m if the m has been retained in the active : as, active, amo, amabo ; passive, amor, amabor; but active, amabam, amem ; passive, amabar, amer. This r is generally considered to be a substitute for s, the proper passive inflection being, as is supposed, the reflexive pronoun se. (A passive formed by a reflexive pronoun is seen in German, Das ver- steht sick von selbst, " that is understood of itself ;" French, Le corps se trouva, " the body was found ; " Italian, Si loda Vuomo modesto, " the modest man is praised ; " Spanish, Las aguas se secaron, " the waters were dried up." KEY.) Plural. The final -us is the part of the suffix which distinguishes the plural number. Its origin is uncertain. Some think it arose from the pro- noun of the second person, so that we (-mus) was expressed by / + thou. In the present indicatives of three verbs, viz., sumus, we are, volumus, and their compounds, and the old form quaesumus (stem quaes-), we pray, we have before m the older vowel u. da-mus retains the radical a. In the passive the final a is changed to r ; thus, amamus, amamur. 4. The consonant of the suffix of the Second Person is 8 in the singular THE PERSONAL SUFFIXES OF VERBS. 127 (changed before another vowel to r in the passive), and t in the plural. The perfect indicative has t in the singular also. The personal pronoun of the second person singular in Latin (tu) and the Doric dialect of Greek (TV) shows us this t ; in the Attic dialect of Greek it has s (utf). Singular. In the present tense of fero, / bear ; void, / will ; edo, / eat ; the short vowel (i) is omitted or absorbed ; hence fers (for feris), vis (gen- erally taken to be for volis, vilis, vils), and Is (for edis, eds) ; es (Is Plautus and Terence, es in subsequent poets) is also the second person singular present indicative of sum, / am. All a-, e-, and i- verbs have the final syllable long; viz., as, es, is. Not so the verbs with t : as, capio, capts. In the perfect indicative the ending of the second person singular is -isti, of which ending -ti is the proper personal suffix. The s is thought by Schleicher to be a remnant of es (Sansk. as) ; it may possibly be of pronom- inal origin. In the passive, -eris (at first sight) appears to be formed by placing the characteristic passive r before the personal suffix ; the true theory, however, is probably that the passive suffix, with a short preceding vowel, being placed after the personal suffix caused the s between two vowels to change to r, necessitating also the change of the vowel i to e before r. Thus re- geris is for regi-s-is. The passive suffix itself (i. e., a for se) was allowed to remain s, instead of being changed to r, as usually, in order to avoid having two r's close together. -re (as amabare) is more common than -ris (as amabaris) in Plautus, and, except in the present tense, in Cicero and Vergil. It is frequent in Horace, rare in Livy ; and is usually avoided by all writers where the form would then be the same as that of the present infinitive active. Hence -ris is retained in the present indicative (with rare exceptions) in verbs which have an active voice ; but in deponents (where there is no risk of confusion, as the infinitive ends in i) -re is frequent in Plautus, sometimes found in Cicero ; -ris is usual in Vergil and Horace. Plural. The plural ending -tis contains the personal pronoun of the second person, t, and the syllable -is, which contains either the pronoun of the second person in its other form, s, (thou + thou ye) or is a suffix of plurality. In the present tense of the four verbs named above, the i before the suffix is again omitted : fertis for feritis ; voltis or vultis for volitis ; estis for editis, ye eat, and for (originally) esitis, ye are. In the perfect s is simply suffixed to the singular form. In the passive voice the ending -Tmrni is probably a masculine plural participial form. The Greek present passive participle is of similar form ; viz., -omenos, plur. -omenoi. Originally, perhaps, estis was used with it, as it is used with a past participle to form the perfect passive. 6. The -t is the suffix of the Third Person, both singular and plural in 128 LATIN GRAMMAR. all tenses, is a demonstrative pronoun, found in the Greek (so-called) article, and in iste, tot, tails, tantus, etc. Singular. In the present tense of sum, edo, fero, volo, the short vowel before -t is not found ; viz., est (both from sum and from edo), fert, volt, or (later) vult. a. The third person singular active of a-, e-, and i- verbs was originally long, as may be inferred from the passive voice (amat-ur, xnonet-nr, au- dit-ur), and is actually found long not unfrequently in Plautus, and some- times in Augustan poets. b. In the perfect active the ending is the same as in the present (-it). Plautus sometimes, and more rarely Augustan poets, have this -it long. To form the passive, -ux is suffixed to the active form. Plural. The plural suffix is -nt. Instead of the ending -unt, in prae- Augustan inscriptions, in Plautus, and Varro, the older -ont was retained after v (or n) : as, vivont, confluent, loquontur. Of this suffix the t is probably the same as in the singular ; the origin of the n (which marks plurality) is uncertain. The passive is formed (as in the singular) by suffixing -ur to the active form. The perfect suffix is the same as the present, the ending being er-unt, of which the -er is the same as the -is (before t) of the second person. The penult (-er) is usually long (as, rexerunt, amavernnt), but the dactylic poets often, beginning with Lucretius (not Ennius), and others occasionally, shorten it: as, dormierunt, locaverunt, subegerunt, etc. (Plaut.) ; emerunt (Ter.) ; dederunt, fuerunt, exiernnt, etc. (Lucr.). -ere (for erunt) is not uncommon in Plautus and Terence, rare in Cicero and Caesar, but frequent in dactylic poets and Livy. In the future perfect indicative the suffix-vowel is i instead of u (-erint for -erunt) ; probably in order to avoid confusion with the perfect. 90. INFLECTIONS OF MOOD. The imperative and subjunctive moods are distinguished from the indicative by certain modifications. 1. Imperative Mood. a. Present. The imperative present appears to consist of shortened forms of the indicative present. The final s is thrown off, and -t is changed to e (or rather, as the form probably originally ended in -es, the s is simply thrown off). Hence the active regTs, becomes rege ; regTtTs, regtte ; the passive regerts, regere ; the second person plural regtmtnT is the same as in the indicative. But from verbs with vowel stems in a-, e-, T- (n INFLECTIONS OF MOOD. 129 the s is thrown off in the singular without further change; e. g., ama, mone, audi. The exceptional form noli is formed as if from the second person singular of the subjunctive present. 6. (For a merely practical rule, we may say, the imperative active is seen by dropping the termination re of the present infinitive.) In verbs which have short penult, and vowel stems in a, e, i, and also in the compounds of eo, the imperative forms in Plautus and Terence often shortened the final vowel : as, commoda, mone, jube, adi, abT ; especially in colloquial forms : as, manedum, tacedum, monesis, vtdesis. c. Future. The future imperative active is distinguished by a suffix, originally -od. In the form which is common to the second and third per- sons, i. e., reg-it-o, and the form for the third person plural, i. e., regunto, the -d has fallen off, as in the ablative case of nouns. The suffix appears to have been simply added to the present indicative forms of the third person singular and plural. (The use of this form for the second person singular was perhaps due to -t being a characteristic of the second personal pronoun.) The plural second person is formed by appending -e (for es, later -is) as the sign of plurality in this person to a modified form of the singular : as, reg-Yt-ot-e (for reg-tt-od-e). The passive forms substitute -r for the final -d : as, regtt-or for regtt- od ; regunt-or for regunt-od. i In Plautus, Cato, and old inscriptions, a form in -mino is (rarely) found for the second and third person singular of the imperative of deponents : as, profite-nuno, praefa-mtno, progredi-nuno, fru-t-nuno. One instance of a passive verb denuntiamino is found. This old form is of the same origin as the second person plural indicative in -mini. 2. Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive is characterized by a lengthened vowel im- mediately before the consonant of the personal suffix. Present. This vowel is a in the present tense of all verbs, except verbs with a- stems, in which it is e ; i. e., reg-a-mus, regamur ; moneamus, moneamur; audiamus, audiamur; tribuamus, tribuamur; but amemus, amenmr. Except also a few in which it is T ; viz., sim, sis, etc., from sum ; velim, veils, etc., from volo ; and the compounds of both ; i. e., possim, absim, etc., nolim, malim ; so also edim, duim, and their compounds. Sum and its compounds had an older form siem, sies, from which sim, sis, etc., are contracted. The -es, -et is perhaps only the older form of the ending -ts, tt. But more probably it corresponds to the long final syllable in Gr. elV, Sansk. sydm. I 130 LATIN GRAMMAR. Imperfect and Pluperfect. The long vowel in these tenses is e in all verbs ; e. g., rexissemus, amavissemus, etc. a. (For a practical rule, we may say, the imperfect subjunctive active is seen by adding m, and the passive by adding r, to the present infinitive active.) Perfect. The vowel (assumed to have been originally long) is I, which, however, probably from confusion with the future perfect, is in dactylic poets as often short as long. In Plautus and Terence there appears to be no instance incompatible with the rule of I for the perf. subj., t for the fut. perf. indie., in the second person singular and first and second persons plural. The forms for the subjunctive have been thought best explicable by assuming the proper suffix to be T (seen in the Greek optative), which was contracted with a preceding a to e. Thus amas, ama-T-s, amis. But as T suffixed to the present indicative of vowel verbs other than those with a stems would have given still the same form when contracted, an a (frequent in Aryan subjunctives) was substituted in all such cases. The consonant verbs eventually followed this analogy, the forms in i being either sporad- ically used or (if originally usual) only sporadically retained. Sis and velis, etc., retain the T, because they have other points of difference from the indicative. 91. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRESENT STEM. 1. The characteristic tense-endings, both in the forms from the present and those from the perfect stems, were probably originally verbs added to the verb-stem with the force of auxiliaries to which auxiliaries the terminations of number and person belong. It has been supposed that some of them were derived from bhu and es, meaning to be; others from ya, a form of i, to go. 2. Present. The present indicative is formed simply by suffixing the inflections of number and person. The present subjunctive has a mood inflection in addition. 3. Future. The future indicative is in consonant, in i- verbs, and in u- verbs a modified form of the present subjunctive. The first person singular is the same : the other persons have long e where the present subjunctive has a; i. e., fut. reges, regemus, etc.; pres. subj. regas, regamus, etc. In the third person sing. act. the final syllable was short in the ordinary language. This e perhaps arises from suffixing I (meaning to go) to the present subjunctive of these verbs; i. e., reg-a-mus, reg-a-I-mus, regemus; just as amemus, pres. subj. was formed. But this formation would not do for TENSES FROM THE PRESENT STEM. 131 a- and e- verbs ; because in a- verbs such a form (e. g., amenms) is already used for the pres. subj. ; and in e- verbs, it (g. g. f monemus) would be identical with the present indicative. Accordingly In a- and e- verbs there is a different mode of forming the future indic- ative ; viz., by suffixing ib- to the present stem, with the final vowel of which it is contracted ; e. g., ama-, ama-ib-, amab- ; first person plural amab-imus ; mon-e-, mone-ib-, moneb- ; first person plural monebimus. A similar future (besides the ordinary form in -am, -es, -et) is not un- frequently formed from T- stems in early writers (Plautus, Terence, etc.) ; e. g., aperibo, adgredibor (comp. adgrediri foradgredi), larglbere, oppe- ribor, scibo, etc. But of these forms none are found so late as the first century B. c., except Ibo, quibo, nequlbo, which are the only forms in use at any time in those three verbs. LenTbo is also found in Propertius. The verb do has a short penultimate dabo. The verb sum and compounds may seem to have merely a different form of the present for the future; viz., er-o (for esom), first person plural er- imus (compare pres. sumus for es-um-us). Most philologists, however, consider ero, etc., to be for esio, the i being similar to that of the present subj. 4. Imperfect. The imperfect indicative has in all stems a long a pre- ceding the personal inflections. Thus es- with a suffixed becomes esa-, which with the personal m and the usual change of s to r becomes era-m, I was. In all stems except es-, b is prefixed to this long a. Moreover, in all stems but da- the vowel preceding ba is long. The long a, which is always found (though shortened by final m and t), serves to distinguish the imperfect from the future where the forms are otherwise similar; e. g., amabamus, amabimus ; monebamus, monebi- mus ; Tbamus, Tbimus ; dabamus, dabimus ; eramus, erimus. It is ap- parently a sign of past time, and as such is found in the pluperfect also. In consonant stems the ending is -eba-, and this is usually found also in verbs with i stems ; e, g., reg-eba-mus, audi-eba-mus. But this long e is not found in eo, queo, and their compounds, and is not unfrequently absent in the earlier language (Plautus, Ter., Varr., etc.) ; e. g., sclbam, nesclbam, aibam, etc., gestibat, grundlbat, insanlbat, molllbat, praesagTbat, ser- vibas, stabillbat, venlbat. So also, apparently for metrical reasons, in the dactylic poets ; e. g., audlbant, lenibat, saevlbat, redimlbat, mollbar, feribant, etc. 5. Imperfect Subjunctive. This tense had the suffix -er (for es), which with the modal suffix e made -ere. The first vowel coalesced with a pre- ceding a, e, or T ; e. g., reg-er-emus, tribu-er-emus, am-ar-emus (for ama- er-emus), mon-er-emus, aud-ir-emus, and caused the omission of a pre- ceding i; e. #.,capi-, caperem. In edo, volo, fero, and their compounds, the vowel e was dropped out; e. g., first person plural es-sem-us (for ed-es-emus) ; vel-lem-us (for vol- 132 LATIN GRAMMAR. er-em-us ' ; fer-rem-us (for fer-er-em-us). Do has daremus. Sam (as well as edo) has essemus. essem (from sum) may be formed from the imperfect indicative with the subjunctival suffix I. Thus esa-i-m becomes ese-m, the first syllable being lengthened by a double s as a compensatory result of the contraction. The imperfect of sum in a somewhat different form appears to have been used to form the imperfect of regular verbs, e. g., reg- with the imperfect indic- ative of sum, isreg-eram: hence reg-era-i-m, regerem. 6. The Present Infinitive Active has the suffix -ere, for -ese (s between two vowels changed to r), in which the first e coalesces with a preceding a, e, or I; e. g., reg-ere, tribu-ere ; am-are, mon-ere, aud-ire. Capere is formed analogously to caperem (5). In sum, edo, volo, fero, and their compounds, the first vowel e was dropped out, as in the imperfect subjunctive. Hence the infinitives are esse (for esese and for edese), velle (for volere), ferre (for ferere). a. The infinitive is generally considered to be the dative or locative case of a verbal noun with stem ending in s- or si- ; e. g., dicer-e for old daikas-ai, viver-e analogous to the Sanskrit jivas-ai. The final e (=ai) would be originally long. 7. The Present Infinitive Passive has the suffix i appended to the stem, in verbs whose stem ends in a consonant, or in i or in u : as, reg-T, tribu-T, cap-T. In other vowel verbs T takes the place of the final e of the active infinitive : as, aud-Ir-I, mon-er-T, am-ar-T. a. A further suffix -er is found appended to the i, frequently in the older and occasionally in later poets : as, amarier, vestlrier. 8. The suffix of the PRESENT PARTICIPLE is -enti, nom. sing, -ens : as, reg-ens, tribu-ens, audi-ens. In eo and its compounds an older form of the suffix, viz., -unti, is retained ; the nom. sing, is, however, usually iens. In -a and -e verbs the suffix coalesces with the final stem vowel : as, amans (for ama-ens), monens (for mone-ens). 9. The suffix -endo forms, as a noun, the GERUND, as an adjective, the GERUNDIVE : as, regendum, tribuendum, audiendum ; amandum, mo- nendum. An older form in -undo (probably for an earlier -ondo) is common in some writers. Eo and its compounds always have this form : as, eundum, adeundus. 92. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PERFECT STEM. 1. The suffixes for the tenses formed from the perfect stem, i. e., for the perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect in the indicative, and perfect and pluperfect in the subjunctive, are the same in all verbs ; viz., future perfect, -er- ; perf. subj., -er-T; pluperf. ind., -er-a ; pluperf. subj., -iss-e. The perfect infinitive ends in isse. 2. The great resemblance of these suffixes to the parts of the verb sum, FORMS FROM THE PERFECT AND SUPINE STEMS. 133 which are used to form the same tenses in the passive voice, suggests (and the suggestion has been generally adopted) that they are identical in origin. This theory would give a complete explanation of the pluperfect and the future perfect indicative, with the exception that the third person plural of the latter has erint instead of erunt, perhaps in order to avoid confusion with the third person plural perfect indicative. The perfect subjunctive would be explained by assuming as the suffix an older form of sim ; viz., -esim, or with the usual change of s to r, -erim. In the perfect infinitive and pluperfect subjunctive, audivissem, audi- visse would stand for aud-TvT-essem, audivT-esse. In the perfect indicative the second person singular, e. g., audivisti would stand for aud-lvl-esti (the personal suffix -ti being lost in the sim- ple verb, es, thou art] ; second person plural, e. g., audivistis, for aud-TvT- estis ; third person plural, e. g., audiverunt, for aud-ivl-esunt. The third personal singular may have the simple personal suffixes, or may possibly have been reduced from a fuller form ; e. g., audivi-est, audivist, audivit. The -It is sometimes found long. The first person singular, e. g., audivi, may then be for audivl-esum, audivism, audivim. And the first person plural may have had a similar pedigree. It must, however, be observed that the resemblance to the parts of the stem es, on which this theory rests, is in some degree deceptive, for it con- sists largely in personal and modal suffixes, which even on another hy- pothesis might be expected to be the same. 3. The perfect stem when formed by a suffixed v, is frequently modified by the omission of the v in all tenses and persons and both numbers, ex- cept in the first person singular and plural, and third person singular of the perfect indicative. The vowels thus brought together are contracted, excepting -ie and sometimes -ii. (See 83.) 93. PARTICIPLES AND COMPOUND TENSES FORMED FROM THE SUPINE STEM. From the so-called supine stem are formed the future participle active by suffixing -uro-, sing. nom. -urus (m.), -ura (f.), -urum (n.) ; and the past participle passive, by suffixing the ordinary case-endings of the first and second declension ; e. g., sing. nom. -us (m.), -a (f.), -um (n.). These participles, in the appropriate gender and number, are used in the nominative case with the finite tenses of the verb sum, and in the accusa- tive as well as the nominative with the infinitive of the same verb to sup- ply the place of certain tenses for which there is no special form. The future participle thus supplies additional future tenses in the active voice, especially in the subjunctive ; the past participle supplies the perfect tenses of the passive voice, whether the passive voice have a strictly passive mean- ing, or, as in deponents, an active or reflexive meaning. 12 134 LATIN GRAMMAR. VERB STEMS. 94. THE PRESENT STEM. Verbs may be divided into consonant verbs and vowel verbs, according as the present stem ends in a consonant or a vowel. I. Consonant Verbs. 1. Most consonant verbs exhibit in the present stem no alteration of the regular stem of the verb : as, reg-, reg-ere ; caed-, caed-ere. In others such alteration is found : as, 1 . The verb stem is reduplicated to form the present tense ; thus, from the verb stem gen-, we have the present gignere for gi-genere (gen-ui, ggnltum) ; from sta-, sistere (stlti, statum) ; from sa, serere for sesere (sevi, satum). 2. The radical vowel is lengthened ; thus from the stem due- (compare dux, dticis) ducere ; from dtc- (compare veridlcus) dicere ; from ftd- (com- pare fides) fidere. 3. n is suffixed to the stem of the verb : as, tern-, tem-n-ere ; cer-, cer- n-ere; sit-, st-n-ere. (In early Latin are found such forms as da-n-unt for dant, solT-n-unt for solent, nequi-n-unt for nequeunt, obi-n-unt for obeunt.) 4. A nasal is inserted before the final stem consonant: as, a. Labial stems : cub-, cu-m-bere ; rup-, ru-m-pere ; b. Guttural stems : liqu-, li-n- quere ; frag-, fra-n-gere ; vYc-, vi-n-cere. In some verbs the nasal is re- tained in the perfect and dropped in the supine stem: as, fig-, fi-n-gere, fi-n-xi, fi-ctura. In some the nasal is constant in the verb stem : as, root jug- (compare jug-um),ju-n-gere, ju-n-xi, ju-n-ctum; c. Dental stems: as, fid-, fi-n-dere ; tud-, tu-n-dere. 5. sc or isc is suffixed to verb stems, especially to vowel stems in e, and gives often the special meaning of beginning or becoming. This inchoative form sometimes exists alone, sometimes is used besides the ordinary stem, sometimes is found in a compound, but not in the simple verb. The per- fect and supine, if any, are the same as those of the ordinary stem (real or assumed). A very few stems carry the suffix -sc throughout all the tenses. Thus sc is suffixed : a. To consonant stems: as, al- (alere), ale-sc-ere; pac-, pac-isc-i; die-, di-sc-ere (for dic-sc-ere). 6. To vowel stems: as, Tra-, ira-sc-i; na-, na-sc-i; no-, no-sc-ere; ere-, cre-sc-ere; dorml- (dormlre), ob-dormi-sc-ere ; set-, sci-sc-ere. 6. The guttural is omitted in some stems which probably ended in gn- (i. e., g with a slight labial action after it) : as, flugu-, flu-ere ; strugu-, stru-ere; frugu-, frui; vigu-, vlv-ere; also the vowel stem conigu-, conivere. THE PRESENT STEM. 135 Other stems vary between gu and g : as, stinguere, stingere ; tinguere, tingere ; unguere, ungere ; ninguit, ningit (compare nix, niv-is), and the vowel stems urguere, urgere. 7. s is changed between vowels to r : as, ges-, gerere (gessi, gestum) ; ques-, queri (ques-tus); quaes-, quaerere (compare quaeso, quaesivi, etc.) ; us-, urere (ussi, ustum). Also the vowel stem hausi-, haurlre (hausi, nans-turn). 8. A few verbs have 11 in present stem, but not in other parts : as, col-, percellere (per-cul-i, per-cul-sum) ; pol-, pellere (pe-pul-i, pul-sum) ; tol-, toilers (tul-i); vellere retains 11 in perfect velli, but has the supine vul-sum. II. Vowel Verbs. 1. Verbs with stems ending in a : Most of these verbs have the verb stem ending in a-, and preserve it in all tenses : as, fla-, flare (flavi, flatum) ; fa-, fari (fatus) ; in which a is radical. In na-, nare (navi, natum), the a is constant, but the derivative nato shows that a is radical. In stra-, ster-n-ere (stravi, stratum) ; tla-, toll- ere (tetuli, la turn for tlatum) ; the present stem is consonantal. 2. Verbs with stems ending in a- : as, da-, dare (dedi, datum), but das has a. In all other verbs which may be considered to have a stem ending in a-, the final a- combines with the ini- tial vowel of the suffixes in tenses formed from the present stem, so as to present a ; e. g., Sta-, stare (steti, statum, but sometimes statum), where a is radical; crepa-, crepare ; cuba-, cubare ; do ma-, domare ; frYca-, frTcare ; mtca-, mYcare; eneca, enecare, but neca- usually is simple verb; -pltca- and -plica-, plicare ; seca-, secare; -sona-, sonare (also sonere) ; tona, tonare ; veta-, vetare ; all of which have perfects in -ui, and most of them usually supines in -ttum. Also lava-, lavare (and lavere) ; juva-, juvare ; which vocalize and contract the radical v with -ui of the perfect ; and contract or omit it in the supine. 3. Of verbs with stems ending in o, the only traces are no-, which has the inchoative suffix in the present tense, noscere (novi, notum) ; the root has o, comp. nota (noun), notare, cognttum, etc. ; and po- (potum), the frequentative pota-re being otherwise alone in use. 4. Verbs with stems ending in u. a. Most have stems in u, which, however, becomes short before the ini- tial vowel of the suffixes: as, acu-, acuere, acuis, acuisti, acuas, acuebam, acuerem, etc. ; the supine has u. Plu-, pluere (perf. pluvi and plui) is, apparently, contracted for pluv- or plov- (compare pluvia). And the same may be the case with all : compare fluo, fluv-ius. b. ruo has rii- in supine of compounds, but ruta (n. pi.) according to Varro. Pu- is found only in adj. putus and frequentative putare. 136 LATIN GRAMMAR. e. A few verbs have u vocal in the supine, but consonantal usually in the present and perfect: as, loqu-, loqui (locfitum) ; sequ-, sequi (secu- tum) ; solv-, solvere (solvi, solutum) ; volv-, volvere (volvi, volutum). 5. Verbs with stems ending in e : a. Few verbs have the stem ending in e, and these are monosyllables, where e is radical : as, dele- (compound), delere ; fle, Here ; ne-, nere ; -pie, -plere. All these have the perfect and supine in -evi, -etum. Other verbs with e (-evi, -etum) have consonantal present stems: as, ere-, ere see re ; quie-, quiescere. 6. In most verbs with stems in -e, the e was probably short, as may be inferred from the perfect being in -ui (for -eui), and supine in -ttum, which in some verbs was reduced to -turn : as, mone-, monere (monui, monitum), and many others; cave-, cavere (cavi for cavui, cavitum, contracted to cautum), and others. Contraction with the initial vowel of suffixes gives e in most forms of the present stem; e. g., monere, mones, monemus, monebam, monebo, monerem, monetur (monet, as amat, audtt, the vowel being shortened before t final). c. Many verbs have e (probably e) in the present stem, but drop it entirely and show consonantal stems in other parts of the verb : as, morde, mordere (momordi, morsum ) ; vtde-, vTdere (vidi, visum) ; sede-, sedere (sedi, sessum), and many others. d. Some have a present stem in -e, besides another (older or poetic) con- sonantal stem : as, fervere, fervere ; strldere, strldere ; tueri, in com- pounds -tui ; ciere, in compounds -clre. 6. Verbs with stems ending in i : a. Some verbs with radical i, and many derivatives, have I, and retain it through all the tenses: as, scT-, sclre; i-, Ire; cT, -cire (also ciere); qni-, quire. In these the i is radical. So, too, and!-, audlre ; dorm!-, dormlre ; and many other derivatives. In all these the perfect is in -Tvi, and in the derivative verbs and scio, the supine is in -Ttum. But ttum, cttum, quotum. b. Some verbs have T in the present stem, but drop it and show a conso- nantal stem in other parts ; as, amid-, amiclre (amicui, amictum). c. Some verbs have the stem ending in t, which fell away before t or er ; and, as final in the imperative, was changed to e. The i is generally dropped in the supine stem. Thus capY-, capere (cepi, captum) ; gradt-, inf. gradl (gressum). Two have T in other tenses than those derived from the present : cupY-, oupere, cupTvi, cupitum (in Lucretius also cuplret) ; sapi, sapere, saplvi, in compound reslpui and resiplvi. d. A few verbs have consonant stems in the present, but T stems in other parts : as, pet-, petere, petivi, petltum ; quaes-, quaerere, quaeslvi, quae- sTtum ; arcess-, arcessere, arcesslvi, arcessltum. THE PERFECT AND SUPINE STEMS. 137 95, FORMATION OF THE PERFECT STEM. The perfect stem is formed in six different ways : 1. By reduplication. The first consonant of the stem is prefixed with a short vowel, which is (1) e if the stem-vowel is a or e, and (2) is the same as the stem- vowel if that vowel is o, u, or i. (3) If the stem-vowel is a, it is changed to e before two consonants, to i before one ; (4) ae is changed to I. (5) Before single 1, e and o become u. (6) If the stem begins with sp, so, st, the second consonant is reduplicated, and the s prefixed to the reduplication syllable. Thus: (1) and (3) can-, ce-cm-i; pare-, pe-perc-i; (1) pend-, pe-pend-i; (2) pose-, po-posc-i; tSd- (present tund-), tu-tud-i; dTc- (present disc- for die-so-), di-dic-i; (4) caed-, ce-cld-i; (5) pol- (present pell-), pe-pul-i; (6) sponde-, spo-pond-i ; sta- (present sta-), ste-ti. 2. By lengthening the stem -vowel: as, rup- (present rump-), rup-i. Short a is changed to e (except in scabere), as ag-, eg-i. 3. By suffixing s : as, carp-, carp-s-i. This suffix is sup- posed to be the same as that of the First Aorist in Greek. In stems in m, a euphonic p is generally inserted before s, as dem-, demp-s-i. In premo the m is assimilated: pres-si. The gutturals c, g, and qu, with s become x; as die-, di-x-i ; c and g, after 1 or r, are dropped before s; as, mulce-, mul-s-i; sparg-, spar-s-i. The labial b becomes p; as, scrib-, scrip-s-i. The dentals t and d fall away before s, or are assimilated to it : as, fleet-, flex-i (x= cs) ; mitt, mi-s-i ; ced-, ces-s-i; divid-, divi-s-i; vad-, va-s-i. 4. By suffixing u : as, strep-, strep-u-i ; doma-, dom-u-i ; doce-, doc-u-i. 5. By suffixing v: as, ama-, ama-v-i; audi-, audi-v-i; no- (present nosco), no-v-i. 6. By adopting the present-stem as the perfect-stem : as, bib-, bib-i; To-, Ic-i; vert-, vert-i; acu-, acu-i. 96. FORMATION OF THE SUPINE STEM. The supine stem has the suffix t. When the verb-stem ends in a vowel, that vowel is, if long, generally retained : as, ama-, ama-tum ; if short, it is almost always changed, except in monosyllables, to T, or omitted altogether : as, doma-, domi-tnm ; habe-, 12* 138 LATIN GRAMMAR. habi-tum ; move-, mo- turn. A few of the verbs which have a consonant stem have -it (instead of t) in the supine, as if from a vowel-stem : thus, frem-, frem-itum. When the verb-stem ends in a consonant, or loses its final vowel, t is, when following certain consonants, changed to s. Before this s, t and d are dropped, or assimilated : as, ed-, e-sum ; ced-, ces-sum (ced-sum) ; mitt-, mis-sum. The guttural characters, g, gu, qu, h become c when t follows : as, ag-, ac-tum ; the labial b becomes p : as, scrlb-, scrip-turn ; v is vocalized into u in solv-, solu-tum, volv-, volu-tum; r (primitively a) becomes s again : as, ger-, gestum. ROBY, in part. 97. A TABLE OF VERBS, SHOWING THE PRESENT, INFINITIVE, PERFECT, AND SUPINE. NOTE. Forms enclosed in parentheses, as (jutum), are rare or late. I. First Conjugation. Present. Infinitive. Perfect. Supine. Regular Form, -o, -are, -avi, -atum ; as, amo, amare, amavi, amatum. Exceptions : 1. Those having -ui in Perfect, -Itum or -turn in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning. crgpo, crepare, crepui, crepltum, creak, rattle. ciibo, cubare, cubui, cubltum, lie, lie HI. d6mo, domare, domui, domltum, tame. expllco, explicare, {^P 11 1 , explicltum, ( explicavi, explicatum, frt frioarP friftni I frlCtum, HM.MWJ > t 1 frlcatum, f w^* mlco, micare, micui, micatum, quiver, flash. 2 seco, secare, secui, sectum, cut. s6no, sonare, sonui, sonltum, sound. t5no, tonare, tonui, tonltum, thunder. v6to, vetare, vetui, vetltum, forbid. 2. Those having -vi in Perfect, -turn in Supine, juvo, juvare, juvi, (jutum), help, delight. 3 f lavatum, \ 13,vo, lavare, lavi, | lautum, > wash. ( lotum, 1 So nearly all compounds of pltco, to fold, which has no perfect or supine. 2DimIco has dimicavi and dimicui (twice in Ovid), dimicatum; emlco has fut. part, emicaturus. 3 Fut. part, juvaturus ; adjuvo has adjuturus. TABLE OF VERBS. 139 3. Those having reduplicated l Perfect, -turn in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning. do, dare, d6di, datum, give. sto, stare, stgti, statum, stand. 2 II. Second Conjugation. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supinei Regular Form, -eo, -ere, -ui, itum; as, mftneo, mtinere, mtfnui, mflmtum. Exceptions : 1. Those having regular Perf. in -ui, but -turn or -sum in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning. censeo, censere, censui, censum, reckon, give opinion. d6ceo, docere, docui, doctum, teach. misceo, miscere, miscui, f mixtum, ) mix. 1 mistum, J rgtlneo, retinere, retinui, re"tentum, retain. 3 torreo, torrere, torrui, tostum, parch. 2. Those having -vi in Perf., -turn in Supine, deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, destroy. fleo, flere, flevi, fletum, weep. impleo, implere, implevi, impletum, fill. 4 3. Those having -si in Perf. , -sum or -turn in Supine. algeo, ardeo, augeo, haereo, indulgeo, jubeo, maneo, mulceo, algere, ardere, augere, haerere, indulgere, jubere, manere, mulcere, alsi, arsi, auxi, haesi, indulsi, jussi, mansi, mulsi, be cold. arsum, be on fire. auctum, make bigger. haesum, stick. indultum (late) indulge. jussum, bid. mansum, remain, await. mulsum, stroke, soothe. 1 That is, having the first consonant of the present, together with a vowel, pre- fixed to the perfect tense, as, do, de-di (g 95). In the perfects of compound verbs the initial consonants "of the verb, not of the preposition, appear as the redupli- cation of the perfect, e. g., con-sto, con-stiti. 2 The compounds generally make -stiti in perf., as, praesto, praestTti, and seldom have a supine; those with dissyllabic prepositions retain e in the perfect, as circumsteti. Lucan has staturus. 3 So all compounds of teneo, to hold, which has no supine. 4 So all compounds of pleo, to fill, which is never found in an uncompounded form. 140 LATIN GRAMMAR. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning. mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi, milk. rideo, ridere, risi, risum, laugh. suadeo, suadere, suasi, suasum, advise. tergeo, tergere, tersi, tersum, wipe. 1 torqugo, torquere, torsi, tortnm, twist. 4. Those having -i in Perf., -turn or -sum in Supine, caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum, beware. faveo, favere, favi, fautum, be favorable. fbveo, fovere, fovi, fotum, keep warm, cherish. ni6veo, movere, movi, motum, move (transitive). prandeo, prandere, prandi, pransum, dine. respondeo, respondere, respondi, responsum, answer. 2 sgdeo, sedere, sedi, sessum, sit. video, videre, vidi, visum, see. v6veo, vovere, vovi, votum, vow. 5. Those having reduplicated Perf., -sum in Supine, mordeo, mordere, mSmordi, morsum, bite. pendeo, pendere, pgpendi, pensum, be suspended. spondeo, spondere, sp6pondi, sponsum, promise. tondeo, tondere, tdtondi, tonsum, shear. 6. Semi-deponent Verbs. audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, rejoice. s61eo, solere, solltus sum, be accustomed. III. Third Conjugation. Infinitive ends in -ere. The principal varieties of conjuga- tion are the following : 1. Those having -si in Perf., -turn in Supine. Note. Perfects in -xi are considered as ending in -si, since z is only a double letter standing for cs, gs, ks, or qs. Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning, alllcio, allicSre, allexi, allecturn, entice. 3 asplcio, aspicere, aspexi, aspectum, behold. 4 carpo, carpere, carpsi, carp turn, pluck. 1 A form tergo, tergere, is found less frequently. 2 So all compounds of spondeo, to promise. 3 So all compounds, except elicio (6), of the unused verb lacio, to entire. Pro- licio has no perfect or supine. 4 So all compounds of the verb specie, to look, found only in Plautus. TABLE OF VERBS. 141 Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Meaning. cingo, cinggre, cinxi, cinctum, gird. como, comgre, compsi, comptum, adorn. cttquo, coqugre, coxi, coctum, cook. demo, demgre, dempsi, demptum, take away. dlco, dicgre, dixi, dictum, say, tell. duco, ducgre, duxi, ductum, lead, draw. extinguo, extingugre, extinxi, extinctum, extinguish. \ fingo, finggre, finxi, fictum, form, invent. ggro, gergre, gessi, gestum, carry on. jungo, junggre, junxi, junctum, yoke, join. nubo, nubgre, nupsi, nuptum, be married. 2 pingo, pinggre, pinxi, pictum, paint. promo, promgre, prompsi, promptum, draw out. rggo, reggre, rexi, rectum, keep straight, rule. repo, repgre, repsi, (reptum), creep. scribo, scribgre, scrips! , scriptum, write. stringo, stringgre, strinxi, strictum, graze, draw tight. struo, strugre, struxi, structum, build. sumo, sumgre, sumpsi, sumptum, take up. tggo, teggre, texi, tectum, cover. temno, temngre, tempsi, temptum, despise. tingo, j f tinggre, tinguo, J ( tingugre, tinxi, tinctum, dye. traho, trahgre, traxi, tractum, draw. ungo, j Junggre, . unguo, J I ungugre, unxi, unctum, grease. uro, urgre, ussi, ustum, burn. vgho, vehgre, vexi, vectum, carry. vivo, vivgre, vixi, victum, live. 2. Those having -si in Perf., -sum in Supine. cedo, cedgre, cessi, cessum, give way, yield up. claudo, claudgre, clausi, clausum, shut. 3 concutio, concutgre, concussi, concussum, shake. 4 divldo, dividgre, divisi, divlsum, divide. evado, evadgre, evasi, evasum, go out. f igo, figgre, fixi, fixum, fix. flecto, flectgre, flexi, flexum, bend. 1 So all compounds of stinguo, to quench, which has no perfect or supine. 2 As a bride ; literally, put on a veil. 3 The compounds make -cludo ; as, recludo, -ere, -si, -sum, open. 4 So all compounds of quatio, quatere, to shake, which has supine quassum, and no perfect. 142 LATIN GRAMMAR. Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Meaning. fltio, flugre, fluxi, (fluxus, adj.), flow. laedo, laedgre, laesi, laesum, hurt. ludo, ludgre, lusi, lusum, sport. merge, merggre, mersi, mersum, sink (trans.). mitto, mittgre, misi, missum, let go, send. necto, nectgre, nexi, nexum, link together. plaudo, plaudgre, plausi, plausum, clap the hands. I rado, radgre, rasi, rasum, scrape. rodo, rodgre, rosi, rosum, gnaw. spargo, sparggre, sparai, sparsum, scatter, besprinkle. trudo, trudgre, trusi, trusum, thrust. 3. Those having a reduplicated Perf., -turn or -sum in Supine. addo, addgre, addldi, addltum, add.2 cado, cadgre, cgcldi, casum, fall. caedo, caedgre, cgcidi, caesum, fell, cut, slay. cano, cangre, cgclni, (cantus,noun) , sing, play. curro, currgre, cucurri, cursum, run.3 disco, discgre, dldlci, learn. fallo, faUgre, fgfelli, falsum, deceive. pango, panggre, {Pegi, Ipgplgi, pactum, ) panctum, ) fasten. parco, parcgre, pgperci, f parsum, 1 ( (parcltum), J spareA pario, pargre, pgpgri, partum, bring forth.5 pello, pellgre, pgpuli, pulsum, drive back. pendo, peudgre, pgpendi, pensura, weigh. posco, poscgre, pOposci, demand. pungo, punggre, pfipiigi, punctum, prick.6 rgsisto, resistere, restlti, restltum, resist.7 1 ExplSdo (hiss off), explodere, explosi, explosum. So the other compounds, except applaudo, which does not change the vowel. 2 So most compounds of do (dare), to give, to put; as, abdo, hide; condo, found; credo, believe; dedo, give up; edo, give forth; perdo, lose, destroy ; pr5do, betray; reddo, restore : trado, deliver up ; vendo, sett. But the half compounds, circumdo, surround; pessumdo, ruin; satisdo, give security; and venumdo, offer for sale, form perfect, supine, and infinitive like do, and belong to the First Conjugation. 3 The compounds frequently retain the reduplication, as accucurri ; more usually (in Cicero and Livy) drop it, as accurri. 4 Plautus always, and Terence sometimes, have perfect parsi. 5 The future participle is pariturus. 6 Compounds have punxi in the perfect. 7 So all compounds of sisto, to stop (itself a reduplicated form of sto), which rarely has the perfect stTti, and has no supine. Sisto is rarely intransitive, and then has the perfect steti. TABLE OF VERBS. 143 Pres. tango, tendo, tollo, tundo, Inf. tanggre, Perf. tgtfgi, Meaning. touch. Sup. - , . tactum, tendgre, tgtendi, J tentum > \ stretch. l(tensum), J tollgre, sustuli, sublatum, lift up, remove. I tundgre, tuttidi, ( tusum } thump, pound. ( tunsum, ) 4. Those having -i in Perf., -turn in Supine. ago,2 aggre, Sgi, actum, do, drive. attingo, attinggre, atttgi, attactum, touch.S blbo, blbgre, blbi, (blbltum), drink. capio,4 capgre, cepi, captum, take. contendo, contendgre, contend!, contentum, strive.5 gmo,6 gmgre, emi, emptum, buy (orig. take). facio,7 facgre, feci, factum, make, do. frango,8 franggre, fregi, fractum, break in pieces. fugio, fuggre, fugi, fugltum, flee, fly from. impingo, impinggre, impegi, impactum, strike upon.9 jacio,10 jacgre, jeci, jactum, throw, cast. lggo,ll Igggre, legi, lectum, pick up, choose, read. 1 The proper perfect and supine are tuli (in prae- Augustan poets tetuli) and latum (for tlatum) ; but as fero takes these, tollo uses the perfect and supine of its compound sustollo. 2 The compounds make -tgo, -igere, -egi, -actum, as exYgo; except cogo, cogere, coegi, coactum ; dego, which has no perfect or supine ; and circumago, perago, which retain a in the present stem. Satago is really two words : perfect egi satis. 3 So all compounds of tango, to touch. 4 The compounds (except antecapio) make -cYpio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptum, as excipio. 5 So all compounds of tendo, to stretch. Extendo, extend, and ostendo, shew, have -sum as well as -turn in the supine. 6 The compounds make -imo, -imere, -emi, -emptum, as adimo; except coemo, peremo, interemo, which retain e, and the earlier compounds, como, demo, promo, sumo, which make compsi, comptum, etc. 7 The compounds make -f tcio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum, as efficio. The half compounds, calefacio, tremefacio, etc., retain a. 8 The compounds make -fringo, -fringere, -fregi, -fractum, as effringo. 9 So compounds of pango, to fasten; but oppango, depango (wants the perf.), and repango (wants perf. and sup.) retain a in the present stem. 10 The compounds make -jicio, -jicere, -jeci, -jectum, as conjicio. In these compounds ji is by recent editors written i ; as cSnTcio, conicere, conjeci, con- jectum. 11 The compounds generally make -ligo, -ligere, -legi, -lectum, as colllgo. DTlego or dlligo, love; intellego, understand, and neglego, neglect, retain e, and usually have the perf. in -xi (rarely intellegi, neglegi). Allege, perlego, praele- go, relego, and sublego also retain e. 144 LATIN GRAMMAR. Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Meaning, rglinquo, relinqugre, reliqui, relictum, leave.l rumpo, rumpgre, rupi, ruptum, burst through. yinco, vincgre, vici, victum, conquer. 5. Those having -i in Perf., -sum in Supine, accendo, accendgre, accendi, accensum, set onfrre.2 compello, compellgre, compuli, compulsum, compel.3 contundo, contundgre, contudi, contusum, bruiseA defeudo, defendgre, defend! edi, fldi, fodi, fudi, occldi, occldi, pandi, edo, gdgre, findo, findgre, f6dio, fSdgre, fundo, fundgre, occldo, occldgre, occldo, occidgre, pando, pandSre, percello, percellgr defensum, defend.5 esum (essum), eat. fissum, cleave, dig. pour, rout. set.Q kill.7 1 spread out, open. fusum, occasum, occlsum, J passum, ( -pansum, perculsum, strike down. prehendo,8 prehendgre, prehendi, prehensum, scando,9 scandgre, scandi, scansum, scindo, scindgre, scldi, scissum, succurro, succurrgre, succurri, succursum, suspendo, suspendgre, suspend!, suspensum, vello, vellgre, j veUl ' } vulsum, (. (vulsi), -I verto, vertgre, verti, versum, turn. 6. Those having -ui in Perf., -turn in Supine [one -sum]. alo, algre, alui, altum, nourish.\2 c51o, cfilgre, cSlui, cultum, cultivate. lay hold of. climb, tear, cut. succor.W hang up.ll pluck. 1 So all compounds of linquo, perf. liqui, to leave, which has no supine. 2 So all compounds of the unused verb cando, to set on fire. 3 So all compounds of pello, to drive. Repello always has repuli or reppuli. 4 So all compounds of tundo, to beat or pound ; supines in -tunsum occur. 5 So all compounds of the unused verb fendo, to strUce. 6 So all compounds of cado, tofaU; except that the supine is rarely found. 7 So all compounds of caedo, to cut, fell, slay. 8 Often contracted into prendo, etc. 9 Scando becomes scendo in compounds, as, descendo, descendi, descensum, to descend. 10 So all compounds of curro, to run. But some have the reduplicated form also; as, decurro, to run down, which has perf. decurri and decucurri. 11 So all compounds of pendo, to weigh. 12 A supine alTtum is found in post- Augustan writers. TABLE OF VERBS. 145 Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Meaning. consulo, consulgre, consului, consultum, consult. ellcio, ellegre, ellcui, ellcltum, lure forth. frgmo, frgmgre, frgmui, frgmltum, roar, snort. ggmo, ggmgre, ggraui, ggmltum, sigh, groan. gigno, gigngre, ggnui, ggnltum, beget. mgto, mgtgre, (messui),* messum, reap, mow. mSlo, mSlgre, molui, molltum, grind. occulo, occulgre, occului, occultum, hide. pono, 1 pongre, p5sui, pSsItum, put, place. rapio, 2 rapgre, rSpui, raptum, snatch. sgro, sgrgre, sgrui (in -sertum, connect. compounds) strgpo, strgpgre, strgpui, strgpYtum, make a din. texo, texfire, texui, textum, weave. trgmo, tr6m6re, trgmui, tremble. v8mo, v6m6re, v6mui, v6mltum, vomit. 7. Those having -vi in Perf., -turn in Supine. arcesso, 3 arcessfire, arcesslvi, arcessitum, summon. cerno, cerngre, crevi, cretum, separate, discern. cognosce, cognoscgre, cognovi, cognltum, know. 4 cresco, crescgre, crevi, cretum, grow. ctipio, cupgre, cuplvi, cupltum, desire. lacesso, lacessgre, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke. lino, lingre, levi, Htum, besmear. nosco, noscgre, novi, notum, become acquainted with. pasco, pascgre, pavi, pastum, feed. p6to, pgtgre, pgtivi, pgtitum, seek. quaero, 5 quaergre, quaeslvi, quaesltum, inquire. qulesco, qulescgre, qulevi, quletum, rest. sgro, sgrgre, sevi, satum, sow, plant. slno, slngre, sivi, (sltum), allow. sperno, sperngre, sprevi, spretum, reject, despise. * Say messem feci. 1 PosTvi is frequent in Plautus ; postum (simple and compound) is often'found in poetry. 2 The compounds make -ripio, -ripere, -ripui, -reptum, as, dlripio, to tear in pieces. 3 Another form (perhaps of different origin) is accerso. In the passive infin- itive arcessTri and accersTri sometimes occur. 4 So agnosco, to recognize. But all other compounds of nosco, to become ac- quainted ^urith, have -notum in the supine, except dignosco and internosco, which have no supine. 5 The compounds make -qulro, -quirere, -quislvi, -quisltum ; as, exquTro. 13 K 146 LATIN GRAMMAR. Pres. Inl Perf. Sup. Meaning, sterno, sternfire, stravi, stratum, throw down. suesco, suescgre, suevi, suetum, be accustomed. tfiro, t6r6re, trivi, tritum, rub. 8. Those ending in -uo in Present Indicative First Person Singular, which (with the exception of some already mentioned, as, struo, struxi,etc. ) make -ui in Perf. and -utum in Supine, as, trfbuo, trfbuere, trlbui, trlbutum, assign. In this class must be included solvo, solvSre, solvi, stilutum, loose, pay. volvo, volvfire, volvi, vSlutum, roll. 9. Inceptives in -sco. These Verbs are formed (a) from Verbs of the Second Conjugation, (6) from Nouns. The former have no Perfects, except those of the Verbs from which they are derived, as, pallesco (from palleo), I grow pale, Perf. pal- liii ; the latter either have no Perfects or form them in the same way in -ui, as, duresco (from durus), I grow hard, Perf. durui. Few Inceptives have any Supine. 10. The Semi-Deponent, f ido, trust, has Perfect f Isus sum. IV. Fourth Conjugation. Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Regular Form, -To, -Ire, -Ivi, -Itum; as, audio, audire, audivi, auditum. Exceptions : 1. Those having regular Perf., but -turn in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Meaning. So, ire, ivi, Xtum, go. s6pelio, sepelire, s6pelivi, sgpultum, bury. 2. Those having -i in Perf., -turn in Supine, compgrio, compgrire, compgri, compertum, ascertain. r&pSrio, rSpgrire, reppSri, rgpertum, find. v6nio, vfinire, veni, ventum, come. 3. Those having -si in Perf., -turn or -sum in Supine, fnlcio, fulclre, fulsi, fultum, prop. haurio, haurire, hausi, haustum, draw up. sancio, sanclre, sanxi, sanctum, decree. sentio, sentire, sensi, sensum, feel. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctujn, bind. TABLE OF VERBS. 147 4. Those having -ui in Perf., -turn in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. Sup. Smlcio, amlcire, itmictum, aperio, aperire, aperai, apertum, 5p6rio, 6p6rire, Spgrui, ftpertum, salio,! saiire, salui, saltum, Meaning. clothe. uncover, open, cover. V. Deponent Verbs. Deponent Verbs follow the Passive forms of the four Conju- gations. It should be remembered that they have the four Participles complete : viz., the Present Active, in -ns ; the Future Active, in -urus ; the Perfect Passive (with an Active meaning), in -us ; and the Gerundive, in -ndus. They have also the Gerund, and many of them the Supine. 1. Deponents of the First Conjugation are all regular, making the Infinitive in -ari and Perfect Participle in -atus. 2. Deponents of the Second Conjugation make the Inf. in -eri and Perf. Part, in -itus, except Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. Meaning. fateor,2 fateri, fassus, acknowledge. mlsgreor, mlsgreri, miserltus or (misertus), pity. reor, reri, ratus, think. 3. Deponents of the Third Conjugation have various forms. A great number end in -scor in the Pres. Indie., e. g. : adlpiscor, adlpisci, adeptus, obtain. commlniscor, commlnisci, commentus, devise. expergiscor, expergisci, experrectus, a/wake. Irascor, Irasci, Iratus, grow angry. nauciscor, nancisci, nactus or nanctus, obtain. nascor, nasci, natus, be born. obliviscor, oblivisci, oblitus, forget. paciscor, pacisci, pactus, Perf. pSpIgi, bargain. pascor, pasci, pastus, feed. prdflciscor, prSflcisci, prSfectus, set out, march. vescor, vesci, eat. ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus, avenge. 1 The compounds make -silio, -sillre, -silui, -sultum, as, resitfo, to leap back. 2 The compounds make -f iteor, -f iteri, -fessus : as, conf iteor, to confess. 148 LATIN GRAMMAR. The others are : Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. Meaning. amplector, amplecti, amplexus, embrace. fruor, frui, fructus and (frultus), enjoy myself. fungor, fungi, functus, get quit. gradior,! gradi, gressus, step. labor, labi, lapsus, glide. I6quor, 16qui, 16cutus, speak. mSrfor, 2 m6ri, mortttus, die. mtor, nlti, nlsus or nixus, strive. pattor, pati, passus, suffer, allow. qugror, qugri, questus, complain. r6 vertor, 3 reverti, rgversus, return. sSquor, sequi, secutus, follow. utor, uti, usus, avail oneself. 4. Deponents of the Fourth Conjugation make the Inf. in Iri, and Perf. Part, in -itus, 4 except, assentfor, assentlri, assensus, assent. expgrfor, expSriri, expertus, make trial of. metlor, metiri, mensus, measure. oppfirlor, oppgriri, oppertus and opperitus, wait for. ordlor, ordlri, orsus, begin. Crior, 6riri, ortus, rise. 5 PARTICLES. 98. Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Interjections are indeclinable. Some of them are cases of existing words, others cases of lost words, others words with case-terminations different from those in common use in Latin, others mutilated remnants of fuller expressions. Some of the interjections are simple natural ejaculations. 1 The compounds make -gredTor, -gredi, -gressus : as, aggredior, to attack. 2 The future participle is moriturus. An infln. jnorlri and emorlri occurs sev- eral times in Plautus, once in Terence, and once in Ovid. 3 Properly the passive of reverto. 4 Potior, be master, is of the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms wavers between the Fourth and the Third. Almost always potltur, potimur. 5 OrTor has some forms of the Third Conjugation (like capior) : Pres. Ind., oreris, oritur, orimur; Imperf. Subj., orlrer and orerer; Fut. Part., oriturus ; Gerundive, oriundus (used as adj.). The compound adorior has in Pres. Ind., adorlris, adorltur. A D VERBS. CONJUNCTIONS. 149 99. ADVERBS. 1. Many Adverbs contain the stem of some noun, adjective, or other part of speech, e. g. : a. Those which are formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, and which end (1) in e (perhaps an old abla- tive termination for ed) : as, placide, from placidus ; (2) in 6 (ablative) : as, falso, from falsus ; (3) in iim (accusative) : as, multum, from multus ; (4) in ter : as, duriter (or dure), from durus ; humaniter (or humane), from humanus. b. Those which are formed from adjectives of the third declen- sion, and which end (1) in ter : as, fortiter, from fortis ; (2) in e (accusative neuter) : as, facile, from f acilis ; (3) in o : as, omnmo, from omnis. c. Those which are formed from nouns, pronouns, or prep- ositions, and which end (1) in im (accusative) : as, partim, from pars ; furtim, from fur ; (2) in tus : as, funditus, from fundus ; (3) in c, I (locative), o (ablative), que, de, dem, etc.: as, hue, heri, eo, ubique, ibidem, nine, inde, etc. 2. Compound adverbs are made up of two or more words: as, hodie for hoc die; tantummodo for tantum modo; quamobrem for quam ob rem; magnopere for magno opere ; quamvis for quam vis. 3. As to meaning, adverbs may be divided into many classes : e. g., (1) Time : as, nunc, now; eras, to-morrow; jam, already. (2) Place: as, hie, here; hinc, hence; hue, hither; unde, whence; ibi, there; in tus, within. (3) Manner: as, care, dearly; eleganter, elegantly, in an elegant manner ; per- peram, wrongly; item, likewise; iit, how. (4) Degree: as, multo, much; adeo, to such a degree; tantopere, so greatly. (5) Cause : as, quod, because; e5, therefore. (6) Comparison: as, pariter, equally; potiiis, rather. (7) Affirmation: as, vero, indeed ; sane, of course ; utique, anyhow, assuredly. (8) Negation: as, non, not; haud, not. (9) Interrogation: as, utrum, whether or no ? cur, why ? qu5modo, how ? 4. For the Comparison of Adverbs, see $ 52. 100. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. In form, Conjunctions are simple : as, et, ac, ut, aut ; or compound : as, atque, quam vis, attamen. 150 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. Co-ordinative conjunctions are employed to connect clauses which are on an equality with each other ; that is, either primary clauses, or secondary clauses standing in the same relation to the governing clause. Such are et, -que (always attached to a word), ac, atque, sed, vel, aut, nee, neque. 3. Subordinative conjunctions connect a secondary clause to a primary or leading clause. Such are ut, si, cum (quom, quiim), ne, quo, ubi, dum, etc. 4. Some conjunctions are used in co-ordination as well as insubordination. 5. As to meaning, conjunctions may be arranged in thirteen classes. I. Co-ordinative. 1. Copulative: as, et, ac, atque, -que, and; and a few more. 2. Adversative: as, sed, but; autem, but, however; vero, truly, but; verum, but ; at, but; atqui, and yet; tarn en, yet; ceterum, on the other hand; and the like. 3. Alternative: as, aut, either, or; vel, either, or; sive, wJietlier; nee, neque, neither, nor; and the interrogatives, utrum, an, whether or no. 4. Causal: as, nam, enim, namque, etenim,/or; enim- vero, for in truth, or adversative, but in truth. 5. Illative : as, igitur, ergo, itaque, therefore. 6. Comparative : as, ut, sicut, as ; velut, as if; quasi, as if; quam, than, as; utpote, as being. II. Subordinative. 1. Final, expressing purpose or result : as, ut, that, so that; ne, lest, i. e., that not ; quin, that not, but that; quo minus, in order that not; neve or neu, and in order that not. 2. Conditional, expressing a condition or contingency : as, si, if; sin, if however, but if; nisi, unless, if not; dum, pro- vided that, etc. 3. Concessive, expressing a concession or admission : as, ut, although; etsi, tainetsi, quamquam, quamvis, although; also cum, although; and a few others. 4. Temporal, expressing time : as, cum, when; simul ac, PREPOSITIONS. 151 as soon as; ut, when, as soon as; dum, whilst; d5nec, until; ubi, v:hen, etc. 5. Causal, expressing cause, reason, or ground : as, quod, quia, quoniam, cum, because; quippe, as, because, inasmuch as; quando, since (because). 6. Relative, expressing a reference to something going be- fore: as, un.de, whence, for which reason; quare, on which account, wherefore, why; quamobrem, wherefore. 7. Comparative, expressing comparison or likeness : as, ut, as; sicut, just as; velut, as if; quasi, as if. Note 1. Many words in the above lists are used in more than one sense and one construction. Note 2. Many pronominal particles are Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when relative. 101. PREPOSITIONS. Some prepositions govern the accusative case, some the abla- tive, and a few both the accusative and the ablative. (See SYNTAX, 2131; 186.) I. Prepositions in Composition. Prepositions are often compounded with other words, and in many cases suffer a modification of their final letter, according to the principles of euphony. A is used before the consonants m and v : as, a-moveo, a- veh.0 ; better also in a-fui, a-fore, from absum. Ab is used before vowels and most consonants : as, ab-ire, ab-duco, ab-icio (ab-jicio), ab-ripio, ab-latus, ab-nego, etc. Ab is changed into au in au-fero, au-fugio. Abs is used before c, q, and t : as, abs-condo, abs-cisio, abs-que, abs-tineo. Ab before p becomes as : as, as-porto. Ad is found before vowels, h, and the consonants d, j, m, and v : as, ad-amo, ad-hibeo, ad-duco, ad-icio (ad-jicio), ad-moneo, ad-veho. It is often assimilated to the other con- sonants : as, al-loquor or ad-loquor, af-fero or ad-fero, ao- colo or ad-colo. Before q, d may become c : as, ao-quiro or ad-quiro. Before gn, or before s followed by a consonant, the d is often omitted : as, a-gnosco or ad-gnosco, a-spicio or ad-spioio. 152 LATIN GRAMMAR. Cum is represented by com, con, or CO. Com is often used before p, b, m : as, com-paro, com- bibo, com-munio. Before 1, n, r, the m may be assimilated : as, col-loquor or con-loquor, con-niveo or coniveo, cor- ripio or conripio. Con is used before the other consonants not mentioned under com : as, con-fero, con-tego, con-sido. Co is used before vowels, and h: as, co-eo, co-alesco, co-haereo ; but the m remains in some words : as, comedo, comes, comitor, and comitium. Ex is used before vowels, h, and the consonants c, p, q, s, and t : as, ex-oro, ex-cipio, ex-perior, ex-quiro, ex-solvo, ex-tendo. Before f the x is assimilated, or sometimes becomes c : as, ef-fero, or, rarely, ec-fero, for ex-fero. It is omitted before other consonants : as, e-ripio, e-volvo. Note. But e, and not ex, is used for the most part in e-scendo and e-poto ; while, on the contrary, ex is used in ex-lex, lawless. In (both the preposition and the inseparable negative parti- cle) may become im before the labials p, b, m : as, im-pono for in-pono, im-buo for in-buo, im-mitto for in-mitto. Before 1 and r the n is often assimilated : as, il-ludo or in- ludo, ir-rideo for in-rideo. Before gn it is dropped: as, i-gnoro for in-gnoro. In other cases it remains: as, in- utilis, in-eptus, in-fero. Inter remains unchanged, except in intellego for inter- lego, and its derivatives. Ob assimilates its final letter to c, f, g, and p, and generally remains unchanged before others : as, oc-curro for ob-curro, of-fero for ob-fero, og-gero for ob-gero, op-primo for ob- primo (premo). Before s and t it is frequently written op ; it becomes obs in obsolesco ; and is written ob, sometimes om, before m. It drops b in omitto, operio, ostendo (for obs-tendo). Per assimilates its final letter only in pel-licio for per- licio, and words derived from it. In pejero for per-juro, the r is omitted. Pro generally remains unaltered ; but we have prod when the second part of the compound begins with a vowel : as, prod-erat. The r and the o are sometimes transposed : as INTERJECTIONS. 153 in por-rigo for pro-rigo (i. e., rego), and portendo for protendo. Sub assimilates its final letter before o, f, g, generally before p, and sometimes before m and r : as, suc-curro for sub- curro, sug-gero for sub-gero. Before other consonants it remains unchanged, except that we find sus (for subs) in suscipio, susoito, suspendo, sustineo, sustento, sustuli, and su in suspicio, suspiro. Trans is often shortened into tran or tra : as, tra-duco for transduce. Note. Usage varies greatly in compounds, in regard to the retention of the final consonant of the preposition and its assimilation or other modifi- cation. II. Inseparable Particles. There are certain quasi-prepositions which are often found in composition. These are amb-, dis- or di-, re- and se. 1. Amb, around; on both sides: as, amb-io, to go round. The b is omitted when p follows : as, am-plector for amb- plector. Before gutturals and f, the b is omitted, and the m changed into n : as, an-oeps. 2. Dis or di, in different directions, in twain : as, dis-pono, to place in different positions. Before a vowel or h, dis becomes dir- : as, dir-imo ; before f it becomes dif- : as, dif-fero. It remains dis before c, p, q, s : as, dis-cutio ; before other consonants, and sp, so, and st, it becomes di. 3. Re or red, back; again: as, re-tineo, to keep back; rSd- imo, to buy back. Sometimes the d is assimilated or falls off, the vowel e being lengthened to compensate. 4. Se or sed, apart, remains the same : as, se-paro, se- duco, sed-itio. 102. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Interjections may be divided into two classes, according as they are imitations of sounds, or abbreviated sen- tences or mutilated words. 1. Imitations of sounds. a or ah ) in warning or sorrow. Comp. a; Eng., ah I or ha ) Germ. , ach I aha in reproof or denial, or laughter. 154 LATIN GRAMMAR. eja ) heia) van or va 6 16 in encouragement. Comp. tla ; Engl., hey. in surprise or indignation. Comp. 65. various. Comp. w, w ; Engl., oh I a shout in excitement. Comp. i& and iov or tow ; Engl. , yoho ! eho or oho a cry of distress. Comp. Engl. Ho ! In Terence sometimes with dum appended, pro or proh in surprise or indignation ; especially in phrases, pro Di immortales, etc. Perhaps this is not imitative of a natural sound, but is a word, euoe for evoi : a cry in Bacchic rites, au in fear and warning, fu or fill expression of disgust. Comp. EI> (?); Engl.,^e/ faw I foh ! Germ., pfui. phy in impatience at unnecessary explanation. Ter. Ad., 412. Probably same as last. Comp. EngL,pooft. hui various. Perhaps a whistle, which is written in Engl., whew. babae | in wonder and delight : a quivering of the lips, papae ) Perhaps imitative of Greek (3a(3ai, 1^6-^01, xcnrai. hahahae laughing. Comp. a a or a a, Engl., Haha. vae in grief and anger. Kepresents a wail. Comp. oval, in Alexandrine and later writers, perhaps imitation of the Latin ; Germ., weh; Engl., woe. Compare also vah and the verb vagire. one in annoyance, especially when a person is sated; probably between a groan and a grunt. Comp. Engl., ugh. hei or ei in grief. It represents a sigh. Comp. I or I k or #, and perhaps alai ; Engl., heigh. heu, eheu alas! ehem or ) the sound of clearing the throat. Comp. Engl. , hem, hem or em i ahem. In Plautus em is often found in MSS. for en. st to command silence. The corresponding sound in English, hist, is used to attract attention ; and sh, hush, to command silence. attat or atat or in surprise, vexation, fear, etc. ; smacking of rarely attatae the tongue against the teeth. Comp. arraral, drrararaZ, ororoZ, brororol \ Engl., tut, tut. INTERJECTIONS. 155 heus a noise to attract attention ; a combined whistle and hiss. Comp. Engl. whisht 1 and perhaps Germ. heisa (= Engl. , huzza). bombax apparently from poppa!- : expression of wonder. euax a cry of joy. Comp. fia, evdfav, and perhaps Germ. , juchhe. taxtax the sound of blows. Comp. Engl. thwack. taratantara (Ennius), the sound of a trumpet. 2. Mutilated words or abbreviated sentences. The following are probably such : (a) Latin : en in Plaut. usually em, Zo / ecce lo here I The ce is perhaps the demonstrative par- ticle. In the comic poets it is frequently combined with the accusative (as if it were equivalent to see) of the pronouns is and ille : eccum, eccam, ec- cos, eccas, ecoa ; eccillum, eccillam, eccil- lut ; once also eccistam. eccere used similarly to English there I mehercules, meherciile, | abbreviations of me Hercules mehercle, hercules, hercle, ) juvet, or me, Hercule, juves. medms fidius for me deus Pidius juvet. ecastor perhaps for en Castor. pol for Pollux. edepol for me, dee Pollux, juves ; or the e may be an old interjection. sodes prythee ; if you will be so good. (6) Borrowed from the Greek : apage off! away! for a-n-aye. eu well done ! for ev. euge well done I bravo I for ev-ye. eugepae originally for eye nat ? 2. Several nouns and verbs are used in exclamation or invo- cation, like interjections. Such are : 1. pax, hush! malum, plague! the mischief! nefas, infandum, mon- strous! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe. The voca- tive macte, plur. maoti, is used with an ablative or genitive : as, macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is, perhaps, the participle of a lost 156 LATIN GRAMMAR. verb, mage re. The interrogative pronoun, quid, what! is sometimes used in exclamation. 2. quaeso, prithee! precor, oro, obsecro, pray; amabo, do please; sis (si vis), sultis (si vultis), please; age, agite, agesis, agedum, agitedum, come now; cedo (plur. cette), here! give me: so, sodes. 3. Less properly it has been said that certain adverbs may sometimes be regarded as interjections : as, profecto, ne (truly), cito, bene, belle. THE FORMATION OF WORDS. 103. Words are formed directly from roots, or from other words. 1. Root syllables maybe reduplicated: as, mur-mur t tin-tin-nare ; fei- be-re, su-sur-rus, cu-cu-lus ; ( compare papa ;) and they may undergo inter- nal change, such as the lengthening of their vowel, or the insertion of a consonant, or other modifications : as, voc-is (nom. vox), root voo (as in vdcare) ; stem crud-o- (nom. crudus), root cm- ; flamm-a, root flag. 2. Almost all words have some suffix. 3. The suffixes of inflection are used to form the cases and numbers of nouns, and the persons, moods, tenses, voices, etc., of verbs. 4. Stem-suffixes form the distinguishing marks of the declensions of nouns and the conjugations of verbs. 5. Derivative suffixes are additions placed between the root and the stem-suffix, or, when there is no stem-suffix, between the root and the suffix of inflection. They may originally have been words themselves, but are now merely significant terminations, modifying the meaning of the nouns to which they are annexed. The same suffix does not always express the same modification, and different suffixes sometimes seem to have the same effect. Sometimes the sense of the suffix has been obscured, and a further suffix is added to express what had already been denoted : thus, paella is a diminu- tion of puera, but, having supplanted puera as the ordinary term for girl, a new diminutive, puellula, was formed for a little or very young girl. 6. The long vowel, often found in the same part of different derivatives, is sometimes part of the suffix, sometimes comes from contraction of the stem-suffix with a short initial vowel of the suffix, and is sometimes due to a false analogy. 104. SIGNIFICANT ENDINGS. I. Nouns derived from Verbs. 1. The termination or signifies the action or condition : as, amor, love, from amo ; timor, /ear, from timeo. 2. Note. But many nouns in -or seem to be simple or primary : as, honor, arbor, labor. SIGNIFICANT ENDINGS. 157 3. The termination -tor, or -sor, signifies the doer or agent. Such words are formed from the stem of the supine : as, vinco, victum, to conquer, victor, a conqueror. curro, cursuni, to run, cursor, a runner. 4. Note. There is a fern, termination in -trix, corresponding to the masc. -tor: as, victor, fern, victrix ; venator, venatrix. Rem. The terminations -a, -o, and -ber sometimes denote an agent: as, scrlb-a, prae-c-o (praev5-co), ed-o, fa-ber. 5. The terminations -io, -tio, -tus, or -sus, and -tura, de- note action or make verbal abstracts : as, obsideo, to besiege, obsidio, a siege (i. e., a besieging). lego, to enroll, legio, a legion. ago, (Sup.) actum, to do, actio, a doing. mSveo, motum, to move, m5tio, a moving. verto, versum, to turn, versio, a turning. ago, actum, to do, actus, a doing. moveo, motum, to move, motus, a moving. cano, cantum, to sing, cantus, a singing. verto, versum, to turn, versus, a turning. pingo, pictum, to paint, pictura, a picture. colo, cultum, to till, cultura, a tilling. 6. Note. A few worda in -igo denote action or condition : as, vertigo, a turning, from verto. 7. The terminations -men and -mentum usually denote the means or thing performing the action, or its result : as, luceo, to light, lumen, light. tego, to cover, tegmen, a covering. fluo, to flow, flumen, a river. impedio, to hinder, impedimentum, a hindrance. orno, to adorn, orn amentum, an ornament. 8. Note 1. men is sometimes used passively : as, agmen (a thing led), an army on march ; gestamen, a thing carried. 9. Note 2. In some words of this class the stem is extended by a vowel : as, regimen, from rego. 10. The instrument is also expressed by -culum (-clum) and -bulum, which become -crum and -brum when 1 pre- cedes : as, giiberno, to steer, gubernaculum, a rudder. veho, to carry, vehiculum, a carriage, cart. 14 158 LATIN GRAMMAR. fro, to bear, ferculum, a tray. sepelio, to bury, sepulcrum, a sepulchre. simulo, to imitate, simulacrum, an image. pasco, to feed, pabulum, fodder. venor, to hunt, venabulum, a hunting-spear. flo, blow, flabrum, a blast. 11. Note 1. bulum sometimes denotes place: as, stabulum, a stall (standing-place), from sto, to stand. 12. Note 2. When the stem of the verb ends in c or g, the termination is -ulum: as, jaculum (jac-io) ; cingulum (cingo). 13. Note 3. tram also denotes the instrument. When the stem of the verb ends in d, s is substituted for d : as, aro, to plough, aratrum, a plough. rado, to scrape, rastrum, a hoe. Bern. Masculines and feminines occur : as, cap-ulus, teg-ula, sca-lae. 14. The termination -ium denotes a state, or an act, or the result of an action : as, gaudeo, to rejoice, ga,udiwm,joy. aedif ico, to build, aedif icium, a building. odl, I hate, odium, hatred. 15. The termination -ies denotes the thing made, or the result of the action : as, facio, to make, facis, figure, appearance. congero, to heap up, congeries, a heap. 16. Note. We sometimes meet other terminations: as, cupTdo (from cupio) ; querela (from queror) ; erro (from the verb erro), and a few more. II. Nouns derived from Nouns. 17. The terminations -al and -ar denote that which has or that which pertains to something : as, amma, breath, animal, a living creature (having breath). calx, the heel, calcar, a spur. 18. The termination -arius denotes one engaged in a trade: as, aes, copper, aer arius, a coppersmith. argentum, silver, argentarius, a silversmith; a banker. 19. -arium denotes the place where things are kept : as, SIGNIFICANT ENDINGS. 159 avis, a bird, aviarium, an aviary, or place where birds are kept, aes, money, aerarium, a treasury. 20. -atus and -ura, appended to the names of officers, indi- cate the office : as, consul, consulatus, the consulship. praetor, praetura, the praetorship. 21. -ma denotes an employment, or the place (as of a business), or indicates the female : as, medicus, a physician, medicma, the healing art. opifex, a workman, officma (opif icma), a workshop. pisGis,fish, piscina, a fish-pond. rex, a king, regma, a queen. 22. Note. curium denotes action or event : as, latro-oinium. 23. -ium indicates occupation, state, assemblage, etc.: as, sacerdos, a priest, a&cerdotium, priesthood. exsul, an exile, exsilium, exile. collega, a colleague, collegium, an association. 24. -etum appended to the names of trees, shrubs, or plants denotes the place where they grow, or a collection of them, and -He added to names of animals denotes the place of their abode : as, quercus, an oak, quercetum, an oak-grove. vmea, a vine, vmetum, a vineyard. ovis, a sheep, ovile, a sheepfold. bos (bovis), an ox, bovile, an ox-stall. 25. There is a class of derivatives called Diminutives, which express smallness : hence also sometimes endearment, con- tempt, pity, or depreciation. Such are of the same gender as their primitives. They are formed by adding 1. -ulus, -ula, -ulum, with nouns of the First and Second Declensions, and sometimes other nouns, especially when the dipt stem ends in c, g, t, or d : as, hortus, a garden, hortulus, a little garden. rivus, a brook, rivulus, a rill. saxum, a rock, saxulum (once in Cicero), a little rock. 160 LATIN GRAMMAR. radix, a root, radiciila, a little root. rex, a king, regulus, a kingling, a. petty king. 2. -ciilus, -cula, -culum, with nouns of the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions : as, frater, a brotJier, fraterculus, a little brother. versus, a verse, versiculus, a short verse. navis, a ship, navicula, a little ship. corpus, a body, corpusculum, a particle. 26. Note 1. When the suffix follows a vowel, the u becomes o : as, f ilius, a son, f Hiolus, a little son. gladius, a sword, gladiolus, a small sword. negotium, business, negotiolum, a bit of business. 27. Note 2. A contraction is sometimes formed (especially when the dipt stem of the primitive ends in 1, n, or r), and the termination is changed into -ellus, -ella, or -ellum ; -illus, -a, -urn; or -ullus, -ulla: as, ociilus, an eye, ocellus, a dear little eye. catiilus, a puppy, catellus, a little puppy. popiilus, the people, popellus, the rabble. lapis, a stone, lapillus, a pebble. homo, a man, homullus, a manikin. 28. Note 3. Nouns ending in -o (-onis or -mis), change -on or -in into -un: as, homo, honmnculns (or homuncio), a little man; sermo, sernmn- culus. So also avus, avunculus. 29. Note 4. Adjectives also have diminutives : as, miser, misellus ; frigtdus, frigtdulus ; melius-oulus, a little better. 30. Note 5. Many ordinary words in the Romance languages are formed from Latin Diminutives : as, from lusctni-ola, Italian usignuolo, French rossignol, nightingale; agn-ellns, French agneau, lamb. 31. Female names are often made from the corresponding masculine forms by the termination -a : as, cervus, a stag, cerva, a doe. f ilius, a son, f Ilia, a daughter. magister, a master, magistra, a mistress. cliens, a client, clienta, a female client. 32. Some nouns in -io denote persons : as, restis, a rope, restio, a rope-maker. pellis, a skin, felt, pellio, a furrier. SIGNIFICANT ENDINGS. 161 33. Some nouns ending in -tus, and denoting quality or condition, are formed from generic names : as, vir, a man, virtus, virtue (manliness). juvenis, a youth, juventus, youth. servus, a slave, servitus, slavery. 34. From personal names (masc.) the Greeks formed a class of nouns called Patronymics, indicating descent : as, Priami- des, a son of Priam ; Tantalis, a daughter of Tantalus ; Aene- ades, a descendant of Aeneas. These words are most commonly employed in poetry, occasionally in prose. Thus, 1. Masculine Patronymics are formed in a. -ides : as, Priamus, Priamides, a son of Priam. b. -Ides, from substantives in -eus and -cles : as, Atreus ; Atrldes, a son of Atreus; Heracles; Heraclides, a descendant of Heracles. c. -ades : as, Aeneades, a descendant of Aeneas. d. -iades : as, Thestiades, a descendant of Thestius; Aban- tiades, a son of Abas. 2. Feminine Patronymics end in a. -is, -idis : as, Tantalis, a daughter of Tantalus. b. -eis, -eidis : as, Nereis, a daughter of Nereus. c. -ias, -iadis : as, Thestias, a daughter of Thestius. d. -me : as, Neptunme, a daughter of Neptune. e. -one : as, Acrisione, a daughter of Acrisius. III. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 35. Nouns expressing a quality or state are formed from adjectives, with tl\e following terminations : 1. -ia, -tia, and -tas: as, audax, bold, audacia, daring. mollis, soft, mollitia, softness. moestus, sad, moestitia, sadness. bonus, good, bonitas, goodness. 2. -tudo and monia : as, altus, high, altitude, height (highness). sanctus, holy, sanctimonia, sanctity (holiness). 14* L 162 LATIN GRAMMAR. IV. Adjectives formed from Verbs. 36. Adjectives are formed from verbs with tbe following ter- minations : 1. -dus or -idus, denoting quality or condition : as, rapio, to hurry along, rapidus, swift. timeo, to fear, timidus, fearful. 2. -Us, -Tlis, and -bilis, denoting capability or possibil- ity, or belonging to, or sometimes actively, power : as, facio, to make, to do, facilis, able to be done (easy). doceo, to teach, docilis, teachable. amo, to love, amabilis, lovable. terreo, to frighten, terribilis, creating terror. 3. -ax, denoting an inclination or propensity, and usu- ally in a bad sense : as, audeo, to dare, audax, daring (fool-hardy}. loquor, to talk, loquax, talkative. 4. -bundus, -cundus, denoting action, capacity, or state, and -ulus, repeated action, are more rare : as, morior, to die, moribundus, in the agony of death. irascor, to be angry, iracundus, angi-y. fari, to speak, facundus, of ready speech. garrio, to chatter, garrulus, babbling. V. Adjectives formed from NOTUIS. 37. Adjectives ending in -eus denote tbe material of wbicb a thing is made, and sometimes resemblance : as, lignum, wood, ligneus, wooden. aurum, gold, aureus, golden. rosa, a rose, roseus, like a rose (rosy). 38. Kote 1. To names of trees, and of materials, -neus or -nus is usu- ally added : as, populus, a poplar, pdpulneus (or -nus, once in Plautus), made of poplar. Sbur, ivory, Sburneus, made of ivory. 39. Note 2. But -nus sometimes signifies belonging to, or arising from: as, SIGNIFICANT ENDINGS. 163 pater, a father, paternus, belonging to one' s father. ver, spring , vernus, vernal. 40. -aceus, -icius, and -itius indicate material or rela- tion, or property : as, argilla, clay, argillaceus, made of clay (clayey). later, a brick, later icius, made of brick. tribunus, a tribune, tribumcius, relating (or belonging) to a tribune. 41. -icus or Tcus, -His, and -alis or aris denote belonging or relating to : as, bellum, war, bellicus, relating to war. amor (amo), love, amicus, friendly. hostis, an enemy, hostHis, hostile. rex, a king, regalis, regal, of a king. populus, the people, popularis, relating to the people. 42. -ius, inus, anus, and -arius denote belonging or per- taining to ; -ius being usually added to the names of persons ; -inus to the names of animals ; -anus and -arius are, more particularly, local : as, pater, a father, patrius, of or pertaining to a father. Squus, a horse, equinus, of or pertaining to a horse. urbs, a city, urbanus, of or pertaining to a city. ager, afield, agrarius, of or pertaining to afield. 43. -osus and -lentus mean full of, abounding in : as, periculum, danger, periculosus, dangerous. vis, violence, violenbus, violent (full of violence). 44. -atus, -itus, and -utus mean supplied with : as, barb a, a beard, barb atus, having a beard. auris, an ear, auritus, having ears. cornu, a horn, cornutus, having horns. 45. Many adjectives are formed from proper names by the suffix -anus or -ianus, or -inus or -icus added to personal names : as, Sulla, Sullanus, of or pertaining to Sulla. Cicero, CicerSnianus, of Cicero, Ciceronian. 164 LATIN GRAMMAR. Jugurtha, Jugurthmus, of or pertaining to Juguriha. G-allus, Gall i eus, of or pertaining to Gaul, Gallic. 46. Note. In Greek words the usual terminations are -icus, -eus, or -Tus: as, Socrates, Socraticus, Socratic. Sophocles, Sophocleus, Sophoclean. Aristoteles, AristotelTus, Aristotelian. 47. The termination -eus is poetical : as, Hercules, Herculeus, Herculean. Romulus, Romiileus, Eomulean. Horace has Romula gens. We find also domus Augusta ; portus Tra- janus. 48. Proper adjectives are formed from names of places by the terminations (a) -ensis (cf. forensis, castrensis, etc.), and a few in -iensis, from words in -o, and from some in -a, -ae, -um ; (6) -Tnus, from words in -ia and -him ; (c) -anus from words in -a and -ae, and sometimes -um and -i : as, Cannae, Cannensis, of or pertaining to Cannae. Carthago, Carthaginiensis, of Carthage, Cartliagtnian. Ameria, Amermus, of Ameria, Amerian. Alba, Albanus, of Alba, Alban. Thebae, Thebanus, of Thebes, Theban. Tusculum, Tusculanus, of Tusculum, Tusculan. Pundi, Fund anus, of or pertaining to Fundi. 49. The suffix -as, gen. -atis, belongs to names of places in -na, -nae, and -no, but specially to those in -num : as, Capena, Capenas, of or pertaining to Capena. Fidenae, Fidenas, of or pertaining to Fidenae. Arpmum, Arpmas, of or pertaining to Arplnum. 50. Note. These adjectives are often used as nouns indicating the inhab- itants; as, Duo Arplnates, the two men of Arplnum. 51. The suffixes -lus, -aeus, enus, belong to adjectives de- rived from the names of Greek places: as, Corinthius, Larissaeus, Cyzicenus. 52. Adjectives are also derived from Particles ; some from Adverbs : as, crastmus from eras, h5diernus from hodie ; some from Prepositions : as, antiquus from ante. VERB-FORMATION: COMPOUNDS. 165 105. FORMATION OF VERBS. 1. Verbs derived from other Verbs are called Verbals. Such are the Inchoatives, Imitatives, Frequentatives, Diminu- tives, and Desideratives (88). 2. a. Verbs derived from Nouns or Adjectives are called Denominatives. Such are most verbs in the First and Fourth Conjugations, the greater number being transitive : as, laud- are, to praise; milit-are, to serve in war ; liber-are, to set free; laet-ari, to rejoice; fin-ire, to end; vest-Ire, to clothe; moll- Tre, to soften; larg-iri, to bestow. b. The suffixes -ul, -ol, -cin, -it, -ig (= ag), ic, occur in the First Conjugation : as, grat-Sl-ari, vi-ol-are, sermo-cin-are, debil-it-are, nav- tg-are, mit-ig-are, claud-ic-are, commun-Tc-are. So jur-g-are for jur- ig-are, pur-g-are for pur-ig-are. c. Most verbs in the Second Conjugation are from Nouns, a few from Adjectives ; the greater number being intransitive : as, call-ere, luc-ere, flor-ere, flav-ere. d. A few U-verbs in the Third Conjugation are Denomina- tives : as, acu-ere, metu-ere, mmu-ere, tribu-ere. Note. Some Verbs called Denominative may be really Primitive. 3. Some Koots have a Transitive and an Intransitive Verb corresponding to each other: as, fugare, to put to flight, fugere, to fly; jacere, to throw, jacere, to lie; pendere, to suspend, pendere, to hang. 106. COMPOUND WORDS. 1. Two or more words may be so joined as to form one word. 2. Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrees with the other: as, res-publtca ; jus-jurandum ; tres-vYri: or that the second gov- erns the first: as, senatus-consultum ; veri-simtlis. Such compounds can be severed, thus : resque publtca ; senatusve consulta ; so that they are not proper compounds in the strictest sense of the word. But generally one part or both lose the form of words : as, magnanimus ; Trojugena ; artifex. 3. Some compounds indicate simple addition or association of their parts: as, duodecim, twelve (duo-(-decem) ; suovetaurilia (plur.), a sac- rifice of a pig, sheep, and bull (su- -f- vi- -f-tauro-). 4. In some compounds the first part has the nature of a case governed by the second part: as (Nouns), agri-cola (qui agrum colit), a farmer; 166 LATIN GRAMMAR. vltt-sator (vitium sator), a vine-planter; (Adjectives) arnn-ger (arma gerens), bearing arms (as noun, an armor-bearer) ; mellT-fluus, flowing with honey ; (Verbs) bellT-gerare = bellum gr6re ; aequt-parare = ae- quum parare ; cale-facere = calere fac&re. 5. In some compound nouns the first partis an adjective or numeral : as, pleni-luni-um, the full moon ; tri-ennium, a space of three years. 6. The first part sometimes modifies the second adverbially : as, (Nouns) prin-ceps (primus and capio, one who takes the first place) ; tn-edia (in, negative, and 6do, to eat), fasting ; (Adjectives) omnt-potens, powerful in all things; bi-f Tdus (bis and findo), cleft in two; bene-volus, wishing well; semi-vlvus, half alive ; septem-ge minus, seven-fold; im-memor, unmindful; (Verbs) bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ad-ducere ; ef-femmare (e and femlna) ; e-rudire (e and rudis). 7. Adjectives are sometimes so compounded as to imply " having " in some qualified manner, or " not having : " as, magn-annnus ; centi-ceps (centum and caput), having a hundred heads ; a-mens, de-mens, not hav- ing one's right mind ; im-bellis, not warlike ; alt-pis, wing-footed ; igm- comus, with fiery hair; con-cors ; in-numerus ; prae-ceps (caput) head- foremost. 8. Most compound verbs are made up of a preposition and a verb. In composition, the stem-vowel of the simple verb is often changed : 1. a (short) is changed before a single consonant into i or e ; a before two consonants into e or u : as, facio, refYcio ; cado, occtdo ; gradior, regredior ; seando, descendo ; calco, inculco. But perago and others retain a. 2. e (short) before a single consonant becomes i : as, teneo, rettneo. But relego and others retain e. 3. ae is changed into T : an into o or u, and in one case e : as, caedo, occldo ; quaero, require ; plaudo, explode ; claudo, exclude ; audio, obedio. 9. Similar changes of vowel take place in other compounds : as, arnicas, tntmleus ; barba, imberbis. 10. Stems ending in a, o, u regularly weaken these vowels into the more easy and euphonic I before consonants in composition : as, caustdicus ; signtfer ; corntger ; but the vowel is sometimes dropped : as in manceps (maim -j- cap-). Stems in i retain i or drop it : as, ignrvomns ; naufragus (navi-). Consonant stems either drop their consonants or add i: as, laptclda (lapid-) ; matrtclda (matr-). Note. For the changes which prepositions undergo in composition, see page 151. SYNTAX. 167 SYNTAX. SENTENCES. 107. A simple sentence expresses a single thought, or tells a single fact, and contains one finite verb. 1. Every Simple Sentence is either (1) a Statement, (2) a Question, (3) a Command or Request, or (4) an Exclama- tion. Note. There are two forms in which each of these kinds of sentences may be found, the Direct, and the Indirect or Dependent ; as, Brutus killed Caesar, and he said that Brutus killed Caesar ; where the first ex- ample is a Direct Statement, and the same words in the second example an Indirect Statement. Do you live in Rome ? and, He asked him, " Do you live in Eomel" are examples of a Direct Question; in He asked him whether he lived in Borne, we have an example of an Indirect Question. 2. A Compound Sentence is made by the union of two or more simple sentences. 3. The Clause containing the Principal Assertion is called the Leading Clause ; clauses depending upon it, explaining or modifying it, are called Subordinate ; clauses connected with it but not dependent upon it in their construction, are called Co-ordinate. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 108. Every sentence contains a Subject and a Predicate. 1. The Subject is the person or thing of whom, or of which, something is told ; the Predicate is that which is told of the subject. Thus in the sentences, rosa fl5ret, the rose blooms, and rosa pulchra est, the rose is beautiful, rosa is the Subject, and fl5ret and pulchra est are the Predicates. 2. The Subject is expressed either (1) by a Noun, as rosa, (2) a Pronoun, as ille, in ille currit, he runs, or (3) some word, phrase, or clause standing for a Noun ; or (4) it is im- plied in the termination of the Verb, as curr-Q, Z rwn; curri-t, he runs. 1. Words which may stand for Nouns are (1) Adjectives, as ornnia flo- 168 LATIN GRAMMAR. rent, all things bloom ; (2) Adverbs, as satis temporis datur, enough time is given ; (3) Infinitives, as navigare delectat, sailing gives delight ; (4) Terms cited as words or Phrases merely, as " ad arma " clamatur, " to arms" is shouted; and (5) Snbstantive Clauses, as Quae sit natura lucis ambigitur, what is the nature of light i# disputed. 2. A full and definite sentence may be expressed by a single word, if that word is a verb in the first or second person ; as, curris, thou runnest ; currimus, we run. The verb in the third person requires the aid of the context for fuller definition of its subject. 3. The Predicate is either a Verb, as fl5rent, or a Noun or Adjective connected with the Subject by some form of the verb esse, to be; as, rosa fids est, the rose is a flower ; rosa pulchra est. 1. When the verb sum is thus used, it is called the Copula, or connect- ing link. It can make a Predicate by itself, when it implies absolute ex- istence; as, seges est ubi Troja fuit, (there) is corn where Troy WAS. 2. The verb sum is also, or appears to be, more than a mere copula, (1) in the expression est ut, it is possible that; (2) when it has for comple- ment (a) an adverb, as sic est vita hominum, (b) a preposition and case, as est apud Caesarem, (c) a Possessive Genitive, a Case (Gen., Abl., or Loc.) of Quality or Place, or a Dative expressing that which a person or thing occasions or serves as : as, bona sunt viri ; summae facultatis est ; operto capite est ; Caesar Dyrrachil est ; ea dedecorl sunt. 3. A predicate noun, adjective, or participle is often added to the subject without a copula : as, fortis Julius, brave is Julius ; fusi hostes, the enemies are routed. 4. A single interjection or exclamation may be equivalent to a sentence ; thus the cry, Oh ! may imply, / am surprised, I am pleased, I am pained, or still other meanings, according to the circumstances, and the context (in writing) or the tone of voice (in utterance). Other interjections may be limited to a single meaning. 5. The Subject and Predicate may each be modified by addi- tional words or clauses. 6. A simple sentence is enlarged by the addition of the Object to the verb. The object is that to which the action of the verb extends ; and is either Direct, as, Romulus Be- mum interfecit, Romulus killed Remus ; or Indirect, as, do tibi librum, I give thee a book. Note. The indirect may also be called the remoter .object. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 169 109, SUBJECT. 1. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative : As, equus currit, the horse runs. Note. A verb is called finite in those forms which are limited by mood and person, as well as tense. Hence all the forms of the verb in any mood except the infinitive are finite. 2. A personal pronoun is generally omitted, being implied in the termination of the verb. If expressed, it is for the sake of emphasis or distinction : As, natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ego, thou art his father by nature, I by counsel. 3. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative. (See \ 238-240.) Exc. The nominative stands sometimes with a present infinitive, used in lively discourse instead of a present or imperfect indicative : As, pars cedere, alii insequi, a part was retiring, others advancing. 110. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 1. A verb agrees with its subject-nominative hi number and person : As, nos, consules, desumus, we, the consuls, are wanting. 2. a. If there are several subjects, the verb is generally in the plural : As, aetas, metus, magister prohibebant, age, timidity, and a tutor forbade. b. But if several subjects represent one whole, or one com- bined notion, they may take a verb in the singular : As, Senatus populusque Eomanus intellegit, the Senate and people of Home understand; Gallos a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dlvidit, the Marne and the Seine separate the Gauls from the Belgae ; religio et fides ante- ponatur amicitiae, let religion and honor be preferred to friendship, 1. If the subject nearest the predicate is singular, and of particular im- portance, the verb may agree with this subject alone. 2. When the preposition cum unites the subjects, the verb is sometimes plural : as, ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur, the commander himself with some leading men are captured. The singular gives greater 15 170 LATIN GRAMMAR. importance to its subject : as, tu cum Sexto sclre velim quid cogites, I should like to know what thou and Sextus think. 3. If there are subjects of different persons, the verb is gen- erally of the first person rather than of the second, and of the second rather than of the third : As, si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. Note. In Latin the first person is put before the second or the third : as, ego et tu et rex meus ; and the second person before the third person. 4. Collective nouns may take a plural verb : As, pars Romam inermes delati sunt, a portion were brought unarmed to Rome. a. Such nouns are pars, multitude, vulgus, turba, vis, juventus, nobi- litas, plebs, and others. This construction is rare in Caesar, and not used by Cicero. b. Mille generally takes a plural verb, but sometimes a singular. 5. Distributive words and phrases, as quisque, uterque, pars, alius . . . alium, alter . . . alterum, vir . . . virum, are found with plural predi- cates, but may be explained as appositive to plural subjects understood : as, alius alii subsidium ferunt, they bring support one to another. a. The adverb partim is found with the plural in Cicero : as, partim e nobis timidi sunt, partim a re publica aversi, one part of us are cowards, the other estranged from the state. 6. Subjects connected by disjunctives generally take a singu- lar verb : As, si Aeacus aut Minos dlceret. a. But sometimes the verb is plural : as, si quid Socrates aut Aristip- pus fecerint. 7. With aut . . . aut the singular alone is used ; et . . . et and neque . . . neque usually lead to a singular predicate, but sometimes to a plural. 8. The verb is sometimes omitted : As, di meliora piis, may the gods grant better things to the pious; turn ille, then he replied ; quid multa? (understand, dicam.) 1. This omission is very frequent with the verb sum : as, nam Polydo- rus ego, for I am Polyddrus. 111. PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 1. With verbs signifying to be, become, remain, appear, be made, be chosen, be thought, be called, and the like, a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject : PREDICATES: APPOSITION. 171 As, Aliens Martins rex creatus est, Ancus Martins was made king ; quaestor es factus, you have become quaestor; Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred being good to seeming good; Numidae quieti manserunt, the Numidians remained quiet; Antonius hostis judi- catur, Antony is adjudged an enemy ; ego, qnae incedo rig-In a deum, 7, who walk proudly the queen of the gods. 2. The predicate adjective agrees with the subject in gender and number also. 3. The verb may agree in number with the predicate instead of the subject: as, amautium Trae amoris integratio est; more rarely in the plural : as, contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae. 4. The predicate of an infinitive with a subject accusative is in the ac- cusative : as, aiunt vltam esse somnium, they say that life is a dream. 5. The predicate of an ablative absolute is in the ablative : as, Cyro rege creato, when Cyrus had been chosen king ; consulibus certioribus factis, when the consuls had been informed. 6. When a predicate noun or adjective is found with esse (or a similar verb) after the impersonal licet with a dative, it is generally in the dative, if the subject accusative is not expressed ; but sometimes in the accusative ; as, licuit Themistocli esse otioso, it was left free for Themistocles to be at leisure ; civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum. 112. APPOSITION. 1. A noun added to another noun or pronoun to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case: As, Cicero orator interfectus est, Cicero the orator was slain; hie liber est Titi, fratris tui, this book belongs to Titus, thy brother. Note. A noun so added is called an appositive. Exc. An appositive to a noun meaning name is often at- tracted to the dative of the person : As, Scipio, cui Africano cognomen fuit, Scipio, who had the surname of Africanus ; Africano being attracted to cui. 2. Sometimes the appositive denotes not a general or permanent charac- ter of the noun with which it is in apposition, but one belonging to it at the time implied in the sentence : as, Cicero praetor legem Maniliam suasit, consul conjurationem Catilinae oppressit, Cicero as consul . . . as praetor, etc., or when he was consul, when he was praetor; Cato senex scribere historiam instituit, Cato in his old age. 3. A genitive may stand in apposition to the person implied in a posses- sive personal pronoun : as, mea nnlns opera, by my activity alone (mea = of me) ; vestra omnium caedes, the slaughter of you all. 172 LATIN GRAMMAR. 4. An appositive to two or more nouns is usually in the plural: as, Gnaeus et Pnblius Scipiones, duo fulmina belli, Gnaeus and Publim Scipio, two thunderbolts of war. 5. If the appositive has two genders, it usually takes the gender of the noun explained: as, leo, rex bestiarum, the lion, king of beasts; aquila, regina avium, the eagle, king of birds; philosopbia, magistra vitae, philosophy, the guide of life; Athenae, omnium doctrinarum inventrices, Athens, the inventor of all sciences. 6. Such words as urbs, oppidum, caput, city, town, capital, appositive to plural names of places, are always in the singular : as, Athenae, urbs Graeciae, Athens, a city of Greece. 113. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case : As, amlco fldo, to a faithful friend ; haec sententia, this opinion; car- mina dulcia, sweet songs; doctarum feminarum, of learned women. Note. An adjective is used attributively when it accompanies its noun immediately, as psittacus loquax, the talkative parrot; predicatively, when it is connected with its noun by a copulative verb, as psittacus est loquaz, the parrot is talkative. 2. Adjectives agree, in like manner, with substantive pro- nouns, expressed or understood : As, me miserum (spoken by a man); me miseram (spoken by a woman) ; invltus f eci, sc. ego. 3. An adjective agreeing with two or more nouns is put in the plural. If the nouns are of different genders, the adjective is generally masculine if they denote living beings, and neuter if they denote things without life : As, pater mini et mater mortui sunt, my father and mother are dead; labor voluptasque, dissimillima natura, societate quadam inter se natu- rali sunt June ta, labor and pleasure, things most unlike by nature, etc. Exc. The adjective often agrees with the nearest noun, and is understood with the rest : As, Orgetorigis f ilia atque unus e f Tliis captus est. Note 1. If the nouus denote things without life, even when they are all masculine or feminine, the adjective is generally neuter: as, Tra et avaritia imperio potentiora erant, things more potent than empire. Note 2. When nouns denoting persons are combined with nouns denot- AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 173 ing objects without life, the adjective may take the gender of the persons or be in the neuter : as, rex regiaque classis profecti sunt, the king and the royal fleet set out; inimlca inter se sunt llbera civitas et rex, a free state and a king are things hostile to each other. 4. An adjective referring to a phrase or clause must be neuter : as, hu- manum est errare, it is natural to man to err. 5. The gender of an adjective is sometimes determined by the meaning rather than by the grammatical form of the noun : as, capita conjurationis caesi sunt, the heads (i. e. t the chief men) of the conspiracy were put to death. 6. An adjective added to the subject often has the force of an adverb : as, invitus feci, I did it unwillingly ; insiste audax muris, advance on the walls boldly; Aeneas se matutinus agebat, Aeneas was astir in the morn- ing; domesticus otior, I lounge at home; memini, tametsi nullus moneas, / remember, without any suggestion from thee ; Hannibal princeps in proelium Tbat, ultimus conserto proelio excedebat, Hannibal used to be the first to go to battle, and after the engagement the last to quit the field. Note 1. Where the English usually uses a relative pronoun, as he was the first (or the last or the only one} who came, the Latin more concisely says primus (ultimus, solus) venit. Note 2. The distinction between primus and the adverbs primum and primo, appears from the following examples: (1) hanc primam orationem legi, this is the first oration that I read; (2) hanc orationem primum legi, deinde transcripsi, this oration I first read and then copied; hodie hanc orationem prlmum legi, to-day I read this oration for the first time; (3) bane orationem primo libenter legi, postea magis magisque mini jejuna visa est, this oration I read at first with pleasure; afterwards it seemed to me drier and drier. 7. Adjectives are often used as if they were nouns : as, boni et sapientes ex urbe pulsi sunt, the good and wise have been banished from the city ; Caesar suos misit, Caesar sent his soldiers (see 117, 5) ; dextra, the right hand; hlberna, winter quarters. 8. A neuter adjective is often found in the predicate, with the force of a noun, although the subject is masculine or feminine: as, triste lupus stabulis, the wolf is a pest (lit., a sad thing) for the stalls. 9. An adverb is sometimes used as an adjective: as, ignari ante malo- rum, ignorant of former evils. 10. The adjectives primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, intimus, inf imus, imus, summus, supremus, reliquus, etc., sometimes denote the first part, middle part, last part, etc., of any place or time : as, summus mons, the top of the mountain; media nox, the middle of the night. 15* 174 LATIN GRAMMAR. 114. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number, and person ; but their case depends on the construction of the clause in which they stand : As, signum Jovis, quod Phidias fecit, the statue of Jupiter , which Phid- ias made ; litterae quas dedi, the letter which I sent ; Jason navem aedincat, quae Argo nomiuata est ; in earn ascendit; Jason builds a ship, which is called Argo; on it he embarks; non sum qualis eram, / am not such as I was ; adsum qui feci, /, who did it, am here. 2. a. Usually the noun is expressed only in the antecedent clause, but sometimes also with the relative pronoun : As, erant omnino duo itinera, quibus itineribus domo exire possent. there were only two routes, by which routes they could leave home. 6. Sometimes the noun is expressed only in the relative clause, especially when that clause precedes that of the antecedent : As, urbem quam statuo, vestra est (as for the city which I found, it is yours), yours is the city that I found. c. The noun is sometimes omitted in the antecedent clause even when it has an adjective there agreeing with it : as, quis non malarum quas amor curas habet haec inter obllviscitur 1 ( malarum curarum quas amor habet.) d. Sometimes no noun is expressed : as, qui bone latuit, bene vixit, (he) who has well escaped notice, has lived well. 3. The relative is sometimes attracted to the case of the antecedent : as, cum aliquid agas eorum quorum consuesti, for quae. 4. When relative or demonstrative pronouns refer to more than one noun, the gender and person are determined by the same rules as those of predicate adjectives ( 113, 3,4, 5). 115. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Pronouns and verbs of the First Person Plural are often used by a single person speaking of himself: as, noris nos, docti sumus, you should know me, I am a man of learning (lit., with a certain humor, " you should know us, we are a learned man "). 2. The personal pronouns are used with ad, apud, ab, to signify house, abode : as, veni ad me, I came to my villa ; Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio, I hear that Scaurusis at his country seat; quisnam e nobis egredi- tur foras 1 who is coming out of our house f 3. Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, expressed only in the ter- USE OF PRONOUNS. 175 urination of the verb, may have a noun in apposition : as, Hannibal peto pacem, 7, Hannibal, sue for peace ; omnes boni nobilitati favemus, all we conservatives regard noble birth with favor ; soli Tusculani vera arma invenistis, only you men of Tusculum have discovered genuine warfare. 4. Possessive pronouns are usually omitted when not required for clear- ness or emphasis: as, patrem video, I see my father. 5. The possessive pronouns are sometimes used in the sense of fit or pro- pitious : as, ventis iturus non suis, about to sail with unpropitious winds. This is simply an extension of their proper meaning. 116. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Hie is called the demonstrative of the First Person, iste the demonstrative of the Second Person, and ille the demon- strative of the Third Person; hie referring to that which is near or connected with the speaker in time, place, or idea ; iste having similar reference to the person or persons addressed, and iHe to persons or things more remote : As, huic homini (= mihi) ; Chrysis vlclna haec, my neighbor here, Chrysis ; hoc studiura, this pursuit of mine (or ours) : muta istam mentem, change that purpose of thine; ista subsellia, those benches in thy neighborhood : Q. Catulus non antique illo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit erudltus, Quintus Catulus was learned not in that ancient manner but in this of our day. 2. Ille is sometimes used to denote fame or dignity : As, Medea ilia, the celebrated Medea ; veneramini ilium Jovem, adore that great Jupiter. 3. Ille may mean the other of two' named ; or, in the plural, the other side, the other party. 4. a. When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either what is last mentioned (and thus the nearest in the discourse, the latter), or what is the nearer to the speaker's mind; ille either the former, or what is farther from the speaker's mind. b. The two pronouns are also used for distribution : as, hoc et illud, this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that man. 5. Iste sometimes implies contempt ; not from its intrinsic meaning, but from its use in courts of law to imply the 176 LATIN GRAMMAR. opposing party (iste, that fettow whom you are defending), or from the speaker's apparently repelling what he names from himself to some one else. 6. Is is an unemphatic demonstrative. It is used : a. In reference to a noun before mentioned, as maximum ornamentum amlcitiae tollit qui ex ea tollit verecundi- am, he takes away the chief grace of friendship, who takes from it respectfulness. Its oblique cases are often left to be understood. 6. It is a simple antecedent of a relative : as, is qui hoc fecit, he who did this. c. It means one (of a kind), such, especially before qui or ut with the subjunctive. 7. Idem may often be rendered also, or at the same time: as, quidquid honestum, idem est utile, whatever is morally right is also expedient. Sometimes it implies a contrast, but yet. 8. Demonstratives are sometimes used where in English idiom they would be redundant. 9. The adverb quidem is elegantly joined to personal and demonstrative pronouns, especially ille, where a concession is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (certainly . . . but) : as, tuns dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere moderandus, yours is a grief natural to man, I admit, but one which should be very much repressed. 10. Demonstratives and relatives are sometimes used concisely in a sug- gestive sense, in agreement with a noun, instead of adding what is sug- gested in the genitive case or some similar construction : as, haec pulchri- tude, this beauty, meaning the beauty of these things around us ; hie metus, the alarm thus occasioned; haec similitude, something like this; haec defensio = hujus rei defensio. 117. REFLEXIVES. 1. Se and suus generally refer to a subject nominative of the third person in their own clause : As, fur telo se defendit, the thief defends himself with a weapon ; sentit animus se vi sua moveri, the soul feels that it is moved by its own force. Note. Quisque is a frequent subject of se, suus. 2. Se and suus may be referred to an object (which usually precedes) : USE OF PRONOUNS, 177 As, Caesarem sua natura mitiorem facit, Caesar's own character makes him milder. 3. Se and suns may be referred to an indefinite subject or object aliquem or alicni : As, habenda ratio non sua solum, sed etiam alionun, one must take account not of himself alone, but also of others; bellum est sua vitia nosse, it is a fine thing to know one's own faults. # 4. Where se and suns would be out of place, the cases of is, and sometimes of ipse, are used : As, ChUius te rogat, et ego ejus rogatu, Chilius asks thee, and I at his request; aranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse factum, news came to Quinctius while plowing that he was appointed dictator. 5. Sni, the masculine plural possessive pronoun, is used idiomatically in the sense of his, her, or their friends, family, soldiers, etc. 118. THE DEFINITIVE IPSE. 1. Ipse may be appositive either to the subject or object, according as the one or the other is emphatic : As, me ipse consoler and me ipsum consoler, where (though each is translated in English, I comfort myself] ipse with the subject means, / (rather than another) ; with the object, I comfort myself (rather than any body else). 2. Ipse is also used (1) to imply of one's own accord, as ipsae lacte domum referent distenta capellae ubera, the she-goats of their own accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders; (2) to define time exactly, as decem ipsos dies, exactly ten days; nunc ipsum, at this very moment; (3) to express the chief person, as Pythagorei respondere solebant, Ipse dixit, the Pythagoreans used to reply, He himself said so (i. e., Pythagoras). Hence slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa ; and Catul- lus uses ipsa for era. 119. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, ETC. 1. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qul, cannot begin a sentence. They usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne, an, num, ut, etc.), or a relative; but are sometimes used without a particle, as dixerit quis, some one may say. 2. Nescio quis, nescio qui, are used as indefinite pronouns in the sense of some (person or thing) or other. Compare the French, j ne sais quoi. So nescio quo, nescio quando. M 178 LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Aliquis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis, qui. 4. Occasionally aliquis means a person of importance, as sese aliquem ere dens, considering himself somebody. 5. Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather less than aliquis. Quispiam is found chiefly in positive sentences ; quisquam chiefly in negative and dubitative sentences ; nonnullus only in a positive, ullus only in a negative or dubitative construction. 6. QuTdam, a certain one, implies that the subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described ; thus : quodam tempore natus sum, aliquo moriar, I was born at a certain time, I shall die some time or other. It is joined with epithets : as, spinosa quaedam et exilis oratio, a certain prickly and lean style. It occasionally means some as opposed to the whole or others: as, nullis piscibus supra quaternas pinnae sunt, quibusdam blnae, aliquibus nullae, no fishes have more than four fins, some two, a few none at all. Hence it qualifies an expression not meant to be taken strictly : as, in ideis Plato quiddam dlvinum esse dicebat, Plato used to say that in ideas there is something divine. QuTdam also stands in contrast to qulvis, qullibet, any you will: as, ut saltatori motus non qulvis sed certus quidam est datus, sic vita agenda est certo genere quodam non quolibet, as to a dancer is assigned not any optional movement, but a certain definite one, so must life be passed in a certain definite way, not in any we please. 7. Quisque means each of any number. (It occurs in Plautus in the sense of quisquis, whosoever.) 8. The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with -cumque, or of the duplicated form, have no special idioms distinguishing them from other relatives. 9. Pronominal Adjectives. a. Alter is one of tico : as, claudus fuit altero pede, he was lame of one foot. It answers the question uter, which of two f b. Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same clause, dis- tributing ambo, uterque, ete. : as, uterque horum medium quiddam vole- bat sequi ; sed ita cadebat ut alter ex alterius laude partem, uterque autem suam totam haberet : both these men wished to attain a mean ; but it so fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each possessed his own entire. Uterque means each of two ; alteruter, one or the other of two. Alter alterum amat, they love one another ; (also expressed 4>y, amant se invicem ; mutuo amant ; amant inter se.) Alter! . . . alteri, one party, . . . tht other party. c. Alter sometimes means a second, another besides one named or im- plied: alter erit turn Tiphys, then will there be a second Tiphys ; alterum tan turn, as much again. d. Alins repeated in successive clauses means one, another, another, and so on, without limit of number. In like manner the adverbs of alius, NOMINATIVE: VOCATIVE: ACCUSATIVE. 179 aliter, alias, alibi, alio, etc. : as, alias contenting, alias remissins, at one time more vigorously, at another more slackly. e. Repeated in the same clause, or joined with one of its adverbs, alius may be translated by the word different, or more commonly, by two separate clauses, rendered in the first by one . . . one, and in the second by another . . . another : as, aliud aliis videtur optimum, one thing seems best to one, another to another; aliis aliunde perlculum est, danger threatens different persons from different sources. THE CASES. 120. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE. 1. The nominative is used as the subject of a finite verb (. 109), as an appositive ( 112), or in the predicate after verbs signifying to be, to be called, etc. ( 111.) 2. The vocative, with or without an interjection, is used in addressing a person or thing : As, vincere scis, Hannibal, adeste, amlci! dii boni! heu virgo! ah stulte ! 3. The nominative may stand with the interjections en, ecce, 0, and others : As, ecce nuntii, ecce litterae, Caesarem ad Corfinium, lo couriers and letters stating that Caesar is at Corfinium ; vir fortis atque amlcus ! 4. In the poets, and in antiquated style, the nominative is sometimes found for the vocative : As, almae fllius Maiae ! Thus often, when the noun is collective, or when the word is an attributive or an appositive : As, audi tu, populus Albanus ; nudus jaciture sepulcro. 5. In prose the vocative is usually placed after some other words in the proposition : as, credo ego vos, judices, mirari. But it may be prefixed with a kind of solemn dignity, or in vehement expressions of feeling. ACCUSATIVE. 121. ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT. 1. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accu- sative : 180 LATIN GRAMMAR. As, mater alit pullos, the mother nourishes her young; in primis vene- rare Deum, in the first place worship God; pudet me (lit. it shames me), / am ashamed. Bern. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice : as, pulli a matre aluntur, the young are nourished by the mother. Note 1. Impersonal verbs governing the accusative are referred to this rule. Note 2. An infinitive or a clause may be the subject of a verb. Note 3. After verbs denoting the operations of the senses or intellectual powers, and some verbs of causing and effecting, the subject of the governed clause is sometimes (especially in the older writers) attracted as object to the governing verb : as, nosti Marcellum, quam tardus sit, you know Mar- ceflus, hoic slow he is, instead of nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Com- pare, / know thee, who thou art. This idiom is used sometimes where it cannot be imitated in English : as, quis tnum patrem . . . qui esset audi- vit, who heard who your father was. 2. Some verbs are sometimes used as transitives in Latin, though trans- lated in English by intransitives followed by a preposition. Such are a. Many intransitive verbs denoting a feeling or state of the mind : as, honoris desperant, they despair of honors ; casum hunc doleo, I grieve for thij misfortune. b. Verbs signifying to have the smell of, have the taste of, to thirst for, breathe out, sound like, etc.: as, olet vlnnm, he smells of wine; anhelat scelus, he breathes out crime ; vox hominem sonat, her voice sounds like a man. c. The poets go very for in giving intransitive verbs a transitive signifi- cation. (See 124.) d. The passive of such verbs is used more rarely; but we find rldeor, / am laughed at; triumphatae gentis ; nox vigilata ; regnata rura. 3. In the comic poets, an accusative is sometimes found with verbal nouns : as, istum tactio ; hanc curatio rem. 4. The participial in -bundus sometimes takes an accusative : as, popula- bundus agros. 5. The verb is sometimes omitted, in phrases in which it is easily sup- plied : as, unde mini lapidem 1 where shall J get a stone f 122. COMPOUNDS BECOMING TRANSITIVE. Intransitive verbs of motion sometimes become transitive when compounded with a preposition. As, hostes circumlre ; translre finmen ; oocumbere mortem, a. So some verbs of position : as, equites circumstant senatum. SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 181 Note 1. Most of these verbs can be used in the passive : as, angustias Themistocles quaerebat, ne multitudine circumiretur. Note 2. Compounds with trans, circum, and ad can take two accusa- tives, if the simple verb is transitive : as, transjicere exercitum flume n. Note 3. The preposition may be repeated : as, trans Rhodanum copias trajecit. Note 4. When such compounds take on a new meaning, differing from the simple meaning of the verb, they are generally construed without a preposition: as, inlre in urbem, to go into the city ; inlre proelium, to begin a battle; adire ad aliquem, to go to; adlre aliquem, to consult. 123. COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. An intransitive verb often takes an accusative of kindred meaning. This accusative repeats the idea already contained in the verb, and is usually modified by an adjective or pro- noun: As, vltam jucundam vlvere, to live a delightful life; hoc bellum bel- lare, to wage this war ; mirum somniare somnium, to dream a wonderful dream. 124. LIMITING OR DEFINING ACCUSATIVE. Intransitive verbs sometimes take an accusative limiting their meaning, especially in the poets : As, coronari Olympia, to be crowned as an Olympic victor ; saltare Cy- clopa, to dance the Cyclops. Note 1. To this rule may be referred the use of the accusative of neuter adjectives and pronouns after intransitives : as, dulce ridere ( dulcem risum ridere), to smile sweetly; torvum clamare; acerba tueri, to look bitter things ; aeternum vTvere ; hoc studet unum, he makes this one thing his aim; id laetor, I am pleased at this; idem gloria tur, he makes the same boast. This is the accusative of the inner object. Note 2. A limiting accusative of a pronoun may be added to a transi- tive verb with an accusative of the person : as, hoc te hortor, I give thee this exhortation. 125. ACCUSATIVE AFTER PASSIVES USED RE- FLEXIVELY. The passive of some verbs in the poets and later prose writers is used like the Greek middle to describe an action done by the agent to or for himself, and takes an accusative : As, Priamus ferrum cingitur, Priam girds on his blade; Androgei 16 182 LATIN GRAMMAR. galeam induitur, he dons the helmet of Androgeos ; virgines longam in- dutae vestem. Note. In classical prose we have the ablative, cingitur ferro ; indutus veste alba. TWO ACCUSATIVES. 126. Verbs meaning to name, call, make, choose, think, take, and some others, may take two accusatives, one of the object, the other of the predicate : As, urbem Eomam vocavit, he called the city Rome ; Socrates totins mundi se civem arbitrabatur, Socrates was wont to think himself a citizen of the whole world ; judicem populum Romanum cepere, they took the Ro- man people as their judge; gratum me praebeo, I show myself grateful. 127. Doceo, / teach, and its compounds, celo, / conceal, and some verbs of asking and demanding, govern two accusatives, one of the person and the other of the thing : As, te litteras doceo, Iteachthee literature; iter omnes celat, he conceals his journey from all. 1. Instead of the accusative, we often find the ablative of the thing with de. 2. Peto and postulo take always the ablative of the person with ab, and quaero takes the ablative of the person with ab, de, or ex. 3. While the art taught is put in the accusative, the instrument is put in the ablative : as, aliquem fidibus docere ; docendum equo armisque. Doctus generally takes the ablative. 4. Verbs that in the active voice take two accusatives, in the passive retain one, while the other becomes the subject. 128. ACCUSATIVE OF SPECIFICATION AND AD- VERBIAL ACCUSATIVE. 1. The accusative of specification may be joined with a verb or adjective to denote that in respect to which the expression is used: As, tremit artus, he trembles in his limbs; os humerosque deo similis, in face and shoulders like a god; cetera egregius, excellent in other re- spects ; caput nectentur, their heads shall be bound. Note. This is often called the Greek accusative, or the accusative by synecddche. It denotes particularly the part affected. 2. The accusative in certain expressions is used adverbially : SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE, 183 As, maximam pattern, for the most part; meam vicem, on my account ; quod si, but if (lit. as to which, if). The accusative in these expressions is often an accusative of extent. 3. In a few phrases, the adverbial accusative stands where we might expect the genitive or ablative : as, id temporis (eo tempore), at that time ; id genus alia, other things of that kind. 4. In the comic poets, and more rarely in other writers, a sentence sometimes begins with an accusative antecedent to a following relative in the same case. 129. ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT OF TIME OR SPACE. 1. The accusative is used to denote extent of time or space : As, decem annos urbs oppugnata est, the city was besieged for ten years; fossa duos pedes lata, a ditch two feet broad. 2. Time throughout which may be denoted by per with the accusative. 3. Duration of time is sometimes expressed by the ablative ; but rarely in the best writers. This is a free use of time in which for time through- out which. (See g 185, 10.) 4. A specified distance may stand either in the accusative of extent, or the ablative of measure. If spatium or intervallum be used, they are in the ablative, and govern a defining genitive. 5. When the place from which the distance is reckoned is not men- tioned, ab often stands before the words stating the distance : as, a milli- bus passuum duobus, two miles off. 130. TERMINAL ACCUSATIVE. 1. After verbs implying motion, the names of towns and small islands are put in the accusative without a preposition, to denote the place whither. As, Athenas profectus est, he set out for Athens; missi sunt Delphos, they were sent to Delphi. 2. Names of countries and large islands generally take a preposition ; but the preposition is sometimes omitted, espe- cially in poetry. 3. Domus and rus are put in the accusative after verbs of motion, like names of towns : As, rus Tbo, I shall go to the country; rediit domum, he returned home; cohortes Latlnae Hernicaeque remissae (sunt) domes, to their homes. 184 LATIN GRAMMAR. \%\. /ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 1. Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the accusative. These are ad, adversus or adversum, ante, apud, circa, circnm, circTter, cis or citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, and versus. 2. The comparative propius and superlative proximo also take an accusative : as, propius urbem, nearer the city. 3. In and sub are followed by the accusative when they denote motion to a place ; denoting situation, they are fol- lowed by the ablative : As, Ire in urbem, to go into the city ; in urbe esse, to be in the city ; sub scalas se conjecit, he threw himself under the stairs ; sub mensa jacet, he lies under the table. Note. In with the accusative may mean for, about, against, etc. 4. Super and subter generally govern the accusative, but sometimes take the ablative in poetry ; when super means con- cerning, it takes the ablative in prose. 5. Versus or versum always follows its case : as, Eomam versus con- tendit, he marched towards Home. The best writers subjoin it to a case governed by ad or in. Postpositive also sometimes are propter, contra, ante, circa, circum, inter, juxta, penes, subter, super, supra, and per, especially after personal and relative pronouns, and in the poets. See Verg. Aen. 4, 671. 132. ACCUSATIVE IN EXCLAMATIONS. The accusative is used in exclamations, either with or with- out an interjection : As, me miserum ! or, me miserum ! wretched me ! The accusative is used as it would have been if some verb of emotion or declaration had preceded. GENITIVE. 133. ADNOMINAL GENITIVE. A noun that limits the meaning of another noun, denoting a different thing, is put in the Genitive. ADNOMINAL GENITIVE. 185 Genitive of Possession. 1. The noun in the genitive may denote the possessor, the author, or the source : As, Caesaris horti, Caesar's gardens; Ciceronis oratio, an oration of Cicero ; labor discendi, the toil of learning. Note 1. The noun limited is sometimes omitted : as, ventum erat ad Vestae, sc. templum ; we had come to the temple of Vesta (compare, he went to St. Paul's) ; hujus video Burriam, I see this man's slave, Burria; Verania PTsonis, Piso's wife, Verania. Note 2. a. The possessive adjective pronouns are used to denote the possessor, instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns : as, domus mea, b. The genitive of pronouns or participles may be added to such posses- sive pronouns, agreeing with the genitive which they imply: as, mea imTus opera, by my single exertion; nostros vidisti flentis ocellos, you saw the eyes of me weeping. c. In connection with omnium, the genitives nostrum and vestrum are used: as, communis omnium nostrum parens, the common parent of us all. But nostrum and vestrum are ordinarily used after partitives. Note 3. Alienus is often used instead of the genitive of alius, and other possessive adjectives instead of the genitive of the nouns from which they are derived : as, alienus puer, the child of another ; Hectoreum oaput, Hector's head ; erllis f Tlius, the master's son. See also $ 116, 10. Subjective Genitive. 2. The noun in the genitive may denote the subject of the action or feeling denoted by the governing noun : as, amor parentum, parents', love, meaning the love which parents feel for their children. Objective Genitive. 3. The noun in the genitive may denote the object of the action or feeling denoted by the governing noun : as, amor parentum, the love of parents, meaning the love which children feel for their parents. Note 1. The objective genitive is often translated by other prepositions than of: as, fuga perlculi, flight from danger ; contentio honorum, the struggle for office; Boiorum triumphus, a triumph over the Boii; fiducia virium, confidence in strength. 16* 186 LATIN GRAMMAR. Note 2. Both genitives may limit the same noun : as, Agamemnonis gloria belli, Agamemnon's (subject) glory in war (object). Note 3. The possessive adjective pronouns, though generally subjective, may be used objectively or passively : as, neglegentia tua, disregard for you; odium tuum, hatred for you. Genitive after Partitives. 4. Words denoting a part are followed by a genitive denot- ing the whole : As, juvenum princeps, foremost of the youth. Note 1. Words denoting a part are called partitives. They are, a. Nouns which express partition : as, pars, numerus, nemo, nihil ; b. Some adverbs of quantity, measure, place, or time : as, partim, parum, satis, affatim, nimis, abunde ; eo, hue, adhuc, quo, quoad; hie, hue, nusquam, ibi, ubi ; interea ; c. Pronouns and pronominals, as Me, ille, is; qui, quis, and their com- pounds ; tot, quot, and their derivatives ; alias, alter, liter, and its com- pounds, ullus, nullus, plerique, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceteri, solas ; d. Cardinal and ordinal numerals ; also princeps and medius ; e. Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns ; /. Adjectives in the comparative and superlative ; as, major Neronnm, the elder of the Neros ; avium loquaciores, the noisier sort of bird*; ma- ximus fratrum, the elder of the brothers ; g. Adverbs in the superlative ; h. Any noun or adjective which can imply distribution : as, piscium f eminae ; lecti juvenum. Note 2. The genitive of the thing measured or counted is used after words of measure or quantity : as, vlni tres amphorae ; tria millia equi- tum ; magna vis argenti. Note 3. The genitive of the whole is sometimes the predicate : as, fies nobilium tu quoque fontium, thou also shah become one of the fountains of fame. An object partitive, also, is sometimes omitted. Note 4. After numerals, where all are embraced, the genitive is not used in Latin : as, nos duo sumus, there are two of us ; cognati quos pau- cos habeo, kinsmen of whom I have few. In such cases of is generally used in English ; but compare " we are seven." Note 5. Instead of the genitive, the prepositions ex, de, in, or inter are sometimes used : as, melior ex duobus ; aliquis de heredibus ; sapi- entissimus in septem. Unas is generally construed with ex or de and the ablative. Note 6. The genitive of the whole after neuter adjectives or pronouns or nihil, is often an adjective of the second declension, standing as a noun : as, aliquid pulchri ; nihil boni. Adjectives of the third declension are GENITIVE OF QUALITY. 187 not used in this way (unless rarely in connection with adjectives of the second), many of them having the same form in the genitive as in the nominative masculine and feminine. Note 7. The poets and later prose-writers use frequently the neuter plural of adjectives and participles with a denning genitive : as, strata viarum = stratae viae. Genitive of Definition. 5. The genitive of definition generally corresponds to an appositive in English : As, Buthroti urbs, the city of Buthrdtum ; virtus justitiae, the virtue of justice; arbor fici, the fig-tree; spretae injuria formae, the injury of slighting her beauty. Genitive of Material. 6. The genitive may denote the substance or material: as, flumina lactis, rivers of milk. But seeming cases of this kind may often be referred to other rules. The material is more frequently denoted by an adjective, or by an ablative (generally with ex) after a verb or participle. Genitive after Prepositional Nouns, etc. 7. The nouns causa and gratia, for the sake of, also ergo (in old writers) on account of, and ins tar, as large as, like, old nouns used like prepositions or adverbially, govern the genitive: as, hominum causa, for the sake of mankind; virtutis ergo, on account of manliness ; Plato solus instar omnium est, Plato alone is equal to them all; instar mentis equus, a horse like a mountain. 1. Pridie, the day before; postrldie, the day after; tenus (with the plural), as far as, and clam, without the knowledge of, may govern the genitive. 134. GENITIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION. Nouns indicating a quality, or .describing the limited noun, are put in the genitive, with an adjective agreeing with them : As, juvenis mitis ingenii, a youth of mild disposition ; puer sedecim annorum, a boy of sixteen; non multi cibi hospitem accipies, sed multi joci, you will receive a guest who is not a great eater but a great joker. Note 1. The descriptive noun and adjective are more frequently in the ablative. The genitive seems to be preferred to describe the general nature and kind of the subject, or permanent qualities ; the ablative to denote par- ticular or transient qualities and circumstances : securi animi es, you are free from anxiety always ; bono animo sum, I am of good cheer in the present 188 LATIN GRAMMAR. circumstances. But there are many exceptions to this rule. The requisites for a thing, and all ideas of measure are expressed by the genitive : as, res magni laboris ; fossa centum pedum ; parts of the body by the abla- tive : as, qua facie fait 1 magiio capite, ore rubicundo. Note 2. Ejus modi, cujus modi, and the like, are genitives of quality, in meaning equivalent to tales, quales. 135. GENITIVE AS A PREDICATE. The genitive in the predicate after sum denotes property, characteristic, part, lot, office, or duty : As, omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy ; cujusvis hominis est errare, it is the lot of every man to err ; hoc est praeceptoris, this is the business of the teacher ; moris est Graecorum, it belongs to the custom of the Greeks (or simply, it is the custom, etc.) ; stultitiae est, it is a mark of folly. 1. The genitive of property or possession may be used in the pre- dicate with flo: as, omnia quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt, dotis nomine. 2. The genitives lucri, compendi, and dicionis are found in the predicate after facio or flo. 136. OBJECTIVE GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are followed by a genitive denoting the object to which the quality they express is directed. 1. Adjectives in ax formed from transitive verbs-, and present participles used adjectively, govern the genitive : as, tenaz propositi, tenacious of purpose ; veritatis dlligens, fond of the truth ; amantior domini. 2. Adjectives govern the genitive which signify desire, knowledge, care, memory, mastery, participation, fulness, guilt, and their contraries: as, avidus gloriae, eager for glory; belli perltus, skilled in war; ignara mali, unacquainted with evil ; provida utilitatum, providing for advan- tages; memor virtutis, mindful of virtue; impotens sui, without self- control; ratiouis particeps, sharing in reason; plenus rimarum,/W/ of chinks ; inops humanitatis, destitute of culture; rei capitalis reus, guilty of a capital crime. 3. Many of these adjectives are found sometimes in a different construc- tion ; as with the ablative, with or without a preposition ; with the accu- sative, especially with ad or in ; with the dative ; and with an infinitive or subjunctive clause : as, rudis injure cTvili ; arte rudis ; ad rem avidior ; potens in res bellicas ; cuncta pollens ; facinori mens conscia ; certus Ire ; memor quam sis aevi brevis. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 189 4. The genitive after an adjective or participle sometimes denotes a cause or source, especially in the poets : as, fessus viae, weary of the way ; notus in fratres animi paterni, well-known for his father-like affection for his brothers. 5. The genitive of the respect in which is used freely by the poets : as, integer vltae scelerisque purus, upright in life and free of crime. 6. The genitive animi as the seat of feeling, after adjectives and verbs, is strictly locative : as, aeger animi, sick at heart. 7. The genitive can sometimes be explained by the adjective's standing for a noun. For the genitive after similis, dissimilis, etc., see 162, 4. 137. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 1. Memini and reminiscor, / remember, and obliviscor, / forget, take an objective genitive : As, vivorum memini, nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, I remember the living, and yet I am not allowed to forget Epicurus. 2. Recorder, I bethink myself of, takes the genitive rarely in the best writers, more frequently in later Latin. It is generally found with the accusative, sometimes with the ablative (of persons) with de. 9 Exc. Verbs of remembering and forgetting often take an accusative, when they denote to have a thing in the memory, or the reverse : as, Anti- patrum STdonium tu probe meministi, you remember well Antipater of Sulon. Note. The phrase venit mihi in mentem may be construed imperson- ally with a genitive : as, venit mihi in mentem Platonis, Plato occurs to me. It is also used personally. 138. Misereor and miseresco, I pity, take an objective geni- tive : as, miserere sororis, pity thy sister. 139. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 1. Verbs of reminding take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing : As, Catillna admonebat alium egestatis alium cupiditatis suae, Cati- line kept putting one in mind of his poverty, another of his desire. Note. Instead of the genitive of the thing, admoneo may take the ac- cusative of a pronoun or neuter adjective, or the ablative with de. 2. Miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet, and pertae- sum est take an accusative of the person who feels and a genitive of the cause or respect : As, me stultitiae meae pudet, / am ashamed of my folly. 190 LATIN GRAMMAR. 140. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the crime : As, accusare aliquem furti, to charge one with theft; majestatis absol- vuntur, they get acquitted of treason ; damnari repetundarum, to be con- demned of extortion. 1. The crime is sometimes in the ablative with de ; or crimine, nomine, or judicio, with the genitive may be used. 2. With damno and condemno, the punishment is put in the genitive or ablative : As, damnari capitis or capite. For a definite penalty, if money or land, the ablative is always used : As, damnari decem millibus ; damnari tertia parte agri ; and so always with the verb multo. Note. Damnari ad bestias means to be condemned to be thrown to the wild beasts; in metalla, to the mines; voti damnari, to be bound to fulfil a vow; hence voti damnatus or voti reus means successful. 141. Impleo, repleo, and compleo, and sometimes in the poets expleo, verbs signifying to fill, may take in addition to the accusative a genitive, though more commonly an ablative. 142. GENITIVE AFTER REFERT AND INTEREST. 1. Refert and interest may take the genitive of the person to whom anything is of interest or importance : As, intererat Clodii Milonem perlre, it was important for Clodius that Milo should die, 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the pos- sessives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are used. 3. The thing of interest or importance may be expressed by a neuter pronoun, but is usually denoted by an accusative with an infinitive, or by ut or the interrogative particles with a subjunctive : As, hoc mea interest ; multum mea interest te esse dtligentem, or ut dlligens sis, or (utrum ) dlligens sis necne. 4. The accusative with ad is used to denote the end for which the matter is important: as, magni ad honorem nostrum interest, quam prl- mum ad urbem me venire, it is of great importance for my honor that I should come to the city as soon as possible. SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 191 143, SPECIAL USES OF THE GENITIVE. Egeo sometimes, and indigeo frequently, take the genitive ; but verbs of wanting commonly take the ablative. Note. Both the genitive and ablative after such verbs are cases of specification of the respect in which. 144. Satago (sat ago) takes a genitive denning the indeclinable adjective sat. 145. Poets, and later prose writers, sometimes use a genitive of definition or respect after many verbs regularly construed with other cases : As, regnavit populorum ; sepositi ciceris invidit ; decipitur laborum. 1. The poetical genitive sometimes denotes cause : as, sunt lacrimae rerum, there are tears for human fortune ; justitiae aliquem mirari, to admire one for his justice; felicem cerebri, happy in your hot temper. 2. The genitive after verbs of separation is similar to the genitive in Greek : as, abstineto irarum ; desine querelarum. 3. Potior, both in the sense of to make oneself master of and to be master of, is often found with the genitive. Plautus sometimes uses potior with the genitive in the sense of fall into the hands of. 146. GENITIVE OF VALU& Sum and verbs of valuing take the genitive of the degree of estimation : As, divitias minoris aestimare debemus quam virtutem, we ought to set a lower value on riches than on virtue ; parvi sunt foris arma ; ager nunc pluris est quam tune fuit ; tanti est, it is worth while. 1. a. Such genitives are magni, pluris, plurimi, maximi, parvi, mino- ris, minimi, tanti, quanti, nihili. So also flocci, nauci, pensi, pili, assis, terunci, hujus : as, non hujus faoio, I don't care THAT for it. b. Such verbs are puto, duco, aestimo, existimo, pendo, facio, flo, habeo, taxo ; and sum, in the sense of being of a value. c. Aestimo may take either the genitive or ablative. 2. The genitives boni, aequi boni, aequi bonlque, with facio, and boni, optimi, with consulo, may be classed with genitives of value. 147, GENITIVE OR ABLATIVE WITH VERBS OF BUY- ING AND SELLING. \. Verbs of buying and selling take the genitives tanti, quanti, pluris, maximi, and minoris : 192 LATIN GRAMMAR. As, quanti oryza empta 1 parvo ; for how much was the rice bought f At a small price. 2. So with the genitives tantidem, qnantivis, quanticunque. 3. But such verbs take the ablatives magno, pennagno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, nonnihilo, tantulo. 148. LOCATIVE OF NAMES OF TOWNS, ETC. 1. Names of toivns and small islands in which anything is said to be or be done, if of the first or second declension and singular number, are put in the genitive; if of the plural number or third declension, they are put in the ablative : As, Corinthi pueros docebat, he used to teach boys at Corinth; Smyrnae, at Smyrna; Carthagine, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Trallibus, at Tralles. Note. These constructions owe their origin to the old locative termi- nation i. The genitive of the first declension once ended in i, as Bomai ; that of the second has the locative termination. Even in the third declen- sion forms in i are often preferred for the locative ; as, Carthagini, at Car- thage. For other expressions of the place where, see 183. * 2. Domi, at home; belli, at war; militiae, on military ser- vice ; humi, on the ground, are locative genitives. 3. Other locatives are vlclniae (Plautus and Terence), in the neigh- borhood; and animi (plural animis), in mind, especially in certain ex- pressions of doubt or anxiety. (Compare 136, 6.) 149. DATIVE. The dative denotes the person or thing, to or for which anything is or is done. It marks the person affected or in- terested, and generally implies advantage or disadvantage. 1. As denoting that with, reference to which the subject acts, or in reference to which it possesses a quality, it is called the case of the remoter object. 2. The dative of advantage is often called the datlvns commodi. 3. There are some uses of to and for in English, which cannot be ex- pressed by the dative, but require a preposition ; thus to, after words of actual motion, is often to be translated by ad or in ; and for, meaning in behalf of or in defence of, by pro. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 193 150. ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. Transitive verbs govern the accusative and dative when, together with the object of the action, there is expressed the person or thing to or for which, or with reference to which, it is done: As, dedi puero librum, I gave the boy a book ; trado provinciam succes- sor!; morem tibi gero ; nullum locum reliquit precibus. 1. This dative stands also with the passive : as, liber puero datus est, the book was given to the boy. 151. Many verbs of taking away, defending, and protecting from, most of which are compounds of ab, de, or ex, are found often with the accusative and dative : As, solstitium pecori defend! te, ward off the heat from the flock; elabor fratri ; Caesar Ambiorigi auxilia detraxif, oestrum aroebis peoori. Note. The dative in these cases is one of advantage or disadvantage. The ablative, with or without a preposition, is more frequently found in prose. But while the ablative marks simply separation, the dative inti- mates that the person or thing is harmed or benefited. There is a delicate elegance in this use of the dative, which makes it a favorite construction in the poets. A similar use of the dative is seen in German writers. 152. ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. Some verbs have two constructions, taking sometimes an object-accusative and the dative of the person or thing affected, and sometimes the accusa- tive of the thing affected and the ablative of the means : as, urbi circum- dedit murum (literally, he put a wall around, for the city), or urbem circumdedit muro, he surrounded the city with a wall; dono tibi munus, or dono te munere. So also adspergo, induo, exuo, impertio, iiiuro, misceo, circumfundo, and other verbs. 153. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. Many intransitive verbs, such as those which denote benefit- ing, injuring, pleasing, and others, take a dative of the person or thing affected : As, Fortuna favet fortibus, Fortune favors the brave; nemini noceas, harm no man; mini placebat Pomponius, Pomponius was pleasing to me ; mundus deo paret, the world pays obedience to God; sibi fldit, he trusts himself; Trasoitur inimlcis, he is angry with his enemies; omnibus bonis 17 N OF TTNTVERSITY 194 LATIN GRAMMAR. expedit salvam esse rempublicam, it is for the advantage of all good men that the Commonwealth should be safe. \. The principal verbs of this kind are, a. prosum, auxilior, admini- culor , opitulor, patrocinor, subvenio, succurro, medeor ; noceo, obsum, desum, officio. incommodo, insulto, insidior; placeo, arndeo, displiceo; faveo, gratificor, indulgeo, ignosco, studeo, pareo, adulor, blandior, lenocinor, palpor, assentior, assentor, respondeo ; adversor, refragor, obsto, renltor, repugno, resisto, invideo, aemulor, obtrecto, convicior, maledico; impero (also transitive), pareo, cedo, ausculto, obedio, obsequor, obtempero, morigeror (morem gero), alicui dicto audiens sum, servio, inservio, ministro, famulor, ancillor, praestolor ; credo (also transitive), fido, confldo, diffido; immineo, propinquo, appropinquo, impendeo, occnrro; minor, comminor (both also transitive), Trascor, stomacbor, succenseo. b. Also the impersonals, conducit, contingit, convenit, expedit, dolet, libet, licet. 2. a. Some verbs of this kind are rendered in English by transitive verbs ; but a strictly exact translation, in accordance with their etymology, would show that they are intransitive. Thus suadere, to persuade, is lit- erally to be sweet to; nubere, to marry (said of the female), means to put on the veil for. b. Some verbs are transitive in Latin, while from their English transla- tion they would appear to belong to this class ; as, delecto, juvo, adjuvo, adjuto. laedo, offendo, jubeo, and others. 3. Intransitive verbs governing a dative are often used impersonally in the passive with the same case : as, mibi invidetur, I am envied ; mihi nunquam persuader! potuit, / never could be persuaded. We cannot say invideor, persuadeor, etc. 4. Some of the verbs which, as intransitive, govern a dative, may become stronger and take an accusative; or they may take a preposition and its case, or a dependent clause. The classical writers themselves, and the lexicons, will furnish examples. 5. The poetic dative of the place whither is a bold extension of the dative of influence : as, it clamor caelo, a shout reaches the sky. 6. In the poets and the later prose writers the dative is more frequent than in the best classical prose. Haerere, jungere, miscere are among the verbs which sometimes take a dative in such writers. 7. Certo, decerto, contendo, and luctor are often used by the poets with the dative. 154. DATIVE AFTER VERBS COMPOUNDED WITH PREPOSITIONS, ETC. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super, take the dative : SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 195 As, omnibus antestare, to surpass all; interfuit pugnae, he was engaged in the battle; miseris succurrere disco, I learn to aid the wretched. 1. Transitive verbs take also an accusative. (See 150.) 2. If a local relation is clearly designed, the preposition is commonly repeated with its proper case : as, adhaeret navis ad scopulum ; Ajax incu- buit in gladium ; incurrere in hostes. 3. The compounds of cum (con, com) usually repeat the preposition, but not always. 4. Some verbs never repeat the preposition ; with some a different prepo- sition is used, as obrepere in animum. The facts in each case can be learned from observation of the usage of classical writers, and by consult- ing the lexicons. 155. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male, govern the dative : as, pulcrum est benefacere reipublicae. 156. DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR. The verb esse, to be, is construed with a dative of the pos- sessor : As, est mini liber, / have a book. This is a form of the dative of advantage or disadvantage. 1. a. In such expressions as est mihi nomen the name is generally put by attraction in the dative : As, est mihi nomen Balbo, my name is JSalbus. 6. The nominative, however, is sometimes found, and, more rarely, the genitive : As, ei morrbo nomen est avaritia ; Q. Metello Macedonici nomen indi- tum est. 2. The construction of a dative with a participle agreeing with it, after esse, is imitated from the Greek : as, quibus bellum volentibus erat, those who toished for war ; mihi volenti est, it is agreeable to my wish (properly, is related to me as wishing it). 157. DATIVE OF THE AGENT. 1. The gerundive, and sometimes passive verbs, take a "dative of the agent," as the person to whom the action relates or is of interest : As, proelia conjugibus loquenda, battles for wives to talk about; quid- 196 LATIN GRAMMAR. quid mihi susceptum est, whatever has been undertaken by me (as far as I am concerned); non intellegor ulli (Ovid), I am not understood by any one (I do not make myself intelligible to any one). Note. In good prose, the dative of the agent with passive verbs is rare, and seldom found except with the compound tenses. 2. When the verb itself governs the dative, the gerundive may take the ablative with ab : as, oivibus est a vobis consulendum ; but two datives are sometimes found, where no ambiguity arises from their use. 3. Verbal adjectives in -bilis take a dative : as, multis flebilis, bewailed by many (literally, to many an object of lamentation). 158. DATIVE LIMITING THE WHOLE PREDICATE. A whole proposition is sometimes qualified by a dative, where a single noun might have been qualified by a genitive or a preposition : As, is finis populationibus fuit, that was the end for the raiding parties; puero dormienti caput arsisse ferunt. 1. English idiom often compels us to translate this dative as a genitive: as, sese omnes flentes Caesari ad pedes projecerunt, they all threw them- selves weeping at Caesar's feet. 2. The dative sometimes specifies the relation in which one person stands to another : as, M' Manilio consul! tribunus, tribune under Manius Mani- lius ; hires est fratri suo, he is heir to his brother. 3. Facio and f To, with the accusatives quid and idem, take the dative of the person or thing affected : as, quid facies huic, what will you do with this manf quid mihi futurum est, what will become of me f But de with the ablative, and the ablative alone, are also used. 4. The dative of a participle is occasionally used to denote time or circumstances : As, sita Anticyra est laeva parte sinum intrantibus, Anticyra lies on the left as you sail in (lit. to those sailing in) ; in universum aestimanti, plus penes peditem roboris, looking at it on the whole, their chief strength is in the infantry (lit. to one looking at it). 159. ETHICAL DATIVE. A slight reference to a person, as interested in the matter in hand, is sometimes made by the dative of a personal pronoun : As, quid mihi Celsus agit 1 how is my Celsus f Haec vobis illorum per biduum militia fuit, this, you see, was their two-days' campaigning. Hem Davum tibi, see, here 's Davus. A similar construction is found in Shake- speare ; and in French and German writers. SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 197 160, DATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 1. Some verbs may take an objective accusative, or a dative of interest, with a different meaning : As, metuo aliquem, I fear some one ; metuo alicui, / am anxious for someone; caveo aliquem, lam on my guard against some one; caveo alicui, Hook out for some one's interests. Such verbs are metuo, timeo, caveo, consulo, prospicio, provideo, moderor, tempero. 2. A few verbs take either the accusative or dative without marked dif- ference in signification : as, adulor, aemulor, comitor, despero, praestolor. 161. TWO DATIVES. 1. Esse and certain other verbs sometimes take two datives, one of the person or thing affected, the other of the end served or the result : As, cui bono fuit ? whom did itjbenefit ? exitio est mare nautis, the sea brings destruction to sailors. 2. Besides esse, the verbs most frequent in this construction are habere, ducere, dare, vertere : as, Q. Metello laudi datum est. 3. Some other verbs, especially verbs of motion, are so construed with auxilio, praesidio, subsidio: as, equitatum auxilio Caesari miserant; quinque cohortes castris praesidio relinquit. 4. Sometimes the dative of the person or thing affected is not expressed : as, omuia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves eraut usui. 162. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives which in English take TO or FOR after them, are generally followed by the dative : As, civis utilis reipublicae, a citizen useful to the state; res tibi facilis, ceteris difficilis, a thing easy for thee, hard for the others. 2. Such are adjectives denoting advantage or disadvantage, ease or diffi- culty, friendliness or unfriendliness, similarity, nearness, and the like. 3. Some such adjectives are frequently used as nouns, with the genitive : as, amicus, aequalis, affinis, alienus, proprius, sacer, superstes, etc. 4. Similis, consimilis, adsimilis, and dissimilis, are put both with the genitive and the dative; in the earlier writers, almost always with the genitive of the names of gods and men. 5. Aptus, habilis, idoneus, accommodatus, instead of the dative, have 17* 198 LATIN GRAMMAR. often ad with the accusative. Adjectives meaning friendly or hostile, sometimes take the prepositions in, erga, or adversus, instead of the dative. Alienus may take the ablative, with or without ab. 6. Propior and proximus have generally the dative, but sometimes the accusative, or the ablative with ab. The adverb propius, proximo, takes the accusative, more rarely the dative. 7. The poets sometimes use the dative after idem (in any case but the nominative), instead of atque with the nominative : as, idem facit occidenti, he does the same as he who kills him. 163. DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES AND NOUNS. The dative is used with the adverbs convenienter, congruenter, con- stanter, obsequenter, obviam, utiliter, and the interjections hei and vae. 164. Verbal nouns govern the dative in a few instances : as, obtemperatio legibus ; re media morbis. ABLATIVE. 165. The ablative is the case of separation or departure, and source. It also serves as an instrumental and a loca- tive case, under the latter head including respect, manner, condition, and quality, as well as time and place. 166, ABLA TIVE OF GA USE, MANNER, AND INSTR UMENT. The ablative after verbs, participles, or adjectives may denote the cause, manner, means, or instrument : As, ardere studio, to burn with zeal; ratione voluptatem sequi, to fol- low pleasure in a rational manner ; moribus conciliandus amor, love must be won by character; cornibus tauri se tutantur, bulls defend themselves with their horns ; Britanni lacte et carne vivebant, the Britons lived on milk and flesh; naturam expellere furca, to drive nature out with a pitch- fork. 1. The ablative of manner is regularly accompanied by an adjective, a pronoun, or a participle, or by the preposition cum ; but a few words, such as modus, mos, ratio, ritus, and consuetude are used in the ablative without this accompaniment. 2. The ablative of manner denotes the way in which or the circum- stances under which a thing is done. 3. Even with an adjective, the preposition cum is sometimes used, par- ticularizing the concomitant : as, magno cum studio aderat, i. e., he was present, and displayed great zeal. 4. The ablative may denote that in accordance with which anything is SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 199 or is done : as, meo judicio, in my opinion ; institute suo, in accordance with his practice. 5. Accompaniment is generally denoted by the preposition cum: as, vagamur cum conjugibus et liberis, we wander with our wivex and children. But in words denoting military and naval forces, we generally have the ablative of instrument, without a preposition, when an adjective is used : as, ad castra omnibus copiis contenderunt. 6. Junctus, conjunctus, implicatus, admixtus, may take the ablative. 167. ABLATIVE WITH CERTAIN VERBS, ETC. Utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor take the ablative : As, quousque tandem, Catillna, abutere patientia nostra? officio, munere, honoribus fungi ; carne vescor ; oppido potitur. 1. These are ablatives of means or instrument or of source. 2. In older Latin the accusative is sometimes found with these verbs. Hence they retain the gerundive : as, vita data est utenda ; spes potiun- dorum castrorum. Potior often takes the genitive. 3. The idiomatic uses of utor deserve notice : as, valetudine utor non bona, 7 have poor health ; utebatur intime Hortensio, he was on intimate terms with Hortensius ; usus eram silentio, I had kept silence ; fortuna uti, to try one's fortune ; facili me utetur patre, he shall find in me an indul- gent father. 168. The verbs laetor, exsulto, gaudeo ; delector, glorior ; laboro, doleo ; valeo, floreo; excello, praesto, supero ; fido, confido, nltor; and the adjectives laetus, contentus, praeditus, fretus, take an ablative of cause or means. Dignor takes an ablative of respect or price. 169. The ablative is put with various verbs to denote that with which the action is performed, or to specify in what it is manifested : as, culter manat cruore, the knife is dripping with blood ; pluit lapidibus ; sanguine sudare; augere aliquem scientia; afficere aliquem honore, ignominia, etc. ; aliquem puro sermone adsuefacere ; homines labore adsueti. 1. These may be regarded as free exemplifications of the ablatives of means or instrument and specification. 2. Transitive verbs meaning to fill, to furnish with, and some others, govern the accusative and ablative. 170. Verbs of fulness and want take the ablative : as, Germania abun- dat fluminibus ; caret oculis. (But see 143.) 171. OPUS AND USUS. Opus est, used impersonally, takes the dative of the person needing, and the ablative of the thing needed ; it can also be construed personally : as, duce nobis opus est, we have need of a leader ; or dux nobis opus est. 200 LATIN GRAMMAR. 1. Usus est, there w occasion, with the ablative, is sometimes found : as, nunc vlribus us us. 2. Opus est can be followed by an infinitive, or an aco. with the infin. 172. ABLATIVE OF THE MATERIAL. Verbs and participles signifying consisting or being made of, take the ablative : as, agri constant campis, vTheis, silvis, (Plin. Ep.). But prepo- sitions are often used ; Cicero always has ex with constare in this sense. 173. VOLUNTARY AGENT. 1. The voluntary agent of a verb in the passive vojce is put in the ablative with a or ab : As, mundus a deo administrator. Note. The voluntary agent is a living person ; the involuntary agent is properly called the instrument, and is put in the ablative without a preposition : as, Hector ab Achille caesus est, Hector was slain by Achilles; Hector telo caesus est, Hector was slain by a spear. 2. Neuter verbs, also, are sometimes followed by an ablative of the voluntary agent with a or ab : as, periit ab Annibale, he died at the hands of Hannibal. 3. If the involuntary agent is personified, it takes the preposition : as, animus ab ignavia corruptus. ( 4. The voluntary agent is sometimes found in thd ablative without ab. In such cases, the idea of personality is thrown in the background, and the agents appear as the mere instruments of the action : as, servi agrestes ac barbari, quibus Etruriam vexarat. * 174. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. The comparative degree is followed by the ablative, when quam, than, is omitted : . As, Tullus HostTlius ferocior Romulo fait ; lacrimS nib.il citius arescit. 1. After plus, minus, amplius, and longius (but rarely after other ad- verbs in prose), quam is often omitted without influence on the construction : as, spatium non amplius pedum sexcentorum. 2. It is a rare license to put the ablative after the comparative when the latter stands in any other case than the nominative and accusative: as, pane egeo. jam mellitis potiore placentis. 3. The poets use this ablative of distinction also with alius : as, ne putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum. SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 201 4. The ablatives aequo, justo, dicto, solito, spe, oplnione, necessario, follow comparatives : as, Caesar oplnione omnium celerius venturus est. 5. The ablative after the comparative is sometimes omitted ; the adjective or adverb may then be translated with quite, too, rather : As, liberius vivibat, he lived too freely ; res graviores, matters of un- usual importance. (See 53, 1.) 175. ABLATIVE OF QUALITY. A noun and an adjective are put in the ablative of quality ^"description : As, Marina, vir mediocri ingenio ; or, Marina mediocri ingenio fait, Munena was a man of moderate ability. (See 134, Note 1.) 176. ABLATIVE OF THE DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE. The degree of difference between objects compared is ex- pressed by the ablative : As, sol multis partibas major atque amplior est qaam terra. The ablatives multo, parvo, quo, quanto, eo, and tanto are frequently used to denote the degree of difference : as, eo gravior dolor quo culpa major, the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is greater. 177. ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION. The ablative denotes that of which a person or thing is deprived, or from which it is separated : As, spoliare hominem fortunis, to rob a man of his fortunes : arcire tyrannum reditu, to bar the tyrant from return; abstinire scelere, to keep from crime. 1. But the verbs which signify to abstain, to hinder, to exclude, are also used with ab : as, prohibire hostem a pugna. When a person is specified, the preposition is always used. 2. The poets, in imitation of a Greek idiom, have the genitive with a few such verbs : as, solutus operum, freed from work. (See 145, 2.) For the dative, see 151. Compounds with dis- take the dative in poetry. 3. Verbs denoting to drive a person or thing from or out of the place where it is, sometimes take the ablative alone, but usually with ab, ex, or de : As, dipellere hostem loco or e loco. 202 LATIN GRAMMAR. 4. Cedo and its compounds often take the ablative without a preposition ; so also abeo, used of resigning an office. 178. ABLATIVE OF SOURCE. Perfect participles denoting origin are followed by the ablative of the source : As, Mercurius Jove et Maia natus erat ; equestri loco ortus. 1. Such participles are natus, ortus, genitas, satus, editus. 2. With the parents, ex and de are also used. 3. More remote ancestry is indicated by ortus ab : as, Belgae orti sunt a Germanis ; Cato Uticensis a Censorio ortus erat. 179. ABLATIVE OF PRICE. The price or value is put in the ablative : As, hunc librum parvo pretio emi ; multorum sanguine et vulneribus ea victoria Poenis stetit; asse carum est, 'it's dear at a penny. 1. To this rule belong the ablatives magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, with verbs of buying and selling : as, hunc librum plurimo emi. For the genitive with such words, see $ 147. Bene, male are also used. 2. Dignus and indigrius take the ablative of the thing of which anything is worthy or unworthy : As, virtus imitatione digna est ; quam multi luce indigni sunt ! The genitive is found rarely. 3. Mutate, commutare, permutare, and vertere, to exchange, take either an accusative of the thing parted with, and an ablative of the thing taken : as, mutare pacem bello, to exchange peace for war, i. e., to go to war; or, especially in poetry, an accusative of the thing taken, and an ablative of the thing parted with : as, permutare otio divitias, to take wealth in exchange for ease. 4. The penalty is sometimes in the ablative : as, capite damnatus, con- demned to death (to lose his head). 180. ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION. An ablative may be joined to noujsor adjectives to denote in what respect their signification is -taken : As, nomine grammaticus, re barbarus, yi name mgrammarian, in fact a barbarian; claudus altero pede, lame o/(we/ao qui quidem, qui modo. 224. QUI MEANING BECAUSE HE. A relative clause expressing the reason of the leading propo- sition takes the subjunctive : As, miseret tui me, qui hunc tantum hominem facias inimlcum tibi, be- cause you make ; O fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum prae- conem inveneris, in that you have found. Note 1. The assigning of the reason is strengthened by using utpote qui, ut qui, or praesertim qui, with the subjunctive. Quippe qui takes the subjunctive, or in some writers, as Sallust and Livy, the indicative. Note 2. The indicative is common, particularly in old Latin. Note 3. The relative pronoun followed by quia or quoniam generally takes the indicative. 225. QUI MEANING ALTHOUGH HE. Qui equivalent to although with a personal or demonstrative pronoun takes the subjunctive : As, nosmet ipsi, qui Lycurgei a principio fuissemus, quotldie demiti- gamur, though we had been strict as Lycurgus. 1. On the indicative in such clauses, see g 204, 1. 226. SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDENT ON ANOTHER SUB- JUNCTIVE OR AN INFINITIVE. A relative clause forming an essential part of a sentence whose verb is in the subjunctive or the infinitive, takes the subjunctive : As, erat in Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogitavisset ; non is sum, qui, quicquid videtur, tale dlcam ease, quale videatur ; spem afferunt posse animos, cum e corporibus excesserint, in caelum pervemre. Note 1. If a fact is to be stated as such, the indicative must be used. In many cases it seems indifferent whether the indicative or subjunctive be chosen. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 225 Note 2. The incorporated clause may be introduced by a relative adverb or conjunction, as well as by a pronoun. 227. RELATIVES WITH THE INDICATIVE. In any of the uses of the relative, after affirmative expres- sions, the indicative may be found when a fact is stated or emphasized, rather than a quality or a thought. 1. Thus the indicative may be used in simple definitions of existing things or persons or classes : as, Sp. Thorius, is qui agruni publicum lege vectigali levavit ; eae artes, quas qui tenent eruditi appellantur ; utrum tibi commodum est, elige ; virtus est una quae nunquam vi ulla labefactari potest; sunt multi qui eripiunt aliis quod aliis largiantur; sunt qui non habeant, est qui non curat habere, there is one whom I have in mind (per- haps the poet himself ), who certainly does not care to have; Catonem vero quis nostrorum oratorum, qui quidem nunc sunt, legit ? 228. ORATIO OBLIQUA. Note. When a reported statement, question, or supposition is dependent upon such a verb as said, or some similar expression, in such a way as to change any of the pronouns, cases, moods, or tenses used by the original speaker, the narrative is called indirect, or oratio obllqua. In oratio recta, or direct narration, on the contrary, the very words of the speaker or writer are quoted. 1. In oratio obllqua principal clauses take the infinitive, generally with a subject -accusative ; dependent clauses take the subjunctive : As, Antonius docet, artem earum rerum esse, quae sciantur ; oratoris autem omnem actionem opinionibus, non scientia, contineri ; quia et apud eos dlcat, qui nesciant, et ipse dlcat, quod nesciat. In oratio recta we should have : ars earum rerum est, quae sciuntur ; oratoris autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia, continetur; nam et apud eos dlcit, qui nesciunt, et ea dicit, quae nescit ipse. 1. Dependent clauses are chiefly relative, or introduced by si, cum, dum, quod, or quia. 2. Occasionally short relative clauses are attracted into the infinitive. Those relative sentences in which qui = et is or nam is, quum = et turn, etc., usually have the infinitive. 3. Dum is sometimes found with the indicative, especially in the poets : as, die hospes Spartae nos te hie vidisse jacentes, dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur. P 226 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. The imperative in oratio recta becomes the imperfect subjunctive in 5ratio obliqua : As, fidem Pompeii implorarent : praestaret quod recepisset, calling on him to make good the promise he had made ; in oratio recta, praesta quod recepisti. 1. But the present and perfect subjunctive are sometimes found. (See 228, 9.) 3. Questions to which an answer is expected, are put in the subjunctive in 5ratio obliqua : As, Veios jam fore in potestate populi Romani : quid de praeda faciendum censerent 1 [Camillus reported] that Veii would soon be in the power of the Roman people, [and asked] what they thought should be done with the booty ; in oratio recta, quid de praeda faciendum censetis * 4. Mere rhetorical questions are generally treated as belong- ing to the principal clause, and are put in the infinitive in oratio obliqua : As, quid esse turpius quam auctore hoste capere consilium ? [the military tribunes asked indignantly,] what could be baser than to shape one's plans by an enemy's advice? in oratio recta, quid est turpius 1 5. When an indicative is found in 5ratio obliqua, it gives an assertion of the narrator, not of the person whose speech is reported : As, Caesar per exploratores certior factus est, ex ea parte vici quam Gallis concesserat, omnes discessisse, Caesar was informed through scouts that all had retired from that part of the town which he had granted to the Gauls. Quam Gallis concesserat is Caesar's explanation for his readers. Had it been part of what the scouts said, concessisset would have been used. 6. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, in the apodosis to a con- ditional sentence in oratio recta, are in oratio obliqua expressed in the active voice by the future participle with fuisse : in the passive by the periphrase futurum fuisse ut. The future participle with esse is used also for the present (and sometimes for the imperfect) subjunctive active; and fore or futurum esse ut for the present (and sometimes for the imper- fect) subjunctive passive. 7. The ordinary perfect infinitive is sometimes found, representing the pluperfect subjunctive of the oratio recta, in the same way as the indica- tive is sometimes used for the subjunctive in independent sentences. 8. The tenses of the infinitive are present, perfect, or future, according as the time would have been present, past, or future in the oratio recta. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 227 9. The tenses of the subjunctive are usually the imper- fect and the pluperfect, especially in commands or questions ; but the present and perfect are sometimes used, especially if the verb on which the whole indirect narration depends is in the present. 10. The two methods of reporting speech are illustrated in the following extract : OKATIO RECTA. Sipa- cem populus Romanus cum Hel- vetiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi tu eos constitueris atque esse volueris ; sin bello persequi perse verabis, remi- niscitor et veteris incommodi po- puli Romani et pristinae virtu tis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso u- num pagum adortus es, cum ii qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre iion poterant, ne ob earn rem aut tuae magnopere virtuti tribu- eris aut nos despexeris. Nos ita a patribus majoribusque nostris didi- cimus, ut magis virtute, quam dolo contendamus aut insidiis nitamur. Quare ne commiseris ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate po- puli Romani et internecione exer- citus nomen capiat aut memoriam prodat. OKATIO OBLIQUA. (Is ita cum Caesare egit) : Si pacem populus Romanus cum Hel- vetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset atque esse volu- isset : sin bello persequi persevera- ret, reminisceretur et veteris incom- modi populi Romani et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod impro- viso unum pagum adortus esset, cum ii qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magnopere vir- tuti tribueret aut ipsos despiceret : se ita a patribus majoribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute, quam . dolo contenderent aut insidiis ni- terentur. Quare ne committeret ut is locus ubi constitissent ex calami- tate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen caperet aut me- moriam proderet. 229. PRONOUNS IN ORATIO OBLIQUA. Instead of pronouns of the first and second persons, se, suus, ipse, is, and ille are used in oratio obliqua. Se and suus refer to the subject of the verb on which the narrative depends, unless another subject is introduced, in which case the reference is to be determined by the general sense. 1. Nos and noster are sometimes used by Caesar of the Roman people or Roman army generally. 2. Quisque, quisquam, quis, with the reflexive pronoun, sometimes show that the reflexive is to be referred to the subject of the clause in which it stands. 228 LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Ipse, by agreeing with the subject of a clause in which there is a reflexive pronoun, shows the reference of that pronoun to the subject of the clause, rather than to the principal subject : as, natura movet infantein ut se ipse dTligat. (Without ipse, se might have been referred to natura.) 4. Ipse may stand for se when antithetic to some other word (a noun, suns, or another pronoun) ; it then refers to the principal subject : as, pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum snis in gratiam rediret, the Lacedaemonians feared that he would withdraw from themselves, and return into favor with hi* own countrymen. 5. Hie and iste are rarely used in oratio obliqua. 6. Instances are found of is, ejus, where the ordinary rules would require se or suus. 230. VIRTUAL ORATIO OBLIQUA. A clause expressing the thoughts, words, or alleged rea- sons of another than the writer, takes the subjunctive. 1. Indirect statements of one's own former thoughts or words may take the constructions of the oratio obllqua. 2. While special rules are convenient for use, indirect questions, oratio obllqua, and petltio obliqua, may all be referred to the same principle. Note. The term petltio obllqua is applied to dependent constructions following verbs of wishing, commanding, permitting, oaring, striving, fearing, and the like. 231. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 1. Indirect questions take the subjunctive : As, ne utile quidem est sclre, quid futurum sit, it is not even advan- tageous to know what is to be in the future; qualis sit animus, ipse animus nescit ; natura declarat quid velit. Note 1. An indirect question is a dependent clause introduced by an interrogative pronoun or particle, and depending on some other verb or proposition. Note 2. All the words which are used in direct questions with the indicative take in dependent interrogative clauses the subjunctive; as, quis, quae, quid; qui, quae, quod; quot, qualis, quantus, quam, quando, ubi, unde, quare, cur, uter, quo, quomodo, quemadmodum, utrum, an, ne (enclitic), num. Sometimes also si. 2. Sometimes in the older writers, and occasionally in Horace and Vergil, an indicative is found in indirect questions : as, adspice ut antrum silve- stris raris sparsit labrusca racemis, see how the wild labrusca has sprinkled the cave with scattered grapes. 3. An interrogative clause sometimes accompanies the phrase quid ais, MOODS IN CAUSAL CLAUSES. 229 the imperatives die, vide, quaere, cedo, or the indicative quaeso, without being dependent on them, and hence has its verb in the indicative. 4. After nescio quis, nescio quid, nescio qui, nescio quod, nescio quo- modo, mirum quam, mlrum quantum, nimium quantum, and some similar expressions, which have come to express a single idea, the indicative is used, as it would be after aliquis, etc. But dubito an, nescio an, baud scio an, are of course followed by the subjunctive. 232. CAUSAL CLAUSES. Causal conjunctions, quod, quia, quoniam, quando, take the indicative when the writer states the cause or occasion as a fact, on his own responsibility, but the subjunctive if the reason is given as believed or stated by another party. In other words : Causal conjunctions take the indicative in direct dis- course, the subjunctive in indirect (or virtually indirect) : As, laudo te, quod rem tarn bene gessisti, that you have, as I see, man- aged, etc. ; Aristides expulsus est patria, quod praeter modum Justus esset, because, as the people said, he was too just ; Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset, because, as he alleged, he could not sleep. 1. The subjunctive sometimes intimates that the reason given is not the true reason : especially with non quod, or non quo ; after which the true reason is introduced by sed quod or sed quia with the indicative. 2. A writer or speaker may treat his own opinion as if it were that of another man, and thus use the subjunctive : intimating that at a certain time this was his opinion, without showing what his opinion now is ( 230, 1). 3. Quod takes the subjunctive of verbs meaning to say or think, when logically not these verbs, but the verbs depending upon them should have been in that mood : as, rediit, quod se oblitum nescio quid dlceret (= quod oblltus esset, or, quod se oblitum esse dlcebat) ; multi praetores quaestores et legates suos de provincia decedere jusserunt, quod eorum culpa se minus commode audire arbitrarentur. So with nego, puto, etc. 4. After verbs denoting a feeling of pain or joy, admiration, thanks, complaint, quod may be used, or, more often, the accusative and infinitive; after verbs denoting the expression of such feelings, quod is more often used than the accusative and infinitive. The mood after quod is deter- mined by general rules. 5. Quod is used in clauses explaining a demonstrative pronoun : as, con- tentus eo, quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset, content with this, that regard had been had, etc. 233. QUOD MEANING THE FACT THAT. Quod is used with the indicative (or subjunctive in oratio obliqua) to mean the fact that, or as regards the fact that. 20 230 LATIN GRAMMAR. Utile est patrem adisse means the presence of the father is useful, with- out implying whether he is present or not ; utile est, quod pater adest, signifies the father is present, and his presence is useful. Quod scrlbis, te ad me venturum, ego te istic esse volo, as regards your writing that you will come to see me, I wish you to remain where you are. Quid quod eadem mente res dissimillimas comprendimus ? what of the fact that, etc. Similarly nisi quod, with the exception that. SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE SUBJUNC- TIVE MOOD. 234. The present and perfect are used in sentences depend- ent on primary tenses ; the imperfect, aorist, and pluper- fect, in sentences dependent on secondary tenses. In other words: on primary tenses ( 66, 7) primary tenses follow; on secondary tenses, secondary. 1. The historical present may be followed either by primary or by sec- ondary tenses. In the former case the form governs, in the latter (which is more common), the meaning : as, rogat Rubrium ut quos ei commodum sit invltet; servis suis Rubrius ut januam clauderent imperat. 2. Even in sentences dependent on a secondary tense, the present is used of such actions as belong to the present time only : as, Siciliam ita vexavit, ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit, he did such damage to Sicily, that it cannot be restored. 3. A secondary tense may be used in the statement of a general truth, if the law of sequence requires, although the present is preferred in English. 4. The true perfect, though a primary tense, is sometimes followed by secondary tenses. 5. The perfect is used in consecutive sentences of a result completed in the present time only ; and the historical perfect, or aorist, of an event simply regarded as in past time, without reference to its being contemporaneous or prior to other past events: as, a. Aemilius Paullus tantum in aerarium pecuniae invexit ut unlus imperatoris praeda linem attulerit tributorum, has put an end ; b. tantum opes creverant, ut ne morte quidem Aeneae movere anna Etrusci ausi sint, did the Etrurians dare. Cicero rarely uses this aorist subjunctive ; Nepos often. 6. Clauses following an accusative with the infinitive are governed in tense by the leading verb on which the accusative itself depends. 7. After the primary tenses, the future is represented by the present subjunctive, the future perfect by the perfect subjunctive ; after secondary tenses, the future is represented by the imperfect, the future perfect by the pluperfect. But when future time is to be strongly marked, the active periphrastic conjugation is used (i. e., part, in -rus with sim or essem). THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 231 8. When the pluperfect subjunctive in the apodosis of a conditional sentence is subordinated, so as to form a clause of result or an indirect question, the periphrastic perfect subjunctive takes its place. THE INFINITIVE. 235. The Infinitive is an indeclinable verbal noun : but it may have a subject or object; it contains the notion of time ; it governs the case of its verb ; and it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives. 236. INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, OR AP- POSITIVE. The infinitive, with or without a subject-accusative, may be the subject QIC predicate of a finite verb, or used as an appositive: As, turpe est fugere, to fly is disgraceful; vlvere est cogitare, living is thinking; videtur sapiens esse, he seems to be wise; istuc ipsum, non esse cum fueris, miserrimum puto, I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when you have been. 1. The infinitive as subject is found chiefly with esse and impersonal verbs. 237. INFINITIVE AS OBJECT OF A VERB. The infinitive, with or without a subject-accusative, may be the object of a verb : As, vincere scis, Hannibal ; victoria uti nescis, you know how to win a victory, Hannibal, you do not know how to use it ; scio Caesarem abisse victorem, / know that Caesar came off victorious. 238, INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. The infinitive with a subject-accusative is governed by verbs signifying to feel, think, know, say, and the like : As, sentimus nivem esse albam, we perceive by our senses that snow is white; credunt se neglegi, they believe that they are neglected ; scio ple- rosque scripsisse, I know that most writers have recorded; nuntiat regi adversaries ejus in fuga esse, he informs the king that his enemies are in flight. Note 1. Such verbs are called verba sentiendi et decldrandi. The prin- cipal verbs of this kind are audio, video, sentio, animadverto, cognosco, intellego, percipio, disco, scio, credo, arbitror, puto, oplnor, duco, sta- tuo, memini, recorder, obliviscor; dlco, trado, prodo, scrlbo, refero, nuntio, confirmo, nego, ostendo, demonstro, perhibeo, promitto, polli- ceor, spondeo, and some others. 232 LATIN GRAMMAR. Note 2. For the accusative and infinitive after verbs of joy, pain, etc., see g 232, 4. Note 3. Where a clause containing an accusative with an infinitive is followed by a relative clause in which the same verb is understood, the subject of the latter clause is in the infinitive : as, Platonem ferunt censisse idem, quod Pythagoram (sc. sensisse). So in clauses introduced by quam after a comparative. a. Phrases equivalent to verbs, like certior factns est, auctor est, aliquem apes tenet, spem affero, etc., in like manner take the accusative and infinitive. 239. The accusative with the infinitive is the subject of the verb sum with a predicate, or of an impersonal verb : As, accusatores multos esse in ctvitate utile est, it is advantageous that there should be many accusers in a state; legem brevem esse oportet, a law ought to be brief ; facinus est cTvem vinoiri. 1. The subject cannot be expressed with the infinitive when it is an in- definite person ; hence we say ignoscere amico humanum est, to forgive a friend is becoming in a man; facinus est vincire civem Romanum, to bind a Roman citizen is a crime. 2. The verbs sum, and those denoting to appear, to be considered, to be called, require the predicate, if declinable, to agree with the unexpressed subject in the accusative : as, contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae; maguis in laudibus tota fere fuit Graecia victorem Olympiae citari ; fidelem esse in minimo magnum est; non esse emacem vectigal est. 3. The impersonals licet, decet, oportet, opns est, necesse est, are joined with the infinitive active alone, or with an accusative with the infinitive in the passive : as, ex malis eligere minima oportet ; ex malis eligi minima oportet. 240. The accusative with the infinitive stands by itself in exclamations, and in indignant questions : As, te mine, mea Terentia, sic vexari, idque fieri mea culpa, for thee now, my dear Terentia, to be in such distress! and thai this should happen by my fault ! mine incepto desistere victam, 7, vanquished, give up what I have undertaken ? 1. In these cases the accusative with the infinitive is the object of some unexpressed thought or feeling. 2. Tit with the subjunctive is also used in exclamatory questions: as, victamne ut quisquam victrici patriae praeferat, that any one should pre- fer a conquered to a victorious country ? THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 233 241. INFINITIVE AFTER CAN, WISH, OUGHT, AM ACCUSTOMED, ETC. Verbs which require to be followed by a second verb with the same subject govern the infinitive of that second verb : As, possum (or volo, audeo, debeo, soleo, etc.) hanc rem facere ; vin- cere scis, Hannibal ; victoria uti nescis ; non destitit monere ; institit sequi ; maturat proficisci ; mitte orare ; odi peccare ; Antium me recipere cogito ; nemo alteri concedere in animum inducebat. 1. Such are verbs signifying will, power, duty, purpose, custom, begin- ning, continuance, ending, neglect, etc. ; and in the poets other verbs ad- mitting a similar meaning figuratively ; also phrases of similar purport : as, habeo in animo, in animo est, consilium est, consilium cepi, certum est, animum (or in animum) induxi, etc. 2. Verbs denoting a determined purpose are found also with ut. 3. When these verbs are joined with esse, haberi, judicari, videri, and the like, the predicate is put in the nominative : as, solet tristis videri ; aude sapiens esse ; meretur (scit, didicit) liber esse. 4. Volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, studeo, have a twofold construction : the infinitive without a subject-accusative is used after them when the subject remains the same ; and when they are followed by esse, haberi, judicari, videri, etc., the predicate is in the nominative: but the accusa- tive with the infinitive is used when the subject is changed, or when the pronoun of the same person is repeated : as, volo erudltus fieri ; volo me erudltum fieri ; volo te eruditum fieri ; princgps esse maluit quam vi- deri ; principem se esse maluit quam videri. 5. The use of the nominative with the infinitive after other verba senti- endi et declarandi ( 238, n. 1) is very rare and poetical : as, vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus. 6. Vergil, in imitation of the Greek idiom, uses a participle in one pas- sage instead of an accusative with the infinitive : sensit medics delapsus in hostes, instead of se delapsum esse. 242. INFINITIVE, ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE, OR UT WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 1. Verbs denoting willingness, unwillingness, permission, and neces- sity, commonly take the infinitive or the accusative with the infinitive, but sometimes the subjunctive. 2. Volo takes after it the accusative with the infinitive passive. With the perfect infinitive, esse is often omitted : as, hoc factum volo. 3. Volo ut is more rare, but is used to express a strong emphasis. Malo takes either ut or the infinitive. 4. Patior and sino are generally followed by the accusative and infini- 20* 234 LATIN GRAMMAR. tive, sometimes by nt with the subjunctive ; opto, concede, permitto, may have either the infinitive or nt; posco, postnlo, flagito, cogo, more fre- quently ut. 5. Verbs of resolving and endeavoring are followed by nt or ne when the dependent clause has a subject of its own; when the same subject re- mains, they more often have an infinitive. 6. Verbs of asking, advising, exhorting, persnading, are followed by nt or ne. They take the infinitive only exceptionally. 7. Jubeo and veto take generally the accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, if the subject is a general word or easily understood ; sometimes the subjunctive with (or rarely without) ut or ne : as, eos suuni adventum exspectare jnssit; infandum jubes renovare dolorem; jussit nt naves Euboeam peterent ; jnbe mihi denuo respondeat; avarum veto te fieri ; desperatis Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicmam. Impero, besides the subjunctive, takes an infinitive in early and post- Augustan Latin, but only the passive infinitive in Cicero and Caesar. 8. Many Latin verbs which we might suppose would take the accusa- tive with the infinitive, take ut with the subjunctive, either exclusively, or admit the construction of the accusative with the infinitive besides. Observation of the usage of classic writers, and reference to lexicons for the tyro, will gradually teach the constructions usual with any partic- ular verb. 243. HISTORIC INFINITIVE. The infinitive is sometimes used with a nominative, when we might expect the imperfect indicative : As, pars cedere, alii inseqni ; neqne signa neque ordines observare ; ubi qnemque perlcnlum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propnlsari ; arma, tela, eqni, viri, hostes, elves permixti ; nihil consilio neqne imperio agi ; fors omnia regere, some were retiring, others pursuing ; keeping neither to their standards nor their ranks; where peril encountered each man, there was he resisting and repelling ; arms, darts, steeds, men, foes, country- men intermingled; nothing was proceeding by counsel or command; chance directed everything. 1. This is an absolute use of the infinitive. In time it is not always past, but sometimes present or general. 2. The historic infinitive is frequent in animated description. Only the present tense is used, except in praeteritives : as, odisse, meminisse. 244. SPECIAL USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 1. The poets sometimes use the infinitive after verbs to express purpose or destination : as, pecus egit altos vlsere monies ; fruges consumere nati ; loricam donat habere viro. THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 235 2. The infinitive sometimes follows nouns : as, tempus est jam majora oonari. 3. In poetry and later prose the infinitive sometimes follows adjectives : as, cantare perlti ; niveus videri. 4. The infinitive is very rarely dependent on prepositions : as, multum interest inter dare et accipere. 245. PERSONAL CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVES FOR IMPERSONAL. Instead of an impersonal passive of a verb of saying, relating, thinking, believing, finding, perceiving, commanding, or forbidding, or of the verb videri, followed by an accusative with the infinitive, a personal construc- tion is preferred, what would be the accusative being made the subject of the passive verb, and the infinitive subjoined : as, lectitavisse Platonem Demosthenes dlcitur, it is said that Demosthenes read Plato eagerly; malum mini videtur esse mors, it seems to me that death is an evil ; videris mini satis bene attendere, it seems to me that you are sufficiently heedful. 1. The personal form instead of the impersonal is sometimes found also in scrlbor, demonstror, audior, intellegor, and other verbs. It is the regular construction with jubeor, vetor, and videor. Poets and later writers extend this usage widely. 2. Videor has a similar personal use in a parenthesis with ut : as, ut mihi videbar, as it seemed to me. 3. With verbs of saying and thinking, the impersonal form is more usual in the compound tenses : as, traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse. 246. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. The Tenses in the Infinitive represent time as present, past, or future, relatively to the time of the principal verb in the clause. 1. The perfect infinitive is found as the object of a verb : a. When it is important to speak of the action or event as already done or ready : as, non potest non optasse, she cannot revoke the wish already made; but non potuit non optare, she could not help wishing ; malui di- xisse, / preferred to have done with speaking, i.e., to say no more; but malui dlcere, / preferred speaking ; debeo vloisse, I ought to be pro- nounced winner. b. .When the perfect is used like the Greek aorist. This conveys no idea of time, either as past or as continuing, but denotes a simple occurrence of the action. It is found in the oldest Latin and in Plautus and Terence, and was revived subsequently under Greek influence, as in Livy and the Augustan poets. It is not found in Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, and Tacitus. 236 LATIN GRAMMAR. Verg. : magnum si pectore possit excussisse deum ; Horat. : sunt qui nolint tetigisse. 2. But commentators have sometimes rashly called perfects infinitive aoristic, when they are true perfects and denote completed past time. 3. English and Latin idiom differ in the tense of the infinitive after verbs denoting power, duty, permission. In Latin the time is marked by the verb in the indicative, and the present infinitive is used, unless the action is to be stated as over before the time to which the leading verb refers : as, mini Ire licet, / may go ; mini Ire licuit, / might have gone ; facere debeo, I ought to do it ; facere debui, I ought to have done it. 4. Memini is used with the present (and sometimes the perfect) infinitive of events at which the speaker himself was present : as, memini Pamphy- lum mini narrare, / remember Pamphylus's telling me. So sometimes after such expressions as memoria teneo, scrlbit, accepimus. 5. For the future infinitive, both active and passive, the periphrase fore ut or futurum esse ut is often used. 6. Fore with the perfect participle, in deponent and passive verbs, cor- responds to the future perfect. 7. In the compound infinitive, the participle often is alone expressed, and esse or fuisse omitted. THE IMPERATIVE. 247. 1. The Imperative Present commands or entreats : As, perge quo coepisti, egredere ex urbe, proficiscere, proceed on your chosen path, quit the city, go forth; pergite, adulescentes, atque in id studium in quo estis incumbite, go on, young men, and devote yourselves to that study on which you are engaged. 2. The Imperative Future may either entreat or command ; but it oftener commands, and is used especially in legal formularies: as, cum faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venlto, when I shall be sacrificing a calf for the crops, do you come yourself; regio imperio duo sunto, there shall be two magistrates with royal pmcer. Note. The imperative future often puts a command in connection with some other action, and denotes that something is to be done in future when, or as soon as, something else takes place or has taken place : as in the first example above, and, cum valetudini tuae consulueris, turn consulito na- vigation!. 3. The second person of the Future Indicative may be substituted for the imperative in familiar style, in affirmative sentences, and the third person of the Present Subjunctive in advice or exhortation. The second person of the Present Subjunctive may be used of an indefinite subject. 4. Ne with the Imperative Present is found in poetry, but IMPERATIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 237 is rare in prose. It is used in legal forms with the Imperative Future : As, equo ne credite ; hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepellto neve urito, thou shalt not bury or burn. 5. Instead of the negative imperative, we may have the second person of the Future Indicative with non, the second person of the Perfect Sub- junctive with ne, and the third person of the Present or (rarely) the Per- fect Subjunctive with ne : as, non facies ; ne transieris Iberum ; ilium jocum ne sis aspernatus ; puer telum ne habeat ; capessite rempublicam, neque quemquam metus ceperit. Note 1. The second person of the present subjunctive may be used, both affirmatively and negatively, when the subject is indefinite : as, isto bono ut3re, dum adsit, cum absit, ne requlras. Note 2. As not is expressed by ne, so is nor by neve or neu. But non and neque or nee are sometimes found in the poets. The non, however, often serves rather to qualify a single word in the sentence. 6. Periphrases of the imperative are made by fac, fac ut, curaut, velim, with the subjunctive, and in poetry by memento with the subjunctive or the infinitive ; and negatively by fac ne, cave, nolim, with the subjunc- tive, by noli, and in poetry parce, mitte, omitte, absiste, fuge, and similar words with the infinitive : magnum fac animum habeas, mind you have a lofty spirit ; cura ut valeas, take care of your health ; aequam memento servare mentem, remember to keep an even mind ; cave facias, beware of doing it; hoc nolim me jocari putes, I would not have you think I say this in jest ; nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, do not wish what cannot be ; mitte sectari, search not; fuge suspicari, do not suspect. 7. Imperative phrases are softened by the polite expressions sis (= si vis), sultis, sodes, amabo, etc., please, pray : as, refer te, sis, ad verita- tem ; hoc agite sultis ; id agite, amabo. 8. An imperative of the perfect passive is found, though very rarely : as, admoniti este, Ov., and Caesar's famous cry, jacta alea esto ! PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 248. Active participles govern the same cases as their verbs : As, amans virtutem; faventes rebus Carthaginiensium ; catulorum obllta leaena ; arcens reditu tyrannum ; utendum est aetate. 249. Participles represent time as present, past, or future, relatively to the- time of the principal verb : As, Plato scrlbens mortuus est, Plato died while writing ; Alexander, Persidis fines aditurus, urbem Archelao tradidit, Alexander, when about 238 LATIN GRAMMAR. to enter the borders of Persia, gave up the city to Archelaus ; pleraeque scribuntur orationes habitae jam, non ut habeantur, most speeches are written after being delivered, etc. 1. The future participle sometimes denotes purpose: as, Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum, Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to get provisions for the winter. See 253, n. 2. The want of a present passive participle is supplied by a passive verb with a relative or particle : as, pueri, qui docentur, discunt (or cum do- centur, dum docentur), children learn by being taught. 3. There being no participle corresponding to the English perfect active, except in deponent verbs, its want is supplied by an active verb, with a relative or particle, or by an ablative absolute passive : as, Tarquinium regem qui non tulerim, Sicinium feram, having refused to endure Tarquin as king, shall I endure Sicinius ? Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus abstinuit, Alexander, having slain Clitus, hardly abstained from suicide; Pompeius, captis Hierosolymis, victor ex illo iano nihil attigit, Pompey, having taken Jerusalem, in the very moment of victory, meddled with nothing belonging to that temple. 4. The want of a future passive participle is supplied by a verb with a relative : as, grata super veniet quae non sperabitur hora. 250. THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE. Participles are often used to denote the circumstances of an action, such as time, cause, manner, means, purpose, condition, concession : As, Herculem Germani ituri in proelia canunt, the Germans when about to march to battle chant Hercules ; Hephaestio longe omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandro, cum ipso pariter educatus, of all his friends He- phaestion was by far the dearest to Alexander, because he had been brought up with him; aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit, the air by flowing this way and that produces the winds ; mllites, pilis missis, phalangem hostium perfregerunt, the soldiers by hurling their javelins broke through the pha- lanx of the enemy ; Catilma ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi, Catiline goes to the army, intending to march on the city; epistulae offen- dunt, non loco redditae, letters annoy, if not delivered in season ; scripta tua jam diu exspectans, non audeo tamen flagitare, though I have long been looking for your writings, yet I dare not demand them. 1. Clauses of concession are sometimes called adversative. 2. Nisi, etsi, quamquam, quamvis, quasi, may be found with participial conditional and adversative clauses, especially in later writers. SOME PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 239 251, SOME PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 1. Participles may be used instead of a relative clause : as, PIsistratus Homeri libros, confuses antea, disposuit, Pisistratus arranged the books of Homer, which were heretofore confused. 2. The English idiom " without," followed by a participle or verbal noun, is often represented in Latin by the participle accompanied by some neg- ative expression : as, Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die, Nature has given the loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing any day for repayment. 3. In such forms as hoc cognitum habeo, and the corresponding expres- sion in Greek, we see the origin of the perfect tense in modern languages, as made up of the auxiliary have and the past participle. But in the clas- sical languages the have is used in its full sense of present possession, and is no mere auxiliary. Besides habeo, teneo and possideo and other verbs are used in the same way with perfect passive participles. 4. The Perfect Participle is elegantly used when in English we should have a verbal noun : As, anno urbis conditae, in the year from the building of the city; Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis et receptus Hannibal et bellum ad- versus Eumenem motum faciebat, both the reception of Hannibal and the beginning of war against Eumenes made king Prusias an object of sus- picion to the Romans. Note. Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the neuter of the perfect passive participle as a passive verbal noun. 5. Still more frequently is the Gerundive used where we use a noun : As, de urbe tradenda, concerning the delivery of the city ; temperantia constat ex praetermittendis voluptatibus, temperance consists in absti- nence from bodily pleasures ; ante conditam condendamve urbem, before the actual or designed foundation of the city. 6. A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two verbs: as, Caesar scribit se cum legionibus profectum celeriter adfore, Caesar writes word that he has set out with his legions and will soon arrive. 7. A Participial construction is often involved with an indirect question or a relative clause, so that it can hardly be translated without periphrase : as, cogitate quantis laboribus fundatum imperium, quanta virtute sta- billtam llbertatem una nox paene delerit, think how vast the toil that founded this empire, how great the valor that established this freedom, which a single night all but destroyed. 8. The nouns man, men, things, are frequently understood with Parti- ciples : as, beatos puto, quibus datum est aut facere scribenda aut scribere 240 LATIN GRAMMAR. loquenda, I deem them blest, to whom -it has been given either to do things worthy to be written, or to write things worthy to be spoken of; grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto, let those that would utter a sublime strain cull mists on Helicon. 9. Some Participles are sometimes used as Adjectives : such are negle- gens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, venerandus, etc. 10. Some Participles are sometimes used as Nouns : such are amans, adulescens, sponsus, nupta, sponsa, coeptum, dictum, factum, praece- ptum, etc. Neuter Participles so used are sometimes modified by Adverbs : as, verum est fortes et sapientes viros non tarn praemia sequi solere recte factotum quam ipsa recta facta. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 252. Gerunds govern the same case as their verbs : As, spes satisfaciendi reipublicae ; et agendi aliquid et dlligendi aliquos principia in nobis continemus ; parsimonia est ars re familiar! moderate utendi. 1. A transitive gerund in classic authors seldom takes an accusative ex- cept of pronouns or neuter plural adjectives : as, aliquid, multa, omnia, etc. But it may do so for the sake of rhythm or perspicuity : as, salutem hominibus dando. 2. Instead of the Gerund with its object in the Accusative, the Gerundive is generally used, the Gerundive taking the gender and number of its object, and the object taking the case of the Gerund : As, tuendae urbis, of protecting the city (for tuendi urbem) ; ad llbe- randos elves, for freeing the citizens (for ad ITberandum elves). Note. This is the substitution of a passive for an active construction : thus, for consilium scrlbendi epistulam, the design of writing a letter, we have more frequently consilium scrlbendae epistulae, lit. th'e design of a letter to be written. 3. The Gerund is preferred where the Gerundive would cause an am- biguity as to gender. 4. The Genitive of Gerunds and Gerundives defines Nouns and Adjec- tives : as, ars canendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ; cupidus audiendi. 5. The Genitive of a Gerund is sometimes found governing a Genitive case instead of an Accusative : as, facultas agrorum latronibus donandi. 6. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive in the predicate after esse sometimes denotes the purpose which a thing serves or the end to which it tends : as, regium imperium initio conservandae llbertatis atque augendae GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 241 libertatis fuerat ; tribuni plebis concordiam ordinum timent, quam dissol- vendae maxime tribuniciae potestatis rentur esse. 7. In a few writers, especially later ones, the Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used to denote the purpose of an action : as, Germanicus in Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis. In better Latin causa or gratia is added. 8. The genitives of the personal pronouns, mei, tui, etc., being really genitives of the neuter adjective pronoun, with them the Gerundive is used without variation for gender and number : as, sui conservandi ; sui colli- gendi facultas, the power of collecting themselves together ; vestri adhor- tandi causa, for the sake of exhorting you. 9. The Dative of Gerunds and Gerundives is used after adjectives which take a dative, and sometimes after nouns and verbs to express the purpose or design: as, aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo, nitrous water is useful for drinking; studere revocandis regibus, to plot for recalling the kings. 1. To express purpose, the Accusative of the Gerund or Gerundive with ad, or ut with the subjunctive, is more common in Cicero. 2. The adjectives and verbs or phrases most used with the Dative of Gerunds and Gerundives are utilis, inutilis, noxius, aptus, idoneus, par ; studere, intentum esse, tempus impendere or consumere or insumere, praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere, sufficere, satis esse, deesse, and esse in the sense of serving for or being adequate to. 3. The following are examples of the predicative use after esse : quae diutinae obsidioni tolerandae erant, the things which were serviceable for enduring a long siege; divites, qui oneri ferendo erant, the rich, who were able to bear the burden; solvendo non eras, you were insolvent (lit., not adequate for paying, not able to pay). 10. The purpose of an office is stated in the Dative : as, triumvir divi- dendis agris, one of the three commissioners to divide the lands ; tresviri rei publicae constituendae. 11. The Accusative of Gerunds and Gerundives is governed by preposi- tions : most commonly ad or inter ; sometimes ante, circa, in, ob, or post : as, haec ad judicandum sunt facillima ; magna summa erogata est in servos armandos. Note. Instead of the accusative gerund with a direct object, the ge- rundive construction is always used: as, missus est. ad animos regurn perspiciendos. 12. The Accusative of the Gerundive, agreeing with an object, is used after such verbs as do, trado, conduce, loco, propono, euro, habeo, to denote purpose : as, ediscendos fastos populo proposuit, he published the calendar for the people to learn by heart ; Caesar pontem in Arare faciundum curat. (On the Accusative with ad, see g 252, 9, 1.) Note. If the governing verb is put in the passive, the gerundive be- comes a predicate nominative. 21 Q 242 LATIN GRAMMAR. 13. The Ablative of Gerunds and Gerundives is used of means, manner, or cause, or is governed by ab, de, ex, or in, rarely pro, and very rarely super : as, Caesar dando gloriam adeptus est ; hodie stat Asia Luculli insti- tutis servandis ; de contemnenda morte ; in accusando atque in explican- dis crlminibus operam consumpsi. Note. The ablative gerund is rarely used with a direct object depending on it, unless it be a neuter pronoun : as, ndmen legis Graece a suum cuique tribuendo ductum est. 14. The neuter Gerundive may be used impersonally, either without case, or with the dative or ablative: as, bibendum est, we must drink ; serviendum est legibus, it is right to comply with the laws; utendum est aetate. Note 1. This is called by some grammarians the nominative of the Gerund. Note 2. In old Latin an object in the accusative is found : as, aeternas quoniam paenas in morte timendumst. 15. Transitive verbs have a personal gerundive construction : as, aqua bibenda est. 16. The Gerundive often takes a dative of the person concerned or to whom the action is related : as, moriendum est omnibus. ( 157, 1.) An ablative of the agent with ab may be used, if required for perspicuity. 17. The Gerundive when used attributively implies obligation, destiny, or desert; and in negative sentences it sometimes ap- proaches the meaning of possibility : As, venerandus a nobis et colendus est, he should be worshipped and honored; delenda est Karthago, Carthage must be destroyed; labores aut jam exhaustos aut mox exhauriendos, destined soon to be spent ; vix erat credendum, it could scarcely be believed; labores non fugiendos, that can- not be shunned. SUPINES. 253, ACCUSATIVE SUPINE. The accusative supine, after verbs expressing or implying motion, denotes purpose : As, lusum it Maecenas, dormltum ego, Maecenas goes off to play ball, I to go to bed. Note. Purpose is more often expressed in other ways : thus, for eunt consultum Apollinem, we may have ut consulerent, qui consulerent, ad consulendum, consulendi causa, and, less frequently, consulturi. 1. This supine may govern a case : as, Hannibal defensum patriam revdcatus est, to defend his country. SUPINES. PARTICLES. 243 2. The implication of motion is sometimes only indirect : as, coctum con- ductus sum, I was hired to cook. 3. Ire with the accusative supine means to set about : as, ultum Ire, to set about to revenge. Hence the use of the impersonal passive infinitive Tri with the supine to make a passive infinitive future : as, audierat non datum Tri filio uxorem, lit., that there is not a going to give a wife to his son, i. e. that a wife will not be given to his son. 254. ABLATIVE SUPINE. The supine in -u is an ablative of specification. It limits fas, nefas, opus, and adjectives meaning good or evil, easy or difficult, pleasant or unpleasant, fit or unfit : As, nefas visu, (horrible in the seeing) horrible to behold; turpe diotu, (shameful in the saying) shameful to say. 1. The ablative supine is found rarely after verbs : as, pudet dictu, Tac. 2. The supine in -u is found very rarely as an ablative of separation : as, vilicus primus oubitu surgat, postremus cubitum eat (Cato). PARTICLES. 255. ADVERBS. 1. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, participles, and sometimes other adverbs : As, prudenter agit ; male salsus ; domus celeriter exstructa ; satis bene. 2. Adverbs sometimes qualify nouns, but very rarely, and only when the noun is used as an adjective or participle, or when a participle is under- stood : as, admodum puer, very much like a boy, very young; late rex (= late regnaus); gravibus superne ictibus, blows coming from above; circa clvitatum (of states round about), of neighboring states. 256. TWO NEGATIVES. Two negatives destroy each other : As, nulla non arte petitus, sought by every art (with no art untried). 1. Not only does non before a negative word (as nemo, nunquam, nescio) make it affirmative, but neque gets the affirmative sense of et when fol- lowed by a negative word in the same proposition : as, neque haec non evenerunt, and this came to pass indeed. 2. Non followed by ne quidem remains negative : as, non fugio ne hos quidem mores, / do not shun even this character. So neque neque, neve neve, following a negative leading proposition, are translated like aut aut. Ne non after vide must be rendered by whether. LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Non modo, or non solum, is used before sed ne quidem, or sed vix, where at first thought we should expect to find non modo non, non solum non. The negation in ne quidem belongs conjointly to both clauses; or we may say, with Herzog, that it changes the affirmation of the verb to ne- gation. 4. In a few cases two negatives strengthen the negation, as in Greek : an exceptional usage, from the language of common life. 257. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Co-ordinative conjunctions (g 101, 2) connect words or clauses which are on an equality with each other. 2. In quick and lively discourse the copulative conjunctions are some- times omitted. This is called asyndeton. 3. Three or more co-ordinate words may be connected each with the preceding by a conjunction ; or the conjunction may be omitted entirely ; or it may be omitted between the first members and que annexed to the last. Thus we may say fides et constantia et justitia, or fides, constan- tia, justitia, or fides, constantia, justitiaque. 4. Two words essentially different in meaning are separated by aut. Vel (for velis, choose you) denotes a distinction which is of no great im- portance, or relates only to the choice of an expression. 5. The meaning of -ve is similar to that of vel. With numerals it means or at most: as, bis terve, twice or (at most) three times ; while bis terque means two or three times (at least). 6. When two words are united by a conjunction, which stands also before the first, withoufconnecting it with a preceding word, the first et is trans- lated both, the first aut or vel, either, the first sive, whether, the first nee or neque, neither. So cum . . . turn, may be rendered by not only . . . but. also; both . . . and; tnm . . . turn, at one time . . .at another time. 7. After words of likeness, ac and atque signify a*; after words of un- likeness, than, or sometimes from or to. 8. Subordinative Conjunctions (\ 101, 3) connect a secondary clause to a primary or leading clause. 258. INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 1. In simple questions, -ne asks only for information ; nonne expects the answer yes ; num expects the answer no : As, sentisne, do you feel? nonne sentis, do you not feel? num sentis, do you feel ? you do not feel, do you ? 2. Ne is appended to the emphatic word. It remains true that the par- ticle itself does not imply either an affirmati ve or a negative answer, although this emphasis sometimes gives a rhetorical effect similar to that of num or INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 245 nonne : as, potestne virtus servlre, is it possible that virtue should be en- slaved ? ( No. ) Mene istud potuisse facere putas, do you believe that / would have done that ? (Certainly not.) Videsne, ut in proverbio sit ovorum inter se similitude, do you see, where he might have said, do you not see f 3. In conversational language, the final e in -ne is often omitted: as nostin, tun ; also a preceding s in some verbs : as, ain, scin, viden, audin, for aisne, etc. 4. Rarely in poetry, ne is appended to interrogative adjectives, and even to the relative pronoun. 5. Questions are sometimes found without any interrogative particle or pronoun. They generally denote surprise or some strong feeling, or are purposely abrupt. 6. In alternative questions, utrum or -ne are generally used in the first member of the sentence, and an in the second and subsequent clauses : As, utrum nescis quam alte escenderis, an pro nihilo id putas ? vosne L. Domitium, an vos Domitius deseruit? 7. Sometimes there is no interrogative particle in the first clause, and the second has an or (chiefly in indirect questions) -ne : as, eloquar , an sileam ? nihil interesse nostra putamus, valeamus aegrlne slums. 8. Utrumne is sometimes found for utrum, anne for an. 9. Ne . . . ne, an ... an, are rare, and found chiefly in the poets ; utrum . . . ne, very rare. 10. Or not is annon, rarely necne, in direct questions, necne, rarely an- non, in indirect : as, sortietur, an non * sunt haec tua verba, necne T dii utrum sint, necne, quaeritur. 11. Those are not alternative (or disjunctive) questions in which aut is interposed, and not an : as, quid ergo, solem dlcam aut lunam aut caelum deum, what then, shall I apply the name of God to the sun or moon or sky f Here there is no real opposition, but the three terms may all be equally affirmed or denied. 12. The old construction, utrum, which of the two f has after it -ne . . . an : as, ntrum, studione id sibi habet, an laudi putat fore, si perdiderit gnatum? (Ter.) Utrum erat utilius, suisne servire, an populo Romano obtemperare? (Cic.) 13. An stands not only in the second member of a disjunctive question, but also in simple questions used to complete and emphasize what precedes : asking, what must be the case otherwise, or what must be the case then; or answering a question under the form of a question ; or adding in an inter- rogative form some conjecture respecting what is asked : as, necesse est quidquid pronunties, id aut esse aut non esse. An tu dialecticis ne im- butus quidem es ? what you put forward must needs either be or not be. Or are you not acquainted with even the first elements of logic f sed ad 21* 246 LATIN GRAMMAR. haec, nisi molestum est, habeo quae velim. An me, inquam, nisi te audlre vellem, censes haec dicturum fuisse? do you, then, believe, etc. Quid ais ! an venit Pamphilus? what do you say f Has Pamphilus come? nos hie te exspectamus ex quodam rumore, an ex litteris tuis ad alios missis, on the authority of some rumor, or (am I right f) of letters of yours sent to other persons. 14. In dependent clauses num means whetJier, and only asks the ques- tion ; si is sometimes found in the sense of whether ; and so an in later writers and the poets. 15. After haud scio, nescio, dubito, dubium, or incertum est, and some other expressions of uncertainty, an means whether not, and the whole ex- pression signifies perhaps ; I am inclined to think that. (See 231, 4.) 16. An answer in the affirmative may be given by etiam, ita or ita est, sic or sic est, verum, vero, factum, sane, maxume, quidni ? admodum, oppido, plane, by a personal pronoun with vero, or by the verb of the preceding sentence repeated. 17. An answer in the negative may be given by non, minume, nihil minus, ne . . . quidem. 18. Immo, nay, always corrects the preceding expression ; but sometimes only to substitute a stronger affirmation. ORDER OF WORDS. 259. As the connection and construction of words in Latin can be known from their inflection, their position is not de- termined by such strict and definite rules as in English, but admits of great variety. That order is to be preferred which is most easily understood, marks out the more emphatic words, and gives an agreeable sound and rhythm The following rules give some idea of the normal or most usual order. Many of them may be superseded, however, by the demands of rhythm or emphasis. 1. The subject is put first, its modifiers next, the verb last, and the object and other modifiers of the predicate are put between : As, ego te ob egregiam virtutem semper amavi ; cur ego tuas partes suscipio 1 cur M. Tullius P. Africani monumenta requirit, P. Scipio eum, qui ilia sustulit, defendit 1 Note. When the subject is closely connected with a clause following the verb, it may be placed after the verb. ORDER OF WORDS. 247 2. Poets use great freedom in the order of their words : as, Ponitur ad patrios barbara praeda decs. (Ov.) 3. The Preposition stands before the noun, either immediately, or with the interposition of such expressions only as qualify the noun : as, consul de bello ad populum tulit; sine ullo metu et summa cum honestate; haec officia pertinent ad earum rerum, quibus utuntur homines, facul- tatem ; ad bene beateque vivendum. 4. The preposition is sometimes placed between an adjective which is emphatic, or a pronoun (or rarely a genitive case), and the noun : as, magna ex parte ; tribus de rebus ; paucos post menses ; summa cum cnra ; ea de causa ; qua in urbe ; quorum de virtutibus ; deorum in mente. 5. Some prepositions, chiefly dissyllabic, occasionally stand after a relative pronoun : as, is, quern contra venerat. (See 131, 5.) Cum is always suffixed to personal and usually to relative pronouns. (See g 57, 7; 62,9.) 6. The following examples show the freedom often used by the poets in placing their prepositions : avem caelo dejecit ab alto ; foedera regum vel Gabiis vel cum rigidis aequata Sabinis. 7. Adverbs, and Oblique Cases of nouns and adjectives, stand before the verb or adjective to which they belong : as, bellum civile opinione ple- rumque et fama gubernatur; multi autem, Gnathonum similes, sunt loco, fortuna, fama superiores. Note 1. Adverbs may be placed for emphasis at the beginning or end of the sentence ; and they may be inserted without emphasis between the more prominent words. Note 2. Adverbs which qualify an adjective or another adverb almost always stand before it. But admodum can be placed after an adjective which is emphatic. An adverb of degree (as multo) may stand for emphasis at the beginning of the clause or sentence, and the adjective be put farther along : as, multo ejus oratio esset pressior. 8. Negatives stand before the word they qualify ; hence before the verb (but not always immediately before it) when they apply to the whole proposition : as, non te reprehendo, sed fortunam ; intellegere sane non possum. Instead of non dico, nego is generally used : as, negavit eum adesse, he said he was not there; (not, he denied, etc.) Note. Ne quidem takes the emphatic word between the two particles : as, ne joco quidem. 9. Attributes, whether adjectives, nouns in apposition, or oblique cases, usually follow their noun ; but the reverse order is frequent, and is the rule with demonstrative pronouns and adjectives of number and quan- tity : as, vir bonus ; praemeditatio rerum futurarum ; Balbus quaestor, magno pondere auri, majore argenti coacto de publico exactionibus, Kal, Juniis trajecit se in regnum Bogudis ; ejus disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi, quas hoc libro exposui ; tribus modis. 248 LATIN GRAMMAR. But a demonstrative may be placed after, if it is desirable to bring it into close connection with the relative : as, mediocritatem illam tenebit, quae est inter nimiura et parum. 10. In many expressions the order of the words is fixed by custom : as, populus Romanus, civis Romanus, res familiaris, res gestae, aes alie- num, jus civile, senatus consultum, magister equitum, tribunus plebi, pontifez maximus, fiona Dea, Jupiter optimus maximus, Carthago Nova, Via Appia, terra marique, etc. In a few cases this order is found reversed, for emphasis. 11. A monosyllabic noun almost invariably precedes a longer adjective : as, res innumerabiles ; di immortales ; rex potentissimus. 12. When a noun is qualified by both an adjective and a genitive, or by both a genitive and a prepositional expression, the adjective in the first case, the genitive in the second place, is usually put first, and the other attribute placed between that and the noun : as, amicitia nullam aetatis degendae rationem patitur esse expertem sui ; cujus rationis vim ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et judicio volumine accepimus. 13. Eelative pronouns regularly stand at the beginning of their clause ; never after their verb : as, hie est quern quaerimus ; quae cum ita sint, hoc loquor. 14. But sometimes an emphatic word, or words, is placed before the rela- tive, especially when the demonstrative sentence is put after the relative sentence : as, Tarentum vero qua vigilantia, quo consilio, (Fabius) recepit? Romam quae apportata sunt, ad aedem Honoris et Virtutis videmus (to Rome, in contrast with what remained at Syracuse). 15. The relatives may be used for the demonstratives with et : e. g., qui for et is, qualis for et talis, quo for et eo. They may therefore be placed before those conjunctions which can be connected with et or autem : as, quod cum audivissem, quod si fecissem, quod quamvis non ignorassem, for et cum hoc, et si hoc, et quamvis or cum autem hoc. 16. Connective adverbs and interrogative pronouns usually stand at the head of their clause, or only after words, such as relative or demon- strative pronouns, which refer to the preceding sentence. They never come after their verb. Note. But in poetry we have freer position. 17. Words belonging to two or more co-ordinate words or expressions should strictly be put either before them all or after them all. But, partly for rhythm's sake, the common word is often put after the first of the co- ordinated words : as, jam viris vires, jam ferro sua vis, jam consilia ducibus deerant; an tu existimas fuisse turn alios medicos, qui morbis, alios qui volneribus, alios qui oculis mederentur ^ Note 1. In poetry irregularities occur: as, pacis eras mediusque belli (for bellique medius). Note 2. When the same verb belongs to several clauses, it is more com- ORDER OF WORDS. 249 mon in Latin to place it in the last clause, and understand it in those pre- ceding. The reverse is the rule in English. 18. Hiatus, or the concurrence of long vowels at the end of one word and the beginning of another, should be avoided as much as possible. A concurrence of short vowels, or of a long vowel followed by a short, is not objectionable. 19. The more easy and familiar the style of composition, the less formal is the arrangement of the words. 20. The position of the following particles may be specially noticed : Nam, always, namque, almost always, stands at the beginning ; Enim, always after one word, seldom after two ; Ergo, therefore, either first, or after an important word of the sentence : as, hunc ergo, quid ergo ; when it denotes not a conclusion, but only a transition, it almost always stands after a word ; Igitur, usually after one or two words, or even after more words, if they are closely connected ; it is also put first, especially in Sallust ; Itaque, therefore, consequently, almost always at the beginning, in good prose ; Tamen, at the beginning, except where a single word is to be made em- phatic by antithesis ; Etiam, also, even, before the word it qualifies ; but also after it, especially if the word is put at the beginning of the sentence for the sake of em- phasis ; Quoque, quidem, and demum, immediately after the word they qualify ; Autem, and vero, after a word, or two closely connected words: as, de republica vero ; autem, even after several words, which cannot well be Ne, assuredly, is prefixed to a personal or demonstrative pronoun, except in a peculiar class of answers in Plautus. Note. If enim, autem, or igitur, and est or sunt, come near together, the verb usually stands without emphasis in the second place, if the prop- osition begins with the emphatic word : as, nemo est autem ; sapientia est enim una, quae maestitiam pellat ex animis. But the verb is put in the third place, if the emphasis falls more on the words which come after it: as, cupiditates enim sunt insatiabiles. 21. The pronoun quisque almost always stands in the relative proposi- tion, when a relative and demonstrative proposition are combined, and immediately after the relative. 260. Emphasis suggests the following rules : 1. Any word which is to be made prominent is placed at or near the beginning of the sentence, or sometimes, if not the primary predicate, at 250 LATIN GRAMMAR. the end (as an unusual position) : as, a mails mors abducit, non a bonis ; dedi veniam horaini impudenter petenti ; sequemur igitur hoc tempore et in hae quaestione potissimum Stoicos. 2. The ordinary place of the verb being at the end, it is emphatic when at the beginning of the sentence; in other positions than these, it makes the preceding word or words emphatic : as, Saguntum vestri circumsident exercitus ; rnox Karthaginem circumsidebunt Romanae legiones. 3. As the first place is allotted to emphatic words, in the second place in the sentence unimportant words are often thrown in ; such words as are rather slurred over in reading. 4. An unemphatic word is sometimes put between words connected with one another, partly to throw the words before it into greater relief, partly to prevent itself occupying a more important position in the sentence. So especially est, sunt, etc. : as, qui in fortunae periculis sunt ac varietate versati; priinum Marcelli ad Nolam praelio populus se Romanus erexit. 5. Contrasted and kindred words are put next to one another : as, ego Q. Fabium, senem adulescens, ita dilexi ut aequalem; quaedam falsa veri speciem habent ; quid quod tu te ipse in custodiam dedisti? 6. Contrasted pairs of words are often put with the words in one pair in a reverse order to that of the other pair ; two of the contrasted words still often being together as by last rule. This figure is called chiasmus, i. e. crossing, from the Greek letter X : as, ratio enim nostra consentit, re- pugnat oratio ; cum spe vincendi simul abjecisti certandi etiam cupidi- tatem; clariorem inter Eomanos deditio Postumium, quarn Pontum incruenta victoria inter Samnites fecit ; cedere alius, alius obtruncari. 7. Where cumulative effect, or a sense of similarity rather than contrast, is desired, the same order of words is preserved in the component clauses. This figure is called anaphora, i. e. repetition : as, his similes sunt omnes qui virtuti student: levantur vitiiSj levantur erroribus; ut non nequi- quam tantae virtutis homines judicari deberet ausos esse transire latissi- mum flumen, ascendere altissimas rupes, subire iniquissimum locum. 261. Rhythm admits of no definite rules being given, but suggests : 1. That short words or expressions occupying a distinct position as sub- ject, predicate, etc., be put first : as, erant ei veteres inirnicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis ; terrebat et proximus annus lugubris duorum consulum funeribus ; movet ferocem animum juvenis seu ira seu detrectandi certa- minis pudor seu inexsuperabilis vis fati. 2. That there be variety in the arrangements of neighboring sentences as regards prosody and syntax. (Thus chiasmus and anaphdra are often found together.) Examples : Vide quid intersit inter tuam libidinem majorumque auctoritatem, inter amorem furoremque tuum et illorum consilium atque prudentiam. Adde hue fontium gelidas perenuitates, liquores perlucidos amnium, riparum vestitus viridissimos, speluncarum concavas amplitu- ORDER OF WORDS. dines, saxorum asperitates, impendentium montium altitudines immensi- tatesque camporum : adde etiam reconditas auri argentique venas infini- tamque vim marmoris. 3. As the rhythm of prose is essentially distinct from that of verse, all verse endings should be avoided at the close of a sentence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and spondee : as, essg vldetur. The occasional use of such endings, and even of a full verse, in the his- torians, may be justified by the context, but should not be imitated in ordinary prose. 4. The following is a table of cadences approved by Cicero and Quintilian : glorfam comparavlt ; membra firmarunt ; essg vldgatur ; cogltans sentlo ; tin Sciplo ; varfStates ; plurlbus de causis ; vlrum condemnarunt ; vlderi ; ndvissg. 262. Position of subordinate sentences. 1. Subordinate sentences, except those which express a result, follow the rule of qualificatory words or phrases : i. e., they are put before the prin- cipal sentence to which they belong ; either before the whole of it or before all but a few words : as, cum hostium copiae non longe absunt, etiamsi inruptio nulla facta est, tamen pecunia relinquitur, agricultura deseritur. Qui autem ita faciet, ut oportet, primum vigilet in deligendo (quern imi- tetur), deinde, quern probavit, in eo, quae maxime excellent, ea diligentis- sime persequatur. Quid autem agatur cum aperuero, facile erit statuere quam sententiam dicatis. 2. A short principal sentence or clause is often prefixed to the whole or part of the subordinate sentence, especially if this be a dependent interrogative : as, Stoicorum autem non ignoras quam sit subtile vel spinosum potius dis- serendi genus. 263. A Period consists of at least two, and generally several sentences, so connected that the grammatical construction is not complete till the last clause is added. 1. A Period (nepioSos) is so called because the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses. 2. By being grouped together in due order, the clauses of a period pro- duce the effect of logical completeness, and of that sonorous and dignified expression which accorded well with the majesty and dignity of the Roman character. (Kennedy.) 3. The usual arrangement of clauses in a period is analogous to that of words in a simple sentence, viz. : First : The word or clause containing the subject, with the words or clauses immediately connected with it ; Second : The words or clauses denoting the time, place, motive ; Third : The word or clause expressing the remoter object ; 252 LATIN GRAMMAR. Fourth : The word or clause expressing the immediate object ; Fifth : The principal verb. To this order there are frequent exceptions, particularly in the position of the principal verb. 264. Both as regards arrangement, and in many other re- spects, it will be useful while writing a Latin composition to break off occasionally and read aloud extracts from some Ro- man author of the best period. This helps one to get into the right atmosphere for his work. QUANTITY IN VERSE. 253 PROSODY. 265. QUANTITY IN VERSE. 1. In Latin, as in Greek,' Verse depended upon the Quantity of syllables, every syllable being either long ( ) or short ( w ); and the various Metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short syllables to each other ; their alternation producing the rhythm of the verse. In English, on the contrary, and other modern languages, the rhythm of verse depends upon the accentuation or non- accentuation of the syllables. 2. A short syllable was said to contain one mora or time; a long syllable two morae or times. Note. The short syllable is the unit of measure, and has the value of J K or an note in music. The long syllable has the value of j or a note. 3. Syllables which might, at the same period of the language, be either long or short, are called common ( ^ or ~ ). 4. Some syllables which at one period of the language were long, at, another were short. 5. A long syllable resolved into two short is marked w ; two short syllables contracted into a long, UU . 6. A long syllable in the arsis (3 283, 1, 3) maybe prolonged so as to have the measure of three or even four short syllables, and may thus represent a whole foot. A syllable which in- cludes three times is marked i (J*) one which includes four times, i i ( J ) . 7. A long syllable may be shortened, so as to take the place of a short syllable. Such a syllable is called irrational, and is marked > . 8. In most kinds of metre, the last syllable of every verse is common ; that is, it may be regarded as either long or short, as the metre requires. Note. If the last syllable is short, where the metre requires a long syllable, the pause naturally made at the end of the verse gives it the additional time required ; if on the other hand a long syllable stands here 22 254 LATIN GRAMMAR. for a short, the excess of time is not felt in consequence of this very antici- pation of the effect of the pause. The voice, too, would give some indica- tion of the irrational time. 266. QUANTITY BY POSITION. 1. A syllable is long by nature when it has a long vowel or diphthong : as, fato, maestis. 2. When a short vowel is followed by two or more COD so- nants, a double consonant, or the letter J, the syllable is long by position : As, factus subsunt. Exc. In the compounds of jugum the syllable before j is short. Note 1. The consonants may be in the first word, or in two consecutive words. Where both are in the second word, the vowel usually remains short ; the more careful poets avoid this position. Note 2. H does not give position ; and qv has only the power of a single letter. Note 3. In the older language, final a preceded by a short vowel was slightly sounded, if at all ; it was often, therefore, not written, and often with the older poets did not give position : as, infantibns parvis ; torvus draco. * Note 4. Before cm and en in Greek words a vowel may remain short. Note 5. The comic poets sometimes keep a vowel short before two con- sonants. 3. A syllable ending in a short vowel coming before a mute followed by 1 or r is common : As, tenebrae or tenebrae ; trtplex or triplex ; retro or retro. In the same verse Vergil has patris, patrem. Exc. The comic poets seem never to have lengthened a short vowel before a mute and a liquid. 1. This rule does not apply where the mute ends a syllable and the liquid begins another. In such cases the vowel is long by position, as in abluo, obruo. 4. One vowel (or diphthong) before another vowel, or before h, is short : As, meae, traho, To, boant. tuns, praeustus. 1. a of the old Genitive of the First Declension in ai is long : as, terrai, purpureai. 2. a or e is long before i in proper names ending in ins or ia : as, Gains, Pompeius, Aquileia ; a is long in aio. QUANTITY. 255 3. e is long in diei ; Lucretius has rei ; and once fidei (as in Plautus and Ennius). So ei in Lucretius, ei in Catullus, the dative of is; it is some- times contracted into one syllable, as is also rei. Note i. In ai and ei followed by a vowel, the j both made a diphthong with the preceding a or e, and also was pronounced like English y : as, Pompeius, pronounced Pompei-yus. Cicero wrote the i double : as, Pompei-ius. Note 2. In the compounds of jacio it was usual to write i only once : as, elcit, though the i was equivalent to ji. This accounts for the quantity of refcio, where the i formed a diphthong with the e of re, and also a separate syllable. But ei-cit, rei-cit, are sometimes dissyllabic, and abTcit, adicit are found with their first syllable short. 4. In genitives in ius, i is common, but generally long in prose: as, ipsius, unius. In alms (contracted for aliius), i is always long. ' 5. I is long before a vowel in flo, except before er : as, flebam, flam ; but fterem. (Plautus and Terence sometimes have fieri, etc.) 6. The following quantities should be noticed : eheu, Rhea (Silvia), dlus, divine; Diana, ohe, 7. Many Greek words keep a vowel long before another: as, aer, museum, Thalia ; AcademTa, in the best Latin ; daedaleus, chorea. 267. DIPHTHONGS AND CONTRACTED SYLLABLES. 1. Diphthongs, and vowels derived from diphthongs, are long : as, aeger, audio, inlquus (in + aequus). 1. Prae in composition is generally short before a vowel. 2. Sometimes a diphthong at the end of a word is shortened when the next word begins with a vowel : as, insulae lonio. 2. Contracted syllables are long : as, fructus (fructuis), nil (mhil), prudens (providens). 268. DERIVATIVES AND COMPOUNDS. 1. Derivative and compound words generally retain the quantity of their primitives : As, amo, amor, amlcus, amlcitia, mater, maternus, defero, regifugium. Exc. Perfects and supines of two syllables have the first long, even when that of the present is short : as, veni, vldi, motum. Note. In such perfects as rui, the penult is of course short. 2. Eight perfects and ten supines have the first syllable short :J>Tbi, dedi, fidi, liqui (from liqueo), scidi, steti, stiti, tuli; citum, datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum (from sisto). These perfects seem either to be reduplicated or to have once been so. 256 LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Reduplicated perfects have the first two syllables short : as, cecidi (from cado), pepuli, cecini, didici. Note. The second syllable is sometimes long by position : as, fefelli, mo- mordi. Cecidi from caedo) has the second syllable long, because the I represents the diphthong ae ; pepedi, from pedo, also has a long penult. 4. Some apparent derivatives are illusory : rex, regis, regina do not come from rego. Variations of quantity do occur, however, in words sup- posed to come from the same root. 5. The change of a vowel or diphthong in forming a compound does not alter its quantity. 6. The quantity of the simple word is changed in some compounds : as, agnitus and cognitus, from notus ; pejero and dejero, from juro. 7. Ne- is generally long : but short in neque, nequeo, nefas, nefandus, nefarius, and some other words. 8. Pro is generally long in composition; but there are many excep- tions: as, procella, profanus, proficiscor, profecto, profugus, profundus, profari, profiteer, protervus (also protervus in Plautus), pronepos, pro- neptis, profundo (profundo, Catullus) ; propello twice in Lucretius, else- where long ; procure, propino, propago ; Proserpina regularly, hut Horace and Seneca each once Proserpina. In Greek words pro remains short ; but prologus in Plautus and Terence. 9. The inseparable prepositions di, se, ve are long ; re or red, short. 10. Be is sometimes lengthened by position. In the oldest Latin the quantity was re or red generally. Hexameter poets have religio, relicuus, reliquiae ; but the later poets always reliquus. 11. In refert, the first syllable is not the preposition, but from res; refero has refert. MONOSYLLABLES. 1. Monosyllables ending in a trowel are long : except the enclitics (11, 2) and the nominative and accusative qua. 2. Monosyllables ending in a consonant are long. 1. Such as end in b, d, 1, t are short; but sal and sol, and diphthongs, as aut and haud, are long. 2. Fac, nee, an, tn, fer, per, ter, vtr, cor, bTs, cTs, ts, quts, are short; as^ is es from sum, although Plautus has is. The pronoun hie is common ; hoc (nominative and accusative) is long in the later poets, common in the old dramatic poets. The quantity of ac is uncertain, as it never comes before a vowel in good writers. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 257 270. FINAL SYLLABLES IN POLYSYLLABLES. 1. In words of more than one syllable, final i, o, and u are long ; a, e, and y are short. Exceptions. a final is long : 1. In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension : as,-mensa. 2. In the Imperative of the First Conjugation (but puta is used paren- thetically). 3. Sometimes in the Nominative of Greek nouns, and in the Vocative of nouns in as. 4. In Numerals : as, triginta. 5. In Prepositions and Adverbs : as, contra, frustra, postea (but we have ita, quia ; eia or heia is perhaps common). e final is long : 1. In the Ablative of the Fifth Declension : as, die, ho die. 2. In the second person singular of the Imperative of the Second Con- jugation: as, gaude. (But sometimes cave, vide.) 3. In Adverbs from Adjectives of the Second Declension : ^s, valde, aegre; also in ferme, fere, one. (But bene, male, inferne (Lucr.), superne (Lucr., Hor.), temere.) 4. When it represents the Greek long e (?) : as, Hebe. i final is short : 1. In Greek Nominatives, and some Greek Datives and Vocatives. 2. In nisi, quasi, necubi, sicubi, cut (when a dissyllable). i final is common : 1. In mihl, tibl, sibi, ibi, ubT. Note. In hexameter poets, ibidem; in scenic poets, ibidem; utique, uttnam, although always utl ; ubinam, ubivis, but ublque. o final is short : In cedo, cito, duo, ego, modo (but sometimes modo in Lucretius and ego in Plautus). o final is common : 1. In some Nouns, especially Proper Names. 2. In Verb endings (but generally long in the best period) ; and in later writers, even in the ending -do of^the Gerund^ w w 3. In the Silver Age in quando, porro, sero, ambo, octo, and a number of other words. (In all ages quando quidem.) 2. c final lengthens the vowel : except donSc. 3. d, 1, n, r, and t final shorten the vowel. 22* R 258 LATIN GRAMMAR. Exceptions : 1. nihil. 2. Greek nouns in n which have the preceding vowel long in Greek. 3. Celtiber, Hiber (Iber), dispar, impar; Greek nonns in er which have e (17) in Greek. 4. The final syllable of contracted perfects is long : as, disturbat, petit, obit ; so often the final syllable of petiit and of lit and its compounds. 4. as, es, and os final are long : Exceptions : 1. as in the Nominative Singular and Accusative Plural of Greek nouns which have the a short in Greek. 2. penes ; Nouns of the Third Declension which increase short : as, miles, militis (but pis and its compounds, Ceres, abies, aries, paries, remain long) ; compounds of es : as, potes, ades ; es in words representing a short ending in Greek : as, cacoethes, Arcades. . 3. exos, compos, impos; os in words which have a short ending in Greek : as, Chios, Phasidos. 5. is, us, and ys final are short : Exceptions : 1. is in the Dative and Ablative Plural ; Is in the Accusative Plural of the Third Declension ; Is in the second person singular of the Present Subjunctive ; Is in compounds of vis : as, mavis, quamvls ; Is in Nomina- tives which increase long (as, Samnls, Samnltis) ; is representing a long syllable in Greek : as, Salamls, Salamlnis ; Is in the Future Perfect, and Is in the Perfect Subjunctive ; sanguts ; Vergil has once pulvls. 2. us in Nominatives which have u in the Genitive : as, virtus, virtutis, but Horace has once palus; us in the Genitive Singular and Nominative and Accusative Plural of the Fourth Declension ; us representing Greek ouj : as, Pan thus. 3. ys in Tethys and chrysophrys. 271. QUANTITY OF INCREMENTS. A noun is said to increase when any case of it is longer than the nominative singular, by one or more syllables; and a verb, when any part of it is longer than the second singular present indicative active, by one or more syllables. The penult syllable of such increased form is called the increment. Thus, -sa is the increment in mensarum, and -no in honoris. In longer forms, when more than one syllable is added, there may be a second or third increment : as, vecti-ga-lis, vecti-ga-li-a, 112 123 12 mo-nu-i, mo-nu-is-sem, mo-nu-is-se-mus ; or also a fourth : as, au-di-e- ba-mi-ni. 1. In the increment of nouns and adjectives, a and o are long ; e, i, u, and y are short : QUANTITY OF INCREMENTS. 259 As, mensarum, audacis ; puerorum, doctioris ; pueri, pedis ; vtri, divitis; portubus, vulturis; Er^cis. Exceptions : a is short : in Greek nouns in a and as of the third declension : as, poema, poematis, lampas, lampadis. in masculine nouns in -al and -ar : as, Caesar, Caesaris. in those Latin nouns in -as whose genitive does not end in -atis : as, mas, maris ; but vas, vasis ; and anas, anatis. in par, paris, and its compounds, and in baccar, hepar, jubar, nectar, and sal. in nouns ending in s preceded by a consonant : as, trabs, trabis. e is long : in the fifth declension : as, diebus, dierum. in Greek words in -ter, -teris and -es, -etis : as, crateris, lebetis. in words whose genitive ends in -enis : as, ren, renis. in many words which cannot be classified : as, veris, Iberis, legis, regis, mercedis, heredis, plebis, quietis, locupletis, vervecis. i is long : in nouns in -in and -is of the third declension : as, delphin, delphTnis ; Salamis, Salamlnis. in nouns and adjectives in -ix, -Tcis : as, radix, radlcis, felix, fellcis. Note. But calix, filix, fornix, nix, pix, salix, strix, and some others, increase short : i. e., in -Tcis, except nix, nivis, strix, strigis. in nouns in -is, -Ttis : as, Quiris, Quiritis ; lis, ITtis ; in glis, gllris ; vis, vires (plur.), and a few more. o of the third declension is short : in nouns ending in us : as, temporis, from tempus ; leporis, from lepus. in neuter nouns in -or and -ur : as, marmoris, from marmor ; jecoris, from jecur. in many Greek nouns, having o short in Greek : as, Hector, Hectoris ; aedon, aedonis; tripus, tripodis; rhetor, rhetoris. in nouns and adjectives ending in s preceded by a consonant : as, inopis, from inops. arbor, memor, bos, compos, impos, lepus, praecox, and some others, have o short: as, arboris, memoris, bovis, compotis, etc. national names generally have o short: as, Macedonis. But there is great variety. u is long : in many nouns of the third declension ending in us : as, virtutis, paludis, rnris, telluris. Note. Frugis, furis, lucis, pluris, Pollucis (from [frux], fur, lux, plus, Pollux), and some others, have u long. 260 LATIN GRAMMAR. y is long : in some words, mostly foreign : as, Ceycis, Trachynis. in some other words it is common. 2. In the increment of verbs a, e, o, and u are long : i is short : As, amatis, monebatis, audiatis, feratis ; legemus, legebamus ; ama- tote ; amaturus, solutum ; legimus, monuimus. Exceptions : do and its compounds have the stem vowel (or first increment) short : as, dare, dabamus, dabo, daturus. Note. But the vowel a is long in da and das. e before r is short in the first increment of the present and imperfect tenses of the third conjugation ; and in the second increment of futures ending in -beris and -bere : as, regere (infiu. and imperat), regeris or regere (pres. ind. pass.), regeremus, regeremur; amaberis, doceberis. e is short before -ram, -rim, -ro, and the persons formed from them : as, amaveram, monuerim, legero. e before r in the third plur. perf. ind. act. is sometimes shortened by the poets : as, steterunt ( 279). i is long : in perfects in -Tvi : as, petivi ; in supines of verbs with such perfects : as, petltum. in the first increment of the fourth conjugation : as, audlrem. Note i. But -imus in the perf. is short. Note 2. If the i comes before a vowel, it is short. in subjunctives in -im : as, slmus, sitis, vellmus. in the imperative of nolo : as, nollto. i is common, but oftener long, in rlmus and rltis of the perfect subjunctive ; * but oftener short, in rimus and ritis of the future perfect. u is short : in the first person plural : as, sumus, volumus. 272. PENULTS AND ANTEPENULTS. Rules are sometimes given for the quantity of penults and antepenults ; but they have many exceptions, and such quantities are best learned by practice in reading poetry, etc., with the aid of a Dictionary or Gradus. 273. NATURAL QUANTITY. AUTHORITY. 1. We are often ignorant of the natural quantity of Latin syllables which we call long by position. The ancients carefully distinguished in pronun- ciation such words as lecto, I read, and lecto, from lectus, a couch. General NATURAL QUANTITY. ELISION. 261 laws of language give us here some help. Some special laws, too, are well established ; thus, every vowel followed by ns or nf was long by nature : as in mens, sapiens, Tnfelix, confecit; while e was short in mentis, sapi- entis ; o in pontis, fontis, mentis. In many cases we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek: as, Sestius, Si7pts) means . Hence one foot and a half (f) is called Trihemimeris ; two feet and a half (), Penthemimeris ; three feet and a half (5), Hephthemimeris ; four feet and a half (f ), Ennehemimeris. 1. Hence: a. Caesura (g 286) after 1 feet is called Trihemimeral ; 6. after 2$ feet, Penthemimeral; c. after 3 feet, Hephthemimeral ; d. after 4 feet, Ennehemim- Pyrrhic pater Paeon Secundus Iamb amant Paeon Tertius Trochee - w Vldlt Paeon Quartus Spondee latos Ionic o minor i Tribrach www regere Ionic a majori Anapaest w - anYmos Dii ambus Dactyl - w corpora Ditrochee Cretic - w - dlxerant Choriamb Amphibrach v - latmus Antispast Bacchius regebant Epitritus Primus Palimbacchius rexisse Molossus dlcebas eral. Examples : a 6 c d 1. Pudit equum 1 tnagno tellus percussa 1 tride'nti. Verg. 2. Aut a'mite levi ra'ra tendit retia. Hor. In the first verse, a Dactylic Hexameter, the fourth caesura is weak, me others strong ( 286, 7). In the second verse, an Iambic Trimeter, all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weal*. TECHNICAL TERMS. 265 2. In distinction from Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with the middle of a foot), the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot is called Diaeresis : as, Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum. 3. Diaeresis in some metres coincides with a natural pause in the verse, caused by the ending of a rhythmic series. It is marked ||. B. Metre faerpov, measure) is used in two senses. I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or system of verses used by a poet in any composition : as, Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre. 1. A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monoc51um ; a metre which contains only two kinds, Dicolum ; one which contains only three kinds, Tricolum (from ^61/09, single ; KwAov, member). 2. When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Distichum (from Si's, twice ; O-TI'XOS, row), a Distich or couple. When recurrence takes place after four verses, these form a Tetrastich (stanza). 3. Thus the Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic), Iambic Trimeter, Trochaic Tetram- eter, and others, are found as Metra Monocola. The Elegiac Metre and many others are Dicola Disticha. The Sapphic and some others are Dicola Tetras- ticha. The Alcaic is Tricolum Tetrastichum. II. Metre, in the second place, is used to express a given portion of a Verse in some Rhythms : as the Dactylic, the Trochaic, the Iambic, and the Anapaestic. 1. In a Dactylic Verse, one foot constitutes a Metre. In Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic Rhythms two feet, or a Dipody (Suro&ia), constitute a Metre. 2. A Verse comprised in a single Metre is called Monometer ; in two, Dimeter ; in three, Trimeter; in four, Tetrameter; in five, Pentameter; in six, Hex- ameter. 3. Wanting one syllable to complete its metres a Verse is called Catalectic (KttTaXrjKTiKos) ; in syllabam, if the incomplete foot retains one syllable ; in disyl- labum, if it retains two; wanting two syllables, Brachycatalectic (/3paxv*aTaA>)K- TOS) ; having a syllable above its metres, Hypercatalectic (vn-epKaTaArj/cTos) ; having its metres complete, Acatalectic (d 4. The time of the omitted syllable or syllables in a catalectic verse is filled by a pause. A pause of one time, equivalent to a short syllable, is marked A ; a pause of two times, 7". 5. A Verse may also be called according to the number of feet : Binarius (a), as the Adonian; Ternarius (3), as the Pherecrateau ; Quaternarius (4), as the Tro- chaic or Iambic Dimeter; Senarius (6), as the Dactylic Hexameter or the Iambic Trimeter; Septenarius (7), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic; Octonariu* (8), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic of the scenic poets. 6. Or a Verse may be called according to the number of its syllables, as Phalae- cius Hendecasyllabus (ii). So the Alcaic Strophe consists of two Alcaic Hende- casyllabi (n), one Alcaic Enneasyllabus (g), and one Alcaic Decasyllabus (10). C. 1. A syllable at the beginning of a Verse before the just Rhythm, is called Anacrusis (ivd/c/>ov, the same name is given to the foot in which it occurs ; thus, a spondee used for a trochee is called an irrational trochee, -^ >, and a spondee used for an iamb, an irrational iamb, > -L. Note 2. A dactyl taking the place of a trochee is called a cyclic dactyl, and is marked ; it may be represented approximately by J s ^ j ; an anapaest taking the place of an iamb is called a cyclic anapaest, marked v v-. The name cyclic, given by the ancients, is supposed to be derived from the use of these rapid feet in the dancing measures in the choruses. Note 3. A tribrach taking the place of a trochee has the ictus on its first syllable, its first two syllables representing the long syllable of the trochee, which of course has the ictus. A spondee used for a trochee has also its ictus on the first syllable. 2. Trochaic Tetrameter catalectic consists of seven trochees and an ad- ditional syllable ; the diaeresis after the first dimeter. It Is frequent in comic poets with the same choice of feet as in the acatalectic. Seneca observes stricter rules, allowing tribrachs in the odd places, except the last, spondees (i. e., irrational trochees) and irrational anapaests in the even places, and cyclic dactyls in the first, second, and sixth places. Note. By observing a pause after the syllable in the eighth place, the verse may be treated as acatalectic. The same principle applies in other catalectic measures. 3. Trochaic Dimeter catalectic consists of three trochees and a long syllable. It is used only in combination with other verses. 23* 270 LATIN GRAMMAR. 4. Trochaic Dimeter brachycatalectic, or Ithyphallic, consists of three trochees, and hence may be called Trochaic Tripody. It is used only with other verses. 291. DACTYLO-TROCHAIC OR LOGAOEDIC VERSES. 1. The Greater Archilochian metre consists of four cyclic dactyls fol- lowed by three trochees. In any of the first three feet, irrational trochees may be used. It is found only with other verses. 2. The Alcaic Decasyllabic consists of two cyclic dactyls (not each contained in a single word), followed by two trochees. It is a combina- tion of the endings of the two metres used in the first three lines ( 292, 4, 5) of the Alcaic stanza, in which it forms, as a refrain, the fourth or closing line. A,v | JMW | -iv | -tv 3. The Aristophanic consists of a dactyl followed by two trochees ; or, otherwise, of a cyclic dactyl, a trochee, a lengthened long syllable, and a long syllable with pause : ^v I j.* I LL | - A 292. TROCHAEO-DACTTLIC METRES. 1. The Sapphic minor is a Trochaic tetrapody, with a dactyl always in the third foot. It consists of a trochee, irrational trochee, cyclic dactyl, and two trochees. Catullus has, but rarely, a true trochee in the second foot. There is a caesura, usually strong, sometimes weak, in the dactyl. Usually combined with the Adonic. 2. The greater Sapphic consists of the minor Sapphic with a choriamb inserted before the dactyl. This choriamb is best treated as a cyclic dactyl and a long syllable followed by a pause, equivalent to a trochee. J. w | J. > | j w | i_l f || i, | jr v | il. | _ A || 3. The Phalaecian, or simply Hendecasyllabus, is also a Trochaic pen- tapody. The first foot is usually an irrational trochee, but in Catullus occasionally a true trochee or iamb ; the second a cyclic dactyl (except in Catul. 55, where it is frequently a spondee, i. e., an irrational trochee) ; the other three feet are trochees. There is no special caesura. 4. The Alcaic hendecasyllabus consists of a long or short syllable as an anacrusis, a trochee, an irrational trochee, and two cyclic dactyls. TRO CH AEO- DACTYLIC METRES. 271 There is generally a diaeresis after the spondee (i. e., the irrational tro- chee). It is used in the first two lines in the Alcaic stanza. ? | 1 w | i <, I A, v I IM v 5. The Alcaic enneasyllabus consists of a long or short syllable as an anacrusis, a trochee, an irrational trochee, and two trochees. It forms the third line of the Alcaic stanza. 6. The Pherecratian consists in Catullus of a trochee or irrational trochee, a cyclic dactyl, and a trochee ; in Horace, of an irrational tro- chee, a dactyl, and a spondee (or, better, a lengthened long syllable, fol- lowed by a long syllable and a pause). Used in stanzas with other metres. JL > | A, w | <-L I _ A 7. The Glyconic consists of a trochee or irrational trochee, followed by a cyclic dactyl, a trochee, and a long syllable with a pause. Catullus has usually a trochee in the first place ; Horace almost always a spondee. J. > | JL* * I J. v I - A 8. The Priapean consists of a trochee or irrational trochee, a cyclic dactyl, a trochee, a long syllable followed by a pause, equivalent to a trochee, a trochee, a cyclic dactyl, and a trochee. (Catul. 17.) 293. CHORIAMBIC METRES, SO CALLED. 1. The minor Asclepiadean is sometimes considered as consisting of a spondee, a choriamb, and two dactyls ; but, better, of an irrational trochee, a cyclic dactyl, a long syllable followed by a pause, making it equivalent to a foot, a cyclic dactyl, a trochee, and a long syllable followed by a pause. j. > | A, v i L!-, || A, v | i v i - A ii 2. The greater Asclepiadean is sometimes considered as consisting of a spondee, two choriambs, and two dactyls. But each of the choriambs should be treated as a dactyl and a long syllable followed by a pause, as in the minor Asclepiadean metre. The spondee is an irrational trochee, and the dactyls are cyclic. There is usually a diaeresis after each choriamb. 1 > | i, v | LL, || i, v I LL, || A, . I 1 v I - A || 3. For the greater Sapphic, see 292, 2. 272 LATIN GRAMMAR. 294. CBETIG AND GREATER IONIC METRES. 1. The Cretic Tetrameter acatalectic consists of four cretics. It occa- sionally admits a dactyl or paeon, or even a molossus as an irrational cretic. It is found only in the comic poets. 2. The Cretic Tetrameter catalectic has three cretics followed by a spondee. 3. The Sotadean consists of three ionics a majori and one trochee. A double trochee is often substituted for the third ionic, and sometimes for the first; and some of the long syllables are occasionally resolved into two shorts. 295. ANAPAESTIC METRES. 1. The Anapaestic dimeter acatalectic consists of four anapaests, for any of which a spondee (with the ictus on the last syllable), and for the first and third of which a dactyl (with the ictus on the second syllable), may be substituted. There is a diaeresis after the second foot. 2. The Anapaestic dimeter catalectic, or Paroemiac verse, consists of three anapaests (or their substitutes) and a short syllable. 3. The Anapaestic monometer acatalectic consists of two feet, either anapaests or spondees. The first may be a dactyl. It is only used inter- spersed among dimeters. Note. Many metrists regard the first two short syllables in an anapaestic line as an anacrusis, and thus treat all anapaestic verses as dactylic. 296. IAMBIC METRES. 1. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic consists of seven iambs and a half. In the first and fifth places are found apparent spondees occasionally. The comic poets use apparent spondees and dactyls, and cyclic anapaests, in every place but the seventh. Note. In iambic verse, spondees and anapaests take the ictus on the last syllable ; tribrachs and dactyls on the second. 2. The Iambic Trimeter acatalectic consists of six iambs. It is some- times found pure throughout a poem, but generally in Horace admits an irrational iamb frequently, a cyclic dactyl rarely, in the first, third, and fifth places, and a cyclic anapaest in the first and fifth. The tribrach occurs in all places except the last. There is a caesura usually in the middle of the third foot, sometimes not until the middle of the fourth. 3. The Iambic Scazon or Hipponactean, also a Trimeter Acatalectic, differs from the preceding by having always a spondee in the sixth foot and iamb in the fifth. Either a spondee, anapaest, or dactyl may be used in the first or third feet; a tribrach in the second, third, and fourth. The caesura is in the third or fourth foot. 4. The Iambic Trimeter catalectic consists of four iambs and a bac- IAMBIC AND BACCHIAC METRES. 273 chTus, or rather of five iambs and a long syllable following by a pause, making it equivalent to a foot. Spondees (irrational iambs) are sometimes used in the first and third places, and a tribrach once occurs. There is a diaeresis in the middle of the third foot. It is used only with other verses. 5. The Iambic Dimeter acatalectic consists of four iambs, for the first and third of which a spondee (irrational iamb) is often substituted. A tribrach and (cyclic) dactyl also occur, though rarely. It is used with other verses. 6. The Iambic Dimeter catalectic consists of two iambs and a bacchlus ; or, better, of three iambs and a long syllable followed by a pause. A special form of this verse, called the Anacreontic, has an anapaest in the first foot. 7. The Iambic Dimeter brachycatalectic consists of three iambs. It is found only at the close of a system of dimeter catalectics. Note. Many metrists regard the first syllable in an iambic line as an anacrusis, and thus treat all iambic verses as trochaic. 297. ANAPAESTO-IAMBIC METRE. The Galliambic consists in theory of two Iambic or Anacreontic Dime- ters, of which the first is catalectic, and the second brachycatalectic. There are thus six feet, which are usually anapaest, iamb, bacchlus, anapaest, tribrach, iamb ; but with some variations. The metre is found only in Catullus 65. The name is from the Gallic priests of Cybele, who form the subject of the poem. 298. BAG CHI AC AND LESSER IONIC METRES. 1. The Bacchlac Tetrameter acatalectic consists of four bacchli ; a long syllable may sometimes be resolved into two short, and in some instances a molossus occurs as an irrational bacchius. It is found only in comic poets. Occasionally a BacchTac Hexameter occurs. 2. The Ionic a minori, occurring in Latin only in Horace iii. 12, is composed of forty feet, all ionics a minori. As the synaphla is perfect, it may be divided into four decameters; but it is best printed in four stanzas, in each of which the first, second, and fourth lines are dimeters, the third a tetrameter. It may also be divided into stanzas of three lines, two tetrameters and a dimeter. 299. IAMBS AND DACTYLS. 1. The lambilegic verse consists of an iambic dimeter, followed by a minor Archilochian ( 289, 4), which is a dactylic penthemimer. There is a diaeresis after the penthemimer. >_ | ._ I*- | .-||-_ | -,. | -7T 274 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2. The Elegiambic verse consists of a dactylic penthemimer followed by an iambic dimeter. There is a diaeresis after the penthemimer. > > - V | --- I U || v - I v - I v - I - 300. IAMBICO-TROCHAIC METRE. The Saturnian is the oldest form of Latin verse, resembling the English ballad metre : The queen is in her parlor, || eating bre"ad and honey. Many irregularities occur. Examples : , . , __ , , Dabunt malum Metelll, || Naevio poetae. Immortales mortales || si foret fas flere, Flerent divae camenae || Nae vium poetam ; Itaque postquam est orcino H traditus thesauro Obliti sunt Bomai |] loquier lingua latina. 301. HOE ATI AN METRES. In the Odes and Epodes of Horace, the following Metres are found 1. The minor Asclepiadean system, consisting of four minor Aselepia- dean verses (293, 1). Od. i. 1 ; iii. 30 ; iv. 8. 2. The first Asclepiadean strophe, in which the Glyconic verse (292, 7) alternates with the minor Asclepiadean (293, 1). Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15,19,24,25,28; iv. 1,3. 3. The second Asclepiadean strophe, consisting of three minor Asclepi- adean verses followed by a Glyconic. Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33 ; ii. 12 ; iii. 10, 16 ; iv. 5, 12. 4. The third Asclepiadean strophe, consisting of two minor Asclepi- adean verses, a Pherecratean (292, 6), and a Glyconic. Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13. 5. The greater Asclepiadean system, consisting of four greater Ascle- piadean verses (293, 2). Od. i. 11, 18 ; iv. 10. 6.. The Sapphic strophe, consisting of three minor Sapphic verses (292, 1) and one Adonic verse (289, 3). Horace has a caesura generally in the dactyl. Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16 ; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; iv. 2, 6, 11 ; Carmen Saeculare. 7. The greater Sapphic strophe ; an Aristophanic verse (291, 3) fol- lowed by a greater Sapphic (292, 2). Od. i. 8. 8. The Alcaic strophe consists of the Alcaic hendecasyllabic verse (292, 4) twice repeated, an Alcaic enneasyllabic (292, 5), and an Alcaic decasyllabic verse (291, 2). Horace has a diaeresis after the second trochee in the first three lines. EARLY DRAMATIC VERSE. 275 Note. No one who feels the beauty of the refrain in the fourth verse of the Alcaic strophe, can fail to recognize the dactylic ending of the hen- decasyllabic and the trochaic ending of the enneasyllable. Observe, too, that the third verse is the doubling of the first half (after the anacrusis) of the first and second verses. This is often called the Horatian stanza, Horace using it more frequently than any other. Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20 ; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15. 9. The first Archilochian strophe, in which the dactylic hexameter alternates with the minor Archilochian verse (289, 4). (Od. iv. 7.) 10. The second Archilochian strophe, in which the dactylic hexameter alternates with an iambilegic verse (299, 1) ; so that in this strophe an iambic dimeter is interposed between the two members of the first Archi- lochian strophe. Ep. 13. 11. The third Archilochian strophe; iambic trimeters alternating with elegiambic verses (299, 2). Ep. 11. 12. The fourth Archilochian strophe, in which the greater Archilochian verse (291, 1) alternates with the iambic trimeter catalectic, or, as it may be better considered, a trochaic pentapody with anacrusis. Od. i. 4. 13. The Alcmanian strophe : dactylic hexameters alternating with dac- tylic tetrameters catalectic (289, 2). Od. i. 7, 28. 14. The Iambic trimeter. Ep. 17. 15. The Iambic strophe: iambic trimeters alternating with iambic dimeters. The first ten Epodes. 16. The first Pythiambic strophe: dactylic hexameters alternating with iambic dimeters. Ep. 14, 15. 17. The second Pythiambic strophe : dactylic hexameters alternating with iambic trimeters. Ep. 16. 18. The Trochaic strophe or the Hipponactean : trochaic dimeters catalectic alternating with iambic dimeters catalectic. Od. ii. 18. 19. The Ionic a minori (298, 2). Od. iii. 12. 302. EARLY DRAMATIC VERSE. In early dramatic verse the quantity of syllables was not so definitely fixed or observed as in the later dactylic and other verse. The principal cases of deviation may be classified as follows : 1. Final syllables, afterwards short, were sometimes used with their original long quantity: as, fama (nom. sing.), soror, pater; amet, sciat, ponebat, perciplt, vendidlt ; amer, loquar ; miles. 2. Final syllables with long vowels were sometimes used as short : as, domo (abl. sing.), probe (adv.), tace, manu, viri; conrigi, bonas, foras, dolos, oves, manus (ace. plur.), bonis, habent. This is almost confined to iambic words. 276 LATIN GRAMMAR. 3. Syllables containing a vowel followed by two consonants were some- times used as short. Such are : Syllables in the later language written with doubled consonants : as, Tmmo, ille, simillimae, Philippus, esse, occulto ; Some syllables with two different consonants : as, inter, tnterim, tntus, tnde, tste, unde, nempe, omnis, ecquis. So also (according to some) voluptas, magistrates, ministrabit, venustas, senectus (or perhaps volptas, magstratus) ; expediant, exigere, uxorem. 4. Final syllables end ing in a consonant were sometimes not lengthened, though the next word began with a consonant : as, (in Terence) entm vero, auctus sit, soror dictast, dabit nemo, simul conficiam, tamen suspicor; apud is frequently so used : even student facere. This license is most frequent when the final consonant is m, s, r, or t; and is due to the ten- dency of the early language to drop the final consonant, and to shorten the final vowel. 5. Synizesis is freely used : as, tvos for tuos, svos for suns, scjo for scio, pver for puer, fvit for fuit, djes for dies, filjo for filio, otrjum for otium. 6. Long initial syllables were slurred into short quantity when they fol- lowed monosyllables or elided pyrrichs ; sometimes also at the beginning of a verse. 7. Spondees, dactyls, anapaests, and even proceleusmatics, we^ freely used for iambs or trochees, except in the last foot of the verse. (Roby, in part.) 303. METRICAL READING. 1. Verse should be read with a certain metrical expression, which a delicate taste will suggest, but for which no formal rules can be given. Some ictuses will be observed more strongly than others. The meaning of the words, and their rhetorical character as spirited or quiet, glad or plaintive, etc., will have its influence. 2. "While students will need some exercises at first in simply marking off the feet, and indicating the place of ictus, caesura, or diaeresis, before they become initiated in the mysteries of metre, good metrical reading, as in English verse, preserves the words intact, and gives to the ear at once the sense and the melody. 3. Some kinds of verse admit of more than one way of scan- ning, and metrists differ in their preferences. But as the rhythm depends upon the alternations of long and short syllables un- disputed facts in any verse, unless sometimes in the final syllable there is not room for so much difference in the actual reading as there is in regard to the theory of the structure of the verse. APPENDIX. GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL TERMS. 304. GRAMMATICAL TEEMS AND FIGURES. Axnphibolia, ambiguity ; e. g., aio te Romanes vincere posse, "Pyrrhus the Romans shall, I say, subdue; " where te may be subject and Ro- manos object, and vice versa. Anacoluthon, non-sequence, where a sentence is begun in one way and finished in another way, with a changed construction ; e. g., Deos veri- simile est ut alios indulgentius tracteut for deos . . . alios tractare or Di ... at ... tractent. Anastrophe, inversion; e. g., male quod vult for quod male vult ; tecum for cum te ; transtra per et remos for per transtra, etc. Aphaerests, omission of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word ; e. g., lis for stlis, natus for gnatus. Apocope, cutting off, i. e., omission of a letter or syllable at the end of a word ; e. g., ille for illus, me for med, vigil for vigilis. Apodosts, reply, applied especially to the consequent clause of a conditional sentence. Archaism, use of an old or obsolete form, word, or expression ; e. g., olli in Vergil for illi ; duellum in Horace for bellum ; animal ; in cassum magnum (Lucr.). Assimilation, when of two consonants the former is either made the same as the latter, or changed into another consonant of like kind : as, cessi for cedsi ; scriptus for scribtus ; defensum for defendtum (where the t of the suffix is changed to s, and the final d of the stem assimilated to it; s being often written for double s). Asyndeton, omission of conjunctions ; e. g., usus fructus; sarta tecta; inde ventis remis in patriam properavi (Cic.) ; abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. Attraction, when a word, by the influence of another, is diverted from the 24 277 278 LATIN GRAMMAR. usual construction to a less usual one: e. g., hie est quern quaero hominem ; urbem quam statuo vestra est. Barbarism, using a faulty non-Latin word, especially a word faultily formed ; e. g., gladia for gladii, scala for scalae. Distinguished by relating to a single word from solecism which relates to false syntax of several words or a phrase. Brachylogy, shortening of expression. Crasts, union of two or more vowel sounds; e. g., cors for cohors, prorsus for proversus. DiaeresTs, separation of one vowel sound into two; e. g., Orpheus for Orpheus : also the treatment of a usually consonantal v as a vowel ; e. g., siluae for silvae. In verse, it means also the coincidence of the end of a word with the end of a foot. EcthlTpsTs, crushing out, in verse of a syllable ending in m before an en- suing vowel. Ellipses, omission of one or more words which would be used if complete fulness of expression were necessary. Enallage, change ; i. e. putting of one part of speech, number, case, tense, etc., for another ; e. g., vivere nostrum for vita nostra ; nos for ego ; mox navigo for navigabo. Epenthests, insertion; e. g., of u in Alcumena for Alcmena; p in sumpsi, sumptum. Graecism or Hellenism ; use of a Greek form or construction, not properly Latin also; e. g., amplexi habent for amplexi sunt. Hendtadys, one by two ; use of two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a single noun with a modifier ; e. g., paterae et aurum for aureae paterae. Hy pallage, exchange ; applied to such deviations from ordinary expression or construction as Tyrrhenus tubae clangor for Tyrrhenae tubae clan- gor ; arma del Volcania for arma a deo Volcano facta. Hy perbaton, transgression ; i. e. when a considerable clause or expression is interpolated between two parts of a sentence mutually connected in meaning; e. g., hyperboreo septem subjecta trioni; animadvert! om- nem accusatoris orationem in duas divisam esse partes. Hyphen, union of two words, as if by composition ; e. g., non-sutor, one who is not a tailor, ignari ante-malomm, ignorant of the ills before. MetathesTs, change of position; transposition of two or more letters in a word ; e. g., cretus for certus. Paragoge, addition; applied e. g., (according to a probably false theory) to the formation of dicier from dici by the addition of er. Parentheses, insertion of a clause into the midst of another; e. g., si nos, id quod maxime debet, nostra patria delectat (Cic.). The term is generally applied to an ordinary insertion ; if unusual either from its character or length, it is sometimes called hyperbaton. Pleonasm, saying too much, an unnecessary fulness of expression ; e. g., GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL TERMS 279 erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent (Caes.) ; suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo, / slay him with his own sword to him; praesensi prius ; nemo unus. Frolepsis, anticipation, applied to such use of an adjective as laceras aries ballistave concutit arces, where the towers are lacerae from the effects of concutit. Protasts, proposal, applied to the relative or especially to the conditional clause. Syllepses, taking together, applied to the relation of an adjective to two or more nouns of different genders ; e. g., pater et mater et filia capti sunt. Synaerests, contraction of two vowels into one sound: e. g., treating deinde, quoad as monosyllables ; aureo, eidem as dissyllables ; ariete, tenuia as trisyllables. Other terms are synecphonesis and synizesis. All three are variously distinguished and applied, but most frequently used of those contractions which are regarded as exceptional and not expressed in writing ; while crasis applies to such contractions as au- ceps for aviceps, cogo for co-ago. Synaloepha, coalescing of two vowels, applied to the elision in verse of the vowel at the end of one word before a vowel beginning the next. Syncope, striking together, applied to the omission of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word ; e. g., saeclum for saeculum, puertia for pueritia, luna for lucna, pergo for perrego. Synecphonesis, pronouncing together, see Synaeresis. Synests, where the construction is adapted to the sense of the word rather than to the form ; e. g., turba ruunt ; turba circumfusi fremabant (Liv.) ; concursus populi mirantium (Liv.). SynlzesTs, settlement together, see Synaeresis. Tmests, cutting of a compound word into two, separated by other words ; e. g., septem subjecta trioni for septemtrioni ; per mini gratum feceris for pergratum ; quae me cunque vocant for quaecunque me ; and saxo cere comminuit brum which Ennius wrote, probably mis- taking cerebrum for a compound. Zeugma, joining, where a verb grammatically belonging to two or more nouns is in sense appropriate to one only (or to less than all) ; e. g., te greges centum Siculaeque circum mugiunt vaccae (Hor.); where lowing does not properly suit greges sc. ovium. Magonem alii nau- fragio (sc. perisse), alii a servis ipsius interfectum, scriptum reli- querunt (Nep.). 305. RHETORICAL TERMS, OR FIGURES OF SPEECH. Allegory, a continued description of one thing in terms and in images properly belonging to another ; e. g., at jam tempus equum fumantia solvere colla ( Verg.), of concluding a book. A more detailed allegory is seen in Horace's description (Od. i. 14) of the State in political difti- 280 LATIN GRAMMAR. culties under the name of a ship tossed by waves. Essentially, alle- gory is a chain of metaphors. Alliteration, the use in the same sentence of several words beginning with the same letter; e. g., Tite, tute Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti (Enn.). Anaphora, repetition of the same word or grammatical form at the begin- ning of several clauses ; e. g., in his templis atque tectis dux Lentulus erat const! tutus meis consiliis. me is laboribus, mei capitis periculis, sine tumultu, sine delectu, sine armis (Cic.). Antithesis, contrast ; e. g., ego projector, quod tu peccas ; tu delinquis, ego arguor; pro malefactis Helena redeat, virgo pereat innocens (Enn.). Antonomasia, substituting a description for a name; e. g., TydTdes for Diomedes ; eversor Karthaginis for Scipio ; Saturnia for Juno. Aposiopests, breaking into silence; an abrupt pause after a sentence or subject has been begun ; e. g., Quos ego sed motos praestat compo- nere fluctus. Apostrophe, turning away to address some person, or thing, who is absent or at least not the proper object of address at the time ; e. g., o leges Forciae legesque Semproniae (Cic.) : citae Mettum in diversa qua- drigae distulerant: at tu dictis, Albane, maneres (Verg.) ; Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra fames ? Catachrests, a wrong use of a term, either to supply the place of a non-exist- ing word, e. g., parricida for the murderer of a brother ; or to put a differ- ent aspect on a case ; e. g., virtus for temeritas, liberalitas for luxuria. Chiasm, making a X (Chi), i. e., crossing, where a second and correspond- ing set of words are stated in inverse order to that of the first set; e. g., multa quae nostra causa non facimus, facimus causa amicorum (Cic.). See 260, 6. Climax (or gradatio), ladder, a series of words or expressions each stronger than the preceding : e. g., nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas, quod ego non modo audiam, sed etiam videam planeque sentiam (Cic.). Enallage, change, i. e., the use of a more general word for a specific word ; e. g., Poenus for Hannibal, urbs for Roma; vos, o Calliope. Epexegests, additional explanation, applied to such usages as habere in lo- ricam donat habere viro (Verg.), or to the subordinate clause in pacem amicitiamque hortatus est, ut cum rege in gratiam rediret (Nep.). Euphemism, the use of softened language to express what is disagreeable or distressing. Homoeoteleuton, like ending of several clauses; e. g., in muros statim curritur, exercitus a sociis accersitur, dilectus juventuti denuntia- tur ; neminem alteri posse dare in matrimonium nisi penes quern sit patrimonium. Homonymia, applicability of the same word to different things ; such words are called h oniony ma ; e. g., taurus may be an animal, a mountain, a constellation, name of a man, or root of a tree. GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL TERMS. 281 Hyperbole, exaggeration; e. g., gemini minantur in caelum scopuli (Verg.) ; or the description of Camilla's swiftness ( Aen. vii. 808-811). Hysteron proteron, putting the former later, when that which naturally comes first is mentioned last; e. g., moriamur et in media arma ruanms (Verg.). Irony, dissimulation, says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real meaning be understood; e. g., in balneis delituerunt: testis egregios ! dein temere prosiluerunt ; homines temperantis ! (Cic. Caec. 26) ; meque timoris argue tu, Drance, quando tot stragis acervos Teucrorum tua dextra dedit ! (Verg.) Litotes, plainness, states less than is actually meant ; e. g., non nego instead of aio ; non indoctus for dootus ; non laudo for culpo. Metaphor (or translatio), transference of a term from its proper subject to another, on account of some resemblance or analogy between their meanings ; frequently the application of a physical or concrete term to a mental or abstract subject; e. g., sitiunt segetes; asper homo (rough, i. e.,-ill-tempered) ; incensus ira, on fire with rag e ; eloquentiae fulmina. It differs from allegory only by being less sustained, and by being worked into the discourse instead of being an independent fable. Almost all language is metaphor, more or less vivid and conscious. Metonymy, change of name, applied to such expressions as Neptunus for sea ; Vulcanus for fire ; Ceres for corn ; bene moratae urbes for bene morati urbis cives ; Graecia for Graeci ; Vergilius for carmina Ver- gili; proximus ardet Ucalegon, where Ucalegon is for Ucalegon's house. Among the substitutions of names made by Metonymy are that of the cause for the effect; the container for what is contained; the property for the substance ; the sign for the thing signified : and vice versa : also, the parts of the body for certain affections ; the pos- sessor for the thing possessed ; the place and time for the persons and things which they comprise. Onomatopoeia, name making, in modern writers applied only to making names from the sounds which they are to denote ; e. g., ulula, howler ; murmur; clangor; hirrire (of a dog snarling). Oxymoron, keen, though apparently foolish, applied to such expressions, uniting seeming contraries, as insaniens sapientia ; strenua inertia ; splendide mendax : et absentes adsunt et egentes abundant et im- becilli valent et, quod difiicilius dictu est, mortui vivunt (Cic. Lael. 7). Paronomasia (adnominatio), playing upon the sound of words ; punning ; e. g., consul ipse parvo animo et pravo, facie magis quam facetiis ridiculus (Cic.). Inceptio est amentium haud amantium (Ter.). Praetor iste vel potius praedo sociorum. Cui quod libet, hoc licet. Hunc avium dulcedo ducit ad avium. Periphrasis, roundabout expression, circumlocution; e. g., fac discas for 24* 282 LATIN GRAMMAR. disce ; vos oratos volo for vos oro ; Scipionis providentia Karthaginis opes fregit for Scipio Karthaginem fregit. Prosopopoeia, personification, representing inanimate things as living and acting; e. g., crudelitatis mater avaritia'st, pater furor. Si pa^ria mea loquatur, " M. Tulli, quid agis?" (Cic.)- Extemplo Libyae magnas it Fama per urbes (Verg.). SimTle or Parabole, an apt comparison illustrating a statement; e. g., per urbes Hannibal Italos ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas (Hor.). Solecism, a grammatical blunder in matters of syntax ; " Quintilian instances non feceris for ne feceris ; hie aut ille for hio an ille ; eo intus and intro sum for eo intro and intus sum." Synecdoche, when the whole is understood along with (i. e., under the name of) a part ; e. g., puppis for navis ; tectum for domus; mucro or ferrum for gladius ; caput for homo. Synonymia, using different words or expressions for the same meaning ; e. g., non feram, non patiar, non sinam (Cic.). Words of the same or like meaning are called synonyma ; e. g., gladius with ensis ; scutum with clipeus ; mare with pontus. Tautology, repetition of the same thing ; sometimes used as identical with synonymia ; sometimes applied to repetitions of the same word ; e. g., non solum igitur illud judicium judicii simile, judices, non fuit (Cic.). Nam cujus rationis ratio non exstat, ei rationi non est fidem habere (Cornif.). Whether the use of any of these figures is legitimate or proper depends on the context and the occasion, and oil general considerations of intelligi- bility, good sense, vigorous expression, propriety, habit of speakers and writers, and the like. A name confers no license, and a grammatical or rhetorical figure is a name of a fact, not of a law. (Roby, in part.) MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 306. VALUE OF COINS. 1. From 451 to 269 B. c. : The as libralis, of copper about 10 cents. 2. From 269 to 217 B. C. : The as sextantarius, of copper " 2 cents. The sestertius, of silver " 5 cents. The denarius, of silver " 19 cents. 3. From 217 to 30 B. C. : The sestertius, of silver " 4 cents. The denarius, of silver " 16! cents. The aureus, of gold (25 denarii, or 100 sestertii) " $4.17. Hence mille sestertium " $41.67. decies sestertium (a million sestertii) " $41,667.00. MONEY AND INTEREST. 283 307. THE NAMING OF SUMS OF MONEY. 1. The ordinary unit of reckoning was the sestertius or nummus ; in full, sestertius nummus. Up to two thousand, the nouns sestertii or nummi are used: as, decem sestertii, ten sesterces ; ducenti nummi, two hundred sesterces; quini sestertii, jive sesterces each. For higher num- bers, in thousands up to a million, a neuter noun in the plural number, sestertia, was used : as, septem sestertia, seven thousand sesterces, instead of septem millia sestertium ; or both millia and sestertia are found : as, dena millia sestertia, ten thousand sesterces ; or, again, in poetry millia is used with an ellipsis of sestertium : as, mullum sex millibus emit, he bought a mullet for six thousand sesterces. Horace has bis dena sestertia minimum, twenty thousand sesterces. 2. In sums of a million and upwards, numeral adverbs are employed : as, decies centum (or centena) millia sestertium. Usually the numeral ad- verb and sestertium are put alone : as, deoies sestertium, a million ses- terces; or, when the context is clear, the adverb is used alone, as simply decies ; we find also, for the same sum of a million sesterces, decies centena millia or decies centena. In such expressions, sestertium was taken to be a neuter noun, in the singular number : as, (nominative) sestertium quadragies relinquitur, four million sesterces are left; (accusative) ses- tertium quadragies accepi, / have received four million sesterces ; (abla- tive) sestertio decies fundum emi, / have bought an estate for a million sesterces; in sestertio vicies egere, to be poor in the possession of two million sesterces. Abbreviations are used : as, HS^DC. = 600 sesterces ; HS. DC. = 600,000 sesterces (or 600 sestertia) ; HS. |DC| = 60,000,000 sesterces. See g 55, 13 ; 317,8. 308. INTEREST. The as and its fractional parts were used in designating rates of interest. Thus, the interest being paid monthly at the rate of so much per 100 asses, unciae usurae = ^ per cent, per month = 1 per cent, per annum ; sextantes usurae = " quadrantes usurae = i " =3 and so on ; asses usurae = 1 " " =12 " Asses usurae were also called centesimae ; binae centesimae = 2 per cent, per month = 24 per cent. ; quaternae centesimae = 48 per cent, per annum. Horace says, quinas Me capiti mercedes exsecat (i. e., quinas centesimas), this man slices off 60 per cent, from the capital, because in lending money he deducts interest at the rate of five per cent, per month. Unciarum faenus, the yearly interest legalized by the Twelve Tables, was probably one uncia per as, or 8$ per cent., for the old year of ten months. 284 LATIN GRAMMAR. 309. WEIGHTS. 1. The unit or as of weight was the libra, or Roman pound, the sup- posed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally extended. It was duodecimally divided, the uncia, or ounce, being its 12th part, the scriptulum or scrupulum, scruple, its 288th part. Its weight was about 5050 grains English, or about $ pound Troy. 2. The Greek system also was used in the imperial times, the unit being a denarius, called from the Greek drachma, of which the libra contained until Nero's time 84 ; afterwards 96. This latter drachma contained three scriptula, the scriptulum two oboli, the obolus three siliquae. 310. MEASURES OF LENGTH. 1. The unit or as of length was pes, the foot ; digitus was a finger- breadth; palmus, a hand-breadth, was four digits; pes, a foot, was four palms or sixteen digits. 2. In the duodecimal division of the foot, uncia, the twelfth part, was an inch. Three unciae niade'a palmus. Two feet are sometimes called dupondius ; two and a half feet, sestertius, also gradus, or step ; one and a half feet, sesquipes, called also cubitus, the fore-arm. Ulna, an ell, is sometimes a synonym of cubitus ; but it sometimes means the full span of a man's arms, or six feet. 3. Land was measured out by the pertica or decempeda, a rod of ten feet. The actus (i. e., the furrow made at one drawing (driving) of the plough-oxen) measured twelve rods. 4. The unit of distance was the passus, pace, consisting of two gradus or steps, hence of five feet. It represents the distance from the point where, in walking, the same foot is taken up to the point where it is put down. Mille passus (or millia passuum or millia) was the Roman mile, 4850 English feet, or .919 English mile. The pes was 11.6 English inches. The stadium, or furlong, was J of a Roman mile. 311. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 1. The as of superficial measure was the jugerum. It contained 2 square actus, or 28,800 square feet ; each actus 144 square rods or perticae. The square rod was called a scrupulum, or decempeda quadrata. Two jugera made an heredium ; 100 heredia formed a centuria ; 4 oenturiae a saltus. 2. The pes quadratus was .94 English square foot ; the jugerum almost | of an English acre ; an heredium nearly an acre and a quarter. 312. MEASURES 'OF CAPACITY. 1. The unit of liquid measure was the quadrantal, a vessel of a cubit foot in content, after Cicero's time called the amphora. The amphora = WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TIME. 285 two urnae ; the urna = four congii ; the congius = six sextarii ; the sex- tarius = two heminae ; the hemina = two quartarii; the quartarius = two acetabula. Twenty amphorae made a culeus. The amphora was about 5| gallons English. 2. The duodecimal system was applied to the sextarius, which was a little less than an English pint (.96). Its twelfth, or uncia, was a cyathus, not quite half an ordinary wine-glass. The triens was 4 cyathi; the quadrans, 3 cyathi ; the sextans, 2 cyathi ; and so on. 3. The unit of dry measure was the modius, nearly one peck, or J bushel, English. It held two semodii or 16 sextarii. The divisions of the sextarius (sometimes called librarius) were the same as in liquid measure. COMPUTATION OF TIME. 313. 1. The Romans' civil day, as recognized in law, was from midnight to midnight ; a natural day, from sunrise to sunset. The natural day was divided into twelfths, called horae, which were therefore of different abso- lute lengths according to the time of year. From December 23d, when the day at Rome was, according to modern reckoning, 8 hours 54 minutes long, and the Roman hour was 44J minutes, the length increased up to the 25th of June, when the day was 15 hours 6 minutes, and the Roman hour 7/H minutes. At the equinoxes, 23d. March, 25th. September, the Roman hour was of the same length as our own. The civil day is sometimes spoken of as divided into twenty-four hours. 2. The night was for military purposes divided into four watches (vigilia prima, etc.) of equal length. And a similar division of the day into four parts is also implied by Varro's account of the praetor's marshal crying the third hour, noon, and the ninth hour. 3. The division of time into weeks of seven days with distinct names was not used by the Romans before the introduction of Christianity. The months were distinguished by the names adopted by us from the Romans, excepting that, before the time of the Emperor Augustus, Julius and Au- gustus had the names of Quinctllis and Sextilis (i. e., fifth and sixth month, March being the first). The days of the month were computed from three leading days in each, which were called respectively Calendae (KaL), Nonae (Non.), and Idus (Id.) ; to these the name of the month was appended as an adjective. The Calendae was the first day of every month ; the Nonae and Idus the fifth and thirteenth, except in the months of March, May, July, and October, in which they were the seventh and fifteenth respectively.* From these days they counted backwards, the days between the 1st and the Nones being reckoned as so many days before * In March, July, October, May, The Ides were on the fifteenth day, The Nones upon the seventh, we say. (For other months, take two away.) 286 LATIN GRAMMAR. the Noues : the days between the Nones and Ides as so many days before the Ides ; and the remaining days of the month as so many days before the Kalends of the next month. The day immediately preceding any of these reckoning points was called pridie Nonas, etc. ; the day next but one before was the third day before (in consequence of the Nones, etc., being themselves included in the reckoning), and so on. 4. There are two abbreviated modes of denoting the date ; e. g., the 27th of March might be marked as vi Kal. Apr., or a. d. vi Kal. Apr. The first is for sexto (die ante) Kalendas Apriles ; the second for ante diem sextum Ealendas Apriles. The latter expression appears to have originally signi- fied before (on the sixth day) the Kalends of April ; the exact day being thrown in parenthetically, and attracted from the ablative into the accusa- tive case in consequence of following ante. Similarly we find the date sometimes denoted by the number of days preceding a festival : as, a. d. v. Terminalia. i. e., 19th Feb. (the festival of the god of boundaries being on the 23d Feb.). This expression was considered as one word, before which in or ex may stand : as, Ex ante diem iii Nonas Junias usque ad pridie Kalendas Septembres, from the 3d June to the ttst, August; differre aliquid in ante diem xv Kalendas Novembres, to put off something to the 18th October. 5. The readiest way of reckoning the day is, 1. If the date lie between the Kalends and Nones, or between the Nones and Ides, to subtract the number of the day mentioned from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add one (for the inclusive reckoning). 2. If the date lie between the Ides and the Kalends, to subtract the number of the day mentioned from the number of the days in the month, and add two (i. e., one for the inclusive reckoning, and one because the Kalends are not the last of the month in which the date lies, but the first of the following month). 6. In leap year the intercalated day was counted between a. d. vi Kal. Mart, and a. d. vii Kal. Mart., and called a. d. bissextum Kal. Mart. (Hence the name of leap year, annus bissextllis.) 7. Before the reformation of the Calendar by Julius Caesar, B. c. 45, the number of days in the months was in March, May, July, and October, 31 ; in February 28 ; in all the rest 29. As these four months were two days longer, the Nones and Ides were two days later. This should be remem- bered in reading Cicero's letters, many of which were written before 45 B. c. After that year the number of days in each month was the same as now. 8. The year was designated by the names of the consuls for that year. Thus, Vergil was born M. Licinio Crasso et Cn. Fompeio Magno consulibus (abl. absol.), in the consulship of Crassus and Pompey. Sometimes events are dated in their year after the founding of the city (A. u. c., u. c., or A.). COMPUTATION OF TIME. 287 9. The following Table supposes the date to be subsequent to B. C. 45 The usual abbreviated form is given. It must be remembered that Kalendae, Nonae, and Idus are feminine, and the months adjectives; that the dates Kalendis, Nonis, and Idibus (on the first, fifth, etc.) are in the ablative ; and that a. d. vi Non. Mart., etc., is for ante diem sextum Nonas Martias. og^&w g g w S g " g ii ill HII alii i 1. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. - KALENDIS. KALENDIS. 2. a. d. iv. Non. a. d. iv. Non. a. d. vi. Non. a. d. iv. Non. 3. a. d. iii. Non. a. d. iii. Non. P; a. d. v. Non. a. d. iii. Non. 4. Prid. Non. Prid. Non. f a.d. iv. Non. Prid. Non. 5. NONIS. 8 NONIS. j- a. d. iii. Non. | NONIS. 6. a. d. viii. Id. fi . a. d. viii. Id. tPrid. Non. - a. d. viii. Id. 7. a. d. vii. Id. . a. d. vii. Id. . r IsONIS. J3 a. d. vii. Id. 8. a. d. vi. Id. ^ a.d.vi.Id. g a. d. viii. Id. j- a.d. vi. Id. 9. a. d. v. Id. p a. d. v. Id. "1 a. d. vii. Id. | a. d. v. Id. 10. a. d. iv. Id. * a.d.iv.Id. & a.d.vi.Id. .- a.d.iv.Id. 11. a. d. iii. Id. a. d. iii. Id. ^ a. d. v. Id. 1 a. d. iii. Id. 12. Prid. Id. Prid. Id. a. d. iv. Id. S Prid. Id. 13. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. a. d. iii. Id. IDIBUS. 14. a. d. xix. Kal. ' a. d. xviii. Kal.: Prid. Id. a. d. xvi. Kal. : 15. a. d. xviii. Kal. a. d. xvii. Kal. IDIBUS. a. d. xv. Kal. 16. a. d. xvii. Kal. a. d. xvi. Kal. a. d. xvii. Kal. 1 a. d. xiv. Kal. 17. a. d. xvi. Kal. a. d. xv. Kal. a. d. xvi. Kal. a. d. xiii. Kal. 18. a. d. xv. Kal. a. d. xiv. Kal. a. d. xv. Kal. a. d. xii. Kal. 19. a. d. xiv. Kal. a. d. xiii. Kal. a. d. xiv. Kal. a. d. xi. Kal. 20. a. d. xiii. Kal. p a. d. xii. Kal. a. d. xiii. Kal. > a. d. x. Kal. 21. a. d. xii. Kal. 3 a. d. xi. Kal. -g" a. d. xii. Kal. fe a. d. ix. Kal. 22. a. d. xi. Kal. - a. d. x. Kal. O a. d. xi. Kal. tS a. d. viii. Kal. 23. a. d. x. Kal. $ a.d. ix. Kal. 3 a. d. x. Kal. 1.41 a.d. vii. Kal. 24. a. d. ix. Kal. ^ a. d. viii. Kal. *"l a. d. ix. Kal. r a.d.vi.Kal. 25. a. d. viii. Kal. a. d. vii. Kal. 2 a. d. viii. Kal. s a.d.v.Kal.* 26. a. d. vii. Kal. a. d. vi. Kal. ^ a.d. vii. Kal. r a.d. iv. Kal. 27. a. d. vi. Kal. a. d. v. Kal. a. d. vi. Kal. |- a. d. iii. Kal. 28. a. d. v. Kal. a. d. iv. Kal. a. d. v. Kal. * Prid. Kal. 29. a. d. iv. Kal. a. d. iii. Kal. a. d. iv. Kal. 30. a. d. iii. Kal. Prid. Kal. a. d. iii. Kal. 81. Prid. Kal. Prid. Kal. * In leap year, the 24th Feb. was called a. d. bis sextum Kal. Mart. ; the 25th, a. d. vi. Kal. Mart. ; the 26th, a. d. v. Kal. Mart. ; the 27th, a. d. iv. Kal. Mart. ; the 28th, a. d. iii. Kal. Mart. ; the 2gth, Prid. Kal. Mart. The first twenty-three days were designated as in other years. 288 LATIN GRAMMAR. PRINCIPAL EXTANT LATIN AUTHORS. 314. PRAE-CICERONIAN AGE. Cn. Naevius, a Latin of Campania, d. 199 B. c. Dramatic and epic poems ; only fragments extant. T. Maccius Plautus, b. 254 B. c., at Sassina in Umbria, d. 184 B. c. Comedies, 20 of which are extant, many being written 201-189 B. c. Q. Ennius, b. 239 B. c., at Rudiae in Calabria, d. 169 B. c. Poems epic and dramatic ; only fragments extant. M. Porcius Cato (Censorinus), b. 234 B. c., at Tusculum, d. 149 B. c. History, speeches, and treatise on farming; this treatise and fragments extant. P. Terentius, b. 185 B. c., at Carthage, d. 159 B. c. Six comedies ; all preserved. L. Attius (or Accius), b. 170 B. c., d. circa 104 B. c. Tragedies and other poems ; fragments only extant. C. Lucllius, b. 148 B. c., at Suessa Aurunca in Campania, d. 103 B. c. Satires ; only fragments extant. 315. GOLDEN AGE. 1. Ciceronian: CorntfTcius, probable name of the author of a treatise on rhetoric ad- dressed to C. Herennius and printed with Cicero's works. Possibly Q. Cornificius trib. pi. 69 B. C. M. Terentius Varro, b. 116 B. c., at Reate, d. 27 B. c. Antiquarian and grammatical writings; satires, partly in verse; a treatise on farming. Extant: part of a work on the Latin language (written cir. 43 B. c.), and the treatise de re rastica (written 37 B. c.) : fragments only of others. M. Tullius Cicero, b. 106 B. c., at Tusculum, d. 43 B. c. Speeches, treatises on rhetoric and philosophy, and private letters. 58 speeches (some mutilated), most of the treatises, and many letters, are extant. Speeches from 81 B. c. ; treatises from 55 B. c, except a work on rhetoric written in his youth ; letters from 68 B. c. : all reaching nearly to his death. Fragments only of his poems extant. Q. Tullius Cicero, b. 102 B. c., d. 43 B. c. A short political essay de petitione consulates : extant (with his brother's writings). C. Julius Caesar, b. 100 B. c., d. 44 B. c. Speeches, history, treatises on astronomy and grammar ; only histories (or rather notes for history) of his own campaigns extant. A. Hirtius, d. 43 B. c., wrote 8th book of Caesar de Bello Gallico, and Bellum Alexandrinum : both extant, printed with Caesar. Cornelius Nepos, b. 104 to 94 B. c., near the Po, d. after 32 B. c. History in the form of biographies : some extant. PRINCIPAL LATIN AUTHORS. 289 T. Lucretius Carus, b. 90 B. c., d. 55 B. c. Philosophical poem : extant. C. Valerius Catullus, b. 87 B. c. at Verona, d. 54 B. c. Poems, of varied character; epic, lyric, occasional : extant. Publilius Syrus of Antioch, cir. 45 B. c. Mimes. Extant a collection of proverbial lines extracted from them. C. Sallustius Crispus, b. 87 B. c., at Amiternum, d. 34 B. c. History. Extant: histories of wars with Catiline and with Jugurtha, and some speeches from the other histories. M. Caelius M. F. Kufus, b. 85-82 B. c., d. cir. 48 B. c. Speeches. Some lively letters to Cicero are extant, forming Book viii. of Cic. ad Famili- ares. Among other correspondents of Cicero, several of whose letters have come to us with Cicero's, are L. Munatius Plancus (Cic. ad Fam. Book x.) ; C. Asinius Pollio (same Book) ; D. Brutus (Book xi.) ; C. Cassius (Book xii.) ; P. Lentulus (ibid.) ; M. Junius Brutus (Cic. Epist. ad M. JBrutum). One or two letters ajo occur from C. Jul. Caesar, Cn. Pompeius, H. Forcius Cato, M. Antonius, M. Lepidus, Q. Metellus Nepos, Matius, Caeciua, Cicero filius. 2. Augustan: P. Vergilius Maro, b. 70 B. c., at Andes, near Mantua, d. 19 B. c. Rural and epic poems, viz., Bucoltca (B. c. 41-38) ; Georgtca (B. c. 37-30) ; Aeneis (begun cir. B. c. 26; left unfinished at his death): all extant. Some other smaller poems, partly satirical, which have been ascribed to him, are extant. Q. Horatius Flaccus, b. 65 B. c., at Venusia, d. 8 B. c. Poems lyrical and satirical or didactic ; partly in the form of epistles ; all extant. T. LTvius, b. 59 B. c., at Patavium, d. 16 A. D. History of Rome from the foundation of the city to the death of Drusus (9 B. c.), in 142 books, of which 35 books (viz., i.-x., xx.-xlv.) only are extant. Albius Tibullus, b. cir. 54 B. c., d. 19 B. c. Poems chiefly amatory. Other poems are printed with Tibullus', especially those of Lygdamus, b. cir. 43 B. C. Amatory poems. Sextus Propertius, b. cir. 49 B. c., in Umbria, d. after 16 B. c. Poems chiefly amatory ; all extant. L. Annaeus Seneca (the father), b. cir. 54 B. c., at Corduba, d. cir. 38 A. D. Wrote in old age reminiscences and specimens of the exercises of rhetorical schools, called Suasoriae and Controversiae ; partly extant. (Often called Seneca Rhetor to distinguish him from his son.) Vitruvius Pollio, cir. 14 B. c. Wrote a work on Architecture, still extant. P. Ovidius Naso, b. 43 B. c., at Sulrao, d. 17 A. D. Poems amatory (B. C. 14-1 A. D.), mythological and antiquarian (A. D. 2-8), and elegiac (A. D. 9-16) ; all extant. A tragedy which he wrote is not extant. Gratius. Poem on hunting ; extant probably only in part. 25 T 290 LATIN GRAMMAR. Manillas. Poem on astronomy written about the end of Augustus's reign ; extant. 316. SILVER AGE. 1. Early: T. Claudius Caesar Germanicus, b. 15 B. c., d. 18 A. D. Translation in hexameters of Aratus's poem on the constellations. M. Velleius Paterculus, a soldier before 1 A. D., died after 30 A. D. Roman history; a short work, mainly extant. Valerius MaxTmus, cir. 30 A. D. Wrote a collection of anecdotes, all or almost all extant. A. Cornelius Celsus, time of Tiberius. Practical treatises on various arts ; work on medicine extant. Phaedms (freedman of Augustus). Fables in verse; mainly extant. L. Annaeus Seneca (the son), b. cir. 4 B. c., d. 65 A. D. Philosophy and tragedies ; both largely extant. Q. Curtius Bufus, time of Claudius. History of Alexander the Great; not wholly extant. L. Junius Hoderatus Columella, of Gades, time between Celsus and Plinius major. Treatise on farming, in twelve books (one in verse) ; all extant. Q. Asconius Pedianus, cir. 3-88 A. D. Notes on Cicero's speeches, partly preserved. Pomponius Mela, of Tingentera, in Spain, time of Claudius. Geography ; extant. A. Persius Flaccus, b. at Volaterra 34 A. D., d. 62 A. D. Satirical poetry ; extant. M. Annaeus Lucanus, b.39 A. D., d. 65 A. D. Poem on the war between Pompey and Caesar, called Pharsalia ; extant. Petronius Arbtter, time of Nero. Romance ; extant in large fragments, chiefly in prose, but partly in verse. Calpurnius, time of Nero. Bucolic poetry ; extant. 2. Age of Quintilian : C. Pllnius Secundus (the elder), b. 23 A. D., d. 79 A. D. History, Gram- mar, Natural History ; extant only the Natural History, in 37 books. C. Valerius Flaccus, d. before 90 A. D. Epic poems on the Argonautic expedition; extant. C. STlius ItalTcus, b. 25 A. D., d. 101 A. D. Epic poem on the second Punic War. Extant. P. Papinius Statins, b. at Naples, cir. 45 A. D., d. 96 A. D. Poems, epic and occasional. Extant : Thebais cir. 80-92 A. D. ; Achilleis (unfinished), and Silvae, written in the last years of his life. M. Valerius Martialis, b. at Bilbilis, in Spain, cir. 42 A. D., d. cir. 102 A. D. Epigrams in verse ; extant. A UTHORS. ABBREVIATIONS. 291 M. Fabius Quinttlianns, b. at Calagurris, in Spain, cir. 35 A. D., d. cir. 95 A. D. Treatise on rhetoric ; extant. Sex Julius FrontTnus, b. cir. 40 A. D., d. cir. 103 A. D. Military and engineering works. Extant : treatise on Roman aqueducts, and anecdotes of military tactics, and fragments. 3. Age of Tacitus : Cornelius Tacitus, b. cir. 54 A. D., d. cir. 119 A. D. Rhetoric and later Roman history. Extant : a considerable part of the history, a life of Julius Agricola, and a description of Germany. A dialogue de oratoribus is attributed to him, but its very different style from that of the other works of Tacitus makes this attribution doubtful. C. Pllnius Caecilius Secundus (the younger), b. at Comum 62 A. D., d. 113 A. D. Letters (published by himself) and a panegyrical speech. Extant. D. Junitfs Juvenalis, b. at Aqumum, cir. 67 A. D.,-d. cir. 147 A. D. (So according to Friedlander. Usually put ten or twelve years earlier.) Satires; extant. Velius Longus, time of Trajan. Grammatical treatises, one of which is extant. HygTnus, time of Trajan. Land surveying ; partly extant. C. Suetonius Tranquillus, b. oir. 75 A. D., d. cir. 160 A. D. Biographical, antiquarian, and grammatical writings. Partly extant, principally the Lives of the Caesars, written cir. 120 A. D. ROBY. 317. ABBREVIATIONS. 1. First names (Praenomina) A. Aulus. Mam. Mamercus. App. Appius, N. or Num. Numerius. C. Gaius. P. Publius. Cn. Gnaeus. Q. Quintus. D. Decimus. S. or Sex. Sextus. K. Kaeso. Ser. Servius. L. Lucius. S. or Sp. Spurius. M. Marcus. T. Titus. A\.. or W. Manius. Ti. Tiberius. Women's names are expressed by inverted characters : as, o for Gaia. 2. Titles of Persons, etc. CES. or CENS. Censor or Censores. D. Divug. Cos.* Consul or Consules. DBS. Designatus. Coss. Consules. * " Not until the 3d cent, after Christ was cons, used ; in Diocletian's time began the custom of doubling the s (e. g., conss.) to denote the plural." 292 LATIN GRAMMAR. F. Filius, RESP. Respnblica. Ill V E C I Triuxnvir Reipublicae R. P. P. R. Q. Bespublica Populi 1 constituendae. Roman! Quiritium. IMP. Imperator. S. Servus. LEG. Legatus. S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque L. or LIB. Libertus, Liberta. Romanus. MAG. Magister. S. P. P. Q. R. Senatus Populus Ple- N. Nepos. besque Romana. P. C. Patres Conscript!. TK. MIL. Tribunus Militum. P. M. Pontifex Maximus. TR. PL. Tribunus Plebis. PR. Praetor, or Praetores. TR. POT. Tribunicia Potestate. PROC. or PRO. J Pro consule, i. e., Pro- X. V. Decemvir. Cos. ) consul. X. VIR. STL. Decemvir stlitibus (i. PRO. PR. Propraetor. JTTDIK. e., litibus) judican- PROQ. Proquaestor. dis. P. R. Populus Romanus. XV. V. S. P. Quindecimviri sacris Q. Quaestor. faciundis. QUIR. Quirites. The name of the tribe to which a person belonged is sometimes added to the name in an abbreviated form : thus, Pup. for Pupinia ; Qui. or Quir. for Quirina ; Esq. for Esquilina. 3. Sepulchral. D. M. S. Dis Hanibus Sacrum. H. S. E. Hie situs est. D. S. P. De sua pecunia. OB. Obiit. F. C. Faciendum curavit. P. C. Ponendum curavit. H. C. E. Hie conditus est. V. Vixit. 4. In voting on trials. 5. In voting on laws. A. Absolvo. A. P. Antiquam (legem) probo. C. Condemno. V. R. Uti rogas. N. L. Non liquet. 6. Epistolary. D. Data (est epistola). S. D. Salutem dicit. S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit. S. Salutem (dicit), S. V. B. E. E. V. Si vales, bene est : ego valeo. S. T. E. Q. V. B. E. E. Q. V. Si tu exercitusque valetis bene est : ego quoque valeo. S. V. G. V. Si vales gaudeo. Valeo. ABBREVIATIONS. 293 7. In decrees of the Senate. D. E. K. I. C. De ea re ita oensu- SCR. ARF. Scribendo arfuerunt (i. e., erunt. adfuemnt). I. N. Intercessit nemo. V. F. Verba fecit. 8. C. Senatus consultum. 8. Miscellaneous. A. U. C. Anno urbis conditae. ITER. Iterum. D. D. Dono dedit. L. Libertas. DD. Dederunt. M. P. Mille passuum. D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedioat. Q. B. F. F. Q. S. Quod bonum felix F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortuna- faustumque sit. turn. HS (for IIS, i. e., duo + semis) sestertius. 9. Modern Latin. A. C. Anno Christi. i. q. id quod. A. D. Anno Domini. L. or Lib., Libb. Liber, Libri. A. M. Anno mundi. L. B. Leotori Benevolo. a. C. n. ante Christum natum. 1. c. loco citato. p. C. n. post Christum natum. 1. 1. loco laudato. c. caput, capitis, etc. (chapter). leg. lege or legatur. cet. cetera. L. S. Locus Sigilli. cf. confer or conferatur. MS., MSS. Manuscriptum (or Manu- cir. circa (about). scrip tus, sc. liber), Manuscri- Cod., Codd. Codex, Codices. pta, or manuscript!. coll. collate or collatis. N. B. Nota bene. C. P. P. C. collatis pecuniis ponen- N. F. Novum Foedus. dum curaverunt. N. T. Novum Testamentum. comp. or cp. compara or compare- obs. observa or observetnr. tur. P. S. Postscriptum. del. dele or deleatur. q. v. quern (or quod) vide. D. O. M. Deo optimo maximo. sc. scilicet. ed., edd. editio, editiones. sq., sqq. sequenti, sequentibus. e. g. exempli gratia. s. v. sub voce. etc. or &c.et cetera. vid. vide, h. e. hoc est. viz. videlicet. I. C. Jesus Christus, v. versus, versum, etc. I. H. S. Jesus Hominum Salvator. v. c. verbi causa. Ictus. Juris consultus, V. eel. Vir celeberrimus. ibid. ibidem. V. cl. Vir clarissimus. id. idem. V. F. Vetus.Foedui. i. e. id egt. V. T. Vetus Testamentum. 25* 294 LATIN GRAMMAR. 10. Academic. A. B. Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts. A. M. Artium Magister, Master of Arts. D. Doctor. LL. B. Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Law. LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. LIT. D., or L. H. D.,Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor, Doctor of Literature. M. D. Medicinae Doctor, Doctor of Medicine. Mus. D. Musicae Doctor, Doctor of Music. Ph. D. Philosophiae Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. S. T. D. Sanctae Theologiae Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. S. T. P. Sanctae Theologiae Professor, Professor of Divinity. S. B. Scientiae Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Science. S. D. Scientiae Doctor, Doctor of Science. *** Other Academical Degrees are represented by similar initials. Abbreviations : w., with ; compd., compound or compounded. The figures denote the sections. -a, denoting agent, 104, 4, Rem. ; fe- male names, 104, 31. -a in abl., 270, 1, 1. a, ab, abs, form in compounds, 101, 1. ; before words of distance, off, 129, 5 ; w. abl. of agent, 173 ; w. verbs of ab- staining, excluding, etc., 177, 1; w. verbs of driving out, 177, 3; w. abl. of remote origin, 178, 3; after adjs., 381, 1; w. abl. of place whence, 182, 2; w. abl., 186. abbreviations, 317. abeo, w. abl., 177, 4. abest ut, 208. abhinc, 185, 6. ablative in i in 3d decl., 29, V. ; abl. plur. in ubus, 34, 4 ; abl. in e in ad- jectives of 3d decl., 43, 1; abl. sing, in comparatives, 44, 5; abl. sing, of adjs. of one termination, 45, 1; of participles, 45, 2. ablative, definition of, 165; abl. of cause, 166 ; abl. of manner, 166 ; 166, 1-3; w. cum, 166, 3; abl. of accord- ance, 166, 4 ; of accompaniment, 166, 5; w. junctus, etc., 166, 6 ; w. certain verbs, 167-170 ; w. ace. after vbs., 169, 2 ; w. opus and usus, 171 ; of material, 172 ; of voluntary agent, 173 ; agent as mere instrument, 173, 4; after compara- tives, 174; after alius, 174, 3; omitted after comparative, 174, 5 ; of quality, 175 ; of degree of difference, 176 ; of sep- aration, 177 ; of source, 178 ; w. ex and de, 178, 2 ; w. ab, 178, 3 ; of price, 179 ; w. dignusand indignus, 179, 2 ; of penal- ty, 179, 4; of specification, 180; after adjectives, 181; w. macte, 181, 2; of place whence, 182; of place in dates, 182, 3 ; of native place, 182, 4 ; of tribe, 182, 5; of place where, 183; w. prepo- sition omitted, 183, 2; w. totus, 183, 2; of apparent place, 183, 4; of route, 184; of time, 185; of time within which, 185, 5; time how long, 185, 10; 129, 3; w. propositions, 186; ablative absolute, 187; abl. of gerunds and ge- rundives, 252, 13 ; of supine, 254. absque, w. ablative, 186. -abus for -is, 19, 6. abutor, 167; abutendus, 167, 2. ac, atque, after words of likeness and unlikeness, 257, 7. ac si, 220. acatalectic, 284, B. ii., 3. accentuation, 9, 10, 11. accidit, 208. accingor, construction, 125. accipi, w. dat. of the end, 161, 4. accommodatus, 162, 1 and 5. accompaniment, 166, 5. accusative in -im, 29, iv. accusative, 14; as subject of an infini- tive, 109, 3 ; accusative of direct object, 121; w impersonal verbs, 121, 1, n. 1 ; attracted, 121, 1, n. 3; w. intransitive verbs, 121, 2 ; w. verbal nouns, 121, 3 ; w. participial in -bundus, 121, 4 ; w. omitted verb, 121, 5 ; w. verbs com- pounded w. prepositions, 122; w. preposition repeated, 122, n. 3; two accusatives w. compounds, 122, n. 2 ; cognate ace., 123; defining ace., 124; ace. of neuter adjs. and pronouns w. 295 296 INDEX. intransitive verbs, 124, n. 1 ; of inner object, 124, n. 1 ; a neuter ace. of a pro- noun w. ace. of the person after in- transitives, 124. n. 2 ; ace. w. passives used refl exively . 125 ; two ace. w. verbs of naming, making, etc., 126 ; two ace. w. doceo and celo, 127 ; one ace. re- tained w. passive verb, while the other becomes subject, 127, 4 ; ace. of specification, 128, 1 ; of part affected, 128, 1, and note ; adverbial, 128, 2, 3 ; 124, n. 1; ace. antecedent to relative in the ace., 128, 4; of extent of time or space, 129; terminal ace., 130; of domus and rus, 130, 3 ; after preposi- tions, 131 ; w. postpositions, 131, 5 ; in exclamations, 132; w. interjections, 132 ; after intransitives become tran- sitive, 153, 4; ace. of the infinitive, 237 ; 241 ; of gerunds and gerundives, 252, 11, 12 ; of supine, 253. accusative w. infinitive, 109, 3; 111, 4 ; 142, 3; 209, 2, 3; 228, 1; 228, 1, 2; 228, 4; 228,6; 228, 7; 236-240; 242; personal construction of passives preferred to, 245. accusing and acquitting, verbs of, 140. -aceus, 104, 40. ad, in composition, 101, 1. ; meaning to one's abode, 115, 2 ; vbs. compounded w. governing ace., 122; two aces., 122, n. 2 ; w. ace., 131 ; ad Vestae, 133, 1, n. 1 ; after adjectives, 136, 3 ; 162, 5 ; w. ace. after refert and interest, 142, 4; vbs. compd. w. governing dat., 154; prep, repeated, 154, 2 ; meaning at or near, 183, 6, a; w. gerunds and ge- rundives, 252, 11 ; denoting purpose, 252, 12. -ades, 104, 34. adipiscor, w. gen., 145, 3. adire aliquem, 122, n. 4. adjectives, declension of, 38-45; irreg- ular, 46; comparison of, 47-51; 53; numeral, 54, 55; derivation, 104, 35- 52; agreement of, 113; as adverbs, 113, 6 ; for nouns, 113, 7, 8 ; for geni- tives, 133, n. 3; governing gen., 136; governing dat., 162; governing abl., 168; 181. admoneo, 139, 1. Adonic verse, 289, 3; 301, 6. adspergo, 152. adsuefacere, adsuetus, 169, 1. adulor. 160, 2. adverbs, 99; comparison of, 52 ; nume- ral, 54, 3 ; 55, 5, 8, 9 ; pronominal, 63, 3, 4; as adj., 113, 9; adverbs w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, b, g; 133, 7, 1; w. ace., 162, 6; w. dat., 163 ; syntax of, 255. . adversum or adversus w. ace., 131. advising, verbs of, 209. aeger, w. locative genitive, 136, 6. aemulor, 160, 2. aequalis, 162, 1, 3. aequi bonique facio, 146, 2. aestimo, 146, 1, c. -aeus, 104, 51. affatim w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, b. affinis, 162, 1 and 3. agent, abl. of w. a, 173; without prep., 173, 4 ; dat. of, 157 ; 2-52, 16. agreement of predicate and subject, 110; 111; appositive, 112; of adjec- tives w. their nouns, 113; of pro- nouns w. their antecedents, 114; at- traction, 114, 2, 6 ; 114, 3. -IT, 19, 2. -al, 104, 17. Alcaic verse, 284, E; 291, 2; 292, 4, 5; the Alcaic strophe, 301, 8, and n. Alcmanian strophe, 284, E; 301, 13. alienus, instead of a genitive, 133, n. 3; w. dat., 162, 1 ; w. gen., 162, 3; w. abl., 162, 5. alii alii, 119, 9, d, e. aliquis, aliqui, 62, 13; 119,3,4. -alis, 104, 41. aliter atque, 257, 7. alius, decl., 41; use of, 119, 9, d, e; w. abl., 174, 3; alius alium, w. plural verb, 110, 5. alius atque, 257, 7. allegory, 305. alliteration, 305. alphabet, 1 ; 2. alter, decl. r 41 ; meaning second, 119, 9, c (ordinals) ; use of, 119, 9, a-c; alter alter, alteri alteri, 119, 9, 6. altus, w. ace. of extent, 129, 1. amb-, 101, ii., 1. ambiguity where there are two accu- satives w. an infinitive, 304 (amphi- bolia). ambo, declension of, 55, 2. amicus, 162, 1, 3. amphibolia, 304. amplius without quam, 174, 1. an, 258, 7-10, 12-15. anacoluthon, 304. Anacreontic verse, 284, E; 296, 6 ; 297. anacrusis, 284, C, 1. anapaest, 283, 2 ; cyclic, 290, 1, n. 2. anapaestic metres, 295. INDEX. 297 anaphora, 305. anastrophe, 304. animi, 148, 3. animum (or in animum) induxi, in an- imo est or habeo, w. inf., 241, 1. annon, 258, 10. answers, 258, 16, 17. ante, w. ace., 131 ; postpositive, 131, 5 ; in compds. w. ace., 122; w. dat., 154; in expressions of time, 185, 6. antecedent, 114, 1; repeated, 114, 2, a; incorporated in the relative clause, 114, 2, 6; omitted, 114, 2, c; relative attracted to its case, 114, 3. anteo, w. ace., 122; w. dat., 154. antequam, 214, 2. antithesis, 305. antonomasia, 305. -anus, 104, 42, 45, 48. aorist. See perfect, historical, aphaeresis, 304. apocope, 304. apodosis, 215 ; 304; omitted, 220. aposiopesis, 305. apostrophe, 305. apposition, 112; w. nomen, 112, 1, Exc. appositive clauses, 212. aptus, 162, 1 and 5. aptus qui, 223, 2. apud, w. acc., 131; meaning at the house of, 115, 2. -ar, 104, 17. arceo, 151. archaism, 304. Archilochian verse, 284, E; 289, 4; 291, 1; 299; 301,9-12. -aris, 104, 41. Aristophanic verse, 284, E; 291, 3; 301,7. -arium, 104, 19. -arius.104,18; 104,42. arrangement of words, 259-261 ; of Clauses, 262, 263. arsis, 283, 1. article, 19, n. -as in gen. First Declension, 19, 3; suf- fix, 104, 49. as, 56, 3; 306; 308-311. Asclepiadean verse, 284, E; 293, 1, 2; 301, 1-5. asking, verbs of, 127; 209; 242, 6. assimilation, 304 ; 95,3; 96; 101. assis, genitive of value, 146, 1. assuetus, 169. asynartete, 284, D. asyndeton, 304. atque, after words of likeness or un- likeness, 257, 7. attempted action, w. pres., 189, 5 ; w. imperf., 190, 3. attraction, 304; of predicate noun or adjective after licet w. dat., Ill, 6; of names of persons, 112, 1, Exc. ; 156, 1 ; inverted, 114, 2, b; of relative, 114, 3; of subject of governed clause, as ob- ject, 121, n. 3; of mood, 226 ; 228, 1, 2; of vbs. meaning to say or think, 232, 3. -atus, 104, 20, 44. audior, 245, 1. ausim, 84, 12, a. aut, 110, 6 ; 257, 4. aut aut w. sing., 110, 7 ; 257, 6. authors, Latin, 314-316. -ax, 104, 36, 3 ; verbals in, 136, 1. bacchiac verse, 298. barbarism, 304. base, 284, C, 2, 3. becoming, verbs of, 111. being, verbs of, 111 ; 156; 161. belli, 148, 2. bene emere, vendere, 179, 1. -ber, 104, 4, Rem. -bills, 104, 36, 2; verbals in, 157, 3. binarius, 284, B, 5. bini, a pair, 55, 4, a. birth, participles denoting, 178. boni consulo, facio, 146, 2. bos, declined, 31. brachycatalectic, 284, B, ii. 3. brachylogy, 304. -brum,104, 10. bucolic diaeresis or caesura, 286, 5. -bulum,104,10,ll. -bundus, 104, 36, 4; participial in, w. acc., 121, 4. buying, verbs of, 147 ; 179. caesura, 286 ; 284, A, 1. calendar, Roman, 313, 9. called, verbs of being, 111. calling, verbs of, 126. capitis, capite, 140, 2 ; 179, 4. cardinals, 54 ; declension, 55, 1-4. cases, 14; cases alike, 17, 1-3; case endings, 18; in the first decl., 19; 19, 2-7 ; second, 21 ; 23, n. ; 23, 2-9 ; 25, 1 ; third, 29; 33; fourth, 34; fifth, 35; of adjs., 39-42 ; 43, 1 ; 44, 3, 5, 6 ; 45, 1-4 ; 46, 1; of pronouns, 57, 3-6; 58, 1, 4; 61, 1-3; 62,8,9,11,14. catachresis, 305. catalectic, 284, B, ii. 3. 298 INDEX. causa and gratia w. gen., 133, 7. causal clauses, 214, 3 ; 224 ; 232. cause, gen. of, 136, 4; 145, 1; abl. of, 166 ; denoted by a participle, 250. cave w. subj., for negative imperative, 247,6. caveo, w. ace., 160, 1; w. dat., 160, 1; with or without ne or ut, 210, 1 ; w. inf., 210, 1. -ce, 60, 2. cedo, w. abl., 177, 4. celer, decl., 42, 1. celo, 127 ; 127, 1. certo w. dat., 153, 7. certum est, 241, 1. certus, 136, 2, 3. ceu, 220. ch, sound of, 3, i., ii. chiasm, 305. choosing, verbs of, 111 ; 126. choriambic metres, 293. cingi, w. acc., 125. -cinium, 104, 22. circa, circiter, w. acc., 131 ; circa post- positive, 131, 5. circum, compds. w. acc., 122, n. 2; w. acc., 131 ; postpositive, 131, 5. circumdo, circumfundo, 152. cis, citra, w. acc., 131. citius quarn, 214, 2, 1. clam, w. acc., 186, 2; w. abl., 186. clanculum, w. acc., 186, 2. climax, 305. -clum, 104, 10. coeptus sum, 86, 5. cognatus, 162, 1, 3. cogo, 242, 4. coins, Roman, 306. collective nouns w. plural verb, 110, 4. com-, con-, in compds. w. dat., 154. comitor, 160, 2. communis, w. dat., 162 ; 162, 1 ; w. gen., 162,3; 136,7. commute, 179, 3. comparative degree, declension of, 44 ; formation, 44, 3 ; 47 ; abl. in -i in, 44, 5 ; wanting, 49, 2 ; 50 ; of adverbs, 52 ; meaning too or rather, 53, 1 ; two com- paratives, 53, 2; w. abl., 174; w. gen. of the whole, 133, 4, /; standard of comparison omitted after, 174, 5 ; w. quarn, quam qui, or quam ut, and the snbj., 223, 5, and n. comparison of adjs., 47-50; irregular, 49; w. magis (or minus), maxime (or minime), 50; of participles, 51; of ad- verbs, 52; notes on, 53. compendi, 135, 2. compleo, 141. complures, decl., 44, 4. compound sentences, 107, 2. compound tenses, 74, n. 1-3 ; 83, 1, 2 ; 199. compound words, 106. concede, 242, 4. concessive subj., 204; 214, 3; 225; con- cessive particles, 204, 2; concessive clause as condition, 217, 2, 3; conces- sive participle, 250. condemning, verbs of, 140. conditional sentences, 215-221 ; logical, w. indicative, 215, 2; ideal, 215, 3; unreal, 215, 4; mixed, 216; denoted by an adj., an abl. abs., or only im- plied, 217; by a concessive clause, 217, 2, 3 ; by a question or an impera- tive, 217, 4; incomplete, 219; 220; in oratio obliqua, 228, 6, 7 ; conditional participle, 217 ; 250. conduce, 147, 1,3; 179. confido, 168. conjugations, 73; of sum, 70; first conj., 74; second, 75; third, 76; 77; fourth, 78; deponent verbs 79; (gen- eral view of the four conjugations, pages 102-105;) periphrastic, 82; ir- regular verbs, 85; defective verbs, 86 ; impersonal verbs, 87. conjunctions, 100 ; co-ordinative, 100, 2 ; subordinative, 100, 3 ; syntax, 257 ; con- junction omitted, 257, 2, 3. conor, 242, 5. conscius, w. gen., 136, 2; w. dat., 136, 3. consilium cepi, consilium est, etc., w. inf., 241, 1. consimilis, 162, 4, consors, 136, 2. consto (cost), 147, 1, 3; 179: (consist of), 172. consulo, 160, 1. contendo w. dat., 153, 7. contentus w. abl., 168. contineo, w. abl., 183, 2. contingit, 208, n. contra, w. acc., 131; postpositive, 131, 5. contractions in forms of verbs, 84, 2, 4, 7-10. contrarius, 162, 1, 3. convenio, 160. coordinate clauses, 107, 3. copula, 108, 3, 1 ; omitted, 108, 3, 3 ; agree- ing in number w. predicate, 111, 3. coram, w. abl., 186. correlative pronominal adjectives, 63, 1; pronom. adverbs, 63, 2-4. INDEX. 299 cotidie, locative, 35, 4. crasis.276,5; 304. credor, 245. cretic metres, 294. -crum, 104, 10. cuicuimodi, 62, 14, 8. cujus modi, 134, n. 2. -cula, 104, 25, 2. -culum, 104, 10; 104, 25, 2. -culus, 104, 25, 2. cum, appended, 57, 7; 62, 10; subjects united by, 110, 2, 2; w. abl., 186; w. abl. of manner, 166, 1, 3; of accom- paniment, 166, 5. cum (quum), cpncessive or adversa- tive, 204, 2, 1; 214, 3; in comparison or contrast, 214, 3, 2; causal, 214, 3; temporal, 214, 4, 5; 2J4, 5, 2-5; of coincident action, 214, 4, n. 2 ; mark- ing lapse of time, 185, 9; 214, 4, n. 3; of subordination, 214, 5, 1 ; marking a period within which, 214, 5, 3 ; mean- ing as often as, 214, 5, 5 ; conditional, 217, 5. cum (quum) primum, 193, 1. cum turn , 257, 6. -cumque disjoined, 62, 14, 7; compds. with, how declined, 62, 15. -cundus, 104, 36, 4. cupio, 241, 4. cura est, 241, 1. cura ut, 247, 6. euro, 242, 5. cyclic dactyl and anapaest, 290, 1, n. 2. dactyl, 283, 2; cyclic, 290, 1, n. 2. dactylic hexameter, 285-287; other dactylic verses, 288, 289. damno, 140, 2; damnari w. ad, in, or a gen., 140, 2, n. dative, 14 ; in first declension, 20, 2, 6, 7 ; in the second, 23, 6; in third decl., 29, iii.; in fourth decl., 34, 3, 4; in fifth decl., 35, 2, 3 ; dat. in i in adjs., 41. dative, defined, 149 ; of advantage, 149 ; 151, n.; w. transitive verbs and the ace., 150 ; 152 ; w. the passive, 150, 1 ; w. verbs of taking away and protecting from, 151 ; w. intransitive verbs, 153 w. impersonals, 153, 1, 6 ; w. passives used impersonally, 153, 3; poetic dat of place whither, 153, 5; in poets and later prose writers, 153, 6; w verbs of contending, 153, 7 ; w. com- pound verbs, 154 ; 155 ; of possessor, w. esse, 156; w. est alicui nomen, 156 1 ; w. participle agreeing with it, after esse, 156, 2; of agent, 157; w. verbals in -bilis, 157, 3; limiting the whole predicate, 158; translated as geni- tive, 158, 1 ; specifying a relation, 158, 2 ; w. quid or idem and facio or fio, 158, 3; of participle, denoting time or circumstances, 158, 4; ethi- cal, 159; dat. or ace. w. verbs, 160; two datives, w. esse, etc., 161 ; of the end, 161, 4 ; w. adjs., 162 ; w. propior, proximus, propius, proxime, 162, 6; w. idem, 162, 7 ; w. adverbs, 163 ; w. in- terjections, 163; w. verbal nouns, 164; w. gerundives, 157, 1; 252, 16; of gerunds and gerundives, 252, 9, 10. de, w. abl., 186; w. abl., instead of a gen., 133, 4, n. 5 ; after participles of origin, 178, 2; of time, 185, 4. dea, dat. and abl. plur., 19, 6. debeo, past tenses of w. present inf., 246, 3. decasyllabus, 284, B, 6. deceo, 153, 2, b. decerno, 242, 5. decerto, 153, 7. decet, 239, 3. declension, 12, 1 ; first, 19, 20 ; second, 21- 25 ; third, 26-28 : fourth, 34 ; fifth, 35 ; first and second of adjs., 39-41 ; third, 42-45 ; of cardinals, 55 ; of pronouns, 57-62. declensions, general view of all the, 36. defective nouns, 37; adjs., 46, 2, 3; verbs, 86. deficio, 153, 2, 6. definite price, 179. delaying, verbs of w. quin, 211. delector, 168. deliberative questions, 205. demanding, verbs of, 242, 4, 6. demonstratives, 59; use of, 116; redun- dant, 116, 8; used in a suggestive sense, 116, 10. demonstror, 245, 1. denominatives, 105, 2. deponent verbs, 64, 1; 79; 80; 84, 5; 97, V. depriving, verbs of, 177. desideratives, 88, 4. design. See purpose. desire, 241, 4 ; verbs of, 242. despero, w. ace. or dat.. 160, 2. deus, decl., 23, 9. dexter, 40, 1. dextra, 183, 2. di-, dis-, 101, ii., 2. diaeresis, 2; 304; 277; 284, A, 2, 8. 300 INDEX. dialysis, 277. diastole, 280. die, 84, 4. dicionis, in pred., 135, 2. dicolum,284, 5,1,1. dicor, 245. difference, abl. of the measure of the, 176. dignor, 168. dignus, w. abl., 179, 2; w. gen., 179, 2; dignus qui, 223, 2; dignus w. inf., 223, 2. n. ; dignus w. supine, 254. dimeter, 284, JB, 2, 2. diminutive nouns, 104, 25 ; adjs., 104, 29 ; verbs, 88, 5. diphthongs, 2, 1, 2. dipody, 284, B, ii. ( 1. direct discourse, 107, 1, n. ; 228, n. dis-, compds. of w. dat., 177, 2. disadvantage, dat. of, 149 ; 151, n. dispar, 162, 1, 3. dissimilis, 162, 4. distance, ace. or abl. of, 129, 4, 5. distare, w. dat., 153, 6 ; 177, 2. distich, 284, B, i., 2. distributives, 54, 2 ; 55, 4 ; in multipli- cation, 55, 5. di versus, 162, 1,3; 181 ; 181, 1. do, w. two datives, 161. doceo, 127 ; 127, 1, 3. doctus, 127, 3. doleo, 121, 2, a; 168; 232,4. domus, decl., 34, 1. domi, 148, 2. domo, 182, 1 ; 183, 6, a. domum, domos, 130, 3. donee, 214, 1 ; 214, 1, n. 1, n. 2, n. 3. dono, 152 ; 161. doubt, verbs of, 211. dramatists, early, quantity in, 302. driving out, verbs of, 177, 3. dual number, 55 (duo and ambo). dubito, 211 ; 237. dubito an, 231, 4 ; 258, 15. due, 84, 4. duco, w. two datives, 161 ; w. gen., 146 ; w. ace. and inf., 238, n. 1. duim, for dem, 84, 1. dum, w. pres., 214, 1, n. 2; w. indie., 214. n. 1, n. 2; w. SUbj., 214, 1; 217, 3. dum, dummodo, 217, 3. e in dat., 29, iii. e or ex, w. abl., 186; for gen., 133, 4, n. 5 ; in compds. w. dat., 151 ; of origin, 178,2. ecce, 102, 1, 2; w. demonstratives, 51, 5; w. nom., 120, 3 ; w. ace., 132. ecthlipsis, 274, 5 ; 304. edim for edam, 84, 1. efficio, 209, n. ; 209, 1. egeo, 143. eheu, 102, 1, 1 ; w. ace., 132. ei (hei), 102, 1, 1 ; w. dat., 163. -eis, nom. and ace. pi., 29, viii., xi. -eis, 104, 34. ejus modi, 134, n. 2. -ela, 104, 16. elegiac distich, 288. elegiambic verse, 299, 2. elision, 274. -ella, 104, 27. ellipsis, 304. -ellus, 104, 27f, 30. em o,179. emotion, verbs of, 168 (cause) ; 232, 4. emphasis, in arrangement of words, 260. en, 102, 1, 2 ; w. demonstratives, 61, 5 ; w. nom., 120, 3 ; w. ace., 132. enallage, 304 ; 305. enclitics, 11. end, dat. of, 161. endeavor, verbs of, 242, 5. ending, verbs of, 241, 1. enneasyllabus, 284, B, 6. ennehemimeris, 284, A ; ennehemime- ral caesura, 284, A, 1. -ensis, 104, 48. -enus, 104, 51. eo, w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, b. eo, measure of difference, 176. epenthesis, 304. epexegesis, 305. -ere for -erunt, 84, 10. erga, w. ace., 131, 1. ergo, w. gen., 133, 7. es, joined to preceding word, 70, 6 ; e in, 70, 5. escit for erit, 70, 4. essential part, subj. of, 226. est, dropping its initial, 70, 6 ; est ut, it is the case that, 208, n. est qui, 223, 4 : 227, 1. ethical dative, 159. etiamsi, etsi, 215, 1, n. 2. -etum, 104, 24. euphemism, 305. euphony, in arrangement, 259. See rhythm. -eus, 104, 37. 46, 47. evenit, 208, n. excello, 168. INDEX. 301 exchanging, verbs of, 179, 3. exclamations, ace. w. inf. in, 240; ut w. subj., 240, 2. existimor, 245. expers, 136, 2. expleo, 141. exsors, 136, 2. exsulto, 168. extent of space or time, 129. extra, w. ace., 131, 1. extremum est, 208, n. extremus, meaning, 113, 10. exuo, 152. exuor, 1257 fac, 84, 4 ; suppose, 209, 2 ; fac, fac ut, fac ne w. subj., for imperat., 247, 6. facio, accent of compels., 9, Exc. ; pas- sive of compds., 85, 2, n. 4 ; w. gen., 135, 2; w. dat., 158, 3; w. abl., 158, 3; W. subj., 209 ; 209, 2, 5 ; w. inf., 238. fama fert, w. inf., 238, n. 3, a. fas, \v. abl. supine, 254. faxo, faxim,84, 12. fearing, verbs and phrases of, 213. feet, in verse, 283, 2, 5. feminine caesura, 286, 7. fer, 84, 4. feror, 245. fertilis, w. gen., 136, 2. ndo, 168. filia, dat. and abl. pi., 19, 6. filling, verbs of, 141. final sentences. See purpose. fine, abl. of, 140, 2. fio, 135, 1, 2 ; 158, 3. fit, 208. fitness, adjs. of, 162, 5. flagito, 242, 4. flocci, 146, 1, a. floreo, 168. for = in behalf of, 149, 3. foras, terminal ace., 37, 5. fore, 70, 3 ; w. perf. part., 246, 6. fore ut, 246, 5. forem, 70, 2 ; as an auxiliary, 74, n. 2. forgetting, verbs of, 137. foris, locative abl., 37, 5. formation of words, 103. forsitan, 202, 1. fractions, 56. frequentatives, 88, 2. fretus, w. abl., 168. friendliness, adjs. of, 162, 2, 5. frugi, 46, 3, d; compared, 49, 1. fruor, 167 ; fruendus, 80, 5, Exc. ; 167, 2. fuam for sim, 70, 1. fui, perf. pass. part, w., 74, n. 1 ; 199. fulness, adjs. of w. gen., 136, 2. fungor, 167 ; fungendus, 80, 5, Exc. ; 167, 2. future, 66, 2; 191; periphrastic fut. conjugation, 82, 1; in -ibo, -ibor, 84, 2; in -let in compds. of eo, 85, 7, 4; fut. indie, as imperative, 191, 2 ; 247, 3, 5; of subj., 93; inf., 246; 246, 5-7; imper., 247, 2, 4. future participle, 249, 1 ; w. fuisse, in dep. apodosis of an unreal condi- tional sentence, 228, 6. future perfect, 66, 5 ; 195 ; of immedi- ate sequence, 195, 3 ; of future result, 195, 4. futurum esse, fore, ut, 228, 6 ; 246, 5. futurum est ut, 208. futurum fuisse ut (w. pass, in a depen- dent apodosis of an unreal condi- tional sentence), 228, 6. fuvit = fait, 70, 1 Galliambic, 297. gaudeo, w. abl., 168 ; w. ace. and inf., or quod, 232, 4. gemo, w. ace., 121, 2, a. gender, 13; first decl., 19; 19, 8; second, 21 ; 23, 7 ; 24 ; third, 30 ; fourth, 34 ; 34, 5 ; fifth, 35 : 35, 5 ; in heterogeneous nouns, 37, 6 ; in redundant nouns, 37, 8. genitive, endings of, 17, 18; first decl., 19, 2, 3, 4 ; second, 23, 4, 5 ; 25, 1 ; third, 26, 1, 2 ; 29, ii. ; 33 ; fourth, 34, 1)2 ; fifth, 35, 2, 3 ; of adjs., in ius, 41. genitive, 14; adnominal, 133; of posses- sion, 133, 1 ; w. the limiting noun omit- ted, 133, 1, n. 1 ; represented by posses- sive adj. pron., 133, 1, n. 2 ; agreeing w. gen. implied in possessive pron., 133, 1, n. 2, 6; represented by adjs., 133, 1, n. 3 ; subjective, 133, 2 ; objec- tive, 133, 3; translated by various prepositions, 133, 3, n. 1; subj. and obj. genitives w. same noun, 133, 3, n. 2; after partitives, 133, 4; after words of measure or quantity, 133, 4. n. 2 ; gen. of the whole as predicate, 133, 4, n. 3 ; not used after numerals not partitive, and with omnes, 133, 4, n. 4 ; prepositions used instead of, 133, 4, n. 5 ; of neut. adj. of second decl. after neut. adjs. or pronouns or nihil, 133, 4, n. 6 ; neut. pi. of adjs. or parti- ciples w. a defining gen., 133, 4, n. 7; of definition, corresponding to an ap- positive, 133, 5; of material, 133, 6; w. causa, gratia, etc., 133, 7 ; after ad- 302 INDEX. verbs and preps., 133, 7; of quality or ilAsp.ription r w. an adj., 134; of gen- eral or permanent qualities, 134, n. 1 ; as predicate, w. sum, 135 ; w. fio, 135, 1, 2 ; vr. facio, 135, 2 ; after adjs., 136, 2 ; w. verbals in -ax and participles used as adjs., 136, 1 ; other constructions w. adjs., 136, 3 ; of cause or source, 136, 4 ; 145, 1 ; of respect in which, 136, 5 ; animi, as seat of feeling, 136, 6 ; after adj. used as noun, 136, 7 ; w. verbs of remembering and forgetting, 137 ; w. venit in mentem, 137, 2, n. ; w. verbs of pitying, 138 ; w. verbs of remind- ing, 139, 1 ; w. impersonals, 139, 2 ; w. judicial verbs, 140; w. verbs of filling, 141; w. refert and interest, 142; w. egeo and indigeo, 143; w. satago, 144; poetic uses of, 145; of cause, 145, 1; of separation, 145, 2 ; w. potior, adipis- cor, etc., 145, 3 ; of value. J4fi ; w. verbs of buying and selling, 147 ; locative of names of towns and small islands, 148, 1 ; of domi, belli, etc., 148, 2, 3 ; of gerunds and gerundives, 252, 4-8. gerund, 65, 5 ; 68, 1 ; in -nndi, 84, 11 ; 91,9. gerundive, 65, 4 ; 68, 1 ; of deponents, 80, 5; periphrastic gerundive conju- gation, 82, 2; in -undus, 84, 11 ; 91, 9. gerunds and gerundives, 252 ; gerun- dive, instead of gerund w. ace., 252, 1, 2 ; gen., w. nouns and adjs., 252, 4 ; gen. governing a gen., 252, 5 ; gen. in predicate after esse, of purpose or end, 252, 6 ; gen. of purpose, 252, 7 ; w. gen. sing. neut. of possessive adj. prons., 252, 8; dat., of purpose, etc., 252, 9; ace. more common, 252, 9, 1; adjs. and phrases followed by dat., 252, 9, 2 ; predicative use of dat. after esse, 252, 9, 3; purpose of an office, 252, 10 ; acc. w. preps., 152, 11 ; ace. of gerundive w. verbs to denote pur- pose, 252, 11, n., 12 : abl., 252, 13 ; neut. gerundive used impersonally, 252, 14 ; nom. of the gerund, 252, 14, n. 1; w. obj. in acc., 252, 14, n. 2; personal ge- rundive construction, 252, 15 ; w. dat. of agent, 252, 16; meaning of gerund- ive used attributively, 252, 17. glorior, w. abl., 168. Glyconic verse, 284, E; 292, 7. gnomic perfect, 192, 2, c. Graecism,304. gratia, w. gen., 133, 7. gratis, 19, 7. greater Ionic metres, 294. Greek nouns, first decl., 20; second, 25; third, 32, 23. guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 136, 2. habeo, w. gen. of value, 146, 1, 6 ; w. two dats., 161, 2 ; w. inf., 241, 1 ; w. rel. and subj., 223, 4, n. habilis, 162, 5. haerere, 153, 6. baud scio an, 231, 4 ; 258, 15. hei (ei) w. dat., 163. hemimeris, 284, A. hendecasyllabus, 284, , 6 ; 292, 3, 4. hendiadys, 304. hephthemimeral caesura, 284, A, 1. hephthemimeris, 284, A. heteroclites, 37, 7. heterogeneous nouns, 37, 6. heu, w. acc., 132; rarely, w. nom. or voc. 120. 2, 3. hexameter, 284, , ii, 2; dactylic, 285. hiatus, 275. hie, 59 ; 61, 1 ; meaning of, 116 ; of time within which, 185, 5. hie, adv., 61. Hipponactean verse, 284, E; 2%, 3. historical perfect, 66, 4 ; 193 ; after tem- poral conjunctions, 193, 1 ; historical present, 189, 6. historical tenses. See secondary tenses. hodiernus, w. force of adv., 113, 6. homoeoteleuton, 305. homonymia, 305. Horace, lyric metres of, 301. horreo, w. acc., 121, 2, a. hortative subj., 203. hostility, adjs. of, 162 ; 162, 5. hours, Roman, 313, 1. humi, 148, 2. hypallage, 304. hyperbaton, 304. hyperbole, 305. hypercatalectic, 284, B, ii, 3. hypermetrical verses, 287. hyphen, 304. hypothetical. See conditional. hysteron proteron, 305. i- nouns, 26, 2 ; -i in abl., 29, v. -ia, 104, 35, 1. -iades, 104, 34, 1, d iambic verses, 296. iambilegic verse, 299, 1. -ianus, 104, 45. -ias, 104, 34, 2. c. -ibam for -iebam, 84, 2. INDEX. 303 ibi, 61; w. its correlatives, 63, 3. -ibo, -ibor, for -iam, -iar, 84, 2. -icius, 104, 40. ictus, 283, 1, 3. -icus, 104, 41, 45, 46. idem, 60 ; meaning, 116, 7 ; w. dat., 162, 7. -ides, 104, 34, 1, a, 6. -ido, 104, 16. idoneus, 162, 2, 5 ; w. inf., 223, 2, n. ; idoneus qui, 223, 2. -idus, 104, 36, 1. -iensis, 104, 48. -ier in the infinitive, 84, 6. -ies, 104, 15. ignarus, 136, 2. -igo, 104, 6. -ile, 104, 24. -ilis, 104, 36, 2 ; 104, 41. -ilia, 104. 27. ille, 59; 61, 2,5; 116, 1-4, 8-10; of time within which, 185, 5. illic, 60, 2; adverb, 61. -ilium, 104, 27. -illus, 104, 27. -im in ace., 29, 4. -im in pres. subj., 84, 1. imbuo, 169, 2. imitative verbs, 88, 7. immemor, 136, 2. immo, 258, 18. imparisyllables, 26, 1. impedio, 210. imperative, 65, 2; present, 247, 1, 4; fu- ture, 247, 2 ; w. ne, 247, 4; substitutes for the affirmative imperat., 247, 3; for the negative, 247, 5 ; for aff. or neg., 247, 5, n. 1 ; w. neve, neu, 247, 5, n. 2 ; w. non, neque, nee, 247, n. 2 ; periphrases for, 247, 6 ; softened, 247, 7 ; perf. pass., 247, 8 ; in oratio obliqua, 228, 2. imperfect, 66, 3; indie., 190; in letters, 200 ; w. cum, 214, 5, 2, 3 ; w. antequam, etc., 215, 2, 4 ; subj., 203, 2, 8 ; 214, 1 ; 2, 3; 5; 215, 4 ; 215, 4, 1, 2; 228, 2, 6, 9 ; 234. imperitus, 136, 2. impero, 242, 7. impersonal verbs, 87 ; active, 87, 2; per- sons expressed w., 87, 2; personal verbs, used impersonally, 87, 3; of weather or season, 87, 4 ; passive, 87, 5 ; persons w., 87, 5 ; neuter gerundive used impersonally, 87, 6; person w., 87,6. impersonal verbs w. ace., 121, n. 1 ; w. clauses of result as subject, 208, n. impersonal, personal construction of passives for, 245. impertio, 162. impleo, 141. impotens, 136, 2. imprudens, 136, 2 ; w. force of adv.,113,6. imus, 113, 10. in, in compds., 101, i. ; w. ace. or abl., 131, 3; w. ace. after adjs., 136, 3; 162, 5 ; verbs compdd. w. governing ace., 122 ; 122, 4 ; governing dat., 154 ; prep, repeated after, 154, 2, 4; w. abl. of time within which, 185, 4; w. ge- rund., 252, 11, 18. in-, inseparable particle, 101, i. -ina, 104, 21. -inas, 104, 45. incedo, w. pred. nom., Ill, 1 ; w. ace., 122; w. dat., 154. inceptives, 88, 1. inchoatives, 88, 1. incorporated clause, subj. in, 226, n. 2. increments, quantity of, 271. indeclinable adjs., 46, 3, d. indefinite pronouns, 62, 5-7, 13, 14 ; 119. indicative, 65; 188; in condit. sentences, 181, 1 ; 215, 2 ; in the apodosis, 215, 3, n. 3; 215, 4, 3 ; as an auxiliary, 196 ; in relative clauses, 227. indigeo, 143. indignus, 179, 2; w. sup., 254; indignus qui. 223, 2; w. infin., 223, 2, n. indirect discourse. See oratio obliqua. indirect or remoter object, 108, 6 ; 149, 1. indirect questions, 231. inducor, 125. induo, 152. induor, 125. -ine, 104, 34. in eo esse ut, 197, 2, n. infimus, 113, 10. infinitive, 65, 3; 235-246; w. subj. ace., 109, 3; 209, 2, 3; 238-240; w. nom., 109, 3, Exc. ; 243 ; pred. of, 111, 4 ; pred. of in nom., after verbs of saying, think- ing, feeling, 241, 5; w. subjunc. de- pendent on it, 226; in oratio obliqua, 228, 1 and 1, 2 ; 4, 6-8 ; tense in clauses after ace. w. inf., 234, 6; inf. as subj., pred., or appositive, 236; as obj., 237; ace. w. inf. as object, 238 ; as subj., 239, in exclamations, 240 ; inf. after vbs. of power, will, duty, etc., 241 ; inf., ace. w. inf., or ut w. subj., 242; historic, 243; to express purpose, 244, 1 ; after nouns, 244, 2; after adjs., 223, 2. n.; 244, 3 ; after preps., 244, 4 ; tenses. 246 ; periphrases for fut., see fore, futu- rum esse. 304 INDEX. inflection, 12, 1. infra, w. ace., 131. inner object, ace. of the, 124, 1. inquam, 86, 2 ; how used, 86, 2, n. insciens, w. 'force of adv., 113, 6. inseparable preps, or particles, 101, i. (in-), 101, ii. inspergo, 152. instar, 133, 7. instrument, abl. of, 166; 169. instrumental case, 14, 2. instruo, 169, 2. insuetus, 136, 2; 162, 1, 3, 5 ; 244, 3. insuper, 131, 4. integer, w. gen., 136, 5. intellegor, 245, 1. intensives, 88, 2. inter, 131; postpositive, 181, 5; vbs. coinpd. w. gov. ace., 122; gov. dat., 154. interest, w. gen., 142; w. abl. of poss. pron., 142, 2; followed by ace. w. inf., or ut or interrog. w. subj., 142, 3; by ace. w. ad, 142, 4. interest, dat. of, 149; 157 ; 149-164. interest, Roman computation of, 308. interjections, 102; nouns and vbs. used as, 102, 2; advs.,102,3; w.voc., 120,2; w. nom., 120, 3; w. ace., 132; w. dat, 163. interrogative particles, 258; omitted, 258,5. interrogative pronouns, 62, 2-4, 7-12, 14. intimus, 113, 10. intra, w. ace., 131 ; of time, 185, 4. intransitive verbs, 64, 4 ; used as transi- tive, 121, 2 ; as impersonate in the pas- sive, 87, 5; 153,3. inuro, 152. -inus, 102, 42, 45, 48. inverted attraction, 114, 2, 6. invitus, w. force of adv., 113, 6. -io, 104, 5, 32. Ionic verse, 294, 3; 298, 2; 301, 19. ipse,60; 61,3,4; 118. ipsissimus, 61, 4. irony, 305. ire, w. supine, 85, 7, 2; 253, 3. irrational time, 265, 7; 290, 1, n. 1, n. 2. irregular nouns, 37; adjs., 46; vbs., 85. is, 59; 61,5; 116,6. -is, 104, 34, 2, a. -is in ace. pi., 29, xi. ; in nom. pi., 29, viii. -is for iis, 19, 7 ; 23, 6. -isso, verbs in, 88, 3. iste, 59 ; 61, 5 ; 116, 6. istic.60, 2; 61. -itius, 104, 40. -itus, 104, 44. -ium, 104, 14, 23. -ius, 104, 42, 46, 51. jacio, in compds., 3, 1. ; 266, 4, n. 2. jubeo, 153, 2. b; 209, 3; 242, 7. jubeor, 245, 1. jungo, \v. dat, 153, 6; junctus and con- junctus, w. abl., 166, 6. Jupiter, decl., 31. juratus, 81, 2. jusso, for jussero, 84, 12. juvo, w. ace., 153, 2, b. juxta, w. ace., 131 ; postpositive, 131, 5. knowing, verbs of w. ace. and inf., 238 ; w. inf., 241. knowledge, adjs. of, 136, 2. laboro, 168. laedo, 153, 2, 6. laetor, 168. laetus, 168 ; w. force of adv., 113, 6. laeva, 183, 2. latus, w. ace. of extent of space, 129, 1. -lens, -lentus, 104, 43. letters, tenses in, 200. libens, 113,6. liber, w. abl., 181 ; w. gen. or w. ab, 181, 1. libero, w. abl., 177; w. ab and abl. of a person, 177, 1. libro, 183, 2. liceo, 179. licet, 204, 2 ; 204, 2, 1 ; 239, 3 ; its tense de- termining the time of a following inf., 246, 3. likeness, adjs. of, 162, 2, 4; words of, with ac, atque, 257, 7. -Iis, 104, 36, 2. litotes, 305. locare, 179. locative, 14,1; 19,5; 23,8; 29, vi.; 34,1; 35,4; 136,6; 148; 185,8. loco, 183, 2. locus, plural, 37, 6. logaoedic verse, 291. longius, without quam, 174, 1. longus, w. acc, 129, 1. lucri, in pred., 135, 2. luctor, w. dat, 153, 7. macte,46, 3, c; 181,2. magis and maxime, in comparison, 50 ; magis quam, 53, 2. magni, 146, 1 ; magno, 147, 3. making, vbs. of w. two acc., 126 ; passive w. two nom., 111. INDEX. 305 male or (bene), emere, vendere, 179, 1. malo, 85, 5; 209, 5; 241, 4; 242. manifestus, 136, 2. manner, abl. of, 166, 1, 2; denoted by participle, 250. masculine caesura, 286; 7. mastery, adjs. of, 136, 2. material, gen. of, 133, 6 : abl. of, 172. matutinus, w. force of adverb, 113, 6. means, abl. of, 166; denoted by parti- ciple, 250. measure, of difference, abl. of, 176. measures, Koman, of length, 310; of surface, 811; of capacity, 312. medeor, w. dat. 153. 2 ; medendus, 80, 5, Exc. medio, 183, 2. medius, 113, 10. melius, w. indie., 196. memini, 86, 6 , w. gen., 137 ; w. pres. inf., 246, 4. memor, 136, 2. memoria teneo, 246, 4. -men, 104, 7, 8, 9. -mentum, 104, 7. -met, 57, 8; 58,5. metaphor, 305. metaplasts, 37, 6. metathesis, 305. metonymy, 305. metre, 284, B. metrical reading, 303. metuo, w. dat. or ace., 160 ; w. ut or ne, 213. mi, voc. of meus, 58, 1 ; for mini, 57, 4. middle voice, 64,2; 125. militiae, 148, 2. minimi, 146, 1 ; minimo, 147, 3; 179, 1. -mino, minor, in imperat., 84, 5. minor, minus, without quam, 174, 1. minoris, 146, 1 ; 147. miror, w. ace., 121, 2 ; w. gen. of cause, 145, 1 ; w. ace. w. inf. or quod, 232, 4. mirum quam or quantum, 231, 4. misceo, 152; 153, 6. misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 138. miseret, 139, 2. mitto, w. two dats., 161, .. moderor, w. dat. or ace., 160. modo, w. subj., 217, 3; modo modo, now now, 257, 6; non modo sed ne quidem (or vix), 256, 3. moneo, 124, n. 2, 209, n. money, Roman, 306-308. -monia, 104, 35, 2; -monia, -monium, 104, 14. monocolum, 284, B, i. 1. 26* monometer, 284, B, ii. 2. monosyllables, quantity of, 269. mood signs, origin and history, 90. morae, or times, 265, 2. moris est, 135. multiplication, how expressed, 55, 5. multiplicatives, 55, 14. multitude, noun of, 110, 4. muto, 179, 3. naming, verbs of w. two noms., Ill; w. two aces., 126. natus, tr. old, w. ace., 129; w. abl., 178. -ne, 11, 2; 258, 1-4, 6-10, 12. ne, w. opt. subj., 203, 1, n. 2; w. conces- sive subj., 204, 2, w. sentences of pur- pose, 206; w. substantive clauses, 209 ; after vbs. of hindering, 210 ; omitted, 210, n ; after verbs of fearing, 213 ; w. imperat., 247, 4, 5. nearness, adjs. of, 162, 2, 6. necessarius, 162, 2, 3. necesse est, 239, 3. necne,258, 10. nee non, 256, 1. nedum, 206, 5. nefas, w. abl. supine, 254. negatives, two, 256. nequam, 46, 3, d ; compared, 49. neque non, 256, 1. nescio an, 231, 4 ; 258, 15. nescio quis, quo, etc., 119, 2; w. indie., 231, 4. -neus, 104, 38. neuter, decl. of, 41. neuter adj., 113, 3, n. 1; referring to a phrase or clause, 113, 4 ; as noun, 113, 8; as denning ace., 124; w. gen. of the whole, 133, 4, n. 6, n. 7. neuter passives, 81, 1. neutral passives, 81. ni=si non, or nisi, q. v. nihili, 146, 1 ; nihilo, nonnihilo, 147, 3. nimium quantum, 231, 4. nisi and si non, 215, 1 ; 215, 1, n. 1. nitor, w. abl., 168. nix, decl., 31. "no," 258, 17. noli, nolite, w. inf., for imperat., 247, 6. nolo, 85, 4; 209,5; 241,4. nomen est, w. dat., 156, 1, a; w. nom. or gen., 156, 1, 6. nominative, 14; 110; 120; w. interjec- tions, 120, 3; as voc., 120, 4; poetic nom. after inf., 241, 5 ; for ace., 241, 6 ; w. infin., 109, 3, Exc. ; 243. nomine, w. gen. of crime, 140, 1. 306 INDEX. non w. imperat., 247, 5, n. 2 ; non quod w. subj., 232, 1. non modo sed ne quidem (or vix), 256,3. nonne, 258, 1. nos for ego, noster for meus, 115, 1. nostri, nostrum, 133, 1, n. 2, c. notus, w. dat., 162; w. gen. of cause, 136,4. noxius, w. gen., 136, 2 ; w. dat., 252, 9, 2. nubo, w. dat., 153, 2, a. nullus, 41. num, 258, 1. number, 14; agreement in, 110; 113: 114. numerals, 54-56 ; numeral adverbs, 54. nunc nunc, 257, 6. nuntior, 245. -nus, 104, 38, 39. nusquam, w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, 6. -o, 104, 4, Rem. ; 104,16. o, w. the nom., 120, 3; w. voc., 120, 2; w. ace., 132. o si, 203, 3. ob, w. acc., 131 ; compds. of w. ace., 122 ; AV. dat., 154. obeying, dat. w. vbs. of, 153, 1. object, direct, 108, 6 ; acc. of, 121 ; be- comes subj. w. passive voice, 121, 1, Rem. ; inner object, 124, n. 1 ; remoter (or indirect) object, 108, 6; 149, n. 1 ; object clauses, 209; 238; 242; inf. as object, 237. objective genitive, 133, 3; 136. obliviscor.w.gen., 137; w.acc., 137, exc. octonarius, 284, B, ii, 5. offendo, w. acc., 153, 2, 6. -ola, 104, 30. oleo, redoleo, w. acc., 121, 2, 6. olli, ollis, ollas, olla, for illi, etc., 61, 2. -olum, 104, 26. -olus, 104, 26. omitting, quin after verbs of, 211. omnes not followed by gen., 133, 4. n. 4. omnium, w. possessives, 112, 3; w. no- strum and vestrum, 133, 1, n. 2, c. -on, -eon, gen. plur. in, 25, 1 ; 33, 2. -one, 104, 34. 2, e. onero, 169, 2. onomatopoeia, 305. operam do w. subj., 209. opinione, after comparat., 174, 4. oportet, 239, 3; 242,1. opto, 242, 4. opus, 171; w. abl. sup., 254; opus est w. inf. or acc. w. inf., 239, 3; w. subj., 242,1. -or, 104, 1. oratio obliqua, 107, 1, n. ; 228, n. ; moods in, 228, 1-7 ; tenses in, 228, 2, 6-9 ; con- ditional sentences in, 228, 6,7; pro- nouns in, 229 ; virtual, 230. oratio recta, 107, 1, n ; 228, n. ; 228, 1. order of words, 259-263. ordinal numbers, 54. ordine, abl. of manner, 166. origin, abl. of, 178. oro, 242, 6. ortus, 178; ortus ab, 178, 3. -os, -om, in second decl., 23, 2. -osus, 104, 43. oxymoron, 305. paenitet, 139, 2 ; w. inf., 236, 1 ; w. quod, 233 ; w. interrog. pron., 231. palam, w. abl., 186. par, dispar, 162, 1, 3. parabole, 305. paragoge, 304. pardoning, verbs of w. dat., 153, 1. parenthesis, 304. parisyllables, 26, 2. paroemiac (of proverbs) verse, 295, 2. paronomasia, 305. pars, w. plural verb, 110, 4, a. part affected, acc. of, 128, n. particeps, w. gen., 136, 2. participation, adjs. of, 136, 2. participles, 65, 4 ; of deponents, 79 ; 80, 4, 5; of semi-deponents, 81, 2, 3; government, 248; time of, 249; fut. of purpose, 249, 1 ; want of pres. pass, supplied, 249, 2; of perf. act., 249, 3; of fut. pass., 249, 4; circumstantial participle (of time, cause, etc.), 250 ; w. nisi, quamquam, etc., 250, 2; in- stead of rel. clause, 251, 1 ; Eng. with- out how translated, 251, 2; perf. pass., w. habeo, teneo, possideo, 251, 3; equiv. to verbal noun, 251, 4, 5 ; part, and vb. tr. by two vbs., 251, 6; in- volved w. indirect question or rela- tive, 251, 7; man, men, things under- stood w., 251, 8; as adjs., 251, 9; as nouns, 251, 10 ; gerundive, 252. particles, 98. partim, w. plur. verb, 110, 5, a ; w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, 6. partitive apposition, 110, 5. partitives, 133, 4, n. 1. parts of speech, 12. parum, w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, 6. parvi, 146 ; parvo, 147, 3. passive voice, 64 ; intransitive^ in, im- INDEX. 307 personally, 64, 5 ; 87, 5 ; personally, 121 , -I 2, d; obj. of active the subj. of pass., 121, Rem. ; as middle, 64, 2 ; 125 ; com- pound tenses, 199'; personal construc- tion preferred, 245. patior, 242, 4. patrials, 58, 4 ; 104, 48-50. patronymics, 104, 34. pauci, 46, 2. pause, in verse, 284, B, 2, 4. See also caesura. pavidus sum, 213, 1. peculiaris, 162, 1, 3. penalty, 140, 2. penes, w. ace., 131 ; postpositive, 131, 5. pentameter, 284, B, ii. 2. penthemimeral caesura, 284, A, 1 ; pen- themimeris, 284, A. per, in compds., 53, 5 ; 101, i. ; w. ace., 131 ; postpositive, 131, 5 ; compds. w. ace., 122 ; of duration of time or extent in space, w. ace., 129. perceiving, verbs of, w. ace. and inf., 238. perfect stem, 68, 2 ; 92 ; 95. perfect tense, 66, 4, 7; 192; historical, or aorist, 193; after temporal con- junctions, 193, 1; in letters, 200; in potential subj., 202; w. utinam, 203, 2 ; subj. second pers. in prohibitions, 203, 7 ; w. licet, 204, 2, 1 ; perf. ind. w. cum, 214, 4, n. 1 ; subj. in prot. and apod., 215, 3; periphrastic perf. subj. for pluperf., 215, 4 ; perf. subj. for im- perat. in oratio obliqua, 228, 2, 1 ; perf. inf. representing plup. subj., 228, 7; perf. inf., 228, 8 ; in sequence of tenses, 234; 234, 4; in sentences of result, 234, 5; perf. subj. for fut. perf., 234, 7; periph. subj., 234, 8; perf. inf., 246, 1, 2, 4 ; Eng. perf. inf. represented by Latin pres.. 246, 3 ; imperat. pass., 247, 8 ; want of perf. act. part, how sup- plied, 249, 3 ; origin of modern perf., 251, 3 ; perf. part., 251, 4. perhibeor, 245. periculum est, w. subj., 213, 1. period, 263. periphrasis, 305. periphrastic conjugations, 82; 197, 198; subj., 215, 4, 4, 5 ; to mark future time in seq. of tenses, 234, 7 ; perf. subj. for subordinated plup. subj. in apodosis, 234, 8 ; inf. in orat. obliq., 228, 6. peritus, w. gen., 136, 2 ; of ger., 252, 4. permagno, 147, 3. permisceo, 153, 6. permitto, 242, 4. permuto, 179, 3. person interested, 149 ; 150-164. personal construction in pass, for im- personal, 245. personal endings of verbs, origin of, 89. personal pronouns, 57; omitted, 109, 2; order, 110, 3 ; first pi. for sing., 115, 1 ; w. ad, apud, ab, ex, 115, 2; w. apposi- tive, though expressed only in verb termination, 115, 3; gen. pi. originally neut. sing., 252, 8. personification. See prosopopoeia. persons, preference of in concord, 110, 3. persuadeo, 153, 2 ; 209, n. ; 209, 2. pertaesum est, 139, 2. pervolo, 85, 6. petitio obliqua, 230, n. peto, 127, 2. Phalaecian verse, 284, E; 292, 3. Pherecratian verse, 284, E; 292,6. piget, 139, 2. pili, 146, 1. place, whither, 130 ; 153, 5 ; where, 148 ; 183; whence, 182; as means, cause, etc., 183, 4. pleasing, verbs of, 153. plenus, 136, 2 ; 181. pleonasm, 304. plerique in the sing., 46, 2. pluperfect, 66, 6, 7 ; 194 ; aor. or pres. for English plpf., 193, 1 ; perf. for Eng. plpf. potential, 196 ; periphrastic for, 197, 2 ; for Eng. perf. in letters, 200 ; in wishes which cannot be fulfilled, 203, 2; in imperat. subj., 203. 8; subj. w. antequam, etc., 214, 3; subj. w. cum, 214, 5 ; 214, 5, 5 ; indie, w. cum, 214, 5, 4, 5 ; in conditional sentences, 215, 4 ; perf. ind. for, 215, 4, 3 ; peri- phr. perf. subj. for, 215, 4, 4; periphr. plpf. subj., 215, 4, 5; how expressed when in a dependent apodosis, 228, 6; represented by perf. inf., 228, 7; in commands or questions in orat. ob- liq., 228, 9; in sequence of tenses, 234 ; representing fut. perf., 234, 7 ; repre- sented by periphr. perf. subj., 234. 8. plural, of proper names, 37, n. 1 ; of dif- ferent instances, or poetical, 37, n. 2, n. 3 ; w. collectives, 110, 4 ; for sing, of pron., 115, 1. plurimi, 146, 1; 147 ; plurimo, 147, 3. pluris, 146, 1 ; 147. plus, decl., 44, 2 ; meaning, 52, 2 ; with- out quam, 174, 1. pone, w. ace., 131, 1. 308 IXDEX. port, por, old prep., 101, ii. posco, w. two ace., 127 : w. a and abl. of the person, 127, 2 ; w. ut or ace. w. inf., 242, 4; w. inf., 241. position, quantity by, 266. possessive adj. pronouns, 58; 115; w. gen. in apposition to person implied, 112, 3 ; 133, 1, n. 2, 6 ; omitted, 115, 4 ; meaning fitness, 115, 5 : of possessor, 133, 1, n. 2 ; objectively, 133, 3, n. 3. possessor, dat. of, 156. possum, 72. post, w. ace., 131 ; compds. of w. dat., 154 ; denoting interval of time, 185, 6. postpositive prepositions, 131, 5. postquam and posteaquam, w. hist, perf., 193, 1. postremus, 113, 10. postridie, 35, 4 ; 133, 7, 1. postulo, 127, 2 ; 242, 4. potential subj., 202. potior, 145, 3 ; 167 ; 167, 2 ; potiundus, 80, 5, Exc. ; 167, 2. prae, w. abl., 186; in compds., 53, 5; compds. of w. dat., 154. praecipio, 209, n. ; 209, 3, 4; 237. praeditus, 168. x praesto, 168. praestolor, 160, 2. praeter.w. ace., 131; compds. of w. ace., 122. praeteritives, 86, 6. predicate, 108, 1, 3, 5 ; pred. nom., noun, and adj., Ill; 111, 2; verb agreeing in number w. pred., Ill, 3; of inf. w. subj. ace. Ill, 4 ; of abl. abs., Ill, 5; in dat. after esse, 111, 6; pred. ace., 126 ; gen., 135 ; abl., 167, 3; dat. limit- ing, 158 ; pred. of an inf. agreeing w. unexpressed subj. ace., 239, 2; nom. after volo esse, etc., 241, 4, prepositions, 101 ; in composition, 101, i. ; inseparable, 101, ii. (For syntax, see the prepositions severally: a, ad, etc.) present, 66, 1 ; 68, 1 ; pres. stem, 94 ; ind., 189; for fut., 189, 4 ; 214, 2, 6; conative, 189, 5 , historic, 189, 6 ; w. dum, 189, 6, 2; 214, 1, n. 2 ; w. jam, etc., 189, 7 ; w. temporal conjunctions, 193, 1 ; in let- ters, 200; w. cum, 214, 4; pres. subj.. 202, 2, n. ; optative, 203, 2, 3 ; w. licet, 204, 2, 1 ; w. dum, donee, quoad, 214, 1 ; in conditions, 215, 3 ; of future con- tingency, 215, 3, n. 1 ; condition con- trary to fact, 215, 3, n. 2 ; in orat. ob- liq.,228, 9; for imperat., 228, 2, I; in sequence of tenses, 234 ; of inf., 228, S : after verbs of power, duty, permis- sion, 246, 3; after memini, 246, 4; im- perat., 247, 1 : 247, 1, 4 ; subj. for, 247, 5, n. 1; participle, 249; substitute for part, pass., 249, 2. preventing, verbs of, 210; 210, 1, 2; 211. Priapeian verse, 292, 8. price, gen. of, 147; abl., 179. pridie,35, 4; 133,7.1. primus, primum, primo, 113, 6, n. 2 ; ' he was the first to," 113, 6, n. 1. primus qui, 223, 2. principal parts of verbs, 69 ; table of. 97. prior, primus, w. force of adv., 113, 6; w. gen., 133, 4, d; primus, first part, 113, 10. priusquam, 214, 2. pro, prod, in compds., 101, i. pro, w. abl., 186; meaning in defence of, 149, 3. pro, interj., w. voc., 120, 2; w. ace., 132. procul, procul ab, w. abl., 186, 3. prohibeo, 209 ; 210 ; 211, 1 ; 237. prohibitions, subj. in, 203, 5; 203, 7; 247, 5 and n. 1; imper., 247, 4; substitutes for imperat. in, 247, 5, 6. prolepsis, 304. promising, verbs of, 238. pronouns, 57-62 ; agreement, 114 ; mean- ing of demonstratives, etc., 116 sqq. ; in oratio obliqua, 229. pronunciation, old Roman, 3, i. ; Ener- lish method, 3, ii.; "continental," 3. iii. prope, AV. ace., 131 ; prope est, proxime est, ut, 208, n. proper adjectives, 104, 48-51. propior, proximus, w. force of adv., 113,6; w. cases, 162,6. propius, proxime, 131, 2; 162, 6. proportionals, 55, 15. proprius, 162, 2 and 3. propter, w. ace., 131 ; postpositive. 131, 5. prosody, 265-303. prosopopoeia, 305. prospicio, 160. protasis, 304; 215; omitted, 219. provideo, 160. providus, w. gen., 136, 2. prudens, w. gen., 136, 2; w. force of adv., 113, 6. pudet,121,n. 1; 139,2. pugno, w. dat., 153, 7. punishment, 140, 2. purpose, 201, 1 ; clauses of, w. ut, quo, ne, and the subj., 206; w. relative INDEX. 309 advs., and the subj., 206, 2; 222, n. 2; purpose, not of the action but of the statement, 206, 4; w. qui and subj., 206, 1 ; 222; w. inf., 244, 1 ; w. fut.part., 249, 1 ; part., 250'; gerund and gerund- ive, 252, 6, 7, 9, and 9, 1 ; 252, 12 ; (of an office), 252, 10 ; w. ace. supine, 253 and note. puto, to reckon, w. gen., 146, 1, 6. putor, 245. Pythiambic strophe, 301, 16, 17. qu changed to c, 23, 2. qua, w. its correlatives, 63, 3. quaero, 127, 2. qualis, w. its correlatives, 63, 1 ; for et talis, 259, 15. qualities, two compared, 53, 2. quality, gen. of, 134; abl. of, 175; per- manent and transient qualities, 134, n. 1. quam, w. comparative, 174; omission of, 174, 1; w. superlat., 53, 4; quam, quam ut, quam qui, after a compar., w. subj., 223, 5 and n. ; quam si, 220. quamlibet, 204, 2, 1. quamquam, 204, 2, 1. quamvis, 204, 2; 204, 2, 1. quando, 232. quanti, 146, 1 ; 147. quantity, 6-8 ; in verse, 265 ; rules, 266- 273; natural quantity, 273; by au- thority, 273. quantumvis, 204, 2, 1. quantus, w. its correlatives, 63, 1. quasi, 220. quaternarius, 284, B, 5. -que, 100, 5, L, 1 ; 257, 3. queror, 232, 4. questions, of doubt, deliberation, or appeal, 205 ; potential, 205, 3 ; in orat. obliq., 228, 3, 4 ; particles introducing, 258. qui, indef., 62, 6; 119; interrog., 62, 2, 4; relative, 62, 1; 114; for et is, 259, 15; qui used in suggestive sense, 116, 10. qul, abl., 62, 9; adv., 62, 9. qui (relative), in protasis, 221 ; = ut is, w. subj., 222; defining, w. subj., 223; after dignus, etc., 223, 2; after indef. or interrog. prons. and general nega- tives, 223, 3; qui non or quin, in clause depending on negative or in- terrogative, 223, 3, 1 ; qui, w. subj. de- fining indefinite general expressions, 223, 4; after comp. w. quam, 223, 5; restricting, 223, 6 ; giving the reason, 224; reason w. indie., 224, n. 2; qui quia,qui quoniam,224, n. 3; adversa- tive, 225; rel. cl. dependent on an- other subj. or an inf., 226; qui w. the indie., 227 ; rel. clauses attracted into inf. in orat. obi., 228, 1, 2; participles used for, 251, 1. quia, 232; sed quia, 232, 1; w. subj. in orat. obi., 228, 1, 1 ; w. inf., 228, 1, 2. quid quod ? 233. quidam, 119, 6. quidem, w. pers. and demons, prons., 116,9; w. qui, 223, 6, 1. quilibet, 119, 6. quin, denoting result w. subj., 207 ; after vbs. of omitting, etc., 211; 211, 1; for qui non, 223, 3, 1 and 2. quippe qui, 224, n. 1. quis, interrog., 62 ; indef., 62 ; 119, 1, 2. quis = quibus, 62, 11. quispiam, 119, 5. quisquam, 119, 5. quisque, w. superlat., 53, 5; 119, 7; w. se, suus, 117, 1, n. quisquis, 119, 7. quivis, 119, 6. quo, measure of difference, 176 ; mean- ing "that thereby," 206; non quo, 232,1. quo, adv., w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, b. quoad, w. gen.. 134, 4, n. 1, 6; w. subj., 214, 1 ; w. indie., 214, 1, n. 1. quod, 232; 233; non quod, 232, 1; w. subj. of vbs. meaning to say, to think, 232, 3; w. vbs. of emotion, 232, 4; ex- plaining a demonstrative, 232, 5. quoi, quoius, 62, 8. quominus, 208 ; 210, 2 ; 211, 1. quoniam, 232. quot, w. its correl., 63, 1; w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, c. quoties, w. its correl., 63, 3. quum (originally quom). See cum. rating, verbs of, 146. re-, red-, insep. prep., 101, ii. -re for -ris, 84, 3. reading, metrical, 303. reason, clauses denoting the, 214, 3; 224; 232. recorder, 137. 2. recuso,210; 210,2; 211; 237. redundant nouns, 37, 8. reduplicated perfects, 95, 1. refert, 142. refertus, 181. reflexive pronoun. See sui, suus. 310 INDEX. refraining, verbs of, 211. refusing, verbs of, 210. regno, w. gen., 145. relative, relative clauses. See qui. reliquum est, w. subject clause, 208, n. reliquus, 113, 10. relinquo, w. two dats., 161. remaining, verbs of, 111. remembering, verbs of, 137. reminding, verbs of, 139. reminiscor, 137. repeated action, by imperf., 190, 2; perf., 192, 2, c; plup. ind. or subj., 214, 5, 5. repleo, 141. resisting, verbs of, 153, 1. resolve, verbs of, 241, 1, 2. restat, w. subject clause. 208, n. restrictive clauses w. qui, quod, 223, 6. result, subj. of, 207. rhetorical questions in oratio obi., 228, 4. rhythm, 261; rhythms, falling, 283, 6; rising, 283, 6. rideo, w. ace. 121, 2, a; rideor, 121, 2, d. rogo, 127 ; w. ut w. subj., 209. roots, 16. rudis, w. gen. 136, 2. rus, 130, 3 ; w. preps., 183, 6, a; rure, 182 ; 183, 2 ; run, locative, 148, n. s changed to r, 89, 3, 4 ; 91, 3-6 ; 92, 2 ; 94, 1, 7 ; final s sounded slightly or not at all, 266, 2, n. 3 ; 274, 2. sacer, 162, 1 and 3. Sapphic verse, 284, E; greater, 292,2; lesser, 292, 1. satago, 144. satis, w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, 6 ; vbs. compd. w. governing dat., 155. Saturnian verse, 300. saying, verbs of, 238. scazon, 296, 3. sciens, w. force of adv., 113, 6. scito, 84, 4. scribor, 245, 1. se-, sed-, insep. prep., 101, ii., 4. se. See sui. second pers. sing., used of an indefi- nite subject, 203, 6: 215, 3, n. 4; 219, 3. secundum, w. ace., 131, 1. seeming, verbs of, 111. semi-deponents, 81, 1. senarius, 284, B, 5. sending, vbs. of, w. two dats., 161, 3. senex, declined, 31. sentences, simple, 107 ; direct and indi- rect, 107, 1, n. ; compound, 107, 2. separation, abl. of, 177 ; gen., 145, 2; dat. w. vbs. of, 151. septenarius, 284, B, 5. sequence of tenses, 234. sequitur ut, 208, n. serving, dat. w. vbs. of, 153, 1. seu. See sive. showing, vbs. of, w. ace. and inf., 238, n. 1. showing oneself, being shown, vbs. of, w. two noms., Ill ; w. two aces., 126. si, w. the indie., 188, 1; 215, 2; w. opta- tive subj., 203, 3 ; w. protasis, 215 ; ind., 215, 2; subj., 215, 3, 4; si omitted, 215, 2, n. 2 ; si in indirect questions, 231, n. 2; 258, 14; compds. of, denoting con- cession, 204, 2,2; in condit. clauses, 215, 1, n. 2 : w. vb. of apodosis omitted, 220; 220,3. sicuti, 220. siem for sim, 70, 1. simile, 305. similis, 162, 4. simul, simul ac, atque, ut, 193, 1. si non, 215, 1, n. 1. sine, w. abl., 186. singular after disjunctives, 110, 6. sinistra, 183, 2. sino, 209, 5; 242,4. sitio, w. ace., 121, 2, 5. sive sive, 257, 6. -so (-sso), -sim (-ssim), 84, 12. solecism, 305. solus, 41 ; solus qui,, 223, 2. solvo, 177 ; solutus, w. gen., 177, 2. sonare, w. ace., 121, 2, b. -sor, 104, 3. Sotadean verse, 284, E; 294, 3. source, abl. of, 178. space, extent of, 129. sparing, dat. w. vbs. of, 153. spe, comparative w., 174, 4. specification, ace. of, 128 ; gen. of, 136, 5 ; 143, n.; 145; abl. of, 180. speech, parts of, 12. spolio, 177. spondaic line, 285, 5. statuo,209; 241. stem, 15; stem characteristics, 15, 1, 2; 21,1; 26,1-1; 31, n.; 94-96. sto, of cost, 179. striving, vbs. of, 209, 241. studeo, w. dat., 153, 1; w. subj., 209; w. inf., 241. studiosus, 136, 2. stultitiae est, 135. suadeo, 153, 2, o. INDEX 311 sub, in composition, 101, i. ; w. ace. or abl., 131, 3 ; vbs. compd. w. governing ace., 122 ; governing dat., 154. subject, 108, 1, 2; subj. nora., 109, 110; ace. subj. of inf., 109, 3: nom. subj. of inf., 109, 3, Exc. ; 243 ; attracted as obj., 121, n. 3. subjective genitive, 133, 2. subjunctive, 65, 1; two chief uses, 201, i., ii. ; ideal, 201, 2 ; potential, 202 ; op- tative, 203 ; concessive, 204 ; in ques- tions of hesitation or appeal, 205 ; of purpose, 206 ; of result, 207 ; in subst. clauses w. ut, ut non, quominus, as subjects of a vb., 208 ; in clauses w. ut, ne, ut ne, obj., of a vb., 209; w. ne, after vbs. meaning to hinder, etc., 210 ; w. quominus, 210, 2; w. quin, 211; in appositive clauses, 212; after vbs. of fearing, 213 ; in temporal clauses, 214 ; w. cum, since, 214, 3; in conditional sentences, 215; w. dum, modo, etc., 217, 3; gnomic, 218; second person, 215, 3, n. 4; 219, 3; W. qui, 222-225; in incorporated clause, attracted. 226 ; in oratio obliqua, 228; in virtual orat. obi., 230 ; in indirect questions, 231 ; in causal clauses, 232 ; w. quod, 232; 233; sequence of tenses in, 234 ; w. ut in ex- clamations, 240, 2 ; w. vbs. of various meanings, 242, 1, 3-8. sublimis, on high, 113, 6. subordinate clauses, 107, 3. substantive clauses w. the subjunctive, as subjects, 208 ; objects, 209; apposi- tives, 212. subter, w. ace. or abl., 131, 4; postposi- tive, 131, 5 ; vbs. compd. w. gov. ace., 122. suffixes, 89 sqq. ; 103, 2-6. sui, 57, 1 ; 117 ; w. quisque, 117, 1, n. ; in orat. obliq., 229. . sum, 70; compds. of, 71, 72; as copula, 108, 3, 1 ; more than copula, 108, 3, 2 ; w. predicate gen., 135 ; w. dat., 156 ; 161, 4 ; two dats., 161 ; w. dat. of gerund, 252, 9, 2, 3. summus, 113, 10. suntqui, 223, 4; 227. super, w. acc. or abl., 131, 4; postposi- tive, 131, 5 ; compds. w. governing acc., 122; dat., 154. superlative, 47-49; 51; w. maxime, 50; wanting, 50 ; of adverbs, 52 ; meaning very, 53, 3 ; w. longe, multo, unus, vel, quam,quam potest,53,4; w. quisque, 53,5; w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, /, g. supero, w. abl., 168. superstes, 162, 1 and 3. supine, 65, 6; 68, 3; 93; 96; wanting, 83; acc. sup., 253; of purpose, 253; w. eo, 85, 7, 2; 253,3; w. iri, 85. 7,2; 253,3; abl. sup., 254; as abl. of separation, 254, 2. supplico, bend the knees to, 153, 2, a. supra, w. acc., 131; postpositive, 131, 5. supremus, 113, 10. sus, declined, 31. -sus, 104, 5. suus, 58, 117 ; sui, his friends, his people, etc., 117, 5 ; meaning proper, propitious, 115, 5. syllables, 5 ; division of, 5, 1. syllepsis, 304. synaeresis, 276 ; 304. synaloepha, 274, 5; 304. synaphia, 282. syncope, 278 ; 304. synecdoche, 305. synecphonesis, 304. synesis, 304. synizesis, 304. synonymia, 305. syntax, 107-258. systole, 279. taedet, 139, 2. taking as, vbs. of, w. two aces., 126. taking away, vbs. of, w. dat., 151; w. abl., 177. talis, w. its correlatives, 63, 1. tametsi, 215, 1, n. 2. tamquam, tamquam si, 220; 220, L tanti,146, 1; 147. tantulo, 147, 3. tantum abest ut, 208, n. tantus, w. its correl., 63, 1. -tas, 104, 35. tautology, 305. -te,57, 9; 58,5. teaching, vbs. of, 127; 127, 1, 3. tempero, 160, 1. temporal clauses, 214. teneo, se, w. abl., 183, 2; teneo, w. perf. pass, part., 251, 3. tenses, 66; tense-signs, origin and his- tory, 91, 92 ; tenses, 189-199 ; in letters, 200; temporal clauses, 214 ; of subj. in wishes, 203, 2 ; prohibitions, etc., 203, 7, 8; conditions, 215, 3; 3, n. 2; 4; 4, 1, 2, 4,5; inf., 246; imperat., 247; part., 249 ; sequence of, 234 ; in orat. obi. 228. tenus, 186; w. abl. or gen., 186, 1 ; post- positive, 186, 1. 312 INDEX. tetrameter, 284, B, ii., 2. tetrastich, 284, B, i., 2. thesis, 283, 1. thinking, verbs of, 111 ; 126 ; w. inf., 238. threatening, verbs of, 153, 1. -tia, 104, 35. time, how long, w. ace., 129, 1 ; w. per. 129, 2; w. abl., 129, 3; 185, 10; time when, 185; w. prep., 185, 4; within which, 185 ; w. prep. 185, 4 ; w. hie or ille, 185. 5 ; how soon, 185, 6 ; how long ago, 185, 6 sqq. timeo, w. dat. or ace., 160, 1 ; w. ut or ne, 213. -tio, 104, 5. tmesis, 281; 304. -tor, 104, 3. tot, w. its correlatives, 63, 1. toties, w. its correlatives, 63, 2 ; 63, 4. totus, 41 ; w. abl. of place, 183, 2. towns, names of denoting place whith er, 130, 1 ; place where, 148 ; w. preps., 183, 6, a. trader, 245. trans, w. ace., 131, 1 ; compds. of w. ace., 122; w. two aces., 122, n. 2. transient qualities, 134, n. 1. transitive verbs, 64, 3. tres, declension, 55, 1. tricolum, 284, B, i. 1. trihemimeral caesura, 284, A, 1. trihemimeris, 284, A. trimeter, 284, B, ii. 2 -trix, 104, 4. trochaic metres, 290. trochaeo-dactylic verses, 292. trochee, 283, 2; irrational, 265, 7; 290, 1, n. 1. -trum,104, 13. -tudo, 104, 35. turn turn, 257, 6; cum turn, 257, 6. -tura, 104. 5. turpis, w. abl. supine, 254. -tus, 104, 5, 33. tuus, 58 ; 115, 4, 5 ; thy own, agreeable, fit, 115, 5. ubi, w. gen., 133, 4, n. 1, b ; w. aor., 193, 1. -ubus for -ibus, 34, 4. -ula, -ulum, -ulus, 104, 25. ullus, decl., 41 ; use, 119, 5. ultimus, 113, 10 ; ultimus qui, 223, 2. ultra, AV. ace., 141. -um for -arum, 19, 4 ; for -orum, 23, 5. uncia, 56, 3 ; 309 ; 310 ; 312 ; unciae usu- rae, 308. -uncula, -unculus, 104, 28. -undi, -undus, 84, 11. unlikeness, gen. or dat. w. adjs. of, 162, 4. unreal conditional sentence, 215, 4. unus, decl., 55; plur. of, 55, 4; w. ex or de, 133, 4, n. 5 ; unus qui, 223, 2. -ura, 104, 20. urging, verbs of, 209, n. useful, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 162. usque, 183, 6, 6. usus, w. abl., 171. usu venit ut, 208, n. ut, concessive, 204, 2; of purpose, 206; of result, 207 ; in substantive clauses as subjects, 208; as objects, 209; omit- ted, 209, 4, 5; in appositive clauses, 212; w. verbs of fearing, 213; in ex- clamatory questions, 240. utnon,207; 208; 209,1. ut qui, 224, n. 1. ut si, 220. uter, decl., 41 ; w. gen., 134, 4, n. 1, c. uterque, 119, 9, b; 133, 4, n. 1, c. utilius, w. indie., 196. utinam, 203, 2. utor, 167 ; idiomatic uses, 167, 3 ; uten- dus, 80, 5, Exc. ; 167, 2. utpote, w. rel. giving the reason, 224, n. 1. utrum, 258, 6, 8, 9, 12. -utus, 104, 44. uu avoided, 23, 2. vacuus, 181 ; w. ab, 181, 1 ; \y. gen. (rare or poet), 181, 1. vae, w. dat, 163. valeo, w. abl., 168. value, gen. of, 146. -ve, 257, 5. vel, 257, 4; w. superlative, 53, 4; vel vel, 257, 6. velut, velut si, 220 ; 220, 1. vendo, 147,1; 147,3; 179. veneo, 147,1; 147,3; 179. venio, w. two data., 161, 3. venit in mentem, 137, note, verb endings, 67 ; 89-93. verb stems, 68 ; 94-%. verbs, 64-97; table of, w. principal parts, 97; derivation, 105; verbals, 105, 1; denominatives, 105, 2; verb omitted, 110, 8; 121,5. verbum, w. appositive gen., 133, 5. vereor, w. gen. (rare), 145; w. dat. (rare) or ace., 160, 1 ; w. ut or lie, 213 ; w. inf., 241, 1. verse, early dramatic, 302. INDEX. 313 versification, 283 sqq. versus, w. ace., 131 ; position, 131, 5. verto, to exchange, 179, 3; w. two date., 161. vescor, 167; vescendus, 80, 5, Exc. ; 167, 2. vespertinus, used as adv., 113, 6. vestri, vestrum, 133, 1, n. 2, c. veto, 242, 7 ; vetor, 245, 1. viciniae, 143, 2. vicinus, 162, 2, 3; 136,7. videor, 245, 1.-2. vis, declined, 31. vivo, w. abl., 167, 1. vocative, irreg., 23, 3 ; use, 120, 2 ; posi- tion, 120, 5. voices, 64 ; 64, 1, 2. volens, 113, 6; mini volenti est, 156, 2. 27 volo, w. subj. without ut, 209, 5 ; w. ut, 242,3; w. inf., 241; 242. voti damnatus, reus, 140, 2, n. vowels, 2. vox, w. appositive gen., 133, 5. want, verbs of, 143; 170; adjs. of, 136, 2; 181. weak caesura, 286, 7. weights, Roman, 309. wishing, verbs of, 209, 5; 241 ; 242. " without," w. participle, 251, 2. year, how denoted, 313, 8. " yes," 258, 16. yielding, verbs of, w. dat., 153. zeugma, 304. CMP TUB UNIVERSIT THE END. MODEL TEXT-BOOKS CHASE & STUART'S CLASSICAL SERIES. COMPRISING A First Latin Book, JL Latin Grammar, A Latin Reader, Ccesar's Commentaries, First Six Books of JEneid, Virgil's Mneid, Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics, Cicero's Select Orations, Horace's Odes, Satires, and Epistles, Sallust's Catiline et Jugurtha, Cicero De Senectute, et De Amicitia, Cornelius Nepos, Cicero De Officiis, Cicero's Tusculan Disputations, Cicero de Oratore, Juvenal, \ ? Terence, Tacitus, Ovid. Livy. LOAN DEPT .General Library """%?&> YB 00298 11527 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY