THOMAS RUTHERFORD BACON MMO r *'AL LIBRARY THE LAID OPEN, IwV A POPULAR SURVEY OF THE PHENOMENA AND CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE; AND THE APPEARANCES OF NATURE DURING EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR. BY TRE iRJSV. W HUTT-Otf, M. A- ; Lei us rea-3 The LIVING PAGE, whose ev'ry character Delights, and gives us wisdom." FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION GEORGETOWN : PUBLISHED BY JOSEPH MILLIGAN, i ( 1898 706 ! ' Printed by William Cooper, Jim. IT lias long been the opinion of the editor of this volume, that the noblest employment of the mind of man is the contemplating the works of his Creator ; these living testimonies of the being and attributes of God have also ever ap- peared to him infinitely superior to the best arguments that the understanding of man has" been able to advance. To lead, especially, the youthful mind, to this happy turn of observation, has been his object in the arrangement of these pages; and he trusts that the familiar and comprehensive delineations of Nature, which he has endea- voured to give, will be found not only calcu- lated for the improvement and extension of knowledge, but shew to the reader, that in every object in nature there are ample traces of the wisdom, power, and bounty of the Cre- ator, and convince him, that even the vilest weed and the meanest insect offer incontestible evidences of their Maker, 280791 IV. ADVERTISEMENT. Such being the object of the editor in ar- ranging this work, he leaves it to a liberal and enlightened public to appreciate his labours, and by their patronage give circulation to what he conceives may be beneficial in forming th mind to piety and just views of things. CHELSEA, October, 1820. CONTENTS. Air, weight of, - 16$ elasticity and resistance of, 164 how cleansed, - 170 Alternate succession of day and night, benefits resulting therefrom, - 187 Animals, their construction and properties, - 38 diversity of bulk, taste and habit of, 40 i prodigious numbers of, ib. instincts of, 47 provision for keeping their numbers within due limits, ifr. of the graminivorous kind, 49 of the weasel kind, - 50 -varieties of, - 56 divisions into classes, orders, &c. ih. Animal Flowers, - - 125 Atmosphere, extent of, - - 164 its use, 165 great thoroughfare to the feathery creation, . - 170 phenomena of, - 172 Atmospheric phenomena, meteors, &c. uses of, 178 Beavers, their wonderful foresight, &c. 52 Birds, their structure, appetites, &c. 63 amazing strength of their wings, - 65 A 2 VI. CONTENTS. Birds, admirable structure of their nests, - 67 peculiarities as to food, make, &c, - 69 migration of, . 71, 265 various situations ot their nests, - -72 Bismuth, - .9 Camels, 49 Celestial appearances, - 176 Chick in the egg, description of, - 242 Clay, its importance and usefulness, - - 11 Coal, Chalk, Cinnabar, &c. 9 Cod fish, incalculable number of, - 156 Comets, their number, motion, &c. 204 purposes for which created, - 206 Connecting links in nature, - 2 Copper and Tin, 8 Corn, construction and vegetation of, 256 Crustaceous tribe, instinctive sagacity of, - 131 Design of this work, - .4 Dew, nature of, and benefits derived from, 247 Dog, affectionate tenderness of, 52 Shepherd's arid Newfoundland, 54 Earth, form or shape of, - 12 structure of the, - 7 spherity of the, - - IS surface of, its inequalities,. &c. - - 15 verdant colour of the, - 21 two-fold motion of the, - - - 185 Earth worm, - 95 Electric fluid and its effects, - - - 174 CONTENTS. VII. Electricity, a most powerful agent in nature, 180 Emu, its great swiftness, 64 Fall of the leaf, observations on, 270 Fishes, - 140 structure of, 142 immense number of, - - 145 construction of, 147 instincts of, - 150 sagacity of, in depositing their spawn, 151 migration of, - 152 " uses of, - 153 how they contribute to the comforts of man, 155 Fixed stars, their beauty and number, 209 w hy S o called, - 212 their distance from the earth, 214 their uses, - 215 Flowers, their exquisite structure, - 28 their variety and fragrance, - 29 purposes for which they were designed, 35 Fogs, Mists, Clouds, and Rain, salutary effects of, 181 Fruit, reflections on, 260 Frost and Snow, uses of, in the economy of nature, 182 Goats, their remarkable agility, &c. 50 Harvest moon described, - 191 Herbs, use and importance of, 32 Herrings, Cod fish, Mackerel &c. prolific powers of, 146 their immense numbers, - 155 observations on the natural history of, 261 Insects, most numerous of nature's productions, 81 beauty and symmetry of some, 8 Vlll. CONTENTS. Insects, peculiarities in this order of beings, - 84 their strength and agility, 87 their wonderful transformations, - ib. their surprising instinct, - 89 their uses, - - - 90 Instincts of the Monkey, the Cat, and the Hare, 52 the Lion, Bear, Porcupine, Horse &c. 53- Iron, its usefulness and importance, 8 Jewels and Gems, - 10 Kraken, its immense size, - 141 Lama of South America, - 50 Land Crab, its instinctive qualities, - - 134 Lead, - -8 Limpet, how protected, - 128 Loadstone, its importance, - 118 Lobster, justly styled wondrous, - 127 youiiur, its instinctive habits, 133 Man, intellectual pre-eminence of, - 3 Marble, Alabaster, Flint, &c. - 10 Metals, their nature and importance, 8 Meteors, fiery, the use of, - 180 Meteors, watery, - 176 Mineral kingdom, treasures of the, 7 Mineral Salts, 9 Mineral and medicinal Waters, 20 Milky way described, 211 Moon, her phases, &c. - - 189 eclipses of r - 190 v- her salutary influences enumerated, * 193 CONTENTS. IX. Mother-of-pearl, mode of fishing for, 138 Motion, the soul of the universe, - 173 Mountains and Vallies, 16 their use, 18 Muscle, Cockle, Periwinkle, Nautilus, &c. 129 Natural objects, classification of, 1 Natural appearances in January, - 221 . February, 224 March, April, 235 May, - - 240 June, 244 July, - - - 249 _____ August, 254 September, - 257 _ ; October, - 263 . November, - 268 December, 272 Northern and southern lights, how formed, 179 Ocean, its magnificence, - 98 murmur of the, its use, - 112 usefulness of the luminous appearances of, ib. the uses of j - - 115 the great vehicle of commerce, 116 benefits derived from this wonderful fluid, 118 Oran Outang. or wild Man of the Woods, - 50 Ostrich, Emu, and Cassowary, remarkable size of, 63 its swiftness, - 64 Pilchards, vast shoals of, - 155 Planets, their magnitudes and motions, - - 199 Plains, wide and extended, their uses, X. CONTENTS. Plants, sexual system of, 27 sleep of, - ib. Quadrupeds, their conformation, - 48 their remarkable instincts, 51' their uses, 53 Quicksilver, its uses, &c. * 8 Rainbow, beauty of, - 177 Religion, a sense of, the peculiar characteristic of man, - 4 Reptiles, their structure, &c. 91 their motion, - 92 their use, - 97 Saline substances and sulphureous bodies, - 9 Sea, its vast extent and bounds, 99 a source of fertility to the land, 103 a purifier and restorer of nature, - - 104 currents of the, 105 contains the greatest quantity of salt in the torrid zone, - - ib. saltness of, how beneficial, 109 colour of, deception relative thereto, - 114 vegetable productions found at the bottom of, 119 vegetables, the use of, - 123 Sea-horse of the northern ocean, - 50 Sea-tortoise, its instinctive sagacity, - - 132 Seasons, changes of the, and vicissitudes of day and night, how produced, - 183, 185 beneficial effects in the changes of the, 186 Serpents, some peculiarities relative to, 93 their poison, &c. 94 , . wonderful sagacity of, 96 CONTENTS. ' Xl. Shell-fish, 127 , . their uses, 137 Shrubs, 31 Silver, Copper, Tin, &c. Solar System, - - 198 Soldier crab, peculiarities of, Spring, influence of, on man, - 238 reflections on, Springs and rivers, Stones and fossils, - 10 Sun, the, 193 the great fountain of light and heat, - 194 the fountain of cheerfulness, - 196 its magnitude and motion, 198 Tellina, Scallop, Razor shell-fish, &c. peculiari- ties relative thereto, - 136 Thunder storms, their nature and influence, 252 Tides, where greatest, - - 105 flux and reflux of, - 107 Vegetables, variety of, 23 _ their use and importance, - 24 structure of, - ib. sub-marine, striking peculiarities in, 122 Vegetable kingdom, properties and peculiarities of, 9,7 Volatiies, their use, 75 Waterspouts, of two kinds, 109 description of one in the atl antic ocean, - 111 Whales, their immense size, 140 - fidelity of to each other, 155 Whirlpools, - - 107 Xli. CONTENTS. Wind, description of, - 172 influence of on the ocean, - 106 Winter in the polar regions, - 226 sowing time, - ... 267 . beginning of, 271 advantages of, - - . - 257 Wonder s of the north, ... 229 THE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. EVERY page of the volume of Nature is fraught with instruction. Not only do the canopy of the heavens, and the luminous orbs which bedeck the glowing hemisphere on a clear frosty evening, de- clare the glory of the Supreme, but the whole of created existences, however insignificant, simple, or minute they may appear, plainly evince to the con- templative mind the wisdom and power of the Crea- tor; and shew that All Nature is a glass reflecting God, As by the Sea reflected is the Sun, Too glorious to be gaz'd on in his' sphere. Natural objects, for the purpose of classification, have been in general arranged under the three grand divisions of animal, vegetable, and mineral, each of which will admit of many lesser subdivisions, 2 BOQJ^OF NAT C HE LAID OPEN. about which we mean not here to treat. One ob- servation, however, upon a general view of the whole, as it cannot fail in time to present itself to every person who engages in this study, may here be introduced : it is, that however easy it may seem, at the first glance, to discriminate the three classes of objects from each other, yet every class of natural objects will be found to approach so nearly in the extreme of other classes, that it is a matter of diffi- culty to say with precision where the one ends, and the other begins. The whole are so closely con- nected, like the links of a chain, that there is no possibility of finding a disjunction in any part. Among animated beings, bats are the connecting link between beasts and birds: the numerous class of amphibia conjoin beasts and fishes; and lizards unite them with reptiles The humming-bird ap- proaches the nature of insects, and the flying-fish that of birds The polypus, the sea anemony, and the sea pen, though of animal origin, have more the habits of vegetables than of animals; while the fly-trap, the sensitive plant, and sonfe other vegeta- ble productions, by their spontaneous movements, or extreme sensibility, seem to participate more of animal origin. Corals and corallines, from the dif- ferent forms they assume, may be more easily mis- taken for mineral or vegetable than animal produc- tions, to which class they are now referred, by tne unanimous decision of naturalists. The trufle, though a vegetable, assumes rather the appearance of a mineral; and there is reason to believe that the o BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 3 anomalous substance callfd peat is actually a live vegetable rather than an earthy or mineral sub- stance, as it has been often supposed. Nor is it with regard to corporeal forms only, and peculiarities of organization, that this disjointed con- nection subsists between the different objects which inhabit the globe: the same concatenation is observ- ed to take place respecting mind, beginning with man, who forms the highest link of the chain, and descending ivom him by an almost imperceptible dinmnition of mental powers, through an innumera- ble series of existences, till it ends at last in mere animation alone, with a seeming privation of all mental perception whatever. It is indeed true, that though, in regard to intellect, some of the higher order of animals appear, in certain points of view, to approximate to the lowest of the human species, yet there can be no doubt that man is much farther exalted above them all, than any one of these excels the next below it ; so that if there be any break in the chain at all, it is here that the rupture takes place. For though many of the higher orders of animals possess a kind of memory, and the faculty of reasoning in a certain degree; though u the ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib," yet, unless it be in recollecting their dependence on others for food, and a few circumstances of a similar nature, tending chiefly to the preservation of ex- istence, the intellectual powers of even the highest order of animals are extremely^circurn scribed Man alone can reason from consequences to remote causes. 4 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN, and can from the creature trace an idea of the Creator. A sense of religion, then, is the charac- teristic peculiarity which decisively marks a separa- tion between man and all other animals. In the view we are about to take of Nature, then, it shall be our chief aim, while we expatiate on the wonderful variety it presents in each department, to endeavour to establish and strengthen this pre-emi- nent characteristic of our species, and counteract that tendency to infidelity which has of late, by the labours of the wicked and designing, been rendered too prevalent. Indeed the contemplation of the works of Mature invariably leads to a consideration of the attributes of the Creator. The stfbject is so replete with digni- fied feelings, that we cannot help being surprised that atheism should ever have had a teacher or a convert. These infatuated men attempt *to make every thing subservient to their reasonings, and they are unwilling to acknowledge that a superior mind can have created the wonders around them. Their favourite arguments against the intervention of Pro- vidence lie in a reference to physical and moral evils; such as pestilence, tempests, volcanoes, and death. They have no pleasure in contemplating the beneficent part of the works of Nature ; show them a flower, and they will point out the worm which consumes its bosom. It is by dwelling on scenes of waste that they seek to make us converts to their doctrine of annihilation; it is by making us bend under the pressure of the evils of life, that they BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 5 expect to bring us to renounce the hope of eternity. To minds thus perverted, all that excites sorrow among mankind affords a ground of triumph; even when living in the country, they shut their eyes to the plentiful harvest that waves around them, to the beautiful sky over their heads, and to the beneficent effects of the orb of day. Let us not lend an ear to those gloomy reasoners, who, while they are ad- mitted to the enjoyment of so many blessings, refuse to trace them to their Divine Author. Their theories are contradicted by the concurrent voice of every people; the most uncivilized nations are im- pressed with a belief of the existence of a Creator, and are accustomed to contemplate him in his works. Hardly had our world risen out of chaos, hardly had our ancestors been admitted to the en- joyment of light and life, when their thoughts were directed with gratitude to the throne of their Maker. Their mode of worship was in the beginning as simple as the nature that surrounded them ; but the first application of their progress in art and science was to give dignity and splendour to their adoration. Temples were constructed with magnificence, and assembled tribes repeated there the hallowed verses taught to them by their fathers. That man does not receive instruction from the creatures of God is not their fault, but his own. Their language is not dull and languid, but loud and incessant; while he, alas! remains deaf to the re- iterated cries of nature; and although day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night sheweth g BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEK. knowledge," he continues to post on in his career, without once reflecting on the importance of Na^ ture's universal call to Standstill, and consider the wonderoas works of God. The task, therefore, be ours, in this work, to di- fect the attention of our fellow travellers in the journey of life to this universal call of Nature, and by pointing out a few striking passages in the stu- pendous volume of the Creator's works, endeavour, while we instruct, to excite their adoration, love, and gratitude to HIM who gave them being, and has ,go abundantly provided for all their wants. But where, in the midst of the multiplicity of na- fure's works shall we begin? From what spot of this prospect shall we set out? Struck with the vastness of our task, we stand, as it were, in the Temple of the Universe, insensible to every thing but our own insignificance; we know not scarcely how to commence our labours, so prolific of instruc- tion, and so attractive is every page of this vast volume ; for when we look around us, every object, whether in the form of things animate or inani- mate, existing in the heavens or on the earth, in the waters or in the air, conspire with one accord to arrest our attention, and to point out the almighty power of the Supreme, his consummate wisdom, and the infinitude of his goodness to the children of men. As the traveller, however, in setting out on a voyage of discovery takes his departure from his na- tive land, and should, at least, before visiting regions BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEK 7 more remote, first make himself a little acquainted with those nigh home, we shall, previous to extend- ing our researches to more distant bounds, first in- dulge ourselves with a cursory glance at the lowest compartment of the vast edifice, by taking a view of the internal structure of our globe, and see what commodities there present themselves for our use and accommodation. CHAP. II. THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. Thus in thy world material, MIGHTY MIND, Not only that which solaces and shines, The rough, the gloomy, challenges our praise! The treasures of the mineral kingdom, being more concealed, are not so alluring to the senses and are of course, to most men, less interesting than animals or vegetables; but they present themselves to the reflecting mind under innumerable points of view that are interesting, chiefly as affording the ma- terials on which nature, by her slow but certain operations, is continually producing changes that tend to augment the multiplication of plants, for the preservation and the accommodation of animals; while man, in the mean while, is endowed with fa- culties which enable him to avail himself of the qualities they possess for his own purposes. 8 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. When we penetrate the dark and subterraneous magazine of Nature, we find veins fraught with the richest Metals; from hence comes that which gives value to the monarch's crown, and weight to his sceptre ; which, formed into coins, gives energy and life to traffic, rewards the toils of labour, and puts it in the power of the affluent to warm the bosom of ad- versity, and make the widow and the orphan sing for joy, or, beaten out into an inconceivable thin- ness, is made to cover with a transcendant lustre some of the coarest of nature's productions, and ren- der them ornamental in the palace of the great. Here .also is laid up the pale brightness of the Silver, which, formed into a variety of domestic uten- sils, sets off with peculiar lustre the choicest dainties of the rich man's table ; and here is found the pon- derous Lead, from which the cool and clean cistern is formed, as well as those convenient and safe aqueducts, by which the useful element of water is conveyed into the very hearts of our dwellings. Here too are stores of Copper and Tin, by which sundry utensils, formed of the former metal, are rendered more safe and fit for use: and here do we find in profuse abundance Mines, whose contents, although they may not be reckoned of equal value, have been found to be more beneficial in their ser- vices to man, than any of those already mentioned. Iron furnishes the mechanic, the artist, and the la- bourer with their most useful implements and tools; by Iron the farmer is enabled to tear up the most stubborn soil; Iron secures our dwellings from the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 9 midnight thief, and confines, by its massy bars, the disturber of our peace to his gloomy cell ; by means of Iron, the vessel tossed with tempest is firmly at- tached to a plac* of safety, or prevented from being broken up by the raging elements, when overtaken by a, storm in the midst of the watery waste. In these dark vaults are also found that subtle, insinuating metal, Quicksilver, which so much re sembles a fluid ; the uses of which in philosophy and medicine, are so well known, as well as its im- portance in various arts and sciences. From hence, also, are extracted a multitude cf Mineral Salts and Saline Substances, together with a variety of Sulphureous bodies. The astringent Alum, the green Borax, the volatile Nitre, the blue Vitrol of Hungary and Cyprus, the green of Ger- many and Italy, the shining Bismuth, the glittering Antimony, the brown-coloured Cinnabar, the white Chalk, have all an origin in these dark apartments ; as also that truly invaluable black inflammatory sub- stance Coal, which ministers to our comfort in the room, presents its services in the kitchen, assists the chemist and philosopher in their experiments, ren- ders the work of the artist more easy, transforms the coarest materials into transparency itself, by which means the light of day is admitted into our dwellings, while the cold inclemency of the weather, is excluded the astronomer is enabled to extend his researches to worlos before invisible to mortal eye the naturalist to observe the minutiae of crea- tion and the feeble eyes ot old age furnished with 10 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. new and invigorating powers. From hence also is derived that wonderful mineral, whose magnetic quality guides the mariner, with unerring precision, beyond the pillars of Hercules, antl enables him to find his solitary way across the pathless deep. Here also in these dark recesses are conveniently laid up, a variety of strata of Stones, and beds of Fossils ; and* hence derive their origin a number of valuable Jewels and transparent Gerns, as well as the firm and compact Marble, the Alabaster, the Porphyry, and the hard pellucid Flint. Here are to be found those quarries of Stones, from which are constructed secure and comfortable dwellings for man and beast by which the arms of the pier are strengthened to repel the surges of the sea the rampart is raised above the basis nature had formed our property secured from the depre- dations of intruders-*-the arched bridge thrown across the broad and rapid stream, and the stupen- dous aqueduct carried over the deep-sunk glen. Here too are deposited a variety of curious Fossils and extraneous substances, which bafle the wisdom of the wise, and puzzle the reasoning of the natur- alist to account for : and here are those vast layers or strata of earth, in all their variety, whose nature and uses are more apparent where the vegetable kingdom derives its support and nutriment, the trees of the forest spread their wide extended roots, and the tender herb and flower of the field takes hold of the dust ; where the pliable worm forces itself quietly along, the mole finds its darksome way, the foxes BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 11 have holes, and the copeys burrow themselves. Here is that tough tenacious species of earth, which administers its services to man in such a variety of shapes, and acts as a substitute for other commo- dities in situations where riuture has denied them. Are some in want of stones for building? Clay, by undergoing a process, becomes "firm and hard, to withstand the most rigid blasts of winter. Are there no Slate quarries in the neighbourhood r Clay, in the shape of Tiles, forms an excellent substiiute. Are we in want <& Lead for pipes to convey our water from a distance? Clay comes seasonably to our aid. In short, by this mean looking, dirty, and despised substance, we are abundantly supplied with a great variety of utensils and vessels, neat in their structure, cleanly in the use, and though cheap in the purchase, extremely valuable in point of utility. Here are also, commodiously lodged, a va- riety of other useful earths, which it would encroach too much on our limits to attempt to enumerate. These, with an innumerable variety of other useful and valuable materials, of which those we have mentioned may be considered as only a specimen, are safely locked up by PROVIDENCE in this great storehouse of Nature, and the key given to Indus- try to take out and apply as necessity may require, or circumstances direct; and in the disposition of which \ve may be at a loss what most to admire, the bounty of the Creator, in thus so largely making provision for our numerous wants, or his wisdom in placing them at such convenient distances below the 12 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN, earth's surface, as neither to obstruct by their bulk the operations going on upon it, or to be beyond the reach of moderate labour, when the necessities of man call aloud for their use. How inconvenient would it have been, and what small space left ior cultivation, had these useful layers of Stone and Lime, Coal and Clay, been promiscuously scattered about in our fields and vine- yards, or plied up in uncouth, naked, and*deformed masses, without the slightest depth of soil for a co- vering; and how inaccessible to^uman labour and ingenuity, or to what an expence of loss of time must man have been put in coming at them, had they been sunk miles instead of feet into the bowels of the earth ? Reflecting upon these things^ we have good reason to exclaim, In goodness, as well as " in wisdom hast Thou made them all!" CHAR III. THE FORM OF THE EAUTIL " O Nature! all-sufficient, over all! Enrich me with the knowledge of thy works ! " On returning from our subterraneous excursion, our attention is naturally directed to the shape, or form of that stupendous fabrick, which contains so many convenient apartments, and is enriched by so many valuable materials; and were we to trust to ap- pearances as they present themselves to our limited BOOK OF NATtRE LAID PEN. 13 powers of vision, we might be led to conclude (as was the opinion of some of the ancients,) that the earth is a wide extended flat, bounded by the hori- zon. This belief, however, is now completely explod- ed, and the figure of the earth demonstrated to be globular, by the voyage of a number of circumnavi- gators, from the days of the famous Magellan down to those of our illustrious countryman, Captain Cook. By these voyagers it has been fully ascertained, that a vessel leaving Europe in a certain direction, may return to the point from whence she set out, without altering her course farther than is necessary to avoid intervening obstacles, or give her, what the sailors call sea room. The spherity of the earth is also apparent from the circumstance, that two ships at sea, sailing in con- trary directions till they lose sight of each other, first do so bv the disappearance of the hulls and lower rigging, and afterwards of the higher sails and top- masts. The roundness, from North to South, is evident from the sinking of northern stars to the horizon, till they actually disappear to those who travel far southward ; and from East to West by the difference of sun rise in proportion as we go east* ward or westward. The form of die earth being therefore proved by arguments the most incontrovertible, to be that of a globe or sphere, permit us here to pause and ac- knowled isdom and goodness of the Creator, as manifested in that particular form. This wisdom 14 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. and goodness is highly apparent, when we consider that this is the most capacious, compact, and dura- ble of all figures, the most convenient for a body in motion, for the equal distribution of light and heat, for the proper disposal of land and water, as well as for the beneficial influence of the winds. The earth, which is the habitation of so many Creatures, must be sufficiently capacious not only to ontain them, but what is necessary for their preser- vation ; and being, as it were, the basis of this sub- lunary creation, it must be so firmly and compactly girt together, as to be beyond the reach of accident to destroy any of its parts, till the fiat shall have gone forth, that Time shall be no more. Had it been of an Angular form, the points of the angles behoved to have been considerably weak- ened by their distance from the centre of gravity, and consequently would have been in continual danger of being loosened, or flying off, by the ra- pidity of the earth's diurnal motion round its axis; or, had it been possible for them to have remained, what resistance must these angles have occasioned in the performance of that motion! What a conti- nual state of perturbation and tempest in the air must they have caused ! How incommodious to the dif- fusion of light and heat, and for the wise and useful distribution of the waters! TJie Surface of the Earth. In casting our eyes abroad over the face of the efrth, we observe it covered with two great bodies BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN". Ifi ef JLand&nd Water ; but as it is to the appendages and productions of the former we mean first to di- rect our thoughts, we will leave the consideration of Nature's mighty Reservoir, and the wonders of the Ocean, to an after occasion, and will proceed to consider the magnificent scene which the dry land presents. The first thing that here strikes the imagination is that wonderful diversity every where observable and those numerous inequalities so conspicuous on its surface. On one part, we behold the gently rising hillock, scarcely perceptible amidst the surrounding level; in another, the tremendous precipice, yawn- ing horribly over the mountain's brow ! Here a deep-sunk glen, imbosomed among rocks, recedes from the eye, and screens the little rivulet that glides along its bottom ; there, the lofty summits of the Andes and the Alps, with cloud capt tops wrapt in garments of perpetual snow, bid defiance to vegeta- tion or smile above the blast in sunshine, while the reverberating sound of distant thunder proclaims the raging of the storm below. In one place we behold the pleasantly sheltered meadow, decked in all its luxuriance of herbage, and in a another a wide naked waste, or sea-like fen, losing itself in the distant prospect. Here, broad and rapid rivers separate nations at variance; there the purling stream, partly fordable, and partly sur- mounted by the convenient bridge, unites and con- nects those who enjoy the mild blessings of peace. Here a vast tract of uncultivated heath stretches Id BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. across the districts of the mountains, while lakes d*f considerable magnitude lave their basis, and cover by their limpid waves the interjacent vallies. We have just been considering the earth as a glo- bular body. But how, it may be asked, are we to reconcile this with those unequal appearances ob- serVable on its surface ? To this we answer, that the elevation of the highest mountain bears no more proportion to the diameter of this wonderful struc- ture, than the inequalities on the rind of an orange does to its bulk ; and although these may render it, comparatively speaking, a little uneven, they do nothing to subtract from the beauty of its appear- ance, or the general roundness of its figure. Deformities, indeed, they cannot be called ; for if the human mind delights in variety, these inequa- lities present us with a variety the most pleasing and picturesque ; and if the contemplative philosopher is captivated by the multiplicity of nature's produc- tions, these furnish food for the most keen researcher into the wonders of creation. But a gratification of taste for the sublime and beautiful were not the only objects the Creator had in view in this diversity of the earth's surface. Mountains and Vallies. These have other great and important uses. Is Health the greatest of all earthly blessings? to one class of valetudinarians the mountain breeze is be- neficial, while to another the genial warmth of the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 1? well sheltered valley produces the most salutary ef- fects. Does the east wind rage with fury, or cold ? with its freezing particles, visit us from the north the deep-sunk bosom of the valley, or the Ice-side of the mountain, defend us from the fury of the tem- pest, and shelter us from the raging storm. By this happy diversity of towering mountain and sinking dale, we have a variety of soil in a small compass, and are furnished with the productions of different climates almost at our doors. These serv 7 e also for the harbour and lodgment of a variety of animals that would have been ill accomodated in the open plain. They are also convenient not only for the generating of metals and minerals, but for digging them out with infinitely less trouble and ex- pense than if they had been situate at considerable distances below a level surface ; and mountains are the birth-place of many valuable Mines and pre- cious Stones. In the burning regions of the torrid zone, ridges of mountains, running from East to West, arrest with their towering heads the vapours in their flight, and. condensed into rain, force back the fugitives in cooling and refreshing showers. In places where earthquakes prevail, mountains are converted into funnels, for the purpose of vomit- ing forth these volcanic eruptions of liquid fire, which, but for such vents, might have shaken king- doms from their foundations, and swallowed upj provinces in one mighty gulph* 18 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. But the most general use to which Providence seems to have applied mountains and vallies. and consequently, without doubt, the most important one for which they were designed, is the elevation of Springs, and convenient distribution of Waters, agreeably to the language of the Royal Psalmist: " They go up by the mountains, they go down by the vallies, unto the place which thou hast appointed for them." And this use alone would have afforded us abundant motives of gratitude and thankfulness, although there had been no other, that from moun- tains and vallies we are supplied with these inesti- mable blessings. Springs and Rivers. Water is not only one of those necessary elements of which our very means of existence are composed, but it administers to our wants and conveniences on a variety of occasions, and in many different shapes. With water our choicest bread is mixed, and ife makes part of the composition of our favourite be- verage. By water the beasts of the field, and the fowls of the air, quench their thirst ; and by means of it the lofty cedar of Lebanon derives its nutri- triment, as well as the tender herb that creepeth against the wall.. By this necessary and useful fluid we are assisted in many a tedious and laborious operation: Formed into canals it helps the deep- laden barge forward in its progress ; confined into dams it sets the ponderous mill-wheel in motion ; 6r BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 19 evaporated into steam, it puts in play the massy arms of the huge engine. But how does it come to pass that water is ren- dered thus serviceable? It is partly owing to the wise manner in which the great Creator distributes it from his treasures, by causing Springs to take their rise in elevated situations, and partly from the general law impressed upon fluids to regain their level, that water is impelled forward in its course, and made to surmount so many obstacles in its pro- gress to the sea, while its suitable consistency fits it for being easily turned aside, and diverted into such other channels as the necessities of man may re- quire. If, as might have been expected, Springs had been confined in general to the lower situations of the earth, extensive tracts must have been left un- watered, while plains in their immediate neighbour- hood would have been deprived of their fertility by inundation, or rendered pestilential by stagnant wa- ters pent up without the means of escape. Had water been deprived of that admirable property of rising to its level, how liable would it have been to be obstructed in its progress by every insignificant hillock, or trifling rise of the ground ; and, with re- spect to its consistency, besides being rendered inca- pable of being converted to so many useful purposes, had it been thinner, how would it have answered the purpose of supporting so many burdens, or keep- ing within its bounds; had it been thicker, how would it have been adapted for quenching thirst, or ascend- ing the minute tubes of the vegetable tribe? 20 BOOI^ OF NATURE LAID OPEN, But by this wise and beneficial arrangement, Ri- vers being elevated at their head, in situations at a distance arid remote from the sea, are necessitated to pass over a large tract of country, before they lose themselves in the main, and following the course of those numerous sunken beds made for them in the vallies, they are at once confined within their proper limits, and made to wind in many a length- ened turn, to the more copious diffusion of their benefits, than would have otherwise been the case ; while their pliable nature renders them easily turned aside as they glide along, to water those fields re- moved at a small distance from their banks, or for other purposes to which the ingenuity of man may make them subservient. Mineral and Medicinal Waters, Are also amply provided by nature, and dispense their salutary virtues in a variety of situations. These are not so numerous as the other, but are sufficiently so for the purposes to which they are adapted ; for all men, and every living creature, need food, but we have reason to be thankful that all need not the aid of medicine. Many there are, however, who stand in need of their beneficial in- fluences, and many an invalid have they been the means of restoring to renovated powers, and the blessings of health. Like the pool of Bethesda, they may be said to be of a healing nature ; but blessed be the adorable Physician who has opened up these BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. *xil fountains, that they have been found to be for the healing of multitudes who resort thither, and not for him alone who is fortunate enough to be first plunged into the troubled stream. Wide and extended Plains Also cover a considerable portion of the face of our globe, and these are not without their uses. Did nothing but huge mountainous districts, intercepted by deep vallies, present themselves, what room would be left for tillage ? What incredible labour and fatigue in travelling ! What insurmountable barriers to the purposes of trade arid commerce ! But these facilitate the operations of agriculture, and cause the stubborn glebe to be broken up with ease. Carriages with immense burdens glide along on the level of a rail-way ; the traveller on horseback, en- veloped in darkness, pursues his journey without danger of stumbling; the loaded waggon is wheeled onwards without interruption; and the swift post flies with astonishing celerity on the wings of busi- ness. The last thing we shall touch upon in the general appearance of the surface of the dry land is the Verdant Colour of the Earth ; For whatever diversity of hue there may be in na- tural objects when viewed separately, there CUP be no doubt but this is the most general and prevailing 22 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEtf. colour ; and as nature does nothing in vain, the cir- cumstance certainly ought not to be overlooked. In this the wisdom and goodness of our Creator will appear by attending to the following considera- tions: Had the robe of nature assumed a more light or brilliant cast, and the generality of objects ap- peared of a wfctkt) yelloiv, orange, or red com- plexion, it would have been too much for the strength of our nerves, and instead of being refreshed and delighted, we would have been blinded and over- powered with the dazzling splendour. Had she put on a more sombre aspect, and been elothed with a violet, purple, or blue mantle, the prospect must have been sad, dismal, and gloomy, and instead of imparting to the animal spirits the exhilarating draught to keep them in full play, would have suffered them to subside into dejection and despondency. To prevent these two extremes, nature is clothed with a verdant mantle, being that proper combination of light and shade, that neither dazzles nor darkens the prospect, which rather re- freshes than fatigues the eye, strengthens and invi- gorates instead of weakening the powers of vision, and creates in the soul that increasing delight and lengthened rapture, which the poet had in view when he wrote the following lines : < Gay green ! Thou smiling Nature's universal robe ; United light and shade ! where the sight dwells With growing streng h, and ever new delight !'* BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 23 CHAP. IV. VEGETABLES. *< Your contemplation further yet pursue ; The wondrous world of Vegetable* view ! See varied Tree- their various fruits produce, Some for delightful taste, and some for use. See Sprouting Plants enrich the plain and wood, For physic some, and some design'd for food. See Fragrant Flowers, with different colours dy'd, On smiling meads unfold their gaudy pride I FROM the verdant colour of creation the transi- tion is natural to a consideration of the objects by which it is occasioned. These are the numerous vegetable tribes which cover and adorn the surface of our globe in all that variety of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs which we behold. Here Trees, like stately turrets, raise their lofty heads ; there, the more pliant and humble thick set Shrubs unite their foliage; while the herbaceous tribe in mingled profusion cling more closely to the earth, and cover the fields with their verdure. Man cannot contemplate the vegetable creation without recalling the idea of beauty, sweetness, arid a thou- sand charms that captivate the senses. The perfume of the rose, the brilliancy of the lily, the sweetness of the violet, and the stately magnificence of the forest, successively catch his attention and delight him. 24 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. The, Structure of Vegetables , In all their varied forms, is truly wonderful. How excellently adapted are the roots for taking hold of their parent earth, as well as for drawing nourishment for the support of the plant, and imbib- ing moisture from the neighbouring soil ! How com- modiously are the various tubes and fibres which compose the trunk or stalk arranged, for the motion of the sap upwards to all the extremities of the leaves and branches! How nicely are tlie eaves formed for the important services they are made to yield in the economy of vegetation ! See how they serve to concoct and prepare the sap ; how they prevent by their shade the moisture at the root irom being too speedily evaporated; how they embrace and defend the liower in the bud, and carefully con- ceal the fruit before it arrives at maturity: and by catching the undulations of the gentle breeze, how they convey that motion to the trunk and branches, which (for ought we know,) may be as essentially necessary to the vegetable life as exercise is to ani- mal health. What an excellent clothing does the Ifark afford, not only for protecting the stem and branches from external injury, but from the hurtful extremes of heat and cold? What evident marks of wisdom arid design do the Flowers evince in their beautiful and delicate construction ! how nicely are they formed for the protection and nourishment of the first and tender rudiments of the fruit ! and when it has attained more firmness and solidity, how BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 25 readily &o they relinquish their charge, and drop off in decay when no longer necessary ! How won- derfully does the fruity in some classes, envelope and protect the seed till it has arrived at maturity ; and, lastly, what a passing strange piece of orga- nized mechanism is the seed itself, and, being ne- cessary for the reproduction of its species, what a remarkable provision is made for its preservation and succession ! What but the wisdom of a Deity could have devised that those seeds which are most exposed to the ravages of the inhabitants of the forest, should not only be doubly, but some of them trebly enclosed ! that those most in request as arti- cles of food, should be so hardy and abundantly prolific ; and that seeds in general, which are the sport of so many casualties, and exposed to injury from such a variety of accidents, are possessed of a principle of lasting vitality, which makes it indeed no easy matter to deprive them of their fructifying power. Plants are also multiplied and propagated by a variety of ways, which strengthen the provision for their succession. Nor is the finger of Providence less visible in the means of diffusing or spreading abroad vegetables, than in the provision made for keeping up their sue- cession. The earth may be said to be full of the goodness of the Lord ; but how comes it to pass, that in parts untrod by man, and on the tops of ru- inous buildings, so many varied specimens of the vegetable creation are to be found ? Is it not from the manner in which Nature's great husbandman D 2 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. scatters his seeds about ? While the seeds of some plants are made sufficiently heavy to fall down and take up their abode nigh the place of their nativity ; and others, after having been swallowed by quadru- peds, are deposited in the neighbouring soil ; some are carried by the fowls of the air to places more re- mote, or, being furnished with a soft plumage, are borne on the winds of heaven to the situations allot- ted for them. To prevent some from pitching too near, they are wrapt up in elastic cases, which burst- ing when fully ripe, the prisoners fly abroad in all directions : to prevent others from straying too far, they are furnished with a kind of grappling hooks that arrest them in their flight, and attach them to the spot most congenial to their growth. In the construction of plants we observe a consi- derable difference in the consistence of the three classes. Compared with the shrubby race, how hard, firm, and tenacious is the trunk of the majestic Oak; and, compared with the herbaceous tribe, how woody, tough, and elastic is the hawthorn twig; but for this, how could the mighty monarch of the wood have been able to withstand the fury of the tempest; and, while the more humble and lowly shrubs stand not in need of such firmness of texture, their pliability and elastic toughness, together with the prickly coat of mail by which they are envelop- ed, render them less susceptible of injury in their exposed situation. Softness, united with a still greater degree of flex- ibility, are the distinguishing characteristics of the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 27 herbaceous order; and how wisely has this been or- dered for the various purposes for which they were created ; with the firmness of trees, to what a prickly stubble must Nature's soft and downy carpet have given way ? with the tenacity of shrubs, how would it have answered as food for our cattle ? There are, besides, a number of other properties and peculiarities in the vegetable kingdom, in which the wonderful working of Divinity shines pre-emi^ nent. How strange, for instance, that it a seed is sown in a reversed position, the young root turns of itself downwards, while the stem refuses to sink deeper in the soil, and bends itself round to shoot, up through the surface of the earth. I'ow surprising, that when the roots of a tree or plant meet with a stone or other interruption in their progress under- ground, they change their direction and avoid it. How amazing, that the numerous shoots which branch out from the root in quest of moisture, pursue as it were by instinct the tract that leads to it ; will turn from a barren to a more fertile soil ; and, that plants shut up in a darksome room, bend or creep to any aperture through which the rays of light may be admitted. In these respects the vegetable tribes may be said to possess something analogous to animal life ; but here the resemblance does not drop how surprising the phenomenon of what is called the sleep of plants, and the sexual system of Linnaeus, founded on the discovery that there exists in the vegetable, as well as in the animal kingdom, a distinction of sexes I 23 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. What amazing variety of size, of shape, and hue, do we discover among this multitudinous order of things ! What different properties do some possess from others ! and what a near approach do a few make to that superior order immediately above them, in the scale of existence ! The Sensitive plant, when slightly touched, evinces something like tiie timidity of our harmless animals ; the Hedysa- rum Gyrans, or moving plant of the East, exhibits an incessant and spontaneous movement of its leaves during the day, in warm and clear weather; but in the night season, and in the absence of light and heat, its motions cease, and it remains, as it were, in a state of quiescence ; and the American Venus' Flytrap, like an animal of prey, seems to lie in wait to catch the unwary insect. These are wonderful properties of the vegetable creation, but these are necessary in the infinitude of the works of creation, as links to connect it with the order of animals, and preserve unbroken the most minute gradations in Nature's universal chain ! Flowers are undoubtedly among the most exqui- site pieces of nature's workmanship. What beautiful tints do they display ! what lively colours do they unfold ! what variegated beauties do they discover ! and what delightful perfumes do they emit! In view of these well might the poet exclaim : Who can paint Like Nature? Can imagination boast Amid its gay creation, Imes like hers? Or can it mix, them with that matchless skill* BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 29 And lose them in each other, as appears In every bud that blows ?" But we have no less to admire in the general con- trivance and delicate structure of their several parts, and beautiful harmony of the whole, than in the lay- ing on of the colours by which they are embellished. The diversity of shape, and form, and complexion, in those of different kinds, is not more remarkable ^ban that no tivo are to be found exactly alike, even of the same species, and growing on the same stalk or knot. Nor should the aromatic fragrance which those beautiful sons and daughters of nature send forth, more excite our gratitude, than that well ordered succession, by which the pleasures we receive from these transitory visitants, are lengthened out and protracted all the year round. Before winter with his ckmdy front has taken his departure, the early Snow drop boldly steps forth in his pure white robe, the Crocus next, with an air of timidity peeps out, and, as if afraid to venture, keeps close to the earth ; then comes the Violet with her varied beauties, accompanied by the sparkling Polyanthus, and splendid Auricula; afterwards grov es of Tulips display their rich and gaudy attire, followed by the Anemone in her spreading robe. Now the Ranuncules expands the richness of his foliage, the Sun-Floiver shoots forth his golden rays, and the beautiful Carnation with a numerous train bring up the rear, and close the procession. D2 SO BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. The Use of Vegetables. , Trees. -Those stupendous specimens of creating art spread not their wide extended roots, nor lift their lofty heads in vain. Beneath their cooling shades, our flocks and herds find a comfortable asylum from the scorching rays of the summer sun; the wild stragglers of the forest have a place of re- fuge among their woods and thickets; whilst the feathery songsters of the grove build their little dwellings in security, and sing among their branch- es ; " as for the stork, the fir trees are her house." But in what a variety of respects, besides afford- ing the inhabitants of warm climates an agreeable shelter from the mid day heat, do they yield their services, or are made subservient to the use of man. Some, as the bread fruit tree of the Pacific Ocean, the cabbage tree of East Florida, the tea tree of China, the sugarmaple tree of America, the coffee tree and sugar cane in the West Indies, and the nu- merous luxurious fruit bearing trees scattered over the face of the globe, contribute to our wants in form of food. The fountain tree on one of. the Canary Islands, is said by voyagers to furnish the inhabitants with a supply of water ; while the paper-mulberry tree of the Southern ocean, and the cotton shrub of America, provide us with materials for clothing. The candle-berry myrtle presents the inhabitants of Nankeen with a substitute for animal tallow. The salt tree of Chili yields a daily supply of fine salt. The cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, and pimento, furnish BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. Si us with a supply of spices. The Jesuit's bark, manna, senna, and others, produce a variety of sim- ple but useful medicines. Some trees yield a preci- ous balsam ibr the healing of nations; so.j.e a quan- tity of turpentine and rosin, and others give out their quota of valuable oils and gums. Nor are trees serviceable only in a natural state : by the assistance of art, some are converted into houses to protect man from the inclemency of the weather, or are moulded into a variety ot forms for the purposes of building, and domestic comfort; others raise the huge fabric of the floating cattle or bulky merchantman, by which the articles of -indus- try and commerce are transported, and a communi- cation kept up with the remotest regions. Our limits do not permit us to enlarge upon these specimens, or point out the various uses to which a number of other woods in general use may be ap- plied ; but the reader's own thoughts may suggest these, as they are sufficiently obvious : and mean time we will proceed to the order of Shrubs. As much that has been already said respecting the utility of trees, may be applied in common to this order, we will confine ourselves to the three particulars in which they may be said to differ most from the former ; the first is their stature, the second their greater pliability, and the third the prickly armour by which many of thejn are covered. Some shrubs, as the gooseberry, the rasp, and the currant bushes, so common in our gardens, gratify the palate, and temper the bloo3 during the summer 32 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. months with agreeable and cooling fruit; olhers, as the rose, delight and please the eye by tin? beauty .of their flower-; or regale the olfactory i:er\es with the fragrance of their perfumes, "as the sweet scented briar: but how could these several ends have been accomplished, if, by a more exalted exposure, the fruit bearing bushes had placed their treasures be- yond. our reach every rose, with its back turned to us, had been u born to blush unseen,' 9 and each aro- matic shrub, removed far above the sense of smel- ling, had literally been left " To waste its sweetness in the desart air.* 5 With regard to that considerable share of pliant elasticity possessed by some of them, how easily does this admit the branches to be iurru.d aside, and to resume their former position, in gathering of the fruit or flowers, and how serviceable does this pro- perty enable us to make some of them in the form of hoops, baskets, or wicker work of any descrip- tion ; while the sharp pointed prickles by which they are armed, serve not only as weapons of defence for themselves, but furnish us with cheap and secure fences against the inroads of straggling cattle, and the unwelcome intrusion of the unprincipled vagrant. Herbs in an especial manner may be said to constitute the food of man and beast, as well as to yield their assistance in an infinity of ways; and behold, in what profusion they spring forth; in what numerous bands th'-y appear ! Yonder, a field of golden-eared wheat presents to the view a most BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. S3 prolific crop of what forms the chief part of the staff of life. Here a few acres of long-bearded barley ripen to provide us with our favourite beverage* On the right hand stand the tall growing and slen- der oats and flowering potatoes, to revive and keep alive the hopes of the poor; while on the left the heavy laden bean, and low- creeping pea, in length- ened tiles vegetate to furnish provender for our horses; or the globular turnip increases its swelling; bulk to lay up for our herds a supply of food when the softer herbage of the held is locked up by the congealing powers of winter. But what a spontaneous crop of luxuriant herbage do our meadows present in the appointed season, and in what a profusion of wholesome pasture do the numerous flocks of sheep and cattle roam! Whether they frequent the solitary holm, beside the still waters, or range the pathless steep, still they are followed by the goodness of the Lord : myriads of grassy tufts spring up on every side, and they are satisfied out of the treasures of Providence. But the herbaceous productions of the field are not universally calculated for the purposes of food. In some places numerous groups of tall, thin, flexi- ble plants make their appearance, whose filmy coats being properly manufactured, are converted into the most costly and delicate raiment; while others of a coarser texture furnish the mariner with wings to his vessel, cordage to tighten his masts, or the pon- derous cable to stay his bark in the midst of the fluctuating element. 34 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. But here their services do not end; for when worn out in one shape, they assume a new form, and not only furnish the material from v% hich is formed the wrapper of the manufacturer, and the package of the merchant, but that invaluable article upon which we write upon which we are able to hold converse with friends at a distance arid by means of which, man transmits his thoughts to man, and genei ations unborn are enabled to hold converse ivith past ages ! By means of these pliant productions we are also supplied with a variety of seeds and oils, of much request in common life ; and wherever disease is known, there, we have reason to believe, medicinal herbs spring up as antidotes ; some communicating their healing virtues by the root, some by the leaves, and others by the flowers or seeds. A number of these, and many others of the greatest utility in me- dicine, come forth in various parts of the globe without the aid of art, and are found growing wild among the herbs of the field but these are not the effects of chance. They were originally planted by the hands of Omnipotence, at the suggestion of Divine benevolence, prompted by Omniscience. It was the Lord who created medicines out of the earth; He foresaw the distresses of his creatures, and in pity to their calamities, not only commission- ed the balm to spring up in Gilead for the healing of the eastern tribes, but has spread abroad that boundless variety of medicinal plants, which are to be found in every climate, suited to the diseases of BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN, 35 those particular spots, where Providence, all wise, hath fixed the lot of their inhabitants. What a beautiful variety of nutritious esculents, and exqnisiiHy formed flowers do our gardens pre- sent! Her.* the Parsley with her frizzled locks, the Celery with her outstretched arms, the Asparagus with his towering stem, the Artichoke with his tur- gid top, the Cauliflower with her miiky dome, the Cabbage with her swelling form, a variety of greens with their curled leaves, and loi g tiles of peas and beans, await in silence their master's call to do ho- mage at his 'table : and here too is deposited, among a number of valuable and useful roots, that excellent farinaceous substitute for bread, the wholesome po- tatoe. Flowers. But for what purpose do these charm- ing flowers come forth? Is it merely to please our eyes with their brilliant colours, and regale the sense of smelling with their odoriferous perfumes, that they unibld their fascinating beauties and emit their pleasing fragrance ? Or is it to attract those nume- rous insects which swarm among them, and riot amid their liquid sw r eets? That flowers were designed for both these pur- poses is apparent from the sensations we experience when we have leisure to visit those delightful spots, and the assiduous eagerness which the busy bee evinces in roaming from flower to flower, to extract their balmy juices. But there is another, and that a most important use to which the flowery race may 36 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. be made subservient : In reason's ear they become preachers. The upright philosopher of the land of Uz, and that devout admirer of the works of Nature, Israel's king David, both took occasion to com [are the un- certain tenure of human life, to the frail and perish- able state of a flower. The prophet Isaiah repre* sents the transient glory of the en*v\n of pride as being like to one of these fading beauties ; and our Saviour has demonstrated that an important lesson may be learned against a too anxious care, and pride in dress, by a right consideration of these gay visitants: " Consider the lilies how they grow ; they toil not, they spin not , and yet I say unto you, that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these." It must, therefore, add much to the value of these short lived monitors, in the estimation of the wise, and make their peaceful abodes be sought after with the greater avidity by those who take pleasure in the works of God, that they are thus capable of afford- ing matter for serious reflection and moral improve- ment. Mr. Addison seems to have been sensible of this, when he breaks out into the following declamation, in praise of the pleasures of such a retirement: " You must know, Sir," says he, in one of his papers in the spectator, " that I look upon the pleasure which we take in a garden, as one of the most inno- cent delights of human life. A garden was the ha- bitation of our first parents before the fall. It is BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 37 naturally apt to fill the mind with calmness and tranquility, and to lay all its turbulent passions at rest. It gives us a great insight into the contrivance and wisdom of Providence, and suggests innumera- ble subjects for meditation. We cannot but think the very complacency and satisfaction which a man takes in these works of Nature, to be a laudable, if not a virtuous habit of mind." But let not the poor complain, or those who have no garden to retire to, no beautifully adorned en- closure, where, secluded from society, they may give themselves up to reflection. Still the fields are open to them, and what, in the words of an eminent na- turalist, is the earth, but 6< an immense garden, laid out and planted by the hand of the Deity? -the lofty mountains and waving forests are its terraces and groves; fertile fields and flowery meadows form its beautiful parterres." We cannot, we are persuaded, conclude this head of our subject better than with the following quota- tion from the author of The Seasons: * Soft roll your incense berk, and fruits, and flowers, In mingled clouds to HIM, whose sun exalts, Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints." 38 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. CHAP. II. ANIMALS. " Fountain of elegance, unseen thyself, What limit owns thy beauty, when thy works Seem to possess, to faculties like mine, Perfection infinite ! the merest speck Of animated matter, to the eye That studiously surveys the wise design, Is a full volume of abundant art. IN ascending from the Vegetable to the Animal kingdom, we cannot help our attention being for- cibly engaged by the singular construction, and amazing properties of those little, wonders found at the bottom of ditches, and adhering to the underside of the broad leaves of Aquatic Plants, known by the name of Fresh water Polypuses. See that little thing in form of a funnel or bell, adhering .by the lower extremity to some extraneous substance at the bottom of the water! Observe how it shoots out its slender arms from the margin of its wide mouth, and casts them around, occasioning a vortex in the fluid! See how those insects, after being drawn into that vortex, are caught hold of by its arms, and conveyed to the mouth with a celerity that is astonishing ; but for these signs of life and animation would you not have taken what you first saw to be a flower? Now observe how it shoots out from its sides something in form of buds; return in a few days, and, what do you behold? these buds converted into perfect Polypuses, but still ad- BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 3 faering to the parent. See how, by a sudden jirk, they separate, and immediately fix on other situa- tions ; cut one of these in two, the upper part shoots out a tail, and the under produces a head; cut one in three, and the upper and under do the same, while the middle division produces both a head and a tail ; cut one down lengthways to the middle, and you have a monster with two heads; divide these, again and again, as often as you please, and you have a Hydra with many heads, in short cut the Polypus into ten, or ten hundred parts, the effect will be the same, and you will have as many Poly- puses. If the Sensitive Plant, the Hedysarum Gyrans^ and Venus' Fly -Trap, may be considered as so many links at which the vegetable creation ends, these living plants, if we may use the expression, and animal floiver's, which are found adhering to the rocks on the sea shore, may, as well as the Oys- ter, and other shell -fish (which form the connection betwixt the animal and the mineral kingdom,) be reckoned among those at which the mysterious and multitudinous order of beings begins, which is con- tinued in such an infinitude of shapes and sizes, shades and differences, and possessed with such a number of dissimilar appetites and instincts, from the lowest gradation amongst the number of these imperfectly formed animals, till it arrives at that most complete piece of Nature's workmanship that cape-stone of the inferior creation, or link which unites it with superior intelligences Man. 40 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. The number of animated creatures is prodigious indeed! The whole creation teems as it were with existence! The dry-land sends forth its multitudes; the air hath its swarms; the sea its numerous shoals: and the very depositories of corruption produce their myriads ! Indeed in the class of Insects alone there are a greater number of species than there are kinds of Plants on the surface of the earth. In a little rain water, after standing some days, Mr. Lewenhoeck discovered innumerable animalcules, many thou- sands of times less than a grain of sand, and in proportion to a mite as a bee is to a horse ! Having examined the melt of a cod, he concluded that it contained more living animalcules than there were people living in the world; and by a method he made use of in order to ascertain the comparative size with the thickness or breadth of a hair of his head, it was found that 216,000 of these minute creatures are but epual to a globe whose diameter is the breath of a hair. How amazing the wonders of Omnipotence! Yet notwithstanding these immense numbers, this amazing diversity of form*and bulk, of taste and habit, all are conveniently and comfortably lodged ; all are fed to their hearts' content, at the same common table, and in such a manner as not a frag- ment can be lost. How wonderful is it to observe how well adapted are the various appetites of his creatures, to fulfil the will of the Great Creator, that not a fragment may be lost. Some animals of the carniverous kind have a.n unquenchable thirst for BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 41 blood warm from the animal; others are satisfied with the flesh newly killed: a third are not pleased with it till it is in a state of putridity : ot those of another description, some live upon fruits and roots ; others can partake of bark and leaves ; a third put up with the soft herbage of the meadow ; and a fourth are content with the very refuse of our fields and gardens: while each pursues that particular path chalked out for him by Nature, without re- pining or envying the lot of his neighbour. The unwieldly Whale in the Greenland seas, the numerous herds of Elephants which graze the ex- tensive regions betwixt the river Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope ; and the gigantic Ostrich of the sandy borders of Egypt and Palestine, roam as much at large as the winged insect that Hits from flower to flower, or the invisible Animalcule which swims in the liquid drop. The polar Bear of the Arctic Circle, wrapt in his shaggy covering, the Ermine of Siberia in his furry mantle, and the Wa- ter-Fowl with her thick-set oily feathers, no doubt feel as comfortable as the Barbary Cow, almost naked, the rhinoceros, sheltered from the tropical heats by his coat of mail, or the monstrous Hippo- potamus (the Behemoth of Job,) when he retires to cool himself at the bottom of the African rivers. Tho^e abhorred insects which feed upon ordure, or still more loathsome, that riot in putrefaction, we have reason to believe feed as deliciously as the Racoon on his West Indian sweets, or pampered Lap dog from the hand of its mistress. And if the E 2 42 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN, foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests, we have no reason to suppose but the former feel as happy when they have formed their habitations at a convenient distance from the hen-roost, and the latter, when from their lofty situations they can behold the fowler at a distance, as the flocks and herds which graze our fields, or the domestic fowls which partake of our care and bounty. By this wise and happy arrangement, the harmony of the universe is preserved, and the prodigious multitude of Earth's numerous tenants enabled to exist with- out disorder or confusion. But if we attend to the internal structure of these wonderfully complicated and intricately woven ma- chir.es, called Animals, we will still find more rea- son to admire and adore that Great Supreme, whose omnipotent fiat brought them all into existence, No wonder that Galen, at the sight of a human skeleton, should relinquish his former atheistical thoughts; and, that the Psalmist, on the contemplation of his material structure, should exclaim, " I am fearfully and wonderfully made ;" but the greater surprise is, that so many skeletons of animals and animated wonders can be beheld with so much indifference by that creature to whom God has given reflection for the wisest of purposes; for to what purpose can the thoughts of man be better applied than to the contemplation of the Deity through the medium of his works ! " What variety of springs, what forces, and what mechanical motion (says Buffon,) are enclosed in BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 43 this small part of matter which composes the body of an animal! What properties, what harmony, and what correspondence between the various parts ! How many combinations, arrangements, causes, ef- fects and principles, conspire to complete one end; and another writer observes: ." In the single ounce of in aiter which composes the body of a Sparrow, we see all the instruments necessary for eating, tor digestion, for respiration, for seeing, for ht-aring, for smelling, for walking, for flying, for the performance of every animal function, and of every motion. All the parts* of the complicated machine are perfectly appropriated, completely adapted to their respective uses ; and all disposed with the most exact organi- zation." All this is very true, but would not the wonder have been still more augmented, had the specimens been taken from among those little curi- osities of the Western hemisphere, called Humming- birds ; with the addition that its beak is pointed like a needle, its claws not thicker than a common pin ; that its nest is about half an inch deep, its egg about the size of a small pea ; and that nevertheless this diminutive bird is adorned with a plumage of the richest hues, and covered with a down that makes it resemble a velvet flower? Upon its head is a black tuft of incomparable beauty; the breast is of a rose colour, its belly white as milk, the back, wings, and tail are grey, with a border resembling silver, and as if streaked with gold of the brightest hue ! But indeed the structure of the smallest in- sect, or minutest animal in the creation of God carries 44 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. along with it the most indisputable evidence of its Original; namely, that it is beyond the possibility of art to imitate, or the utmost stretch of human in- genuity to comprehend. Motion is one distinguishing characteristic of the ani.Tial from ihe vegetable kingdom of Nature, and this peculiarity will be found to be absolutely neces- sary ; for if the food or nutriment of animals is not brought to them as to plants, by means of roots or other conductors, they must needs go in search of it; and how wisely are they furnished with instru- ments for the purpose, some in the form of limbs, some of wings, some of fins, and some of the reptile tribe are enabled to move by the disposition of the mnscles and fibres of their bodies ; but what would, this power of motion and means of performing it have signified, had these creatures 'been left to grope in the dark, without ability to distinguish the good from the bad: tl To shun their poison, and to choose their food." Might they not as well have remained to perish em the spot which gave them birth, as to have strayed only to get their frames shattered by every interven- ing obstacle: or the vital spark extinguished by mistaking the beautiful plant for the wholesome herb. To remedy such evils, however, Nature, or ruther the God of Nature, has not only provided them with senses, but has taken the utmost precaution to gu.'-d from external injury these wonderful pieces of exquisite skill, as well as that seat of all sensa- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 45 tion, from whence the ramifications of the nerves take their rise. To mention only one or two of the most obvious, for instance; what a curious and wonderful piece of mechanism is the human Eye, so admirably con- trived with its various coats, muscles, vessels, hu- mours, nerves, and retina, for the purposes of vision ! How excellent its situation for the use it was de- signed ! and how safely guarded by t e projecting eye brows and watchful eye lashes, ever on the alert, from external injury ! The Ear, too, is a most wonderful structure, contrived by its ridges and hollows to gather and concentrate sounds till they strike on the transparent membrane that forms the surface of the drum, although deeply lodged that it may also be preserved from outward accident. These are strange pieces of mechanism indeed ! and is it not natural to conclude, " lie that planted the, ear shall he not hear ? he. that formed the eye shall he not see ?" If the brain, which is the seat of sensation and the fountain of the animal spirits, is environed round with such a hard, thick, and tough substance as the skull, the heart and lungs are wisely placed in the centre of the body, and encompassed by a double fence of bones or ribs, muscles, and skin. Without breathing, to put the wheel in motion at the cistern, no animal could exist, and how admira- bly situated and guarded also, as we have observed, are the organs of respiration, and that n \sterious movement^ " that faints not, neither is weary/' but 46 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. by night and by day, asleep or awake, in motion OF at rest, beats in unremitting pulsations, with greater regularity than a watch, in the breast of some ani- mals for sixty, in some seventy, and in others up- wards of one hundred years. We might also notice the admirable structure and wise disposition of the other parts in the animal economy, but this would be inconsistent with our present limits and design ; we must, however, observe on the whole, that each will be found most conveniently situated for its re- spective uses, and formed in the wisest manner for its various purposes; that while nothing is wanting feo render the structure complete, there is nothing su- perfluous or made in vain. The feelers of the Butterfly are no less essential to her well being than the proboscis of the Elephant; and the leg of the Fly can no more say to its wing, than the eye of the human body to its hand, " I have no need of thee." But if the right consideration of the structure of animals as well as the wise provision made for their lodgment and subsistence, is convincing to the most sceptical, that all are the doings of a Being infinite in power, and fearful in working ; and inspire the religious philosopher with such sentiments as David expressed when contemplating the formation of the human frame ; must we not also adopt such lan- guage as he made use of on another occasion, and say, when reflecting on the manner in which these creatures are reproduced, and the wonders of that procreative power by which a continued succession is kept up; Thine eyes saw them when they were BO6K el? NATURE LAID OPEN. 47 tnade in secret, and curiously wrought in thelmvcr places of tt'ie eartli. Whether they come into the world in the shape of animals completely formed, or through the medium of eggs, still the business of generation must remain a mystery, and be reckoned amongst the number of the dark things of the Creator. The provision for keeping the number of living creatures within due limits, is no less remarkable than that for bringing them into being. The most formidable monsters are thinly scattered, or confined to particular spots. The destructive Tiger, for in- stance, is not very common, and the greatest ren- dezvous of this blood thirsty animal is said to be a sort of insulated situation, the Sunderbunds or Woody- Islands, at the mouth of the Ganges in India. Long lived animals are observed to have few young at a time ; while those of the greatest utility or such as are used for animal food, abound in every climate, and the short in duration are uncommonly prolific ! The instinct displayed by many of the irrational creation for the preservation of their young, is also truly astonishing, and in some instances has been referred to as examples of the strongest proofs of af- fection. u How often," says our Saviour, " would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen ga- tnereth her chickens under her wings, and ye would not!" but there are some of this order who stand not long in need of parental protection and instruc- tion ; for the newly-calved Hippopotamus on the death of his dam, will, a( the sight of clanger, behtke himself to a place of safety in his natural element, 48 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. the bottom of the river. This might bring us to speak more fully of those particular instincts by which animals are distinguished ; but as we shall have occasion to notice a few of these in considering some peculiarities in the different orders as we go along, we will here drop the general survey, and proceed to that of Quadrupeds. Of this order it may be remarked in general, that they derive their name from the number of their legs ; and this naturally occasions in those that make use of them for the purpose of walking, the prone posture by which they are distinguished ; but this posture, far from incommoding them, is, by the wise conformation of the other parts, rendered the most o- mod ions possible for their habits and manner of living. Quadrupeds are, for the most part, furnish- ed with tails, and these are highly useful in the absence of arms, for sweeping off vermin and trou- blesome animals. Having no hands to lift their food to their mouths, the necks of this order are in general proportioned to the length of their fore legs; their legs are made to bend in such a direction as with the greatest ease to facilitate their motion for- wards ; they have, for the most part, a coves-ing of hair or wool ; and, that the weight of the head might not become too heavy in the act of feeding, each oT these animals is furnished with a strong tendinous insensible ligament, braced from the head BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 49 to the middle of the back, which both enables them to support their burden with ease, and to recover their head at pleasure. In the particular construction of the various spe- cies of Quadrupeds, with their several dispositions and appetites, there are several things very remark- able ; but we will only mention a few of them, in which the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, in adapting them so wonderfully to their different si- tuations, habits, and manners of living, are very conspicuous. Animals of the graminivorous kinds, such as the Horse, the Ox, and the Sheep, are furnished with masticating organs, adapted to the soft herbage they eat ; being of harmless dispositions, they are only armed with defensive weapons, and for mutual safety associate together in herds Those whose natures are fierce and savage, and whose cruel dispositions, like those of the Tiger and Hyena, cannot be satisfied but at the expense of blood, come forth solitary and alone ; but they are armed with fearful claws and horrid tusks, and monstrous jaws, wonderfully fitted for the seizure and destruction of their victims. The Camel, doomed to traverse the parched an4 burning deserts of Arabia, where continued drought and sterility reign, has not only a foot admirably fitted for his element, and endowed with a remark- able abstinence, but carries along with him a natu- ral reservoir which he fills with water at every well. F 50 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. . The Lama of South America (the only original beast of burden it produces,) is remarkably sure footed, and climbs and descends with the greatest safety the craggy rocks it has to encounter among the rugged steeps and narrow paths of the Andes, though encumbered with its load. Goats range the craggy steep, and delight to crop the uncultivated heath from the mountain's brow ; and behold how admirably their hollow hoofs are formed for taking hold of the rock, and with what surprising agility they bound from cliff to cliff! Animals of the Weasel kind, that live chiefly in holes, and feed upon vermin, are not only furnished with furs to preserve them from the damp, but have long, slender, flexible bodies, well adapted for their various windings. The Sea-horse of the Northern Ocean, whose element is sometimes in the water, and sometimes on the ice, is not only web-footed, to assist in swimming, but has two monstrous tusks, bending down from the upper jaw, which, together with his claws, enable him to scramble up the icy beach at pleasure. In short, the Mole is moulded in the best possible manner for his subterraneous habitation the Squirrel for his aerial flights the JCangaroo for his tremendous leaps and the Bat, which unites the Quadruped with the Volatile race, is shaped in the most convenient manner for his predatory excursions. But if this remarkable accommodation of the parts and appetites of quadrupeds to their habits and pursuits, is apt to excite our surprise, what must BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 51 we think of those still more surprising and remark- able instincts by which many of them are distin- guished. In their internal formation some of this order are so strikingly analogous to the human body, that it is said, some skill in physiology is ne- cessary to be able to notice .the difference ; and in the external ' appearance of the Orang-outang, or Wild-man of the Woods, there is certainly no little resemblance. So much, indeed, does the external appearance of this creature resemble the human, that " the Negroes imagine them to be a foreign nation, come to inhabit their country, and that they do not speak for fear of being compelled to work." They are also the only animals that imitate man in the use of w r eapons otherwise than what are na- tural ; frequently attacking their enemies with sticks and stones. That they possess an eminent share of natural sagacity in the absence of reason, is evident from the manner in which they make sheds for shel- ter, and go to sleep in trees for security, as well as from their descending from the mountains, when they no longer find fruits, to the sea shore in search of shell fish. In the passage of one of these ani- mals from Angola to England, it made many friends on board, and seemed to despise the monkies of a lower species, by avoiding that part of the ship where they were confined. Buffon describes one of these animals which he saw,* as sitting down at table, unfolding his napkin, wiping his lips, making use of a fork or spoon, pouring out his jdrink into a glass, touching glasses with the person who drank 52 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. with him, giving his hand to shew the company to the door who came to see him, and walk about as gravely as if he formed one of the society. " All these," he observes, " I have seen, without any other instigation than the signs' or command of his master, and often of his own accord " He also mentions, that his deportment was grave, his movements re- gular, and his disposition gentle, very different from other apes. Francis Pryard relates, that in the province of Sierra Leone there is a species so strong limbed^ and so industrious, that when properly trained and fed, they work like servants. But to proceed ; what wonderful prudence, fore- sight, and industry, does the republic of Beavers display, as in a state of social compact, with an over- seer at their head, each exerting his powers and con- tributing his exertions in raising the mole, and form- ing with care the fortified settlement ! What sa- gacity does the Elephant discover, as he discharges the water from his mighty trunk, in order to cool himself in the midst of the burning plains of Caf- fraria ! Who knows not the affectionate tenderness of the Dog, the mischievous cunning of the Monkey, the inflexible perseverance of the Cat, in watching her prey, and the subtle artifices of the Hare, in elud- ing her pursuers ? The Lion, at whose tremendous roar creation flies, as if knowing the terror which his fearless form in- spires, has recourse to cunning, and watches his prey in ambush, in the neighbourhood of those BOOK OE NATURE LAID OPEN. 53 springs and waters to which they must necessarily come to quench their thirst. The Bear, in autumn, betakes himself to his winter quarters, nor ventures abroad till spring has again renewed the face of the earth. The Chamois Goat, when closely pursued in his mountainous retreat, will suddenly rebound on the huntsman, and precipitate him over the rock. The Hedge-hog in winter wraps himself up in his mossy seat. The Porcupine when almost overtaken in the pursuit, on a sudden rolls himself up, and presents to his antagonist, instead of a delicious morsel, a ball of prickles : and the Armadillo, ac- tuated by the same unerring impulse, joins his ex- tremities beneath his shelly covering, and rolls over the precipice unhurt, to the confusion of his ene- my. But this is not all : Horses in a state of na- ture are not only said to keep a centinel on the look- out, but, when attacked, join heads together and fight with their heels. Oxen in a similar state join tails together, and fight with their horns. Swine get together in impenetrable herds to resist an at- tack, and what is observable in all, they place the young in the middle, and keep them safe in the day of battle ! These are some of the wonders of instinct ; and can we behold them without admiration ! The Uses of Quadrupeds Are so various, that we must content ourselves with only naming a few of them. Of what great F2 54 BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. utility for the purposes of agriculture, travelling, industry, and commerce, is that docile and tractable animal the Horse ! In what a variety of ways do those of the Ox and Sheep kind administer to our wants ! and. happily for the world, these creatures are most extensively diffused, from the polar circle to the equator. Goats, in many of the mountainous parts of Eu- rope, constitute the wealth of the inhabitants : they lie upon their skins, convert their milk into cheese and butter, and feed upon their flesh. The Rein- deer, to the inhabitants of the icy. regions, supply the place of the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the goat. The Camel is to the Arabian what the Rein- deer is to the Laplander. The flesh of the Elk is palatable and nutritious, and of his skin the Indians make snow-shoes and canoes. The Elephant, in warm countries, is useful as a beast of burden, and draws as much as six horses. What an unwearied pattern of unremitting exer- tion and fidelity is that invaluable animal the shep- herd's Dog ! What humane -and excellent life pre- servers, the Newfoundland species ! and what sa- gacious guides and safe conductors are that useful breed, trained in the Alpine solitudes, to carry pro- visions to the bewildered traveller, and lead his steps to the hospitable convent ! To what a number of depredators would our sub- stance be exposed, were it not for that convenient and agile, but often ill-fated domestic animal, the Cat ; which, in consequence of an ill-founded pre- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 55 judice excited against her for those very habits and propensities which render her valuable, and were implanted in her nature for the best of purposes, often becomes the victim of unfeeling boys., and of- ten, too often, alas ! is made the sport of more un- feeling barbarians, who deserve not the name of men. The Ichneumon is to the Egyptians, in se- veral respects, what the Cat is to us ; but far from thinking of hanging her up in a barrel, and amusing themselves with her sufferings, that more grateful people have worshipped the Ichneumon as an ema- nation of the Deity ! Cannot our more sober- minded countrymen adopt a conduct between the two extremes, and at least treat the purring race with kindness? Animals of the Weasel kind fur- nish us with a number of rich and valuable furs ; the Civet, the Genet, and the Musk, with a supply of perfumes ; the tusks of the Elephar.i and the Seahorse with ivory ; the beautiful skin of the Tiger decorates the seats of justice of the mandarins of the East ; the flesh of the White Bear is eaten by the Greenlander, that of the Leopard is much re- lished by the African ; and the Lion, even the Lion, the living tomb of so many creatures, is frequently eaten by the Negroes at the last ! We have reason to be thankful that in our happy country we are abundantly supplied with food of a more harmless nature, and much easier to be ob- tained than those formidable monsters of the desert, and that when taking a solitary ramble through our peaceful fields, we have no occasion to adopt 56 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. the following sentiments of the poet, so feelingly expressed : What if the Lion in his rage I meet? Oft in the dust I view his printed feet; By hunger rous'd, he scours the groaning plain, Gaunt Wolves and sullen Tigers" in his train ; Before them Death with shrieks directs their way, Fills the wild yell, and leads them to their prey." CHAP. VI. ON THE VARIETIES OF ANIMALS. " To all has Nature given a bound precise Of being and perfection ; and promulg'd To every varying rank, hr varying laws ; ' Urging to this, from that restraining firm." IN the science of natural history, philosophers have found it expedient to arrange objects first un- der a few grand divisions, and then to divide, and afterwards subdivide these in the following manner. The most general divisions are called Classes ; each class is again divided into several lesser parts, which are called Orders ; each order contains a certain number of Genera ; each genus consists of several Species; and each species contains certain Varieties, whtch is the smallest subdivision that they have taken notice of. It is this lowest link of their chain of classification which will form the subject of the present chapter. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 57 It is unnecessary for us to enter deeper into this system of classification than merely to point out the distinguishing circumstance that they have laid hold on to mark the boundaries between what they call a species and a variety; and this will be the easiest done by choosing a familiar example for illustra- tion. The horse and the ass are both of the same genus of quadrupeds; and they resemble each other so much, that they might well be mistaken for be- ings of the same species ; but although it be found that it is possible to make them procreate, yet it is also known that the mule, which is produced from this intermixture, is not capable of continuing its kind, which circumstance induces naturalists to rank them as a different species. When animals procreate to- gether, and produce an offspring that is capable of continuing their kind, however different they may be in their appearance and other particulars, they are accounted as only varieties of the same species; nor is there any criterion that we know of, for dis- tingnishing a variety of any particular kind of ani- mal from a distinct species of the same genus, but that of producing a fertile or an unfertile progeny. In this particular, we believe, all naturalists are agreed. That there are many varieties of most species of animals is well known ; and as many of these va- rieties, especially among domesticated animals, rea- dily intercopulate with each other, and produce a mixed race, participating of the qualities of both parents, it necessarily must happen, that in cases 58 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. where they are suffered to mix together, the de- scendants of an animal of one of these varieties is very different from that of the parent race. This fact having been remarked, has given rise to an opi- nion, that there has been originally but one pair of animals of each species, and that all the varieties we now discover of the same species, have been pro- duced by accidental circumstances only, such as a variation of climate, of food, or of some other ex- traneous peculiarity ; and that, of course, one va- riety may be transmuted into another without any intermixture of blood, purely by a change of cir- cumstances only. This doctrine being once ad- mitted, the inferences which necessarily result from it, have proved highly detrimental to the practice of individuals in their attempts to improve the breed of domestic animals ; as it tends, in as far as that doctrine is believed, to turn the attention of men from fixed and certain principles,, which admit of no variation, to others that are vague and erroneous, which tend only to puzzle and confound the mind, and leave it in perpetual darkness and uncertainty. The boldest asserter of the doctrine, that all the varieties of every species of animal are derived from one common stock, is the celebrated Buffon, who, instead of searching for proofs to support his hypo- thesis, contents Himself with mere assertions, uttered with as much confidence as if the matter had been before proved beyond a possibility of doubt; and he takes as the subject for his illustration the dog kind, though the varieties of this species are more BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 59 distinctly marked than those of perhaps any other animal with which we are intimately acquainted. He says, that the shepherd's dog (a variety of the canine species, by the bye, which cannot be so dis- tinctly recognized as many other kinds,) is the ori- ginal stock from which the greyhound, the spaniel, the pointer, the harrier, the bull-dog, the lap-dog, the mastiff, the terrier, and every other variety, are all directly produced; and he even goes so far as to specify the means that are necessary to be adopted for producing these changes. It is painful to dwell upon the accidental failings of a man of genius; for which reason we decline following him in his ex- cursive career, and exposing the absurdities into which he has fallen in pursuing it. We have only to regret, that a man of such distinguished talents should have so far overlooked facts that were easily within his reach, as to have so positively dogmatised upon this subject in direct contradiction to them ; for the multitude, who think not at all, follow the authority of one who is, on many accounts, so re- spectable, without the smallest degree of hesitation. In consequence of this great authority, the hypo- thesis above stated has been tacitly, at least, assent- ed to by the literary world in general, for some time past, though it will not require great exertions to bring such evidence, as we hope will prove satis- factory to every reader, to shew that the fact is di- rectly the reverse of what this learned philosopher has stated it to be. 60 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. If it were true, that a change of climate affected an animal to such a degree as this hypothesis sup- poses, it would be impossible that any person exist- ing should not have had opportunities* of observing very striking instances of that kind. But, instead of this, the most, direct proofs of the contrary must have fallen within the observation of every man in the kingdom, in respect to the very animal that he has selected for illustration. The dog is a favoured domestic ; he attaches himself to his master, and follows him wherever he goes. He is thus carried through all the climates of the globe, under the im- mediate controul and inspection of man ; and no instance hath ever been known in which an indivi- dual dog has ever thus experienced any material change in his external form, far less in his internal qualities. If a smooth-haired Spanfsh pointer, for instance, be carried to the torrid or the frozen zone, from Kamtschatka through the whole extent of Asia and Europe into America, he is the same smooth haired dog every where; and his master recognizes him for the same creature at the first glance : but if the pile of its hair and external ap- pearance be not altered, far less is the animal changed in its other qualities : it still scents the game in the way peculiar to that kind of dog ; it does not, like the greyhound, pursue it by the eye ; it does not, like the hound, burst forth in sonorous howling when it feels the scent strong : this variety of the dog kind steals upon its prey with extreme caution and circumspection. These qualities it pos- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 61 sessed at its birth, and these qualities it retains till its dying hour, in spite of any change of climate or kind of food it may be made to experience. The same thing may be said of every other kind of dog. The English bulldog displayed the same uncon- querable obstinacy on the arena of ancient Rome, as he does at this day in the island which gave him birth: and the Newfoundland dog of the present day is equally gentle, equally attached to his mas- ter, and alike firm in his defence in every part of Europe as in America. In short, the universal ex- perience of mankind incontrovertibly proves, that the same individual dog continues the same in re- gard to all its essential characteristics in every re- gion of this globe, and under every different system, of management. He may be rendered fatter or leaner, diseased or sound, and these variations of management will produce a temporary change in his appearance; but no evidence was ever known of a dog of one kind being converted into one of another sort The terrier continues to ferret out the lesser animals with silent assiduity ; the lap dog to bark at every thing that moves ; the pointer re- tains his quick sense of smelling; the greyhound searches for his prey by the eye in every region alike; so that there is no reason to doubt that every kind of dog, considered individually, retains the same faculties unchanged throughout the whole course of its life, to whatever changes of food or climate it may be subjected. 62 BOOK OF NATURE LAID But if the individual itself remain unchanged under every possible variation, how are we to con- ceive that a change in this respect can affect the progeny ? Can any one believe that if a greyhound bitch, while with young, were allowed to bring forth* her litter in one place (in Britain suppose, the place of her nativity,) she would produce true grey- hounds, but if she were carried to Norway, the lit- ter would turn out to be mastiffs ; in Turkey long- haired pointers; and in other countries hounds, terriers, and all the other varieties of dogs? At the bare mention of such a position the mind revolts from it, as from a self-evident absurdity : but if the litter were not brought forth in these states in dif- ferent climates, the puppies must be changed in- stantaneously after they come into the world ; for, as we have seen, they are not changed by it at any other period of their life, It must be now that the change is effected, (like tadpoles into frogs,) or never. But who has ever heard of such a meta- morphoses ? We all know that no such thing takes place. Yet this, and more, must have happened were there the smallest foundation for this hypo- thesis. These changes must have happened not once only, but often ; not casually, but invariably; of course it would have been utterly impossible to propagate a greyhound in one country, or a beagle in the other; in short, every country would have had its own particular variety of dogs, and none other. But this we know is contradicted by the clearest facts, and the universal experience of man- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 63 kind ; and it must appear to be not a little surpris- ing to those who reflect upon it, that an hypothesis which is, under every point of view, so absurd, should ever have obtained currency for one moment among men who had their eyes open, and were not deprived of the power of reasoning. CHAP. VII. BIRDS. But who the various nations can declare, That plough with busy wing the peopled air ? These cleave the crumbling bark for insect food ; Those dip the crooked beak in kindred blood ; Some haunt the rushy moor, the lonely woods ; Some bathe their silver plumage in the floods." THE Ostrich, the Emu, and the Cassowary, are not only remarkable, by reason of their superiority of size, but seem to claim our first attention among the feathery tribes, on account of their constituting some of those apparent links, by which the winged tribe is united to the order of Quadrupeds, For although these animals resemble birds in the outline, and in several parts of their conformation, they certainly cannot be classed among the more perfect orders of the species, in as much as they do not make use of their wings for the purpose of flying ; and as to in- ternal formation, the Ostrich is said to have as great a resemblance to the four-footed as to the volatile order. 64 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. The structure of these creatures, as well as their appetites, is however well adapted for the situations in which they are severally placed, and they appear to know well how to supply the defect of some of their members by the use which they make of others. Of all animals that move on their legs, the Os- trich is by far the swiftest ; and although the Ara- bians train their fleetest horses for the chase, it is not likely they would be successful in the pursuit of this animal, were it not for his circling manner of running. Nor is this surprising, when we consider that this lofty mass of light materials is not only carried forward by his long springing legs, but is impelled along by his wings, which he keeps in con- stant motion, and apparently serve the purpose of oars. The Emu, or Ostrich of the new continent, is also a remarkably swift runner, but its manner of assist- ing its legs is somewhat different from the former ; besides making use of something behind, like a heel, to push it forward, this animal uses a kind of action peculiar to itself, first lifting up one wing and keep- ing it elevated for some time in form of a sail, then letting it drop and elevating the other ; by this means it moves along with such rapidity, that even the Greyhound can seldom overtake it. The fa- vourite climate of the Cassowary seems to begin where that of the Ostrich terminates, in the old world ; and although its wings are so very small, that being covered with the hair on the back they are scarcely perceptible, it kicks up behind with the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 65 one leg, and then making a bound forward with the other, proceeds with such amazing speed, that the swiftest racer would be unable to maintain the pur- suit ! In the structure of Birds of the more perfect order, a few things demand our most serious attention : The whole body is shaped in the most convenient manner for making their way through the air ; be- ing, as Mr. Ray observes, constructed very near Sir Isaac Newton's form of least resistance, According to Bar, in his continuation of Buffon, " It is neither extremely massive nor equally substantial in all its parts ; but, being designed to rise in the air, is capa- ble of expanding a large surface without solidity. The body is sharp before, to pierce and make its way through that element; it then gradually in- creases in bulk, till it has acquired its just dimen- sions, and falls off in an expansive tail." The motion of this order being two-fold, walking and flying, they are provided with legs at once wonderfully contrived to walk with, and raise them like a spring for their flight ; wings to buoy them up and waft them along ; and a tail to keep them steady in the air, assist them in their evolutions^ and to direct their course. Although their feathery covering is admirably constructed for lightness and buoyancy, their wings are furnished with a strength that is amazing ; so that the flap of a Swan's wing has been kyown to break a man's leg; and a similar blow from an Ea- gle has produced instant death ; apd by these they a-ft 66 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. are enabled to impel themselves forward with a ra- pidity that exceeds the fleetest quadruped. To fit them the better for their flight, the feathers are dis- posed in the most perfect order, lying one way; and that they may glide more smoothly along, they are furnished with a gland situated on the rump, from which they occasionally press out oil with the bill, and anoint the feathers. In water-fowl this oil is so plentiful, that by it their plumage is rendered com- pletely water-proof. The beak, or bill of birds, is a curious piece of art, formed of a hard horny substance, constructed in the most commodious manner for piercing the air. Their ears stand not out from their head to retard their flight, while their eyes are placed in such situations as to take in nearly a hemisphere on either side. Birds have no teeth to chew their food ; but those of the granivorous kind are provided with tw r o sto- machs ; in one of which the victuals are softened and macerated before they enter the other to be com- pletely digested. Being often employed in travers- ing the upper regions, where they behoved to be much incommoded did they bring forth their young in the manner of quadrupeds, their manner of gene- rating is wisely made to differ, and their offspring are produced by mrans of eggs, In the speedy growth of young birds, by which they acquire a degree of strength and size to be able so soon to pro- vide for themselves, we have also an instance of the tender care of Providence. BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 67 What power unseen inspires these little creatures with " the passion of the groves/' at the most fit season for forming their alliances when the genial temper of the weather covers the trees with leaves, the fields with grass, and produces such swarms of insects for the support of their future progeny ! And how conies it to pass, that no sooner is the connubial league formed than those little warblers (a pattern to new married couples in humble life, who- have no- thing but their own industry to depend on,) imme- diately set about building their nests, and making preparations for their tender offspring ! In the builcmg of their nests, what art and inge- nuity are displayed ! Whether they v are const; icted fron> the collected portions of clay and mortar, or from the more light materials of moss and straw, these little creatures contrive to mould them into the most convenient forms, and to give them a durabi- lity proportionate to their wants. :e It wins my admiration. To view the structure of that little work, A bird's nest ; mark it well within, without, No tool had he that wrought, no knife to cut, No .nail to fix, no hodkin to insert, No glue to join ! his little beak was all ! And yet how neatly finish'd." Nor is the wonder less, that birds of the same kind, however widely separated, should all follow the same order of architecture in the construction 68 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. of their habitations ; that each should make choice of the situation most suitable to its kind. " Some to the rude protection of the thorn Commit their feeble offspring ; the cleft tree Offers its kind concealment to a few ; Their food its insects, and its moss their nest. But most in woodland solitudes delight.'* And that all should agree in laying as many eggs as to be sufficient to keep up their species, yet no more than they can conveniently hatch and bring up. In the incubation with what patience do these creatures set on their eggs when necessary, till the young are reardy to be hatched, and then how officious in assisting the little prisoners to escape ! With what inimitable care do they afterwards- watch over and provide for the brood until it is capable of doing for itself; and with what scrupulous exactness, dining this period, do they distribute to each his al- lotted portion of food. What is this Mighty Breath, ye sages say, That in a powerful language, felt, not heard, Instructs the fowls of heaven ? What but GOD, Inspiring GOD ! who, boundless Spirit all, And unremitting energy pervades, Adjusts, sustains, and agitates the whole." These observations are applicable to the feathery tribe in general ; but if we turn to the peculiarities of a few of the different species, we shall observe that the wisdom and the goodness of the Deity are BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. 69 no less conspicuous. The Ostrich, formed to tra- verse the burning sands of Africa, is long legged, light, and amazingly agile. Denied the natural re- servoir of the Camel, it is endowed with such an abstinence from water, that the Arabs assert that it never drinks ! and as it may roam many hundreds of miles in quest of vegetation, it seems to have an appetite for almost every kind of food. So that there is no desert, however barren, but what pos- sesses sufficiency to supply these creatures with pro- visions, for they eat almost any thing. Glass, stones, iron, &c. have been found in their stomachs; and it is affirmed, that in one was found a piece of stone that weighed upwards of a pound. The Condor of America, is said to be the largest bird endowed with flight ; and being of the rapa- cious kind, is armed with a beak so strong as to pierce the hide of an ox. The Eagle, the most noble of rapacious volatiles, has a taste too nice for carrion ; and in order that he may secure his living prey, and bear it in safety to his nest in the inaccessible cliff. Nature has en- dowed him with the faculty of vision in an eminent degree, prodigious claws, amazing strength, and a prolusion of feathers down to his very toes. The Vulture delights in carrion and putridity; and this excellent anatomist may at once be distin- guished from the Eagle by the nakedness of his neck and head, as well as that acute sense of smelling, by which, according to Herodotus, he can smell a dead carcase at the distance of fifteen thousand paces. 70 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. How admirably formed are the eyes of the birds of night for seeing better when the sun is below than above the horizon. Those of the poultry kind are not furnished with hooked bills and formidable ta- lons, or wings calculated for long flights ; and while the solitary Eagle or Hawk pay us a transient visit, unaccompanied and alone, these surround our dwell- ings in numerous flocks. Those of the Grouse kind, who feed on moor-berries and the tops of heath plants, have their habitations assigned them in the most bar- ren and uncultivated tracts where their favourite food abounds. The hooked bill of the Parrot is well contrived to assist him in climbing. Ducks, Geese, and many others , have long broad bills to enable them to grope for their food in water and mud ; on the contrary, a thick, short, and sharp edged bill, is as necessary to those who have occasion to husk and flay the grain they swallow. The Wood -peck- er's bill is sufficiently strong to dig holes ; that of the Swallow is slender and sharp pointed, and he is also furnished with a very wide mouth, to enable him to catch the winged insect in its flight; and the ease with which Sea-pies raise their favourite food from the rocks, by means of their long, narrow, and compressed bills, is astonishing. Even Limpets, which adhere so firmly to the rocks, as not to be ea- sily separated by a knife, these' birds find no diffi- culty to raise with the instrument Nature has pro- vided them with for the purpose. The long legs and necks of birds of the Crane kind, together with their sharp pointed bills, are BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 71 wonderfully adapted for the purpose of wading and picking up their food from the bottom of the shal- lows; and the webbed feet, oily feathers, and broad bills of those of the Swan kind, are equally so, to enable them to swim along, and lay hold of their prey in the watery element. The Pelican oi the wilderness is a most dexterous fisher, and nature has provided him with a prodigi- ous pouch, of a singular construction, under his bill, which, although scarcely perceptible when empty, enables him when full to bear ashore as many fish at a time as would suffice sixty men for dinner The Albatross, the most formidable of the Gull kind, preys not only on fish, but water fowl of an inferior size; and his bill terminates in a crooked point, by which he is enabled to lay hold of them on the wing. The Penguin seldom leaves the water ; and while others of the feathery race only skim its surface, pursues his prey to the greatest depth, and he ap- proaches the finny tribe in his formation as well as in his disposition and habits. Indeed, these animals may be justly reckoned one of the connecting links between the volatile and finny tribes, as not only their fin-like wings and broad webbed feet, but their body being covered more warmly all over with fea- thers than any other bird whatever, and the parti- cular construction of their lungs, all tend to shew that water is their principal element. How wonderful the migration of birds! or that surprising instinct by which " the stork in the hea- vens knoweth her appointed times," " and the crane 7 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. and the swallow observe the time of their coming.' 1 When Storks take their departure for Europe, it is said they all assemble on a particular day, decamp during the night, and leave not a single one of their company behind. Now what power unseen com- mands them to this general assembly, directs them in their course, orders them to halt as occasion re- quires, and then to renew their flight till they ar- rive at the exact point of their destination ? " Who bids the Stork, Columbus-like, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before? "Who calls the council, states the certain day? Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ?" " Where do the Cranes, or winding Swallows go, Fearful of gathering winds and falling snow ? If into rocks or hollow creeks they creep, In temporary death confined to sleep ; Or, conscious of the coming evil, fly To milder regions and a southern sky ?" Birds in the torrid zone, where their nests, other- wise situated, would be exposed to the assaults of the snake when he twines up the trunk, or the de- predations of the ape, suspend them at the point of a bough, or the extreme branches of the trees; and some, as the Taylor- bird, not content with that pre- caution, attach their nests to the side of a leaf. The expertness of this little bird, at the profession from whence it derives its name, is admirable, When it has picked up a dead leaf, it sews it to the side of a living one, its slender bill being its needle, and its BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. Yd thread some fine fibres; the lining is composed of feathers, gossamer, and down The Eagle con- structs her habitation among inaccessible rocks, where it is shielded by projecting craigs; and the Flamingo builds her nest in the middle of an ex- tensive morass, beyond the reach of danger. " From man retir'd, amid the lonely marsh, Flamingoes build and tend their curious nest." What sagacity does the Vulture display as he sits silent and unseen in the American forest, watching the operations of the monstrous Crocodile, while she deposits her eggs in the sand on the banks of the river! The little Butcher-bird, that attacks crea- tures four times bigger than himself, seizes its vic- tims by the throat, and strangles them in an instant; and, as if conscious of its inability otherwise to sepa- rate the food it has so secured, contrives to spit it on a neighbouring thorn, and then pulls it pieces with its bill The solitary Owl takes up its station in the corner of a barn at the approach ef night, and with inflexible perseverance watches its prey. The Magpie is noted for its singular cunning Bus- sards are said to keep a sentinel on the look-out to apprize them of danger. The Partridge acts with the greatest subtlety, in order to decoy away a dog or other animal when he approaches her nest ; and the affection of the Hen for her tender brood is such, that for their protection she will attack the hog or the mastiff, and even not hesitate to fly at the fox: H 74 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. What animal evinces more courage than the Cock, as he struts in sovereignty on his favourite dunghill ? The facility with which Parrots are taugit to speak, and retain and repeat a number of fiords is truly surprising Cormorants in China are trained for the purposes of fishing; and Hawks, in other coun- tries for fowling; and the Carrier Pigeon performs his lengthened embassy with unerring precision, and with astonishing celerity. Thevenot says, they commonly travel from Aleppo to Alexandria in Sy- ria in six hours, which is a distance of eighty-eight miles The letters are generally fastened under their wings In order to ascertain with some de- gree of accuracy the speed of these curious birds, a gentleman, some years ago, sent a carrier pigeon from London to a friend at Bury St Edmunds, desiring it to be thrown up at a particular time two days after its arrival ; this was attended to, and the pigeon returned to the Bull Inn, Bishopsgate-street, two hours and a half afterwards, having in that time tra- velled seventy two miles Even the stupid Ostrich, as it may be called in other respects, is not so desti- tute of natural affection and instinctive cunning as some are apt to imagine ; for if she more frequently leaves her eggs than other birds, it is only in those hot climates where there is no necessity for constant incubation ; and if she thrusts her head in the sand, when every chance of escape is at an end, it is no less certain that she contrives to prolong the chace and distance her pursuer, by occasionally lowering BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 75 one of her wings, and disappointing him with mouthful of feathers. The Uses of Volatilcs. The uses of the poultry kind, especially of such as are domesticated, are too obvious to be enumerated; it may, however, be remarked, that the common Hen, if well supplied with food and water, is said to lay sometimes two hundred eggs in a year; and the fecundity of the Pigeon in its domestic state is so great, that from a single pair, near fifteen thou- sand may be produced in four years. The flesh of the Grouse kind is esteemed for its delicacy ; the Peacock, in some countries, is consi- dered as a luxury ; and although it is in a great mea- sure for his singular plumage that man has been tempted to follow the Ostrich in his desert retreat, some of the African tribes are very fond of his flesh, and even the Romans appear to have considered it a dainty; for it is recorded of Heliogabalus, that he had the brains of six hundred of these animals, at a feast, served up in one dish! He should immediately after partaking of that dish, have buried his head in the sand, and been ashamed to resume the erect form of man, whose character he had disgraced. There are, besides, many parts of this animal which are supposed to be very salutary for medicinal purposes, and their strength and swiftness seem to render them very fit for the purposes of travelling or carrying bur- dens; for Moore relates, that at Joar in Africa, he i BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPES. met a man travelling on an Ostrich; and Mr. Adam- son informs us, that when he was at the factory of Po- dore there were two young Ostriches, the strongest of which was much fleeter than the best English race-horse he ever saw, although he at that time* carried two negroes on his back. If in the feathery tribe some appear to be formed to please us with the beauty of their plumage, as the Goldfinch, the Bullfinch, and the Hummingbird; others, as the Thrush, the Blackbird, and the Ca- nary, delight us with the melody of their song The Lark soars aloft and salutes the new-born day with his cheerful notes. The Nightingale soothes the weary labourer as he returns from his daily toil, by his fascinating strains. The little Robin, in return for the protection our fences have afforded him, ex- erts himself to render the hedges vocal, in soft and tender melody; and the Sparrow endeavours to amuse us with her chirpings. The Swallow, also, as if sensible of the undisturb- ed possession she has been allowed to take of our premises, during the time of hej; necessities, catches upon the wing a multitude of flies, gnats, and bee- tles, and frees us from a number of troublesome ver- min before she bids us farewell. Birds of the Rook and Pic kind, although a noisy and chattering tribe, may be of infinitely more use than we have the sense to discover, by the destruction of grubs, worms, and eggs of vermin; and the common carrion crow may be no less necessary in our climate, than the Egyp- tian Vulture a.nd the Ossifrage of Syria. The Yul- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 77 ture, indeed, is common in many parts of Europe, and abounds in America, Asia, and Africa. In Egypt and other warm countries, he is of singular use. Numerous flocks of them are always hovering in the neighbourhood of Grand Cairo; and for the services the inhabitants experience, by these ani- mals devouring the carrion and filth of that great city, which, in such a sultry climate, would other- wise soon putrify and corrupt the air, they are not permitted to be destroyed. The Ossifrage of the woods of Syria and Egypt feeds on the dead car- cases of fowls and reptiles. This brings us to say a few words on the use of rapacious fowls, which may be also applied to wild beasts in general. Better perhaps it may appear to the imperfect reasoning of short-sighted mortals, that the business of mutual destruction had been avoided in the eco- nomy of nature, and instead of that circuit of prey and devastation which we observe, all animals had been formed to live on vegetable food, and suffered to die a natural death. But, independent of the dif- ficulty that occurs as to how such a number of crea- tures could be fed from the same source, we do not consider the state of suffering to which many of them must necessarily have been exposed, if they had been left to perish by protracted famine, after the decay of their bodily powers rendered them unfit to go in quest of food. Compared with this, is it not a far more happy dispensation that animals are formed for the destruction of each other ? and that (to fol- low the course of one circle by way of specimen.) Tt <> 41 AJ 78 BOOR OF KATtiRE LAID OPEK. while the tree-louse lives on plants, the musca aphi- divora lives upon the tree-louse; the hornet lives upon the musca aphidivora; the dragon-fly on the hornet; the spider on the dragon-fly; the small birds on the spider; and the hawk on the small birds. Deprived of reason, the innocent lamb licks the hand raised for its destruction; and the sufferings which animals feel upon the speedy extinction of the vital spark, must be momentary indeed, in com- parison of the pangs they must have undergone, if they had been left to expire by old age. Indeed, according to this plan, old age would be impossi- ble ; for what would the world soon become were its numerous tenants so cut off, and the putrid car- cases to lie unburied? the circumambient air, now the source of life and vitality, must then in a short time be rendered pestilential, and bearing upon its wings the noxious vapours, deal death and deso- lation with increasing malignity to every climate, until the beautiful theatre of life and activity became one great charnel-house, and the animating flame be for ever extinguished in the awful silence of eternal night. Instead, therefore, of finding fault with the mer- ciful dispensations of our all wise Creator, and re- *pining that lions and tigers, bears and wolves, ea- gles and vultures, serpents and crocodiles, and vo- racious monsters of the deep of every description exist, let us rather rejoice that wherever the carcase is exposed on the field, there will the vultures be gathered together; and that, where the lion and BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 79 serpent may die in their sequestered retreats, innu- merable vermin, attracted by the scent, will soon find them out, and leave not a vestige of putrifaction behind. Before we conclude with the tribe of volatiles, we will just remark, that these are not the only uses for which this order of beings seem to have been created. From the feathery creation we may also learn les- sons of wisdom on the most interesting and impor- tant subjects. What an example of conjugal con- stancy and fidelity do we discover in the turtledove! What a pattern of filial affection in the young stork! What a lesson for presumptuous pride have we in the answer of Solon to the monarch of Lydia ! When seated on his magnificent throne, and sur- rounded by all the appendages of external pomp and pageantry, Croesus asked the Greek philoso- pher, if he had ever seen so magnificent a specta- cle : " After having seen the plumage of the Phea- sant, he could not be astonished at the sight of any other finery," was the cool reply ! And what com- fort may we derive, under the vexatious losses and crosses of life, from the argument drawn by our Divine Teacher against sinking under despondency or anxiety : u Behold the fowls of the air ; for they sow not, neither do they reap, nor gather into barns: yet our heavenly Father feedeth them Are ye not better than they r" " Behold, and look away your low despair; See the light tenants of the barren air ; 80 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. To them no; 3 fores, nor Granaries belong; Nought hnr the woodland and the pleasing song; Yet, your kin-:! heavenly Father bends his eye On the least wing that flits along the sky." . CHAP. VIII. INSECTS. " Where greatness is to Nature's works deny'd, In art and beauty it is well supplied : In a small space the more perfection's shown, And what is exquisite in little's done." INSECTS have been reckoned by some among the more imperfectly formed of -Nature's works; but in this most numerous class of animated beings, where shall we find a single instance in which this is made to appear? In all that prodigious variety that exist between the Scorpion and the Mite, we certainly behold in the structure of insects abundant evidence of the most exquisite skill ; and if by means of the microscope we extend our researches down- wards through that minute order of beings, till we arrive at those invisible animalcules which are com- puted to be twenty-seven millions of times smaller than the mite, the same evidence of wisdom and design present themselves in every gradation, and all ideas of imperfection cease. BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 8f Of all productions in nature, insects are by far the most numerous, and though at first sight herbs of the field seem to be the parts of organized matter produced in the greatest abundance, yei upon mi- nute inspection we find every plant supporting a multitude of creatures scarcely perceptible, that fill up the compass of youth, vigour, and age, in the space of a few days' existence. In Lapland, and some parts of America, insects are said to be so numerous that if a candle is lighted they swarm about it in such multitudes that it is instantly extinguished ! As insects are endowed with the various powers of creeping, flying, and swimming, there is scarce any place, however remote and secure, in which they are not to be found. It is the infinite number of these invisible animals that makes stagnating waters appear of so many different hues, as green, brown, reddish, &c. It is not at all surprising then, that such an accu- rate researcher into Nature's works as the excellent Mr. Boyle, should observe, " that his wonders dwelt not so much on Nature's clocks as her watches." In several kinds of these creatures, invisible before to mortal eyes, it is not only easy to discover, by means of a good magnifier, the external appearance of their mouths, their horns, their trunks, and other members, but the very motion of their heart and lungs ! Now, as it has been remarked, as these little animals are discovered to be organized bodies, how fine and subtile must be the several part? that compose them ! How difficult to conceive the ex* 82 BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. treme minuteness of the muscles necessary to the heart, the glands for the secretion of the fluids, the stomach and bowels for the digestion of the food, the fineness of the tubes, nerves, arteries, veins, and above all, of the blood, the lymph, and animal spi- rits, which must be infinitely more so than any of these ! Here the utmost stretch of imagination is brought to the test, without being able to form any adequate conception ; but these inconceivable won- ders, instead of conveying any idea of imperfection, as to the skill of the artist, must, from what they make to appear, inspire the attentive observer with very different emotions, and force him to exclaim, " Thyself, how wond'rous then !" The beauty and symmetry of some of those mi- nute objects so viewed, are surprising indeed. What a metamorphosis do they seem to undergo under the magic-working glass ! Creatures that before seemed small and despicable, now " appear the pride of nature, wherein she has bestowed more nice and delicate art, and displayed more profusely the rich embroidery and elegant beauties and garniture of colours than in any of the larger species of animals." Even the dust that adheres to the butterfly's wing, and to which it owes the beautiful tints and varie- gated hues which adorn it, is said to be an innume- rable collection of extremely small feathers, as per- fect in the structure and symmetry of the arrange- ment, as they are beautiful in the colouring. BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 83 But this is not all, the very circumstances adduced as marks of imperfection in the insect tribes,, viz. their being enabled to live for some time alter being deprived of those organs necr^sais t-> hie to the higher ranks, and their amazing numbers, ou&s ra- ther to be considered as arguments to the co;.;.; vy. The former is no doubt essentially necessary to the preservation of a species exposed to so many ca- sualties, as those in particular who live on blood, and cannot, therefore, partake of a meal, without giv- ing their enemies notice of their presence ; and the latter, to prevent the extinction of a short-lived race, which come into existence at a time when there are so many open mouths ready to devour them. Without these two characteristic distinctions of the insect tribes, although they may be deemed imper- fections by the more imperfect powers of short sight- ed mortals, it is probable that long ere now some of those exquisite pieces of Nature's workmanship must have disappeared from the creation, and for want of those connecting links, the whole beautiful fabric of the universe must have fallen to decay ; for, trifling" as some of those minute or imperceptible object? may appear, the language of philosophy is: " Each crawling insect holds a rank Important in the plan of HIM who fram'd This scale of beings; holds a rank, which lost, Would break the chain, and leave a gap That Nature's self would rue." Instead, therefore, of having the presumption to stigmatize,, in the most remote degree, this particular- S4 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. order of the creatures of the Almighty, as affording evidences of imperfection, let us rather, from similar considerations, adopt the words of the more judi- cious Svvammerdam ; " After an attentive examina- tion," says he, " of the nature and anatomy of the smallest as well as the largest animals, I cannot help allowing the least an equal, or perhaps a superior degree of dignity. If, while we dissect with care the largest animals, we are filled with wonder at the elegant disposition of their parts, to what a height is our astonishment raised, when we discover all these parts arranged in the least in the same regular man- ner." And sum up the dispute in the words of ano- ther naturalist : " Of this dispute it is only neces- sary to observe, that the wisdom of the Creator is so conspicuous in all his works, and such surpris- ing art is discovered in the mechanism of the body of every creature, that it is very difficult, if not im- possible, to say where it is most, and where it is least to be observed." It is impossible, in the compass of this book, to do any thing like justice to a subject which can never be sufficiently investigated. We will, however, con- sistent w r ith our general plan, notice a few facts and striking peculiarities in this mysterious and numer- ous order of beings, by which it is most distinguish- ed from the others, and in which it will be suffi- ciently evident that insects are also the children of the same common parent, whose wisdom and good- ness are so conspicuous in his other works-. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 85 4k In the head of an insect no orginization of the brain is said to be discovered, but the want of this is abundantly made up by that medullary thread which communicates the vital principle to the other parts of their bodies, and endows them with that tenacity of life, which, as has been already observed, is so use- ful to the species. Neither are they apparently fur- nished with the usual organs of smelling and hearing^ but whether the olfactory nerves communicate with the feelers, and the auricular organs are situated in the antennae, as Mr. Barbutt supposes, or not, there can be no doubt from the readiness of Wasps, Flies, &c. to betake themselves to their wings and fly to dainties at a distance; and the alertness of Bees in sallying out to the relief of a brother in distress, when he alarms them by his noise outside the hive, that insects are not deficient in the senses of hearing, wherever the organs may be situated. The manner of respiration is different in insects from other ani- mals ; they breathe through pores placed in the sides of their bodies, and this also fits them for that re- markable peculiarity of living in separate parts. In the composition of insects no bones are made use of, but this defect is supplied in some by a membraneous or muscular skin, and in others by a crustaceous or horny covering. Their eyes are fixed, and they have no eyebrows, but, to prevent them from injury, the latter want is supplied by the external tunic of their eyes being hard and transparent, and to remedy the former, some insects have four, some six, others eight, while the number of lenses in some of those who 86 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. * have only two is amazing indeed. Flies, wasps, &e. have the outward coat of their eye .made of curious lattice-work. Pagett is said to have discovered no fewer than 17,325 lenses in the cornea of a butterfly ! The eyes of insects are admirably adapted for see- ing minute objects nigh at hand, but from the small- ness and convexity of their lenses, it is apparent that they can neither see far, nor take in the larger ob- jects, and to remedy any inconvenience that might arise from this, may have been the principal reason why Nature has furnished them with those project- ing horns or feelers with which they seem to grope as they advance. Insects are also distinguished by the number of their legs and wings; cf the latter most insects have four, while no other species of animals have more than two; and although the greater part have six legs, others, as Mites and Spi- ders, have eight, and some ten, fourteen, sixteen, and even a great many more. The palpi are those little instruments fixed to the mouth of some insects, which seem to be intended to serve the purpose of arms, for they employ them to bring food to their mouths, and to keep it steady when eating. Some insects are furnished with stings for defence, or to assist them in procuring their food, others with a tube for injecting their eggs into the most convenient si- tuations for hatching. The females of some winged insects, for instance, insert their eggs under the sur- face of leaves, and the worms when hatched, give rise to those tubercles or galls w r ith which the leaves of the ash, the fir, and other trees sometimes abound ; BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 87 the eggs of the Cynips, inserted into the leaves of the oak, produce the caterpillars, which give rise to the galls used in the composition of ink. The greater part of winged insects have a proboscis or trunk, which although not so large, is as wonderfully con- trived as that of the Elephant, and serves the pur- poses of a mouth, a nose, and a windpipe! The proboscis is a machine of a very complicated nature ; and that of a butterfly, when not in quest of food, is rolled up in form of a watch spring. The degree of strength and agility which many of the insect tribes possess is amazing. A flea will draw a chain one hundred times heavier than itself; and the velocity of a mite, in proportion to its size, is said to outstrip that of a race-horse ! With regard to sex, there is one thing very remarkable in this order, viz. that the Bees, the Wasps, and Ants fur- nish an example of a species that belong to neither sex, and so are called neuters ; these however, are not without their uses ; and the affection they evince for the helpless little creatures left to their care, might serve as a lesson to those who are intrusted with the tender charge of infants not their own. The last thing we shall mention in this general survey of the insect tribes, is the wonderful transfor- mations many of them undergo in the different stages of an egg, a grub or worm, a crysalis, till they arrive at their most perfect or fly state. " Observe the insect race, ordain'd to keep The lazy sabbath of a half year's sleep. Entomb'd beneath the filmy web they lie, And wait the influence of a kinder skv. SS BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEST. When vernal sunbeams pierce the dark retreat The heaving tomb distends with vital heat ; The full-formed brood, impatient of their cell, Start from their trance, and burst their silken shell.''' In each change not only their form and structure, but their very nature and appetite undergo a com- plete revolution. Take for example, yonder But- terfly, which in gaudy attire, and with a sprightly air, roves and flutters in quest of its balmy juices from flower to flower: how wonderful the change from that dead and inanimate state in which its beauties lately lay concealed, or from the grovelling reptile which on the cabbage-leaf partook voracious- ly of its coarser fare, nor evinced any relish for other dainties. If any thing were wanting to prove the wise dis- position of the parts and appetites of animals to their various situations and habits, here we have it in the instance of the Butterfly, whose structure and taste both undergo an alteration when its sphere of action and propensities become different. In regard to some peculiarities of a few of the dif- ferent species of insects, we will briefly observe, that in the mouth of the Gnat, we have an admirable specimen of the instrument necessary for such a blood thirsty animal ; the nails or crotchets of the Horse-fly, as well as its tenacity of life, evince that it is apt to be disturbed in its banquets ; whoever attentively considers the form of a Louse, need not be told that it is a blood-sucker The legs of the Locust and of the Grasshopper at once shew their BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 8^ propensity to leaping. The Bee, in danger of being robbed of its precious stores, is armed with its well known weapon. The female Wasp is larger and stronger than the male, to enable her to survive the rigour of winter; and the strong hairy legs of the Ant are no less well contrived to assist her in the inde- fatigable labours of the hill, than the two claws with which they are armed are for the purpose of climbing. How surprising the instinct by which those little creatures are taught uniformly t deposit their eggs on such animal or. vegetable substances, as furnish a proper and plentiful supply of food lor the worms or caterpillars, as soon as ttyey are hatched. That those who pass into the Chrysalis or inactive state, select the most proper situations and modes of con- cealment; and that others, whose only metamor- phosis consists in the addition of wings, surround themselves while undergoing the change by an en- velope of snume or froth, proceeding from their bo- dy ; as the Cuckoo spit, or Froth worm. " The Locusts have no king, yet they go forth all of them in bands;" while the solitary Spider, having no wings to go to pursuit of her prey, weaveth to herself a web, and watches with patience the en- tanglement of a fly. Our space will not permit us to dwell on the geometrical precision and mathema- tical exactness, with which Bees form their combs; the wonderful ingenuity and contrivance of the Wasp's nest, or the order and regularity observed in the construction of the Ant hill, as well as the prudence and foresight which the whole of these i 2 90 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. evince in their labours and pursuits ; these, and the singular but convenient attitude which the Water-fly assumes in swimming on his back, to enable him the better to lay hold of his food, the under side of plants which grow on the water, we can only men- tion, and must proceed to consider a few of the Uses of Insects. From the number of animals in the different ele- ments and regions of existence, which prey upon insects, there can be no doubt but the principal ob- ject the Creator had in view in the formation of these, was for the subsistence of many of the larger orders of creatures; but the following specimens serve to shew that some of these also contribute in no small degree, in their respective spheres, to the service of man. By the labours and exertions of the Bee, we are provided with stores of honey and wax; the seemingly contemptible little Silk-worm presents us, in its passage from the Caterpillar in the sleeping state, with materials for constituting our most costly raiment- From the Cantharies come the Spanish Flies, so useful in blisters; the Kermes is also va- luable for medicinal purposes; and the Cochineal furnishes us with a rich and beautiful dye. The wonders accomplished by the united exertions of the Bees, the Wasps, and the Ants, shew what can be done by brethren dwelling together in unity. The watchfulness of the Spider, after she has woven her 'web, demonstrates the necessity of not folding our BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN, hands for slumber just at the time we have comple- ted our preparations for activity ; and to the Ant, the sluggard is sent to learn a lesson of prudence and foresight. " These emmets, how little they are in our eyes ! We tread them to dust, and a troop of them dies Without our regard or concern : Yet, as wise tls we are, if we went to their school, There's many a sluggard, and many a fool, A lesson of wisdom might learn." CHAP IX. REPTILES. - Lo ! trie green Serpent, from his daik abode, Which even imagination fears to tread ; At noon forth issuing, gathers up his train In orbs immense." . " Thro' subterraneous cells, Where scorching sunbeams scarce can find a way, Earth animated heaves. The flowery leaf Wants not its soft inhabitants." IN the order of Reptiles, we have a new display of the wonders of creating art. These creatures are also endowed with the power of motion, but how differently do they move from any of the orders we have already considered. Deprived of the usual ap- paratus of legs or wings, the ponderous Serpent is- sues from his concealment, and moves majestically along by means of his scales and strong muscular 2 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. powers ; and the slender Worm draws and pushes himself forward by his rings and contortions. The wisdom in these contrivances must be immediately apparent, when we consider that some of the former have their habitations assigned them in the most im- penetrable thickets, where an elevated stature would expose them to many inconveniences. Some take up their abode in the swampv batiks of great rivers, or among the reeds in morasses, where the weight of their body, supported by legs, must have sunk them deeper in the mire ; others wind their way among heaps of rubbish or crumbling ruins, where projecting appendages, of any description, would have been apt to retard their progress ; and the naked and defenceless bodies of the latter are admirably adapted to those subterraneous passages which they form to themselves unseen in the bowels of the earth. Snails, also, are a species of Reptiles; but, being encumbered in their movements with their shelly appendage, they are furnished with an instrument peculiar to themselves, in that long, broad surface, by which they pull themselves along ; and by which? assisted by the glutinous substance they emit from their bodies, they are enabled to adhere, in any po- sition, to the smoothest of surfaces. The motion of Caterpillars in their vermicular state is curiously performed, by means of a number of little legs, the foremost of which are differently constructed from the hindmost, but all are formed in the most suitable manner for assisting in their progress on the leaves of plants. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 93 Being deprived of those instruments of motion possessed by other animals, to carry them speedily forward in pursuit of their prey, Serpents are neces- sitated to have recourse to the resources of artifice* and to lie in wait for it ; and, to enable them to do this to the best possible advantage, Nature has not only endowed them with the power of intwining themselves in ambush around the trunks and among the branches 6f trees, by the slender make and flexi- bility of their bodies, but, by a very particular and singular construction of the back-bone in Serpents, they are enabled to coil themselves up in a very small compass. In the generality of animals, the joints in the back-bone do riot exceed thirty or forty ; but in the serpent kind they amount to one hundred and forty -five from the head to the vent, and twenty- five more from that to the tail. If Serpents are not furnished with the claws of the Tiger to lay hold of their prey, the strong hooked bill and talons of the Eagle to pull it to pieces, and the tusks of the Boar to devour it, several of this species are furnished with a poisonous sting for instantaneously inflicting the mortal wound, others are soon enabled to extinguish the vital spark by means of the convulsive energy of their enormous twistings ; while the general con- formation of the jaws, the width of the mouth, and yielding texture of the bodies of Serpents are such, as to enable them to swallow prodigious mouthfuls, and animals more bulky than themselves. A Ser- pent in the island of Java was observed at one time *to destroy and devour a Buffalo; after having bro- 94 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. ken the bones by its voluminous twistiugs, it was seen to lick the body all over, which covered it with its mucus, and make it slip more glibly down its throat. But the assistance which some of these creatures receive from their poison in the seizing of their prey, is not the only benefit they derive from it; it is also their most sure and effectual defence ; and from the dread and horror which such an instrument as the sting of a Serpent inspires, (although only found in the possession of a few,) it serves, as it were, for a safeguard to the whole species. Mankind, indeed, cannot tread with too cautious- steps the paths frequented by these creatures ; for although none of the most venomous kinds will at- tack man, except on the defensive, yet, without the power of discriminating, when accidently trod upon, they will make the intruder feel the power of their vengeance. What a merciful provision, therefore, has Providence made, for the safety of the American, in the tail of the Rattle snake, than which there is not one of the serpent tribe more to be dreaded: yet the rattle in his tail, on the smallest motion, must give notice of his approach, or warn the traveller of the impending danger that lies concealed in his haunts. It is a melancholy truth, that the direful effects of the Serpent's poison is not confined to the wounds they themselves inflict, but, as a celebrated naturalist observes, by men more mischievous even than Serpents, who prepare their venom to destroy each other; v. ith this the savages poison their arrows, * BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 95 and prepare their revengeful poisons. The ancients were known to preserve it for the purposes of sui- cide, and among barbarians the venom of snakes is used as a philter to this day. How much more ho- nourable for human nature when the ingenuity of man is exerted for the preservation of his species' and as Vipers are the only animals of a venomous kind, from whose bite the inhabitants of Great Bri- tain have any thing to fear, the discovery of Wil- liam Oliver, the Viper-catcher at Bath, that the ap- plication of Olive Oil was an effectual cure for the bite of one of these animals, may not be improperly mentioned here, to the honour of that person, who submitted to some dangerous experiments in corro- boration of the truth of this discovery. Nor is the care of Providence less observable in the provision made for the security and preservation of the more harmless kinds of reptiles, than for those of a dangerous and venomous description. The naked and tender body of the Earth worm is no doubt pretty securely lodged in the subterraneous vaults it forms for itself in the earth, and the Ser- pent, in the absence of defensive weapons, enjoys no little security in the dread its very form inspires; but still the former is exposed to many an injury in his lowly situation., and the latter may oft wait long for the approach of his victims ; but the feeble worm, when cut in several parts by the gardener's spade, evinces a remarkable tenacity of the vital powers ; and the voracious Liboya, which can swallow at a meal an animal three times as thick as itself, at other 96 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. times, when no food presents itself, exhibits an ab- stemiousness that is astonishing. Indeed, a single meal with many of the Snake kind seems to be the adventure of a season ; and is an occurrence for which they have been lor weeks, nay, sometimes for months, in patient expectation. Vipers are, often kept in boxes for six or eight months, without any food whatever ; and there are small Serpents sent over to Europe from Grand Cairo that .live for se- veral years without eating. The instinctive sagacity of an animal, said at first to be more subtile than any beast of the field, and whose wisdom was pointed out by the Saviour of men as being necessary to be united with the harm- lessness of the dove, in the dispositions of his disci- ples, must naturally be expected to be very remark- able, and it certainly is so, whether manifested in the wonderful docility which some of these creatures assume in a state of captivity the dancing serpent, for instance, carried about by jugglers and strollers in the East Indies, will raise their heads and part of their bodies at the sound of music, moving them in such a manner as to keep time with the instru- ment, while their tails continue in a coil at the bot- tom of the basket : the convenient places in which they lie in wait for the approach of their prey- the commodious attitude in which those of the venomous kind put themselves for darting at their victims; or the subtle artifices to which those of the more'harm- less kind have recourse in eluding an enemy. Ser- pents the most venomous will suddenly spring up BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 97 on their tail, at the approach of a larger animal, erect their head, and inflict the deadly wound in a mo- ment; while some of those who are less so, when closely pursued, or excited by rage or fear, will emit a most horrible fcetor, in order, as it were, to force the enemy to retire from the pursuit. The Black Snake of Virginia lays its eggs in dung- hills or hotbeds, where, aided by the heat of the sun, they are hatched and brought to maturity. The blind worms betake themselves, at the approach of winter, to those secret recesses, where, in a state of torpidity, they are sometimes found in vast numbers twisted to- gether; and the common earth-worm, when warned of danger from the mole, by the moving of the earth, darts upwards to the surface, and is out of his reach in an instant. Uses of Reptiles. In a former part we noticed the indispensable ne- cessity of animals of prey, and the bad consequences that must have inevitably ensued had the whole of earth's various tenants been left to die a natural death, and their carcases been left to rot unburied Amongst animals of this description we may un- doubtedly reckon the race of Serpents; and whether we consider the fitness of their* bodies for entering o the dens, and caves, and holes of the earth, or their voracious appetites for such sort of food in common with reptiles of an inferior order, we must certainly allow that they are wonderfully adapted for the pur- 98 BOOK OP NATURE. LAID OPEN. pose. This, then, may Jje one reason, and a very sufficient one too, for the formation of Serpents, that besides helping to rid the earth of a vast number of the smaller obnoxious vermin, they find their way with the greatest ease into the 'most secret recesses of putrefaction, and destroy those noisome carcases in a short period, to which the other large animals of similar tastes could not, by the peculiar structure of their bodies, have had access. The use of the Leech is also too well known to need description. CHAP. X. THE OCEAN. .............. Ami thou, majestic main! A secret world of wonders in thyself ! Sound His stupendous praise, whose greater voice Or bids you roar, or bids your roaring fall." WHAT a grand and magnificent spectacle does the Ocean present! Whether we view it when wrought up by fearful agitation into all the horrors of the tem- pest, when the blackness of darkness rides trium- phant on the storm, and its foaming billows mix with the clouds, or gaze upon it, with a calm delight, as it gently advances or recedes in soft and hollow mur- murs upon the sanely beach, when not a breeze is observed to breathe on its undulating bosom, and every wind is hushed, it is impossible to conceive BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 99 any thing better calculated to excite in us lofty and sublime conceptions of the Creator. " May not the sea," in the words of a modern au- thor, " be styled the temple of contemplation? View- ed in all its stages, it exalts and improves the mind. Its level expanse, when a calm prevails, communi- cates a similar tranquillity to the reflecting breast; and when its billows lift their devouring heads, they sug- gest ideas the most sublime, meditations the most solemn. The very nature of the pro spec-t, boundless and unbroken, presents a sensible argument for eter- nify of duration and infinity of space, more forcible than the subtilest reasoning of metaphysics." The ocean, rolling its surges from clime to clime> is, undoubtedly, the most august object under the whole heavens. A spectacle of magnificence and grandeur which fills the mind, and engrosses the utmost stretch of imagination. What an immense and mighty assemblage of wa- tery particles must be contained in the great deep 5 and what a prodigious extent of the earth's surface doth it cover ! Some natural philosophers, indeed, have carried their ideas on this subject so far as to assert, that if the bed of the sea were empty, all the rivers of the world flowing into it, with a continu- ance of their present stores, would take at least eight hundred years to fill it again to its present height. If, then, in a single drop of water, as much only as will adhere to the point of a needle, a philosopher has computed no less than thirteen thousand globules* what an inconceivable number must there be in the 100 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. unfathomable depths, and immeasurable extent of the ocean ! where the eye is lost in wandering over the liquid expanse, and which, if we look upon a map of the world', we shall find to cover a consi- derably larger portion of the surface of the globe than even the dry land itself. Wonderful as the sea is in itself, and beneficial as it is to the sons of men, all its wonders and all its benefits reflect glory to Him who formed it, and poured it abroad. When we place ourselves upon the shore, and from thence behold that immense body of water, stretching away on all sides, as far as the eye can reach ; and when we consider how large a portion of the globe is co- vered in like manner, what a noble idea are we en. abled to form of that Being, who taketh up the sea in his hand, and in whose sight the ocean is no more than a drop ; who covered the earth with the deep as with a garment, and assigned it bounds which it cannot pass ! And it is truly astonishing by what simple, yet potent means, this great and important end is accomplished ; for it is neither by adaman- tine rocks nor tremendous precipices, nor shelving banks of well cemented sand, that the unruly ele- ment is confined within due limits, although these all no doubt lend their aid in repelling the lashings of its surges, and occasional attempts to encroach on the land ; but by a barrier, simple, yet more ef- fectual than all these, the word of the great Jeho- vah's strength, who has impressed upon this ele- ment that law of gravitation, by which the waters of the mountains are made to go down into the val- BOOK OF NATURS LA?D lies ; and has said to the fluctuating and unstable mass, " Hitherto shalt thou come, and no farther : and here shall thy proud waves be stayed." There are, however, some shores on which the sea has made temporary depredations ; where it has over- flowed, and after remaining, perhaps, some ages, has again retired of its own accord , or been driven back by the industry of man ; but we have an in- stance of one of a very considerable and lasting na- ture, which happened in the reign of Henry I. in which the sea overflowed the estates of Earl God- win, in Kent, and formed that celebrated bank now called the Godwin Sands. In the reign of Augus- tus, the Isle of Wight also made a part of Britain, so that the English crossed over to it at low water with cartloads of tin; and in the bay of Baia;, near Naples, there are remains of houses and streets still visible below the present level of the sea. These, however, may have been occasioned by some earth- quake, or other internal convulsion of the earth, in which case such tracts would no doubt have sunk, although they had been situated more inland; or if these facts must really be considered as evidences of (he encroachment of the sea upon the land, as the advocates for that theory insist, we must bring in the testimony of the Norway fishermen to balance them, who affirm, that the sea upon that coast has become much shallower in many places than it had been ; that rocks, formerly covered with water, were now several feet above the surface of the sea, and that loaded vessels used formerly to ride where pin- K2 L OF NATU&E LAID OPEK. 'naces and barks could now with difficulty swim; as nothing is more certain from the absolute necessity that a proper equilibrium in the disposition of the waters of the ocean be kept up, that if the sea is suffered to gain upon the land in one direction, it must recede from it in another, and vice versa. Indeed, so far from there being the smallest dan- ger that the world of waters may escape from its present situation, and return again to cover the earth, it might rather be expected, from its known pro- perties and penetrating quality, that it would find its way downward, so as to leave its banks dry by receding from our shores, or. by mixing with the in- ternal composition of the globe, saturate its stores with the exuberance of its moisture. Whether the former of these is chiefly prevented by that other law impressed upon fluids, by which they have a natural tendency to regain their level, and the latter, by that stiff, tenacious coat of clay, which covers such a considerable portion of the bottom of this uni- versal canal, we will not take upon us to say : one thing is certain, that, as no increase is observed on the* waters of the ocean, notwithstanding, as the wise man observes, all the rivers flow into it; so neither is there any sensible diminution of that extent of sur- face so essentially necessary in the business of evapo- ration, which is continually going on from this great natural reservoir The water, of which the clouds are formed, and which descends in rain or snow, is evaporated from the sea ; and it has been found, by calculation, that, in a summer day, there may be BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 103 raised, in vapours from the Mediterranean alone, no less than five thousand two hundred and eighty mil- lions of tuns of water. The air and sun are the mighty engines which work, without intermission, to raise the water from this inexhaustible cistern. The clouds, as aequeducts, convey the genial stores along the atmosphere, and distribute^ them in sea- sonable and regular proportions through all the re- gions of the globe. A superficial observer may be apt to imagine, that if the watery element had been less copiously dif- fused, and more confined to a deeper bed, a greater part of the earth might have been converted into dry land, and, consequently, made habitable to a larger portion of the human species ; but such do not con- sider, that the clouds, which drop down fatness, de- rive their fertilizing quality from the vapours exhaled from the ocean, and that to abridge the liquid ex- panse of its extent, would be only depriving those aerial water-bearers of part of their genial stores, so indispensably necessary to render that portion of the dry land we already possess productive. How amazing that water, without which we can scarcely perform any business, or enjoy any comfort, should be thus brought to stream by our doors, and enter our houses, from the remotest regions from the far off and unfrequented paths .of the great deep ; that this boundless mass of fluid salt, so intolerably nau- seous to the taste, should be the original source of those sweet and pleasing showers that descend to water and refresh the earth. 104 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. The all-wise Creator foresaw this, and, in mercy to the inhabitants of the dry parts of this earthly ball, diffused his watery treasures over such a consider- able portion of its surface ; carefully balancing the Atlantic with the Pacific, and the Northern with the Southern ocean ; and if the old Continent can boast of its Mediterranean, Caspian, Baltic, Black, White, and Red seas, the New World is deeply indebted by.ihe gulf of Mexico, and North America has ob- tained the appellation of the Country of lakes. But the ocean, as well as being the source of fer- tility, by the Exhalations drawn up from its surface by the sun, is also the great receptacle of filth, and mighty purifier and restorer of nature. Almost all the rivers, indeed, run into the sea ; biit it is not nvTe- ly to empty their liquid stores, and to keep up the circulation in the huge machine of the universe ; they convey also, as they go along to this capacious re- ceiver, the refuse of nations, and deposit in the bo- som of the great abyss the accumulated filth of our towns and cities. How, then, it may be asked, are the waters of this mighty basin preserved from being contaminated? And. instead of continuing the sa- lubrious element of vitality to so many living crea- tures, how comes it to pass that the sea is not con- verted into a source of corruption, a fountain of pu- trid'tv, disease, and death? The two great efficient causes, which produce these happy results, are, that incessant motion by which the ooean is kept in perpetual agitation, even in its most tranquil state, and the saltness of its vva- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPF/N'. 105 ters; and that these might operate with the greatest possible effect where most necessary, it is wisely so ordered that both prevail most as we approach those warm regions, where the intense heat would be fol- lowed by most pernicious consequences on a stand- ing pool, or stagnant fresh-water lakes, and are less perceptible in climates more remote from the equator The principal currents of the ocean are those ob- served in the Atlantic ocean, near Guinea, extending from Cape Verd to the Bay of Fernandos. These currents are so rapid, that vessels run as far in two days with them, as require six or seven weeks to return. Near Sumatra there are rapid currents, as also between Java and Magellan, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Island of Madagascar ; especially between Natal and the Cape on the coast of Africa ; there are violent currents in the sea adjacent to the Maldivian Islands. One of the greatest tides wp know of, is that at the mouth of the river Indus, where the water rises thirty feet in height ; it is no wonder, therefore, that Alexander's soldiers, who had been accustomed to behold the scarcely perceptible risings of the Medi- terranean, should have viewed this striking pheno- menon with a mixture of curiosity and apprehension. The tides are also remarkably high on the coasts of Malay, in the Straits of Sunda, in the Red Sea, and along the coasts of China and Japan. The sea contains the greatest quantity of salt in the torrid zone, where, otherwise, from the excessive 106 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. heat, it would be in danger of putrefaction ; as we advance northward, this quantity diminishes, till, at the Pole, it nearly vanishes altogether. It may also be remarked, that the Caspian and other inland seas, that have no effluent rivers to put them in motion, and circulate their contents, are salt; while the lakes of Ontario and Erie, through which the river St. Lawrence passes, in North America,, are fresh-water lakes. We have already had occasion to remark the bad effects that must have inevitably ensued, had the putrid carcases of land animals been left to rot in the air unburied; but what must this mighty recep- tacle of carrion and putrefaction have long ere now become, but for the correcting and renovating power imparted to it by its saltness and motion. And it ought here to be remarked, that, from what- ever cause the saline nature of the ocean may pro- ceed, its saltness is as inherent in its composition as the heat is in the sun; while, to preserve and keep up the perpetual agitation of its fluid particles, its motion is not dependant on any one single cause. The most perceptible agitation in this world of water that strikes our sense?, is that occasioned by the mflueree of the wind, whon the raging billows heave their tumultuous throes, and threaten destruc- tion to the affrighted mariner; yet this motion, even in the most violent storms, is said to be confined only to its sur^ce That occasioned by the cur- rerts. ho ever must descend to the bottom, and be particj'arly strong among those narrow and deep BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 107 inequalities most apt to produce them. The bottom of the sea, like the surface of the earth, is overspread with mountains, intersected with inequalities. In all mountainous places currents will be violent ; in all places where the bottom of the sea is level, they will be almost imperceptible. Whirlpools appear to be no other than the eddies of the water formed by the action of two or more opposite currents. The Euripus, nigh the Grecian coast, and famous for the death of Aristotle, alter- nately absorbs and rejects the water seven times in twenty-four hours. The Charybdis, near the straits of Sicily, rejects and absorbs the water thrice in twenty-four hours; and the greatest known whirlpool in the world, that in the Norway sea, which is affirm- ed to be upwards of twenty leagues in circumference, is said to absorb, for six hours, whales, ships, and every thing that comes near it, and afterwards returns * them in the same quantity of time as it drew them in. But that which gives to the sea its unremitting and universal impulse, which sufters it not to rest for a single moment over all its wide extended bounds, but keeps it in perpetual agitation, and makes it, a it were, remain vigorous, and acquire health by exer- cise, from one extremity of the earth to the other, is that wonderful and truly surprising phenomenon of nature, the flux and reflux of the tides. This wonderful phenomenon, so inconceivable to the ancients, is accounted for by the moderns, on the principle of gravitation, and has been demonstrated to be under the influence of the moon ; but from 108 BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. whatever secondary cause it may proceed, there can be no doubt as to the fact, that the waters of the sea ebb and flow alternately twice in the course of some- thing less than twenty five hours, with the greatest regularity. This is surprising indeed; but it is no less so, that they should adhere so invariably to the limits of their operation; that even when the waves lift up their heads in the most ungovernable fury, and toss about in their most frantic ravings, they still con- fine themselves to the space allotted for them by Pro- vidence, and pay the most implicit bmission to that unerring law which regulates their movements. When the tide begins to flow, it signifies not that the proudest earthly potentate be in the way. Ca- nute may erect his throne on the beach, and com- mand the sea to approach no farther ; but it will be only to proclaim his own impotence ; for, regardless of the mandate, the waters will press on, and, if the monarch persists, will sweep him from the face of the earth. When the ebb has commenced, it is equally vain to think of retarding the reflux; the roll- ing surges must return to the bosom of the ocean, from whence they came. The bed of the ocean, gradually deepening as it recedes from our shores, till it loses itself in the dark unfathomed caves of the deep, renders it not only more commodious for the purposes of navigation, and safe for the inhabitants who dwell on its bor- ders, but it is of singular service in removing, to a distance from our shores, those numerous deposits of noxious mutter which are daily poured into it, BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 109 while undergoing the process of purification amongst the sandy particles at the bottom. There the most offensive impurities having subsided into the mud, may be said to be buried in the depths of the sea ; but not to remain, for even there a species of worms await their farther decomposition, and the last stage of corruption is made to assume a new form. The saltness of the sea, besides the important part it bears in the renovating power of the watery ele- ment by its saline quality, is also of use in lending its aid to preserve that motion, the beneficial efficacy of which has just been demonstrated ; for the salt- ness of the sea renders its waters less apt to freeze, and in those countries where, in the absence of heat, it is not so necessary otherwise, tends not a little to retard the progress of congelation. This serves only to render the w r ater of the ocean heavier, and con- sequently of a proper consistency for supporting those numerous burdens which float on its surface. Among the wonders of the great deep, \ve may justly reckon those awful phenomena, termed Wa- ter-spouts ; yet these no doubt have their uses. They are of two kinds ; one of which is no other than a thick compressed cloud, reduced to a small space by contrary winds, which, blowing at the same time from many corners, give it a cylindric form, and cause the water to fall by its own weight. The quantity of water is so great, and the fall so sudden and precipitate, that if, unfortunately, one of these spouts break on a vessel, it shattrr* it to pieces, and sinks it in an instant. It is asserted, and possibly L 110 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. with foundation, that these spouts may be broken and destroyed by the commotion which the firing of cannon excite in the air. The other kind of water- spout is called a typhon, and does not descend from the clouds, but rises up from the sea with great violence. " These Water- spouts," Thevenot observes, " are also very danger- ous, for if they fall on a vessel they entangle in the sails so much that sometimes they raise it up, and afterwards let it fall with such violence as to sink it; or, at least, if they do not lift the vessel up, they tear all the sails, or let the water they contain fall on it, which often sinks it to the bottom." But, whatever mischief may be occasioned by Water spouts, or however terrifying their appearance, we have abun- dant reason to believe, from their being the produc- tions of so wise and good a God, that the partial evil they may at times occasion, is nothing in comparison with the good they promote. As the burning torrent, issuing from the top of Etna or Vesuvius, alarms the surrounding inhabitants, and sometimes carries ir- remediable devastation among their dwellings, yet is absolutely necessary to prevent greater evils, so the terrific Water spout may act as the most simple and efficacious medium of restoring that equilibrium among the elements, which, if longer prevented, might not only occasion convulsions sufficient to swallow up whole navies, but be attended with the most direful effects upon the dry land. But were it for no other purpose than to add to the grandeur of such a scene as is about to be described, and awa~ BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN, 111 ken feelings similar to those experienced by the au- thor of the following sublime sketch, taken in the midst of the Atlantic ocean, these wonderful produc- tions of the varying power of nature may be said not to have been created in vain. OPEN. edge of the water, and letting it wash several times over their bodies. At the expiration of some days, spent on the land, after this washing, they again seek the shore ; and shaking off the spawn into the wa- ter, leave it there. The sea, to a great distance, is black with the eggs, and shoals of hungry fish at- tend, and devour a considerable quantity of them ; those that escape are hatched under the sand; and soon after, millions at a time of these little crabs are seen quitting the shore, and making their way slowly to the mountains. When the Tellina has occasion to move, she puts herself into a certain position, which occasions her to spring out, with considerable force, to a distance. When the Scallop finds herself deserted by the tide, it jerks itself forward by opening and shutting its shell in a singular manner. When the Razor shell- fish finds itself deceived by the fishermaq, when he decoys it from its subterraneous habitation by a sprinkling of salt, and has time to retreat, no such attempt will succeed a second time. When part of the legs of the Sea Hedge-hog are at work, carry- ing him forward, the horns that are nearest in that direction are busily employed in making soundings or feeling the way. The Muscle, when she has commenced spinning her cable, will make a trial of a thread, by drawing it out strongly towards her, before she proceeds to stretch out a second ; and these cords, which she spins with so much art, are, in re- ality, as serviceable to them as cables are to a ship. There are frequently a hundred and fifty of these BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. 137 little cables employed in mooring a muscle; each cable is scarcely two inches long, but they are all spun by herself, and the tongue is the instrument which not only produces these numerous threads, but serves also instead of arms and legs on other occa- sions. The Limpet, when she has occasion to un- moor, finds means to disengage herself without any great effort, and to move from her place by the same muscle by which she adhered so firmly to her an- chorage. Even Oysters are said not to be destitute of the power and the instinctive sagacity to turn them- selves round when thrown irregularly into a vessel of water, so that the concave shells may remain downmost, in order to retain their favourite liquor, Uses of Shdl-fsh. From the number of animals which prey upon in- sects, it was inferred, that the principal object the Creator had in view in the formation of these, was the subsistence of many of the larger orders of crea- tures ; so, from the numerous herds of shell fish, which, in a great degree, resemble insects, and eve- ry where abound among the beds of the ocean, and the extraordinary digestive faculties of the finny tribes, we have reason to conclude, that the former were principally intended and brought into existence for food to the latter. We will, however, mention a few particulars in which the crustaceous tribes may also be said to be otherwise serviceable. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. The Hawk's-bill Turtle is valued on account of its shell, from whence our most beautiful snuff boxes, and other trinkets, are said to be formed. The Green Turtle, as a wholesome and highly delicious food, has become such a valuable article in commerce, that our West India vessels are now generally fitted up with conveniences for importing them alive. The Land Crab is said to be regarded as a delicacy in Jamaica; and it is even asserted that the slaves are often entirely fed upon them. Among the shell fish on the Waterford coast, the Murex, which gave the Tyrian purple, is said to exist. We need not men- tion in what estimation the Lobster, the Crab, and other shell-fish, are held among ourselves ; and the delicacy of flavour which makes the Oyster prized as an article of food. In the Oyster, also, is found that beautiful substance called Mother of Pearl; but as the pearl fishery is one of the most destructive em- ployments (the art of war excepted,) in which the human species can be engaged, it is much to be la- rnented that what is principally used in the formation of trinkets should continue to be procured at the ex- pence of so much human misery. The pearls are searched for by Divers, educated to it as a profession; they descend from fifty to sixty feet, each bringing up a net full of Oysters. The pearl is most commonly attached to the inside of the shell, but is most perfect when found in the animal itself. The exertion undergone during this progress is so violent, that, upon being brought into the boat, the Pivers discharge water from their mouths, ears and BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 139 nostrils, and frequently blood; this does not, how- ever, hinder them from going down in their turn, and the poor creatures will often make from forty to fifty plunges a day. But the violence of the exer- tion (by which, although the most robust and healthy are generally chosen for this employment, yet they seldom survive it five or six years,) is not the only- thing the Pearl divers have to dread; they are also exposed to the attacks of the sharks, who, if they are not successful in ever) 7 attempt to extinguish at once the vital spark, and so put an end to a life so little to be envied, frequently deprive these unhappy be- ings of a limb, and suffer them only to escape from their jaws in a mutilated state! Read this, ye dash- ing fair ones! and think, as ye enter the ball room under a profusion of glittering ornaments, that, to procure that costly bracelet, an unhappy fellow crea- ture was doomed to the slavery of the diamond- mines; and that beautiful pearl was procured at the peril of another's life. And all this while so many of the transcendent beauties of creation, placed by the Almighty within our reach, pass unregarded. But this is of a piece with the general conduct of man, who is ever apt to lose the substance in grasp- ing at the shadow, 140 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. CHAP. XIII. FISHES. " Who can old Ocean's pathless bed explore, And count her tribes that people every shore?" .' From icy oceans, where the whales Toss in foam their lashing tails." IP the Ostrich, the Emu, and the Cassowary, were remarkable for their size, and claimed our first at- tention among the feathery tribe^, in consequence of their apparently constituting part of that link which unites the quadruped to the volatile race, the Whale deserves our immediate notice on entering among the finny tribes; not only on account of its enormous bulk, which has occasioned it, in its movements, to be compared to a mountain in motion, but for the resemblance that it bears to the four footed class of animals in its internal structure, and that superior in* stinctive sagacity which it displays in its conjugal at- tachment, and care of its offspring. In bulk, the Whale may be said to exceed every animal of which we have any certain description. They are in the arctic regions at present from sixty to ninety feet long; but formerly, when the captures were less fre- quent, and they were not so much thinned before ar- riving at a larger growth, they were said to be found of *V- enormous length of two hundred and fifty feet; and in the Indian Seas they are still seen one hun- dred and fifty feet in length, Yet, notwithstanding BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 141 its amazing bulk, this creature must not be consi- dered as a huge unwieldy mass ; for, according to La Cepede, it swims at the rate of thirty-three feet in a second, and it is computed that it might circum- navigate the globe, in the direction of the equator, in forty seven days, even allowing it to rest by night during that time ! It is believed to be extremely lopg lived; and the method of catching these huge animals is said to be one of the boldest enterprizes of man. As the whale fishing has, however, been so fully described in a variety of publications, within the reach of the greater part of our readers, we shall pass it over for the present. But, large as the whale is, what is its size in comparison with the Kraken ? if such an animal exists; whicji is said to be " a mile and a half in circumference ; that, when it appears above the water, it resembles a parcel of small isl- ands and sand-banks, on which fish disport them- selves, and sea-weeds grow ;" and that, " when he sinks, which he does gradually, a dangerous swell succeeds, and a kind of whirlpool is actually formed in the water " Far from being disposed to set bounds to the power of the Almighty, by denying the possibility of the existence of such an animal, we would conclude in the words of Goldsmith, that " to believe all that has been said of those animals would be too credulous, and t r j reject the possibility of their existence, would be a presumption unbecoming mankind " In the internal conformation of its parts, and in a few of the external ones of the Whale^ there is such 142 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. a similarity to those of quadrupeds, that Linnaeus has placed it in the" same class ; to which its claim, and that of the other cetaceous fishes, seem, indeed, little inferior to that of the Seal, where the last gradation, in that order of animals, may be said to end. In its instinctive tenderness, the Whale is, indeed, entitled to our admiration ; but, as we shall have oc- casion to speak more fully on that subject by ajid by, we will, for the present, proceed to the consider- ation of the general Structure of Fishes, In attending to these, we will soon observe that, if the body of a bird i shaped in the most convenient manner for making its way through the air, a no less extraordinary degree of divine wisdom is evident in the conformation of the finny inhabitants of the deep to that element in which they exist. To make these creatures buoyant and flexible, yet firm to oppose the strongest currents, the great Creator has consti- tuted them of very different materials, and of a dif- ferent construction from other animals. To enable them to traverse with ease and swiftness the watery regions, the greater part of them have the same ex- ternal form, sharp at each end, and swelling in the middle. To preserve them from being hurt by the action and temperature of the surrounding fluid, as well as to enable them, to glide more smoothly through it, many of these are covered with a coat of scales, others with a fat oily substance, and the whole BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 143 with a slimy glutinous matter, supposed to be se- creted from the pores of their bodies. A protube- rant eye would have been inconvenient, and easily injured by moving in such a dense medium ; but, to prevent this, the eyes of fishes are sunk in their heads, and the cornea made flat, while the defect of vision, that must have inevitably ensued in consequence, had they been formed like those of other animals, is pro- vided against by the spherical form of the crystalline humour. As their progression is performed in a different way from that of any of the tribes we have already noticed, they are provided with instruments peculiar to themselves, and are enabled to poise their bodies, and push swiftly along by means of their fins and tail. Not being provided with hands or feet to lay hold of their prey, or with talons or bills to tear it to pieces. Nature has provided them with mouths capable of great extension, when they have occasion to seize on their victims, yet so formed, that when shut up close, they terminate in a point, in which an opening is scarcely distinguishable. What a tre- mendous chasm, for instance, does the mouth of a Shark present when extended to receive a human carcase, of which this voracious monster has given instances of being extremely fond, and yet, when closed, it appears but a continuation of that long snout with which this fish, (reckoned among the swiftest of swimmers) like an arrow pierces the watery element. In the absence of necks, which would make the head too apt to be turned aside when making their way against a stream, the whole bodies of fish are 144 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEK so formed as to be easily turned with a slight stroke of the tail ; for, when a fish desires to turn, a blow from the tail sends it about in an instant; and when it strikes both ways, the motion is progressive, and en- ables it to dart forward with an astonishing velocity. One distinguishing appendage peculiar to the fin- ny tribe,- and which is found in the bodies of all spi- nous or bony fish, is the air bladder, by means of which they can make themselves more or less buoy- ant, and rise or fall in the water at pleasure. " This," as Dr. Paley observes, " affords a plain and direct instance, not only of contrivance, but strictly of that contrivance which we denominate mechanical It is a philosophical apparatus in the body of an ani- mal. The principle of the contrivance is clear; the application is also clear." The rising and sinking of a fish in the water, so far as is independent of the strokes of the fins and tail, can only be regulated by the specific gravity of the body. When the bladder, contained in the body of the fish, is contracted, which it probably possesses a muscular power of doing, the bulk of the fish is contracted along with it ; where- by, since the absolute weight remains the same, the specific gravity, which is the sinking force, is in- creased, and the fish descends; on the contrary, when, in consequence of the relaxation of the mus- cles, the elasticity of the inclosed, and now com- pressed air, restores the dimensions of the bladder, the fish becomes proportionally lighter, and rises in the water. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. If the attributes of the Deity are so conspicuously displayed in the general structure and conformation of fishes, they are no less so in the infinity of their number and sizes; in the provision made for at once keeping up the number of this most numerous of all classes, and preventing the sea from being overstock- ed ; and in that peculiarity of form and structure, so essentially necessary in the different species. In this mighty reservoir it may emphatically, in- deed, be said, " there are creatures innumerable, both small and great." Linnaeus, however, reckons upwards of four hundred species ; but it is extremely probable, that numbers are concealed in the vast ex- tent and profundity of the ocean, which have never yet been exposed to human observation. But who can count the numbers in each species ? For who can attempt to calculate the numbers in those pro- digious shoals that tinge the sea with their colour, without taking into consideration " those scaly herds, and that minuter fry, which grace the sea-weed, or stray through the coral grove?" and what a diversity and variety of sizes do they assume, from the massy whale that sports at large in the Greenland seas, to those minute creatures which enter our creeks, and take up their abode in our harbours! Yet, notwithstanding the prodigious numbers of some of these animals, and the stupendous size of others, as we observed before, they are all conve- niently lodged and fed ; which is the more surprising, if we take into consideration the amazing fecundity of some, and the longevity of others of these erea- o 116 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. tares. It is asserted of the Herring, that if suffered to multiply unmolested, and its offspring to remain undiminished during the space of twenty years, it would shew a progeny many times greater in bulk than the whole earth! that a single Codfish will produce at a birth, if they escape depredation, a num- ber equal to that of the inhabitants of England! The Flounder is said to produce above a million at a time, and a Mackarel not less than five hundred thousand; and, in regard to the longevity of fishes, several are said to live upwards of an hundred years. How, then, it may be asked, are those myriads of subjects of the watery kingdom kept within due li- mits? How comes it to pass, that the mighty basin is not overstocked? And how are its numerous te- nants provided with food? This must be principal- ly owing to the prevalence of the predatory system among fishes; for, numerous as are the draughts ta- ken from the bosom of the ocean for the service of man, they can bear no proportion to the number that are left behind. But the sea, like the land, abounds not with a profusion of vegetables, so as to be suffi- cient for the support of all, nor even the greater part of its inhabitants, many of which are known to be of the most greedy and voracious natures It was absolutely necessary, therefore, that they should de- vour one another, and the experience of ages has proved, that great as the increase of these creatures is, and has been, it has never as yet been more than enough: that the balance has hitherto been pivtty equally kept up, and that while the astonishing pro- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 147 lific powers of the finny tribes have been found suffi- cient for keeping up a constant supply, and making up for every waste, yet there will always be found a requisite number of hungry mouths to devour the overplus. A single Pike has been known to devour one hundred Roaches in three days. Whatever is possessed of life, seems the most desirable food of fish. Some of the smallest feed upon worms and spawn; others, whose mouths arc large, seek larger prey, it matters not of what kind, or whether it is or is not of their own species. Those with the largest mouths pursue almost every thing that has life ; and often meeting each other in fierce opposition, the fish with the largest swallow comes off victorious by de- vouring its antagonist. In regard to the particular construction of fishes, we will briefly remark, that the Whale has often oc- casion to ascend to the surface of the water for the purpose of breathing, and it has a tail peculiarly con- structed to enable it to do so. His coat of blubber may be absolutely necessary to make his body equi- ponderate in the water, and to keep his blood warm ; while in the absence of offensive weapons he is pos- sessed of extraordinary agility, and By a stroke of his tail can deal destruction to his pursuer. The strength of this fish lies chiefly in the tail. A boat has been cut down, from the top to the bottom, by means of this formidable instrument, though the gun- nel on the top was of tough wood. Another has had the stern-post, three inches thick, cut off smooth,, 148 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. without so much as shattering the boat, or drawing the nails of the boards. The Cod, the Haddock, the Whiting, and others, wliose principal element is in the middle region of the ocean, have an air-bladder to raise and depress them at pleasure; while the Scate, the Thornback, and others, that grovel mostly at the bottom, are des- titute of this wonderful instrument. The Nar-vvhale, being a harmless and peaceable animal, may proba- bly make use of the horn, which rises from its brow, for the purpose of breaking the ice, or disengaging the plants, on which it feeds, from the bottom of the sea. The Sword fish will not fail to attack even the Whale himself; and with what a fearful and danger- ous weapon is he armed for the purpose! Of all the inhabitants of the deep, the Shark is the fiercest and most voracious, and in celerity of movement sur- passes most, if not all, of the finny race ; but, to coun- terbalance powers, and an appetite for destruction, that might thin the ocean, there is a strange singu- larity in the projecting of his upper over his under jaw, so that he is obliged to turn in order to take hold of his prey, and while he is doing so his victim often makes its escape. Crabs, Lobsters, Whilks, Mus- cles, and other shell fish, are the food of the Wolf- fish; and for the purpose of effecting the destruction of such well-defended prey, this animal is provided with teeth remarkable for their strength. The Fly- ing-fish has many enemies in both elements, but it is provided with instruments by which it can betake itself either to the water or the air, as occasion may BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 119 require. In the tropical climates these fishes, when hotly pursued, are seen springing by hundreds out of the water, and sometimes throw themselves on board of ships in order to escape their various assailants 1 . The predaceous fishes that swim in the ocean, and all the birds of prey that range its surface, seem to be combined against it. It is no wonder, therefore, that the beneficent Author of nature has endowed a fish, exposed to so many enemies, with a twofold power to escape. The structure of the Sucking-fish enables it to at- tach itself firmly to the bodies of animals; that of the Ammodytes, or Sand-eel, particularly the head, is most excellently formed for piercing into tVyp sand. The flatness of the Scate and Flounder enables them to cover themselves up in the sand or mud, when they lie in wait for their prey; and the Turbot is said to be provided with a skin or membrane, which he draws over his eyes when he has occasion to stick fast at the bottom in stormy weather. The Globe- fish is beset with prickles like a hedge-hog, and bids defiance to all birds of prey. The Torpedo benumbs on a sudden, and renders impotent whatever fish it assaults: it is said also to strike the fisherman's arm, when he attempts to lay hold of it, with a temporary deadness. " The instant," says Kempfer, " I touched it with my hand, I felt a terrible numbness in my arm, and as far up as my shoulder. Even if one treads upon it with a shoe on, it affects not only the leg, but the whole thigh upwards." The Tor- porific Eel imparts a sensation similar to that which o 2 150 BOOK otf KAtuliis IAID OPEN. is experienced from electricity. The Cuttle-fish is furnished with a liquid magazine of an inky colour, to darken the waters when pursued by an enemy. The Galley-fish is protected by the caustic quality of the substance with which its legs are smeared. The abhorrent appearance of the Sea Orb is suffi- cient to disgust men from handling it, and more so to deter them from partaking of its poisonous quality by way of food. And it is not improbable but the hideous form of the Sea-devil, and other monsters of the deep, may have been stamped upon them by na- ture (which does nothing in vain,) for similar purposes. t The, Instincts of Fishes* Fishes, it is said, appear inferior to beasts and birds in acuteness of sensation and instinctive sagacity ; but how is this reconcileable with that tenderness, care, and solicitude, (which nothing can exceed,) which the common Whale evinces for her young ? She suckles and nurses them with the greatest affection, takes them with her wherever she goes ; when pur- sued she carries them on her back, and supports them tvith her fins; when wounded she will not relinquish her charge, and when obliged to plunge, in midst of her agonies, will clasp them more closely, and sink with them to the bottom. Mr Waller, in his beau- tiful poem of" The Summer Islands," relates a sto- ry, in which the maternal tenderness of the Whale is most affectingly displayed. A whale and her cub had got into an arm of the sea, where, by the defec- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 151 tion of the tide, they were entirely enclosed. The people on shore beheld their situation, and drove down upon them in boats, with such weapons as could be hastily collected. The animals were soon severely wounded, and the sea tinged with their blood. After several attempts to escape, the old one forced over the shallow into the depths of the ocean; but, though in safety herself, she could not bear the danger that awaited her young one; she therefore rushed in once more where the smaller animal was confined, and, as she could not carry it off, seemed resolved to share its danger. The tide, however, earning in, both were enabled to escape from their enemies, after sustaining a number of wounds. The fidelity of whales to each other is also said to exceed even what we observe in birds ; and Gold- smith relates an instance, in which a female whale being wounded while her attached partner was re- clining by her side, on beholding the object of his ten- derness falling a victim to the harpooners, he stretch- ed himself on her body, and participated in her fate. It is curious to remark what sagacity the finny tribes display in seeking out the most proper places for depositing their spawn. The Salmon on her journey up the river, will suffer no obstacle that she can possibly surmount to oppose her progress to the place of her destination ; and in order to attain it, will spring over cataracts several feet high. In going upwards she will keep at the bottom where the current is weakest, and when she returns, will avail herself of its strength at the top, by swimming near its surface! J52 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. The migration of different kinds of fishes is truly astonishing; and it is pleasing to remark, that it is when fat and in season for eating, that they are taught so instinctively to throng our bays and creeks, while they disperse to the remotest quarters of the globe when lean and emaciated. " Who," in the words of the celebrated Hervey, " Who bids these creatures evacuate the shores, and disperse them- selves into all quarters, when they become worthless and unfit for our service ? Who rallies and recalls the undisciplined vagrants, as soon as they are im- proved into desirable food ? Who appoints the very scene of our ambush to be the places of their ren- dezvous, so that they come like volunteers into our nets? Surely the furlough is signed, the summons issued, and the point of re-union settled by a Provi- dence, 'ever indulgent to mankind, ever studious to treat us with dainties, and load us with benefits. 77 Not only do the Herrings, the poor man's feast, visit our shores at stated periods, and solicit us by their numbers to partake of the bounties of Providence, but the Pilchard, the Mackerel, the Lamprey, the Tun- ny, and the Salmon, are regular in their migrations. At the time the Land Crabs of the West Indies arrive upon the coast to deposit their eggs, numerous fishes of different kinds punctually attend, as if time- ly advised of the exact period when they might expect their annual supply, and greedily devour many of the eggs before they are hatched. Fishes, in order to be fed, have been taught to assemble at the side of a pond by the sound of a bell. Dr George Serger asserts, that having taken a walk with some BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 153 friends in the fine gardens of the Archbishop of Saltzburg, the gardener conducted them to a very clear piece of water, in which no fish were at first to be seen, but that the man had no sooner rung a little bell, than a multitude of trout came together from all parts of the pond, to take what he had brought them, and disappeared as soon as they had eaten it up. The Lamprey makes holes in the gravelly bottom of the river previous to depositing her ova. The Sea- Dog, in a storm, is said to conceal her young under her belly. A curious circumstance has been observed relative to the young Sharks, that when pursued, they will, on the appearance of danger, take refuge in the belly of the mother. It is asserted by Pliny, that the Fishing-Frog hides itself in muddy water,, and makes use of a singular artifice to secure her prey. The Ink Fish seems to be well informed of the use she, ought to make of her natural bottle, and when pursued, discharges its contents in the way of her foe. The aborescent Star fish, like the Spider, spreads out her net in order to entangle her unwary victim. And the little Thresher, in order to get the better of his formidable antagonist, tumbles neck over heels, and falls down with astonishing force on tho back of the Whale, while his ally, the Sword- fish, wounds him from underneath. T/ic Uses of Fishes, Although it has been said, that to preserve* their own existence, and to continue it to their posterity, 154 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. fills up the whole circle of their pursuits, and that a ceaseless desire of food seems to be their ruling im- pulse, yet we are not to consider Fishes as insulated creatures, unconnected with the general concerns and affairs of the world ; as merely formed for the propagation of their kind, and to " pursue and be pur- sued, each other's prey." No; these also act an impor- tant and most essential part in the great theatre of the universe; and woe be to the inhabitants of the earth, -did multitudes of fishes not abound in its waters. We have already had occasion to notice the neces- sity of a speedy decomposition of the parts of putres- cent bodies on land? and notwithstanding the saline quality of its waters and perpetual agitation which prevents them for a time, the bad effects of such ac- cumulated loads of filth and nastiness, as are conti- nually pouring into the sea, must soon be apparent, were it not for those numerous herds of fishes, which in every quarter glide with rapidity through the li- quid expanse, and catch and devour almost every thing of a digestible nature that comes in the way. For this purpose, that amazing fecundity may have been bestowed upon them, and for this purpose, those voracious appetites given, that, however re- mote the situation, or disgusting the substance, that enters the watery element, it might quickly meet an eye eager to catch it, and a living tomb to swallow and strip it of its noxious qualities. As an article of food the finny tribes are greatly to be prized, and it is matter of thankfulness, that the benefits they impart are most extensively diffus- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 155 ed; for while our lakes, and rivers, and streams, abound with these living treasures, the ocean con- veys them in myriads to the ends of the earth, and presents the bounties of an indulgent parent to his numerous children, however scattered among the isles of the sea ; and if the Turbot has been styled for its exquisite relish the Pheasant of the ivaters, the Sturgeon, even in pickle, has been denominated a luxury, and while the Salmon is held in much es- teem by the great, the poor have reason to praise the Almighty for an abundant supply of cheap, whole- some, and nutritious food, in those prodigious shoals of Herrings and. Pilchards which visit our coasts. When the great colony of Herrings set out on their migrating journey from the Polar seas, it is composed of such numbers, that ii all the horses in the world were loaded with them, they could not carry the thousandth part; and when the iflain body approaches the coast, it is generally divided into distinct colums of live or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth! Vast shoals of Pilchards (a small species of Her- ring) appear about the middle of July, off the coast of Cornwall ; and Mr. Pennant was assured by Dr. Borlase, that on the fifth of October, 1767, there was at one time enclosed and caught in St. Anne's Bay, no less than 7000 hogsheads of Pilchards, each hogshead containing 3500 fishes ! Nor have we less reason to-be thankful for the in- calculable number of Cod, and other white iish, which are drawn from the ocean ; and for those in- 156 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. exhaustible stores of cartilaginous flat fish, which furnish the labourer with his cheap repast. In 1806, five hundred and seventy seven ships, carrying about 64,66? tons, and navigated by 4,336 men, were em- ployed bv the British Government, to export the produce of the fisheries on the banks of Newfound- land, where the principle cod -fisheries are. The vessels used in the fishery, are from 100 to 150 tons burden, and catch from thirty to forty thousand fish each; 10,000 persons being employed about this fishery, in catching, salting, and drying the fish, which are sent to all parts of Europe and the West- Indies. These fisheries are said to bring in to the proprietors a revenue of several millions yearly; and they will probably remain in an inexhausted and in- exhaustible source of treasure, when the richest mines are wrought out. Happy ordination of infi- nite goodness and unerring wisdom, that while the monstrous and unwholesome tribes are thinly scat- tered or hid from our sight in the great abyss, the wholesome and nutritious kinds abound in such num- bers, and are brought, as it were, to our very doors ! Even the great Greenland Whale, which abounds in such numbers in the northern ocean, is said to furnish the inhabitants of those countries, which border on his haunts, with a delicious luxury in the article of food. The Porpoise was a royal dish even so late as the reign of Henry VIII. and the negroes are said to be fond of the flesh of the voracious Shark. The Whale is well known on account of its im- portance in furnishing such a supply of oil and BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 157 whalebone. Every Whale yields, on an average, from sixty to one hundred barrels of oil; which, with the whalebone, a substance taken from the upper jaw of the animal, must render these creatures very valuable in a commercial point of view. From the Cacholet we derive that valuable commodity spermaceti; and ambergris, the sweetest of perfumes, is also frequently found in this animal. The skin of the Shark is converted into shagreen. From a spe- cies of the Sturgeon, we are supplied with isinglass. From the Beluga-fish we derive that delicious com- position called caviare, and also the Beluga stone. The hide of the Huso is so tough and strong, that it is employed for ropes in carts and other wheel car- nages. As some of the volatile race seem to be formed to please us with the beauty of their plumage, and de- light us with the melody of their song, so a fevv of the finny tribe are so exquisitely formed and beauti- fully embellished, that they appear more calculated for our pleasure and pastime, than for any intrinsic value in another point of view. We do not here merely allude to the little gold and silver natives of China and Japan, which are trained and domesti- cated to sport in our ponds, and amuse us with gam- bols in our gardens, but to the Dorado arid Gilt head, which glide in the ocean, and the beautiful Drago- net, which shines resplendent in the deep. These, also, en som? interesting occasions, may contribute their mites towards the comforts of man. Gazing on these from the side of the vessel that conveys him 158 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. far from his native home, the solitary exile may be made, for a while, to forget his private woes ; and the sporting of these may serve to beguile the tedi- ous moments that mark the slow progress of the lone- some passenger, returning from captivity to the circle of his friends, or to the agitated bosom of her he loves. Thus, if we have had reason to admire the wis- dom, the power and the goodness of the great Crea- tor, as they are manifested in some of the inanimated pages of the BOOK OF NATURE, and to contemplate, as we have gone along, with sentiments of admira- tion and gratitude, the benefits we derive from the internal structure and outward form of the earth from the numerous appendages and vegetable pro- ductions by which the dry land is covered and from the wonderful phenomena and beneficial properties of the ocean ; we have no less cause to be filled with admiration at the bright display of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, as they shine conspicuous in the inhabitants of the great deep. CHAP XIV. THE ATMOSPHERE. "To HIM, ye vocal gales Blow soft, whose spirit in your freshness breathes !" " We view his kind, his life-preserving care, In all the wondrous properties of air." FROM the earth let us ascend into the regions of the air, and take a view of that invisible fluid that BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 159 surrounds our globe as with a garment, gravitates to its surface, enters into its pores, revolves with it in its diurnal motion, and circles along with it in its annual course. The Air is one of the most heterogeneous mix- tures imaginable. " In it," says Goldsmith, " all the bodies of the earth are continually sending up a part of their substance by evaporation A thousand sub- stances that escape all our senses we kftow to be there; the powerful emanations of the loadstone, the effluvia of electricity, the rays of light, and the in- sinuations of fire." Such are the various substances through which we move, and which we are conti- nually taking in at every pore, and returning again with imperceptible discharge. Yet, notwithstanding the multitude of discordant particles of which the at- mosphere is composed, it is made wonderfully to harmonize in point of utility ; and is wisely contrived, admirably framed, and excellently constituted, for the various purposes it was intended to perform, in the world of nature and of art. That the air is a fluid is obvious, from its possess- ing so many properties in common with other fluids ; yet, in one respect, it is wisely made to differ from all others, being incapable of freezing by the greatest degree of cold. Was it not for this singular quality of the atmosphere, what dreadful effects must have been the consequence. Life and animation must long ago have ceased, before the frigid blasts of the north, and when winter first shook his hoary locks, the great pulse of nature must have stood still 160 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. Another wonderful property of the air is its invi- sibility; for, although it can be heard in the howling of the tempest, and felt in the pressure of the gale, and notwithstanding the number of bodies that con- tinually mix with its substance, it is still toe fine to be seen by the sharpest eye. Every object around us is visible, except the air; and happy it is for us that it is so ; for, had it been otherwise, farewell to all the delightful prospects that charm the eye; farewell to all the bright beauties of creation. Nature must have put on a sombre aspect, and, instead of those delightful regions of light and cheerfulness in which we are placed, our habitations would have been surrounded by the doleful shades of a dusky covering, and environed with a mantle of darkness and despair. But, although the atmosphere is of itself invisible to the sight, it is the happy medium of light and heat. The air is found to moderate the rays of light, to dis- sipate their violence, and to spread an uniform lus- tre over every object. Were the beams of the sun to dart directly upon us, without passing through this protecting medium, they would either burn us up at once, or blind us with their effulgence; but, by go- ing through the air, they are reflected, refracted, and turned from their course a thousand different ways, and thus are more evenly diffused over the face of nature. But this is not all ; for, by means of the air, the beams of the sun are not only rendered tolerable, and the rays of light more copiously diffused through- out creation, but the advantages of heat and light are BOOK Of' NATURE LAID OPEN. 161 lengthened and prolonged. By the reflective pro- perty of this fluid, which must always be in propor- tion to its density, the heat of the sun, although duly attempered, must be more sensibly and uniformly felt nigh the surface of the earth, than in the higher re- gions of the atmosphere; while, to its refractive qua- lity, we are beholden for the twilight, or that surpris- ing phenomena of nature, by which we enjoy* the real presence of the sun when he is actually below the horizon. For the better understanding of this, let any person put a shilling into a basin, and then retire until he can just observe its outer edge visible over the inner edge of the vessel; in that position let some person fill up the basin with water, the whole shilling, by being seen through a denser medium, will instantly become visible to the person who could only before observe its outer edge. Were it not for the reflective quality of the air, by which, indeed, the light is parted, we would behold the sun in his splendour, and observe a brightness in that part of the heavens in which he happened to be, but, on turning round, how cheerless would be the prospect! there darkness visible would reign in the heavens, although the stars and planets would glimmer at noon day ; and were it not for the refrac- tive property of this fluid, by which the oblique rays of the great luminary are broken off from a straight course, and turned towards the earth, the transition from the horrors oi night to the light of day must have been instantaneous, and, instead of those bene- ficial harbingers, by which the outgoings of the morn- p 2 162 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. ing and evening are made to rejoice, and the long and dismal nights of the polar regions stript of their horrors, the optic nerves would have been overpow- ered by the sun rising in all its glory, and the mo- ment he sunk beneath the horizon, the bewildered traveller left to grope in the dark. Although the air cannot be frozen, or perceived by the eye, for the wise reasons already noticed, yet it is capable of being condensed and rarified to an astonishing degree: so much so, that the ajr in a house may be compressed so as to be made to enter a cavity not larger than the eye of a needle, and the contents of a nut-shell so expanded as to fill a sphere of unknown dimensions. If an empty bladder, with its neck tied close, is laid before the fire, the heat will so rarify the small quantity of inclosed air, as to make jt extend the bladder to its full dimensions, and if not then timously removed, will at last break it with the report of a gun. Sir Isaac Newton thinks the air capable of diffusing itself into above a million of times more space than it before possessed. By these remarkable properties of the air, together with its weight and elasticity, it is admirably fitted for some of its most essential uses, and, perhaps, none more so than for the business of animal respiration; for, in this act, so necessary for the prolongation of life, the air, by its weight and condensing power, is forced and compressed into the lungs, while, by its elastic and expanding property, it is thrown out again in the, act of breathing. BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 163 Perhaps some of our readers may be surprised at the bare mention of the weight of a substance, which has been proverbially compared to a trifle for its lightness, and they may wonder still more when we speak of its elasticity, when they have been taught to consider it an unresisting medium; but what will such think when we boldly assert, that we are lite- rally 7 plunged into a sea of air, and of such gravity and pressure, as to be equal, on the body of a man of moderate size, to the weight of 20,000 Ibs? " Tre- mendous consideration," says the reflective Hervey, " should the ceiling of a room, or the roof of a house, fall upon us with half that force, what destructive effects must ensue! Such a force would infallibly drive the breath from our lungs, or break every bone In our bodies; yet so admirably has the divine wis- dom contrived this aerial fluid, and so nicely coun- terpoised its dreadful power, that we receive not the slightest hurt ; we suffer no manner of inconvenience ; we even enjoy the load. Instead of being as a moun- tain on our loins, it is like wings to our feet, or like sinews to our limbs. Is not this common ordination of Providence, thus considered, something like the miracle of the burning bush, whose tender and com- bustible substance, though in the midst of flames, was neither consumed nor injured ?" But how are we to account for this miraculous pre- servation? It is owing to the elasticity or spring of the internal air within all bodies, which, although small in proportion, is wisely made to balance, resist. 164 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. and equiponderate that which is without, notwith- standing the height of its column. The elasticity and resistance of the air, perhaps, cannot be demonstrated by a more simple experi- ment than by pressing with the hand on a bladder with which it is confined ; and the weight and pres- sure of the atmosphere may be explained without the aid of the air-pump, or other philosophical instrument, merely by taking a common sai cer, filled with wa- ter, and turning down a teacup into it, with a piece of flaming paper inside. As the fire destroys the in- ternal air in the cup, a sort of vacuum will take place, and the pressure of the outward air on the water in the saucer v* ill make it disappear and fill up. Although, in casting our eyes upwards, we do not observe any boundary to the vast expanse, we are not to consider that the atmosphere is unlimited. On the contrary, we are taught, by the most rational cal- culation, that if it extends much beyond forty -five or fifty miles, it becomes so exceedingly rare, as to be unfit for the purposes for which the lower regions are so well adapted. The atmosphere, at the height of fifty miles, is said to be so rare, that it has no sen- sible effect on the rays of light At the height of forty-five miles it loses the power of refraction; at forty-one miles it is supposed to be rarified to that degree as to occupy three thousand times the space it does here; and Dr. Gregory observes, that it is generally agreed that there are no clouds at the height of four or five miles. BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 165 It is seldom, indeed, sufficiently dense at the height of two miles to be able to bear up the clouds ; so that, to whatever perfection our modern aeronauts may bring the art of balloon-navigation, there is not the smallest probability of their being able to escape from the earth to another planet. The atmosphere has its limits as well as the ocean ; and not only are those massy bodies that are made to move in the lower parts of this great outwork of our globe confined by laws, firm as chains of adamant, but the thinnest va- pour, the minutest atom, the most subtile effluvia that ascends the higher regions, and gain, as it were, the outskirts of creation, are checked in their career by the powerful mandate of the Creator, and forced to return and execute, his orders. Happy, indeed, for the world, is this ordination; for, if the philosophic axiom be true that things must continue as at the beginning, with respect to the quan- tity of matter contained in the Universe, and that, if it were possible that a single atom could be lost, the harmony of creation would be destroyed, what dire- ful consequences must ensue, were the daring spirits of adventurous men not confined by unalterable laws, and the imperceptible atoms which float in the at- mosphere not laid under restraint by that command which says to the troubled waves of the ocean, " Hi- therto shalt thou come, and no farther." The Uses of the Atmosphere. We have already mentioned several of the uses of this invaluable and all-pervading fluid, in point- 166 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. ing out some of its most remarkable peculiarities; and all we have now to do is, to notice a few, and but a very few more, of the many unspeakable bless- ings and advantages derived from this necessary ap- pendage, which the bountiful Benefactor of the hu- man race has attached to our globe. The air, in a peculiar manner, may be said to con- stitute the very essence of which life is made. When the Lord created man of the dust of the ground, he breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, when man became a living soul; and the experience of all ages amply testifies, that when men cease to breathe, which is performed by means of the air, they cease to live. Many days, it has been observed, we might live, or even whole months, without the light of the sun, or the glimmering of a star; whereas, if we are deprived only for a few minutes of this aerial sup- port, we sicken, we faint, we die. How thankful, then, ought we to be, that of this indispensable ne- cessary of life no person can deprive us. The trea- sures of the earth, the verdure of the fields, and even the refreshments of the stream, often contribute to the luxuries of the great, while the less fortunate can only behold them as humble spectators ; but, in the words of an eminent naturalist, " the air no limi- Jations can bound, nor any landmarks restrain. In this benign element, all mankind can boast an equal possession ; and for this we have all equal obligations to Heaven." It is equally beneficial to all the branches of the animal creation; for, although some creatures dwell BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 167 in the very bowels of the earth, or swim in the un- measurahle depths of the sea, yet it has been demon- strated by experiment, that no sooner are they total- ly deprived of air than they cease to live. By the same air, also, that preserves animal life, flame is fed and cherished We all know the utility of fire, and the many inconveniences to which we would be exposed, were we deprived of that necessary ele- ment ; but without air, in vain would the faggots be piled in a heap, in vain would we apply the lighted torch. Every attempt to set the hearth in a blaze, in order to render our habitations more comfortable during the chilling damps of winter, and every effort to dispel the midnight gloom by the cheering can- dle, would prove abortive Take but away the sur- rounding air, life expires, and the lighted taper goes out in darkness; for even an ordinary candle is said to consume about a gallon of air in a minute Plants are also dependent on the air for support and nourishment, and they cannot possibly exist without it. They are continual!) imbibing fresh nu- triment from the atmosphere It is this wondrous fluid that helps to transfuse vegetable vigour into the trunk of the mighty oak, and gives a blooming gaiety to the spreading rose. And how wisely is its consistence calculated for answering these important purposes! It is neither too thick nor too thin ; too gross nor too attenuated. It rushes with ease into our lungs, in order to inflate them in the act of respiration ; it forces its way into the most minute tubes of the vegetable tribes. In 168 BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. fact, as Mr. Derham observes, it is a subtile and pe- netrating matter, " fit to pervade other bodies, to penetrate into the inmost recesses of nature; to ex- cite, animate, and spiritualize; and, in short, to be the very soul of this lower world " But what is very remarkable, this wonderful fluid, so necessary for the existence of bodies, is also made use of as a most powerful agent in the hand of Pro- vidence for their destruction. It is a chaos contain- ing all kinds of menstrua, and consequently possess- ing powers for dissolving all bodies, by which means many things, which would prove nuisances to the world, are put out of the way, and reduced to their first principles. The air, as well as being the medium of light and vision, is also the great vehicle of sound, serving to convey to the ear, by its undulating motion, all that diversity of noise and modulation of tone, necessary to warn us of impending danger, or attract our at- tention and regard. " As I walk across the streets of London, "observes Mr. Hervey, "with my eye en- gaged on other objects, a dray, perhaps, with all its load, is driving down directly upon me; or, as I ride along the road, musing and unapprehensive, a chariot and six is whirlings on with a rapid career, at the heels of my horse. The air, like a vigilant friend in pain for my welfare, immediately takes the alarm ; and \vhile the danger is at a considerable dis- tance, despatches a courier to advertise me of the approaching mischief The air wafts to our senses all the modulations of music, and the more agreeable BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 169 entertainments of refined conversation. When Cle- ora tunes her song, or the nightingale imitates her enchanting voice; when wisdom takes its seat on Mitio's tongue, and flows in perspicuous periods and instructive truths amidst the chosen circle of his acquaintance ; when benevolence, associated with persuasion, dwell on Nicander's lips, and plead the cause of injured innocence or oppressed virtue; when goodness, leagued with happiness, accompany Eusebius into the pulpit, and reclaim the libertine from the slavery of his vices; disengage the infidel from the fascination of his prejudices ; and so affec- tionately, so pathetically, invite the whole audience to partake the unequalled joys of pure religion in all these cases the air distributes every musical vari- ation with the utmost exactness, and delivers the speaker's message with the most punctual fidelity " The air is also made highly subservient to the sense of smelling. " It undertakes (says the same author) to convey to our nostrils the extremely subtile effluvia which transpire from odoriferous bodies. Those de- tached particles are so imperceptibly small that they would elude the most careful hand, or escape the nicest eye ; but this trusty depository receives and escorts the invisible vagrants without losing so much as a single atom, entertaining us, by this means, with \ the delightful sensations which arise from the fra- grance of flowers ; and admonishing us, by the trans- mission of offensive smells, to withdraw from an un- wholesome situation, or beware of pernicious foot!.' 1 a 170 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. Thus does the air administer to the senses of see- ing and smelling. Happy, however, ought we to account ourselves, that, so often charged with noi- some effluvia and noxious vapours, it does not ren- der these susceptible to the taste; and although it certainly is a body corporeal, and may at times be felt, yet, its resistance in ordinary cases, when it is unagitated and unconfined, is so undistinguishable as to occasion no inconvenience. The region of the atmosphere is the great thorough- fare to the feathery creation ; it is, if we may so speak, the king's highway for the fowls of heaven, where they perform their lengthened journeys with expe- dition and safety, and range and expatiate beyond the reach of danger. It is by this element, also, that the inhabitant of the waters is enabled to work his little philosophical engine with effect; for, without the aid of this subtile fluid, the empty vesicle would have remained a piece of useless lumber We cannot as yet say, there go the balloons, as if the atmosphere, like the sea, had become the esta- blished medium of commerce and travelling; but the art has already attained to such a degree of perfec- tion, as render it not improbable that a voyage in the air will be regarded one day, by the generality of mankind, with less awe than was evinced by those who first witnessed the adventurous navigator push his bark out of sight of land, beyond the pillars of Hercules As all the rivers run into the sea, and deposit their Contents in its capacious bosom, so do all the exha- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 17*1 lations that arise from terrestrial bodies ascend into the atmosphere. To this capacious alembic take their flight, not only the aqueous vapours that pro- ceed from the sea, the rivers, and moist places of the earth, but the steam or smoke of things melted or burnt; the perspiring fumes of whatever enjoys life; and the effluvia they emit when deprived of it, and in a state of putrescence. How then, it may be asked, is this heterogeneous mass preserved from corruption, and purified from its offensive qualities ? For, if by respiration, flame, and putrefaction, air is rendered unfit for the support of animal life, there can be no doubt, as Dr. Paley observes, by the con- stant operation of these corrupting principles, the whole atmosphere, if there were no restoring causes, would come at length to be deprived of its necessary degree of purity. Among these causes the Doctor mentions vegeta- tion, and agitation with water, both of which have been proved by experiment to have the effect of at- mospherical restoratives ; for a sprig of mint, corked up with a small portion of foul air, placed in the light, renders it again capable of supporting life and flame; and the foulest air, shaken in a bottle with water, for a sufficient length of time, recovers a great de- gree of its purity. Here we see the salutary effects of storms and tempests the yesty waves, which confound the heaven and the sea, are doing the very thing, but upon a larger scale, which was done in the bottle. And, in as far as the lower regions are concerned, these, on account of their wide extension, 172 BOOK. OP NATURE LAID OPEN. must be attended with most beneficial consequences; but as the sea, for its purity, is not dependent on any one cause, so the atmosphere, besides these external restoratives, will be found to contain, in its own bo- som, a correcting principle, which developes itself by its salutary operations, as we shall soon have oc- casion to notice, in speaking of some of the most remarkable of the phenomena of the atmosphere* CHAP. XV. PHENOMENA OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ft Of what important use to human kind, To what great ends subservient is the wind ? Where'er the aerial, active vapour flies, It drives the clouds, and ventilates the skies ; Sweeps from the earth infection's noxious train, And swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main!" TJie Wind. SOMETIMES there is a profound calm ; every wind is hushed; not a zephyr breathes over the face of creation, and not a breeze disturbs the glassy ex- panse of the lake; but the appearance is deceitful and shortlived; all on a sudden the wind is heard rustling among the branches it gathers strength as it proceeds, and grows up into the majesty of a storm. Now the raging tempest spends its fury ; houses are BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. 173 swept from their foundations; navies are rent from their anchors ; trees are torn up by the roots. This we call wind; and whether its effects appear in the fury of the gale, the violence of the hurricane, the impetuosity of the whirlwind, the dryness of the har- mattan, the deleteriousness of the sirocco, or the mor- tifying influence of the samiel, it becomes us not to repine at the dispensations of the Almighty, or ac- count those the most deplorable evils, which are wise- ly sent us for the best of purposes. We have already noticed the bad effects that would accrue, w r ere it not for the agitation of the ocean ; but more dreadful would be the consequences, Did neither air nor ocean feel the wind. Motion is the soul of the universe; it is as ^fcessary in the air as in the ocean, and both are no less indis- pensable than the motion of the sap of plants, and the circulation of the blood in animals. It is, however, happily so ordered, that where pu- trefaction in a state of quiescence would soon prevail, wholesome breezes and salutary gales alternately spring up, to sweep destruction from the aerial fluid, and where heat is felt to an alarming degree, the atmosphere extends its airy wings to fan a fainting world. " This principle, as Dr. Gregory observes, we find realized on a great scale in what are called the trade winds, which blow constantly from east to west, near the equator. The sun rises in the east 174 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPE?:, and sets in the west, consequently the air will be heated gradually from east to west, and the wind will blow in that direction." The same cause, this author remarks, will explain " the land and sea breezes in the tropical climates;" and the monsoons, though the theory of them be more complicated, origi- nate in the same cause And as it is not only necessary that there be a con- tinual agitation kept up in the ocean, by means of the tides and currents, but, in order to prevent its wa- ters from being contaminated by those numerous loads of filth which are, from all quarters, poured into it, it is also requisite that it be furnished with some- thing of a correcting nature, which it has in its salt- ness. So in the atmosphere, besides the perpetual motion kept up in it by means of the winds, and the benefi0||l consequences proceeding from vegetation and the agitation of the waters, there must be also some correcting quality, especially prevalent in the upper regions, where a number of the most noxious particles, and a considerable quantity of vitiated ef- fluvia, must ascend? perhaps beyond the reach of the other purifying agents. This, it is probable, is the chief cause of the electric fluid, which, although it is found to pervade the whole mass of creation, is sup- posed to be much more copious in the upper than in the lower parfPof the atmosphere. In the lower regions of the firmament, indeed, the tremendous noise of the thunder is heard, and the vivid lightnings are seen to flash ; but these only hap- pen on extraordinary occasions, or where their pre- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 175 sence is absolutely necessary to restore the equilibri- um of the lower tracts, in the same manner as the tempest is sometimes sent to agitate, in an uncommon degree, the surface of the ocean; but far more fre- quent, we may suppose, is the busy working of the lightning in the higher regions of the air, although it may be concealed by the density of its lower extre- mities at times from our view. The glancing of the wild fire, as the vulgar style it, and the playful skip, ping of the aurora borealis, give us sufficient inti- mation, that, in the silent hours of rest and repose, the great Supreme faints not, neither is weary, but is busily employed in the unceasing operations of his providence, when our senses are locked in mid- night slumbers, and refreshing sleep stretches her balmy wings over a fatigued world. Besides these, which may be called the principal, there are also a number of other fiery meteors. Fire- balls, in all the glare of terrific magnificence, are sometimes seen to rush across the hemisphere Fall- ing stars are observed to shoot with astonishing ra- pidity. The Ignis-fatuus, Will-with-the-wisp, or Jack-with-a lanthorn, as it is called, glides along by the sides of hedges or ditches in moist situations, and sometimes takes up his abode among the graves of the dead, or is seen in the neighbourhood of dung- hills ; but these, as well as the fiery Dragon, the skip- ping Goat, the Dart and the Lamp, with every other appearance that the unsubstantial and airy form may assume, may all be accounted for on the principles of electricity, 176 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. Watery Meteors. In the regions of the air, a variety of watery me- teors are formed. Here are fogs, the creation of those collections of vapours which chiefly rise from fenny, moist places. These become more visible as the light of day decreaseth, and, uniting with those that rise from the waters, so as to fill the air with their humid particles, are called mists. Sometimes, especially in the summer months, our morning walks sparkle with pellucid drops, and transparent globules hang pendant from every leaf, in the form of pearly dew. In the atmosphere, the balancings of the clouds are preserved, till these swimming lakes are commis- sioned to discharge their contents, not in deluging torrents, confined to particular spots, but in refresh- ing showers, widely spread abroad in the form of drops of rain. Here, too, that wonderful phenome- non snow takes its rise, which is said to be composed of such vapours as are frozen while the particles are small; and hail, which is rain frozen, as hoar frost is said to be of the dew. Water- spouts may be rec- koned among the number of watery meteors; but, having already been noticed in a preceding chapter, (chap, x.) we shall pass them over, and proceed to the consideration of a few of the most remarkable Celestial Appearances. The wonderful and beautiful colours which we ob- serve in the clouds, is owing to their particular situ- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN! 177 alion to the sun, and the different modifications under which they reflect his light. The various appear- ances and fantastic figures they assume, probably proceed from their loose and voluble texture, revolv- ing into any form by the force or activity of the winds, or by the electricity contained in their substance. But, of all the celestial appearances we can behold, what can be compared to the beauty of the rainbow? What a majestic and stupendous arch does this won- derful phenomenon present to our view, and how beautifully is it tinged in regular order, by all the primogenial colours in nature ! Yet, this gorgeous arch is instantaneously erected, and at no expense : the commission is sent forth, and it springs into existence, merely by the operation of the sunbeams on the watery particles that float in the atmosphere The rainbow, it must be observed, is always seen in an opposite direction from the sun, and that it is occasioned by the reflection and refrac- tion of his rays, at a certain angle or distance from the eye of the spectator, must be evident to every person who has tried the experiment of the silly boy in the fable, and gone in pursuit of the treasures at the end of it. Sometimes, too, we have lunar rainbows; but these shine with inferior lustre ; and what more can we expect from the reflected light of a body, such as the moon that shines itself by reflection? Halos are supposed to be occasioned by the refraction of the light of the sun or moon on the frozen particles that surround them in frosty weather; and what are called 178 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. parhelia, or mock-suns, and paraselenes, or mock- moons, are only representations by the reflection of the face of the true sun or moon from some of the clouds, which are placed at a convenient distance to produce the effect. The Uses of Atmospheric Phenomena, Meteors, #c. Without entering upon the vast utility of the winds in the world of art, with the many purposes to which they are made subservient and applied, in navigation, agriculture, manufactures, trade and commerce; or recapitulating what we have already said respecting their vast import in the preserving the equilibrium and salubrity of the atmosphere,, we will briefly ob- serve, that the wind may be said to act the important part of Nature's great husbandman, by scattering abroad the productive principles of a multitude of plants; and, instead of that imaginary water bearer which the ancients traced out ameng the stars, the eye of modern philosophy has discovered, in the ope- rations of the wind, a real Aquarius in the heavens, bearing about his precious treasures, and dispensing them where most wanted. Electricity is, indeed, a most powerful agent in nature, and we are probably but acquainted, as yet, with a small proportion of its wonderful effects; but, from what we do know, we have reason to conclude that the benefits to be derived from this all-pervading principle are numerous as the appearance it puts on; BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 179 are infinite as its extent. Since the phenomena pro- duced by this fluid have been observed with atten- tion, the true cause of thunder and lightning seems to be ascertained. As the motion of light is almost instantaneous, and that of sound is at the rate of a league in forty pulsations, the distance of thunder may be easily ascertained; for, if we can count thir- teen pulsations between the flash and the sound, the thunder will be about a mile off. A means, how- ever, has been invented, by which houses, ships, and other buildings, may be secured from its ravages, and places of the greatest safety, in thunder storms, pointed out; but what are the evils experienced from thunder storms, when put in competition with the ad- vantages to be derived from them ? What would the atmosphere, it may be observed, become, but for the winds? But, notwithstanding the blessings de- rived from those wholesome ventilations, what would become of the atmosphere itself, were it not for the loud-roaring thunder, the forked lightning, and all the other varieties of electrical phenomena, which purge the air of those noxious substances that are con- tinually mixing with it, and purify, by fire, the upper regions, where so many light, inflammatory sub- stances, are arrested in their course? There appears to be a continual circulation going on in the atmosphere, by which the inflammable air, generated between the tropics, is made to ascend, by its lightness, to the upper regions, where, by the mo- tion of the earth, it is urged to the poles ; hence, the inflammatory exhalations continually arriving and 180 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. taking fire as they approach, are made to form those beautiful appearances called northern and southern lights, which, although they are oft invisible by the thickness of the weather, at other times amuse the inhabitants, even of our climate, in clear frosty wea- ther; and these merry dancers, as the vulgar call them, are no doubt of infinite service to the people of the polar regions, by imparting a lengthened, if not uninterrupted supply of that light and cheerful- ness, of which they would otherwise be deprived during their protracted winter. Were it not for the beneficial operations of the electric spark, which is always ready at the com- mand of its Maker, to kindle these combustible ma- terials before they become sufficiently accumulated to involve the whole in one universal conflagration, the world, it is probable, would long ere now have been destroyed by fire. There is no occasion (ac- cording to the opinions of some theorists) for calling in the aid of a comet to complete this work of de- struction. The Almighty has only to suspend the operations of his fiery meteors, and the elements will soon become sufficiently inflammatory to catch fire by a single spark ; so that, in fact, those terrific mo- nitors of the gazing crowd, instead of being certain indications that an incensed Deity is about to inflict the effects of his hot displeasure on a guilty world, according to the language of philosophy and the whispers of religion, are rather convincing tokens that " His mercy is not yet clean gone, that the Lord has not forgotten to be gracious." BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 181 The use of fogs and mists on the tender herbs, in the absence of rain, is well known to the grazier and agriculturist; and so sensible was the good man of the land of Uz, of the importance of what some may reckon among the inferior kinds of watery meteors, (although it is the surest and most universal which the wise Ruler of the world makes use of to render the earth fruitful) that, when he asks the question, i{ Has the rain a father ?" he does not forget to add; " Who has forgotten the drops of the dew?" From the clouds proceed not only those fertilizing showers that drop down fatness, and the windy cur- rents that, to a surprising degree, agitate tfie air in warm climates, but, by intervening between the earth and the scorching rays of the sun, they serve as screens to protect from injury the grass and tender herbs, and also act the part of conducting mediums^ by which the electric fluid is conveyed not only from the atmosphere to the earth, and from the earth to the atmosphere, but from one end of the heavens to the other. Of all the blessings poured out of the treasures of Providence, there is none, perhaps, of which man is more sensible than that of rain. What an alteration on the face of the earth does a seasonable shower produce! No wonder that the Psalmist, when con- templating such a scene, breaks out in such language as this : " Thou visitest the earth and waterest it : thou makest it soft with showers : thou blessest the sprinkling thereof: the little hills rejoice on every side: the pastures are clothed with flocks: the val- ft 182 BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. lies also are covered over with corn ; they shout for joy, they also sing." Nay, the very manner in which this blessing is made to descend, claims at once our admiration and gratitude ; for, in general, the rain descends in gentle showers, but, in the case of thun- der, there is an exception, when it pours down with impetuosity and in torrents ; but let it be remarked, that here it acts the part of a life-preserver ; for, when once wet, our clothes become excellent conductors to carry off the electric fluid to the earth. Even frost and snow have their uses. Hail is known to^cool the air in summer; and experience has demonstrated, that " nature could not give a bet- ter covering than snow to secure the corn, the plants and trees, from the effects of cold in winter; and if a frost succeeds after a ploughed field has been well watered by the autumnal rains, the particles of the earth dilute and separate, and the spring then com- pletes the making the earth light, moveable, and fit to receive the kindly influence of the sun and fine weather." Water- spouts at sea seem to proceed from the same cause as whirlwinds upon land, and if these serve the purpose of carrying up the superabundance of the electric fluid from the earth to the atmosphere, as is \\ith good reason supposed, their utility, in the economy of nature, must be apparent. With regard to those illusory appearances that we behold in the heavens, do they not teach us in a language plain, evident, and forcible, how easily we may be deceived by our senses, and of the conse- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 183 9 quent importance of placing our actions under the guidance of that reason which distinguishes man from the brute creation, and was kindly given him as a lamp to his feet, and a light to his path ? 'Tis Reason our Great Master holds so dear ; 'Tis Reason's injured rights His wrath resents ; 'Tis Reasons's voice obey'd His glorious crown; To give lost Reason life, He poured his own. CHAP. XVI. CHANGES OF THE SEASONS, AND VICISSITUDES OF DAY AND NIGHT. " These, as they change, Almighty Father these Are but the varied God. The rolling year Is full of Tteel" THE Earth, surrounded by the Atmosphere, re- mains not at rest ; for, as we observed in a preced- ing chapter, the latter is made to revolve with the former in its diurnal motion, and to circle with it in its annual course. Before proceeding farther in our researches, we will therefore, turn our attention for a few minutes to this two fold motion of the earth, which although it would not, but for external objects, be perceptible to our senses, is rendered extremely important, on account of the beneficial effects it produces. ,:; 184 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. f< Of all the effects resulting from this admirable scene of things," says Bonycastle, " nothing can be more pleasing and agreeable to a philosophic mind, than the alternate succession of day and night, and the regular return of the seasons. When the sun first appears in the horizon, all nature is animated by his presence; the magnificent theatre of the universe opens gradually to our view, and every object around us excites ideas of pleasure, admiration, and won- der. After riding in all his brightness through the vault of heaven, he is again hidden from our sight ; and we are now presented with a new spectacle of equal grandeur and sublimity. The heavens are on a sudden covered with innumerable stars; the moon, rising in a clouded majesty, unveils her peerless light; whilst the silent solemnity of the scene, fills the mind with sentiments and ideas beyond the power of language to express. " Variety is the source of every pleasure ; and the bountiful Author of Nature, in the magnificent dis- play of wisdom and power, has afforded us every possible means of entertainment and instruction. What a pleasing succession of scenes results from the gradual vicissitudes of the seasons ! Summer, Winter, Spring, and Autumn, lead us insensibly through the varied circle of the year; and are no less pleasing to the mind, than necessary towards bringing to maturity the various productions of the earth Whether the sun flames on the tropic, or pours his mild effulgence from the equator, we equally re- joice in his presence, and adore that Omniscient BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. Being, who gave him his appointed course, and prescribed the bounds which he can never pass." But how is this pleasing and useful variety produc- ed? How is this perpetual succession of Day and Night, of Spring and Summe^ of Autumn and Win- ter, kept up? It is by means simple, but evidently striking, to the man of science and discernment. By the revolution of the earth on its axis, once in twenty- four hours, we have the alternate succession of day and night; by its annual circuit round the sun, to- gether with the inclination of its poles (lying always in the same direction) to the plane of its orbit, we experience all that variety of season, which is so in- dispensibly necessary for the springing up, ripening, and in gathering of the fruits of the earth. By this constitution of things, that part of the earth's surface which is turned towards the sun ? must have the largest share of his visible presence at the time ; hence, when the earth is south of that lu- minary, the inhabitants of the regions north of the equator, must have, their summer; and, on the con- trary, those who dwell in the southern latitudes, must have their winter: but reverse the case, and suppose the earth in that part of her orbit which is north of the sun, and the inhabitants between the equator and south pole must have their longest days, while those who dwell on the opposite side, of course must have their shortest. At the equinoctial points,, the axis of the earth being parallel to the sun, and neither turned in to ? nor out from him, it necessarily follows, that at those precise times, and 110 other, a 2 if ;' 186 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEX, the days and nights must be equal throughout the globe; for the instant that the north pole gets be- yond the vernal equinox in spring, it emerges into the sun's light, and the people who inhabit the arctic regions, have six months of perpetual day; while those at the south pole, or contrary extremity of the earth, have an equal duration of protracted night. At the opposite season of the autumnal equinox, the reverse takes place. In the intermediate spaces be- tween the poles and the equator, the inhabitants experience all that vicissitude of light and shade, to which their situations expose them ; and which, in the absence of a globe, may be tolerably well illus- trated by suspending a large wooden bowl from the hand, and making it revolve round a lighted candle, with its axis inclined a little to one side, and point- ing always in the same direction. If, at the same time, this bowl could be made to turn incessantly round on its axis in the progress of its revolution, it would afford a pretty accurate idea how the vicissi- tudes of day and night are produced. Let us attend a little to some of the beneficial con- sequences of this " ever varying, ever changing scene." Spring is characterized as the season of the renovation of nature ; in which animals and ve- getables, excited by the kindly influence of returning warmth, shake off the torpid inaction of winter, and prepare for the continuance and increase of their se- veral species. " A soft and pleasing languor, interrupted only by the gradual progression of the vegetable and animal tribes towards their state of BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 18? maturity, forms the leading character of Summer. In Autumn the promise of the spring is fulfilled. The silent and gradual progress of maturation is completed, and human industry beholds with tri- umph the rich production of its toil. The unvarying ij .wptoms of approaching Winter now warn several of the winged tribes to prepare for their aerial voy- age to those happy climates where no deficiency of food or shelter can ever distress them ; and, about the" same time, other fowls of hardier constitutions, which are contented with escaping the iron winters of the arctic regions, arrive to supply their place. From the fall of the leaf, and withering of the herb, an unvarying, death-like torpor oppresses almost the whole vegetable creation, and a considerable part of the animal, during this entire portion of the year: but this state is not always to continue; it is a time of renovation and refreshment: a time shall come, when many that sleep in the dust shall awake, and shine forth gloriously at the return of spring. Day is the season of labour and activity ; Night is the time for rest and repose. Man-goeth forth to his labour in the morning, and returns to recruit his exhausted powers in the evening ; and what an ad- mirable provision for this purpose is sleep, which introduces a most welcome vacation, both for the soul and body, during which the exercises of the brain, and the labours of the hands, are at once dis- continued. These are some of the inestimable blessings de- rived from the changes of the seasons, and the alter- 188 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. nate succession of day and night; but to man they speak also a moral lesson. " Behold, fond man ! See here thy pictur'd life ; pass some few years Thy flow'ring Spring, thy Summer's ardent strength Thy sober Autumn fading into age, And pale concluding Winter comes at last, And shuts the scene. Ah ! whither now are fled Those dreams of greatness ! Virtue sole survives, Immortal, never-failing friend of man." -' Each night we die, each day are born anew/' CHAR XVIL THE MOON. fe As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night, O'er heaven*s clear azure sheds her sacred light,. Then shine the vales ; the rocks in prospect rise; A flood of glory bursts from all the skies.*' t FROM the earth and the atmosphere we will now ascend in our speculations, and, in our way to re- gions more remote, turn aside a little and consider the Moon. The first thing that strikes our attention in view- ing this resplendent luminary, is the opacity of her substance, and diversity of her shades. The Moon is not, of her&elf, a luminary, but shines by the boar- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 189 rowed or reflected light of the sun, and her face, in- stead of being too dazzling to behold, presents, like the earth, a dark unequal surface, pleasantly diver- sified with hills and vallies, mountains and cavities. Seas and lakes have also been exhibited as adorning this body, by the constructors of some maps of the moon; but the powerful glasses of Dr. Herschel are said to have dissipated such delusions; and, as it appears from the clearness of her disk, and the cir- cumstance that, when any star approaches her, it retains its lustre till it touches the very edge, and then vanishes in an instant; that the moon has no at- mosphere, there is the less probability that there are lakes and seas, from which clouds and other atmo- spheric phenomena are formed. The Phases of the Moon, And the circumstance of her having always the same face turned to us, are very rationally accounted for as follows . The moon is known to have a twofold motion; the one she performs round the earth in the time of a lunar month, and the other she performs round her own axis in exactly the same period. By the latter motion, she naturally behoves to turn al- ways the same face to the earth; and, by the former, her various phases are produced. When that part of the moon which is illuminated by the sun, is turn- ed wholly towards the earth, we then see one of her sides, round and fully enlightened, and in that situ- ation we say we have a full moon; when the sickt 190 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. illuminated is turned from us, by being between us and the sun, she becomes totally invisible, and then we have the change; when, shortly after, the en- lightened part re-appears, we call it the new moon ; and when it exhibits a half-enlightened aspect, the moon is said to be in her first or last quarter, accord- ing to the time of her age. These appearances, with all the intermediate stages, will be pretty correctly represented by moving the bowl, formerly alluded to, round the flame of a candle, when suspended by a string, and observing in what manner the light is reflected from its surface, according to the various po- sitions in which it is placed in the course of its circuit. Eclipses. There are no phenomena better understood by modern astronomers than the nature of eclipses ; and so far is there from being any thing supernatural or mysterious in them, that were the orbit of the moon perfectly parallel, or in the exact plane of the earth, there would be an eclipse of the moon at every full, and of the sun at every change ; for there is not a doubt that an eclipse of the moon is occasioned by the dark body of the earth happening to be in a line between the sun and the moon, when the moon is in a direction opposite to the sun ; while an eclipse of the sun is caused by the dark body of the moon passing between the earth and the sun, when she is in that part of the heavens. That eclipses do not more frequently happen, arises from the orbit of the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 191 moon being wisely made to incline to that of the earth at a small angle ; by which, although they some- times take place, it is so unfrequent, as not to exceed, at the average^ four in the year ; and of these, two only may be expected visible at any particular place. Tfie Harvest-Moon. In the path which she describes in the heavens, the moon is made to rise every day later than she did on the preceding; but the exact period between the time of her rising differs so considerably indifferent seasons of the year, that although in the spring she is an hour and twenty minutes later in rising one day than she was on the preceding, the difference in au- tumn is so inconsiderable, as scarcely to be perceived for several days together. No sooner does the sun set towards the middle of September, than the moon immediately rises in her glory for several days, by which the day is considerably lengthened out in that most important of all seasons; and Nature, as it were, points to the husbandman to make the best of his time in cutting down and securing his crops be- fore the equinoctial gales and storms of winter set in. This wonderful phenomenon, although too little at- tended to by us, has been distinguished, in different ages of the world, by different appellations, accord- ing to the favourite occupations and pursuits in which mankind happened to be engaged at the time ; be- ing first called the Hunter's, then the Shepherd's, and now the Harvest-Moon. 192 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. About the equator, where there is no variety of seasons, the moon rises, with the greatest regularity, about forty -nine minutes later every day than on the preceding; but as we advance north or south from that line, and get in a more variable climate, the lit- tle difference in the rising of the Harvest Moon be- comes more perceptible. At the polar circles, where the mild season is very precarious, and of short du- ration at that advanced season of the year, the au- tumnal full-moon rises at sunset, from the first till the third quarter; and, at the poles, where the sun is half a^ear below the horizon, the winter full-moon shines constantly from the first to the third quarter. In these respects the moon, that faithful compa- nion and attendant on the earth, may be said to pro- portion her services to the emergency of the occa- sion : but even in the ordinary aid she affords, in the absence of sunshine, her influences are of infinite ad- vantage. The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, indeed, the ancients in general were wont to assemble, at the time of the new moon, to discharge the duties of gratitude and devotion, The oldest measure of time, taken from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, is supposed to be a month; and when the king of the Pelew Islands entrusted his son to the care of Captain Wilson, he inquired how many moons would elapse before he might expect his return. By the dark, opaque, and unequal surface of the moon, the light of the sun is reflected to the earth, after that superb and glorious luminary has left our BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 193 hemisphere to visit other climes; and what a tran- scendantly magnificent spectacle does a moonlight scene present, independent of the incalculable bles- sings it is made to produce. How welcome are the harbingers of this bright luminary to the toiling tra- veller, when almost fainting under his unremitting, but fruitless exertions, to gain the goal of his journey before the close of the day. How comfortable to the bewildered mariner as he ploughs the deep on an unknown coast; and how cheerful to the lonely shepherd, as he tends his fleecy charge in the other- wise deep gloom of some sequestered valley, or tunes his midnight pipe among the solitary tops of his native mountains. Even on the mighty ocean the moon extends her influence; the waves of the sea are swollen and lifted up by the energy of her power; and it is far from being improbable, that what has such an effect upon this ,great fluid mass, may not also make some very important and sensi- ble impressions on that atmosphere, in whose agita- tions and changes we are so much interested. CHAP. XVIII. THE SUN. " Great source of day ! best image here below Of thy Creator, ever pouring wide, From \vo'lcl to world, the vital ocean round; On natu. e write with every beam His praise." FROM the earth and its companion, the moon, we will now direct our attention to yonder radiant orb, 194 BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. which fills the heavens with his rays, and cheers the earth with his presence The Sun is, indeed, a most glorious luminary; and is, without doubt, the most perfect image of his great Creator that we can be- hold among inanimate beings; and, indeed, so nigh, in one respect, does he resemble his Maker, that of the Sun it may be said that he, also, is " Too glorious to be gaz'd on in his sphere.'* It is no wonder, then, that the fallen reason of idolatrous nations " should mistake so fair a copy for the adorable original," and that philosophers should be divided so much in their opinions respecting his substance. In one thing, however, even from the imperfect glance we have been able to procure of this glorious body, it is found to differ from, and to fall infinitely short of, its Creator; for the Sun has his spots, while He, who made the Sun, is Light itself, Pure, spotless, uncreated light, ineffable/' According to Dr. Gregory, " the sun is very ge- nerally considered as composed of the matter of light and heat, whether these are to be regarded essen- tially the same or not:" but he is careful how he ex- presses himself, even in this cautious manner of de- claring his sentiments ; for he adds, " perhaps it will be speaking more correctly to say, that he is the souice of both, and that he both warms and enlight- ens the 'bodies which surround him." The sun BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 195 indeed, the great fountain of light and heat, and it is amazing to think with what rapidity of motion he sends forth his rays to illumine and cherish the world; for so great is the distance of this bright body from us, that, were the motion of light no swifter than a cannon bail, it would take, according to the compu- tation of philosophers, thirty-two years in arriving at the earth; and, were it no swifter than sound, it would take upwards of seventeen years; but light flies with such incredible velocity that it arrives at the earth in about seven or eight minutes, being at the jrateof no less than 200,000 English miles in a second of time. By this means the inconvenience that would result from a slower progress of light is. obviated, and the kindly effects of this inestimable and indis- pensable blessing are conveyed to us in an instant. The rays of the sun are riot sparingly dispensed, nor come to us as from a niggardly hand. The rays of light are copiously diffused, and in sufficient abun- dance to chase away the most minute vestige of the shades of night. The extension of light is a most valuable property of that great and invaluable bless- ing; for it is by it that we are enabled to see bodies at a distance during the day, and, by the same ope- rating cause, the mariner, during the hours of dark- ness, observes the fiery beacon glimmering from afar. The heat of the sun is also most potent in its ope- rations. With ease it penetrates into the bowels of the earth, and finds its way into the most secret re- cesses of nature; so that, in the expressive language of Scripture, " there is nothing hid from the heat 196 BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. thereof." But, indeed, what could possibly exis.t without it? The sun may be truly styled the grand enlivening principle of the universe; without his in- fluence, the crimson tide behoved to stagnate in the veins of animated beings; u the trees could never break forth into leaves, nor plants spring up into flowers;" w 7 e would no more behold the meadows mantled over with green, nor the vallies standing thick with corn; or, to speak in the beautiful lan- guage of a prophet, " No longer would the fig-tree blossom, nor fruit be in the vine: the labour of the olive would fail, and the fields would yield no meat;, the flocks must be cut oft* from the fold, and there would be no herd in the stall." It penetrates the beds of metal, and finds its way to the place of sap- phires. In short, the beneficial agency of this mag- nificent luminary is inexpressible. The sun is also the fountain of cheerfulness. While all nature is enlivened- by his presence, it is also cheered by his gifts. " Truly," says Solomon, ' the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold the sun." And the author of ' The Spec- tator" has well observed, that the sun has a particu- lar influence on the mind of man, and making the heart glad ; for a proof of which, he refers us to a consideration of the natural world, when this lumi- nous globe withdraws his rays, for a few moments, by an eclipse The human mind delights in variety; and one great cause that produces cheerfulness in the heart of man, as he walks abroad and contemplates the BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 197 face of nature, is no doubt that diversity of light and shade, of colour and hue, that in every direction sa- lutes his eye. In this respect, also, the sun may be said to be the fountain of cheerfulness, as it is cer- tainly the cause of colour. The sun is the great lim- ner of nature, whose beautifying rays paint creation. " The blushing beauties of the rose, the modest blue of the violet/' as Goldsmith observes, il are not in the flowers themselves, but in the light that adorns them. Odour, softness, and beauty of figure, are their own ; but it is light alone that dresses them up in those robes which shame the monarch's glory." The sun may, therefore, also be well styled the fountain of colour; and, but for this, what disadvan- tages would we labour under, notwithstanding the beneficial distribution of light and heat! In that case, we would not only be unable to distinguish ob- jects at a distance, and to perceive the colour of the raiment of our nearest friends, but be incapable of observing any difference of complexion between the ink that flows from oar pen, and the paper on which we write. Without this discriminating property of light, no pleasing variety would overspread the great carpet of nature; the same unvaried hue, in every direction, would meet our eye; the same dull uni- formity would every where prevail. Such are some of the beneficial consequences that result from the sun, with respect to the earth. We shall now consider him in another and a more ex- alted light, as the centre of the Solar System, 198 BOOK OF KATtIRE LAID OPEK. CHAP. XIX. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. "''Observe how regular the planets run, in stated times their courses round the sun : Different their bulk, their distance, their career j And diff'rent much the compass of their year; Yet all the same eternal laws obey, While GOD'S unerring finger points the way.'* FROM the consideration that, by the laws of na- ture, all the lesser heavenly bodies are made to re- volve round the greater, in the same manner that the moon is made to move round the earth, it was to be expected that the sun, the centre of a system in which so many planetary and cometary bodies were made to move within the sphere, or verge, of his attraction, would be a body of very considerable magnitude; and that he is said to be of such an extent, that his solid bulk is computed to be sixty-four millions of times bigger than the moon, a million of times big- ger than the earth, or five hundred times greater than all the other planets put together! From what we ourselves experience of the bene- fits of this luminary, we have reason to conclude, that the sun is placed in the most convenient situation in the heavens, and at the most suitable distance from each of the respective bodies which move around him; and that, however nigh or remote their courses may be to the common centre, or however slow or rapid in their movements, the inhabitants of all those bo- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 199 dies which are inhabited, will have forms and pow- ers no less suited to their situations than ours, And constitutions fitted for that spot, Where Providence, all-wise, has fix'd their lot." The sun, although generally considered as fixed, is known, by his spots, to make a revolution on his axis in somewhat less than our month, and is like- wise said to be agitated by a small motion round what is called the centre of gravity of the Solar System His motion, however, is so comparatively small, that he may, indeed, be said to be fixed, with respect to The Planets. Of the planets which have yet been discovered, the first, or nighest the sun, is Mercury His dia- meter is computed to be less than the half of that of the earth, and his year is not quite so long as three of our months: the light and heat of this planet are supposed to be about seven times greater than the earth receives ; yet he is said to move at the rate of more than 109,000 miles in an hour! Being so nigh the sun, Mercury is seldom seen; but when he is, it is a little after sunset, and before sunrise, and he appears to emit a bright white light The diameter of Venus is somewhat less than that of the earth, and her year is not quite eight of our months. In the heavens she moves next in order to Mercury, and, notwithstanding she is supposed to 200 BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. be surrounded by an atmosphere like the earth, her light and heat are said to be twice as much as ours. Like the sun, this brilliant planet has her spots ; like the moon, she has her phases, and she moves at the rate of upwards of 80,000 miles an hour! Venus appears in the heavens the brightest of all the pla- nets, and, according as she is situated, is sometimes called the Morning, and sometim'es the Evening Star. What is called the transit of Venus, is the passing of this planet over the sun's face, which hap- pens only twice in about one hundred and twenty years. Next to Venus comes our Earth, attended by her constant companion, or satellite, the Moon. The diameter of the Earth may be computed to be about 7,964 miles, her distance from the sun ninety five millions of miles, and, moving at the rate of 68,000 miles an hour, she completes her annual revolution in 365 days and somewhat less than six hours, all the while whirling round on her axis, once in twenty- four hours, with such velocity that the inhabitants of the equator are carried round at the rate of 1,045 miles, and those in the latitude of London about 644 miles in an hour. We have already explained several of the pheno- mena resulting from the motion of the Earth; but there is one astronomical fact we will here mention, which may sound strange in the ears of some of our readers, viz. that we are actually nigher the sun in winter than in summer! Were it not for this, it is presumed that the severity of our winters (being chief- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. ly occasioned by the obliquity of the sun's rays, as they, at those seasons, fall on our atmosphere) would be rendered still more intolerable and severe. The magnitude of the Moon is said to be about one fiftieth of that of the Earth, about which she moves at the distance of 236 847 miles, and com- pletes her revolution in somewhat less than twenty- eight days, travelling at the rate of 2,270 miles an hour. Mars, whose diameter is little more than one half of our Earth, moves next her in the order of the pla- nets: he completes his revolution in something less than 687 of our days; so that his year is nigh twice the length of ours, while his light and heat are con- sidered to be not quite the half of what we enjoy. Mars revolves at the rate of 55,223 miles an hour, and appears in the heavens of a dusky red colour. What are called the "New Planets are to be found between the orbits of Mars and of Jupiter ; but as so little is yet known respecting them, we shall just mention their names, with the dates of their disco- veries: Ceres was discovered by M. Piazzi in Si- cily, on the 1st Jan. 1801; Pallas was discovered by Dr. Gibers, of Bremen, on the 28th of March, 1802; Juno was discovered by Mr, Harding, oi' Lilienthal, Bremen, 1st Sept. 1801; and Vesta was discovered by Dr. Olbers, 29th March, 1807. These being so very small, in comparison with the others, Dr. Herschel does not deign to denominate them planets, but Asteroids. 202 BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. I But very different is the case with Jupiter, which is the largest of all the planets, and adorned by his belts, attended with his glorious retinue of four moons, comes next in order in the heavens. The magni- tude of this stupendous planet is, indeed, suid to be no less than 1400 times larger than the earth: his year is something less than twelve of ours, and he moves at the rate of 29,894 miles in an hour. In consequence of his distance from the sun, his light and heat are computed to be only about one twenty- seventh of what the earth receives, but the former of these may be compensated by the number of his- moons; by one or more of which, there is scarcely any part of this planet but what is enlightened du- ring the whole night, except his poles, and there is no saying, but what has the appearance of Jupiter's belt, may be something of an atmospheric nature, so constituted as to imbibe, and considerably increase, the heat of the sun's rays. Jupiter, in the heavens, appears to the eye next in magnitude to Venus. Beyond the orbit of Jupiter moves Saturn, attend- ed by a retinue of no less than seven satellites or moons, and having his body surrounded by an in- terior and exterior ring. Although the diameter of this planet is not so large as Jupiter, his magnitude is said to be no less than 966 times that of the earth, and, moving at the rate of 22,072 miles in an hour, he completes the revolution of his wide circle in a period not much less than thirty of our years. The light and heat which he receives from the sun, are computed to be about one hundredth part of what BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 203 the earth receives; but, to compensate for this, be- sides the rings and moons already mentioned, the disk of this planet has been observed to be crossed by zones or belts, which may be analogous to, and answer the purposes of, those of Jupiter. Saturn is visible to the naked eye, and shines in the heavens with a pale, feeble light. The Georgian, or Georgium Sidus, is the remotest of all the planets yet discovered, and was brought to notice so recently as the 13th of March, 1781, by that indefatigable astronomer, Dr HerscheL Six satellites have already been discovered attending on this distant planet Its magnitude is supposed to be upwards of eighty times that of the earth, and its pe- riodical revolution performed in something more than eighty three of our years. Through a telescope of a small magnifying power, the Georgian appears like a star of the sixth or seventh magnitude, and is only visible to the naked eye, in the absence of the moon, in a clear night. These planets, with their attendant satellites and other appendages, are carried round the sun in ellip- tical orbits, differing but little from circles; by which means the temperature of their seasons must be wise- ly proportioned, and pretty equally kept up To prevent too frequent eclipses, they move not in the same planes; and that they may not interfere with each other, they revolve all in the same direction, from the east away westerly The greater part of them are known, and the whole are supposed to turn round on their axis in the same manner that our earth 204 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. docs, by which means they must also be favoured with the alternate succession of day and night; and as the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter is known to a nicety, there can be no doubt but those planets, which have such attendants, are equally benciiUcd by them. Of the spots of Venus and of JNlars, the belts of Jupiter and rings of Saturn, we can say lit- tle; but let it be remembered that we are surround- ed by an atmosphere, the appearance of which may not easily be accounted for by the inhabitants of those distant bodies. That the planets are inhabited, we have every reason to believe., from the provision that is made for their comfort, and other analogy they bear to our own inhabited globe. It is true, that our views and discoveries respecting those distant orbs, must be imperfect and limited in this present state; but what we know not now, we may, perhaps, know hereafter; although it is not to be supposed that our finite capacities, even in a more exalted state and enlarged sphere of vision, shall ever be able fully to comprehend the mighty works of the Creator of the Universe, or utter forth all His praise. CHAP. XX. COMETS. " Hast thou ne'er seen the comet's flaming flight r" BESIDES the planets and then 1 satellites, there are other bodies called Comets, which revolve round the sun in very eccentric ellipsis, and in all manner of BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 205 directions. These comets, in one part of their orbit, called the perihelion, approach very near the sun, and appear all in a blaze: this appearance, however, they gradually lose, as they fly off, with inconceivable rapidity, to the opposite part of their orbit, called, by astronomers, their aphelion ; there they are totally di- vested of their luminous tail, and, being at such an immense distance from the sun, it is concluded they must experience a degree of cold, of which we can have no adequate conception. There are a variety of opinions as to the number of comets belonging to our system: Riccioli enumerated 154; others assert that 450 had been seen previous to 1771: the tables of Berlin estimate them at 700, and some have even, supposed that there are millions. And, as these bo- dies appear but seldom, and their stay is so short, it is not surprising that so much ignorance should pre- vail respecting them. It is, however, now sufficient- ly ascertained, that these, like the planets, shine not by their own, but by a reflected light; and, were it not for the sun, these bodies, instead of alarming our fears by their glaring magnificence, would move un- seen and unheeded by us; for, however naturalists may have differed respecting the composition of their tails, it seems now to be pretty well understood that they possess nothing fiery or combustible in them, and may, with more propriety, be likened to the mild radiance that proceeds across the street from the il- luminated glass in an apothecary's window in a dark night, than to any thing of a baneful or pestilential nature. 206 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. There is one thing to be remarked with regard to the tails of .comets, that they appear always in a di- rection averted from, or contrary to, the sun; and this certainly, with the circumstance of the stars be- ing visible through them, gives colouring to the sup- position that they are nothing more than merely a condensation of the solar rays, by the refracting power of the comet and its atmosphere. With regard to the purposes for which comets were created, " all is doubt, uncertainty, and con- jecture." Some have supposed they are the means, appointed by the Almighty, for putting a period to the planetary world; others have imagined that co- mets, in their several revolutions, gradually approach the sun, till at last they fall into it, and become a sup- pty of fuel to that luminary ; and some of the learned world, Dr. Mavor remarks, are of opinion, that they are places of future punishment for tormenting the damned with eternal vicissitudes of heat and cold; t( but when, on the other hand," as the Doctor goes on, " we reflect on the infinite power and goodness of the Deity, the latter inclining, the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all states and circum- stances; that matter exists only for the sake of intel- ligent beings; and that, wherever we find it, we al- ways perceive it pregnant with life, or subservient to that purpose ; when we consider the numberless species, the astonishing diversity of animals, in earth, air, water, and even on other animals; every blade of grass, every tender leaf, every natural fluid, swarm- Ing with life, and every one of these enjoying such BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN. 207 gratifications as the nature and state of each require ; when we further reflect that, some centuries ago, a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable, till experience undeceived us; the torrid zone, on ac- count of excessive heat; and both the frigid zones, on account of excessive cold; it seems highly pro- bable, that such numerous and large masses of du- rable matter as the comets are, not however, dissi- milar to our earth, destitute of beings capable of contemplating with wonder, and acknowledging with gratitude, the wisdom, symmetry, and beauty of the creation, which is more plainly to be observed in their extensive tour through the heavens than in our confined circuit: yet, however difficult it may be for us, circumstanced as we are, to discover their par- ticular designation, this is an undoubted truth, that, wherever the Deity exerts his power, there, also, he manifests his wisdom and goodness." If, in addition to these judicious remarks of the learned Doctor, we take it into consideration that the vast rapidity of their movements, when in their peri- helion, or part of their orbit nighest the sun, and the comparatively slow progress they make as they re cede from him, till their motion is so languid as to be scarcely perceptible at their aphelion, or farthest distance from him, may not suffer these bodies to undergo such an alternate extreme of heat and cold as would otherwise have been the case, the proba- bihr, is still the greater that comets are inhabited, especially if we make a proper allowance for the powerful effect of such an atmosphere as they may 208 . BOOK OF MATURE LAID OPEN. be surrounded with, for attempering the sun's ray a as they fall more directly or obliquely upon it. And we have an example of this in what we ourselves experience in winter, when our situation is nearer to the sun than it is in summer. But whatever uses these eccentric bodies are of otherwise, the astonishing courses that the comets per- form in empty space, suggest to our minds an idea of the vast distance between the sun and the nearest fixed stars, of whose attractions all the comets must keep clear, in order to return periodically and move round the sun, and, consequently, of the infinite great- ness of that Being, who has stretched out the hea- vens like a curtain, and afforded such ample scope for all those numerous orbs. " I cannot forbear re- flecting," says the author of the Guardian, " on the insignificance of human art, when set in comparison with the designs of Providence. In the pursuit of this thought, I considered a comet, or. in the lan- guage of the vulgar, a blazing star, as a sky-rocket discharged by a hand that is Almighty. What an amazing thought is it to consider this stupendous bo- dy traversing the immensity of the creation with such a rapidity, and, at the same time, wheeling about in that line which the Almighty had prescribed for it! How spacious must the universe be, that gives such bodies as these their full play, without suffering the least disorder or confusion by it! What a glorious show are those beings entertained with, that can look into this great theatre of nature, and see myriads of ?itch tremendous objects wandering through those OF MATURE LAID OPEN. 209 immeasurable depths of ether, and running their ap- pointed courses ! Our eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent prospect, and our understandings able to iind out the several uses of these great parts of the universe; in the meantime, they are very proper objects for our imagination to contemplate, that we may form more extensive no- tions of infinite wisdom and power, and learn to think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little works of human invention." CHAP. XXI. THE FIXED STARS. * This prospect vast, what is it? Weigh'd aright, 'Tis Nature's system of Divinity; And ev'ry .student of the might inspires. 'Tis e Her act ipfure writ by God's own hand.'* WHAT a glorious prospect does night unfold when she draws aside her sable curtains, and displays to the contemplative mind the azure canopy of the hea- vens bedecked with stars! We need not wonder afe the expression of the poet : " Devotion ! daughter of Astronomy ! An undevout astronomer is mad !" For who can take even the most transitory glance of these glowing beauties, on a fine frosty evening, T 2 210 BOOK OF KATURE LAID OPEK. without feeling something of that indescribable im- pulse which every good man must feel when casting his eyes to the/ nocturnal heavens? " Something, like magic/' says the pious Hervey, " has struck my mind, on a transient and unthinking survey of the etherial vault, tinged throughout with the purest azure, and decorated with innumerable starry lamps. I have felt, I know not what powerful and aggran- dizing impulse, which seemed to snatch me from the low entanglements of vanity, and prompted an ar- dent desire for sublimer objects." What, then, must be his sensations, who, by means of the " sight invi- gorating tube," and the lights of philosophy, is led to explore the upper regions of this celestial canopy, which the Creator has so distinctly marked with the wonders of his power ! The first thing that strikes a superficial observer, is the apparent multitude of those heavenly hosts ; but this will be found to be an illusion, and probably is occasioned by their twinkling, and^he confused manner in which, by their distance, they are made to appear ; for, strange as it may sound in the ears of the unlearned, the stars that are visible in our he- misphere to the naked eye, even in fhe most favoura- ble weather, do not amount, in any one time, to one thousand. But let it not be imagined that, in men- tioning this, we meaii to derogate from the glory of the Almighty, as it is revealed in the heavens, or by any means wish to insinuate that the number at the stars is within the sphere of our finite powers and capacities to calculate, No; as the more we descend BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 211 downwards in our researches among the animalcule creation, the more evident traces of divinity we dis- cover; so the more we extend our discoveries up- wards into the regions of the universe, the more do we%bserve of the glory of God. The heavens, indeed, declare the glory of God in a most emphatic manner; and the important in- vention of the telescope, aided by modern improve- ments, has brought systems and worlds to light, that were not dreamt of by the ancients. The heavens of Thales and Hipparchus were poor and thinly sown, indeed, when compared to those of Tycho, Brahe and Flamstead; but what were even these to what the wonderful instruments of Dr Herschel has brought to notice? Every new discovery of this in- defatigable astronomer has tended to the glory of his Maker, and every increase of magnifying power has served to confirm the sublime truth, that " the stars of heaven cannot be numbered " The Milky Way, or that white, luminous tract, which we observe in the heavens, is found to derive its appearance from the number of stars of which it is composed. Ko less than forty little stars are said to be in the Pleiades alone; and in the constellation of Orion, a number has been discovered, by far ex- ceeding what can be observed by the naked eye in the whole heavens. From an attentive examination of the stars with a good telescope, many which appear perfectly formed or single, to the naked eye, have been found to con- sist of two, three, or more stars; and Dr. Herschel, ' 212 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPK> T . by the help of his glasses, is said to have discovered near 700 such stars. Besides these, the Doctor has observed other appearances in the heavens, which he calls Nehuloe or cloudy stars; being apparently surrounded by a faint, luminous substance, of%on- siderable extent; of these he has given us a catalogue of 2000, which he has described, and is of opinion that the starry heavens are replete with nebuloe. There are also several little whitish spots which appear magnified, and more luminous, when seen through telescopes, yet without any stars being dis- tinguishable in them. When, to these grand, magnificent, and numerous appearances in the heavens, we add those wander- ing stars, or planetary bodies we have just been con- sidering, which, according to the appearances they put on, are denominated as stars of different magni- tudes, together with that host of cometary orbs which occasionally appear and disappear from our hemi- sphere, who can forbear exclaiming: " This gorgeous apparatus ! this display ! This ostentation of creative power ! This theatre ; what eye can take it in ? By what divine enchantment was it rais'd? How boundless in magnificence and might !" The fixed stars are so called to distinguish them from the planets, and other wandering bodies, that move among them ; for, in respect to these, they seem to be fixed, and, with regard to each other, they do- not appear to change place. Thus, while the pla- BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 213 notary bodies are not to be found in precisely the same place for any two successive days together, the stars, for instance, in the constellation of Ursa Ma- jor, or the Great Bear, have not been observed to alter their situation, with respect to each other, since the creation of the world. But there are few rules without exception; and here it must be observed, that new stars have been discovered, which were un- known to the ancients, and many of those which ap- peared in old catalogues are not now visible, while numbers seem gradually to vanish, and others ap- pear to have a periodical increase and decrease of magnitude. All the fixed stars, however, have an apparent motion round the heavens once in twenty -four hours; for, although that of the star nighest the pole, and consequently called the polar star, be so impercepti- ble as to be scarcely distinguished, yet, even that star appears to move in a very small circle; and this ima- ginary motion is occasioned by the same cause as produces the rising and setting of the sun; viz. the revolution of the earth on its axis. Though the number of the fixed stars, visible to the naked eye, fall infinitely short of what a super- ficial observer might be apt to imagine, yet, from the great resemblance they bear to each other, and the confused manner in which they appear at such vast distances, it was found necessary, by the ancient astronomers, to class and arrange them under vari- ous figures and resemblances, to which they gave the names of several persons and things ; and these ima- 214 BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. ginary likenesses, many of which, individually, ob- tained the names of persons celebrated in antiquity, were in general called constellations. The distances of the fixed stars from the earth is supposed to be very great; so much so, that were a cannon ball discharged from the nearest of them, it is computed that it would take 7,000,000 years be- fore it could reach the earth. So far, indeed, are these luminous orbs removed from us, that their mag- nitude cannot be increased by the best magnifiers ; and, notwithstanding the great extent of the earth's orbit or path round the sun, a fixed star does not ap- pear to be nearer to us when the earth is in that part of its orbit nearest to it, than it seemed to be when the earth was at the greatest distance, or 190,000,000 of miles farther removed from the star. Dr. Bradley calculates the nearest fixed star from the earth to be 40,000 times the diameter of the earth's orbit, and the. distance of Draconis from the earth to be 400,000 times that of the sun, or 38,000,000,000,000 miles ! As to the size of the fixed stars, some idea may be formed from the vast distance at which they are visible. Were the sun removed to as great a dis- tance from us as we are from the nearest of these stars, it is not probable that he would appear greater to us, and the different apparent magnitudes of the stars is supposed only to arise from their different distances. Indeed, from a comparison of the light afforded by a fixed star to that of the sun, it has been concluded that the fixed stars do not differ mated- BOOK OP NATURE LAID OPEN". 215 ally, in magnitude, from that luminary ; and, as it is impossible that these bodies can shine from such a distance with a reflected light, it has also been con- cluded, that the fixed stars must be of the same na- ture of the sun, and, like him, shine with their own native lustre. The Uses ofthefxed Stars. " Ask for what end these heavenly bodies shine; Earth for whose use? Pride answers, 'tis for mine!' 3 " But do these worlds display their beams, or guide Their orbs, to serve thy use, to please thy pride? Thyself but dust, thy stature but a span, A moment thy duration foolish man!" <* As w r ell may the minutest emmet say, That Caucasus was rais'd to pave his way; The snail, that Lebanon's extended wood, Was destin'd only for his walk and food : The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast That bounds the ample seas, as well may boast The craggy rock projects above the sky, That he in safety at its feet may lie; And the whole ocean's confluent waters swell, Only to quench his thirst, or move and blanch his shell." As every part of the vast machine of the universe seems wisely made, in some degree or other, sub- servient to the whole, notwithstanding the vast dis- tances of the stars from the earth, it would be ex- tremely improper to deny that they may be, to a cer- tain extent, useful to man. How often do they serve 216) BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. to cheer the gloom of the midnight sky, when nei- ther sun nor moon appears. In the early ages, those who went down to the sea in ships had scarce any other sure guide for their wandering vessel. They still serve to direct the benighted traveller in his so litary journey; and, by means of the revolutions of the stars, the ploughman, even had he no other di- rectory, would know exactly when to plough his fields and sow his seeds. But if, as we have seen, the stars bear such a striking analogy to the sun in their magnitude, their nature, and some of their pro- perties, have we not reason to conclude that they have far more important offices to fulfil than merely to be useful, in a few respects, to man ? that they, also, like the sun, are each the centre of its respec- tive system ? But where does this reasoning lead us? for, if the stars are suns, and centres of other sys- tems than that to whi'ch our earth belongs, does it not naturally follow that there must be other worlds revolving around them? and if other worlds, must they not also be inhabited ? This is a humiliating lesson to the sons of pride, who have indulged the thought that every thing in the universe was intend- ed chiefly for their use ; but it is not to be supposed that the Omnipotent Creator, who has not a leaf or drop of water unpeopled, should have left such im- mense bodies destitute of inhabitants. " It is surely much more rational to suppose them the abodes of intelligent beings; of beings endowed with capaci- ties of knowing, loving, and adoring their Creator; provided and blessed with every object conducive i BOOK OF NATURE LAID OPEN. to their happiness; many of them, perhaps, in a far greater state of purity than the inhabitants of our earth; in possession of superior degrees of bliss; and all under the direction, indulgence and protection, of infinite wisdom and goodness;" so that the poet is correct in his reasoning: " What read we here? Th* existence of a God? Yes ; and of other beings, man above ; Natives of aether ! sons of higher climes !" In this view of the subject, what a grand and mag- nificent spectacle does the starry heavens present ! What lofty and enlarged ideas must it give of the Deity , to suppose every star which we behold a sun, and each sun the centre of its respective system, of planets and comets moving within the sphere of its attractive energy, and irradiated by its beams! Must not such a consideration inspire us with the grandest and most sublime ideas of that Being, who has not only formed, but launched forth, those numerous orbs into the immensity of space, and who preserves them in the greatest order and regularity, so that there is not the least danger, nor the smallest possibility, of their running into confusion? But, to stretch our ima- gination still farther beyond the boundaries of the visible creation, and to suppose other stars, and con- sequently other suns and systems of inhabited worlds,, moving in the same beautiful order and regularity beyond these, how awful the thought! how over- whelming the consideration! What an august, what an amazing conception does this give of the works 218 BOOK Of NATURE LAID OPEN, of the Creator! Thousands of thousands of suns multiplied without end, and ranged all around us at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid mo- tion, yet calm, regular, and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed them; and these worlds, doubtless, peopled with myriads of beings, formed for endless progression in perfection and felicity ! " Not only this which we hy custom call Our world, the stars embellishing the skies Are worlds alike, th' Almighty rules them all, And all at first from matter's mass did rise." Thus we see, that the great Creator of the Uni- verse, like gold well tried in the furnace of the re- finer, rises more august, more grand, more sublime, more inexpressible, beyond what our finite capaci- ties can conceive, or our tongues express, the more we extend our researches into nature ; that u the works of the Lord are indeed great, in proportion as they are sought out of all them that have pleasure therein;" while man, an atom of an atom world, dwindles into insignificance as he becomes sensible of his own imperfections and weakness; and even the most devout and diligent student of nature, while he is forced to exclaim as he contemplates the won- der* of the skies, " The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament sheweth his handy work," is also obliged, from a sense of his own littleness, when put in competition with those mighty orb's, to BOOK. OF NATURE LAID OPEN. 219 adopt the following beautiful sentiment: " "When I consider the heavens the work of thy fingers; the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained ; what is man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou visitest him r" NATURAL APPEARANCES IN JANUARY. " Stern Winter's icy breath, intensely keen, Now chills the blood, and withers every green. Bright shines the azure sky serenely fair, Or driving snows obscure the turbid air." CIVILIZED nations in general have agreed to date the commencement of the year on the first of Janu- ary, within a few days after the winter solstice, or shortest day, which takes place on the 21st or 22d of December. In the month of January, the wea- ther, in the British islands, is commonly either a clear, dry frost, or fog and snow, occasionally inter- mingled \vith rain. Nothing can be more wonder- ful than the effects of frost, which, in the spac^. of a single night, stops the running stream in its course, and converts the lake, that was curled by every breeze, into a firm plain. This property of frost produces a beneficial effect to the farmer; for the hard clods of the ploughed fields are loosened and broken to pieces by the swelling of the water within them when it freezes, and thus the earth is prepared for receiving the seed in spring ; while, . " The frost-concocted glebe, Draws in abundant vegetable soul, And gathers vigour for the coming year." v 2 222 NATURAL APPEARANCES Numerous natural phenomena are produced by frost. Water from the clouds, freezing slowly, crys- tallizes in little icy darts or stars, forming, by their assemblage, the beautiful flakes of snow. Its white- ness is owing to the smallness of the particles into which it is divided ; for ice, when pounded, becomes equally white. Snow is very useful by protecting the plants it covers from the severity of the frost. Hailstones are drops of rain, suddenly congealed in- to a hard mass, so as to preserve their figure. They often fall in warmer seasons of the year, as even then the upper regions of the atmosphere are very cold. When dew or mist freezes, as it frequently does on every object on which it falls, it becomes hoar frost, producing figures of incomparable beauty and elegance. As the cold of this inclement season advances, the birds collect in flocks, and, rendered bold by want, approach the habitations of man. The wild quadru- peds, also, are driven from their accustomed haunts ; hares enter the gardens to browse on cultivated ve- getables, and, leaving their tracks in the snow, are frequently hunted down, or caught in snares. The domestic cattle now require all the care and protection of the farmer. Sheep are often lost in the sudden storms by which the snow is drifted into hol- lows, so as to bury them a considerable depth be- neath it; yet they have been known to survive many days in this situation. Cows receive their subsistence from the provision of the farm-yard; and early lambs IN JANUARY. 223 and calves are kept within doors, and tended with nearly as much care as the farmer's own children. " Now shepherds, to your helpless charge be kind ; Baffle the raging year, and fill their pens With food at will; lodge them below the storm, And watch them strict; for, from the bellowing east, In this dire season, oft the whirlwind's wing Sweeps up the burden of whole wint'ry plains At one wide waft, and o'er the helpless Hocks, Hid in the hollow of two neighbouring hills, The billowy tempest 'whelms." The plants, at this season, are defended by nature from the effects of coid. Those called herbaceous, which die down to the root every autumn, are safely concealed under ground ; and the shrubs and trees that are exposed to the open air, have all their soft and tender parts closely wrapped up in buds, which, by their texture, resist the effects of frost, and are hence aptly termed the winter quarters of the young shoots How admirable is the economy of Nature ! The earth, at this season, may now be compared to a mother who has been robbed of those children from whom she had the best hopes. She is deso- late, and deprived of the charms which varied and embellished her surface; however, she is not robbed of all her children ; here and there some vegetables are still to be seen, which seem to defy the severity of the winter; here the wild hawthorn shows its pur- ple berries, and the laurestina displays its blossoms in clusters, crowned with leaves which never fade. The yew-tree rises like a pyramid, and its leaves NATURAL APPEARANCES preserve their verdure. The ivy, evergreen, still creeps along the walls, and clings immoveable, while the tempest roars around it. The laurel extends its green branches, and has lost none of its summer or- naments; and the humble box shows here and there^ in the midst of the snow, its evergreen branches. FEBRUARY. " Now shifting gales with milder influence blow, Cloud o'er the skies, and melt the falling snow ; The soften'd soil with fertile moisture teems, And, freed from icy bonds, down rush the swelling streams." THE earlier part of this month may still be rec- koned winter; though the cold generally begins to abate. The days are sensibly lengthened, and the sun has power enough gradually to melt away the snow and ice. Sometimes a sudden thaw comes on, with a south wind and rain, which at once dissolves the snow. Torrents of water then descend from the hills; every little brook and rill is swelled to a large stream; and the ice is swept away with great vio- lence from the rivers. The frost, however, returns for a time; fresh snow falls, often in great quantities ; and thus the weather alternately changes during most part of this month. Various signs of returning spring occur at different times in February. The woodlark, one of the ear- liest and sweetest of our songsters, often begins his IN FEBRUARY. 225 note at the very entrance of the month. Not long after, rooks begin to pair, and geese to lay. The thrush and chaffinch then add to the early music of the groves. Moles go to work in throwing up their hillocks as soon as the earth is softened. Under some of the largest, a little below the surface of the earth, they make their nests of moss, in which four or five young are found at a time. These animals live on worms, insects, and the roots of plants They do much mischief in gardens, by loosening and de- vouring flower roots; but in the fields they do no other damage than rendering the surface of the ground unequal by their hillocks, which obstruct the scythe in mowing. They are said, also, to pierce the sides of dams and canals, and let out the water; but this can only be an accidental occurrence, attend- ed with their own destruction. Many plants emerge from under ground in Fe- bruary, but few flowers yet adorn the fields or gar- dens. Snow-drops, in general, are fully opened from the beginning of the month, often peeping from the midst of the snow. " Already now the snow-drop dares appear, The first pale blossom of the unripen'd year; As Flora's breath, bv some transforming power, Had chang'd an isicle to a flower ; Its name and hue the scentless plant retains, And winter lingers in its icy veins." The alder-tree discloses its flower bud -.;; the cat- kins of the hazel become very conspicuous in the 226 NATURAL APPEARANCES hedges ; and young leaves appear on the gooseberry and currant-bushes. The farmer, as soon as the ground is sufficiently thawed, ploughs his fallows, sows beans and pease, and rye and spring wheat " Joyous th' impatient husbandman perceives Relenting nature, and his lusty steers Drives from their stalls, to where the well-us'd plough Lies in the furrow, loosen'd from the frost ; There, unrefusing, to the harness 'd yoke They lend their shoulder, and begin their toil, Cheer'd by the simple song and soaring lark. Meanwhile, incumbent o'er the shining share, The master leans, removes the obstructing clay, Winds the whole work, and sidelong lays the glebe. While through the neighbouring field the sower stalke, With measur'd step, and lib'ral throws the grain Into the fruitful bosom of the ground." The husbandman, also, at this season, sets his early potatoes, drains his wet land, dresses and repairs his hedges, lops his trees, and plants those kinds which love a wet soil, as poplars and willows ; and, with Fancy fir'd, anticipates their growth." Winter in the Polar Regions. Nor are the symptoms of returning spring con- fined to the inhabitants of our temperate climate ; they also begin, towards the middle of this month, to be sensibly felt by those of the icy regions of the north. IX FEBRUARY. 22? Their winter, however, is very different from ours. The single night of the country about Spitzbergen begins about the 30th of October, The sun then sets, and never appears till about the 10th of Febru- ary. A glimmering, indeed, continues some weeks after the setting of the sun: then succeed clouds and thick darkness, broken by the light of the moon, which is as luminous as in England, arid, during this long night, shines with unfailing lustre. The cold strengthens with the new year, and the sun is ush- ered in with an unusual severity of frost. By the middle of March the cheerful light grows strong ; the arctic foxes leave their holes, and the sea-fowls resort, in great multitudes, to their breeding place?. The sun acts no more after the 14th of May. The distinction of day and night is then lost. But, to make up for the want of sunshine in such a long and tedious winter, the wisdom and goodness of God has amply provided, by furnishing, in ad- dition to the light of the moon, the northern inhabi- tants of our globe with such a copious display of the aurora borealis, or what the common people here call streamers In Shetland, these northern lights, which the na- tives call merry dancers, are the constant attendants of the clear evenings, and prove great reliefs amid the gloom of the long winter nights. They com- monly appear at twilight, near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow, sometimes continuing in that state for several hours, without any apparent motion; after which they break out into streams of 228 NATURAL APPEARANCES stronger light, spreading into columns, and altering slowly into ten thousand different shapes, varying their colours, from all the tints of yellow, to the most obscure russet. They often cover the whole hemi- sphere, and then make the most brilliant appearance. Their motions, at these times, are most amazingly quick, and they astonish the spectator with the rapid changes of their form. They break out in places where none were seen before, skimming briskly along the heavens. On a sudden they are extin- guished, and leave behind a uniformly dusky tract. This again is illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left a dull blank. In certain nights they assume the appearance of vast columns, on one side of the deepest yellow, on the other declining away till it becomes undistinguished from the sky. They have generally a strong, tremulous motion, from end to end, which continues till Che whole vanishes. In a word, we, who only see the extremities of these northern phenomena, have but a faint idea of their splendour and their motions. In Siberia there is one species of the aurora bore- alis, which regularly appears between the north-east and east, like a luminous rainbow, with numbers of columns of light radiating from it. Beneath the arch is a darkness, through which the stars appear with some brilliancy. There is another kind, which be- gins w r ith certain insulated rays from the north, and others from the north-east. They augment little by little till they fill the whole sky, and form a splen- dour of colours rich as gold, rubies, and emeralds ; IN FEBRUARY. but the attendant phenomena strike the beholders with horror ; for they crackle, sparkle, hiss, make a whistling sound, and a noise even equal to artificial fireworks. In Hudson's bay, moreover, the firmament, in winter, is not without its beauties. The night is en- livened by the aurora borealis, which spreads a thou- sand different lights and colours over the whole concave of the sky, not to be defaced even by the splendour of the full moon; and the stars are of a fiery redness. Wonders of the North. As we advance into these dreary regions, we meet with those picturesque objects which attract and cap- tivate the most incurious eye. In the icy seas, and particularly at Spitzbergen, (which is the largest of that group of frozen islands which go under that name, or that of New Greenland) the forms assumed by the ice are extremely pleasing. The surface of that which is congealed from the sea water is flat, even and hard, resembling white sugar, and is ca- pable of being slid upon. The greater pieces, or fields, are many leagues in length : the smaller are the meadows of the seals, on which those animals, at times, frolic by hundreds. The motion of the smaller pieces is as rapid as the currents ; the greater, which are sometimes two hundred leagues long, and sixty or eighty broad, move slowly and majestically. They often fix for a time, immoveable by the power x 230 NATURAL APPEARANCES of the ocean, and then produce, near the horizon, that bright, -white appearance, called, by the mari- ners, the blink of the ice. These float in the sea like so many rugged mountains, and are sometimes five or six hundred yards thick ; but the far greater part is concealed beneath the water. These are continu- ally increased, in height, by the freezing of the spray of the sea, or of the melted snow which falls on them. Those which remain in this frozen climate receive continual growth; others are gradually wafted, by the northern winds, into southern latitudes, and melt, by degrees, by the heat of the sun, till they waste away, and disappear in the boundless element. The collision of the great fields of ice, in high la- titudes, is often attended with a noise that, for the time, takes away the power of hearing any thing else; and the meeting of the lesser fields is attended with a grinding of unspeakable horror. The water which dashes against the mountainous ice freezes into an infinite variety of forms, and gives the voy- ager ideal towns, streets, churches, steeples, and every shape which imagination can frame. The icebergs or glaciers of the north-west of Spitz- bergen, are among the capital wonders of the country. Frost sports with these icebergs, and gives them majestic, as well as other most singular forms. Masses have been seen assuming the shape of a go- thic church, with arched windows and doors, and all the rich tracery of that style^ composed of what an Arabian tale would scarcely dare to relate, of crystal of the richest sapphirine blue. Tables with IN FEBRUARY. 231 one or more feet, and often immense flat-roofed tem- ples, supported by round, transparent columns, of cerulean hue, float by the astonished spectator. These icebergs are the creation of ages, and receive annu- ally additional heights, by the falling of snow and rain, which often instantly freezes, and more than repairs the loss by the influence of the melting sun. Such are part of the wonderful phenomena of the polar regions ; and the best improvement we can make of such awful and terrific scenes, is to compare them with what we daily behold at home, and learn contentment with that spot, where Providence, all- wise, has fixed our residence. " One of the great arts to escape superfluous un- easiness," says a celebrated writer, " is to free our minds from the habit of comparing our condition with that of others, on whom the blessings of life are more boimtifully bestowed, or with imaginary states of delight and security, perhaps unattainable by mor- tals. Few are placed in a situation so gloomy and distressful as not to see, every day, beings more for- lorn and miserable, from whom they may learn to rejoice at their own lot. " A native of England, pinched with the frosts of December, may lessen his affection for his own country by suffering his imagination to wander in the vales of Asia, and sport among woods that are al- ways green, and streams that murmur ; but if he turns his thoughts toward the polar regions, and con- siders the nations to whom a great portion of the year is darkness, and who are condemned to pass weeks 232 NATURAL APPEARANCES and months amid mountains of snow, he will soon recover his tranquillity; and, while he stirs his fire, or throws his cloak about him, reflect how much he owes to Providence that he is not placed in Green- land or Siberia." MARCH. As yet the trembling year is unconfirm'd, And winter oft at eve resumes the breeze, Chills the pale morn, and bids his driving sleets Deform the day.'* THE great operations of nature, during this month, seem to be to dry up the superabundant moisture of February, thereby preventing the roots and seeds from rotting in the earth, and gradually to bring for- ward the process of evolution in the swelling buds ; while, at the same time, by the wholesome severity of chilling blasts, they are kept from a premature dis- closure, which would expose their tender contents to injury from the yet unsettled season. The winds of March, boisterous and vehement to a proverb, are to be regarded, however, as particu- larly useful to vegetation ; for those years generally prove most fruitful, in which the pleasing appearances of spring are the most retarded. The importance of a dry season for getting the seed early and favoura- bly into the ground, is expressed in the old proverb; A bushel of March dust is worth a king's ransom," I# MARCH. TJje mellow note of the thrush, singing perched on the naked bough of some lofty tree, and the coo- ing of the ring dove in the woods, are heard from the beginning of March. The rooks also are now in motion, building and repairing their nests; and it 19 highly amusing to observe the. tricks and artifices of this thievish tribe; some to defend, and others to plunder, the materials of their new habitations. These birds are accused of doing much injury to the farmer, by plucking np the young corn, and other springing vegetables; but some are of opinion that this mis- chief is fully repaired by their diligence in devouring the grubs of various insects, which, if suffered to- come to maturity, would occasion much greater da- mage. For this purpose, they are frequently seen following the plough, or settling in flocks on newly turned up lands. In the month of March, those birds which took refuge in our temperate climate from the rigour of the northern winters, begin to leave us, and return to the countries where they were bred. The red- wing, fieldfare, and woodcock, are of this kind, and retire to spend their summer in Norway, Sweden, and other parts of the north of Europe. Frogs, which, during winter, lie in a topid state at the bot- tom of ponds or ditches, now, enlivened by the warmth of spring, rise in vast numbers to the surface of the water, and make themselves heard to a sur- prising distance by their croakings. Those s but beautiful fish, called smelts, or sparlings, up the rivers in this month in order to spawn; bait 2cJ4 NATURAL APPEARANCES they are of so tender a nature, that the least mixture of snow-water in the river drives them back to the sea. One of the most agreeable tokens of our approach of spring is, that about the middle of the month of March bees venture out of their hives. These ad- mirable and useful insects appear to be possessed of uncommon foresight of the weather: so that their appearance in the morning may be reckoned a, sure token of a fair day. As their food is the sweet juice to be found in the nectaries of flowers, their coming abroad is a certain sign that flowers are now to be met with. The gardens are adorned with the yel- low and purple crocus; and, towards the end of the month, primroses peep out from beneath the hedges, while the most fragrant of all flowers, the violet, dis-' covers itself by the perfume it imparts to the sur- rounding air. The peach, the nectarine, the almond, apricot and cherry trees, come into full bud during this month; the sallow enlivens the hedges with its catkins full of dust ; and the leaves of the honey- suckle are nearly expanded. In the latter part of the month of March the equi- nox happens, when day and night are of an equal length all over the globe ; or rather, when the sun is an equal time above and below the horizon ; for the morning and evening twilight makes apparent day considerably longer than night. This takes place again in Septe her The former is called the ver- nal, the latter the autumnal equinox. IK APRIL. 235 APRIL. Now stormy skies with milder influence shine, And winter, banish'd, seeks the northern clime : The earth, revived, a cheerful aspect wears The gentle bird returns the fragrant flower appears." APRIL, generally begins with raw, unpleasant weather, .the influence of the equinoctial storms still, in some degree, prevailing; but its vicissitudes of warm gleams of sun shine and gentle showers have the most powerful effects in hastening that universal springing of the vegetable tribes, whence the season of spring derives its appellation. Early in the month that welcome guest and har- binger of summer, the swallow, returns. The chim- ney or house swallow, known by its long, forked tail, and red breast, is first seen; and as this bird lives on insects, its appearance is a certain proof that some of that minute tribe of animals are come abroad from their winter retreats. In this month the groves resound with the various melody of the birds. " The blackbi'-d, woodlark, and the thrush, Unite with those of feebler voice ; Who e chants resound from bush to bush, To rouse all nature to rejoice. Whilst nature seems to hear the sound, Flowers, herbs, shmbs, trees, put forth their heads, To ask, what have you warblers, found To make you singis winter fled ? 236 NATURAL APPEARANCES Sweet yes ;' the nightingale replies ; * For I'm the harbinger of spring ; And to confirm the same,' she cries, ' Hark ! don't you hear yon cuckoo sing '{' '* The nightingale is heard soon after the arrival of the swallow. He sings by day as well as by night, bat in the day-time his voice is drowned among the multitude .of performers; in the evening it is heard alone: whence arises the common opinion that it sings only by night Birds are now busied in pairing, and building their nests, in which they exhibit the most admirable in- stinctive peculiarities. " Some to the holly hedge Nestling repair; and to the thicket some; Some to the rude protection of the 'horn Commit their feeble offspring : the cleft tree Offers its kind concealment to a few ; Their food its insects, and its moss- their nests : Others apart, far In the grassy dale Or roughening waste, their humble texture weave : But most in woodland solitudes delight, In unfrequented glooms, or shaggy banks, Steep, and divided by a babbling brook, Whose murmurs sooth them all the live-long day, When by kind duty fix'd.'* Another of the most striking events of this month is the renewal of the note of the cuckoo, which is generally heard about the middle of April This circumstance has commanded attention in all coun- tries ; and several rustic sayings, and the names of IN APRIL. 237 several plants which flower at that time, are derived from it. The arrival of the cuckoo is regularly preceded some days by that of the wryneck, n small bird, sin- gular in its attitudes and plumage, and which has a peculiar note or cry, easily distinguished by those who have once heard it Other birds, which are seen among us only in the warmer months, as the red- start, whitethroat, and yellow wagtail, appear in April. A considerable number of plants flower this month, and, with the blossoms of fruit- bearing trees and shrubs, form a very agreeable .spectacle, as well on account of their beauty, as of the promise they give of future benefits. " Arabia cannot boast A fuller gale of joy than, lib'ral, thence Breathes thro' the sense, and takes the ravish'd soul. Full of fresh verdure and unnumber'd flowers, The negligence of Nature, wide and wild, Where, undisguis'd by mimic art, she spreads Unbounded beauty to the roving eye." Reflections on Spring. " Forth in the pleasing Spring His beauty walks, His tenderness and love. Wide flush the fields ; the* softening air is balm ; Echo the mountains round ; the forest smiles ; And every sense, and every heart is joy." What a wonderful revolution, indeed, in the uni versal aspect of Nature, does the return of this lovely 238 NATURAL APPEARANCES season exhibit ! After having been long bound up with frost, or overspread with snow, the earth once more displays all her variety of plants and flowers, is arrayed with the most beautiful and enlivening verdure, variegated with a numberless variety of hues, and exhales odours so exquisitely pure and fra- grant, that every sense of every creature is awake to inexpressible delight None of the other seasons can vie with spring in loveliness and amenity It has the same order among them that the morning has among the divisions of the day, and youth among the stages of life. It may be called the favourite season of harmony; for the warbling of the feathered tribes has been observed to have now a peculiar wildness and sweetness of melody. Nor is its sweet influence confined to the songsters of the groves : it pervades the whole ani- mal creation. Its Influence on Man. In the opening of spring, and subsequent reno- vation of Nature, how very sensibly is the human soul exhilarated by that sense of pleasure which in- spires the birds with melody, and the whole creation with joy. In this season, when we contemplate the smiling scenes around, those secret overflowings of gladness are diffused over the soul, which compose what Milton expressively calls " vernal delight," and which is often denominated, with no less beauty and propriety, " the smile of nature." What an ex- IN APRIL. 239 quisite sense of this does the virtuous philosopher ex- perience! The creation, particularly in this lovely season, is a perpetual feast to the mind of a good man. From all that he beholds, he receives instruc- tion and delight Providence has adorned the whole creation with such a variety of beautiful and useful objects, that it is impossible for a mind, not imbruted by mere sensual enjoyments, to contemplate the scenes around, without some of the sweetest internal sensations of which man can be susceptible. But when, to the delightful satisfaction which rural ob- jects afford, we add an occasional attention to the studies of natural philosophy, our relish for the beau- ties of the creation is quickened, and rendered not only pleasing to the imagination, but to the under- standing ; and it is an unquestionable truth, that the man who extends his inquiries into the works of na- ture, multiplies, in some degree, the inlets to happi- ness. The philosopher is not content with the loll- ing murmur of brooks, or the enlivening melody of birds, with the shade of embowing woods, the ver- dure of fields, or the embroidery of meadows He will reflect, on the contrary, on the infinite variety of benevolent purposes to which they are all sub- servient, and the wonders of that Divine Wisdom, of which they all exhibit such impressions. While the pleasures of the eye, in course, are heightened, his soul is exalted to that rational admiration which insensibly leads to lov<- and adoration; and, while he " walks superior amid the glad creation, musing 240 NATURAL APPEARANCES praise, and looking gratitude," with a kind of sacred ecstacy he exclaims : " These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good, . Almighty ! Thine this universal frame, Thus wondrous fair : Thyself how wondrous then, Unspeakable !" While unusual sweetness thus inspires the whole creation with a purer joy, the moral philosopher is led to enquire into the natural effects of this delight- ful influence, not only on the frame, but on the heart of man. The affections, he is fond to imagine, are all attuned to benevolence., and each discordant passion soothed to serenity and peace. With what a generous satisfaction, too, will huma- nity reflect on the restorative effects of spring ! The convalescents, so lately wretched, so long oppressed by the heavy load of pain, and langour, and disease, now feel, as it were, a new creation; and sweet are the cheering sensations, sweet the unwonted joys, that now recall them to the exertions of strength, and the happiness of health. MAY. " Born in yon blaze of orient sky, Sweet May, thy radiant form unfold; Unclose thy blue, voluptuous eye, And wave thy shadowy locks of gold. IN MAY. Warm with new life thy glitt'ring throngs, On quiv'ring fin and rustling wing, Delighted join their votive songs, And hail thee goddess of the Spring," MAY has ever been the favourite month of poetic description, as uniting all the soft beauties of spring with the radiance of summer; but this must be in more southern climes than ours; for with us great part of the month is yet too cold for a perfect enjoy- ment of the charms of nature, and abounds with chilling blights and nipping winds: " The blast that riots on the spring's increase." The month of May, however, is profuse of beauty ; the earth is now covered with the freshest green of the grass and young corn, and adorned with nume- rous flowers opening on every side The trees put on their leafy verdure ; the hedges are rich in fra- grance from the snowy bloom of the hawthorn ; and the orchards display their highest beauty in the deli- cate blush of the apple blossoms. The leafipg of trees is commonly completed in this month It begins with the aquatic kinds, such as the willow, poplar, and alder, and ends with the oak, beech, and ash. These are sometimes very thin of foilage even at the close of May. Birds hatch and rear their young principally du- ring this month. The patience and assiduity of the female during the task of sitting upon her egt maids attending round. One chief in gracious dignity enthron'd, Shines o'er the rest, the pastoral queen, and ray-? Met- smiles, sweet beaming, on her shepherd kin : , While the glad circle round them yield their souls To festive mirth, and wit that knows no gall." England has for many ages been celebrated for its breeds of sheep ; which yield wool of various qualities, suited to different branches of the woollen manufacture. In the hedges the place of the hawthorn is suppli- ed by the flowers of the hip, or dog-rose, the differ- ent hues of which, from a deep crimson to a light blush, and even pure white, form a very elegant variety of colour ; and of some the smell is peculiar- ly fragrant Some time after the woodbine and honeysuckle begin to blow ; and these, united with the rose, give our hedges their highest beauty and fragrance. The several kinds of corn come into ear and" flow- er this month ; as do likewise the numerous species of grass. In Europe the principal kinds of corn are * 2 246 NATURAL APPEAItAtfCES t, rye, barley, and oats ; in Asia, rice ; in Af- rica, maize, or Indian corn. The latter part of June is the beginning of hay- harvest for the southern and middle parts of the king- dom. This is one of the most busy and agreeable qf rural occupations. '* Now swarms the village o'er the jovial mead." Both sexes and all ages are engaged in it. The fragrance of the new-mown hay, the gayety of all surrounding objects, and the genial warmth of the weather, conspire to render this a season of plea- sure and delight. Ee'n stooping age is here ; and infant hands Trail the long rake, or, with the fragrant load O'ercharg'd, amid the kind oppression roll j . - While, heai d from dale to dale, Waking the breeze, resounds the blended voice t?f happy labour, love, and social glee." In this month appear the grasshopper, green bee- tfe, angler's May-fly, the formidable gad fly, &c The angler's May fly is most short lived ; emerging from the water in its aurdia state at six in the even- ing, and dying at eleven : they appear about the fourth of this month, and continue a fortnight. Now gooseberries, currants, and strawberries, begin to ripen Birds cease their notes, except the stone curlew, yellow hammer, goldfinch, and gol- den crested wren, now and then chirping. The IN JUNE. 24? cuckoo, also ceases. It is amusing now, an hour be- fore sunset, to see the barn owl in search of field mice, and bringing one to its nest about every five minutes ; and the fern owl, feeding on the fern chaf- fer, another interesting nocturnal bird. On the 21st of this month is the summer solstice, or longest day ; when the splendid sun " Shoots full perfection thro' the swelling year." The Hew. The wise Ruler of the world, who watches con- tinually over his children, and provides for all their wants, makes use of more than one means to render the earth fruitful. But the most common means, the sures , and most universal, and that which men the least attend to, and are least sensible of its value, is dew. This inestimable gift of Heaven, which even in years of the greatest drought supports and pre- serves the plants from perishing, is those sparkling drops seen in such profusion morning and evening on the leaves of trees and plants The dew does not fall from above, as was formerly imagined ; it does not descend from the highest parts of our at- mosphere ; and still less is it the sweat of the stars, as superstition had supposed. This pretended ce- lestial origin has probably given rise to the folly of some alchymists who hoped to convert dew into gold It is now generally allowed, that the dew is nothing but the sweat of the plants, and the moisture NATURAL APPEARANCES they draw from the earth. In order to be convin- ced of this, one need only cover a plant with a glass bell,, and it will appear that the leaves collect in the night a greater quantity of dew drops than the leaves of the other plants which are exposed to the air. This certainly would not be the case if the dew fell from above, and if it did not rise from the ground. Nothing is more easy than to comprehend how it is formed; for nobody is ignorant, that the rays of the sun, and the heat which is cast on the earth, continu- ally loosens a multitude of thin particles from eff every thing ; some of which rise into the atmosphere, and the rest collect in the form of drops of water, This account of the dew explains to us, how it hap- pens that it is sometimes hurtful, and sometimes not so. Its nature evidently depends on the quality of the vapours of which it is composed. The wind carries away the light exhalations as soon as they are formed, and prevents them from falling in drops. This is the reason that there is most dew when [he air is very calm. By this wise plan of the Creator, the plants can vegetate and grow in countries even where there is no rain ; for the soil of those parts being sandy, porous, and very moist underneath, the heat draws out a great quantity of dew, which sup- plies the place of raia JfN JULY. 249 JULY. " Deep to the root ' Of vegetation parch'd, the cleaving fields And slippery lawn an arid hue disclose ; Echo no more returns the cheerful sound Of sharp ning scythe ; the mower, sinking, heaps O'er him the humid hay, with flowers perfum'd." JULY is the hottest month in the year. The di- rect influence of the sun, indeed, is diminishing ; but the earth and air have been so thoroughly heated, that the warmth which they retain, more than com- pensates for the gradual diminution of the solar rays. The effects of this weather upon the face of nature soon become manifest. All the flowers of the for- mer month lose their beauty, and the whole plant hastens to decay. Many plants, however, do not begin to flower till July. While the animal creation seem oppressed with languor, during this hot season, and either seek the recesses of woods, or resort to pools and streams, to cool their bodies and quench their thirst, the insect tribe are peculiarly active and vigorous. These minute creatures are for the most part annual ; being hatched in .the spring, and dying at the approach of winter. The excessive heats of this period of the year, cause such an evaporation from the surface of the earth and waters, that, alb T some continuance of dry weather, large heavy clouds are formed, which at length let fall their collected liquor, in extremely co 250 NATURAL APPEARANCES pious showers, which frequently beat down the full- grown corn, and sometimes deluge the country with sudden floods. Thunder and lightning generally accompany these summer storms. The effects of the great heat on the human body are agreeably allayed, by the various wholesome fruits which Providence offers at this season for the use of man. Those which are now ripe are, of all, the most cooling and refreshing; as currants, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries, and cherries. These are no less salutary and useful than the richest products of the warmer climates. The luxury of cooling shades is now peculiarly grateful, and multitudes flock from all quarters to enjoy the invigorating effects of sea bathing ; while others of the debilitated and valetudinarian tribe as- semble at the medicinal well, in order to allay the feverish heat in their blood, or improve their consti- tutions, by drinking the cooling and reanimating draught at the spring Potatoes and hops flower hi this month. The jes- samines and white lily now ornament the garden. Mushrooms appear. Frogs migrate from ponds. Hoary beetles appear. Bees kill and expel the drones Ants, for frugality, foresight, and industry proverbial, quit their nests to found new colonies. Ants are divided into male, female, and neuter. The neuters are labourers without wings ; males and females have wings. An ant hill is a large vaulted chamber, and has three or four passages to it. In the centre of it is the old one, and the young IN JULY. 251 worms and eggs ranged around. When opened in the winter, the labourers are in torpor They lay up no provision. They prey upon beetles, caterpillars, dead mice, rats, frogs, and juices from leaves, and when they meet with more than they can carry, they return to fetch their comrades to help them. In this month the poultry moult. Young par- tridges are found among the corn, and first broods of swallows and martins congregate. The farmer now gets home the oro ducts of the earth, particularly hay Hemp and flax are pulled this month. These plants are cultivated in various parts of Europe more than in England. The stalks of both are full of rough fibres or strings, which separated and pre- pared in a particular manner, become fit for spin- ning into thread. Of flax linen is made, from the finest cambrick to the coarsest canvas Hemp is chiefly used for coarse cloth ; it is also twisted into ropes and cables. In the southern parts of our island the corn har- vest begins; and, " Soon as the morning trembles o'er the sky, And. unperceiv'd, un'blds the spreading day, Before the vipcn'cl field the reapers stand in fair .? "ay.'' 252 KATURAL APPEARANCES Thunder Storms. At a season wherein nature presents to our eyes none but pleasing, cheerful scenes, there are some people, notwithstanding, who still complain and murmur. Summer they say, would indeed be de- lightful, it storms did not come to disturb and banish all joy from their souls The fear of thunder and storms is chiefly owing to the opinion of their being effects of the wi^th of heaven, and ministers of its vengeance. For if, on the contrary, we considered how much these storms contribute to purify the air from numberless noxious vapours, and to fertilize the earth ; if we would take proper precautions against the terrible effects of lightning, the storms would cease to be so dreadful to us, and would ra- ther inspire gratitude than terror. Alas ! we should soon change our language, if God, provoked at our ingratitude and complaints, was to deprive us of the .blessings we derive from thunder storms. It is true that we are not capable of pointing out all the advantages which accrue from them ; bnt the little we know is sufficient to fill our hearts with gratitude towards our great Benefactor. Let us represent to ourselves an atmosphere loaded with noxious and pestilential vapours, which thicken more and more by the continual exhalations of earthly bodies, so many of which are corrupt and poisonous. We must breathe this air ; the preservation or destruc- tion of our existence depends upon it The salubrity or unvvholesomeness of the air gives us life or death. *N JULY. We feel how We are oppressed in the stifling heat of summer; with what difficulty we breathe; what uneasiness we experience ! Is it not a great bles- sing, that we ought to be grateful for to God, when a salutary storm comes to purify the air from all noxious vapours; and by lighting up the saline and sulphureous particles, prevents their dangerous ef- fects, cools the air, which recovers its elasticity, and restores to us our usual facility of breathing ? Were it not for storms, the dangerous exhalations would more and more increase, and be more and more cor- rupt. Men and animals would perish by millions. Which is then the most reasonable, to fear or to wish for storms ? To murmur at the slight mischief they may sometimes occasion, or to bless God for the precious advantages they procure us ? Let us add, that not only men and animals are benefitted by purifying the air, but that it is also very useful to the vegetables. Experience teaches us, that the rain which falls when it thunders is the most fruitful to the earth. Observe also, that, during the greatest claps of thunder, most people prolong their fear without rea- son. Whoever has time to fear the natural conse- quences of lightning is already out of danger It is only the lightning which is fatal. When we have seen , and not been touched by it, and when the thun- der does not come with it immediately, it is doubly foolish to turn pale or tremble at hearing a clap, or to stop the ears for fear of sound, which is no lon- ger dangerous. The thunder tells us we have esv 2 254 NATURAL APPEARANCES caped the danger, and, at th^ same time, informs us at what distance it is ; for the greater space of time there is between the clap of thunder and the flash of lightning, the more distant is the storm. Such reflections as these may moderate the ex- cessive fear we have of thunder. Instead of filling our minds with frightful and terrible ideas, let us ac- custom ourselves to consider a storm as a sublime and great object. Instead of speaking of the mis- fortunes occasioned by thunder, let us reflect rather on the necessity and great use of storms, AUGUST. " Fair plenty now begins her golden reign, The yellow fields thick wave with ripen 'd grain, Joyous the swains begin their sultry toils, And bear in triumph home the harvest's wealthy spoils." WHAT remained to be perfected by the powerful influence of the sun, is daily advancing to maturity. The farmer now sees the principal object of his cul- ture, and the chief source of his riches, waiting only for the hand of the gatherer. Rye and oats are usually first ripe; but this varies, and depends on the time of sowing. Sometimes all kinds of grain are fit for cutting at the same time. Every fair day is now r of great importance ; for, when the corn is once ripe, it is liable to continual damage while standing, either from the shedding of IN AUGUST. 255 the seeds, from the depredations of birds, or from storms. This pleasing harvest scene is beheld in its per- fection only in the open field countries, where the sight can take in at once an uninterrupted extent of land waving with corn, and a multitude of people * engaged in the various parts of the labour. It is a prospect equally delightful to the eye and the heart, and which ought to inspire every sentiment of be- nevolence to our fellow creatures, and gratitude to our Creator. The rural festival of harvest home is an extremely natural one, and has been observed in almost all ages and all countries. The jovial harvest supper cheers the heart of the labourer, and prepares him to begin, without murmuring, the labours of another year ; and now, " Inwardly smiling, the proud farmer views The vising pyramids that grace his yard, And counts his large increase.'* This month is the season of another kind of har- vest in some parts of England, which is the hop- picking. The hop is a climbing plant, sometimes growing wild in hedges, and is cultivated on account of its use in making malt liquors. It is planted in regular rows, and poles are set for it to run upon. When the poles are covered to the top, nothing can make a more elegant appearance than one of these hop gardens. At the time of gathering, the poles are taken up with the plants clinging to them and '236 NATURAL APPEARANCES the scaly flowering heads, which are the part used ? are carefully picked off Kent, Sussex, and Worces- tershire, are the counties most famous for the growth of hops. Wall fruits now come in season; and, " The sunny wall Presents the downy peach, the shining plumj The ruddy, fragrant nectarine, and dark Beneath his ample leaf the luscious fig." Vipers bring forth their young, of the size of earth- worms. Many insects appear; the flies visit the windows, and the bulls begin their shrill bellowing. Swallows appear in the sauthern regions ; rooks roost in their nests by night; lapwings and linnets begin to congregate; and the red-breast, one of the finest, though commonest of songsters, concludes the month by the renewal of his music. The Construction and Vegetation of Corn. The wisdom which appears in the construction and vegetation of corn is very striking. The leaves, for example, which surround it before it has attained its full growth, even those leaves have their use; and it seems as if the wisdom of the Creator had placed them round the blade for the ^ame reason that an architect raises a scaffolding about a building, which, when the building is finished, he takes away. For as soon as the blade has attained its full length and consistency, the leaves which protected it dry up and IN SEPTEMBER. fall off. Whole months pass away before the ear of corn ventures to appear and expose itself to the air; but as soon as every thing is prepared for the for- mation 4>f the blossoms and fruit, they all appear in a few days. With what skill, also, are the stalks and the ears of corn constructed ! If the former were higher, the nutritive juice could not so well penetrate into them; if, on the contrary, the corn had been placed lower, the moisture would have made it spring up before it was reaped ; birds and other animals would get at and destroy it. If the stem was weaker and smaller, the wind would break it; and if it was stronger and thicker, little animals might lodge in it, birds would perch upon it, and pick out the grain. SEPTEMBER. " Now soften'd suns a mellow lustre shed, The laden orchards glow with tempting red ; On hazel boughs the clusters hang embrown'd, And with the sportman's war the new-shorn fields resouftd." THIS is, in general, a very agreeable month, the distinguishing softness and serenity of autumn, with its deep blue skies, prevailing through great part of it. The days are now very sensibly shortened; and the mornings and evenings are chill and damp, though the warmth is still considerable in the middle of the clay. This variation of temperature is one cause why autumn is an unhealthy time, especially in the warmer climates, and in moist situations. z 2 NATURAL APPEARANCES The labours of the husbandman have but a very short intermission; for, no sooner is the harvest ga- thered in, than the fields are again ploughed up and prepared tor the winter corn, rye, and wheat^ which are sown during this month and the next Not only the swallow-tribe, but many other small birds which feed on insects, disappear on the ap- proach of cold weather, when the insects themselves are no longer to be met with. On the other*hand, some birds arrive at this sea- son from still more northerly countries, to spend the winter with us. The fieldfare and red wing, whose departure was mentioned in March, return about the end of September. They feed chiefly on the berries with which our woods and hedges are plen- tifully stored all the winter. The most useful fruit this country affords, the ap- ple, successively ripens, according to its different kinds, from July to September or October ; but the principal harvest of them is about the close of this month. They are now gathered for our English vantage, the cider-making, which, in some counties, is a busy and important employment. Pears, treated in the same manner, yield a vinous liquor called perry. These are the common drinks in the counties where they are chiefly made Partridge-shooting commences on the 14th of this month. Partridges feed on grain and other seeds scratched up ; therefore live chiefly on the ground, making much use of their legs, and little of their wings. They pair early in the spring, the hen sit- IN SEPTEMBER.. 259 ting twenty two clays, and the young coming forth full feathered, like chickens. When the young ones are attacked, the old ones exhibit wonderful instan- ces of attachment, and even feign being wounded, to draw off the pursuers from the nest. They re- tire to the groves in the day time, to the open stubble in the night; and, when man begins his " Falsely cheerful barbarous game of death," he obliges them, by pointers, to take wing, for the purpose of shooting them, or enclosing them in a net, when they remain on the ground ; and it is highly admirable to observe " How, in his mid-career, the spaniel, struck Stiff by the tainted gale, with open nose, Outstretch 'd and cautious, on the latent prey ; As in the sun the circling covey bask Then varied plumes, and, watchful every way, Thro' the rough stubble turn the secret eye." In this month the snake casts his skin, parting by rolling itself in the grass, with its whole external eover ; even the outer coat of the eyes scale off, and is left in the head of the slough like a pair of spectacles. Hazel nuts are now gathered in our thickets and gardens in this month. The oak sheds its acorns, and the nuts fall from the beech, both of which are called mast- The autumnal equinox, when day and night are again equal over the whole globe, happens about the 260 NATURAL APPEARANCES 23d of this month, and is often attended with heavy storms of wind and rain, which throw down much of the fruit yet remaining on the trees. At the end of the month the leaves of many trees lose their given colours, and begin their grave au- tumnal tints, indicative of the approaching desolation of winter; which ... " comes to rule the varied year, Sullen and sad, with all her rising train, Vapours, and clouds, and storms." Fruit. This is the happy season in which Divine Good- ness lavishes all sorts of fruit upon us in great abun- dance. The charms of summer give place to more solid enjoyments. The boughs of the apple-tree bend under the weight of that golden fruit, the beau- ty of which is still heightened by its purple streaks. The melting pear, the plum sweet as honey, display their charms, and seem to invite the hand of their master. Should we not be unpardonable, if the sight of these blessings which we owe to the mu- nificence of God, did not create in us grateful re- flections, and by such means sanctify the pleasures of autumn? There is hardly any food so wholesome as fruits. It was with a benificent view that Providence gave them to us in a season when they are not only plea- sing and refreshing to us, but also excellent in a XN SEPTEMBER. medicinal way. Apples come seasonably during the heat of summer, because they temper the heat of the blood, and cool the stomach and bowels. The plums have an acid sweetness, with an oily, softening juice, which may make them useful in many cases. They gently open the body, and correct the acrid humours, which so often occasion inflammatory dis- orders. Nothing certainly is more delicious than fruit. Each sort has a peculiar flavour to itself. This variety renders them doubly pleasing to us. Thus, God, like a tender father, provides not only for the support of his creatures, but also for theis pleasure. Herrings. This is the season in which they fish for herrings' on the coast of England and Scotland ; by which- means we receive a great quantity of these fish, which feed the poor as well as the rich during the whole year. Let us examine what is most impor- tant in the natural history of these fish. Innumera- ble shoals of herrings live in the Frozen Sea, near the Arctic Pole ; but at a certain period they quit that place, and come in multitudes to the coasts of England and Scotland, It is not yet positively as- certained what may be the cause of this emigration. Some think it is to avoid whales and other great "fish in the frozen seas ; others imagine that the prodi- gious increase of the herrings obliges them to take these long voyages, and to divide into separate colo- 262 NATURAL APPEARANCES nies, lest they should be in too great quantities to find sufficient food in the northern seas Perhaps, also, it is the desire of propagation, and a peculiar instinct, which leads them to the places most favour- able for the increase and preservation of their race. It is certainly these reasons in general that occasion such shoals of herrings to quit the north -in the be- ginning of the year ; for in the month of March a wing of their army had already reached the coast of Iceland, and it is their western wing. The herrings are at this season so plentiful there, that by putting the shovel with which the sails are watered into the sea, there are great quantities of them taken up at a time. The eastern wing advances farther into the Baltic Sea. A part of it turns towards the North Cape, sails along the coasts of Norway, and enters through the southern straits into the sea. Another part gains the northern point of Jutland, then enters into the Zuider Zee, and from thence, passes again through the Baltic Sea, in order to return to the place from whence it set out. But the largest de- tachment of the eastern wing, is that which turns to the western coast, in order to turn directly to the Orkney Islands, where the Dutch go to catch them. Towards the 8th of June, the sea in those parts is full of herrings. They then direct their course to- wards Scotland and England, where they fill all the b;ws and mouths of the rivers with their fry. After having quitted England, they probably re- turn to their own country. The prodigious multi- tude of these fish is surprising: one single herring IN OCTOBER. 268 lays at least ten thouaand eggs in the sea near the British coasts. OCTOBER. " Now stormy Winter, with her dusky train, Frowns o'er the hill, and rflurmurs in the plain ; The little birds the trembling forests fly, And, led by nature, seek the southern sky." PLANTS having gone through the progressive stages of springing, flowering, and seeding, have at this season brought to maturity the rudiments of a future progeny, which are now to be committed to the fostering bosom of the earth. This being done, the parent vegetable, if of the herbaceous kind, either totally dies, or perishes as far as it rose above ground ; if a tree or shrub, it loses all its tender parts which the spring and summer had put forth. Seeds are scattered by the hand of nature in various manners. The winds, which at this time arise, dis- perse far and wide many seeds which are curio sly furnished with feathers or wings for this purpose. Other seeds, by the means of hooks lay hold on passing animals, and are thus carried to distant pla- ces. Many are contained in berries, which being eaten by birds, the seeds are discharged again uniir- jured, and grow where they happen to alight. Thus carefully has nature provided for the distribu- tion and propagation of plants. 264 NATURAL APPEARANCES The gloom of the declining year, enlivened by the rich and bright colours of fading leaves, " Now cheer the landscape in decay ;" {vhich to some are more interesting than the bios- soms of spring, or the radiance and verdure of sum- mer. Ripened berries^ in a great variety also at this season adorn the hedges and decorate the groves, as the hip, the haw, the sloe, the black- berry, &c. The common martin, whose nests hung under the eaves of our houses, afford so agreeable a spectacle of parental fondness and assiduity, usually disap- pears in October. As this, though one of the smallest of the swallow kind, stays the latest, its emigration to distant climates is less probable than that of the others. In most of the wine countries in Europe the vin- tage takes place in October. The grape is one of the latest fruits in ripening. When gathered, they are immediately pressed, and the juice is fermented like that of apples in making cider This month is particularly chosen, on account of its mild temperature for the brewing of malt liquor designed for long keeping, which is therefore com- monly called old October. The farmer continues to sow his winter corn during this month ; and wheat is frequently not all sown till the end of it. When the weather is too Avet for this business, he ploughs up the stubble IN OCTOBEft. fields for winter fallows. Acorns are sown for young plantations at this time : and forest and fruit trees are planted. The ground is now covered with spiders, the weaving gossamer ; and the cold air condensing the vapour arising from the warm earth, causes thick and frequent fogs. This month is the height of the hunting season ; the weather being suitable, and the products of the earth housed, " All, now, is free as air, and the gay pack, In the rough, bristly stubbles, range unblam'd ; No widow's tears o'erflow ; no secret curse Swells in the farmer's breast, which his pale lips, Tremblingly, conceals, by his fierce landlord aw'd ; But, courteous now, he levels ev'ry fence, Joins in the ceremony, and halloos loud, Charm'd with the rattling thunder of the field." At the very close of the month, a few flowers still cheer the eye; and there is a second blow of some kind, particularly of the woodbine. But the scent of all these late flowers is comparatively faint. Migration of the Birds. This is the time when numbers of the birds, \vhicn, during summer, had lived and found food in our fields, woods, and gardens, are going to quit our cli- mate for other countries. There are but few of them, which pass the winter with us: the rest leave us al- most the whole winter This migration is wonder- ful in all respects ; and if we have not much attended A a 266 NATURAL APPEARANCES to these creatures while they were with us, let us at least think of them now they are gone. Some birds^ without taking their flight very high,, and without separating from one another, drawing gradually to- wards the south, to seek the seeds and fruit they pre- fer; but they soon return back. Others, which arc called birds of passage, collect' together at certain seasons, go away in large bodies, and take their flight into other climates Some kinds of them are content with going from one country to another, where the air and food draw them at certain seasons. Others cross the seas, and undertake voyages of a surprising length. These migrations of the birds cannot be too much admired. Certainly the difference of heat and cold, and the want of food, warn them to change place. But what is the reason that, when the air is so mild that they might remain in it, and that they find enough to eat, thev still never failto go at the appointed time? How do they know that they will find food, and the proper degree of heat, in other climates ? What is the cause of their going all at Ihe same time out of our countries as if they had unanimously fixed, be- forehand, their day of departure?. How do they contrive, in dark nights, and without knowing the countries, to pursuetheir direct road constantly ? These and other questions on this interesting subject, are embarrassing, and have not yet been answered in a satisfactory manner, because we are not enough acquainted with the nature and instinct of these ani- mals. We may, however, behold, in the migrations, IN OCTOBER. the wise and beneficent directions of Providence. What wonderful means are made use of to preserve and give food to certain birds ! With what tender care is their subsistence pointed out to them, when it fails them in some regions! Let us learn from thence, that every thing, throughout the vast empire of nature, is planted with infinite wisdom, The Winter Sowin Time. Great part of the food destined for us, and for ma 7 try animals, is, at this time, deposited in the ground. The farmer has sowed his winter corn, and begins to enjoy rest from his labours. He will soon have the satisfaction to see his fields gradually covering with a beautiful verdure, and giving the promise of a plentiful harvest. Nature at first, indeed, works in secret, while the seed is opening; but its opera- tions may be discovered by taking some of the grains out of the ground when they are beginning to shoot. Two days after the grain is put into the earth, it is swelled by the juices, and begins to shoot- The shoot is always at one of the ends of the grain; and that part of it which is next the outside of the grain, is the little root of the future plant. The corn, when sowed, generally begins, in twenty four hours, to pierce through the coat, and unfold itself The root and stalk become visible- The root is first wrap- ped up m a bag, which it bursts open. Some days after, the other roots shoot out of their sides. The fifth or sixth day, a green stalk spriBgs up above the NATURAL APPEARANCE^ ground. It remains some time in that state, till the line season comes, when the ear of corn breaks out of the coats in which it had been inclosed and pro- tected from cold and uncertain weather* NOVEMBER. " The lengthen'd night elaps'd, the morning shine;? Serene, in all her dewy beauty bright, Unfolding fair the last autumnal day. And now the mountain sun dispels the fog, And rigid hoar frost melts before his beam ; And hung on every spray, on every blade Of grass, the myriad dew-drops twinkle round,' 1 preceding month was marked by the change) and this is distinguished by the fall, of the leaf. The whole declining season of the year is often, in com- mon language, denominated the fall. There is some- thing extremely melancholy in this gradual process, by which the trees are stripped of their beauty, and left monuments of decay and desolation. This gra- dual death of vegetable nature, and quick succession of springing and falling leaves, suggests to the re- flecting mind an apt comparison for the fugitive ge- neration of men : " Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, Now green in youth, now withering on the ground ; Another race the following spring supplies, They fall successive, and successive vise; So generations in their course decay, So flourish t&ete when those are passed away !" X2ST KOTEMBER. 269 The loss of verdure, together with the shortened .days, the diminishing warmth, and frequent rains, justify the title of gloomy to the month of Novem- ber; and other animals seem to symathize with man in feeling it as such Intervals of clear and pleasant weather, however, frequently occur ; and it long continues, The pale, descending year, yet pleasing still.'* In fair weather the mornings are somewhat frosty; but the hoar frost soon vanishes after sun rise. High winds frequently happen in November, which at once strip the trees of their faded leaves, and reduce them to their winter state of nakedness. Flocks of wood pigeons, or stock doves, the latest birds of passage in their arrival, visit us in this month, Salmon now begin to ascend the rivers to spawn ; their force and agility in leaping over cataracts and other obstacles to their ascent, are very surprising. The farmer endeavours to finish his ploughing in the course of this month; then, laying up his utensils till the ensuing spring, he takes his cattle and horses out of the exhausted pastures into the yard or stable; puts his hogs up to fatten; turns his sheep into the turnip-field, or, in stormy weather, feeds them with hay at the rick ; and then, when " The western sun withdraws the shorten'd day. And humid evening, gliding o'er the sky, In her chili progress, to the ground condensM The vapour throws ;" 70 NATURAL APPEARANCES he seeks the cheerful fire-side, and even gloomy November has its charms. The Fall of the Leaf. We now perceive the effects of approaching win- te*r in the woods and gardens. Almost all the plants are losing their leaves, their chief ornament. The most natural way this can be accounted for is from the cold; for the leaves are no sooner covered with frost than they begin to fall in abundance, and all the vegetables are stripped of their clothing. It can- not be otherwise, as the Cold causes the sap to stag- nate in the plants. But the cold is not the only cause of the leaves falling; for they fall when k does not Jreeze the whole winter, and when the trees are even put into green-houses to preserve them from cold. It is therefofe probable that other causes also contri- bute to strip the trees. But we must not suppose, that these fallen leaves are entirely lost, and of no use Reason and experience teach the contrary. These leaves, which grow rotten when they are fall- en, make manure for the ground. The snow and rain wash the salts out of them, and convey them to the roots of the trees. These strewed leaves, heaped together upon the young plants, preserve their roots. They cover also the seeds, and keep them warm and moist. This is more particularly observed in Fespect to the oak -leaves. They aftord excellent manure, not only to the tree itself, but also to its shoots; and are also very useful for forest-pasture, IN NOVEMBER. as they increase the growth of the grass on which they fall and rot. Leaves are spread in stables in- stead of straw, and make a good litter for cattle, or are mixed with common dung. This mould is par- ticularly useful in gardens, where they make layers of it, which assist greatly the growth of fruit and young trees. Thus fallen leaves have their uses in administer- ing to the comforts and necessities of man, while to his mind the fall of the leaf is an emblem of this life, and the frailty of all earthly things. The, Ee ginning of Winter. The sun is now taking leave of the world. Every thing is changed with us. The earth, which was lately so beautiful and fruitful, is now becoming gradually barren and poor. We no longer behold that fine enamel of the trees in blossom ; the charm of spring, the magnificence of summer, those differ- ent tints and shades of verdure in the woods and meads, the purple grapes, nor the golden harvests which crowned our fields. The trees have lost their clothing ; the pines, the elms, and oaks, bend with the force of the northern blasts The rays of the sun are too feeble now to warfii the atmosphere or earth. The fields, which have bestowed so much upon us, are at last exhausted, and promise no more this year. But in the midst of these melancholy prospects, let us still observe, that nature faithfully fulfils the eternal law presc ribed to her, of being NATURAL APPEARANCES useful at all times and seasons of the year. Winter draws nigh ; the flowers are going ; and even when the sun shines, the earth no longer appears with its usual beauty. Yet the country, stripped and desart as it is, still presents to a feeling mind the image of happiness. We may recollect with gratitude to Heaven, that the fields which are now barren were once covered with corn and plentiful harvest. It is true, that the orchards and gardens are now strip- ped, but the remembrance of what they bestowed upon us may make us content to bear the northern blasts which at present we feel so sharp. The leaves are fallen from the fruit trees ; the grass of the field is withered ; dark clouds fill the sky, and fall in heavy rains. The unthinking man complains at this, but the wise man beholds the earth moistened with rain, and beholds it with a sweet satisfaction. Though the earth has lost its beauty and exterior charms, and is exposed to the murmurs of those it has nourished and cheered, it has already begun again to labour secretly within its bosom for their future welfare. DECEMBER. " No mark of vegetable life is seen, Save the dark leaver of some rude ever-green ; No bird to bird repeats his tuneful call, Save the lone red-breast on the moss-grown wall!" THE changes which take place in the face of na- ture during this month, are little more than so many IN DECEMBER. 273 advances in the progress towards universal gloom and desolation. The day rapidly shortens, and the weather becomes foul and cold. In our climate, however, no great and continued severity of cold usually takes place before the close of the month. Several of the wild quadrupeds now take to their winter concealments, which they either seldom or never quit during the winter Of these, some are in an absolutely torpid or sleeping state, taking no food for a considerable time; others are only drowsy and inactive, and continue to feed on provisions which they have hoarded up. In this country few- become entirely torpid. Bats retire early to caves and holes, where they remain the whole winter, suspended by their hind feet,and closely wrapped up in the membranes of the fore feet. As their food is chiefly insects, they can lay up no" store for the winter, and therefore must be starved, if nature did not thus render food unne- cessary for them. Dormice also lie torpid the great- est part of the winter, though they lay up stores of provision. A warm day sometimes revives them ; when they eat a little, but soon relapse into their for- mer sleepy condition. Squirrels, and various kinds of field-mice, provide magazines of food against winter, but are not known to become torpid. The badger, the hedgehog, and the mole, keep close in their winter quarters in the northern regions, and sleep away great part of the season. NATURAL APPEARANCES The only vegetables which now flourish are the numerous tribes of mosses, and the lichens, or liver- worts. Lichens cover the ditch banks, and other neglected spots, with a leather like substance, which in some countries serves as food both to men and cattle The rein -deer lichen is the greatest treasure to the poor Laplanders, who depend upon it for the support of their only species of domestic cattle dur- ing their tedious winters. On the 21st of December happens the shortest day ; when the sun is not quite eight hours above the horizon in these islands. About fifteen degrees to the northward the sun does not rise at all, and a con- tinued night lasts weeks or months, according to the distance from the north pole. But, on the contrary, to the countries near the south pole, it is at this peri- od perpetual day ; and every where to the south of the equator it is summer. As our summer advances, their winter approaches. The festival of Christmas seasonably cheers this comfortless period. Great preparations were made for it in the country, and plenty of rustic dainties provided for its celebration, according to the rules of ancient hospitality ; and " Frequent in the sounding hall they wake The rural gambol." Thus the old year steals away unlamented, and scarcely perceived; and a new one begins with IN DECEMBER. 275 lengthening days and brighter skies, inspiring fresh hopes and pleasing expectations, that " All this uniform uncolour'd scene> Shall he dismantled of its fleecy load, And flush into variety again." The Advantages of Winter. The frost and cold of winter prevent many hurt- ful vapours in the higher regions of the atmosphere from falling upon us, and even purifies the air. Far from being always bad for our health, it often strengthens it, and preserves the humours from pu- trefaction, which a constant heat would certainly oc- casion If the vapours which collect in the atmos- phere were always to fall in rain, the earth would be too soft and wet, our bodies would be too full of" humours, and too much relaxed ; whereas the cold braces and promotes the circulation of blood. We are told by travellers, that in Greenland, where the ground is covered with mountains of ice, and where in winter the days are only four or five hours long, the air is very wholesome, clear, and light : and, ex- cept a few complaints in the chest and eyes, occa- sioned partly by the quality of the food, they have seldom Ihere the disorders so common in Europe. As man, though active by choice, and though !a bour is necessary to him, is still glad to interrupt his employments to taste the sweets of sleep, so also our nature yields to the change of seasons, and takes a pleasure in it, because in reality it contributes towards NATURAL APPEARANCES. our welfare and happiness. Behold our fields and gardens ! they are indeed buried in snow ; but this is necessary, in order to preserve them from the cold, as well as to prevent the grain from corrupting. The ground requires rest, after having yielded in the summer all we want for the winter. If our present support had not been provided for. if in this severe season we were obliged to cultivate the earth, there might be some foundation for our complaints. But all our wants are supplied,; and we enjoy a repose suitable to the season. CONCLUSION. HAVING endeavoured to point out the changes on the face of nature, during the varying year, we shall conclude our labours with the following impressive extract from St Pierre. " We have attempted in the course of this work,'** says this amiable writer. " to treat of the harmonies of the sun and moon with animated beings ; but these harmonies are inexhaustible. All annuals, in short, have the phases of their life regulated by those of the sun and moon. Scarcely does the orb of day sink under the horizon, when all animals are struck, with lethargy, with the exception of those to whom night is the season of excursion. The wakefulness of the latter proves, as well as a number of other effects of nature, that sleep is not a mere mechanical result of the absence of the sun Insects now take refuge in the hearts of plants; birds, nestling in foli- age, repose with their heads under their wings ; a flock of sheep relires to rest under the shelter of a hedge, and the watchful dog who guards them, sinks into slumber, after having turned his body several times round. All the functions of intelligence are suspended in the absence of that orb which produces its images ; nay, several of the smaller insects find their existence terminated by the setting sun, for the ephemeral fly does not see a second dawn. Soon,. * Harmonies of Nature, irb 278 CONCLUSION. however, comes forth the moon .to give new life to the world. Like the sun, she has her plants, her in- sects, her birds, her quadrupeds ; it is by her doubt- ful light that the mirabilis and other nocturnal plants open their flowers ; that various species of fish pursue their progress to another clime ; that the tortoise lays her eggs on-the solitary strand ; and that the nightin- gale, the bird of spring, delights to make the echoes of the forest resound with its song. " Many insects live only during one of the lunar quarters ; others live a fortnight, others a month ; some go through an entire season, and die at the summer solstice ; but the greater number perishes at the autumnal equinox, at the time when the sun pro- ceeds to enlighten another hemisphere. It is then that the marmot retires and falls asleep in the hollow rock, to awaken only at the return of the spring equi- nox ; for to her the year seems a day and a night of six months each. A crowd of animals suspend their labours in our hemisphere at the same season ; the bees take rest in their hives ; several species of birds, like the quail and swallow, follow the course of the sun, and pa,ss into the hemisphere which he warms ; while a multitude perishes in that which he abandons. Carnivorous animals are* dispersed in all directions to devour their remains ; the furred fox, and the white bear, penetrate even into the bosom of the fro- zen zone, into regions of snow and ice, which hardly any living animal can inhabit. The currents of the ocean still carry to the shore a quantity of marine substances coming from the temperate and torrid CONCLUSION. 279 zones. It is thus that the instinct which carries the ibxes and white bears to the sea coast of our frozen zone during winter leads me to suppose that the currents of the ocean bring them a supply of food, which would not be the case, unless these currents descended from an opposite pole " There exists the greatest d inferences in respect to the extent of the orbits of the different planets ; one requires only a month for its revolution round the sun; others, respectively, three months, eight months, two years, twelve years, thirty years, and, finally, nearly eighty-four years. To all these, a calculator may find, or fancy that he finds, corresponding pe- riods in the duration of vegetable and animal life. He may compute that several kinds of insects, such as butterflies, live between one month and eight; others, such as the May-bug, two years, or one year of Mars. Several birds ancf quadrupeds, among others, goats, are understood to live twelve years, or a year of Jupiter ; .other quadrupeds, thirty years, or a year of Saturn ; while the life of man may be oc- casionally brought forward as completing the longset period of all, the revolution of the Georgium Siclus, A farther inquiry might lead .such a speculator to ascertain examples of still longer life, in the animal and vegetable world, and to find, perhaps, parallels to the return of comets. "Leaving these visionary speculations, I am to observe, that the animals which die of old age go off the stage, as they came upon it, without being aware of the change The last steps in the descent of life 1280 CONCLUSION. are on as gentle a slope as those of its commence- ment. They have not been led by vain ambition to climb precipices, or to incur a violent death ; but, faithful to the laws received from nature, they re- store her that instinct which has now become useless in an exhausted machine : they expire without re- gret, remorse or murmur, when a tranquil death takes place in the night, the moon may be said to untie those links which she strung together at the time of birth. Her light still sheds a pale ray over their breathless bodies, and covers them with her fu- nereal crape ; while the earth, their common mother,, whi ch receives them in her bosom, raises as an orna- ment to their tomb, the broad foilage of the burdock, or a garland of ivy. Time, like a reaper, cuts down generation after generation of animals ; and he like- wise plants and gathers, but in comparatively smal- ler numbers, the individuals of our species. " Let man, however, not vent complaints on the short duration- of life ; his celestial harmonies will subsist after his terrestial are at an end. The Au- thor of Nature has attached to his bodily existence several years of bitterness and trial ; but he has given his soul an eternity of joy and delight. He is by no means a being condemned to creep on this globe, or to tear its bosom with the ploughshare for the sake of supporting a frail existence. His life is transient, but it has an object, and that object is sublime. Be- hold him expiring in his bed ; his body is in pain, but he already contemplates a God prepared to re- ceive him. Can this being, so weak and helpless. CONCLUSION. 28l be so strongly impressed with a thought that would not have been sanctioned by the Creator of all thoughts! No; it is not in vain that he has opened his hopes to a future destiny. He quits a world of darkness for a world of light ; he quits misfortune, and frail mortals like himself, to enter on an abode where death is not known. His eyes will no lon- ger be distressed by the sight of distress ; every ob- ject will be replete with content and satisfaction. How great must be the transports of man, when, escaped from the agony of life, he sees the gates of heaven open to him. He is no longer a creature of the dust ; he is an angel, a superior being, advanced to an upper region. After remaining, during a sea- son, a slave and in irons, now behold him free, and the possessor of a new domain ! But lately sad and suffering, he dragged his step towards death, and he rises from it foil of glory. He inhabited a world covered with funereal cypress, bedewed with tears, where all are subject to change and to death ; where we indulge love only to experience suffering, and where we meet our friends only to part with them. He is now transported to an abode where all is eter- nal; his soul is kindled with everlasting love, and he casts, from the height of the firmament, a sympa- thizing look towards his fellow-creatures in this lower world ," FINIS, OVERDUE. 21-50W-8.-32 02461 F CALIFORNIA LIBRARY