*^ 
 
 ft. 
 
COOPERAGE 
 
' ' Science ought to teach us to see the invisible 
 as well as the visible in nature ; to picture in our 
 mind's eye those operations that entirely elude 
 the eye of the body ; to look at the very atoms of 
 matter in motion, and at rest, and to follow them 
 forth into the world of senses/' 
 
 TYNDALL. 
 
COOPERAGE 
 
 A TREATISE ON MODERN SHOP 
 PRACTICE AND METHODS; FROM THE 
 TREE TO THE FINISHED ARTICLE 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 COMPILED AND WRITTEN 
 
 BY 
 
 J. B. WAGNER 
 
 Price, $5.00 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 J. B. WAGNER, YONKERS, N. Y. 
 1910 
 
COPYBIGHT, 1910 
 
 BY J. B. WAGNER 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
Dedication 
 
 ' ' THIS volume is respectfully dedicated to 
 those inventors, designers and builders of coo- 
 perage machinery and appliances, whose skill 
 and devoted efforts along these lines have con- 
 tributed so largely toward the perfection of our 
 present methods of manufacture, placing our 
 factories in the front rank with the leading in- 
 dustries of the world." 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE preparation of this work has occupied the writer's 
 spare moments for a number of years. Originally the 
 matter was not intended for publication, but the manu- 
 script has grown so large and complete, which considera- 
 tion, combined with many repeated requests, has induced 
 the writer to publish the matter in book form. 
 
 While all other trades and professions have their lit- 
 erature more or less complete, the cooperage industry 
 has never before been represented by any technical work, 
 and appears to have been neglected along these lines. 
 Therefore, we trust that the trade will appreciate our 
 endeavors in bringing before them this work, as well as 
 the difficulties encountered in compiling it, from the fact 
 that it is the first of its kind in existence, and we hope 
 that it will eventually prove to them a valuable aid. 
 
 The man that studies and applies himself attentively 
 to any subject, seeks to advise his fellow-workman or 
 give an exposition of the general principles of any science, 
 industry or trade, or of improving conditions generally, 
 often meets at times with severe criticism. As there 
 seems to be present in the minds of most persons a cer- 
 tain amount of doubt and uncertainty as to the wisdom 
 and ability of any person to advise them in these matters, 
 even if the writer has been for a long time a student on 
 the particular subject on which he writes. 
 
 Therefore, in presenting this volume, which is launched, 
 not as a literary effort nor as a scientific essay, but 
 rather as a practical discussion of principles and methods, 
 the writer is aware that his efforts may meet with such 
 criticism; but we do not desire to leave the impression 
 that it is our own individual work, or that it is an expres- 
 
viii PEEFACE 
 
 sion of opinion of a single individual, but rather a group- 
 ing together of ideas offered by a considerable number of 
 persons connected with the trade in its different 
 branches, together with data continually collected during 
 the author's extended career, both in this country and in 
 Europe, of over a quarter of a century. 
 
 In regard to originality, we lay claim to very little, for, 
 although the facts contained in a large number of the 
 items have been gained through years of practical ex- 
 perience, we are indebted to others for a greater portion, 
 and merely lay claim to have, as a great poet has said, 
 "gathered the fruits of other men's labors and bound 
 them with our own string. " And we trust our efforts 
 will present some information that may be applied with 
 advantage, or serve at least as a matter of consideration 
 or investigation. 
 
 Although much of the information contained in this 
 volume exists in the experience of practical men of the 
 trade and in other technical and mechanical works, it has 
 never before been published in systematic and accessible 
 form and with special application to the cooperage in- 
 dustry. In every case our aim has been to give the facts, 
 and wherever a machine or appliance has been illustrated 
 or commented upon, or the name of the maker has been 
 mentioned, it is not with the intention either of recom- 
 mending or disparaging his or their work, but are made 
 use of merely to illustrate the text. 
 
 The writer has endeavored to discuss the principles 
 and methods in as plain common-sense words as the Eng- 
 lish language will permit, and the preparation of the fol- 
 lowing pages has been a work of pleasure to the author. 
 If they prove beneficial and of service to his fellow-work- 
 men, he will have been amply repaid. 
 
 THE AUTHOK. 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 THE writer desires to acknowledge the kind assistance 
 rendered him by such able writers as Mr. E. A. Sterling, 
 Filibert Eoth, and others, of the Forest Service, Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, for the use he has made of extracts 
 from some of their admirable articles written for this 
 department, and the Hon. Gifford Pinchot, forester, for 
 his very kind permission in the use of same. 
 
 To our trade journals, notably, The National Coopers' 
 Journal, The Barrel and Box Packages, and to nu- 
 merous managers and superintendents of well-known 
 mills and factories, and to individual fellow-workmen 
 throughout the country. 
 
 Much valuable information was furnished and many of 
 the engravings which were used to illustrate the machin- 
 ery were kindly loaned to the writer by the following 
 named firms: 
 
 BALDWIN, TUTHILL & BOLTON Grand Eapids, Mich. 
 
 EOCHESTEE BARBEL MACHINE WORKS Eochester, N. Y. 
 
 WM. E. HILL & Co Kalamazoo, Mich. 
 
 MERRITT MANUFACTURING Co Lockport, N. Y. 
 
 E. & B. HOLMES MACHINERY Co Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. 
 
 DEFIANCE MACHINE WORKS Defiance, Ohio 
 
 THE NOBLE MACHINE WORKS Fort Wayne, Ind. 
 
 COVEL MANUFACTURING Co Benton Harbor, Mich. 
 
 JOHN S. ORAM Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 THE PETER GERLACH Co Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 THE GEO. CHALONER'S SONS Co Oshkosh, Wis. 
 
 To these the author takes pleasure in herein acknowl- 
 edging his indebtedness, with many thanks, for a large 
 number of facts and for other assistance rendered him. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 SECTION I 
 
 TIMBER 
 
 Characteristics and Properties of Same General Remarks Classes of 
 Trees Wood of Coniferous Trees Bark and Pith Sap and Heart- 
 wood The Annual or Yearly Ring Spring and Summer -wood 
 Anatomical Structure List of the More Important Coniferous 
 \V ocls Wood of Broad-leaved Trees Minute Structure List of 
 the More Important Broad-leaved Trees Range of Red Gum 
 Form of the Red Gum Tolerance of the Red Gum Its Demands 
 upon Soil and Moisture Reproduction of Red Gum Second- 
 growth Red Gum Tupelo Gum Uses of Tupelo Gum Range of 
 Tupelo Gum Different Grains of Wood Color and Odor Weight; 
 of Wood Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species 1-68 
 
 SECTION II 
 
 ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 General Remarks Ambrosia or Timber Beetles Round-headed Borers 
 Flat-headed Borers Timber Worms Powder Post Borers Con- 
 ditions Favorable for Insect Injury Crude Products Round Tim- 
 ber With Bark On How to Prevent Injury Saplings Stave, 
 Heading and Shingle Bolts Unseasoned Products in the Rough 
 Seasoned Products in the Rough Dry Cooperage Stock and 
 Wooden Truss-hoops Staves and Heads of Barrels Containing 
 Alcoholic Liquids 69-86 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 FOREST FIRES 
 
 General Remarks Fires the Greatest Enemy of Forests Some Esti- 
 mates of Losses from Forest Fires Losses from Fires Which Are 
 Not Usually ' Considered Conditions Which Affect Fire Losses 
 Erroneous Ideas Concerning Effects of Fires Views of Lumbermen 
 Concerning Forest Fires Changed Conditions Fire Protection on 
 Private Lands New Departures in Dealing with the Fire Prob- 
 lem Burning Slash or Refuse Plan for Protecting Mature Tim- 
 ber The Question of Second Growth Forest Fires Their Cause 
 and Prevention Methods of Fighting Same 87-103 
 
xii , CONTENTS 
 
 SECTION IV 
 
 SAWS 
 
 General Saw Instructions Saw-fitting Not a Mysterious Process 
 . Filing-room Equipment For Sharpening and Gumming Circu- 
 lars For Swaging For Side-dressing For Hammering and Ad- 
 justing For Setting For Swaging Cylinder Stave Saws For 
 Gumming and Sharpening Cylinder Stave Saws For Knife 
 Sharpening For General Use Some Causes of Poor Results in 
 Saws The Proper Care of Saws Saws Out of Round Sharpen- 
 ing and Gumming Fitting and Swaging Lead of Saws Num- 
 ber and Style of Tooth Circular Ripsaws The Standard Num- 
 ber of Teeth in Circular Ripsaws Cut-off or Cross-cut Saws 
 The Standard Number of Teeth in Cross-cut Saws Collars for 
 Saws Speed of Saws Hammering and Tensioning 104-139 
 
 SECTION V 
 
 KNIVES 
 
 Practical Discussion Different Ideas on Temper Speed of Knives 
 Temper of Knives Tempering Solutions To Temper Knives Ta- 
 ble of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn To Temper Old 
 Files The Emery Wheel Its Uses Speed of Emery Wheels. . .140-150 
 
 SECTION VI 
 
 PRODUCTION OF SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 
 
 General Remarks Production of Slack Stock Woods Chiefly Used for 
 Slack Cooperage Total Stock Produced for Past Three Years- 
 Value and Average Value of Stock Produced Slack Barrel Stave 
 Production Quantity of Staves Manufactured by Kinds of Wood 
 Slack Barrel Heading Production Quantity of Heads Manufac- 
 tured by Kinds of Wood Slack Barrel Hoop Production Quan- 
 tity of Hoops Manufactured by Kinds of Wood Review of Forest 
 Report 151-171 
 
 SECTION VII 
 
 HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 Harvesting Raw Material Time of Felling Woods Management The 
 Difficulties of Transporting Gum Location of Plant Site and 
 Arrangement of Mill The Unloading Switch The Slack Stock 
 Mill . ..172-194 
 
CONTENTS xlii 
 
 SECTION VIII 
 
 SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 General Remarks The Waste Problem The Bolting Room The Cut- 
 off Saw The Drag-saw The Drop-feed Circular Cut-off Saw 
 The Bolting Saw Stave and Heading Bolts Steam-boxes for 
 Stave Bolts The Dutch-oven or Bulldog Furnace The Stave Bolt 
 Equalizing Machine Cracks in Equalizer Saws The Stave-Cut- 
 ting Machine Number of Staves per cord or Rank The Cylinder 
 Stave Saw The Swing Cut-off Saw Stave Piling and Air-season- 
 ing Stave Jointing Stave Bundling or Packing Inspection 
 Dead Cull Staves Standard Specifications and Grades 195-254 
 
 SECTION IX 
 
 SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 
 
 General Remarks Bolting Out The Heading Saw The Horizontal 
 Hand-feed Heading Saw Seasoning What Seasoning Is Manner 
 of Evaporation of Water Distribution of Water in Wood Rapid- 
 ity of Evaporation Effects of Moisture on Wood Shrinkage of 
 Wood Difficulties of Drying Wood Unsolved Problems in Kiln- 
 drying Kiln-drying Planing Jointing Turning or Circling 
 Bundling or Packing Standard Specifications and Grades 255-300 
 
 SECTION X 
 
 SLACK HOOP MANUFACTURE 
 
 General Remarks The Patent Hoop Different Methods of Manufac- 
 tureThe Sawn Process The Cutting Process The Boiling Vat 
 The Hoop Cutter The Hoop Planer The Hoop-pointing and Lap- 
 ping Machine The Hoop-coiling Machine Piling on Yard Sea- 
 soning Standard Specifications and Grades Head Liners. .. .301-325 
 
 SECTION XI 
 
 MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 
 
 General Remarks Shop Management Office Management Econo- 
 mies 326-345 
 
 SECTION XII 
 
 USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 
 
 Weights of Slack Cooperage Stock Capacity of Cars Legal Fruit 
 Barrel in New York State Legal Fruit Barrel in Indiana Notes 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 and Information on Belting Rules for Calculating Speed of Pul- 
 leys Rules for Calculating Power of Belting Horsepower of 
 Leather Belts Babbitt Metal and Babbitting Glue to Resist 
 Moisture Receipts for Soldering Fluids Useful Rules and Infor- 
 mation on Water Useful Rules 'and Information on Steam Duty 
 of Steam Engines Weight and Comparative Fuel Value of Wood 
 To Place an Engine on the Dead Centre Horsepower of an En- 
 gine Horsepower Constants Useful Numbers for Rapid Calcula- 
 tion Decimal Equivalents Table of Gauges Table of Alloys 
 Government or Treasury Whitewash Power Equivalents Hy- 
 draulic Equivalents Mensuration Memorandum 346-416 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. SEC. PAGE 
 
 1. Board of pine I 12 
 
 2. Wood of spruce I 13 
 
 3. Group of fibres from pine wood I 14 
 
 4. Block of oak I 25 
 
 5. Board of oak I 26 
 
 6. Cross-section of oak highly magnified I 26 
 
 7. Highly magnified fibres of wood I 28 
 
 8. Isolated fibres and cells of wood I 30 
 
 9. Cross-section of basswood I 31 
 
 10. Spiral grain in wood I 59 
 
 11. Alternating spiral grain in cypress I 59 
 
 12. Wavy grain in beech I 60 
 
 13. Section of wood showing position of the grain at base 
 
 of limb I 61 
 
 14. Cross-section of a group of wood fibres I 64 
 
 15. Isolated fibres of wood I 64 
 
 16. Orientation of wood samples I 65 
 
 17. Work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar wood II 73 
 
 18. Work of ambrosia beetles in oak II 73 
 
 19. Work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine. . . II 75 
 
 20. Work of timber worms in oak II 76 
 
 21. Work of powder post beetles in hickory poles II 78 
 
 22. Work of powder post beetles in hickory poles II 78 
 
 23. Work of powder post beetles in hickory handles, etc... II 79 
 
 24. Work of round-headed borer in white pine staves II 84 
 
 25. View of land burned over every year Ill 89 
 
 26. Effects of a forest fire Ill 91 
 
 27. Damage done by a fire Ill 94 
 
 28. Automatic saw sharpener IV 110 
 
 29. Hand sharpener and gummer IV 111 
 
 30. Adjustable hand swage IV 113 
 
 31. Side-dresser or swage shaper IV 114 
 
 32. Tools for hammering, etc IV 115 
 
 33. Circular saw set IV 115 
 
 34. Hand saw sets IV 116 
 
 35. Saw gauge IV 116 
 
 36. Cylinder saw gauge IV 117 
 
 37. Bench vise or clamp IV 117 
 
 38. Cylinder saw gummer or- sharpener. IV 118 
 
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. SEC. PAGE 
 
 39. Automatic knife sharpener or grinder IV 119 
 
 39y 2 . Knife-balancing scales IV 119 
 
 40. Straight bevel grinding of knife IV 120 
 
 41. Concave bevel grinding of knife IV 120 
 
 42. Concave grinding of stave cutter knife IV 121 
 
 43. Back grinding of stave cutter knife IV 121 
 
 44. Forest regions of the United States VII 177 
 
 45. A typical hardwood forest VII 179 
 
 46. Hauling logs VII 180 
 
 47. Waste in woods operations VII 181 
 
 48. Good and bad tree cutting VII 182 
 
 49. A large hemlock VII 183 
 
 50. A large red gum VII 184 
 
 51. A large cottonwood VII 185 
 
 52. Second-growth red gum, etc t VII 186 
 
 53. A cypress slough in the dry season VII 187 
 
 54. A tupelo gum slough VII 188 
 
 55. Peeled red gum logs seasoning in the woods VII 189 
 
 56. Endless chain log haul-up VIII 202 
 
 57. Steam kicker or log unloader VIII 203 
 
 58. Direct-acting steam drag saw VIII 204 
 
 59. Drop feed circular cut-off saw. . VIII 205 
 
 60. Drop-feed circular cut-off saw in action, right-hand view VIII 206 
 
 61. Drop-feed circular cut-off saw in action, left-hand view. VIII 207 
 
 62. Overhead style steam dog VIII 208 
 
 63. Floor-level style steam dog VIII 210 
 
 64. Plan of horizontal bolting saw VIII 214 
 
 65. A log before being sawn into bolts VIII 216 
 
 66. A bolt before being quartered VIII 216 
 
 67. A bolt, showing method of quartering VIII 216 
 
 68. A properly quartered stave bolt VIII 217 
 
 69. Stave bolt or flitch. VIII 217 
 
 70. Stave bolt, showing method of cutting VIII 217 
 
 71. Heading bolt VIII 218 
 
 72. Heading bolt, showing method of sawing VIII 218 
 
 73. Dutch oven or bulldog furnace VIII 227 
 
 74. Stave bolt equalizer VIII 228 
 
 75. Stave cutter VIII 232 
 
 76. Cylinder stave saw VIII 236 
 
 77. Swing cut-off saw VIII 239 
 
 78. Stave piling sheds and log pond VIII 240 
 
 79. Slack stave foot-power jointer VIII 243 
 
 80. Slack stave "power" jointer. . . . . . VIII 244 
 
 81. Stave jointer knife VIII 247 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 
 
 FIG. SEC. PAGE 
 
 82. Stave packer or bundling machine VIII 249 
 
 83. Pendulous swing heading saw IX 259 
 
 84. Horizontal heading saw IX 261 
 
 84y 2 . Horizontal heading saw IX 262 
 
 85. Heading planer IX 287 
 
 86. Heading jointer IX 288 
 
 87. Heading turner . . IX 293 
 
 88. Method of determining circle of heading saws IX 294 
 
 89. Proper bevel for slack heading IX 296 
 
 90. Heading press IX 297 
 
 91. Results of poor bundling IX 298 
 
 92. End section of "patent" hoop X 304 
 
 93. Short-log sawmill X 308 
 
 94. Self-feed gang ripsaw X 308 
 
 95. Self-feed gang ripsaw X 309 
 
 96. The "Trautman" sawn-hoop machine X 310 
 
 97. The "Kettenring" sawn-hoop machine X 311 
 
 98. Hoop bar chuck-pointing machine X 311 
 
 99. Hand-feed hoop-lapping machine X 312 
 
 100. The hoop cutter X 316 
 
 101. The hoop cutter X 317 
 
 102. The automatic triple hoop planer X 318 
 
 103. The automatic hoop-pointing and lapping machine X 319 
 
 104. ''The Ward" hoop-coiling machine X 320 
 
 105. "The Defiance" hoop-coiling machine X 321 
 
 106. The head liner machine.. X 325 
 
SECTION I 
 
 TIMBER 
 
TIMBER 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 / 
 
 ALTHOUGH wood has been in use so long and so uni- 
 versally, there still exists a remarkable lack of knowl- 
 edge regarding its nature, not only among ordinary 
 workmen, but among those who might be expected to 
 know its properties. As a consequence the practice is 
 often faulty and wasteful in the manner of its use. Ex- 
 perience has been almost the only teacher, and notions 
 sometimes right, sometimes wrong rather than well- 
 substantiated facts, lead the workman. One reason for 
 this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact that wood is 
 not a homogeneous material, but a complicated struc- 
 ture, and so variable that one piece will behave very dif- 
 ferently from another, although cut from the same tree. 
 Not only does the wood of one species differ from that of 
 another, but the butt cut differs from that of the top log, 
 the heartwood from the sapwood, the wood of the quickly 
 grown sapling of the abandoned field, from that of the 
 slowly grown old monarch of the forest. Even the man- 
 ner in which the tree was sawn and the condition in 
 which the wood was cut and kept influence its behavior 
 and quality. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to study 
 the material for the purpose of establishing general 
 laws. The experienced woodsman will look for straight- 
 grained, long-fibred woods, with the absence of disturb- 
 ing resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc., and will 
 quickly distinguish the more porous red or black oaks 
 from the less porous white species, Quercus-alba. That 
 
4 COOPERAGE 
 
 the inspection should have regard to defects and un- 
 healthy conditions (often indicated by color) goes with- 
 out saying, and such inspection is usually practised. 
 That knots, even the smallest, are defects, which for 
 some uses condemn the material altogether, needs hardly 
 to be mentioned. But that season-checks, even those 
 that have closed by subsequent shrinkage, remain ele- 
 ments of weakness is not so readily appreciated, yet 
 there cannot be any doubt of this, since this, the inti- 
 mate connections of the wood fibres when once inter- 
 rupted are never re-established. The careful woods- 
 foreman and stock manufacturer, therefore, is concerned 
 as to the manner in which his timber is treated after the 
 felling, for, according to the more or less careful season- 
 ing of it, the season-checks not altogether avoidable 
 are more or less abundant. This is practically recog- 
 nized by sawing the stave and heading bolt at least two 
 inches longer than is actually required, in order to elim- 
 inate these season-checks, should there be any, when the 
 bolt is sawn or cut into staves and heading, and by split- 
 ting or quartering the cooperage stock, more or less, in 
 the woods and seasoning it partly shaped. There is no 
 country where wood is more lavishly used and crimi- 
 nally neglected than in the United States, and none in 
 which nature has more bountifully provided for all rea- 
 sonable requirements. In the absence of proper efforts 
 to secure reproduction, the most valuable kinds are rap- 
 idly being decimated, and the necessity of a more ra- 
 tional and careful use of what remains is clearly appar- 
 ent. By greater care in selection, however, not only can 
 the duration of the supply be extended, but more satis- 
 factory results will accrue from its practice. The struc- 
 ture of wood affords the only reliable means of distin- 
 guishing the different kinds. Color, weight, smell and 
 other appearances, which are often direct or indirect re- 
 
TIMBER 5 
 
 suits of structure, may be helpful in this distinction, but 
 cannot be relied upon entirely. In addition, structure 
 underlies nearly all the technical properties of this im- 
 portant product, and furnishes an explanation why one 
 piece differs as to these properties from another. Struc- 
 ture explains why oak is heavier, stronger and tougher 
 than pine ; why it is harder to saw and plane, and why it 
 is so much more difficult to season without injury. From 
 its less porous structure alone it is evident that a piece 
 of young and thrifty oak is stronger than the porous wood 
 of an old or stunted tree, or that a Georgia or long-leafed 
 pine excels white pine in weight and strength. Keep- 
 ing especially in mind the arrangement and direction of 
 the fibres of wood, it is clear at once why " knots and 
 cross-grain " interfere with the strength of timber. It is 
 due to the structural peculiarities that " honeycombing " 
 occurs in rapid seasoning, that ' ' checks or cracks ' ' extend 
 radially and follow pith rays, that tangent or bastard 
 stock shrinks and warps more than that which is quarter- 
 sawn. These same peculiarities enable oak to take a bet- 
 ter finish than basswood or coarse-grained pine. 
 
 CLASSES OF TKEES 
 
 The timber of the United States is furnished by three 
 well-defined classes of trees: the needle-leaved, naked- 
 seeded conifers, such as pine, cedar, etc., the broad-leaved 
 trees, such as oak, poplar, etc., and to an inferior extent 
 by the (one-seed leaf) palms, yuccas, and their allies, 
 which last are confined to the most southern parts of the 
 country. Broad-leaved trees are also known as decidu- 
 ous trees, although, especially in warm countries, many 
 of them are evergreen, while the conifers are commonly 
 termed " evergreens. " although the larch, bald cypress 
 and others shed their leaves every fall, and even the 
 names " broad-leaved " and "coniferous," though per- 
 
6 COOPERAGE 
 
 haps the most satisfactory, are not at all exact, for the 
 conifer "ginkgo" has broad leaves and bears no cones. 
 Among the woodsmen, the woods of broad-leaved trees 
 are known as "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as 
 pine, and the " coniferous woods" are "softwoods," not- 
 withstanding that yew ranks high in hardness even when 
 compared to "hardwoods." Both in the number of dif- 
 ferent kinds of trees or species and still more in the im- 
 portance of their product the conifers and broad-leaved 
 trees far excel the palms and their relatives. In the 
 manner of growth both conifers and broad-leaved trees 
 behave alike, adding each year a new layer of wood, which 
 covers the old woo4 in all parts of the stem and limbs. 
 Thus the trunk continues to grow in thickness through- 
 out the life of the tree by additions (annual rings), which 
 in temperate climates are, barring accidents, accurate 
 records of the tree. With the palms and their relatives 
 the stem remains generally of the same diameter, the 
 tree of a hundred years old being as thick as it was at 
 ten years, the growth of these being only at the top. Even 
 where a peripheral increase takes place, as in the yuccas, 
 the wood is not laid on in well-defined layers; the struc- 
 ture remains irregular throughout. Though alike in 
 their manner of growth, and therefore similar in their 
 general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved trees differ 
 markedly in the details of their structure and the char- 
 acter of their wood. The wood of all conifers is very 
 simple in its structure, the fibres composing the main 
 part of the wood being all alike and their arrangement 
 regular. The wood of broad-leaved trees is complex in 
 structure; it is made up of different kinds of cells and 
 fibres and lacks the regularity of arrangement so notice- 
 able in the conifers. This difference is so great that in a 
 study of wood structure it is best to consider the two 
 kinds separately. In this country the great variety of 
 
TIMBER 7 
 
 woods, and of useful woods at that, often makes the mere 
 distinction of the kind or species of tree most difficult. 
 Thus there are at least eight pines of the thirty-five 
 native ones in the market, some of which so closely re- 
 semble each other in their minute structure that they can 
 hardly be told apart, and yet they differ in quality and 
 are often mixed or confounded in the trade. Of the 
 thirty-six oaks, of which probably not less than six or 
 eight are marketed, we can readily recognize by means 
 of their minute anatomy at least two tribes the white 
 and black oaks. The same is true as to the eleven kinds 
 of hickory, the six kinds of ash, etc., etc. The list of 
 names of all trees indigenous to the United States, as 
 enumerated by the Forest Service, is 495 in number, the 
 designation of "tree" being applied to all woody plants 
 which produce naturally in their native habitat one 
 main, erect stem, bearing a definite crown, no matter 
 what size they attain. 
 
 WOOD OP CONIFEKOUS TKEES 
 
 Examining a smooth cross-section or end face of a 
 well-grown log of Georgia pine, we distinguish an envel- 
 ope of reddish, scaly bark, a small whitish pith at the 
 centre, and between these the wood in a great number 
 of concentric rings. 
 
 BAKK AND PITH 
 
 The bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near 
 the base, decreases rapidly in thickness from one and 
 one-half inches at the stump to one-tenth inch near the 
 top of the tree, and forms in general about ten to fifteen 
 per cent, of the entire trunk. The pith is quite thick, 
 usually one-eighth to one-fifth inch in southern species, 
 though much less so in white pine, and is very thin, one- 
 fifteenth to one-twenty-fifth inch in cypress, cedar and 
 larch. In woods with a thick pith, this latter is finest at 
 
8 COOPERAGE 
 
 the stump, grows rapidly thicker upward, and becoming 
 thinner again in the crown and limbs, the first one to 
 five rings adjoining it behaving similarly. 
 
 SAP AND HEABTWOOD 
 
 A zone of wood next to the bark, one to three inches 
 wide and containing thirty to fifty or more annual or 
 concentric rings, is of a lighter color. This is the sap- 
 wood, the inner darker part of the log being the heart- 
 wood. In the former many cells are active and store up 
 starch and otherwise assist in the life processes of the 
 tree, although only the last or outer layer of cells forms 
 the growing part, and the true life of the tree. In the 
 heartwood all the cells are lifeless cases, and serve only 
 the mechanical function of keeping the tree from break- 
 ing under its own great weight or from being laid low by 
 the winds. The darker color of the heartwood is due 
 to infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, 
 but the cavities of the cells in pine are not filled up, as is 
 sometimes believed, nor do their walls grow thicker, nor 
 are their walls any more liquefied than in the sapwood. 
 Sapwood varies in width and in the number of rings 
 which it contains even in different parts of the same 
 tree. The same year's growth which is sapwood in one 
 part of a disk may be heartwood in another. Sapwood 
 is widest in the main part of the stem and varies often 
 within considerable limits and without apparent regular- 
 ity. Generally it becomes narrower toward the top and 
 in the limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and 
 being least in a given disk on the side which has the 
 shortest radius. Sapwood of old and stunted pines is 
 composed of more rings than that of young and thrifty 
 specimens. Thus in a pine two hundred and fifty years 
 old a layer of wood or annual ring does not change 
 from sapwood to heartwood until seventy or eighty years 
 
TIMBER 9 
 
 after it is formed, while in a tree one hundred years old 
 or less it remains sapwood only from thirty to sixty 
 years. The width of the sapwood varies considerably 
 for different kinds of pine. It is small for long-leaf 
 and white pine and great for loblolly and Norway pines. 
 Occupying the peripheral part of the trunk, the propor- 
 tion which it forms of the entire mass of the stem is 
 always great. Thus even in old trees of long-leaf pine 
 the sapwood forms about forty per cent, of the mer- 
 chantable log, while in the loblolly and in all young 
 trees the bulk of the wood is sapwood. 
 
 THE ANNUAL OE YEARLY KING 
 
 The concentric annual or yearly rings which appear 
 on the end face of a log are cross-sections of so many 
 thin layers of wood. Each such layer forms an envelope 
 around its inner neighbor, and is in turn covered by the 
 adjoining layer without, so that the whole stem is built 
 up of a series of thin, hollow cylinders, or rather cones. 
 A new layer of wood is formed each season, covering the 
 entire stem, as well as all the living branches. The 
 thickness of this layer or the width of the yearly ring 
 varies greatly in different trees, and also in different 
 parts of the same tree. In a normally grown thrifty 
 pine log the rings are widest near the pith, growing 
 more and more narrower toward the bark. Thus the 
 central twenty rings in a disk of an old long-leaf pine 
 may each be one-eighth to one-sixth inch wide, while the 
 twenty rings next to the bark may average only one- 
 thirtieth inch. In our forest trees, rings of one-half 
 inch in width occur only near the centre in disks of very 
 thrifty trees, of both conifers and hardwoods. One- 
 twelfth inch represents good thrifty growth, and the min- 
 imum width of %oo inch is often seen in stunted spruce 
 
10 COOPEEAGE 
 
 and pine. The average width of rings in well-grown 
 old white pine will vary from one-twelfth to one-eight- 
 eenth inch, while in the slower growing long-leaf pine 
 it may be one-twenty-fifth to one-thirtieth of an inch. 
 The same layer of wood is widest near the stump in very 
 thrifty young trees, especially if grown in the open park ; 
 but in old forest trees the same year's growth is wider 
 at the upper part of the tree, being narrowest near the 
 stump, and often also near the very tip of the stem. 
 Generally the rings are widest near the centre, growing 
 narrower toward the bark. In logs from stunted trees 
 the order is often reversed, the interior rings being thin 
 and the outer rings widest. Frequently, too, zones or 
 bands of very narrow rings, representing unfavorable 
 periods of growth, disturb the general regularity. Few 
 trees, even among pines, furnish a log with truly circular 
 cross-section. Usually it is an oval, and at the stump 
 commonly quite an irregular figure. Moreover, even in 
 very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in the 
 centre, and frequently one radius is conspicuously longer 
 than its opposite, the width of some rings, if not all, 
 being greater on one side than on the other. This is 
 nearly always so in the limbs, the lower radius exceed- 
 ing the upper. In extreme cases, especially in the limbs, 
 a ring is frequently conspicuous on one side, and almost 
 or entirely lost to view on the other. Where the rings 
 are extremely narrow, the dark portion of the ring is 
 often wanting, the color being quite uniform and light. 
 The greater regularity or irregularity of the annual rings 
 has much to do with the technical qualities of the timber. 
 
 SPUING AND SUMMER-WOOD 
 
 Examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that 
 each ring is made up of an inner, softer, light-colored 
 
TIMBER 11 
 
 and an outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored 
 portion. Being formed in the forepart of the season, 
 the inner, light-colored part is termed spring-wood, the 
 outer, darker-portioned being the summer-wood of the 
 ring. Since the latter is very heavy and firm, it deter- 
 mines to a very large extent the weight and strength 
 of the wood, and as its darker color influences the shade 
 of color of the entire piece of wood, this color effect 
 becomes a valuable aid in distinguishing heavy and 
 strong from light and soft pine wood. In most hard 
 pines, like the long-leaf, the dark summer-wood appears 
 as a distinct band, so that the yearly ring is composed 
 of two sharply defined bands an inner, the ^spring- 
 wood, ' ' and an outer, the ' ' summer-wood. ' ' But in some 
 cases, even in hard pines, and normally in the woods of 
 white pines, the spring-wood passes gradually into the 
 darker summer-wood, so that a darkly defined line occurs 
 only where the spring-wood of one ring abuts against the 
 summer-wood of its neighbor. It is this clearly defined 
 line which enables the eye to distinguish even the very 
 narrow lines in old pines and spruces. In some cases, 
 especially in the trunks of Southern pines, and normally 
 on the lower side of pine limbs, there occur dark bands 
 of wood in the spring-wood portion of the ring, giving 
 rise to false rings, which mislead in a superficial count- 
 ing of rings. In the disks cut from limbs these dark bands 
 often occupy the greater part of the ring, and appear 
 as "runes," or sickle-shaped figures. The wood of these 
 dark bands is similar to that of the true summer-wood. 
 The cells have thick walls, but usually the compressed or 
 flattened form. Normally, the summer-wood forms a 
 greater proportion of the ring in the part of the tree 
 formed during the period of thriftiest growth. In an 
 old tree this proportion is very small in the first two to 
 
12 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 five rings about the pith, and also in the part next to the 
 bark, the intermediate part showing a greater proportion 
 of summer-wood. It is also greatest in a disk taken from 
 near the stump, and decreases upward in the stem, thus 
 fully accounting for the difference in weight and firm- 
 ness of the wood of these different parts. In the long- 
 leaf pine the summer-wood often forms scarcely ten 
 per cent, of the wood in the central five rings; forty to 
 fifty per cent, of the next one hundred rings ; about thirty 
 per cent, of the next fifty, and only about twenty per 
 cent, in the fifty rings next to the bark. It averages forty- 
 five per cent, of the wood of the stump and only twenty- 
 four per cent, of that of the top. Sawing the log into 
 boards, the yearly rings are represented on the board 
 faces of the middle board (radial sections) by narrow 
 parallel stripes (see Fig. 1), an inner, lighter stripe 
 
 FIG. 1. BOARD OF PINE. CS, cross-section; RS, radial section, TS, 
 tangential section; sw, summer- wood ; spw, spring- wood. 
 
TIMBER 
 
 13 
 
 and its outer, darker neighbor always corresponding to 
 one annual ring. On the faces of the boards nearest the 
 slab (tangential or bastard boards) the several years' 
 growth should also appear as parallel, but much broader 
 stripes. This they do if the log is short and very per- 
 fect. Usually a variety of pleasing patterns is displayed 
 on the boards, depending on the position of the saw cut 
 and on the regularity of growth of the log. (See Fig. 1.) 
 Where the cut passes through a prominence (bump or 
 crook) of the log, irregular, concentric circlets and ovals 
 are produced, and on almost all tangent boards arrow 
 or V-shaped forms occur. 
 
 ANATOMICAL STEUCTUEE 
 
 Holding a well-smoothed disk or cross-section one- 
 eighth inch thick toward the light, it is readily seen that 
 pine wood is a very porous structure. If viewed with 
 
 2 
 
 FIG. 2. WOOD OF SPRUCE. 1, natural size; 2, small part of one ring magni- 
 fied 100 times. The vertical tubes are wood fibres, in this case all 
 "tracheids." m, medullary or pith ray; n, transverse tracheids of pith 
 ray: a, 6, and c, bordered pits of the tracheids, more enlarged. 
 
14 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 a strong magnifier, the little tubes, especially in the 
 spring-wood of the rings, are easily distinguished, and 
 their arrangement in regular, straight, radial rows is 
 apparent. Scattered through the summer-wood portion 
 of the rings numerous irregular grayish dots 
 (the resin ducts) disturb the uniformity and 
 regularity of the structure. Magnified one 
 hundred times, a piece of spruce, which is 
 similar to pine, presents a picture like that 
 shown in Fig. 2. Only short pieces of the 
 tubes or cells of which the wood is composed 
 are represented in the picture. The total 
 length of these fibres is from one-twentieth 
 to one-fifth inch, being smallest near the pith, 
 and is fifty to one hundred times as great 
 as their width. (See Fig. 3.) They are 
 tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal 
 or rounded and thin-walled, with large cavity, 
 lumen or internal space in the spring-wood, 
 and thick-walled and flattened radially, with 
 the internal space or lumen much reduced in 
 the summer-wood. (See right-hand portion 
 of Fig. 2.) This flattening together with 
 the thicker walls of the cells, which reduces 
 the lumen, causes the greater firmness and 
 darker color of the summer-wood. There 
 is more material in the same volume. As 
 shown in the figure, the tubes, cells, or 
 ' i tracheids ' ' are decorated on their walls 
 by circlet-like structures, the "bordered 
 pits," sections of which are seen more 
 
 FIG. 3. GROUP OF FIBRES FROM PINE WOOD. Partly schematic. The little 
 circles are "border pits." (See Fig. 2, a-c.) The transverse rows of 
 square pits indicate the places of contact of these fibres and the cells 
 of the neighboring pith rays. Magnified about 25 times. 
 
TIMBER 15 
 
 magnified at a, b and c, Fig. 2. These pits are in the 
 nature of pores, covered by very thin membranes, and 
 serve as waterways between the cells or tracheids. The 
 dark lines on the side of the smaller piece (1, Fig. 2) 
 appear when magnified (in 2; Fig. 2) as tiers of eight 
 to ten rows of cells, which run radially (parallel to the 
 rows of tubes or tracheids), and are seen as bands on 
 the radial face and as rows of pores on the tangential 
 face. These bands or tiers of cell rows are the medullary 
 rays or pith rays, and are common to all our lumber 
 woods. In the pines and other conifers they are quite 
 small, but they can readily be seen even without a mag- 
 nifier. If a radial surface of split-wood (not smoothed) 
 is examined, the entire radial face will be seen almost 
 covered with these tiny structures, which appear as fine 
 but conspicuous cross-lines. As shown in Fig. 2, the 
 cells of the medullary or pith rays are smaller and very 
 much shorter than the wood fibre or tracheids, and their 
 long axis is at right angles to that of the fibre. In pines 
 and spruces the cells of the upper and lower rows of 
 each tier or pith ray have " bordered " pits, like those of 
 the wood fibre or tracheids proper, but the cells of the 
 intermediate rows and of all rows in the rays of cedars, 
 etc., have only "simple" pits, i. e., pits devoid of the 
 saucer-like "border" or rim. In pine, many of the pith 
 rays are larger than the majority, each containing a 
 whitish line, the horizontal resin duct, which though much 
 smaller, resembles the vertical ducts seen on the cross- 
 section. The larger vertical resin ducts are best observed 
 on removal of the bark from a fresh piece of white pine 
 cut in winter, where they appear as conspicuous white 
 lines, extending often for many inches up and down the 
 stem. Neither the horizontal nor the vertical resin ducts 
 
16 COOPERAGE 
 
 are vessels or cells, but are openings between cells, i. e., 
 intercellular spaces, in which the resin accumulates, 
 freely oozing out when the ducts of a fresh piece of sap- 
 wood are cut. They are present only in our coniferous 
 woods, and even here they are restricted to pine, spruce 
 and larch, and are normally absent in fir, cedar, cypress 
 and yew. Altogether, the structure of coniferous wood 
 is very simple and regular, the bulk being made up of 
 the small fibres called tracheids, the disturbing elements 
 of pith rays and resin ducts being insignificant, and hence 
 the great uniformity and great technical value of conifer- 
 ous woods. 
 
 LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 
 
 CEDAR. Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; 
 sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the 
 latter a dull grayish brown or red. The wood seasons 
 rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very 
 durable. Used like soft pine, but owing to its great 
 durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small sizes 
 used for posts, ties, etc. Cedars usually occur scat- 
 tered, but they form in certain localities forests of 
 considerable extent. 
 
 a. WHITE CEDARS. Heartwood a light grayish color. 
 
 1. WHITE CEDAR (Thuya occidentalis) (AREORVIT^). 
 Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently covering 
 extensive swamps; rarely large enough for lumber, but 
 commonly used for posts, ties, etc. Maine to Minnesota 
 and northward. 
 
 2. CANOE CEDAR (Thuya gig ant ea) (BED CEDAR OF THE 
 WEST). In Oregon and Washington a very large tree, 
 covering extensive swamps; in the mountains much 
 smaller, skirting the water courses ; an important lumber 
 
TIMBER 17 
 
 tree. Washington to Northern California and eastward 
 to Montana. 
 
 3. WHITE CEDAR (Chamcecyparis thyoides). Medium- 
 sized tree, wood very light and soft. Along the coast 
 from Maine to Mississippi. 
 
 4. WHITE CEDAR (Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana) (PORT 
 ORFORD CEDAR, OREGON CEDAR, LAWSON'S CYPRESS, GINGER 
 PINE). A very large tree, extensively cut for lumber; 
 heavier and stronger than the preceding. Along the coast 
 line of Oregon. 
 
 5. WHITE CEDAR (Libocedrus decurrens) (INCENSE 
 CEDAR). A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine 
 and fir ; wood fine-grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada 
 of Oregon and California. 
 
 b. BED CEDARS. Heartwood red. 
 
 6. RED CEDAR (Juniperus Virginiana) (SAVIN JUNI- 
 PER). Similar to white cedar, but of somewhat finer 
 texture. Used in cabinetwork, for cooperage, for veneers, 
 and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose alone 
 several million feet are cut each year. A small to 
 medium-sized tree scattered through the forests, or in 
 the West sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar 
 brakes). The red cedar is the most widely distributed 
 conifer of the United States, occurring from the Atlantic 
 to the Pacific, and from Florida to Minnesota, but attains 
 a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, and more 
 especially the Gulf States. 
 
 7. REDWOOD (Sequoia sempervirens). Wood in its 
 quality and uses like white cedar, the narrow sapwood 
 whitish ; the heartwood light red, soon turning to brown- 
 ish red when exposed. A very large tree, limited to the 
 coast ranges of California, and forming considerable for- 
 ests, which are rapidly being converted into lumber. 
 
18 COOPEEAGE 
 
 CYPRESS. 
 
 8. CYPKESS (Taxo'dium disticJium) (BALD CYPKESS; 
 BLACK, WHITE, AND BED CYPKESS). Wood in its appear- 
 ance, quality, and uses similar to white cedar. " Black 
 cypress" and "white cypress" are heavy and light forms 
 of the same species. The cypress is a large, deciduous 
 tree, occupying much of the swamp and overflow land 
 along the coast and rivers of the Southern States. 
 
 FIR This name is frequently applied to wood and to 
 trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, 
 but also, especially in English markets, to pine. It 
 resembles spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, 
 as well as from pine and larch, by the absence of 
 resin ducts. Quality, uses, and habits similar to 
 spruce. Used extensively for fish and oil cooper- 
 age on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 9. BALSAM FIR (Abies balsamea). A medium-sized 
 tree scattered throughout the northern pineries; cut in 
 lumber operations whenever of sufficient size, and sold 
 with pine or spruce. Minnesota to Maine and north- 
 ward. 
 
 10. WHITE FIE (Abies grandis and Abies concolor). 
 Medium to very large- sized tree, forming an important 
 part of most of the Western mountain forests, and fur- 
 nishing much of the lumber of the respective regions. 
 The former occurs from Vancouver to Central California 
 and eastward to Montana; and the latter from Oregon 
 to Arizona and eastward to Colorado and New Mexico. 
 
 11. WHITE FIE (Abies amabalis). Good-sized tree, 
 often forming extensive mountain forests. Cascade 
 Mountains of Washington and Oregon. 
 
 12. BED FIE (Abies nobilis) (not to be confounded with 
 Douglas spruce. See No. 37). Large to very large tree, 
 
TIMBER 19 
 
 forming extensive forests on the slope of the mountains 
 between 3,000 and 4,000 feet elevation. Cascade Moun- 
 tains of Oregon. 
 
 13. BED FIK (Abies magnified). Very large tree, form- 
 ing forests about the base of Mount Shasta. Sierra 
 Nevada of California, from Mount Shasta southward. 
 
 HEMLOCK. Light to medium weight, soft, stiff but 
 brittle, commonly cross-grained, rough and splin- 
 tery; sapwood and heartwood not well defined; the 
 wood of a light reddish-gray color, free from resin 
 ducts, moderately durable, shrinks and warps consid- 
 erably, wears rough, retains nails firmly. Used prin- 
 cipally for dimension stuff and timbers. Hemlocks 
 are medium to large-sized trees, commonly scattered 
 among broad-leaved trees and conifers, but often 
 forming forests of almost pure growth. 
 
 14. HEMLOCK (Tsuga canadensis) . Medium-sized tree, 
 furnishes almost all the hemlock of the Eastern market. 
 Maine to Wisconsin; also following the Alleghanies 
 southward to Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 15. HEMLOCK (Tsuga mertensiana) . Large-sized tree, 
 wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the Eastern 
 form and of superior quality. Washington to California 
 and eastward to Montana. 
 
 LARCH OR TAMARACK.-Wood like the best of hard 
 pine both in appearance, quality, and uses, and owing 
 to its great durability somewhat preferred in ship- 
 building, for telegraph poles, and railroad ties. In 
 its structure it resembles spruce. The larches are 
 deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable 
 areas, but usually scattered among other conifers. 
 
 16. TAMARACK (Larix Americana) (HACKMATACK). 
 
20 COOPEEAGE 
 
 Medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, in which case 
 it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine to Minnesota, 
 and southward to Pennsylvania. 
 
 17. TAMAKACK (L. occidentals). Large-sized trees, 
 scattered, locally abundant. Washington and Oregon to 
 Montana. 
 
 PINE. Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" 
 pine, such as white pine ; of medium weight to heavy 
 and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which long-leaf or 
 Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, 
 quite strong, of even texture, and more' or less res- 
 inous. The sapwood is yellowish white; the heart- 
 wood, orange brown. Pine shrinks moderately, sea- 
 sons rapidly and without much injury ; it works eas- 
 ily ; is never too hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory) ; 
 it is mostly quite durable, and if well seasoned is 
 not subject to the attacks of boring insects. The 
 heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder 
 it is and the more it shrinks and checks. Pine is 
 used more extensively than any other kind of wood. 
 It is the principal wood in common carpentry, as 
 well as in all heavy construction, bridges, trestles, 
 etc. It is also used in almost every other wood in- 
 dustry : for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in ship- 
 building; in car and wagon construction; in cooper- 
 age, for crates and boxes ; in furniture work, for toys 
 and patterns, water pipes, excelsior, etc., etc. Pines 
 are usually large trees with few branches, the 
 straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the 
 greatest part of the tree. They occur gregariously, 
 forming vast forests, a fact which greatly facilitates 
 their exploitation. Of the many special terms applied 
 
TIMBER 21 
 
 to pine as lumber, denoting sometimes differences 
 in quality, the following deserve attention: 
 
 " White pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine" in 
 the Eastern markets refer to the wood of the white 
 pine (Pinus strobus), and on the Pacific Coast to 
 that of the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana). 
 
 "Yellow pine" is applied in the trade to all the 
 Southern lumber pines; in the Northeast it is also 
 applied to the pitch pine (P. rigida) ; in the West 
 it refers mostly to the bull pine (P. ponderosa). 
 
 Yellow long-leaf pine, "Georgia pine," chiefly 
 used in advertisement, refers to the long-leaf pine 
 (P. palustris). 
 
 a. SOFT PINES. 
 
 18. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus). Large to very large- 
 sized tree. For the last fifty years the most important 
 timber tree of the Union, furnishing the best quality of 
 soft pine. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New Eng- 
 land, along the Alleghanies to Georgia. 
 
 19. SUGAE PINE (Pinus lambertiana). A very large 
 tree, together with Abies concolor forming extensive for- 
 ests. Important lumber tree. Oregon to California. 
 
 20. WHITE PINE (Pinus monticolo). A large tree, at 
 home in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States. Most 
 common and locally used in Northern Idaho. 
 
 21. WHITE PINE (Pinus flexilis). A small tree, form- 
 ing mountain forests of considerable extent and locally 
 used. Eastern Bocky Mountain slopes, Montana to New 
 Mexico. 
 
 b. HAKD PINES. 
 
 22. LONG-LEAF PINE (Pinus palustris) (GEOKGIA PINE, 
 YELLOW PINE, LONG-STKAW PINE, ETC.). Large tree. 
 
22 COOPERAGE 
 
 Forms extensive forests and furnishes the hardest and 
 strongest pine lumber in the market. Coast region from 
 North Carolina to Texas. 
 
 23. BULL PINE (Pinus ponder osa) (YELLOW PINE). 
 Medium to very large-sized tree, forming extensive for- 
 ests in Pacific and Eocky Mountain regions. Furnishes 
 most of the hard pines of the West ; sapwood wide ; wood 
 very variable. 
 
 24. LOBLOLLY PINE (Pinus tceda) (SLASH PINE, OLD 
 FIELD PINE, EOSEMAKY PINE, SAP PINE, SHOBT-STKAW 
 PINE, ETC.). Large-sized tree. Forms extensive forests; 
 wider-ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood 
 than the long-leaf pine, but the two are often confounded. 
 This is the common lumber pine from Virginia to 
 South Carolina, and is found extensively in Arkansas 
 and Texas. Southern States, Virginia to Texas and 
 Arkansas. 
 
 25. NORWAY PINE (Pinus resinosa). Large-sized tree, 
 never forming forests, usually scattered or in small 
 groves, together with white pine; largely sapwood and 
 hence not durable. Minnesota to Michigan ; also in New 
 England to Pennsylvania. 
 
 26. SHORT-LEAF PINE (Pinus echinata) (SLASH PINE, 
 CAROLINA PINE, YELLOW PINE, OLD FIELD PINE). Eesem- 
 bles loblolly pine ; often approaches in its wood the Nor- 
 way pine. The common lumber pine of Missouri and 
 Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and Missouri. 
 
 27. CUBAN PINE (Pinus cubensis) (SLASH PINE, SWAMP 
 PINE, BASTARD PINE, MEADOW PINE). Eesembles long- 
 leaf pine, but commonly has wider sapwood and coarser 
 grain; does not enter the markets to any great extent. 
 Along the coast from South Carolina to Louisiana. 
 
TIMBEE 23 
 
 28. BULL PINE (Pinus jeffreyi) (BLACK PINE). Large- 
 sized tree, wood resembling bull pine (Pinus ponder osa] ; 
 used locally in California, replacing P. ponderosa at high 
 altitudes. 
 
 29. BLACK PINE (Pinus murrayana) (LODGE POLE PINE, 
 TAMARACK). Eocky Mountains and Pacific regions. 
 
 30. PITCH PINE (Pinus rigida). Along the coast from 
 New York to Georgia, and along the mountains to Ken- 
 tucky. 
 
 31. JERSEY PINE (Pinus inops) ( SCRUB PINE). Along 
 the coast from New York to Georgia and along the moun- 
 tains to Kentucky. 
 
 32. GRAY PINE (Pinus banksiana) (SCRUB PINE). 
 Maine, Vermont, and Michigan to Minnesota. 
 
 REDWOOD. (See CEDAR.) 
 
 SPRUCE. Eesembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, 
 moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no 
 distinct heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used 
 like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood 
 and preferred for paper pulp. Used for all classes 
 of cooperage and woodenware on the Pacific Coast, 
 taking to some extent the place of oak for wine coop- 
 erage. Spruces, like pines, form extensive forests. 
 They are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and 
 bear more shade, but usually require a more humid 
 climate. " Black " and "white" spruce as applied 
 by lumbermen usually refer to narrow and wide- 
 ringed forms of the black spruce (Picea nigra). 
 
 33. BLACK SPRUCE (Picea nigra). Medium-sized tree, 
 forms extensive forests in Northeastern United States 
 and in British America ; occurs scattered or in groves, es- 
 pecially in low lands throughout the northern pineries. 
 
24 COOPERAGE 
 
 Important lumber tree in Eastern United States. Maine 
 to Minnesota, British America, and on the Alleghanies 
 to North Carolina. 
 
 34. WHITE SPKUCE (Picea alba). Generally associated 
 with the preceding. Most abundant along streams and 
 lakes, grows largest in Montana and forms the most im- 
 portant tree of the subarctic forest of British America. 
 Northern United States from Maine to Minnesota; also 
 from Montana to Pacific, British America. 
 
 35. WHITE SPKUCE (Picea engelmanni). Medium to 
 large-sized tree, forming extensive forests at elevations 
 from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level ; resembles the 
 preceding, but occupies a different station. A very im- 
 portant timber tree in the central and southern parts of 
 the Eocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains from Mexico 
 to Montana. 
 
 36. TIDE LAND SPKUCE (Picea sitchensis). A large- 
 sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt forest. Along 
 the seacoast from Alaska to Central California. Used 
 extensively for cooperage and woodenware in the West. 
 
 BASTARD SPRUCE. Spruce or fir in name, but re- 
 sembling hard pine or larch in the appearance, qual- 
 ity, and uses of its wood. 
 
 37. DOUGLAS SPRUCE (Pseudotsuga douglasii) (YELLOW 
 FIR, RED FIR, OREGON PINE). One of the most important 
 trees of the Western United States ; grows very large in 
 the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of the moun- 
 tains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet above sea level ; 
 forms extensive forests, often of pure growth. Wood 
 very variable, usually coarse-grained and heavy, with 
 very pronounced summer-wood, hard and strong ("red" 
 fir), but often fine-grained and light (" yellow" fir). It 
 replaces hard pine and is especially suited to heavy con- 
 
TIMBER 
 
 25 
 
 struction. From the plains to the Pacific Ocean, from 
 Mexico to British America. 
 
 TAMARACK. (See LARCH.) 
 
 YEW. Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, of 
 fine texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an 
 orange-red heart; seasons well and is quite dur- 
 able. Yew is extensively used for archery, bows, 
 turners' ware, etc. The yews form no forests, but 
 occur scattered with other conifers. 
 
 38. YEW (Taxus brevifolia). A small to medium-sized 
 tree of the Pacific region. 
 
 WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES. 
 
 On a cross-section of oak, the same arrangement of 
 pith and bark, of sapwood and heartwood, and the same 
 disposition of the wood in well-defined concentric or 
 
 annual rings occur, but the rings 
 are marked by lines or rows of 
 conspicuous pores or openings, 
 
 Ili-j!.' i >J ' 1 1 l!iJ% which occupy the greater part of 
 \> t ;.: ,;, '^ the spring-wood for each ring (see 
 
 Fig. 4, also 6), and are, in fact, 
 the hollows of vessels through 
 which the cut has been made. On 
 the radial section or quarter-sawn 
 board the several layers appear as 
 so many stripes (see Fig. 5) ; on 
 the tangential section or "bas- 
 tard" face patterns similar to 
 those mentioned for pine wood are 
 observed. But while the patterns 
 
 FIG. 4. BLOCK OP OAK. 
 C. S. , cross section ; R. 8. , ra- 
 dial section; T.8 , tangential 
 section; m.r., medullary or 
 pith ray; a, height; b, width, 
 and e, length of pith ray. 
 
 in hard pine are marked by the darker summer-wood, 
 and are composed of plain, alternating stripes of 
 
26 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 
 FlG. 5. BOARD OF OAK. C8, cross-section; It 8, radial section; T8, tan- 
 gential section; v, vessels or pores, cut through; A, slight curve in log 
 which appears in section as an islet. 
 
 FIG.' 6. CROSS-SECTION OF OAK MAGNIFIED ABOUT 5 TIMES. 
 
TIMBER 27 
 
 darker and lighter wood, the figures in oak (and other 
 broad-leaved woods) are due chiefly to the vessels, 
 those of the spring-wood in oak being the most con- 
 spicuous. (See Fig. 5). So that in an oak table, the 
 darker, shaded parts are the spring-wood, the lighter 
 unicolored parts the summer-wood. On closer exam- 
 ination of the smooth cross-section of oak, the spring- 
 wood part of the ring is found to be formed in great 
 part of pores ; large, round, or oval openings made by 
 the cut through long vessels. These are separated by 
 a grayish and quite porous tissue (see Fig. 6, A), which 
 continues here and there in the form of radial, often 
 branched, patches (not the pith rays) into and through, 
 the summer-wood to the spring-wood of the next ring. 
 The large vessels of the spring-wood, occupying six to 
 ten per cent, of the volume of a log in very good oak, 
 and twenty-five per cent, or more in inferior and narrow- 
 ringed timber, are a very important feature, since it is 
 evident that the greater their share in the volume, the 
 lighter and weaker the wood. They are smallest near 
 the pith, and grow wider outward. They are wider in 
 the stem than limb, and seem to be of indefinite length, 
 forming open channels, in some cases probably as long 
 as the tree itself. Scattered through the radiating gray 
 patches of porous wood are vessels similar to those of 
 the spring-wood, but decidedly smaller. These vessels 
 are usually fewer and larger near the spring-wood, and 
 smaller and more numerous in the outer portions of the 
 ring. Their number and size can be utilized to distin- 
 guish the oaks classed as white oaks from those classed 
 as black and red oaks. They are fewer and larger in 
 red oaks, smaller but much more numerous in white oaks. 
 The summer-wood, except for these radial grayish 
 patches, is dark colored and firm. This firm portion, di- 
 
28 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 vided into bodies or strands by these patches of porous 
 wood, and also by fine wavy, concentric lines of short, 
 thin- walled cells (see Fig. 6, A), consists of thin-walled 
 fibres (see Fig. 7, B), and is the chief element of strength 
 
 in oak wood. In good white 
 oak it forms one-half or 
 more of the wood, if it cuts 
 like horn, and the cut sur- 
 face is shiny, and of a deep 
 chocolate brown color. In 
 very narrow-ringed wood 
 and in inferior red oak it 
 is usually much reduced in 
 quantity as well as quality. 
 The pith rays of the oak, 
 
 unlike those of the conifer- 
 ous woods, are at least in 
 part very large and con- 
 spicuous. (See Fig. 4, their 
 
 FIG. 7. PORTION OF THE FIRM BODIES 
 
 OF FIBRES WITH Two CELLS OP 
 
 A SMALL PITH RAY. mr, 
 
 Highly magnified. 
 
 height indicated by the letter a, and their width by 
 the letter b.) The large medullary rays of oak are 
 often twenty and more cells wide and several hundred 
 cell rows m height, which amount commonly to one or 
 more inches. These large rays are conspicuous on all 
 sections. They appear as long, sharp, grayish lines on 
 the cross-section; as short, thick lines, tapering at each 
 end, on the tangential or " bastard " face, and as broad, 
 shiny bands, "the mirrors, " on the radial section. In 
 addition to these coarse rays, there is also a large number 
 of small pith rays, which can be seen only when magni- 
 fied. On the whole, the pith rays form a much larger part 
 of the wood than might be supposed. In specimens of 
 good white oak it has been found that they formed about 
 sixteen to twenty-five per cent, of the wood. 
 
TIMBEE 29 
 
 MINUTE STKUCTUKE 
 
 If a well- smoothed thin disk or cross-section of oak 
 (say one- sixteenth inch thick) is held up to the light, it 
 looks very much like a sieve, the pores or vessels appear- 
 ing as clean-cut holes. The spring-wood and gray 
 patches are seen to be quite porous, but the firm bodies 
 of fibres between them are dense and opaque. Examined 
 with the magnifier it will be noticed that there is no such 
 regularity of arrangement in straight rows as is con- 
 spicuous in pine. On the contrary, great irregularity 
 prevails. At the same time, while the pores are as large 
 as pin holes, the cells of the denser wood, unlike those 
 of pine wood, are too small to be distinguished. Studied 
 with the microscope, each vessel is found to be a vertical 
 row of a great number of short, wide tubes, joined end to 
 end. (See Fig. 8, c.) The porous spring-wood and radial 
 gray tracts are partly composed of smaller vessels, but 
 chiefly of tracheids, .like those of pine, and of shorter 
 cells, the "wood parenchyma," resembling the cells of 
 the medullary rays. These latter, as well as the fine con- 
 centric lines mentioned as occurring in the summer-wood, 
 are composed entirely of short, tube-like parenchyma 
 cells, with square or oblique ends. (See Fig. 8, a and &.) 
 The wood fibres proper, which form the dark, firm bodies 
 referred to, are very fine, thread-like cells, one-twenty- 
 fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall commonly so 
 thick that scarcely any empty internal space or lumen 
 remains. (See Figs. 8, e, and 7 B.) If, instead of oak, 
 a piece of poplar or basswood (see Fig. 9) had been used 
 in this study, the structure would have been found to be 
 quite different. The same kinds of cell-elements, vessels, 
 etc., are to be sure, present, but their combination and ar- 
 rangement are different, and thus from the great variety 
 
30 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 of possible combinations results the great variety of 
 structure and, in consequence, of the qualities which dis- 
 tinguish the wood of broad-leaved trees. The sharp dis- 
 tinction of sapwood and heart- 
 wood is wanting; the rings are 
 not so clearly defined, the vessels 
 of the wood are small, very nu- 
 merous, and rather evenly scat- 
 tered through the wood of the 
 annual ring, so that the distinc- 
 tion of the ring almost vanishes 
 and the medullary or pith rays 
 in poplar can be seen without be- 
 ing magnified only on the radial 
 section. 
 
 - s 
 
 "\ I 
 
 FIG. 8. ISOLATED FIBRES AND 
 CELLS. a, Four cells of 
 wood, parenchyma; b, two 
 cells from a pith ray; c, a 
 single joint or cell of a ves- 
 sel, the openings x leading 
 into its upper and lower 
 neighbors; d, tracheid; e, 
 wood fibre proper. 
 
 LIST OF MOST IMPORTANT BROAD- 
 LEAVED TREES (HARDWOODS) 
 
 Woods of complex and very 
 variable structure, and therefore 
 differing widely in quality, be- 
 havior, and consequently in ap- 
 plicability to the arts. 
 
 ASH. Wood heavy, hard, strong, 
 stiff, quite tough, not dur- 
 able in contact with soil, 
 straight-grained, rough on 
 the split surfaces and coarse 
 in texture. The wood shrinks 
 moderately, seasons with lit- 
 tle injury, stands well and 
 takes a good polish. In car- 
 
 pentry, ash is used for stair- 
 ways, panels, etc.; it is used in shipbuilding^ in the 
 construction of cars, wagons, etc. ; in the manufacture 
 
TIMBER 
 
 31 
 
 of farm implements, machinery, and especially of fur- 
 niture of all kinds ; for cooperage, baskets, oars, tool 
 handles, hoops, etc. The trees of the several species 
 
 FIG. 9. CROSS-SECTION OF BASSWOOD (MAGNIFIED), v, Vessels; mr, pith 
 
 rays. 
 
 of ash are rapid growers, of small to medium height 
 with stout trunks. They form no forests, but occur 
 scattered in almost all our broad-leaved forests. 
 
 1. WHITE ASH (Fraxinus Americana). Medium, some- 
 times large-sized tree. Basin of the Ohio, but found from 
 Maine to Minnesota and Texas. 
 
 2. BED ASH (Fraxinus pubescens). Small-sized tree. 
 North Atlantic States, but extends to the Mississippi. 
 
 3. BLACK ASH (Fraxinus sambuci folia) (Hoop ASH, 
 GROUND ASH). Medium-sized tree, very common. Maine 
 to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 
 
 4. BLUE ASH (Fraxinus quadrangulata) . Small to 
 medium-sized tree. Indiana and Illinois; occurs from 
 Michigan to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 
 
 5. GREEN ASH (Fraxinus viridis). Small-sized tree. 
 New York to the Eocky Mountains, and southward to 
 Florida and Arizona. 
 
 6. OREGON ASH (Fraxinus Oregana). Medium-sized 
 tree. Western Washington to California. 
 
32 COOPERAGE 
 
 ASPEN. (See POPLAK.) 
 
 BASSWOOD. 
 
 7. BASSWOOD (Tilia Americana) (LIME TBEE, AMEKICAN 
 LINDEN, LIN, BEE TKEE). Wood light, soft, stiff but not 
 strong, of fine texture, and white to light brown color. 
 The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and 
 stands well. It is used for cooperage, in carpentry, in 
 the manufacture of furniture and woodenware, both 
 turned and carved; for toys, also for panelling of car 
 and carriage bodies. Medium to large-sized tree. Com- 
 mon in all northern broad-leaved forests ; found through- 
 out the Eastern United States. 
 
 8. WHITE BASSWOOD (Tilia heterophylla). A small- 
 sized tree most abundant in the Alleghany region. 
 
 BEECH. 
 
 9. BEECH (Fagus ferruginea). Wood heavy, hard, 
 stiff, strong, of rather coarse texture, white to light 
 brown in color, not durable in the ground, and subject 
 to the inroads of boring insects. It shrinks and checks 
 considerably in drying, works and stands well and takes 
 a good polish. Used extensively in slack cooperage, for 
 furniture, in turnery, for handles, lasts, etc. Abroad 
 it is very extensively used by the carpenter, millwright, 
 and wagon maker, in turnery and wood carving. The 
 beech is a medium-sized tree, common, sometimes form- 
 ing forests. Most abundant in the Ohio and Mississippi 
 basin, but found from Maine to Wisconsin and south- 
 ward to Florida. 
 
 BIRCH. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; sap- 
 wood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown with 
 red and yellow; very handsome, with satiny lustre, 
 equalling cherry. The wood shrinks considerably 
 
TIMBER 33 
 
 in drying, works well and stands well and takes a 
 good polish, but is not durable if exposed. Birch 
 is used extensively for hoops in cooperage; for fin- 
 ishing lumber in building, in the manufacture of 
 furniture, in wood turnery ; for spools, boxes, wooden 
 shoes, etc. ; for shoe lasts and pegs ; for wagon hubs, 
 ox yokes, etc.; also in wood carving. The birches 
 are medium-sized trees, form extensive forests 
 northward, and occur scattered in all broad-leaved 
 forests of the Eastern United States. 
 
 10. CHEEKY BIKCH (Betula lento) (BLACK BIRCH, SWEET 
 BIRCH, MAHOGANY BIRCH). Medium- sized tree, very 
 common. Maine to Michigan and to Tennessee. 
 
 11. YELLOW BIRCH (Betula lutea) (GRAY BIRCH). Me- 
 dium-sized tree ; common. Maine to Minnesota and south- 
 ward to Tennessee. 
 
 12. RED BIRCH (Betula nigra) (RIVER BIRCH). Small 
 to medium-sized tree ; very common ; lighter and less val- 
 uable than the preceding. New England to Texas and 
 Missouri. 
 
 13. CANOE BIRCH (Betula papyrifera) (WHITE BIRCH, 
 PAPER BIRCH). Generally a small tree; common, form- 
 ing forests; wood of good quality but light. All along 
 the northern boundary of the United States and north- 
 ward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
 BLACK WALNUT. (See WALNUT.) 
 
 BLUE BEECHo 
 
 14. BLUE BEECH (Carpinus Caroliniana) (HORNBEAM, 
 WATER BEECH, IRONWOOD). Wood very heavy, hard, 
 strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture, and white color; 
 not durable in the ground; shrinks and checks consid- 
 erably in drying, but works well and stands well. Used 
 
34 COOPERAGE 
 
 chiefly in turnery for tool handles, etc. Abroad, much 
 used by mill and wheelwrights. A small tree, largest in 
 the Southwest, but found in nearly all parts of the East- 
 ern United States. 
 
 BOIS D'ARC. (See OSAGE OKANGE.) 
 
 BUCKEYE (HOBSE CHESTNUT). Wood light, soft, not 
 strong, often quite tough, of fine and uniform texture 
 and creamy white color. It shrinks considerably in 
 drying, but works and stands well. Used for wood- 
 enware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and locally also 
 for building purposes. Small-sized trees, scattered, 
 never forming forests. 
 
 15. OHIO BUCKEYE (2Esculus glabra) (FETID BUCKEYE). 
 Alleghanies, Pennsylvania to Indian Territory. 
 
 16. SWEET BUCKEYE (^Esculus flava). Alleghanies, 
 Pennsylvania to Texas. 
 
 BUTTERNUT. 
 
 17. BUTTERNUT (Juglans cinerea) (WHITE WALNUT). 
 Wood very similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, 
 not strong and of light brown color. Used chiefly for 
 finishing lumber, cabinet work, and cooperage. Medium- 
 sized tree, largest and most common in the Ohio basin. 
 Maine to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Ala- 
 bama. 
 
 CATALPA. 
 
 18. CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa). Wood light, soft, not 
 strong, brittle, durable, of coarse texture and brown 
 color. Used for ties and posts, but well suited for a great 
 variety of uses. Medium-sized tree. Lower basin of the 
 Ohio River, locally common. Extensively planted, and 
 therefore promising to become of some importance. 
 
TIMBER 35 
 
 CHERRY. 
 
 19. CHEEKY (Prunus serotina). Wood heavy, hard, 
 strong, of fine texture; sapwood yellowish white, heart- 
 wood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks considerably 
 in drying, works well and stands well, takes a good polish, 
 and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is chiefly 
 used as a decorative finishing lumber for buildings, cars, 
 and boats, also for furniture and in turnery. It is becom- 
 ing too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally 
 well suited. The lumber furnishing cherry of this coun- 
 try, the wild black cherry (Primus serotina), is a small 
 to medium-sized tree, scattered through many of the 
 broad-leaved woods of the western slope of the Alle- 
 ghanies, but found from Michigan to Florida and west 
 to Texas. Other species of this genus, as well as the 
 hawthorns (cratcegus) and wild apple (Pyrus), are not 
 commonly offered in the market. Their wood is of the 
 same character as cherry, often even finer, but in small 
 dimensions. 
 
 CHESTNUT. 
 
 20. CHESTNUT (Castanea vulgaris var. Americana). 
 Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, not strong, of coarse 
 texture ; the sapwood light, the heartwood darker brown. 
 It shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works eas- 
 ily, stands well, and is very durable. Used in cooper- 
 age, cabinet work, for railway ties, telegraph poles, and 
 locally in heavy construction. Medium-sized tree. Very 
 common in the Alleghanies. Occurs from Maine to Mich- 
 igan and southward to Alabama. 
 
 21. CHINQUAPIN (Castanea pumila). A small-sized 
 tree, with wood slightly heavier but otherwise similar to 
 the preceding. Most common in Arkansas, but with 
 nearly the same range as the chestnut. 
 
36 COOPERAGE 
 
 22. CHINQUAPIN (Castanopsis chrysophylld). A me- 
 dium-sized tree of the western ranges of California and 
 Oregon. 
 
 COFFEE TREE. 
 
 23. COFFEE TREE (Gymnocladus canadensis) (COFFEE 
 NUT). Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse 
 texture, durable, the sapwood yellow, the heartwood red- 
 dish brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; 
 works and stands well, and takes a good polish. It is 
 used to a limited extent in cabinet work. A medium to 
 large-sized tree; not common. Pennsylvania to Minne- 
 sota and Arkansas. 
 
 COTTONWOOD. (See POPLAR.) 
 CUCUMBER TREE. (See TULIP.) 
 
 ELM. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moder- 
 ately durable in contact with the soil; commonly 
 cross-grained, difficult to split and shape, warps and 
 checks considerably in drying, but stands well if 
 properly handled. The broad sapwood whitish, heart- 
 wood brown, both with shades of gray and red; on 
 split surfaces rough, texture coarse to fine, capable 
 of high polish. Elm for years has been the principal 
 wood used in slack cooperage, for staves and hoops. 
 Also used in the construction of cars, wagons, etc. ; in 
 boat and shipbuilding; for agricultural implements 
 and machinery; in saddlery and harness work, and 
 particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of fur- 
 niture, where the beautiful figures, especially those 
 of the tangential or bastard section, are just begin- 
 ning to be duly appreciated. The elms are medium 
 to large-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, with 
 stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but are 
 
TIMBER 37 
 
 found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our 
 country, sometimes forming a considerable portion 
 of the arborescent growth. 
 
 24. WHITE ELM (Ulmus Americana) (AMERICAN ELM, 
 WATEK ELM). Medium to large-sized tree, common. 
 Maine to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 
 
 25. EOCK ELM (Ulmus racemosa) (CoKK ELM, HICKORY 
 ELM, WHITE ELM, CLIFF ELM). Medium to large-sized 
 tree. Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, southward 
 to Kentucky. 
 
 26. RED ELM (Ulmus fulva) (SLIPPERY ELM, MOOSE 
 ELM). The red or slippery elm is not so large a tree as 
 the white elm, though it occasionally attains a height of 
 135 feet and a diameter of 4 feet. It grows tall and 
 straight, and thrives in river valleys. The wood is heavy, 
 hard, elastic, strong, moderately durable in contact with 
 the soil, splits easily when green, works fairly well, and 
 stands well, if properly seasoned. Careful seasoning and 
 handling are essential for the best results. Trees can 
 be utilized for posts when very small. When green the 
 wood rots very quickly in contact with the ground. Poles 
 for posts should be cut in summer and peeled and dried 
 before setting. The wood becomes very tough and pliable 
 when steamed, and is of value for sleigh runners and for 
 ribs of canoes and skiffs. Together with white elm it is 
 extensively used for staves and. hoops in slack cooperage, 
 and also for furniture. The thick, viscous inner bark, 
 which gives the tree its descriptive name, is quite palat- 
 able, slightly nutritious, and has a medicinal value. 
 Found chiefly along water courses. New York to Minne- 
 sota, and southward to Florida and Texas. 
 
 27. CEDAR ELM (Ulmus crassifolia). Small-sized tree, 
 quite common. Arkansas and Texas. 
 
38 COOPEEAGE 
 
 28. WINGED ELM (Ulmus alata) (WAHOO). Small- 
 sized tree, locally quite common. Arkansas, Missouri 
 and Eastern Virginia. 
 
 GUM. This general term applies to three important 
 species of gum in the South, the principal one usually 
 being distinguished as "red" or "sweet" gum (see 
 Fig. 50) ; the next in importance being the "tupelo" 
 or "bay poplar" (see Fig. 54) ; and the least of the 
 trio is designated as "black" or "sour" gum. Up 
 to the year 1900 little was known of gum as a wood 
 for cooperage purposes, but by the continued ad- 
 vance in price of the woods used, a few of the manu- 
 facturers, looking into the future, saw that the sup- 
 ply of the various woods in use was limited, that 
 new woods would have to be sought, and gum was 
 looked upon as a possible substitute, owing to its 
 cheapness and abundant supply. No doubt in the 
 future this wood will be used to a considerable ex- 
 tent in the manufacture of both tight and slack coo- 
 perage. At present gum is used quite extensively 
 and with varied results in slack packages, principally 
 sugar, salt, etc., and recently has been experimented 
 upon for tight cooperage, principally for oil and 
 syrup packages. In the manufacture of gum, unless 
 the knives and saws are kept very sharp, the wood 
 will break out, the corners having a tendency to split 
 off; and also much difficulty has been experienced 
 in seasoning and kiln-drying. 
 
 In the past, gum, having no marketable value, has 
 been left standing after logging operations, or, 
 where the land has been cleared for farming, has 
 been girdled and allowed to rot, and then felled and 
 burned as trash. Now, however, that there is a mar- 
 
TIMBER 39 
 
 ket for the timber, it will be profitable to cut the 
 gum with the other hardwoods, and as this species 
 of wood is coming in for a greater share of attention 
 than ever before in the cooperage world, it is well 
 to make some special points of study in regard to 
 manufacturing it. Most of the study of gum here- 
 tofore has been concentrated on the one subject of 
 drying, which requires its share of attention too, 
 but at the same time there is not a point anywhere 
 in the process of its manufacture, from the tree to 
 the finished product, but that will furnish oppor- 
 tunity for much study and experiment. 
 
 29. BED GUM (Liquidamber styraciflua) (SWEET GUM, 
 LIQUIDAMBEK, BiLSTEo). The wood is about as stiff and 
 as strong as chestnut, rather heavy, it splits easily and 
 is quite brash, commonly cross-grained, of fine texture, 
 and has a large proportion of whitish sapwood, which 
 decays rapidly when exposed to the weather; but the 
 reddish-brown heartwood is quite durable, even in the 
 ground. The green wood contains much water, and con- 
 sequently is heavy and difficult to float, but when dry it 
 is as light as basswood. The great amount of water in 
 the green wood, particularly in the sap, makes it difficult 
 to season by ordinary methods without warping and 
 twisting. This fault can be overcome, however, by care 
 and special treatment. It does not check badly, is taste- 
 less and odorless, and when once seasoned swells and 
 shrinks but little, unless exposed to the weather. 
 
 RANGE OF RED GUM 
 
 Bed gum is distributed from Fairfield County, Conn., 
 to Southeastern Missouri, through Arkansas and the 
 Indian Territory to the valley of the Trinity Biver in 
 
40 COOPEEAGE 
 
 Texas, and eastward to the Atlantic Coast. Its commer- 
 cial range is restricted, however, to the moist lands of 
 the lower Ohio and Mississippi basins and of the south- 
 eastern coast. It is one of the commonest timber trees 
 in the hardwood bottoms and drier swamps of the South. 
 It grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak. (See 
 Fig. 52.) It is found also to a considerable extent on the 
 lower ridges and slopes of the southern Appalachians, 
 but there it does not reach merchantable value and is of 
 little importance. Considerable difference is found be- 
 tween the growth in the upper Mississippi bottoms and 
 that along the rivers on the Atlantic Coast and on the 
 Gulf. In the latter regions the bottoms are lower, and 
 consequently more subject to floods and to continued 
 overflows. (See Fig. 54.) The alluvial deposit is also 
 greater, and the trees grow considerably faster. Trees of 
 the same diameter show a larger percentage of sapwood 
 there than in the upper portions of the Mississippi Val- 
 ley. The Mississippi Valley hardwood trees are for the 
 most part considerably older, and reach larger dimen- 
 sions than the timber along the coast. 
 
 FOEM OF THE BED GUM 
 
 In the best situations red gum reaches a height of 150 
 feet, and a diameter of five feet. These- dimensions, how- 
 ever, are unusual. The stem is straight and cylindrical, 
 with dark, deeply furrowed bark, and branches often 
 winged with corky ridges. In youth, while growing vig- 
 orously under normal conditions, it assumes a long, regu- 
 lar, conical crown, much resembling the form of a conifer. 
 (See Fig. 52.) After the tree has attained its height 
 growth, however, the crown becomes rounded, spreading, 
 and rather ovate in shape. When growing in the forest 
 the tree prunes itself readily at an early period, and 
 
TIMBER 41 
 
 forms a good length of clear stem, but it branches 
 strongly after making most of its height growth. The 
 mature tree is usually forked, and the place where the 
 forking commences determines the number of logs in the 
 tree or its merchantable length, by preventing cutting 
 to a small diameter in the top. On large trees the stem 
 is often not less than eighteen inches in diameter where 
 the branching begins. The over-mature tree is usually 
 broken and dry-topped, with a very spreading crown, in 
 consequence of new branches being sent out. 
 
 TOLEKANCE OF EED GUM 
 
 Throughout its entire life red gum is tolerant in shade, 
 there are practically no red gum seedlings under the 
 dense forest cover of the bottom land, and while a good 
 many may come up under the pine forest on the drier 
 uplands, they seldom develop into large trees. As a rule 
 seedlings appear only in clearings or in open spots in the 
 forest. It is seldom that an overtopped tree is found, 
 for the gum dies quickly if suppressed, and is conse- 
 quently nearly always a dominant or intermediate tree. 
 In a hardwood bottom forest the timber trees are all of 
 nearly the same age over considerable areas, and there 
 is little young growth to be found in the older stands. 
 The reason for this is the intolerance of most of the 
 swamp species.* A scale of tolerance containing the im- 
 portant species, and beginning with the most light de- 
 manding, would run as follows: Cottonwood, sycamore, 
 red gum, white elm, red oak, white ash and red maple. 
 
 DEMANDS UPON SOIL AND MOISTUKE 
 
 While the red gum grows in various situations, it pre- 
 fers the deep, rich soil of the hardwood bottoms, and 
 there reaches its best development. (See Fig. 50.) It 
 
42 COOPERAGE 
 
 requires considerable soil moisture, though it does not 
 grow in the wetter swamps, and does, not thrive on dry 
 pine land. Seedlings, however, are often found in large 
 numbers on the edges of the uplands and even on the 
 sandy pine land, but they seldom live beyond the pole 
 stage. When they do, they form small, scrubby trees that 
 are of little value. Where the soil is dry the tree has a 
 long tap-root. In the swamps, where the roots, can obtain 
 water easily, the development of the tap-root is poor, 
 and it is only moderate on the glade bottom lands, where 
 there is considerable moisture throughout the year, but 
 no standing water in the summer months. 
 
 REPRODUCTION OF RED GUM 
 
 Bed gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts. (See 
 Fig. 52.) It produces seed fairly abundantly every year, 
 but about once in three years there is an extremely heavy 
 production. The tree begins to bear, seed when twenty- 
 five to thirty years old, and seeds vigorously up to an 
 age of one hundred and fifty years, when its productive 
 power begins to diminish. A great part of the seed, how- 
 ever, is abortive. Bed gum is not fastidious in regard to 
 its germinating bed; it comes up readily on sod in old 
 fields and meadows, on decomposing homus in the forest, 
 or on bare clay-loam or loamy sand soil. It requires a 
 considerable degree of light, however, and prefers a 
 moist seed bed. The natural distribution of the seed 
 takes place for several hundred feet from the seed trees, 
 the dissemination depending almost entirely on the wind. 
 A great part of the seed falls on the hardwood bottoms 
 when the land is flooded, and is either washed away or, 
 if already in the ground and germinating, is destroyed 
 by the long continued overflow. After germination, the 
 red gum seedling demands, above everything else, abun- 
 dant light for its survival and development. It is for 
 
TIMBER 43 
 
 this reason that there is very little young growth of red 
 gum, either in the unculled forest or on culled lands, 
 where, as is usually the case, a dense undergrowth of 
 cane, briers, and rattan is present. Under the dense 
 underbrush of cane and briers throughout much of the 
 virgin forest, reproduction of any of the merchantable 
 species is of course impossible. And even where the 
 land has been logged over, the forest is seldom open 
 enough to allow reproduction of cottonwood and red gum. 
 Where, however, seed trees are contiguous to pastures 
 or cleared land, scattered seedlings are found springing 
 up in the open, and where openings occur in the forest, 
 there are often large numbers of red gum seedlings, the 
 reproduction generally occurring in groups. But over 
 the greater part of the Southern hardwood bottom land 
 forest reproduction is extremely scanty. The growth of 
 red gum during the early part of its life, and up to the 
 time it reaches a diameter of eight inches breast-high, is 
 extremely rapid, and, like most of the intolerant species, 
 it attains its height growth at an early period. Gum 
 sprouts readily from the stump, and the sprouts surpass 
 the seedlings in rate of height growth for the first few 
 years, but they seldom form large timber trees. The 
 capacity to sprout when cut is confined to the younger 
 trees. Those over fifty years of age seldom sprout. For 
 this reason sprout reproduction is of little importance 
 in the forest. The principal requirements of red gum, 
 then, are a moist, fairly rich soil and good exposure to 
 light. Without these it will not reach its best develop- 
 ment. 
 
 SECOND GROWTH 
 
 Second-growth red gum occurs to any considerable ex- 
 tent only on land which has been thoroughly cleared. 
 Throughout the South there is a. great deal of land which 
 was in cultivation before the war, but which during the 
 
44 COOPERAGE 
 
 subsequent period of industrial depression was aban- 
 doned and allowed to revert to forest. These old fields are 
 now mostly covered with second- growth forest, of which 
 red gum forms an important part. (Fig. 52.) Frequently 
 over fifty per cent, of the stand consists of this species, 
 but more often, and especially on the Atlantic Coast, the 
 greater part is of cottonwood or ash. These stands are 
 very dense, and the growth is extremely rapid. Small 
 stands of young growth are also often found along the 
 edges of cultivated fields. In the Mississippi Valley the 
 abandoned fields on which young stands have sprung up 
 are for the most part being rapidly cleared again. The 
 second growth here is considered of little value in com- 
 parison with the value of the land for agricultural pur- 
 poses. In many cases, however, the farm value of the 
 land is not at present sufficient to make it profitable to 
 clear it, unless the timber cut will at least pay for the 
 operation. There is considerable land upon which the 
 second growth will become valuable timber within a few 
 years. Such land should not be cleared until it is possible 
 to utilize the timber. 
 
 30. TUPELO GUM (Nyssa aquatica) (BAY POPLAR, COT- 
 TON GUM). The close similarity which exists between 
 red and tupelo gum, together with the fact that tupelo 
 is often cut along with red gum, and marketed with the 
 sapwood of the latter, makes it not out of place to give 
 consideration to this timber. The wood has a fine, uni- 
 form texture, is moderately hard and strong, is stiff, not 
 elastic, very tough and hard to split, but easy to work 
 with tools. Tupelo takes glue, paint, or varnish well, 
 and absorbs very little of the material. In this respect 
 it is equal to yellow poplar and superior to cottonwood. 
 The wood is not durable in contact with the ground, and 
 requires much care in seasoning. The distinction be- 
 tween the heartwood and sapwood of this species is 
 
TIMBER 45 
 
 marked. The former varies in color from a dull gray to 
 a dull brown; the latter is whitish or light yellow, like 
 that of poplar. The wood is of medium weight, about 
 thirty-two pounds per cubic foot when dry, or nearly that 
 of red gum and loblolly pine. After seasoning it is dif- 
 ficult to distinguish the better grades of the sapwood 
 from poplar. Owing to the prejudice against tupelo gum, 
 it was until recently marketed under such names as bay 
 poplar, swamp poplar, nyssa, cotton gum, Circassian wal- 
 nut and hazel pine. Since it has become evident that the 
 properties of the wood fit it for many uses, the demand 
 for tupelo has largely increased, and it is now taking 
 rank with other standard woods under its rightful name. 
 Heretofore the quality and usefulness of this wood were 
 greatly underestimated, and the difficulty of handling it 
 was magnified. Poor success in seasoning and kiln-dry- 
 ing was laid to defects of the wood itself, when, as a 
 matter of fact, the failures were largely due to the ab- 
 sence of proper methods in handling. The passing of 
 this prejudice against tupelo is due to a better under- 
 standing of the characteristics and uses of the wood. 
 Handled in the way in which its particular character 
 demands tupelo is a wood of value. 
 
 USES OF THE WOOD 
 
 Tupelo is now used in the manufacture of slack coop- 
 erage, principally for heading. Is used extensively for 
 house flooring and inside finishing, such as mouldings, 
 door jams, and casings. A great deal is now shipped to 
 European countries, where it is highly valued for dif- 
 ferent classes of manufacture. Much of the wood is used 
 in the manufacture of boxes, since it works well upon 
 rotary veneer machines. There is also an increasing 
 demand for tupelo for laths, wooden pumps, violin and 
 organ sounding boards, coffins, mantel work, conduits 
 
46 COOPERAGE 
 
 and novelties. It is also used in the furniture trade for 
 backing, drawers and panels. 
 
 KANGE OF TUPELO GUM 
 
 Tupelo occurs throughout the coastal region of the 
 Atlantic States from Southern Virginia to Northern Flor- 
 ida, through the Gulf States to the valley of the Nueces 
 River in Texas, through Arkansas and Southern Missouri 
 to Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and to the valley 
 of the lower Wabash River. Tupelo is being extensively 
 milled at present only in the region adjacent to Mobile, 
 Ala., and in Southern and Central Louisiana, where it 
 occurs in large merchantable quantities, attaining its best 
 development in the former locality. The country in this 
 locality is very swampy (see Fig. 54), and within a radius 
 of one hundred miles tupelo gum is one of the principal 
 timber trees. It grows only in the swamps and wetter 
 situations (see Fig. 54), often in mixture with cypress, 
 and in the rainy season it stands in from two to twenty 
 feet of water. 
 
 31. BLACK GUM (Nyssa sylvatica) (SouR GUM). Black 
 gum is not cut to much extent, owing to its less abundant 
 supply and poorer quality, but is used for repair work 
 on wagons, for cattle yokes, and for other purposes 
 which require a strong non-splitting wood. It is dis- 
 tributed from Maine to Southern Ontario, through Cen- 
 tral Michigan to Southeastern Missouri, southward to the 
 valley of the Brazos River in Texas, and eastward to the 
 Kissimmee River and Tampa Bay in Florida. It is found 
 in the swamps and hardwood bottoms, but is more abun- 
 dant and of better size on the slightly higher ridges and 
 hummocks in these swamps, and on the mountain slopes 
 in the southern Allegheny region. Though its range is 
 greater than that of either the red or tupelo gum, it no- 
 where forms an important part of the forest. 
 
TIMBER 47 
 
 HACKBERRY. 
 
 32. HACKBEKKY (Celtis occidentalis) (SUGAK BERRY). 
 The wood handsome, heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, 
 of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellowish 
 white color; shrinks moderately, works well and stands 
 well, and takes a good polish. Used to some extent in 
 slack cooperage, but little used in the manufacture of 
 furniture. Medium to large-sized tree, locally quite com- 
 mon, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. Occurs in 
 nearly all parts of the Eastern United States. 
 
 HICKORY. Wood very heavy, hard and' strong, prover- 
 fyially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth and of 
 straight grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart- 
 wood reddish nut brown. It dries slowly, shrinks 
 and checks considerably; is not durable in the 
 ground, or if exposed; and, especially the sapwood, 
 is always subject to the inroads of boring insects. 
 Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is 
 also extensively used in the manufacture of imple- 
 ments and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, 
 for harness work, dowel pins and hoops in cooper- 
 age. The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, 
 never form forests, occasionally small groves, but 
 usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved 
 trees in suitable localities. The following species 
 all contribute more or less to the hickory of the 
 market. 
 
 33. SHAGBARK HICKORY (Hicoria ovata) (SHELLBARK 
 HICKORY). A medium to large-sized tree, quite common; 
 the favorite among hickories ; best developed in the Ohio 
 and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas, 
 Minnesota to Florida. 
 
 34. MOCKERNUT HICKORY (Hicoria alba) (BLACK HICK- 
 ORY, BULL AND BLACK NUT, BIG BUD, AND WHITE-HEART 
 
48 COOPERAGE 
 
 HICKOKY). A medium to large-sized tree, with the same 
 range as the foregoing ; common, especially in the South. 
 
 35. PIGNUT HICKORY (Hicoria glabra) (BROWN HICK- 
 ORY, BLACK HICKORY, SWITCH-BUD HICKORY). Medium to 
 large-sized tree, abundant, all Eastern United States. 
 
 36. BITTERNUT HICKORY (Hicoria minima) ( SWAMP 
 HICKORY). A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities, 
 with the same range as the preceding. 
 
 37. PECAN (Hicoria pecan) (ILLINOIS NUT). A large 
 tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the Western 
 streams. Indiana to Nebraska and southward to Louisi- 
 ana and Texas. . 
 
 HOLLY. 
 
 38. HOLLY (Ilex opaca). Wood of medium weight, 
 hard, strong, tough, (* fine texture and white color; 
 works well and stands well, used for cabinet work and 
 turnery. A small tree. Most abundant in the lower 
 Mississippi Valley and Gulf States, but occurring east- 
 ward to Massachusetts and north to Indiana. 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT. (See BUCKEYE.) 
 IRONWOOD. (See BLUE BEECH.) 
 
 LOCUST. This name applies to both of the following: 
 
 39. BLACK LOCUST (Robinia pseudacacia) (BLACK LO- 
 CUST, YELLOW LOCUST). Wood very heavy, hard, strong, 
 and tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact 
 with the soil, shrinks considerably and suffers in sea- 
 soning; the very narrow sapwood yellowish, the heart- 
 wood brown, with shades of red and green. Used for 
 wagon hubs, tree nails or pins, but especially for ties, 
 posts, etc. Abroad it is much used for furniture and 
 farming implements and also in turnery. Small to me- 
 
TIMBER . 49 
 
 dium- sized tree. At home in the Alleghanies, extensively 
 planted, especially in the West. 
 
 40. HONEY LOCUST (Gleditschia triacanthos) (BLACK 
 LOCUST, SWEET LOCUST, THKEE-THOBNED ACACIA). Wood 
 heavy, hard, strong, tough, of coarse texture, susceptible 
 of a good polish, the narrow sapwood yellow, the heart- 
 wood brownish red. So far, but little appreciated except 
 for fences and fuel ; used to some extent for wagon hubs 
 and in rough construction. A medium-sized tree. Found 
 from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and southward to Flor- 
 ida and Texas; locally quite abundant. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. (See TULIP.) 
 
 MAPLE.! Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of 
 fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving 
 rise to " curly " and " blister " figures; not durable 
 in the ground, or when otherwise exposed. Maple 
 is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the 
 heart, shrinks moderately, seasons, works and stands 
 well, wears smoothly, and takes a fine polish. The 
 wood is used in slack cooperage, and for ceiling, 
 flooring, panelling, stairway, and other finishing 
 lumber in house, ship and car construction. It is 
 used for the keel of boats and ships, in the manufac- 
 ture of implements and machinery, but especially 
 for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple 
 rival those of oak. Maple is also used for shoe lasts 
 and other form blocks; for shoe pegs; for piano 
 actions, school apparatus; for wood type in show 
 bill printing, tool handles ; in wood carving, turnery, 
 and scroll work, and is one of our most useful woods. 
 The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly rapid 
 growth ; sometimes form forests, and frequently con- 
 stitute a large proportion of the arborescent growth. 
 
50 COOPERAGE 
 
 41. SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharum) (HAKD MAPLE, 
 KOCK MAPLE). Medium to large-sized tree, very common, 
 forms considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, abun- 
 dant, with birch, in parts of the pineries, southward to 
 Northern Florida; most abundant in the region of the 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 42. BED MAPLE (Acer rubrum) ( SWAMP MAPLE, WATER 
 MAPLE). Medium-sized tree. Like the preceding, but 
 scattered along watercourses and other moist localities. 
 
 43. SILVEE MAPLE (Acer saccharinum) (SOFT MAPLE, 
 SILVER MAPLE). Medium-sized tree, common; wood 
 lighter, softer, inferior to hard maple, and usually offered 
 in small quantities and held separate in the markets. 
 Valley of the Ohio, but occurs from Maine to Dakota and 
 southward to Florida. 
 
 44. BROAD-LEAVED MAPLE (Acer macro phyllum). Me- 
 dium-sized tree, forms considerable forests, and, like the 
 preceding, has a lighter, softer, and less valuable wood. 
 Pacific Coast regions. 
 
 MULBERRY. 
 
 45. BED MULBERRY (Morns rubra). Wood moderately 
 heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, dur- 
 able; the sapwood whitish, heartwood yellow to orange 
 brown ; shrinks and checks considerably in drying ; works 
 well and stands well. Used in cooperage and locally in 
 shipbuilding and in the manufacture of farm implements. 
 A small-sized tree. Common in the Ohio and Mississippi 
 valleys, but widely distributed in the Eastern United 
 States. 
 
 OAK. Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, 
 very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture ; 
 the sapwood whitish, the heartwood "oak" brown 
 
TIMBER 51 
 
 to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giv- 
 ing trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, 
 and little subject to the attack of insects. Oak is 
 used for many purposes, and is the chief wood used 
 for tight cooperage ; was also used quite extensively 
 in former years for slack cooperage, but on account 
 of its increased value had to be abandoned for 
 cheaper woods. It is used in shipbuilding, for heavy 
 construction, in carpentry, in furniture, car and 
 wagon work, turnery, and even in wood carving; 
 also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm im- 
 plements, wooden mill machinery; for piles and 
 wharves, railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium to 
 large-sized trees, forming the predominant part of 
 a large portion of our broad-leaved forests, so that 
 these are generally termed "oak forests," though 
 they always contain a considerable proportion of 
 other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds 
 white, red, and live oak are distinguished and kept 
 separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds 
 "white oak" is the stronger, tougher, less porous, 
 and more durable. "Bed oak" is usually of coarser 
 texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and 
 even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. 
 In carpentry and furniture work red oak brings 
 about the same price at present as white oak. The 
 red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and, 
 like the latter, are usually represented by several 
 species in any given locality. "Live oak," once 
 largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the 
 good qualities (except that of size) of white oak, 
 even to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, 
 hardest, toughest, and most durable woods of this 
 country; in structure it resembles the red oaks, but 
 is much less porous. 
 
52 COOPEEAGE 
 
 46. WHITE OAK (Quercus alba). Medium to large- 
 sized tree. Common in the Eastern States, Ohio and 
 Mississippi valleys; occurs throughout Eastern United 
 States. 
 
 47. BUE OAK (Quercus macrocarpa) (Mossy-Cup OAK, 
 OvEK-Cup OAK). Large-sized tree, locally abundant, com- 
 mon. Bottoms west of Mississippi; range farther west 
 than the preceding. 
 
 48. SWAMP WHITE OAK (Quercus bicolor). Large-sized 
 tree, common. Most abundant in the Lake States, but 
 with a range as in white oak. 
 
 49. YELLOW OAK (Quercus prinoides) (CHESTNUT OAK, 
 CHINQUAPIN OAK). Medium-sized tree. Southern Alle- 
 ghanies, eastward to Massachusetts. 
 
 50. BASKET OAK (Quercus michauxii) (Cow OAK). 
 Large-sized tree. Locally abundant; lower Mississippi 
 and eastward to Delaware. 
 
 51. OVEK-CUP OAK (Quercus lyrata) (SWAMP WHITE 
 OAK, SWAMP POST OAK). Medium to large- sized tree, 
 rather restricted; ranges as in the preceding. 
 
 52. POST OAK (Quercus obtiisiloba) (!KON OAK). Me- 
 dium to large-sized tree. Arkansas to Texas, eastward 
 to New England and northward to Michigan. 
 
 53. WHITE OAK (Quercus durandii). Medium to small- 
 sized tree. Texas, eastward to Alabama. 
 
 54. WHITE OAK (Quercus gar ry ana). Medium to large- 
 sized tree. Washington to California. 
 
 55. WHITE OAK (Quercus lobata). Medium to large- 
 sized tree. Largest oak on the Pacific Coast, California. 
 
 56. EED OAK (Quercus rubra) ( BLACK OAK). Medium 
 to large-sized tree; common in all parts of its range. 
 Maine to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf. 
 
 57. BLACK OAK (Quercus tinctoria) (YELLOW OAK). 
 
TIMBER 53 
 
 Medium to large-sized tree. Very common in the South- 
 ern States, but occurring north as far as Minnesota, and 
 eastward to Maine. 
 
 58. SPANISH OAK (Quercus falcata) (RED OAK). Me- 
 dium-sized tree. Common in the South Atlantic and Gulf 
 region, but found from Texas to New York, and north to 
 Missouri and Kentucky. 
 
 59. SCARLET OAK (Quercus coccinea). Medium to large- 
 sized tree. Best developed in the lower basin of the Ohio, 
 but found from Maine to Missouri, and from Minnesota 
 to Florida. 
 
 60. PIN OAK (Quercus palustris) (SWAMP SPANISH 
 OAK, WATEK OAK). Medium to large-sized tree, common 
 along borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas to 
 Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 
 
 61. WILLOW OAK (Quercus phellos) (PEACH OAK). 
 Small to medium-sized tree. New York to Texas, and 
 northward to Kentucky. 
 
 62. WATER OAK (Quercus aquatica) (DucK OAK, POS- 
 SUM OAK, PUNK OAK). Medium to large-sized tree, of 
 extremely rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward 
 to Delaware, and northward to Missouri and Kentucky. 
 
 63. LIVE OAK (Quercus rirens). Small-sized tree. 
 Scattered along the coast from Virginia to Texas. 
 
 64. LIVE OAK (Quercus chrysolepis) (MAUL OAK, VAL- 
 PARAISO OAK). Medium-sized tree. California. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE. 
 
 65. OSAGE ORANGE (Madura aurantiaca) (Bois D'ARC). 
 Wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, 
 of moderately coarse texture, and very durable ; the sap- 
 wood yellow, heartwood brown on the end, yellow on 
 longitudinal faces, soon turning grayish brown if ex- 
 posed. It shrinks considerably in drying, but once dry 
 
54 COOPERAGE 
 
 it stands unusually well. Formerly much used for wheel 
 stock, in the dry regions of Texas; otherwise employed 
 for posts, railway ties, etc. Seems too little appreciated ; 
 it is well suited for turned ware and especially for wood 
 carving. A small-sized tree, of fairly rapid growth. 
 Scattered through the rich bottoms of Arkansas and 
 Texas. 
 
 PERSIMMON. 
 
 66. PERSIMMON (Diospyros virginiana). Wood very 
 heavy and hard, strong and tough; resembles hickory, 
 but is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream color, 
 the heartwood black ; used in turnery, for shuttles, plane 
 stocks, shoe lasts, etc. Small to medium-sized tree. Com- 
 mon and best developed in the lower Ohio Valley, but 
 occurs from New York to Texas and Missouri. 
 
 POPLAR, (see also TULIPWOOD). Wood light, very soft, 
 not strong, of fine texture and whitish, grayish to 
 yellowish color, usually with a satiny lustre. The 
 wood shrinks moderately (some cross-grained forms 
 warp excessively), but checks very little; is easily 
 worked, but is not durable. Used in cooperage, as 
 building and furniture lumber, for crates and boxes 
 (especially cracker boxes), for woodenware and 
 paper pulp. 
 
 67. COTTONWOOD (Populus monilifera). Large-sized 
 tree ; forms considerable forests along many of the West- 
 ern streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of the 
 market. Mississippi Valley and West; New England to 
 the Eocky Mountains. 
 
 68. BALSAM (Populus balsamifera) (BALM OF GILEAD). 
 Medium to large-sized tree. Common all along the north- 
 ern boundary of the United States. 
 
 69. BLACK COTTONWOOD (Populus trichocarpa). The 
 
TIMBER 55 
 
 largest deciduous tree of Washington; very common. 
 Northern Eocky Mountains and Pacific region. 
 
 70. COTTONWOOD (Populus fremontii var. wislizeni). 
 Medium to large-sized tree; common. Texas to Cal- 
 ifornia. 
 
 71. POPLAR (Populus grandidentata). Medium-sized 
 tree, chiefly used for pulp. Maine to Minnesota and 
 southward along the Alleghanies. 
 
 72. ASPEN (Populus tremuloides). Small to medium- 
 sized tree, often forming extensive forests and covering 
 burned areas. Maine to Washington and northward, 
 south in the western mountains to California and New 
 Mexico. 
 
 SOUR GUM. (See GUM.) 
 RED GUM. (See GUM.) 
 
 SASSAFRAS. 
 
 73. SASSAFRAS (Sassafras sassafras). Wood light, soft, 
 not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable; the sap- 
 wood yellow, heartwood orange brown. Used to some ex- 
 tent in slack cooperage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium- 
 sized tree, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. Oc- 
 curs from New England to Texas and from Michigan to 
 Florida. 
 
 SWEET GUM. (See GUM.) 
 
 SYCAMORE. 
 
 74. SYCAMORE (Plat anus occidentals) (BUTTON WOOD, 
 BUTTON-BALL TREE, WATER BEECH). Wood moderately 
 heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually cross- 
 grained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown color; 
 the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, 
 warps and checks considerably, but stands well. It is 
 used in slack cooperage, and quite extensively for draw- 
 
56 COOPERAGE 
 
 ers, backs, bottoms, etc.; in cabinet work, for tobacco 
 boxes, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too long 
 been underrated. A large tree, of rapid growth. Com- 
 mon and largest in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at 
 home in nearly all parts of the Eastern United States. 
 
 75. SYCAMOKE (Platanus racemosa). The California 
 species resembles in its wood the Eastern form. 
 
 76. TULIP TKEE (Liriodendron tulipifera) (YELLOW 
 POPLAK, WHITE WOOD). Wood quite variable in weight, 
 usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, 
 and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but 
 seasons without much injury ; works and stands remark- 
 ably well. Used in slack cooperage, for siding, for pan- 
 elling and finishing lumber in house, car, and shipbuild- 
 ing, for sideboards and panels of wagons and carriages; 
 also in the manufacture of -furniture, implements and 
 machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of com- 
 mon woodenware, boxes, shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal 
 wood for the carver and toy man. A large tree, does not 
 form forests, but is quite common, especially in the Ohio 
 basin. Occurs from New England to Missouri and south- 
 ward to Florida. 
 
 77. CUCUMBEK TKEE (Magnolia acuminata). A me- 
 dium-sized tree, most common in the southern Alle- 
 ghanies, but distributed from New York to Arkansas, 
 southward to Alabama and northward to Illinois. Re- 
 sembling, and probably confounded with, tulip wood in 
 the markets. 
 
 TUPELO. (See GUM.) 
 
 WALNUT. 
 
 78. BLACK WALNUT (Juglans nigra). Wood heavy, 
 hard, strong, of coarse texture; the narrow sapwood 
 whitish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood 
 
TIMBEE 57 
 
 shrinks moderately in drying, works well and stands well ; 
 takes a good polish. It is quite handsome, and has been 
 for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country. 
 Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, has become too 
 costly for ordinary uses, and is to-day employed largely 
 as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet work; also in 
 turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, 
 with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite 
 abundant throughout the Alleghany region, occurring 
 from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to 
 Florida. 
 
 WHITE WALNUT. (See BUTTEKNTJT.) 
 
 WHITE WOOD. (See TULIP and also BASSWOOD.) 
 
 WHITE WILLOW. 
 
 79. WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba). The wood is very 
 soft, light, flexible and fairly strong, is fairly durable in 
 contact with the soil, works well and stands well when 
 seasoned. Medium-sized tree characterized by a short, 
 thick trunk and a large, rather irregular crown composed 
 of many small branches. The size of the tree at maturity 
 varies with the locality. In the region where it occurs 
 naturally, a height of seventy or eighty feet, and a diam- 
 eter of three or four feet are attained. When planted 
 in the Middle West, a height of from fifty to sixty feet, 
 and a diameter of one and one-half to two feet, are all 
 that may be expected. When close planted on moist 
 soil, the tree forms a tall, slender stem well cleared of 
 branches. Is widely naturalized in the United States. 
 It is used in slack cooperage, and for cricket and base- 
 ball bats. Charcoal made from the wood is used in the 
 manufacture of gunpowder. It has been generally used 
 for fence posts on the northwestern plains, because of 
 scarcity of better material. Well-seasoned posts will last 
 from four to seven years. 
 
58 COOPERAGE 
 
 YELLOW POPLAR. 
 
 80. YELLOW POPLAK (Liriodendron tulipifera) (TULIP 
 TREE, WHITEWOOD, POPLAR, WHITE POPLAK, BLUE POPLAK, 
 HICKORY POPLAR). Wood usually light, but varies in 
 weight; it is soft, tough, but not strong, of fine texture, 
 and yellowish color. The wood shrinks considerably, but 
 seasons without much injury and works and stands ex- 
 ceedingly well. The sapwood is thin, light in color, and 
 decays rapidly. It is fairly durable when exposed to the 
 weather or in contact with the ground. The mature 
 forest-grown tree has a long, straight, cylindrical bole, 
 clear of branches for at least two-thirds of its length, 
 surmounted by a short, open, irregular crown. When 
 growing in the open, the tree maintains a straight stem, 
 but the crown extends almost to the ground, and is of 
 conical shape. Yellow poplar ordinarily grows to a height 
 of from 100 to 125 feet, with a diameter of from three to 
 six feet, and a clear length of about 70 feet. Trees 
 have been found 190 feet tall and ten feet in diameter. 
 The wood is used in slack cooperage, for siding, panelling, 
 and interior finishing, and in the manufacture of toys, 
 boxes, culinary woodenware, wagon boxes, carriage 
 bodies and backing for veneer. It is in great demand 
 throughout the vehicle and implement trade, and also 
 makes a fair grade of wood pulp. Occurs from New 
 England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 
 
 DIFFERENT GRAINS OF WOOD 
 
 The terms "fine-grained," "coarse-grained," 
 "straight-grained" and "cross-grained" are frequently 
 applied in the trade. In common usage, wood is coarse- 
 grained if its annual rings are wide ; fine-grained if they 
 are narrow. In the finer wood industries a fine-grained 
 wood is capable of high polish, while a coarse-grained 
 wood is not, so that in this latter case the distinction 
 
TIMBER 
 
 59 
 
 depends chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an 
 accidental case of slow or rapid growth. Generally if 
 the direction of the wood fibres is parallel to the axis of 
 the stem or limb in which they occur, the wood is straight- 
 grained; but in many cases the course of the fibres is 
 spiral or twisted around the tree (as shown in Fig. 10) 
 and sometimes commonly in the butts of gum and cy- 
 press, the fibres of several layers are oblique in one direc- 
 
 ftorK 
 
 FIG. 10 
 
 FIG. 11 
 
 FIG. 
 
 10. SPIRAL GRAIN. Season checks, after removal of bark, indicate the 
 
 direction of the fibres or grain of the wood. 
 
 FIG. 11. ALTERNATING SPIRAL GRAIN IN CYPRESS. Side and end view of same 
 piece. When the bark was at o the grain of this piece was straight 
 From that time, each year it grew more oblique in one direction, reach- 
 ing a climax at a, and then turned back in the opposite direction. These 
 alternations were repeated periodically, the bark sharing in these 
 changes. 
 
 tion, and those of the next series of layers are oblique 
 in the opposite direction. (As shown in Fig. 11 the wood 
 is cross or twisted grain.) Wavy- grain in a tangential 
 plain as seen on the radial section is illustrated in Fig. 12, 
 
60 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 which represents an extreme case observed in beech. 
 This same fqrm also occurs on the radial plain, causing 
 the tangential section to appear wavy or in transverse 
 folds. When wavy-grain is fine (i. e., the folds or ridges 
 small but numerous) it gives rise to the "curly" struc- 
 ture frequently seen in maple. Ordinarily, neither wavy, 
 spiral, nor alternate grain is visible on the cross-section; 
 its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, longi- 
 tudinal faces in the sawed material, so that the only safe 
 
 4,ft. 
 
 FIG. 12. WAVY-GRAIN IN BEECH; AFTER NORDLINGER 
 
 guide to their discovery lies in splitting the wood in two, 
 in the two normal plains. Generally the surface of the 
 wood under the bark, and therefore also that of any layer 
 in the interior, is not uniform and smooth, but is chan- 
 nelled and pitted by numerous depressions, which differ 
 greatly in size and form. Usually, any one depression 
 or elevation is restricted to one or few annual layers 
 
TIMBER 
 
 61 
 
 (i. e., seen only in one or few rings) and is then lost, being 
 compensated (the surface at the particular spot evened 
 up) by growth. In some woods, however, any depression 
 or elevation once attained grows from year to year and 
 reaches a maximum size, which is maintained for many 
 years, sometimes throughout life. In maple, where this 
 tendency to preserve any particular contour is very great, 
 the depressions and elevations are usually small (com- 
 monly less than one-eighth inch) but very numerous. 
 On tangent boards of such wood, the sections, pits, and 
 prominences appear as circlets, and give rise to the beau- 
 tiful "birdseye" or "landscape" 
 structure. Similar structures in 
 the burls of black ash, maple, etc., 
 are frequently due to the presence 
 of dormant buds, which cause the 
 surface of all the layers through 
 which they pass to be covered by 
 small conical elevations, whose 
 cross-sections on the sawed board 
 appear as irregular circlets or 
 islets, each with a dark speck, the 
 section of the pith or "trace" of 
 the dormant bud in the centre. In 
 the wood of many broad-leaved 
 trees the wood fibres are much 
 longer when full grown than when 
 they are first formed in the cam- 
 bium or growing zone. This causes 
 the tips of each fibre to crowd in 
 between the fibres above and be- 
 low, and leads to an irregular in- 
 terlacement of these fibres, which 
 
 *P, pith of both stem and limb; 1-7, seven yearly layers of wood; 
 a, b, knot or basal part of a limb which lived four years, then died and 
 
 *FiG. 13. SECTION OF WOOD 
 SHOWING POSITION OF THE 
 GRAIN AT BASE OF A LIMB. 
 
62 COOPERAGE 
 
 adds to the toughness, but reduces the cleavability of 
 the wood. At the juncture of the limb and stem the 
 fibres on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave 
 differently. On the lower side they run from the stem 
 into the limb, forming an uninterrupted strand or tissue 
 and a perfect union. On the upper side the fibres bend 
 aside, are not continuous into the limb, and hence the 
 connection is not perfect. (See Fig. 13.) Owing to this 
 arrangement of the fibres, the cleft made in splitting 
 never runs into the knot if started on the side above the 
 limb, but is apt to enter the knot if started below, a fact 
 well understood in woodcraft. When limbs die, decay, 
 and break off, the remaining stubs are surrounded, and 
 may finally be covered by the growth of the trunk and 
 thus give rise to the annoying "dead" or "loose" knots. 
 
 COLOK AND ODOR 
 
 Color, like structure, lends beauty to the wood, aids in 
 its identification, and is of great value in the determina- 
 tion of its quality. Considering only the heartwood, the 
 black color of the persimmon, the dark brown of the wal- 
 nut, the light brown of the white oaks, the reddish brown 
 of the red oaks, the yellowish white of the tulip and pop- 
 lars, the brownish red of the redwood and cedars, the 
 yellow of the papaw and sumac, are all reliable marks of 
 distinction, and color. Together with lustre and weight, 
 are only too often the only features depended upon in 
 practice. Newly formed wood, like that of the outer few 
 rings, has but little color. The sapwood generally is 
 light, and the wood of trees which form no heartwood 
 changes but little, except when stained by forerunners of 
 
 broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of a, b, a "sound" 
 knot, the part to the right a "dead" knot, which would soon be entirely 
 covered by the growing stem. 
 
TIMBER 63 
 
 disease. The different tints of colors, whether the brown 
 of oak, the orange-brown of pine, the blackish tint of 
 walnut, or the reddish cast of cedar, are due to pigments, 
 while the deeper shade of the summer-wood bands in 
 pine, cedar, oak, or walnut is due to the fact that the wood 
 being denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs 
 on a given space, i. e., there is more colored matter per 
 square inch. Wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine 
 permitting light to pass through quite freely. This trans- 
 lucency affects the lustre and brightness of lumber. 
 When lumber is attacked by fungi, it becomes more 
 opaque, loses its brightness, and in practice is designated 
 "dead," in distinction to "live" or bright timber. Ex- 
 posure to air darkens all wood ; direct sunlight and occa- 
 sional moistening hastens this change, and causes it to 
 penetrate deeper. Prolonged immersion has the same 
 effect, pine wood becoming a dark gray, while oak 
 changes to a blackish brown. Odor, like color, depends 
 on chemical compounds, forming no part of the wood 
 substance itself. Exposure to weather reduces and often 
 changes the odor, but a piece of long-leaf pine, cedar, 
 or camphor wood exhales apparently as much odor as 
 ever when a new surface is exposed. Heartwood is more 
 odoriferous than sapwood. Many kinds of wood are dis- 
 tinguished by strong and peculiar odors. This is espe- 
 cially the case with camphor, cedar, pine, oak and mahog- 
 any, and the list would comprise every kind of wood in 
 use were our sense of smell developed in keeping with 
 its importance. Decomposition is usually accompanied 
 by pronounced odors. Decaying poplar emits a disagree- 
 able odor, while red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell 
 resembling that of heliotrope. 
 
 WEIGHT OF WOOD 
 
 A small cross-section of wood (as in Fig. 14) dropped 
 
64 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 into water sinks, showing that the substance of which 
 wood fibre or wood is built up is heav- 
 ier than water. By immersing the 
 wood successively in heavier liquids, 
 until we find a liquid in 
 which it does not sink, and 
 comparing the weight of 
 
 FIG. 14. CROSS*SECTION the same with water, we 
 OF A GROUP OP WOOD find that wood substance is 
 
 FIBRES. Highly about L g timeg ag he ag 
 
 magnified. 
 
 water, and that this is as 
 true of poplar as of oak or pine. Separating 
 a single cell (as shown in Fig. 15, a), drying 
 and then dropping it into water, it floats. The 
 air-filled cell cavity or interior reduces its 
 weight, and, like an empty corked bottle, it 
 weighs less than the water. Soon, however, 
 water soaks into the cell, when it fills up and 
 sinks. Many such cells grown together, as 
 in a block of wood, sink when all or most 
 of them are filled with water, but will float as long 
 as the majority of them are empty or only partially 
 filled. This is why a green, sappy pine pole soon sinks 
 in "driving" (floating). Its cells are largely filled be- 
 fore it is thrown in, and but little additional water suf- 
 fices to make its weight greater than that of the water. 
 In a good-sized white pine log, composed chiefly of empty 
 cells (heartwood), the water requires a very long time 
 to fill up the cells (five years would not suffice to fill them 
 all), and therefore the log may float for many months. 
 When the wall of the wood fibre is very thick (five-eighths 
 or more of the volume, as in Fig. 15, &)', the fibre sinks 
 whether empty or filled. This applies to most of the 
 fibres of the dark summer-wood bands in pines, and to 
 the compact fibres of oak or hickory, and many, especially 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 ISOLATED 
 
 FIBRES OF 
 
 WOOD. 
 
TIMBEE 
 
 65 
 
 tropical woods, have such thick-walled cells and so little 
 empty or air space that they never float. Here, then, are 
 the two main factors of weight in wood : the amount of 
 cell wall or wood substance constant for any given piece, 
 and the amount of water contained in the wood, variable 
 even in the standing tree, and only in part eliminated in 
 drying. The weight of the green wood of any species 
 varies chiefly as a second factor, and is entirely mislead- 
 ing, if the relative weight of different kinds is sought. 
 Thus some green sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress 
 
 ctisc.4 
 
 dist.3 
 
 diac.Z 
 
 disc.t 
 
 FIG. 16. ORIENTATION OF WOOD SAMPLES. 
 
 and gum sink more readily than fresh oak. The weight 
 of sapwood or the sappy, peripheral part of our com- 
 mon lumber woods is always great, whether cut in winter 
 or summer. It rarely falls much below forty-five pounds, 
 and commonly exceeds fifty-five pounds to the cubic foot, 
 even in our lighter wooded species. It follows that the 
 green wood of a sapling is heavier than that of an old 
 
66 COOPEBAGE 
 
 tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the upper part of a 
 tree often heavier than that of a lower part, and the 
 wood near the bark heavier than that nearer the pith; 
 and also that the advantage of drying the wood before 
 shipping is most important in sappy and light kinds. 
 When kiln-dried, the misleading moisture factor of weight 
 is uniformly reduced, and a fair comparison possible. 
 For the sake of convenience in comparison, the weight of 
 wood is expressed either as the weight per cubic foot, 
 or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight or 
 density. If an old long-leaf pine is cut up (as shown in 
 Fig. 16) the wood of disk No. 1 is heavier than that of 
 disk No. 2, the latter heavier than that of disk No. 3, and 
 the wood of the top disk is found to be only about three- 
 fourths as heavy as that of disk No. 1. Similarly, if disk 
 No. 2 is cut up, as in the figure, the specific weight of the 
 different parts is : 
 
 a, about 0.52 
 
 6, about 0.64 
 
 c, about 0.67 
 d, e, f, about 0.65 
 
 showing that in this disk at least the wood formed dur- 
 ing the many years' growth, represented in piece a, is 
 much lighter than that of former years. It also shows 
 that the best wood is the middle part, with its large pro- 
 portion of dark summer bands. Cutting up all disks in 
 the same way, it will be found that the piece a of the 
 first disk is heavier than the piece a of the fifth, and 
 that piece c of the first disk excels the piece c of all the 
 other disks. This shows that the wood grown during 
 the same number of years is lighter in the upper parts 
 of the stem ; and if the disks are smoothed on their radial 
 surfaces and set up one on top of the other in their 
 regular order, for the sake of comparison, this decrease 
 
TIMBEK 67 
 
 in weight will be seen to be accompanied by a decrease 
 in the amount of summer-wood. The color effect of the 
 upper disks is conspicuously lighter. If our old pine 
 had been cut one hundred and fifty years ago, before 
 the outer, lighter wood was laid on, it is evident that 
 the weight of the wood of any one disk would have been 
 found to increase from the centre outward, and no sub- 
 sequent decrease could have been observed. In a thrifty 
 young pine, then, the wood is heavier from the centre 
 outward, and lighter from below upward ; only the wood 
 laid on in old age falls in weight below the average. The 
 number of brownish bands of summer-wood are a direct 
 indication of these differences. If an old oak is cut up 
 in the same manner, the butt cut is also found heaviest 
 and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, the disk 
 of oak has its firmest wood at the centre, and each suc- 
 cessive piece from the centre outward is lighter than its 
 neighbor. Examining the pieces, this difference is not 
 as readily explained by the appearance of each piece as 
 in the case of pine wood. Nevertheless, one conspicuous 
 point appears at once. The pores, so very distinct in oak, 
 are very minute in the Wood near the centre, and thus 
 the wood is far less porous. 
 
 Studying different trees, it is found that in the pines, 
 wood with narrow rings is just as heavy as and often 
 heavier than the wood with wider rings ; but if the rings 
 are unusually narrow in any part of the disk, the wood 
 has a lighter color ; that is, there is less summer-wood and 
 therefore less weight. In oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty 
 growth, the rings, fairly wide (not less than one-twelfth 
 inch), always form the heaviest wood, while any piece 
 with very narrow rings is light. On the other hand, the 
 weight of a piece of hard maple or birch is quite inde- 
 pendent of the width of its rings. The bases of limbs 
 (knots) are usually heavy, very heavy in conifers, and 
 
68 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 also the wood which surrounds them, but generally the 
 wood of the limbs is lighter than that of the stem, and 
 the wood of the roots is the lightest. In general, it may 
 be said that none of the native woods in common use in 
 this country are when dry as heavy as water, i. e., sixty- 
 two pounds to the cubic foot. Few exceed fifty pounds, 
 while most of them fall below forty pounds, and much of 
 the pine and other coniferous wood weigh less than thirty 
 pounds per cubic foot. The weight of the wood is in itself 
 an important quality. Weight assists in distinguishing 
 maple from poplar. Lightness coupled with great 
 strength and stiffness recommends wood for a thousand 
 different uses. To a large extent weight predicates the 
 strength of the wood, at least in the same species, so that 
 a heavy piece of oak will exceed in strength a light piece 
 of the same species, and in pine it appears probable that, 
 weight for weight, the strength of the wood of various 
 pines is nearly equal. 
 
 WEIGHT OF KILN-DRTED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES 
 
 SPECIES , 
 
 APPROXIMATE 
 
 SPECIFIC 
 WEIGHT 
 
 WEIGHT OF 
 
 1 
 CUBIC 
 FOOT 
 
 1,000 
 FEET 
 LUMBER 
 
 (a) Very Heavy Woods: 
 Hickory. Oak. Persimmon, Osage Orange, Blnck 
 Locust, Hackberry, Blue Beech, Best of Elm, and 
 Ash 
 
 0.70-0.80 
 0.60-0.70 
 
 0.50-0.60 
 
 0.40-0.50 
 0.30-0.40 
 
 Pounds 
 42-48 
 36-42 
 
 30-36 
 
 24-30 
 
 18-24 
 
 Pounds 
 3,700 
 3,200 
 
 2,700 
 
 2,200 
 1,800 
 
 (b) Heavy Woods: 
 Ash, Elm, Cherry, Birch, Maple, Beech, Walnut, 
 Sour Gum, Coffee Tree, Honey Locust. Best of 
 Southern Pine and Tamarack 
 
 (c) Woods of Medium Weight: 
 Southern Pine. Pitch Pine, Tamarack, Douglass 
 Spruce, Western Hemlock. Sweet Gum, Soft Maple, 
 Sycamore. Sassafras, Mulberry, Light Grades of 
 Birch and Cherry 
 
 (d) Light Woods: 
 Norway and Bull Pine, Red Cedar, Cypress. Hem- 
 lock, the Heavier Spruce and Fir, Redwood, Bass- 
 wood, Chestnut, Butternut, Tulip. Catalpa, Buck- 
 eye Heavier Grades of Poplar 
 
 (e) Very Light Woods: 
 White Pine, Spruce, Fir, White Cedar, Poplar 
 
SECTION II 
 
 ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 FROM the writer's personal investigations of this sub- 
 ject in different sections of the country, the damage to 
 forest products of various kinds from this cause seems to 
 be far more extensive than is generally recognized. Al- 
 lowing a loss of five per cent, on the total value of the 
 forest products of the country, which the writer believes 
 to be a conservative estimate, it would amount to some- 
 thing over $30,000,000 annually. This loss differs from 
 that resulting from insect damage to natural forest re- 
 sources, in that it represents more directly a loss of 
 money invested in material and labor. In dealing with 
 the insects mentioned, as with forest insects in general, 
 the methods which yield the best results are those which 
 relate directly to preventing attack, as well as those which 
 are unattractive or unfavorable. The insects have two 
 objects in their attack: one is to obtain food, the other 
 is to prepare for the development of their broods. Dif- 
 ferent species of insects have special periods during the 
 season of activity (March to November), when the adults 
 are on the wing in search of suitable material in which 
 to deposit their eggs. Some species, which fly in April, 
 will be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees 
 or to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous 
 winter. They are not attracted to any other kind of tim- 
 ber, because they can live only in the bark or wood of 
 pine, and only in that which is in the proper condition to 
 favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal develop- 
 ment of their young. As they fly only in April, they can- 
 
72 COOPERAGE 
 
 not injure the logs of trees felled during the remainder 
 of the year. 
 
 There are also oak insects, which attack nothing but 
 oak ; hickory, cypress, and spruce insects, etc., which have 
 different habits and different periods of flight, and re- 
 quire special conditions of the bark and wood for deposit- 
 ing their eggs or for the subsequent development of their 
 broods. Some of these insects have but one generation 
 in a year, others have two or more, while some require 
 more than one year for their complete development and 
 transformation. Some species deposit their eggs in the 
 bark or wood of trees soon after they are felled or before 
 any perceptible change from the nornml living tissue 
 has taken place ; other species are attracted only to dead 
 bark and dead wood of trees which have been felled or 
 girdled for several months; others are attracted to dry 
 and seasoned wood ; while another class will attack noth- 
 ing but very old dry bark or wood of special kinds and 
 under special conditions. Thus it will be seen how impor- 
 tant it is for the practical man to have know] edge of 
 such of the foregoing facts as apply to his immediate 
 interest in the manufacture or utilization of a given for- 
 est product, in order that he may with the least trouble 
 and expense adjust his business methods to meet the re- 
 quirements for preventing losses. The work of different 
 kinds of insects, as represented by special injuries to 
 forest products, is the first thing to attract attention, 
 and the distinctive character of this work is easily ob- 
 served, while the insect responsible for it is seldom seen, 
 or it is so difficult to determine by the general observer 
 from descriptions or illustrations that the species is 
 rarely recognized. Fortunately, the character of the 
 work is often sufficient in itself to identify the cause and 
 suggest a remedy, and in this section primary considera- 
 tion is given to this phase of the subject. 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 73 
 
 FIG. 17. WORK OF AMBROSIA BEETLES IN TULIP OR YELLOW POPLAR WOOD: 
 a, work of X yleborus affinis and Xyleboris inermis; 6, Xyleboris obesus 
 and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heartwood. 
 
 FIG. 18. WORK OF AMBROSIA BEETLES IN OAK: a, Monarthrum mali and 
 work; b, Platypus compositus and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heart- 
 wood ; f, character of work in wood from injured log. 
 
74 COOPERAGE 
 
 AMBROSIA OR TIMBER BEETLES 
 
 The characteristic work of this class of wood-boring 
 beetles is shown in Figs. 17 and 18. The injury consists 
 of pinhole and stained-wood defects in the sapwood and 
 heartwood of recently felled or girdled trees, sawlogs, 
 pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or unseasoned 
 lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alco- 
 holic liquids. The holes and galleries are made by the 
 adult parent beetles, to serve as entrances and temporary 
 houses or nurseries for the development of their broods 
 of young, which feed on a kind of fungus growing on the 
 walls of the galleries. The growth of this ambrosia-like 
 fungus is induced and controlled by the parent beetles, 
 and the young are dependent upon it for food. The wood 
 must be in exactly the proper condition for the growth 
 of the fungus in order to attract the beetles and induce 
 them to excavate their galleries; it must have a certain 
 degree of moisture and other favorable qualities, which 
 usually prevail during the period involved in the change' 
 from living, or normal, to dead or dry wood ; such a con- 
 dition is found in recently felled trees, sawlogs, or like 
 crude products. There are two general types or classes 
 of these galleries: one in which the broods develop to- 
 gether in the main burrows (Fig. 17), the other in which 
 the individuals develop in short, separate side chambers, 
 extending at right angles from the primary galleries. 
 (Fig. 18.) The galleries of the latter type are usually 
 accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while 
 those of the former are not. The beetles responsible for 
 this work are cylindrical in form, apparently with a 
 head (the prothorax) half as long as the remainder of 
 the body. (Figs. 17, a, and 18, a.) North American 
 species vary in size from less than one-tenth to slightly 
 more than two-tenths of an inch, while some of the sub- 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 75 
 
 tropical and tropical species attain a much larger size. 
 The diameter of the holes made by each species cor- 
 responds closely to that of the body, and varies from 
 about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch for the 
 tropical species. 
 
 ROUND-HEADED BOKEKS 
 
 The character of the work of this class of wood and 
 bark-boring grubs is shown in Fig. 19. The injuries con- 
 
 cu. 
 
 FIG. 19. WORK OF ROUND-HEADED AND FLAT-HEADED BORERS IN PINE: a, 
 work of round-headed borer, "sawyer," Monohammus sp., natural size; 
 b, Ergatcs spiculatus; c, work of flat-headed borer, Buprestis, larva 
 and adult; d, bark; e, sapwood; f y heartwood. 
 
 sist of irregular flattened or nearly round wormhole de- 
 fects in the wood, which sometimes result in the destruc- 
 tion of the valuable parts of wood or bark material. The 
 sapwood and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, 
 poles, posts, mine props, pulpwood and cordwood, also 
 lumber or square timber, with bark on the edges, and 
 construction timber in new and old buildings, are injured 
 by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts of stored 
 
76 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are 
 converted into worm-dust. These injuries are caused by 
 the young or larvae of long-horned beetles. Those which 
 infest the wood hatch from eggs deposited in the outer 
 bark of logs and like material, and the minute grubs 
 hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through 
 which they extend their irregular burrows, for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining food from the sap and other nutritive 
 material found in the plant tissue. They continue to 
 
 '. 
 
 FIG. 20. WORK OF TIMBER WORMS IN OAK: a, work of oak timber worm, 
 Eupsalis minuta; b, barked surface; c, bark; d, sapwood timber worm, 
 Hyloccetus lugubris, and work; e, sapwood. 
 
 extend and enlarge their burrows as they increase in size, 
 until they are nearly or quite full grown. They then 
 enter the wood and continue their excavations deep into 
 the sapwood or heartwood until they attain their normal 
 size. They then excavate pupa cells in which to trans- 
 form into adults, which emerge from the wood through 
 exit holes in the surface. This class of borers is repre- 
 sented by a large number of species. The adults, how- 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 77 
 
 ever, are seldom seen by the general observer unless cut 
 out of the wood before they have emerged. 
 
 FLAT-HEADED BORERS 
 
 The work of the flat-headed borers (Fig. 19) is only dis- 
 tinguished from that of the preceding by the broad, shal- 
 low burrows, and the much more oblong form of the exit 
 holes. In general, the injuries are similar, and affect the 
 same class of products, but they are of much less impor- 
 tance. The adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored 
 beetles, and represent many species, of various sizes. 
 
 TIMBER WORMS 
 
 The character of the work done by this class is shown 
 in Fig. 20. The injury consists of pinhole defects in 
 the sapwood and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs and 
 like material which have been left in the woods or in piles 
 in the open for several months during the warmer sea- 
 sons. Stave and shingle bolts and closely piled oak lum- 
 ber and square timbers also suffer from injury of this 
 kind. These injuries are made by elongate, slender 
 worms or larvae, which hatch from eggs deposited by the 
 adult beetles in the outer bark, or, where there is no bark, 
 just beneath the surface of the wood. At first the young 
 larvae bore almost invisible holes for a long distance 
 through the sapwood and heartwood, but as they increase 
 in size the same holes are enlarged and extended until 
 the larvae have attained their full growth. They then 
 transform to adults, and emerge through the enlarged 
 entrance burrows. The work of these timber worms is 
 distinguished from that of the timber beetles by the 
 greater variation in the size of holes in the same piece 
 of wood, also by the fact that they are not branched from 
 a single entrance or gallery, as are those made by the 
 beetles. 
 
78 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 POWDER POST BORERS 
 
 The character of work of this class of insects is shown 
 in Figs. 21, 22 and 23. The injury consists of closely 
 placed burrows, packed with borings, or a completely de- 
 
 FIG. 21. WORK OF POWDER POST BEETLE, Sinoxylon basilarc, IN HICKORY 
 POLES, showing transverse egg galleries excavated by the adult; a, en- 
 trance; 6, gallery; c, adult. 
 
 stroyed or powdered condition of the wood of seasoned 
 products, such as lumber, crude arid finished handle and 
 wagon stock, cooperage and wooden truss hoops, fur- 
 
 FIG. 22. WORK OF POWDER POST BEETLE, Sinoxylon basilare, IN HICKORY 
 POLE: a, character of work by larvae; 5, exit holes made by emerging 
 broods. 
 
 niture, and inside finish woodwork, in old buildings, as 
 well as in many other crude or finished and utilized woods. 
 This is the work of both the adults and young stages of 
 some species, or of the larval stage alone of others. In 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 79 
 
 the former, the adult beetles deposit their eggs in bur- 
 rows or galleries excavated for the purpose, as in Figs. 
 21 and 22, while in the latter 
 (Fig. 23) the eggs are on or be- 
 neath the surface of the wood. 
 The grubs complete the de- 
 struction by boring through the 
 solid wood in all directions and 
 packing their burrows with the 
 powdered wood. When they 
 are full grown they transform 
 to the adult, and emerge from 
 the injured material through 
 holes in the surface. Some of 
 the species continue to work 
 in the same wood until many 
 generations have developed 
 and emerged, or until every 
 particle of wood tissue has 
 been destroyed and the avail- 
 able nutritive substance ex- 
 tracted. 
 
 CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOB IN- 
 SECT INJURY CRUDE PROD- 
 UCTS ROUND TIMBER WITH 
 
 BARK ON 
 
 Newly felled trees, sawlogs, 
 stave and heading bolts, tele- 
 graph poles, ,posts, and the 
 like material, cut in the fall 
 and winter, and left on the 
 ground or in close piles dur- 
 ing a few weeks or months in 
 causing them to heat and sweat, 
 
 FIG. 23 WORK OF POWDER 
 POST BEETLE, Lyctusstriatus, 
 IN HICKORY HANDLES AND 
 SPOKES: a, larva; b, pupa; 
 c, adult; d, exit holes; e, en- 
 trance of larvae (vents for bor- 
 ings are exits of parasites); 
 /, work of larvae; g, wood, 
 completely destroyed; h, sap- 
 wood; i, heartwood. 
 
 the spring or summer, 
 are especially liable to 
 
80 COOPERAGE 
 
 injury by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 18), round and 
 flat-headed borers (Fig. 19), and timbe.r worms (Fig. 20), 
 as are also trees felled in the warm season, and left for 
 a time before working up into lumber. The proper de- 
 gree of moisture found in freshly cut living or dying 
 wood, and the period when the insects are flying, are 
 the conditions most favorable for attack. This period 
 of danger varies with the time of the year the timber is 
 felled and with the different kinds of trees. Those felled 
 in late fall and winter will generally remain attractive 
 to ambrosia beetles, and to the adults of round and flat- 
 headed borers during March, April and May. Those felled 
 in April to September may be attacked in a few days 
 after they are felled, and the period of danger may not 
 extend over more than a few weeks. Certain kinds of 
 trees felled during certain months and seasons are never 
 attacked, because the danger period prevails only when 
 the insects are flying ; on the other hand, if the same kinds 
 of trees are felled at a different time, the conditions may 
 be most attractive when the insects are active, and they 
 will be thickly infested and ruined. The presence of bark 
 is absolutely necessary for infestation by most of the 
 wood-boring grubs, since the eggs and young stages must 
 occupy the outer and inner portions before they can enter 
 the wood. Some ambrosia beetles and timber worms will, 
 however, attack barked logs, especially those in close 
 piles, and others shaded and protected from rapid drying. 
 The sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress, and like 
 softwoods is especially liable to injury by ambrosia 
 beetles, while the heartwood is sometimes ruined by a 
 class of round-headed borers, known as "sawyers." Yel- 
 low poplar, oak, chestnut, gum, hickory, and most other 
 hardwoods are as a rule attacked by species of ambrosia 
 beetles, sawyers, and timber worms, different from those 
 infesting the pines, there being but very few species 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 81 
 
 which attack both. Mahogany and other rare and valuable 
 woods imported from the tropics to this country in the 
 form of round logs, with or without bark on, are com- 
 monly damaged more or less seriously by ambrosia 
 beetles and timber worms. It would appear from the 
 writer's investigations of logs received at the mills in 
 this country, that the principal damage is done during a 
 limited period from the time the trees are felled until 
 they are placed in fresh or salt water for transporta- 
 tion to the shipping points. If, however, the logs are 
 loaded on the vessel direct from the shore, or if not left 
 in the water long enough to kill the insects, the latter 
 will continue their destructive work during transporta- 
 tion to this country and after they arrive, and until cold 
 weather ensues or the logs are converted into lumber. 
 It was also found that a thorough soaking in sea-water, 
 while it usually killed the insects at the time, did not pre- 
 vent subsequent attacks by both foreign and native am- 
 brosia beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from 
 such logs previous to their immersion did not render them 
 entirely immune. Those with the bark off were attacked 
 more than those with it on, owing to the greater amount 
 of saline moisture retained by the bark. 
 
 HOW TO PKEVENT INJUKY 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites 
 for preventing these insect injuries to round timber are : 
 
 1. To provide for as little delay as possible between 
 the felling of the tree and its manufacture into rough 
 products. This is especially necessary with trees felled 
 from April to September, in the region north of the Gulf 
 States, and from March to November in the latter, while 
 the late fall and winter cutting should all be worked up 
 by March or April. 
 
 2. If the round timber must be left in the woods or on 
 
82 COOPEEAGE 
 
 the skidways during the danger period, every precaution 
 should be taken to facilitate rapid drying of the inner 
 bark, by keeping the logs off the ground, in the sun, or 
 in loose piles; or else the opposite extreme should be 
 adopted and the logs kept in water. 
 
 3. The immediate removal of all the bark from poles, 
 posts and other material which will not be seriously dam- 
 aged by checking or season cracks. 
 
 4. To determine and utilize the proper months or sea- 
 sons to girdle or fell different kinds of trees. Bald cy- 
 press in the swamps of the South are girdled in order that 
 they may die, and in a few weeks or months dry out and 
 become light enough to float. This method has been ex- 
 tensively adopted in sections where it is the only prac- 
 ticable one by which the timber can be transported to 
 the sawmills. It is found, however, that some of these 
 girdled trees are especially attractive to several species of 
 ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 18), round-headed borers 
 (Fig. 19) and timber worms (Fig. 20), which cause seri- 
 ous injury to the sapwood or heartwood, while other trees 
 girdled at a different time or season are not injured. 
 This suggested to the writer the importance of experi- 
 ments to determine the proper time to girdle trees to 
 avoid losses, and they are now being conducted on an 
 extensive scale by the Forest Service, in co-operation 
 with prominent cypress operators in different sections 
 of the cypress-growing region.' 
 
 SAPLINGS 
 
 Saplings, including hickory and other round hoop- 
 poles and similar products, are subject to serious injuries 
 and destruction by round and flat-headed borers (Fig. 
 19), and certain species of powder post borers (Figs. 21 
 and 22) before the bark and wood are dead or dry, and 
 also by other powder post borers (Fig. 23) after they 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 83 
 
 are dried and seasoned. The conditions favoring attack 
 by the former class are those resulting from leaving the 
 poles in piles or bundles in or near the forest for a few 
 week's during the season of insect activity, and by the 
 latter from leaving them stored in one place for several 
 months. 
 
 STAVE, HEADING AND SHINGLE BOLTS 
 
 These are attacked by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 
 18), and the oak timber worm (Fig 20, a), which, as has 
 been frequently reported, cause serious losses. The con- 
 ditions favoring attack by these insects are similar to 
 those mentioned under "Bound Timber. " The insects 
 may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log 
 or afterward, especially if the bolts are left in moist, 
 shady places in the woods, in close piles during the dan- 
 ger period. If cut during the warm season, the bark 
 should be removed and the bolts converted into the small- 
 est practicable size and piled in such a manner as to 
 facilitate rapid drying. 
 
 UNSEASONED PRODUCTS IN THE ROUGH 
 
 Freshly sawn hardwood, placed in close piles during 
 warm, damp weather in July and September, presents 
 especially favorable conditions for injury by ambrosia 
 beetles (Figs. 17, a, and 18, a). This is due to the con- 
 tinued moist condition of such material. Heavy two-inch 
 or three-inch stuff is also liable to attack even in loose 
 piles with lumber or cross sticks. An example of the 
 latter was found in a valuable lot of mahogany lumber 
 of first grade, the value of which was reduced two-thirds 
 by injury from a native ambrosia beetle. Numerous com- 
 plaints have been received from different sections of the 
 country of this class of injury to oak, poplar, gum and 
 other hardwoods. In all cases it is the moist condition 
 and retarded drying of the lumber which induces attack ; 
 therefore, any method which will provide for the rapid 
 
84 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 drying of the wood before or after piling will tend to 
 prevent losses. It is important that heavy lumber should, 
 as far as possible, be cut in the winter months and piled 
 so that it will be well dried out before the middle of 
 
 FIG. 24. WORK OF ROUND-HEADED BORER, Callidium antennatum, IN WHITE 
 PINE BUCKET STAVES FROM NEW HAMPSHIRE: a, where egg was depos- 
 ited in bark; 6, larval mine; c, pupal cell; d, exit in bark; e, adult. 
 
 March. Square timber, stave and heading bolts, with 
 the bark on, often suffer from injuries by flat or round- 
 headed borers, hatching from eggs deposited in the bark 
 of the logs before they are sawed and piled. One example 
 of serious damage and loss was reported in which white 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 85 
 
 pine staves for paint buckets and other small wooden 
 vessels, which had been sawed from small logs, and the 
 bark left on the edges, were attacked by a round-headed 
 borer, the adults having deposited their eggs in the bark 
 after the stock was sawn and piled. The character of 
 the injury is shown in Fig. 24. Another example was 
 reported from a manufacturer in the South, where the 
 pieces of lumber which had a strip of bark on one side 
 were seriously damaged by the same kind of borer, the 
 eggs having been deposited in the logs before sawing or 
 in the bark after the lumber was piled. If the eggs are 
 deposited in the logs, and the borers have entered the 
 inner bark or the wood before sawing, they may continue 
 their work regardless of methods of piling; but if such 
 lumber is cut from new logs and placed in the pile while 
 green, with the bark surface up, it will be much less 
 liable to attack than if piled with the bark down. This 
 liability of lumber with bark edges or sides to be attacked 
 by insects suggests the importance of the removal of the 
 bark, to prevent damage, or, if this is not practicable, 
 the lumber with the bark on the sides should be piled 
 in open, loose piles with the bark up, while that with the 
 bark on the r edges should be placed on the outer edge 
 of the piles, exposed to the light and air. A moist con- 
 dition of lumber and square timber, such as results from 
 close or solid piles, with the bottom layers on the ground 
 or on a foundation of old decaying logs or near decaying 
 stumps and logs, offers especially favorable conditions 
 for the attack of white ants. 
 
 SEASONED PEODUCTS IN THE BOUGH 
 
 Seasoned or dry timber in stacks or storage is liable 
 to injury by powder post borers. (Fig. 23.) The con- 
 ditions favoring attack are: (1) The presence of a large 
 proportion of sapwood, as in hickory, ash, and similar 
 
86 COOPERAGE 
 
 woods; (2) material which is two or more years old, or 
 that which has been kept in one place for a long time; 
 (3) access to old infested material. Therefore, such stock 
 should be frequently examined for evidence of the pres- 
 ence of these insects. This is always indicated by fine, 
 flour-like powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise 
 associated with such material. All infested material 
 should be at once removed and the infested parts de- 
 stroyed by burning. 
 
 DKY COOPEKAGE STOCK AND WOODEN TBUSS HOOPS 
 
 These are especially liable to attack and serious injury 
 by powder post borers (Fig. 23), under the same or sim- 
 ilar conditions as the preceding. 
 
 STAVES AND HEADS OF BARBELS CONTAINING ALCOHOLIC LIQUIDS 
 
 These are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 
 17, a and 18, a), which are attracted by the moist condition 
 and possibly by the peculiar odor of the wood, resembling 
 that of dying sapwood of trees and logs, which is their 
 normal breeding place. There are many examples on 
 record of serious losses of liquors from leakage caused 
 by the beetles boring through the staves and heads of 
 the barrels and casks in cellars and storerooms. The 
 condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, which 
 is favorable for the presence of the beetles, is proximity 
 to their breeding places, such as the trunks and stumps 
 of recently felled or dying oak, maple and other hardwood 
 or deciduous trees ; lumber yards, sawmills, freshly cut 
 cordwood, from living or dead trees, and forests of hard- 
 wood timber. Under such conditions the beetles occur 
 in great numbers, and if the storerooms and cellars in* 
 which the barrels are kept stored are damp, poorly venti- 
 lated, and readily accessible to them, serious injury is 
 almost certain to follow. 
 
SECTION III 
 
 FOREST FIRES 
 
FOREST FIRES 
 
 FIRES THE GREATEST ENEMY OF FORESTS 
 
 GENEKAL EEMAEKS 
 
 Of the many destructive agencies at work in the forests 
 of the United States, fire holds first place, and the loss 
 which it inflicts equals, if it does not surpass, that from 
 all other causes combined. Insect hordes occasionally 
 destroy large areas of valuable forest growth; wasteful 
 and short-sighted lumbering methods, resulting from in- 
 
 FIG. 25. VIEW OF LAND BURNED OVER EVERY YEAR. 
 
90 COOPEEAGE 
 
 volved economic conditions, have brought about the rapid 
 conversion of much of the finest timberlands into unpro- 
 ductive barrens; and in the far West, excessive and 
 unrestricted grazing has seriously reduced the regenerat- 
 ing power of the forest, and exposed vast areas to injury 
 by flood and erosion. But great as is the damage from 
 these causes, compared with fire they are of secondary 
 importance. Further, it is to the fires which usually 
 precede, accompany, or follow these other agencies that 
 their most serious consequences are often due. Inject 
 attacks often follow when fire has killed or reduced the 
 vitality of timber ; the cut-over timber lands of the Great 
 Lakes and other regions would not present such a dis- 
 couraging aspect had not fire killed the seed trees and 
 young growth (see Fig. 25), which otherwise would have 
 survived even the most pernicious logging enterprises; 
 and in the forests of the West fire again is a potent source 
 of difficulty in adjusting the conflicting claims of the 
 grazing, timber, and water interests. 
 
 SOME ESTIMATES OP LOSSES FROM FIEE 
 
 Certain as it is that fire is the greatest of forest evils, 
 there exists comparatively little accurate knowledge on 
 which to base an estimate of the total loss from this 
 source. This is due, not to lack of interest so much as to 
 the immensity of the field, and the complex character of 
 the problem which the attempt to make such an estimate 
 presents. Losses of mill and logging machinery, lumber, 
 cordwood, merchantable standing timber, and other prop- 
 erty of staple market value can be closely determined 
 by individual losers ; but when attempts are made to com- 
 bine even these definite losses for a State, or for the 
 United States, the result becomes a rough estimate, if not 
 a matter of mere conjecture. Nevertheless, it is indis- 
 putable that these losses are enormous, and that, for the 
 
FOBEST FIRES 91 
 
 country as a whole, they run high into the millions. No 
 less serious, though incapable of money valuation, is the 
 indirect loss due to the destruction of young growth, 
 which is to form our future forests. To this must be 
 added the injury to the forest soil, caused by the burning 
 out of the vegetable matter, indispensable to healthy tree 
 
 FIG. 26. EFFECTS OF A FOREST FIRE. 
 
 growth. (See Fig. 26.) The most conservative estimates 
 put the average annual loss from forest fires at above 
 $25,000,000. More exact estimates are available for lim- 
 ited regions. For example, a careful estimate made on 
 the ground after the terrific Washington and Oregon fires 
 of 1902 showed a loss in nine days of $12,000,000 worth 
 
92 COOPEEAGE 
 
 of forest property. New York State in the spring of 
 1903 suffered from unusually severe fires in the Adiron- 
 dacks, involving a direct loss estimated at $3,500,000, in 
 addition to a known expense for fire fighting of $175,000. 
 
 LOSSES FKOM FIRE WHICH ABE NOT USUALLY CONSIDERED 
 
 The severest consequences do not result from these 
 great conflagrations, which partake of the nature of 
 national calamities. Beyond question it is the smaller, 
 unnoted fires which in the aggregate inflict the most 
 serious damage upon the forests of the United States. 
 And this damage is for the most part of a kind from the 
 very nature of the case incapable of exact calculation. 
 In the first place, much fine timber in this country has 
 at present no money value because it is not now acces- 
 sible. In the second place, the injury which the forest 
 suffers is far greater than that covered by the stumpage 
 value of the standing merchantable timber. Generally 
 the lumberman is immediately concerned only with that 
 part of the fire loss which includes the destruction of 
 timber and lumber that he can sell, and of milling or 
 logging property in the woods. The annihilation of 
 young growth, and the lowering of the forest's water con- 
 serving and regenerative powers, do not appear in the 
 profit and loss column of his books. From the point of 
 view of the public interest, the effect of fires on forest 
 reproduction and water conservation is far more impor- 
 tant than the destruction of mature timber. Yet the im- 
 possibility of even approximately determining the former 
 losses makes them appear less real. Save in limited 
 regions, young forest growth has no recognized value; 
 consequently its destruction by fire is not an appreciated 
 financial loss. In view of the growing scarcity of timber, 
 and of the almost inevitable changes in the general field 
 of forestry, it is safe to prophesy that in the near future 
 
FOREST FIEES 93 
 
 the value of young growth will be definitely recognized. 
 Nevertheless, lumbermen have not as yet generally rec- 
 ognized it nor taken steps to encourage or protect such 
 growth. (Fig. 52.) 
 
 CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT FIEE LOSSES 
 
 The extent to which lumbering interests suffer from 
 fire depends largely on the region in which they conduct 
 their operations. Broad statements concerning this are 
 subject to exceptions, yet in general it is true that Pacific 
 Coast lumbermen suffer most, and those in the Southern 
 hardwoods least, while the losses of operators in the 
 Lake States and the Northeast fall between the two. The 
 Pacific Coast lumber manufacturer is the heaviest loser, 
 not only because the fires are more severe, but also be- 
 cause his mills and yards are located in the heart of the 
 forest, since he cannot "drive" the streams. In Cal- 
 ifornia and eastward, surface fires prevail in the virgin 
 forests, but rarely destroy extensive stands of timber, 
 although individual trees are severely injured and 
 killed. In the Northeast and Great Lakes States fires 
 commonly do not reach their maximum of injury until the 
 lumberman has left ; hence, he is not so great a sufferer. 
 In the Southern pineries the frequently occurring grass 
 fires are rarely severe and are seldom troublesome to the 
 lumberman. Old turpentine orchards, where the boxes 
 and excoriated surfaces expose the trees to fire injury, 
 are the exception. Such timber, however, is usually pur- 
 chased at a low figure and cut before fire does it material 
 damage. 
 
 ERRONEOUS IDEAS CONCERNING EFFECTS OF FIRES 
 
 The effect of surface and brush fires in large timber is 
 more serious than generally supposed. The prevailing 
 opinion is that mature timber is not injured by such fires, 
 and this has created among lumbermen a feeling of in- 
 
94 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 difference to their occurrence. Few fires in a forest are 
 so slight as to produce no ill effects. Though most of the 
 trees may escape with only a slight blackening or char- 
 ring of the bark, there are inevitably others which are 
 
 FIG. 27. BLACK GUM STILL ALIVE, THOUGH BURNED TO A SHELL. Damage 
 
 done by a fire. 
 
 killed or injured at the base by the burning of brush and 
 debris accumulated about the trunk, or by the fire catch- 
 ing in a break in the bark. (See Fig. 27.) Each successive 
 fire adds its percentage of injury, while all damaged trees 
 
FOREST FIEES 95 
 
 are rendered less wind firm. Even in the Southern pines, 
 where the fire injury is near the minimum, the cumulative 
 damage is surprisingly great. The Bureau of Forestry 
 at Washington, D. C., have obtained figures which show 
 that in a turpentine orchard of Florida long-leaf pine, 
 abandoned for five years, thirty-three per cent, of the 
 trees above a diameter of one inch were found dead or 
 down, mainly as a result of a fire, while only one-half of 
 one per cent, of the remaining boxed trees were unburned. 
 The damage in unboxed long-leaf pine of the same region 
 was much less serious, eighty-two per cent, of the stand 
 being sound. Throughout California the opinion so 
 largely prevails that fires in virgin timber are compar- 
 atively harmless, that lumbermen allow them to run un- 
 less they threaten their mills or are likely to spread to 
 "slashings," in dangerous proximity to valuable timber. 
 This, too, in face of the fact that nothing is more notice- 
 able in the Sierra forests that the burned-out bases of 
 many of the finest sugar and yellow pines. Figures ob- 
 tained in the logging camps of a lumber company in 
 Tehama County, Cal., show that the "long-butting" ne- 
 cessitated by the burns in the base logs amounts to about 
 4% per cent, of the total cut, which is a direct loss of 
 this amount. This does not include the loss in high 
 stumps, where the cut is made above the burn, nor allow 
 for the deduction from the actual scale reading in par- 
 tially burned-out logs, nor for the inferior lumber near 
 the burns, where the heat has hardened the pitch. In 
 addition to this, many trees have burned down or have 
 been thrown by wind as a consequence of the fire. 
 
 VIEWS OF LUMBERMEN CONCERNING FOREST FIRES 
 
 The general attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires 
 is one of hopelessness, coupled in a measure with indif- 
 ference. Fires were not unknown prior to the days of 
 
96 COOPERAGE 
 
 settlement, but since .the commercial exploitation of the 
 forests began they have increased in number and severity, 
 until now they are regarded as inevitable. Considering 
 the many causes from which forest fires spring, the dif- 
 ficulty of quickly locating and suppressing them in the 
 incipient stages, and the tremendous and often impos- 
 sible task of stopping a fire when it has gained full head- 
 way, it is not to be wondered at that the lumberman has 
 taken rather a hopeless view of the matter. Furthermore, 
 fire-fighting and even crude measures of protection re- 
 quire an outlay which could not have been borne during 
 the earlier lumbering period. There has been, too, an un- 
 fulfilled State duty, which has added to the lumberman's 
 burden. Large sums raised by taxes on forest lands 
 have been going into the State treasuries, yet until very 
 recent years no intelligent effort has been made to assist 
 timber owners to protect their holdings. While lumber- 
 men should have done more for themselves, the laws 
 which should have given them encouragement and assist- 
 ance have been wanting or totally inadequate. The atti- 
 tude of indifference which has been shown by lumbermen 
 in many instances is far less excusable than their belief 
 in the impossibility of fire protection. Eealizing the fire 
 danger, they have deliberately ignored all sides of the 
 question save that of the most temporary, and have taken 
 the best from the land and abandoned the rest to destruc- 
 tion by fires, which often threatened or destroyed the 
 adjoining property of others. The only justification for 
 this has been the economic conditions which have made 
 the suppression of fire incompatible with profitable lum- 
 bering. 
 
 CHANGED CONDITIONS 
 
 Before the awakening to the needs and possibilities of 
 forestry, and when the forests were considered inexhaust- 
 ible, indifference and inaction when forest fires occurred 
 
FOREST FIRES 97 
 
 was not unnatural. These conditions, however, are now of 
 the past. The end of the virgin timber supply is in sight, 
 and the improved tone of the lumber market is enabling 
 lumbermen to dispose of inferior material, and to realize 
 better prices for all grades. These changes are making 
 it profitable for timber owners to cut more conservatively, 
 and to hold their land for future timber production. In 
 pursuing such a policy, fire protection and the systematic 
 disposal of ' l slash " by methods which will result in the 
 minimum of injury to young growth and seed trees must 
 follow. It is most encouraging that many large lumber 
 concerns, especially in the West, are favoring the adop- 
 tion of such a policy, and in a few cases are putting it 
 into practice. In short, lumbermen are beginning seri- 
 ously to consider the advantages of long-continued man- 
 agement of timber lands, in place of the policy of tem- 
 porary speculative holdings, upon which their operations 
 have hitherto been based. With this change in general 
 management must come an entirely altered sentiment 
 toward forest fires. They can no longer be ignored, but 
 must be intelligently and systematically guarded against. 
 
 FIRE PROTECTION ON PRIVATE LANDS 
 
 Without adequate fire protection the practice of for- 
 estry on private timber lands will not give the desired 
 results. The leaving of seed trees and modified lumber- 
 ing methods for the purpose of securing natural repro- 
 duction, which is liable to ultimate destruction by fire, 
 appeals neither to the lumberman nor to the forester. 
 Even assuming a recognized market value for young 
 growth, there can be little incentive for encouraging or 
 holding it as long as a constant fire menace remains; 
 hence it follows that fire protection is a fundamental 
 necessity in all plans for forest management on private 
 holdings. 
 
98 COOPEEAGE 
 
 Definite plans for fire protection should precede or ac- 
 company all working plans for forest lands, and in most 
 cases fire plans alone will give results which will fully 
 justify their application. It is surprising that individual 
 timber owners have done so little for themselves in mat- 
 ters of fire protection, especially in view of the fact that 
 it is largely a local problem, and can be most satisfacto- 
 rily dealt with as such. Adequate protection is undeniably 
 a complex and difficult task. It is, however, no greater 
 than many of the logging, milling and transportation 
 difficulties which have been successfully surmounted. It 
 has been neglected merely because financial success has 
 not been dependent upon it. The enterprise and ingenu- 
 ity of American lumbermen is world renowned. For the 
 cheap and rapid manufacture of lumber, cooperage ma- 
 terial, etc., they have developed marvellous mechanical 
 devices. But in matters of fire protection they are still 
 little further advanced than were the pioneers of the 
 industry. Indeed, by opening up the forests and leaving 
 large quantities of inflammable debris, they have rather 
 increased the fire danger. As it was fifty years ago, so 
 it is to-day. No attention is paid to fires until they reach 
 dangerous proportions; then they are fought with char- 
 acteristic American energy. The mills are often shut 
 down, all available men are employed to fight the flames, 
 and the fire is usually controlled, but .at great expense. 
 The more rational and business-like and in the end the 
 more economical method, systematic preventive measures 
 and preparation for promptly extinguishing small fires, 
 has seldom been employed. 
 
 NEW DEPARTURES IN DEALING WITH THE FIRE PROBLEM 
 
 In keeping with the changed conditions already men- 
 tioned, the result of which must be to compel a departure 
 from the old methods, made possible by an abundance of 
 
FOREST FIRES 99 
 
 timber, there has of late been evinced a growing dispo- 
 sition to introduce fire protection on forest lands. This 
 has taken the form in some cases of actual attempts to 
 prevent fire from running through mature timber, or 
 young growth and to reduce the fire danger by carefully 
 burning "slash." The greatest difficulty at present is 
 lack of knowledge of how to attain these ends. 
 
 BURNING SLASH OR REFUSE 
 
 Several lumber companies in various regions have at- 
 tempted to burn the "slash" on cut-over land, but have 
 not developed a wholly successful system. The owner of 
 an enormous tract of virgin timber in Northern Cali- 
 fornia has employed men to rake away the debris from 
 the larger sugar and yellow pines, and to throw fresh dirt 
 into the cavities previously burned in the bases of the 
 trunks. The same plan has been tried on a small area 
 of long-leaf pine near Ocilla, Ga. Such a procedure will 
 give temporary protection from surface fires, but it leaves 
 all young growth open to destruction and does not get 
 at the root of the evil. The idea has hitherto prevailed 
 that in order to burn "slash" successfully the tops must 
 be lopped and the limbs and other debris piled. This has 
 made the process too expensive for general adoption. 
 As to burning "slash" as it lies, it has been proven that 
 by selecting favorable weather conditions and burning 
 in small blocks or broad lines the fires can be easily con- 
 trolled. Promising clumps of young growth and seed 
 trees will be protected by clearing around them before 
 the fires are started. Under no condition should there 
 be indiscriminate firing of slash, regardless of method, 
 and without competent supervision. 
 
 PLAN FOR PROTECTING MATURE TIMBER 
 
 On the California timber lands of a large match com- 
 pany, a plan of fire protection, prepared by the Bureau 
 
100 COOPERAGE 
 
 of Forestry, was in operation during the year 1904. The 
 results at the close of the season were very satisfactory. 
 No serious fires occurred, a marked contrast to the record 
 of recent years, prior to the application of the plan. In 
 addition to an annual systematized burning of the slash 
 on the land logged during the year, the plan provides 
 for a system of trails and telephone lines, whereby all 
 fires may be reported and reached promptly, a lookout 
 station at a commanding point of view, a regular patrol 
 during the dry season, the posting of warning notices, 
 the storing of fire-fighting tools at convenient points, and 
 the working up of an anti-fire sentiment among employees 
 and local inhabitants. With the growing desire for fire 
 protection, the general practices here found successful 
 should, with modifications to suit local requirements, find 
 application elsewhere. 
 
 THE QUESTION OF SECOND GROWTH 
 
 Assuming that the lumberman finds it advisable to pro- 
 tect his mature timber and burn his slash, the question 
 arises, can he afford to protect the young growth on the 
 cut-over land, or to hold the land for the second crop! 
 It is an undeniable fact that young forest growth in gen- 
 eral has no sale value, although in the eyes of the forester 
 its prospective value is considerable. (See Fig. 52.) It 
 thus follows that under the present system of taxing 
 forest lands, and in the face of a constant fire danger, 
 there is little encouragement for lumbermen to hold sec- 
 ond growth or to invest money in its protection. Despite 
 these discouraging facts, many lumbermen are retaining 
 their cut-over lands and manifest a desire to preserve 
 the second growth. But no active measures to protect 
 it have been taken except in a few cases, such as those 
 just mentioned. It is not so much the uncertainty of 
 returns, as the danger that all will be lost by fire, that pre- 
 
FOEEST FIBES 
 
 vents the general retention of lands more suitable for 
 timber production than for agriculture. 
 
 FOREST FIRES 
 
 THEIK CAUSE AND PKEVENTION 
 
 ONE of the chief causes of disastrous forest fires (see 
 Fig. 26) lies in the result of protracted drought. The 
 forest becomes inflammable. Thus on cut-over lands the 
 debris left after lumbering is in condition to catch fire 
 like tinder and to spread it almost like a powder maga- 
 zine. Every chance spark left unextinguished by smoker 
 or camper, every glowing cinder from locomotive or 
 brush-burner's fire, carries the potentiality of a great con- 
 flagration. During the season when fishermen and hunt- 
 ers are enjoying their sport, many build camp-fires and 
 smudges in every direction, and proceed on their way 
 without properly extinguishing them. Under such con- 
 ditions many incipient forest fires are, and always will 
 be inevitable. The only hope of preventing devastation 
 is through systematic watchfulness to extinguish every 
 little blaze before it has time to gather headway. In gen- 
 eral these fires burn rapidly, owing to the inflammable 
 condition of the forest. They are either " crown, " " sur- 
 face " or "ground," the type of fire varying with the 
 character of the forest and the strength of the wind. 
 Usually fires begin on the surface, spreading among the 
 leaves and dead branches. Where deep, dry duff is en- 
 countered, combustion works to the bottom of the half 
 peaty mass, stealing along, sometimes without much evi- 
 dence, above ground, possible even days or weeks, later 
 to develop into a ' ' surface " or " crown fire ' ' under favor- 
 able conditions. Among conifers, with their inflammable 
 
COOPERAGE 
 
 foliage, surface fires frequently mount to the tops of the 
 trees, and thus become " crown fires." This is the most 
 dangerous and unmanageable form of fire, on account of 
 the great surface offered to combustion, and also because 
 of the powerful draft caused by the rising of the heated 
 air, which fans the flames to uncontrollable fury. Such 
 fires travel with remarkable speed. Culpable careless- 
 ness is responsible for the largest part of our forest fires, 
 deliberate incendiarism for no small number, and un- 
 avoidable accident for a few. Inexcusable negligence and 
 disregard of legal requirements and the rights of adjoin- 
 ing property have been charged against the railroads. 
 Fully one-half of the fires due to carelessness are caused 
 by the locomotive. A good many fires are also set by 
 logging railways. The laws require the equipment of 
 locomotives with spark arresters and the observance of 
 other precautions against fires. Should the railroads be 
 compelled to adopt these safeguards, much loss would be 
 averted. The railroads themselves will be heavy suffer- 
 ers in the long run from the devastation for which they 
 are so largely responsible. Next to railroads, "fallow- 
 ing," or the clearing of land, by burning debris left after 
 lumbering, is probably the most prolific source of fires. 
 As usual, many fires are started through the carelessness 
 of smokers. Smudges and camp-fires imperfectly ex- 
 tinguished cause their full share of damage. The forms 
 of neglect or carelessness outlined above are responsible 
 for a very large percentage of damage done. 
 
 METHODS OF FIGHTING SAME 
 
 The most effective fighting against forest fires can be 
 done from daybreak until about nine o 'clock in the morn- 
 ing. The fires are usually much deadened at this time 
 of day, and the fighters should take advantage of this 
 fact, resting or acting chiefly on the defensive in the 
 
FOEEST FIRES 103 
 
 middle of the day, and renewing the attack toward eve- 
 ning, when the fires again lose some of their aggressive- 
 ness. Surface fires can be checked by raking away the 
 litter on the forest floor in a path a few feet wide, which 
 serves as a line of defense from which the fire can be 
 fought back as it approaches. Where water can be ob- 
 tained the path should be thoroughly wet down. Shovel- 
 fuls of sand dashed upon the blazing wood will also have 
 a deadening effect, and burning grass in the clearings 
 can be thrashed out with the bushy top of a young spruce 
 or balsam, or a few furrows should be turned with a 
 plough across the track of the fire. Usually the presence 
 of duff makes it necessary to dig a trench from one to 
 four feet wide down to the mineral soil, and completely 
 encircling the fire. The roots should be cut through with 
 axes and mattocks, and the mass of peaty material 
 chopped up and shovelled out and sand or dirt heaped 
 against the outer side of the trench, to protect the duff 
 from sparks and heat. When the fire burns through the 
 inner side, where these methods fail or cannot be used, 
 back-firing should be resorted to. Trenches should be 
 dug from two to four feet wide, and the fire applied to 
 the side next the forest fire. If the trenches can be de- 
 fended successfully for a short time, the fires thus set 
 will burn a distance back from the trench, thus clearing 
 away much of the combustible matter and robbing the 
 conflagration of its energy when the two lines of fire meet. 
 This is a very effective method of fighting forest fires, 
 but extreme caution is necessary in its use. 
 
SECTION FV 
 
 SAWS- 
 
SAWS 
 
 GENEKAL SAW INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 THE successful fitting of saws is directly dependent 
 upon these two essentials : a well-equipped filing room and 
 a capable saw-filer, possessed of a moderate amount of 
 "horse sense " in charge of it. Saws do not run or fit 
 themselves, and they require the proper amount of care 
 and attention in order that they may produce a maximum 
 quantity and improved quality of output on a minimum 
 saw kerf. Therefore, it is an unwise economy that does 
 not provide both essentials. And the most successful 
 mill and factory operators of to-day consider it good 
 practice and a profitable investment to supply every tool 
 or appliance calculated to facilitate the filer 's work. 
 
 Every operator of a cooperage plant has more or less 
 of a substantial investment in factory and saws. His 
 profits depend largely upon his finished product being 
 well manufactured and with the least amount of waste 
 possible. This cannot be accomplished unless his sawing 
 equipment receives constant care and attention. He 
 spends money for saws which for some operators run 
 finely and last for years, until worn out, while for others 
 they run indifferently and only last for as many weeks, 
 when they are utterly worthless from cracks or other 
 defective conditions, caused by lack of proper care and 
 in some instances by gross carelessness ; and the product 
 turned out is of an indifferent quality, while the per- 
 centage of waste is enormous. This is probably the sug- 
 gestion of "no swage, " "no sharpener, " "irregular ten- 
 sioning, ' ' etc. ; or if such tools are in use, they are indif- 
 
108 COOPERAGE 
 
 ferently used, are defective, out of repair, or inefficient 
 in operation. It is manifestly true that not all mill men 
 can carry on their business with equal success and profit, 
 but it is a self-evident truth to the well-informed that 
 the best results obtainable from saws are contingent upon 
 their being properly sharpened, swaged, tensioned, etc. ; 
 results which are obtainable only by close attention to 
 details in the operation of fitting a saw for its particular 
 duty. 
 
 SAW-FITTING NOT A MYSTERIOUS PEOCESS 
 
 After all, saw-fitting is a work in which the little things 
 count more than anything else, and the artistic work on 
 the part of the saw is due more to the amount of atten- 
 tion given to all the little points in gumming, filing, etc., 
 than to any mysterious superiority in skill. It is superi- 
 ority in a way, of course, but it is simply thorough exer- 
 cise of care and intelligence in one's duty. There is 
 nothing in the way of mystery in the art of saw-fitting 
 nor about a saw, either. Every subject is comparatively 
 easy of analysis and every fault has a cure, and most of 
 them will disappear themselves if enough attention is 
 given to gumming each tooth alike and in making every 
 tooth cut exactly like the preceding one. Any man who 
 has seen a reasonable amount of service in and around 
 a stave or heading mill ; who has labored conscientiously 
 and made good use of the "gray matter " he has been 
 endowed with during such service; who can recognize 
 well-manufactured stock when he sees it, and is possessed 
 of a reasonable amount of skill in the handling of tools, 
 and with intelligence enough to be entrusted with the care 
 of saws, can turn out a good, satisfactory job of saw- 
 filing if he will only use fair judgment and take the pains 
 to follow up these details connected with his work. One 
 of the most important points in connection with effective 
 
SAWS 109 
 
 saw-fitting, no matter whether it is cylinder, pendulum, 
 or any other kind of saw, is to keep the teeth at the same 
 width, and the throats or gullets of the same uniform 
 depth, so that the saw is in perfect running balance. The 
 higher the speed of the saw, the more important this mat- 
 ter of balance becomes, and it is always of more conse- 
 quence than the average saw-filer gives it credit for being. 
 Quite frequently a saw may run badly, shake and trem- 
 ble, and jerk in the cut, doing its work unevenly, so that it 
 leaves heavy ridges on the stock and makes a waste of 
 timber, when the main trouble is lack of balance. The 
 heavier the saw, the less likelihood there is of its growing 
 shaky when it is only a little out of balance, but with the 
 modern tendency to operate thin saws in order to lessen 
 the waste in saw kerf, and the general disposition to run 
 them at high speed, it becomes imperative to have them 
 perfectly balanced. The trouble is the average saw-filer 
 does not realize that a little difference in gumming or a 
 little difference in the width of the teeth may affect the 
 balance of the saw. When one gets down to the real art 
 of saw-filing, it is not so much a matter of that peculiar 
 style of tooth or of getting the teeth so that they will cut, 
 but it occurs to us that the important thing, after all, is 
 to get them to cut smoothly. This they will not do, of 
 course, if the saw is out of balance ; but that is only one 
 defect, and there are many others. Too much time is 
 often wasted in the study of design of the tooth, and not 
 enough given to close attention in making each tooth cut 
 exactly like the preceding one. so that the work is smooth 
 and regular. 
 
 FILING-ROOM EQUIPMENT 
 
 The ideas of mill men and saw-filers differ as to what 
 machines and tools comprise an efficient filing-room outfit, 
 and we consider that in order to make this work complete, 
 
110 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 it will be necessary to give a list of the several tools, 
 machines, and appliances that are deemed in practice by 
 
 FIG. 28. AUTOMATIC SAW SHARPENER. 
 
 the well informed to be necessary or desirable for the dif- 
 ferent processes through which a saw must pass before 
 it would be considered properly fitted for its particular 
 
SAWS 
 
 111 
 
 duty. This list as given comprises an outfit that will 
 please the most critical, and provides a machine or tool 
 for each and every service so far as conceived to date. 
 
 FOE SHAKPENING OK GUMMING CIKCULAKS 
 
 An automatic sharpener (Fig. 28) of suitable capacity 
 and of such construction that the teeth are sharpened 
 and kept of the same shape and size throughout, the gate 
 to be so inclined that the emery wheel will drop to the 
 
 FIG. 29. HAND SHARPENER AND GUMMER. 
 
112 COOPERAGE 
 
 throat of each tooth. In this manner it avoids burning or 
 case-hardening the points of the teeth. Saws sharpened 
 on an automatic sharpener of this kind will do more work 
 with better results than saws sharpened by hand, with 
 a big saving in files, as emery wheels cost but little com- 
 pared with hand files. Another excellent machine for 
 sharpening and gumming is shown in Fig. 29, where an 
 automatic machine would be found too expensive or the 
 small number of saws operated would not justify the pur- 
 chase of an expensive automatic sharpener. This hand 
 sharpener is adjustable, and when in the hands of a capa- 
 ble saw-filer produces excellent results. Of course, more 
 of the saw-filer's time is required in operating a machine 
 of this type. If an automatic sharpener were installed, 
 he would find more time to perform other duties, which 
 probably would be to a better advantage in the long run. 
 This hand gummer also has an attachment whereby 
 planer knives up to twenty-six inches in length may be 
 ground. 
 
 FOE SWAGING 
 
 An up-to-date and adjustable hand swage of the eccen- 
 tric type, one that is suitable for circular saws and when 
 in operation does not pinch off the points of the saw teeth, 
 and with the proper adjustment, so that any shaped tooth 
 or any gauge saw desired can be swaged. (See Fig. 30.) 
 The use of a machine swage on all large rip saws is indis- 
 pensable, and a more general introduction of such a tool 
 for swaging small factory saws would afford results far 
 superior to hand swaging, or the mixed use of swage and 
 spring-set, or the use of spring-set only. Mill men and 
 all users of large or small rip saws are now realizing 
 more than ever the great benefits derived by using on 
 their saws a good swage, instead of the old method of 
 using the spring-set or the upset. Swages are now 
 
SAWS 113 
 
 adapted to all sizes and gauges of circular saws, and to 
 all ordinary shapes of teeth. Their work is rapid and 
 is vastly superior to the upset or spring-set, as it makes 
 a better corner, keeps the saw in round, and affords a 
 sharp, keen cutting tooth that requires but little dress- 
 
 FIG. 30. ADJUSTABLE HAND SWAGE. 
 
 ing with emery wheel or file to bring it to a perfect point. 
 A properly swaged saw of any kind will do more and 
 better work and take less power to operate than one fitted 
 with a spring- set, an upset, or with a combined swage 
 and spring- set. 
 
 Also an assortment of " upset swages " and a swage 
 bar and hammer, which, though not recommended by 
 modern mill men, may on especial occasions be supple- 
 mented. 
 
 FOE SIDE DKESSING 
 
 A swage shaper or pressure dressing tool (Fig. 31), 
 although as yet not so generally used in the cooperage 
 trade, is now considered as a necessary and indispensa- 
 ble tool by all practical men who are interested in secur- 
 ing the best results in the operation of their circular saws. 
 
114 
 
 COOPEBAGE 
 
 FIG. 31. SIDE DRESSER OR 
 SWAGE SHAPER. 
 
 Expert saw-filers are coming more and more to use the 
 swage shaper wholly for side-dressing purposes, and 
 
 while a side file may be used by 
 some with satisfactory results on 
 saws of 12 to 16 gauge, the side 
 file will not do for light-gauged 
 saws. The tool is used similarly 
 to an eccentric hand swage, rest- 
 ing over point of tooth and oper- 
 ated by the lever, to force the 
 side-dressing dies together. This 
 tool completes the work of the 
 swage, and by its use the swaged 
 tooth may be pressed into per- 
 fect and uniform shape. A pair 
 of dies press upon the sides of 
 the swaged tooth, compressing the swaging to any de- 
 sired set or spread, and tapering the tooth downward 
 and backward from the point, making a perfect clear- 
 ance, with face and point always the widest. This is 
 an ideal way to side-dress a saw tooth, and saves the 
 steel instead of filing it away, as with the side file. It is 
 well worth while to aim for the best results in saw-fitting, 
 and with the use of a swage and swage shaper you will 
 have fewer bad cuts, smoother stock, fewer saws will 
 come off, and less work in hammering and tensioning. 
 Perfect swaging and side-dressing suggest a minimum 
 saw kerf, smoother stock and a reduction in power. 
 
 FOE HAMMERING AND ADJUSTING 
 
 Saws periodically require tensioning. Even the smaller 
 equalizer saws used in stave mills should at times re- 
 ceive this attention in order to secure the best results. 
 For this process is required a round-face and a cross- 
 face hammer, weighing from 2 to 3% pounds, an iron 
 
SAWS 
 
 115 
 
 levelling block or try mandrel, 14x72x5 inches or 
 smaller, surfaced both sides to permit of reversing, a 
 steel-faced anvil, 14 x 24 
 x 5 inches or smaller, two 
 steel straightedges, one 
 from 14 to 18 inches long, 
 and one about 48 or 50 
 inches long, and a ten- 
 sion gauge. These com- 
 prise the necessary tools 
 for hammering and ad- 
 justing circular saws, 
 (bee rig. oZ.) FlG 3 TOOLS FOR HAMMERING, ETC. 
 
 FOR SETTING 
 
 Where spring-set is used, a circular saw set as shown 
 in Fig. 33 is desirable. It should be adjustable and ar- 
 ranged to take in any size saw, up to, say, 48 inches. 
 
 FIG. 33. CIRCULAR SAW SET. 
 
 This type of saw set is superior to the hand sets so much 
 in use by the trade, and illustrated in Fig. 34. As this 
 type of saw set insures an even amount of set in the 
 teeth, which is of considerable importance, in that it 
 does not weaken the teeth, and is desirable in order to 
 secure a more uniform setting and better results. In 
 conjunction with the above, a setting or striking hammer 
 is necessary. One that does not weigh more than three- 
 
116 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 quarters to one pound is desirable. A saw gauge (Fig. 
 35) is also necessary where the hand sets (Fig. 34) are 
 used. There are innumerable types of these gauges in 
 
 FIG. 35. SAW GAUGE. 
 
 FIG. 34. HAND SAW SET. 
 
 use, a great variety of them being made by saw-filers 
 themselves. Some are constructed of wood, others of 
 iron, but the one illustrated is considered by many as 
 
 the best. Another useful 
 tool in the setting of small 
 saws, particularly the con- 
 cave heading saws, is a 
 type styled Monarch Pat- 
 ent saw set, which is an 
 extremely simple and in- 
 expensive tool, and very 
 
 effective in its work. There should also be included in 
 the filing-room equipment a bench vise or saw clamp 
 (Fig. 37) and an emery-wheel dresser. 
 
 FOR GUMMING AND SHARPENING DRUM OR CYLINDER SAWS 
 
 An extremely useful and very economical tool for use 
 where there are one or more cylinder stave saws in opera- 
 tion is shown in Fig. 38, which is very simple in con- 
 struction, effective and extremely economical, when com- 
 pared to labor saved and the cost of hand files. These 
 gummers are adjustable, being so constructed that they 
 can be raised or lowered, as the case may be, and the 
 
SAWS 
 
 117 
 
 emery wheel used at any desired angle while the gummer 
 is in use, and are considered a necessary and indispens- 
 able tool by all practical men of the trade. 
 
 FIG. 36. CYLINDER SAW SWAGE. 
 FOE SWAGING DKUM OK CYLINDER STAVE SAWS 
 
 The swaging of cylinder stave saws has until recent 
 years been looked upon with more or less doubt and sus- 
 picion, from the fact that the first tool 
 placed upon the market for this purpose 
 did not quite come up to its require- 
 ments; but since other and improved 
 types (Fig. 36) have appeared. The 
 prejudice formerly existing has grad- 
 ually disappeared. In justice to this tool 
 or this method of sharpening saws, it 
 must be said that cylinder saws can, and 
 are, being swaged just as successfully 
 as band or circular saws, and manufac- 
 turers who aim toward economy will do 
 well to include this tool in their filing- 
 room equipment, as they are long past 
 the experimental stage, and are being FlG 37 BENCH 
 used successfully by the leading man- VISE OR CLAMP. 
 
118 
 
 COOPEBAGE 
 
 ufacturers. In swaging cylinder saws, the saw must be 
 gummed by the emery wheel, gauged for spread of tooth, 
 and side-dressed, the same as ordinary circular saws. In 
 the process of swaging, the teeth are drawn out, refining 
 the steel, which produces a better cutting 
 edge, that is more easily kept sharp. 
 And also by the use of the swage, instead 
 of the old method of spring-set, a thinner 
 gauge saw may be used, which means less 
 saw kerf, and less kerf means less power, 
 and that in its turn spells economy. There 
 are other little advantages and economies 
 besides these in using the swage, such as 
 smoother stock, less files, with less skill 
 to a certain degree in sharpening. 
 
 FOR KNIFE-SHARPENING 
 
 An automatic knife grinder or sharp- 
 ener (Fig. 39) is now con- 
 sidered by all successful 
 and modern mill operators 
 as an indispensable tool in 
 the proper equipment of the 
 grinding room. These ma- 
 chines have been so per- 
 fected that they are no 
 longer considered as an ex- 
 periment, but as effective 
 The machine as shown is 
 adapted to automatically grind the face of circle stave 
 knives of any length. See detail sketch (Figs. 40, 41, 
 42 and 43) showing the possible grinding of straight 
 or circle knives, which are far superior to hand grind- 
 ing or filing. A knife-balancing scales (Fig. 39%) 
 should also be included among the grinding- room outfit. 
 
 FIG. 38. CYLINDER SAW GUMMER 
 OR SHARPENER. 
 
 and economical grinders. 
 
SAWS 
 
 119 
 
 Otherwise the proper balancing of the knives, so essen- 
 tial to the successful operation of the different Tiigh- 
 
 FIG. 39. AUTOMATIC KNIFE SHARPENER OR GRINDER. 
 
 speed machines, is an impossibility. It is hardly pos- 
 sible to realize what one ounce of misplaced weight 
 
 FIG. 39. KNIFE BALANCING SCALES. 
 
 means in a knife. Suppose a pair of knives are of 
 the same weight, knife No. 1 being correct in balance, 
 
120 COOPERAGE 
 
 both ends weighing the same. But the right end of 
 knife No. 2 weighs one ounce more than the right end 
 of knife No. 1. When revolving on a four-inch cylinder 
 at 4,000 revolutions per minute, this ounce exerts a pull 
 
 S\ 
 
 Jfnife Grinder PZa$f*\ \ 
 
 m 
 
 1*3 of I 
 
 FIG. 40. DETAIL SKETCH OP STRAIGHT BEVEL GRINDING OF KNIFE. 
 
 of about 58 pounds, and this is forced through its course 
 4,000 times a minute, up and down, back and forward. 
 Is it any wonder that these little defects in rapidly re- 
 volving cylinders sometimes cause a whole building to feel 
 
 ) 
 FIG. 41. DETAIL SKETCH OF CONCAVE BEVEL GRINDING OF KNIFE. 
 
 the motion? But this is not all. As both knives are of 
 equal weight, the left end of knife No. 2 must weigh one 
 ounce less than the same end of knife No. 1. Then, while 
 revolving, one end of the cylinder is thrown up, the other 
 
SAWS 
 
 121 
 
 end is thrown down, producing a vibratory motion, and 
 this practically doubles the defect. Thus the necessity 
 of balancing the ends of the knife, as well as the knife 
 
 Cup E^erj/ Wheel. 
 
 . 1 
 
 of Stavt'Xtiifo' 
 
 FIG. 42. DETAIL SKETCH OF CONCAVE GRINDING OF STAVE CUTTER KNIFE. 
 
 itself, is very plainly seen. Knives out of balance not 
 only produce poor quality of work, but subject the ma- 
 chine upon which they travel to a tremendous strain, and 
 
 Cup Emery Wheel 
 Stave Xn,ife. 
 
 JTTI _.. r fTIV 
 
 FIG. 43. DETAIL SKETCH OF BACK GRINDING OF STAVE CUTTER KNIFE. 
 
 cause the knife cylinder to rattle and the bearings to heat 
 and wear rapidly, which necessitates extra labor in re- 
 babbitting and unnecessary expense in the cost of babbitt 
 metal, not mentioning the probable time lost by employ- 
 ees, through the machine not being in proper repair. 
 
122 COOPEEAGE 
 
 FOR GENERAL USE 
 
 All filing or grinding-room outfits should include among 
 their list an emery-wheel grinder for general use, as 
 these simple and inexpensive machines easily prove their 
 economical value by their great saving in cost of files 
 and labor, and can be generally used for almost any pur- 
 pose where filing is necessary. 
 
 SOME CAUSES OF POOR RESULTS IN SAWS 
 
 1. Attempting to run too long without sharpening. 
 
 2. Irregular and shallow gullets. 
 
 3. Uneven setting and filing. 
 
 4. Not enough set for proper clearance. 
 
 5. Backs of teeth too high for clearance. 
 
 6. Too much pitch or hook on teeth. 
 
 7. Out of round, and consequently out of balance. 
 
 8. Ill-fitting mandrel and pinholes. 
 
 9. Collars not large enough in diameter. 
 
 10. Weak and imperfect collars. 
 
 11. Insufficient power to maintain regular speed. 
 
 12. Too thin a saw for the class of work required. 
 
 13. Not enough or too many teeth. 
 
 14. A sprung mandrel or lost motion in mandrel boxes. 
 
 15. Heating of journal next to saw. 
 
 16. Carriage not properly aligned with saw. 
 
 THE PROPER CARE OF SAWS 
 
 One of the most general causes of trouble with saws 
 of all kinds is the first item on the list, "Attempting to 
 run too long without sharpening. ' ' The points of the saw 
 teeth are the only parts of the saw that should come in 
 contact with the timber. They should be kept sharp by 
 the frequent use of the file or sharpener, and set by 
 springing, swaging, or spreading when necessary suf- 
 ficiently to clear the blade of the saw nicely to prevent 
 
SAWS 123 
 
 friction. As the points of the teeth do all the work, they 
 become dull and round, the sides of the points wearing 
 away as well as the points themselves. If there is ' l only" 
 one corner off, and that corner leaves a ridge, it would 
 have practically the same effect on the saw blade in pass- 
 ing as if all the teeth had corners broken or worn off; 
 and heating will develop unless the saw is set wide, which 
 means unnecessary waste of power and of timber. On 
 the other hand, if one corner is a little longer than the 
 others, leaving a groove instead of a ridge in the face of 
 the work, it does not interfere with the saw blade; but 
 the surface of the stock cut, in order to be smooth when 
 planed, will necessarily have to be cut down to whatever 
 depth that groove extends below the face, and that means 
 an unnecessary waste of just that much timber; so in 
 either case it is imperfect fitting or negligence of one's 
 duty that creates a monetary loss, which could have been 
 prevented by the proper amount of care and attention. 
 When a thin saw is used, with the object of saving timber 
 by lessening the saw kerf, a long or short corner on a 
 tooth makes it necessary to waste it and sometimes more 
 at the planer. Therefore, it is more economical to 
 sharpen the saw before it has become dull and round 
 pointed. Great care should also be taken to maintain the 
 proper shape of the points of the teeth. This can be 
 readily accomplished when necessary by the frequent use 
 of the machine or hand swage, or by the hand file, as the 
 case may be. The gullets or sawdust chambers of the 
 saw teeth should under no circumstances be filed square, 
 and this rule should be applied to the small saws as well 
 as the larger ones. They should in all cases be kept 
 rounded out either by the use of the saw gummer or file. 
 A saw tooth becomes dull on the side or under the point 
 in proportion to the amount of feed. For instance, if 
 the tooth takes one-sixteenth of an inch hold at each 
 
124 COOPEEAGE 
 
 revolution, it will become dull to a depth of one- sixteenth 
 of an inch below the point, or more or less as you increase 
 or decrease the amount of feed. A few moments' filing 
 two or three times a day will save much of the time and 
 labor otherwise expended in running a dull saw, and 
 effect a saving in the power consumed, increase the out- 
 put, and materially improve the quality of the manufac- 
 tured product. The square corners in the gullet or saw- 
 dust chamber is another of the most frequent causes of 
 poor results in saws, which should be guarded against, 
 as they are very liable to cause cracks to appear, par- 
 ticularly when the teeth are dull or during frosty weather. 
 
 SAWS OUT OF BOUND 
 
 The cutting of a circular or any other saw should be 
 continuous, consequently the saw must be perfectly round 
 to produce the best results. No saw can reasonably be 
 expected to perform good work if it is out of round 
 and consequently out of balance. When a saw has long 
 and short teeth it naturally follows that the longest teeth 
 will do the most work. This throws the heaviest strain 
 on that part of the saw, instead of distributing it equally 
 around the entire circumference. It is fully as impor- 
 tant that saws be kept perfectly round as it is that 
 they should be kept well swaged and sharpened. It is 
 a comparatively easy matter to keep saws round with 
 automatic machinery, but it requires considerably more 
 skill to keep them round simply by the action of sharp- 
 ening with a hand file. All filers should "joint" their 
 saws frequently. In swage-set saws always l i joint ' ' after 
 a fresh swaging by holding a piece of an old emery wheel 
 against the teeth while it revolves slowly, thus reducing 
 the teeth to a common length. Then file them again to 
 a keen cutting edge. Keep the saw round, well set and 
 nicely balanced. 
 
SAWS 125 
 
 SHAKPENING AND GUMMING 
 
 In sharpening or gumming saws with emery wheels, 
 always use a good free-cutting wheel and never put so 
 much pressure on it or crowd it so fast that the teeth 
 are heated to such an extent that they become blued or 
 case-hardened by the emery wheel. They are liable to 
 break or crumble when in the cut or the next time they 
 are swaged or set with the spring-set. Joint or true the 
 emery wheel occasionally to retain the proper shape of 
 its face, which should be kept round, and to remove the 
 glaze. When gumming, it is always best to gum around 
 the saw several times, instead of finishing each tooth 
 at one operation, for by this method they are less liable 
 to case-harden or blue, and a more uniform gullet or 
 sawdust chamber is obtained. Keep the teeth of the 
 same width, and the throats or gullets of the same uni- 
 form depth, so that the saw will be in perfect running 
 balance. After gumming it is advisable to file all around 
 the saw, taking care to remove the fash or burr left on the 
 edges and all the glazed or hard spots caused by the em- 
 ery wheel. .Gumming and sharpening a saw with an emery 
 wheel, especially if you attempt to crowd the work, will 
 have a tendency to cause the saw to "let down" or lose 
 its tension much quicker than by the use of the hand 
 file, as it heats and expands the rim of the saw, putting 
 it in the shape generally termed by mill men i i buckled, ' ' 
 which makes it appear loose and limber. Many saws 
 are condemned just from this cause and thrown aside 
 as worn out, when by proper work in hammering they 
 can be made as good as new again. 
 
 FITTING AND SWAGING 
 
 See that the saw slips up freely to fast collar and 
 hangs straight and plumb when tightened up ; that the 
 saw mandrel is level and has no end play or lateral 
 
126 COOPEEAGE 
 
 motion, as the grain of the wood will push or draw the 
 mandrel endwise no matter how well the saw is kept. 
 Keep the saw sharp, round and swaged or set enough 
 for clearance. An extreme amount of set or swaging, 
 notwithstanding the injudicious waste of timber, in- 
 creases the tensile strain and also has a tendency to 
 make the saw tremble. The proper amount of set or 
 swaging varies according to the class of timber being 
 cut, hardwoods requiring the least amount of set, and 
 soft or fibrous woods requiring more. The amount of 
 clearance required also depends on the gauge of the 
 saw. In the usual gauges of large circular saws, say, 
 8, 9 and 10 gauge, a clearance of %2 of an inch equally 
 divided, is about "as little" clearance as should be 
 run, except in hardwoods and frozen timber; then less 
 may be used. In smaller saws, a clearance of "four" 
 to "five gauges" is usually considered sufficient by most 
 filers, and few make a greater distinction than "one" 
 gauge of set, as between hardwoods and softwoods, the 
 hardwoods requiring less. Keep the extreme point of 
 the tooth the widest, and do all the filing or gumming 
 on the under or front side of the tooth, always filing 
 square across the teeth. Never file square corners in 
 the gullets of the saw teeth of any kind, as this renders 
 them liable to break. When there is occasion to swage 
 or upset the teeth of the saw, the proper method is to 
 file them all to a sharp point first, then swage afterward, 
 as this will not only save time, but will save the saw, for 
 the sharper the teeth, the more easily will they swage 
 or upset. Always endeavor to keep the teeth in the 
 same shape they were when new, filing them to a uniform 
 depth and width and with the same amount of rake, for, 
 should they lose any of their hook or rake or sawdust 
 chamber, the saw will not only consume more power, but 
 be harder to keep in order, as well as turn out inferior 
 
SAWS 127 
 
 work, and consequently cause considerable waste of tim- 
 ber. Keep the saws well balanced, round and the gullets 
 or throats well gummed out. 
 
 LEAD OF SAWS 
 
 The amount of lead required for circular saws should 
 be the least amount that is possible in order to keep the 
 saw in the cut and prevent it from heating at the centre. 
 If the lead into the cut is too great, the saw will heat on 
 the rim ; if the lead out of the cut is too much, the saw 
 will heat at the centre. However, we will take this mat- 
 ter up with the individual saws further on in this work. 
 
 NUMBER AND STYLE OF TOOTH 
 
 The style, shape and number of teeth in saws depend 
 entirely upon its diameter, gauge, the purpose for which 
 the saw is to be used, and the class of timber to be cut. 
 The amount of hook, depth, size, and shape of the saw- 
 dust chamber or gullet also play an important part in 
 the working and success of the saw. A long tooth has 
 the demerit of being weak and liable to spring. But 
 it also has the merit of giving a greater clearance to the 
 sawdust chamber. The throat space in front of each 
 tooth must be large enough to contain the sawdust pro- 
 " duced by that tooth in each revolution. And the greater 
 the feed, the larger or deeper it must be in order to fulfil 
 its mission, or the more teeth required. If a saw is lack- 
 ing in the proper amount of hook or the teeth are nearly 
 straight on the face, they will scrape instead of cut, and 
 will soon become dull. This produces no end of trouble 
 in itself, for the teeth will cut hard, and it will require 
 double the amount of power to force the saw through 
 the cut. The severe strain on the teeth when in this dull 
 condition causes them to tremble in the cut, producing 
 a tremulous strain on the saw plate that calls for more 
 
128 COOPERAGE 
 
 tension. And this severe strain on the teeth and at the 
 bottom of the gullets, and especially so if the teeth are 
 long, tends to crack the plate at this point and breaks 
 out the teeth. Although the saw may have tension 
 enough under ordinary conditions, the circumstances 
 referred to above so strain and stretch the edge while 
 the saw is at work that "more" tension is required to 
 guard against the saw running snaky. Considering the 
 elasticity of the steel, it is reasonable to concede that 
 anything that tends to pull or strain the plate will stretch 
 it, and the more it stretches, the more tension is required 
 to enable it to stand up to its work. And it has been 
 fully demonstrated that an extreme amount of tension 
 tends to throw too heavy a strain on the edge of the 
 plate, and eventually it will cause the saw to crack at 
 the gullets. A great many saw filers when their saws get 
 into this condition, instead of adding a little more hook 
 to the teeth and making a good, large, round gullet or 
 sawdust chamber, give the saw "more tension" to over- 
 come this trouble, which might have been remedied other- 
 wise, and is a grave mistake, and will eventually lead to 
 more and greater difficulties. 
 
 CIRCULAR RIPSAWS 
 
 The standard amount of hook or rake generally given 
 large ripsaws, and which is usually considered "the 
 limit" or "the least" amount that a saw should have to 
 enable it to run successfully and stand up to its work has 
 been found to conform to the following rule: The pitch 
 line of tooth must be tangent to a circle whose diameter is 
 one-half that of the saw. Although this pitch line of tooth 
 is usually considered ' 1 standard, ' ' a saw will do equally as 
 well with a little more than this. In cases where a spring- 
 set is used on large ripsaws, it is always considered 
 practical to have a larger number of teeth than if the 
 
SAWS 129 
 
 saws were fitted with a full swage set. And, again, i 
 should always be remembered that thin-gauge saws also 
 require a larger number of teeth than saws of a heavier 
 gauge, to do the same class of sawing, as this equalizes 
 the strain on the rim, as well as prevents springing of 
 the teeth. It has been also found advisable, whether rip- 
 saws are fitted with spring or swage set always to file 
 straight across in front and back of the teeth, as a bev- 
 elled tooth has a tendency to split the fibres of the wood, 
 instead of cutting it off squarely across, and produces 
 a lateral motion, which causes the teeth to chatter and 
 vibrate in the cut. Many saws are cracked from this 
 cause, although it has been frequently stated that cotton- 
 wood and gum, especially the former, is the most difficult 
 of woods to cut, on account of its fibrous and stringy 
 nature, and that in order to saw this class of timber suc- 
 cessfully the saw teeth should be set with a full spring- 
 set, and the points "bevelled" and sharpened to almost 
 a needle point. This wrinkle may be worth trying out. 
 In order to determine the number of teeth required in 
 a saw, it is first necessary to find out the amount of feed 
 the saw is to run on, and if the feed is four inches to 
 every revolution, it is considered standard to have one 
 and one-half tooth for every inch of the diameter of the 
 saw. In other words, if a saw is working on a 4-inch 
 feed, and it is desired to operate a 50-inch saw, it will 
 be necessary to have 75 teeth, and for every additional 
 "inch of feed" carried add 10 teeth; that is, for a 50-inch 
 saw with 5-inch feed 85 teeth, 6-inch feed 95 teeth, and 
 so on, increasing the number of teeth in a slightly less 
 proportion up to any desired amount of "feed." Where 
 the feed is less than four inches the same rule may be ap- 
 plied by reducing the number of teeth in proportion to the 
 reduction in feed. The above rule applies only to the reg- 
 ular gauges used, say, 10 to 16 gauge. Heavier gauge 
 
130 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 fgaws require less teeth. This rule applies particularly 
 to saws cutting soft and fibrous timher. For hardwood 
 or frozen timber, where there is sufficient power to main- 
 tain a uniform speed, the same rule may be applied. But 
 in mills where the power is limited and of an uneven 
 speed, it is not good policy to have more than one tooth 
 to every inch of the diameter of the saw, as the fewer 
 teeth there are in a saw, the less power it requires to 
 drive it. - 
 
 THE STANDARD NUMBER OF TEETH IN CIRCULAR RIP SAWS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HEADING SAWS 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TBETH 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JJIAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 4 
 
 38 to 40 
 
 24 
 
 34 to Sd 
 
 50 
 
 50 to 70 
 
 40 
 
 60 to 80 
 
 5 
 
 38 to 40 
 
 26 
 
 32 to 34 
 
 52 
 
 52 to 80 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 38 to 40 
 
 28 
 
 32 to 34 
 
 54 
 
 54 to 80 
 
 42 
 
 60 to 80 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 38 to 40 
 38 to 40 
 
 30 
 32 
 
 32 to 34 
 32 to 34 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 56 to 90 
 58 to 90 
 
 44 
 
 72 to 90 
 
 9 
 
 36 to 38 
 
 34 
 
 32 to 34 
 
 60 
 
 60 to 100 
 
 46 
 
 72 to 90 
 
 10 
 
 36 to 38 
 
 36 
 
 34 to 38 
 
 62 
 
 60 to 100 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 36 to 38 
 
 38 
 
 34 to 38 
 
 64 
 
 60 to 100 
 
 48 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 14 
 
 36 to 38 
 
 40 
 
 36 to 40 
 
 66 
 
 72 to 100 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 36 to 38 
 
 42 
 
 36 to 40 
 
 68 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 50 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 34 to 36 
 34 to 36 
 
 44 
 46 
 
 36 to 40 
 36 to 40 
 
 70 
 72 
 
 90 to 100 
 90 to 100 
 
 52 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 22 
 
 34 to 36 
 
 48 
 
 48 to 60 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 84 to 110 
 
 CUT-OFF OR CEOSS-CUT SAWS 
 
 Cut-off saws differ from ripsaws only in the shape 
 of their teeth and the manner of filing or dressing them. 
 The amount of hook necessary for such saws cutting soft 
 or fibrous woods, and which is usually considered most 
 satisfactory, is that the line of pitch on teeth should run 
 through the centre of mandrel hole ; and for cutting hard- 
 woods, the amount of hook or pitch is always a little less. 
 The bevel on cross-cut saw teeth* should never extend 
 into the gullets or sawdust chamber, in fact, "only" the 
 "points" of the teeth need bevelling. The remainder of 
 the tooth and gullet should be dressed straight across. 
 In heavy cutting the front of the tooth should be filed 
 
SAWS 
 
 131 
 
 with "very little" or no bevel. Many saw-filers have 
 adopted the method of filing every seventh tooth square, 
 front and back. This is considered good practice, as it 
 removes the core or V from the kerf and prevents much 
 of the lateral strain. These teeth should be just a trifle 
 shorter than the ones that are bevelled. When sawing 
 v^ery hard or kiln-dried hardwood, it is always consid- 
 ered advisable to use a narrower gullet and a stouter 
 tooth than when cutting green or fresh timber. 
 
 STANDARD NUMBER OF TEETH IN CROSS-CUT SAWS 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 INCH 
 
 No. TEETH 
 
 4 
 
 100 to 120 
 
 18 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 38 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 56 
 
 90 to 120 
 
 5 
 
 100 to 120 
 
 20 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 40 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 58 
 
 90 to 120 
 
 6 
 
 100 to 120 
 
 22 
 
 72 to 80 
 
 42 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 60 
 
 90 to 120 
 
 7 
 
 100 to 120 
 
 24 
 
 72 to 80 
 
 44 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 62 
 
 100 to 140 
 
 8 
 
 100 to 120 
 
 26 
 
 72 to 80 
 
 48 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 6t 
 
 100 to 140 
 
 9 
 
 90 to 110 
 
 28 
 
 72 to 80 
 
 48 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 66 
 
 100 to 140 
 
 10 
 
 90 to 110 
 
 30 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 50 
 
 80 to 100 
 
 68 
 
 100 to 160 
 
 12 
 
 90 to 100 
 
 32 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 52 
 
 80 to 100 ' 
 
 70 
 
 100 to 160 
 
 14 
 
 90 to 100 
 
 34 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 54 
 
 90 to 120 
 
 72 
 
 100 to 160 
 
 16 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 36 
 
 80 to 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 COLLAKS FOK SAWS 
 
 For a perfect-running saw, it is indispensable to have 
 collars and stem of mandrel true and well fitting; any 
 imperfection in these points is multiplied as many times 
 as the saw is larger than the collar. They should be a 
 perfect fit. For large saws, collars should be used that 
 have a perfect bearing of three-quarters of an inch on 
 the outer rim, the other part of the collar clear, as they 
 grip and hold tighter than a solid flat collar. Examine 
 the collars carefully, to see if they are true, and if not, 
 have them made so; also be sure that stem of mandrel 
 fits the hole nice and snug, and offers no obstruction to 
 the saw slipping easily up to and against the fast collar. 
 Test the saw with a straightedge, and if it is found true, 
 place it on the mandrel, tighten up the collars, test it 
 
132 COOPEBAGE 
 
 again with the straightedge, and determine if the position 
 of the blade has been altered, observing whether it shows 
 true; if not, the fault is sure to lie in the collars, and 
 should be remedied, otherwise it will likely ruin the saw. 
 
 SPEED OF SAWS 
 
 This is a very important point for consideration, as all 
 large circular saws being hammered for certain speeds, 
 a hundred revolutions more or less will always make 
 a great difference in the running of the saw. Experience, 
 sometimes well earned, has proven that a saw works 
 better, both as to quality and quantity of its output, when 
 run at a regular speed. It may be remarked in this 
 connection that the prevailing practice for a number of 
 years in America has been to speed saws higher than 
 is really necessary or even advisable; in short, we have 
 had a spell of being speed-wild, trying to see what we 
 can do in the way of high speed, but at present there 
 is an undercurrent of feeling, and a tendency toward 
 easing down a little in speed and taking more pains with 
 the work. This tendency will probably grow stronger, too, 
 as timber becomes more scarce and valuable, and we begin 
 to realize more fully that it is not the quantity we turn 
 out, but what we get out of the timber that goes into the 
 mill that counts the most. And from practical experience 
 it has been proven that it is far better, both from a stand- 
 point of economy and efficiency, to run a saw "too slow" 
 rather than "too fast." When you get a saw speeded 
 too high, and especially if it is not set on a firm founda- 
 tion, it becomes limber and touchy, will dodge about and 
 manifest every kind of weakness ; on the other hand, a 
 saw running too slow, while having its objections, is 
 never attended with serious faults that arise when one 
 is running at too high a speed. And it is always wise 
 to avoid both extremes. The speed of circular saws gen- 
 
SAWS 133 
 
 erally is based on the rim travel per minute, the standard 
 basis for figuring to-day, and advised by the leading saw 
 manufacturers, being about 10,000 to 12,000 feet on the 
 rim. A great deal depends on circumstances, and theo- 
 retically, according to this formula, in order to secure the 
 proper rim travel or speed, the smaller the saw the more 
 revolutions it would have to make. A 16-inch saw, 
 for example, figured on this basis, would have to run 
 nearly 2,500 revolutions per minute. Whether or not 
 it should be run at this speed depends on circumstances. 
 If it is a bench or equalizer saw, firmly held, it may be 
 run at this speed and even higher, but if it is a pendu- 
 lum or swing saw, the speed should not be quite so high, 
 and about 1,800 to 2,000 revolutions would be nearer 
 right. This matter of speed will be taken up more 
 thoroughly with each individual saw further on in this 
 volume. 
 
 HAMMEBHSTG AND TENSIONING 
 
 The object to be attained in the hammering of a cir- 
 cular saw is to tension or level it so that it will revolve 
 in a perfect plane when in full motion. It also requires 
 a reserve amount of tension to compensate for the re- 
 sistance of the cut. This is not so apparent in saws ham- 
 mered for medium or slow speed with light power as 
 with high-speed saws. All saws if properly made are 
 open toward the centre, this amount being more or less 
 in proportion to the number of revolutions the saw is 
 to run. It would be well for those having charge of the 
 saws to examine them carefully when they arrive from 
 the saw maker, and determine closely how much the 
 saw drops away from the straightedge, and the same 
 amount of tension kept in the saw at all times. The 
 amount of gumming necessary to maintain the shape of 
 the teeth, and the expansion of the rim by motion, to- 
 gether with the resistance of the cut, have all worked 
 
134 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 together to stretch permanently the rim of the saw, caus- 
 ing it to lose its tension. There is no known process by 
 which this rim may be contracted, so the central portion 
 of the saw must be stretched to compensate for this en- 
 largement of the rim. A saw seldom loses its tension 
 evenly. If it did so, the work of restoring it would 
 be very much simplified. This uneven effect will result 
 from a variety of causes. It may be from an uneven 
 temper of the saw plate, but it more often results from 
 a little unevenness of the tension in the saw. A saw that 
 
 has lost its tension needs 
 hammering with a round- 
 faced hammer, as shown 
 in Cut No. 1. However, 
 before concluding that 
 the saw requires ham- 
 mering to adjust the ten- 
 sion, see if there is not 
 some other cause for the 
 trouble, such as the saw 
 being lined into the log 
 too much, which would 
 cause it to draw into the 
 log and heat on the rim, 
 the guides not being properly adjusted, the gullets 
 being too narrow for the feed, or the teeth not being 
 swaged and dressed. Before beginning to hammer it, 
 place the saw upon the anvil, and with the back edge 
 resting upon a support the same height as the anvil, raise 
 the front part of the saw with the hip and left hand, 
 until the centre of the saw is clear of the anvil. Proceed 
 to examine the saw carefully all around with the straight- 
 edge, by applying it between the centre and the rim, at 
 exactly right angles with the supports. Any other angle 
 will show a bend of the plate instead of the condition of 
 
 CUT No. 1. 
 
SAWS 
 
 135 
 
 the tension. And note the difference of the parts of the 
 saw as they appear under the straightedge. If any part 
 is found to drop away more than the rest of the saw 
 from the centre of saw to the edge, mark this part as 
 shown in Cut No. 2, and do not hammer as much, if any, 
 at that place, until you have gone over the rest of the 
 saw with the round-faced hammer, as this shows a degree 
 of tension, and perhaps enough for that part of the saw 
 when finished ; for such places always show more tension 
 when the balance of the saw is equalized to it. Another 
 part may come up to the 
 edge or show perfectly 
 flat. This part of the 
 saw is stiff and needs 
 hammering for tension, 
 still another part may 
 show full, that is, the rim 
 may drop away from the 
 straightedge. This part 
 of the saw is in a con- 
 dition that is termed 
 "fast," and needs 
 "more" hammering for 
 tension than any other 
 part. Examine the centre also. This may show flat or per- 
 haps a little full, which indicates that this part of the saw 
 is too stiff. Now proceed to lay off the saw for hammer- 
 ing. Describe a number of circles three inches apart, mak- 
 ing the outside one four inches from the rim of the saw 
 and the inside one an inch or so from the collar line. Ex- 
 amine with a straightedge and mark those parts which 
 show "fast" or "stiff" by enclosing them with marks 
 like half circles, of longer or shorter length, according 
 to the conditions. The fast places in such a saw will 
 generally need hammering on all the circles described, 
 
 CUT No. 2. 
 
136 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 while those which are " stiff" may not extend so far out 
 toward the rim. When all is in readiness for hammer- 
 ing, use a round-faced hammer, weighing from 2 to 3% 
 pounds, and do not strike too heavy, for it is better to go 
 over the saw several times than to hammer too much at 
 one time and put the saw in a worse shape than it was 
 before you began. After going over one side, mark off 
 the other side, and repeat the operation with as near as 
 possible the same number and weight of blows as struck 
 on the first side, spacing your blows about three inches 
 
 apart on the circles. 
 These circles are in- 
 tended as a guide to uni- 
 form work. After doing 
 this much, erase all your 
 marks and proceed to 
 level by standing the saw 
 upon the floor in a per- 
 pendicular position, and 
 examine both sides of the 
 saw with a long straight- 
 edge; and if the ham- 
 mering has been equally 
 done on both sides, the 
 saw should be very nearly true. If, however, it shows 
 full on one side and dishing on the other, mark these full 
 places ; then place the saw on the anvil with the full side 
 up and hammer lightly ; test again with the long straight- 
 edge, and if it appears true, put it on the anvil and test 
 it for tension, as before explained, to see if it has the 
 proper tension. If not, repeat the operation with the 
 round-faced hammer. After again testing, put the saw 
 on the try mandrel and test with the short straightedge 
 for running true. Mark the places as they run "off" or 
 "on," as shown in Cut No. 3. While turning the saw 
 
 CUT No. 3. 
 
SAWS 
 
 137 
 
 slowly around and where the saw runs "off," lumps will 
 be found most likely, as at 1, 1, 1, or what is termed 
 "twist lumps," as at 2, 2, 2, or both may occur. These 
 lumps must be taken out with a cross-faced hammer, the 
 blows being struck so that they will be in line with the 
 lump ; that is, the mark or impression the hammer leaves 
 should run in the same direction that the lump runs, as 
 shown by the straightedge. A twist cannot be taken out 
 with a round-faced hammer, neither is a round-faced 
 hammer liable to twist the saw. On the other hand, by 
 using a cross-faced ham- 
 mer, twist lumps can be 
 very easily removed, if 
 the blows are struck in 
 line with the lumps. The 
 saw may also be thrown 
 out of true by lumps run- 
 ning toward the centre, 
 as at 3, as shown in Cut 
 No. 3. In this case the 
 saw will be "on" or 
 "off" at points about 
 opposite each other. In 
 removing these twist 
 
 lumps the hammering must be done carefully, otherwise 
 the tension may be altered. Now put the saw on the arbor, 
 and if for high speed it should sway gently from side to 
 side in getting up to full speed, and will then run steadily 
 and do its work properly ; but if it is snaky or rattles in 
 the guides, it needs to be more open toward the centre. 
 Where a saw is too open at the centre, it should be ham- 
 mered in from the edge, as shown in Cut No. 4; and the 
 distance to hammer in from the edge depends on where 
 the loose parts are on the saw. If the centre is loose to the 
 first line, or the one nearest to the centre, hammer from 
 
 CUT No. 4. 
 
138 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 the rim to that line; but if it runs out to the next line, 
 hammer only to that line. The degree of opening or loose- 
 ness necessary depends on the speed the saw is to run. 
 The higher the speed, the more opening or tensioning 
 is necessary, and vice versa. An experienced man will 
 stand the saw on the floor, taking hold at the top edge, 
 giving it a sudden shake, and if the centre vibrates and 
 the rim stands stiff, he knows it to be open toward the 
 centre. After deciding upon the necessary tension, see 
 that the saw conforms exactly to it all around when fin- 
 ished. Now go over the 
 saw again carefully, as 
 at the first operation, and 
 mark all the full places, 
 as in Cut No. 5, and ham- 
 mer alike on both sides, 
 with as nearly as possi- 
 ble the same number and 
 weight of blows as struck 
 on the opposite side. If 
 the work has been prop- 
 erly done, the saw will 
 now show quite an even 
 tension and enough to 
 cause the centre to drop through or vibrate either way, 
 while the rim remains stiff when inclined a little from 
 a perpendicular position. In finishing a saw, be very 
 careful to remove all lumps or ridges near the rim, by 
 laying two or more thicknesses of heavy paper on the 
 anvil. Place the saw with the lump or ridge resting 
 directly on the paper, and by giving a few well-directed, 
 sharp blows, the lumps can be hammered down without 
 expanding the metal, and thereby losing the tension 
 already given, which would be the result if placed on 
 the bare anvil. The more evenly and carefully this is 
 
 CUT No. 5. 
 
SAWS 139 
 
 done, the better the saw will run. In regard to the 
 amount of tension or openings required for different size 
 saws at different speeds, it is not possible to give a rule 
 that will answer all conditions, as thin saws require more 
 tension than heavier gauge saws, and the stronger the 
 power or the higher the speed, the more tension is also 
 required ; and in cutting hardwoods a saw requires more 
 tension than for soft or more fibrous woods. Beginners 
 in the art of saw hammering should begin with a small 
 circular cut-off saw, one that can be very easily handled. 
 Go through with the operation as instructed, and after 
 succeeding in putting this in good shape by hammering 
 so that it will run true and smooth, without chattering 
 in the cut, you will have advanced well in the art of saw- 
 hammering, and will be able to operate on larger saws 
 without the risk of failure. 
 
SECTION V 
 
 KNIVES 
 
KNIVES 
 
 PKACTICAL DISCUSSION 
 
 THE same argument may be applied to knives as to 
 saws, in that they will not grind or sharpen themselves, 
 and they also require a certain amount of care and atten- 
 tion in order that they may properly perform the work 
 expected of them in an economical and efficient manner. 
 Over ninety per cent, of the difficulty experienced with 
 knives is directly caused by their abuse, and most of this 
 abuse is confined to the grinding room. There are many 
 ways in which a knife may be ruined. In fact, the better 
 the quality of the knife, the easier and more liable it is 
 to be spoiled in grinding. In cases where the temper is 
 drawn in grinding, the evidence is nearly always removed 
 to the next time the emery wheel or grindstone passes 
 over the knife. If you will try the knife with a file, you 
 will notice how soft it is, and should you strike the edge 
 lightly, it will turn over completely, while, no doubt, in 
 another part it may file hard and break out easily at the 
 slightest touch. 
 
 DIFFERENT IDEAS ON TEMPER 
 
 Some operators and mill men want their knives hard 
 and of a good even temper, and do practically all of their 
 sharpening on the grindstone or emery wheel, while 
 others doing the same class of work want them soft and 
 of a very mild temper, so that they can sharpen or dress 
 them up with a file frequently, without removing them 
 from the machine. Differences of opinion of this sort 
 occur throughout the trade, and directly is one of the 
 causes of occasional poor results of knives, inasmuch as 
 
144 COOPEEAGE 
 
 the knife-makers have about arrived at a sort of cosmo- 
 politan temper in their knives, so to speak, in order to 
 give good service under such varied conditions. In order 
 to warrant securing a knife that will answer its purpose 
 and give good and satisfactory results, it is very essential 
 that the knife-maker should know for what purpose the 
 knife is intended, what speed it is to run, and how it is 
 to be sharpened. Whether by the use of a hand file, 
 grindstone or emery wheel, too much is usually taken for 
 granted by the user of the knife, and the knife-maker is 
 commonly left to use his own judgment in the matter. 
 Knives can be, and are, made to meet almost any re- 
 quirement and under all sorts of conditions, and if prop- 
 erly used and taken care of will invariably give profitable 
 results. 
 
 SPEED OF KNIVES 
 
 As with saws, speed also has a varying effect upon 
 knives, but, of course, not with such effective results; 
 but speed should always be taken into consideration in 
 order that they may produce the best results. A knife 
 that will work successfully on one machine running at a 
 certain number of revolutions per minute would not per- 
 form as satisfactory or stand up to its work as well if 
 run at 100 or more revolutions per minute more or less. 
 
 TEMPEK OF KNIVES 
 
 Two things are very necessary to produce knives that 
 will be satisfactory and perform good service: First, 
 good steel must be used in their construction ; it must be 
 of a proper temper or carbon, and should be specially 
 made for the purpose. Second, and the most important 
 element, is the proper temper, without which a knife is of 
 no consequence. This one thing, the tempering of knives, 
 should be the subject of more thought, experiment and 
 careful attention than any other step in the process of 
 
KNIVES 145 
 
 manufacture, from the crude ore to the finished product ; 
 and even then it retains the greatest degree of uncer- 
 tainty of any. In the making of steel itself, scientific 
 research and a long line of experiments have reduced the 
 work to a satisfactory degree of positiveness. There 
 are flaws, of course, now and then, as in all things, but 
 generally speaking we are in a position to-day to know 
 pretty well just what we are getting in our steel, what 
 chemical properties and what kind of structure. And the 
 process of manufacture has been perfected enough that 
 the product runs so nearly uniform as not to give serious 
 trouble. The same thing is frus in all the mechanical 
 work of making knives, and while it requires care and 
 skilful manipulation at all times to turn out good, satis- 
 factory knives, still, that is comparatively easy to obtain ; 
 but when we come to tempering, we strike the most dif- 
 ficult step and process in all the work. This comes partly 
 from the fact that two pieces of metal exactly alike in 
 chemical parts and physical structure may be given what 
 appears to be the same treatment, and yet produce vary- 
 ing results in tempering. This is only a part of the 
 uncertainty, however, and another part comes from the 
 different uses to which knives are put, and the difference 
 in temper required under these various conditions. The 
 problem of temper met with at times would be materially 
 simplified if the knife-maker could know in each instance 
 the exact service required of the knife ; that is, if it were 
 a planer knife, if he knew just the kind of wood it was 
 to be used on, speed at which it would be run, and average 
 depth of cut. If users of knives would always bear this 
 fact in mind when ordering their knives of the knife- 
 makers, and then give them the proper attention in 
 grinding or sharpening, they would find that the knives 
 would always perform their proper amount of work with 
 entire satisfaction, as the knife-makers have made this 
 
146 COOPERAGE 
 
 matter of temper, through a long and ceaseless line of 
 experiments and study, a work with a certain degree of 
 positiveness and satisfaction. And they can invariably 
 be relied upon to furnish an article that will produce the 
 results expected under ordinary circumstances. It is 
 worthy of remark in this connection, however, that users 
 of knives are beginning to realize the general importance 
 of this subject of tempering to a certain extent, and have 
 more respect for the temper that has been put into their 
 knives. In times gone by, and even among some careless 
 workmen to-day, there has been many a carefully tem- 
 pered knife practically spoiled by careless grinding. 
 
 TEMPERING SOLUTIONS 
 
 1. To 6 quarts of soft water add 1 ounce of corrosive 
 sublimate and two handfuls of common salt. When dis- 
 solved, the mixture is ready for use. The first gives 
 toughness, the latter hardness to the steel. Eemember 
 this is deadly poison. 
 
 2. Soft water, 3 gallons; common salt, 2 quarts; sal- 
 ammoniac and saltpetre, of each 2 ounces; ashes from 
 white ash bark, 1 shovelful. Do not hammer too cold. 
 To avoid flaws do not heat too high, which opens the 
 pores of the steel. If heated carefully you will get hard- 
 ness, toughness, and the finest quality. 
 
 3. Common salt, 4 ounces ; saltpetre, % ounce ; pulver- 
 ized alum, 1 ounce ; 1 gallon soft water. Heat the articles 
 to a cherry red and quench, but do not draw temper. 
 
 4. Saltpetre and alum, each 2 ounces; sal-ammoniac, 
 % ounce ; common salt, 1% ounces ; 2 gallons soft water. 
 Heat parts to be tempered to a cherry red and quench. 
 
 TO TEMPER KNIVES 
 
 Take a vessel of proper width to receive the length of 
 the knife, put some water in the bottom, and pour an 
 
KNIVES 147 
 
 inch of oil on top. Heat the edge of your knife an even 
 cherry red back as far as you wish to harden it, and 
 holding it level, thrust the edge into the oil for a moment, 
 until the color leaves; then slowly let it down into the 
 water. The oil cools without cracking and the water pre- 
 vents the heat in the body from drawing the edge. It 
 is not necessary to harden all knives in this manner, as 
 the oil alone will produce a sufficient hardness in ordinary 
 cases if a large enough body of oil is used and the edge 
 of the knife is immersed with a stirring motion. It can 
 then be tempered to about 500 degrees (brown-yellow 
 color) by the heat of the body of the knife and suddenly 
 cooled in water at about 80 degrees. 
 
 TABLE OF TEMPERS TO WHICH TOOLS SHOULD BE DKAWN 
 
 TOOL COLOR DEG. OF TEM. 
 
 FAHR. 
 
 Axes Dark purple 550 
 
 All cutting tools for soft material. Very light yellow. .420 
 
 Cold chisels for steel Light purple 530 
 
 Cold chisels for wrought iron. . . .Light purple 530 
 
 Cold chisels for cast iron Dark purple 550 
 
 Key drifts Brown-yellow 500 
 
 Wood chisels Spotted red-brown 510 
 
 Hammer faces Very pale yellow. .430 
 
 Hand plane irons Brown-yellow 500 
 
 Inserted saw teeth Straw yellow 460 
 
 Screwdrivers Dark purple 550 
 
 Springs Very dark blue .... 601 
 
 Planer knives Brown-yellow 500 
 
 Planer knives (to be filed) .Purple-blue 531 
 
 TO TEMPER OLD FILES 
 
 Grind out the cuttings on one side of the file until a 
 bright surface is obtained ; then moisten the surface with 
 a little oil, and place the file on a piece of red-hot plate 
 with the bright side upward. In about a minute the 
 
148 COOPERAGE 
 
 bright surface will begin to turn yellow, and when the 
 yellow has deepened to about the color of straw, plunge 
 in cold water. 
 
 EMERY WHEELS THEIR USE 
 
 The emery wheel consists of grains of emery and a 
 composition called the texture, which binds these grains 
 together. 
 
 In regard to the size of the grains the wheel is said 
 to be coarse or fine in grade. In regard to its texture 
 it is called hard or soft. 
 
 To distinguish the grades, they are numbered from 
 the dimension of the meshes through which the grains 
 pass. 
 
 Thus, grade 10 means that the distance between the 
 wires of the mesh is 10 to the inch. 
 
 Some of the substances used to hold the grains of 
 emery together are hard rubber, shellac, ordinary glue 
 and a mixture of linseed oil and litharge. 
 
 The relative hardness of the texture is indicated by 
 letters. Thus, A indicates a soft wheel; B, a harder 
 wheel ; M, medium wheel, and so on. 
 
 The vitrified emery wheel is made with a cement which 
 contracts slightly while cooling, leaving small pores or 
 cells through which water introduced at the centre is 
 thrown to the surface by centrifugal force. This flow 
 of water operates to carry off the cuttings and the de- 
 tached emery. 
 
 The grade and texture of the wheel in certain kinds 
 of work is fairly within the following limits : 
 
 Wheels of coarse grain and hard texture are suitable 
 for rough grinding in which accuracy and finish are not 
 required. 
 
 Wheels having medium grains and hard texture are 
 serviceable for sharpening or gumming saws, etc. 
 
KNIVES 149 
 
 Wheels with medium grains and soft texture are suit- 
 able for free cutting on broad surfaces of iron, steel or 
 brass. 
 
 Wheels with fine grain and soft texture are suitable 
 for grinding fine tools, knives, etc., for which the duty 
 is light, but the demand for accuracy imperative. 
 
 In regard to finish, it is to be observed that the harder 
 the substance to be ground, the coarser must be the grade 
 of the wheel. Some emery grinders are fitted with a 
 east-iron box or tank to hold water, with a small pump to 
 force the water up to the emery wheel. This is an ideal 
 grinder where emery wheels are used, but great care 
 should be exercised that oil or grease does not get into 
 the tank, for, should this occur, and the oil or grease 
 get onto the emery wheel, that wheel begins to glaze, 
 heat and burn. After oil has once reached the emery 
 wheel, it is next to impossible to keep the face from glaz- 
 ing, and this is one of the many ways to ruin a knife. 
 Frequent use of the emery-wheel dresser is the only rem- 
 edy. There are many grades and qualities of emery 
 wheels, and care should be exercised in selecting the 
 proper grade for your use. For knife-grinding, an 
 emery wheel should be free-cutting and fine of quality; 
 and free-cutting means that they wear out much faster 
 than the wheels that are hard, and will heat and glaze. 
 If the emery wheel is too hard, it will either draw the 
 temper or cause a ilumber of fine cracks to appear in the 
 face of the knife. Either the knife edge will turn over 
 if the temper is drawn or break out if burned or if cracks 
 appear. It is not always the case that the knife breaks 
 out the first time it is used after grinding. Sometimes 
 it is weeks or months before the trouble puts in an ap- 
 pearance. It is always best, in the case of a good quality 
 knife, or where good, clean work must be performed, to 
 do the sharpening on a grindstone, in preference to the 
 
150 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 emery wheel, as better satisfaction is always given, and 
 one is not so liable to heat or burn the knife. In all cases 
 of knife-grinding on an emery wheel, the motion should 
 be from the point or edge to the heel of the bevel on the 
 knife, as in this way you are less liable to draw the 
 temper. 
 
 SPEED OP EMEKY WHEELS 
 
 An emery wheel can be run too fast So fast, in fact, 
 that it will not cut, and is also a very dangerous opera- 
 tion. The usual speed employed in ordinary work is 5,000 
 feet on the surface, but in special cases it is sometimes de- 
 sirable to run them at a lower or higher rate, according to 
 requirements; but 5,000 feet is generally considered as 
 giving the best results. And at this periphery rate the 
 stress on the wheel is 75 pounds per square inch. The 
 flanges for an emery wheel should be at least one-third 
 the diameter of the wheel, and one-half the diameter of 
 the wheel would be more desirable. Wheels should 
 "never" be mounted unless the bore is an easy fit, and 
 the flanges the proper size, so as to insure against un- 
 necessary accidents. Below will be found a table of speeds 
 for emery wheels, as recommended by the leading emery- 
 wheel manufacturers as safe, and at which the best re- 
 sults are obtained : 
 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 REV. PER 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 
 FOB 
 
 FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 
 FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 OF 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 OF 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 SURFACE 
 
 WHBEL 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 WHEEL 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 
 4,000 FEET 
 
 5,000 FEET 
 
 6,000 FEET 
 
 
 4,000 FEET 
 
 5,000 FEET 
 
 6,000 FEET 
 
 3 inches 
 
 5093 
 
 6366 
 
 7639 
 
 24 inches 
 
 637 
 
 796 
 
 955 
 
 4 
 
 3820 
 
 4775 
 
 5730 
 
 26 
 
 586 
 
 733 
 
 879 
 
 5 
 
 3056 
 
 3820 
 
 4584 
 
 28 
 
 546 
 
 683 
 
 819 
 
 6 
 
 2546 
 
 3183 
 
 3820 
 
 30 
 
 509 
 
 637 
 
 764 
 
 7 
 
 2183 
 
 2728 
 
 3274 
 
 32 
 
 477 
 
 596 
 
 716 
 
 8 
 
 1910 
 
 2387 
 
 2865 
 
 34 
 
 449 
 
 561 
 
 674 
 
 10 
 
 1528 
 
 1910 
 
 2292 
 
 36 
 
 424 
 
 531 
 
 637 
 
 12 
 
 1273 
 
 1592 
 
 1910 
 
 38 
 
 402 
 
 503 
 
 603 
 
 14 
 
 1091 
 
 1364 
 
 1637 
 
 40 
 
 382 
 
 478 
 
 573 
 
 16 
 
 95 r > 
 
 1194 
 
 1432 
 
 12 
 
 364 
 
 455 
 
 546 
 
 18 
 
 849 
 
 1061 
 
 1273 
 
 44 
 
 347 
 
 434 
 
 521 
 
 20 
 
 764 
 
 955 
 
 1146 
 
 46 
 
 332 
 
 415 
 
 498 
 
 22 
 
 694 
 
 868 
 
 1042 
 
 48 
 
 318 
 
 397 
 
 477 
 
SECTION VI 
 
 PRODUCTION OF SLACK 
 COOPERAGE STOCK 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 
 
 GENEKAL KEMAKKS 
 
 To the average citizen, a barrel is simply "a barrel/' 
 and he rarely thinks of the important part it plays in 
 many industries of to-day. He never stops to think how 
 seriously trade would be handicapped if the barrel sup- 
 ply were suddenly to give out. But a moment's thought 
 will serve to convince the most sceptical that the "homely 
 barrel 7 ' is a more important factor in industry than it is 
 sometimes credited with being. This is particularly true 
 of the "slack barrel," as they were in use long before 
 King Solomon's Temple was thought of, as "meal bar- 
 rels" are mentioned in the good Book in several places, 
 and no doubt were made about 910 years B. C. More 
 than eighteen hundred years ago Pliny, an original in- 
 vestigator, who lost his life trying to find out what made 
 a volcano smoke, endeavored to trace to its origin an 
 industry that was even then ancient and honorable. In 
 time he located a race of people engaged in the industry 
 at the foot of the Alps. "And invented and pursued by 
 a people regarded with awe, as a superior race, by the 
 tribes who near them did dwell, but who could .not tell 
 when 'they' did begin." In the cooperage industry to- 
 day there are two classes of barrels, commonly termed 
 by their users ' l tight barrels ' ' and ' i slack barrels. ' ' This 
 volume will deal exclusively with the latter class, which 
 is designated "slack" from the fact that they are only 
 used to hold commodities which are not in liquid form, 
 such as sugar, flour, salt, cement, fruit, and vegetables. 
 The woods used for its construction are chiefly elm, pine, 
 
154 COOPERAGE 
 
 gurn, beech, and basswood, named in the order of their 
 importance. Some thirty or forty years ago the only 
 wood used to any great extent in the manufacture of the 
 slack barrel was oak, but the upward trend in value of 
 that wood caused the trade to change first to elm, which 
 was then known as the (l patent elm stave, " and then, in 
 time, as elm became scarcer and more valuable, to 
 beech, maple, sycamore, gum, and a number of other dif- 
 ferent woods which are in use to-day. But on account 
 of its great strength and toughness, elm has long been 
 the principal and favorite wood used for staves and 
 hoops, and it will continue to remain so until the supply 
 is exhausted. The production of elm staves has decreased 
 over fifty per cent in the last seven years. Elm is cut 
 most largely in the Northern States, and particularly in 
 Wisconsin, Indiana, and Michigan, and the exhaustion of 
 the supply in those States has had a most serious effect 
 upon the slack cooperage industry. It has been estimated 
 that there are not half the staves manufactured in Mich- 
 igan at the present writing that there were ten years ago. 
 Saginaw, Mich., which formerly was considered the prin- 
 cipal home of the industry, is now producing stock only 
 in a small way. As a matter of fact, most of the slack 
 cooperage stock made in Michigan at this time comes 
 from the northern peninsula, instead of the southern 
 peninsula, as was formerly the case. There has been a 
 very great increase in the use of gum for staves, and 
 more so for heading, within the last few years, in fact, 
 since the year 1900, when this wood made its initial ap- 
 pearance. Owing to its cheapness and abundant supply, 
 it was experimented with and found to be quite satis- 
 factory when care was taken in its seasoning. Bass- 
 wood has always been the preferred wood for heading, 
 because of its soft, even texture and light color, but it 
 is now gradually being replaced by gum, which is no 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 155 
 
 doubt destined to be the most important wood of the 
 future in the manufacture of the slack barrel. In fact, 
 it is now ranked as second to elm, both as a stave and 
 as a heading wood. For the manufacture of hoops it has 
 not thus far proved adaptable, and will hardly answer 
 for this purpose, on account of its peculiar properties, 
 and from the fact that it splits easily and is quite brash. 
 
 PEODUCTION OF SLACK STOCK 
 
 The complete report of the United States Forest Ser- 
 vice on the production of slack cooperage stock for the 
 year 1908 gives detailed statistics on the output of 1,151 
 establishments, as against 950 for the preceding year. 
 This substantial increase in the number of establishments 
 reporting for 1908, as compared with 1907, indicates not 
 only a more thorough canvass, but also a greater degree 
 of co-operation on the part of the manufacturers in the 
 latter year, and largely as a result the statistics of the 
 industry show general increases in quantity and value 
 over previous years, despite the fact that industrial con- 
 ditions obtaining were unfavorable. The data were ob- 
 tained entirely by correspondence, and the better results 
 secured at this canvass, as compared with those secured 
 at any previous canvass, are due to the fact that a prac- 
 tically complete list of manufacturers was compiled in 
 advance, and also to the fact that manufacturers made 
 much more satisfactory reports. Since statistics on this 
 industry have only recently been compiled in a compre- 
 hensive manner, it is impossible to draw conclusions as 
 to the relative completeness of the returns. But as these 
 are the only available statistics to be had on this impor- 
 tant subject, we will necessarily have to be content with 
 them as they are. Slack cooperage stock comprises, the 
 three materials essential to the manufacture of a slack 
 barrel, namely, staves, heading, and hoops. 
 
156 COOPEEAGE 
 
 In aggregate value the reported production of these 
 commodities in 1908 exceeded that of 1907 by $1,100,398, 
 or very nearly 7 per cent., the increase being from $15,- 
 800,253 to $16,900,651. The three branches of the slack 
 cooperage industry are not co-ordinated, the manufac- 
 ture of staves, heading, and hoops, respectively, consti- 
 tuting to a large extent separate and independent indus- 
 tries. Consequently, the totals of production of the three 
 commodities in any one year seldom harmonize. The 
 tendency through a series of years, however, is toward ah 
 equalization or balancing in production. Combining the 
 totals of production for several years practically elim- 
 inates the seeming inconsistencies and shows stave and 
 hoop production for substantially the same number of 
 barrels, with an excess of heading, a large part of which 
 was probably consumed in repairing second-hand barrels. 
 An interesting fact disclosed by the statistics of the last 
 few years is the increasing number of establishments 
 which turn out staves and heading as by-products in the 
 manufacture of lumber. 
 
 WOODS CHIEFLY USED FOR SLACK COOPERAGE 
 
 Table I summarizes the production of staves, head- 
 ing, and hoops, and shows the total manufactured from 
 each species, with the average value per 1,000 for the 
 years 1906, 1907 and 1908. The total reported produc- 
 tion for the year 1908 was 1,557,644,000 staves, valued 
 at $8,912,957, or $5.72 per 1,000 staves ; 123,849,000 sets 
 of heading, valued at $5,661,713, an average of a little 
 more than 4% cents per set ; 336,484,000 hoops, valued at 
 $2,325,981, or $6.91 per 1,000. Staves were manufactured 
 in considerable quantities from nineteen different kinds 
 of wood. The most important of these was red gum, 
 which furnished about one-fifth of the total number, 
 which was to be expected, as this species is rapidly super- 
 
SLACK STOCK PEODUCTION 157 
 
 seding elm and all others as a stave and heading wood. 
 Next in importance come pine, elm, beech and maple, 
 in the order as stated. These five species furnished prac- 
 tically three-quarters of the total number manufactured. 
 The total production of staves reported, for 1908 ex- 
 ceeded that reported for 1907 by 381,667,000, or 32.5 per 
 cent. There was an increase of 17,775,000 sets of head- 
 ing, or 16.8 per cent. Nineteen kinds of wood were in 
 1908 used in sufficient quantities in the manufacture of 
 staves and heading to be separately shown; tamarack, 
 tupelo, willow, and yellow poplar having been included 
 under "all other " woods in 1907. Fewer slack barrel 
 staves of spruce, hemlock, basswood, and yellow poplar 
 were manufactured in 1908 than in 1907, while there were 
 increases in all other woods. For red gum the increase 
 amounted to 50.4 per cent. ; for pine, 33.7 per cent. ; for 
 elm, 21.7 per cent.; for beech, 32.7 per cent., and for 
 maple, 28.2 per cent. Although relatively large increases 
 occurred in many other kinds of wood, in no case did the 
 quantity of staves manufactured from any of such woods 
 form as much as 6 per cent, of the total quantity manu- 
 factured in 1908. The five kinds of wood which had a 
 production of more than 97,000,000 staves each in both 
 1907 and 1908 ranked as follows in the two years: Eed 
 gum, pine, elm, beech, and maple. In 1908 these woods 
 furnished 1,076,267,000 staves, or 69.1 per cent, of the 
 total number produced in that year, and only about 100,- 
 000,000 staves less than the total number manufactured 
 during 1907. Eed gum staves formed 20.4 per cent, of 
 the total production in 1908; pine, 17.7 per cent.; elm, 
 12.4 per cent. ; beech, 10.7 per cent. ; maple, 8 per cent. ; 
 and chestnut, 5.1 per cent. 
 
 In the manufacture of heading, only elm, beech, ash, 
 spruce, oak, and sycamore showed decreases, as com- 
 pared to 1907. No decrease, however, amounted to more 
 
158 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 > o g> oo o co co 
 
 Oi O <N CO t-(M CO t- O 00 CQ O I ICO 
 
 i-H CO C~ 00 rH O5 Ift (>J rH * D CO T Im 
 
 m i> * to co <N co o f- os I-H co I ; o 
 
 iiHOS (M rH (M C* Ol 
 
 ,-lCOCOGO-H COO 
 O (N^ 00 CO^ l> <O^ -^ 
 t~\nosO~tGZ'* 
 r-lt-05COfMt-l> 
 CO (M rH iH rH 
 
 I 00 > CO rH *< O* * < 
 
 o o - a* r?t cc in r as tt as o if o 
 
 O-^HlOf iOOCQ'^it s ^t~C^t-O*CC-^' 
 
SLACK STOCK PKODUCTION 159 
 
 than 4,187,000 sets, while the increase in pine alone was 
 over 12,000,000 sets. As with staves, so in the manufac- 
 ture of heading, five principal woods were used. Though 
 the same woods are generally used for both purposes, in 
 heading pine ranked first, with 31.8 per cent, of the total 
 production; red gum second, with 13.9 per cent.; beech 
 third, with 12.3 per cent.; maple fourth, with 10.8 per 
 cent.; and basswood fifth, with 8.2 per cent. The pro- 
 duction from these woods was 95,399,000 sets, or 77 per 
 cent, of the total. In the production of hoops only ten 
 kinds of wood were reported in sufficient quantities to 
 warrant a separate presentation for 1908. Of these, red 
 gum, ash, and beech, which latter wood was not separately 
 tabulated in 1907, showed increases in 1908, as compared 
 with 1907. In elm alone there was a decrease of $142,- 
 840,000, or nearly 93 per cent, of the decrease in the total 
 production of hoops for the year. This is accounted for 
 by the fact that the elm hoop is being fast supplanted by 
 wire and flat steel hoops. 
 
 Table II shows the quantity, value, and average value 
 per thousand of staves, hoops, and sets of heading pro- 
 duced in 1908 from the different kinds of wood. The 
 aggregate value of the reported production of staves, 
 heading, and hoops in 1908 was $16,900,651, an increase 
 of $1,100,398, or nearly 7 per cent., over the value of these 
 products in 1907. In average value per thousand at point 
 of production, staves decreased from $6.14 in 1907 to 
 $5.72 in. 1908, or a decrease of 42 cents. Among the 
 individual species, the decreases, while general, were in 
 the most instances small. 
 
 Ash, for which the highest average value, $7.96, was 
 reported in 1907, decreased to $6.52 in 1908, while the 
 loss in elm the next highest species in 1907 was from 
 $7.53 to $7.16 per thousand staves. Among other impor- 
 tant woods the decreases were as follows: Bed gum, 
 
160 
 
 COOPEBAGE 
 
 TH GO o o co ,*' 
 
 oooo 
 
 82 
 
 02 * 
 O 4) 
 
 S 9 S 8 
 
 C* Oi "** O 
 
 O (>i CO GO 
 
 if 
 
 J co 
 
 eJ co 
 
 rH O ^ 
 
 3 o 8 
 
 r^- z>T vo 
 
 lf^ rH t> 
 
 ^ CO d 
 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 161 
 
 from $5.88 to $5.45; pine, from $5.17 to $4.88; beech, 
 from $6.31 to $6.27; maple, from $6.27 to $6.02; while 
 for spruce the average value per thousand, $5.14, was 
 the same in both years. 
 
 Although the production of heading was greater in 
 1908, the average value per set showed a decrease 
 from .0477 in 1907 to .0457 in 1908, or .0200 per set. 
 This is probably due to the fact that gum is rapidly 
 superseding other species as a heading wood. The 
 greatest loss in value occurred in cottonwood, the de- 
 crease in average value per set of heading cut from 
 this species amounting to .0110, while for pine, the prin- 
 cipal species consumed in slack barrel heading manufac- 
 ture, the decrease was .0072 per set. Practically the only 
 woods which showed increases in value were oak, ash, 
 beech, spruce, and sycamore; but only a relatively small 
 quantity of sycamore was manufactured. The highest 
 average value, .0610, in 1908, was reported for ash, and 
 the lowest average value, .0335, for pine. 
 
 In both quantity and value the hoop production in 1908 
 was less than that reported for the preceding year. The 
 principal wood used in the manufacture of hoops in 1908, 
 as formerly, was elm, 97.1 per cent, of the total number 
 being made from this species. Only four other kinds of 
 wood were used to any considerable extent ; and these, in 
 the order named, were red gum, ash, hickory, and birch. 
 The highest average value per thousand hoops, $11.42, 
 was reported for red gum, while the lowest, $3.75, was 
 reported for maple. With respect to the average value 
 per thousand hoops, both oak and maple showed increases 
 in 1908, as compared with 1907, while elm showed a loss. 
 In the case of the total production from all woods a de- 
 crease of 26 cents occurred. This decrease in value was 
 probably due in part to the increased use of wire and 
 flat steel hoops. 
 
162 COOPERAGE 
 
 In connection with the value of staves, heading, and 
 hoops, it is interesting to note the various forms into 
 which slack cooperage stock is manufactured, and the 
 woods used for these forms. Flour and sugar barrels 
 represent the highest grades manufactured, and after 
 these come cement, lime, and salt barrels. Inferior 
 grades are those barrels which are known as truck bar- 
 rels, used for fruit and vegetables of many kinds and for 
 crockery and glassware, and the barrels and kegs used 
 in the hardware trade. Butter tubs, although not con- 
 sidered of so high a grade as flour or sugar barrels, are 
 hardly a low-grade product. 
 
 In the East white ash and spruce are used exten- 
 sively for butter-tub staves, and elm, maple, and bass- 
 wood for bottoms and covers. Elm is used largely 
 in the manufacture of the highest grade barrel, while 
 pine is used largely for the inferior grades. Gum makes 
 a clean, smooth stave, and its value is now being appre- 
 ciated as a result of more careful methods of season- 
 ing and manufacture. This is clearly shown by the 
 increased production of staves from this wood. Con- 
 siderable attention of late has been drawn to the sub- 
 stitution of the sack for the slack barrel. It is be- 
 lieved that for many of the lower grades of packages 
 this will help to solve the problem of timber supply, 
 though for certain products and classes of shipment a 
 wooden barrel is much preferred. Crates, boxes, and 
 baskets have in recent years been used to a large extent 
 in the transportation of many of the fruits and vegetables 
 which were formerly transported in barrels. 
 
 SLACK BAKREL STAVE PRODUCTION 
 
 Table III shows the production of staves in the differ- 
 ent States by kinds of wood. Nearly two-thirds of the 
 slack barrel staves manufactured are produced in the 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 
 
 163 
 
 
 i IS s i 2 s 
 
 co" co' co' i-T <** of co" 
 
 OJ CO t- r-l 
 
 O rH CO 
 
 IS 
 
 I*.--: a 
 
 8.1 S s 
 
 in o m 
 
 OQ O-^aDTHif* 1 --^ biOOOi i^ -iO ^**o 
 
 ^ MO^Ot-O^lft 5^ T-HCO i-t (MC<J CCO* 
 
 OT r-Ti-HC^T r4" cTi-Tr-T O* 
 
 a | 
 
 1 
 
 o 10 t-" of 
 
164 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 t> 02 
 
 ^ fe 
 02 
 
 S 58 
 
 SI S 
 
 : 3 : : S 
 
 oj co i-i m 
 
 Oi CO r-i 
 <* i ( b- 
 
 o o o 
 
 rHCOOJ 
 
 : S 
 
 co* od to in" T-T gj t~* co* 01 o co* -jT 
 
 00 -^ rH I- Ci r- 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ::::::::-:* 
 :::::,: ^1 
 
 ' t*. d ' x 
 
 S S - ' ^ ' 5 
 
 3 1 .3 -S S S .2 . o 
 
 lip 
 
 Hampshi 
 York 
 
 Carolin 
 
 ylvania 
 
 >ssee . . . 
 
 'ga 
 
 5 9 2 S o 
 
 sills 
 
 o 
 
 o S S S IS 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 
 
 165 
 
 QO* oo* 
 
 CO O . .CO 
 
 c? cT ^ 
 
 W 00 
 
 3 : IS 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .2 
 '3 
 
 Ej 
 
 2 
 1| 
 
 si 
 
 8> 
 
 51 
 
 0> 
 
 
 5g 
 
 " s e g -^ s s s 
 
 ^ s 
 
 a 8 
 
 as 
 
 o g 
 
 P d 
 
 si 
 
 * ft 
 
 5 J a -a S 
 
 O (H .2 O W 
 
 $ gW " xi 
 
 S s s * t; 
 
 
 
 lifiiil 
 
 iiilll! 
 
 (S'H^^^^^ 
 
166 COOPEBAGE 
 
 following States, named in the order of their importance 
 from a standpoint of quantity: Arkansas, Pennsylvania, 
 Michigan, Virginia, and Missouri. In the production of 
 elm staves Michigan leads, followed by Ohio, Illinois, and 
 Missouri. These four States produce the bulk of this 
 stock. Maple staves are produced chiefly in Michigan 
 and Pennsylvania. Nearly one-half of the total number 
 of pine staves is produced in Virginia. This gives Vir- 
 ginia her rank of fourth place in order of importance 
 for number of staves. Missouri leads in the manufacture 
 of gum .staves, producing more than one-third of the total 
 manufactured, followed by Arkansas and Illinois. The 
 oak staves, practically all of which are some form of 
 red oak, are manufactured chiefly in Virginia and Ten- 
 nessee. Chestnut staves are manufactured almost en- 
 tirely in Pennsylvania, which produced over two-thirds 
 of the total manufactured. Beech and birch staves are 
 also manufactured chiefly in Pennsylvania, as nearly one- 
 half of the total number come from that State. Ash 
 staves are produced mostly in Arkansas. Maine ranks 
 first in spruce staves, having produced over 80 per cent, 
 of the total manufactured. The quantity manufactured 
 from the other species in that State is comparatively un- 
 important. Delaware, Maryland, and Florida, as re- 
 ported, manufacture pine staves exclusively. 
 
 SLACK BARREL HEADING PRODUCTION 
 
 Table IV shows that the total production of heading 
 for 1908 was 123,849,000 sets, thirty-five States and Ter- 
 ritories reporting; but Michigan and Arkansas were the 
 centres of manufacture. Michigan led with 18.2 per cent, 
 of the total number of sets of heading, and Arkansas 
 came second, with 16.5 per cent. In 1907 Michigan and 
 Pennsylvania were the leading States, but in 1908 their 
 heading production had decreased 3.2 per cent, and 8.1 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 167 
 
 per cent., respectively, and the production in Arkansas 
 had increased 241.1 per cent. In the production of red 
 gum heading Missouri was the leading State, with 34.5 
 per cent., followed by Arkansas, with 20.6 per cent., and 
 Kentucky, with 18.8 per cent. Of the pine heading, 39.4 
 per cent, was made in Arkansas, while Virginia and New 
 Hampshire were close rivals for second place, with 16.5 
 per cent, and 16.2 per cent., respectively, of the total pro- 
 duction. Michigan reported 56.1 per cent, of the beech 
 heading and 59.7 per cent, of the maple heading, while 
 Pennsylvania ranked second in both of these kinds of 
 wood, with 31.4 per cent, of the former and 15.1 per cent, 
 of the latter. The only other wood of which more than 
 10,000,000 sets were produced was basswood, and of the 
 total production of this wood Wisconsin reported 53.5 
 per cent, and Michigan 20.6 per cent. Over three-fourths 
 of the entire heading production of Arkansas was pine. 
 From Michigan a large number of woods were reported, 
 the chief kinds being beech, maple, and basswood. In 
 Pennsylvania the principal woods were beech, maple, and 
 birch, while in Virginia pine was practically the only 
 wood used, although several other kinds of wood were 
 reported in small quantities. 
 
 SLACK BARREL HOOP PRODUCTION 
 
 Table V shows the production of slack barrel hoops 
 in 1908 by States and by kinds of wood. In distinct con- 
 trast to slack stave and heading manufacture, the hoop 
 production is to a large extent localized and the sources 
 of material limited to a relatively small number of spe- 
 cies. Of the total number reported for the United States 
 (336,484,000) elm is credited with a production of 326,- 
 894,000, or 97.1 per cent. Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana 
 together reported 277,121,000, or 82.4 per cent. No wood 
 besides elm was reported as forming more than 1 per 
 
168 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 CH 
 N 
 
 8* 
 
 S 
 
 8 8" 
 
 " 
 
 o~ eo 
 o t- 
 
 10 ct eo" 
 
 rH rH l> 
 
 IH 00 eo 
 
 10 w co 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 l 
 
 g) 43 w 
 
 mi 
 
 ^ "a o +3 
 
 I.SI2 
 
SLACK STOCK PEODUCTION 169 
 
 cent, of the total amount. Kentucky produced 60 per 
 cent, of the hickory hoops, while New York led in the 
 production of maple and chestnut hoops. Michigan pro- 
 duced 46.7 per cent, of the ash hoops, and Maine 66.7 
 per cent, of the total number of birch hoops. The elm 
 hoop production was reported from 13 States, though 
 83.8 per cent, of the production from this kind of wood 
 was manufactured in three States Ohio, Michigan, and 
 Indiana. While the elm hoop maintains its prestige over 
 other woods, iron in late years, to a considerable extent, 
 has supplanted wood as hoop material for certain kinds 
 of slack barrels. Elm as a wood is especially adapted 
 to the manufacture of hoops, on account of its great 
 toughness and flexibility, and for this reason it is doubt- 
 ful whether it will ever be superseded by any other wood. 
 Hickory would possibly be as acceptable if it grew in 
 sufficient quantities and could be manufactured cheaply 
 enough to compete with elm. There is no doubt but that 
 in the future all slack barrels will be bound with either 
 wire or flat steel hoops. * 
 
 KEVIEW OF FOKEST REPORT 
 
 From a study of this forest report, it will be seen that 
 it shows red gum as ranking first in the quantity of staves 
 manufactured, it having exceeded pine by nearly 42,000,- 
 000, and elm by 125,000,000, while for the year previous, 
 1907, it only exceeded pine by 5,000,000, and elm by 52,- 
 000,000 staves, showing that red gum is rapidly coming 
 into favor as a stave and heading wood. This was to be 
 expected ; in fact, gum is destined to be the future wood 
 used in the construction of the slack barrel. As a head- 
 ing wood red gum ranked second in 1908, having moved 
 up from fourth place in 1907, being exceeded by pine in 
 1908 by over 22,000,000 sets. No doubt pine has also 
 been growing in prominence in the slack cooperage in- 
 
170 COOPEEAGE 
 
 dustry, in fact, more than it has been given credit for, 
 and must have been favored for other cooperage pur- 
 poses besides salt and lime barrels. From this report 
 it will be seen that more than one-half of these pine 
 staves and 16.5 per cent, of the heading produced are 
 manufactured in the State of Virginia, and is the cause 
 of Virginia taking fourth place in the rank of States, 
 according to the quantity of staves and heading produced, 
 and it gives Virginia much more prominence in the slack 
 cooperage trade than one might judge it had from a re- 
 view of the markets. 
 
 About one-half of the total production of staves as 
 reported, were manufactured in the following four States, 
 named in the order of the quantity produced: Arkansas, 
 Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Virginia. Red gum comes 
 principally from Missouri and Arkansas, these two States 
 having furnished 96.2 per cent, of the total production 
 of staves. Elm, maple, and hemlock are mostly manu- 
 factured in Michigan, while Pennsylvania ranks first in 
 the production of beech, chestnut and birch staves, and 
 Arkansas and Missouri are the main sources of supply 
 of the ash staves. Maine ranks first in spruce, having 
 furnished about 81.7 per cent, of the entire production. 
 Michigan ranks first in the manufacture of heading, with 
 Arkansas a close second, Pennsylvania third, and Vir- 
 ginia fourth. These four States furnish practically one- 
 half of the total heading production. Ohio ranks first as 
 a producer of hoops, leading Michigan, which comes sec- 
 ond, by nearly 28,000,000 hoops, Indiana being third, 
 these three States being the principal hoop centres, hav- 
 ing furnished 81.8 per cent, of the total production. It 
 may be possible that these figures as to exact source of 
 supply may be affected somewhat by the headquarters 
 or the selling points of certain hoop mills being located 
 in the cities of the States named, and the reports emanat- 
 
SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 171 
 
 ing therefrom instead of direct from the different mills. 
 The item of hoops admittedly does not take into due con- 
 sideration large quantities of hand-shaved hoops of hick- 
 ory and other woods which are made by farmers and 
 others who are not classed as manufacturers, and con- 
 sequently do not furnish reports. The most remarkable 
 point about this forest report, and the two unexpected 
 conditions found therein. One is the fact that it has red 
 gum as ranking second to elm as a hoop wood and as to 
 quantity produced, and the other and most astonishing 
 feature is the high price obtained for them, it ranking 
 first in value, being $11.42 per thousand; while hickory, 
 oak and elm, admittedly the better wood for hoops, rank 
 second, third, and eighth, respectively. And also that it 
 ranks pine as being fifth in value, while ash, elm and 
 chestnut rank seventh, eighth, and ninth, respectively. 
 
SECTION VII 
 
 HARVESTING 
 RAW MATERIAL 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 THE harvesting of raw material for the production of 
 slack cooperage stock is a matter which few cooperage 
 concerns have succeeded in reducing to a scientific sys- 
 tem. Of course, each manager will inaugurate details 
 that are best suited to his locality and that he can best 
 manage. But some general rules will apply to all. First, 
 never allow the supply of timber to become exhausted 
 when conditions will warrant the full operation of the 
 factory. Second, do not overstock with raw material to 
 such an extent that some of it will rot and become worth- 
 less before it is worked up into the finished material. 
 Third, do not purchase or transport to the mill such raw 
 material that will not work up economically into that for 
 which it is intended. It does not pay to allow the supply 
 of raw material to become exhausted at the mill when 
 there is a demand for the finished product, because there 
 are always certain fixed expenses which must be met, 
 such as taxes, insurance, salaries, and maintenance of 
 plant, etc., whether the factory is producing its revenue 
 or not. And the larger the concern, the heavier this fixed 
 expense becomes, and this must all be earned when the 
 mill is again in operation. Hence the necessity of keeping 
 the machinery at work when there is a demand for the fin- 
 ished product. If an overstock of raw material for any 
 particular class of cooperage stock is purchased or logged 
 and kept on hand too long, its value becomes impaired by 
 rot, sun checks, etc., and often the wood becomes so hard 
 through seasoning that it is more difficult and expensive 
 to work, whereas, had it been worked promptly when it 
 was green and fresh from the tree, it would have been 
 
176 COOPERAGE 
 
 handled with greater profit and less waste, to say noth- 
 ing about the convenience. 
 
 The near approach of the time when it will be inex- 
 pedient or impossible to manufacture slack staves from 
 elm or slack barrel heading from basswood makes the 
 question of producing them from other woods, such 
 as beech, birch, maple, and gum, one of great impor- 
 tance and interest. Cottonwood timber as a stave 
 proposition is also a thing of the past, or nearly so; 
 in fact, it is in about the same position as elm, and 
 it is only a matter of a very short time when cotton- 
 wood staves, as well as elm staves, will be produced in 
 very small quantities. Some of the woods that produce 
 excellent slack cooperage stock rot or decay rapidly un- 
 less continuously kept immersed in the log pond. Differ- 
 ent species differ in their resistance to decay; for in- 
 stance, basswood is more durable than pine in this re- 
 spect, and oak is better than beech, but in most cases the 
 conditions of warmth and moisture in particular loca- 
 tions have much to do with its durability. So much so, 
 in fact, that predictions as to its durability become mere 
 guesswork. Sapwood of any particular species is always 
 more subject to decay than the heartwood, and doubly 
 so where the latter is protected by resinous substances, 
 such as in pine and cedar. In fact, all woods that con- 
 tain thick sap, such as gum, sycamore, poplar, etc., are 
 more liable to decay and rot than woods that have a 
 thinner sap. It would be impossible to operate a stave 
 or heading mill profitably and waste the sap portion of 
 the timber. It has been found that several months' im- 
 mersion in water improves the durability of sapwood to 
 a considerable extent, but only impregnation with pre- 
 servative salts seems to render it perfectly secure, and 
 this operation is entirely out of the question. But wood 
 kept immersed in water will remain practically the same 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 177 
 
178 COOPEEAGE 
 
 for centuries. It is only when living organisms attack 
 it with their strong solvents and convertants that change 
 and decay set in. 
 
 This impresses one with the fact that too much atten- 
 tion cannot be given to the care of the logs before they 
 are sawn or worked up into stock in order to secure the 
 maximum amount of timber with the least possible waste ; 
 and it has been proven that in the ordinary run of mills, 
 only about 50 to 60 per cent, of the contents of the log 
 which goes into the mill finally emerges in the manufac- 
 tured form of the finished product. And that in the case 
 of heading, only about 25 per cent, of the actual volume 
 of the log finally goes into the barrel head, leaving the 
 enormous waste of 75 per cent, of the timber furnished 
 the mill for stock manufacture to be eventually used as 
 fuel, or dragged out into the yards to be used as filling 
 for mudholes, or disposed of through other means from 
 which the mill owner derives no #e venue. The total per- 
 centage of ultimate waste in manufacturing cooperage 
 stock, even in the best-regulated plants, is enough to 
 make a man's hair stand on end. This is the point in 
 slack stock manufacture that will bear watching, provid- 
 ing one wishes to study economy in mill operation. 
 
 TIME OF FELLING 
 
 Winter felling of trees has long been the general rule, 
 since conditions continue to make it the best and most 
 economical season for the logger. Moreover, sap con- 
 tains fewer nitrogenous substances in winter than at 
 any other season, and since fungi obtain much of their 
 food from these substances, winter-cut timber, on ac- 
 count of the low temperature of the season, is least liable 
 to attack from this source. Wood cut in the fall of the 
 year, when the sap is down, usually seasons more grad- 
 ually, and at that time of the year the wood fibres shrink 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 179 
 
 more uniformly, and thus checking is less serious. 
 Though in nearly all cases winter-cut wood is heavier 
 than wood cut at any other season, yet, after six or eight 
 months' seasoning, under ordinary climatic conditions, it 
 so nearly approaches the weight of the lightest, that the 
 
 FIG. 45. A TYPICAL HARDWOOD FOREST, WITH UNDERGROWTH OF YOUNG 
 BEECH AND MAPLE AND SCATTERING WITCH HOBBLE AND MOOSEWOOD. 
 
180 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 difference is practically negligible. From the standpoint 
 of seasoning, checking, and susceptibility to decay, spring 
 and winter are the best seasons of the year for cutting. 
 Other considerations, such as custom, availability of 
 labor, etc., also make winter cutting preferable. But 
 aside from these preferences, the season of the year or 
 
 FIG. 46. HAULING LOGS, A FAMILIAR PICTURE TO THE WOODSMAN. 
 
 the phase of the moon has no noticeable influence on its 
 strength or durability; in short, seasoning does not in 
 itself furnish a conclusive argument for cutting in any 
 one season, as, if the wood is properly taken care of, by 
 being promptly worked up and protected by proper 
 methods in piling or by seasoning and kiln-drying, there 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 181 
 
 would be no noticeable difference between summer and 
 winter felled wood. 
 
 Usually, summer-felled wood, on account of the preva- 
 lent high temperatures, and at times to unnecessary ex- 
 posure to the sun, the wood checks more rapidly if left 
 for any length of time to the weather than winter-felled 
 wood ; and since season checks favor the entrance of both 
 
 WAST?: IN WOODS OPERATIONS. An unnecessarily high stump; 
 also a sound log overlooked by the woodsman. 
 
 moisture and fungus, which facilitate destruction, it is 
 therefore considered more advisable to cut timber during 
 the winter season. Trees normally contain the greatest 
 amount of water during that period when the roots are 
 active and the leaves are not yet out. This activity com- 
 monly begins in January, February or March, the exact 
 
182 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 time varying with the kind of timber and the local atmos- 
 pheric conditions. And it has been found that green wood 
 becomes lighter or contains less water in late spring or 
 early summer, when transpiration through the foliage 
 is most rapid. 
 
 The amount of water at any season, however, is doubt- 
 'less much influenced by the amount of moisture in the 
 
 FIG. 48. GOOD AND BAD CUTTING. The small trees have been left to seed 
 up the opening made by the removal of the larger ones, but the stumps 
 show unnecessary waste, in that they have been cut much higher than 
 was necessary. 
 
 soil. The conclusions, then, taken from the arguments as 
 set forth, would be that "winter-cut" wood seasons more 
 regularly than that cut at any other season of the year, 
 but does not, for many months at least, reach as low a 
 weight as wood cut in late spring or early summer which 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 183 
 
 is seasoned equally as long; that in timber of approx- 
 imately the same age and growth, that cut in the winter 
 season will have the greatest specific gravity, while that 
 which is cut in autumn will have the least ; that from the 
 standpoint of seasoning, spring and winter are the best 
 times for cutting, and that if timber is carefully cut, 
 
 FIG. 49. A LARGE HEMLOCK. 
 
 checking during air seasoning is comparatively slight; 
 but if the timber is split or shattered in felling, serious 
 checking may result; that if wood which is cut in the 
 summer season is protected or given the proper care and 
 attention as mentioned, no noticeable difference exists. 
 So that the practical consideration in favor of winter 
 cutting is of determining importance. 
 
184 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 WOODS MANAGEMENT 
 
 Where cooperage stock manufacturers do their own 
 logging or cut their own raw material in the forests, it is 
 highly imperative that the woods foreman should be a 
 practical man, thoroughly conversant with the business 
 and methods "at the mill," and have a knowledge as to 
 
 FIG. 50. A LARGE RED GUM. 
 
HAEVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 185 
 
 the purpose for which a log or tree is best suited. He 
 should also be well trained in the matter of economy in 
 waste, as there is no doubt but that the greatest quantity 
 and percentage of waste can be traced to this quarter 
 (see Figs. 47 and 48), where a lack of careful supervision 
 
 FIG. 51. A LARGE COTTONWOOD. One of the associates of red gum. 
 
186 
 
 COOPEBAGE 
 
 and knowledge often leads to wilful destruction of val- 
 uable timber. And in view of the rapid decrease in the 
 supply, it would be well in all forest operations to give 
 more attention to this point. Logs or bolts are often cut 
 at an inopportune time, or more rapidly than is necessary, 
 and left lying in the woods (see Fig. 55) until they dis- 
 color, check, decay, or become sour and useless for the 
 purpose for which they are intended. 
 
 FIG. 52. SECOND GROWTH RED GUM, ASH, COTTONWOOD, AND SYCAMORE. 
 
 The woodsman should also appreciate the fact that 
 stave and heading mills can sometimes utilize a block 
 16 or 18 inches long, as well as a log 16 feet in length. 
 Still, thousands of such short blocks of apparently 
 good quality, or tops, the lower ends of which would 
 make excellent stave or heading bolts, are abandoned 
 and left in the woods to rot and decay (see Fig. 47), 
 whereas if these short blocks were sent to the mill, 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 
 
 187 
 
 staves or headings could possibly be made for the 
 smaller sized packages and a saving created which 
 would be astonishing to even the most economical of mill 
 operators. Considering the waning supply of timber 
 suitable for use in the slack cooperage industry, it would 
 
 "V^y&>- 
 
 FIG. 53. A CYPRESS SLOUGH IN THE DRY SEASON. 
 
188 COOPERAGE 
 
 be well for all operations in the woods to be planned with 
 a view to encouraging reproduction. . This object can 
 best be accomplished by cutting conservatively at pres- 
 ent, by using the utmost care to preserve and protect the 
 younger trees, and by keeping fires off the land. Cutting 
 without any regard to a diameter limit or with no inten- 
 
 FIG. 54. A TUPELO GUM SLOUGH. 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 189 
 
 tion of leaving seed trees is the most unsatisfactory 
 method, as is shown by the present depleted condition of 
 our forests. Had these principles been inaugurated in all 
 woods operations twenty years ago, we would not now be 
 seeking substitutes for the woods which are rapidly being 
 exhausted. 
 
 Owing to the number of different species in the 
 forests, the diameter to which trees are now cut varies 
 
 FIG. 55. PEELED RED GUM LOGS SEASONING IN THE WOODS. 
 
 considerably. It hardly pays to take out logs less than 
 8 inches in diameter at the small end, or 10 inches breast 
 high. Trees under 10 inches breast high should not be 
 taken, as the extra amount of labor incurred in handling 
 these small logs, together with the difficulty experienced 
 in producing good stock, does not warrant such wilful de- 
 struction or demoralization of our source of supply. Some 
 mills have been known to cut stock from trees 6 to 7 inches 
 in diameter. Staves produced from such timber are not 
 
190 COOPERAGE 
 
 fit for first-class packages, as being necessarily " bastard 
 cut," they warp and shrink unevenly in drying, and will 
 not stand the strain subjected to them in the modern 
 methods of machine manufacture. Of course, they would 
 answer for fruit or vegetable packages, when manufac- 
 tured by hand, but should be sold as such, and not as an 
 A No. 1 stave for other purposes. In cutting, all possible 
 care should be exercised to save the younger trees, as 
 they are the future forest supply, and waste should be 
 avoided by cutting as low on the stump and utilizing as 
 much of the tree as practicable. (See Figs. 47 and 48.) 
 The forest is seldom clean enough to allow of much re- 
 production, and anything that will tend to reduce the 
 waste will therefore be of great benefit, both to the oper- 
 ator and to the young seedlings that are springing up in 
 the bed of the forest. Small trees should not be cut, 
 present methods notwithstanding to the contrary, and in 
 logging every effort should be put forth to save them. 
 Whatever young growth is left on the ground after cut- 
 ting will form the basis of the next crop of timber, and 
 the seedlings which start at this time form the nucleus 
 of future crops. The object in view should be to obtain 
 the greatest yield from the land in two cuttings, perhaps 
 twenty years apart. 
 
 Working plans of such nature are particularly suc- 
 cessful on hardwood bottom land, for the species there 
 are nearly all of rapid growth, and protection from 
 fire is fairly simple. Careful management in all cases 
 is strongly advisable, as much of the land when cut 
 over promises to produce worthless woods unless care 
 is taken to leave seed trees and to favor the young 
 growth of desirable species. With proper forest man- 
 agement, land is capable of yielding permanently high 
 returns. 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 191 
 
 THE DIFFICULTIES OF TRANSPORTING GUM 
 
 In the handling of red and tupelo gum, a large propor- 
 tion of this wood growing in the South and along the 
 Atlantic Coast is usually transported from the forests 
 to the mills by means of the streams. The unusual weight 
 of the green timber of this species is so great that it 
 scarcely floats. Probably one-third of the logs, those with 
 the largest amount of sapwood, sink. On the coast, where 
 the percentage of sapwood is larger than in the Missis- 
 sippi States, very few, if any, of the logs will float. To 
 overcome this difficulty, various, methods of driving out 
 the sap of the logs before they have been thrown into the 
 water have been tried. For small operations, the method 
 usually employed is to fell the trees in the fall, peel them, 
 and allow them to lie two or three months in the woods 
 (Fig. 55) before they are floated or until the high water 
 sets in, late in the winter, when the logs are floated along 
 roads cut through the forest to the river, and thence 
 rafted or floated down to the mills. In some cases gird- 
 ling is resorted to, allowing them to die on the stump. 
 The girdling is done in the summer season, usually start- 
 ing about the first of July and continuing to within ninety 
 days of high water. It has been found by experience 
 however, that though these methods render the log float- 
 able, they cause the sapwood to decay by exposing it to 
 the air and weather, and thus destroy much of the market- 
 able value of that part of the tree. In the early history 
 of gum it was thought by many mill men that if the tree 
 was girdled one year, allowed to die, and afterward cut, 
 that the amount of red or heartwood would be increased. 
 This was based on the theory that the darker color of the 
 heartwood was caused by the death of the sapwood, and 
 that the killing of the tree would tend to change the sap- 
 wood into heartwood. This theory has been exploded 
 
192 COOPERAGE 
 
 and abandoned, and in cutting gum, little girdling is now 
 done for this purpose. Owing to the large supply of this 
 timber in the Southern forests, and its cheapness as com- 
 pared to other species, it will no doubt be looked upon 
 with more favor as a cooperage wood in the years to 
 come, and its price will doubtless remain where it is for 
 a few years at least. After this, since the supply of gum 
 will rapidly diminish, it will increase accordingly in 
 value. 
 
 SITE AND AKKANGEMENT OF THE MILL 
 
 In the selection of the mill or factory site, good judg- 
 ment and tact is essential, for if the plant is not properly 
 situated, so as to receive the raw material and dispose of 
 the finished product to the best possible advantage, the 
 manufacturer will find it very perplexing, and be at a 
 disadvantage and unable to compete with his competitors, 
 who are fortunately more suitably located. Unless the 
 mill is arranged in such a manner that the different 
 stages of manufacture are carried out in progressive or- 
 der, there will be a considerable amount of unremuner- 
 ative labor. The ideal mill or factory is that in which 
 there is no unnecessary handling of raw material, and in 
 which everything when received at the works is stored so 
 as to be readily available when needed, and thereafter 
 so handled throughout the whole course of manufacture 
 that it will not go through any backward movement, but 
 forward from stage to stage, until ready for the market. 
 A mill pond is essential to all well-equipped plants, where 
 economy is sought, although it is not an absolute neces- 
 sity, excepting where the supply of timber is cut during 
 the winter for the entire year. Then a good sized pond 
 is necessary, for it not only preserves the timber, but it 
 is beneficial and economical in handling same from stor- 
 age to mill. Next in importance is the question of grades, 
 
HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 193 
 
 elevation, balance and the law of gravitation. The first 
 operation of the mill should be to elevate the raw ma- 
 terial to a point where it would be a continual down grade 
 until the finished product reached the car or loading 
 point, ready to be billed out, with the least possible 
 amount of labor in handling. This may seem to some 
 to be trivial, but is of primary importance in all mills 
 where economy is sought in the manufacture of cooperage 
 stock, and economy coupled with brainy management is 
 necessary, especially in the manufacture of cooperage 
 stock to-day, as the future of the barrel as a popular 
 package very largely depends upon the use of modern 
 methods and the practice of such economies in order that 
 its cost may be kept within the necessary limits, beyond 
 which it is not safe to go. 
 
 The machinery on the market to-day for the manu- 
 facture of slack cooperage stock is worthy of comment, 
 and the manufacturers of same have accomplished much. 
 They have given us machines and appliances with which 
 we can, with the proper care, produce first-class stock 
 from raw material in an efficient and able manner. 
 The rapidity, perfection, and complete adaptability 
 of these machines for their especial purpose are ex- 
 ceedingly creditable, and these modern machines and 
 appliances should be installed wherever it is possible 
 to use them, in order to lessen the expense, make the work 
 easy, or more rapid in its production. 
 
 THE UNLOADING SWITCH 
 
 Whether a log pond is installed or not, the road bed 
 of the unloading switch which brings the logs or raw 
 material to the mill should be so constructed with the 
 proper amount of slant toward the pond or receiving 
 platform that when the trip chains are loosened with a 
 cant hook, which is easily accomplished, the logs will roll 
 
194 COOPEEAGE 
 
 of their own accord into the pond. This is another point 
 in economy that should not be forgotten, as one man can 
 easily and without much effort discharge a trainload of 
 logs in a very short space of time. 
 
 THE SLACK STOCK MILL 
 
 Mills for the manufacture of slack stock are of several 
 different types. Some manufacture staves only, others 
 heading only, some manufacture staves and heading 
 while still others manufacture staves in connection with 
 a hoop mill, generally making elm staves especially. And, 
 again, some mills manufacture staves, heading and hoops, 
 which is an ideal arrangement, as the logs can then be 
 worked up into that class of stock for which they are 
 best adapted. Ordinarily, staves when manufactured at 
 a hoop mill do not run as large a per cent. No. 1 from 
 the fact that the better grade of logs must necessarily be 
 cut into hoops. If the staves are carefully graded, 
 usually from 40 to 60 per cent, is considered favorable. 
 Heading would be more suitable for manufacture in con- 
 nection with a hoop mill than staves, from the fact that 
 the bolts are shorter, and a poorer grade of timber can 
 be utilized more advantageously than in staves or hoops. 
 
SECTION VIII 
 
 SLACK STAVE 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 GENEKAL KEMAKKS 
 
 IN the manufacture of slack barrel staves there are 
 several distinct branches of the business, in any one of 
 which success or failure means profits or loss to the 
 industry. These divisions are, first, timber; second, fac- 
 tory work; third, piling* or air seasoning, and fourth, 
 jointing and packing. As in the manufacture of any kind 
 of cooperage stock good timber is essential to good 
 staves, yet one can be careful, using good tact and, 
 judgment in purchasing good timber, and getting it to 
 the mill in proper shape, and still manufacture very in- 
 ferior stock if the processes above mentioned are care- 
 lessly performed or neglected. It has been proven beyond 
 a doubt that the extremely small and crooked timber is 
 not profitable to work, and should be left standing in 
 the forest until it has grown to the proper size, which 
 should be at least ten inches breast high. 
 
 The increased cost of labor in handling, transporting, 
 etc., is so great that it is difficult to secure more than the 
 bare cost out of such timber. Dead timber and logs that 
 have been left in the woods or on the yard until they have 
 become decayed or are partially so cause no little amount 
 of difficulty and loss at the mill, and are the direct cause 
 of a great many complaints of defective stock, and more 
 especially so in the No. 2 grade. 
 
 There has been considerable discussion as to how brash 
 or how dead it is permissible for a stave to be and not be 
 considered a dead cull. As to the No. 1 grade, these brash 
 or dead timber staves should never be put into that class, 
 
198 COOPERAGE 
 
 and a great many should not even be put into the No. 2 
 grade ; in fact, it would be far better and more economical 
 for all parties concerned if this class of timber was left in 
 the woods. A stave that will break or bend with as little 
 pressure as is required to make an ordinary produce 
 barrel should certainly be throwu out. And it will be 
 found preferable to leave such timber in the woods rather 
 than culling them at the jointers after more or -less labor 
 and expense has been incurred in the handling, etc. 
 
 THE WASTE PKOBLEM 
 
 The total percentage of ultimate waste in manufac- 
 turing cooperage stock, even in the best-regulated mills, 
 is astonishing, and few operators are aware of their 
 enormous loss from this least respected point in economy. 
 So far, forest utilization has been of the most wasteful 
 kind, and only a relatively small percentage of the actual 
 wood content of our trees finally reaches the consumer in 
 the form of staves, hoops, or heading. Studies made by 
 the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture indi- 
 cate that in the manufacture of staves and hoops only 
 50 to 60 per cent, of the contents of the log which goes 
 into the mill finally emerge in the manufactured form, 
 and that with heading perhaps no more than 25 to 30 
 per cent, of the actual volume of the log finally goes into 
 the finished package. 
 
 Much of this lack of utilization cannot very well be 
 prevented, yet there are possibilities of much greater 
 economy than is generally practised. For instance, 
 upon careless inspection, logs are often assumed to 
 be suitable for stave bolts, and are cut into lengths 
 which are multiples of the length required, and are 
 subsequently found to be fit only for heading, which 
 requires much shorter lengths. This causes an unneces- 
 sary amount of waste, which could have been prevented 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 199 
 
 by a more careful determination at first of the purpose 
 for which the log was best fitted to serve. And, again, logs 
 are often bolted up into 32-inch lengths for the purpose 
 of cutting into the regular 30-inch staves, and are later 
 cut up into 28-inch staves or shorter, which means a 
 waste in the first instance of two to three inches on every 
 bolt, which could be averted by bolting out for each par- 
 ticular length or size. This argument also stands for 
 the different heading sizes. 
 
 Waste also occurs sometimes because the logs lie 
 in the woods or on the yard until they are so badly 
 checked that it is necessary to cut off considerable 
 of each end before the sound timber is reached, and 
 they are sometimes checked so badly all through that 
 over 50 per cent, of the log is worthless. Waste is 
 increased, also, if the bolts are split instead of sawn, 
 since in this case the first and last two or more staves 
 cut from each bolt must be discarded, because the bolt 
 is uneven; and, again, by splitting, the rift naturally 
 follows the grain of the wood, and in cases of cross- 
 grained timber, the bolts would have a wavy surface 
 (Fig. 12) and be twisted or wider at one end than at the 
 other, causing considerable waste. Hence, a given volume 
 of timber will produce more staves when the bolts are 
 sawn than if they were split or riven. 
 
 Considerable waste can often be traced to faulty 
 methods of manufacture and in the handling of stock. 
 In order to utilize all the timber and give each log its 
 most economical place, the different departments of the 
 mill must work in harmony and for a common cause. A 
 log that will not make a good hoop will very often do for 
 staves, and one too poor or too small for staves will often 
 turn out excellent heading. Where a mill manufactures 
 only one class of stock, it would be advisable for them to 
 have some side line, such as head liners, keg stock, tie 
 
200 * COOPERAGE 
 
 plugs, or furniture stock, whereby they could utilize their 
 waste to advantage. 
 
 The waste from careless stave jointing is another 
 item of great importance. If the species of wood is 
 hard to cut and contains many knots, the jointer will 
 very often needlessly cull hundreds of staves, the de- 
 fects of which could have been cut around and the 
 timber saved. Improper methods in cutting and bolting 
 for staves is another great cause of waste. In some mills 
 the log, instead of first being cut into blocks of the proper 
 length and then quartered into stave bolts, is first sawn 
 into cants or quartered along the whole length of the 
 log and then divided or sawn into the requisite lengths 
 for stave bolts. This method, as generally practised, 
 does not shape the bolt to the proper slanting form. 
 Moreover, the grain of the log generally does not run 
 parallel to its axis all the way through, and for this 
 reason the bolts prepared in this manner will be more 
 or less cross-grained and hence produce a poor grade of 
 staves. Then, again, much waste is often due to careless 
 management. The cooperage man must have green tim- 
 ber, and yet hundreds of logs or blocks will often be 
 allowed to lie on the yard or in the woods until they 
 become too dry to be worked economically or are so badly 
 checked that they are hardly fit for the purpose for which 
 they were intended. Heading blanks will very often be 
 cut 21 inches long, when only 17%-inch and even 15%-inch 
 heading will be circled out of them, and Ihe heading 
 matcher in his haste or carelessness will also often cause 
 another waste of two inches or more by the wrong choice 
 of pieces. The question of seasoning on the yard is 
 another important factor in the waste problem. Stock 
 is often piled in the open, the ricks or piles left uncov- 
 ered, not properly elevated from the ground, or not 
 sufficient air space left between the piles. Under these 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 201 
 
 conditions the top layers will twist and warp and the 
 bottom layers will rot, while very often the entire pile 
 will become covered with a thick, greenish mould. 
 
 An up-to-date slack cooperage plant should utilize 
 every part of the bolt or log bark, sawdust, and wood 
 of every conceivable shape and this can be accomplished 
 with the proper energy and by an expenditure in the first 
 cost which will soon be repaid to the mill owner. As to 
 what can be made to utilize the waste, it depends some- 
 what on location and surrounding conditions. Head- 
 liners are a stock product that can be made to utilize some 
 of the waste that accumulates in the form of cull hoops. 
 However, in converting timber into hoops, especially 
 direct from the log, there is quite a lot of stock that is 
 not cut into hoops on account of knots and other defects, 
 and this may be utilized for different products. 
 
 One line of work, and a very important one in some 
 localities, is to make small-dimension stock for chair fac- 
 tories, including rungs, posts, seat frames, backs, and, in 
 fact, all parts of various kinds of chairs and other furni- 
 ture. It is an interesting line of work, too, when followed 
 up right, the only drawback being the difficulty in secur- 
 ing fair prices for the material. 
 
 In some localities there is a chance to make crate stock 
 of various kinds to advantage out of scrap material, and 
 this wood, on account of its toughness, makes excellent 
 crate stock. Trunk strips offer another opening, and 
 really furnish an excellent line of work when you once 
 get into it, because it is a little better quality of stock 
 than ordinary crate strips, and in consequence brings 
 better prices. Elm is the favored wood for trunk strips, 
 and as this work includes numerous short lengths, they 
 can frequently be made to advantage along with hoops, 
 and made to assist materially in utilizing stock that would 
 otherwise go to waste. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 203 
 
 There are probably a number of other items that might 
 be included here, such as tie plugs, wooden spools, etc., 
 but with these to start on you should be able to keep 
 building on to this list right along. It is interesting to 
 note the variety of conditions and how they are over- 
 come in various sections in the manufacture of slack 
 stock. 
 
 FIG. 57. STEAM KICKEU OR LOG UNLOADEB. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 205 
 
 FIG. 59. DROP-FEED CIRCULAR CUT-OFF SAW. 
 
206 COOPERAGE 
 
 The conditions vary as to climatic influences, such, as 
 in the North we must remember that the low temperature 
 exerts influences that in the South are not even con- 
 
 FIG. 60. DROP-FEED CIRCULAR CUT-OFF SAW IN ACTION. Right-hand view. 
 
 jectured. The warm and unpleasant summer months 
 control the character of labor very seriously in the South. 
 The Northerner never dreams of this. The Easterner 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 207 
 
 faces the problem of the very excessive prices of the raw 
 material, that would paralyze the Middle- Westerner or 
 Southerner. He therefore overcomes this by utilizing 
 
 FIG. 61. DROP-FEED CIRCULAR CUT-OFF SAW IN ACTION. Left-hand view. 
 
 every particle of the log in ways the Southerner would 
 not think of. In the West or extreme West the manu- 
 facturing of slack barrel staves, heads, and hoops has 
 not received the attention that it has in other sections 
 
208 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 the tree or its product being manufactured into lumber 
 for building purposes. 
 
 FIG. 62. OVER-HEAD STYLE STEAM DOG. 
 THE BOLTING BOOM 
 
 The bolting room is where the timber is sawn into the 
 proper lengths for cutting into staves, heading or hoops. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 209 
 
 The logs should be brought into this department from 
 the log pond on an inclined log trough by means of an 
 endless chain log jacker or log haul-up (see Fig. 56), and 
 landed on the sorting deck, where they can be properly 
 inspected and put to the uses for which they are best 
 adapted, the better grade of logs, ones with the straight- 
 est grain and the least defects, such as knots, checks, etc., 
 going into hoops or staves and the more inferior ones put 
 aside for heading. Some mills may find use for a steam 
 kicker or log unloader (see Fig. 57) for throwing logs 
 out of the log trough in the mill. This machine can be 
 used either singly, as shown in cut of complete deck, or 
 double, as shown in this cut. The double machine con- 
 sists of two rock shafts, to which are attached as many 
 heavy cast arms as desired for length of log they are 
 to handle. To these are attached the shover arms, which 
 should be of forged steel hinged at the bottom end to 
 the cast arms and working through cast guides located in 
 the deck at sides of trough. These shafts and arms are 
 in turn operated by means of two steam cylinders 
 attached to the shafts by means of connecting rods and 
 a heavy cast arm on rock shaft. The machine can be 
 operated by means of a lever or by two foot treads. In 
 most cases the foot treads are used, and are generally 
 placed on one side of the log way. 
 
 THE CUT-OFF SAW 
 
 The logs should then be taken to the cut-off saw, to 
 be sawn into the proper lengths for staves or heading. 
 For this particular work some use what is termed a 
 "drag saw" (see Fig. 58), others use a "drop circular 
 saw" (see Figs. 59, 60 and 61), which show same in ac- 
 tion), and in some mills both types are used, as in some 
 instances where an extra large log is brought into the 
 
210 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 mill, the drag saw is brought into use, but for small- 
 diameter logs, up to 30 inches in diameter, the drop-feed 
 circular cut-off saw is the more efficient. For use in 
 conjunction with the drag or drop-feed circular cut-off 
 saw, for holding the logs firm and in position while being 
 sawn, are what are termed " steam dogs." (See Figs. 62 
 and 63.) The former type is what is termed the "over- 
 head style of steam dog, ' ' and where timber does not run 
 very large, this dog is very effective. 
 
 The mechanism will be seen by a glance at the cut. It 
 is a steam cylinder, usually 8 inches in diameter by 48 
 
 FIG. 63. FLOOR-LEVEL STYLE STEAM DOG. 
 
 inches long, mounted directly over the rolls or log 
 trough where stock is to be dogged. The end of the 
 piston is provided with corrugated head. When stock 
 is in position to be sawn, steam is admitted at top end 
 of cylinder ; the corrugated head ' strikes the log, the 
 steam pressure is kept on until cut is made, when steam 
 is admitted into the lower end of the cylinder and the 
 piston is raised, permitting the log to be advanced for 
 the next cut. Fig. 63 is what is termed the "floor-level 
 type of steam dog, ' ' and will give a very fair idea of the 
 most simple, compact and powerful steam dog ever de- 
 signed for holding logs firmly in position while being 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 211 
 
 sawn. It will dog instantly a 6-inch or a 5-foot log. It 
 consists principally of two heavy jaws working in planed 
 ways on top side of cylinder, and attached direct to the 
 piston rods which extend from each end of cylinder. 
 
 These pistons and rods are entirely separate, but both 
 are under absolute control, by means of the one valve 
 which is operated either by lever or foot tread. One 
 great point in favor of this type of machine is the small 
 amount of space it occupies ; the steam cylinder is usually 
 8 inches in diameter by 48 inches long. It can be read- 
 ily put in a ground-floor mill and can be located in log 
 trough, as shown in cut, with log chain passing through 
 its centre, or can be placed at end or between geared 
 rolls. When fast cutting of blocks is desired it is almost 
 indispensable. 
 
 THE DEAG SAW 
 
 The drag saw (see Fig. 58) is what is termed a direct- 
 acting steam drag saw, and is very simple, compact, 
 and effective. This machine occupies very little space, 
 and is virtually a self-contained steam engine on a small 
 scale with a saw blade fastened to the piston rod. Its 
 parts consist mainly of a base, a cylinder, the steam valve 
 and connections, a cross-head which is attached directly 
 to the piston, and to which saw blade is secured ; a saw 
 guide and a device for raising and lowering saw and feed- 
 ing it while it is in the cut, which consists mainly of 
 ropes, pulleys, and a counterweight. 
 
 On the capacity of this saw depends the output of 
 the entire mill, and it is of the greatest importance that 
 it should be given the best possible attention in order to 
 insure its usefulness. It should be 8 feet long, 14 inches 
 wide, 9 gauge thick and have 80 teeth, with a speed of 
 150 strokes per minute. The teeth should be 1% inches 
 long by % inch wide and have a lance point, with a slight 
 
212 COOPERAGE 
 
 hook or slant toward the rear end of the saw. The tooth 
 or cutting edge of saw should in all cases be perfectly 
 straight. If it is allowed to become low or hollow in 
 the centre, the saw blade will jump, which interferes 
 with its cutting rapidly, and is one of the common causes 
 of difficulty with this machine. A drag saw should be 
 hammered as stiff as it is possible to make it, in order 
 to insure the saw blade against buckling on the forward 
 stroke and flopping from side to side on its return stroke ; 
 the teeth should be jointed level to insure a straight cut 
 and have about %-inch set for a 9-gauge saw, other gauges 
 in like proportion. 
 
 THE DKOP-FEED CIBCULAK CUT-OFF SAW 
 
 The^ drop-feed circular cut-off saw (see Figs. 59, 60, 
 and 61), in conjunction with the drag saw as shown in 
 Fig. 58, being the most important saws in the mill, should 
 be always kept in first-class condition, in order to insure 
 a maximum output from the mill. These drop saws are 
 journaled to a 2 1 %6-inch saw arbor. The frame and saw 
 are counterbalanced, so that when steam is turned off 
 the cylinder the saw will always be up out of the way. 
 The feed is furnished by a 6-inch steam cylinder usually 
 56 inches long, and so arranged as to be under perfect 
 control of the operator at all times, who can vary it ac- 
 cording to the timber to be cut, thus getting all possible 
 capacity out of saw. These saws are usually driven di- 
 rect from line or main shaft, the two pulleys at the top 
 of frame acting as idlers and tighteners ; these machines 
 when properly taken care of will cut through a 20-inch 
 Ipg in ten seconds, and for this purpose they cannot be 
 surpassed. Capacity depends entirely upon the rapidity 
 with which logs can be brought up to the saw and the 
 bolts taken away. It is advisable in conjunction with 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 213 
 
 this saw to use an endless-chain conveyor for bringing 
 logs to the saw. Saws for this machine should be 66 
 
 
 j ,.,;.,. ;jm 
 
 ouzz; 
 
 FIG. 64. PLAN OF HORIZONTAL BOLTING SAW. 
 
 inches in diameter, inserted teeth, 7 gauge at rim, 6 gauge 
 at mandrel hole, with 96 teeth, and should be maintained 
 
214 COOPEEAGE 
 
 at a speed of 600 revolutions per minute. When sharp- 
 ening, the same cutting angles shoulcl be preserved, and 
 the gullets kept round. These inserted-tooth saws are 
 sharpened and dressed the same as a solid-tooth saw, 
 and the general directions in this work, under the head 
 of "Saws," for the dressing of solid-tooth saws will 
 apply. When changing teeth, first drive them into posi- 
 tion by placing a swage on the cutting edge and striking 
 a blow with a light hammer. Care should be exercised 
 not to expand the rim of the saw by rivetting too tightly, 
 for if this operation is not properly done the tension of 
 the saw will be destroyed. It is only necessary to rivet 
 enough to secure the tooth firmly. The surplus metal of 
 the rivet may then be chipped off with a" cold chisel in or- 
 der that it may not interfere with the running of the saw. 
 
 THE BOLTING SAW 
 
 The blocks as they come from the drop or drag saw 
 are then passed to the bolting saws, as shown in Fig. 64. 
 These saws should be as large as the frame will allow, 
 as a large-sized saw will enable the operator to split 
 large-sized blocks through the centre without the neces- 
 sity of chopping or splitting the bolt, which saves a great 
 deal of timber and unnecessary labor. Experience has 
 proven that a 60-inch saw gives the best results. This saw 
 should be 8 gauge straight, 50 teeth, and running 800 
 revolutions per minute. The teeth should have full 
 %-inch set or swage, and pitch line should intersect a 
 line at half the distance between centre and rim of saw; 
 this gives a good hook to the teeth. The back of the teeth 
 should be kept low to avoid friction, about one-fourth inch 
 down, a half inch from the point of tooth, measuring from 
 a straight line from point of one tooth to the point of 
 the next one. The teeth should have ample throat to 
 chamber the dust, but should not exceed 1% inches long. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 215 
 
 A safe rule is to make the length of the teeth half the 
 distance between them, unless the teeth are more than 
 three inches apart, when 1% inches should be the length. 
 If the teeth are too long, they will not permit the dust 
 to pack in the throat or dust chamber, so that it can be 
 carried through the cut, but will allow it to pour out at 
 the sides and heat the rim of the saw. A straight-gauge 
 saw is preferable for this reason: it allows the saw to 
 split the log more easily, and without carrying unneces- 
 sary set or swage, which is not only a waste of timber, 
 but requires more power to drive the saw. Do not put 
 as high tension in saw as would be necessary if sent to 
 a mill, expecting it to be used six months without ham- 
 mering, but put the tension in saw for speed of 800 revo- 
 lutions, and keep it there at all times, examining it every 
 time it comes off the mandrel. Keep the eye or mandrel 
 hole stiff, the rim true and smooth, the saw as near per- 
 fectly round as it is possible to get it, as the capacity 
 of the saw depends very much on each tooth doing ex- 
 actly the same amount of work. There should be dupli- 
 cate saws, and they should be changed every five hours. 
 With the saw, saw carriage and feed rig in proper con- 
 dition, 40 cords of stave timber should be flitched from 
 the round block every five hours; then change the saw 
 and go at it again. 
 
 STAVE AND HEADING BOLTS 
 
 The preparation of stave and heading bolts, prior to 
 their being cut or sawn into staves and heading pieces, 
 is of much more importance than the average man at the 
 mill generally allows. In the first instance it matters 
 not how much attention is placed upon the operation of 
 jointing or piling if the staves are not cut properly from 
 the bolt, or the bolt is not properly prepared so as to 
 allow of proper cutting. The staves will be, more or less, 
 
216 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 of inferior quality. The extra trimming in consequence 
 of the bolts having been improperly prepared is ex- 
 pensive, because it consumes time that might otherwise 
 have been expended in cutting good staves if the bolts 
 had been right, and the trimming also cuts away a 
 
 FIG. 65. A LOG BEFORE BEING SAWN INTO BOLTS. 
 
 large amount of valuable timber, which is unnecessarily 
 wasted, or timber that would have been valuable if it had 
 been handled right by the bolt being properly prepared. 
 Fig. 65 shows the log as it comes from the tree or forest 
 and prior to being cut into stave or heading bolts by the 
 drag or drop saw. Fig. 66 shows the timber cut into the 
 proper lengths for bolting. It has been proven that in 
 
 FIG. 66. A BOLT BEFORE 
 BEING QUARTERED. 
 
 FIG. 67. BOLT SHOWING METHOD 
 OF QUARTERING. 
 
 southern climates, where germs are active, or where stave 
 and heading bolts are stored in enormous piles, causing 
 them to heat and sweat, thus breeding germ life, it is 
 always advisable to remove the bark after felling. In a 
 cold climate this would be unnecessary. Fig. 67 shows the 
 proper manner of sawing or splitting timber of large 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 217 
 
 diameter into stave bolts, and is termed by the trade as 
 quartering, so as to allow of keeping with the grain 
 when cutting into staves. These flitches should be sawn 
 so that the staves when cut will average about four inches. 
 This is one important point the operator at the bolter 
 should always bear in mind, as otherwise the staves will 
 run either too wide or too narrow. The usual run of 
 flitches should be from 3 to 6 inches, with the majority of 
 them nearer 4% inches, so that they will finish when 
 
 FIG. 68. PROPERLY QUARTERED 
 STAVE BOLT OR. FLITCH. 
 
 FIG. 69. STAVE BOLT OR FLITCH 
 
 READY FOR THE STAVE CUTTER 
 
 OR CYLINDER STAVE SAW. 
 
 jointed to 4 inches,- the proper average for slack barrel 
 staves. In quartering bolts, it is a well-known fact that 
 splitting them into flitches with a maul and wedge, in- 
 stead of performing this work with a power bolter, is 
 extremely wasteful, since in this case the rift naturally 
 follows the grain of the wood, and in cases of cross- 
 grained timber the bolts would have a wavy surface, be 
 twisted and therefore wider at one end than at the other, 
 necessitating 'several cuts before 
 a full or complete stave could be 
 produced. Hence, a given vol- 
 ume of timber will produce more 
 staves when the bolts or flitches 
 are sawn than if they were split 
 or riven. Fig. 68 shows stave bolt properly quartered 
 and ready for the steam boxes, prior to being cut into 
 staves. Fig. 69 shows stave bolt cut to uniform length 
 on bolt equalizer and bark peeled off, ready for the stave 
 
 o STAVE BOLT Snow- 
 
 ING METHOD OF CUTTING 
 
 on SAWING INTO STAVES, 
 
218 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 cutter after having been properly steamed. Fig. 71 shows 
 heading bolt properly prepared from tree or log. Fig. 72 
 
 FIG. 71. HEADING BOLT 
 PROPERLY PREPARED. 
 
 FIG. 72. HEADING BOLT 
 
 SHOWING METHOD 
 
 OF SAWING. 
 
 shows proper method of sawing pieces of heading from 
 heading bolt. 
 
 STEAM BOXES FOE STAVE BOLTS 
 
 The operation of steaming the timber at the stave mill, 
 prior to being cut into staves, is an important link in 
 slack stave manufacture, and one that should be given 
 more attention than the average mill man has applied 
 to it. It is a well-known fact that one of the greatest 
 faults of the average stave mill is either lack of steam 
 capacity, or poorly constructed and inefficient steam 
 boxes, or both. In general, well-steamed wood shears 
 about one-third more easily than merely wet wood, and 
 makes a brighter and much smoother stave. Timber that 
 is not properly steamed or not steamed enough will pro- 
 duce a stave that is rough, washboardy, of uneven thick- 
 ness, and with the fibres of the wood badly shattered, 
 by the knife forcing its way through the bolt, and is 
 liable to appear mouldy and stained when taken from 
 the pile; and, again, if the timber is steamed too much, 
 the stock will be woolly and rough, giving the appearance 
 of dead timber; this is especially so in the case of elm, 
 cottonwood, soft or silver maple. It is being demon- 
 strated now and then that some of the stave bolts are 
 suffering from over-steaming. And when one gets the 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 219 
 
 whole thing properly analyzed it will likely be found 
 that the damage in over- steaming is more generally that 
 of too intense steaming, that is, the use of too much 
 heat or too high a pressure. Almost any one knows that 
 wood can be steamed too much. Elm, cottonwood, etc., 
 which are comparatively easy to soften with steam for 
 cutting, can be steamed until they are difficult to cut 
 smoothly, as they get woolly and the fibres of the wood 
 hang across the knife, and the general effect is almost 
 the same as if they were cut with a rough-edged knife. 
 What is desired is to soften the timber to the highest 
 degree of sponginess without loosening the fibres of the 
 wood from each other to such an extent as to cause 
 woolly or fuzzy cutting. There are really several trou- 
 bles that develop from excessive steaming, but the most 
 serious and permanent one is that of injury to the wood 
 itself by loosening the bond of the fibres. Other inci- 
 dental troubles are that it causes cracking of the bolts, 
 which, in its turn, increases the size of the waste pile. 
 The principal object to be obtained in steaming the 
 wood before cutting, is to extract or force as much of 
 the sap and nitrogenous substances out of the timber 
 as possible, at the same time making the fibres of the 
 wood soft and pliable so that it will shear or cut easily, 
 and dry quickly after being cut, in order to lessen the 
 possibilities of the staves moulding. When staves mould 
 in the pile it is evident that either the timber was not 
 properly steamed and the sap extracted, the steam not 
 hot enough, so that the dampness will evaporate from the 
 stave quickly, or else the stock is piled too closely to- 
 gether, causing it to heat and sweat. To properly steam 
 stave bolts of beech, birch, sycamore, hard maple, and 
 gum, requires that the steam be more or less dry and 
 of good pressure. By this we mean that exhaust steam 
 from the engine alone will not produce satisfactory re- 
 
220 COOPERAGE 
 
 suits, as it has not sufficient pressure to enter into the 
 hard fibres of the wood. From this it is readily ap- 
 parent that it is necessary in order to insure effective 
 results to construct strong, tight steam-boxes and have 
 at all times a sufficient supply of good steam. 
 
 From careful observation at one of the largest stave 
 mills in this country, where hardwoods are cut ex- 
 clusively, it has been found that by the addition to the 
 factory boilers of a standard feed water regulator, 
 in order that the water in the boilers may be kept as 
 near 1% gauge as possible, with the steam pressure 
 maintained at 100 pounds, that the quality of the steam 
 is improved, that it drives the sap out of the timber 
 quickly, and produces a brighter and smoother stave 
 than if no attention was paid to feed or pressure in 
 the boilers. This method also lessens the possibility 
 of mould appearing on the stave. In the case of elm, 
 cottonwood, etc., this method is reversed by increasing 
 the water and lowering the pressure in the boilers, as if 
 these woods are subjected to too severe steaming the, 
 stock will appear woolly and rough, as previously ex- 
 plained, and is often mistaken for dead timber. 
 
 The manufacture of gum timber into staves seems 
 to have been a problem. Most "of the difficulty experi- 
 enced can be duly traced to improper steaming and joint- 
 ing. If more attention were paid to details in steaming, 
 no doubt these difficulties would gradually disappear. 
 Gum properly manufactured makes an excellent stave, 
 providing the fibres of the wood are not completely shat- 
 tered in cutting, caused by insufficient or improper steam- 
 ing. Where gum is cut entirely, there are quite a few 
 adherents to the method of boiling them, after the man- 
 ner of hoop plank, instead of steaming them. By boiling 
 it is claimed they secure a much better stave, and experi- 
 ments have proven that the wood shears easier by boil- 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 221 
 
 ing the bolts for about 7 hours than if they were 
 steamed by the old process for 24 hours. This point is 
 well worth considering, as no doubt it would be more 
 economical to boil them, using exhaust steam, for 7 hours, 
 than by steaming them for 24 hours. Of course, the 
 problem of labor would have to be taken into considera- 
 tion, as the expense of handling the bolts to and from 
 the boiling vat would probably be greater. The whole 
 problem of steaming resolves itself into this : Where tim- 
 ber, such as elm, cottonwood, soft or silver maple, etc., 
 is to be cut into staves, the steaming process should be 
 of a mild nature, using exhaust steam or steam of a very 
 low pressure. There seems to be a difference of opinion 
 in this case as to whether live or exhaust steam should be 
 used. Some maintain that the live steam is the best, be- 
 cause it is more forceful, while others show a preference 
 for exhaust steam, and still others use a combination of 
 both live and exhaust steam. A great deal depends upon 
 the condition of the bolts to be steamed whether or not 
 they need moisture in the heating, or simply need heat 
 alone, and have sufficient moisture within themselves. 
 Naturally, a bolt sawn from a freshly felled tree would 
 have considerable moisture within itself, and would only 
 require heat sufficient to soften the fibres of the wood, 
 while one sawn from an old log or tree that had been 
 lying in the woods or on the yard for some time would 
 require considerably more moisture in the heating in 
 order to soften the fibres of the wood properly. 
 
 Late investigations on the subject of steaming have de- 
 veloped the idea that too much heat and not sufficient 
 moisture is made use of. Ordinarily, stave bolts are 
 steamed approximately 24 hours with a combination of 
 live and exhaust steam. It is now thought that longer time 
 and less heat, or lower pressure, would give better results. 
 On this theory, the exhaust steam alone should be better 
 
222 COOPERAGE 
 
 than the live steam, because it is not quite so hot and 
 has more moisture. But in the case of hardwoods, such 
 as beech, birch, sycamore, hard maple, etc., it has been 
 proven that the steam must be more or less dry, as stated 
 before, in order to secure best results. 
 
 There are different types of steam-boxes in use, and 
 the tendency is, where new plants are constructed, to 
 make them of concrete, which is no doubt the most sat- 
 isfactory method. Although steam-boxes properly con- 
 structed of timbers have in some instances been found 
 to" give entire satisfaction, the concrete box, which is 
 somewhat more expensive, is absolutely tight, and prob- 
 ably the cheapest in the long run, as the maintenance 
 is a very small item. 
 
 Where steam-boxes are constructed of wood, it is often 
 necessary to rebuild them as often as once every two 
 or three years, and in some cases it has been found 
 necessary to rebuild them oftener than that. A fairly 
 good construction of wooden box is made by using 
 6 x 6-inch timbers, each additional timber being bolted 
 down to the last one with %-inch bolts 12 inches long,' 
 spaced about 18 inches apart, and the joints prop- 
 erly caulked when finished with oakum. The idea of 
 using bolts only 12 inches long enables one to draw the 
 timbers tighter together than if longer ones were used, 
 and four or more timbers taken at one time. This method 
 makes a much better and more satisfactory construction 
 than if built up of two layers of tongue and grooved 
 flooring lined with tar paper between, as the wood nat- 
 urally shrinks and swells when steam is admitted; and 
 eventually the inside layer will buckle or raise up, and 
 the consequence is a leaky steam-box. 
 
 In regard to the use of concrete for this purpose, there 
 is a wide difference of opinion as to its ultimate value. 
 Probably the chief source of difficulty and disappoint- 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 223 
 
 ment, when they occur from its use, is from cracks and 
 from the work costing in excess of all previous calcula- 
 tions. There may be other sources of disappointment, 
 such as improper mixture, unwise designing, or ignorant 
 handling, but where the boxes are properly designed, 
 placed upon good, firm foundations, and the concrete 
 properly mixed and well tamped in the moulds, and re- 
 inforced with sufficient iron rods, no considerable diffi- 
 culty should be experienced, and the steam-boxes should 
 give perfect satisfaction, both as to cost of maintenance 
 and quality of work produced. 
 
 This problem of concrete cracking is one that even the 
 experts do not seem able to explain away satisfactorily, or 
 to positively guard against. At first cracks were almost 
 universally attributed to faulty foundations. There is 
 no doubt but that at least a part of them are due to this 
 cause, but time and experiments have demonstrated that 
 in monolithic concrete construction, where a wall is put 
 up in a solid mass in large units, cracks will develop, 
 regardless of foundations. It appears to be a matter of 
 contraction probably, both in the setting of the cement 
 and the changing temperature and moisture conditions 
 of the weather after it is set. Expansion and contrac- 
 tion make up the most serious problems of construction, 
 and must be taken into consideration at all times. 
 
 It appears to the writer that about the best solution of 
 the crack problem in connection with the use of concrete 
 would be to use it in the form of blocks or in smaller 
 units, rather than what is termed monolithic work; but 
 it would be a matter of experiment to determine whether 
 this form of construction would be entirely satisfactory 
 for use as a steam-box. It has been used in this form 
 for dry-kiln construction, and found to give excellent re- 
 sults, and no doubt could be successfully used for steam- 
 ing purposes. 
 
224 COOPERAGE 
 
 In the matter of costs for concrete work for this pur- 
 pose, and the probable reason that invariably such con- 
 struction exceeds the costs calculated, contains food for 
 thought. As an illustration, the usual mixture for concret- 
 ing in monolithic form, is to take proportions about as fol- 
 lows : One part good Portland cement, two parts sharp 
 sand, and four parts crushed stone. Counting these parts 
 as yards, one, two, and four yards make a total of seven 
 yards; but instead of making seven yards of concrete, 
 they really only make about four yards, or the amount of 
 crushed stone put in, or, in other words, the amount of 
 crushed stone represents the aggregate, and the sand and 
 cement simply fill in the voids between the stone. This is 
 probably one reason why concrete work invariably ex- 
 ceeds the costs calculated upon. 
 
 When commencing the foundation for concrete steam- 
 boxes, the first important thing to consider is the 
 nature of the ground. If the foundation is to rest on 
 stone, the surface which is to receive it should be 
 flat and level, or, if the stone is sloping, it should 
 be cut into steps; otherwise the foundation may 
 slide or part and cause cracks to appear. Damp clay 
 or clay that is continually moist is slippery and makes 
 a poor foundation, as it is treacherous and settles un- 
 evenly and in all directions. Dry clay has a tendency 
 to draw moisture from the air, and near the surface will 
 expand and contract, depending on the condition of the 
 weather. In many places it makes a poor foundation, but 
 in some sections, where the land is kept well drained 
 and the surface water runs away quickly, it makes a good 
 base for a foundation, and may be trusted with from one 
 to two tons per square foot, when the foundation goes 
 from four to five feet in depth. The ideal base for a 
 foundation for concrete work is " hard-pan. " This, next 
 to stone, is the nearest to being non-compressible. Next 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 225 
 
 to hard-pan is gravel or sand, and if possible, this should 
 be compacted with large quantities of water. Either of 
 these will compress or settle some, but can be depended 
 upon to sustain three to four tons per square foot of sur- 
 face, this depending upon conditions. The bottom of the 
 foundations should be below frost line, otherwise the frost 
 may distort them. Between four and five feet in depth 
 should be the minimum. Where the soil is uneven and 
 treacherous from being continually wet or swampy, piles 
 should be resorted to. These should be spaced about 2% 
 feet apart, centre to centre, and sawn off not higher than 
 the line of permanent moisture, and the concrete base 
 built over them, commencing 6 inches below the. top of 
 the piles. This running of the tops of the piles up into 
 the concrete base holds them so they cannot spread, and 
 is an important point where the foundation is laid in 
 ground of this nature. If proper care is exercised in 
 the foundation work of concrete steam-boxes, no diffi- 
 culty of a serious nature will be experienced through 
 cracks appearing in the main body of the work. As a 
 rule, this, the most important point in concrete construc- 
 tion, has been given the least attention. In mixing the 
 concrete, the sand should be clean and sharp, and free 
 from soil or dirt of any kind, as any loam mixed with it 
 has a tendency to retard its setting, and the completed 
 work will be somewhat inferior. Where creek sand and 
 gravel are used, a little more cement is necessary. It is 
 calculated that sand has voids amounting to one-third of 
 its bulk, so that if one part of cement be mixed with three 
 parts of sand, the voids will be filled, and there will be 
 no increase of volume in the sand; and that to use less 
 cement than the above will leave voids in the sand, de- 
 pending on the less amount used. A specially good brand 
 of cement may carry four parts of sand, and make as 
 strong concrete as another brand will when carrying three 
 
226 COOPEKAGE 
 
 parts, but it is well not to use more than three parts sand 
 to one part cement, and even two to .one would be safer. 
 A good brand of Portland cement should be used in 
 concrete work for steam-boxes, and where Eosendale 
 cement is used, it would be well /to use even less sand. 
 From this it will be seen that the lower-priced cement is 
 not always the cheapest. The stone used should be 
 crushed from a good quality of granite, a strong lime- 
 stone, or trap-rock, and broken so that it would pass 
 through a 2-inch ring. Stone of a slaty character of any 
 kind or limestone similar in form to slate rock does not 
 make a good concrete. The mixture should be in the 
 proportions of one part good Portland cement, two 
 parts sharp sand, and four parts broken stone. The 
 cement is improved by working and driving down solid 
 in the moulds, and only sufficient water should be used, 
 so that when the concrete is well rammed the water will 
 just show on the surface. After the moulds have been 
 removed, the walls should be faced with a mixture of one 
 part cement to two parts sand, putting on a coat about 
 one inch thick. To do this work it will take approximately 
 one barrel of cement to every 14 square yards of surface. 
 If the above information is followed closely, the steam- 
 boxes when finished should be a source of pleasure to 
 their owner, and eliminate all difficulties from this source. 
 
 THE DUTCH OVEN OK BULLDOG FURNACE 
 
 Next in importance to good, tight steam-boxes, ample 
 steam capacity is of great consequence, and experience 
 has proven that the so-called Dutch oven or bulldog fur- 
 nace renders more and better satisfaction in stave mills 
 than any other type, as it is not only a labor saver, 
 but all kinds of culls, sawdust, bark, etc., can be thrown 
 into it without much effort, making it easily the most 
 economical furnace for this purpose. And it is remark- 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 
 
 227 
 
 able how much service can be secured from a modern- 
 sized boiler with this attachment. 
 
 A water heater also adds a great deal to the capacity 
 of a boiler, and it is often cheaper to install one, in pref- 
 erence to adding another unit, or purchasing a larger 
 boiler. This Dutch oven is simply an extension built 
 in front of the boiler (see Fig. 73), into which the fire 
 grates are placed, instead of being put inside the boiler 
 wall proper, and underneath the front end of the boiler. 
 The details of construction differ, but the general idea 
 
 ^PT^r^ /fey&v. .:& 
 
 ** 
 
 FIG. 73. DUTCH-OVEN OR BULL-DOG FURNACE. 
 
 is the same in all cases. These ovens are generally built 
 about 10 feet long and should be fully as wide, and can 
 very well be even wider than the boiler front itself. The 
 oven illustrated shows the sawdust being conveyed direct 
 to the furnace through the blowpipe, and can be dropped 
 in equally as well with a chain conveyor. There should 
 be an extra large opening on top to allow the fireman 
 to shovel or scrape the larger pieces, blocks, etc., into 
 the furnace from the floor level. The blowpipe or chain 
 conveyor should be arranged in such a manner, having 
 an extra leg or side extension with a switch or damper 
 
228 COOPERAGE 
 
 attached, so that when no fuel is wanted directly under 
 the boiler, it can be thrown to one side. 
 
 STAVE BOLT EQUALIZING MACHINE 
 
 When the stave bolts leave the steam-boxes after hav- 
 ing been properly steamed, they are taken directly to 
 the bolt equalizer, as shown in Pig. 74. This machine 
 should be located on the left-hand side of the stave cutter 
 
 FIG. 74. STAVE BOLT EQUALIZER. 
 
 and about three feet from it, so that the operator can 
 place the equalized bolt on a rack convenient for the man 
 at the stave cutter. These bolts should be barked or the 
 bark well removed before they are equalized, in order 
 that the work will not interfere with the stave cutters. 
 The important work of these equalizers is to equalize 
 the ends of the bolts to the desired length and leave them 
 smooth and square on the ends. The saws for this ma- 
 chine should be 32 inches in diameter, 11 gauge straight, 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 229 
 
 with 64 teeth, and maintained at a speed of 1,800 revolu 
 tions per minute; the pitch line of tooth should run 
 through the eye of the saw. An equalizer rig, one that 
 cuts both ends of the stick at once, is one class of sawing 
 machine that you cannot give lead to clear the body of 
 the saw; consequently there is more or less trouble with 
 the stock binding between the saws. Sometimes warmth 
 from the journal boxes will cause enough expansion in 
 the eye of the saws to make them incline to dish a little, 
 and as your stock is passing between them on the inner 
 side at all times, the tendency is naturally to dish out, 
 increasing the length of the material a little and causing 
 the stock to bind, which augments the heating and makes 
 the trouble worse. Where saws are interchangeable, a 
 little relief can be had by changing sides with the saws 
 from time to time ; where this is not practical or involves 
 too much trouble, about the only immediate remedy is to 
 give more set on the inside of the saw. Of course, by 
 doing this the inside teeth simply tear down the wood, 
 and leave a woolly end, giving the staves a ragged ap- 
 pearance. Another and probably better method is to 
 hammer them with more tension out near the rim, be- 
 cause they cut hot timber, which has a tendency to heat 
 the body of the saw, and make it expand more than if 
 cutting cold timber. There is a point about filing equal- 
 izer saws which is worth keeping in mind. Sometimes in 
 cross-cutting stave bolts, you will notice instead of the 
 end cutting out smoothly, the corner where the saw comes 
 out shows splinters, or, as they are sometimes called, 
 whiskers, which at times are rather annoying. These 
 are frequently due to the fact that the average cross-cut 
 saw used in equalizing wears most on the side next to 
 the bolt, or inside, because that is where the heavy tim- 
 ber is and the rigid cutting done; and in the process of 
 filing from time to time, the inside teeth of the saw be- 
 
230 COOPERAGE 
 
 come a little shorter than the outside teeth, and that is 
 really what makes the splinters or whiskers. The out- 
 side teeth cut through just a fraction ahead of the inside 
 ones, and that leaves the fibres of the wood loose so that 
 they are driven back on the finished end instead of cutting 
 clean. The way to get the clean cut on this inside or 
 finished end, is to joint the saws so that they are a little 
 shorter on the outside, say, %2 of an inch, or it won't 
 hurt to make it Me of an inch; then file carefully to a 
 point and note the results, and it will be found that the 
 whiskers or splinters, instead of being on the bolt end, 
 are on the end block that is cut off, where they will do no 
 harm, and it really makes the saw run better and cut 
 cleaner. In fitting equalizer saws this is a good-point 
 to keep in mind, and it will not merely have to be done 
 once, but quite frequently, because the inside teeth are 
 the ones which do the most work, and the outside ones 
 will have to be kept jointed down from time to time as 
 the saw wears. Where equalizer saws of an uneven gauge 
 are used, they should be made straight on the inside, to 
 allow the bolt to go forward toward the centre of the saw 
 without bearing against it, which would cause them to 
 flare out at the rim, making the bolt on the side cut 
 through a trifle longer. This is one of the causes of bolts 
 not being cut square, and produces staves of uneven 
 length, a serious matter, but one that is neglected in the 
 average factory. 
 
 CRACKS IN EQUALIZER SAWS 
 
 These cracks in equalizer and cross-cut saws of one 
 kind and another present a very interesting study, and 
 one that is very elusive when you try to run it down "to 
 an exact solution. It is a peculiar fact that cross-cut 
 saws crack more frequently than ripsaws, and a big cir- 
 cular mill saw very seldom cracks, while the little cross- 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUBE 231 
 
 cut saw has such a general habit of cracking ihat it may 
 be called a sort of family characteristic. "It's the shape 
 of the teeth and the sharp gullets," the saw man says, 
 and advises you to use round-edge files or take other 
 means of preventing them from getting square and sharp 
 gullets. Still, it is a peculiar fact that after a crack or 
 two comes in the rim of the cross-cut saw, you can file 
 all the square and sharp gullets you want to and it's not 
 very likely to do any more cracking, not nearly as likely 
 as it is to crack once, even though you take all manner of 
 pains to prevent square gullets and sharp corners. The 
 thing to do, of course, when a crack makes its appear- 
 ance, is to drill a hole at the end of the crack, so that it 
 may not go farther. The cause of cracks comes from the 
 rim or outer edge of the saw being tight, requiring more 
 tension to prevent the saw being wavy on the rim when 
 it is speeded up, and gets the expanding strain of centrif- 
 ugal force, and also the strain of cutting against the 
 grain of the wood. In order to insure the saw standing 
 up to its work, the saw man generally puts in a little more 
 tension than is called for, so as to give a factor of safety 
 to take care of the let-down that comes from service. As 
 a consequence, the rim of the saw is like a tight band on 
 a hub or anything of like nature, and a little wrench or 
 jerk starts it cracking. There is really no universal rem- 
 edy for it ; the matter might be helped a little if you have 
 the tools and will do it carefully by hammering lightly 
 around the base of the teeth, so as to expand the extreme 
 outer rim a little, and leave the supporting tension of the 
 saw just inside the rim, say, about a half inch, and leave 
 the part of the saw that carries the teeth free from in- 
 ternal strain, and to support only that caused by the cut. 
 
 STAVE-CUTTING MACHINE 
 
 After the stave bolts have been properly barked and 
 equalized, they are then taken to the stave-cutting ma- 
 
232 COOPERAGE 
 
 chine, a front view of which is shown in Fig. 75. For 
 this purpose a machine is generally used having a knife 
 36 inches long and 6% inches wide, with a face ground to 
 a circle of 20 inches. The steel rib facings should be 
 reversible and hardened at each end to prevent wear and 
 discoloring the staves. In some cases brass facings are 
 used and found to give good satisfaction. These ribs, 
 which are the gauges that determine the thickness of the 
 stave, should be kept in perfect circle with the tumbler. 
 The tumbler should be true on its face and the knife 
 
 FIG. 75. STAVE CUTTER. 
 
 ground as thin as is possible without injuring its strength, 
 and should be set with a lead or draft of %2 inch. The 
 speed of the machine should be as fast as the operator 
 can feed it and perform good work; generally 150 to 160 
 strokes per minute is the average speed. In the opera- 
 tion of this machine is seen the great advantage of prop- 
 erly flitched timber, which, if sawn out in proper shape, 
 makes the work of the cutter light, and shows increased 
 output with less time and labor than if the timber ^as 
 split or riven ; the cutter simply places the timber in the 
 machine and it almost feeds itself. The trimming of the 
 bolt to get it in shape to cut, and the tipping and turning 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 233 
 
 that is necessary in cutting split timber is almost entirely 
 avoided if the timber is sawn, and turns into staves a 
 large per cent, of material that usually increases the fuel 
 pile when cutting split timber. This is what makes it 
 possible easily to cut from sawn bolts or flitches from 
 50,000 to 60,000 staves in 10 hours. The cutter operating 
 this machine must give proper attention at all times to 
 the grain of the wood, and see that his bolt is turned and 
 fed into the machine in such a manner that the knife in 
 cutting through the flitches will be running as near quar- 
 tering as practical, which means that the knife must 
 start into the wood and cut from bark to heart or vice 
 versa, thus crossing the grain properly and making a 
 nice, clean, smooth stave, providing the timber has been 
 first properly steamed. This is one of the most impor- 
 tant points in connection with stave-cutting, and every 
 cutter should endeavor to make this a study, as if the 
 grain of the wood is not consulted the staves will be 
 rough and of uneven thickness and will not retain their 
 concave-convex shape while drying and seasoning, which 
 is most important. When a stave which has been worked 
 into a barrel, afterward loses its concave shape and be- 
 comes convex toward the inside of the barrel, it has 
 surely not been properly cut with the grain, and con- 
 siderably lessens the strength of the package, as with 
 the least jolt the package is liable to collapse. This item 
 of loss is greatest in staves that change their shape or 
 become flat or convex before they are made into the bar- 
 rel, and are unfit for the poorest quality of culls. All 
 woods do not show the grain plainly on the end of the 
 stick, as in oak, but the stave cutter must know and con- 
 sider the grain as if he could see it. When he is cutting 
 staves from cottonwood, gum, and other woods that do 
 not show the grain, he must use good judgment and fol- 
 low the grain from the shape of the stick, as he can read- 
 
234 COOPERAGE 
 
 ily distinguish the bark or sap side from the heart side. 
 Some cutters maintain that these woods can be cut any 
 way, either with or without the grain, but it has been 
 proven by long experience that they do not hold their 
 shape and do not cut smooth. A stave cutter that insists 
 that the grain of cottonwood or gum need not be con- 
 sulted makes many more defective staves, and is the main 
 cause of variance in quality as between one stave mill 
 and another. 
 
 Any one of experience knows that there is a vast 
 difference even in the quality of stock made in the 
 same neighborhood, and it can all be traced to this one 
 point, of properly cutting with the grain. Whether the 
 wood used be cottonwood, elm, or beech, the grain should 
 at all times be consulted. Not only is thq variance in 
 quality of staves confined to different plants, but often 
 in the same factory and from the same rick of staves two 
 distinct qualities of stock may be discovered, showing 
 probably that one cutter observes the grain, while his 
 fellow-workman does not. Most consumers have learned 
 to understand that quality can be changed at any par- 
 ticular plant, either intentionally or through carelessness, 
 and on very short notice ; also, that there is a great differ- 
 ence in staves shipped from the same locality, and this 
 can also be traced to that one important point of cutting 
 with the grain. As to the proper thickness staves should 
 be cut, the following measurements are considered stand- 
 ard, when the staves are dry and in condition for ship- 
 ment, and should be adhered to as closely as possible : 
 
 ELM STAVES 
 
 20-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 281/4-in. staves, 5 staves to \% inches. 
 21-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
 22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
 24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 5 staves to J% inches. 
 34-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 235 
 
 GUM AND COTTONWOOD STAVES 
 
 20-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 5 staves to U% 6 ins. 
 
 21 -inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 5 staves to l 1 ^ i ns - 
 
 22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 5 staves to li% 6 ins. 
 
 231/4-in. staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 34-inch staves, 5 staves to l 1 ^ i ns - 
 
 24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 36-inch staves, 5 staves to 2 inches. 
 
 28%-in. staves, 5 staves to l 1 ^ i ns< 40-inch staves, 5 staves to 
 
 OAK, BEECH AND MAPLE STAVES 
 
 20-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 6 staves to 21^ ins.* 
 
 21-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% inches. 
 
 22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 6 staves to 2y 8 inches. 
 
 23^-in. staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 34-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% inches. 
 
 24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 36-inch staves, 6 staves to 2%g ins. 
 
 281/^-in. staves, 6 staves to 2% ins. 40-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% 6 ins. 
 
 NUMBER OF STAVES PER CORD 
 
 The number of staves generally produced from a cubic 
 cord or a rank of stave bolts varies considerably, as a 
 great deal depends upon the size of the logs from which 
 the bolts were cut, and upon the kind and quality of the 
 timber. For instance, 1,000 feet of logs 24 inches and 
 over in diameter will make about 1% cords of stave bolts 
 32 inches long, while 1,000 feet of logs averaging from 
 12 to 18 inches in diameter will make nearly 2 cords of 
 bolts. From this it will be readily seen that more staves 
 are produced from logs of small diameter than from 
 1,000 feet of logs measuring 24 inches and over. The 
 general average appears to be about 2,400 staves 30 
 inches in length from 1,000 feet of logs, scaled Doyle 
 rule, where small and large logs are cut, as well as good 
 and bad ones. Now, getting down to cord measurements, 
 a pile of stave bolts 4 feet high, 12 feet long, and 32 inches 
 wide equals 128 cubic feet or 1 cubic cord, and a good 
 average production would be about 2,000 staves from 
 cottonwood, gum, sycamore, etc., and about 1,900 staves 
 from beech, maple, etc. Another measurement used con- 
 
 *It has been the custom to cut 30-inch hardwood staves 6 to 2^6 inches 
 instead of 2y 8 inches, as this thickness is more preferable to all the large 
 machine coopers. 
 
236 COOPERAGE 
 
 siderably is a rank, which is figured thus: 4 feet high, 
 8 feet long, and 32 inches wide; this equals 32 square 
 feet or 85% cubic feet, and is considered a rank. From 
 a rank of stave bolts the general average appears to be 
 about as follows: For ash, 925 staves; for cottonwood, 
 1,235 staves; for mixed timber, such as gum, sycamore, 
 etc., 1,135 staves. 
 
 THE CYLINDER STAVE SAW 
 
 In the manufacture of slack staves from hemlock, tam- 
 arack, jack pine, pitch pine, spruce, and woods of like 
 nature, the cylinder or drum saw is generally used. (Fig. 
 
 FIG. 76. CYLINDER STAVE SAW. 
 
 76.) As a general proposition, the cutting of pine or the 
 softer woods on veneer machines or slicers has developed 
 some peculiar characteristics of the wood. According 
 to the logical deductions from most of our well-known 
 theories and practices in woodworking, pine, by its 
 nature, cannot be successfully steamed and cut, and espe- 
 cially is this true of the yellow or pitch pine of the South. 
 Notwithstanding all this, however, we are confronted with 
 the fact that lots of yellow pine is being cut to-day, and 
 has been for the past few years, on veneer machines for 
 light packages and crates, including as a prominent item 
 orange boxes. In the softer pines of the North, in the 
 cutting of lighter material, such as basket splints, etc., 
 pine appears to work nicely also; still, those who have 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 237 
 
 attempted to work pine and such woods into slack barrel 
 staves and cut it with a knife say that it does not work 
 successfully. It seems that between the steaming, and 
 the straining and rupture of the grain while cutting, the 
 structure and fibres of the wood are so shattered that 
 after it dries a great many of the staves split apart, 
 falling in some x cases almost into splinters. The wood 
 usually separates along the line between the hard and 
 soft streaks, which is termed winter and summer-wood, 
 and in appearance bears some resemblance to wood that 
 has been beaten, somewhat after the manner of what is 
 known as racking black ash strips to make butter-tub 
 hoops. Some of the pine works better than others, but 
 there is enough of this trouble present at all times to 
 render the work generally unsatisfactory and make it 
 more desirable to use cylinder stave saws to make slack 
 barrel staves out of pine wood, whether large or small. 
 You can, of course, cut them on a circular saw also, mak- 
 ing straight-sawn staves of the narrow sort, such as is 
 used for salt and lime barrels or similar packages, and 
 which are frequently made from slabs and waste about 
 the sawmill. In other words, this straight sawing process 
 will do where pine staves are a mere incident in some 
 other work; but where the making of staves from pine 
 is a prominent factor, practically the only successful 
 process of manufacture is the use of the cylinder or drum 
 saw. Where gum is sawn on a cylinder stave saw, it has 
 been found by experience that it takes a heavier corner 
 on the teeth when sawing this wood than is required for 
 cutting oak. This appears contrary to what one would 
 naturally suppose. Upon careful examination of the two 
 woods, the natural inference would be that the heavier 
 corner would be required for the oak and that any kind 
 of a light corner would answer for gum. But expert 
 cylinder saw-filers contend differently, and state that 
 
238 COOPERAGE 
 
 not only heavier corners, but more care is required in 
 filing for gum than for oak. In filing the saws, care 
 should be taken that the teeth are kept at the same width 
 and the throats or gullets at the same depth, so that the 
 saw is always in perfect running balance. The higher 
 the speed of the saw the more important this matter of 
 balance becomes, and it is always of more importance 
 than the average filer gives it credit for being. First, see 
 that the teeth are of even length all around, which can 
 be accomplished by holding the side of an old, worn-out 
 emery wheel lightly against point of teeth while saw is 
 in motion ; then file the cutting edge square with the face 
 or front of tooth, using an ordinary 8-inch mill saw file, 
 to obtain the correct depth of tooth. After teeth have all 
 been made of even length, chalk the surface of the saw 
 sufficient to retain a pencil mark, on which scribe a line 
 %e inch from point of tooth; then file each one carefully 
 to this line, using a %-inch round file, in order that the 
 throats or gullets are round at the bottom, as sharp, 
 square corners will eventually cause breakage or cracks 
 to appear in saw. As to the proper pitch required for 
 cylinder saw teeth, different people have varying ideas 
 on the matter, just as they do in shaping the teeth; but 
 this rule has been found by experience to give entire 
 satisfaction. Draw a line 6 inches lengthwise of saw 
 that is, from point of tooth toward pulley end then 
 measure carefully from this point 4 inches, keeping at 
 right angles with first line or parallel with edge of saw ; 
 then from that point draw a line to the point of saw tooth, 
 and this will give the angle or pitch desired. It is only 
 necessary to lay out one tooth in the manner described, 
 after which a tin templet can be cut to correspond with 
 same and the balance of the teeth marked out and dressed 
 accordingly. The set required for a cylinder saw should 
 be the least amount possible in order to clear the saw, 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUBE 239 
 
 and where spring-set is used should not extend more than 
 one-third the depth of tooth. A uniform set can be ob- 
 tained by using a metal templet and springing each tooth 
 to same. Spring-set is no longer used and is not a desir- 
 able method, as it weakens the tooth, and where knotty 
 timber is sawn the teeth have a tendency to bend and 
 eventually break off altogether. Swage-set is now consid- 
 ered more satisfactory, and there are on the market two 
 or more eccentric swages made especially for use on cylin- 
 der saws, any one of which will give good results if prop- 
 erly used. After the saw is swaged, a swage shaper should 
 be used, as no side file will work on this type of saw. 
 Give a little lead to the carriage by measuring from saw 
 to inside edge of carriage while saw is in motion ; Me inch 
 will likely be enough. Use a tightener on belt and see 
 that the speed is maintained at 1,800 revolutions per 
 minute. 
 
 SWING CUT-OFF SAW 
 
 A swing cut-off saw of the' type 
 illustrated in Fig/ 77 is a good, 
 handy rig for a stave mill, and 
 should always be considered as 
 part of an outfit. There are uses 
 innumerable for a machine of this 
 class, the most important of 
 which is the equalizing to shorter 
 lengths the cull staves which 
 come from the stave cutters. The 
 frame of the saw here shown con- 
 sists of wrought-iron pipe se- 
 curely held together and braced 
 by cast-iron braces. The stand- 
 ard distance from ceiling to cen- 
 tre of saw is 8 feet, which length 
 
 is suitable for an 11-foot ceiling, FIG. 77. SWING CUT-OFF SAW. 
 
240 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 but they are made in longer or shorter lengths, as desired. 
 Generally a saw 16 inches in diameter is used. The tight 
 and loose pulleys are 8 inches diameter by 4%-inch face, 
 and should travel 625 revolutions per minute. 
 
 STAVE PILING AND AIR-SEASONING 
 
 In a great majority of stave mills, after the staves are 
 cut or sawn they are piled on the yard or under open 
 sheds to season, called air-drying, while others put the 
 staves direct from the knife into dry kilns. (This sub- 
 ject will be found more fully presented in Section IX of 
 this work.) In piling stock in the open or under sheds 
 built for this purpose (see Fig. 78) considerable care 
 and attention are necessary, in order to insure that the 
 
 FIG. 78. VIEW OF STAVE PILING SHEDS AND LOG POND. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 241 
 
 work be properly done. Some manufacturers are of the 
 opinion that after staves are made, the important part 
 has been accomplished and that they can be piled in any 
 old place and in almost any shape or manner which sug- 
 gests itself to the sometimes inexperienced piler. This 
 is a very grave error, as by improper piling valuable 
 limber is liable to be wasted, and this is not the stage in 
 the manufacture where waste should occur. If there must 
 be waste, let it occur in the woods or before so much time 
 and labor have been expended upon x it. It appears to be 
 the most difficult problem for some manufacturers to 
 realize and appreciate the value of expending a little 
 more time and, labor in raising their stave piles suf- 
 ficiently clear of the ground. 
 
 On a visit to the yards of some mills where staves are 
 piled for air-seasoning, one will find many cases of gross 
 carelessness, where good, well-manufactured staves are 
 piled so nearly flat on the ground that the grass and weeds 
 growing up around not only hide the poorly laid founda- 
 tion, but obstruct and retard the proper circulation of 
 air through the several layers on the bottom of the pile. 
 Eventually, when these staves are taken to the jointers, it 
 will be found that the majority of them are stained or have 
 turned black and sour from moisture and lack of proper 
 air circulation incident to being kept close to the ground. 
 Not infrequently some are found to be so rotten and 
 worm-eaten as to be entirely worthless. A great deal 
 can be done toward facilitating the drying of stock if 
 the staves are piled on pieces of timber and kept away 
 from the ground as far as possible, with the piles sepa- 
 rated as far as the binders will reach, or at least 14 inches, 
 to allow of good air circulation between the piles, and 
 with a tunnel about 18 or 20 inches square running cross- 
 wise throughout the centre of the piles, and at the bottom, 
 directly opposite one another, so that where there is 
 
242 COOPERAGE 
 
 a series of piles this opening makes a continuous tunnel 
 throughout them all. This opening or tunnel has a ten- 
 dency to create air currents in and about the piles, and 
 considerably facilitates drying or seasoning, and should 
 not be omitted. 
 
 If there is nothing near at hand suitable to pile upon, 
 which will furnish a good foundation, why not get some- 
 thing? There are generally a lot of saplings or some- 
 thing of the kind in the stave woods that can be had 
 and used to advantage in making a pile foundation. 
 If something of this kind was secured, and the bark re- 
 moved, one or two sides flattened if thought necessary, 
 and then take some of those cull stave bolts, and, instead 
 of laying them flat on the ground, dig a small hole and 
 set them on end to form posts, on which the saplings could 
 be placed in the shape of stringers, it would make a pile 
 foundation that would be clear of the ground and would 
 let the air currents circulate freely through and under the 
 piles and prevent moisture coming up into the pile, and 
 so insure staves in the bottom of the pile being as dry and 
 bright as those up toward the top. 
 
 It matters not just how these details are carried out, as 
 one should naturally be governed in this by local condi- 
 tions, but it looks as if there should be an awakening to 
 the necessity of getting stave piles clear of the ground. 
 What is needed is more active steps in the work of spend- 
 ing a little more time and energy in piling staves to save 
 trouble and loss of stock and profits on some of the stock, 
 because of deterioration in the piles for lack of this atten- 
 tion. We have often seen a good rick of staves spoiled by 
 undue exposure, being practically neglected after they 
 were on the yard. Open sheds are now considered by the 
 progressive manufacturers as being the most economical 
 and the only method by which staves should be piled for 
 proper air-seasoning. The sheds should be built to 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 243 
 
 suit the location, but where practicable should be made 
 about 20 feet wide and 100 to 150 feet long. (See Fig. 
 78.) They are not very expensive, as no floor or sides 
 are required; then the staves should be piled crosswise 
 of this shed, making short and substantial piles, and when 
 
 FIG. 79. SLACK STAVE FOOT-POWER 
 JOINTER. 
 
 jointing out, the oldest or the ones subjected to air-sea- 
 soning the longest should always be taken first; in this 
 way one is always shipping the best-seasoned stock, and 
 the staves will not be liable to rot on account of remain- 
 ing on the yard too long. Stave piles should be at least 
 8 inches off the ground, and the grass and weeds kept 
 cleaned away, as any sort of vegetation has a tendency 
 to draw dampness; and in piling, the staves should be 
 laid flat, with the least amount of lap possible, in order 
 
244 COOPERAGE 
 
 to allow of good circulation, and the piles kept straight 
 and orderly. It is also considered good practice to leave 
 a small opening on the bottom and in the centre of each 
 pile, say, 18 or 20 inches square, so that each opening is 
 
 FIG. 80. SLACK STAVE "POWER" JOINTER. 
 
 directly opposite the one in the next succeeding pile, 
 making a continuous air duct through the entire lot, which 
 facilitates drying considerably. 
 
 STAVE JOINTING 
 
 Next in order, and of much importance in slack stave 
 manufacture, is the jointing; for this purpose the ma- 
 chine illustrated in Fig. 79 is largely used, and where the 
 jointer can be made stationary, the power jointer, as 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 245 
 
 shown in Fig. 80, is generally used, as it is much easier 
 to operate, and when in the hands of an experienced 
 operator considerably more staves can be jointed than 
 by the foot-power machine. In the process of jointing 
 staves, too little attention is often given to this branch 
 of manufacture. A jointing outfit is practically a little 
 factory in itself, operating off in one corner of the yard, 
 where you place full confidence in the ability of the 
 jointer. His machine does the work poorly or well, de- 
 pending upon its condition, and he often uses his own 
 discretion in grading. With his helper he operates all 
 day long, and if the superintendent of the plant does not 
 visit him regularly every two or three hours one very 
 important part of the manufacture of good staves is 
 being neglected. Unless the jointer is a reliable and 
 thoroughly experienced man, he should be watched con- 
 stantly and coached properly in the work and the grad- 
 ing, as it lies in his power to make a poor grade of stock 
 out of well-cut staves and good timber. The superin- 
 tendent, foreman, or a competent jointer should inspect 
 each and every machine's work at least once an hour, to 
 determine whether the men operating these machines are 
 jointing their staves properly, and at the same time are 
 not wasting valuable timber by cutting off an unnecessar- 
 ily heavy listing. These listings should be the least 
 amount possible, in order to insure a perfect joint, and 
 where an operator is using an extremely dull or blunt 
 knife which necessitates two or more cuts before a good 
 joint is secured, the waste of timber is enormous. A 
 careless or inefficient jointer can easily waste more tim- 
 ber in a day's work than his wage amounts to. Take a 
 slack stave jointer with a capacity of 10,000 staves per 
 day, and supposing for illustration that he only cuts 
 off just KG inch more than is necessary on each joint 
 (and % inch is often wasted), there being two edges to 
 
246 COOPERAGE 
 
 each stave, would make % inch in waste, or about 1,250 
 inches of valuable timber being sent to the boiler room 
 each day, to be eventually used as fuel. This would be 
 equal to a little over 300 staves per day, and on the basis 
 of what might be termed an average price f. o. b. mills, 
 would amount to something like $2.00 for each jointer. 
 With four slack stave jointers working, which is about 
 the usual crew, the loss on this waste of only M.6 inch 
 would amount to $7.00 or $8.00 per day. But supposing 
 each operator cuts off % inch more than is necessary from 
 each edge of a stave, and this will be found to be more 
 probable than only }{Q inch, it would make this one item 
 of unnecessary waste amount to about $16.00 each day. 
 This is worth looking after, is it not! Apparently it 
 would pay to engage a competent man, or one upon 
 whom you could rely, simply to watch this particular 
 point, in an endeavor to guard against such unnecessary 
 extravagance. Some manufacturers make the serious 
 mistake of telling their jointers just what per cent, they 
 want the stock to run, and demand that this proportion 
 shall be maintained. If the jointer happens to come to 
 a part of a rick of staves which was manufactured from 
 an unusually poor lot of timber, the results would be very 
 unsatisfactory should he mechanically adhere to the in- 
 structions given him, while later, when the stock ran bet- 
 ter, he would be wasting good timber. Instances have 
 occurred where staves, well cut and made of excellent 
 timber have been ruined in the grading at the jointer's, 
 causing considerable loss to the manufacturer; and, 
 again, manufacturers in their eager desire to forward 
 material or to get it on the market, ship stock that is 
 wet or not thoroughly seasoned, causing considerable 
 trouble to the consumer. This is a serious error, and the 
 stave manufacturer would have done better had he pur- 
 chased stock at a loss, rather than forward his own 
 stock in poor condition. In caring for the jointing ma- 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 247 
 
 chine, the knife should be kept ground thin (Fig. 81, as 
 at a), with a long bevel, and the point of the knife in the 
 centre kept prominent and well sharpened. (Fig. 81, 
 as at b.) A thick and naturally round point on the knife 
 is the primary cause of failure to obtain a good, clean 
 joint at the first stroke, and particularly is this so with 
 gum or soft maple timber. The point of most makes of 
 knives is generally 2 inches long, and should the knife 
 be ground thick, it goes through the stave nearly two 
 inches before the ends of the knife complete the cut. This 
 is where the trouble lies, as it acts as a wedge and splits 
 
 FIG. 81. JOINTER KNIFE. 
 
 out the wood ahead of the cut, and is one of the chief 
 causes of poor workmanship and considerable waste in 
 stave jointing. This round or thick bevel on the jointer 
 knives, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 81, is caused 
 by the knife not being ground often enough. Instead of 
 taking the knife out and properly grinding it on the grind- 
 stone, they merely rub it up with a file and then whet it ; 
 of course, in this operation the extreme point is taken 
 off, and eventually the knife becomes thick and round 
 and loses its shape, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 
 81. Where gum staves are jointed, it has been found that 
 a straight knife gives better satisfaction than the pointed 
 knife, from the fact that it does not break out the ends 
 of the staves, but the knife must be thinner than the old 
 style and the bevel kept long and the edge sharp. In 
 adopting this style of knife, the leverage on the treadle 
 
248 COOPERAGE 
 
 shaft will have to be changed, as this straight knife is 
 harder to force through the wood, but with this adjusted 
 properly the knife goes through the wood just as easy 
 as the old style jointing knife. To keep a stave jointer 
 in proper condition to perform good work requires also 
 that the sash works freely in the slides, with no play; 
 that the chains pull evenly on each end of the sash; that 
 the bearing plate be placed close up to the knife, with a 
 square, true edge, as if the bearing plate is allowed to be- 
 come worn round on the edge or is set too far away from 
 the knife, it will not make a smooth joint, and especially 
 is this true where dry stock is jointed. The rests should be 
 in exact alignment in order to produce proper and equal 
 bevel, the knife set ,so as to make the bilge exactly in the 
 centre of the stave, and the quarter exactly the same 
 distance from each end. As to the proper bilge and quar- 
 ter to put on the staves, it appears that manufacturers 
 in different sections of the country vary as to this point. 
 On the regular 30-inch stave for sugar products, experi- 
 ence has proven that a full %-inch bilge joint with 1%- 
 inch quarter is the proper thing; this means that when 
 two 'staves are held together on the joint, that the joint 
 will hold tight from the ends of the stave up to a point 
 7V 2 inches from the ends. That is the proper joint for 
 the modern machine shops, as the sugar refiners require 
 a large barrel, and with a shorter quarter the packages 
 do not head up well in the machines, or by hand labor 
 for that matter. On 28%-inch flour barrel staves, opin- 
 ion seems to vary, but on tests made a %-inch bilge joint 
 with a 9-inch quarter seemed to produce the best results, 
 and as figures show that three-fourths of all the flour 
 barrels made are manufactured with %-inch bilge joint, 
 this should be considered standard. As to style of joint, 
 whether it should be square or bevel, from past experi- 
 ence the bevel joint has easily proven the best. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 249 
 
 In order that the term " quarter " be fully understood, 
 it may be well to state that the original practice in mak- 
 ing staves that developed this term " quarter " was to 
 have the stave joint run straight from the end back to 
 a point one-quarter of the length of the stave, then the 
 bilge raised from that point gradually to the centre and 
 then return to the other quarter on the opposite end. 
 Now, in the case of a 30-inch sugar barrel stave, this 
 rule works to perfection. As stated before, a 7%-ineli 
 
 FIG. 82. STAVE PACKER OR BUNDLING MACHINE. 
 
 quarter has been found to give the best satisfaction, and 
 30 inches divided by four equal parts gives you 7% inches, 
 which is one-quarter .the length of the stave ; hence the 
 term " quarter. " In the case of flour barrel or 28%-inch 
 staves, it has been found that a 9-inch quarter gives the 
 best results. Naturally, therefore, nine inches from the 
 end of a 28%-inch stave would not be the quarter, but 
 coopers making this class of barrel prefer the bilge to 
 start at a point nine inches from the ends of the stave, 
 which is called the quarter point. Different lengths of 
 staves, naturally, should have a different quarter, and 
 care should be exercised in changing from one size to 
 another that the proper quarter is observed. 
 
250 COOPERAGE 
 
 STAVE BUNDLING OB PACKING 
 
 For the packing of staves into bundles subsequent to 
 shipment, the stave press is used. There are several dif- 
 ferent types of these on the market, and they all work on 
 about the same principle. The one illustrated in Fig. 82 
 appears to be as good as any, and where used has given 
 entire satisfaction. In the use of this machine the staves 
 should be packed alternately wide and narrow ones, and 
 so arranged that each and every bundle will contain as 
 nearly 200 inches as possible ; this is figured as 50 staves 
 averaging 4 inches per stave to each bundle, and is the 
 standard method of packing. 
 
 INSPECTION 
 
 This matter of inspection is the one important link in 
 slack stave manufacture which should be given much 
 more attention than the average mill has applied to it. 
 Herein lies the usefulness, reliability and quality of the 
 barrel eventually manufactured from it, and the future 
 success of the trade is more or less dependent upon this 
 one point. A manufacturer uses very poor judgment 
 when he will permit stock to leave his factory that is not 
 up to the grade at which he has sold it. The one thing, 
 undoubtedly, that contributes more to a mill turning out 
 poor stock than any other is lack of properly trained and 
 skilled labor, and more particularly so in the matter of 
 inspection, and it is an economic necessity, both to the 
 manufacturer and to the consumer, that effective steps 
 be taken to secure better quality in material. This grad- 
 ing of material is supposed to be carefully done by a 
 process of inspection and selection at the jointer's, and 
 instead of having a boy perform this work, as is often 
 the case in the majority of mills, a competent man should 
 be engaged one that is thoroughly conversant with the 
 business and the proper grading of staves. This may 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 251 
 
 appear somewhat more expensive at first glance, but in 
 the long run will prove much more economical. Eight 
 at this point is where the greatest care and attention is 
 required, as this man, or sometimes boy, is expected to 
 stamp the value or grade of each stave, as, for instance, 
 "No. 1," "meal barrel," or "No. 2," and can easily in 
 the course of a day's work throw away more than his 
 weekly wage by improper inspection. Material which is 
 not good enough for No. 1 stock can still be of service 
 in a lower grade, but if staves of a lower grade happen 
 to be included in a bundle of No. 1 grade, serious injury 
 results. A few bad staves which have crept into the bun- 
 dles first opened by the purchaser cause him to engage 
 either in a long examination of every bundle, or more 
 usually to assume that the imperfections run all through, 
 and to demand adjustment and rebates accordingly, or to 
 reject the shipment altogether. One of the most vex- 
 atious matters in grading cooperage stock, and one 
 which has caused considerable difficulty and loss, is 
 the fact that some consumers require and demand 
 standard quality, while others do not and are not so 
 particular. Staves that ordinarily will pass inspec- 
 tion and be accepted as No. 1 stock in one locality 
 will be questioned and probably rejected in another. 
 It is a well-known fact that there are consumers 
 who use and accept what they consider a No. 1 stave, 
 although it is not up to the specifications of the National 
 Association or the general average of No. 1 stock as man- 
 ufactured. About the only remedy for this difficulty 
 would be not to joint out and inspect stock until one is 
 fairly positive as to which locality shipment is intended, 
 for if one man is satisfied with a lower grade others 
 should not be expected to accept the same. The National 
 Association rules and specifications on the proper grad- 
 ing of staves are intelligently and plainly set forth. The 
 
252 COOPEEAGE 
 
 difficulty lies in the fact that the party who actually does 
 the grading and sorting has probably never seen these 
 rules and is working solely upon instructions as handed 
 him from the foreman, who also may never have given 
 them any study or attention and relies solely upon his 
 ideas as to what constitutes a No. 1, meal barrel, or No. 
 2 stave. These rules and specifications as adopted by 
 the Association should be thoroughly committed to mem- 
 ory by each and every employee in and about a stave 
 mill, and the manager or superintendent should see to 
 it that they are supplied with a copy of same, and advised 
 promptly of any changes or alterations. It pays im- 
 mensely to educate your employees in the proper fulfil- 
 ment of their duties, and employees in a stave mill can- 
 not work intelligently unless kept posted in the Associa- 
 tion's doings in regard to proper grading. 
 
 STANDAKD SPECIFICATIONS AND GKADES 
 
 The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
 and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
 turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
 slack barrel staves, follows: 
 
 Elm staves 28% inches and longer shall be five staves 
 to 1% inches in thickness. 
 
 Elm staves 24 inches and shorter shall be six staves 
 to 2 inches in thickness. 
 
 Gum, cottonwood, and basswood staves 28% inches and 
 longer shall be five staves to 1 1 %6 inches in thickness. 
 
 Gum, cottonwood, and basswood staves 24 inches and 
 shorter shall be six staves to 2 inches in thickness. 
 
 Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 28% inches 
 and longer shall be cut six staves to 2% inches in thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 24 inches and 
 shorter shall be cut six staves to 2 inches in thickness. 
 
SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 253 
 
 No. 1 staves shall be cut full thickness, uniform 
 throughout, free from knots, slanting shakes, dozy wood, 
 badly stained with black and blue mildew, or any other 
 defects that make the stave unfit for use in an A No. 1 
 barrel. 
 
 Meal barrel staves shall be free from slanting shakes 
 over 1% inches long, knot holes, and unsound knots (but 
 sound knots not over % inch in diameter shall be allowed), 
 and shall consist of good, sound, workable staves. 
 
 Mill-run staves shall consist of the run of the knife, 
 made from regular run of stave logs, all dead culls thrown 
 out. 
 
 No. 2 staves shall be free from dead culls. 
 
 Standard bilge, unless otherwise understood, shall be 
 % inch on all staves up to and including 28% inches in 
 length, and %-inch bilge on staves 30 inches in length. 
 
 Standard quarter shall be 9 inches for flour barrel 
 stock and 7% inches for sugar barrel. 
 
 No. 1 staves shall not be less than 2% inches nor exceed 
 5% inches across the bilge. 
 
 Unless otherwise specified, all staves shall be thor- 
 oughly dried. 
 
 All barrel staves to be well seasoned when jointed and 
 to average in measurement, after being jointed, 4 inches 
 per stave, or 4,000 inches per 1,000 staves. 
 
 Half-barrel staves 23 inches, 23% inches, or 24 inches 
 to average in measurement when jointed 3% inches to the 
 stave, or 175 inches to the bundle of 50 staves. 
 
 Keg staves to measure 160 inches to the bundle of 50 
 staves. 
 
 All staves to be measured across the bilge. 
 
 SPECIAL STOCK 
 
 White ash staves shall be cut five staves to 2% inches 
 in thickness and be graded same as elm. 
 
254 COOPEEAGE 
 
 Mill-run apple barrel staves shall be cut six staves to 
 2 inches in thickness, and shall consist of the run of the 
 mill from regular run of stave logs, all dead culls thrown 
 out. 
 
 Cement barrel and all other staves not specifically men- 
 tioned should be sold according to the local custom, or 
 by special agreement. Same will apply as well to the 
 bilge of these staves. 
 
 All stock not specifically mentioned should be bought 
 and sold on terms and specifications agreed upon between 
 the buyer and seller. 
 
 When staves shall be specified to be made of a certain 
 kind or kinds of timber, in any deal or contract, any tim- 
 ber other than that specified, if found mixed in with the 
 timber specified, shall be classified as off-grade. 
 
 DEAD CULL STAVES 
 
 Dead cull staves are staves containing knot holes of 
 over % inch in diameter; staves with coarse knots or 
 badly cross-grained near quarter, that prevents staves 
 being tressed in barrels; staves under % inch thick; 
 staves with bad slanting shakes exceeding 6 inches in 
 length, or with rot that impairs strength. 
 
 The above specifications do not touch upon the sub- 
 ject of wormholes, but where two or more wormholes are 
 together in the bilge of a stave, this stave will, eight times 
 out of ten, crack or break at that point ; other than that, 
 they are no disadvantage to a 30-inch stave when used 
 for a sugar barrel, as these barrels are lined with paper, 
 which would prevent sifting through such small holes; 
 but in the case of 28%-inch flour barrel staves, where 
 these wormholes go clear through the stave, it should not 
 be classed as a No. 1 stave, and a limit should be placed 
 on the percentage of stock allowable containing such 
 holes, where staves are to be used for sugar. 
 
SECTION IX 
 
 SLACK HEADING 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 IN the report of the United States Forest Service on 
 the production of slack barrel heading for the year 1908, 
 which will be found in detail in Section VI, these figures 
 indicate that pine ranks first among the woods chiefly 
 used, followed by gum, beech, maple, and basswood, in 
 the order of their importance. These five different kinds 
 of wood furnish nearly two-thirds of all the heading man- 
 ufactured. One noticeable feature in connection with this 
 report is the rapid rise in favor of both red and tupelo 
 gum as a heading wood, and confirms the impression had 
 in mind the past few years that this species is destined 
 to be the chief wood used in the future for the manufac- 
 ture of this article. The chief and most discouraging 
 problem experienced in the past with gum wood has been 
 caused by the inexperience of manufacturers in the sea- 
 soning and kiln-drying of this particular species of wood. 
 But this problem now seems to have been solved with 
 satisfaction, as little difficulty appears from this source. 
 In one of the experiments of the Forest Service in this 
 line, heading was dried in from six to seven days, direct 
 from the saw. It probably takes from one to two weeks 
 in practice, depending on the construction of the kiln and 
 the methods used in drying. Different makes of kilns 
 probably require varying lengths of time in drying. 
 
 BOLTING OUT 
 
 In the getting out of heading bolts, the reader is re- 
 ferred to Section VIII, Slack Stave Manufacture, where, 
 under the following heads, Bolting Eoom, Cut-Off Saw, 
 
258 COOPERAGE 
 
 Drag-Saw, Drop-Feed Circular Saw, The Bolting Saw, 
 and Stave and Heading Bolts, the preparation of same 
 is thoroughly explained. Heading bolts, when properly 
 prepared, do not require equalizing before being sawn 
 into heading pieces or blanks, as a slight difference in 
 their length one way or another does not affect the head 
 before being turned or circled. But care should be taken 
 that the bolts are not cut too long, as this creates a waste 
 of timber which can easily be avoided, as one inch leeway 
 between the finished size of the head and the rough head- 
 ing blank is generally considered sufficient by careful 
 heading manufacturers, and if the blanks are properly 
 centred in the heading turner by the operator, it will be 
 found to be quite enough. 
 
 THE HEADING SAW 
 
 When the heading bolt has been properly prepared it 
 is taken to the heading saw, or, as styled by some of the 
 trade, an upright, pendulous-swing saw (Fig. 83). This 
 saw should be as large in diameter as the machine will 
 allow, in order to secure the extra rim travel, which in- 
 sures ease in cutting and admits of increased capacity. 
 Kind of timber regulates the gauge of saw and number 
 of teeth it should have. It would be impracticable to 
 attempt to run a 60-inch saw, 20 gauge on the rim, in 
 gum, ash, sycamore, or cottonwood, but perfectly so in 
 white pine or cypress. Where beech, maple, and like 
 hardwoods are sawn, a 50-inch saw with 86 teeth, 15 gauge 
 at the rim and 6 gauge at eye or mandrel hole, running 
 1,500 revolutions per minute, has been found to give best 
 results. By not having too many teeth, you can secure 
 more clearance for the sawdust, which will prevent the 
 saw from running in and out of the timber when crowded, 
 and it is also much easier for the man that operates the 
 saw. And, again, too much speed will cause the machine 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 259 
 
 to vibrate more or less, no matter how firm the founda- 
 tion may be; therefore, 1,500 revolutions per minute 
 
 FIG. 83. PENDULOUS SWING HEADING SAW. 
 
 should be the maximum at which a heading saw should 
 be run, and an endeavor made to maintain it at that speed. 
 The heavier the gauge of the saw, the more power is re- 
 
260 COOPERAGE 
 
 quired to drive it and maintain it at its proper speed, 
 and there is also a waste of timber, as it takes out a much 
 larger saw kerf. Where gum, cottonwood, and woods of 
 ]ike nature are sawn, it has been found that a 50-inch saw 
 with 64 teeth, 15 gauge on the rim, 10 gauge at eye or 
 mandrel hole, and maintained at a speed of 1,500 revo- 
 lutions per minute has given excellent results. A good 
 sawyer with this saw properly fitted should saw out 
 16,000 pieces of gum heading averaging 10 inches wide 
 in 10 hours' work. In fitting heading saws, it must be 
 kept in mind that they are subject to the same treat- 
 ment as other saws receive, and must be kept in order 
 by the same process. They will need to be taken off 
 the collar frequently and hammered. No one who is 
 not a careful man or who has not a fair and clear knowl- 
 edge of saw-fitting should attempt to put one of these 
 saws in order, as they are straight on one side and bev- 
 elled outside the collar on the other, which makes them 
 very difficult to get straight. Besides, the extra weight 
 in the centre makes it almost impossible to determine 
 the amount of tension you have. It is best where one 
 has not a full knowledge of saw-fitting, to only attempt 
 to straighten them. This can be easily done by remov- 
 ing the collar and placing the saw on the end of a wooden 
 block, which should be slightly oval, and by light blows 
 smooth up the rim and true the plate, using the straight- 
 edge on the straight side of saw only, leaving it slightly 
 hollow on face side. This work will not expand the saw 
 and will invariably put it in good condition, or enable 
 the saw to be used until it can be hammered properly. 
 On account of the position of the grain of timber to be 
 sawn, the pitch of the teeth should be much greater than 
 on the bolting saw. In fitting the teeth of this saw it 
 has been found that a spring- set for gum and cotton- 
 wood and a half swage for beech, maple, and like hard- 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 261 
 
 woods has given the best results. Cottonwood is one 
 of the most difficult woods to saw, and when working 
 on this class of timber the points of the saw tooth should 
 be almost needle points and the teeth given full set. The 
 bottom of the swing carriage on this machine should 
 be adjustable, so as to raise or lower it quickly when 
 occasion requires it, in order to bring the centre of the 
 block on a line with the centre of the saw, as a short 
 block will be jerked into the saw, with the probable dan- 
 ger of buckling it, while an extra long block will be very 
 hard to feed if not placed in the centre; but very few 
 of these machines have this adjustment. In setting the 
 
 FIG. 84. HORIZONTAL HAND-FEED HEADING SAW. 
 
 gauge for thickness, place a long straightedge across 
 the face of the saw and set the gauge to it, letting the 
 dish in the saw provide the lead. About % inch lead 
 is considered ample for hardwoods; for softwoods a 
 little less may be used. Leave the gauge set to thick- 
 ness; continually moving the gauge one way, then an- 
 other, will not insure even thickness heading. No one 
 can make good lumber by using the guide to regulate 
 the saw, nor can you saw good heading by manipulat- 
 
262 COOPERAGE 
 
 ing the gauge. If the saw runs unevenly something is 
 wrong, and the filer or saw-fitter should remedy the 
 trouble. But if the saw is kept straight and true, the 
 teeth all made of equal length, the saw gullets kept 
 round, with just enough set to clear the blade of the saw, 
 every tooth filed square across on face and bevelled on 
 back, with plenty of hook, there should be no difficulty 
 and it will run equal to any self-feed machine. 
 
 THE HORIZONTAL HAND-FEED HEADING SAW 
 
 The horizontal hand-feed heading saw, as illustrated 
 in Figs. 84 and 84%, is sometimes used, and the saw 
 
 FIG. 84. HORIZONTAL HAND-FEED HEADING SAW. 
 
 requires the same treatment as the upright heading 
 saws, except this one point: The saw, by the nature of 
 its position, is affected by gravity, as it expands by cen- 
 trifugal force. It is also acted upon by the attraction 
 of gravitation and the rim of the saw is drawn down, 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 263 
 
 and in this shape has the appearance of an inverted sau- 
 cer; and as the block is fed into the saw, it strikes a 
 point on the saw generally opposite the collar and causes 
 the carriage to rise against the upper guides, making it 
 hard to feed and also causes the saw to run down and 
 make thin-edged heading. To avoid this, remove the 
 saw from the collar and hammer it on the straight side 
 until it is fully Me inch lower in the centre ; it will then 
 not fall at the rim below the level and will perform better 
 work. This is especially necessary where high-speed 
 power feed machines are used. It has also been found 
 beneficial to carry a trifle more set on the upper side 
 of these saws, as it has a tendency to hold the rim up 
 while in the cut and does not wear off the swage of the 
 teeth as the block is drawn back. Special care should 
 be given the mandrel on these machines, all end play 
 should be taken out and it should be kept plumb and 
 level ; the flywheel and pulley should be in good running 
 balance. Use as large a belt as the pulley will take, mak- 
 ing it endless, and set the machine a good distance from 
 the driving shaft. This will allow the use of a slack 
 belt, which is always desirable, as it takes considerable 
 strain from the bearings. 
 
 SEASONING 
 
 WHAT SEASONING IS 
 
 SEASONING is ordinarily understood to mean drying. 
 When exposed to the sun and air, the water in green 
 wood rapidly evaporates. The rate of evaporation will 
 depend on the kind of wood, the shape of the timber, and 
 the condition under which the wood is placed or piled. 
 Pieces of wood completely surrounded by air, exposed 
 to the wind and the sun, and protected by a roof from 
 
264 COOPEBAGE 
 
 rain and snow will dry out very rapidly, while wood 
 piled or packed close together so as to exclude the air, 
 or left in the shade and exposed to rain and snow, will 
 probably dry out very slowly and will be subject to 
 mould and decay. But seasoning implies other changes 
 besides the evaporation of water. Although we have as 
 yet only a vague conception as to the exact nature of the 
 difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, it is 
 very probable that one of these consists in changes in 
 the albuminous substances in the wood fibres, and pos- 
 sibly also in the tannins, resins, and other incrusting 
 substances. Whether the change in these substances is 
 merely a drying out, or whether it consists in a partial 
 decomposition is as yet undetermined. That the change 
 during the seasoning process is a profound one there can 
 be no doubt, because experience has shown again and 
 again that seasoned wood fibre is very much more per- 
 meable both for liquids and gases than the living, unsea- 
 soned fibre. One can picture the albuminous substance 
 as forming a coating which dries out and possibly dis- 
 integrates when the wood dries. The drying out may 
 result in considerable shrinkage, which may make the 
 wood fibre more porous. It is also possible that there 
 are oxidizing influences at work within these substances 
 which result in their disintegration. Whatever the ex- 
 act nature of the changes may be, one can say without 
 hesitation that exposure to the wind and air brings about 
 changes in the wood, which are of such a nature that the 
 wood becomes drier and more permeable. When sea- 
 soned by exposure to live steam, similar changes may 
 take place; the water leaves the wood in the form of 
 steam, while the organic compounds in the walls prob- 
 ably coagulate or disintegrate under the high temper- 
 ature. The most effective seasoning is without doubt 
 that obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 265 
 
 place in properly constructed piles outdoors, under ex- 
 posure to the winds and the sun and under cover from 
 the rain and snow, and is what has been termed " air- 
 seasoning. " By air-seasoning oak and similar hard- 
 woods, nature performs certain functions that cannot 
 be duplicated by any artificial means. Because of this, 
 woods of this class cannot be successfully kiln-dried 
 green from the saw. In drying wood, the free water 
 within the cells passes through the cell walls until the 
 cells are empty, while the cell walls remain saturated. 
 When all the free water has been removed, the cell walls 
 begin to yield up their moisture. Heat raises the absorp- 
 tive power of the fibres and so aids the passage of water 
 from the interior of the cells. A confusion in the use of 
 the word "sap" is to be found in many discussions of 
 kiln-drying; in some instances it means water, in other 
 cases it is applied to the organic substances held in a 
 water solution in the cell cavities. The term is best con- 
 fined to the organic substances from the living cell. 
 These substances, for the most part of the nature of 
 sugar, have a strong attraction for water and water 
 vapor, and so retard drying and absorb moisture into 
 dried wood. High temperatures, especially those pro- 
 duced by live steam, appear to destroy these organic 
 compounds and therefore both to retard and to limit 
 the reabsorption of moisture when the wood is subse- 
 quently exposed to the atmosphere. Air-dried wood, 
 under ordinary atmospheric temperatures, retains from 
 10 to 20 per cent, of moisture, whereas kiln-dried wood 
 may have no more than 5 per cent, as it comes from the 
 kiln. The exact figures for a given species depend in 
 the first case upon the weather conditions, and in the 
 second case upon the temperature in the kiln and the 
 time during which the wood is exposed to it. When wood 
 that has been kiln-dried is allowed to stand in the open, 
 
266 COOPERAGE 
 
 it apparently ceases to reabsorb moisture from the air 
 before its moisture content equals. that of wood which 
 has merely been air-dried in the same place and under 
 the same conditions. 
 
 MANNER OF EVAPORATION OF WATER 
 
 The evaporation of water from wood takes place 
 largely through the ends, i. e., in the direction of the 
 longitudinal axis of the wood fibres. The evaporation 
 from the other surfaces takes place very slowly out of 
 doors, and with greater rapidity in a dry kiln. The 
 rate of evaporation differs both with the kind of timber 
 and its shape. Slack barrel staves and heading dry 
 faster than tight barrel stock, from the fact that they 
 are much thinner. Sapwood dries faster than heart- 
 wood, and pine more rapidly than oak or other hard- 
 woods. Tests made show little difference in the rate of 
 evaporation in sawn and hewn stock, the results, how- 
 ever, not being conclusive. Air-drying out of doors 
 takes from two months to a year, the time depending on 
 the kind of timber and the climate. After wood has 
 reached an air-dry condition it absorbs water in small 
 quantities after a rain or during damp weather, much 
 of which is immediately lost again when a few warm, 
 dry days follow. In this way wood exposed to the 
 weather will continue to absorb water and lose it for 
 indefinite periods. When soaked in water, seasoned 
 wood absorbs water rapidly. This at first enters into 
 the wood through the cell walls ; when these are soaked, 
 the water will fill the cell lumen, so that if constantly 
 submerged the wood may become completely filled with 
 water. The following figures show the gain in weight 
 by absorption of several coniferous woods, air-dry at 
 the start, expressed in per cent, of the kiln-dry weight : 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 267 
 
 ABSORPTION OF WATER BY DRY WOOD 
 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Red Cedar 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 Air dried 
 
 108 
 
 109 
 
 111 
 
 108 
 
 Kiln-dried 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 In water 1 day 
 
 135 
 
 120 
 
 133 
 
 129 
 
 In water 2 days 
 In water 3 days 
 
 147 
 154 
 
 126 
 132 
 
 144 
 149 
 
 136 
 142 
 
 In water 4 days 
 
 162 
 
 137 
 
 154 
 
 147 
 
 In water 5 days 
 
 165 
 
 140 
 
 158 
 
 150 
 
 In water 7 days 
 
 176 
 
 143 
 
 164 
 
 156 
 
 In water 9 days 
 In water 11 days 
 In water 14 days . .... 
 
 179 
 
 184' 
 187 
 
 147 
 149 
 150 
 
 168 
 173 
 176 
 
 157 
 159 
 159 
 
 In water 17 days 
 
 192 
 
 152 
 
 176 
 
 161 
 
 In water 25 days 
 
 198 
 
 155 
 
 180 
 
 161 
 
 In water 80 days. . 
 
 207 
 
 158 
 
 186 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WATEK IN WOOD 
 
 As seasoning means essentially the more or less rapid 
 evaporation of water from wood, it will be necessary to 
 discuss at the very outset where water is found in wood 
 and its local and seasonal distribution in a tree. Water 
 may occur in wood in three conditions: (1) It forms the 
 greater part (over 90 per cent.) of the protoplasmic con- 
 tents of the living cells; (2) it saturates the walls of all 
 cells, and (3) it entirely or at least partly fills the cav- 
 ities of the lifeless cells, fibres, and vessels. In the sap- 
 wood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in the heart- 
 wood only in the second form it merely saturates the 
 walls. Of 100 pounds of water associated with 100 
 pounds of dry wood substance in 200 pounds of fresh 
 sapwood of white pine, about 35 pounds are needed to 
 saturate the cell walls, less than 5 pounds are contained 
 in living cells,' and the remaining 60 pounds partly fill 
 the cavities of the wood fibres. This latter forms the 
 sap as ordinarily understood. It is water brought from 
 the soil containing small quantities of mineral salts, and 
 in certain species (maple, birch, etc.) it also contains 
 
268 COOPERAGE 
 
 at certain times a small percentage of sugar and other 
 organic matter. All the conifers (pines, cedars, junipers, 
 cypresses, sequoias, yews and spruces) contain resin. 
 Both resin and albumen, as they exist in the sap of woods, 
 are soluble in water; and both harden with heat, much 
 the same as the white of an egg, which is almost pure 
 albumen. These organic substances are the dissolved 
 reserve food stored during the winter in the pith rays, 
 etc., of the wood and bark; generally but a mere trace 
 of them is to be found. From this it appears that the 
 solids contained in the sap, such as albumen, gum, sugar, 
 resin, etc., cannot exercise the influence on the strength 
 of the wood which is so commonly claimed for them. 
 The wood next to the bark contains the most water. In 
 the species which do not form heartwood the decrease 
 toward the pith is gradual, but where this is formed the 
 change from a more moist to a drier condition is usually 
 quite abrupt at the sapwood limit. In long-leaf pine 
 the wood of the outer one inch of a disk may contain 
 50 per cent, of water; that of the next or second inch, 
 only 35 per cent., and that of the heartwood only 20 per 
 cent. In such a tree the amount of water in any one 
 section varies with the amount of sapwood, and is there- 
 fore greater for the upper than the lower cuts, greater 
 for limbs than stems, and greatest of all in the roots. 
 Different trees, even of the same kind and from the 
 same place, differ as to the amount of water they con- 
 tain. A thrifty tree contains more water than a stunted 
 one, and a young tree more than an old one, while the 
 wood of all trees varies in its moisture relations with 
 the season of the year. Contrary to the general belief, 
 a tree contains about as much water in winter as in sum- 
 mer. The fact that the bark peels easily in the spring 
 depends on the presence of incomplete, soft tissue found 
 between wood and bark during the season and has little 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUEE 269 
 
 to do with the total amount of water contained in the 
 wood of the stem. Even in the living tree a flow of sap 
 from a cut occurs only in certain kinds of trees and under 
 special circumstances; from boards, felled timber, etc., 
 the water does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but 
 must be evaporated. The seeming exceptions to this rule 
 are mostly referable to two causes: Clefts or "shakes" 
 will allow water contained in them to flow out. And 
 water is forced out of sound wood, if very sappy, when- 
 ever the wood is warmed, just as water flows from green 
 wood when put in the stove. 
 
 KAPIDITY OF EVAPORATION 
 
 The rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, 
 the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the 
 piece and on the structure of the wood. An inch board 
 dries more than four times as fast as a 4-inch plank 
 and more than twenty times as fast as a 10-inch timber. 
 White pine dries faster than oak. A very moist piece 
 of pine or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four 
 times as much water per square inch from the cross- 
 section, but only one-half as much from the tangential 
 as from the radial section. In a long timber, where the 
 ends or cross-sections form but a small part of the dry- 
 ing surface, this difference is not so evident. Neverthe- 
 less, the ends dry and shrink first, and being opposed 
 in this shrinkage by the more moist adjoining parts, they 
 check, the cracks largely disappearing as seasoning pro- 
 gresses. High temperatures are very effective in evap- 
 orating the water from wood, no matter how humid the 
 air, and a fresh piece of sapwood may lose weight in 
 boiling water, and can be dried to quite an extent in hot 
 steam. In drying chemicals or fabrics, all that is re- 
 quired is to provide heat enough to vaporize the moisture 
 and circulation enough to carry off the vapor thus se- 
 
270 COOPERAGE 
 
 cured, and the quickest and most convenient means to 
 these ends may be used. While on the other hand, in 
 drying wood, whether in the form of standard stock or 
 the finished product, the application of the requisite heat 
 and circulation must be carefully regulated throughout 
 the entire process or warping and checking are almost 
 certain to result. Moreover, wood of different shapes 
 and thicknesses is very differently affected by the same 
 treatment. Finally, the tissues composing the wood, 
 which vary in form and physical properties and which 
 cross each other in regular directions, exert their own 
 peculiar influence upon its behavior during drying. With 
 our native woods, for instance, summer-wood and spring- 
 wood show distinct tendencies in drying, and the same 
 is true in a less degree of heartwood, as contrasted with 
 sapwood. Or, again, pronounced medullary rays further 
 complicate the drying problem. 
 
 EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON WOOD 
 
 The question of the effect of moisture upon the 
 strength and stiffness of wood offers a wide scope for 
 study, and authorities differ in conclusions. Two au- 
 thorities give the tensile strength in pounds per square 
 inch for white oak as 10,000 and 19,500, respectively; 
 for spruce, 8,000 to 19,500, and other species in similar 
 startling contrasts. Wood, we are told, is composed of 
 organic products. The chief material is cellulose, and 
 this in its natural state in the living plant or green wood 
 contains from 25 to 35 per cent, of its weight in moisture. 
 The moisture renders the cellulose substance pliable. 
 What the physical action of the water is upon the molec- 
 ular structure of organic material, to render it softer 
 and more pliable, is largely a matter of conjecture. The 
 strength of a wooden block depends not only upon its 
 relative freedom from imperfections, such as knots. 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 271 
 
 crookedness of grain, decay, wormholes or ring shakes, 
 but also upon its density, upon the rate at which it grew, 
 and upon the arrangement of the various elements which 
 compose it. The factors affecting the strength of wood 
 are therefore of two classes: (1) Those inherent in the 
 wood itself and which may cause differences to exist be- 
 tween two pieces from the same species of wood or even 
 between the two ends of a piece, and (2) those which are 
 foreign to the wood, such as moisture, oils, and heat. 
 Though the effect of moisture is generally temporary, 
 it is far more important than is commonly realized. So 
 great, indeed, is the effect of moisture that under some 
 conditions it outweighs all the other causes which affect 
 strength, with the exception, perhaps, of decided imper- 
 fections in the wood itself. In the Southern States it is 
 difficult to keep green timber in the woods or in piles 
 for any length of time, because of the rapidity with which 
 wood-destroying fungi attack it. This is particularly so 
 during the summer season, when the humidity is greatest. 
 
 SHKINKAGE OF WOOD 
 
 Since in all our woods, cells with thick walls and cells 
 with thin walls are more or less intermixed, and espe- 
 cially as the spring-wood and summer-wood nearly 
 always differ from each other in this respect, strains 
 and tendencies to warp are always active when wood 
 dries out, because the summer-wood shrinks more than 
 the spring-wood, and heavier wood in general shrinks 
 more than light wood of the same kind. If a thin piece 
 of wood after drying is placed upon a moist surface the 
 cells on the under side take up moisture and swell before 
 the upper cells receive any moisture. This causes the 
 under side of the piece to become longer than the upper 
 side, and as a consequence warping occurs. Soon, how- 
 ever, the moisture penetrates to all the cells and the piece 
 
272 COOPERAGE 
 
 straightens out. But while a thin board of pine curves 
 laterally it remains quite straight lengthwise, since in 
 this direction both shrinkage and swelling are small. If 
 one side of a green board is exposed to the sun, warp- 
 ing is produced by the removal of water and consequent 
 shrinkage of the side exposed. As already stated, wood 
 loses water faster from the end than from the longitudi- 
 nal faces. Hence the ends shrink at a different rate from 
 the interior parts. The faster the drying at the surface, 
 the greater is the difference in the moisture of the differ- 
 ent parts, and hence the greater the strains and conse- 
 quently also the greater amount of checking. This be- 
 comes very evident when freshly cut wood is placed in the 
 sun, and still more when put in a hot kiln. 'While most of 
 these smaller checks are only temporary, closing up 
 again, some large radial checks remain and even grow 
 larger as drying progresses. Their cause is a different 
 one and will presently be explained. The temporary checks 
 not only occur at the ends, but are developed on the sides 
 also, only to a much smaller degree. They become espe- 
 cially annoying on the surface of thick planks of hard- 
 woods, and also on peeled logs when exposed to the sun. 
 So far we have considered the wood as if made up only 
 of parallel fibres all placed longitudinally in the log. 
 This, however, is not the case. A large part of the wood 
 is formed by the medullary or pith rays. In pine over 
 15,000 of these occur on a square inch of a tangential sec- 
 tion, and even in oak the very large rays, which are read- 
 ily visible to the eye, represent scarcely a hundredth part 
 of the number which the microscope reveals, as the cells 
 of these rays have their length at right angles to the 
 direction of the wood fibres. If a large pith ray of white 
 oak is whittled out and allowed to dry it is found to 
 shrink greatly in its width, while, as we have stated, the 
 fibres to which the ray is firmly grown in the wood do 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 273 
 
 not shrink in the same direction. Therefore, in the wood, 
 as the cells of the pith ray dry they pull on the longitudi- 
 nal fibres and try to shorten them, and, being opposed 
 by the rigidity of the fibres, the pith ray is greatly 
 strained. But this is not the only strain it has to bear. 
 Since the fibres shrink as much again as the pith ray, in 
 this, its longitudinal direction, the fibres tend to shorten 
 the ray, and the latter in opposing this prevents the for- 
 mer from shrinking as much as they otherwise would. 
 Thus the structure is subjected to two severe strains at 
 right angles to each other, and herein lies the greatest dif- 
 ficulty of wood seasoning, for whenever the wood dries 
 rapidly these fibres have not the chance to "give" or 
 accommodate themselves, and hence fibres and pith rays 
 separate and checks result, which, whether visible or not, 
 are detrimental in the use of the wood. The contraction 
 of the pith rays parallel to the length of "the board is 
 probably one of the causes of the small amount of longi- 
 tudinal shrinkage which has been observed in boards. 
 The smaller shrinkage of the pith rays along the radius 
 of the log (the length of the pith ray) opposing the 
 shrinkage of the fibres in this direction becomes one of 
 the causes of the second great troubles in wood season- 
 ing, namely, the difference in the amount of the shrink- 
 age along the radius and that along the rings or tangent. 
 This greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due in 
 part to the causes just mentioned, but also to the fact 
 that the greatly shrinking bands of summer-wood are 
 interrupted along the radius by as many bands of porous 
 spring-wood, while they are continuous in the tangential 
 direction. In this direction, therefore, each such band 
 tends to shrink, as if the entire piece were composed of 
 summer-wood, and since the summer-wood represents the 
 greater part of the wood substance, this greater tendency 
 of tangential shrinkage prevails. The effect of this 
 
274 COOPEEAGE 
 
 greater tangential shrinkage affects every phase of wood- 
 working. It leads to permanent checks and causes the 
 log to split open on drying. Sawed in two, the flat sides 
 of the log become convex; sawed into timber, it checks 
 along the median line of the four faces, and if converted 
 into boards the latter checks considerably from the end 
 through the centre, all owing to the greater tangential 
 shrinkage of the wood. Briefly, then, shrinkage of wood 
 is due to the fact that the cell walls grow thinner on 
 drying. The thicker cell walls and therefore the heavier 
 wood shrinks most, while the water in the cell cavities 
 does not influence the volume of the wood. Owing to 
 the great difference of cells in shape, size, and thickness 
 of walls, and still more in their arrangement, shrinkage 
 is not uniform in any kind of wood. This irregularity 
 produces strains, which grow with the difference between 
 adjoining cells and are greatest at the pith rays. These 
 strains cause warping and checking, but exist even where 
 no outward signs are visible. They are greater if the 
 wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, but can never 
 be entirely avoided. Temporary checks are caused by 
 the more rapid drying of the outer parts of any stick; 
 permanent checks are due to the greater shrinkage, tan- 
 gentially, along the rings than along the radius. This, 
 too, is the cause of most of the ordinary phenomena of 
 shrinkage, such as the difference in behavior of entire 
 and quartered logs, " bastard" (tangent) and rift (ra- 
 dial) boards, etc., and explains many of the phenomena 
 erroneously attributed to the influence of bark or of the 
 greater shrinkage of outer and inner parts of any log. 
 Once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original size 
 by soaking in water, boiling, or steaming. Soaked pieces 
 on drying shrink again as before; boiled and steamed 
 pieces do the same, but to a slightly less degree. Neither 
 hygroscopicity, i. e., the capacity of taking up water, nor 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 275 
 
 shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at tem- 
 peratures below 200 Fahr. Higher temperatures, how- 
 ever, reduce these qualities, but nothing short of a coal- 
 ing heat robs wood of the capacity to shrink and swell. 
 Rapidly dried in the kiln, the wood of oak and other 
 hardwoods "caseharden"; that is, the outer part dries 
 and shrinks before the interior has a chance to do the 
 same, and thus forms a firm shell or case of shrunken, 
 commonly checked wood around the interior. This shell 
 does not prevent the interior from drying, but when this 
 drying occurs the interior is commonly checked along the 
 medullary rays, commonly called "honey combing " or 
 hollow-horning. In practice this occurrence can be pre- 
 vented by steaming or sweating the wood in the kiln, 
 and still better by drying the wood in fhe open air or in 
 a shed before placing in the kiln. Since only the first 
 shrinking is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber 
 which has once been air-dried (three to six months for 
 1-inch stuff) may be subjected to kiln heat without any 
 danger. Kept in a bent or warped condition during the 
 first shrinkage, the wood retains the shape to which it 
 has been bent and firmly opposes any attempt at sub- 
 sequent straightening. Sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more 
 than heartwood of the same weight, but very heavy heart- 
 wood may shrink more than lighter sapwood. The 
 amount of water in wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, 
 since in wet wood most of the water is held in the cav- 
 ities, where it has no effect on the volume. The wood of 
 pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very regular struc- 
 ture, dries and shrinks evenly and suffers much less in 
 seasoning than the wood of broad-leafed trees. Among 
 the latter, oak is the most difficult to dry without injury. 
 Desiccating the air with certain chemicals will cause the 
 wood to dry, but wood thus dried at 80 Fahr. will still 
 lose water in the kiln. Wood dried at 120 Fahr. loses 
 
276 COOPERAGE 
 
 water still if dried at 200 Fahr., and this again will lose 
 more water if the temperature is raised, so that abso- 
 lutely dry wood cannot be obtained, and chemical destruc- 
 tion sets in before all the water is driven off. On re- 
 moval from the kiln, the wood at once takes up water 
 from the air, even in the driest weather. At first tne 
 absorption is quite rapid; at the end of a week a short 
 piece of pine 1% inches thick has regained two-thirds 
 of, and in a few months all, the moisture which it had 
 when air-dry, 8 to 10 per cent, and also its former dimen- 
 sions. In thin boards all parts soon attain the same 
 degree of dryness. In heavy timbers the interior re- 
 mains moister for many months, and even years, than 
 the exterior parts. Finally an equilibrium is reached, 
 and then only the outer parts change with the weather. 
 With kiln-dried woods all parts are equally dry, 
 and when exposed the moisture coming from the 
 air must pass in through the outer parts, and thus 
 the order is reversed. Ordinary timber requires 
 months before it is at its best. Kiln-dried timber, 
 if properly handled, is prime at once. Dry wood 
 when soaked in water soon regains its original vol- 
 ume, and in the heartwood portion it may even sur- 
 pass it; that is to say, swell to a larger dimension than 
 it had when green. With the soaking it continues to in- 
 crease in weight, the cell cavities filling with water, and 
 if left many months all pieces sink. Yet after a year's 
 immersion a piece of oak 2 by 2 inches and only 6 inches 
 long still contains air; i. e., it has not taken up all the 
 water it can. By rafting or prolonged immersion, wood 
 loses some of its weight, soluble materials being leached 
 out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building 
 material. Immersion, and still more boiling and steam- 
 ing, reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and therefore 
 also the troublesome "working" or shrinking and swell- 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUEE 277 
 
 ing. Exposure in dry air to a temperature of 300 Fahr. 
 for a short time reduces but does not destroy the hygro- 
 scopicity, and with it the tendency to shrink and swell. 
 A piece of red oak which has been subjected to a tem- 
 perature of over 300 Fahr. still swells in hot water and 
 shrinks in the kiln. In artificial drying temperatures 
 of from 150 to 180 Fahr. are usually employed. Pine, 
 spruce, cypress, cedar, etc., are dried fresh from the saw, 
 allowing four days for 1-inch stuff. Hardwoods, espe- 
 cially oak, ash, maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are usually 
 air-seasoned for three to six months to allow the first 
 shrinkage to take place more gradually, and are then ex- 
 posed to the above temperatures in the kiln for about 
 six to ten days for 1-inch stuff, other dimensions in pro- 
 portion. Freshly cut poplar and cottonwood are often 
 dried direct from the saw in a kiln. By employing lower 
 temperatures, 100 to 120 Fahr., green oak, ash, etc., 
 can be seasoned in dry kilns without danger to the ma- 
 terial. Steaming and sweating the lumber is sometimes 
 resorted to in order to prevent checking and "case- 
 hardening," but not, as has been frequently asserted, to 
 enable the wood to dry. Air-dried stock is not dry, and 
 its moisture is too unevenly distributed to insure good 
 behavior after manufacture. Careful piling of the stock, 
 both in the yard and kiln, is essential to good drying. 
 Since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with 
 size, age, species, and individual, the following figures 
 must be regarded as mere approximations: 
 
 POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD 
 IN THE KILN 
 
 
 Sapwood or 
 outer part 
 
 Heartwood 
 or interior 
 
 (1) Pines cedars spruces and firs 
 
 45-65 
 
 16-25 
 
 (2) Cypress extremely variable 
 
 50-65 
 
 18-60 
 
 (3) Poplar cottonwood basswood 
 
 60-65 
 
 40-60 
 
 (4) Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chest- 
 nut walnut and sycamore 
 
 40-50 
 
 30-40 
 
 
 
 
 The lighter kinds have the most water in the eapwood, thus sycamore has more than hickory. 
 
278 COOPEEAGE 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 
 
 Seasoning and kiln-drying is so important a process in 
 the manufacture of woods that a need is keenly felt for 
 fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific 
 study of the behavior of various species at different me- 
 chanical temperatures and under different mechanical 
 drying processes. The special precautions necessary to 
 prevent loss of strength or distortion of shape render the 
 drying of wood especially difficult. All wood when under- 
 going a seasoning process, either natural (by air) or 
 mechanical (by steam or heat in a dry kiln), checks or 
 splits more or less. This is due to the uneven drying 
 out of the wood and the consequent strains exerted in 
 opposite directions by the wood fibres in shrinking. This 
 shrinkage, it has been proven, takes place both endwise 
 and across the grain of wood. The old tradition that 
 wood does not shrink endwise has long since been shat- 
 tered, and it has long been demonstrated that there is 
 an endwise shrinkage. In some woods it is very light, 
 while in others it is easily perceptible. It is claimed 
 that the average end shrinkage, taking all the woods, is 
 only about 1% per cent. This, however, probably has 
 relation to the average shrinkage on ordinary lumber 
 as it is used and cut and dried. Now, if we depart from 
 this and take veneer, or basket stock, or even stave bolts 
 where they are boiled, causing swelling both endwise 
 and across the grain or in dimension, after they are 
 thoroughly dried there is considerably more evidence of 
 end shrinkage. In other words, a slack barrel stave of 
 elm, say, 28 or 30 inches in length, after being boiled 
 might shrink as much in thoroughly drying out as com- 
 pared to its length when freshly cut as a 12-foot elm 
 board. It is in the cutting of veneer that this end shrink- 
 age becomes most readily apparent. In trimming with 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 279 
 
 scoring knives it is done to exact measure, and where 
 stock is cut to fit some specific place there has been ob- 
 served a shrinkage on some of the softer woods, like 
 cottonwood, amounting to fully % of an inch in 36 inches. 
 And at times where the drying has been thorough the 
 writer has noted a shrinkage of % of an inch on an ordi- 
 nary elm cabbage-crate strip 36 inches long, sawed from 
 the log without boiling. There really are no fixed rules 
 of measurement or allowance, however, because the same 
 piece of wood may vary under different conditions ; and, 
 again, the grain may cross a little or wind around the 
 tree, and this of itself has a decided effect on the amount 
 of what is termed "end shrinkage." There is more 
 checking in the wood of broad-leaf trees than in that of 
 coniferous trees, more in sapwood than in heartwood, 
 and more in summer-wood than in spring-wood. Inas- 
 much as under normal conditions of weather, water evap- 
 orates less rapidly during early seasoning in winter, 
 wood that is cut in the autumn and early winter is con- 
 sidered less subject to checking than that which is cut 
 in spring and summer. Rapid seasoning, except after 
 wood has been thoroughly soaked or steamed, almost 
 invariably results in more or less serious checking, j^.11 
 hardwoods which check or warp badly during season- 
 ing should be reduced to the smallest practicable size 
 before drying to avoid the injuries involved in this 
 process, and wood once seasoned should never again be 
 exposed to the weather, since all injuries due to season- 
 ing are thereby aggravated. Seasoning increases the 
 strength of wood in every respect, and it is therefore of 
 great importance to protect it against moisture. 
 
 UNSOLVED PKOBLEMS IN KILN-DBYING 
 
 1. Physical data of the properties of wood in relation 
 to heat are meagre. 
 
280 COOPERAGE 
 
 2. Figures on the specific heat of wood are not readily 
 available, though upon this rests not only the exact opera- 
 tion of heating coils for kilns, but the theory of kiln-dry- 
 ing as a whole. 
 
 3. Great divergence is shown in the results of experi- 
 ments in the conductivity of wood. It remains to be seen 
 whether the known variation of conductivity with moist- 
 ure content will reduce these results to uniformity. 
 
 4. The maximum or highest temperature to which the 
 different species of wood may be exposed without serious 
 loss of strength has not yet been determined. 
 
 5. The optimum or absolute correct temperature for 
 drying'the different species of wood is as yet entirely un- 
 settled. 
 
 6. The inter-relation between wood and water is as 
 imperfectly known to dry-kiln operators as that between 
 wood and heat. 
 
 7. What moisture conditions obtain in a stick of air- 
 dried wood? 
 
 8. How is the moisture distinguished? 
 
 9. What is its form! 
 
 10. What is the meaning of the peculiar surface con- 
 ditions which even in the air-dried wood appear to indi- 
 cate incipient case-hardening? 
 
 These questions can be answered thus far only by 
 speculation or, at best, on the basis of incomplete data. 
 Until these problems are solved, kiln-drying must neces- 
 sarily remain without the guidance of complete scientific 
 theory. 
 
 KILN-DKYING 
 
 Drying is an essential part of the preparation of wood 
 for manufacture. For a long time the only drying process 
 used or known was air-drying, or the exposure of wood to 
 the gradual drying influences of the open air, and is what 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 281 
 
 has now been termed preliminary seasoning. This 
 method is without doubt the most successful and effective 
 seasoning, because nature performs certain functions 
 in air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial 
 means. Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot 
 be successfully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw. 
 Kiln-drying, which is an artificial method, originated in 
 the effort to improve or shorten the process by subject- 
 ing the wood to a high temperature or to a draught of 
 heated air in a confined space or kiln. In so doing, time 
 is saved and a certain degree of control over the drying 
 condition is secured. With softwoods it is a common 
 practice to kiln-dry direct from the saw or knife. This 
 procedure, however, is ill adapted for hardwoods, in 
 which it would produce such checking and warping as 
 would greatly reduce the value of the product. There- 
 fore, hardwoods, as a rule, are more or less thoroughly 
 air-dried before being placed in the dry-kiln, where the 
 residue of moisture may be reduced to within three and 
 four per cent., which is much lower than is possible by 
 air-drying only. It is probable that for the sake of econ- 
 omy, air-drying will be eliminated in the drying process 
 of the future without loss to the quality of the product. 
 The kiln-drying of staves and heading is one of the most 
 important items in the manufacture of cooperage, and 
 to do it properly requires constant care and attention. 
 Where staves are kiln-dried, they should be piled in the 
 kiln or on the trucks lengthwise, allowing the ends only 
 to lap, and this should be the least amount possible. By 
 this method it reduces the quantity of staves per truck, 
 but facilitates drying, as they dry faster, more uniformly, 
 and with better results. By cross-piling, the staves be- 
 come flat and lose their proper circle. As to the time 
 required in drying staves, this depends on three things : 
 the species of wood to be dried, the condition of the 
 
282 COOPERAGE 
 
 staves when they enter the kiln, and the intensity of the 
 drying process. This generally varies from three or 
 four days to about two weeks; probably a safe average 
 would be one week on stock that is comparatively easy 
 to dry, or that has been well steamed before cutting. 
 It is well, where staves are kiln-dried direct from the 
 knife, to get them into the kiln while they are still warm 
 from the steaming, as they are then in good condition 
 for kiln-drying, as the fibres of the wood are soft and 
 the pores open, which will allow of forcing the evapora- 
 tion of moisture. 
 
 It is the practice among slack stock manufacturers 
 to abide by the decision or judgment of their fore- 
 men as to when the stock in the dry-kilns is sufficiently 
 dry, and this decision is generally based entirely on 
 observation. This practice is no doubt a good one, 
 providing the party thus deciding is well versed in the 
 drying subject and has had considerable experience in 
 the matter; but there are a great many who have not 
 this knowledge or experience and who have never made 
 a study of this subject, and who operate their dry-kilns 
 in a haphazard sort of way, either by subjecting all their 
 stock to a given number of days, regardless of the con- 
 dition of same when entering the drying room, or else 
 entirely by their own judgment, which, in the majority 
 of cases, is found to be unsatisfactory. System is as 
 indispensable in this operation as at any other point in 
 manufacture, and one should be guided somewhat by 
 figures, indicating "about" the proper weight of the 
 stock when leaving the kiln. This in itself will not guar- 
 antee properly dried stock, but will cause investigations 
 to be made, and will materially assist those upon whom 
 this responsibility rests. It is quite a difficult matter to 
 give specific or "absolutely correct" weights of slack 
 staves when thoroughly or properly dried in order that 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 283 
 
 one may be positively guided in these kiln operations, 
 as a great deal depends upon the species of wood to be 
 dried, its density, and upon the thickness which it has 
 been cut. Elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and 
 where the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh 
 more than coarse-grained wood of the same species. But 
 from numerous experiments and investigations made at 
 one of the largest slack barrel plants in this country, it 
 has been found that when No. 1 30-inch staves cut from 
 the different species of wood and of the thicknesses as 
 shown in the table below conform to the weights as speci- 
 fied that they are entirely satisfactory, and that for 
 guidance in this matter can be safely relied upon. 
 
 Beech, maple, etc., cut 6 staves to 2% inches should 
 weigh about 940 pounds and not exceed 1,040 pounds per 
 1,000 staves. 
 
 Gum, cottonwood, etc., cut 5 staves to I 15 /it inches 
 should weigh about 880 pounds and n6t exceed 980 pounds 
 per 1,000 staves. 
 
 Elm cut 5 staves to 1% inches should weigh about 800 
 pounds and not exceed 900 pounds per 1,000 staves. 
 Other sizes in proportion. 
 
 In the kiln-drying of heading blanks considerable im- 
 portance attaches to the piling on trucks in such a man- 
 ner as to avoid moulding, warping or checking, and this 
 is especially so with gum. To obviate the first difficulty, 
 a space of not less than six or eight inches should be 
 left between the ricks. The uneven lapping of the head- 
 ing blanks either at the ends or sides is sure to cause 
 warping, and the general preference is given to cross- 
 sticks rather than interlocking the heading blanks. These 
 cross-sticks should be not more than 1% inches wide by 
 about % or 1 inch in thickness, and when used have a 
 tendency to prevent warping; whereas, if the heading 
 blanks are simply interlocked, any tendency of some one 
 
284 COOPERAGE 
 
 piece to warp or twist may communicate itself to another, 
 but where the cross-sticks are used they will exert a re- 
 straining influence. The heading blanks of the upper 
 layer, being subjected to the greatest amount of heat 
 and ordinarily without weight to hold them in shape, 
 should have planks or some device superimposed to put 
 the upper course under conditions similar to those lower 
 in the pile; otherwise these topmost layers will warp. 
 As to the time required for drying heading blanks, this 
 also depends on the species of timber, condition when 
 entering kiln, and the intensity of the drying method. 
 No set rules can be laid down, as good judgment only 
 should be used, as the quality of the drying is not purely 
 one of time. Sometimes the comparatively slow process 
 gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock 
 through may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned that 
 it will not give satisfaction when worked. The mistreat- 
 ment of the material in this respect results in numerous 
 defects, chief among which are warping and twisting, 
 checking, case-hardening, and honeycombing, or, as some- 
 times called, hollow-horning. Many woods, as, for ex- 
 ample, tupelo and red gum, will warp and twist in dry- 
 ing unless special care is taken. This difficulty is not 
 alone confined to kiln-drying, but is quite as great in air- 
 seasoning. In fact, drying in the open with exposure to 
 the sun often develops the worst examples, especially so 
 with the top layers of each pile. If the kiln-drying is 
 too rapid the stock may open up at the ends, which is 
 termed checking. Frequently checks which appear after 
 kiln-drying were originally formed during previous air- 
 drying and are merely reopened in the kiln. These may 
 readily be distinguished from fresh checks formed in 
 the kiln, since their inner surfaces have been filled with 
 dust and darkened by the weather. Case-hardening 
 occurs when the kiln-drying is pushed too rapidly with- 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 285 
 
 out proper precaution; the surface of the wood becomes 
 dry and impervious, while the interior remains almost 
 as moist as before, and thorough drying is thus quite 
 preventjed, and an effort to secure it produces honey- 
 combing or hollow-horning. Honeycombing can occur 
 only together with case-hardening. It is, in effect, in- 
 ternal checking in which the checks, following the med- 
 ullary rays, may run nearly from end to end of the piece, 
 but do not except in extreme cases show upon the sur- 
 face. In piling heading blanks on the yard for air-season- 
 ing, care should be taken to keep the piles or ricks well 
 clear of the ground. At least eight inches should be the 
 minimum, in order to allow of good air circulation. There 
 are different methods of piling: some pile in large, hol- 
 low, circular piles; others use smaller ones, while some 
 pile in long, hollow, rectangular or square piles. Either 
 method will bring good results if care is taken that the 
 heading blanks are not given too much lap and the ricks 
 kept well separated. The least amount of lap gives the 
 best results. The long, hollow, rectangular or square 
 piles are the most acceptable form of piling, from the 
 fact that more space can be utilized and the foundations 
 more easily laid. The piles or ricks can then be bound 
 together, and the whole becomes a stanch and rigid mass. 
 
 THE HEADING ROOM 
 
 HEADING PLANEE 
 
 THE heading blanks being thoroughly air-dried or kiln- 
 dried, as the case may be, are then brought to the head- 
 ing room for finishing and turning. Where heading 
 pieces have been kiln-dried, they should at all times be 
 left standing under cover, subject to the atmosphere for 
 
286 COOPERAGE 
 
 at least 48 hours before turning to size, in order that the 
 timber may become thoroughly acclimated, as this will 
 materially lessen the possibility of the finished heading 
 swelling beyond size while en route to destination, or if 
 kept in storage for future use. When heading pieces 
 that have been thoroughly kiln-dried are taken direct 
 to the jointer from the dry-kilns, they are generally drier 
 than the surrounding atmosphere, and after being jointed 
 and circled they immediately begin to absorb this moist- 
 ure, and naturally will do so through the ends. This 
 causes the ends of the pieces to swell, and the original 
 joint is altered or lost, making heading joint "much 
 more open in centre" than is desired, while if the head- 
 ing pieces were allowed to become thoroughly acclimated 
 before jointing or turning this would not occur. And, 
 again, if the heading pieces are taken to jointer before 
 they are properly or thoroughly dried, they naturally 
 contain more moisture than the surrounding atmosphere, 
 and immediately begin to throw off this excessive moist- 
 ure, with the result that the heading joint is again altered 
 or lost. But these conditions being the reverse to the 
 former, the joint becomes open on the ends, and the 
 finished head is eventually much smaller than originally 
 intended. Considerable care should be given to this point 
 in heading manufacture, as this is one of the chief causes 
 of difficulty with finished heading, and has been the means 
 of considerable expense and anxiety both to the consumer 
 and the manufacturer. Considering that the heading 
 pieces have been properly dried and then thoroughly ac- 
 climated, they are then taken to the heading planer, 
 Fig. 85. These surface planers accommodate two knives 
 24 inches long on the cylinder and should be run at 4,500 
 revolutions per minute. Considerable care should be 
 taken in grinding that these knives are kept evenly bal- 
 anced as regards one another, and also each knife should 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 287 
 
 be evenly balanced in relation to itself ; that is, it should 
 be of same weight at one end as at the other. This can 
 be easily determined by the use of a knife-balancing 
 scales, as shown in Fig. 39% ; for, should these knives be 
 out of balance, the knife cylinder running at such speed 
 would cause them to jump and rattle, putting consider- 
 able strain on the machine, and particularly on the cylin- 
 
 FIG. 85. HEADING PLANER. 
 
 der bearings, which in time would wear them oblong, 
 causing the knife cylinder to rise or jump up and down 
 while in motion, giving the finished head, or the stuff 
 planed, a rough, wavy surface. Particular attention 
 should also be given that the knives have the proper 
 bevel, so that while revolving the heel of the knife will 
 clear the material being planed, keeping the cutting edge 
 prominent. A good rule to observe in this respect is to 
 always make the bevel of the knife a trifle less than twice 
 
288 COOPERAGE 
 
 its thickness, and this rule will apply in all cases where 
 knives are used. A great many operators, when these 
 planer knives get dull, instead of taking them off the 
 machine and grinding them properly, merely use a hand 
 file, and after one or two applications of this method of 
 sharpening the beveljs round, does not clear the material, 
 and turns out very unsatisfactory work, at the same time 
 
 FIG. 86. HEADING JOINTER. 
 
 subjecting the machine to unnecessary strains. This 
 surface planer should be set about 8 or 10 feet from 
 and on the right hand side of the heading jointer. A 
 table should then be built the same height and width of 
 the discharge end of the planer and attached thereto, 
 leading toward the jointer, so that the heading pieces 
 when planed are fed directly to the operator on the 
 jointer. This method insures capacity, as a good oper- 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 289 
 
 ator on the heading jointer should easily in this man- 
 ner joint as many heading pieces as can be put through 
 the planer. 
 
 THE HEADING JOINTER 
 
 Next in order in the process of manufacture is the 
 heading jointer. (Fig. 86.) Experience has proven that 
 a 5-foot wheel jointer running at a speed of 650 revolu- 
 tions per minute is easily the best for this purpose, as 
 with a jointer of this class the knife, which is 21 inches 
 long, has good shearing qualities and cuts as much at 
 the point of the knife as at the heel, and, consequently, 
 wears away evenly from end to end of knife edge. In a 
 wheel jointer of smaller diameter, the heel or end of knife 
 nearest the centre of the wheel has to do much more cut- 
 ting than the point or upper end, and naturally will re- 
 quire grinding or sharpening more often to insure good 
 joints. Also, it has been found that an operator can joint 
 more heading pieces with less labor on a 5-foot wheel 
 than on a wheel jointer of smaller diameter, from the 
 fact that the larger wheel cuts more freely. Some 
 manufacturers use a saw jointer for this purpose, but 
 while these saw machines turn out a very satisfactory 
 joint, they are not to be compared with a wheel jointer 
 for speed or capacity, as an experienced operator can 
 easily joint from 3,500 to 4,000 sets heading in a day's 
 work of ten hours on the wheel jointers, while a little 
 more than half of this amount would be the limit on a 
 saw jointer, as more time is consumed in determining 
 the necessary cut. Where hardwoods or timber that is 
 more or less cross-grained is being worked, smoother 
 joints and much better results can be obtained by using 
 caps on the knives of these wheel jointer's. These caps 
 should be filed to same gauge as the jointer knife and 
 about Vw inch flat on the under side where it lies adjacent 
 
290 COOPERAGE 
 
 to the cutting edge of knife, so that when tightened down 
 it will have a good bearing surface and will prevent shav- 
 ings from getting under or between knife and cap. These 
 knives and caps should also be kept well balanced in rela- 
 tion to one another. It is always a good rule to mark 
 these knives and caps consecutively from 1 to 6 with a 
 centre punch, that is, putting one mark on the first knife 
 and cap and marking the slot or opening in jointer wheel 
 the same ; two marks on the next, three on the third, and 
 so on. Then these knives and caps which have the same 
 marks should always travel together and always be put 
 in opening on wheel of same number. For instance, knife 
 and cap marked 4 should be put in slot 4 on jointer wheel, 
 etc. In balancing, these knives and caps should be of 
 same weight as knife and cap directly opposite in wheel ; 
 for instance, knife marked 1, travelling directly oppo- 
 site knife 4. These should be of same weight, likewise 
 knives 2 and 5, and knives 3 and 6. By balancing in this 
 manner it insures equal weight on opposite sides of the 
 jointer, and the wheel will run smooth and true when 
 at its full speed. 
 
 In grinding or sharpening these jointer knives, care 
 must be exercised that they are all ground alike or of 
 the same shape on the cutting edge. For this purpose 
 a gauge should be used, one made of steel is the best, 
 and as a straight joint has been found to be the most 
 desirable for slack barrel heading, this steel gauge should 
 be made in the manner of a straightedge, and each and 
 every jointer knife ground in like manner. In setting 
 these knives in the jointing wheel, care should also be 
 taken that they are all set alike ; that is, each knife must 
 protrude just so far from or through the face of the 
 wheel. Quality and kind of timber jointed determine 
 this to a certain extent, but where hardwoods are jointed 
 less knife is desirable than if the timber was of the soft- 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 291 
 
 wood or coniferous species. In practice it will be found 
 that about % 2 -inch set will produce the better results, 
 and for this purpose a small gauge should also be made 
 of steel, with a small notch filed in the centre to the de- 
 sired depth, so tHat in setting these knives the heel and 
 toe of each knife is brought out from the face of the 
 wheel to the depth of this notch in the gauge. In this 
 manner each and every knife will be set alike. It is also 
 advisable occasionally to stop the wheel and go over each 
 knife with the gauge to satisfy one's self that they are 
 properly set or that none of them have slipped, which 
 happens quite frequently. 
 
 In operation, the heading piece should be held firmly 
 up to the face of the wheel and not allowed to chatter, 
 as this produces a poor joint; and in feeding, the blank 
 should be fed evenly, that is, there should be the same 
 amount of pressure applied to one end as to the other 
 and an effort made to joint "with the grain" of the wood, 
 otherwise the grain may be crossed, and this will have a 
 tendency to cause rough joints. And, again, if the oper- 
 ator does not feed the heading blank evenly, but feeds 
 it to the wheel, first one end and then the other by a sort 
 of rocking motion, it will produce a joint that will be 
 high in the centre and cause the joints on the finished 
 heads to be open on the ends, sometimes leaving the im- 
 pression that the heading blanks were not * sufficiently 
 dry and that they had shrunk after being turned to size. 
 Care should also be taken that too much timber is not 
 wasted by unnecessary jointing. The heading blank 
 should not be held up to the face of the wheel too long. 
 It is a good plan occasionally to take about 50 or 75 
 pieces or heading blanks, measure them carefully across 
 their width, allowing sufficient margin for jointing prop- 
 erly, and then without the knowledge of the operator on 
 the wheel send them through the planer, and after he has 
 
292 COOPERAGE 
 
 * 
 
 jointed them measure them again, and you may be sur- 
 prised at the amount of timber your operator at the 
 jointer is wasting. The operator on this machine should 
 be schooled in economy, and not permitted to waste un- 
 necessarily timber which is valuable by sending it 
 through the shaving pipe to the boiler room to be eventu- 
 ally used as fuel. 
 
 MATCHING OB ASSEMBLING 
 
 After the heading pieces or blanks have been properly 
 jointed they are matched, or the pieces assembled for 
 the size head to be turned. Here is where too much care 
 and attention cannot be given, as a careless operator at 
 this position can easily and without much exertion cause 
 more waste of timber, with its consequent lessening of 
 profits, in one day than the total value of his wages will 
 amount to in one month. As stated before, all econom- 
 ical heading manufacturers consider that a leeway of 
 one inch is amply sufficient, considering that the oper- 
 ator at the heading turner properly centres the heading 
 pieces ;* and any heading pieces or blanks that have been 
 assembled or matched up larger than this amount, the 
 surplus may be considered as a wilful waste of timber. 
 This point can be easily checked up by a careful watch 
 on the "bats" or waste wood sawn from each head that 
 is being continually wheeled out to the boiler room. 
 And, again, it makes quite a difference which way these 
 blanks are matched up; narrow pieces should always be 
 placed in the centre of the head -and the wider ones on 
 the "cant," as small, narrow cants are extremely diffi- 
 cult to hold in the bundle and also more or less difficult 
 to put into the barrel. And then where one of these 
 small cants happens to drop out of the bundle before 
 it has reached the cooper, the balance of the head is use- 
 less until it has been rematched. It is generally the 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 293 
 
 rule to assemble these heading pieces in piles up to a 
 convenient height on a bench or short skid, and as the 
 operator on the heading turner finishes one pile the next 
 one is shoved up to within easy reach. 
 
 THE HEADING TURNER 
 
 These heading turners (Fig. 87) are designed for cir- 
 cling all sizes of heading or square-edge covers, and are 
 
 FIG. 87. HEADING TURNER. 
 
 almost automatic in their operation. Aside from placing 
 the heading blanks in between the clamps, all that is 
 necessary of the operator is to 'tread upon a foot lever, 
 and by this one operation the heading pieces are clamped, 
 then immediately brought in contact with the saw, and 
 the machine put in motion. When the head has been 
 
294 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 turned the machine throws itself out of gear, discharges 
 the finished head, and is in position to receive another. 
 The operator, having no need to touch the machine with 
 his hands, can have the next head ready to drop into 
 
 FIG. 88. SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF DETERMINING PROPER CONCAVE OB 
 CIRCLE OF HEADING SAWS. 
 
 the machine the moment the finished one has been dis- 
 charged. The speed of these saws should be 5,000 revo- 
 lutions per minute, and the machine placed about 6 or 8 
 feet from the matching bench. The heads should be 
 matched in piles of 20 set each and slid along a small 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 295 
 
 runway or skid to the heading turner. These heading 
 turners are equipped with a chamfering saw, i. e., a flat 
 steel cutter head of varying thickness, which turns the 
 outside bevel on the head, and a small, concaved, circular 
 saw. These concave saws are made right and left hand. 
 By holding the saw so that the teeth point toward you, 
 if the saw concaves to the right it is a left-hand saw, and 
 if it concaves to the left it is a right-hand saw. These 
 saws are also made to concave to different circles. The 
 size of the head to be turned determines the circle saw 
 necessary to be used in order that the proper bevel may 
 be sawn on the head or that the saw will not bind in 
 the cut, which will cause it to overheat on the rim, and 
 the unequal expansion will invariably result in the saw 
 cracking. The smaller the diameter of the head to be 
 turned, a relatively smaller circle or dish of the concave 
 saw should be used. This can best be explained by re- 
 ferring to Fig. 88, where it will be readily seen that the 
 head represents a segment of a given circle. The size 
 of this circle corresponds to the dish or concave that is 
 necessary in the saw in order properly to turn the size 
 head desired. To determine this circle, it is necessary 
 first to sketch the head, as shown, or one-half of it ; then 
 divide it equally and draw a vertical line, as shown at A, 
 representing the centre of the head; then trace on the 
 head the bevel desired, as at B, and inscribe a circle 
 with the point of radius on the vertical line as at C, to 
 correspond to the bevel as already drawn; then the di- 
 ameter of this circle will represent the proper dish or 
 circle saw required for this particular size head. Of 
 course, the same circle saw can be used for different size 
 heads where the variation is not too great, but it is not 
 practicable to use the same saw where the variation in 
 size is greater than one inch. If a concave saw of the 
 proper dish or circle corresponding with the diameter of 
 
296 COOPEBAGE 
 
 the head to be turned is used, the centre line of the saw 
 arbor, as shown from D to E, will intersect the vertical 
 line A, as at C. This vertical line represents the centre 
 of the bearings on the clamps which hold the head while 
 it is being turned. This being the case, the blank head 
 will swing into the concave saw on a circle concentric 
 with the circle of the saw, and therefore will not bind 
 either on the inside or the outside of the saw, the set of 
 the saw teeth giving the necessary clearness. If, how- 
 ever, the centre line of the saw arbor, as shown, does not 
 intersect the vertical axis of the heading clamp, the head 
 will bind, causing the saw to heat on the rim, as stated ; 
 and this unnecessary heating will cause unequal expan- 
 
 TOP. 
 
 FIG. 89. PROPER BEVEL FOR SLACK HEADING. 
 
 sion, which, in its turn, will invariably result in the saw 
 cracking. To keep these concave saws in order so that 
 they will produce satisfactory results, set the teeth alike 
 on both sides of the plate. To do this, where these saws 
 are set by hand, use a small piece of steel plate filed on 
 one edge, concave, so that it will fit the convex side of 
 the saw ; the other edge convex, to fit the concave side of 
 the saw. Then file a notch on each side to the prope*r 
 depth, and spring each tooth to this gauge. As these 
 saws are called upon to cut with the grain as well as 
 across the grain, they require less bevel on the teeth 
 than a regular cut-off saw. They should be, therefore, 
 filed straight across in front and bevelled on the backs 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUKE 297 
 
 of the teeth. Keep the same amount of hook on the 
 front of eaeh tooth and file the gullets or sawdust cham- 
 bers round by the use of a round-edge file or emery wheel, 
 and do not run the saw when dull, as it is much easier to 
 keep a saw in shape by frequent filing than it would be 
 if the saw was kept at work until the points of the teeth 
 
 FIG. 90. HEADING PRESS. 
 
 were rounded and the shape of the tooth practically lost. 
 As to the proper bevel for a slack barrel head, Fig. 89 
 shows the style which is full size, that has been considered 
 as correct by some of the largest consumers of heading 
 in this country. The bevel on slack heading should not 
 be made too sharp, as when it is put into the package 
 il stiff" it has a tendency to cut into and weaken the 
 chime. And, again, should the bevel be made too blunt, 
 
298 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 it does not enter the croze properly, and the head is liable 
 to fall out should the package receive a sharp, sudden 
 jolt. This matter of bevel is quite as important as any 
 other point in heading manufacture, and should be given 
 its proper share of attention. 
 
 BUNDLING OR PACKING 
 
 After the heading has been properly turned it is 
 packed in bundles and bound with wire or flat steel 
 bands. This bundling is accomplished by the aid of the 
 heading packer, as shown in Fig. 90. It is the general 
 custom to pack these heads 20 set to the bundle, but it 
 is the opinion of the writer and others that a standard 
 of 15 set per bundle would be much more satisfactory. 
 With this number in each bundle and the bundles bound 
 
 FIG. 91. VIEW SHOWING RESULTS OF POOR BUNDLING. 
 
SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 299 
 
 with three wire ties of 11-gange wire would produce a 
 package more acceptable to the cooper, and one that 
 could be shipped any distance without the contents arriv- 
 ing at its destination resembling a carload of kindling 
 wood, as shown in Fig. 91. This shipment was actually 
 unloaded by the writer, and is only one of many which 
 have been received in like condition. Twenty set to a 
 bundle is too heavy a package to handle economically 
 and with any satisfaction, as they are difficult to store 
 and equally as difficult to take down from the pile, and 
 fully 15 per cent, are more or less broken or in bad condi- 
 tion before they are in the hands of the cooper. And, 
 again, the writer has observed that shipments of head- 
 ing arrive at destination in much better condition when 
 the bundles are piled in the car in a standing position 
 instead of being laid down, as shown in Fig. 91. This 
 is another point that will bear investigation. 
 
 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES 
 
 The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
 and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
 turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
 slack heading, follows: 
 
 No. 1 basswood, cottonwood, or gum heading shall be 
 manufactured from good, sound timber, thoroughly kiln- 
 dried, turned true to size, and shall be % inch in thick- 
 ness after being dressed on one side; of such diameter 
 as is required, well jointed, and free from all defects 
 making it unfit for use in No. 1 barrels, with straight 
 joints unless otherwise specified. 
 
 No. 1 hardwood or mixed timber heading shall be of 
 same specifications as above, excepting that the thick- 
 ness after being dressed shall be VIQ inch. 
 
 Mill-run heading shall be the forest run of the log, 
 
300 COOPEBAGE 
 
 or bolt, well manufactured, of standard thickness and 
 kiln-dried; all dead culls to be thrown out. 
 
 No. 2 heading shall be heading sorted from the No. 1 
 and to be put up so that it is workable and free from 
 dead culls. 
 
 Dead-cull heading is classified as anything not useful 
 nor serviceable, such as knot holes of over % inch in 
 diameter, bad slanting shakes, rotten timber, or other 
 bad defects that make it unworkable. 
 
 All heading to be well bundled; number of pieces to 
 the head not to exceed the following: 
 
 No. 1 and mill-run grades, 13% to 15% inches, inclusive, 
 four-piece. 
 
 No. 1 and mill-run grades, above 15% to 17% inches, 
 inclusive, three and four-piece; at least 50 per cent, to 
 be three-piece. 
 
 No. 1 and mill-run grades, 18 to 19% inches, inclusive, 
 three, four and five-piece ; at least 50 per cent, to be four- 
 piece or less. 
 
 All stock not specifically mentioned should be bought 
 and sold on terms and specifications agreed upon between 
 the buyer and seller. 
 
 When heading shall be specified to be made of a cer- 
 tain kind or kinds of timber in any deal or contract, any 
 timber other than that specified, if found mixed in with 
 the timber specified, shall be classified as off-grade. 
 
SECTION X 
 
 SLACK BARREL HOOP 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF HOOPS 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 SINCE elm timber has become so scarce and the first 
 quality high in price, manufacturers of hoops in the 
 northern parts of the country are facing a serious prob- 
 lem. It is generally conceded that hoops, as well as all 
 other cooperage stock, should be marketed at a reason- 
 able price, and manufacturers interested in the perma- 
 nent trade desire to keep the values consistent with those 
 of staves and heading, especially since the wire and flat- 
 steel hoops have made such serious encroachments of 
 late years upon their trade. With the exception of a few 
 manufacturers in Michigan, there are no concerns hold- 
 ing large quantities of elm timber or timbered lands, and 
 it is commonly admitted that small factories temporarily 
 located where tracts of elm timber can be found are bet- 
 ter propositions than more permanent institutions. 
 
 In the South, conditions are somewhat different. The 
 amount of elm found to the acre is small, and, in some 
 localities the timber is very brash, and if the best qual- 
 ity of stock is made, large quantities of defective hoops 
 must be thrown away during the process of manufacture. 
 The most advantageous locations for hoop mills in the 
 South seem to be river points, so that a large area can 
 be covered. Starting with the purchasing and cutting 
 of the timber, there are many opportunities for mis- 
 takes and losses before the manufactured hoop is loaded 
 into the car. In the first place, timber must be bought 
 of the right quality. Though some trees show green leaves 
 and are apparently in good condition, many are, at the 
 
304 COOPEBAGE 
 
 same time, so old that they are not a profitable invest- 
 ment for hoop timber. Dry rot has set in, and especially 
 near the heart the wood is a total waste. Second-growth 
 hard elm generally makes a very poor hoop. In the saw- 
 mill such timber cannot be separated into stave bolts 
 and hoop plank, as can many logs having common defects, 
 but the entire piece is often unfit for hoops, and had bet- 
 ter be left in the woods. Eaw material purchased for 
 the purpose of making flat or coiled hoops should be, if 
 possible, sound timber, free from knots, wormholes, splits, 
 and wind-shakes, and must be a kind of wood that will 
 coil easily when steamed or boiled without undue break- 
 age. 
 
 .THE PATENT HOOP 
 
 What is known as "the patent hoop" is a thin strip 
 of tough wood, principally elm, between 1 and 2 inches 
 wide and 4 to 7 feet long. It is made with one edge 
 thick and the other edge thin. The thick edge should 
 be nearly twice the thickness of the thin edge, and this 
 difference in thickness should be entirely on the inside 
 of the hoop, forming a bevel to conform to the shape of 
 the barrel or package, while the outside of the hoop 
 should be straight. (See Fig. 92.) The standard barrel 
 
 FIG. 92. END SECTION OF PATENT HOOP. 
 
 hoop should be 1% inches wide, with the thick edge %6 
 inch and the thin edge %6 inch in thickness. One end 
 of the hoop is pointed, while the other end is thinned 
 down like a wedge and forms what is termed the lap. 
 Both the thick and thin edges of the hoop are rounded. 
 
SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 305 
 
 METHODS OF MANTJFACTUBE 
 
 There are two distinct methods of manufacturing the 
 coiled elm hoop and several systems for doing the work 
 that differ somewhat in detail, but for commercial pur- 
 poses we can divide it into the two general methods of 
 cutting and sawing. In the former method, that of cut- 
 ting, the timber is sawn into planks at the sawmill of a 
 thickness that will make the width of a hoop, then cross- 
 cut to proper length, after which it is put into a boiling 
 vat, and when the wood fibres are properly softened by 
 the hot water the planks are taken to the hoop cutter and 
 sliced by a large knife into thin strips or hoops, and then 
 pointed and lapped. 
 
 Where sawn hoops are made, the timber is also sawn 
 into planks at the sawmill, but instead of being boiled 
 and cut with a knife, the plank is run through a gang 
 ripsaw, which saws it into bars that are of sufficient 
 thickness or size to split and make two hoops. By this 
 it can be readily seen that it requires more timber to 
 make a given amount of sawn hoops than it does to make 
 the same number of cut hoops, because a certain amount 
 of the wood is wasted in sawdust. In fact, it is esti- 
 mated that there is a difference of about 1,000 hoops in 
 every 1,000 feet of logs. In other words, it has been 
 found that 1,000 feet of elm logs of hoop grade will make 
 approximately 4,000 cut hoops, while it has been found 
 that 3,000 is nearer the average if the timber is put into 
 sawn hoops. 
 
 With this great difference in favor of cut hoops, it 
 appears there would never be any sawn hoops made, 
 especially since elm timber is becoming so scarce; but 
 there are other factors which enter into the matter and 
 make the sawn process the favorite in some cases. One 
 thing in favor of the sawn hoop is the portability of the 
 
306 COOPERAGE 
 
 machines, enabling them to be moved more readily from 
 one locality to another at a nominal cost. And, again, 
 it has generally been conceded that the sawn hoop is 
 really superior to one that has been cut. No doubt there 
 is a lot of truth in this assertion, for if the planks are 
 not properly boiled, the knife in forcing its way through 
 shatters the timber more or less, and this materially 
 weakens the hoop. Another advantage in favor of the 
 sawn hoop is that it requires less capital to equip a plant 
 for sawing hoops and a smaller degree of skill for main- 
 tenance and operation. The sawn hoop offers many little 
 advantages to make up for the disadvantage of the waste 
 from saw kerf. 
 
 The machinery necessary to equip a hoop plant for 
 either cut or sawn hoops depends somewhat on what 
 system is used. The general plan, however, for cut 
 hoops is to have a hoop cutter that is, a long, heavy 
 knife that cuts the hoop from the plank a jointer or 
 lapper, a hoop planer, and a coiler. For sawn hoops 
 one generally requires a sawing outfit which consists of 
 a machine that contains both a planer and a jointer or 
 lapper, a self-feeding rip or gang saw for preparing 
 the bars or strips, and a coiler. As to output, it is a 
 well-known fact that the cutting machines have the 
 largest capacity. The average machine for making sawn 
 hoops will turn out about 15,000 hoops a day, while some 
 of the cutters will run as high as 40,000 to 60,000 hoops 
 per day. In comparing the producing machines with the 
 subsidiary machines, including coilers, we find that the 
 average coiling machine will coil about as many hoops 
 as one hoop-sawing machine will make that is, about 
 15,000 hoops a day. It is hardly fair, probably, to say 
 that this is an average. There are some hoop-coiling rec- 
 ords in which these figures have been materially exceeded, 
 some special occasions on which men have coiled as high 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTUEE 307 
 
 as 66,000 hoops in one day. Usually, however, it takes 
 about three coilers to take care of the output of a plant 
 making from 40,000 to 60,000 hoops a day, and the gen- 
 eral practice is to have about three hoop coilers, and 
 sometimes four, to each hoop cutter. A good hoop- 
 cutting machine will cut from 40,000 to 60,000 hoops a 
 day, running full capacity. Much, of course, depends 
 upon the quality of the timber as well as the skill of the 
 operator, and 40,000 hoops is probably a fair day's out- 
 put. And three coilers to the hoop cutter would no 
 doubt make a well-balanced equipment. The question 
 of selection, however, for method or system to manufac- 
 ture hoops naturally depends somewhat on local condi- 
 tions, and they have to be considered in each case sepa- 
 rately. Still, notwithstanding the fact that the odds are 
 against the sawn system as a timber economizer, it is, as 
 a rule, about the best method for a sawmill man who 
 desires to enter into the manufacture of hoops as a side 
 line. 
 
 MANUFACTUKE OF HOOPS 
 
 Elm has been principally the standard hoop timber, 
 but other woods lately have come into the market. Oak, 
 ash, birch, and hickory make good hoops and are used 
 quite extensively. Some beech and maple have also been 
 used with varying results. In the South, pine, gum, cy- 
 press, and even magnolia hoops are very often used. 
 This class of timber should be worked in the green state, 
 otherwise the breakage will be excessively high. In the 
 manufacture of hoops, the proper sawing of the plank 
 is essential in order to get out the timber to the best 
 advantage, and a great waste, which is caused by uneven 
 planks, is often noticed. Through carelessness, some 
 planks often will vary from 1% to 1% inches instead of 
 being sawn true and to proper size, which should be l%e 
 
308 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 inches and kept to within %e of an inch of the proper 
 thickness. A variation of more than this amount is not 
 necessary if the saw is properly adjusted and the oper- 
 ators are experienced and attend strictly to their duties. 
 
 
 FIG. 93. SHORT LOG SAW MILL. 
 
 The planks being sawn 1%6 inches thick allows %2 inch 
 on each side for planing, which is ample, the finished 
 hoop then being 1% inches wide, which is the standard 
 width. Some hoop manufacturers cut their own planks, 
 
 FIG.* 94. SELF-FEED GANG RIPSAW. 
 
 while others purchase them already cut to size from the 
 sawmills. When the planks are sawn at the hoop mill, 
 the short log sawmill, as shown in Fig. 93, is generally 
 used. 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANIJFACTUEE 309 
 
 THE SAWN PROCESS 
 
 In the manufacture of hoops by the sawn process, the 
 plank is not steamed as in cutting. Instead, it is taken 
 to a self- feed gang ripsaw (Fig. 94 or 95), where the 
 planks are sawn or ripped into hoop bars l%e x l ViQ 
 inches. Each bar then contains sufficient material for 
 
 FIG. 95. SELF-FEED GANG RIPSAW. 
 
 twa hoops. These bars are then passed through 'the hoop 
 machinery proper, after which the hoops are steamed 
 and coiled. On the gauge ripsaws illustrated, saws 16 
 inches in diameter should be used and maintained at a 
 speed of 3,000 revolutions per minute. After the plank 
 has been ripped into hoop bars of the proper dimensions, 
 
310 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 these bars are taken to the machine illustrated in Fig. 96, 
 known as "the Trautman." This machine makes two 
 complete hoops from each bar fed into it, as it saws the 
 bar in two, planes, points and laps each hoop. In opera- 
 tion, one end of each bar is first pointed by a revolving 
 cutter head at the front end of the machine, and is then 
 fed into the feed rolls. These carry it between two cutter 
 heads, which plane opposite surfaces of the blank, while 
 at the same time a saw, set at the proper angle to give 
 
 FIG. 96. THE "TRAUTMAN" SAWN-HOOP MACHINE. 
 
 the correct bevel, divides the blank into two hoops. As 
 they pass out, each hoop is lapped by an assistant at the 
 rear end of the machine. These two operators, generally 
 a man and a boy, should obtain the rated capacity of 
 15,000 hoops per day. The speed of the countershaft for 
 this machine should be 1,000 revolutions per minute. 
 This will give the proper speed to the cutters and saws 
 on the machine. Saws used should be 10 inches in diam- 
 eter, 15 gauge. The hoops are then taken to a boiling vat. 
 These tanks are generally made up of 2 x 4-inch stuff, 
 nailed or bolted securely together, preferably bolted, 
 
SLACK BARBEL HOOP MANUFACTURE 311 
 
 and are about 7 feet long, 5 feet wide and 3 feet deep. 
 The hoops are softened by dropping them into this tank 
 of hot water, which is heated by exhaust steam, and then 
 coiled. Another excellent sawn-hoop machine is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 97, and is known as "the Kettenring. ' ' 
 
 FIG. 97. THE "KETTENRING" SAWN-HOOP MACHINE. 
 
 This machine also makes two hoops from each bar fed 
 into it, as it saws the bar in two and planes each hoop 
 at the same operation. In practice, the hoop bar is first 
 pointed on the hoop bar chuck pointing machine (Fig. 
 98), which should be located convenient to the front end 
 
 FIG. 98. HOOP-BAR CHUCK POINTING MACHINE. 
 
 of the Kettenring machine, and then fed by the same 
 operator into the hoop machine (Fig. 97), where the hoop 
 bar is planed and sawn into two hoops, after which they 
 are lapped by an assistant on the machine shown in Fig. 
 99, known as the hand-feed hoop-lapping machine, which 
 
312 COOPERAGE 
 
 should be placed convenient to the discharge end of the 
 hoop-sawing machine (Fig. 97). These two operators, 
 generally a man and a boy, should attain the rated ca- 
 pacity of 15,000 hoops per day. The speed of the counter- 
 
 FIG. 99. HAND-FEED HOOP LAPPING MACHINE. 
 
 shaft on the Kettenring machine should be 1,000 revolu- 
 tions per minute. This will give the proper speed to the 
 cutter heads and saws on the machine. Saws used should 
 be 10 inches diameter, 15 gauge. 
 
 THE CUTTING PKOCESS 
 
 In this process, as in manufacturing staves, many of 
 the defects in hoops can be directly traced to improper 
 steaming or boiling. There has been much discussion 
 as to whether steaming or boiling the plank is the more 
 advantageous. Either process, it has been found, if 
 properly carried out, will bring good results, but the most 
 essential feature is to have the plank thoroughly cooked 
 and the hoop-cutting knife sharp; otherwise the timber 
 will be more or less shattered and, of course, will not 
 work or coil with as low a percentage of breakage. The 
 disadvantages of steaming the plank are several. For 
 instance, it costs much more to erect and maintain an 
 
SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 313 
 
 efficient and effective steam-box than it does to construct 
 an ordinary boiling vat, where no pressures are to be 
 maintained. Also, where steam-boxes are used it requires 
 a high and almost uniform steam pressure, with conse- 
 quent increased firing of the boiler ; and it has also been 
 found that a steamed plank cools much quicker when ex- 
 posed to the atmosphere, and that when once cooled off 
 it gets very hard and becomes almost impossible to work 
 with any degree of success. Also the labor incident to 
 effective steaming of planks is much greater than that of 
 boiling. Therefore, considering the above disadvantages, 
 and they will at least bear investigation, the boiling 
 of planks appears to be the more efficient, economical, 
 and practical method of treating the timber before cut- 
 ting into hoops. 
 
 THE BOILING VAT 
 
 The boiling vat is as important to the hoop mill as 
 the steam-box is to a stave mill. It should be given its 
 proper share of care and attention, and should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned at regular intervals. The dimensions of 
 the vat depend mainly on the capacity of the mill, but 
 a plant with a contemplated capacity of from 40,000 to 
 50,000 hoops per day of ten hours should provide a cook- 
 ing vat not less than 50 feet long, 8 feet wide and 6 feet 
 deep. This tank or vat may be constructed of concrete 
 or pine. Where timbers are used, a good construction 
 can be made by using 2 x 4-inch stuff for the sides and 
 ends^planed on the flat or larger side and nailed or bolted 
 firmly one on top of the other. The floor should be of 
 2-inch stuff, running lengthwise of the vat, with tongue 
 and grooved flooring running crosswise, and held in place 
 with screws. This construction, if properly carried out, 
 will make an excellent cooking or boiling vat. 
 
 Where boiling vats are constructed of concrete, care 
 
314 COOPERAGE 
 
 should be taken that they are built on firm foundations ; 
 otherwise the side walls will crack from the uneven set- 
 tling of the walls, and this will cause leaks, making a 
 very unsatisfactory and troublesome vat. A good foun- 
 dation may be made, where the ground is fairly firm, by 
 digging down below the surface for about 2 or 3 feet 
 and putting in a layer of crushed stone about 18 inches 
 deep; then on top of this pour the concrete. The side 
 walls should be tapered, with the thickest part at the base, 
 making the base about half as thick again as the top, 
 and at intervals throughout the construction there should 
 be reinforcements, in the shape of rods or band iron, in 
 order to hold the mass firmly together and lessen the 
 liability of cracks. It has also been found necessary to 
 put an extra wooden bottom in concrete vats, as by con- 
 tinually dropping the plank into them, if care is not 
 exercised, they will strike the bottom and eventually pro- 
 duce large holes or cracks that will in time cause leaks. 
 This can be overcome by placing anchor bolts in the 
 bottom at regular intervals, which can be used for fast- 
 ening down a layer of 3-inch planks. This method of 
 protecting the bottom is also necessary on top of the 
 side walls, so that the concrete work will not be broken 
 or worn away by the continual sliding or scraping of the 
 planks while the operator is placing them in or taking 
 same from the vat. These planks can then be renewed 
 as occasion requires, and the boiling vat kept in good 
 condition. The mixture for this construction may be the 
 same as that given for concrete steam-boxes for tave 
 bolts in Section VIII. With boiling vats carefully con- 
 structed on this plan they should give excellent satis- 
 faction and last for a considerable period, with little or 
 no expense for repairs. 
 
 Opinions differ as to whether the best results are ob-. 
 tained by cooking the plank standing edgewise or plac- 
 
SLACK BARBEL HOOP MANUFACTURE 315 
 
 ing in tank on the flat side. The objections to boiling 
 hoop plank flat are, that in order to secure good results 
 the plank must be kept apart or separated. This necessi- 
 tates the use of cull hoops or strips between the plank, 
 which eventually fall to the bottom of the vat, causing 
 difficulty in removing the plank by getting tangled with 
 the hook, and makes frequent cleaning and emptying of 
 the tank an absolute necessity. Also, it has been found 
 that very frequently additional labor is required, from 
 the fact that it is more difficult to remove the plank from 
 the vat when laid flat. Considering the above facts, some 
 of the largest hoop mills have adopted the method of 
 boiling the plank edgewise, and for this purpose they 
 put a 4 x 4 or 4 x 6-inch timber in the centre on the bot- 
 tom of the tank the full length, and suspend another 
 about 12 inches above the top of the tank, directly over 
 and in line with the one on the bottom. In these timbers 
 they bore holes from 2 to 2% inches apart, and put in 
 %-inch round iron rods or 1-inch pipe, giving the appear- 
 ance of an iron fence through the centre, lengthwise of 
 the tank. The planks are then placed in these spaces on 
 edge, one on top of the other. By this method the boiling 
 hot water has free access to the planks on all sides, which 
 are thoroughly cooked in less time than if lain flat, and are 
 easily removed from the tank by means of a hook. In boil- 
 ing hoop planks, as in steaming stave bolts, care should be 
 exercised that they are not subjected to too much boil- 
 ing. All that is required is "merely" to soften them up, 
 or, in other words, to produce the highest possible degree 
 of sponginess, without loosening the fibres of the wood 
 from each other to cause woolly or fuzzy cutting. The 
 secret in turning out a good hoop is in the preparation 
 of the stock, and a part of the secret of preparation is 
 letting it soak thoroughly, putting in more time prepar- 
 ing it than is the practice in most places, not using 
 
316 COOPEEAGE 
 
 quite so much heat. It is really doubtful if there is need 
 to raise the water above the boiling point to. properly 
 prepare planks for cutting, as when we go above the boil- 
 ing point there is a remarkably strong tendency on the 
 part of the heat, and the boiling incident thereto, to dis- 
 integrate the wood. If the stock is in excellent condi- 
 tion for cutting, that is, duly softened without being 
 rendered woolly and difficult to -cut, then half the battle 
 is won, and not only will the stock cut much easier and 
 faster, but it will be much easier to keep the knife in 
 shape. 
 
 The condition of the plank when entering the mill 
 should be considered, as planks cut from green or newly 
 
 FIG. 100. THE HOOP CUTTER. 
 
 felled trees require less boiling than those cut from logs 
 which have lain on the yard or in the woods for a consid- 
 erable period. Hoops vary in quality more than any 
 other stock manufactured, and this can be traced mostly 
 to improper softening of the wood fibres before cutting. 
 
 THE HOOP CUTTEK 
 
 The planks after having been prepared properly by 
 boiling are then taken while hot to the hoop cutters, as 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTUEE 317 
 
 shown in Figs. 100 and 101, where they are cut into hoops. 
 Care should be taken that the stock is cut so that the 
 hoops will go to the planers %2 inch full, heavier than the 
 specifications call for when finished, on both the thick 
 and thin edges, so that the hoops will leave the planers 
 about %4 inch scant, or plump, %e and %e inch. This 
 allowance should be made for, the shrinkage of the tim- 
 ber while it is being seasoned in the yard. Quite a num- 
 ber of hoops are placed on the market that are not fin- 
 ished properly. Some manufacturers evidently do not 
 place much importance on the fact that a hoop should be 
 well finished. If enough timber is fed into the planer 
 
 FIG. 101. THE HOOP CUTTER. 
 
 so that the cutters can 'do their work well there should 
 be no difficulty in finishing up the hoops properly and 
 in a workmanlike manner, providing, of course, that the 
 machine is kept in good repair, the knives on the cutter- 
 heads sharp and well balanced, and the bearings prop- 
 erly adjusted. These hoop-cutting machines should be 
 run at a speed of 200 revolutions per minute on the tight 
 and loose pulleys, and if maintained at this speed, with 
 the knife properly cared for, the tilting mechanism and 
 other working parts carefully looked after, should turn 
 out about 70,000 perfectly cut and bevelled hoops in a 
 day's work. 
 
318 COOPERAGE 
 
 THE HOOP PLANER 
 
 The illustration (Fig. 102) represents the automatic 
 triple hoop planer, which is considered one of the best 
 on the market for the purpose of planing wood hoops. 
 When properly cared for this machine is accurate and 
 rapid, it being so arranged as to plane three hoops at 
 one time, and should perform this work at the rate of 
 35,000 hoops per day of ten hours. The proper planing 
 and finishing of a hoop determines its general appear- 
 ance and often its ultimate value, and is a part of hoop 
 manufacture frequently given too little attention. In hoops 
 
 FIG. 102. THE AUTOMATIC TRIPLE HOOP PLANER. 
 
 that are well finished or planed, the breakage will be con- 
 siderably less, both at the hoop coiler's and later in the 
 cooper shop when they are finally used. When the cutter- 
 head spindles are allowed to jump or rattle, it gives the 
 finished hoop a wavy appearance, and in some instances, 
 where the wood is slightly cross-grained, this jumping of 
 the cutter-head spindle has a tendency to dig into the wood 
 or break it out at that point, and it will be found to weaken 
 considerably the hoop, and that a great many will break at 
 the coiler's or afterwards in the coil, and is caused by this 
 inattention of the spindle bearings. In babbitting these 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTUEE 319 
 
 bearings it is always preferable to /'line" them with 
 several pieces of thin cardboard, instead of using one or 
 two pieces of thick leather belting, as is generally the 
 custom. Then, if the bearings need adjusting, all that 
 is necessary is to take out one of these thin pieces from 
 each side of the cap and tighten it down again. If this 
 is done properly, the bearings can be run for a consid- 
 erable period before rebabbitting. The bits used should 
 be l%e inches, and should always be kept sharp and in run- 
 ning balance. And if the stock fed into it is cut so that the 
 planer can perform its work properly, no difficulty should 
 be experienced in turning out a well-finished hoop, and 
 the breakage would be considerably lessened. It has 
 
 FIG. 103. THE AUTOMATIC HOOP-POINTING AND LAPPING MACHINE. 
 i 
 
 been proven that at least forty per cent, of the breakage 
 of hoops at the coiler's is caused by faulty workmanship 
 at the planer. 
 
 THE HOOP-POINTING AND LAPPING MACHINE 
 
 After the hoops have been cut properly and planed, 
 they are then passed through the machine, as illustrated 
 in Fig. 103. This engraving represents an automatic 
 hoop-pointing and lapping machine, which is considered 
 one of the best machines for this purpose, and is used 
 by the large hoop manufacturers for equalizing, point- 
 ing, and lapping hoops, all these operations being done 
 at one time, and at the rate of 60,000 hoops per day of 
 ten hours. In operation, the hoops are placed upon the 
 
320 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 chain feed of the machine, which automatically feeds 
 them forward to the equalizing and pointing knives, 
 where they stop just long enough for the cutters to ac- 
 
 FIG. 104. "THE WARD" HOOP-COILING MACHINE. 
 
 complish their work, when they again move forward to 
 the lapping cutters, which complete the work, and the 
 finished hoop is discharged at the rear side of the ma- 
 chine. The speed of this machine should be 700 revolu- 
 tions per minute on the tight and loose pulleys, which 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTUEE 321 
 
 are 12 inches in diameter. There are no saws on this 
 machine, and the fact that it works automatically insures 
 that each and every hoop will be alike. A great many 
 hoops are often put into the coils which are defective on 
 account of not having a properly thinned lap, or in some 
 cases with no semblance of a lap at all. The proper lap- 
 ping of a hoop is a very essential feature, and care should 
 be exercised at all times that this point is not neglected, 
 as when the lap is not made properly or thinned down 
 sufficiently, the hoop with the defective lap when put into 
 
 FIG. 105. "THE DEFIANCE" HOOP-COILING MACHINE. 
 
 the coil will often cause the hoop next to it to be weak- 
 ened and break, on account of the "dent" or short crook 
 put into it by coming in contact with this blunt end. Even 
 though damage on this account is not common, coopers 
 prefer a hoop that is properly lapped, and very often 
 rejections are made by the consumer on this particular 
 point. 
 
 THE HOOP-COILING MACHINE 
 
 The hoop-coiling machine illustrated in Fig. 104 is 
 known as "the Ward," and in the hands of a skilful oper- 
 
322 COOPEBAGE 
 
 ator should turn out from 16,000 to 20,000 hoops per day, 
 according to the skill of the operator. The speed of the 
 driven pulley on this machine should be 330 revolutions 
 per minute. Another excellent hoop-coiling machine is 
 illustrated in Fig. 105, and is known as "the Defiance." 
 Its rated capacity is also from 16,000 to 20,000 hoops per 
 day. The coiling of the hoop, after having been manu- 
 factured, is more of an important feature of hoop-mak- 
 ing than is generally accredited to it, as a hoop well manu- 
 factured but improperly coiled easily will lose a large 
 percentage of its quality. It is often the practice of the 
 coilers to use a stick or an iron bar, placing it across 
 the boiling vat, and then take out a large quantity of 
 hoops at one time, allowing them to rest on this support 
 while being coiled. This method of working is not alto- 
 gether a bad one, provided, of course, that a few hoops 
 are taken out of the vat at one time ; but where a large 
 amount is taken out, a great many of the hoops get cold 
 or cool off considerably before the operator succeeds in 
 coiling them, and, therefore, materially increases the per- 
 centage of breakage in the coils. This breakage may not 
 altogether appear while the hoops are being coiled, but 
 will eventually materialize later on, when the coils are 
 opened. Hoops should always be placed in the coils while 
 they are hot; otherwise, if coiled cold, the fibres of the 
 wood are strained or broken entirely, and hoops coiled in 
 this condition are also more liable to mould and rot than 
 when put into the coils when hot. Broken or unsound 
 hoops in the coils are the primary causes of a great many 
 rejections or claims for reductions by the cooper. Care 
 must be taken also with the inspection. Many hoop man- 
 ufacturers have boys to do this work, and it is very often 
 done in a very careless manner. This position is really 
 an important one, and should- not be intrusted to an in- 
 competent workman. The smaller sizes, as well as the 
 
SLACK BAKEEL HOOP MANUFACTURE 323 
 
 larger ones, should be inspected carefully, and if every 
 hoop that shows a damaging defect is thrown out enough 
 will remain that cannot be seen or that will develop in 
 seasoning to amply cover the two or three per cent, 
 allowed for breakage and loss. When the mill is run- 
 ning on a particularly bad lot of logs, or logs that have 
 lain too long on the yard before working, and the break- 
 age is found to be excessive, even for only a short time, 
 assistance should be given the regular coiler, or the hoops 
 piled to one side, to be worked over at odd times. It is 
 in such instances as this that particularly bad hoops suc- 
 ceed in getting into the coils, and eventually to the con- 
 sumer, that causes considerable trouble, and the shipper 
 eventually gets the reputation for poor quality that will 
 remain with him for some time. Also, the cooper becomes 
 suspicious of his stock and subjects it to a very rigid and 
 careful examination or inspection. On the other hand, if 
 a more careful inspection is made at the mill, more hoops 
 will probably be thrown out, but the shipper gains a repu- 
 tation for good quality of stock, can demand and will se- 
 cure better prices for his product, and a great many de- 
 fects will at times pass unnoticed by the cooper. 
 
 PILING ON YARD 
 
 Hoops to be properly piled on the yard should be placed 
 on platforms not less than one foot above the ground 
 and the grass and weeds kept close cut, in order that they 
 will not obstruct or retard the proper circulation of air 
 through and around the several piles. When properly 
 seasoned they should be taken in and placed under cover 
 or shipped, and not allowed to remain exposed to the 
 rains and sun until they become over-seasoned, often be- 
 coming brash as well as unduly discolored. This piling 
 of hoops to the weather is fully as important as that of 
 
324 COOPEEAGE 
 
 staves, and should be treated with the same care and 
 attention. 
 
 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES 
 
 The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
 and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
 turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
 slack barrel hoops, follows: 
 
 Standard dimensions of coiled elm hoops from 5 feet 
 6 inches to 6 feet 9 inches in length shall be made so as 
 to measure when finished and seasoned not less than %e 
 inch in thickness on the top or thick edge, and %e inch 
 in thickness on the bottom or thin edge, and not less than 
 1% inches in width. 
 
 Hoops less than 5 feet 6 inches in length may be made 
 same width and thickness as longer hoops, unless other- 
 wise agreed upon by buyer and seller. 
 
 Dimensions of standard keg hoops, 5 feet and shorter, 
 to be, when finished and seasoned, not less than % inch 
 in thickness on the top or thick edge, and % inch in thick- 
 ness on the bottom or thin edge, and not less than 1% 
 inches in width. 
 
 No. 1 hoops shall be of good, sound timber, up to the 
 specifications, well finished, and free from breakage and 
 other defective hoops that make them unfit for use on a 
 barrel, to be dry or well seasoned when shipped. 
 
 HEAD LINERS 
 
 The demand for head liners of various sizes, lengths, 
 and shapes, such as are used to secure the heads in slack 
 barrels, has increased in the past few years to such an 
 extent that special machinery with large capacity has 
 been made to produce them. The machine shown in Fig. 
 
SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTUEE 325 
 
 106 has been constructed especially for this branch of the 
 industry, and is considered the most complete machine 
 for the purpose. It is simple in construction, automatic 
 in its operation, and can be operated by a boy. It pro- 
 duces three head liners crimped and complete at a time, 
 having a capacity of 50,000 liners per day. The making 
 of head liners is a good side line for a hoop or stave mill, 
 
 FIG. 106. THE HEAD-LINER MACHINE. 
 
 as it considerably reduces the waste problem, as the ma- 
 terial from which liners can be made consists of defective 
 and undersized hoops, staves, slabs, etc., and the sur- 
 plus which collects about the mill or factory and is of no 
 value other than for purposes of this character. It is 
 equally well adapted for making barrel hoops, hoops and 
 handles for fruit and other baskets, and trunk slats, by 
 simply using suitable knives and removing the crimping 
 attachment. Speed of countershaft on machine 1,180 
 revolutions per minute. 
 
SECTION XI 
 
 MODERN 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 
 
 IN this article I propose to deal more particularly with 
 the commercial or financial aspect of the management 
 of mill or factory, as distinct from the practical side of 
 the manufacture, although in a sense the one is as prac- 
 tical a subject as the other. I shall therefore aim to 
 bring forth a few of the leading principles of successful 
 management as practised by the modern factory man- 
 ager or superintendent. This is undoubtedly an era of 
 keen and sharp competition, and in order to keep up with 
 the fast-moving procession we must keep in close touch 
 with all the details of the business, lest there be a small 
 leakage somewhere that eventually will grow to harmful 
 magnitude. Many a concern to-day is struggling under 
 a load imposed upon it by bad and inefficient system, both 
 of management and of details of factory and office work. 
 Some will not awaken to a full realization of the situa- 
 tion until some finely organized competitor drives them 
 to the point where an investigation of "what is wrong " 
 is absolutely necessary. Then they will become enlight- 
 ened of the fact that, instead of profits, the concern has 
 been steadily on the down grade through its dilatory 
 and unprogressive methods, and that it will take strenu- 
 ous efforts on the part of every one concerned to place 
 it on a proper basis again. 
 
 Modern commercialism not only demands the finest 
 and best machinery, the most capable and skilful men, 
 working at the highest possible pitch, but also renders 
 it imperative that all component parts be knit together 
 by modern methods of organization and that product, 
 processes, departments, and workmen be checked up 
 and their efficiency gauged by the most thorough meth- 
 
330 COOPERAGE 
 
 ods of accounting and system. The one thing, un- 
 doubtedly, that contributes more to a mill turning out 
 an inferior quality of stock than any other is lack of 
 properly trained and skilled labor. There is hardly a 
 position about a mill where the efficiency might not be 
 improved through careful and proper training. It 
 would almost seem as though some of the manufac- 
 turers thought any unskilled and uneducated tramp was 
 competent to perform the duties attached to any of the 
 several positions in and about a stave, heading, or hoop 
 mill; but experience has proven that help of this class 
 is a detriment to the mill. The workman who takes pride 
 in his knowledge and experience in the trade, and who 
 knows much more than is required of him to perform 
 properly the duties set before him, is the help that per- 
 forms the task with the greatest ease and skill. Investi- 
 gation will prove that the manufacturer who has the 
 reputation of turning out the best quality of stock to-day, 
 in the absence of an industrial or training school, is using 
 the old apprentice system modernized to suit his require- 
 ments and to meet the present industrial and domestic 
 conditions in training the help properly to perform the 
 various duties about the plant. The help must be thor- 
 oughly instructed in the operation and care of the various 
 machines and be well versed in the requirements of the 
 user of the class of stock he is manufacturing, and also 
 be familiar with the standard specifications and grades 
 of this article. 
 
 How often has it occurred that a firm, prosperous 
 in the early days of its existence, failed utterly after 
 it had grown to such size as to make it impossible 
 for the heads to retain that "personal touch " with 
 its details which was exercised previously. The fac- 
 tory superintendent or manager of to-day must retain 
 that vital touch with the internal working of his organi- 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 331 
 
 zation in this era of close competition, small profits, 
 and intense activity of production; and in order to do 
 this, he must necessarily be a practical man, knowing 
 minutely all the smallest details of the business, in order 
 to distinguish the inefficient portions from the strong 
 parts, and able to assign unerringly the cause for such 
 inefficiency, in order that he may throw all of his power, 
 knowledge, and years of experience into the strengthen- 
 ing of such weak points. He must be able to remove 
 immediately any increase in expenses or deterioration 
 in working efficiency in any of the different departments 
 of the business. He must seek to avoid the employment 
 of unnecessary non-productive labor, and unless he can 
 see very clearly into the future, he must be very careful 
 about employing or engaging straight-time help, because 
 whenever production becomes dormant the expenses 
 necessarily must be cut to a minimum. He must satisfy 
 himself that the costs are calculated upon a correct basis, 
 that they are compiled in such a manner as to show in 
 detail any unnecessary increases in operating expenses, 
 as well as to render it possible to make intelligent exam- 
 inations and comparisons, with a view to the effecting of 
 economies. This cannot be accomplished unless a com- 
 plete and accurate set of records are judicially and sys- 
 tematically kept and rigidly adhered to. It will greatly 
 aid the always busy and usually overworked man "at 
 the helm" to a more comprehensive and accurate survey 
 of the entire workings of the plant and to the location of 
 the responsibility for good and bad results. 
 
 In an established factory the manager may have many 
 difficulties to contend with if the works have not been 
 carefully planned in view of all circumstances, and the 
 most he can do in such cases is to minimize the consequent 
 disadvantages by judicial internal economies and by 
 structural modifications when possible. The ideal factory 
 
332 COOPEBAGE 
 
 is that in which there is no unnecessary handling of raw 
 material and in which everything when received at the 
 works is stored so as to be readily available for use when 
 needed. The buildings should be provided with all the 
 daylight available, and should be so arranged that the 
 respective foremen can readily see all that is going on, 
 as when they have to supervise a number of workmen 
 widely separated much time is lost and the supervision is 
 less effective than when the foreman is, so to speak, on 
 the spot. 
 
 In a great many cooperage concerns, and especially so 
 amongst the smaller mills, the foreman is, so to speak, 
 the whole show. He is expected to fill all the important 
 positions in and about the plant, keep the machinery up, 
 and in some cases, after working long hours, devote his 
 spare time to the keeping of the accounts. You can rest 
 assured that in such cases they are few and those of a 
 very brief nature. I have often marvelled at the tenacity 
 of such concerns in holding on to business life, consider- 
 ing the meagre accounts and records kept and the lament- 
 able lack of detailed information of costs. Considera- 
 tion must be given to the question of securing the full 
 efficiency of the foreman, usually high priced; it is cer- 
 tain that he is one of the most important links in the 
 chain. As he is, so will his workmen be. As the work- 
 men are, so will the quality and cost of the product be. 
 And on the quality, quantity, and cost of the product 
 hangs the success of the business. Do not load him up 
 with detail wqrk. That is one of the gravest errors of 
 many if not most of the concerns to-day. His chief aim 
 should be to improve the quality, increase the quantity, 
 lower the cost, if possible, and investigate and devise 
 improved methods of manufacture, machinery, etc. And 
 if he is an exceptionally good and conscientious man, he 
 should be permitted to make occasional visits to estab- 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 333 
 
 lishments in other and nearby towns or cities, in order 
 that he may not ' l grow stale ' ' from continuous and unin- 
 terrupted association with the same surroundings. It 
 would be an encouragement to him and would assist ma- 
 terially toward brightening up his ideas. It is also an 
 employer's duty to look after the comfort and improve- 
 ment of his workmen, as far as is possible, and it is im- 
 perative that the risk of accident be minimized by all 
 possible precautions for the protection of life and limb; 
 but having done all this, it will also be advisable to in- 
 sure against the monetary risk of accidents. It will be 
 obvious that where an employer has the interest of his 
 workmen at heart, and the relationship between them is 
 satisfactory, production will be increased greatly and 
 waste relatively minimized, as a result of voluntary effort 
 on the part of the workmen. 
 
 Frequently waste arises through thoughtlessness or of 
 not being instructed properly. This is especially notice- 
 able in the operations of jointing staves and heading and 
 in the matching up of heading pieces. Too great impor- 
 tance cannot be attached to the co-operation of employees 
 in regard to the different operations of manufacture. 
 Many intelligent workmen could suggest improvements, 
 but because of lack of encouragement they feel it no busi- 
 ness of theirs to do so. Such a state of affairs operates 
 against the interests, and the sooner it is altered the 
 better will it be for all concerned. For inventive genius 
 should be at all times encouraged and suitably recog- 
 nized, for if it is not, the employer may lose not only 
 the benefit of his workmen's suggestions, but may find 
 that their ideas have been carried to his competitors, 
 with the result that often valuable suggestions, ideas, or 
 inventions are developed and monopolized by others. 
 
 To remedy this, an employer should have frequent con- 
 sultations with his men, and especially with his foreman. 
 
334 COOPERAGE 
 
 He should be taken into his confidence. A great many 
 costly mistakes could be avoided by the simple matter of 
 organization, whereby an employer would derive the ben- 
 efit of the experience of others. In the first place, meet- 
 ings or consultations should be held regularly, and the 
 foreman and the men of importance in and around the 
 plant should be assembled together. Here should be dis^ 
 cussed openly and freely the best methods of manufac- 
 ture, the mistakes that are commonly made, and sugges- 
 tions made for improvements, both in the machinery and 
 the work in general. Criticism should be sought for and 
 encouraged. These men should be brought into sympathy 
 with the aims and purposes of the business, and, if neces- 
 sary, instructed and trained in the best methods of hand- 
 ling men for the purpose of increasing their working ef- 
 ficiency, increasing their interest in their work,' and using 
 the most effective methods of securing the best general 
 results for both the workmen and the company. 
 
 A firm is adopting a very short-sighted business policy 
 when it refuses to acknowledge the fact that decisions based 
 upon free discussion and deliberation with men of long 
 experience, no matter how humble, are wiser, stronger, 
 and much more effective than those of any one man. 
 
 It is also an advantage to retain workmen in as regular 
 employment as possible. Otherwise the services of good, 
 skilled workmen may be permanently lost to the firm. As 
 a matter of course, skilled workmen should be the last to 
 be laid off when there is a business lull. Old employees 
 should always be encouraged, having generally a 
 greater interest in their employer's business than new 
 hands. At the same time, the infusion of new blood into 
 the ranks at various times is desirable, as one cannot 
 afford in these days of keen competition and progressive 
 industrial methods to be too conservative of old ideas 
 which may be capable of improvement. Inefficient work- 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 335 
 
 men, like poor tools, are dear at any price; and it is 
 therefore essential that only capable and skilled workers 
 be employed, and that they receive good wages for such 
 services. 
 
 Regularity and punctuality should also be insisted 
 upon, for it is a source of loss to operate a factory 
 where a number of workmen are constantly absent or 
 systematically late in arriving at their work. In intro- 
 ducing a system of good wages for their workmen, the 
 management should have many aims in view. The most 
 important of these are as follows: The possibility of 
 shop economies and cheaper production; the forcing of 
 the factory to its maximum capacity quickly ; the attrac- 
 tion of expert and more skilful workmen and their en- 
 couragement to use their skill and wits to the utmost; 
 the singling out of the slovenly, slow workers for either 
 development or discharge; the cultivation of a feeling 
 on the part of the men that the company is firm in its 
 determination to be just and fair and that its insistence 
 on a high rate of production is justified by the rate 
 of wages paid. To this feeling must be added the knowl- 
 edge that the company will insist upon -a full day's work. 
 
 To accomplish these aims, the one important factor 
 "the man at the machine, " with his human prejudices and 
 his capabilities must be carefully considered. It is, how- 
 ever, surprising to note how little attention is usually 
 paid to this. Policies and systems vitally affecting the 
 workman's welfare are put into force with a total dis- 
 regard both to his willingness and his ability to improve 
 himself and his product under proper conditions and his 
 .power to increase costs and cause other even more seri- 
 ous troubles in the shop when the conditions are not as 
 they should be. These facts should not be lightly consid- 
 ered. It is difficult to overestimate the value of having 
 ybur mill or factory full of skilled, alert, and contented 
 
336 COOPERAGE 
 
 workmen, who will give you a maximum of production 
 with a minimum of expense. The advantage is not alone 
 in the fact that costs of production are' lower, but the feel- 
 ings of mutual confidence and contentment in this day 
 of labor difficulties are in themselves of great value to 
 both employer and employee. The men's suggestions, 
 given as a consequence of this feeling, and their endeavor 
 to better themselves and their product, will not only lead 
 to many improvements, but, reacting on them, will make 
 them stronger men and better workmen. 
 
 The mechanical and general arrangement of a slack 
 stock mill is such that one operator or employee must de- 
 pend upon another for the proper performance of his du- 
 ties. The mo ( st effective practice would suggest that one 
 employee be not allowed to avoid the responsibility of his 
 faults by charging them to other employees, and where 
 the workmen are charging others with their own faults or 
 11 tattling " on each other there is faulty management in- 
 dicated. 
 
 While in all commercial enterprises the cost of pro- 
 duction should be minimized by all legitimate means 
 consistent with the maintenance of quality, it is no less 
 important and necessary that a complete system of cost- 
 keeping be adopted. Many firms are satisfied with more 
 or less approximate cost, because at the end of the year 
 they find that there is a fair margin of profit over all; 
 but without accurate costs they cannot tell whether on 
 some of their product they are not losing money. The 
 time books should be analyzed carefully, in order to ob- 
 tain accurate costs ; and if the weekly or bi-weekly wage 
 totals are compared in relation to output, it will facili- 
 tate the detection of error or mismanagement. The 
 question of working expenses has a most important bear- 
 ing on the profits, for as the expenses of conducting a 
 business are high or low, so will the earnings be affected. 
 
MODEEN SHOP MANAGEMENT 337 
 
 For a minimum output, certain charges, such as rent, 
 taxes, insurance, management, supervision, salaries of 
 clerks, etc., are necessarily incurred each year, and will 
 vary but little with any output between that minimum 
 and a certain maximum. For example, say that the an- 
 nual sales amount to $250,000 and the working expenses 
 to $30,000. It is conceivable that if such sales were in- 
 creased to, say, $300,000, the expenses might not greatly 
 exceed the above figure, or, at all events, would not in- 
 crease in proportion, simply because the same estab- 
 lishment is equal to the increased trade. Or, in other 
 words, the resources of the factory are not in the first 
 instance fully employed. If the output be only three- 
 fourths of the factory's capacity, it is clear that these 
 three-fourths are bearing, say, one-fourth more of the 
 establishment expenses than might otherwise be charge- 
 able, and that being so, it is equally clear that if the 
 output be increased to the full capacity the profits 
 will increase, even though the additional business be 
 less remunerative, provided that the selling price is 
 not bare cost, but carries with it a margin for working 
 expenses. 
 
 But before Advocating any policy that might suggest 
 itself on arriving at this conclusion, it is first assumed 
 that the output has been and under ordinary conditions 
 is likely to remain stationary. Contracts on a large scale 
 are sometimes taken at prices which would not pay on 
 smaller business, but which, as bringing additional grist 
 to the mill, keep the factory fully employed and earn 
 a profit however small. The fact that the manufacturer 
 has generally no monopoly reminds us that he runs the 
 risk when selling cheaply to large buyers of having to 
 reduce his prices to smaller consumers. He has, how- 
 ever, in that event the advantage of a factory fully em- 
 ployed, enabling him to compete successfully with others, 
 
338 COOPERAGE 
 
 should they compel him to reduce his prices generally. 
 Even if he does not accept large contracts at low prices, 
 but leaves it to other manufacturers, he will still run the 
 risk of competition without having the advantage re- 
 ferred to. In other words, competition on the part of 
 a few affects the many by lowering prices, and it is there- 
 fore advisable to be early in the field and to take the 
 advantages offered by a good going concern to minimize 
 the rate of working expenses. The percentage of work- 
 ing expenses may also be minimized by an established 
 factory which is only partially employed by branching 
 out into another line of business more or less allied to 
 its own and for which it may be adapted. 
 
 While the foregoing remarks indicate the possibility 
 of increasing the output without a proportionate in- 
 crease in the working expenses, it is often possible to 
 reduce the actual working expenses without affecting 
 the efficiency of the production. Too often working ex- 
 penses are allowed to eat into the profits of a business 
 without a due appreciation of the fact. It is therefore 
 very desirable to scrutinize all expenditure under this 
 head, for which purpose an analysis of the periodical 
 accounts should be made. Each item df expense can 
 be worked out as a percentage on the sales, or some 
 other convenient basis, and compared with previous 
 years' figures. If the total of sales is taken as the 
 basis, allowance may have to be made for fluctuations 
 in selling price, and for this reason some fixed unit 
 is to be preferred for comparison. The amount of 
 capital employed in any business should not exceed 
 the safe minimum necessary for the efficient and econ- 
 omical working of the business, as a superfluous capital 
 can only entail loss of interest, if not more serious con- 
 sequences. While an inflated capital is an evil to be 
 avoided, it will be evident that insufficient capital is also 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 339 
 
 a source of danger and loss. The amount of liquid cap- 
 ital necessary will depend upon (among other things) 
 the turnover and output and the facilities for obtaining 
 the raw material on reasonable credit. When labor, re- 
 quiring, as it does, ready money for wages, forms a con- 
 siderable proportion of the manufactured article, the 
 liquid capital required will be necessarily high, especially 
 if the output be large ; and as that output increases, fur- 
 ther capital will be required to pay additional wages and 
 to provide larger stocks to keep pace with the increased 
 demand. 
 
 Fixed capital, consisting of buildings, machinery, 
 plant, etc., being subject to depreciation, should be writ- 
 ten down periodically, and there should be no division 
 of profits without first making a safe provision for this 
 important item in regard to all wasting assets. All re- 
 pairs and maintenance should be scrupulously charged 
 to revenue or against reserves previously created for 
 that purpose. The rate of depreciation will necessarily 
 vary according to circumstances in different and even 
 in similar businesses, and as deductions for depreciation 
 are more or less estimates, it is wiser to err on the safe 
 side than to make an insufficient provision. The prob- 
 able lifetime of each item of capital which is subject to 
 deterioration is generally the basis of depreciation, al- 
 though this is not always a safe one, even with former 
 experience as a guide. This is especially true in the 
 case of machinery. 
 
 There are many firms to-day using machinery of 
 antiquated type, the output capacity of which is only 
 a fraction of that of the more up-to-date machines; 
 but because the normal lifetime of their plant has 
 not been reached they will not discard it, oblivious or 
 indifferent to the fact that their policy is " penny wise 
 and pound foolish. " They therefore continue to deduct, 
 
340 COOPERAGE 
 
 say, 5 or 10 per cent, per annum, but would find it 
 infinitely more profitable to write 100 per cent, from the 
 book value, less its scrap value, if it cannot otherwise be 
 disposed of, and to install the more modern machine. I 
 am a strong believer in scrapping old machinery when 
 new and improved types appear on the market. Of 
 course, consideration must be given to the interest on the 
 cost of the old and new machines, and the amount gained 
 in economy by the increased output or the better quality 
 of manufacture. Machines should be forced as much as 
 possible and worn out quickly. The depreciation will be 
 high, but the product will be cheaper, profits larger, and 
 the sooner the old machines will make way for the new 
 and improved ones that will give increased output and 
 better results at the same expense for time and labor. 
 Many successful concerns, however, appreciate this fact, 
 and will throw machinery on the scrap heap or sell it 
 long before its natural life has expired simply because 
 of its inefficiency as compared with later inventions. 
 
 In order to preserve the capital intact, buildings, ma- 
 chinery, plant, and stocks must of course be fully insured 
 against the risk of fire. In the case of factories having a 
 number of separate compartments or buildings, between 
 which stocks are constantly passing to and fro, it is an ex- 
 pensive matter to insure the stock in each building for 
 separate sums, because it is always desirable to have a 
 margin on each for any possible increase that may arise 
 during the year, especially as the inventory values form- 
 ing the basis of insurance may not fully represent the 
 value of stock at the busiest period of the year. These 
 margins would amount in the aggregate to considerably 
 more than would be sufficient as a margin if the whole 
 stock was insured in one sum. To obviate this, however, 
 the stock throughout the works can be insured for one 
 sum, subject to the " average clause, " which will in no 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 341 
 
 event adversely affect the insured so long as the total 
 stock is fully covered. Needless to say, fire insurance 
 should be supplemented by the employment of night and 
 day watchmen, and it is also desirable to have sufficient 
 fire-fighting appliances throughout the works and to train 
 a number of employees in their use. 
 
 In the factory office, even more than in the shop, is 
 the question of discipline as regards time a difficult 
 one. In the latter men can be, and usually are, held 
 pretty closely to their hours by a system of checking 
 out for a part of the day and a consequent loss of 
 pay. In the office such a plan is impossible, but, 
 nevertheless, discipline and punctuality are quite as 
 necessary as in the shop. In office work there always 
 must be a certain amount of give and take, and, fairly 
 treated, the average clerk will be disposed to act fairly. 
 As in the shop so in the office, except under exceptional 
 circumstances, any advantage gained by working over- 
 time is more apparent than real. When it is necessary, 
 however, clerks will usually be ready and willing to 
 put in the extra time, provided they know that the 
 management see and realize that it is an extra effort 
 that is being called for. Where clerical work is not kept 
 up to date, nine times out of ten it is the fault of those 
 in charge, not of the clerks ; and in the majority of cases 
 the cause is neglect of thought and care in distributing 
 the work and planning the details. 
 
 As a general rule, it may be said that anything that 
 tends to make a workman or a clerk more interested in 
 his work, more comfortable in his surroundings, or more 
 in harmony with his fellows tends to lessen the cost of the 
 workman's product or of the results obtained by the 
 clerk's labor ; in other words, to reduce the cost of produc- 
 tion. Even in such a small matter as the location of the 
 desks of the various employees, convenience should be 
 
342 COOPEEAGE 
 
 studied, and as a result time saved. These and similar 
 matters, admittedly small in themselves, may collectively 
 affect the question of time and therefore of cost of pro- 
 duction to a greater extent than will readily be believed. 
 
 In all industries plans of future courses of action are 
 very essential to any large degree of success. Of course, 
 a slipshod way of maintaining the interests of nearly any 
 business is in vogue in many cases, but the general unsat- 
 isfactory results of such maintenance is well known. A 
 large percentage of plans undoubtedly prove to be flat 
 failures when acted upon, but, nevertheless, a certain 
 amount of theoretical foresight is necessary to all prac- 
 tical enterprises, even though they may not always "work 
 out" entirely up to expectations. The chief foundation 
 upon which the majority of plans and future projects rests 
 is known by the name of "system." In a commercial 
 sense the meaning of the word combines the results of 
 experience and the consequent education received, with 
 the most advantageous method of pursuing business from 
 a profitable standpoint. It is nothing more than a very 
 simple type of machine ; however, each cog in the make- 
 up must be kept thoroughly oiled in order to obtain a 
 maximum amount of power. "System" has several 
 meanings attributed to it when poor judgment is used. 
 An insufficient quantity is generally designated as "hap- 
 hazard dealing," while too much is commonly called 
 "red tape"; both definitions going to prove the fact 
 that common sense must determine the necessary amount 
 to be applied. 
 
 Especially in cooperage manufacture, systematic and 
 regular methods must be observed. The size of the 
 plant required and the production handled naturally 
 entails a careful survey and consideration of the best 
 application to be employed. Consequently, that appli- 
 cation is reached only through actual experience in the 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 343 
 
 'trade, circumstances and location of business having a 
 good deal of bearing on the subject. Of one thing there 
 is no question the general importance of regular, con- 
 cise, and brief reports. It is as much a necessity to have 
 a detailed, comprehensive statement of what is taking 
 place in all parts of the working section of a factory 
 as it is important to keep a set of books in the office. 
 According to the size and facilities of the plant, the state- 
 ment should be prepared daily, weekly, or monthly. In 
 this way progress or backsliding is easily discovered and 
 guidance as to encouragement or remedy is obtained. 
 While yearly reports are undoubtedly valuable in sum- 
 ming up past business and laying future plans, yet the 
 varying trade conditions of the cooperage business de- 
 mands a more frequent perusal of all accounts incurred. 
 This is also true of the relation that expenses bear to 
 gross profit, this being a matter that requires attention 
 both daily and monthly. 
 
 Expenses, of course, govern the profits made, high 
 prices by no means always meaning large net returns; 
 and therefore it will be seen that, in tabulating expenses 
 and in making provision for expected charges, careful- 
 ness and conservatism in preparing reports must be kept 
 constantly in mind. Carelessness and lax methods of 
 procedure would not only be misleading, but would in all 
 probability result in a temporary demoralization of ac- 
 counts as well. 
 
 The average cooperage concern does not find it neces- 
 sary to have a daily cost statement made up in detail, but 
 when reports are prepared from day to day it is of great 
 value to specify the number of men employed, working 
 hours of the factory, quantity of raw material received, 
 production of the plant in its several different depart- 
 ments, and a cash summary, together with general remarks 
 on the day's work. It would seem to any one unfamiliar 
 
344 COOPERAGE 
 
 with the preparation of such a statement that a large force 
 of men and considerable expenditure would be required in 
 order to show in such a short space of time a lucid, clear 
 review of the operations of the mill or factory and mis- 
 cellaneous branches of the plant. As a matter of fact, 
 a little adjusting and rearranging of the existing methods 
 of accounting and a proper style of bookkeeping are the 
 chief factors. A certain amount of extra work is with- 
 out doubt requisite, but the practical and monetary value 
 of the influence obtained in handling the working staff 
 engaged and in directing the use of capital greatly over- 
 balances any objections on that score. Furthermore, 
 when the expenditure question is considered, actual cost 
 and accomplishment of results bear no comparison. 
 
 The monthly report must be considered as being midway 
 between the daily and yearly summaries, and should con- 
 tain the past month's statistics, and, equally important, 
 totals covering the period since the last taking of inven- 
 tory and closing of books. The average cost sheet should 
 always be devised in as compact a manner as possible, 
 for, owing to the fact of a larger scope being contained 
 in a monthly than in a daily statement, better ideas can 
 be gained of the state of business when monthly totals 
 are reviewed. The latter, under such conditions, may 
 oftentimes be profitably dealt with in a number of dif- 
 ferent ways. Sales and expense tabulating is valuable, 
 inasmuch as sizes are condensed while all information 
 is retained. Also, and in this the necessity for being 
 conservative again becomes apparent, approximate profit 
 to date may be shown. In preparing all mill or fac- 
 tory reports, no matter should be stated that does not 
 give definite, valuable, complete and accurate informa- 
 tion. The average management does not usually wish 
 to measure the conditions of their business by millimetres 
 or ounces, but desires a sort of bird's-eye view of the 
 
MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 345 
 
 most prominent features of plant operation. In open- 
 ing up new departments, segregating sales, taking in- 
 ventories, classifying and arranging expenses and costs, 
 maintaining balance sheets, and other methods of hand- 
 ling business too numerous to mention, no cooperage 
 manufacturer or like concern can afford, provided that 
 proper and necessary attention be given, to be without 
 such reliable maps with which systematically to pl&n or 
 project future courses of action. 
 
 The foregoing remarks will suggest to the manager 
 numerous details having a bearing on the subject, which 
 he can critically investigate for himself with at least one 
 good result that if he is unable to economize (and surely 
 he will find some room for economy) he will have the sat- 
 isfaction of knowing that nothing has been overlooked in 
 the administration of his business. Finally, he will bear 
 in mind the necessity of providing, as far as possible, 
 against the exigencies of strikes, fluctuating markets, and 
 any risk likely to bring his works to a standstill, and he 
 will seek to cultivate that kindly interest in his employees 
 which goes far to secure faithful and profitable service. 
 
SECTION XII 
 
 USEFUL RULES AND 
 INFORMATION 
 
WEIGHTS OF SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 
 
 THE following weights are of cooperage stock, taken 
 from different sections of the country, and in the usual 
 shipping conditions. 
 
 The heading is kiln-dried, staves are thoroughly air- 
 dried, and the hoops are in the usual air-dried condition 
 for shipment. 
 
 Staves that are kiln-dried would weigh some less, but 
 as most of the staves are shipped in an air-dried condi- 
 tion, comparatively few being shipped kiln-dried, the 
 weights are for air-dried staves only. It is expected 
 that in every instance staves and heading will be shipped 
 in condition fit for use on receipt of same. 
 
 Mixed timber staves will vary, because there are no 
 stave rules as to what the timber shall be nor of what 
 quantities of each species, but, as a rule, it can be prob- 
 ably safely classified the same as gum staves for weight. 
 
 These weights are sufficiently high to warrant the rail- 
 roads in using them as a basis in adjusting of claims for 
 overweight. Experience has proven conclusively that 
 cooperage stock will not vary over two per cent, in weight 
 for the same species of timber, and that, should the varia- 
 tion be greater than this, the stock is not in merchantable 
 condition, which possible variation of two per cent, has 
 been taken into consideration in formulating this table 
 of weights. 
 
 ELM STAVES, NORTH OF THE OHIO RIVER 
 
 Length Stave How Cut Average Width Weight per 1000 
 
 Staves 
 
 20 inch cut 6 staves to 2 inches 3 l / 2 inches 450 Ibs. 
 
 22 inch cut 6 staves to 2 inches 3y 2 inches 485 Ibs. 
 
 24 inch cut 6 staves to 2 inches 3y 2 inches 525 Ibs. 
 
 20 inch cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 570 Ibs. 
 
 21 inch cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 595 Ibs. 
 
350 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 
 Length Stave 
 
 How Cut Average Width 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Staves 
 
 22 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 620 Ibs. 
 
 24 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 670 Ibs. 
 
 28% inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 780 Ibs. 
 
 30 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 830 Ibs. 
 
 32 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 885 Ibs. 
 
 33 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 915 Ibs. 
 
 34 inch 
 
 cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 945 Ibs. 
 
 ELM STAVES, SOUTH OF THE OHIO RIVER 
 
 Length Stave 
 
 How Cut Average Width 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 
 
 
 Staves 
 
 28 y 2 inch 
 
 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 800 Ibs. 
 
 30 inch 
 
 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 840 Ibs. 
 
 32 inch 
 
 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 925 Ibs. 
 
 34 inch 
 
 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 
 
 1,000 Ibs. 
 
 
 HARDWOOD STAVES 
 
 
 Length Stave 
 
 How Cut Average Width 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Staves 
 
 28y 2 inch 
 
 6 staves to 2% inches 4 inches 
 
 950 Ibs. 
 
 30 inch 
 
 6 staves to 2y 8 inches 4 inches 
 
 1,000 Ibs. 
 
 
 GUM STAVES 
 
 
 Length Stave 
 
 How Cut Average Width 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Staves 
 
 23% inch 
 
 5 staves to li%e inches 4 inches 
 
 600 Ibs. 
 
 28 y 2 inch 
 
 5 staves to l 1 ^ inches 4 inches 
 
 800 Ibs. 
 
 30 inch 
 
 5 staves to l^e inches 4 inches 
 
 840 Ibs. 
 
 32 inch 
 
 5 staves to li%e inches 4 inches 
 
 925 Ibs. 
 
 34 inch 
 
 5 staves to l!%e inches 4 inches 
 
 1,000 Ibs. 
 
 23y 2 inch 
 
 6 staves to 2 inches 3% inches 
 
 500 Ibs. 
 
 24 inch 
 
 6 staves to 2 inches 4 inches 
 
 525 Ibs. 
 
 36 inch 
 
 5 staves to 2 inches 4 inches 
 
 1,100 Ibs. 
 
 40 inch 
 
 5 staves to ZI/IQ inches 4 inches 
 
 1,200 Ibs. 
 
 
 COTTONWOOD STAVES 
 
 
 Length Stave 
 
 How Cut Average Width 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Staves 
 
 28% inch 
 
 5 staves to li% 6 inches 4 inches 
 
 650 Ibs. 
 
 
 COILED ELM HOOPS 
 
 
 Length Hoop 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Hoops 
 
 3 feet 8 inches 
 
 1/4 inch X % inch X li/4 inches 
 
 275 Ibs. 
 
 4 feet inches 
 
 ^4 inch X % inch X 114 inches 
 
 300 Ibs. 
 
 4 feet 4 inches 
 
 14 inch X % inch X 114 inches 
 
 350 Ibs. 
 
 5 feet inches 
 
 14 inch X y$ inch X 1% inches 
 
 400 Ibs. 
 
 5 feet 6 inches 
 
 % 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 
 
 460 Ibs. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 351 
 
 Length Hoop 
 
 6 feet inches 
 6 feet 6 inches 
 
 6 feet 9 inches 
 
 7 feet inches 
 
 7 feet 6 inches 
 
 8 feet inches 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 % 6 inch X %e inch X 1% inches 
 % 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 
 % 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 
 % 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 
 % 6 inch X %6 inch X 1% inches 
 % 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 
 
 Weight per 1000 
 Hoops 
 
 500 Ibs. 
 545 Ibs. 
 570 Ibs. 
 600 Ibs. 
 650 Ibs. 
 700 Ibs. 
 
 GUM HEADING 
 
 Diameter Thickness Weight per 100 
 
 15% inches 
 17% inches 
 18% inches 
 19% inches 
 20 inches 
 
 % inch 360 Ibs. 
 
 % inch 435 Ibs. 
 
 % inch 500 Ibs. 
 
 % inch 550 Ibs. 
 
 % inch 600 Ibs. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 21 inches 
 22% inches 
 23% inches. 
 24 inches 
 
 Thickness 
 
 % inch 
 % inch 
 % inch 
 
 COTTONWOOD HEADING 
 
 Diameter Thickness Weight per 100 Sets 
 
 19 1/ 8 inches i/ 2 inch 450 Ibs. 
 
 BASSWOOD HEADING 
 
 Weight per 
 
 650 Ibs. 
 725 Ibs. 
 825 Ibs. 
 875 Ibs. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Weight per 
 100 Sets 
 
 14% inches 
 
 1/2 inch 
 
 240 Ibs. 
 
 15 inches 
 
 % inch 
 
 250 Ibs. 
 
 15% inches 
 
 % inch 
 
 260 Ibs. 
 
 Diameter Thickness Weight per 
 
 100 Sets 
 
 16i/ 2 inches % inch 300 Ibs. 
 17y 8 inches i/ 2 inch 340 Ibs. 
 19y 8 inches i/ 2 inch 400 Ibs. 
 
 HARDWOOD HEADING 
 
 Diameter 
 
 14% inches 
 
 15 inches 
 15% inches 
 
 16 inches 
 
 Thickness 
 
 %6 inch 
 7 /l6 inch 
 %6 inch 
 %e inch 
 
 Weight per 
 100 Sets 
 
 310 Ibs. 
 340 Ibs. 
 360 Ibs. 
 400 Ibs. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 16% inches 
 inches 
 inches 
 
 19% inches 
 
 Thickness Weight per 
 100 Sets 
 
 % 6 inch 440 Ibs. 
 
 % 6 inch 500 Ibs. 
 
 % 6 inch 600 Ibs. 
 
 % 6 inch 675 Ibs. 
 
 CAPACITY OF CARS 
 
 WHEN slack cooperage stock is bought by carload lots, 
 and quantity is not specifically stated, the following shall 
 be standard car-lots, as recommended by the Committee 
 on Grades of the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
 turers ' Association. The idea of this is to have some 
 guide where disputes arise through shipping enormous 
 carloads on a falling market, and miniature carloads on 
 
352 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 a rising one ; but in any case there must be stock enough 
 in the car to make a minimum carload weight, as required 
 by the railroads. 
 
 STAVES 
 
 From 18 inches to 24 inches . . . . 
 
 75,000 staves 
 
 From 24 inches to 26 inches ..... 
 
 65,000 staves 
 
 From 26 inches to 30 inches ..... 
 
 55,000 staves 
 
 From 30 inches to 34 inches ..... 
 
 40,000 staves 
 
 From 34 inches to 40 inches ..... 
 
 35 000 staves 
 
 COILED ELM HOOPS 
 
 
 From 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 4 inches 
 
 100,000 hoops 
 
 From 4 feet 4 inches to 5 feet inches 
 
 80,000 hoops 
 
 From 5 feet inches to 5 feet 6 inches 
 
 60,000 hoops 
 
 From .5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 9 inches 
 
 50,000 hoops 
 
 From 6 feet 9 inches to 7 feet 6 inches . . . 
 
 48,000 hoops 
 
 From 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet 6 inches 
 
 45,000 hoops 
 
 HARDWOOD HEADING 
 
 
 From 11 inches to 12% inches .... 
 
 18,000 sets 
 
 From 121/2 inches to 14% inches .... 
 
 15,000 sets 
 
 From 14% inches to 15% inches .... 
 
 10,000 sets 
 
 From 15% inches to 16% inches . 
 
 9,000 sets 
 
 From 1 6 % inches to 17% inches .... 
 
 8,000 sets 
 
 From 17% inches to 18% inches .... 
 
 7,000 sets 
 
 From 18% inches to 19% inches .... 
 
 6500 sets 
 
 From 19% inches to 21 inches .... 
 
 6,000 sets 
 
 From 21 inches to 24 inches .... 
 
 3,500 sets 
 
 PINE AND SOFTWOOD HEADING 
 
 
 From 11 inches to 12% inches .... 
 
 20,000 sets 
 
 From 12% inches to 14% inches .... 
 
 18,000 sets 
 
 From 14% inches to 15% inches .... 
 
 12,000 sets 
 
 From 15% inches to 16% inches . . 
 
 11,000 sets 
 
 From 16% inches to 17% inches .... 
 
 10,000 sets 
 
 From 17% inches to 18% inches .... 
 
 9,000 sets 
 
 From ISi/i inches to 19% inches .... 
 
 7,500 sets 
 
 From 19% inches to 21 inches .... 
 
 7,000 sets 
 
 From 21 inches to 24 inches .... 
 
 4,000 sets 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 353 
 
 LEGAL FRUIT BARREL IN NEW YORK 
 
 STATE 
 
 A KECENT act of the New York Legislature has fixed 
 the size and shape of the legal fruit barrel by adding 
 to Article B of the agriculture law, Section 188, which 
 says that a fruit barrel shall equal 100 quarts, 12% pecks, 
 or 6,720 cubic inches, dry measure, and shall be of di- 
 mensions as follows : Head diameter, 17% inches ; length 
 of stave, 28% inches ; and the bilge not less than 64 inches, 
 outside measurement. If the barrel is made straight up 
 and down, or without any bilge, it shall contain the same 
 number of cubic inches as is described in the foregoing. 
 Any person or party making, manufacturing, or causing 
 to be made or manufactured barrels for use in the sale 
 of apples, pears, quinces, or any other fruit, or selling 
 such fruit in barrels containing less than is above speci- 
 fied, shall be compelled to brand such barrels, "upon 
 each end and upon the side, ' ' with the conspicuous letters 
 at least one and one-half inches in length, ' l Short barrel. ' ' 
 The penalty for violation is not stated in the section, but 
 it may be provided for in the general law. 
 
 LEGAL FRUIT BARREL IN THE STATE 
 OF INDIANA 
 
 THE legal fruit barrel in the State of Indiana shall not 
 contain less than 12 pecks, 96 quarts, or 6,451 cubic inches, 
 an act having been passed by the Legislature of that 
 State to that effect. 
 
 NOTES ON BELTING 
 
 A BELT transmits power solely through frictional con- 
 tact with the surface of the pulley. 
 
 The lower side of the belt should be made the driving 
 side when possible, as the arc of contact is thereby in- 
 
354 COOPEEAGE 
 
 creased by the sagging of the slack side. By this method 
 belts may be run much slacker and with less strain or 
 friction on the bearings than otherwise, and a greater 
 horsepower transmitted. 
 
 Increase of power will be obtained by increasing the 
 size of the pulleys, the same ratio being retained. 
 
 Wide belts are less effective per unit of sectional area 
 than narrow belts, and long belt drives are more effective 
 than short ones. 
 
 The proportion between the diameters of two pulleys 
 working together should not exceed 6 to 1. 
 
 Convexity or crown of pulleys should equal Vs to }4 inch 
 in the width up to 12 inches wide ; for larger sizes, % to % 
 inch per foot of width. 
 
 The convexity or crown of driving and driven pulleys 
 should be alike in amount. 
 
 The pulley always should be from % to 1% inches wider 
 than the belt, according to the width of face. 
 
 The driving pulley is called the "driver," and the 
 driven pulley is called the "driven" or follower. 
 
 The horsepower of a belt equals velocity in feet per 
 minute, multiplied by the width, and this sum divided 
 by 1,000. 
 
 A 1-inch single belt, moving at 1,000 feet per minute, 
 equals one horsepower. 
 
 A 1-inch double belt, moving at 700 feet per minute, 
 equals one horsepower. 
 
 Oak-tanned leather belts make the best belts. 
 
 When belts are run with the hair side (smooth side) 
 next to the pulley they have greater adhesion and trans- 
 mit more power. 
 
 The ordinary thickness of leather belts is %e inch, and 
 their weight is about 60 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Ordinarily four-ply cotton belting is considered equiva- 
 lent to single-leather belting. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 355 
 
 The average breaking strain of single-leather belt is 
 530 pounds per inch in width; three-ply rubber belt, 600 
 pounds per inch in width. 
 
 "SPEED OF BELTS" 
 
 Belts have been employed running over 5,800 feet per 
 minute. Nothing, however, is gained by running belts 
 much over 4,000 feet per minute. About 3,500 feet per 
 minute for main belts is considered good practice. 
 
 The life of a belt may be prolonged and its driving 
 power increased by keeping it in good working order. 
 
 "To CLEAN BELTS" which are dirty from drop oil and 
 dust, first wash the belts with warm water and soap, 
 using a sharp, stiff brush, and while still moist rub them 
 with a solution of sal ammoniac, which saponifies the oil 
 in them. Immediately thereafter the belt must be rinsed 
 well with lukewarm water and then dried with sufficient 
 tension. While they are still moist the belts are to be 
 rubbed well on the inside and less on the outside with 
 the following: 2 pounds % ounce India rubber, heated to 
 122 Fahr. and mixed with 2 pounds % ounce rectified tur- 
 pentine oil. After the solution is complete, 27 ounces of 
 bright resin are added, and when this is dissolved add 
 26% ounces of yellow wax. This mixture, by diligent 
 stirring, is mixed with 6 pounds 10 ounces of fish oil and 
 2 pounds 12 ounces of tallow previously dissolved in the 
 fish oil. In the further treatment of the belt, rub the 
 inside only, and the outside only at the first treatment, as 
 stated. This belt dressing, if properly mixed and applied, 
 will prevent dragging of the belt and imparts elasticity 
 to it. 
 
 One of the simplest and best belt dressings is made 
 from 1 part neatsfoot oil and 3 parts castor oil. 
 
 The best joint for a belt is the cemented joint. This 
 
356 COOPERAGE 
 
 requires time and patience to shave down properly and 
 about five hours to set. 
 
 The worst joint is the ordinary laced joint. It has 
 the merit of being made quickly. Another method is 
 the " hinge plan." The important item in this plan is 
 good lace leather, which should be strong, well tanned, 
 and uniform in thickness. 
 
 The annealed nickel wire makes an excellent belt lac- 
 ing, but care must be exercised in inserting it, for if the 
 wire is crossed or lapped over one another on the pulley 
 side the lacing will not last long. The composition wire 
 made especially for this purpose is better suited for 
 lacing than the annealed nickel wire. 
 
 In applying, a single row of holes is used, the holes 
 being no farther from the end than the thickness of the 
 belt, and % inch apart, and should be cut with a %2-inch 
 belt punch. Cut a depression on inside of belt for the 
 wire, so that it will be clear of face of pulley. Commence 
 lacing at the centre by passing the ends of the wire 
 through the two centre holes to the pulley side of the 
 belt. The lacing should be double on the pulley side; 
 then lace each way to the side, double-lacing on the inside, 
 drawing up tightly all the time without kinks or crossing 
 the wire. When finished, flatten down with a hammer on 
 the pulley face. 
 
 A properly wire-laced joint makes the belt appear end- 
 less, as there is no jar when tjie joint passes over the 
 pulley. 
 
 EULES FOR CALCULATING SPEED OF PULLEYS 
 
 "To determine the diameter of the driver," the diam- 
 eter of the driven and its revolutions, as also revolutions 
 of driver being given. 
 
 Diam. of driven X revolutions of driven __ D am 
 Revolutions of driver 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 357 
 
 "To determine the diameter of the driven," the revo- 
 lutions of the driven and the diameter and revolutions of 
 the driver being given. 
 
 Diam. of driver X revolutions of driver 
 
 Revolutions of driven 
 
 Diam of driven. 
 
 "To determine the revolutions of the driver, " the di- 
 ameter and revolutions of the driven and the diameter 
 of the driver being given. 
 
 Diam. of driven X revolutions of driven _ Revolutions 
 Diam. of driver ~~ of driver. 
 
 "To determine the revolutions of the driven," the di- 
 ameter and revolutions of the driver and diameter of the 
 driven being given. 
 
 Diam. of driver X revolutions of driver _ Revolutions 
 Diam. of driven ~~ of driven. 
 
 If the number of teeth in gears is used instead of diam- 
 eter in these calculations, number of teeth must be sub- 
 stituted whenever diameter occurs. 
 
 POWER OF BELTING 
 
 To calculate roughly the power of belts, the following 
 rules may be used: 
 
 To determine the "horsepower" transmitted of a 
 single-leather belt. 
 
 t 
 
 Width of belt in in. X speed in ft. per min. _ Horsepower 
 "~900~ ~ transmitted. 
 
 To determine the "proper width" of a single-leather 
 belt to transmit a given horsepower. 
 
 900 X horsepower 
 
 a 5 PIT.- . = Proper width of belt. 
 
 Speed of belt in ft. per mm. 
 
358 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 HORSE-POWER OF LEATHER BELTS PER INCH OF WIDTH 
 
 VELOCITY op 
 BELT IN FEET 
 PER MINUTE I 
 
 BEST OAK TANNED BELTS 
 
 BEST LINK OR CHAIN BELTS 
 
 SINGLE 
 BELTS 
 
 LIGHT 
 DOUBLE 
 BELTS 
 
 HEAVY 
 DOUBLE 
 BELTS 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 W 
 o 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 | 
 
 
 W 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 1 INCH 
 
 100 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.27 
 
 200 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.55 
 
 300 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.82 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.82 
 
 400 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.85 
 
 1.09 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.09 
 
 500 
 
 0.76 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.36 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.73 
 
 0.86 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.36 
 
 600 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.64 
 
 700 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.49 
 
 1.91 
 
 0.89 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.91 
 
 800 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.70 
 
 2.18 
 
 0.92 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.83 
 
 2.18 
 
 900 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.91 
 
 2.45 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.45 
 
 1000 
 
 1.51 
 
 2.12 
 
 2.73 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.36 
 
 2.73 
 
 1100 
 
 1.67 
 
 2.33 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.00 
 
 1200 
 
 1.82 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.27 
 
 1.53 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.27 
 
 1300 
 
 1.97 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.55 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.07 
 
 3.55 
 
 1400 
 
 2.12 
 
 2.97 
 
 3.82 
 
 1.78 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.82 
 
 1500 
 
 2.27 
 
 3.18 
 
 4.09 
 
 1.91 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.59 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.55 
 
 4.09 
 
 1600 
 
 2.42 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.36 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.78 
 
 4.36 
 
 1700 
 
 2.58 
 
 3.61 
 
 4.64 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.47 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.02 
 
 4.64 
 
 1800 
 
 2.73 
 
 3.82 
 
 4.91 
 
 2.29 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.91 
 
 1900 
 
 2.88 
 
 4.03 
 
 5.18 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.49 
 
 5.18 
 
 2000 
 
 3.03 
 
 4.24 
 
 5.45 
 
 2.55 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.45 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.73 
 
 5.45 
 
 2100 
 
 3.18 
 
 4.45 
 
 5.73 
 
 2.67 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.63 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.96 
 
 5.73 
 
 2200 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.67 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.40 
 
 5.20 
 
 6.00 
 
 2300 
 
 3.49 
 
 4.88 
 
 6.27 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.97 
 
 4.60 
 
 5.44 
 
 6.27 
 
 2400 
 
 3.64 
 
 5.09 
 
 6.55 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.49 
 
 4.15 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.67 
 
 6.55 
 
 2500 
 
 3.79 
 
 5.30 
 
 6.82 
 
 3.18 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.32 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.91 
 
 6.82 
 
 2600 
 
 3.94 
 
 5.52 
 
 7.09 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.78 
 
 4.49 
 
 5.20 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.03 
 
 2700 
 
 4.09 
 
 5.73 
 
 7.36 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.66 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.36 
 
 2800 
 
 4.24 
 
 5.94 
 
 7.64 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.86 
 
 4.73 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.62 
 
 7.64 
 
 2900 
 
 4.39 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.91 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.87 
 
 4.?'8 
 
 5.80 
 
 6.85 
 
 7.91 
 
 3000 
 
 4.50 
 
 6.36 
 
 8.18 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.86 
 
 4.75 
 
 5.97 
 
 7.03 
 
 8.18 
 
 3100 
 
 4.60 
 
 6.58 
 
 8.45 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.73 
 
 5.96 
 
 7.33 
 
 8.45 
 
 3200 
 
 4.69 
 
 6.79 
 
 8.70 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.82 
 
 4.71 
 
 5.94 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.73 
 
 3300 
 
 4.77 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.86 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.77 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.92 
 
 7.35 
 
 8.88 
 
 3400 
 
 4.84 
 
 7.21 
 
 8.96 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.71 
 
 4.64 
 
 5.87 
 
 7.32 
 
 8.83 
 
 3500 
 
 4.90 
 
 7.31 
 
 9.06 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.61 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.78 
 
 7.26 
 
 8.80 
 
 3600 
 
 4.95 
 
 7.40 
 
 9.16 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.67 
 
 7.16 
 
 8.73 
 
 3700 
 
 4.99 
 
 7.48 
 
 9.24 
 
 2.96 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.26 
 
 5.55 
 
 7.01 
 
 8.58 
 
 3800 
 
 5.03 
 
 7:54 
 
 9.29 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.15 
 
 5.41 
 
 6.87 
 
 8.41 
 
 3900 
 
 5.06 
 
 7.60 
 
 9.34 
 
 2.72 
 
 3.13 
 
 4.02 
 
 5.20 
 
 6.70 
 
 8.27 
 
 4000 
 
 5.08 
 
 7.64 
 
 9.37 
 
 2.58 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.84 
 
 5.01 
 
 6.48 
 
 8.04 
 
 4200 
 
 5.10 
 
 7.70 
 
 9.38 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.37 
 
 4.52 
 
 5.98 
 
 7.51 
 
 4500 
 
 5.07 
 
 7.69 
 
 9.27 
 
 1.64 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.45 
 
 3.68 
 
 5.05 
 
 6.55 
 
 5000 
 
 4.82 
 
 7.42 
 
 8.75 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.61 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.78 
 
 4.32 
 
USEFUL EULES AND INFORMATION 359 
 
 To determine the "proper speed " a single-leather belt 
 should travel to transmit a given horsepower. 
 
 900 X horsepower to be transmitted Proper speed 
 Width of belt in inches " in ft. per min. 
 
 To determine "the horsepower" transmitted of a dou- 
 ble-leather belt. 
 
 Width of belt in in. X speed in ft. per min. _ Horsepower 
 630 ~ transmitted. 
 
 To determine the "proper width " of a double-leather 
 belt to transmit a given horsepower. 
 
 630 X horsepower .,,, , ,, 
 
 = Proper width of belt. 
 
 Speed of belt in ft. per min. 
 
 To determine the "proper speed" a double-leather belt 
 should travel to transmit a given horsepower. 
 
 630 X horsepower to be transmitted _ Proper speed 
 Width of belt in inches ~~ in ft. per min. 
 
 These rules are simple 'calculations and give good, 
 practical results where there is no great inequality in 
 the diameters of the pulleys. To find the "speed of a 
 belt in feed per minute," multiply the diameter of the 
 pulley by 3.1416. This will give you the circumference 
 in inches. Then multiply this by the number of revo- 
 lutions the pulley makes per minute, and divide the 
 product by 12. This will give you the speed of the belt 
 in feet per minute. 
 
 The "working tension" of a leather belt is generally 
 figured as being from 70 to 150 pounds per inch of width. 
 
 BABBITT METAL AND BABBITTING 
 
 Nearly half a century ago Isaac Babbitt, of Taunton, 
 Mass., originated the alloy which has since been known 
 
360 COOPEEAGE 
 
 as Babbitt metal. It is highly valued for its anti-friction 
 qualities as compared with other metals. Isaac Babbitt 
 was a goldsmith by trade, and made the first Britannia 
 ware that was produced in this country. He was honored 
 with a gold medal for his discovery of his anti-friction 
 alloy and was also presented with $20,000 by the Congress 
 of the United States. 
 
 Below are several formulas for preparing Babbitt 
 metal for the different uses as specified: 
 
 1. Copper . . .10 parts 
 Tin . . . . . .72 parts 
 
 Antimony ...... 18 parts 
 
 Total . . . .100 parts 
 This alloy is recommended for all high-speed ma- 
 chinery journal boxes. 
 
 2. Copper . . . . . .1 part 
 
 Tin 48 parts 
 
 Antimony 5 parts 
 
 Lead '2 parts 
 
 Total . . . .56 parts 
 This alloy is more economical than No. 1, and has a 
 more greasy touch than the first named, but is not so de- 
 sirable for high-speed machinery. 
 
 3. Lead 32 parts 
 
 Zinc 20 parts 
 
 Antimony . . . . . .48 parts 
 
 Total .... 100 parts 
 This alloy will resist a rapid friction, but it is not 
 suited for high-speed machinery. 
 
 4. Lead ...... .90 parts 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . 100 parts 
 
 Total . . 190 parts 
 
USEFUL EULES AND INFORMATION 361 
 
 This is a very cheap alloy, suitable only for slow-mov- 
 ing machinery, etc. 
 
 5. Copper . . . , . . 77 parts 
 Tin . v . . . . . 8 parts 
 Lead .. . . :." . .. . 15 parts 
 Phosphorus . . . .. . Trace 
 
 Total . ... .100 parts 
 This alloy is exclusively for heavy machinery bearings. 
 
 6. Copper . ...... . ^ 3 parts 
 
 Tin .. . . . . . .89 parts 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . 8 parts 
 
 Total . . . . 100 parts 
 
 This is the original Babbitt metal, is not very ex- 
 pensive, and can be used for all classes of machinery 
 bearings where weight is not excessive. 
 
 In babbitting bearings it is always advisable to put 
 a piece of rosin into the Babbitt metal before pouring. 
 After putting in the rosin, stir the metal thoroughly with 
 a pine stick, then skim off any refuse or other matter. 
 It makes poor Babbitt metal run better and improves it, 
 and especially when metal from old bearings is used. 
 It also has a tendency to prevent blowing when pouring 
 into damp boxes. Babbitt heated just hot enough to 
 light a pine stick will run in places with the rosin in where 
 without it it would not. 
 
 GLUE TO EESIST MOISTUEE 
 
 Dissolve 1 pound of clean glue in 2 quarts of skimmed 
 milk. 
 
 EECEIPTS FOE SOLDEEING FLUIDS 
 
 1. One dram each of powdered copperas, borax, and 
 prussiate of potash; % ounce powdered sal-ammoniac; 
 3% ounces fluid muriatic acid. Let the mixture cut all 
 
362 COOPERAGE 
 
 the zinc it will, and then dilute with one pint of water. 
 This is something extra for soldering the raw edges of 
 tin or galvanized iron. The above quantity of fluid will 
 cost about fifteen cents. 
 
 2. Add granulated zinc or zinc scraps to 2 fluid ounces 
 of muriatic acid, until hydrogen ceases to be given off; 
 add 1 teaspoonful of ammonium chloride; then shake 
 well and add 2 fluid ounces of water. 
 
 3. A very good fluid for soldering bright tin can be 
 made by simply adding sweet oil to well-pounded rosin. 
 It was used years ago by the tinners of Great Britain 
 for soldering planished ware made in those days, and is 
 excellent for soldering fine work, silver and plated ware. 
 It can be wiped off with a clean rag and leaves no stain 
 or scratches. 
 
 USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION ON 
 
 WATER 
 
 DOUBLING the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
 four times. 
 
 Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of 
 the velocity. 
 
 The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually esti- 
 mated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a 
 perfect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 
 inches or a column of water 33.9 feet high at sea level. 
 
 "To find the pressure in pounds per square inch" of 
 a column of water, multiply the height of the column by 
 .434. Approximately, we say that every foot of eleva- 
 tion is equal to % pound pressure per square inch; this 
 allows for ordinary friction. 
 
 "To find the diameter of a pump cylinder" necessary 
 to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet 
 of piston being the standard of speed), divide the number 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 363 
 
 of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the 
 product will be the diameter in inches of the pump 
 cylinder. 
 
 ' ' To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute, ' ' 
 running; at 100 feet of piston speed per minute, square 
 the diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply 
 by 4. 
 
 Example: Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. 
 The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which multi- 
 plied by 4, gives 100, which is approximately the number 
 of gallons elevated per minute. 
 
 "To find the horsepower necessary to elevate water" 
 to a given height, multiply the weight of the water ele- 
 vated per minute in pounds by the height in feet, and 
 divide the product by 33,000. (An allowance should be 
 added for water friction and a further allowance for loss 
 in steam cylinder, say from 20 to 30^ per cent.) 
 
 "The area of the steam piston " multiplied by the 
 steam pressure gives the total amount of pressure that 
 can be exerted. 
 
 "The area of water piston" multiplied by the pressure 
 of the water per square inch gives the resistance. A mar- 
 gin must be made between the power and the resistance 
 to move the pistons at the required speed say, from 
 20 to 40 per cent., according to speed and other condi- 
 tions. 
 
 "To find the capacity of a pump cylinder" in gallons, 
 multiply the area in inches by the length of stroke in 
 inches. This will give the total number of cubic inches. 
 Divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubic contents 
 of a U. S. gallon in inches), and the product is the 
 capacity in gallons. 
 
 "To find the capacity of a barrel" in gallons, to the 
 head diameter add two-thirds of the difference between 
 the head and the bilge diameters, and multiply the area 
 
364 COOPEBAGE 
 
 by the inside length in inches ; divide this amount by 231, 
 and the product is the capacity in U. S. gallons. 
 
 USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION ON 
 
 STEAM 
 
 ONE cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary 
 atmospheric pressure is converted into one cubic foot 
 of steam (approximately). 
 
 The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pres- 
 sure) is .411 that of air at 34 Fahr., and .0006 that of 
 water at the same temperature. 
 
 27,222 cubic feet of steam weigh one pound. 
 
 13,817 cubic feet of air weigh one pound. 
 
 Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons 
 of water per 100 miles run. 
 
 The best-designed boilers, well set, with good draft 
 and skilful firing will evaporate 7 to 10 pounds of water 
 per pound of first-class coal. 
 
 In calculating horsepower of tubular or flue boilers, 
 consider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to 
 one nominal horsepower. 
 
 On one square foot of grate can be burned on an 
 average of from 10 to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 
 to 20 pounds of soft coal per hour with natural draft. 
 With forced draft nearly double these amounts can be 
 burned. 
 
 Steam engines, in economy, vary from 14 to 60 pounds 
 of feed water, and from IV 2 to 7 pounds of coal per hour 
 per indicated horsepower. 
 
 Condensing engines require from 20 to 30 gallons 
 of water at an average low temperature to condense 
 the steam represented by every gallon of water 
 evaporated in the boilers, supplying the engine 
 approximately for most engines, we say, from 1 to 1% 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 365 
 
 gallons condensing water per minute per indicated horse- 
 power. 
 
 Surface condensers should have about 2 square feet 
 of tube (cooling) surface per horsepower for a compound 
 steam engine. Ordinary engines will require more sur- 
 face, according to their economy in the use of steam. It 
 is absolutely necessary to place air pumps below con- 
 densers to get satisfactory results. 
 
 KATIO OF VACUUM TO TEMPEKATURE (FAHRENHEIT?) OF FEED 
 
 WATER 
 
 00 inches vacuum 212 
 1 1 inches vacuum = 190 
 18 inches vacuum = 170 
 22 l /2 inches vacuum = 150 
 
 25 inches vacuum = 135 
 27% inches vacuum = 112 
 28% inches vacuum = 92 
 29 inches vacuum = 72 
 
 29% inches vacuum = 52 
 
 25 inches of vacuum is usually considered the standard 
 point of efficiency, the condenser and air pump being well 
 proportioned. 
 
 DUTY OF STEAM ENGINES (HIGH GRADE) 
 
 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 
 
 Cost per 
 
 TYPE OF ENGINE 
 
 Temper- 
 ature of 
 Feed 
 Water 
 
 Water 
 Evapo- 
 rated per 
 Pound of 
 Cumber- 
 
 Pounds of 
 Steam per 
 I. H. P. 
 Used per 
 Hour 
 
 Pounds of 
 Cumber- 
 land Coal 
 Used per 
 I. H. P. 
 
 I. H. P. per 
 Hour Sup- 
 posing 
 Coal to be 
 $6.00 per 
 
 
 
 land Coal 
 
 
 per Hour 
 
 Ton 
 
 Non -condensing 
 
 210 
 
 10.5 
 
 29.0 
 
 2.75 
 
 $0.0073 
 
 Condensing . . . 
 
 100 
 
 9.4 
 
 20.0 
 
 2.12 
 
 0.0056 
 
 Compound Jacketed 
 Triple Expansion Jacketed 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 9.4 
 9.4 
 
 17.0 
 13.6 
 
 1.81 
 1.44 
 
 0.0045 
 0.0036 
 
 The effect of a good condenser and air pump should 
 be to make available about 10 pounds more mean effect- 
 
366 COOPERAGE 
 
 ive pressure with the same terminal pressure, or to give 
 the same mean effective pressure with a correspondingly 
 less terminal pressure. When the load on the engine 
 requires 20 pounds mean effective pressure, the con- 
 denser does half the work; at 30 pounds, one-third of 
 the work; at 40 pounds, one-fourth, etc. It is safe to 
 assume that practically the condenser will save from 
 one-fourth to one-third of the fuel, and can be applied 
 to any style engine, either cut-off or throttling, where a 
 sufficient supply of water is available. 
 
 WEIGHT AND COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE OF WOOD 
 
 One cord air-dried: 
 
 Hickory weighs about 4,500 Ibs. and is equal to about 2,000 Ibs. coal. 
 Hard maple weighs about 4,500 Ibs. and is equal to about 2,000 Ibs. coal. 
 White oak weighs about 3,850 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,715 Ibs. coal. 
 Red oak weighs about 3,250 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,450 Ibs. coal. 
 Beech weighs about 3,250 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,450 Ibs. coal. 
 
 Poplar weighs about 2,350 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,050 Ibs. coal. 
 
 Chestnut weighs about 2,350 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,050 Ibs. coal. 
 Elm weighs about 2,350 Ibs. and is equal to about 1,050 Ibs. coal. 
 
 Average pine weighs about 2,000 Ibs. and is equal to about 925 Ibs. coal. 
 
 From the above it is safe to assume that 2% pounds 
 of dry wood is equal to 1 pound average quality of soft 
 coal, and that the full value of the same weight of differ- 
 ent woods is very nearly the same; that is, a pound of 
 hickory is worth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, 
 assuming both to be dry. It is important that the wood 
 be dry, as each 10 per cent, of water or moisture in wood 
 will detract about 12 per cent, from its value as fuel. 
 
 TO PLACE AN ENGINE ON THE DEAD CENTRE 
 
 To place an engine on its dead centre, bring the cross- 
 head to within about half an inch of the end of its travel. 
 Take a pair of dividers and from a point on the guides 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 367 
 
 strike an arc of a circle on the cross-head, and with the 
 engine in the same position, tram from a point on the 
 floor to the rim of the wheel; then move the engine in 
 the direction it is to run until the cross-head has passed 
 the end of its travel and returned to a point where the 
 dividers will coincide with the mark already made on 
 the cross-head. Make another tram mark on the rim of 
 the flywheel, and midway between these two marks make 
 a centre punch mark for a "dead-centre mark." Bring 
 the flywheel to a point, that the point of the tram will 
 just enter the dead-centre mark, and the engine is on 
 its exact centre at that end. Then repeat the operation 
 on the other end. In all cases move the engine in the 
 direction it is to run, and if moved past the dead-centre 
 mark it must be backed up far enough to take up the lost 
 motion before reaching the mark again. 
 
 HORSEPOWER OF AN ENGINE 
 
 An easy method of figuring the horsepower of an en- 
 gine will be found in the following formula: 
 
 Diam. 2 X stroke X revs.X M. E. P. _ TT p 
 250,000 
 
 This is explained as follows: Multiply the diameter 
 of the piston in inches by its diameter (or, in other words, 
 square the diameter) ; multiply this product by the length 
 of the stroke in inches ; then multiply by the number of 
 strokes per minute and this product by the mean effective 
 pressure in pounds per square inch on the piston during 
 one stroke. Dividing this total by 250,000 will give you 
 the horsepower. The result is accurate to within 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 Still another easy method is as follows : Multiply the 
 
368 
 
 COOPEBAGE 
 
 diameter of the piston in inches by itself, then by .4, then 
 by the mean effective pressure, then by the number of 
 strokes per minute, and point off six places. The result 
 will be the horsepower to within 2 per cent. 
 
 If an indicator card cannot be obtained, a fair approx- 
 imation to the M. E. P. may be obtained by adding 14.7 
 to the gauge pressure, and multiplying the number oppo- 
 site the fraction indicating the point of cut-off in the fol- 
 lowing table by the boiler pressure. Then subtract 17 
 from the product, and multiply by .9. The result is the 
 M. E. P. for good, simple non-condensing engines. If 
 the engine is a simple condensing engine, subtract the 
 pressure in the condenser instead of 17. 
 
 CUT OFF 
 
 CONSTANT 
 
 CUT-OFF 
 
 CONSTANT 
 
 CUT-OFF 
 
 CONSTANT 
 
 * 
 
 .566 
 
 t 
 
 .771 
 
 1 
 
 .917 
 
 * 
 
 .603 
 
 .4 
 
 .789 
 
 .7 
 
 .926 
 
 * 
 
 .659 
 
 i 
 
 .847 
 
 1 
 
 .937 
 
 .3 
 
 .708 
 
 .6 
 
 .895 
 
 .8 
 
 .944 
 
 } 
 
 .743 
 
 f 
 
 .904 
 
 I 
 
 .951 
 
 The fraction indicating the point of cut-off is obtained 
 by dividing the distance that the piston has travelled 
 when the steam is cut off by the whole length of the 
 stroke. 
 
 Example : Stroke is 30 inches, and the steam is cut off 
 when the piston has travelled 20 inches. The engine cuts 
 off at 2 % = % stroke. For a % cut-off and a 92-pound 
 gauge pressure in the boiler, the M. E. P. is 
 (92 + 14.7) X .917 17] X -9 = 72.76 pounds per square 
 
 inch. 
 
USEFUL EULES AND INFORMATION 369 
 
 INDICATED HORSE-POWER "PER POUND" OF MEAN EFFECTIVE 
 PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 ( " HORSE-POWER CONSTANTS " ) 
 
 DIAMETER 
 
 OF 
 
 CYLINDER 
 IN INCHES 
 
 SPEED OF PISTON IN FEET PER MINUTE 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 550 
 
 600 
 
 6 
 
 0.205 
 
 0.257 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.343 
 
 0.385 
 
 0.428 
 
 0.471 
 
 0.514 
 
 7 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.408 
 
 0.466 
 
 0.525 
 
 0.583 
 
 0.641 
 
 0.699 
 
 8 
 
 0.365 
 
 0.457 
 
 0.533 
 
 0.609 
 
 0.685 
 
 0.761 
 
 0.837 
 
 0.914 
 
 9 
 
 0.463 
 
 0.578 
 
 0.675 
 
 0.771 
 
 0.867 
 
 0.964 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.157 
 
 10 
 
 0.571 
 
 0.714 
 
 0.833 
 
 0.952 
 
 1.071 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.309 
 
 1.428 
 
 11 
 
 0.691 
 
 0.864 
 
 1.008 
 
 1.152 
 
 1.296 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.584 
 
 1.728 
 
 12 
 
 0.822 
 
 1.028 
 
 1.119 
 
 1.371 
 
 1.542 
 
 1.713 
 
 1.885 
 
 2.056 
 
 13 
 
 0.965 
 
 1.206 
 
 1.408 
 
 1.609 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.011 
 
 2.212 
 
 2.413 
 
 14 
 
 1.119 
 
 1.399 
 
 1.633 
 
 1.866 
 
 2.099 
 
 2.332 
 
 2.565 
 
 2.799 
 
 15 
 
 1.285 
 
 1.606 
 
 1.874 
 
 2.142 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.677 
 
 2.945 
 
 3.213 
 
 16 
 
 1.462 
 
 1.828 
 
 2.132 
 
 2.437 
 
 2.742 
 
 3.046 
 
 3.351 
 
 3.656 
 
 17 
 
 1.651 
 
 2.063 
 
 2.407 
 
 2.751 
 
 3.095 
 
 3.439 
 
 3.783 
 
 4.127 
 
 18 
 
 1.851 
 
 2.313 
 
 2.699 
 
 3.084 
 
 3.470 
 
 3.855 
 
 4.241 
 
 4.627 
 
 19 
 
 2.062 
 
 2.577 
 
 3.007 
 
 3.437 
 
 3.866 
 
 4.296 
 
 4.725 
 
 5.155 
 
 20 
 
 2.285 
 
 2.856 
 
 3.332 
 
 3.808 
 
 4.284 
 
 4.76 
 
 5.236 
 
 5.712 
 
 21 
 
 2.519 
 
 3.149 
 
 3.673 
 
 4.198 
 
 4.723 
 
 5.248 
 
 5.773 
 
 6.297 
 
 22 
 
 2.764 
 
 3.456 
 
 4.032 
 
 4.607 
 
 5.183 
 
 5.759 
 
 6.335 
 
 6.911 
 
 23 
 
 3.021 
 
 3.777 
 
 4.406 
 
 5.036 
 
 5.665 
 
 6.295 
 
 6.924 
 
 7.554 
 
 24 
 
 3.29 
 
 4.112 
 
 4.798 
 
 5.183 
 
 6.169 
 
 6.854 
 
 7.539 
 
 8.225 
 
 25 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.462 
 
 5.206 
 
 5.95 
 
 6.694 
 
 7.437 
 
 8.181 
 
 8.925 
 
 26 
 
 3.86 
 
 4.826 
 
 5.63 
 
 6.434 
 
 7.238 
 
 8.043 
 
 8.847 
 
 9.651 
 
 27 
 
 4.164 
 
 5.205 
 
 6.072 
 
 6.94 
 
 7.807 
 
 8.675 
 
 9.542 
 
 10.41 
 
 28 
 
 4.478 
 
 5.598 
 
 6.531 
 
 7.464 
 
 8.397 
 
 9.329 
 
 10.262 
 
 11.195 
 
 29 
 
 4.804 
 
 6.005 
 
 7.005 
 
 8.006 
 
 9.007 
 
 10.008 
 
 11.009 
 
 12.009 
 
 30 
 
 5.141 
 
 6.426 
 
 7.497 
 
 8.568 
 
 9.639 
 
 10.71 
 
 11.781 
 
 12.852 
 
 31 
 
 5.489 
 
 6.861 
 
 8.005 
 
 9.149 
 
 10.292 
 
 11.436 
 
 12.579 
 
 13.753 
 
 32 
 
 5.849 
 
 7.311 
 
 8.53 
 
 9.748 
 
 10.967 
 
 12.185 
 
 13.404 
 
 14.623 
 
 33 
 
 6.22 
 
 7.775 
 
 9.071 
 
 10.367 
 
 11.663 
 
 12.959 
 
 14.255 
 
 15.551 
 
 34 
 
 6.603 
 
 8.254 
 
 9.629 
 
 11.005 
 
 12.381 
 
 13.756 
 
 15.132 
 
 16.508 
 
 35 
 
 6.997 
 
 8.746 
 
 10.204 
 
 11.662 
 
 13.12 
 
 14.577 
 
 16.035 
 
 17.493 
 
 36 
 
 7.403 
 
 9.253 
 
 10.795 
 
 12.338 
 
 13.88 
 
 15.422 
 
 16.964 
 
 18.506 
 
 37 
 
 7.82 
 
 9.774 
 
 11.404 
 
 13.033 
 
 14.662 
 
 16.291 
 
 17.92 
 
 19.549 
 
 38 
 
 8.248 
 
 10.31 
 
 12.028 
 
 13.747 
 
 15.465 
 
 17.183 
 
 18.902 
 
 20.62 
 
 39 
 
 8.688 
 
 10.86 
 
 12.67 
 
 14.48 
 
 16.29 
 
 18.1 
 
 19.91 
 
 21.72 
 
 40 
 
 9.139 
 
 11.424 
 
 13.328 
 
 15.232 
 
 17.136 
 
 19.04 
 
 20.944 
 
 22.848 
 
 41 
 
 9.602 
 
 12.002 
 
 14.003 
 
 16.003 
 
 18.003 
 
 20.004 
 
 22.004 
 
 24.004 
 
 42 
 
 10.076 
 
 12.595 
 
 14.694 
 
 16.793 
 
 18.892 
 
 20.991 
 
 23.091 
 
 25.19 
 
 43 
 
 10.561 
 
 13.202 
 
 15.402 
 
 17.602 
 
 19.803 
 
 22.003 
 
 24.203 
 
 26.403 
 
 44 
 
 11.058 
 
 13.823 
 
 16.127 
 
 18.431 
 
 26.734 
 
 23.038 
 
 25.342 
 
 27.646 
 
 45 
 
 11.567 
 
 14.458 
 
 16.868 
 
 19.278 
 
 21.688 
 
 24.097 
 
 26.507 
 
 28.917 
 
 46 
 
 12.086 
 
 15.108 
 
 17.626 
 
 20.144 
 
 22.662 
 
 25.18 
 
 27.698 
 
 30.216 
 
 47 
 
 12.618 
 
 15.772 
 
 18.401 
 
 21.03 
 
 23.658 
 
 26.287 
 
 28.916 
 
 31.545 
 
 48 
 
 13.16 
 
 16.45 
 
 19.192 
 
 21.934 
 
 24.676 
 
 27.417 
 
 30.159 
 
 32.901 
 
 49 
 
 13.714 
 
 17.143 
 
 20.0 
 
 22.857 
 
 25.714 
 
 28.572 
 
 31.429 
 
 34.286 
 
 50 
 
 14.28 
 
 17.85 
 
 20.825 
 
 23.8 
 
 26.775 
 
 29.75 
 
 32.725 
 
 35.7 
 
370 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 This formula is worked out as follows: 
 
 Gauge pressure 92 pounds 
 Atmospheric pressure 14.7 pounds 
 
 Total pressure 106.7 
 Horsepower constant .917 
 
 7469 
 1067 
 9603 
 
 97.8439 
 Less 17 
 
 80.8439 
 .9 
 
 M. E. P.= 72.75951 or 72.76 pounds per square in. 
 
 The i i actual horsepower ' ' of an engine is usually ap- 
 proximated as three-fourths of the "indicated horse- 
 power. ' ' 
 
 USEFUL NUMBERS FOR RAPID APPROXIMATION 
 (From Hamilton's Useful Information for Railroad Men) 
 
 Feet 
 
 Yards 
 
 Links 
 
 Links 
 
 Feet 
 
 Square inches 
 
 Circular inches 
 
 Square feet 
 
 Acres 
 
 Square yards 
 
 Width in chains 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 Cubic inches 
 
 U. S. bushels 
 
 U. S. bushels 
 
 U. S. bushels 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 X .00019 
 
 .= miles. 
 
 X .0006 
 
 = miles. 
 
 X .22 
 
 yards. 
 
 X .66 
 
 = feet. 
 
 X 1.5 
 
 links. 
 
 X .007 
 
 = square feet. 
 
 X .00546 
 
 = square feet. 
 
 X .111 
 
 = square yards. 
 
 X 4840. 
 
 = square yards. 
 
 X .0002026 
 
 = acres. 
 
 X 8. 
 
 = acres per mile. 
 
 X .04 
 
 = cubic yards. 
 
 X .00058 
 
 cubic feet. 
 
 X .046 
 
 = cubic yards. 
 
 X 1.244 
 
 = cubic feet. 
 
 X 2150.42 
 
 = cubic inches. 
 
 X .8036 
 
 = U. S. bushels. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 371 
 
 Cubic inches X .000466 
 
 U. S. gallons X .13368 
 
 U. S. gallons X 231. 
 
 Cubic feet X 7.48 
 
 Cylindrical feet X 5.878 
 
 Cubic inches X .004329 
 
 Cylindrical inches X .0034 
 
 Pounds X .009 
 
 Pounds X .00045 
 
 Cubic feet water X 62.5 
 
 Cubic inches water X .03617 
 
 (Cylindrical foot of water X 49.1 
 
 Cylindrical inches of water X .02842 
 
 U. S. gallons of water 13.44 
 
 U. S. gallons of water 268.8 
 
 Cubic feet of water 1.8 
 
 Cubic feet of water 35.88 
 
 Cylindrical foot of water X 5.875 
 Column water 12" high, 1" diam. 
 183,346 circular inches 
 2,200 cylindrical inches 
 
 French metres X 3.281 
 
 Kilogrammes X 2.205 
 
 Grammes X .0022 
 
 = U. S. bushels. 
 
 cubic feet. 
 = cubic inches. 
 = U. S. gallons. 
 = U. S. gallons. 
 = U. S. gallons. 
 = U. S. gallons. 
 = cwt. (1121bs.). 
 = tons ( 2,240 Ibs.). 
 = pounds avoirdupois. 
 = pounds avoirdupois. 
 = pounds avoirdupois. 
 = pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 cwt. (112 Ibs.). 
 
 tons (2,240 Ibs.). 
 = cwt. (112 Ibs.). 
 = tons. 
 
 = U. S. gallons. 
 
 34 pounds. 
 
 = 1 square foot. 
 
 = 1 cubic foot. 
 
 = feet. 
 
 = avoirdupois pounds. 
 
 = avoirdupois pounds. 
 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH 
 
 FRAC- 
 TIONS 
 
 DECIMALS 
 
 FRAC- 
 TIONS 
 
 FRAC- 
 
 DECIMALS 
 
 FRAC- 
 TIONS 
 
 DECIMALS 
 
 A 
 
 0.015625 
 
 H 
 
 0.265625 
 
 83 
 
 0.515625 
 
 It 
 
 0.765625 
 
 A 
 
 0.03125 
 
 A 
 
 0.28125 
 
 if 
 
 0.53125 
 
 ft 
 
 0.78125 
 
 7* 
 
 0.046875 
 
 
 0.296875 
 
 If 
 
 0.546875 
 
 IT 
 
 0.796875 
 
 A 
 
 0.0625 
 
 2 
 
 0.3125 
 
 ft 
 
 0.5625 
 
 J 8 
 
 0.8125 
 
 ?* 
 
 0.078125 
 
 B 
 
 0.328125 
 
 
 0.578125 
 
 II 
 
 0.828125 
 
 A 
 
 0.09375 
 
 ii 
 
 0.34375 
 
 
 0.59375 
 
 If 
 
 0.84375 
 
 * 
 
 0.109375 
 
 II 
 
 359375 
 
 
 0.609375 
 
 it 
 
 0.859375 
 
 
 0.125 
 
 | 
 
 0.375 
 
 | 
 
 0.625 
 
 | 
 
 0.875 
 
 i 
 
 0.140625 
 
 II 
 
 0.390625 
 
 4 
 
 0.640625 
 
 
 0.890625 
 
 A 
 
 0.15625 
 
 if 
 
 0.40625 
 
 it 
 
 0.65625 
 
 
 0.90625 
 
 | 
 
 0.171875 
 0.1875 
 
 " 
 
 0.421875 
 0.4375 
 
 ft 
 
 TW 
 
 0.671875 
 0.6875 
 
 tf 
 
 0.921875 
 0.9375 
 
 it 
 
 0.203125 
 
 If 
 
 0.453125 
 
 
 0.703125 
 
 
 0.953125 
 
 S 
 
 0.21875 
 
 15 
 
 0.46875 
 
 -- 
 
 0.71875 
 
 1 
 
 0.96875 
 
 I! 
 
 0.234375 
 
 li 
 
 0.484375 
 
 8 
 
 0.734375 
 
 
 0.984375 
 
 f 
 
 0.25 
 
 i 
 
 0.5 
 
 i 
 
 0.75 
 
 1 
 
 1.0 
 
372 
 
 COOPEEAGE 
 
 TABLE OF GAUGES 
 
 GAUGE NUMBER 
 
 AMERICAN LEGAL 
 STANDARD 
 
 BROWN & SHARP 
 AMERICAN 
 STANDARD 
 
 BIRMINGHAM OR 
 STUBBS BRITISH 
 STANDARD 
 
 ENGLISH IMPERIAL 
 LEGAL 
 STANDARD 
 
 LANCASHIRE 
 
 ONE OP 
 
 HOLTZAPFFEL'S 
 
 WARRINGTON 
 
 OR 
 
 RTLAND'S 
 
 WHITWORTH'S 
 ENGLISH 
 STANDARD 
 
 NEEDLE WIRE 
 
 Music WIRE 
 
 0000000 
 
 .500 
 
 
 
 .500 
 
 
 .500 
 
 
 
 
 000000 
 
 .468+ 
 
 
 
 .464 
 
 
 .468+ 
 
 
 
 
 00000 
 
 .437+ 
 
 
 
 .432 
 
 
 .437+ 
 
 
 
 
 0000 
 
 .406+ 
 
 .460 
 
 .454 
 
 .400 
 
 
 .406+ 
 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 .375 
 
 .409+ 
 
 .425 
 
 .372 
 
 
 .375 
 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 .343+ 
 
 .364+ 
 
 .380 
 
 .348 
 
 
 .343+ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 .312 + 
 
 .324+ 
 
 .340 
 
 .324 
 
 
 .326 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .281+ 
 
 .289+ 
 
 .300 
 
 .300 
 
 .227 
 
 .300 
 
 .001 
 
 .045 
 
 .... 
 
 2 
 
 .265+ 
 
 .257+ 
 
 .284 
 
 .276 
 
 .219 
 
 .274 
 
 .002 
 
 .042 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .250 
 
 .229+ 
 
 .259 
 
 .252 
 
 .209 
 
 .250 
 
 .003 
 
 .035 
 
 .... 
 
 4 
 
 .234+ 
 
 .204+ 
 
 .238 
 
 .232 
 
 .204 
 
 .229 
 
 .004 
 
 .032 
 
 
 5 
 
 .218+ 
 
 .181 + 
 
 .220 
 
 .212 
 
 .201 
 
 .209 
 
 .005 
 
 .028 
 
 
 6 
 
 .203+ 
 
 .162+ 
 
 .203 
 
 .192 
 
 .198 
 
 .191 
 
 .006 
 
 .025 
 
 .018 
 
 7 
 
 .187+ 
 
 .144+ 
 
 .180 
 
 .176 
 
 .195 
 
 .174 
 
 .007 
 
 .022 
 
 .019 
 
 8 
 
 .171+ 
 
 .128+ 
 
 .165 
 
 .160 
 
 .192 
 
 .159 
 
 .008 
 
 .020 
 
 .020 
 
 9 
 
 .156+ 
 
 .114+ 
 
 .148 
 
 .144 
 
 .191 
 
 .146 
 
 .009 
 
 .018 
 
 .021 
 
 10 
 
 .140+ 
 
 .101+ 
 
 .134 
 
 .128 
 
 .190 
 
 .133 
 
 .010 
 
 .016 
 
 .022 
 
 11 
 
 .125 
 
 .090+ 
 
 .120 
 
 .116 
 
 .189 
 
 .117 
 
 .011 
 
 .014 
 
 .023 
 
 12 
 
 .109+ 
 
 .080+ 
 
 .109 
 
 .104 
 
 .185 
 
 .100 
 
 .012 
 
 .013 
 
 .025 
 
 13 
 
 .093+ 
 
 .071 + 
 
 .095 
 
 .092 
 
 .180 
 
 .090 
 
 .013 
 
 .012 
 
 .026+ 
 
 14 
 
 .078+ 
 
 .064+ 
 
 .083 
 
 .080 
 
 .177 
 
 .079 
 
 .014 
 
 .010 
 
 .028 
 
 15 
 
 .080+ 
 
 .057+ 
 
 .072 
 
 .072 
 
 .175 
 
 .069 
 
 .015 
 
 .009 
 
 .030 
 
 16 
 
 .062 + 
 
 .050+ 
 
 .065 
 
 .064 
 
 .174 
 
 .062+ 
 
 .016 
 
 .008 
 
 .032 
 
 17 
 
 .056+ 
 
 .045+ 
 
 .058 
 
 .056 
 
 .169 
 
 .053 
 
 .017 
 
 .007 
 
 .033+ 
 
 18 
 
 .050 
 
 .040+ 
 
 .049 
 
 .048 
 
 .167 
 
 .047 
 
 .018 
 
 .005 
 
 .035 
 
 19 
 
 .043+ 
 
 .035+ 
 
 .042 
 
 .040 
 
 .164 
 
 .041 
 
 .019 
 
 .004 
 
 .038 
 
 20 
 
 .037+ 
 
 .031+ 
 
 .035 
 
 .036 
 
 .160 
 
 .036 
 
 .020 
 
 .003 
 
 .042 
 
 21 
 
 .034+ 
 
 .028+ 
 
 .032 
 
 .032 
 
 .157 
 
 .031 + 
 
 .021 
 
 .002 
 
 .... 
 
 22 
 
 .031 + 
 
 .025+ 
 
 .028 
 
 .028 
 
 .152 
 
 .028 
 
 .022 
 
 .001 
 
 .... 
 
 23 
 
 .028+ 
 
 .022 + 
 
 .025 
 
 .024 
 
 .150 
 
 
 .023 
 
 
 .... 
 
 24 
 
 .025 
 
 .020+ 
 
 .022 
 
 .022 
 
 .148 
 
 
 .024 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 .021+ 
 
 .017+ 
 
 .020 
 
 .020 
 
 .146 
 
 
 .025 
 
 
 .... 
 
 26 
 
 .018+ 
 
 .015+ 
 
 .018 
 
 .018 
 
 .143 
 
 
 .026 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 27 
 
 .017+ 
 
 .014+ 
 
 .016 
 
 .016+ 
 
 .141 
 
 
 .027 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 28 
 
 .015+ 
 
 .012+ 
 
 .014 
 
 .014+ 
 
 .138 
 
 
 .028 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 29 
 
 .014+ 
 
 .011+ 
 
 .013 
 
 .013+ 
 
 .134 
 
 
 .029 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 .012+ 
 
 .010+ 
 
 .012 
 
 .012+ 
 
 .125 
 
 .... 
 
 .030 
 
 
 .... 
 
 31 
 
 .010+ 
 
 .008+ 
 
 .010 
 
 .011+ 
 
 .118 
 
 
 .031 
 
 
 .... 
 
 32 
 
 .010 
 
 .007+ 
 
 .009 
 
 .010+ 
 
 .115 
 
 
 .032 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 33 
 
 .009+ 
 
 .007 
 
 .008 
 
 .010 
 
 .111 
 
 .... 
 
 .033 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 34 
 
 .006+ 
 
 .006+ 
 
 .007 
 
 .009+ 
 
 .109 
 
 .... 
 
 .034 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 35 
 
 .007+ 
 
 .005+ 
 
 .005 
 
 .008+ 
 
 .107 
 
 .... 
 
 .035 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 36 
 
 .007 
 
 .005 
 
 .004 
 
 .007+ 
 
 .105 
 
 .... 
 
 .036 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 37 
 
 .006+ 
 
 .004+ 
 
 
 .006+ 
 
 .102 
 
 .... 
 
 .037 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 38 
 
 .006 
 
 .003+ 
 
 .... 
 
 .006 
 
 .100 
 
 .... 
 
 .038 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 39 
 
 .005+ 
 
 .003+ 
 
 .... 
 
 .005+ 
 
 .098 
 
 
 .039 
 
 .... 
 
 
 40 
 
 .005 
 
 .003+ 
 
 .... 
 
 .005 
 
 .096 
 
 
 .040 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 .004+ 
 
 
 
 .004+ 
 
 .095 
 
 
 .041 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 .004 
 
 
 
 .004 
 
 .091 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note: The above represent decimal fractional parts of an inch. 
 
USEFUL EULES AND INFORMATION 373 
 
 TABLE OF ALLOYS 
 
 NAME 
 
 APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION 
 BT WEIGHT 
 
 USES AND REMARKS 
 
 COPPER 
 
 K 
 
 u 
 
 g 
 
 N 
 
 q 
 1 
 
 3 
 g 2 
 
 H 
 
 & 
 
 Gun Metal 
 
 91 
 
 75 
 95 
 
 92^ 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 88 
 83 
 
 77 
 3 
 
 66% 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 50 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 4 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 io 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 89 
 
 &X 
 
 10 
 50 
 W% 
 80 
 1)0 
 
 
 
 
 j Ordnance, Bearings, Cast- 
 1 ings 
 Bells, Gongs; Rather Brittle 
 Coins, Medals 
 f Strong Castings, Heavy 
 | Bearings 
 1 Propeller Blades, Pumps; 
 < It is very strong and 
 / Non-corrosive 
 Very High Tensile Strength 
 Also called Best Valve Metal 
 Cheaper Valves, Cocks, Etc. 
 
 For Heavy Bearings 
 
 For High Speed Bearings 
 j For Repair Work on Bear- 
 1 ings 
 j Sheets, Wire, Tubes, Pipe 
 j Fittings, Etc. 
 j Bolts, Nuts, Etc.; Mal- 
 1 leable at Red Heat. 
 Strong Sheets. Etc. 
 Has Low Melting Point 
 For Copper Work 
 Very Strong 
 j Ornaments, Resistance 
 1 Wire 
 For Safety Valves, Etc. 
 
 Plates, Mugs, Etc. 
 Tableware, Etc. 
 Type, Etc. 
 Acid Cocks, Valves, Etc. 
 
 Bell Metal 
 Bronze Coin .... ... 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 '2 
 
 IS 
 
 33** 
 
 40 
 42 
 
 8* 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 
 
 Phosphor Bronze 
 
 Manganese Bronze 
 
 Aluminum Bronze .... 
 Composition Metal. ... 
 Valve Metal 
 
 Heavy Bearing Metal . . . 
 Original Babbitt's Metal 
 Babbitt Metal 
 
 Common Brass 
 Muntz Metal 
 
 
 % Phosphorus 
 
 1 Manganese 
 10 Aluminum 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 j Trace of / 
 1 Phosphorus f 
 8 Antimony 
 
 20 Antimony 
 
 
 Delta Metal 
 Soft Brazing Metal 
 Medium Brazing Metal . 
 Hard Brazing Metal 
 
 German Silver 
 
 
 2 Iron 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 50 
 
 SP 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 20 Nickel 
 4 Bismuth 
 
 Fusible Plug 
 
 Common Solder 
 Fine Solder 
 
 
 
 2 Antimony 
 10 Antimony 
 20 Antimony 
 12 Antimony 
 
 Pewter 
 
 Britannia Metal 
 
 Type Metal 
 
 
 
 
 Regulus Metal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GOVERNMENT OR TREASURY 
 WHITEWASH 
 
 WHAT is known as ' ' Government ' ' or l i Treasury white- 
 wash, " because the formula was sent out by the Light- 
 house Board of the United States Treasury Department, 
 is considered the best that can be made. To make it, 
 slake V 2 bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, and 
 cover it to keep in the steam. Strain the liquid through 
 a fine sieve, and then add to it 1 peck of common salt, 
 previously well dissolved in warm water; 3 pounds of 
 ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in boiling 
 
374 COOPEEAGE 
 
 hot; Y 2 pound Spanish whiting, and 1 pound of clean 
 glue which has also been previously dissolved. Then add 
 to this mixture 5 gallons of hot water. Stir well, and let 
 it stand covered for a few days. Then heat to a boiling 
 point and apply. "It should be applied hot, as this is 
 essential to success. " Do not allow the mixture to get 
 lukewarm or cold. It can be kept hot by using a small 
 pail suspended in a large pail of hot water. For neat 
 work, brushes somewhat small should be used, and the 
 whitewash should be applied in thin coats. A pint of 
 the mixture if applied hot will cover about one square 
 yard of surface. This preparation has been found to 
 answer as well as oil paint for wood, brick, or stone, and 
 is much cheaper. It retains its brilliancy for many years, 
 and is equally desirable for inside or outside work. Any 
 color may be added to the mixture except green, which 
 causes the whitewash to flake off. Spanish brown stirred 
 in makes a rose pink, and finely pulverized common clay 
 mixed with Spanish brown makes a reddish stone color. 
 The darkness of the shades is determined by the amount 
 of color used. 
 
 "POWER EQUIVALENTS" 
 
 One horsepower is equal to : 
 
 1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour. 
 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 
 550 foot-pounds per second. 
 273,740 kilogramme-metres per hour. 
 4,562.3 kilogramme-metres per minute. 
 76.04 kilogramme-metres per second. 
 2,552 British thermal units per hour. 
 42.53 British thermal units per minute. 
 0.709 British thermal unit per second. 
 0.746 kilowatt. 
 746 watts. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 375 
 
 One kilowatt is equal to: 
 
 2,654,400 foot-pounds per hour. 
 
 44,239 foot-pounds per minute. 
 
 737.3 foot-pounds per second. 
 
 366,970 kilogramme-metres per hour. 
 
 6,116.2 kilogramme-metres per minute. 
 
 101.94 kilogramme-metres per second. 
 
 3,438.4 British thermal units per hour. 
 
 57.30 British thermal units per minute. 
 
 0.955 British thermal unit per second. 
 
 1,000 watts. 
 
 1.34 horsepower. 
 
 One watt is equal to: 
 
 2,654.4 foot-pounds per hour. 
 
 44.239 foot-pounds per minute. 
 0.737 foot-pound per second. 
 366.97 kilogramme-metres per hour. 
 
 6.12 kilogramme-metres per minute. 
 
 ' 0.102 kilogramme-metre per second. 
 3.4384 British thermal units per hour. 
 0.0573 British thermal unit per minute. 
 0.000955 British thermal unit per second. 
 0.001 kilowatt. 
 0.0013406 horsepower. 
 
 One foot-pound is equal to: 
 
 0.0000003767 kilowatt per hour. 
 0.0000226 kilowatt per minute. 
 0.001356 kilowatt per second. 
 0.000000506 horsepower per hour. 
 0.0000303 horsepower per minute. 
 0.001818 horsepower per second. 
 0.0003767 watt per hour. 
 0.0226 watt per minute. 
 
 1.356 watt per second. 
 
376 
 
 COOPERAGE 
 
 One foot-pound is equal to: 
 
 1.3825 kilogramme-metres. 
 
 0.001288 British thermal unit. 
 
 When estimating water power at 75 per cent, efficiency, 
 a flow of 705 cubic feet of water per minute equals 1 
 horsepower for each 1 foot fall. 
 
 HYDRAULIC EQUIVALENTS 
 
 One cubic foot of water 
 One cubic foot of water 
 One cubic foot of water 
 One cubic foot of sea water 
 One cubic foot of water 
 One cylindrical foot of water 
 One United States gallon 
 One United States gallon 
 One United States gallon 
 One United States gallon 
 One imperial gallon 
 One imperial gallon 
 One gallon crude petroleum 
 One gallon refined petroleum 
 
 7.480 U. S. gallons. 
 d,728 cubic inches. 
 
 6.232 imperial gallons. 
 : 64 pounds. 
 : 62.42 pounds. 
 = 48.96 pounds. 
 
 8.345 pounds. 
 : 231 cubic inches. 
 
 0.83 imperial gallon. 
 
 3.8 litres of water. 
 : 277.3 cubic inches. 
 
 0.16 cubic foot. 
 
 6.5 pounds. 
 
 6.5 pounds. 
 
 MENSURATION 
 
 Circumference of a circle = diameter X 3.1416. 
 Circumference of a circle X .31831 = diameter. 
 Diameter of a circle = circumference X .31831. 
 Diameter of a circle X 3.1416 circumference. 
 Diameter of a circle X-8862 = side of an equal square. 
 Diameter of a circle X- 7071 = side of an inscribed 
 square. 
 
 Area of a circle = square of radius X 3.1416. 
 Area of a triangle = base X half of altitude. 
 Area of a square = base X height. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 377 
 
 Area of a trapezium half the sum of two parallel 
 sides X height. 
 
 Area of a parabola = base X height X .6666. 
 
 Area of an ellipse long axis X short axis X 0.7854. 
 
 Area of a parallelogram = base X height. 
 
 Area of sector of circle = length of arc X one-half of 
 radius. 
 
 Square of diameter X .7854 = area of circle. 
 
 Square root of an area X 1.12837 diameter of equal 
 circle. 
 
 Side of a square X 1.12837 = diameter of equal circle. 
 
 Contents of cylinder area of end X length. 
 
INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 A 
 
 Acacia, three-thorned I 49 
 
 Adjusting circular saws, 
 
 for hammering and IV 114 
 
 Air-seasoning, head piling 
 
 and IX 285 
 
 Air-seasoning, stave piling 
 
 and VIII 240 
 
 Alcoholic liquids, staves 
 
 and heads of barrels con- 
 taining II 86 
 
 Alloys, table of XII 373 
 
 Ambrosia or timber beetles II 74 
 
 American elm I 37 
 
 American linden I 32 
 
 Anatomical structure of 
 
 wood I 13 
 
 Annual or yearly ring, the I 9 
 
 Arborvitse I 16 
 
 Arrangement of mill, site 
 
 and VII 
 
 Ash I 
 
 Ash, black I 
 
 Ash, blue I 
 
 Ash, green I 
 
 Ash, ground I 
 
 Ash, hoop I 
 
 Ash, Oregon I 
 
 Ash, red I 
 
 Ash, white I 
 
 Aspen I 
 
 Aspen I 
 
 Assembling heading, match- 
 ing or IX 292 
 
 B 
 
 Babbitt metal and\ babbit- 
 ting XII 359 
 
 Babbitting, Babbitt metal 
 
 and . . . XII 359 
 
 192 
 30 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 32 
 55 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Bald cypress I 18 
 
 Ball tree, button I 55 
 
 Balm of Gilead I 54 
 
 Balsam I 54 
 
 Balsam fir I 18 
 
 Bark and pith. I 7 
 
 Bark on, round timber with II 79 
 Barrels containing alco- 
 holic liquids, staves and 
 
 heads of II 86 
 
 Barrel in Indiana, legal 
 
 fruit XII 353 
 
 Barrel in New York State, 
 
 legal fruit XII 353 
 
 Basket oak I 52 
 
 Basswood I 32 
 
 Basswood I 32 
 
 Basswood I 57 
 
 Basswood, white I 32 
 
 Bastard pine I 22 
 
 Bastard spruce I 24 
 
 Bay poplar I 44 
 
 Beech I 32 
 
 Beech and maple staves, 
 
 oak VIII 235 
 
 Beech, blue 1 33 
 
 Beech, water I 33 
 
 Beech, water I 55 
 
 Beetles, ambrosia or timber II 74 
 
 Bee tree I 32 
 
 Belting, notes on XII 353 
 
 Belting, rules for calculat- 
 ing power of XII 357 
 
 Belts, horsepower of XII 358 
 
 Belt*, speed of XII 355 
 
 Berry, sugar I 47 
 
 Big-bud hickory I 47 
 
 Bilsted I 39 
 
 Birch I 32 
 
 Birch, black I 33 
 
380 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Birch, canoe I 
 
 Birch, cherry 
 
 Birch, gray 
 
 Birch, mahogany 
 
 Birch, paper 
 
 Birch, red 
 
 Birch, river I 
 
 Birch, sweet 
 
 Birch, white 
 
 Birch, yellow 
 
 Bitter-nut hickory 
 
 Black ash.. 
 
 Black birch 
 
 Black cottonwood 
 
 Black cypress I 
 
 Black gum 
 
 Black hickory 
 
 Black hickory 
 
 Black-nut hickory 
 
 Black locust 
 
 Black locust 
 
 Black locust 
 
 Black oak 
 
 Black oak 
 
 Black pine 
 
 Black pine 
 
 Black spruce 
 
 Black walnut 
 
 Black walnut 
 
 Blue ash 
 
 Blue beech 
 
 Blue poplar 
 
 Bois d'arc 
 
 Bois d'arc 
 
 Boiling vat, the hoop 
 
 Bolting. room, the VIII 
 
 Bolting saw, the VIII 
 
 Bolting out IX 
 
 Bolt equalizing machine, 
 
 stave VIIII 
 
 Bolts, stave and heading. .VIII 
 Bolts, insect injury to stave 
 
 and heading II 
 
 Bolts, steam-boxes for 
 
 stave . . .VIII 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 48 
 31 
 ,33 
 54 
 18 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 47 
 48 
 48 
 49 
 52 
 52 
 23 
 23 
 23 
 33 
 56 
 31 
 33 
 58 
 34 
 53 
 313 
 208 
 214 
 257 
 
 228 
 216 
 
 83 
 218 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Borers, flat-headed II 77 
 
 Borers, powder post II 78 
 
 Borers, round-headed II 75 
 
 Boxes for stave bolts, 
 
 steam VIII 218 
 
 Broad-leaved maple I 50 
 
 Broad-leaved trees, list of 
 
 most important I 30 
 
 Broad-leaved trees, wood of I 25 
 
 Brown hickory I 48 
 
 Buckeye I 34 
 
 Buckeye, fetid I 34 
 
 Buckeye, Ohio I 34 
 
 Buckeye, sweet I 34 
 
 Bud hickory, big I 47 
 
 Bud hickory, switch I 48 
 
 Bulldog furnace, the Dutch 
 
 oven or VIII 226 
 
 Bull nut hickory I 47 
 
 Bull pine I 22 
 
 Bull pine I 23 
 
 Bundling or packing, head- 
 ing IX 298 
 
 Bundling or packing, stave.VIII 249 
 
 Bur oak I 52 
 
 Burning slash or refuse. . . Ill 99 
 
 Butternut I 34 
 
 Butternut I 34 
 
 Butternut I 57 
 
 Buttonbalf tree I 55 
 
 Buttonwood . I 55 
 
 Calculating power of belt- 
 ing, rules for XII 357 
 
 Calculating speed of pul- 
 leys, rules for XII 356 
 
 Calculation, useful numbers 
 
 for rapid XII 370 
 
 Canoe birch I 33 
 
 Canoe cedar I 16 
 
 Capacity of cars XII 351 
 
 Care of saws, the proper. . IV 122 
 
 Carolina pine I 22 
 
INDEX 
 
 381 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Cars, capacity of XII 351 
 
 Catalpa I 34 
 
 Cause and prevention of 
 
 forest fires Ill 101 
 
 Causes of poor results in 
 
 saws, some IV 122 
 
 Cedar I 16 
 
 Cedar, canoe I 16 
 
 Cedar, elm I 37 
 
 Cedar, incense I 17 
 
 Cedar of the West, red I 16 
 
 Cedar, Oregon I 17 
 
 Cedar, Port Orford I 17 
 
 Cedar, red I 17 
 
 Cedars, red I 17 
 
 Cedar, white. I 16 
 
 Cedar, white I 17 
 
 Cedar, white I 17 
 
 Cedar, white I 17 
 
 Centre, to place an engine 
 
 on the dead XII 366 
 
 Changed conditions in for- 
 
 e'stry Ill 96 
 
 Characteristics and proper- 
 ties of timber I 3 
 
 Cherry I 35 
 
 Cherry I 35 
 
 Cherry .birch I 33 
 
 Chestnut I 35 
 
 Chestnut, horse I 34 
 
 Chestnut, horse. . I 48 
 
 Chestnut, oak I 52 
 
 Chinquapin I 35 
 
 Chinquapin I 36 
 
 Chinquapin oak I 52 
 
 Chiefly used for slack coo- 
 perage, woods VI 156 
 
 Circular cut-off saw, the 
 
 drop-feed ....VIII 212 
 
 Circular ripsaws IV 128 
 
 Circular ripsaws, standard 
 
 number teeth in. . . . IV 130 
 
 Circular saws, for hammer- 
 ing and adjusting IV 114 
 
 Circular saws, for setting.. IV 115 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Circular saws, for sharpen- 
 ing and gumming IV 111 
 
 Circular saws, for side- 
 dressing IV 
 
 Circular saws, for swaging IV 
 
 Classes of trees I 
 
 Cliff elm I 
 
 Coffee nut I 
 
 Coffee tree I 
 
 Coiling machine, the hoop. X 
 
 Collars for saws IV 
 
 Color and odor I 
 
 Comparative fuel value of 
 
 wood, weight and XII 
 
 Concerning effects of fires, 
 
 erroneous ideas Ill 
 
 Concerning forest fires, 
 
 views of lumbermen Ill 
 
 Conditions favorable for 
 
 insect injury , II 
 
 Conditions in forestry, 
 
 changed Ill 
 
 Conditions which affect fire 
 
 losses Ill 
 
 Coniferous trees, wood 
 
 of I 
 
 Coniferous woods, list of 
 
 more important I 
 
 Constants, horsepower .... XII 
 Cooperage stock and wood- 
 en truss hoops, dry II 
 
 Cooperage stock produc- 
 tion, slack VI 
 
 Cooperage stock, weights of 
 
 slack XII 
 
 Cooperage, woods chiefly 
 
 used for slack VI 
 
 Cord or rank, number of 
 
 staves per VIII 
 
 Cork elm 
 
 Cotton gum 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Cottonwood, black, 
 
 113 
 112 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 321 
 
 131 
 
 62 
 
 367 
 93 
 95 
 79 
 96 
 93 
 
 16 
 369 
 
 86 
 158 
 349 
 156 
 
 235 
 37 
 44 
 36 
 54 
 55 
 54 
 
382 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Cottonwood staves, gum 
 
 and VIII 235 
 
 Cow oak I 52 
 
 Cracks in equalizer saws. .VIII 230 
 
 Cross-cut saws, cut-off or. . IV 130 
 Cross-cut saws, standard 
 
 number teeth in IV 131 
 
 Crude products II 79 
 
 Cuban pine 22 
 
 Cucumber tree 36 
 
 Cucumber tree 56 
 
 Cull staves, dead VII 254 
 
 Cup oak, mossy 52 
 
 Cup oak, over I 52 
 
 Cup oak, over I 52 
 
 Cut-off or cross-cut saws. . IV 130 
 
 Cut-off saw, the VIII 209 
 
 Cut-off saw, the drop-feed 
 
 circular VIII 212 
 
 Cut-off saw, the swing VIII 239 
 
 Cutter, the hoop X 316 
 
 Cutting machine, the stave. VIII 231 
 Cutting process of manu- 
 facturing hoops, the X 312 
 
 Cylinder stave saw, the. . .VIII 236 
 Cylinder stave saws, for 
 
 gumming and sharpening IV 116 
 Cylinder stave saws, for 
 
 swaging IV 117 
 
 Cypress I 18 
 
 Cypress, bald I 18 
 
 Cypress, black I 18 
 
 Cypress, Lawson's I 17 
 
 Cypress, red I 18 
 
 Cypress, white I 18 
 
 D 
 
 D'arc, Bois I 34 
 
 D'arc, Bois I 53 
 
 Dead centre, to place an 
 
 engine on the XII 366 
 
 Dead cull staves VIII 254 
 
 Dealing with the fire prob- 
 lem, new departures in . . Ill 98 
 
 Decimal equivalents XII 371 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Demands of red gum upon 
 
 soil and moisture I 41 
 
 Departures 'in dealing with 
 
 the fire problem, new. . . Ill 98 
 Different grains of wood ... I 58 
 Different ideas on temper 
 
 of knives V 143 
 
 Different species, weight of 
 
 kiln-dried wood of I 68 
 
 Difficulties of drying wood . IX 278 
 Difficulties of transporting 
 
 gum, the VII 191 
 
 Discussion on knives, prac- 
 tical V 143 
 
 Distribution of water in 
 
 wood IX 267 
 
 Douglas spruce I 24 
 
 Drag saw, the VIII 211 
 
 Dressing circular saws, for 
 
 side IV 113 
 
 Drop-feed circular cut-off 
 
 saw, the VIII 212 
 
 Drum saws, for sharpening 
 
 and gumming IV US 
 
 Drum saws, for swaging. . . IV 117 
 Dry cooperage stock and 
 
 wooden truss hoops II 86 
 
 Drying kiln IX 280 
 
 Drying wood, difficulties of IX 278. 
 Drying, unsolved problems 
 
 in kiln ' IX 279 
 
 Duck oak I 53 
 
 Dutch oven or bulldog fur- 
 nace, the VIII 226 
 
 Duty of steam engines XII 365 
 
 E 
 Effect fire losses, conditions 
 
 which Ill 93 
 
 Effects of fires, erroneous 
 
 ideas concerning Ill 93 
 
 Effects of moisture on wood IX 270 
 
 Elm I 3G 
 
 Elm, American I 37 
 
 Elm, cedar I 37 
 
INDEX 
 
 383 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Elm, cliff I 37 
 
 Elm, cork I 37 
 
 Elm, hickory I 37 
 
 Elm, moose I 37 
 
 Elm, red I 37 
 
 Elm, rock.... I 37 
 
 Elm, slippery I 37 
 
 Elm staves VIII 234 
 
 Elm, water I 37 
 
 Elm, white I 37 
 
 Elm, white I 37 
 
 Elm, winged I 38 
 
 Emery wheels, use of V 148 
 
 Emery wheels, speed of. ... V 150 
 
 Enemies of wood II 71 
 
 Enemy of forests, fires the 
 
 greatest Ill 89 
 
 Engines, duty of steam. . . . XII 365 
 Engines, horsepower of 
 
 steam XII 367 
 
 Engine on the dead centre, 
 
 to place an XII 366 
 
 Equalizer saws, cracks in . . VIII 230 
 Equalizing machine, stave 
 
 bolt VIII 228 
 
 Equipment, filing-room .... IV 109 
 
 Equivalents, decimal XII 371 
 
 Equivalents, hydraulic XII 376 
 
 Equivalents, power XII 374 
 
 Erroneous ideas concerning 
 
 effects of fires Ill 93 
 
 Estimates of losses from 
 
 forest fires, some Ill 90 
 
 Evaporation of water in 
 
 wood, manner of IX 266 
 
 Evaporation of water in 
 
 wood, rapidity of IX 269 
 
 F 
 
 Favorable for insect in- 
 jury, conditions II 79 
 
 Felling, time of VII 178 
 
 Fetid buckeye I 34 
 
 Field pine, old I 22 
 
 Field pine, old I 22 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Fighting forest fires, meth- 
 ods of Ill 102 
 
 Files, to temper old V 147 
 
 Filing-room equipment IV 109 
 
 Fir I 18 
 
 Fir, balsam I 18 
 
 Fir, red I 18 
 
 Fir, red I 19 
 
 Fir, red I 24 
 
 Fir, white I 18 
 
 Fir, white I 18 
 
 Fir, yellow I 24 
 
 Fires, erroneous ideas con- 
 cerning effects of Ill 93 
 
 Fires, cause and prevention 
 
 of forest Ill 101 
 
 Fires, forest Ill 89 
 
 Fires, general remarks on 
 forest Ill 89 
 
 Fire losses, conditions 
 which effect Ill 93 
 
 Fires, methods of fighting 
 
 forest Ill 102 
 
 Fire problem, new depart- 
 ures in dealing with 
 the HI 98 
 
 Fire protection on private 
 lands Ill 97 
 
 Fires, some estimates of 
 
 losses from forest Ill 90 
 
 Fires the great enemy of 
 
 forests Ill 89 
 
 Fires which are not usually 
 
 considered, losses from. . Ill 92 
 
 Fires, views of lumbermen 
 concerning forest Ill 95 
 
 Fitting and swaging IV 125 
 
 Fitting not a mysterious 
 
 process, saw IV 108 
 
 Flat-headed borers II 77 
 
 Fluids, receipts for solder- 
 ing XII 361 
 
 Forest fires Ill 89 
 
 Forest fires, cause and pre- 
 vention of . . . Ill 101 
 
384 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Forest fires, general re- 
 marks on Ill 89 
 
 Forest fires, methods of 
 
 fighting Ill 102 
 
 Forest fires, some esti- 
 mates of losses from III 90 
 
 Forest fires, views of lum- 
 bermen concerning Ill 95 
 
 Forest report, review of . . . VI 169 
 
 Forests, fires the greatest 
 enemy of Ill 89 
 
 Forestry, changed condi- 
 tions in Ill 96 
 
 Form of red gum I 40 
 
 Fruit barrel in Indiana, le- 
 gal XII 353 
 
 Fruit barrel in New York 
 
 State, legal XII 353 
 
 Fuel value of wood, weight 
 
 and comparative XII 366 
 
 Furnace, the Dutch oven or 
 
 bulldog VIII 226 
 
 G 
 
 Gauges, table of XII 372 
 
 General remarks on forest 
 
 fires Ill 89 
 
 General remarks on tim- 
 ber I 3 
 
 General saw instructions . . IV 107 
 
 Georgia pine I 21 
 
 Gilead, balm of I 54 
 
 Qinger pine I 17 
 
 Glue to resist moisture XII 361 
 
 Government or Treasury 
 
 whitewash XII 371 
 
 Grades on heading, stand- 
 ard specifications and ... IX 299 
 Grades on hoops, standard 
 
 specifications and X 324 
 
 Grades on staves, standard 
 
 specifications and VIII 252 
 
 Grains of wood, different. . I 58 
 
 Gray birch I 33 
 
 Gray pine I 23 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Greatest enemies of forests, 
 
 fires the Ill 89 
 
 Green ash I 31 
 
 Ground ash I 31 
 
 Growth red gum, second.. I 43 
 Growth, the question of sec- 
 ond Ill 100 
 
 Gum and cottonwood stavesVIII 235 
 
 Gum I 38 
 
 Gum, black I 46 
 
 Gum, cotton I 44 
 
 Gum, form of red I 40 
 
 Gum, range of red I 39 
 
 Gum, range of tupelo I 46 
 
 Gum, red I 39 
 
 Gum, red I 55 
 
 Gum, demands upon soil 
 
 and moisture of red I 41 
 
 Gum, reproduction of red. . I 42 
 
 Gum, second-growth I 43 
 
 Gum, sour I 55 
 
 Gum, sour I 46 
 
 Gum, sweet I 39 
 
 Gum, sweet I 55 
 
 Gum, the difficulties of 
 
 transporting VII 191 
 
 Gum, tolerance of red I 41 
 
 Gum, tupelo. . . I 44 
 
 Gum, uses of tupelo I 45 
 
 Gumming circular saws, for 
 
 sharpening and IV 111 
 
 Gumming and sharpening 
 
 cylinder stave saws for. IV 116 
 
 Gumming, sharpening and. IV 125 
 
 H - 
 
 Hackmatack I 19 
 
 Hackberry I 47 
 
 Hackberry I 47 
 
 Hammering and adjusting 
 
 circular saws, for IV 114 
 
 Hammering and Pensioning 
 
 saws IV 133 
 
 Hard maple I 50 
 
 Hard pines I 21 
 
INDEX 
 
 385 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Hardwoods I 30 
 
 Harvesting raw material. . VII 175 
 
 Headed borers, flat II 77 
 
 Headed borers, round II 75 
 
 Head liners X 324 
 
 Heading and shingle bolts, 
 
 stave II 83 
 
 Heading bolts, stave and. .VIII 216 
 Heading, bundling or pack- 
 ing IX 298 
 
 Heading jointer, the IX 288 
 
 Heading manufacture, slack IX 257 
 Heading, matching or as- 
 sembling IX 292 
 
 Heading planer, the IX 285 
 
 Heading production, slack. VI 166 
 
 Heading room, the IX 285 
 
 Heading saw, the pendulous 
 
 swing IX 258 
 
 Heading saw, the horizon- 
 tal IX 262 
 
 Heading, standard specifi- 
 cations and grades on. . . IX 299 
 
 Heading turner, the IX 293 
 
 Head piling and air-season- 
 ing IX 285 
 
 Heads of barrels contain- 
 ing alcoholic liquids, 
 
 staves and II 86 
 
 Heads produced, quantity 
 
 of slack VI 165 
 
 Heart hickory, white I 47 
 
 Heartwood, sap and I 8 
 
 Hemlock I 19 
 
 Hemlock I 19 
 
 Hemlock I 19 
 
 Hickory I 47 
 
 Hickory, big-bud. I 47 
 
 Hickory, bitternut I 48 
 
 Hickory, black I 47 
 
 Hickory, black I 48 
 
 Hickory, black nut I 47 
 
 Hickory, brown I 48 
 
 Hickory, bull nut I 47 
 
 Hickory, elm I 37 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Hickory, mockernut I 47 
 
 Hickory, pig nut I 48 
 
 Hickory, poplar I 58 
 
 Hickory, shagbark I 47 
 
 Hickory, shellbark I 47 
 
 Hickory, swamp I 48 
 
 Hickory, switch bud I 48 
 
 Hickory, whiteheart I 47 
 
 Holly I 48 
 
 Holly I 48 
 
 Honey locust I 49 
 
 Hoop ash . I 31 
 
 Hoop-boiling vat, the X 313 
 
 Hoop-coiling machine, the. X 321 
 
 Hoop cutter, the X 316 
 
 Hoop planer, the X 318 
 
 Hoop-pointing and lapping 
 
 machine, the X 319 
 
 Hoop production, slack. ... VI 167 
 
 Hoop, the patent X 304 
 
 Hoops, dry cooperage stock 
 
 and wooden truss II 86 
 
 Hoops, methods of manu- 
 facturing X 305 
 
 Hoops on yard, piling X 323 
 
 Hoops produced, quantity 
 
 of slack VI 168 
 
 Hoops, cutting process of 
 
 manufacturing X 312 
 
 Hoops, the manufacture of X 303 
 Hoops, the sawing process 
 
 of manufacturing X 309 
 
 Hoops, the standard speci- 
 fications and grades on . . X 324 
 Horizontal heading saw, 
 
 the IX 262 
 
 Hornbeam I 33 
 
 Horse chestnut I 34 
 
 Horse chestnut I 48 
 
 Horsepower constants XII 369 
 
 Horsepower of an engine. . XII 367 
 Horsepower of leather belts XII 358 
 How to prevent insect in- 
 jury II 81 
 
 Hydraulic equivalents .... XII 375 
 
386 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 I 
 
 Ideas concerning effects of 
 
 fires, erroneous Ill 93 
 
 Ideas on temper of knives, 
 different V 143 
 
 Illinois nut I 48 
 
 Important broad-leaved 
 
 trees, list of I 30 
 
 Important coniferous woods, 
 
 list of I 16 
 
 Incense cedar I 17 
 
 Indiana, legal fruit barrel 
 in XII 353 
 
 Information on steam, use- 
 ful rules and XII 364 
 
 Information on water, use- 
 ful rules and XII 362 
 
 Injury, conditions favorable 
 
 for insect II 79 
 
 Injury, how to prevent in- 
 sect II 81 
 
 Insect injury, conditions 
 
 favorable for II 79 
 
 Insect injury, how to pre- 
 vent II 81 
 
 Inspection, stave VIII 250 
 
 Instructions, general saw. . IV 107 
 
 Iron oak I 52 
 
 Ironwood I 33 
 
 Ironwood I 48 
 
 Jersey pine I 23 
 
 Jointer knife VIII 247 
 
 Jointer, the heading IX 288 
 
 Jointer, the stave VIII 244 
 
 pointing, stave VIII 244 
 
 Juniper, savin I 17 
 
 K 
 
 Kiln-dried wood of differ- 
 ent species, weights of . . I 68 
 
 Kiln-drying IX 280 
 
 Kiln-drying, unsolved prob : 
 
 lems in.. IX 279 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Knife jointer VIII 247 
 
 Knife sharpening, for IV 118 
 
 Knives, different ideas on 
 
 temper of V 143 
 
 Knives, practical discussion 
 
 on V 143 
 
 Knives, speed of V 144 
 
 Knives, temper of V 144 
 
 Knives, to temper V 146 
 
 Land spruce, tide I 24 
 
 Lands, fire protection on 
 
 private Ill 97 
 
 Lapping machine, the hoop- 
 pointing and X 319 
 
 Larch I 19 
 
 Lawson's cypress I 17 
 
 Lead of saws IV 127 
 
 Leaf pine, long I 21 
 
 Leaf pine, short I 22 
 
 Leaf pine, yellow long. ... I 21 
 Leather belts, horsepower 
 
 of XII 358 
 
 Leaved maple, broad I 50 
 
 Leaved trees, list of impor- 
 tant broad I 30 
 
 Leaved trees, wood of broad I 25 
 Legal fruit barrel in Indi- 
 ana XII 353 
 
 Legal fruit barrel in New 
 
 York State XII 353 
 
 Lin I 32 
 
 Linden, American I 32 
 
 Liners, head X 324 
 
 Lime tree I 32 
 
 Liquidamber I 39 
 
 Liquids, heads and staves 
 
 of barrels containing. ... II 86 
 List of important broad- 
 leaved trees I 30 
 
 List of important conifer- 
 ous woods I 16 
 
 Live oak I 53 
 
 Live oak . . I 53 
 
INDEX 
 
 387 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4' 
 4! 
 2i 
 2 
 2 
 
 SEC. 
 
 Loblolly pine I 
 
 Locust I 
 
 Locust, black I 
 
 Locust, black I 
 
 Locust, black I 
 
 Locust, honey I 
 
 Locust, sweet I 
 
 Locust, yellow I 
 
 Lodge pole pine I 
 
 Long-leaf pine I 
 
 Long-leaf pine, yellow I 
 
 Long-straw pine I 
 
 Losses, conditions which af- 
 fect fire Ill 
 
 Losses from forest fires, 
 
 Some estimates of Ill 
 
 Losses from fires which are 
 
 not usually considered. . Ill 
 Lumbermen concerning for- 
 est fires, views of Ill 
 
 M 
 
 Machine, the stave bolt 
 
 equalizing ............. VIII 228 
 
 Machine, the stave cutting. VIII 231 
 
 Machine, the stave jointingVIII 244 
 
 Machine, the hoop-coiling.. X 321 
 
 Machine, the hoop-cutting. X 316 
 Machine, the hoop-pointing 
 
 and lapping ............ X 319 
 
 Magnolia ................ I 49 
 
 Mahogany birch .......... I 33 
 
 Management, modern shop . XI 329 
 
 Management, woods ...... VII 184 
 
 Manner of evaporation of 
 
 water in wood .......... IX 266 
 
 Manufacturing hoops, the 
 
 cutting process of ....... X 312 
 
 Manufacturing hoops, the 
 
 sawn process of ......... X 309 
 
 Manufacturing hoops, meth- 
 
 ods of ................. X 305 
 
 Manufacture of hoops, the. X 303 
 
 Manufacture, slack heading IX 257 
 
 Manufacture, slack stave. .VIII 197 
 
 Maple 
 
 Maple, broad-leaved. 
 
 Maple, hard 
 
 Maple, red 
 
 Maple, rock .... 
 
 Maple, silver. 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 I 49 
 
 I 50 
 
 I 50 
 
 I 50 
 
 I 50 
 
 I 50 
 
 Maple, soft I 50 
 
 Maple staves, oak, beech 
 
 and VIII 235 
 
 Maple, sugar I 50 
 
 Maple, swamp I 50 
 
 Maple, water I 50 
 
 Matching or assembling 
 
 heading IX 292 
 
 Material, harvesting raw. . VII 175 
 Mature timber, plan for pro- 
 tecting in 99 
 
 Maul oak I 53 
 
 Meadow pine I 22 
 
 Mensuration XII 376 
 
 Metal and babbitting, Bab- 
 bitt XII 359 
 
 Method of fighting forest 
 
 fi res in 102 
 
 Methods of manufacturing 
 
 hoops, different X 305 
 
 Mill, site and arrangement 
 
 of VH 192 
 
 Mill, the slack stock VII 194 
 
 Minute structure of wood. . I 29 
 
 Mockernut hickory I 47 
 
 Modern shop management. XI 329 
 Moisture, demands of red 
 
 gum upon soil and.... I 4] 
 
 Moisture, glue to resist. . . XII 361 
 Moisture on wood, effects 
 
 of IX 270 
 
 loose elm I 37 
 
 lore important coniferous 
 
 woods, list of I 16 
 
 lossy-cup oak I 52 
 
 lost important broad- 
 leaved trees, list of I 30 
 
 lulberry I 59 
 
 Mulberry, red I 50 
 
388 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 N 
 
 New departures in dealing 
 
 with the fire problem . . . Ill 98 
 New York State, legal fruit 
 
 barrel in XII 353 
 
 Norway pine I 22 
 
 Notes on belting XII 353 
 
 Number and style of teeth 
 
 in saws IV 127 
 
 Number staves per cord or 
 
 rank VIII 235 
 
 Number teeth in circular 
 
 ripsaws, standard IV 130 
 
 Number teeth in cross-cut 
 
 saws, standard IV 131 
 
 Numbers for rapid calcula- 
 tion, useful XII 370 
 
 Nut, coffee I 36 
 
 Nut hickory, bitter I 48 
 
 Nut hickory, black I 47 
 
 Nut hickory, bull I 47 
 
 Nut hickory, pig I 48 
 
 Nut, Illinois . . I 48 
 
 
 
 and maple 
 
 VIII 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 Oak 
 
 Oak, basket 
 Oak, beech 
 
 staves 
 
 Oak, black 
 
 Oak, black 
 
 Oak, bur 
 
 Oak, chestnut. . 
 Oak, chinquapin 
 
 Oak, cow I 
 
 Oak, duck J 
 
 Oak, iron I 
 
 Oak, live I 
 
 Oak, live I 
 
 Oak, maul 
 
 Oak, mossy-cup 
 Oak, over-cup 
 Oak, over-cup 
 Oak, peach . . . 
 Oak, pin 
 
 50 
 52 
 
 235 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 53 
 52 
 53 
 53 
 53 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 53 
 53 
 
 Oak, possum I 
 
 Oak, post I 
 
 Oak, punk k -I 
 
 Oak, red I 
 
 Oak, red 
 
 Oak, scarlet 
 
 Oak, Spanish 
 
 Oak, swamp post 
 
 Oak, swamp Spanish 
 
 Oak, swamp white 
 
 Oak, swamp white 
 
 Oak, Valparaiso 
 
 Oak, water 
 
 Oak, water 
 
 Oak, willow 
 
 Oak, white 
 
 Oak, white 
 
 Oak, white 
 
 Oak, white 
 
 Oak, yellow 
 
 Oak, yellow 
 
 Odor, color and 
 
 Ohio buckeye 
 
 Old field pine 
 
 Old field pine 
 
 Old files, to temper V 
 
 Orange, osage I 
 
 Orange, osage I 
 
 Oregon ash I 
 
 Oregon cedar I 
 
 Oregon pine I 
 
 Orf ord cedar, Port I 
 
 Osage orange I 
 
 Osage orange I 
 
 Oven or bulldog furnace, 
 
 the dutch VIII 
 
 Over-cup oak I 
 
 Over-cup oak I 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 53 
 52 
 53 
 52 
 53 
 53 
 53 
 52 
 53 
 52 
 52 
 53 
 53 
 53 
 53 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 62 
 34 
 22 
 22 
 147 
 34 
 53 
 31 
 17 
 24 
 17 
 34 
 53 
 
 226 
 52 
 52 
 
 Packing heading, bundling 
 
 or IX 298 
 
 Packing, stave bundling or.VIII 249 
 
 Paper birch I 33 
 
 Patent hoop, the X 304 
 
INDEX 
 
 389 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Peach oak I 53 
 
 Pecan I 48 
 
 Pendulous swing heading 
 
 saw, the IX 258 
 
 Persimmon I 54 
 
 Pig nut hickory I 48 
 
 Piling and air-seasoning, 
 
 head IX 285 
 
 Piling and air-seasoning, 
 
 stave VIII 240 
 
 Piling hoops on yard X 323 
 
 Pin oak I 53 
 
 Pine I 20 
 
 Pine, bastard I 22 
 
 Pine, black I 23 
 
 Pine, black I 23 
 
 Pine, bull .*. I 22 
 
 Pine, bull I 23 
 
 Pine, Carolina I 22 
 
 Pine, Cuban I 22 
 
 Pine, Georgia 21 
 
 Pine, ginger 17 
 
 Pine, gray 23 
 
 Pine, Jersey 23 
 
 Pine, loblolly 22 
 
 Pine, lodge pole 23 
 
 Pine, long-leaf 21 
 
 Pine, long-straw 21 
 
 Pine, meadow 22 
 
 Pine, Norway 22 
 
 Pine, old field I 22 
 
 Pine, old field I 22 
 
 Pine, Oregon I 24 
 
 Pine, pitch I 23 
 
 Pine, pumpkin I 21 
 
 Pine, rosemary I 22 
 
 Pine, sap . I 22 
 
 Pine, scrub I 23 
 
 Pine, scrub I 23 
 
 Pine, scrub I 23 
 
 Pine, short-leaf I 22 
 
 Pine, short-straw I 22 
 
 Pine, slash I 22 
 
 Pine, slash I 22 
 
 Pine, slash . I 22 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Pine, soft I 21 
 
 Pine, sugar . . I 21 
 
 Pine, swamp I 22 
 
 Pine, white I 21 
 
 Pine, white I 21 
 
 Pine, white I 21 
 
 Pine, white I 21 
 
 Pine, yellow I 21 
 
 Pine, yellow I 21 
 
 Pine, yellow 22 
 
 Pine, yellow 22 
 
 Pine, yellow long-leaf 21 
 
 Pine, hard 21 
 
 Pine, soft 21 
 
 Pitch pine 23 
 
 Pith, bark and 7 
 
 Plan for protecting mature 
 
 timber Ill 99 
 
 Planer, the heading IX 285 
 
 Planer, the hoop X 318 
 
 Pointing and lapping ma- 
 chine, the hoop X 319 
 
 Pole pine, lodge I 23 
 
 Poor results in saws, some 
 
 causes of IV 122 
 
 Poplar I 54 
 
 Poplar I 55 
 
 Poplar I 58 
 
 Poplar, bay I 44 
 
 Poplar, blue I 58 
 
 Poplar, hickory I 58 
 
 Poplar, white I 58 
 
 Poplar, yellow I 56 
 
 Poplar, yellow I 58 
 
 Port Orford cedar I 17 
 
 Possum oak . I 53 
 
 Post borers, powder II 78 
 
 Post oak I 52 
 
 Post oak, swamp I 52 
 
 Power constants, horse .... XII 369 
 
 Power equivalents XII 374 
 
 Power of an engine, 
 
 horse XII 367 
 
 Power of belting, rules for 
 
 calculating XII 357 
 
390 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Power of leather belts, 
 horse XII 
 
 Powder post borers II 
 
 Practical discussion on 
 knives V 
 
 Prevent insect injury, how 
 to 
 
 Prevention of forest fires, 
 cause and Ill 
 
 Private lands, fire protec- 
 tion on Ill 
 
 Problem, new departures in 
 dealing with the fire. . . . Ill 
 
 Problem, the waste 
 
 Problems in kiln-drying, 
 unsolved IX 
 
 Process of manufacturing 
 hoops, the cutting X 
 
 Process of manufacturing 
 hoops, the sawn X 
 
 Process, saw-fitting not 
 mysterious IV 
 
 Produced, quantity and val- 
 ue of slack stock VI 
 
 Produced, quantity of slack 
 heads VI 
 
 Produced, quantity of slack 
 hoops 
 
 Produced, quantity of slack 
 staves VI 
 
 Production, slack cooperage 
 stock 
 
 Production of slack stock. . 
 
 Production, slack heading. 
 
 Production, slack hoop .... 
 
 Production, slack stave. . . . 
 
 Production, slack stock . . . 
 
 Products, crude 
 
 Products in the rough, sea- 
 soned II 
 
 Products in the rough, un- 
 seasoned II 
 
 Proper care of saws, the . . . 
 
 Properties of timber, char- 
 acteristics and . 
 
 EC. 
 
 TTT 
 
 PAGE 
 
 358 
 
 Protecting mature timber, 
 plan for 
 
 SEC. 
 
 TTI 
 
 PAGE 
 99 
 
 ii 
 
 78 
 
 Protection on private lands, 
 fire 
 
 TTT 
 
 97 
 
 V 
 
 143 
 
 Pulleys, rules for calculat- 
 ing speed of 
 
 XTT 
 
 356 
 
 TT 
 
 81 
 
 Pumpkin pine 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 Punk oak 
 
 T 
 
 53 
 
 III 
 III 
 
 101 
 97 
 
 Q 
 
 Quantity and value of stock 
 produced 
 
 VT 
 
 160 
 
 III 
 
 TTT 
 
 98 
 198 
 
 Quantity of slack heads pro- 
 duced 
 
 VI 
 
 165 
 
 TX 
 
 279 
 
 Quantity of slack hoops pro- 
 duced 
 
 VT 
 
 168 
 
 X 
 
 312 
 
 Quantity of slack staves 
 produced 
 
 VT 
 
 163 
 
 X 
 
 309 
 
 Question of second growth, 
 the 
 
 TTT 
 
 100 
 
 IV 
 
 108 
 
 R 
 
 Range of red gum 
 
 T 
 
 39 
 
 VI 
 VT 
 
 160 
 165 
 
 Range of tupelo gum 
 Rank, number of staves per 
 cord or 
 
 I 
 VIII 
 
 46 
 235 
 
 VT 
 
 168 
 
 Rapid calculation, useful 
 numbers for 
 
 XTT 
 
 370 
 
 VI 
 
 163 
 
 Rapidity of evaporation of 
 water in wood . 
 
 IX 
 
 269 
 
 VI 
 VT 
 
 158 
 155 
 
 Raw material, harvesting.. 
 Receipts for soldering flu- 
 ids . 
 
 VII 
 XII 
 
 175 
 361 
 
 VT 
 
 166 
 
 Red ash 
 
 T 
 
 31 
 
 VI 
 
 VT 
 
 167 
 162 
 
 Red birch 
 Red cedar 
 
 I 
 T 
 
 33 
 17 
 
 VI 
 IT 
 
 153 
 
 79 
 
 Red cedar of the West 
 Red cedars 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 16 
 17 
 
 
 
 Red cypress 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 IT 
 
 85 
 
 Red elm 
 
 T 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 Red fir . . 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 IT 
 
 83 
 
 Red fir 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 TV 
 
 122 
 
 Red fir 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 Red gum 
 
 T 
 
 39 
 
 T 
 
 3 
 
 Red arum . 
 
 T 
 
 55 
 
INDEX 
 
 391 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Red gum, demands upon 
 
 soil and moisture of. ... I 
 
 Red gum, form of I 
 
 Red gum, range of I 
 
 Red gum, reproduction of . . I 
 
 Red gum, second-growth ... I 
 
 Red gum, tolerance of I 
 
 Red maple I 
 
 Red mulberry I 
 
 Red oak I 
 
 Red oak I 
 
 Redwood I 
 
 Redwood I 
 
 Refuse, burning slash and. Ill 
 Remarks on forest fires, 
 
 general Ill 
 
 Remarks on timber, general I 
 Report, review of forest ... VI 
 Reproduction of red gum. . I 
 Resist moisture, glue to ... XII 
 Results in saws, some 
 
 causes of poor IV 
 
 Review of forest report .... VI 
 Ring, the annual or yearly I 
 
 Ripsaws, circular IV 
 
 Ripsaws, standard number 
 
 teeth in circular IV 
 
 River birch I 
 
 Rock elm I 
 
 Rock maple I 
 
 Room equipment, filing .... IV 
 
 Room, the bolting VIII 
 
 Room, the heading IX 
 
 Rosemary pine I 
 
 Round-headed borers II 
 
 Round, saws out of IV 
 
 Round timber with bark on II 
 Rough, seasoned products 
 
 in the II 
 
 Rough, unseasoned products 
 
 in the II 
 
 Rules and information on 
 
 steam, useful XII 
 
 Rules and information on 
 
 water, useful XII 
 
 41 
 40 
 39 
 42 
 43 
 41 
 50 
 50 
 52 
 53 
 17 
 23 
 99 
 
 89 
 
 3 
 
 169 
 
 42 
 361 
 
 122 
 
 169 
 
 9 
 
 128 
 
 130 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 50 
 
 109 
 
 208 
 
 285 
 
 22 
 
 75 
 
 124 
 
 79 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 364 
 
 362 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Rules for calculating horse- 
 power of an engine XII 367 
 
 Rules for calculating power 
 
 of belting XII 357 
 
 Rules for calculating speed 
 
 of pulleys XII 356 
 
 S 
 
 Sap and heartwood I 8 
 
 Saplings II 82 
 
 Sap pine I 22 
 
 Sassafras I 55 
 
 Sawn process of manufac- 
 turing hoops X 309 
 
 Saw-fitting not a mysteri- 
 ous process IV 108 
 
 Saw instructions, general. . IV 107 
 
 Saw, the bolting. VIII 214 
 
 Saw, the cut-off VIII 209 
 
 Saw, the cylinder stave... VIII 236 
 
 Saw, the drag VIII 211 
 
 Saw, the drop-feed circular 
 
 cut-off VIII 212 
 
 Saw, the heading IX 258 
 
 Saw, the horizontal head- 
 ing IX 262 
 
 Saw, the swing cut-off VIII 239 
 
 Saws IV 106 
 
 Saws, circular rip IV 128 
 
 Saws, collars for IV 131 
 
 Saws, cracks in equalizer. .VIII 230 
 Saws, cut-off or cross-cut. . IV 130 
 Saws, fitting and swaging. IV 125 
 Saws, for gumming or sharp- 
 ening circular IV 111 
 
 Saws, for gumming or sharp- 
 ening cylinder stave.... IV 116 
 Saws, for hammering and 
 
 adjusting circular IV 114 
 
 Saws, for setting circular. . IV 115 
 Saws, for side-dressing cir- 
 cular IV 113 
 
 Saws, for swaging circular . IV 112 
 Saws, for swaging cylinder 
 
 stave IV 117 
 
392 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Saws, hammering and ten 
 sioning 
 
 Saws, lead of IV 
 
 Saws, number and style of 
 teeth in IV 
 
 Saws out of round 
 
 Saws, sharpening and gum- 
 ming IV 
 
 Saws, some causes of poor 
 results in 
 
 Saws, speed of IV 
 
 Saws, standard number- 
 teeth in circular rip 
 
 Saws, standard number 
 teeth in cross-cut 
 
 Sf.ws, the proper care of . . . 
 
 Savin juniper 
 
 Scarlet oak 
 
 Scrub pine 
 
 Scrub pine 
 
 Scrub pine 
 
 Seasoned products in the 
 rough 
 
 Seasoning > IX 
 
 Seasoning is, what IX 
 
 Seasoning, head piling and 
 air 
 
 Seasoning, stave piling and 
 air 7 
 
 Second-growth red gum . . . 
 
 Second growth, the ques- 
 tion of 
 
 Setting circular saws, for. 
 
 Shagbark hickory 
 
 Sharpening and gumming 
 saws IV 
 
 Sharpening and gumming 
 circular saws, for 
 
 Sharpening and gumming 
 cylinder stave saws, for. 
 
 Sharpening, for knife 
 
 Shellbark hickory 
 
 Shingle bolts, stave, head- 
 ing and 
 
 Shop management, modern XI 
 
 EC. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 IV 
 
 133 
 
 IV 
 
 127 
 
 IV 
 
 127 
 
 IV 
 
 124 
 
 IV 
 
 125 
 
 IV 
 
 122 
 
 IV 
 
 132 
 
 IV 
 
 130 
 
 IV 
 
 131 
 
 IV 
 
 122 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 II 
 
 85 
 
 IX 
 
 263 
 
 IX 
 
 263 
 
 IX 
 
 285 
 
 III 
 
 240 
 
 I 
 
 43 
 
 III 
 
 100 
 
 IV 
 
 115 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 IV 
 
 125 
 
 IV 
 
 111 
 
 IV 
 
 116 
 
 IV 
 
 118 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 II 
 
 83 
 
 XI 
 
 329 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Short-leaf pine . I 22 
 
 Short-straw pine I 22 
 
 Shrinkage of wood IX 271 
 
 Side-dressing circular saws, 
 
 for IV 113 
 
 Silver maple I 50 
 
 Site and arrangement of 
 
 mill VII 192 
 
 Slack cooperage, woods 
 
 chiefly used for VI 156 
 
 Slack cooperage stock pro- 
 duction VI 158 
 
 Slack cooperage stock, 
 
 weights of XII 349 
 
 Slack heading manufac- 
 ture IX 257 
 
 Slack heading production . . VI 166 
 Slack heads produced, quan- 
 tity of VI 165 
 
 Slack hoop manufacture . . X 303 
 Slack hoop production.... VI 167 
 Slack hoops produced, quan- 
 tity of VI 168 
 
 Slack stave manufacture. .VIII 197 
 Slack stave production. ... VI 162 
 Slack staves produced, quan- 
 tity of VI 163 
 
 Slack stock mill, the VII 194 
 
 Slack stock production. ... VI 153 
 Slack stock production of. VI 155 
 Slack stock produced, quan- 
 tity and value of VI 160 
 
 Slash or refuse, burning. . Ill 99 
 
 Slash pine - I 22 
 
 Slash pine I 22 
 
 Slash pine I 22 
 
 Slippery elm I 37 
 
 Soft maple I 50 
 
 Soft pine I 21 
 
 Soft pines I 21 
 
 Soil and moisture, demands 
 
 of red gum upon I 41 
 
 Soldering fluids, receipts 
 
 for XII 361 
 
 Solutions, tempering V 146 
 
INDEX 
 
 393 
 
 Some causes of poor results 
 
 in saws 
 
 Some estimates of loss from 
 
 forest fires Ill 
 
 Sour gum 
 
 Sour gum 
 
 Spanish oak 
 
 Spanish oak, swamp 
 
 Species, weight of kiln-dried 
 
 wood of different 
 
 Specifications and grades 
 
 on heading, standard. . . . 
 Specifications and grades 
 
 on hoops, standard 
 
 Specifications and grades 
 
 on staves, standard VIII 
 
 Speed of belts 
 
 Speed of emery wheels .... 
 
 Speed of knives V 
 
 Speed of pulleys, rules for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Speed of saws IV 
 
 Spring and summer-wood . . 
 
 Spruce 
 
 Spruce, bastard 
 
 Spruce, black 
 
 Spruce, Douglas 
 
 Spruce, tide land 
 
 Spruce, white . 
 
 Spruce, white 
 
 Standard number teeth in 
 
 cross-cut saws IV 
 
 Standard number teeth in 
 
 ripsaws IV 
 
 Standard specifications and 
 
 grades on heading 
 
 Standard specifications and 
 
 grades on hoops X 
 
 Standard specifications and 
 
 grades on staves VIII 
 
 Stave and heading bolts. 
 Stave bundling or packing. VIII 
 Stave bolt equalizing ma 
 
 chine VIII 
 
 Stave bolts, steam-boxes for VIII 
 
 3EC. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 IV 
 
 122 
 
 III 
 
 90 
 
 I 
 
 46 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 I 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 68 
 
 IX 
 
 299 
 
 X 
 
 324 
 
 III 
 
 252 
 
 XII 
 
 355 
 
 V 
 
 150 
 
 V 
 
 144 
 
 XII 
 
 356 
 
 IV 
 
 132 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 IV 
 
 131 
 
 IV 
 
 130 
 
 IX 
 
 299 
 
 X 
 
 324 
 
 III 
 
 252 
 
 III 
 
 216 
 
 III 
 
 249 
 
 III 
 
 228 
 
 [II 
 
 218 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Stave-cutting machine . . . .VIII 231 
 Stave, heading and shingle 
 
 bolts II 83 
 
 Stave inspection VIII 250 
 
 Stave- jointing machine . . .VIII 244 
 
 Stave jointing VIII 244 
 
 Stave, manufacture, slack. VIII 197 
 Stave piling and air-sea- 
 soning VIII 240 
 
 Stave production, slack. . . VI 162 
 Stave saw, the cylinder. . .VIII 236 
 Stave saws, for sharpening 
 
 and gumming cylinder. . IV 116 
 Stave saws, for swaging 
 
 cylinder IV 117 
 
 Staves and heads of bar- 
 rels containing alcoholic 
 
 liquids II 86 
 
 Staves, dead cull VIII 254 
 
 Staves, elm VIII 234 
 
 Staves, gum and cotton- 
 wood VIII 235 
 
 Staves, oak, beech and ma- 
 ple ' VIII 235 
 
 Staves per cord or rank, 
 
 number of VIII 235 
 
 Staves produced, quantity 
 
 of slack VI 163 
 
 Staves, standard specifica- 
 tions and grades on VIII 252 
 
 Steam-boxes for stave bolts. VIII 218 
 Steam engines, duty of. ... XII 365 
 Steam engines, horsepower 
 
 of XII 367 
 
 Steam, useful rules and in- 
 formation on XII 364 
 
 Stock and wooden truss 
 
 hoops, dry cooperage. ... II 86 
 Stock, production of slack. VI 155 
 Stock production, slack coo- 
 perage VI 158 
 
 Stock production, slack... VI 153 
 Stock produced, quantity of 
 
 slack VI 160 
 
 Stock mill, the slack VII 194 
 
394 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Stock, weights of slack coo- 
 perage 
 
 Straw pine, long 
 
 Straw pine, short 
 
 Structure, anatomical .... 
 
 Structure of wood, minute. 
 
 Style of teeth in saws, 
 number and IV 
 
 Sugar berry 
 
 Sugar maple 
 
 Sugar pine 
 
 Summer-wood, spring and. 
 
 Swaging circular saws, for IV 
 
 Swaging, fitting and IV 
 
 Swaging cylinder stave 
 saws, for IV 
 
 Swamp hickory 
 
 Swamp maple 
 
 Swamp pine 
 
 Swamp post oak 
 
 Swamp Spanish oak 
 
 Swamp white oak 
 
 Swamp white oak 
 
 Sweet birch 
 
 Sweet buckeye 
 
 Sweet gum 
 
 Sweet gum 
 
 Sweet locust 
 
 Swing cut-off saw, the. . . .VIII 
 
 Swing heading saw, the 
 pendulous IX 
 
 Switch bud hickory 
 
 Switch, the unloading. . . . 
 
 Sycamore , 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Table of alloys XII 
 
 Table of gauges XII 
 
 Table of tempers to which 
 tools should be drawn . . 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 Tamarack . 
 
 11 
 
 349 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 
 v 
 
 127 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 V 
 
 112 
 
 V 
 
 125 
 
 V 
 
 117 
 
 I 
 
 48 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 52 
 
 I 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 52 
 
 I 
 
 52 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 
 I 
 
 34 
 
 I 
 
 39 
 
 i 
 
 55 
 
 i 
 
 49 
 
 IT 
 
 239 
 
 X 
 
 258 
 
 I 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 193 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 I 
 
 56 
 
 II 
 
 373 
 
 II 
 
 372 
 
 V 
 
 147 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 SE(T. PAGE 
 
 Tamarack '. . I 25 
 
 Teeth in circular ripsaws, 
 
 standard number IV 130 
 
 Teeth in cross-cut saws, 
 
 standard number IV 131 
 
 Teeth in saws, number and 
 
 style of IV 127 
 
 Temper knives, to V 146 
 
 Temper of knives V 144 
 
 Temper of knives, different 
 
 ideas on V 143 
 
 Temper old files, to V 147. 
 
 Tempering solutions V 146 
 
 Tempers to which tools 
 
 should be drawn, table of V 147 
 Tensioning saws, hammer- 
 ing and IV 133 
 
 Thorned acacia, three I 49 
 
 Three-thorned acacia I 49 
 
 Tide-land spruce I 24 
 
 Timber beetles, ambrosia.. II 74 
 Timber, characteristics and 
 
 properties of I 3 
 
 Timber, general remarks on I 3 
 Timber, plan for protecting 
 
 mature Ill 99 
 
 Timber with bark on, round II 79 
 
 Timber worms II 77 
 
 Time of felling VII 178 
 
 Tolerance of red gum I 41 
 
 Tools should be drawn, ta- 
 ble of tempers to which. V 147 
 Transporting gum, difficul- 
 ties of VII 191 
 
 Treasury or Government 
 
 whitewash XII 373 
 
 Tree, bee I 32 
 
 Tree, button-ball I 55 
 
 Tree, coffee : I 36 
 
 Tree, cucumber I 36 
 
 Tree, cucumber I 56 
 
 Tree, lime I 32 
 
 Tree, tulip I 56 
 
 Tree, tulip I 58 
 
 Trees, classes of I 5 
 
INDEX 
 
 395 
 
 SEC. 
 
 Trees, list of important 
 
 broad-leaved I 
 
 Trees, list of important 
 
 coniferous I 
 
 Trees, wood of broad-leaved I 
 
 Trees, wood of coniferous. . I 
 Truss hoops, dry cooperage 
 
 stock and wooden II 
 
 Tupelo I 
 
 Tulip I 
 
 Tulip tree I 
 
 Tulip tree I 
 
 Tupelo gum 
 
 Tupelo gum, range of . . . . 
 Tupelo gum, uses of 
 
 Tulip wood I 
 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 Turner, the heading IX 
 
 U 
 
 Unloading switch, the .... VII 
 
 Unseasoned products in the 
 rough II 
 
 Unsolved problems in kiln- 
 drying IX 
 
 Useful numbers for rapid 
 calculation XII 
 
 Useful rules and informa- 
 tion on steam XII 
 
 Useful rules and informa- 
 tion on water XII 
 
 Uses of tupelo gum I 
 
 Valparaiso oak I 
 
 Value of slack stock pro- 
 duced, quantity and VI 
 
 Value of wood, weight and 
 
 comparative fuel XII 
 
 Vat, the hoop-boiling X 
 
 Views of lumbermen con- 
 cerning forest fires Ill 
 
 W 
 
 Wahoo , 
 Walnut 
 
 PAGE SEC. PAGE 
 
 Walnut, black I 33 
 
 30 Walnut, black I 56 
 
 Walnut, white I 34 
 
 16 Walnut, white I 57 
 
 25 Waste problem, the VIII 198 
 
 7 Water beech I 33 
 
 Water beech I 55 
 
 86 Water elm I 37 
 
 56 Water in wood, distribu- 
 
 57 tion of IX 267 
 
 56 Water in wood, manner of 
 
 58 evaporation of IX 266 
 
 54 Water in wood, rapidity of 
 
 44 evaporation of IX 269 
 
 46 Water maple I 50 
 
 45 Water oak I 53 
 
 293 Water oak I 53 
 
 Water, useful information 
 
 and rules on XII 362 
 
 193 Weight and comparative 
 
 fuel value of wood XII 366 
 
 83 Weight of kiln-dried wood 
 
 of different species I 68 
 
 279 Weight of wood I 63 
 
 W T eights of slack cooperage 
 
 370 stock XII 349 
 
 West, red cedar of the I 16 
 
 364 Wheels, emery V 148 
 
 Wheels, speed of emery V 150 
 
 362 White ash I 31 
 
 45 White basswood I 32 
 
 White birch I 33 
 
 White cedar I 16 
 
 53 White cedar I 17 
 
 White cedar I 17 
 
 160 White cedar I 17 
 
 White cypress I 18 
 
 366 White elm I 37 
 
 313 White elm I 37 
 
 White fir I is 
 
 95 White fir I 18 
 
 White-heart hickory I 47 
 
 White oak I '52 
 
 I 38 White oak I 52 
 
 I 56 i White oak I 52 
 
396 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SEC. 
 
 White oak I 
 
 White oak, swamp . I 
 
 White oak, swamp 
 
 White pine 
 
 White pine 
 
 White pine 
 
 White pine 
 
 White poplar I 
 
 White spruce I 
 
 White spruce I 
 
 White walnut , I 
 
 White walnut I 
 
 Whitewash, Treasury or 
 Government .. . XII 
 
 White willow I 
 
 Whitewood I 
 
 Whitewood I 
 
 Whitewood I 
 
 Willow oak I 
 
 Willow, white I 
 
 Winged elm I 
 
 Wood, anatomical structure 
 
 of I 
 
 Wood, different grains of . . I 
 
 Wood, difficulties of drying IX 
 Wood, distribution of water 
 
 in IX 267 
 
 Wood, effects of moisture 
 
 on IX 
 
 Wood, enemies of II 
 
 Wood, iron I 
 
 Wood, iron I 
 
 Wood, manner of evapora- 
 tion of water in. . IX 
 
 PAGE 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 21 
 21 
 21 
 21 
 58 
 24 
 24 
 34 
 57 
 
 373 
 57 
 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 53 
 57 
 38 
 
 13 
 
 58 
 278 
 
 Wood, minute structure of I 
 
 Wood of coniferous trees . . I 
 
 Wood of broad-leaved trees I 
 Wood of different species, 
 
 weight of kiln-dried I 
 
 270 
 
 71 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 266 
 29 
 7 
 25 
 
 68 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 Wood, rapidity of evapora- 
 tion of water in IX 269 
 
 Wood, white I 56 
 
 Wood, white I 57 
 
 Wood, white I 58 
 
 W T oods chiefly used for 
 
 slack cooperage VI 156 
 
 Woods, list of important 
 
 coniferous I 16 
 
 Woods management VII 184 
 
 Wood, shrinkage of IX 271 
 
 Wood, spring and summer. I 10 
 Wood, weight and compar- 
 ative fuel value of XII 364 
 
 Wood, weight of I 63 
 
 Wood, weight of kiln-dried I 68 
 Wooden truss hoops, dry 
 
 cooperage stock and II 86 
 
 Worms, timber II 77 
 
 Yard, piling hoops on X 323 
 
 Yearly ring, the annual 
 
 or I 9 
 
 Yellow birch I 33 
 
 Yellow fir I 24 
 
 Yellow locust I 48 
 
 Yellow long-leaf pine I 21 
 
 Yellow oak I 52 
 
 Yellow oak I 52 
 
 fellow pine I 21 
 
 Yellow pine I 21 
 
 Yellow pine' I 22 
 
 Yellow pine I 22 
 
 Yellow poplar I 56 
 
 Yellow poplar I 58 
 
 Yew . I 25 
 
 Yew . I 25 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
MEMORANDUM 
 
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